JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

DECEMBER 2009 VOL. 106 (3)

IV^pvl O CONSERVING

II IL/lClNAlURE SINCE 1 883

JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 001 .

Executive Edttor

Asad R. Rahmani, Ph. D.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Copy and Production Eduor

Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc.

Editorial Board

Ajith Kumar, Ph. D.

National Centre for Biological Sciences,

GKVK Campus, Hebbal, Bengaluru

C.R. Babu, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Environmental Management

of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi, New Delhi

M.K. Chandrashekaran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre

for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru

Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph. D., D. Sc.

The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati

Indraneil Das, D. Phil.

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation,

Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia

Y.V. Jhala, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

K. Ullas Karanth, Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program,

Bengaluru, Karnataka

T.C. Narendran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut, Kerala

Aasheesh Pittie, B. Com.

Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,

Hyderabad

as. Rawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

K. Rema Devi, Ph. D.

Zoological Survey of India, Chennai

J.S. Singh, Ph. D.

Professor, Banaras Hindu University

Varanasi

S. Subramanya, Ph. D.

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Hebbal, Bengaluru

R. Sukumar, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru

Romulus Whitaker, B. Sc.

Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust,

Tamil Nadu

S.R. Yadav, Ph. D.

Shivaji University, Kolhapur

Senior Consultant Editor

J.C. Daniel, M. Sc.

Consultant Editors

Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society, Bengaluru

Nigel Collar, Ph. D.

BirdLife International, UK

Rhys Green, Ph. D.

Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK

Qamar Qureshi, M. Phil.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

T.J. Roberts, Ph. D.

World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan

Rachel Reuben, Ph. D.

Mumbai

Editorial Assistant: Sonali V. Vadhavkar, M. Sc.

Layout and Typesetting: V. Gopi Naidu

© Bombay Natural History Society 2009

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,

recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Enquiries

concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS at the address given above.

VOLUME 106(3): DECEMBER 2009

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL 229

THE EXTINCTION CRISIS: FACTOR FICTION?

Simon N. Stuart 230

CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE LAST SURVIVING WILD POPULATION OF HANGUL OR KASHMIR DEER

CERVUS ELAPHUS HANGLU IN KASHMIR, INDIA

Khursheed Ahmad, S. Sathyakumar and Qamar Qureshi 245

WHEN CHANOS CHANOS BECAME TSUNAMI MACCHi. THE POST-DECEMBER 2004 SCENARIO IN THE

ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS

Pankaj Sekhsaria 256

PITFALLS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE USE OF MARKET-BASED INCENTIVES FOR BIODIVERSITY

CONSERVATION

Paul Morling 263

AGRICULTURE AND CONSERVATION

Compiled by Persis Taraporevala, Rhys Green and Ashish Kothari 277

COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION

Compiled by Persis Taraporevala and Ashish Kothari 280

ESTIMATION OF STRIPED HYENA HYAENA HYAENA POPULATION USING CAMERA TRAPS IN SARISKATIGER

RESERVE, RAJASTHAN, INDIA

Shilpi Gupta, Krishnendu Mondal, K. Sankar and Qamar Qureshi 284

HUMAN-ELEPHANT CONFLICT IN A COLONISED SITE OF DISPERSED ELEPHANTS: KOUNDINYA WILDLIFE

SANCTUARY (ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA)

Ranjit Manakadan, S. Swaminathan, J.C. Daniel and Ajay A. Desai 289

POPULATION STATUS AND HABITAT USE OF WILD PIGS SUS SCROFA IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK,

BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN, INDIA

Tanushree Srivastava and Afifullah Khan 298

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION, NATURAL HISTORY AND VARIATION OF HEMIDACTYLUS ALBOFASCIATUS

(GRANDISON AND SOMAN, 1963) (SQUAMATA: GEKKONIDAE)

Kshamata S. Gaikwad, Harish Kulkarni, Ravindra Bhambure and Varad B. Giri 305

FISH FAUNA OF THE WETLANDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND, SOUTHERN INDIA AND THEIR CONSERVATION

ISSUES

Ranjit Manakadan, K. Rema Devi, S. Sivakumar and T.J. Indra 313

DIVERSITY, CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS IN BAGO YOMA, RAKHINE YOMA AND

ALAUNGDAW KATHAPA NATIONAL PARK IN MYANMAR

Surendra Varma 324

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

RECORD OF TWO NEW SPECIES OF APANTELES FOERSTER (BRACONIDAE: MICROGASTRINAE)

FROM CENTRAL INDIA

Puja Ray and Mohd. Yousuf 335

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

BIRDS REPTILES

1. Threats to foraging habitat of Indian Courser Cursorius 3. Precise locality records of Eryx whitakeri Das, 1991 with

coromandelicus in Abdasa taluka, Kachchh, Gujarat, notes on scalation and a comment on its common name

India Ashok Captain, Sanjay Thakur and Anil Khaire 342

S.B. Munjpara and I.R. Gadhvi 339 AMPHIBIANS

2. Sighting of albino Changeable Hawk-eagle Nisaetus 4. Occurrence of Indian Painted Frog Kaloula taprobanica

limnaeetus in Sitamata Wildlife Sanctuary in south (Family Microhylidae) at Arnala beach, Mumbai,

Rajasthan Maharashtra

Manoj Parashar and Satish Kumar Sharma 341 Pritesh Nandvikar and Parveen Shaikh 344

FISH

5. Occurrence of epizoic Cirripede, Conchoderma virgatum

(Spengler, 1790) on Pennella instructa Wilson infected

on Sailfish Istiophorus platypterus caught from North-west

Indian EEZ

S. Varghese, V.S. Somvanshi and Sijo P. Varghese 344

6. On a record of Amphilophus trimaculatum (Gunther)

(Teleostei : Perciformes: Cichlidae) in the natural waters

of Tamil Nadu, India

J.D. Marcus Knight and K. Rema Devi 347

INSECTS

7. Ixora chinensis Lam.: A new host plant for Common

Silverline Spindasis vulcanus Fabricius (Lepidoptera:

Lycaenidae) from West Bengal

Soumyajit Chowdhury, Rahi Soren and Suvankar Patra . 348

8. First record of an exotic butterfly Leopard Lacewing

Cethosia cyane from the Andamans

T.C. Khatri and Tripta Khatri 349

9. Biology of Nilgiri Tiger Parantica nilgiriensis (Moore 1 877):

an endemic butterfly of the Western Ghats of southern India

Unni Krishnan Pulikkal 349

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

1 0. Comparative study on the biology of Eudrilus eugeniae

(Kinberg) and Eisenia fetida (Savigny) under laboratory

conditions

S.S. Hundal and Zinia 352

BOTANY

1 1 . Cortiella caespitosa Shan & Sheh (Apiaceae) — a new

entrant to India

Debabrata Maity 355

Cover Photograph: Green Avadavat

Amandava formosa

By Rajat Bhargava

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

WE ARE GRATEFUL TO THE MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

11

Editorial

Conserving Nature in a Globalizing India

As a part of its 125 year celebration, BNHS had organized an International Conference on ‘Conserving

Nature in a Globalizing India’, at Bengaluru from February 17-19, 2009.

Most presentations at the conference were sharing of work experience and ideas, and discussions by experts,

and therefore, could not materialize into peer-reviewed papers. Among those that were submitted as papers and

accepted, after peer-review are published in this issue, along with the other articles accepted for the JBNHS.

To name a few: Simon N. Stuart, Chairman, IUCN Species Specialist Groups, discusses the extinction

crises that our Earth is facing, mainly due to our activities. Sadly, one of the best examples of the extinction crisis

is the Hangul or Kashmir Stag. Khursheed et al. have deduced that the last surviving and genetically viable

Hangul population of 140-170 individuals is restricted to Dachigam National Park in Kashmir, making it one of

the rarest mammals in the world. Emergency measures, besides conservation breeding, need to be taken to revive

the population.

Despite the numerous benefits of biodiversity and healthy ecosystems to human being, Paul Morling has

shown that biodiversity is still not a mainstream topic, and is undervalued and overexploited. It is very interesting,

something we need so much that we over-exploit it, but at the same time we under-value it! Morling’s paper

reviews market-based approaches for identifying the salient features that determine their potential for improving

conservation finance.

In this issue of the JBNHS, we also give extracts of some sessions: the discussion on Agriculture and

Conservation, chaired by Dr. Rhys Green of Cambridge University and RSPB, and Mr. Ashish Kothari of

Kalpavriksh, a famous NGO of India. The importance of community-based conservation was highlighted by

Mr. Ashish Kothari and his team during an interactive session. Pankaj Sekhsaria discusses the impact of the

tsunami of 2004 on Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the aftermath of this unfortunate natural calamity. He

emphasizes the importance of protection of the coastal zones, development planning, including tourism, and

proper location of construction projects.

The importance of so-called ‘wastelands’ is highlighted by Dr. S.B. Munjpara and Dr. I.R. Gadhvi giving

example of the Indian Courser, which is declining fast as its habitat is taken up by tree plantation, agricultural

expansion, and industrial development. Like the Indian Courser, there are many species of short-grass plains of

arid and semi-arid areas that are under threat as their habitat is generally outside the protected areas system.

FEB 2 3 2011

Editors

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(3), Sept-Dec 2009

230-244

THE EXTINCTION CRISIS: FACT OR FICTION?

Simon N. Stuart1

'International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Species Survival Commission, 1 196 Gland, Switzerland;

United Nations Environmental Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, A1 Ain Wildlife Park and Resort, A1 Ain,

United Arab Emirates; and Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK.

Email: [email protected]

The rapid disappearance of species is often referred to

as one the world’s greatest environmental concerns. The IUCN

Red List of Threatened Species, which now includes more

than 44,000 animal and plant species, shows that nearly one-

quarter of the planet’s 5,488 mammals and nearly one-third

of the 6,255 amphibians are globally threatened or extinct.

Similarly, worrying patterns of threat and decline have been

found in other groups, such as birds, reef-building corals,

and gymnosperms.

The IUCN Red List is the world’s most comprehensive

information source on the global conservation status of plant

and animal species. Completed and ongoing assessments

reveal the level of threat to species (highlighting those facing

a high risk of global extinction) whilst also identifying the

nature and distribution of major threats. Mapping the

distribution of threatened species has identified that the

proportion of threatened species differs markedly between

groups and that the pattern of threat of one group does not

predict the pattern of threat for another. The distribution of

threatened species also shows very different patterns

compared with depictions of overall diversity.

Numbers of threatened species are increasing across

virtually all the major taxonomic groups. There are many

drivers of species extinction, all arising either directly or

indirectly from human activities. Overwhelmingly, the most

common threat is habitat loss, but over-harvesting, incidental

mortality, disease, pollution, and climate change are also

major influences on the rate of species decline.

The Global Context

Biodiversity loss is one of the world’s most pressing

crises, with many species declining to critically low levels

and with significant numbers going extinct. Biodiversity is

essential for mankind because many a number of species,

and the ecosystems they form, provide the vast array of goods

and services that sustain our lives. However, despite the

immense value of biodiversity, over the past 50 years humans

have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than

in any comparable period of time in human history

(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). This has resulted

in a substantial and largely irreversible loss in the diversity

of life on earth.

The structure and function of ecosystems have

undergone unprecedented changes through the severe

impacts of human activities. Land conversion, habitat

change, pollution, overexploitation, invasive species and

climate change are the direct drivers of threats that are

compromising the continued provision of essential ecosystem

services.

According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

(2005), since 1945, more land has been converted to cropland

than in the 18th and 19th centuries combined. In the last

several decades, 20% of the world’s coral reefs were lost and

a further 20% degraded; there has been a similar impact on

mangrove areas — a 35% loss in the last several decades.

The amount of water in reservoirs has quadrupled, and

withdrawals from rivers and lakes have doubled since 1960.

Transformations have also occurred across all of the world’s

biomes: between 1950 and 1990, 5-10% of the area of five

biomes had been converted. By 1990, more than two thirds

of the area of two biomes and more than half of the area of

four others had been converted. (Millennium Ecosystem

Assessment 2005).

Increasing human populations have a much greater

collective impact on their surroundings particularly when their

activities lead to excessive volumes of nutrients entering

ecosystems. The flow of reactive nitrogen on the continents

has already doubled, and some projections suggest that this

may increase further by approximately two-thirds by 2050.

Excessive nitrogen flows have severe environmental effects

(eutrophication of freshwater and coastal ecosystems,

contribution to acid rain, and loss of biodiversity), which

contribute to creation of ground-level ozone, destruction of

ozone in the stratosphere and global warming, all of which

have subsequent adverse effects on human health (Millennium

Ecosystem Assessment 2005).

By the end of the century, climate change and its

impacts may be the dominant direct drivers of biodiversity

loss and changes in ecosystem services globally. The balance

of scientific evidence suggests that there will be a significant

Paper read at the International Conference on ‘Conserving Nature in a Globalizing India’ at Bengaluru; February 17-19, 2009

THE EXTINCTION CRISIS: FACT OR FICTION?

net harmful impact on ecosystem services worldwide, if

global mean surface temperatures increase more than 2 °C

above pre-industrial levels. This would require C02

stabilisation at less than 450 ppm (Millennium Ecosystem

Assessment 2005).

The changes that have been made to ecosystems have

contributed to substantial net gains in human well-being and

economic development. However, often these gains have been

achieved at growing costs. Due to the degradation of many

ecosystem services, levels of poverty have remained high,

and inequities are growing. It is estimated that 1.1 billion

people are surviving on an income of less than $1 per day,

70% of whom are in rural areas where they are highly

dependent on ecosystem services (Millennium Ecosystem

Assessment 2005).

Many people are still unable to access an improved

water supply, and more than 2.6 billion lack access to

improved sanitation. Water scarcity affects roughly 1-2 billion

people worldwide and will continue to worsen, as 5% to

possibly 25% of global freshwater use exceeds long-term

accessible supplies. On an average, irrigation withdrawals

exceed 15-35% of supply rates and are therefore unsustainable

(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005).

Most direct drivers of degradation in ecosystem services

are growing in intensity in most ecosystems or at best are

remaining constant (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

2005). The result is that we live in an increasingly

unsustainable world. This is the context in which we need to

consider biodiversity. We are attempting to achieve

conservation in a world that is living way beyond its means,

and so the rapid loss of biodiversity, especially at the species

level, should not surprise us.

The IUCN Red List

It is very important to assess the health of our global

ecosystems by providing up-to-date information on the state

and trends of wild species. The global tool for doing this is

the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (http://

www.iucnredlist.org/).

The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (see http:/

/www. iucnredlist.org/documents/

redlist_cats_crit_en_vl223290226.pdf) are widely accepted

as the most objective and authoritative system available

for assessing the global risk of extinction for species

(Lamoreux et al. 2003; De Grammont and Cuaron 2006;

Rodrigues et al. 2006; Mace et al. 2008). Each species

assessed is assigned to one of the following categories,

Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered,

Endangered, Vulnerable, Near Threatened, Least Concern and

Data Deficient, based on a series of quantitative criteria linked

to population trend, population size and structure, and

geographic range (Mace et al. 2008). Species classified as

Vulnerable, Endangered and Critically Endangered are

regarded as ‘threatened’. The IUCN Red List Criteria can be

used to assess the conservation status of any species, apart

from microorganisms.

The IUCN Red List is compiled and produced by the

IUCN Species Programme based on contributions from a

network of thousands of scientific experts around the world

in the IUCN Species Survival Commission. Assessments are

impartial and peer-reviewed, providing objective data to

support national, regional and global conservation priority

setting. It is updated regularly and is freely available The

Red List is used for many purposes, as summarised in

Rodrigues et al. (2006) and Vie et al. (2009).

One of the IUCN Red List’s main purposes is to

highlight those species that are facing a high risk of global

extinction. However, it is not just a register of names and

associated threat categories but it is also a rich, expert-driven

compendium of information on species’ ecological

requirements, geographic distributions (including maps) and

threats. The Red List is used to determine what the challenges

to nature are, where they are operating and how to combat

them.

By assessing the threat status of species, the IUCN Red

List has two goals: (i) to identify and document those species

most in need of conservation attention if the global extinction

rates are to be reduced, and (ii) to provide a global index of

the state of change of biodiversity. The first of these goals

identifies particular species at risk of extinction; the second

goal focuses on using the data in the Red List for multi-species

analyses in order to identify and monitor trends in species’

status.

The diversity of species on earth is extraordinary. There

are an estimated 8- 14 million species in existence, 1 .8 million

of which have been identified and described. The estimates

of how much of this diversity is being lost annually are

disheartening, with the number of species assessed as

threatened increasing every year. By 2008, 44,838 (2.5%)

species had been assessed (Fig. 1), of which 869 (2%)

have been classified as Extinct or Extinct in the Wild and

16,928 (38%) classified as threatened. Although only a small

proportion of the world’s species had been assessed by 2008,

this sample indicates the serious conservation status of the

species looked at so far, how little is still known and how

urgent the need is to assess more species.

Despite the limited number of species assessed in

relation to the total number of species known, and the

significant number of Data Deficient species included in it,

the Red List is still the largest dataset of current information

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

231

THE EXTINCTION CRISIS: FACT OR FICTION?

Fig. 1 : Number of species appearing on each published

IUCN Red List since 2000

on the conservation status of species. Completed and ongoing

assessments include the following: BirdLife International

bird assessments (updated 5 times since 1988); Global

Mammal Assessment (completed in 2008, now being

updated); Global Amphibian Assessment (completed in 2004,

now being updated); Global Marine Species Assessment

(ongoing); Global Freshwater Biodiversity Assessment

(ongoing); and Global Reptile Assessment (ongoing). There

are various plant and terrestrial invertebrate assessments that

have also started and which are gathering speed.

STATUS OF TERRESTRIAL BIODIVERSITY

Comprehensive assessments, covering every species in

a taxonomic group, have now been completed for amphibians,

birds, mammals, cycads and conifers, warm water reef-

forming corals, freshwater crabs and groupers. They are

almost complete for sharks and rays, mangroves and sea

grasses.

Status of Amphibians

Nearly one-third of the amphibian species (32.4%)

are globally threatened or extinct, representing 2,030 species

(Fig. 2). Thirty-eight species out of these 2,030 species are

considered to be Extinct (EX), one is Extinct in the Wild

(EW). Another 2,697 species are not considered to be

threatened at present, being classified in the IUCN Categories

of Near Threatened (NT) or Least Concern (LC), while

sufficient information was not available to assess the status

of an additional 1,533 species (Data Deficient (DD). It is

predicted that a large proportion of these Data Deficient

species are likely to be globally threatened.

11%

Fig. 2: The status of Amphibians by IUCN Red List categories

EX = Extinct; EW = Extinct in the Wild; CR = Critically Endangered;

EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; NT = Near Threatened;

LC = Least Concern; DD = Data Deficient

Status of birds

Birds are the best known taxonomic group on the IUCN

Red List. Since 1988, there have been 5 comprehensive

assessments of birds, with the most recent assessment, of all

9,990 known species, being completed in 2008. Less than

1% of bird species on the 2008 IUCN Red List have

insufficient information available to be able to assess them

beyond Data Deficient.

Fig. 3: The status of birds by IUCN Red List categories

EX = Extinct; EW = Extinct in the Wild; CR = Critically Endangered;

EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; NT = Near Threatened;

LC = Least Concern; DD = Data Deficient

232

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

THE EXTINCTION CRISIS: FACT OR FICTION?

It is clear, however, that being well-studied does not

provide immunity from decline and high extinction risk.

More than 1 in 8 bird species (13.6%) are globally threatened

or extinct, representing 1,360 species (Fig. 3). Of these,

1 34 species ( 1 %) are extinct, 4 species no longer occur in the

wild, and a further 15 are Critically Endangered species

flagged as ‘possibly extinct’, making a total of 153 bird

extinctions since the year 1500.

Although 8,564 bird species (85.7%) are currently not

considered threatened, 835 of these (8.4% of all known birds)

are Near Threatened; the remaining 7,729 species are Least

Concern.

Status of mammals

The mammal data on the 2008 IUCN Red List include

5,488 species, 412 subspecies and 21 subpopulations. The

primary focus is, however, at the species level. This is the

second time that all mammals have been assessed, the first

being in 1996 (Baillie and Groombridge 1996).

Of the 5,487 mammal species assessed, nearly one-

quarter of species (22.2%) are globally threatened or extinct,

representing 1,219 species (Schipper et al. 2008) (Fig. 4).

Seventy-six of the 1,219 species are considered to be Extinct

(EX), and 2 Extinct in the Wild (EW). Another 3,432 species

are not considered to be threatened at present, being classified

in the IUCN Red List categories of NT or LC, while there

was insufficient information available to assess the status of

an additional 836 species (DD).

Fig. 4: The status of mammals by IUCN Red List categories

EX = Extinct; EW = Extinct in the Wild; CR = Critically Endangered;

EN = Endangered; VU = Vulnerable; NT = Near Threatened;

LC = Least Concern; DD = Data Deficient

STATUS OF FRESHWATER BIODIVERSITY

IUCN is working with a number of partner

organisations to fill the information gap on freshwater species.

This is being accomplished by conducting assessments of all

known species within the following priority groups:

freshwater fishes, freshwater molluscs, dragonflies and

damselflies, freshwater crabs and selected aquatic plant

families. With the exception of the crabs, none of these

assessments is yet complete globally.

There have, however, been some comprehensive

regional assessments, in which every described species from

a taxonomic group within a region has been assessed. This

has enabled the identification of river or lake basins containing

the highest levels of species richness, threatened species,

restricted range species, migratory species and/or species

important to the livelihoods of local communities.

The freshwater assessments completed for eastern and

southern Africa have identified lakes Malawi and Victoria,

the lower Malagarasi drainage (Tanzania), the Kilombero

Valley (Tanzania) and the Southwestern Cape (South Africa)

as containing some of the highest numbers of threatened

species (Fig. 5).

f M

X

«

Number of species

0

■

7- 13

14-24

25-49

0 250 500 1.000

t i i — i Kilometers

Source: IUCN

Fig. 5: Distribution patterns of regionally threatened species for

freshwater fishes, molluscs, odonates (dragonflies and

damselflies) and crabs across eastern and southern Africa

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

233

THE EXTINCTION CRISIS: FACT OR FICTION?

Freshwater biodiversity is being threatened by a number

of key impacts, including overexploitation, water pollution,

river flow modification (including water abstraction),

destruction or degradation of habitats, and invasion by

invasive alien species (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

2005; Dudgeon et al. 2006). Compounding these threats are

the predicted global impacts of climate change leading to

temperature changes and shifts in precipitation and runoff

patterns (Dudgeon et al. 2006).

Using freshwater fishes as an example, being one of the

most widely assessed of the freshwater species groups, the level,

nature and distribution of major threats can be identified.

Of the regions assessed so far, the Mediterranean and Malagasy

endemic freshwater fish are shown to have the highest

proportions of globally threatened species, with more than 50%

of species threatened in each case, and southern Africa to have

the lowest proportion, with 17% of species threatened (Fig. 6).

Fig. 7: Summary of 2008 Red List categories

for completed clades of marine species

Number of species assessed in each group in parentheses

[black=EX; red=CFVEN/VU; yellow=NT; green=LC; grey=DD]

THE STATUS OF MARINE BIODIVERSITY

In recent years, there has been growing concern in the

scientific community that a broad range of marine species

could be under threat of extinction and that marine

biodiversity is experiencing potentially irreversible loss due

to overfishing, climate change, invasive species and coastal

development (Roberts and Hawkins 1999; Dulvy etal. 2003).

In 2006, IUCN, Conservation International and Old

Dominion University initiated an ambitious project (the Global

Marine Species Assessment) to complete IUCN Red List

assessments for a greatly expanded number of marine species.

It is planned to complete Red List assessments for over 20,000

marine species by 2012. Much progress has already been made,

and approximately 1,500 marine species have been added to

the 2008 Red List. IUCN has now assessed all of the world’s

known species of sharks and relatives, groupers, reef-building

% of species

Fig. 6: Proportions of freshwater fish species by threat category

in each of the regions assessed comprehensively.

Only species endemic to each region are included

corals, (seabirds, marine mammals and marine turtles). Work

on the sharks and rays is nearing completion. The overall results

of these assessments (including the preliminary results for

sharks and rays) are shown in Fig. 7.

The threat status of the different taxonomic groups

varies quite widely. Overfishing and incidental mortality are

particular common threats in the sea. However, with the reef-

building corals, the situation is significantly different, as

described below.

The world’s known 845 species of reef-building

zooxanthellate corals (Order Scleractinia plus the families

Helioporidae, Tubiporidae and Milleporidae) were assessed

for the first time (Carpenter et al. 2008). These reef-building

corals provide the essential habitat for many species of fish

and invertebrates, making them the most biologically diverse

ecosystems in the ocean. More than one-quarter of these corals

(27%) have been listed in threatened categories, representing

an elevated risk of extinction. Over 20% of species are listed

as Near Threatened and are expected to join a threatened

category in the near future.

The primary threat to these reef-building corals is the

increased frequency and duration of bleaching and disease events

that have been linked to the increase in sea temperatures, a

symptom of global climate change (Carpenter et al. 2008). These

impacts are further compounded by anthropogenic threats,

including coastal development, coral extraction, sedimentation

and pollution. Another further threat to corals is ocean

acidification as a result of increasing levels of atmospheric

carbon dioxide. This is reducing ocean carbonate ion

concentrations and the ability of corals to build skeletons.

Globally, the Indo-Malay-Philippine Archipelago or the

‘Coral Triangle’ has by far the highest number of coral species,

234

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

THE EXTINCTION CRISIS: FACT OR FICTION?

Percentage threatened species

4.8 14 18 25 60 100

Source: IUCN

Fig. 8: Map showing the percentages of threatened reef-building coral species across the world

and also high percentages in threatened categories (Fig. 8).

This region is also known as the epicentre of marine

biodiversity and has the highest coral species richness. Coral

reefs in the Caribbean region have been impacted by recent,

rapid population decline of 2 key species: Staghorn Coral

Acropora cervicomis and Elkhom Coral Acropora palmata,

both of which have been listed as Critically Endangered. In

any region, the potential loss of these coral ecosystems will

have huge cascading effects for reef-dependent species and

for the large number of people and nations that depend on

coral reef resources for economic and food security.

GLOBAL THREAT PATTERNS

Closer examination of some of these taxonomic groups

reveals interesting patterns in the geographic concentrations

of threatened across the globe. Fig. 9 shows the geographic

patterns generated from overlaying the distributions of all

threatened species in 4 taxonomic groups (birds, mammals,

amphibians and corals). The contrast between the taxonomic

groups demonstrates that geographic patterns of threat for

one group do not predict the patterns of threat for another

group; hence the importance of assessing the status of many

groups of species.

There are important concentrations of threatened birds

and mammals in South-east Asia, but the threat patterns of

these two groups are markedly different in South America.

Although nearly one-third of amphibians are at risk,

threatened amphibians are found to be concentrated in a few

areas only, especially in Mesoamerica, the northern Andes

and the Greater Antilles. Conversely, most parts of the world

have at least 1 threatened bird species, despite the fact that

only 12% of birds are threatened.

LOOKING AT A FINER SCALE

The Red List criteria were developed for use at the

global scale, at which the entire geographic range of a species

is considered. However, IUCN is increasingly undertaking

regional Red List projects. Regional and national lists are

usually country-led initiatives and are not centralised in any

way; they differ from each other widely in terms of scope

and quality but can be very useful in guiding conservation

work at subglobal levels.

In the Mediterranean region, for example, IUCN has

assessed to date the following taxonomic groups: amphibians,

reptiles, birds, mammals, sharks and rays, freshwater crabs

and crayfish, endemic freshwater fishes, and dragonflies and

damselflies (hereafter referred to collectively as dragonflies).

Overall, the proportion of threatened species in the

Mediterranean (those classified as Critically Endangered,

Endangered or Vulnerable), either at the global or regional

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

235

THE EXTINCTION CRISIS: FACT OR FICTION?

Threatened coral richness

1 26 58 98 143 176

Source: IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

RL Categories: Vulnerable(VU), Endangered (EN), Critically Endangered(CR)

THE IUCN RED LIST

Of TVWEATENE D SHOES'

Fig. 9: The geographic patterns generated from overlaying the distributions of all threatened species in four taxonomic groups

(birds, mammals, amphibians and corals)

level, is about one-fifth (19%), and about 1% of the species

are already extinct in the region. These percentages will be

higher if some of the currently Data Deficient species prove

to be threatened, as is likely to be the case.

Freshwater species have been mapped based on river

basins flowing into the Mediterranean Sea and adjacent

Atlantic Ocean river basins. Fig. 10 indicates concentrations

of species at risk, in particular in the Iberian Peninsula, the

Balkans, the western part of Greece and the area from Turkey

down to Israel and the Palestinian territories.

BROADENING THE COVERAGE OF

BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENTS

A new initiative is being employed to broaden the

taxonomic coverage of the IUCN Red List in order to enable

a better understanding of biodiversity status as a whole and

to identify key regions and taxa that require greater

conservation attention.

This approach takes a random sample of 1 ,500 species

from different taxonomic groups (Baillie eta/. 2008). It allows

the identification of the general level of threat to each group,

the mapping of areas likely to contain the most threatened

species and the identification of the main drivers of threats

and helps pinpoint what key actions are required to address

declines in the group as a whole.

The results of both the comprehensive and sampled

assessments are starting to provide new insights into our

understanding of the status of the world’s species that can be

built upon to track changes over time. The current plans to

expand the number of species assessed for the Red List, using

both comprehensive and sampled techniques, will, when

implemented, increase the number of assessed species from

45,000 (on the Red List in 2008) to 1,30,000 (Fig. 11).

236

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

THE EXTINCTION CRISIS: FACT OR FICTION?

Fig. 10: Species richness of threatened freshwater amphibians, crabs, endemic fishes, mammals, dragonflies and reptiles

in the Mediterranean basin

The first results of the sampled approach to Red Listing

are now becoming available, specifically for reptiles and

fishes, for neither of which the comprehensive assessments

are complete yet. Across reptile groups, for example, the

proportion of species threatened varies: 43% of crocodilians

are threatened, compared with 12% of snakes and 20% of

lizards. These patterns are likely to reflect differences in

geography, range size, habitat specificity and biology, as well

as threat intensity. Indo-Malaya is the most species-rich

biogeographic realm for reptiles, and it also has the greatest

density of threatened (CR, EN and VU) species (Fig. 12).

There are also some early results from this sampled

approach for invertebrates. A map of the distribution of

threatened freshwater crabs and dragonflies reveals some

centres of threat for freshwater systems (Fig. 13). Marked

concentrations of threatened species exist in Vietnam,

Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia and the Philippines in South-

east Asia; Sri Lanka and the Indian Western Ghats in South

Asia, and Colombia and Mexico in central and South America.

These patterns are heavily influenced by the distribution of

restricted range species.

EXTINCTIONS

The global extinction of a species usually represents

an end point in a long series of population extinctions.

Creating an inventory of recent extinctions helps highlight

BIODIVERSITY

Fig. 11 : Overview of IUCN Red List assessments:

comprehensively assessed by 2008 (black);

comprehensive assessments under way (red);

statistically random samples planned or underway (green)

the long list of unique species that have been lost forever.

Understanding the extent of recent extinctions provides

insights into historic extinction rates, which in turn can be

compared to the rates over geological time to determine if

current trends are normal or a cause for concern. An insight

into the process of extinction can help us identify species

that are at a risk of extinction and enable us to highlight

taxonomic groups or species from specific regions that are or

will be particularly prone to extinction.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

237

THE EXTINCTION CRISIS: FACT OR FICTION?

)

Proportion of species assessed as threatened Source: ZSL & IUCN

0.11 0.12 0.33 0^ m 1

Fig. 12: Threatened species richness map for reptiles, based on a random sample of 1,500 species, 244 of which are threatened

a . timm - -%'■ >

Proportion of species assessed as threatened Source: ZSL & IUCN

0.02 0.08 0.28^^T™0^^^

Fig. 13: Threatened species richness map for freshwater crabs (n = 210 species), and dragonflies and damselflies (n = 136 species)

238

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

THE EXTINCTION CRISIS: FACT OR FICTION?

cP

<*>

o

•

o

# •

• Reptiles

• Mammals

• Birds

• Amphibians

o Molluscs

Fig. 14: The distribution of Extinct and Extinct in the Wild reptiles, mammals, birds, amphibians and molluscs

The world’s list of documented extinctions continues

to rise. The 2008 Red List includes 804 species listed as

Extinct and 60 Extinct in the Wild. In the last 24 years there

have been 29 documented extinctions, with recent extinction

rates exceeding those from fossil records. With current

extinction rates 100 to 1,000 times the natural (background)

extinction rates, it is likely that the world is experiencing a

net loss of species, perhaps for the first time in millions of

years (Baillie et al. 2004).

There are major differences in the extinction patterns

between the five taxonomic groups mapped in Fig. 14. Bird

extinctions are overwhelmingly biased towards oceanic

islands (including New Zealand), whereas the largest

concentration of mammal extinctions is in Australia.

Documented amphibian extinctions are focused on Sri Lanka,

but this might be an artefact of under-recording extinctions

elsewhere. Mollusc extinctions are concentrated in North

American river systems, possibly another recording artefact.

A detailed examination of bird extinctions since 1500 A.D.

indicates that the pattern of extinctions might be changing.

Although more than 80% of birds are found on continents,

all extinctions prior to 1 800 occurred on islands. This pattern

has started to change in recent years, with more extinctions

occurring on continents (Fig. 15).

THREATS

The major processes threatening species and driving

extinctions are all of anthropogenic origin, and include habitat

degradation and conversion (resulting in particular from

agriculture, logging and residential and commercial

development), overexploitation, invasive species, pollution

and, increasingly, climate change (Figs 16, 17, 18).

Habitat loss and degradation are by far the greatest

threat to amphibians at present (Fig. 16), affecting nearly 61%

of all known amphibians (nearly 4,000 species), including

87% of the threatened amphibian species. The next most

common threat to amphibians is pollution, which affects

around one-fifth (19%) of amphibian species overall and 29%

of threatened species. Although disease is a less common

threat, it is much more likely to make a species globally

threatened (Fig. 16). Indeed, the fungal disease

Year

Fig. 15: The number of bird extinctions that have occurred

on islands and continents since 1500 A.D.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

239

THE EXTINCTION CRISIS: FACT OR FICTION?

Fig. 16: Major threats to amphibians

(threatened species in red, non-threatened species in green)

Chytridiomycosis is the major current driver of amphibian

extinctions (Stuart et al. 2008).

By far the most significant threat to mammals is habitat

loss, with over 2,000 species being negatively impacted

(Fig. 17). The second most important threat is utilisation, with

almost 1,000 species affected, mostly in Asia. The impact of

invasive species is probably a little underestimated as only

threats to extant species are included here and a significant

Number of species

Fig. 17: Major threats to mammals

(threatened species in red, non-threatened species in green)

proportion of species now considered extinct were affected

by invasive species.

There is growing evidence that climate change will

become one of the major drivers of species extinctions in the

21st century. IUCN is developing assessment tools to identify

the potential effects of climate change on species.

Susceptibility to climate change according to taxon-specific

biological traits has been assessed, thereby allowing an

Threatened & climate change susceptible Not threatened & climate change susceptible

Top (%) 10 Top (%) 10 7.4

Proportion 33.4 41.7 54.6 100 Proportion 83.4 99.9 100

of species of species

Source: IUCN

Fig. 18: Areas containing high proportions of threatened and ‘climate change-susceptible’ (reds)

and not threatened and ‘climate change-susceptible’ amphibian species (yellows)

(expressed as the percentage of species in these categories relative to the total number of species occurring there).

High concentration areas indicate those with the top 10%, 5% and 2.5% of values,

and when these were not distinguishable, the nearest appropriate percentages were used

240

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

THE EXTINCTION CRISIS: FACT OR FICTION?

analysis of the potential impacts of climate change on species

based on an analysis of these traits (Foden et al. 2009 for

details). Using expert assessments for birds (9,856 species),

amphibians (6,222 species) and warm-water reef-building

corals (799 species), the taxonomic and geographical

distributions of the species most susceptible to climate change

were examined and compared to the existing assessments of

threatened species in the 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened

Species™ (herein The IUCN Red List; IUCN 2008).

For amphibians, mapping the richness of threatened and

‘climate change-susceptible’ species (Fig. 18) highlights

Mesoamerica, the northern Andes and the Caribbean.

Additional areas of high concentrations include several

Mediterranean islands and south-western Turkey; Seychelles;

the southern Japanese islands; New Zealand’s North Island;

and Fiji. Areas of high concentrations of species assessed as

not threatened but ‘climate change-susceptible’ include

western and central Australia; the Solomon Islands; south-

eastern South America; north-western Mexico; the arid region

extending from the Western Sahara through the Red Sea Basin,

south to the Horn of Africa and along the coastal regions of

the Arabian peninsula; and the foothills surrounding the

northern Himalayan Plateau. These geographic regions are

defined by concentrations of species that are likely to become

threatened due to climate change but which are not yet ‘picked

up’ as threatened in the IUCN Red List.

ARE SPECIES BECOMING MORE OR LESS

THREATENED WITH EXTINCTION?

In those taxonomic groups about which we know most,

species are sliding ever faster towards extinction. IUCN Red

Fig. 19: Red List Index of species survival for corals, birds,

mammals and amphibians, showing the proportion of species

expected to remain extant in the near future

without additional conservation action.

An RLI value of 1 .0 equates to all species being categorized

as Least Concern, and hence none being expected to go

extinct in the near future. An RLI value of 0 indicates that

all species have gone Extinct. (Number of non-Data Deficient

species = 9,785 birds, 4,555 mammals, 4,416 amphibians and

704 corals (warm-water reef-building species only). Data are

preliminary for amphibians in 1 980 and corals in 1 996.)

List Indices (RLI — Butchart et al. 2004, 2005, 2007) show

that trends in extinction risk are negative for birds, mammals,

amphibians and reef-building corals (Fig. 19). Many more

species are moving closer towards extinction, as measured

by their categories of extinction risk on the IUCN Red List.

The groups vary in their overall level of threat; for example,

amphibians have a higher proportion of species threatened

(i.e., lower RLI values) compared with mammals. Groups

also vary in their rate of deterioration, with the rapid declines

in reef-building corals since 1996 being driven primarily by

the worldwide coral-bleaching events in 1998 and

subsequently (Carpenter et al. 2008; Polidoro et al. 2009).

The RLI for birds show that there has been a steady and

continuing deterioration in the status of the world’s birds

between 1 988 and 2008. Over these 20 years, 225 bird species

have been up-listed to a higher category of threat because of

genuine changes in status, compared to just 32 species down-

listed.

THREE CURRENT EXTINCTION CRISES

Looking at the Red List data as a whole, three major

ongoing extinction crises are immediately evident, and these

have already been highlighted in this paper. These are

amphibians, corals and Asian large animals. There are

probably other major crises also under way, but the Red List

data are not yet complete enough to demonstrate this.

Examples of likely crises include declines in marine species,

especially due to bycatch, and declines of central and west

African species due to bush meat harvesting.

Amphibians

As noted above, amphibians are the most threatened

vertebrate group, with almost one-third of species listed as

EX, EW, CR, EN or VU. At least 42% of all species are

declining in population, indicating that the number of

threatened species can be expected to rise in the future. In

contrast, less than 1% of species show population increases.

Although habitat loss clearly poses the greatest threat to

amphibians, the fungal disease Chytridiomycosis is seriously

affecting an increasing number of species and is the main

driver of extinction over the last 3 decades (Stuart et al. 2008).

In response to the amphibian crisis, IUCN has

developed the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan (Gascon

et al. 2007). This provides a comprehensive framework for

combating amphibian declines and extinctions. A major

priority is to secure the habitats of the large number of

threatened amphibian species that do not occur in any

protected areas. There are at least 350, and possibly up to

600, such species, many more than is the case with birds or

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

241

THE EXTINCTION CRISIS: FACT OR FICTION?

a. Actions underway for globally threatened birds

b. Actions that have directly benefited globally threatened birds

26%

Fig. 20: Conservation action for birds: (a) percentage implementation and

(b) percentage of those actions which have directly benefited threatened species

mammals (Rodrigues et al. 2004; Stuart et al. 2008).

Furthermore, because of Chytridiomycosis, which cannot yet

be treated in the wild and which can cause up to 100%

mortality in certain species, many amphibian species can

currently be saved only in captivity. This is obviously only

an interim measure but one that, if successful, might buy some

time for certain species while solutions to the

Chytridiomycosis epidemic are sought. The Amphibian Ark

Project (see http://www.amphibianark.org/) is a global

programme to manage threatened amphibians in captivity

until it is safe to reintroduce them into the wild.

Corals

The fastest rate of decline of the groups measured so

far is seen in the reef-building corals. As mentioned above,

the catastrophic declines in the abundance of corals are

associated with bleaching and diseases driven by elevated

sea surface temperatures. Coastal development and other

human activities will have also impacted on the dramatic

deterioration since the mid-1990s.

The impact of the decline and degradation of coral reefs

on other reef-dwelling organisms is not yet known, but clearly

the impacts on fishes and invertebrates could be alarming.

Ex situ conservation might also prove to be necessary for

corals and other coral-dependent species, especially as

measures to reduce the level of CO, in the atmosphere are

still a long way from having an effect.

Asian large animals

There have been massive decreases in wildlife

populations in Asia in the last two decades, especially in

South-east Asia and China. For example, there are now

10 Asian countries in the top 20 list for threatened mammals,

and declines have also been most steep in the Indo-Malayan

realm. The Indo-Malayan realm shows rapid declines in both

birds and mammals, driven by the rapid increases in the rate

of deforestation during the 1990s, particularly in the Sundaic

lowlands of Indonesia and Malaysia, combined for mammals

with high rates of hunting, particularly among medium- to

large-bodied species. Indeed, there is a huge, and largely

uncontained, threat of overexploitation affecting large-bodied

taxa throughout Asia, including reptiles (including turtles)

and fishes, as well as mammals and birds. Terrestrial,

freshwater and marine species are all affected. There have

been two likely mammalian extinctions in the last few years:

the Baiji (or Yangtze River Dolphin) Lipotes vexillifer and

the Kouprey Bos sauveli.

There is an urgent need throughout the region to

address overexploitation through anti-poaching on the

ground, as well as controlling trade in wildlife products. The

loss of lowland forests for oil palm and other biofuels also

needs to be addressed as a matter of urgency. In terms of

addressing over harvesting, an initiative is needed not only

to focus on anti-poaching (such as snare removal) but also

to provide alternative livelihoods for local people, addressing

the root causes of poaching, providing alternative protein

sources and implementing capacity building and training

programmes.

IS THERE ANY GOOD NEWS?

Looking at the raw Red List data can give misleading

results, for example when comparing the headline statistics

in 2007 and 2008. The number of threatened species has

increased from 16,116 to 16,928 in association with the

increase in species coverage from 41,415 species in 2007 to

44,838 in 2008. However, the overall proportion of threatened

has dropped slightly, by 1%. Although this could represent

242

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

THE EXTINCTION CRISIS: FACT OR FICTION?

good news, an examination of the 223 species, which changed

status for genuine reasons (i.e., became less threatened due

to conservation efforts or became more threatened due to

ongoing or increased threats), shows that only 40 of these

were species that became less threatened, while 183 were

listed in a higher category of threat.

Thirty-seven of the genuine improvements in status in

2008 were for mammals, with approximately 5% of threatened

mammals demonstrating an increase in populations. It is

estimated that 16 bird species have been prevented from going

extinct between 1994 and 2004 due to conservation efforts;

however, although (encouragingly) 67% of threatened species

have some action under way, these actions have only benefited

24% of species so far (Fig. 20).

The ‘take-home’ message from these findings is that

conservation can and does have a positive impact, but it is

not yet being implemented at a level that can have a global

impact on biodiversity trends.

DISCUSSION

Although a significant proportion of the world’s species

face extinction, it is not possible to quantify how many species

are at risk because not all species have yet been named, the

baseline checklists are constantly changing and the bulk of

the world’s species is yet to be assessed.

That said, the number of threatened species is increasing

across virtually all the major taxonomic groups. Conservation

measures are being taken for many species all over the world,

ranging from species-specific actions to broad changes in

national, regional or global policy. These responses in relation

to individual threatened species are only just beginning to be

measured, but many case studies show that well-focused

species-centred actions can succeed in reducing the threat

and improving the status.

The Red List species assessments are the most up-to-

date, readily available and comprehensive inventory on species

diversity. The information provided by the Red List shows what

species are threatened, what the threats are and where they

exist. Using this information to underpin conservation action

will assist in preventing the decline of threatened species

populations beyond the threshold of viability. With increasing

knowledge of both where and how to act, focused conservation

action works, although mitigating the extinction crisis will

require much more rapid action. That means more resources,

and resources better applied to safeguard habitats and improve

the management of our natural resources.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am very grateful to Rachel Roberts for comprehending

the notes from my talk in Bengaluru to assemble this paper.

This paper draws heavily on the work of others, especially

the thousands of members of the IUCN Species Survival

Commission. However, I particularly need to thank Craig

Hilton-Taylor, Caroline Pollock, Jean-Christophe Vie, Mike

Hoffmann, Janice Chanson, Vineet Katariya, Jim Ragle, Will

Darwall, Kevin Smith, David Allen, Neil Cox, Jan Schipper,

Kent Carpenter, Suzanne Livingstone, Beth Polidoro, Ariadne

Angulo, Wendy Foden, Stuart Butchart, Thomasina Oldfield,

Mary Seddon, Gordon McGregor Reid, Viola Clausnitzer,

Vincent Kalkman, Yvonne Sadovy de Mitcheson, Sarah

Valenti, Sarah Fowler, Ben Collen, Mala Ram, Nadia

Dewhurst, Neil Cumberlidge, Jonathan Baillie, Georgina

Mace, Annabelle Cuttelod, Nieves Garcia, Dania Abdul Malak

and Helen Temple.

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244

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(3), Sept-Dec 2009

245-255

CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE LAST SURVIVING WILD POPULATION OF HANGUL

OR KASHMIR DEER CERVUS ELAPHUS HANGLU IN KASHMIR, INDIA

Khursheed Ahmad1'3, S. Sathyakumar2'4 and Qamar Qureshi2'5

'Faculty of Veterinary Sciences & Animal Husbandry, S.K. University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology of Kashmir, Shuhama (Alusteng),

Srinagar 190 006, Kashmir, India.

■Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India.

3Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

5Email: [email protected]

The Kashmir Deer or Hangul Cervus elaphus hanglu, a critically endangered deer, is one of the four easternmost

subspecies of Red Deer found in Asia and is endemic to the mountains of Kashmir in the north-western Himalayan

region of India. At present, the only viable Hangul population is confined to the 141 sq. km Dachigam National Park

(NP), with a few isolated Hangul herds in its adjoining protected areas. Here, we present our recent (2001-2008)

assessment of the Hangul’s status and conservation in the Kashmir region based on intensive monitoring in Dachigam

NP and extensive surveys carried out all over the Hangul’s erstwhile stronghold and range. Our range-wise surveys

indicate that at present the last surviving and genetically viable Hangul population of 140-170 individuals is restricted

to Dachigam NP. A few isolated Hangul populations are also present in the adjoining conservation reserve areas of

Bren-Nishat (1 1 Hangul), including Cheshmashahi Forest Reserve, south-west of Dachigam NP, where a direct sighting

of two Hangul females was made in autumn; Khrew (2-6 Hangul); Khanagund ( 1 -2 Hangul); Shikargah (7-12 Hangul)

and Overa Wildlife Sanctuary (6 Hangul). Besides, Hangul use the Surfrao and Akhal blocks of Sindh Forest Division,

north-east of Dachigam NP, during spring and summer. A group of about 12 Hangul was sighted north of the holy

Amamath cave, which falls just outside the demarcated boundaries of the Overa-Aru and Baltal-Thajwas wildlife

sanctuaries, east of Dachigam NP. The current population trends indicate that the species could go extinct if the

necessary serious interventions are not made immediately. This study attributes the decline in Hangul population to

low breeding, female biased sex ratio, the problem of survival of the young, inadequate recruitment of fawns to

adulthood due to factors such as considerable predation by the Leopard Panthera pardus and Asiatic Black Bear

Ursus thibetanus, poaching and continued degradation of Hangul summer habitats in Upper Dachigam, along with

biotic interference in winter habitats, and the movements of Hangul in summer to unprotected areas in Sindh Forest

Division outside Dachigam NP and the excessive biotic interferences therein. Significant parasitic infestations have

also been found in faecal samples of Hangul in Dachigam NP. The Hangul population in Dachigam NP and its adjoining

areas thus needs immediate attention. An intensive population monitoring programme, studies of the reproductive

ecology and movement patterns of the Hangul and monitoring its health to understand better the factors affecting the

population growth and biology and other aspects of Hangul ecology are required for effective management and long

term conservation. Population studies indicate a decrease in genetic heterozygosity over time and thus there is a need

for urgent measures to arrest the loss in heterozygosis and declining trend of the Hangul population. There is an urgent

need for a Hangul recovery plan to be developed that includes field surveys to identify corridors to help dispersion and

reintroduction of Hangul to its former distribution range and habitat protection in Upper Dachigam and other potential

Hangul habitats outside Dachigam. A captive breeding plan for the Hangul is important to repopulate existing good

habitats in the Hangul range, beginning with the Shikargah-Overa ranges in Lidder Valley.

Key words: Hangul, Cervus elaphus hanglu , Red Deer, Dachigam, viable population, Zanskar Range, Kashmir

INTRODUCTION

The Hangul or Kashmir Stag Cervus elaphus hanglu,

listed as a critically endangered deer in the IUCN’s Red Data

Book (Simon 1966; IUCN 2006), is one of the four

easternmost subspecies of Red Deer that are found in Asia

(Grzimek 1990; Geist 1998). However, unlike Red Deer and

Wapiti Cervus canadensis, which have a wider distribution,

extending from western Europe to central Asia, and North

America and Canada (Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1951;

Flerov 1952; Corbet 1978), the Hangul has had a restricted

global distribution. Being endemic to Kashmir, it was once

distributed widely in the mountains of Kashmir (Gee 1965;

Schaller 1969) along the Zanskar mountain range in the North-

West Himalayan Biogeographic Zone (2A) (Rodgers and

Panwar 1988) of India. The shikar map of Kashmir prepared

by the then Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, Hari Singh,

depicts the past distribution of the Hangul in an arc of 64 km

width, north and east of the Jhelum and the lower Chenab

river. The distributional range extended from Shalurah and

Karen in the Kishenganga catchment over to Doras in Lolab

Valley and the Erin catchments in Bandipora in the north to

Paper read at the International Conference on ‘Conserving Nature in a Globalizing India’ at Bengaluru; February 17-19, 2009

CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE LAST SURVIVING WILD POPULATION OF HANGUL IN KASHMIR, INDIA

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Fig. 1 : Dachigam National Park and adjoining Protected Areas

Marwah/Wadwan in Kishtwar High Altitude National Park

(NP) in the lower Chenab Valley, and Ramnagar in the south

(Lydekker 1924; Holloway and Schaller 1970; Holloway and

Wani 1970) (Figs 1 , 3) through the present day Baltal-Thajwas

Wildlife Sanctuary (WS), Tral Conservation Reserves

(Shikargah, Panner & Khiram), Overa- Aru WS, Desu WS

and Rajpariyan (Daksum) WS. The Gamgul Siya-Behi

Sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh, on the state border, was the

only area outside Jammu and Kashmir that probably retained

a few Hangul (Holloway 1971).

During the recent past, the Hangul appears to have been

wiped out from its past distribution range, possibly due to

large scale biotic interference owing to habitat fragmentation

and degradation, and poaching. At present a viable population

of Hangul occurs only in Dachigam NP, with a few isolated

populations in the adjoining areas.

The estimated population of Hangul in Kashmir in 1900

was 3,000-5,000 and in 1947, there were c. 2,000 Hangul

still surviving. But 10 years later, the population drastically

reduced to about 400 individuals (Gee 1966). The estimates

246

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE LAST SURVIVING WILD POPULATION OF HANGUL IN KASHMIR, INDIA

of the Hangul population between 1969 and 1970 range from

not more than 180 individuals (Schaller 1969) to 140-170

(Holloway 1971).

Estimates over the years of the Hangul population in

Dachigam and adjoining areas show wide fluctuations, with

a drastic decline during the recent past from the 1980s

(Fig. 2). The decline in the Hangul population from 2,000 in

1947 (Gee 1965) to 140-170 in 1970 (Holloway 1971) and

175 in 1992 has been attributed to the continued degradation

of the Hangul’s summer habitat of Upper Dachigam

(Holloway 1971; Kurt 1978) and the continued irregular biotic

interference in its winter habitat of Lower Dachigam in the

past, besides excessive poaching.

Despite the critically endangered status of the Hangul,

the species had been very poorly studied compared to its

conspecifics the Red Deer of Europe and Wapiti* and other

deer species in India. Some information, however, existed

on the Hangul, mostly in the form of brief accounts by hunters

(Ward 1921; Stockley 1936) stressing shooting exploits and

naturalists stressing conservation problems (Talbot 1959; Gee

1965; Schaller 1969; Holloway and Schaller 1970; Holloway

andWani 1970; Caughley 1970; Kurt 1978; Oza 1977; Shah

et al. 1984; Mishra 1986; Iqbal 1986; Inayatullah 1987).

Some accounts deal with general information about the

Hangul (Lydekker 1915; Flerov 1952; Whitehead 1972;

Lowe and Gardiner 1974; Schaller 1977; Groves and Grubb

1987; Geist 1998) with the exception of the few brief survey

reports and natural history accounts mentioned above,

carried out prior to the 1990s, and the routine annual

Hangul population census carried out by the Wildlife

Protection Department of the Jammu & Kashmir

Government, no intensive studies had been carried out on

the aspects of Hangul ecology prerequisite for its effective

long term survival and conservation planning. Here, we

present the results of our surveys (200 1 -2008) and intensive

study on Hangul ecology in Dachigam NP and the Hangul’s

erstwhile distributional range in Kashmir. We also

summarize the critical factors that affect the Hangul and its

habitat and are prerequisite for the effective management

and long term conservation and survival of the Hangul and

its habitat.

STUDY AREA

The area of the intensive study, Dachigam NP, holding

the last genetically viable population of the Hangul, lies

between 34° 05’ 00" N to 34° 10' 32" N and 74° 53' 50" E to

75° 09’ 16" E. The mountain ranges enclosing Dachigam NP

are a part of the great Zanskar Range, which forms the north-

west branch of the Central Himalayan Axis, bifurcating near

Kullu (Himachal Pradesh) and terminating in the high twin

peaks of Nun Kun (7,135 m). The entire Hangul distributional

range is characterised by complex crystalline rocks, granites,

gneisses and schists which form the core of the Zanskar

Range, a fold of which encloses the Dachigam NP. This

complex is partly sedimentary and consists of slates, phyllites

and schists with embedded crystalline limestone (Lydekker

1876). Most of the sediments composing these ranges have

been laid from the Cambrian to the Tertiary period, and ridged

and folded up over the ages (Wadia 1961). The area exhibits

a variety of vegetational types characterised by the habitat,

form and density of dominant species and controlled by a

number of factors including habitat conditions, exposure, altitude

and, above all, the degree of biotic interference (Singh and

Kachroo 1978). The low lying areas, from 1,700 to 3,000 m,

have a complex mixture of vegetation types, with broad leaf

mesophyll forests of Acer caesium, Morus alba, Ulmus spp.,

Rhus succidiadiana, and Juglans regia, Parrotiopsis

jacquemontiana and a variety of conifers such as Deodar

Cedrus deodara. Blue Pine Pinus wallichiana, Spruce Picea

smithiana and Fir Abies pindrow growing in an altitudinal

sequence (Holloway 1971; Singh and Kachroo 1978). The

upper reaches, from 3,000 to c. 4,700 m, comprise a vegetation

gradient of a subalpine forest community followed by scrub

vegetation of Birch Betula utilis and Rhododendron

Rhododendron spp. interspersed with herb-rich grasslands and

meadows above 3,300 m. This zone gradually merges into

the zone of permanent snow, which is above 3,500 m

(Holloway 1971; Singh and Kachroo 1978). The main

vegetation types in the area as per Champion and Seth ( 1 968)

are typical of Himalayan moist temperate forests: they are of

the subalpine forest and alpine forest types.

The climate of the study area may be described as sub-

Mediterranean to typically temperate, with higher degrees of

variation in precipitation and dryness. Generally, two spells

of dryness are experienced, one in June and another in

September-November. Snow is the main source of

precipitation and in some parts melts till June. Four distinct

seasons occur in a year: spring (March-May), summer (June-

August), autumn (September-November) and winter

(December-February). The monthly mean temperatures

recorded during the study period ranged between a maximum

of 32 °C in August 2002 (late summer) and a minimum of

-5.8 °C during January 2003 (mid-winter) (Ahmad 2006). The

soil depth on the slope in the study area from the lower to the

middle reaches is less than 25 cm, and hence falls under the

category of very shallow soils (Bhat 1985). The annual

minimum and maximum rainfall of Dachigam and adjoining

areas have been calculated as ranging between 32 mm and

546 mm (Bhat 1985).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

247

CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE LAST SURVIVING WILD POPULATION OF HANGUL IN KASHMIR, INDIA

Year

Fig. 2: Population trend in Dachigam and adjoining areas from

1 954 to 2004 (Gee 1 966; Holloway 1 971 ; Kurt 1 969;

Department of Wildlife Protection 1970 till 2004; Qureshi and

Shah 2004; Ahmad 2006: this study)

METHODOLOGY

This ecological study on the Hangul was aimed at

enhancing the scientific knowledge on the aspects of Hangul

ecology that are prerequisite for its effective management

and long term conservation. We carried out intensive studies

on Hangul ecology in Dachigam NP on a regular basis (2001 -

2004) besides extensive surveys (2004-2008) in the Hangul’s

erstwhile range areas, including Dachigam NP. Hangul

distribution, abundance, habitat use, food and feeding habits

were investigated along stratifies trails/transects (1 to 2 km

length), and survey blocks, on a rotational basis 3-4 times a

month in different day hours. For intensive studies in

Dachigam NP, the study area was stratified into 7 transects

varying in length between 1 and 2 km and in 7 survey blocks

(Fig. 4), based on differences in altitude, slope, aspect, floristic

composition, degree of human disturbance and administrative

beat. Each transect was monitored on a rotational basis three

times a month according to the line transect method (Burnham

etal. 1980), and blocks were intensively surveyed along trails,

nullahs (streams) and contours according to the trail

monitoring method (Rutledge 1982) on a rotational basis four

times a month in different seasons and different time periods

of the day, for data collection and investigations on Hangul

distribution, abundance, habitat use, food and feeding habits.

Data based on direct Hangul sightings were collected on these

transects and survey blocks. For each sighting, several

parameters were recorded, including the time of animal

sighting, group size and group composition (males, females,

young/yearlings and unknown sex). Besides, data on indirect

evidence of Hangul (dung/pellets) wherever found were also

collected in 59 (2 x 20 m) belt transects randomly laid in

5 survey blocks for habitat use and dietary investigations.

Attempts were also made to investigate the feeding habits of

Hangul based on scan sampling following Altman ( 1 952) or

following the groups.

Besides the intensive surveys in Dachigam NP, an

extensive reconnaissance of the erstwhile stronghold areas

of the Hangul’s pre-1947 distributional range was carried

out to assess the present status and distribution of the Hangul

outside Dachigam NP. The survey areas were selected based

on unconfirmed reports from the Hangul’s past distributional

range areas, extending from Reran in the Kishanganga

catchment area and Dorus in Lolab Valley of Bandipora to

Kishtwar NP. The areas covered in the surveys and

interviews with local people and livestock herders include

(1) Surfrao and Akhal forest blocks of Sindh Forest

Division, and Baltal-Thajwas WS, north and north-east of

Dachigam NP; (2) Brein, Nishat and Cheshmashahi

Conservation Reserve to the west and south-west of

Dachigam NP; (3) Hajan and Satura blocks of Tral

Conservation Reserve and Shikargah/Panner Conservation

Reserves south-east of Dachigam NP; and (4) Overa-Aru

WS in the far eastern part of Dachigam NP (Fig. 1).

In each of these areas, the survey units were selected

based on unconfirmed reports of Hangul presence available

with the forest and wildlife staff and local people. A forest

and wildlife beat was considered as a unit for sampling Hangul

presence and habitat assessment (Jhala et al. 2005).

Furthermore, to ascertain the status of the Hangul in its

western range areas, we interviewed local people, livestock

herders and army personnel deployed in Gurez and Bandipora

about the past and current occurrence of the Hangul.

Hangul habitat suitability and biotic interference

assessment was also carried out in Dachigam NP and its

adjoining areas to identify the potential units in the Hangul’s

past distribution range areas outside Dachigam NP for

relocation/reintroduction of some Hangul and the possibility

of monitoring them continuously.

Hangul relative abundance was estimated following

Burnham etal. (1980). The chi-square test and ANOVA were

performed for analysis of population data. All statistical

analyses were performed using the computer program SPSS

following Norris (1990). The typical group size was

computed following Jarman (1974). Hangul densities were

estimated from the Hanguls seen on the transects. Visibility

correction was not employed. These densities are merely

relevant in terms of relative comparisons. The Hangul

population viability analysis (PVA) and the possible risk of

extinction of the Hangul in the near future was evaluated

using the widely used structured PVA (Caughley 1994;

Akcakaya 2000a,b) with the help of the software program

Vortex 9.6 (Lacy 2000). This model was run on the basis of

population characteristics reported for the Red Deer and

Hangul, including data gathered for the Hangul during this

study.

248

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE LAST SURVIVING WILD POPULATION OF HANGUL IN KASHMIR, INDIA

74TWE

76WE

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Fig. 3: Past distribution of Hangul in Kashmir Valley

During our intensive studies in Dachigam NP.

693 surveys in the form of trail or transect monitoring were

carried out in 7 transects and 5 fixed survey blocks that involved

a time and distance effort of 1,839 hours and 5,668 km,

respectively, distributed almost equally in the 4 seasons

(416 hours and 1,263 km in spring; 473 hours and 1,428 km

in summer; 4 1 8 hours and 1 ,276 km in autumn; and 532 hours

and 1,701 km in winter).

RESULTS

Our intensive studies and extensive range-wise surveys

in almost all the erstwhile areas of the Hangul in Kashmir

clearly indicate that at present the last genetically viable

population of the Hangul occurs only in the 141 sq. km

Dachigam NP in Kashmir and that a few isolated populations

occur in the adjoining conservation reserves of Bren-Nishat

( 1 1 Hangul), including Cheshmashahi Forest Reserve, south-

west of Dachigam NP, Khrew (4-6 Hangul); Khanagund

( 1 -2 Hangul); and Shikargah (7-12 Hangul) and in Overa WS

(c. 6 Hangul). Besides, some stray Hangul groups have been

sighted in Sindh Forest Division to the north and north-west

of Dachigam NP, including 6 Hangul (1 male, 3 female and

2 young) sighted on the trail between Surfrao and Akhal

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

249

CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE LAST SURVIVING WILD POPULATION OF HANGUL IN KASHMIR, INDIA

74*53

75*0 cr

75*5'

74*55

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Fig. 4: Location of study blocks in DNP

blocks of the Sindh Forest Division. Of 5 Hangul individuals

which fell into the Sindh river near Kangan Forest Block in

June 2006, 2 females were rescued and brought to Pahalgam

Zoo, in south Kashmir; these were subsequently preyed upon

by Leopard Panthera pardus.

In 2004, we estimated the Hangul population to be

between 146 and 249, with a mean of 197 animals. In 2006,

the Hangul population was estimated between 117 and

190 animals, with a mean of 153 animals, whereas in 2008

the population estimates turned out to be between 170 and

190 animals. There appears to be a marginal decline in the

Hangul population between 2004 and 2006, which is

statistically significant (t=2.24, P=0.06). The Hangul

population showed a decreasing trend in recent years in

Dachigam and adjoining areas.

In Dachigam NP, during February 2001 to December

2004, a total of 326 Hangul sightings were recorded, and the

maximum Hangul sightings (101) were recorded in winter,

followed by 85 Hangul sightings each in spring and autumn.

During summer only 55 Hangul sightings were recorded.

Hangul encounter rates both per hour effort and per kilometre

walk showed a decrease from spring to summer, followed by

a gradual increase from summer through autumn to winter.

The maximum Hangul encounter rates (2.02 individuals/hour

effort and 0.67 individuals/km walk) were recorded in spring,

followed by 1.17 individuals/hour effort and 0.55 individuals/

km walk recorded in winter. The minimum encounter rates

of 0.4 1 individuals/hour effort and 0. 1 4 individuals/km walk

were recorded in summer. Hangul encounter rates/hour effort

or per kilometre walk showed significant differences between

different seasons (F=42.218, P=0.001 and F=42.44, P=0.001,

respectively). The overall Hangul encounter rates/hour effort

and per kilometre walk also showed significant differences

between the study blocks (F= 173.71, P=0.001 and F= 193.37,

P=0.001, respectively). The overall (weight for block area)

Hangul density in the intensive study area of Dachigam NP

was 5.60±l .13 SE Hangul/sq. km, and it varied between the

seasons. The maximum Hangul density (9.02±0. 14 SE/sq.

km) was recorded in winter, and the minimum Hangul density

(0.71 ±0.05 SE/sq. km) was recorded in summer.

The survey results also indicated wide fluctuations in

overall Hangul group size and composition between the

seasons. The group size varied from 55 individuals in spring

and 40 individuals in winter to 1 individual in the summer.

The overall Hangul mean group size varied between seasons,

with the largest in spring (95% confidence limit 5.36 ±1.28

250

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CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE LAST SURVIVING WILD POPULATION OF HANGUL IN KASHMIR, INDIA

(c. 1)) followed by (4.86 ±0.99 c. 1) in winter. The smallest

Hangul mean group size of 1.10 ±0.33 c. 1. was recorded in

summer. The overall typical Hangul group size was

14.11 individuals, and it varied between the seasons from

17.50 individuals in spring to 5.28 individuals in summer.

The overall Hangul group composition was 4.30 male,

7.52 female and 5.20 young, and it varied between seasons.

As with the Red Deer, the Hangul showed wide sexual

segregation. Out of 326 Hangul sightings recorded, Hangul

males occurred singly ( 1 7% sightings), or in groups of their

own, whereas in 18.46% of the sightings, the Hangul groups

comprised females only. In 29.54% of the sightings, the

Hangul was found in groups of females and fawns. The overall

Hangul sex ratio was 23.23 males per 100 females (SE=2.60)

and 29.95 young per 100 females (SE=1.90). The overall

fawn-to-female ratio was 29.95±1.90 (SE) young/100

females. The Hangul population in Dachigam NP shows a

7.9% increase in growth rate (r=0.079 SD; (r)=0.129); the

population will increase to 291.74 Hangul SE= 1.51) and

stabilise by the 20th year, given that the carrying capacity of

the habitat is 300 and there is a low level of poaching (5%).

The sensitivity analysis indicated that there is a 25% chance

of extinction in 100 years. The population analysis indicates

a decrease in genetic heterozygosity over time.

Outside Dachigam NP, the Surfrao/Akhal blocks of

Sindh Forest Division, north and north-east of Dachigam NP,

Shikargah and Khiram conservation reserves and Overa-Aru

WS, to the east and south-east of Dachigam NP, were observed

to support a considerable relic population of the Hangul.

DISCUSSION

The current trend of the Hangul population indicates

that the species could go extinct if serious management and

conservation interventions are not made immediately. Our

studies and survey observations indicate that some of the

major issues concerning the decline in the population and

long term conservation and survival of the Hangul are the

highly skewed female biased sex ratio and very low fawn-to-

female ratio, predation by Leopard, poaching to some extent

and summer dispersal of the Hangul to unknown unprotected

areas in the north-west of Sindh Forest Division, outside

Dachigam NP, besides some biotic interference by livestock

grazers (Iqbal et al. 2004; Qureshi and Shah 2004; Ahmad

2006; Ahmad and Khan 2007).

The study results indicate that the social structure,

distribution and movement patterns of the Hangul in

Dachigam NP are closely associated with the season,

topography and changing vegetation and biotic interference

patterns over the seasons. In the later half of winter and early

spring, i.e., between February and May, there is fresh growth

of grasses, herbs, sedges and dwarf shrubs, and flowering of

trees, resulting in the downward movement of Hangul from

higher to lower elevations and congregation in the ravines,

as the mountain peaks surrounding the Park remain under

snow cover. In contrast, in summer, the Hangul remains

dispersed at higher altitudes moving even outside the Park.

This is evidenced by the far fewer Hangul sightings and

encounter rates during summer. The deciduous forest

conditions, together with the fresh forage, probably improved

the visibility of and favoured the sighting of comparatively

large group sizes in springs and winter compared to summer

and autumn, when the shrub and tree canopy cover impaired

animal sightings in Dachigam.

The occurrence of the Hangul in Overa-Aru WS

presents an excellent opportunity for a comparative study of

its population with that of Dachigam NP. Such a study can

throw light on the possible interaction between the two

populations. Furthermore, Overa-Aru WS, together with

Shikargah/Khiram Conservation Reserve, with which it shares

a boundary (Fig. 1), similar to Dachigam NP in topography,

climate, and vegetation, can prove to be a suitable habitat for

a second viable population of the Hangul outside Dachigam

NP. In the past as well, the largest population of Hangul

outside Dachigam NP was believed to be supported by the

Overa-Lidder forests (Inayatullah 1987). However, the latest

census, conducted in March 2000 by the Department of

Wildlife Protection, indicates that the Hangul population

within and around Overa-Aru WS is 37, which include

12 males, 20 females and 5 fawns. This gives the Sanctuary

added importance and calls for special efforts towards the

conservation and management of its habitats and wildlife

therein. Except for the annual census, conducted by the

department, there has hardly been any efforts so far to ascertain

scientifically the actual size of the Hangul population of

Overa-Aru. As such, information regarding the herd

composition sex ratio and home range of the Overa Hangul

is lacking. Overa-Aru WS and Sindh Forest Division, falling

in the distributional range of the Hangul, are closely linked

with Dachigam NP through forest corridors which show a

strong vegetational contrast with Dachigam NP as they have

been subjected to various types of biotic interferences. With

the exception of some steep slopes, the natural vegetation

has been replaced in these forest corridors in the valley by

cultivated plants along roadsides, and stream sides, and in

orchards (Kurt 1979a,b).

In Gurez, some isolated Hangul have also been found

to occur. This population might possibly be the only resident

western population of Hangul in its erstwhile distribution

range. However, this needs to be verified. This area could as

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

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CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE LAST SURVIVING WILD POPULATION OF HANGUL IN KASHMIR, INDIA

well serve as an ideal habitat for the reintroduction of more

Hangul.

The livestock grazing and biotic interferences seemed

to show some significantly positive impacts on the movement

patterns of Hangul in Dachigam NP. Block 5 of Dachigam

NP, in which average livestock dung densities of 25.40

±17.67/sq. km of cattle and 132.77 ±92.83/sq. km of sheep/

goat were recorded during the grazing season (summer-

autumn) was used less frequently by Hangul during this period

compared with the very frequent sightings in the same block

in the non-grazing season (winter-spring). The Hangul

encounter rates during summer were lowest in Block 5 (N=2).

The Hangul encounter rates, however, increased in this block

in late autumn (N=35) and winter (N= 1 80). This block, having

its upper reaches above 3,000 m, connected to the subalpine

and alpine meadows of Upper Dachigam, experiences heavy

livestock grazing and biotic disturbances in summer and a

downward migration of grazers during autumn. This possibly

forces the Hangul to restrict its movements to away from

these two blocks.

Similar patterns have been reported in the displacement

and dispersion of Elk and Red Deer away from the areas used

by livestock in summer (Dalke et al. 1965; Mackie 1970;

Lonner 1977; Franklin and Lieb 1979; Skovlin and Vavra

1979; Clutton-Brock et al. 1982; Clutton-Brock and Albon

1989). As the densities of livestock increased, the effects on

Elk and Red Deer increased. The Sambar has also been found

to avoid areas which are used by livestock and pastoral

settlements (Sathyakumar 1994; Khan 1995). Long term

scientific studies and monitoring of the impacts of grazing

and habitat degradation on Hangul should continue in the

area through the establishment of 3 to 5 exclosures of

dimensions 50 x 50 m in both Lower and Upper Dachigam.

Both direct and indirect evidence suggest that the

Surfrao, Akhal and Kangan blocks of Sindh Forest Division

attract large populations of Hangul particularly in summer

and the beginning of autumn. This might possibly be because

the subalpine and alpine meadows of Dagwan, Nagaberan

and Marsar of the upper reaches of Dachigam NP, where

Hangul used to range in the past (Schaller 1969; Holloway

1971; Kurt 1978) during this season, have been under heavy

pressure from biotic interference in the form of excessive

livestock grazing by local people, the Gujjar and Bakerwal,

and sheep and goats of the Government Sheep Breeding Farm,

resulting in the disappearance and displacement of the Hangul

from these areas, with the exception of few strays. Significant

efforts (30 surveys; 150 hours spent and 300 km walked each

in summer and autumn) were expended to assess these

subalpine and alpine meadows of Upper Dachigam only

during summer and autumn as they were inaccessible during

winter and spring due to heavy snow cover. But no direct

sightings or indirect evidence of Hangul were obtained in

these meadows of Dagwan, Nagaberan and Marsar of Upper

Dachigam (Dagwan, Nagaberan and Marsar of the upper

reaches of Dachigam NP). Secondly, since most of the

drainages ( Nullahs ) in Dachigam NP were observed to be

dried up throughout the year, probably due to the impact of

global warming, since the glacial areas of Upper Dachigam

have been observed to be snowless even during the beginning

of summer. The non-availability of water in the near vicinity

might have forced the Hangul, especially lactating females

in summer, to move towards the disturbed habitats in and

outside Dachigam. This might as well be acting as one of the

factors for fawn mortality to predators or even sheep dogs.

This, however, needs to be scientifically assessed: in one

incident, out of a group of 5 or 6 Hangul that were observed

crossing a river in Kangan Block of Sindh Forest Division,

only 3 animals could be rescued, whereas others fell in the

river and died. Initiation of a GPS-satellite telemetry study

can help track the movement patterns of Hangul outside

Dachigam NP, and in demarcating the actual area on either

side of Dachigam used by Hangul that could be declared as a

sanctuary to serve as a summer home for them.

The very low Hangul sex ratio is of great concern for

the long term survival of the Hangul population. The sex ratio

of the Hangul population based on our 2006 extensive survey

observations in Dachigam NP and adjoining areas was

21 (SE=2.07) males per 100 females. In 2004, it was observed

to be 19 (SE=1 .33) males per 100 females, with no significant

difference between 2004 and 2006 (t=-0.96, p=0.37). The

fawn-to-female ratio seems to be worrying as it shows a

significant decline (t=3.4, p=0.01), to 9 (SE = 2.11) fawns

per 100 females in 2006 from 23 (SE=2.93) fawns per

100 females in 2004. Our intensive monitoring and

observations in Dachigam NP alone, based on all the

326 Hangul sightings made with binoculars, so as to avoid

any visibility bias, revealed a female biased overall sex ratio

of 23.23 males per 100 females (SE=2.60) and 29.95 young

per 100 females (SE=1.90). This observed Hangul sex ratio

is lower than the reported ideal sex ratio of 50 to 66.66 males/

100 females for Red Deer (Darling 1937; Whitehead 1972;

Bonenfant et al. 2004). The Hangul sex ratio has never been

at such low levels in the past. The Hangul sex ratio in the

past is reported to have ranged from 25 to 30 males per

100 females (Holloway 1971; Stockley 1936; Inayatullah

1987).

The very low sex ratio and fawn-to-female ratio could

be attributed to significant predation by Leopard on all sex

and age classes of Hangul and of Black Bear principally on

young deer. Our studies on predator-prey relationships at

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CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE LAST SURVIVING WILD POPULATION OF HANGUL IN KASHMIR, INDIA

Dachigam NP have revealed that the Leopard Panthera

pardus and the Asiatic Black Bear Ursus thibetanus are the

major predators in the area and that the Hangul formed a

major proportion (about 25%) of the Leopard diet at

Dachigam NP (Iqbal et al. 2004; Ahmad 2006). In other

words, 60% of the biomass of the Leopard diet is constituted

by Hangul. This is, however, a grey area of information, and

it needs more research. There is a possibility of Hangul

predation by other predators such as the Himalayan Yellow-

throated Marten Martes flavigula in the area which need to

be explored. The information obtained by research on the

species, particularly on the breeding biology and movement

patterns, is still inadequate, and a regulated monitoring of

the Hangul populations on a long term scientific basis,

particularly during the fawning season and at the time of rut,

will help determine the causes of low reproduction and fawn

survival in Dachigam and other range areas of the Hangul.

The supplementary food that is being provided to the

Hangul in the form of salt and willow leaves at certain fixed

spots alone has resulted in habituating Hangul movements

around these particular spots. The provisioning of

supplementary food in winter is reported to be useful for both

male and female deer, preventing greater winter male

mortalities in the Red Deer and Elk (Clutton-Brock and Albon

1989; Smith 2001). The same is recommended to be

distributed evenly along the main nullahs so as to ensure the

availability of food and minerals to the Hangul in its

distributional areas in Dachigam with minimal efforts during

severe weather conditions in winter and spring. The tall

grassland and scrub habitats of Dachigam have been used by

Hangul as shelters, sources of foraging substrates and as places

in which to escape from predators. Their loss due to frequently

observed wildfires may represent a significant change in the

suitability of these habitats for Hangul use. The establishment

of fire lines using the plantation of fire-proof hatab

( Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana ) trees to provide natural fire

lines in the forests and grasslands of Dachigam may be tried

to control fires in the grassland and scrub habitats of Dachigam

NP. Controlled and scientific fire management is a tool that

will help conserve these pristine Hangul habitats.

An increase in the Hangul population of Dachigam,

modelled on the basis of population characteristics reported

and studied (2001-2008) for the Hangul and other closely

allied subspecies, particularly Red Deer, with a growth rate

of 7.9% (r=0.079 SD, (r)=0. 1 29) is indicated. The population

will increase to 292 Hangul (SE= 1.51) and stabilise by the

20th year, given that carrying capacity of habitat is 300 and

there is a low level of poaching (5%). The growth rate without

carrying capacity i.e. the growth rate of Hangul without

specifying any carrying capacity limits for its growth in

Dachigam, would be -8.7% (r=-0.087; SD, (r)=0. 137). The

sensitivity analysis indicates a 25% chance of extinction in

100 years. The population will have a decrease in genetic

heterozygosity over time. The probability of extinction (PE)

for the Hangul population without (normal) and with a density

dependent recruitment (den-dep-rec) population ranges

between 3% and 4% in a scenario having 5 individuals

(2 females and 3 males). Increasing the chance of poaching

to 39% (cat-poach and cat-poach - woutdd) with additional

winter mortality with a 5% chance of occurrence will

substantially increase the extinction risk (cat-poach-winter

and cat-poach-winter-woutdd) to 90%. The Hangul

population needs an intensive monitoring programme to

understand better the factors affecting the population growth.

Since the demographically and genetically viable

population of Hangul is presently confined to the 41 sq. km

area of the lower reaches of Dachigam NP, it is important to

expand the range and habitat of the population to the 141 sq.

km extent of Dachigam NP, including the alpine meadows of

Upper Dachigam, by taking strict measures to make this area

free of livestock grazing so that these ideal summer habitats

recover and are used by Hangul in summer as it used to be in

the past (Gee 1965; Schaller 1969; Iqbal 1986; Rahul Kaul

pers. comm, in 2006). Livestock grazing in Upper Dachigam

may prove harmful to Hangul in the long run. Apart from

competition for food resources (Smith and Julander 1953),

chances of transmission of disease also exist as there has

been confirmed evidence of transmission of John’s Disease

to Hangul in Dachigam in 1978 (Inayatullah 1987). Parasitic

investigations of 41 Hangul dung samples from Dachigam

NP indicated considerable parasitic infestations of (25%)

in the free ranging Hangul population. Recent research

studies conducted in the Valley of Flowers NP (Kala et al.

1997) and Nanda Devi NPand Kedamath Wildlife Sanctuary

(Sathyakumar 1993, 1994, 2004) have shown that in

livestock excluded areas the wildlife habitats have recovered

extremely well and that populations of flora and fauna have

increased.

A Hangul Species Recovery Plan is required to be

initiated urgently. It should include field surveys to identify

corridors to help the dispersal of the Hangul to its former

distribution range and habitat protection in Upper Dachigam

and other potential Hangul habitats outside Dachigam besides

a conservation breeding plan for the Hangul to repopulate

existing good habitats in the Hangul range. Overa WS and

Shikargah Conservation Reserve, almost free from human

interference at present, would be ideal locations to initiate

Hangul reintroduction. These regions held a good population

of Hangul in the past and do hold some stray animals

(c. 6 individuals estimated in Overa and 7-12 in Shikargah)

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CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE LAST SURVIVING WILD POPULATION OF HANGUL IN KASHMIR, INDIA

today. Besides, these protected areas have diverse and ideal

habitats similar to those of Dachigam and close corridor links

with Dachigam NP. With the minimum of 10 Hangul which

would be required for restocking in an area such as Overa

WS, with an assumed carrying capacity of 100 Hangul, and

supplementation of 4 more Hangul (2 males and 2 females,

each 2 years old), there is a likelihood that the Hangul

population will show a growth rate of 5.3% (r=0.053 SD,

(r)=0. 14) and the population will grow to 88 Hangul in the

next 100 years in Overa WS.

However, the other areas of the Hangul’s past

distribution, such as the Erin catchments of Bandipora, Baltal-

Thajwas WS, Tral Reserve, Desu rakh, Rajparyan (Daksum)

WS and Kishtwar High Altitude NP, require special attention

and immediate management and conservation efforts on

scientific lines. Continued monitoring and surveys are

required to be carried out in these areas for collecting baseline

information on the habitat conditions and biotic interference

in these areas vis-a-vis the present status and distribution of

the Hangul, if any. These data could then be interpolated to

assess the re-establishment of these areas as well as corridors

for Hangul and reintroduction.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the Government of Jammu &

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(3), Sept-Dec 2009

256-262

WHEN CHANOS CHANOS BECAME TSUNAMI MACCHT. THE POST-DECEMBER 2004 SCENARIO

IN THE ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS

Pankaj Sekhsaria1

'Kalpavriksh Apt. 5, Sri Dutta Krupa, 908 Deccan Gymkhana, Pune 411 004, Maharashtra, India. Email: [email protected]

The earthquake that triggered the tsunami of December 26, 2004, also caused a significant and permanent shift of the

lay of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The northern Andaman Islands saw a lift of up to 1.5 m, while the Nicobars,

in the south, subsided in places by nearly 4.75 m. This resulted in much larger damage caused by the tsunami to life

and property in the Nicobar Islands even though the area and population here are much less than those in the Andamans.

Huge changes were also effected to the topography of the islands and the coastal and marine ecosystems.

An intriguing set of subsequent and successive changes in the disturbed ecosystems have also started to occur, but

little is being done to study or understand these. These changes, as also the continued seismic activity in the region, are

important determinants that need to be kept in mind for reconstruction and rehabilitation efforts, and for future policy

and development planning in these islands.

Key words: Andaman & Nicobar Islands, earthquake, tsunami, December 26, 2004, ecological changes

INTRODUCTION

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a chain of

572 islands, reefs and rocks in the Bay of Bengal. The total

distance between the extremities is about 355 km, whereas

the maximum width is 60 km. The islands are the summits of

a submarine range of hills 1,120 km long that connect the

Arakan Yoma of Myanmar with the Achin head of Sumatra

(Anon 2003). The total area of the island chain is 8,249 sq.

km1 of which the larger and more numerous Andaman group

of islands cover 6,408 sq. km, while the southern group of

the Nicobars cover 1,841 sq. km (Saldanha 1989).

According to the census data, the total population of

the Andaman and Nicobar Islands was 3,56,152 in 2001. Of

this the population of the Andaman islands was 3, 14,084 and

that of the Nicobars was 42,0682.

The Earthquake and Tsunami of December 26, 2004

The earthquake of December 26, 2004, and the tsunami

that came in its wake are the greatest disaster to have hit the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands in living memory (Malik and

Murthy 2005). This is not surprising considering the fact that

Indira Point, the southern most tip of the islands, located on

Great Nicobar Island (6° 45.2' N; 93° 49.6' E), is only about

1 80 km from the epicentre of the earthquake that triggered

the tsunami. Official figures list 3,513 people as either dead

or missing and 7,992 hectares3 as the paddy and plantation

land that was affected. A total of 938 boats were fully

damaged, while the number of livestock reported to have been

lost in the disaster is 1,57,577 (Anon 2006; Chandi n.d.).

Disaggregation of these figures along the lines of the

two island groups gives a very interesting and important

picture. Of the 3,5 13 people reported dead and missing, only

64 are from the Andaman group of islands, the remaining

3,449 being from various islands in the Nicobar group. Of

the total agricultural and paddy land destroyed, 76% is from

the Nicobar group. Similarly, 80% of livestock loss was in

the Nicobars. The latest figures for houses being constructed

for the tsunami affected also indicate a similar trend.

Of the 9,797 permanent houses being constructed, 7,001, or

71%, are in the Nicobars (Table 1).

It is evident that the impact in the Nicobar group of

islands was much worse than that in the Andaman Islands.

So, while the Nicobar Islands account for only 22% and 1 2%

of the area and population, respectively, of the entire chain

of islands, 98% of the deaths and 76% of loss of agricultural

land occurred here. The damage caused is inversely

proportional to the area and population of the two groups

and strikingly so (Table 2).

While the tsunami was directly responsible for most of

the damage, a more fundamental explanation lies in the

earthquake that caused the tsunami. While the tectonic

movements triggered by the earthquake catalysed the tsunami,

they also caused a huge and permanent shift in the lay of the

1 It is important to bear in mind that these are pre-December 2004 figures. The latest figures are not available.

2 The estimated total population for the island group in 2009 was 475,000.

3A subsequent statistic from the A&N administration indicates that the total agricultural land lost was 10,837 hectares, of which 9,107 hectares was said to

be plantation land and 1,730 hectares was paddy land. The island-wise break-up for this figure is not available.

Paper read at the International Conference on ‘Conserving Nature in a Globalizing India’ at Bengaluru; February 17-19, 2009

WHEN CHANOS CHANOS BECAME TSUNAMI MACCHI

Fig. 1: Satellite images of Katchall island before (left) and after (right) the earthquake of December-2004

Table 1: Island-wise losses

People (dead or Livestock loss Agricultural Permanent Area Population

missing) land lost housing (2001)

Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Preliminary reports and

assessments show that with a pivot figuratively and roughly

located near Port Blair, the Andaman Islands, in the north,

experienced a permanent uplift of 1-2 m, while there was a

subsidence of up to 4 m in the Nicobar group of islands (Bilham

et al. 2005; Malik and Murthy 2005; Ramanamurthy et al.

2005; Thakkar and Goyal 2006)4 (see Web link in reference

for map; also see attached maps (Figs 1 and 2) from the

4Also see http://cires.colorado.edu/%7ebilham/IndonesiAndaman2004_files/AndamanSRL4Mar.htm and (downloaded 10/08/2010) and

http://dsc.nrsc.gov.in: 14000/DSC/Tsunami/CaseStudies.jsp?state=ANDAMAN_NICOBAR%201SLANDS# (downloaded 10/08/2010)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

257

WHEN CHANOS CHANOS BECAME TSUNAMI MACCHI

Fig. 2: Satellite images of Trinkat island before (left) and after (right) the earthquake of December-2004

National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA)). The tide gauge

at Port Blair is reported to have recorded an initial subsidence

of the harbour (or rise in sea level) about 38 minutes after

local shaking commenced (op. cit.). Eyewitness accounts

indicate that the main shocks were felt in Port Blair around

0635 hrs 1ST on December 26, 2004. While this was followed

almost immediately (15-20 minutes later) by the first influx

of sea waves, it was around 0830 hrs, 2 hours after the main

shock, that a third wave hit the shores with a velocity that

caught citizens unaware (Anon 2005b).

Other reports (http://www.asce.org/files/pdf/tsunami/

3-7.pdf) indicate that there was a gap of 50 minutes between

the initial earthquake and the first wave of the tsunami in

Port Blair. Three more waves are reported to have followed

with a gap between each other of 30-35 minutes. While there

Table 2: Island-wise losses as percentages

is no information to indicate what may have happened in other

parts of the islands, it can perhaps be assumed that the pattern

everywhere was the same and, by implication of importance

and significance, that the subsidence and uplift of the landmass

occurred before the most powerful and damaging of the

tsunami waves hit the shores of the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands. The Nicobars, though spread over a smaller area and

also more thinly populated, suffered much greater damage

than did the Andamans as a consequence, and this is reflected

in the figures of those killed during the tsunami and of

agricultural and horticultural land lost.

The dominant human population in the Nicobar Islands

is the Nicobari tribal community, which is essentially coastal

dwelling (Singh 2006). They were therefore the most

Years

Fig. 3: Tourist arrivals in the Andaman Islands

258

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

WHEN CHANOS CHANOS BECAME TSUNAMI MACCHI

vulnerable and in the direct route of the powerful tsunami which

followed the significant subsidence that took place on account

of the earthquake. Of the 3,513 people reported dead or missing,

a full 2,955 were from the tribal community (Anon 2006).

ECOLOGICAL CHANGES

The Nicobar Islands

Significant changes were reported along the coastline

of most of these islands. The small Megapode Island, located

west of Great Nicobar, has, for instance, gone completely

under (Manish Chandi, pers. comm.). Coral reefs, beaches

and low lying coastal forests across the Nicobars were badly

affected. The Nicobar reefs were hit due to the combination

of the submergence, the resultant increase in turbidity and

the physical damage caused by the tons of debris thrown back

and forth by the furious waves. A survey conducted by the

Zoological Survey of India reported large scale sedimentation

on coral reefs around Great Nicobar Island after the tsunami.

A reduction in the number of other associated coral reef fauna

including nudibranchs, flat worms, alpheid and mantis

shrimps, and hermit and brachyuran crabs was also reported

(Alfred et al. 2006).

In an interesting development immediately after the

tsunami, fishermen from Campbell Bay, in Great Nicobar,

reported a sudden and huge increase in the catch of Milk

Fish Chanos chanos, which was relatively rare earlier. So

huge and sustained was the harvest of this particular fish that

it quickly came to be called the ‘tsunami macchi’ (Anon

2005a). While the exact causes can only be speculated about,

a post-tsunami ocean salinity and temperature study carried

out in the islands by scientists of the National Centre for

Antarctic and Ocean Research did find a considerable

thermohaline variability in the upper 300 m column of ocean

water and concluded that changes such as this could be

expected to have a significant impact on primary production

and fisheries (Luis et al. 2007).

Early surveys conducted by the Andaman and Nicobar

Environment Team (ANET) in the Nicobars also indicated huge

losses of Pandanus Pandanus leram and the Nypa Palm Nypa

fructicans. The Nypa Palm in particular was wiped out almost

completely from the estuarine regions of Little Nicobar and

Great Nicobar islands. Significantly, both these plants are

extremely important for the Nicobari community as a source

of food and materials for regular use, such as for thatch for

their dwellings. An effort is now being made with the help of

the local communities to repopulate these islands with these

very important and useful species (Chandi 2005a,b, 2006).

The permanent submergence in the Nicobars also saw

the immediate and complete loss of most of the beaches here.

many of which were important nesting sites for the 4 marine

turtle species found here — the Giant Leatherback

Dermochelys coriacea , the Green Sea Turtle Chelonia mydas ,

the Olive Ridley Lepidochelys olivacea and the Hawksbill

Eretmochelys imbricata. This change, however, was a short-

lived one, and new beaches had started to form along the

altered alignment within months. Nesting turtles too were

back again very soon (Murugan 2006; Chandi et al. 2006).

The damage to the low lying coastal areas, the coastal

forests and the mangroves, however, was more permanent.

Large tracts of the forests were completely destroyed, and

for many months after the disaster the islands in the Nicobars

could be seen encircled by an endless brown wall of dying

and decaying trees. A remote sensing and GIS based study of

the Central Nicobar group of islands (Nancowry, Camorta,

Trinket and Katchal) by the Institute for Ocean Management

at Chennai’s Anna University has assessed the damage to

range from 51% to 100% for mangrove ecosystems, 41% to

100% for coral reef ecosystems and 6.5% to 27% for forest

ecosystems (Ramachandran et al. 2005).

Dr. Ravi Sankaran of the Salim Ali Centre for

Ornithology and Natural History (SACON) conducted a rapid

impact assessment of the Nicobars almost immediately after

the disaster. His main interest was to look at the status of the

Nicobari Megapode Megapodicus nicobariensis

nicobariensis and M.n. abbotii, the ground nesting endemic

bird that scrapes together a mound of earth as a nest in low

lying coastal forests. The submergence in the Nicobars had

permanently destroyed a huge part of the bird’s nesting habitat,

and the study found that nearly 1,100 nesting mounds had

been lost (Sankaran 2005).

A subsequent survey in early 2006 by the Wildlife

Institute of India covered nearly 1 10 km of the coastline in

15 islands in the Nicobar group. The study estimated that

only about 500 active nesting mounds of the bird had survived

in the Nicobars and that the megapode population post-

tsunami was less than 30% of what had been estimated during

surveys conducted nearly a decade ago (Sivakumar 2006).

While the bird has certainly been hit badly, the impact is not

as bad as was initially feared.

Little is known, however, of the other equally

vulnerable, coastal forest dwelling fauna, prominently, the

Giant Robber Crab Birgus latro, the Reticulated Python

Python reticulatus and the Malayan Box Turtle Cuora

amboinensis. There is almost no idea of how these have been

impacted, and there are indications that these have come worse

off than the megapode.

There were initial fears, particularly in the case of the

Giant Robber Crab that it might have become locally extinct

in the Nicobars as it inhabits that section of the coast that was

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

259

WHEN CHANOS CHANOS BECAME TSUNAMI MACCHI

most badly devastated - the less than 100 m wide strip of

forest adjacent to the sea. There were reports however that

they were being occasionally sighted and this was confirmed

when four individuals - two on Camorta Island and one each

on Great Nicobar and Menchal were sighted in late 2006

(Patankar 2007).

The Andamans

Areas around Port Blair also experienced permanent

submergence (about 2-3 feet) and saw a fate similar to that of

the Nicobars. The damage is most clearly seen in the low

lying area of Sippighat, just a few kilometres outside the

capital town. Mangrove marshes that had been converted to

paddy fields over many years were permanently submerged

and lost. A study conducted by scientists of the Port Blair based

Central Agricultural Research Institute (CARI) found a severe

impact on mangroves in the creeks of Sippighat, Shoal Bay,

Chouldhari and Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park at

Wandoor, due to high salinity stress and permanent inundation

(Dam Roy and Krishnan 2005). As in the case of Great Nicobar,

this led to one dramatic, though short lived, change here. For

the first few months immediately after the tsunami, Sippighat

Creek became a huge production ground for the best prawns

that residents of Port Blair had ever eaten (pers. obs).

Most of the other parts of Andamans, however,

experienced a fate that was the opposite of that of the Nicobars

and of what was seen near Port Blair. The CARI study found,

for instance, that the mangrove stands of Deshbandhugram,

Laxmipur, Milangram and Swarajgram, in North Andaman,

remained exposed even during high tide. Sea water was not

reaching the mangroves at all, and within a few months of the

event they had started to wilt (Dam Roy and Krishnan 2005).

The most dramatic impact, however, was seen off the

west coast of the northern part of the Andaman Islands. Huge

areas of coral reefs were permanently thrust above the high

tide line, destroying them within weeks. A rapid assessment

of the Andamans carried out by the Andaman and Nicobar

Environmental Team (ANET) 2 months after the earthquake

estimated that more than 50 sq. km of coral reefs had been so

exposed and killed - the largest area being nearly 25 sq. km,

west and north of Interview Island (Andrews and Vaughan

2005). A similar impact was seen in parts of Indonesia too.

The coral reef damage due to the tsunami was nominal in

comparison to that which happened on account of the

earthquake. “The most dramatic damage to Aceh reefs,” says

a report by Living Oceans, Reef Check and IUCN, “was also

caused by the earthquakes. Hectares of reef flat at Pulau

Bangkaru Island and Simeulue were uplifted to a level above

the high tide mark resulting in total mortality of previously

healthy and intact reefs” (Foster et al. 2006).

The situation for the sea turtle nesting beaches appears

to have turned up a mixed bag in the islands. Flat Island, a

small island on the west coast of the main Andamans, for

instance, was an important sea turtle nesting site prior to the

tsunami. The uplift caused by the earthquake has exposed

coral reefs surrounding the island and now created a barrier

to sea turtles visiting the island to nest. Some beaches such

as those in Little Andaman Island are reported to have become

wider, and the gradients have also become gentler due to the

tectonic activity (Chandi et al. 2006). The ANET team also

reported extensive damage to sea grass beds, something that

was evident by the many weak Green Sea Turtles and dead

specimens that were seen in many places during the surveys

they conducted.

CONCLUSION

The islands have always been very active seismically

(Rajendran et al. 2003), and there is evidence now that the

sensitivity and activity have increased since December 2004.

Nearly 20 earthquakes of a magnitude over M6 in addition to

several hundred of lesser intensity have been recorded in the

region after December 2004 (http://earthquake.usgs.gov/

regional/world/historical_country.php#indian_ocean).

Some, such as the September 12, 2007, earthquake off

the Sumatra coast of a magnitude greater than M8 on the

Richter scale resulted in a tsunami warning being issued in

the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as well (Raju 2007).

Increased seismic activity and the increased threat on

account of this need to now be made an important aspect of

policy and development planning in the islands. Similarly,

the change in the topography of the islands on account of the

tectonic movements caused as a result of the massive

earthquake of December 26, 2004, needs to be factored in,

both for the ongoing relief and rehabilitation work here and

for future planning.

An important illustrative example would be the tourism

industry in the islands and its aggressive promotion post-

December 2004. The industry has been promoted as an

important revenue earner and employment creator for

people in the islands. A lot of financial resources are also

being spent to encourage tourists to come to the islands, and

special packages for government employees have also been

created.

A study led by the NGO EQUATIONS (Anon 2008),

however, shows that the contribution of the tourism industry

to the economy of the islands is extremely nominal. The

contribution of tourism in the islands to the Gross State

Domestic Product (GSDP) has been stagnant at around 8%

for the last 2 decades though tourism arrivals themselves have

260

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

WHEN CHANOS CHANOS BECAME TSUNAMI MACCHI

grown by about 1,000%. Further, its contribution to revenue

generation is also insignificant. Tourism (as in the hotels and

restaurants sector) was found to employ less than 1.5% of

the total main workforce of the islands, and this employment

is seasonal. It is well-known that tourism is an extremely

fickle industry and is affected adversely and almost

immediately by other factors such as natural disasters, political

strife or economic fluctuations. Figures for tourist arrivals

(see Fig. 3) to the Andaman Islands provide an excellent

indication of this as numbers fell to almost nil immediately

after the tsunami. Creating exclusive reliance on such an

industry for stimulating economic growth and employment

is bound to fail.

There is an urgent need also to re-calibrate the high

tide line (HTL) across the islands to allow correct

implementation of the regulations related to coastal

management and development. This has implications for

development planning, location of construction projects,

including those for tourism, and ensuring protection of the

coast as per the laws and policies of the land.

As far as the ecological changes are concerned,

observers (Andrews and Vaughan 2005; Sankaran 2005) have

Alfred, J.R.B., R. Jeyabaskaran & D.V. Rao (2006): Impact of tsunami

on biodiversity of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Envis

Newsletter 12(1 &2): 2-5.

Andrews, H.V. & A Vaughan (2005): Ecological assessment in the

Andaman Islands and observations in the Nicobar Islands.

Pp. 78-103. hr. Kaul, R. & V. Menon (Eds): The Ground Beneath

the Waves: Post-tsunami Impact Assessment of Wildlife and

their Habitats in India. Vol II. Wildlife Trust of India, New Delhi.

104 pp.

Anon. (2003): Biodiversity Characterisation at Landscape Level in

Andaman & Nicobar Islands Using Satellite Remote Sensing

and Geographic Information System. Indian Institute of Remote

Sensing, Dehradun, Uttarakhand. 304 pp.

Anon. (2005a): ‘Potential tiger shrimp ground reported from C/Bay’

The Daily Telegrams July 18, 2005: http://in.groups.yahoo.com/

group/andamanicobar/message/1413 (accessed 10/08/2010)

Anon. (2005b): A Preliminary Report on Investigation of Effects of the

Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of 26 December 2004 in

Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Geological Survey of India, New

Delhi.

Anon. (2006): Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Towards a Brighter

Tomorrow. A&N Administration, Port Blair.

Anon. (2008): Rethink Tourism in the Andamans: Towards Building a

Base for Sustainable Tourism. Research report. EQUATIONS,

INTACH — Andaman & Nicobar Islands Chapter, Society for

Andaman and Nicobar Ecology, Kalpavriksh, Jamsetji Tata

Centre for Disaster Management — Tata Institute of Social

Sciences, Action Aid International India, xii+332 pp.

Bilham, R., E.R. Engdahl, N. Feldl & S.P. Satyalbala (2005): Partial

and complete rupture of the Indo-Andaman plate boundary 1 847-

2004. Seismological Research Letters 76(3): 299-311, http://

cires.colorado.edu/%7ebilham/IndonesiAndaman2004_files/

AndamanSRL4Mar.htm

argued that no drastic interventions should be made to

“correct” the situation. They have argued that no intervention

would be the best intervention and the processes of nature

should be allowed to take their own course.

An understanding and incorporation of these aspects

should be made fundamental to dealing with the present and

future situation in the A&N islands. That would be the first

step towards dealing with existing and future vulnerabilities.

Ignoring these and the implications is only an invitation to

more trouble in the future, with potentially disastrous

consequences.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank all my colleagues at Kalpavriksh

for their continued interest and support for my work in the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands. I would also like to thank the

entire team at the Andaman and Nicobar Environment Team

— Harry Andrews, Manish Chandi, John, Agu, Nelson,

Naveen, Uncle Pao, Uncle Pambwe and Montu. Thanks also

to the team at EQUATIONS, in particular to Rosemary

Vishvanath and Syed Liyakhat.

Chandi, M. (n.d. ): Name of Tuhet plantation places on Pulomilo Island.

Unpublished short note. 2 pp.

Chandi, M. (2005a): A note on the rehabilitation requirements of the

islanders of Little Nicobar, Pulomilow and Kondul of the

southern Nicobar Islands. Reefwatch Marine Conservation,

Mumbai & Andaman and Nicobar Environment Team, Wandoor,

A&N Islands. Unpublished Report. 6 pp.

Chandi, M. (2005b): Report of a Visit and Survey of Little Nicobar and

Great Nicobar Islands from March 13 to 22. Reefwatch Marine

Conservation, Mumbai & Andaman and Nicobar Environment

Team, Wandoor, A&N Islands. Unpublished Report. 8 pp.

Chandi, M. (2006): Report on Participatory Regeneration of Nypa

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Chandi, M., Saw Paung, Saw Agu, Saw Poricha, Saw John & Allan

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during a survey of the coastline and sea turtle nesting beaches of

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Wandoor, South Andaman Island. Unpublished Report. 39 pp.

Dam Roy, S. & P. Krishnan (2005): Mangrove stands of Andamans vis-

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Foster, R., A. Hagan, N. Perera, C.A. Gunawan. I. Silaban, Y. Yaha,

Y. Manuputty, I. Hazam & G. Hodgson (2006): Tsunami and

Earthquake Damage to Coral Reefs of Aceh Foundation. Pacific

Palisades, California, USA. 33 pp.

Luis, A.J., S.M. Pednekar & M. Sudhakar (2007): Post-tsunami impact

study on thermohaline structure in the Bay of Bengal. Current

Science 93(5): 699-703.

Malik, J.N. & C.V.R. Murthy (2005): Landscape changes in Andaman

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Aftermath of the Tsunami. Oliver Lehmann, Czemin Verlag

Vienna, Austria 228 pp

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263-276

PITFALLS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE USE OF MARKET-BASED INCENTIVES

FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

Paul Morling1 2 3 4

'Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, Sandy, UK SG19 2DL. Email: [email protected]

Market arrangements fail to capture the range of benefits provided by conservation because of their public goods

nature. In consequence, biodiversity is routinely undervalued and overexploited. A variety of instruments and payment

schemes have been developed to help finance conservation by capturing these non-marketed benefits. This paper

reviews market-based approaches identifying the salient features which determine their potential for improving

conservation finance.

Key words: Market-based Instrument, Payment for Ecosystem Services, biodiversity conservation, environmental

decision making

INTRODUCTION

Market-based mechanisms have taken a respected

position among the tools for achieving both conservation and

broader environmental objectives. The title of the reports,

“Harnessing Market Forces to Protect the

Environment,” (Project 88 Conference 1989) and "Harnessing

Markets for Biodiversity” (OECD 2001) are suggestive of

the expectations placed on the power of market forces to

achieve environmental goals. Other titles on the subject, such

as “Silver Bullet or Fool’s Gold,” (Landell-Mills and Porras

2002) suggest that more circumspection is necessary before

wholesale acceptance of market-based mechanisms as tools

of biodiversity conservation. Market-based mechanisms are

based on the market forces of supply, demand and trade. They

rely upon price-type signals and trading among agents

responding to economic opportunities, such as increased

incomes or lower costs. Instruments considered to be “market-

based” include:

1 . Price-based instruments, such as taxes for undesirable

behaviours, such as habitat degradation, pollution or

species takes, fees, and penalties;

2. Price-based instruments, such as subsidies, to reward

desirable behaviours, such as maintenance of land under

forest cover, debt-for-nature swaps and conservation

easements;

3. Price-based liability approaches such as deposit-refunds

and performance bonds;

4. Quantity-based instruments involving market creation

and trading of responsibilities, such as wetland

mitigation banks, carbon credits, fishing permits and

land development rights;

5. Demand enhancements and information disclosure,

such as eco-labelling, and certification.

The first and perhaps most important surrounding the

use of market-based incentives is that, from an economic

perspective, environmental problems have traditionally been

explained as results of market failure or the absence of

markets. The market failure perspective poses several

questions that are not answered satisfactorily by the

conventional economic approach to environmental problems.

• First, when and how is it possible to transform the

problem setting under interest so that quasi or real

markets can be created where none existed before?

• Second, what economic, distributive and governance

advantages or disadvantages do market-based

instruments offer in comparison to government-

centered regulatory solutions or public supply?

• Thirdly, what is the full range of market-based solutions

that are applicable for conservation?

• Fourthly, what are the key issues that determine which

market-based solutions can be expected to support

conservation?

The purpose of this paper is to address these questions

and consider the role that market-based instruments can play

in achieving conservation objectives. While there certainly

may be opportunities, there are also pitfalls that must

be avoided in implementing these instruments for

conservation.

1. Market failure versus ecosystem services as the

basis of conservation transforming the problem setting

Conventional welfare economics suggests that

environmental problems are caused by the absence of markets

or by market failures such as externalities, public goods, and

Paper read at the International Conference on ‘Conserving Nature in a Globalizing India' at Bengaluru; February 17-19. 2(X)9

PITFALLS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE USE OF MARKET-BASED INCENTIVES

imperfect information. This public goods element to

environmental problems has suffered from consistency

problems. Some scholars have defined public goods as goods

that are provided publicly, others have underlined the

difficulty of excluding unauthorized users as their hallmark,

and still others have rightly associated public goods with non-

rival or joint consumption. The lack of excludability and

rivalry in consumption provides an incentive for consumers

to free ride and disincentives to potential providers who are

unable to exclude unauthorized users. From an efficiency

point of view, this results in too high or low level of an

environmental impact or service, and a corresponding

suboptimal allocation of environmental resources.

Conventional solutions have relied predominantly on

command and control measures or the public provision of

public goods.

In terms of externalities, conventional theory portrays

environmental problems as unwanted side-effects of

otherwise beneficial economic activities. It then suggests a

narrow range of government-centered policy responses such

as regulations, forgetting that government intervention is not

always needed to resolve externality problems if agents can

bargain with one another (Coase 1960; Cheung 1973). There

is evidence that many jointly consumed or high exclusion

cost goods have successfully been provided privately (Coase

1974) or communally (Ostrom 1990). Therefore, there may

exist alternative working governance solutions which have

been overlooked by the dominant policy paradigm.

An alternative framework for addressing environment/

economic interactions stems from the view that biodiversity

and ecosystem services play a fundamental role in sustaining

all human activity, and that well-functioning ecosystems are

germane to human welfare. The concept of ecosystem

services has its roots in ecology, but many ecological

economists have made it a starting point for their economic

analysis. Ecosystem services can be defined as “the benefits

humans receive, directly or indirectly, from ecosystems”

(Costanza et al. 1997; Farber et al. 2006) or as “the end

products of nature that yield human well-being” (Boyd and

Banzhaf 2005). Ecosystem services are generated by

ecosystem functions, such as regulation, habitat, production

and information, which in turn are underpinned by ecosystem

structures and processes (de Groot et al. 2002).

Ecosystem services are of unquestionable economic

relevance. Costanza et al. (1997) have estimated that the

value of the world’s ecosystem services is at least $ 33 trillion

annually. Balmford et al. (2002) have demonstrated that

nature conservation often generates higher economic returns

than intensive use of natural systems, which entails their

conversion (Turner et al. 2003; Naidoo and Adamowicz

2005). A vast amount of more narrowly focused valuation

research exists. However, natural systems should not be

valued only in terms of the benefit streams they generate.

Natural systems provide life support services and have “glue

value”, because they constitute the infrastructure without

which the provision of ecosystem services would not be

possible (Turner et al. 2003).

Ecosystem services’ thinking has undoubtedly

broadened possibilities for supporting biodiversity

conservation. Ecosystem service approaches are steadily

gaining currency in policy spheres with a number of recent

governance reforms being either directly underpinned by

such an approach or compatible with it. For example, the

European Union’s Habitats and Water Framework Directives

create multi-level governance solutions with jurisdictions that

respect spatial aspects of the pertinent resources. These

governance solutions also recognise a range of user groups

and involve them in planning and decision-making processes.

The support of environmental protection measures under the

European Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in turn

commissions ecosystem services from private providers.

These payments for the provision of ecosystem services are

not subsidies: they are prices paid for the provision of services

to private providers, who own and control environmental

assets such as forests, pastures, or agricultural land.

In recent years, lack of information or information

asymmetries between potential market participants has come

to seen as a further reason for missing or inefficient markets.

For markets to develop in conservation related services, one

set of required information is understanding the functioning

of ecosystems and ecosystem services, their dependence on

land cover or use and metrics for measuring service delivery

over baselines. Recognition, and identification, and better

scientific understanding of ecosystem services have therefore

led to more voluntary, Coasian type bargains, between private

parties.

Nestle, which owns the natural mineral water sources

of Vittel in France, protected the spring catchment area, which

had been intensively farmed (with resulting nutrient run-off

and pesticide residues), by purchasing and reforesting the

catchment. It further reduced non-point pollution by signing

18-to-30-year contracts with the local farmers to reduce

nitrate pollution (The Economist 2005). In 1998, a

hydroelectricity company signed a voluntary agreement to

pay a local NGO, the Monteverde Conservation league for

the water-based services provided by the forest they own

(Reyes et al. 2002). In the Philippines, a hydroelectric

company also provides incentives to local communities for

reforestation of a water catchment (Mero 2002).

Conservation easements and land trusts are also examples

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PITFALLS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE USE OF MARKET-BASED INCENTIVES

of self-organized private deals between organizations and

landowners whereby a conservation or protection

arrangement is privately negotiated and purchased.

2. What economic, distributive, and governance

advantages or disadvantages do market-based

instruments offer in comparison to conventional

government-centered solutions such as regulation and

public supply?

The choice of governance and institutional

arrangements in the management or delivery of services

affirms or redefines entitlements to environmental resources,

and has thus both efficiency and distributive consequences.

Choices between different instruments for biodiversity

conservation are primarily about the distribution of wealth

and income, and about the realization of sought-after

conservation outcomes.

Characterizations of environmental policy instruments

commonly distinguish between “command and control”

measures and “market-based” measures. Command and

control measures include a wide range of environmental

regulations, binding environmental plans, and procedural

requirements.

The common feature of both categories of policy

instrument is the creation of entitlements to ecosystems or

ecosystem services. Environmental regulations are often

viewed purely as constraints but they do create entitlements

(albeit non-transferable ones). Regulations that prohibit the

use of substances such as DDT, or the taking of an endangered

species, create the entitlement to be free from the adverse

consequences of these actions. Similarly, the conditions of

pollution permits issued under the US's Clean Water Act, vest

in the polluter conditioned entitlements to the capacity of

watercourses to assimilate wastes. Such entitlements are less

explicit than in the sphere of market-based instruments where

there has been a better understanding of how they create

transferable entitlements, which facilitate their exchange.

Conventional wisdom has it that compared to command

and control measures, market-based instruments are better at

achieving environmental objectives at lower cost to both

industry and society. This is due to the ability to transfer

responsibilities across parties, as in the case of tradable

permits, and the incentives created by some instruments for

parties to reduce environmental management costs through

introduction of better technologies and practices. Evidence

from pollution control programs supports this view. The US

Acid Rain program used a trading scheme to reduce emissions

of sulphur dioxide. The resulting market was estimated to

have resulted in cost savings of $1 billion annually compared

to the expected costs under a command and control approach

(Stavins 2001). Some have argued that command-and-control

regulations are not necessarily worse in this respect and

caution against a blanket prescription for market-based

approaches (Porter and van Linde 1995). Some authors argue

that such approaches are more suited for the institutional

context of modem nations, rather than developing countries

(Russell and Powell 1996).

The choice of instrument type is often a matter of

distributive justice. For example, many agri-environmental

schemes recognize transferable entitlements of farmers while

industrial polluters are often regulated. The latter often have

market power which enables them to share costs of improved

environmental protection with their customers by raising

prices. Farmers have a far weaker position to do so in the

markets for agricultural produce, so are more cost-conscious.

Distributive justice is an important issue for conservation of

biodiversity in both the developing and developed world. If

the costs and benefits conservation accrue unevenly to

different groups, those left with the costs are hardly motivated

to contribute to conservation.

A disadvantage of market-based instruments is that they

are not good in guarding against irreversibilities or dangerous

outcomes. It is noteworthy, however, that regulatory

restrictions on activities and market-based instruments can

be complementary. For example, restrictions can be used to

prevent irreversible and dangerous outcomes, like safe-

minimum standards, and market-based instruments can be

used to induce effective outcomes that go beyond these limits.

3. The full range of market-based instruments applicable

for conservation instruments

Table 1 provides a summary of policy instruments

conventionally deemed to be market-based.

4. Price-based instruments, such as taxes, fees, and

penalties, for undesirable behaviours

These incentives have in common the fact that there is

some “price” placed on an undesirable or desirable behaviour.

There may be legal distinctions between taxes and fees, fees

interpreted as a price for services “received." How and where

taxes or fees can be levied depends on statutory or judicial

requirements. Penalties are a “price” placed on proscribed or

prohibited behaviours, and are punishments for violating, for

example, legal responsibilities.

4. 1 Opportunities related to taxes, fees and penalties

These pricing instruments may be effective in

circumstances where there is clearly something to place a

price on and where payments are collectable. Thus, the most

commonly used price-based conservation related instruments

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

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Table 1: Summary of policy instruments conventionally deemed to be market-based

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activities, otherwise there will be too much timber harvested

relative to other uses of resources. These costs include not

only direct logging costs, but also the costs of opportunities

foregone, which may include the ecosystem services lost with

forest conversion ( Yaron 2001 ). With forestry, taxes to reduce

harvesting could result in a wide range of ecological benefits

in addition to just limiting biomass removal. Setting such

taxes in a non-arbitrary manner is the key to using taxes for

conservation. Knowing the ecological impacts of timber

harvests, and evaluating those impacts in economic terms will

be an important element in implementing such a tax.

Taxes are useful in resource use cases, where the

behaviour is observable, there is something to tax, there is an

identifiable agent to tax and property rights can be clearly

established. If observation is difficult, punitive penalties may

be the only meaningful deterrent, where penalties are set so

high that they are extremely onerous if one is caught. Higher

penalties must offset the higher likelihood that one will not

be caught. Of course, the functioning of taxes is predicated

on state capacity to collect taxes and to keep corruption at

bay.

Taxes have been used in several developed countries

such as the Netherlands, Sweden, and the United States to

control nitrogen discharges from agricultural non-point

sources. The primary motivations were to protect water

quality and human health by such taxes, and also enhance

riparian environments. Generally, an instrument will be more

efficient the closer it is applied to the environmental damage

but input taxes can be attractive instruments for controlling

discharges from numerous non-point sources, because they

entail lower monitoring and enforcement costs than other

instruments, such as technological requirements. In Sweden,

a tax of 0.2 Euros or about $ 0.25 per kilogram of nitrogen

has reduced nitrogen utilization in agriculture by about 10

per cent (OECD 2001). Similar taxes have been introduced

for pesticides. Although not common in developing country

contexts, input taxes may have potential because they are

relatively easy to implement with limited informational and

institutional demands.

It is conceivable that the external costs of loss of

biodiversity, associated with clearing native vegetation could

be subject to tax but to date, such taxation has not been directly

associated with conservation.

The tax system can be used to notionally capture

willingness to pay for conservation in addition to making

polluters pay for damage. Belize charges a tourist tax of $3.75

for each passenger arriving in country by plane or cruise ship,

with the proceeds going to a national conservation trust that

supports protected areas and other conservation activities.

Costa Rica and other countries impose a tourism tax on the

price of hotel rooms, some of which is earmarked for

conservation. Fees are one of the easiest and most common

price-based instruments for capturing willingness to pay and

may cover access to protected areas or associated activities

related to conservation (photography permits). Evidence

suggest that fees charged do not always fully cover the

willingness to pay of tourists attracted by nature (Naidoo and

Adamowicz 2005)

4.2 Pitfalls

4.2. 1 Failure to define and assign property rights

A critical requirement for price-based instruments is

that the property rights associated with the “good or service”

being priced are well-established and enforced. For example,

setting a price on the degradation of wetlands will have no

meaning if there is confusion about who “owns” the wetlands.

The good or service that is priced must be clear, its units well

measurable, and the rights well-established. These instruments

will not work well where the institutions or cultural conditions

are not conducive to establishing and accepting the concept

of property rights.

4.2.2 Behaviour must he observable and enforceable

One precondition for the success of price-based

approaches is that the behaviour be observable and capable

of being monitored. This is not always the case; for example,

in the enforcement of conservation easements in remote areas,

or penalties for prohibited species takes or harvesting

behaviour. Enforcement may be formal, such as monitoring

by a resource agency, or informal, such as watchful citizens.

The inability to adequately observe behaviour can lead to

self interested agents avoiding compliance with contractual

obligations. It can also lead to perverse effects such as the

incentive to destroy an endangered species or habitat on one’s

property before it is discovered (Polasky and Doremus 1998;

Lueck and Michael 2003). Developing countries, in particular,

may have difficulty in collecting taxes or fees, and enforcing

compliance with a price-based conservation system.

4.2.3 Price incentives are most effective the more directly

related to the undesirable behaviour

The success of these incentives also depends upon the

extent to which the “price” is directly related to the undesirable

behaviour. While it may be more administratively convenient

to levy the price on one behaviour, if this is not highly

correlated with the undesirable behaviour, incentives are

reduced and the instrument less effective. For example,

suppose the sole conservation objective is to protect an

endangered species from capture by humans; then a penalty

levied on harm or harassment of a species would be the most

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direct instrument. But suppose it is difficult or impossible to

measure species harm directly. A second-best instrument may

be a penalty for degradation of habitat associated with that

species. This may still allow an agent to take the species by

hunting even when the associated habitat remains

undisturbed.

4.2.4 Price incentives must be set at the proper margins of

behaviour

Price incentives must also be on the proper margins of

behaviour to compel agents to respond in a desirable manner.

For example, setting land development fees at a fixed rate

independent of the level of land conversion creates fewer

conservation incentives compared to a fee based on the

amount of conversion. This is the same issue faced in

designing fees for water use; a fixed fee may not induce

consumers and firms to cut back on water use. The downside

to pricing on the proper margins of behaviour is that agents

may attempt to avoid the levies through undesirable actions;

e.g., illegal habitat conversion or water theft. So, enforcement

of the levies may require observing both legal and illegal

behaviours.

4.2.5 Prices must be set at the correct levels

Setting prices at the correct level is another precondition

for success. In general, if we want to see behaviour at a certain

level, such as a number of acres remaining undeveloped, we

must know what the cost of that behaviour is for agents in

terms of the benefits foregone from not pursing alternative

options. Then the prices must be set at a level somewhat in

excess of that cost. If the price is set too low, it is cheaper for

the agent to pay the tax, fee, or penalty, than to engage in the

behaviour we seek to achieve. For example, if a landowner

can obtain an additional income of $100 from some activity

we would like to discourage, a price of at least $100 must be

levied to discourage that behaviour. Unfortunately, we cannot

always know these costs to agents. The more uncertain we

are about agent costs, the more likely it is that prices will

have to be altered to achieve acceptable outcomes. This

problem arises because of imperfect information about the

opportunity costs agents face and compounded by the fact

that agents, whose behaviour we seek to change, may face

very different opportunity costs for undertaking the same

actions. Auction mechanisms are one means of addressing

this informational asymmetry. If there is considerable

likelihood that some behaviour could be especially

deleterious, it may be more useful to simply proscribe the

behaviour rather than use the more subtle pricing instrument.

An example would be if it is absolutely critical to maintain a

given area of wetlands for a critical conservation goal. Directly

proscribing or prohibiting wetlands degradation may be more

effective than using pricing instruments to ensure behaviour

commensurate with the required habitat extent.

If pricing is based upon the benefits lost from some

undesirable behaviour, a measure of these benefits must be

established. For example, we must know the marginal value

of wetlands services before we can set a benefits-based price

on behaviours that degrade those services. This may not be

simple. It may be easier to establish the cost to an agent for

not engaging in the undesirable behaviour, suggesting that a

cost-based price would be administratively easier.

When enforcement is uncertain, it is reasonable to

consider setting prices at higher levels to account for the

uncertainty. For example, suppose we wanted agents to

effectively incorporate a price of $100 into their decision

calculus before deciding to engage in some undesirable

behaviour, such as dumping wastes into streams. But suppose

there is only a 10 per cent chance that such behaviour will be

observed by the enforcers. Then setting a price of $ 1 000 would

result in an expected price of $100 (10% x $1000). This is

one of the arguments to assigning punitive damages; that

enforcement is uncertain and it signals to other agents that

the price of their undesirable behaviour will be high if they

are caught. In this example, actual damages would be only

$100, but the punitive damages would be $900.

4.2.6 Uncertainty about expected benefits

Another basis of pricing of behaviours is the benefits

we expect to obtain when that behaviour is avoided. Under

this interpretation, if the benefit of avoiding dumping into

streams is $100, then setting the price at $100 at least allows

recouping of damages. But if we do not know these benefits

or they cannot be evaluated in monetary units, which is often

the case, then setting a price based on benefits received is

problematic. In such cases, reverting to prescriptive or

proscriptive rules, such as permits or mandated actions, may

be prudent.

4.2.7 Agents must be responsive to the pricing instrument

Another precondition for using these pricing

instruments is that agents are responsive to these prices. It

may be that agents are not highly rational, or do not make

decisions based upon the same costs and benefits units as the

prices. While pricing is perfectly general, i.e., the price can

be monetary, or time, or chickens, etc., the prices may be in

units that do not stimulate behaviour. The prices must have

meaning. Monetary prices in a culture that is not highly

monetized, or market oriented, may not be very effective.

Also, there may be social reluctance to accept prices for things

that were traditionally free.

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4.2.8 Inadvertent distributional consequences

Such price-based mechanisms conform with the polluter

pays principle with the statutory incidence of the tax falling

on the polluter. The economic incidence of the tax may not.

Depending in part on the elasticity of demand for the goods

or services incurring the tax, businesses can pass on the tax

in the form of higher prices for buyers, lower wages to workers

or lower returns to investors.

5. Payments and Subsidies

Subsidies or payments for ecosystem services are the

opposite of taxes, fees and penalties, and place prices on

desirable behaviours. There is an important distinction

between the two instruments. A payment for a service sets a

price on the service, and agents can decide whether they wish

to “sell” that service. A subsidy represents compensation to

an agent for engaging in a desirable activity; the compensation

can be direct or indirect, as in the case of tax breaks. The

“pay for service” may have a different image to the public

than the “subsidy for an activity.” While subsidies are

sometimes the cause of conservation problems, such as

subsidies to the fishing industry that result in over-fishing

(Myers and Kent 2001; Fujita et al. 2004) or agricultural

subsidies that result in overuse of land, they can also be used

to achieve environmental objectives. Payments for ecosystem

services, where “producers” of environmental services (e.g.,

landholders whose forested land filters water) are

compensated by “consumers” (e.g., downstream water users),

are one such rapidly emerging mechanism. Despite their

increasing popularity, these instruments do have pitfalls that

need careful consideration. Payment systems include both

fixed prices as well as auction-based prices.

5. 1 Opportunities related to subsidies and payments

Subsidies and payments may be more effective than

taxes, fees, or penalties in certain instances. For example, if

an agent has the right to an activity, such as the right to develop

land, subsidies or payments may be the only price-based

instrument available to deter that activity under the initial

assignment of property rights. This may be necessary in the

case of species protection, as the legal battles in the US over

the Endangered Species Act suggest. Paying people to save

species rather than penalizing them if they do not may be a

useful, albeit expensive, solution (Jenkins et al. 2004). Also,

compensating persons who have been harmed as a result of

conservation programs, such as farmers whose crops are

damaged by preserving elephant herds, would increase the

likelihood of harmed parties agreeing to the programs. It may

be less costly simply to pay agents to do something rather

than face what may be protracted legal costs.

Subsidies and payments may also be the most useful

instrument when equity issues dominate a conservation

objective. In many instances, conservation requires a few to

bear the costs that benefit many. If this circumstance is viewed

as too unfair, giving a subsidy may be more acceptable than

a tax, fee or penalty. This may be particularly important in

agriculture, as farmers are often viewed as being marginal

economic enterprises.

Subsidy programs may offset costs to agents of

engaging in conservation activities. Subsidies may be in the

form of tax deductions or coverage of costs. For example, a

Brazilian program, ICMS Ecologico, awards a share of

national sales tax collections to municipalities if they engage

in programs to establish restricted areas (Grieg-Gran 2000).

This is presumably to offset the costs in lost revenues to

municipalities from restrictions on land use and development.

Ontario, Canada, has a tax incentive program for land

conservation, whereby landowners can receive 100% property

tax relief for preserving land in acceptable condition. Eligible

lands include provincially “significant” wetlands, habitats for

endangered species, and lands of natural and scientific interest.

(http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/MNR/cltip/).

The Environmental Stewardship program in England

is a good example of a payment scheme (http://

www.defra.gov.uk/erdp/schemes/es/default.htm). Farmers

receive payments per hectare in return for accepting a package

of management measures. Each management option receives

a number of points, and the farmer is then paid based on the

number of accumulated points. Points can be awarded based

upon national or local significance and priorities. Since the

program began in 2006, over 3 million hectares have been

enrolled with 23,000 agreements and over £105 million have

been paid.

In developing nations with weak regulatory and taxation

systems, paying for ecosystem conservation may be one of

the most effective ways to achieve conservation goals. The

best known ecosystem service payment system outside of

high-income nations is the one established by Costa Rica in

1995. The scheme was designed to enhance and sustain

forested ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration,

biodiversity, watershed management, and landscape beauty.

The program pays landowners US$202/ha for forest

protection, US$3 14/ha for sustainable forest management,

and US$5 16/ha for reforestation (Miranda et al. 2004) for a

contracted five years of protection. The state’s National

Forestry Finance Fund (FONAF1FO) purchases these

services, then sells them to interested buyers. For example, it

may sell carbon sequestration credits to international buyers,

watershed management credits to national hydroelectric utility

companies. So it is a hybrid purchase and trading program.

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PITFALLS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE USE OF MARKET-BASED INCENTIVES

where the state is the trading agent.

Literature on information economics has forced policy

makers to reassess policy mechanisms employed for many

policy problems and has led to increasing interest in auction

based approaches for publicly funded biodiversity programs

rather than fixed price approaches (Stoneham et al. 2003). In

negotiating biodiversity contracts, the conservation agency

and potential participant will have varying information

regarding the ecological worth of landholdings and on the

opportunity costs of conservation. Auctions can help address

this information asymmetry and potentially achieve greater

conservation outcomes at lower cost than fixed payment

schemes. The Australian Catchment Care program is an

example of such an auction-based scheme to achieve cost-

effective natural resource management actions (http://

www.napswq.gov.au/mbi/roundl/project26.html). In this

recently developed program, landholders bid for contracts to

establish conservation activities. These activities are scored

on the bases of environmental value and threats. The score is

then related to the proposed landholder cost; and proposed

contracts are ranked on a cost-effective basis. Contracts are

established for the most cost-effective bids until funds are

exhausted or a reservation cost-effective price is reached.

A full trial of the scheme was run in a watershed, where

29 bids were submitted, and 17 were selected for funding.

Another example of an auction-based payment scheme

is the Bush Tender program in Australia (http://

www.ecosystemservicesproject.org/html/publications/docs/

Intro_to_MBIs_2005.pdf). Farmers proposed bids for projects

that were then ranked by their biodiversity benefits. Winning

bids were then selected based on their cost-effectiveness.

Analysis of the program concluded that the auction approach

delivered 25% more native vegetation for the same cost as a

grants scheme.

The auction-based payment schemes are useful as they

utilize competitive forces to achieve the most cost-effective

conservation goals. However, they are administratively

complex and require measurements of conservation outcomes,

a task that may not be simple, depending on the outcomes

desired. Useful measures of outcomes require more than just

measures of land area impacted.

Payment schemes are not limited to government

sponsored programs. Private agents may have sufficient

incentives to pay for services useful to them. As noted, the

Perrier- Vittel company, which sells bottled water, has financed

reforestation and is working with farmers to develop less

polluting management practices (The Economist 2005). In

South Africa, a private ecotourism company, Conscorp, pays

landowners to restore farmlands and stock them with native

wildlife (Heal 1998). These are good examples of Coase’s

argument that government intervention may not always be

necessary to manage externalities.

Both public sponsored and self organized deals have

also created markets based on the establishment of property

rights and the environmental aspects of assets, such as non-

developed state of land. Development rights and other rights

can be distinguished from other property rights and traded

separately by using, for example, conservation easements.

Land trusts and conservation easements are widely used

in the United States and elsewhere to pursue conservation

goals. Land trusts purchase land for conservation or buy

development rights or conservation easements on land which

remains in external ownership. In Indiana, Sycamore Land

Trust has been one flexible tool for attaining local

conservation goals without the involvement of the state (York

et al. 2006) and land trusts have also been used in the

Mountain West for landscape and open space preservation

(Booth 2002). However, land trusts allocate the costs of

conservation to the public, which means that availability of

funds will curtail the volume of conservation. Enforcement

of easements in the courts can also be costly and the continuity

of land trust depends on private donations. There is also a

possibility of conflict between local and wider conservation

goals and priorities.

Tradable development rights may be useful to achieve

land-based conservation objectives. The initial assignment

of rights is critical to the acceptability of this instrument, as

is the question of who can buy these rights. Trading rules

must be well-defined and administered, as these rights may

be economically meaningful and contentious assets. These

rights may be either in the form of tradable rights to develop,

or as development “reduction" credits. Conservation groups

may be given the right to purchase. As in the case of all these

market-based instruments, monitoring and enforcement are

critical to success. Assuring that development does not occur

where proscribed may not be easy. For example, Brazil is

allowing such trading under its general rule that requires

landowners in the Amazon forest to maintain half of their

land in forest (Jenkins et al. 2004).

5.2 Pitfalls related to subsidies and payments

5.2. 1 Property rights must be well-defined

Altering behaviour is costly and these costs are the same

to society whether subsidies (payments) or taxes (fees and

penalties) are used to alter behaviour. The type of price used,

subsidy or tax, defines property rights in status quo and

determines who bears the cost of that change. Taxes leave

the cost to private agent while subsidies redistribute the cost

in part or in whole to the public. The argument for just

compensation in takings is also based on the fairness issue of

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PITFALLS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE USE OF MARKET-BASED INCENTIVES

who should bear the cost of an action.

5.2.2 Political difficulties

Subsidies may face political difficulties, as they may

be viewed as paying agents to do something they should

already be doing according to local norms or customs. For

example, paying someone to stop using land in a certain way

may be seen as implicitly sanctioning a use that was formerly

taboo. Payments for actions may be viewed as more

acceptable; even the terms “subsidy” and “payment” have

different connotations.

5.2.3 Financial limitations

Subsidies and payments require funds to finance or can

result in the loss of government revenues in the case of tax

breaks. Financial limitations may restrict the use of subsidies.

5.2.4 Permanence of outcome

Related to financial limitations is the issue of

permanence, a factor which must be considered when

assessing appropriate mechanisms for biodiversity or

ecosystem services. Assume a farmer is paid, through auction

or subsidy, to fence off a stretch of native vegetation. When

payments cease, she allows her cattle to graze the area, so

that most of the benefits of biodiversity conservation will be

lost. With water quality, in contrast, the benefits from the

service of water purification will have been enjoyed

throughout the contract.

5.2.5 Perverse incentives

Subsidies and payments can create perverse incentives.

A subsidy or payment to avoid an activity may induce agents

to engage in more of that activity. For example, paying agents

to cease polluting a stream may cause them to want to increase

proposed discharges in order to obtain higher subsidy

payments. Subsidies and payments may also encourage entry

and delay exit from an industry, exacerbating the original

conservation issue. This latter issue is most likely to be a

problem when the most inefficient firms/farmers are also the

most environmentally damaging.

5.2.5 Equity considerations

In the Costa Rican example above, it is only farmers

with property rights to land who can be paid for conservation.

5.2.6 Costs of monitoring and enforcement

Payments and subsidies are paid for taking specific

actions, such as adhering to a specific land management plan,

building storage capacity for manure, or setting land aside

from cultivation. Their effectiveness depends on the ability

to monitor compliance with applicable conditions and on the

enforcement of these conditions. In many cases monitoring

of compliance and enforcement are costly, which means that

implementation and outcomes can fall short of the goals.

6. Deposit refund instruments

Deposit-refund instruments are specialized types of

pricing instruments. Typically, a deposit is paid up front for

an item or action, and a refund is given upon completion of

some desirable action, such as return of the item or meeting

some action criterion. Performance bonds require an up-front

liability and, if the terms of environmental management are

satisfied, the liability disappears.

6. 1 Opportunities related to deposit refund instruments

Deposit-refunds on hazardous materials, such as oil and

batteries can be helpful in reducing disposal risks and can

therefore have a minor role to play in enhancing conservation.

Performance bonds can play a more important role in

achieving conservation or remediation objectives. These

bonds are used in the US to secure funds to meet surface

mining reclamation requirements. The mining company Gold

Field’s 2003 Annual Report noting that in Ghana, it funds

environmental rehabilitation costs by posting a US$3 million

reclamation bond, while in Australia, it guarantees its

environmental obligations by providing the western

Australian government with unconditional bank-guaranteed

performance bonds to the amount of AUS$12.3 million.

Whether such bonds are large enough, or remediation

objectives are actually met are serious questions for the use

of these instruments. For example, the state of Pennsylvania

has had mining reclamation bonds in place for a long time,

but the costs of acid mine drainage remediation have dwarfed

the bond fund, leaving the citizens of the state with major

unfunded cleanup costs. Bonds could be used to assure proper

timber practices, as a pre-condition for wetlands development

or as a condition for receiving a fishing permit.

6.2 Pitfalls related to deposit refund instruments

6.2.1 Certifiability

Pre-conditions for success of this instrument include

certifiability that a deposit was paid on the items or actions

for which refunds are claimed, and that the items or actions

are as claimed. This is a problem, for example, in the recycling

of used oil; the returned oil can be contaminated or purchased

where deposits were not required. It is a problem with

performance requirements for ecosystem restoration; a long

monitoring period may be necessary to assess whether

performance criteria are met. Such a long time period may be

financially or politically unacceptable.

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PITFALLS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE USE OF MARKET-BASED INCENTIVES

7. Quantity-based instruments involving market creation

and trading

Whereas price-based instruments, notably taxes,

provide security regarding the cost of a policy objective,

quantity based instruments provide more certainty as regards

specific policy objectives. These instruments rely upon the

incentives of agents to trade responsibilities amongst one

another. The classic cases are tradable permits for pollutants,

such as sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide, and tradable

fishing quotas. The trades may be based on allowances, such

as permitted emissions or fish catch, or on reductions, such

as emissions reduction credits or reductions in fishing effort.

Typically, agents are assigned some initial responsibility, e.g.,

allowable emissions, or required reductions, and if some

agents are more successful than others in meeting those

responsibilities they can trade responsibilities. Although there

have been some voluntary cap and trade schemes, most such

schemes depend on well-defined, enforceable legal and

regulatory frameworks

7. 1 Opportunities related to Trading

Tradable fishing rights have been used by a number of

developed countries to manage fish stocks. Although resource

management underlies their introduction, regulating fishing

contributes directly to the wider health of marine ecosystems

(McIntyre et al. 2007). Setting the allowable catch and then

dividing up the rights can be difficult, requiring scientific,

economic, and community knowledge. Enforcement can also

be a problem, but can range from formal to community

actions. Using trading instruments for more complicated

conservation objectives may be problematic. Biodiversity

conservation is complicated by the fact that there is a multitude

of species and interactions that must be preserved. Trading

based upon species, per se, or even “bundles” of species would

not be a very effective or practical means of protecting

biodiversity. Rather, trading of habitats, perhaps weighted

for species potential or richness, may be a more useful

application of trading. Australia is proposing a program

creating tradable rights for landowners who conserve

biodiversity on their land; and developers must obtain such

rights from a common pool in order to develop land (Jenkins

et al. 2004). Perhaps the most developed program for

biodiversity mitigation is the US wetland banking program

introduced under the Clean Water Act of 1972, where wetlands

qualities can be used as weights (e.g., Habitat Units) for

measuring credits. Both schemes are based on the notion of

‘no net loss’ of biodiversity. Some researchers have proposed

tradable invasive species permits to protect biodiversity

(Horan and Lupi 2005).

Another useful example is the recently developed

scheme for protecting marine resources in a heavily trawl-

damaged area off the coast of California (New York Times

2006). In order to reduce trawl fishing, several non-profit

environmental groups have begun purchasing fishing permits

from fishermen along the central California coast. The

purchases, at a cost of several hundred thousand each, include

both the permits and the boats. The environmental

organizations then own the boats and permits, and can lease

these to fishermen with restrictions on fishing locations and

techniques. This would not have been a useful tool if the

fishermen would have changed their locations and techniques

favourably without the buy-out; but this did not seem to be

the case.

In response to regulatory requirements for

compensatory mitigation, conservation banks have been

established to generate credits for habitat restoration.

Conservation banks have been established to mitigate damage

to a wide variety of ecosystems, including short-grass prairie

and old-growth pine forests in the United States. The most

well-known example of conservation banking is the U.S.

wetlands banking programs that allow agents to bank and

buy wetlands restoration and development credits. There are

over 500 wetland mitigation banks operating. When

mitigation ratios are set above 1:1, there can presumably be a

net gain in wetlands. However, the extent to which banked

wetlands represent the same functionality as developed

wetlands, and the extent to which the banked wetlands are

successful over the long term, limit the possible net gains

(Salzman and Ruhl 2001).

Australia has used a trade mechanism to achieve cost-

effective salt load reductions in the Hunter River (http://

www.ecosystemservicesproject.org/html/publications/docs/

Intro_to_MBIs_2005.pdf). Individual polluters are given

initial licenses to discharge a given quantity of salt into the

river. Polluters can then trade amongst themselves.

7.2 Pitfalls related to Market Creation and Trading

7.2.1 Assignment and rights , and equity implications

There must always be an initial assignment of rights.

These will often be politically contentious. “Grandfathering”

and auctioning are two possible assignment procedures for

cap and trade schemes, each with their economic and equity

implications. When the value of the permits is high, the initial

assignment has significant financial equity implications, and

also affects the trading itself. An agent with an initially large

assignment has a significant asset, and may use that asset in

undesirable ways. For example, if a few agents receive a large

number of land development rights, they may be able to

control development to their advantage simply by the

possession of these rights; they may use them to drive

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PITFALLS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE USE OF MARKET-BASED INCENTIVES

competitors out of business. In the Netherlands, large

companies buy up fishing quotas and lease them to small

operators, who receive little profits from their catch

(www.colby.edu/personal/t/thtieten/fish-nz.html).

7.2.2 Measurability and verifiability

Pre-conditions for successful trading schemes include

measurability and verifiability of trades. Tradable permits for

pollutants meet these requirements, particularly in those

countries that have well-developed permitting and

measurement systems. But it is always possible for an agent

to cheat by claiming fewer pollutants or greater reductions

than is the case; or falsely claiming to have purchased more

allowances or reduction credits than is the case. It is not

inexpensive to measure and monitor trading schemes.

7.2.3 Well-fimctioning trading market

Another pre-condition for a successful trading scheme

is that the trading market be well-functioning, meaning that

trades are made when there are mutually beneficial

circumstances for the traders. Small trading markets can be

monopolized, defeating the presumed benefits of trading.

Also, information must be available on what is for sale and

who wants to buy. If there are willing buyers and sellers but

they cannot find one another easily, the market will function

at less than its potential.

7.2.4 High transaction costs

Trading involves transactions costs, such as finding

sellers and buyers, and establishing the terms of trade. This

may be a problem in the case of the CDM of the Kyoto

Protocol where potential reforestation and afforestation

projects involve many small landholders. Transaction costs

can be so high as to prevent the project from going ahead,

creating a barrier to small-holders entering the market and

trading their carbon credits.

7.2.5 Cultural pitfalls and strategic bargaining

Trading schemes may not work in cultures that cannot

understand the concepts of trading in such unfamiliar items

as rights and actions. And they may not be successful in

circumstance where agents are reluctant to give up presumed

rights. This has been a problem in establishing water use rights

trading in the Western US. While there is a huge difference

between the low economic value of water use in agriculture

and the high value of water in urban areas, farmers have been

reluctant to give up water rights as that may forever alter

their ability to farm. While there may be a high enough price

at which a farmer will sell, this high price may foreclose any

trades of water from low to high value uses. Strategic

bargaining between trading parties may lengthen the trading

process and even result in the foreclosure of what otherwise

could have been mutually advantageous trades. A farmer may

begin the bargaining by stating such a high price that buyers

presume no reasonable deal can be made, or buyers set initially

low prices that sellers walk away; this is a noted issue in

residential house sales. The attempts to institute tradable

quotas in New Zealand fisheries in the early 1980s were not

accepted by the Maori people since it did not coincide with

their view of common property resources.

7.2.6 “Hot spot" problem

Trading schemes must be set up to avoid adverse

environmental consequences. Typically, trading results in

shifting activities spatially. There are problems with trading

schemes that result in too much of an adverse activity or too

little of an activity in one location. An example of this problem

can be found in the context of wetland mitigation banking

(Salzman and Ruhl 2006). Although there may be no net loss

in wetland area, wetlands near urban areas, where the

hydrological services are most valuable, are increasingly

being destroyed while, in exchange, wetlands are restored in

rural areas. This problem can be remedied by restricting trades

between donor and recipient regions. But this adds one more

layer of administrative complication, which raises the costs.

If the hot spot problem is too severe, trading may not be a

good idea

7.2.7 Assuring improvements in environmental objectives

If desirable environmental behaviours would have taken

place in absence of the trading, this market instrument adds

nothing to meaningful policy tools. For example, in the case

of carbon trading, if an agent receives reduction credits for

actions that would be taken anyway, such as reduced

timbering, reforestation or emissions reductions, the tradable

permit just gives the agent added wealth. However,

determining whether an action would have been taken in the

absence of the permits is difficult. This risk may be small

relative to what can be gained more broadly from the use of

tradable permits. There will likely be errors in administration,

but these may be acceptable relative to the potential gains

from institutionalizing and obtaining acceptance of trading.

8. Demand enhancement

Providing a market environment in which appropriate

behaviour enhances the market demand for an agent’s

products or services creates a reward for that behaviour. Green

goods, such as organically grown coffee, are examples. These

goods may be formally or informally certified, even receiving

“seals of approval.” Agents may create their own advertising

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PITFALLS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE USE OF MARKET-BASED INCENTIVES

around the good characteristics of their products, production

processes or agent behaviour unrelated to the product. This

may enhance the products’ distinctiveness, resulting in larger

sales or price premiums. While these demand-enhancing,

market-based programs may be useful in achieving

environmental objectives they have well-known pitfalls.

8.1 Opportunities related to demand enhancement

A potentially useful opportunity ties agent conservation

activities and land practices to the agent’s products. Timbering

and farming practices could be certified as conservation

“friendly” and, as in the case of organically grown products,

may bear a premium in the market. Banrock Station winery

in Australia markets its participation in the management of

Banrock Station wetlands and its contributions to wetland

conservation. Shade-grown coffee, which aims to protect

forest canopies for wildlife, is another well-known example

of tying a private good to a public environmental good.

Another example is the certification program of the Forest

Stewardship Council that certifies individuals or corporations

as practicing good forest management (http://www.fsc.org).

Although most certification programs focus on habitat

protection, there are a few associated with the harvesting of

individual animals or plants, such as the Marine Aquarium

Council’s program to certify fish harvesting practices in the

international aquarium trade.

8.2 Pitfalls related to demand enhancement

8.2.1 Value added

A major pitfall is whether there would be enough

demand enhancement to merit the agent’s effort. Some

products or services receive no value-added from being

characterized as “green”. In other cases, consumers may be

willing to pay more for a green product, but not enough to

cover the increased costs associated with producing the

environmentally-friendly commodity.

8.2.2 Certification and monitoring

A second pitfall is the certification process and

subsequent monitoring. If certification has no basis in fact,

false claims by agents will make consumers leery of

certification. There may also be confusion about whether a

product is really good for the environment, particularly when

the product has both pluses and minuses. Once certification

is obtained, agents may alter their products in ways that make

them less green; so regular monitoring and recertification is

necessary.

Maintaining the distinction of the product may be

difficult when there are not separate market distribution

networks that keep the friendly products distinct from others.

This may be increasingly true as globalization of product

markets erases the distinctiveness and origin of products.

8.2.3 Competition in industry

While certification can be useful in enhancing product

demand, it also has the potential to be used to restrict entry

into an industry. For example, while organic products may

distinguish sellers, organic certification processes may be so

tailored and complicated by existing organic farmers that they

create barriers to entry into the industry.

8.2.4 Sharing the benefits

Price premiums associated with biodiversity friendly

products need to be channelled back to producers. Evidence

suggests that with some products it is traders and middlemen

who gain disproportionately (Bacon 2005).

8.2.5 Disadvantaging poor producers

There is some reluctance and scepticism surrounding

motives for introducing eco-labelling and certification

schemes given that they inadvertently discriminate against

producers who meet the criteria but are not participating in a

scheme.

8.2.5 Label Fatigue

From the perspective of the consumer, a proliferation

of certification schemes

CONCLUSION

Conservation activities are always fraught with

issues of costs, benefits, disproportionate impacts, monitoring

and enforcement. Market-based instruments can be useful

if they help achieve conservation objectives at lower costs,

with higher benefits, without undue adverse impacts

on selected persons, and with more manageable monitoring

and enforcement. Market-based instruments that place

prices on ecological services, land uses or other activities

establish obligations to pay for what is lost, or receive

payment for what is gained. Clear pricing signals make

economic calculations regarding conservation activities

relatively straightforward, and can be fine tuned to establish

many conservation objectives. These instruments can either

be punitive, as taxes or fees, or rewarding, such as subsidies

and payments. Trading instruments allow for the transferof

responsibilities to agents most able to gain, such as those

who can achieve conservation objectives most cost-

effectively. These instruments can facilitate achieving

conservation goals most cheaply and, consequently, may

allow for the establishment of even higher objectives.

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PITFALLS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN THE USE OF MARKET-BASED INCENTIVES

Demand-based instruments may be somewhat less clear

cut than the pricing and trading instruments, since it is

not clear how the market demand for an agent’s products

will be enhanced through the conservation activities. Financial

instruments, such as deposit-refund programs

or performance bonds, can establish clear, long-term signals

regarding whether conservation objectives have actually

been achieved.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The initiation of this work came out of the Valuing Wild

Nature workshop (University of East Anglia March 12-16,

2006) sponsored by the Royal Society for the Protection of

Birds, Natural England, the UK Government’s Department

for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and the Centre for

Economic and Social Change in the Global Environment,

University of East Anglia.

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BushTender trial. Australian Journal of Agricultural and

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Turner, R.K., J. Paavola, S. Farber, P. Cooper, V. Jessamy, S. Rosendo

& S. Georgiou (2003): Valuing Nature: Lessons Learnt

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493-510.

Yaron, G (2001): Forest, plantation crops or small-scale agriculture?

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in Indiana, USA. Land Use Policy 23: 542-550.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(3), Sept-Dec 2009

277-279

AGRICULTURE AND CONSERVATION

Persis Taraporevala1, Rhys Green2 and Ashish Kothari1-3 (Compilers)

'Kalpavriksh, Apt. 5, Sri Dutta Krupa, 908 Deccan Gymkhana, Pune 411 004, Maharashtra, India.

The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL, UK.

Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

Presentations

Rhys Green of RSPB and the University of Cambridge,

UK, discussed reconciling crop production with biodiversity

conservation. Agriculture is one of the biggest threats to

biodiversity because it leads to extensive loss of habitat and

the pesticide usage leads to environmental degradation.

Agricultural environmentalists attempt to reconcile the two

through two main practices - Land Sparing and Wildlife

Friendly Farming.

Land Sparing concentrates on high intensity inputs and

productivity on a portion of the land, leaving the remaining

land free for biodiversity conservation. Land sparing, if

followed properly, would have been successful in its objective.

In practice, however, often when land is left uncultivated for

biodiversity conservation, it is used for non-conservation

processes like building roads and houses. This severely affects

the feasibility of this form of biodiversity conservation.

Wildlife Friendly Farming is low in production and

yield, but beneficial for the wildlife in the area. However,

Wildlife Friendly Farming does not leave much land empty

for pure biodiversity conservation. Both methods are likely

to lower financial profits and farmers are compensated for

economic losses that they suffer in order to help species

survive. The viability of these methods also depends on the

ecosystem of the area. Studies must be conducted before a

method is chosen. With global food demands growing by two

to three times by 2050 it is essential that we find methods of

farming that can cater to the growing needs of the world as

well as help conserve biodiversity.

Vijay Jardhari of the Beej Bachao Andolan (BBA, or

Save the Seeds Movement), presented his experiences with

conserving agro-biodiversity (agricultural biodiversity), in

his village Jardhar in Uttarakhand, India, and in other parts

of the region through the BBA. He tracked the changes in

perceptions and methods of farming. Traditionally, farming

was an esteemed profession and soil was a precious resource

that had to be valued. It was treated like a living entity that

needed nurturing and nourishment. Organic methods of

farming were used that naturally let crop biodiversity flourish

and kept the soil healthy.

Around 40 years ago, the Indian government

propagated the use of high yielding varieties (HYV) of crops

by doling them out at subsidised rates. These varieties needed

chemical fertilizers and slowly changed the entire system of

farming that originally existed. Initially people were surprised

by the substantial increase in productivity, but over a period

of time they realised that the yield stagnated or reduced with

every year while the need for expensive and harmful chemical

fertilizers and pesticides increased. The people of Jardhar

decided to revert back to their traditional practices of farming.

The main method they used was the Baranaja system where

a variety of crops and plants are grown together in what seems

to be an incoherent and random melee, but the system is a

time-tested method of growing a variety of crops, providing

a variety of needs, as also allowing biodiversity to flourish

and keeping the soil healthy and productive.

The Beej Bachao Andolan (Save the Seeds Movement)

was later started in the village to work towards recovering

seeds that were lost due to the heavy influx of HYV (high-

yielding variety) seeds during the Green Revolution. Since

the starting of the Beej Bachao Andolan, hundreds of varieties

of seeds have been recovered. There are a number of Mahila

Mandals (women groups) that look into farming and

biodiversity issues.

While protecting agro-biodiversity, the village

simultaneously put systems in place to protect its forests. This

has resulted in healthy forests and land, an increase in

biodiversity and high underground water tables. This is

essential for places like Jardhar where a vast majority of the

population is still directly dependent on agriculture and forest

produce. The Beej Bachao Andolan also focuses on

information dissemination on conservation.

The major problems faced by Jardhar are the waning

interest of the younger generation in the movement and the

threats from destructive development projects like mining.

Currently, the village is also trying to stop hybrids and

genetically modified (GM) crops from entering their farming

systems. They are fearful that the government will propagate

GM seeds by selling them at subsidised rates and advertising

them as the strongest and highest yielding varieties of seeds.

A report on the session held at the International Conference on ‘Conserving Nature in a Globalizing India’ at Bengaluru; February 17-19, 2009

AGRICULTURE AND CONSERVATION

much like they did with HYV seeds. The people of Jardhar

think that since Uttarakhand is supposed to be an organic

state, GM seeds should not be propagated.

Siddappa Setty of the Bangalore-based NGO Ashoka

Trust for Research in Ecology and Environment (ATREE),

talked about the agricultural and wildlife conservation

practices of the Soligas, a tribe in the Biligiri Rangaswamy

Temple Wildlife Sanctuary (BRTWLS). The Soligas farm on

land and collect non-timber forest produce (NTFP) from

within and outside the sanctuary. Prior to 1972 (the year the

Wildlife Act was promulgated), wild animals consumed half

of the crops that were cultivated by the tribe, which they

tolerated, but later as their access to land reduced dramatically

due to conservation policies, they could not afford to lose

such vast quantities of crops anymore.

Traditional methods of farming are still used to grow a

variety of crops and conserve seeds. They previously used

shifting cultivation, leaving land fallow for four to five years

to let it regenerate before using it again. This method was

later prohibited within the BRTWLS, and broadcast sowing

methods in settled agriculture were adopted. However, the

irregular crop arrangement makes it difficult to remove weeds.

To tackle this problem, the sowing patterns were changed

from broadcast to in-line. The systematic rows of crop made

it easier to locate and remove weeds. However, different

problems cropped up with this method and it was

discontinued. Farmers on hill slopes and those who did not

have cattle to help them cultivate, found this method

cumbersome and were the first people to revert to their earlier

methods. Farmers also realised that removing the weeds gave

wild boars better access to the crops. After four years of

experimenting, most of the fanners have returned to broadcast

farming. Traditional farming is currently threatened both by

the increase in the number of coffee plantations in the area as

well as the excessive growth of Lantana in the WLS, which

in turn is forcing wild animals to enter the Soliga farms in

search of food.

Raman Sukumar of CES and IISc, spoke about

human-elephant conflict in agricultural landscapes. According

to Sukumar, this is an age-old problem and cannot be

completely eradicated, however, one can definitely work

towards reducing losses. There should be extensive studies

on the extent of damage caused by elephants along with the

variety and quantity of food available in the forest, as this

information will help unravel the motivational factors behind

the instances of crop raiding. After all, elephants take to fields

for the same reasons that humans do - limited access to forest

produce, and for the nutrition and the taste of farm grown crops.

These studies can be followed by bringing about

changes in cropping patterns and enforcing landscape

planning to increase the availability of nutritious food for the

elephant populations within forests. However, increasing

forest cover does not necessarily reduce human-elephant

conflict because degraded land often has a higher carrying

capacity of elephants than a rich forest. Often more elephants

are found in buffer zones than in core areas. This is apparent

in Joint Forest Management sites where forests have provided

shelter but not food for elephants. Thus, they raid crop from

farms nearby and then use the newly regenerated forests to

hide. Sukumar also noted that elephants are now travelling

to forests where they were not found earlier. He said that

although the number of conflicts has reduced over the last

20 years because the male population has decreased, the

compassion people had for the animal has also decreased.

Thus, communities that traditionally refused to kill elephants

even when there were human casualties, are now open to

culling animals to prevent farm raids.

Discussion

The presentations were followed by a discussion. One

of the main questions revolved around what individuals could

do to support these efforts. Jardhari asked people to revaluate

their own lifestyles and find out where they could make

changes. He suggested small things like terrace gardens,

buying locally grown food and organic food if it was possible.

He also asked people to reconsider eating industrial meat

because the production and transportation of such meat costs

a lot in terms of resource consumption.

Some participants questioned the viability of organic

farming by stating that it was replaced by Green Revolution

in the 1970s because organic farming was incapable of

producing sufficient quantities to feed the country. They

pointed out that food needs are much higher than they were

before and will double or triple in the next few decades and

wondered how organic fanning would be sustainable now if

it wasn’t earlier. They asked if perhaps, it was necessary to

continue with non-organic methods of farming and add to

them by using genetically modified (GM) seeds.

The speakers reminded the audience that the Green

Revolution was aggressively pushed onto fanners by heavily

subsidising the cost of HYV seeds and fertilisers. However,

these prices changed, the quality of the soil decreased and

ultimately the production levels dropped, making this form

of farming unsustainable. Furthennore, it has led to farmer

suicides across the country and these deaths must be accounted

for while assessing the sustainability of non-organic methods

of farming.

The speakers acknowledged that organic farming also

had its drawbacks and said it should be used only when it

seemed to be the most sustainable (in terms of economics

278

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

AGRICULTURE AND CONSERVATION

and ecology) option. Unfortunately, several farmers have

forgotten traditional methods of farming because they have

been using the Green Revolution methods for decades. This

meant that even though farmers might want to revert back to

organic farming they no longer have the means and knowledge

to do so.

The speakers feared that pushing GM seeds would have

effects similar to that of the Green Revolution. The solution

to this was forming networks that could help each other with

farming methods and seeds. Linking markets and locally

produced food was also the need of the hour. This has been

achieved by the Deccan Development Society in Zaheerabad

(Andhra Pradesh, India), by linking the public distribution

system to a variety of local, organically produced, nutritious

crops.

In response to the question about the looming food

crisis, the speakers said the solution was not more intensive

farming on larger patches of land but farming more essential

foodstuffs rather than non-essential cash crops. They also

recommended adopting eating habits that are easier to sustain

like eating more bajra and unpolished rice. Finally, one would

also have to question the social hierarchy of farming methods.

For instance, dry land fanning is viewed as inferior to water

intensive irrigated methods even if it is more effective under

certain conditions. If such false hierarchies were done away

with, appropriate methods would be adopted to suit particular

land types and farming would be more effective. Working on

these structures takes time and energy. In Zaheerabad, it took

fifteen years to prove that dry land farming was the more

effective method.

The session ended with a discussion on GM seeds. A

comparison was drawn between growing monocultures of

GM seeds and using traditional organic forms of agro-

biodiversity. People argued that if a farm has a rich diversity

of crops, this diversity acts as a buffer. If a particular crop

gets infected and dies, there will still be other crops that

assure the farmer of some food and sustenance. This was

not the case with monocultures of hybrid, HYV, or GM crops

as the produce of a whole farm would be wiped out if an

infection or a disease attacked the crop. The discussion veered

to the ethical arguments for and against GM, and naturally

available seeds. People were divided on whether they were

more comfortable with one or the other kind of seeds.

Participants agreed that there was insufficient scientific

data to prove whether one form of farming was better than

the other due to a paucity of examples of direct comparisons

between the two forms. However, observations from the

various examples of organic, sustainable, biodiverse farming

suggested that such alternatives could be viable in the long

run for India, and provide appropriate resolutions for

the conflicts between agriculture and biodiversity

conservation.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(3), Sept-Dec 2009

280-283

COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION

Persis Taraporevala1 and Ashish Kothari1-2 (Compilers)

'Kalpavriksh, Apt. 5, Sri Dutta Krupa, 908 Deccan Gymkhana, Pune 41 1 004, Maharashtra, India.

:Email: [email protected]

Ashish Kothari of Kalpavriksh, Pune, gave an

overview of community-based conservation in India. He

specified three areas that needed to be focused on, namely

community conserved areas (CCAs), protected areas (PAs)

and landscapes outside CCAs and PAs.

CCAs can be roughly defined as natural and modified

ecosystems that contain significant biodiversity values,

ecological services and cultural values that are voluntarily

conserved by indigenous/mobile/local communities through

customary laws or other effective means. In most cases these

areas have been beneficial for the local ecosystem, the

biodiversity, the people and the adjoining areas.

Internationally, several policies have been formed to

acknowledge CCAs, like the Convention on Biological

Diversity, which has been ratified by India. There are also

several Indian laws and policies that could back CCAs or co-

managed (CM) areas. The National Wildlife Action Plan talks

about CCAs and CMs; Wildlife Protection Act (amended in

2002) brought in concepts like Community Reserves and

Conservation Reserves; The Scheduled Tribes and Other

Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights)

Act, 2006, mentions community forests; the Indian Forests

Act, 1927, mentions village forests. However, challenges still

exist in the form of appropriate implementation of these laws

and policies. Furthermore, destructive development projects

and globalisation have led to the watering down of these laws

and policies.

While acknowledging the importance of PAs to protect

certain species and ecosystems, one must realise that over

3 million people live inside them and the creation of such

PAs has led to the displacement and disempowerment of these

individuals. This has caused several problems like loss of

traditional forms of conservation, clashes with the forest

department, illegal poaching and timber extraction, to name

a few. This often negatively affects conservation itself, and

defeats the purpose for which PAs were created, apart from

creating enormous human suffering. But there are some initial

changes taking place, such as Periyar Tiger Reserve where

officials were working with local adivasi communities to

enhance their livelihoods and involve them in protection. In

this case too, developments in international policies such as

the CBD Programme of Work on Protected Areas, which

emphasised collaborative management and the integration of

conservation with livelihoods, could lead to more equitable

conservation within India.

The landscape approach seeks to connect different areas

under conservation and sustainable use, and form extensive

stretches of conserved areas rather than little islands of

protection. This could include CCAs, PAs and many other

forms of conservation sites to form a strong mosaic of

conservation.

The overview emphasised the need for participatory

methods of conservation that ensured wildlife protection and

the rights of local people to life and livelihood.

Kanhaiya Gujjar, a villager from Bhaonta-Kolyala

villages working with the NGO Tarun Bharat Sangh in

Rajasthan, spoke on community-based landscape

conservation in Rajasthan with reference to the River Arvari

in Alwar district in Rajasthan. The area had thick forests, but

lost them during colonial rule. This trend continued after India

became an independent nation and caused many problems

like the drying up of the Arvari, severe droughts during dry

seasons and excessive soil erosion during the monsoons. In

1987, along with the Tarun Bharat Sangh (TBS), the villagers

conducted a meeting to address various local problems. They

decided to regenerate their forest and revert to traditional

forms of water management to restore the ecological balance

of the area. To achieve this, rules about forest use were

implemented and traditional water harvesting structures

( johads ) were constructed. Their efforts paid off when the

river regenerated and started flowing again. Currently, there

are 30 tanks in the area as opposed to the 4 that existed when

the movement started.

Several threats have cropped up since the revival of

the river. One of the main problems was the fishing contracts

leased out by the government to private bodies. The TBS

opposed this and won the struggle. They realised the need

for their own governing body that would protect the river

from such instances in the future. They formed the Arvari

Sansad (Parliament). This is the first peoples’ parliament in

the country. It has 242 elected members and various internal

communities that look into matters related to the river

(including water sharing, wildlife and forest conservation,

inter-village disputes, and others). However, they still face

A report on the session held at the International Conference on ‘Conserving Nature in a Globalizing India’ at Bengaluru; February 17-19, 2009

COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION

various challenges including boundary issues with their

neighbours, threats of mining and other development projects,

election politics that threatens to fragment their society and

insufficient cooperation from government bodies.

Tsilie Sakhrie, an Angami tribal from the Khonoma

Tragopan Sanctuary Trust in Nagaland, spoke about

community conservation of the Blyth’s Tragopan. Khonoma

is a village in Kohima district, Nagaland, that is rich in

biodiversity and home to the threatened Blyth’s Tragopan.

Sakhrie and a few others set out to protect this bird and

conducted various conservation activities. Since, hunting was

traditionally acceptable and glorified in Khonoma, they

initially faced a lot of resistance and opposition to their

conservation efforts. Through continuous interactions with

the community, Sakhrie and his colleagues made people

realise the importance of conserving the Blyth's Tragopan

and the village moved away from hunting and towards

conservation. In 1998, the Khonoma Nature Conservation

and Tragopan Sanctuary was officially established. It is

managed and supported by the local community.

Vijay Jardhari, a farmer, spoke about community

conservation in his village Jardhargaon in Uttarakhand. This

village is situated in the Himalayan foothills at an altitude of

1,500 metres. It has 17 settlements with 8-10 families each.

The major occupations here are agriculture and animal

husbandry. They rely on local forests for firewood, fruits, fuel

and medicinal plants. By 1980, deforestation activities

conducted by the forest department and local people had left

the forests almost bare. Jardhari was a part of the Chipko

movement and was aware of the power of peoples’ movements.

In 1980, the people of Jardhar had a meeting and decided to

work towards regenerating their forests. They formulated rules

and appointed guards to protect the forests. They formed a Van

Suraksha Samiti (VSS) or Forest Protection Committee, and

appointed a forest guard with their own resources. Within three

years, the forest had regenerated substantially; within 30 years

it had become dense with high biodiversity.

Having dealt with their forests the villagers also decided

to stabilise their farming methods. Chemical fertilisers had

affected farming in the area so they reverted to traditional

forms of farming. They collected and distributed local seeds

and started the Beej Bachao Andolan (Save the Seeds

Movement). Despite their success they face several problems.

There has been a significant increase in human-wildlife

conflicts, the community natural resource management enjoys

no legal backing, and government policies that promote

chemical intensive fanning methods are in direct conflict with

their traditional methods of farming.

Anil Bhardwaj of Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun,

talked about the ecodevelopment project in Periyar as an

example of successful local community involvement in a tiger

reserve. In the 1980s and 1990s, Periyar was viewed as a rich

forest, but was actually riddled with problems ranging from

ganja cultivation and poaching to waste problems caused by

tourists and pilgrims. The roots of these problems lay in poor

park management and heavy dependence of local people on

the forest. Thus, it was decided to pilot an eco-development

project to meet the needs of conservation and livelihood. Local

people would be involved in protecting the PA and alternate

forms of livelihood would be made available for them to offset

the losses accrued by changing their traditional methods of

using the forests. The project also envisioned converting

poachers into protectors, forming women groups and local

self-help groups to create a strong base of local people who

would support the project with their knowledge of the forest

and learn new skills to propel the project further. They worked

towards creating several eco-development committees that

handled different issues, helped local people get rid of their

debts and arranged for them to be involved in conservation

and documentation work. Local communities are trained to

conduct eco-awareness camps and are part of regularising

the pilgrims in the park. Through a slow process that began

with creating a relationship based on trust between the local

people and forest officials, a working model of joint

conservation has been created.

Charudutt Mishra of Nature Conservation Foundation

and the Snow Leopard Trust spoke on community-based

management of human-wildlife conflict, with special

reference to the work going on in Spiti, Ladakh. He spoke

about two basic dimensions of the effort - understanding the

conflict in the area, and managing it. While undertaking the

first part, one must take stock of the situation and understand

the perceptions and psyche of the people in the area apart

from the actual information on losses. These are extremely

important when it comes to actually implementing the

management plans. In Spiti, Snow Leopards were highly

dependent on livestock in some areas and were responsible

for c. 12% of the livestock losses. The perceptions of the

damage caused by the animal were magnified because of a

lack of data (actual losses, causes, circumstances of loss) and

because of insufficient and delayed compensation for

livestock losses. The best way to deal with human-wildlife

conflict, was to address all three of these simultaneously -

reducing livestock losses, economic offsetting and increasing

the social understanding of the situation. In Spiti, they reduced

livestock losses by putting better herding methods in place,

and increasing the populations of wild prey of the Snow

Leopard. They created community-based insurance which is

run by the community and gives complete compensation much

faster than the government bodies because of simpler

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

281

COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION

verification and disbursal procedures (uncovering false claims

is easy in a small community). Conducting educational

programmes and giving incentives to undertake conservation

have increased social understanding. This programme has

been running successfully for over five years and livestock

losses have reduced dramatically. Mishra pointed out that

while it was important to have community-based management

plans, there should also be governmental support.

Panel discussion

Madhu Ramnath, an ethnobotanist, talked about the

importance of lesser known non-timber forest produce

(NTFP). He said that while the most prominently discussed

forms of NTFP tend to be profitable ones like Tendu patta

( Diospyros melcinoxylon), sal seeds ( Shorea robusta) and

Mahua ( Madhuca indica), there exists a rich diversity of non-

commercial NTFP that are vital for the health and subsistence

of local communities.

The commercially viable forms are used to make a

variety of products from cigarettes to alcohol. The collection

processes are often highly politicised, involving power

struggles between local communities, forest departments,

local governments and private bodies. The other forms of

NTFP exist in the form of fibres, leaves, poisons, berries,

yams, etc. with specialised functions related to health and

survival.

With 20% of our population still directly dependent on

such produce, one should not undermine the power of these

forms of NTFP. Ramnath stated that although commercial

NTFP assured local communities some money, the non-

commercial ones were far more important because they could

ensure good health, food security and sovereignty. They also

required and could ensure the maintenance of healthy,

biologically diverse forests.

Sharad Lele from the Institute of Social and Economic

Change in Bengaluru, spoke on forest-based enterprise and

community-based conservation. He enumerated the barriers

that impeded the two from interacting effectively. The attitude

of those in power is the biggest barrier that prevents local

communities from taking part in conservation activities. He

pointed out that in all the case studies discussed in the seminar,

local communities had to prove their worth as conservationists

to external bodies before they were allowed to partake in the

process of conservation. Often, when the local communities

are involved in conservation processes, they are given menial

tasks or ones with lower levels of responsibility. This is

indicative of the level of trust extended by external bodies to

the community. The right of local people to be intricately

involved with wildlife conservation and eco-tourism in their

own area should be acknowledged. Ultimately, instrumental

approaches to CBC have been used rather than focusing on

rights-based approaches. Another problem was the paucity

of formal spaces where local communities could legally

partake in conservation efforts. This could change with the

implementation of the Forests Rights Act because it has

potential to acknowledge these rights. Lele also reminded

external bodies that it is alright if the fiscal profits expected by

local communities from eco-tourism and other profit generating

enterprises are lower than what the external bodies expect.

IXishar Dash from Vasundhara in Orissa, spoke about

community conservation and the Forest Rights Act. Orissa is a

state with 62 tribes where 1 3 primitive tribal groups are mostly

forest dwellers, 44% of the land is scheduled area and over

40% of the people are critically poor and dependent on the

forest for livelihood. Thus, it is important to recognise the rights

of local people, whose lives have been and continue to be,

intricately linked with the forest, while looking into

conservation issues. He talked about two forms of conservation:

the exclusive approach and the community conservation

initiatives (CCI) approach. The former works towards creating

conservation enclaves and normally ignores or denies

traditional practices, the rights of local people to be involved

in conservation processes and their rights to livelihood. The

latter is normally based on traditional knowledge and practices

that have developed over time and addresses the issues of rights

and livelihoods. Traditional forms of CCIs are present all over

Orissa. Currently, there are about 12,000 forest protection

groups working around two million hectares of forest rich in

biodiversity. This includes initiatives in wetlands and coastal

areas, and species protection and conservation based on cultural

or spiritual beliefs.

These initiatives require legal backing, recognition of

rights and protection from development threats. The Forest

Rights Act (FRA) has, to some extent, achieved these goals.

It has been used in places like Nayagarh where 200 villages

have claimed rights over community forests that they have

been protecting. In Niyamgiri, the Dongria Kondhs have used

FRA to fight a mining project that threatens the area. Section

5 of the Act gives Gram Sabhas the right to form conservation

and development committees, and Community Biodiversity

Management Plans have also been used to increase local

participation in conservation processes. Thus, the FRA has

the potential to ensure greater involvement of local people in

conservation efforts. But the main challenge lies in making

more people aware of the act and in implementing it.

Nitin Rai of Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology

and Environment (ATREE), Bengaluru, talked about

community conservation in Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple

Wildlife Sanctuary of Karnataka. There exist, within the

sanctuary, several sacred sites of a tribe called the Soligas.

282

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION

Most of these sites have not been identified on modem maps.

There are five tribes with a total population of 12,000 who

live in and around the sanctuary. They have created a cultural

map, where 593 sacred spots have been denoted. The Soligas

also defined various vegetative classes that were highly

specialised, based on information like the contour of slopes,

the composition of the area, the density of flora and several

other similar pieces of information. This map, with its different

vegetative classifications and cultural sites, is a historical and

cultural map of the Soligas. They see it as a method of

supporting their right to claiming the forest and argue that

they can claim the land because they have used the same

method employed by urban people to claim land - which is,

naming and mapping areas. There are various efforts towards

claiming these rights through Section 33b of the Wild Life

Protection Act (2003 amendment) and Section 5 of the Forest

Rights Act.

General discussion

After the presentations and panel discussion, there was

a question-answer session and a discussion. The discussion

revolved around the problems of CBC. This included the

fallouts, loopholes and unforeseen complications of this

method of conservation.

One common problem in most of the successful sites

was an increase in human-wildlife conflicts, especially with

monkeys, wild boar and nilgai. The discussion brought out a

variety of possible solutions ranging from culling and hunting

to changing cropping patterns. However, the group

acknowledged the difficulties in implementing these methods

due to religious/cultural values attributed to the animal in

question and due to ethical doubts about the right to cull

animals. Other solutions were urgently needed.

Conflicts between generations based on changing

values and materialistic desires are also common to these

communities. Younger generations often do not wish to

actively continue with the traditional paths that the previous

generations have created. This problem becomes acute when

destructive development projects, that claim to offer

employment and salaries, are proposed in these areas. While

the youth focus on the money that could be earned through

these projects, the older generations focus on the changes in

the ecological conditions of the area and social fabric of the

community. Kanhaya Gujjar shared his experiences with the

group where families did not speak to each other because

they differed over a mining project that was coming up in

their area. However, when the youth saw the rapid changes

in the society that took place because of the influx of

foreigners, they realised that the social cost outweighed the

monetary benefits and they too fought against the mining

project.

Some people wanted more scientific data to prove the

effectiveness of CBC. A need for scientists and researchers

to conduct studies on the feasibility of these initiatives was

identified. These studies could determine factors that have

helped or impeded the CBC site and subsequently help with

future endeavours.

Part of the discussion revolved around what urban people

could do to contribute to CBC initiatives. One method was

supporting similar activities in their own areas. An appeal was

made to support laws and policies that helped CBC. The FRA

was taken as an example of a law that could give people the

rights they have long been denied. However, there has been

misguided opposition to this act, and lawsuits aimed at nullifying

the act because it is viewed as a threat to conservation. Rather

than removing the act, people could work towards improving it

through amendments and through its implementation, and

ensuring that it aids conservation processes.

An important point from the talks that was repeated in

the discussion was that the CBC may not work for all

ecosystems and people. It is not a panacea for all situations,

but one in a larger mosaic of conservation methods.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

283

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(3), Sept-Dec 2009

284-288

ESTIMATION OF STRIPED HYENA HYAENA HYAENA POPULATION USING CAMERA TRAPS

IN SARISKA TIGER RESERVE, RAJASTHAN, INDIA

Shilpi Gupta12, Krishnendu Mondal1'3, K. Sankar1 4 and Qamar Qureshi15

'Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box No 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India.

Timail: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

We used camera trap based capture-recapture method to estimate the population size of Striped Hyena Hyaena hyaena

in Sariska Tiger Reserve. Twenty-five days of camera trapping was done with a sampling effort of 1,675 trap nights

from January to April 2008. Camera traps yielded a total of 85 Hyena photographs of 26 individuals within an effective

trapping area of 229.7 sq. km. Heterogeneous Jacknife model was best fit in estimating population with a capture

probability of 0.31 P(hat). Population size was 34 ±(SE 5.4) and density was estimated as 15.1 ±6.2 hyena/100 sq. km

(spatially explicit model). The study revealed that camera based capture-recapture method is an effective tool for

assessing the population size of Striped Hyena in Sariska.

Key words: Camera trapping. Hyaena hyaena, individual identification, Sariska Tiger Reserve

INTRODUCTION

The Striped Hyena Hyaena hyaena is one of the most

important large scavengers; its role in clearing off carrion in

tropical ecosystems and in recycling mineral compounds from

dead organic matter enhances its biological importance

(Kruuk 1976). They generally prefer arid to semi-arid

environment and avoid open desert and dense thickets (Prater

1971; Kruuk 1976; Leakey et al. 1999). The current

distribution range of this species extends from East to North-

east Africa, through the Middle East, Caucasus region. Central

Asia and into the Indian subcontinent (Mills and Hofer 1998).

In the Indian subcontinent, they occur in arid and semi-arid

ecosystems, as well as in the extremely wet regions of south-

western coast (Prater 1971;Karanth 1986). According to Mills

and Hofer ( 1 998), the estimated population of Striped Hyena

in India was c. 1 ,000, which was a gross under-estimate. The

camera trap based capture-recapture framework to estimate

population of large carnivores, based on natural markings on

their bodies, has proven to be amongst the most successful

non-invasive method for species such as Tiger Panthera tigris

(Karanth and Nichols 1998; Karanth et. al. 2004; Contractor

2008; Sharma et al. 2009), Leopard Panthera pardas

(Chauhan et al. 2005; Edgoankar et al. 2007; Harihar et al.

2009), Jaguar P. onca (Silver et al. 2004), Geoffrey’s Cat

Oncifelas geoffroyi (Cueller etal. 2006), Snow Leopard Uncia

uncia (Jackson et al. 2006) and Striped Hyena (Singh 2008).

This technique takes advantage of distinctive individual

markings through photographs for even heavily furred animals

such as Ocelot Leopardus pardalis (Trolle and Kery 2003),

Wolf Chrysocyon hrachyurus (Trolle et al. 2007), and Puma

Puma concolor (Kelly et al. 2008). The individual

identification in Spotted Hyena has been done earlier using

pelage and nicks in ears (Holekamp and Smale 1990; Hofer

and East 1993). The present study was aimed to estimate the

population of Striped Hyena on the basis of spatially explicit

closed capture models in a semi-arid landscape and to

standardize the camera trapping method.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study area

The study was conducted in Sariska Tiger Reserve

(Sariska TR), (25°5'-27°33' N; 74017’-76034’ E), which is

situated in the Aravalli Hill Range and lies in the semi-arid part

of Rajasthan (Rodgers and Panwar 1988). The total area of the

Tiger Reserve is 881 sq. km, with 273.8 sq. km as a notified

National Park. The vegetation of Sariska corresponds to Tropical

dry deciduous and Northern Tropical thorn forests (Champion

and Seth 1968). The Park supports various carnivore species

such as Tiger, Leopard, Striped Hyena, Caracal Caracal caracal.

Jackal Canis aureus. Jungle Cat Fells chaus and prey species

like Chital Axis axis, Sambar Rusa unicolor. Nilgai Boselaphus

tragocamelus. Common Langur Semnopithecus entellus. Wild

Pig Sus scrofa, Porcupine Hystrix indica. Rufous-tailed Hare

Lepus nigricollis ruficaudatus and Indian Peafowl Pavo cristatus

(Sankar 1 994). There are 32 villages within Sariska TR. A large

number of buffaloes, goats, sheep and cattle are kept by people

living in villages.

METHODS

A preliminary survey was carried out from November

to December 2007 in the intensive study area of 80 sq. km in

ESTIMATION OF STRIPED HYENA POPULATION USING CAMERA TRAPS IN SARISKA TIGER RESERVE

Fig. 1 : Camera trap locations in intensive study area of Sariska Tiger Reserve (January to April 2008)

the National Park. Indirect signs such as spoor and scats of

Hyena were identified and marked using a handheld Global

Positioning System. Striped Hyena camera trapping data was

collected from January to April 2008 in the intensive study

area. We placed the camera in lxl sq. km grid. Camera traps

were placed on the basis of hyena evidence (tracks, scats) on

the trails. We used 20 units of analog cameras that worked on

passive infrared motion/heat sensors. The camera traps were

equipped with 35 mm lens which recorded the date and time

of each photograph. The camera delay was kept at minimum

( 1 5 seconds) and sensor sensitivity was set at high. A total of

67 locations were selected for the placement of camera traps

in the study area (Fig. 1). The study area was divided into

four blocks of 20 sq. km each. Block A consisted of 20 camera

trap sites, block B had 1 9, C and D blocks had 1 4 camera trap

sites each. The mean inter trap distance was 726 m (ranging

from 700 to 1,200 m). Camera traps were operated for

25 consecutive occasions with the total sampling period of

100 days (1,675 trap nights). Individual Hyena obtained from

camera trap photographs were identified by a combination

of distinguishing characters such as position and shape of

stripes on flanks, limbs and forequarter, pattern and spots on

flanks (Schaller 1967; Karanth 1995; Singh 2008) (Fig. 2).

Any photograph with distorted perspective, or which lacked

clarity, was discarded (n=8). Every Hyena captured was given

a unique identification code like HI, H2, H3, etc. Capture

history of each individual was generated in an X matrix format

(Otis et al. 1978). Each day-wise sampling occasion was

constructed for example by taking 1 sl day from block A, B, C

and D as day one for entire study area and all subsequent

days were combined in this manner to construct a matrix of

capture for study area (Karanth 1995). Estimation of

population size using closed capture models requires the

population under investigation to be both demographically

and geographically closed. We tested for population closure

using software CAPTURE (Otis et al. 1978; Rexstad and

Burnham 1991). The density (D) of Hyena in the study area

was estimated by spatially explicit model (Efford 2004;

Sharma etal. 2009) using Density 4. 1 software (Efford 2004).

The density of Striped Hyena was calculated by four different

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

285

ESTIMATION OF STRIPED HYENA POPULATION USING CAMERA TRAPS IN SARISKA TIGER RESERVE

Fig. 2: Two individual hyenas captured by camera trap (A) and

(B) show individual H4 with stripes and spots on flanks identical

in shape and pattern. While (C) shows a different individual H10

with stripes and spots on flanks being clearly different in shape

and pattern

♦ no of photographs — ■ — individual hyenas

Fig. 3: Number of Striped Hyena photographed and number of

hyena photographs with increasing number of sampling occasions

to evaluate trap shyness and sampling adequacy in intensive study

area

methods such as full mean maximum density moved

(MMDM), halfMMDM, spatially explicit Inverse Prediction

density (IP dens) and spatial Maximum Likehood density (ML

dens) (Sharma et al. 2009).

RESULTS

The intensive trapping resulted in a total of

85 photographs of 26 individual hyenas, based on right flank

profde, as the number of individuals identified from the right

flank was maximum. The 67 trapping stations covered an

effective trapping area (ETA) of 229.7 sq. km (Full MMDM)

and the number of new individuals was found to stabilize

after the 19th trap night (Fig. 3). Population was closed for

the sample period (z = -0.49, P=0.3 1 ) (Otis et al. 1 978). The

overall model selection test based on discriminant functions

using the model selection algorithm of CAPTURE identified

Mh as the most appropriate model in our study. The model

selection scores are as follows: M (h) = 1 .00, M (tb) = 0.99, M

(o) = 0.96, M (b) = 0.82, M (tbh) = 0.78, M (bh) = 0.68, M (th)

= 0.42, and M (t) = 0.00. The estimated Hyena population size

(N) was = 34± SE (5.4) (Table 1). Density (D) and flank data

using spatial explicit model was 15.1 individual/ 100 sq. km.

MMDM and effective trapping area (ETA) was calculated

by different methods using the program DENSITY 4.4

(Table 1 ). Half normal detection function fitted the best and

Table 1 : Density estimates of Sriped Hyena in Sariska Tiger Reserve (January to April 2008)

(N= Population estimate, P (hat)=capture probability, Width=Buffer strip width, ETA=effectively trapped area, D=Density estimate,

MMDM=mean maximum distance moved, IP Dens=lnverse Prediction density, ML Dens= Maximum Likelihood density, SE = Standard

error)

286

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

ESTIMATION OF STRIPED HYENA POPULATION USING CAMERA TRAPS IN SARISKA TIGER RESERVE

the density arrived from right half MMDM densities were

24.5 individual/ 100 sq. km and 14.9 individual/ 100 sq. km

respectively. Spatial density and full MMDM yielded almost

similar results.

DISCUSSION

The capture-recapture technique based on camera trap

photographs of Hyena provided a statistically robust estimate

in estimating the population. We had also corroborated hyena

tracks and photographs at camera location for trap shyness

response and did not observe any behavioural response during

the study period. Effort required in terms of sampling

occasions suggested that a minimum of 20 days are required

to get reliable density estimates for hyena in the study area.

Out of 85 captures, 12 individual Hyena were recaptured more

than three times, 4 individuals were captured twice and

10 individuals had single captures. Some traps showed very

high capture rates (2 to 20 captures/trap location), while

individual captures/trap ranged from 1 to 8 individuals/trap

location. Camera traps deployed near villages Haripura and

Kiraska showed high individual capture rates such as 11%

(n=7) and 14% (n=9) respectively. This may be attributed to

Avinandan, D., K. Sankar & Q. Qureshi (2008): Prey selection by

tigers (Panthera tigris ) in Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan,

India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 105(3): 247-254.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of forest types

of India. Manager of Publications, Government of India,

New Delhi. 404 pp.

Chauhan, D.S., A. Harihar, S.P. Goyal, Q. Qureshi, P. Lal &

V.B. Mathur (2005): Estimating leopard population using

camera traps in Sariska Tiger Reserve, Wildlife Institute of

India, Dehradun, India. 23 pp.

Contractor, D. (2008): Evaluating the effects of design and sampling

intensity on estimating tiger (Panthera tigris ) population and

density. M.Sc. thesis submitted to Saurashtra University, Rajkot.

64 pp.

Cueller, E.L., M.R. Arispe & A.J. Noss (2006): Geoffroy’s cat at the

northern limit of their range: activity patterns and density

estimates from camera trapping in Bolivian dry forests. Stud.

Neotrop. Fauna Environ. 41: 169-178.

Edgaonkar, A., R. Chellam & Q. Qureshi (2007): Ecology of the

Leopard ( Panthera pardus fused) in Satpura National Park and

Bori Wildlife Sanctuary. Final Report. Wildlife Institute of

India, Dehradun. 119 pp.

Efford, M. (2004): Density estimation in live trapping studies. Oikos

106: 598-610.

Harihar, A., B. Pandav & S.P. Goyal (2009): Density of Leopard

(Panthera pardus) in Chilla Range of Rajaji National Park,

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Hofer, H. & M.L. East (1993): The commuting system of Serengeti

Spotted Hyenas: how a predator copes with migratory prey.

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Holekamp, K.E. & L. Smale ( 1990): Provisioning and food sharing by

availability of carcasses (livestock) in and around these

villages on which hyenas might be scavenging. The estimated

Hyena density in Sariska TR is the highest as compared to

available studies in India and Africa (Kruuk 1976; Wagner

2006; Singh 2008; Wagner et al. 2008) and this might be

attributed to the availability of high wild prey base and

domestic livestock, i.e., of 105 animal/sq. km and 222 animals/

sq. km respectively (Avinandan et al. 2008; Sankar et al.

2009). Spatially explicit models and full MMDM give reliable

estimates of density (Sharma et al. 2009) and we chose these

estimates for density estimation. The camera trap based

capture-recapture method is proven to be good to estimate

Hyena abundance and can be reliably used in various habitat

types.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Rajasthan Forest Department for facilitation

of this work in Sariska, as a part of ‘Ecology of Leopard’

research project conducted by the Wildlife Institute of India.

We thank Director and Dean, WII, for their encouragement

and support provided for the study. We also thank anonymous

reviewers for their valuable comments on the draft manuscript.

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Hyaenidae). Ethology 86: 191-202.

Jackson, R.M., J.D. Roe, R. Wangchuk & D.O. Hunter (2006):

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Karanth, K.U. & J.D. Nichols ( 1998): Estimation of tiger densities in

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2852-2862.

Karanth, K.U., J.D. Nichols, N.S. Kumar, W.A. Link & J.E. Hines

(2004): Tigers and their prey: predicting carnivore densities

from prey abundance. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 14: 4854-4858.

Kelly, M.J., A.J. Noss, M.S. Bitetti, L. Maffei, R.L. Arispe, A. Paviolo,

C. D. De Angelo & Y.E. Di Blanco (2008): Estimating Puma

densities from camera trapping across three study sites: Bolivia,

Argentina and Belize. J. Mammal. 89: 408-418.

Kruuk, H. (1976): Feeding and social behaviour of the Striped Hyena

(Hyaena vulgaris Desmarest). East African Wildlife Journal 14:

91-111.

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D. K. Kiptoo & A. McGeorge (1999): Diet of Striped

Hyena in northern Kenya. African Journal of Ecology 37:

314-326.

Mills, M.G.L. & II. Hofer (1998): Hyaenas: Status Survey and

Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Hyaena Specialist

Group, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 154 pp.

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ESTIMATION OF STRIPED HYENA POPULATION USING CAMERA TRAPS IN SARISKA TIGER RESERVE

Otis, D.L., K.P. Burnham, G.C. White & D.R. Anderson (1978):

Statistical inference from capture data on closed animal

populations. Wildlife Monographs 62: 1-135.

Prater, S. ( 197 1 ): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay. 263 pp.

Rexstad, E. & K.P. Burnham (1991): User’s Guide for Interactive

Program CAPTURE. Fort Collins: Colorado State University.

30 pp.

Rodgers, W.A. & H.S. Panwar (1988): Planning a Wildlife Protected

Area Network in India. Vol. I, Wildlife Institute of India,

Dehradun. 341 pp.

Sankar, K. (1994): Ecology of three large sympatric herbivores (chital,

sambar, nilgai) with special reference to the reserve management

in Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan. Ph D., Thesis. University

of Rajasthan. Jaipur, India. 190 pp.

Sankar, K., Qamar Qureshi, Krishnendu Mondal, D. Worah,

T. Srivastava, S. Gupta & S. Basu (2009): Ecological studies in

Sariska Tiger Reserve, Final report submitted to National Tiger

Conservation Authority, Govt of India, New Delhi. Wildlife

Institute of India, Dehradun. 145 pp.

Sharma, R.K., Y.V. Jhala, Q. Qureshi, J. Vattakaran, R. Goyal &

K. Nayak (2009): Evaluating capture recapture population

density estimating of tigers in a population with known

parameter. Animal Conservation 13: 94-103.

Schaller, G.B. (1967): The Deer and the Tiger: A study of Wildlife in

India. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 370 pp.

Silver, S.C., L.E. Ostro, L.K. Marsh, L. Maffei, A.J. Noss &

M.J. Kelly (2004): The use of camera traps for estimating Jaguar

(Panthera onca ) abundance and density using capture/ recapture

analysis. Oryx 38: 148-154.

Singh, P. (2008): The population estimation and feeding habits of Striped

Hyena ( Hyaena hyaena) in related to land use pattern in semi-

arid region of Rajasthan, M.Sc.. thesis submitted to Manipal

University, India. 56 pp.

Trolle, M. & M. Kery (2003): Estimation of ocelot density in the

Pantanal using capture recapture analysis of camera trapping

data. J. Mammal. 84: 607-614.

Trolle, M„ A.J. Noss, E. De S. Lima & J.C. Dalponte (2007): Camera-

trap studies of manned wolf density in the Cerrado and Pantanal

of Brazil. Biodivers. Conserv. 16: 1197-1204.

Wagner, A.P (2006): Behavioral ecology of the Striped Hyena (Hyaena

hyaena). Ph.D., Dissertation. Bozeman, MT: Montana State

University. 195 pp.

Wagner, A.P, L.G Frank & S. Creel (2008): Spatial grouping in

behaviourally solitary striped hyaenas ( Hyaena hyaena). Anim.

Behav. 75(3): 1131-1142.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(3), Sept-Dec 2009

289-297

HUMAN-ELEPHANT CONFLICT IN A COLONISED SITE

OF DISPERSED ELEPHANTS: KOUNDINYA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

(ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA)

Ranjit Manakadan1-4, S. Swaminathan2, J.C. Daniel1-5 and Ajay A. Desai3

'Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House. Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

25, Kannar Street, Porayar, Nagai district, Tamil Nadu 609 310, India. Email: [email protected]

'BC-84, Camp, Belgaum 591 001. Karnataka, India. Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

'Email: [email protected]. in

This paper discusses human-elephant conflict (HEC) in Koundinya Wildlife Sanctuary (KWS), one of the two sites in

Andhra Pradesh colonized by elephants during the 1980s after dispersing from sites in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka

states. The nature and extent of the past and present HEC, causes for the conflict, mitigation measures adopted, and

their effectiveness are discussed based on a one year study (January-December 2005). The findings reveal that the

primary reason for the decline in HEC is due to the decline in elephant numbers, especially adult bulls in the case of

man slaughter, and that the crop damage mitigation measures adopted by the Forest Department have not been a

success on the whole. As for tackling HEC, we suggest translocation of the animals to other elephant habitats as the

existing small population (12 individuals) is theoretically speaking not viable to survive into the future and due to the

problems facing the Sanctuary, unless the Forest Department is keen on conserving the species in KWS for which

management measures are recommended.

Keywords: Asian Elephant, Koundinya Wildlife Sanctuary, crop damage, human-elephant conflict, conservation

INTRODUCTION

Historically, Andhra Pradesh was not known to have

elephants since the past 200 years (Syam Prasad and Reddy

2002). However, during the early 1980s, a small herd of

elephants moved into the Kuppam and Palamaner forests of

Chittoor district in Andhra Pradesh from the Hosur and

Dharmapuri forests of Tamil Nadu, c. 60 km to its southwest.

An assessment of the animals and their habitat (Sivaganesan

and Bhushan 1986) found the habitat to be sub-optimal and

postulated that the elephants had moved into the area due to

drought in their normal distributional range and would move

back into their original home during the next (favourable)

monsoon. However, this did not happen, and later, more

elephants migrated into the area during 1986 reportedly from

the Bannerghatta National Park, Karnataka, which adjoins the

Hosur-Dharmapuri forests. Some of the elephants that moved

into Kuppam-Palamaner forests later dispersed north into the

Sri Venkateswara Wildlife Sanctuary-National Park (Andhra

Pradesh) and southwards to the Javadi Hills (Tamil Nadu).

The presence of elephants initially welcomed by the

locals due to religious sentiments and ignorance of the

problem potential of elephants changed rapidly with

incidences of crop damage and human deaths. Attempts to

drive them back into the the Hosur-Dharmapuri forests were

unsuccessful. With time, the Andhra Pradesh Forest

Department accepted the presence of elephants in their state

and declared an area of 357 sq. km in the Kuppam and

Palamaner forest areas as the Koundinya Wildlife Sanctuary

(KWS). However, this and subsequent management measures

did not help in improving the situation, and over the years, a

total of 45 humans deaths, 24 elephant deaths and nearly

4,000 crop and property damage claims were registered with

the Forest Department. The Bombay Natural History Society

(BNHS) undertook this study from January 2005 to December

2005 (Daniel et al. 2006) primarily to assess the current

situation of elephants and the habitat in KWS, and in this

paper, we analyse the past and present human-elephant

conflict in KWS and examine the mitigation measures adopted

by the Forest Department and their effectiveness.

STUDY AREA

Koundinya Wildlife Sanctuary ( 1 2°39’- 1 3 ° 1 O’ N;

78°29'-78°52' E; 357 sq. km), Chittoor district, Andhra

Pradesh, falls within the hill ranges of the Eastern Ghats, a

broken and discontinuous line of mountain range in peninsular

India. KWS (Fig. 1) is linear in shape, running about 70 km

north to south and the breath varies from c. 1 to 1 5 km. It has

a periphery of about 224 km with 53 fringe villages and

8 enclosure villages. The Sanctuary comes under two ranges:

Palamaner in the north and Kuppam in the south. Palamaner

Range is divided into four blocks: Tekumanda,

Musalimadugu, Mordana and Nellipatla. The Kuppam Range

has six blocks: Naikaneri, Peddanaikdurg, Charagallu, Peddur

Extension, Peddur and Kangundi.

HUMAN-ELEPHANT CONFLICT IN A COLONISED SITE OF DISPERSED ELEPHANTS: KOUNDINYA WLS

Palamaner *

Baireddipalle

Kuppam

Ambur

Vanr/ambadi

*

Fig. 1: Koundinya Wildlife Sanctuary: the study area

The water sources in the Sanctuary consists of the River

Palar, its tributaries the Malattar (or Kaigal) and Koundinya,

besides monsoonal streams. In general, water is available only

at some places of the Palar and its tributaries during summer

and water scarcity is severe during years of low rainfall. The

other water sources in the Sanctuary comprises of natural or

man-made ponds or lakes, most of which are largely situated

at the outskirts of the fringe and enclosure villages.

Chittoor district receives rainfall from the South-West

Monsoon (June-August) and North-East Monsoon (October-

December), averaging about 380 mm and 410 mm

respectively. However, the distribution of rainfall is uneven

and the area is drought prone. The cold weather is from

November to February with temperatures sometimes dropping

to 10°C. Summer (March-May) is mild with maximum

temperature of about 33°C (Anon. 2004).

The vegetation is predominantly of Southern Tropical

Dry Mixed Deciduous (Champion and Seth 1968), comprising

of trees such as Hardwickia binata , Chloroxylon swie tenia,

Albizzia amara , Boswellia serrata , Anogeissus latifolia ,

Pterocarpus santalinus , Shorea spp., Diospyros spp. and Ficus

spp. The water courses are dominated by Terminalia arjuna,

Pongamia pinnata , Tamarindus indica , Mangifera indica, and

Syzigium cumini. However, the vegetation varies widely in

different areas as a result of terrain, soil, impacts of grazing.

fires, woodcutting, and history of exploitation. Due to the

past history of exploitation for timber and fuel, most of the

trees in the Sanctuary (except for minor forest produce

species) have resulted from coppice growths or have got

established in the last two to three decades, which explains

their overall short stature. The exotic Lantana camara has

invaded vast areas of the Sanctuary.

The major mammals reported from the Sanctuary are

the Bonnet Macaque Macaca radiata, Hanuman Langur

Presbytis entellus , Slender Loris Loris tardigradus, Leopard

Panthera pardus , Striped Hyena Hyaena hyaena , Sloth Bear

Melursus ursinus. Dhole Cuon alpinus, Jackal Cam's aureus ,

Small Indian Civet Viverricula indica. Common Indian

Mongoose Herpestes edwardsi, Indian Porcupine Hystrix

indica, Indian Hare Lepus nigricollis, Indian Flying Fox

Pteropus giganteus. Spotted Deer Axis axis. Four-homed

Antelope Tetracerus quadricornis. Mouse Deer Tragulus

meminna and Wild Boar Sus scrofa.

METHODS

Data on the past human-elephant conflict (HEC) in

KWS was obtained from the Divisional Forest Department

office at Chittoor and the two Forest Range offices at Kuppam

and Palamaner. Apart from this, questionnaire surveys were

290

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

HUMAN-ELEPHANT CONFLICT IN A COLONISED SITE OF DISPERSED ELEPHANTS: KOUNDINYA WLS

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carried out in villages in and around the Sanctuary to have

actual accounts of locals and information of unreported cases.

A total of 45 fringe and enclosure villages in Andhra Pradesh

and 18 bordering villages in Tamil Nadu were surveyed.

Information on the current HEC incidences was

obtained through the above mentioned surveys and also from

visits made to sites on reports received from villagers, Forest

Department personnel and local newspapers. The data

collected included the name of the village raided, crops/

property damaged, the extent of damage and the age-sex and

group size of the raiding elephants. Measures adopted by the

Forest Department (i.e., compensation, power fences,

trenches, driving by elephant trackers) to prevent or mitigate

human-elephant conflict and their effectiveness were assessed

through actual observations and queries with affected people.

Peoples’ attitudes towards elephants were sought during the

surveys and other field visits.

RESULTS

Past HEC

Human Deaths and Injuries : Being new to elephants

and ignorant of their dangers and on how to deal with them,

45 people were killed and 13 injured in the KWS area from

1985 to 1999 (Fig. 2). The deaths and injuries resulted from

people venturing to see elephants at village outskirts (a person

even going to the extent of offering a coconut due to religious

beliefs), while protecting crops against raiding elephants,

when elephants passed through villages, and encounters on

forest trails. With time, people recognized that elephants were

dangerous and learnt to be wary and this resulted in a decline

in deaths and injuries. However, encounters during crop

raiding continued and this resulted in some deaths and injuries.

With the capture of the bulls that were responsible for much

of the conflict, no incidents of human deaths and injuries

occurred after 1999. Though the identities of elephants

responsible for deaths or injuries was not certain (as many

occurred at night), enquiries with villagers revealed that bulls

were generally responsible for many of the incidences. Most

of the deaths and injuries that took place outside the forest

areas (i.e., agricultural fields and villages) occurred in the

late evenings or at night, while cases in forest areas occurred

during the day and involved mostly herdsmen and

woodcutters.

Elephant Deaths'. Twenty-four deaths of elephants were

reported between 1987 and 2003 in the Koundinya area.

Reasons attributed for deaths include electrocution (54%),

natural death (33%) and unknown causes (13%).

Electrocution occurred primarily during crop raiding through

contact with power lines laid by villagers to kill wildboar

entering crop fields. A high number of deaths occurred

between 1988 and 1993, and occurred mainly in the Kuppam

Range, suggesting that even then (as is now) elephants ranged

more in the southern part of the Sanctuary. Besides deaths

given in Forest Department records, Sivaganesan and Bhushan

(1986) obtained reports of a death of an elephant in the

bordering Tamil Nadu area in the 1980s.

Crop and Property Damage : Forest Department

records cite a total of 4,0 1 0 crop and property damage claims

made from 1985 to 2004 and a total compensation amount of

c. Rs. 2.57 million paid to the claimants. Our village surveys

revealed that crop damage was earlier widespread all along

the villages at the periphery of the reserve forests of Tamil

Nadu that border the Sanctuary from Mordana in the north to

Kothur (Nattarampalli) in the south-west (Fig. 3, see Fig. 1

for more place names). Crop damage also occurred along the

dispersal route between Krishnagiri and KWS. HEC has

totally stopped in all areas of Tamil Nadu which border KWS

since the last five years, except for the Sarangal area, which

is located on the outskirts of the reserve forests that adjoin

the Charagallu block, an area much frequented by elephants.

Present HEC

Human Deaths and Injuries'. There were no human

deaths or injuries during the study period, which is the case

after 1 999. The only report received of a near case of human-

elephant encounter was of a herdsman, who reported having

been chased off by a big bull when he came upon the herd in

the Nellipatla block.

Elephant Deaths : Elephant deaths were not recorded

during the study period.

Crop and Property Damage'. Forty-four cases of crop

damage from 17 villages were recorded during the study

period (Figs 3, 4). The species raided were Ragi or Finger

Millet ( Eleusine coracana), Paddy (Oiyza sativa), Maize

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

291

HUMAN-ELEPHANT CONFLICT IN A COLONISED SITE OF DISPERSED ELEPHANTS: KOUNDINYA WLS

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Fig. 3: Crop raiding pattern of elephants in the Koundinya Wildlife Sanctuary

(Zea mays). Sugarcane ( Saccharum officinarum), Groundnut

( Arachis hypogea). Banana ( Musa paradisiaca), and

vegetables comprising mainly of tomatoes and bean species

(Table 1). Elephants damaged crops both by eating and

Table 1: Crop species damaged by elephants and the extent

and nature of damage

Note: Bananas Musa paradisiaca (3 fields), Coconut Cocos

nucifera (5 trees) and Mango Mangifera indica (1 tree) were the

other species that were damaged/killed.

trampling. Coconut ( Cocos nucifera) and mango ( Mangifera

indica) were trees that were uprooted/damaged. In the case

of coconut (5 trees), the tree was pushed down to feed on the

foliage, thus killing the tree. The solitary bull (sometimes

accompanied by the subadult bull from the herd) was

responsible for 59% of the raids and the (single) herd for the

rest. Damage to property recorded during the study period

consisted of a crop owner’s watch-hut ( 1 case) and irrigation

pipes (2 cases).

Peoples Attitude to Elephants

The majority of the villagers (n=65) interviewed during

the surveys said that they were averse to elephants in their

areas due to the dangers posed and resulting restriction of

their movements in forests. A small number (15) opinioned

that they did not mind or even liked elephant presence in the

areas as long as HEC was kept under control. Three

respondents (including one whose crop field had just been

raided) said the presence of elephants was welcome as

elephants brought rains (as is the locals’ belief).

Mitigation Measures

The strategies adopted by the Forest Department to

mitigate human-elephant conflict (HEC) in KWS were/are:

292

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

HUMAN-ELEPHANT CONFLICT IN A COLONISED SITE OF DISPERSED ELEPHANTS: KOUNDINYA WLS

No. ofRaids

Fig. 4: Village-wise raids recorded during the study period

Electric fence: The Forest Department initially opted

for electric fences, and between 1989 and 1992 laid a linear

stretch of fence from the northern to southern end of the

Sanctuary, positioned between the border of the Sanctuary

and the reserve forests of Andhra Pradesh. This fencing was

a failure since it was in the interior areas of the forest making

maintenance and monitoring difficult, and also due to theft

of fence material, including the supporting granite posts.

Learning from this mistake, the Department started erecting

fences in 1989 around enclosure villages and the edges of

fringe villages. Till December 2005, about 100 km of fence

had been erected with a balance of 60 km to be completed.

Cooperation of villages was sought to ensure that the fence

material was not stolen. The fences, except for the recently

erected fence around the ‘elephant camp’, are solar-powered

4-strand fences supported by granite posts. Only the fencing

around the elephant camp is the standard 7-strand fence with

steel posts that is more widely used nowadays.

Removal of problematic animals: Removal of

elephants (all bulls) by capture was necessitated when these

animals took to manslaughter and/or became habitual crop-

raiders. Some animals that dispersed out of the Sanctuary

were also captured. A total of 6 bulls were captured in KWS

and outside areas, and sent to zoos. One animal died during

the capture operation.

Driving elephants from human habitation: The

Forest Department has a team of 6 ‘elephant trackers’

belonging to the tribal Yanadi community whose work is

mainly to drive elephants off human habitation areas whenever

reported with the help of crackers. Though never being

familiar with elephants in the past, the team has gained

experience over the years and is quite adept at this task without

any loss to life or injuries till date.

Monetary compensation: Monetary compensation is

an indirect method adopted by the Forest Department to

mitigate HEC. Amounts are fixed (with revisions as felt

necessary) for different HEC cases. The amount paid for

manslaughter is currently Rs. 1,00,000 up from Rs. 10,000

during the 1980s. Assessment of crop damage is made by

inspection of fields by the Forest Department along with

officials of the Agricultural Department and the claimants.

Locals interviewed said that adequate monetary compensation

is a satisfactory solution for crop or property loss, but cannot

compensate for the loss of human life. The problems cited

regarding monetary compensation (a) Inadequate

compensation (b) Time, procedures and resources needed to

lodge complaints, and (c) Delays in getting compensation.

DISCUSSION

Human-elephant conflict in the KWS area was severe

in the past, but has shown a marked decline in the past few

years, especially with regard to manslaughter. There are a

number of reasons for the decline in HEC. Two important

factors are the fall in elephant population from about 80 to

12 individuals and the settling down of the current population

(contra exploratory nature of the earlier herds and bulls).

Another equally important contributory factor was the

removal of problematic bulls. Most of the kills of humans in

KWS were by tuskers, which is the trend in southern India

where 80% of the manslaughter reported was by bulls though

they constitute less than 1 0% of the total population (Sukumar

1991). Appaya (1992) reported that almost all the

56 problematic elephants that were translocated out of the

isolated pockets of forests into larger forest tracts in Karnataka

consisted of bulls. Sukumar (1991) reported that in less than

a decade HEC has significantly reduced in the

Chamarajanagar and Satyamangalam regions owing to

poaching of bulls for tusks. Some bulls are inherently

aggressive (especially during musth) and turn into habitual

killers (Sukumar 1989; Cheeran 2002), and similarly, some

of the captured bulls in KWS were reported to be wanton

killers. One extremely large bull which was captured due to

HEC problems, and which died soon after, is believed to have

been responsible for many of the manslaughter cases in KWS.

Another reason for decline in manslaughter is that the locals

are now aware of the dangers of elephants, unlike earlier where

whole villages would venture to see elephants that came near

human habitation. Conversely now, herdsmen and woodcutter

avoid venturing into forests areas on reports of elephant

presence and quickly run away or take to the shelter of large

trees on approach of elephants.

Bulls are also well-known to raid crops more frequently

than family herds (Santiapillai and Ramono 1993; Appaya

1992; Daniel et al. 1995; Sukumar 1989, 1991). However,

though the frequency of raids by males was more, the extent

of damage caused by bulls and herds was not statistically

different as the damage caused by a herd collectively is more

than a bull’s (Balasubramanian et al. 1995). Studies by

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

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HUMAN-ELEPHANT CONFLICT IN A COLONISED SITE OF DISPERSED ELEPHANTS: KOUNDINYA WLS

Baskaran and Desai (1996) revealed that only specific clans

and males raid crops, which suggest that removal of crop-

raiders can eradicate or mitigate crop damage. However, it

has to be borne in mind that removal of bulls from the

population would adversely impact breeding. At present, there

are only two adult bulls (one which stays with the herd) in

KWS, besides a subadult and juvenile bull, and it may just be

a matter of time before they start to create problems. In fact,

the elephant trackers anticipate this to happen in future

especially in the case of the adult lone bull, which is becoming

bolder.

Electric fences are regarded to be generally effective

against elephants but constant maintenance is important to

its success (Seidensticker 1984; Sukumar 1986, 1989, 1991;

Balasubramanian etal. 1995; Daniel etal. 1995; Daim 1995;

Santiapillai 1996). Fences backed by additional protection

and stakeholders support (as in the case with privately owned

plantations) were found to be more successful

(Balasubramanian et al. 1995; Nath and Sukumar 1998;

Chauhan and Chowdhury 2002). In non-privately owned

fences, as is the case with KWS, people do not feel responsible

for their maintenance even thought it benefits the village as a

whole. However, it is difficult to stop elephants from raiding

crops once agriculture becomes the principal land use in the

vicinity of elephant reserves (Santiapillai and Ramono 1993)

and since elephants learn to get through electric fences

(Seidensticker 1984; Sukumar 1989; Santiapillai 1996)

irrespective of design criteria (Thouless and Sakwa 1995;

Nath and Sukumar 1998). In KWS, given the dynamic nature

of the whole situation where elephant numbers have changed

and problematic elephants captured (and killed by

electrocution), it is difficult to attribute changes in crop raiding

intensity to the electric fence. However, HEC data collected

during this study shows that elephants raided crops even where

fences exist by pushing down and breaking the exposed

granite posts. The opinion gathered from villagers is that

power fences do not really act as a barrier for crop raiders,

but it does deter elephants from entering fenced areas if the

animals are not intent on crop raiding.

As for KWS, while the single long fence failed, the

current approach to fencing of one or more villages is more

practical even though it has not stopped elephants from totally

raiding crops. The causes of failures basically are (a) lack of

stakeholder involvement where the villagers do not see the

fence as their own and do not help in monitoring and

maintenance (b) absence of participation by all stakeholders

in the erection of fences resulting in breakage to enter forests

for fuel wood, cattle grazing, etc., and (c) poor construction

and use of unsuitable material, e.g., granite posts. As fences

guarded at night are more secure than unguarded ones, some

efforts must be made to guard fences, especially when

elephants are reported near villages. Another important aspect

that people and managers need to be aware and accept is that

fences do not provide 100% solution and they only reduce

the intensity of conflict. Hence, breakages by elephants should

not be viewed as failures but rather looked upon as normal as

long as the overall damage is reduced. However, given the

poor quality of the existing habitat, the ‘fencing off’ of villages

may result in elephants resorting to greater number of break-

ins to get at crops in the event that natural food is not adequate,

so habitat protection and improvement measures are an

integral part of the HEC mitigation.

With regard to the drives from human habitation areas

by elephant trackers, this strategy gives the false appearance

of being successful mainly due to the small elephant

population. The manpower requirements for this strategy

would be huge and difficult to implement if the elephant

population was larger with more herds and bulls operating in

the area. The drives in fact only result in transferring the

problem from one village to another or/and result in the

animals coming back to the village after a gap of a few days.

Elephants soon recognize such psychological bluffs and get

accustomed to them (Santiapillai 1996). The drives are now

taking longer with the animal retreating into the forests more

leisurely. The elephant trackers in KWS report that the lone

bull is now quite habituated to the drives and occasionally

stands its ground and fling things at them during drives from

crop fields. However, the presence of the trackers and drives

gives a psychological boost to the affected villagers.

Considering all the above mentioned factors, it appears

that a combination of decline in population, settling down of

herds, removal of bulls and people’s awareness are largely

responsible for the decline in HEC rather than the effectiveness

of the current HEC mitigation measures, i.e., power fences

and driving by elephant trackers. A number of factors are

responsible or act as catalysts for HEC in KWS as follows:

1 . The small size of the Sanctuary, its linear shape and

the extensive interface of forest and human habitation ensures

that elephants encounter human use areas in every direction

of movement.

2. HEC would be more severe when elephants start

operating in a new area as they are unfamiliar with the area,

resulting in constant encounter with people. People are also

unfamiliar with elephants and are not geared to address HEC.

Most fields have no crop protection and even when crop

raiding starts, people do not know how to protect their crops

from elephants unlike in areas where people are habituated

to elephant depredations.

3. Elephants due to their large size and bulk food

requirements are far-ranging mammals and radio-telemetry

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HUMAN-ELEPHANT CONFLICT IN A COLONISED SITE OF DISPERSED ELEPHANTS: KOUNDINYA WLS

studies show their home ranges to be as large as 500 sq. km for

clans; 623 sq. km and 530 sq. km for cows, and

374 sq. km and 210 sq. kmfor bulls (Baskaran etal. 1995; Daniel

et al. 1995), and thus are more likely to come into contact with

human habitation and take to crop-raiding than other mammals,

and especially as elephant habitats shrink and/or get degraded

(Sukumar 1986, 1989; Daniel et al. 1995; Nair 2004).

4. The general scarcity of water in forest areas in

summer (especially during low rainfall years) and its

availability in irrigation tanks near human settlements act as

catalysts for crop-raiding. Many of the check-dams

constructed to supplement water resources for elephants are

at the edges of the forest instead of interior areas. These water

sources attract elephants, and in such situations, crop-raiding

occurs as a consequence of the need for water, which for

elephants is significant at around 200-250 litres/day (Sukumar

1989; Cheeran 2004). Water sources acting as catalysts for

crop raiding have been reported by other workers

(Seidensticker 1984; Sukumar 1989, 1990; Ramesh Kumar

1994; Daniel etal. 1995).

5. Habitat loss or degradation through grazing by

livestock and wood-cutting by locals, and also the decline of

food plants due to over-utilization by elephants due to

‘pocketing effect’ (especially applicable to small sanctuaries)

and loss of corridors to adjoining forest tracts also results in

crop-raiding. In such situations, feeding habits soon become

environment destroying activities as migratory routes are

blocked and forage supply diminishes (Wing and Buss 1970).

Villages and crop fields bordering such forests will face more

HEC due to the suboptimal resources (Sukumar 1986; Daniel

et al. 1995). It is estimated that prime elephant ranges have

shrunk by 20-25% in southern India within a century and

fragmentation has brought elephants closer and in conflict

with people (Sukumar 1989, 1990).

6. Even if the above mentioned problems do not exist,

elephants will continue to raid crops since cultivated species

are highly nutritious, more palatable and less toxic than their

wild counterparts and require less feeding effort due to single

species dominance (Sukumar 1985, 1989, 1990). Though not

much highlighted in studies, crop-raiding in grass deficient

areas like KWS could be more related to requirements of

grass in the diet than other factors considering that Poaceae

(Graminae) species such as finger millet are preferred during

crop-raids.

CONCLUSION

Other than the requirements of extensive landscapes

for survival, conservation initiatives become more difficult

for elephants due to the problem of HEC. The Indian

Government annually spends about Rs. 100-150 million on

measures to control crop depredation and ex-gratia payment

to the victims of depredation. HEC not only breeds hostility

among the locals towards elephants but also towards Forest

Department staff (Bist 2002). In the case of KWS, most of

the locals living at the borders of the Sanctuary are poor and

cannot be expected to live with elephants in their vicinity

(which were not there earlier), suffering ensuing economic

losses and tolerating the inconveniences and threats to lives

and livelihoods.

As discussed in detail earlier, preventing crop raiding

in KWS is extremely difficult due to the small size of the

Sanctuary, its linear shape with an extensive interface of forest

and human habitation areas, scarcity of water in summer and

compounded by its availability around village surroundings,

habitat loss and degradation through human related factors

and ‘non-sustainable use’ of food plants by elephants due to

their ‘pocketing’ in KWS with the loss of corridors and

adjoining forests. Due to these factors and since the long-

term survival of the small population of elephants in KWS is

bleak, the practical solution to tackle HEC would be the

removal (translocation or capture for zoological parks) of

elephants from the Sanctuary, as has been suggested by others

for sites facing pressures and having small populations

(McKay 1973; Sukumar 1986,1989; Santiapillai 1996).

However, if the Andhra Pradesh Forest Department is keen

on the conservation of the elephants, which are the raison

d’etre of the Sanctuary, then besides attending to some of the

lacuna in HEC mitigation discussed earlier, the following are

recommended:

Protection of habitat: Protection of habitat would be

the key factor in improving the status of elephants in KWS.

If it is difficult to stop fuel wood collection, cutting of small

timber, fires and cattle grazing, then it will be impossible to

improve the situation for the existing population, let alone a

much larger one needed for long-term conservation.

Collaboration with the Tamil Nadu Forest

Department to protect border areas: The eastern and south-

eastern borders of the Sanctuary are contiguous with the

reserve forests of Tamil Nadu. These reserve forests face major

threats for fuel wood from the people of the plains and these

pressures are progressing into the Sanctuary areas. Hence,

the officials of the Sanctuary need to collaborate with the

Tamil Nadu Forest Department to put a check on the pressures

and disturbances in these areas.

Inclusion of reserve forests into the Sanctuary: As

the Sanctuary is small and narrow, and due to its insularity,

the adjoining reserve forests of Andhra Pradesh on its western

border should ideally be incorporated into the Sanctuary to

enjoy the enhanced benefits that sanctuaries have compared

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

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HUMAN-ELEPHANT CONFLICT IN A COLONISED SITE OF DISPERSED ELEPHANTS: KOUNDINYA WLS

to reserve forests. Many of the reserved forest areas are already

being used by elephants as there are no barriers to stop them

from entering these areas. However, the inclusion would have

an impact only if the change in status of the land results in

greater protection and improvement of habitat in a manner

suitable for elephants.

Habitat Enrichment: A number of habitat enrichment

plots of food plants for elephants have already been established

by the Forest Department. Most of them are at the outskirts of

villages, and hence, are either avoided by elephants or act as

catalysts for human-elephant conflict. As browse availability

appears to be sufficient and it is grass availability that is scarce

in the Sanctuary, planting of browse species is unnecessary

and instead grass or bamboo plots could be established. Areas

having alluvial soils or moist conditions should be preferred

as these give rise to more palatable grass species. However,

grass availability is best addressed through reduction/stopping

of cattle grazing as there would be little use in trying to grow

grass if cattle grazing persists. Additionally, habitat enrichment

would be futile if the other factors responsible for habitat

degradation cannot be addressed.

Creation of water sources inside the Sanctuary: One

reason for human-elephant conflict in KWS is due to the

scarcity of water during summer compounded by its

availability near human habitation. For this reason, we

suggest construction of a few more water resources in the

interior forest areas and development and protection of

important water sources. Posting of Forest Department

watchers at some of the important sites during summer is

recommended as poachers of other wildlife tend to camp

around waterholes during summer. Construction of water

resources is generally discouraged since it causes artificial

increase in elephant pressures on vegetation around

waterholes, especially during the dry season (Daniel et al.

1995; Santiapillai etal. 1995;Sukumar 1989), but is essential

in Koundinya as water resources tend to be scarce during

low rainfall years causing elephants much hardship and

encouraging HEC. These negative impacts of waterholes

could be lessened if they are well distributed (see

Seidensticker 1984). Additionally, artificial supply of water

has been found to give rise to relatively small and stable

elephant home ranges (Whyte 2001), which could prevent

wandering of the KWS elephants into border areas and thus

reduce human-elephant conflict.

Planting of alternative crops: The Forest Department,

in consultation with the Agriculture Department, could

encourage the villagers to grow crop species that are not

palatable or less preferred to elephants such as chillies, lemon

and mulberry. Providing incentives/subsidies/loans to the

villagers and facilities like drip irrigation, help in transport

of goods and finding buyers for the produce will be required

to achieve this objective as villagers tend not to change unless

help and facilities are offered.

Monetary Compensation for HEC: There is a need

to have simple and clear procedures for registering, evaluation

and payment of claims, so that people become aware of these

and transparency is established. As most of the affected are

illiterate and subsistence farmers, and tend to be wary of

officialdom, payment of compensation claims in the field in

the presence of village officials would be a helpful solution.

Eco-development: With the pressures facing the

Sanctuary for its natural resources from bordering villages, it

appears unlikely that the Sanctuary can survive into the future

unless it receives the support of local communities. For this,

the conditions of the local villagers need to be improved and

their dependence on forest resources reduced or stopped by

providing alternatives. There are already two schemes in KWS

working towards this objective, the Vana Samrakshna Samithi

(VSS) and the Eco-Development Committee (EDC) both

funded by the World Bank and coordinated by the Forest

Department. The focus of these schemes are to uplift the

standard of life of the villagers by providing support in

improvement in agriculture, animal husbandry and setting-

up small scale or cottage industries; providing employment

through soil and moisture conservation works and

construction of checkdams; introduction of alternative fuel

(biogas) and fuel saving devices ( choolas)\ harvest and

processing of minor forest produce on a sustainable basis;

and augmentation of fuel wood and fodder in community

lands. However, judging from the pressures and disturbance

recorded in the forest during the study, it appears that these

schemes have still not achieved their objectives as far as

people’s dependence or exploitation of forest resources is

concerned. As increase in human population will put more

pressures on the success of these schemes, family planning

should be included as an important component of these

programmes. Eco-development is especially vital for small

sanctuaries with villages at their fringes and a growing

population (as in the case of KWS), and it is important that

schemes like the VSS and EDC are successful if the Sanctuary

is to survive into the future.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project was possible through funding by the U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). In the USFWS, we are

indebted to Mr. David Ferguson, former SFC Coordinator

(Retd.), Division of International Conservation for his

suggestions while formulating the project and to Dr. Karl A.K.

Stromayer and Dr. Meenakshi Nagendran, former and present

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

HUMAN-ELEPHANT CONFLICT IN A COLONISED SITE OF DISPERSED ELEPHANTS: KOUNDINYA WLS

Project Officers of the Asian Elephant Conservation Fund

respectively (and their supporting staff) for support and

cooperation. The Andhra Pradesh Forest Department kindly

gave permission to undertake the studies in their state and

we thank the officials and personnel in the study area for the

help and cooperation rendered.

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POPULATION STATUS AND HABITAT USE OF WILD PIGS SUS SCROFA

IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN, INDIA

Tanushree Srivastava1'2 and Afifullah khan3

'Department of Wildlife Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.

2Present address: National Centre for Biological Sciences. GKVK Campus, Bellary Road, Bengaluru 560 065, Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]; [email protected]. in

department of Wildlife Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Email address: [email protected]

The Indian wild pig population in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur was studied from January 2007 for six months.

A total of 78 groups were sighted during the entire study period. Overall density was estimated to be 15.7 wild pigs /

sq. km (%CV=17.99). The present density estimates were seven times that reported by Haque in 1990. Pellet group

density was found to be significantly different (F = 6.894, df = 5, P < 0.001 ) among all the habitats, with the highest in

short grassland open area (522 pellet groups / ha) and least in tall grassland savannah (20 pellet groups / ha). Male to

female ratio was calculated to be 1:1.01 which was in coherence with the studies conducted elsewhere. Absence of

predation pressure was attributed to be one of the key factors in determining the sex ratio at the time of maturity.

Female to young ratio was 1:2.85, which represents a normally growing population of Wild pig in the Park. Mean

group size exhibited by the population was (3.79 ±0.44). Larger groups were found in habitats with abundant food

supply, whereas smaller group were in poor forage sites. Short grassland open area and mixed habitat were used much

more in proportion to their availability, and tall grassland savannah and Prosopis juliflora thickets were used less than

the availability. Grass density, quality forage, dense cover and easily accessible water source were suggested to be the

dominant factors in determining the habitat utilization patterns of the Wild pig population in Keoladeo National Park.

Key words: Density, forage sites, groups, habitat utilization, Keoladeo National Park, predation pressure, quality

forage, Wild pig

INTRODUCTION

The Indian Wild pig Sus scrofa is one of the most widely

distributed mammals in the world, with its native range

extending from Western Europe to south-east Asia (Bratton

1975; Massei and Genov 2004; DEFRA 2005). In recent

decades, their number has increased worldwide (Morini

et al. 1995; Baubet et al. 2004). The absence of predation

pressure can be attributed as one of the major causes for

successful spread of the species worldwide (Genov 1981;

Saez-Royuela and Telleria 1986). It is very active as an

opportunistic feeder and its diet varies among different

habitats and geographical distributions, which surely

contribute to the widespread distribution of the species (Ashby

and Santiapillai 1 998; Baubet et al. 2004; Massei and Genov

2004). Wild pigs are known to have a substantial

environmental impact and affect many ecosystem

components, being a key species in the trophic chain

(Galvano-Alves 2004; Massei and Genov 2004). However,

more importantly, their populations are known to damage

crops and vegetation (Lacki and Lancia 1983; Scarcelli et al.

2004). Consequently, their populations are under pressure

predominantly due to human-animal conflict, which needs

to be controlled in a way that both management and

conservation may go hand in hand and their survival may not

be threatened in future. But before doing this, the management

authorities should have some baseline data, such as population

size, predation pressure, and habitat use on the species. Also,

equally important is an investigation of various factors

governing its distribution.

Till date, several studies have been conducted on

ungulate species in the study area and throughout the

country. Wild pig populations have, however, faced a

continuous negligence for some reason. The role of Wild

pigs in the ecosystem of Keoladeo National Park is not

known; hence, we decided to carry out the studies pertaining

to its population dynamics, composition, and habitat

utilization patterns.

STUDY AREA

The study was conducted from January 2007 for a period

of six months in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. This

29 sq. km Park falls in the semi-arid biogeographical zone

(Rodgers and Panwar 1988). ItisaRamsarSite, World Heritage

Site, and Important Bird Area. The average elevation of the

Park (Fig. 1 ) is about 174 m above sea level. Topographically,

it is more or less flat with a gentle slope towards the centre

forming a depression, total wetland area being about 8.5 sq. km.

The Park is characterized by a sub-tropical climate with rainfall

ranging from 283.7-481 mm. The summer temperature in the

area ranges from 20.8-41 .6 °C.

The vegetation of the area is a mixture of xerophytic

and semi-xerophytic species. The classification of distinct

POPULATION STATUS AND HABITAT USE OF WILD PIGS IN KEOLADEO NP

*'»«• «i«i-

(Milk t’loKJl

ob cei. awn

habitat types is quite difficult owing to the widespread

distribution of Prosopis juliflora in the entire Park area.

However, based on the present study, the general floral

composition of the study area is characterized as:

(1) Wetland with aquatic vegetation mainly consisting of

emergent, rooted floating, submerged and free floating

plant species (Vijayan 1987). (2) Woodland with Mitragynci

parvifolia , Acacia nilotica, Zizyphus mauritiana and

Syzygium cumini as the dominant species and a dense

shrub storey comprising mainly of Prosopis juliflora.

(3) Mixed habitat consists of irregular distribution of trees

diffused with thorny shrubs in the undergrown layer. The

ground is covered with short grass species like Cyperus

rotandus and Sporobolus spp. (4) Dried Wetland resulting

from water scarcity in the Park has Paspalum disticum ,

Parspaladium spp. and Cyanodon dactylon as dominant grass

species and exhibits maximum number of herbs, i.e.,

Amaranthus viridis, Euphorbia aubiculata , Melilotus indica ,

(5) Grassland of three types: (a) Tall grassland having

Vetiveria zizanioides and Desmostachya bipinnata as the

dominant species, (b) Savannah, with scattered distribution

of some trees, (c) Short grassland having continuous layer

of short grasses, such as Cyanodon dactylon (6) Prosopis

juliflora dominated area in the Park is about 15-17 sq. km. It

consists of dense to discontinuous thickets of Prosopis

juliflora.

METHODOLOGY

The Wild pig density and its distribution in Keoladeo

National Park were studied using two methods. Line transect

method (Burnham et al. 1980) was used to estimate the

overall density in the study area and pellet group count

method was used to calculate the density in each habitat

separately. Indirect evidences were used for habitat-wise

density estimation as direct sightings in some habitats were

less than forty, thus not fulfilling the assumptions for the

software DISTANCE. In all, six transects, one laid in each

habitat based on reconnaissance surveys, were monitored

twice a day during 0600 to 0900 hrs and 1700 to 1900 hrs.

The Wild pig being shy, the activity could not be recorded

on trails, hence transects were laid passing through the

interior of the blocks. Transects were surveyed carefully in

order to avoid sudden disturbances. Frequent pauses were

made to listen for sounds of Wild pig during the transect

surveys.

To study the habitat features, circular plots of 10 m

radius were laid in each habitat and the habitat characteristics

were then correlated with the Wild pig density. Plots were

laid 50 m away on either side of transect to avoid sampling

of disturbed vegetation. Within the 10 m radius plots, circular

plots of 3 m radius were also laid for pellet counts to estimate

the habitat-wise density. A total of 280 vegetation plots were

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

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POPULATION STATUS AND HABITAT USE OF WILD PIGS IN KEOLADEO NP

laid in different habitat types of the study site with an average

of 40-44 plots in each habitat.

Data was analyzed using DISTANCE version 5.0 beta 5

(Thomas et al. in press). The model half-normal was selected

as the most appropriate model for estimating density on the

basis of minimum AIC value. Density, encounter rate,

effective strip width and mean group size were derived using

the software. Pellet group density in each habitat was

calculated and tested for significant differences in their mean

by using one-way ANOVA. Species density for each habitat

was calculated using appropriate formula. Species diversity

and richness were calculated using Shannon-Wiener Species

Diversity Index (H’) and Margelef’s Index (RI) respectively

by SPECDIVER; a DOS-based modified module of

STATISTICAL ECOLOGY. To assess the habitat utilization

patterns of Wild pig, the statistical program PREFER was

used (Gupta and Prasad 1992), and the preferences and

avoidances for each habitat were examined by means of

Bonferroni z-intervals and confidence intervals (Neu et al.

1974; Byers et al. 1984). To assess the difference in habitat

utilization of Wild pig in different months of the study period.

Habitat Preference Index (HPI) (Aspinall et al. 1998) was

calculated based on the encounters in a particular habitat in

different months. To extract the correlation among different

habitat variables and Wild pig pellet group densities Pearson’s

Product Moment Correlation Coefficient was performed.

RESULTS

Density

The overall density of Wild pigs in Keoladeo National

Park (KNP) was found out to be 15.7 Wild pig / sq. km

□ Open Area

Fig. 2: Habitat Preference Index (HPI) of Wild Pig

in different habitats in KNP

(%CV= 17.99). The effective strip width was 61.33 ±4.8 m

(%CV=17.99). Mean pellet group density of Wild pig was

highest in short grassland open area 522 pellet groups / ha,

followed by mixed habitat 307 / ha, dry wetland 230 / ha,

Prosopis thickets 40 / ha, and tall grassland Savannah 20 / ha.

Pellet group density varied significantly across different

habitats (F = 6.894, df = 5, P < 0.001 ).

Population composition

Out of the total 293 individuals sighted, which includes

all the replicate sightings of wild pigs during all the

monitorings repeated for all the transects, 14% were adult

boars (males), 15% were adult sows (females), 18% were

subadult boars, 3% subadult sows and 39% were young ones.

1 1% of the population remained unsexed. The adult male to

female ratio was 1 : 1.01, subadult male to female ratio was

6:1, while female to young ratio was calculated to be 1 :2.85.

Table 1: Results of habitat preference or avoidance (using PREFER Software) by Wild Pig in Keoladeo National Park

Habitat Total Area ( sq. km) Observed Use Expected Proportion Use (Pi) Bonferonni intervals

* Avoided

** Used in relation to availability

*** Preferred

Values in parenthesis represent the Bonferroni Confidence Intervals

SGOA; Short Grassland Open Area

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

POPULATION STATUS AND HABITAT USE OF WILD PIGS IN KEOLADEO NP

Group size

During all the replicate monitorings of all the six transects

laid in the entire study period, 78 groups of Wild pigs were

detected with a mean cluster size of 3.79 ±0.44, where the

mean group size in short grassland open area was estimated to

be 4.5, in woodland it was 2.0, in mixed habitat 4.2, for dry

wetland 5.25, and 2.0 for tall grassland savannah. Rooting

was the most frequent activity (41%) exhibited by the larger

groups of wild pigs.

Habitat use

The utilization of short grassland open area habitat and

mixed habitat was found to be more in proportion to their

availability. Woodland and dry wetland were used in accordance

with the availability, whereas tall grassland savannah and

Prosopis juliflorci thickets were avoided (Table 1 ).

Correlation analysis for pellet group density of wild pig

and different habitat variables exhibited a significantly

Table 2: Pearson’s product moment correlation between pellet

group densities of Wild Boar in different habitats with different

habitat variables in Keoladeo National Park

Significance level

**=0.01

*= 0.05

Table 3: Habitat Preference Index (HPI) for Wild Pig in different

habitat types

positive relationship with grass density (P < 0.05), shrub cover

(P < 0.05), chital density (P < 0.05), blue-bull density

(P < 0.05), hare density (P < 0.01) and jackal density

(P < 0.05), while a significantly negative correlation was seen

with canopy cover (P < 0.05), tree height (P < 0.05), GBH,

i.e., girth at breast height (P < 0.01), bare ground (P < 0.01)

and distance from water source (P < 0.01) (Table 2).

Habitat preference index (HPI) (Allen 1983) was highest

for short grassland open area for the three months (February,

March and April). In February dry wetland, in March tall

grassland and in April mixed habitat was preferred after low

grassland open area (Table 3; Fig. 2).

DISCUSSION

Density

The estimated density of wild pig population,

i.e., 15.7 individuals / sq. km in the study area suggests a

consistent growth pattern as it is seven times that reported by

Haque in 1990 (2.24 individuals / sq. km), though the study

was for a period of three years and was not specifically focused

on wild pigs. The growth exhibited by the population could

primarily be attributed to the absence of predation pressure

in KNP, as is the case exhibited worldwide (Genov 1981;

Saez-Royuela and Tellaria 1986). Wild pigs are capable of

rapid population increases due to early onset of puberty, their

ability to have large litters and potential to breed more than

once per year (Baber and Coblentz 1987). They are also

known to have the highest reproductive rate among ungulates

(Massei and Genov 2004). Moreover, being an opportunistic

feeder, a generalist and an adaptable omnivore. Wild pigs are

capable of altering and adjusting its diet in accordance to the

availability in the surrounding environment (Henry and

Table 4: Growth trends in ungulate population during the last

few years in Keoladeo National Park

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

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POPULATION STATUS AND HABITAT USE OF WILD PIGS IN KEOLADEO NP

Conley 1972; Massei and Genov 2004). High fecundity and

early onset of maturation are other factors contributing to an

astonishing growth in the wild pig population (Coblentz and

Bouska 2004). Increase in the species’ population in the

countries overseas, during the last few decades has also been

attributed to socio-economic changes. Socio-economic

changes are known to result in improved environmental

conditions for the species, variations in the dominant crop types,

limited hunting, additional food and climatic conditions (Genov

1981; Erkinaro et al. 1982; Saez-Royuela and Telleria 1986).

On considering the growth trends of other ungulate species

in Keoladeo National Park (KNP), during the last two decades,

a positive interaction appears between the Wild pig population

and other ungulate species (Table 4). Interspecific competition

seems to play no inhibitory role in the growth of Wild pig

population inhabiting the Park. Also, in the absence of natural

predators boar numbers are limited only by the availability

of resources (such as food and shelter), or by human

intervention (DEFRA 2005). Thus, the rapid growth exhibited

by the population is not very surprising.

The highest mean pellet group density in short grassland

open area may be due to several factors, including quality

forage, easy access to water source and dense thickets to

hide and seek shelter (Kearney and Gilbert 1976). High

density in mixed habitat may also be due to abundant food

supply, water accessibility, high cover and least disturbance,

whereas low densities in Prosopis juliflora thickets and tall

grassland savannah can primarily be attributed to

unavailability of food.

Population composition

The estimated male to female ratio of wild pig population

in Keoladeo National Park (1:1.01) is similar to that of

Pakistan (1:0.75) (Ahmad et al. 1995), Jaldapara (1:1)

(Schaller 1967) and Lithuania (1:1 .04) (Janulaitis 2003). But,

the observed trend goes against the normal female biased sex

ratio, exhibited among all animals in general, the males being

more prone to predation and environmental stress. The equal

male to female ratio from birth to maturity amongst Wild

pigs could primarily be attributed to the absence of a natural

predator. The female to young ratio in a stable population of

most of the mammals is approximately 2:1 (Smith 1990),

whereas in this study it is 1:2.85, which represents more

number of young, thus indicating a normally growing

population (Smith 1990).

Group size

The mean group size of the Wild pig population in the

present study (3.79) was within the range reported at other

places and was very close to the most frequent group size

(4) exhibited by European populations (Bon et al. 1986).

Mean group size for Iberian populations is generally

3-5 individuals (Rosell et al. 2001) and a group size of 4.4,

4.3 and 3.2 individuals per group have also been reported in

other populations (Merino and Carpinetti 2003; Rosell et al.

2004). Larger groups were detected in short grassland open

area, dry wetland and mixed habitat, whereas smaller groups

were seen in woodland and tall grassland savannah. Mainly

two factors are known to affect the grouping behaviour of

the ungulates, first to avoid predation (Hamilton 1971), and

the second relates to the distribution and availability of food

supply (Altman 1952). However, in the absence of predation

pressure in the area, food availability seems to govern the

group size of the Wild Pig population.

Habitat use

The short grassland open area was used more than was

available. Food availability, shelter, thermal comfort, safety,

quietness, weather conditions and human disturbance acted

as significant determinants in habitat selection by Wild pigs

(Kurz and Marchinton 1972; Kearney and Gilbert 1976;

Singer et al. 1981; Meriggi and Sacchi 1992; Boitani et al.

1994; McCann et al. 2003). Deciduous woodlands generally

provide the most appropriate habitat for Wild pigs (Leaper et

al. 1999). But human intervention and disturbance affect

Wild pig presence (D’Andrea et al. 1995; Maillard and

Fournier 1995; DEFRA 2005); therefore the woodland habitat

in KNP, experiencing the maximum disturbance being located

near the boundary, is less preferred. Wild pigs are known to

use open habitats, such as heathland and grassland. Although

these offer little shelter, they do provide alternative food

resources (Leaper et al. 1999). Wild pigs are generalist and

are well-known to alter their diets according to availability

(Coblentz and Baber 1987; Schley and Roper 2003; Massei

et al. 1996). They alternatively consume plant species

associated with grassy heathland habitats, for example, broad-

leaved grasses and roots of certain species (Groot et al. 1 994).

Hence, these habitats are important to wild pig, though being

suboptimal (Leaper et al. 1999). Also, this habitat exhibited

the maximum Habitat Preference Index (HPI) during the entire

study period. The late sightings of Wild pigs in open area on

warm winter mornings and early sightings in cool pleasant

summer mornings go in accordance with the fact that the

animal is active when difference between body temperature

and atmospheric temperature is minimum (Haque 1990).

Therefore, ungulates are in open during the warmer parts of

the day in winter and tolerable parts of the day during summer

to escape heat (Haque 1990).

The mixed habitat was preferred next to the short grassland

open area. Wild pigs are generally found to live in mixed

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POPULATION STATUS AND HABITAT USE OF WILD PIGS IN KEOLADEO NP

forest stands and meadows, and do not leave their home

ranges until extensively disturbed (Polmeyer and Sodiekat

2003). High HPI for mixed habitat next to short grassland in

April can be because Wild pigs, lacking sweat glands as a

physiological means of thermoregulation, employ

behavioural mechanisms to regulate body temperature

(Coblentz and Baber 1987). The presence of dense shrub

cover of Salvadora persica and Capparis separia provide

cool resting places for Wild pigs. Haque (1990) also

confirmed the preference of shrub layer mostly in summer

and used as shelter against sun, Wild pigs being reluctant to

come out during the day.

Woodland and dry wetland habitats were used in

proportion to their availability. Mature woodlands are mostly

preferred by Wild pigs (Leaper et al. 1 999); wetlands provide

high quality habitats for wild pig population because they

provide shelter and a wide variety of food resources (Massei

et al. 1996). But, the comparatively lower preference and

least HPI values in all the months could be attributed to a

high intensity of disturbance (D’ Andea et al. 1995; Maillard

and Fournier 1995; DEFRA 2005) and water scarcity in the

wetlands due to dry conditions. The avoided habitats were

tall grassland savannah and Prosopis juliflora thickets.

Habitat use by Wild pigs is determined by food availability,

shelter, weather conditions and human disturbance (Kurtz

and Marchinton 1972; Meriggi and Sacchi 1992; Boitani

et al. 1994). The available grass species in the grassland,

i.e., Viteveria zizanioides and Desmostachya bipinnata being

coarse, old and almost unpalatable were accompanied by low

cover due to low shrub density. Therefore, these alongwith

the extent of disturbance in the two habitat types might be

attributed for the avoidance.

The positive correlations of Wild pig density with grass

variables supports the fact that it is primarily a herbivore and

depends on grass and other tuberous species (Henry and

Conley 1972; Baber and Coblentz 1987; Schley and Roper

2003). Also during dry season, wild pigs are known to prefer

Cyanodon bottoms because of their physiological need for

REFE

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free water and behavioural responses to high temperature

(Baber and Coblentz 1986). The significant positive

correlation between pellet group densities of Wild pig and

Chital, Nilgai and Hare indicate a positive interaction among

these species. Shared resources sometimes facilitate

coexistence of different ungulate species in a community

(Bagchi et al. 2003). Highly significant negative correlation

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source plays a vital role in the selection of a suitable habitat.

The availability of water is unlikely to be a limiting factor in

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The study demonstrates a consistent growth in the wild

pig population in the National Park together with the factors

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water availability playing a major role in the habitat utilization

patterns of the animal. However, the growing population also

solicits for an apparent increase in the availability of the food

resources. Therefore, the existing habitats, especially

grasslands should be managed efficiently to avoid the human-

animal conflict with the surrounding areas.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are sincerely grateful to the Department of Wildlife

Science, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, for the

continuous encouragement and support provided throughout

the work period. We especially thank Dr. Jamal A. Khan for

an excellent provision of facilities in the Department that made

our work extremely smooth and comfortable. Also, we thank

the officials of the Forest Department and the Government of

Rajasthan for granting us permission to work in the National

Park and their tremendous cooperation, help and

encouragement in the field. Also, it would have been hard to

carry out the study without the continued assistance of Moda

and Pajji in the field.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(3), Sept-Dec 2009

305-312

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION, NATURAL HISTORY AND VARIATION

OF HEMIDACTYLUS ALBOFASCIATUS (GRANDISON AND SOMAN, 1963)

(SQUAMATA: GEKKONIDAE)

Kshamata S. Gaikwad1’5, Harish Kulkarni2, Ravindra Bhambure3 and Varad B. Giri1-4

'Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

"Plot No. 21, Union Bank Colony, Hanuman Nagar, Panchgaon Road, Kolhapur 416 007, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

3529-21, ‘E’ Ward, Samrat Nagar, Samaik Mala, Kolhapur 416 008, Maharashtra, India. Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

'Email : gaikwadkshamata @ gmail .com

Recently collected specimens of Hemidactylus albofasciatus from Malvan, Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra, represent

a new locality record of this species and extend the species’ known range southwards. Observations of these geckos

provide new insights into the habitat and distribution of this uncommon species. Data from these specimens and others

in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) permit the assessment of morphological variation

with respect to published information about this species. In view of lack of proper taxonomic characters we take this

opportunity to provide detailed description of this species.

Key words: Hemidactylus albofasciatus, BNHS Collection, taxonomy, natural history, new locality, habitat

INTRODUCTION

Hemidactylus albofasciatus a small, slender gecko was

described by Grandison and Soman in 1963 from a series of

specimens from Dorle, Dabhil and Gavakhadi villages,

Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra. It has a snout vent length

(SVL) of 29.6 mm, and is one of the most uncommon Indian

geckos. Information on this species, except the data presented

in its original description, is scarce.

Recently, this species was included in the genus

Teratolepis (Kluge 2001; Das 2003), presumably, based on

the presence of enlarged scales on the tail and narrow digital

lamellae. However, a recent molecular phylogenetic analysis

(cyt b, ND4, RAG-1 and PDC genes) by Bauer et al. (2008)

reveals that Teratolepis is imbedded within the Tropical Asian

clade of Hemidactylus. Apart from this, it was also evident

from morphological characters that H. albofasciatus, with

small granular scales intermixed with enlarged tubercles, is

closer in dorsal pholidosis to species of Hemidactylus than to

the other species ( T.fasciatus , now H. imbricatus) previously

allocated to Teratolepis. Variation in the degree of lamellar

division is also high across Hemidactylus, however there is a

tendency towards undivided lamellae in Indian members of

the genus, culminating in H. anamallensis (Bauer and Russell

1995).

Recently, five specimens of H. albofasciatus were

collected from Malvan in the Sindhudurg district of

Maharashtra, and deposited in the collections of the Bombay

Natural History Society (BNHS). We have also collected four

specimens of this species from Dabhil-Ambere in Ratnagiri

district. Apart from this, the BNHS collection also houses

7 previously collected specimens of this species, including

the holotype. As information about the habitat, natural history,

and morphological variation of this species is meagre, we

take this opportunity to provide additional information. Apart

from this, there are ambiguities regarding some unique

morphological characters, like dorsal pholidosis, digit

morphology and coloration, which play a vital role in

taxonomy. We redescribe the species in greater detail to avoid

further taxonomic confusion.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The specimens of H. albofasciatus, BNHS 1841-1 842,

BNHS 1852-1853, BNHS 1867 and BNHS 1952 from

Malvan, Sindhudurg district, and BNHS 1579-1582 from

Dabhil-Ambere, Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra, were

collected, fixed in 10% formalin, and transferred into 70%

ethanol. Mensural and meristic features of these specimens

are reported in Table 1. Measurements taken with a Dial

Caliper (to the nearest 0.05 mm) were: snout-vent length

(SVL; from tip of snout to vent), trunk length (TRL; distance

from axilla to groin measured from posterior edge of forelimb

insertion to anterior edge of hindlimb insertion), body width

(BW; maximum width of body), crus length (CL; from base

of heel to knee); tail length (TL; from vent to tip of tail), tail

width (TW; measured at widest point of tail); head length

(HL; distance between retroarticular process of jaw and snout-

tip), head width (HW; maximum width of head), head height

(HH; maximum height of head, from occiput to underside of

jaws), forearm length (FL; from base of palm to elbow);

orbital diameter (OD; greatest diameter of orbit), nares to

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION, NATURAL HISTORY AND VARIATION OF HEMIDACTYLUS ALBOFASCIA TUS

Fig. 1 : Dorsal view of the mid-body of

Hemidactylus albofasciatus, (BNHS 1852).

Note the dorsal pholidosis

eye distance (NE; distance between anterior-most point of

eye and nostril), snout to eye distance (SE; distance between

anterior-most point of eye and tip of snout), eye to ear distance

(EE; distance from anterior edge of ear opening to posterior

comer of eye), interorbital distance (10; shortest distance

between left and right supraciliary scale rows).

Meristic data recorded for all specimens were number

of supralabial scales (SL), infralabial scales (IL), precloacal

pores (PCP), and lamellae under digits of manus (MLam)

and pes (PLam) for both left (L) and right (R) sides. Scale

counts and external observations of morphology were made

using a Wild M5 dissecting microscope.

RESULTS

Variation in morphological characters

Though the original description of H. albofasciatus was

based on 30 specimens, morphological characters, like dorsal

pholidosis, digit morphology, and coloration, which play

fundamental role in taxonomy, were imprecisely described

by Grandison and Soman (1963).

The maximum length of H. albofasciatus was reported

by Grandison and Soman (1963) as 29.6 mm SVL, with tail

length as much as 26.5 mm. Several of our specimens exceed

this, and one specimen (BNHS 1580) is of an appreciably

larger size of 34.8 mm SVL and 35.70 mm TL (Table 1).

Grandison and Soman (1963) described the dorsum

as ‘back with small, keeled granules, intermixed with larger

trihedral tubercles, which are twice as large as the granules.

About 80 mid-body scales. Tubercles arranged irregularly,

separated by one to three granular scales.’ As per our

observation, dorsal scales are heterogeneous, small,

conical, keeled, and striated; intermixed with irregularly

arranged, enlarged, conical, strongly keeled and striated

tubercles, which are roughly twice the size of adjacent scales

(Fig. 1).

The tail of H. albofasciatus was described by Grandison

Table 1 : Mensural data for the specimens of Hemidactylus albofasciatus

Abbreviations as in Materials and Methods section; all measurements in mm.

Asterisk refers to damaged/missing tail.

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION, NATURAL HISTORY AND VARIATION OF HEMIDACTYLUS ALBOFASCIA TUS

Fig. 2: Dorsal view of tail of Hemidactylus albofasciatus (BNHS 1852). Note the smaller size of scales

and Soman (1963) as ‘round in section, tapering, verticillate

covered above with faintly keeled, pointed, imbricate scales; in

the middle of each whorl and to either side of the vertebral line

are two longitudinal rows of larger, pointed, keeled scales.’ As

per our observation on fresh specimens in the BNHS collection,

the tail is covered above with large, flat, weakly pointed, strongly

imbricate and striated scales with a series of two to four rows of

much larger, flat, strongly pointed, keeled and striated scales

on either side of median furrow (Fig. 2).

Apart from the shape and size of the body, toe

morphology is also an indicator of habit among species of

Hemidactylus (Bauer et al. 2008; Giri et al. 2008). Grandison

and Soman (1963) mentioned: ‘digits free, with little dilation;

distal joints rather short’. According to us digits are short,

clawed; terminal phalanx of all digits curved, arising angularly

from distal portion of expanded lamellar pad, less than half

as long as associated pad. They described lamellae as ‘in a

straight transverse series; undivided except for the penultimate

and two or three more proximal plates, which are notched;

eight or nine, exceptionally ten lamellar plates under the fourth

toe, five under the first toe’. Our observations of material

from the BNHS collection confirm these ranges except that

the lamellae are in oblique series, there are four to six lamellae

under the first toe and three to five proximal lamellae under

Table 2: Meristic data for the specimens of Hemidactylus albofasciatus

BNHS No. MLam L MLam R

Values in parenthesis represent the number of notched lamellae.

‘0’ indicates damaged lamellae

PLam L

5(1 )-6(3)-8(3)-8(3)-8(4)

0-7(3)-8(3)-9(4)-8(2)

0-7(3)-8(3)-9(4)-8(2)

5(1 )-6(2)-7(3)-9(4)-8(3)

5(1 )-6(2)-7(3)-7(3)-7(3)

5(1 )-7(3)-7(3)-9(4)-8(3)

5(2)-7(3)-8(4)-10(4)-8(4)

6(2)-6(4)-8(4)-9(4)-8(3)

6(1 )-7(3)-8(3)-9(4)-8(3)

5(1 )-7(3)-8(3)-8(3)-8(3)

5(1 )-6(3)-7(3)-10(4)-8(3)

5( 1 )-6(2)-7 (3)-9(4)-7 (3)

4(1)-7(4)-8(4)-9(5)-8(4)

4(1 )-7(3)-8(3)-9(3)-8(3)

4(1 )-6(3)-7(4)-8(4)-0

5(1)-7(3)-7(4)-9(4)-8(3)

PLam R

5(1 )-6(2)-8(3)-9(3)-8(4)

5(1)-7(4)-7(3)-10(4)-8(3)

5(1)-7(4)-7(3)-10(4)-8(3)

5(1 )-6(2)-7(3)-9(3)-6(2)

5(1 )-7(3)-8(3)-9(3)-6(3)

5(2)-0- 8(3)-9(4)-7(3)

5(2)-7(3)-8(4)-10(5)-8(4)

6(2)-6(4)-8(4)-9(4)-8(4)

6(1)-7(3)-8(3)-10(4)-8(3)

5(1)-7(2)-8(2)-9(3)-8(3)

5(2)-6(3)-7(3)-1 0(4)-8(3)

5( 1 )-6(2)-7 (3)-9(4)-7 (2)

4(1 )-6(3)-8(4)-9(5)-9(4)

4(1 )-6(3)-8(4)-9(4)-9(3)

5(1)-6(3)-7(4)-9(4)-8(3)

5(1 )-6(3)-0-9(5)-8(3)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

307

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION, NATURAL HISTORY AND VARIATION OF HEMIDACTYLUS ALBOFASCIA TUS

the fourth toe which are notched (Fig. 3) (Table 2).

We did not observe any variation in the number of

precloacal pores. There are 7-8 precloacal pores in the seven

males studied by us.

Grandison and Soman (1963) described the coloration

of H. albofasciatus as ‘ground colour dark brown; a whitish

streak, two scales wide, runs from the nostril through the eye

to above the ear. Ten narrow, somewhat wavy, whitish bands

run transversely from behind the eyes to the hind limbs;

interspaces three times the width of a band. Tail similarly

cross-banded at each alternate whorl. Ventral surfaces cream

with fine brown speckling. A longitudinal, mid-ventral dark

line is present on the tail.’ Though the coloration was described

in the original description, we observed some variation in

our material.

Detailed description

Thus, in view of the above mentioned variations and to

discuss morphological characters in detail we provide

herewith a detailed description based on recently collected

material and specimens in the Collection of the BNHS (BNHS

1247-1251), including the holotype (BNHS 148).

Body slender, SVL 26.0-34.8 mm. Head short (HL/SVL

= 0.3-0.33), slightly elongate (HW/HL = 0.54-0.66), not

strongly depressed (HH/HL ratio 0.35-0.43), distinct from

neck. Loreal region not inflated, canthus rostralis not

prominent. Snout short (SE/HL = 0.34-0.43); slightly longer

than twice as long as eye diameter (OD/SE = 0.53-0.67); scales

on snout and canthus rostralis juxtaposed, smooth, weakly

conical, slightly larger in size than those on forehead; occipital

and interorbital region with much smaller, conical granular

scales. Eye small (OD/HL = 0.19-0.26); pupil vertical with

crenulated margins; supraciliaries small, pointed, those at the

anterior end of orbit slightly larger. Ear opening very small,

oval and oblique; eye to ear distance slightly greater than

diameter of eye (EE/OD = 1 . 1 1 - 1 .67). Rostral wider than deep,

slightly notched, divided mid-dorsally by weakly developed

rostral groove; one enlarged intemasal separated by one or

two small scales, two postnasals, of which posterior is larger;

rostral in contact with first supralabial, supranasals, and a

single internasal; nostrils circular, each surrounded by

supranasal, rostral, first supralabial, and two subequal

postnasals; 2-3 rows of scales separate orbit from supralabials.

Mental triangular; two pairs of postmentals, inner pair single,

larger and in contact behind mental, outer postmental is

medially divided; inner postmental is bordered by mental

infralabial 1 , posterior postmentals and two chin scales; outer

postmental is bordered by inner postmental, infralabial 2, and

three to four enlarged chin scales. Infralabials bordered by

single row of enlarged scales that grade into granules medially

Fig. 3: Ventral view of the lamellae of right pes of

Hemidactylus albofasciatus (BNHS 1852).

Note notched lamellae

and posteriorly. Supralabials to mid-orbital position 6, to angle

of jaw 7-9; infralabials to angle of jaw 7. Body relatively

elongate (TRL/SVL = 0.38-0.49). Ventrolateral skin folds

inconspicuous, without denticulate edges. Dorsal scales

heterogeneous, small, conical, keeled, and striated; intermixed

with irregularly arranged, slightly enlarged, conical, strongly

keeled and striated tubercles, extending from neck to tail;

each enlarged tubercle roughly twice the size of adjacent scale

and surrounded by rosette of 8-9 small scales, 2-4 scales

between adjacent enlarged tubercles. Ventral scales larger than

dorsal, smooth, imbricate, slightly larger on abdomen and

precloacal region than on chest (Fig. 5, Ventral, full body);

midbody scale rows across venter to lowest row of tubercles

28-30; gular region with smallest and rounded granules,

anterior gular scales are much larger than the rest. Scales on

palms and soles smooth, rounded; scales on dorsal aspect of

forelimb flat, larger than those on body dorsum, imbricate

and strongly striated; dorsal scales on thigh larger, flattened

and striated, those on the back of the thigh are smaller, conical,

keeled and striated. Fore- and hind limbs relatively short,

thin; forearm short (FL/SVL ratio 0. 1 3-0. 1 50. 1 4); tibia short

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION, NATURAL HISTORY AND VARIATION OF HEMIDACTYLUS ALBOFASCIATUS

Fig. 4: Live Hemidactylus albofasciatus (specimen not collected). Note the coloration

(CL/SVL ratio 0.14-0.170.14); digits moderately short,

strongly clawed; all digits of manus and digits I-IV of pes

indistinctly webbed; terminal phalanx of all digits curved,

arising angularly from distal portion of expanded lamellar

pad, less than half as long as associated pad; scansors beneath

each toe undivided, the plate adjacent to terminal scansor is,

however, deeply notched and the two or three next proximal

plates are less strongly so; scansors (from proximal-most

at least twice diameter of palmar scales to distal-most

single scansor, number of notched lamellae in parentheses):

5( 1 )-6(2/3)-6/7(2/3)-7(3/4)-6/8(2/3) (right manus), 4/6(l/2)-

6/7 ( 2/4)-7/8(3/4)-9/ 1 0(3/5 )-6/9(2/4) (right pes). Tail

cylindrical, tapering to a fine point, with a median furrow,

oval in section, flat beneath; length of original, entire tail is

more or less equal to snout-vent length (TL/SVL ratio

0.92-1.10 (n=7)); tail covered above with large (much larger

than those on the dorsum), flat, weakly pointed, strongly

imbricate and striated scales with a series of two to four rows

of much larger, flat, strongly pointed, keeled and striated

scales on either side of median furrow; ventral scales much

larger than above, smooth, pointed and strongly imbricate;

2 enlarged postcaudal spurs on either side of tail base.

Back with three pronounced, brown, longitudinal

stripes, one vertebral and two paravertebral, running from

occiput to tail. These stripes are interrupted by a series of six

thin, white, transverse, irregular/broken bands which are

bordered with brown, one each on shoulder and sacrum and

rest on dorsum. A paravertebral series of five, paired,

creamish-white somewhat oval blotches between the

transverse bands and longitudinal stripes. Two lateral, broken,

creamish-white stripes present on the flank on each side. Of

which the dorsal stripe starts from near the shoulder, reaches

to tail base and in contact with transverse streaks. The ventral

stripe runs from back of the jaw to the base of the tail. (Fig. 4)

Upper surface of head dark brown with alternately

arranged creamish-white transverse streaks. A whitish streak

running from the rostral, passing through orbit and above

ear, which connects with transverse band on shoulder on both

the sides, in some this band is entire and in a few it is broken.

Rostral and anterior one or two supralabials dark brown; upper

half of subsequent one or two supralabials brown, remaining

supralabials whitish. Lower half of infralabials brownish and

remaining portion whitish. There are small brownish dots

visible in the whitish portion of both, supralabials and

infralabials. Anterior supralabials creamish-white mottled

with dark brown, which gives them a brownish appearance.

Posterior supralabials creamish-white again mottled, with

grayish brown. Forelimbs and hindlimbs brown with irregular,

narrow white bands above and below elbows continuing on

hands/feet and digits. Original portion of the tail dark brown

with six creamish-white, broken, thick transverse bands.

A whitish, unbroken, lateral streak running from base of the

tail to the tip is present on both the sides. The regenerated tail

portion is mottled with dark brown and white. In juveniles

the tail is sometimes bright orange ventrally. Body venter

creamish-white, semi-translucent, with brownish markings

on the lateral aspect of the abdomen. Tail venter with a series

of three narrow, dark brown stripes, mid-ventral is entire,

thin and bold, lateral pair thicker but appear broken.

In preservative, coloration is similar to that in life, except

ventral stripes on belly and tail, which are inconspicuous.

Distribution

Hemidactylus albofasciatus is one of the most poorly

known geckos in India. This species has previously been

recorded only from a few localities in Ratnagiri district,

Maharashtra (Grandison and Soman 1963; Tikader and

Sharma 1992). Recently collected specimens of

H. albofasciatus from Malvan, Sindhudurg district,

Maharashtra (16° 1' 52.10" N; 73° 31' 48.73" E) represent a

new locality record of this species. This locality is about

100 km south of the presently known localities of this species.

We have also recorded this species from Kunakeshwar

( 1 6° 20' 03.23” N; 73° 23’ 29.83" E) in the Sindhudurg district.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

309

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION, NATURAL HISTORY AND VARIATION OF HEMIDACTYLUS ALBOFASCIATUS

72°30'0"E 73°0'0"E 73°300"E 74<>0,0"E 74°30'0"E 75°0'0'E

This locality is roughly in between the type locality and

Malvan. We have also reported this species from one of the

type localities, Dorle (16° 46.35' N; 73° 20.8' E) in Ratnagiri

district during our survey (Fig. 5).

Locality and habitat

The only information about the habitat for this species

was provided by Grandison and Soman ( 1 963) as ‘open, rocky

crests of hills bearing few patches of scrub mainly Carissa

Fig. 6: Habitat of Hemidactylus albofasciatus at Malvan, district

Sindhudurg, Maharashtra

carandas and Holarrhena antidysentrica, the surrounding

country is jungle of semi-evergreen nature.’

The recently collected specimens of H. albofasciatus

from different plateaux near Malvan, Sindhudurg district,

Maharashtra, are also from a similar habitat. This locality is

barely 50 m above sea level. The habitat is similar to the type

locality and other localities in Ratnagiri district from which

this species has previously been reported (Fig. 6).

The coastal tract of Maharashtra and Goa, locally called

'Konkan' , is one of the major geographic divisions of western

India. The geomorphology of Konkan is characterized by a

coastal plain of variable altitude and width, backed by the

escarpment of the Western Ghats on the east and the Arabian

Sea, with or without a cliff, on the west. It covers a north south

distance of about 720 km, with an average width of 60 km.

Another unique feature of the Konkan coast is the

presence of plateaux, locally called ‘ sada ’. These plateaux

are mostly present on the crest of small hills or mountains,

generally at lower altitudes, on the coastal belt between the

Arabian Sea and Western Ghats. Although the habitat is

degraded due to anthropogenic pressure, there are

comparatively less disturbed patches of semi-evergreen forest

310

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION, NATURAL HISTORY AND VARIATION OF HEMIDACTYLUS ALBOFASCIATUS

in the valleys in some localities. These are mainly lateritic

plateaux that appear barren due to sparse vegetation, except

during the monsoon when they are mostly covered with grass

and a variety of monsoon flora. The herpetofaunal diversity is

mainly composed of Ophisops sp., Lygosoma guentheri , Echis

carinata. Apart from this, an endemic species of caecilian

Gegeneophis seshachari is also known from these plateaux.

Natural History

These plateaux were visited by us in different seasons

from 2003 to 2008. We observed that H. albofasciatus mostly

hide under rocks during the day. Though we never observed

any eggs, the juveniles are mostly seen in June to August.

The ventral part of the tail of juveniles is bright orange.

We also observed variation in the thickness of tails; a few

geckos had fat tail, while others were slender. The adults

mostly remain motionless when the rock above them is turned.

The typical behaviour of ground dwelling species, raising

the fore-body and neck is also observed in this species. The

juveniles are comparatively active and escape at a slight

disturbance. It appears to be a poor climber; unlike its

congener Hemidcictylus cf. brook'd, which can climb on or

adhere to the rocks it uses for retreat sites. This species appears

solitary as we rarely observed more than one gecko under a

rock. Nonetheless, it is one of the commonest species of lizards

on certain plateaux visited by us. On every plateau, though

the habitat appears uniform, the geckos are unevenly

distributed. Our team of five observed 16 individuals of this

species in 25 minutes of active search on one of the plateaux

near Malvan in July 2007. Of these, seven individuals were

juveniles. All these individuals were concentrated on a small

portion (approx. 100 m x 100 m) of this plateau. An intensive

search for a longer duration on other parts of the same plateau

at the same time yielded only two geckos. We also spotted

20 adult H. albofasciatus in approximately 20 minutes on a

plateau near Dabhil-Ambere in the Ratnagiri district in

October 2003. Here also they were concentrated in a small

portion of the available habitat. One of the authors (HK)

spotted three adults and one juvenile on a plateau near

Kunakeshwar in Ratnagiri district.

This species is found sympatrically with Hemidactylus

cf. brookii, Ophisops sp., Lygosoma guentheri, Echis carinata

and an endemic amphibian, Gegeneophis seshachari, in most

of the localities visited by us.

CONCLUSION

Our observations on morphological characters confirm

that this gecko belongs to a largely terrestrial subgroup of

genus Hemidactylus that has recently been identified as a

distinct clade (Bauer et al. 2008). There have been several

new additions to Indian Hemidactylus in recent years (Giri

and Bauer 2008; Giri 2008; Giri et al. 2009; Mahony 2009).

This necessitates a proper taxonomic study of the earlier

described species of Indian Hemidactylus. Ambiguities in

taxonomic characters may lead to wrong identification. The

redescription provided here may mitigate taxonomic problems

related to ground dwelling species of Indian Hemidacty lus.

Hemidactylus albofasciatus is considered as one of the

most poorly known geckos, but they are commonly seen in

the area of their occurrence. The typical body form and toe

morphology are consistent with its ground-dwelling habits.

Apart from this, H. albofasciatus is a habitat specific gecko

and is mainly known to occur on the plateaux along the coastal

belt in Maharashtra. Though this species is presently known

from a few localities, in view of their habitat preference and

availability of likely habitat, mostly in the Ratnagiri and Malvan

districts, it is likely that they occur even further towards the

north and/or south. These plateaux appear barren, but have

unique faunal diversity which is mainly comprised of

representatives of drier habitats. Interestingly, no efforts have

been made to document this diversity in greater detail, and thus

these plateaux remain one of the least studied habitats in India.

As per our preliminary observations, H. albofasciatus

appears to be unevenly distributed, thus studies related to

their microhabitat preference are essential for their

conservation. Though these plateaux are undisturbed, some

anthropogenic activities like grazing and collection of rocks

for building compound walls were observed at certain places.

Further studies related to their natural history and population

need to be undertaken.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. Aaron M. Bauer for his valuable

comments and suggestions while preparing this draft.

We are thankful to Dr. Asad R. Rahmani and Mr. J.C. Daniel

for the opportunity to carry out this study. We are also

thankful to Sameer Kehimkar, Ishan Agarwal, Swapnil Pawar,

Sandeep Sohoni, Rohan Korgaonkar, Kunal Mayekar and

Rajat Toroskar for their assistance in the fieldwork. Thanks

to Vithoba Hegde and Shyam Jadhav for their curatorial

assistance. Thanks to Mohit Kalra for preparing the distribution

map. The trip to Dorle was possible due to Dr. Mark Wilkinson

and Dr. David Gower of The Natural History Museum, London.

We are thankful to the Declining Amphibian Task Force and

Ruffords Small Grants for their generous grants to carry

out field visits. Thanks to Mr. Uday Korgaonkar for his

hospitality during our stay at Dorle village. KG is thankful to

Kshitij Gaikwad and Kedar Bhide.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

311

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION, NATURAL HISTORY AND VARIATION OF HEMIDACTYLUS ALBOFASCIA TUS

REFERENCES

Bauer. A.M. & A.R Russell (1995): The systematic relationships of

Dravidogecko anamallensis (Gunther, 1875). Asiatic Herpetol.

Res. 6: 30-35.

Bauer, A.M., V.B. Giri, E. Greenbaum, T.R. Jackman, M.S. Dharne &

Y.S. Shouche (2008): On the systematic of the gekkonid genus

Terotolepis Gunther, 1 869: Another one bites the dust. Hamadryad

33(1): 13-27.

Das, I. (2003): Growth of knowledge on the reptiles of India, with an

introduction to systematics, taxonomy and nomenclature.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 100(2&3 ): 446-501.

Giri, V.B. (2008): A new rock dwelling Hemidactylus (Squamata:

Gekkonidae) from Maharashtra, India. Hamadryad 32(1):

25-33.

Giri, V.B. & A.M. Bauer (2008): Anew ground dwelling Hemidactylus

(Squamata: Gekkonidae) from Maharashtra, with a key to the

Hemidactylus of India. Zootaxa 1700: 21-34.

Giri, V.B., A.M. Bauer, R. Vyas & S. Patil (2009): New species of

Rock-dwelling Hemidactylus (Squamata: Gekkonidae) from

Gujarat, India. Journal of Herpetology 43(3): 385-393.

Grandison, A.GC. & P.W. Soman (1963): Description of anew geckonid

(sic) lizard from Maharashtra, India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

60(2): 322-325; PI-H.

Kluge, A.G. (2001): Gekkotan lizard taxonomy. Hamadryad 26(1):

1-220.

Mahony, S. (2009): A new species of the genus Hemidactylus (Reptilia:

Gekkonidae) from Andhra Pradesh, India. Russian Journal of

Herpetology 16: 27-34.

Smith, M.A. (1935): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and

Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. II - Sauna. Taylor and Francis,

London, xiii + 440 pp + 1 pi.

Tikader, B.K. & R.C. Sharma (1992): Handbook Indian Lizards.

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, xv + 250 pp., 42 pis.

312

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(3), Sept-Dec 2009

313-323

FISH FAUNA OF THE WETLANDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND, SOUTHERN INDIA AND

THEIR CONSERVATION ISSUES

Ranjit Manakadan13, K. Rema Devi2’4, S. Sivakumar1-5 and T.J. Indra2-6

'Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

"Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional, Santhome High Road, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.

"Email: [email protected]

JEmail: [email protected]

"Email: [email protected]

'’Email: [email protected]

Fish fauna in different wetlands of Sriharikota Island was assessed during February 2002 to April 2004. A total of

53 fish species belonging to 36 families and 10 orders were recorded. Nineteen species were recorded from freshwater

habitats, 38 from fresh-brackish and 39 from brackish-saline wetlands. Two important perennial wetlands in the Island,

Malliplate Vagu (a fresh-brackish stream) and Urugayya (a brackish-saline lake), also serve as nurseries for young of

marine fish and prawn species, including two Anguillid eels. The abandoned irrigation ponds are major refuges for

two threatened air-breathing species, Clarias batrachus and Anabas testudineus. An exotic species Oreochromis

mossambicus and a species native to north India Colisa lalia , were also recorded. The species composition and relative

abundance of fish species in the major wetlands are discussed individually. Problems facing the wetlands are siltation

and invasion by the introduced cane species Calamus rotang. The invasive aquatic weed Eichhonua crassipes is also

a major problem in abandoned irrigation ponds. Sriharikota due to its high security status and largely undisturbed and

unpolluted habitats has the potential to be a future conservation site for the fish fauna of this region - if the status quo

remains.

Keywords: fish fauna, Sriharikota, wetlands, conservation

INTRODUCTION

India’s burgeoning human population and its largely

rural makeup places huge demands on natural resources

including wetlands leading to their exploitation, alteration

and degradation. It is estimated that around 50,000 small and

large wetlands in India are polluted to the point of being dead

(Lee Foote et al. 1996). Thus, it is important that even areas

having small, unspoiled aquatic habitats be documented and

afforded protection as these could in future be important

refuges for fish fauna of the regions they represent.

As part of the initiatives of the Satish Dhawan Space

Centre (SDSC) to document the biodiversity of Sriharikota

Island (in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu), the Bombay

Natural History Society carried out an assessment of its fish

fauna (Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a). Till this study, the

ichthyofauna of Sriharikota Island, which has a rich diversity

of wetlands, was undocumented probably due to the high-

security status of the island as a spaceport. This is in contrast

to the fish fauna of Pulicat Lake (which borders the island on

three sides) that has been extensively studied (Chacko et al.

1953; Krishnamurthy 1969; Prasadam 1971; Kaliyamurthy

and Janardhana Rao 1972; Prabhakara Rao 1970, 1971;

Kaliyamurthy 1972, 1981; Sanjeeva Raj et al. 1977; Raman

et al. 1977; Sultana et al. 1980; Vasanth et al. 1990; Rema

Devi et al. 2004). The fish fauna of Sriharikota, namely the

freshwater forms, is of additional interest as these occur in

an island ecosystem. This paper, an offshoot of the larger

study, gives an account of the fish fauna occurring in the

different wetland habitats of the Sriharikota Island and

discusses the conservation issues facing these wetlands.

STUDY AREA

Sriharikota is a spindle-shaped island (c. 181 sq. km)

situated in Nellore and Tiruvallur districts of Andhra Pradesh

and Tamil Nadu respectively (Fig. 1). Besides being the satellite

launching station of the Indian Space Research Organisation

(ISRO), Sriharikota has one of the last remaining, largest and

best-preserved tracts of coastal Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest

in India. The Island is bordered to the east by the Bay of Bengal

and on the west, north and south by the Pulicat Lake. The

Buckingham Canal, a largely disused navigation canal of the

British Era, runs along the western edge of the Island. The

Island has a coastline of c. 56 km from north to south and its

east to west dimensions vary from c. 9.6 km in the central part

to 1 km in the southern part. The Island comprises of low ridges

of sand of marine and aeolian origin, rising c. 4. 5-6.0 m above

msl and sloping from west to east. The water table is at a depth

of c. 2 to 5 m. The rainfall is mainly from the North-east

Monsoon and to a lesser degree, the South-west Monsoon,

averaging c. 1 ,200 mm annually. The area is particularly prone

to cyclones, usually in the early part of May and October, prior

or during the onset of the two monsoons. December to February

FISH FAUNA OF THE WETLANDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND THEIR CONSERVATION ISSUES

is the winter season with temperatures as low as IO C, and

March to September is the summer season with temperatures

soaring over 40 C. Relative humidity is lowest during May

( 1 8%), and is maximum during October (99%).

METHODS

Fish sampling in Sriharikota Island was difficult due

to the occurrence of a wide variety of wetlands with varying

depths, turbidity, currents, presence of aquatic vegetation,

debris and silt, and total or partial drying of some wetlands

during summer. This was further compounded by significant

microhabitat variations within habitat types. Hence, we used

different sampling methods such as bank-side count, hook

and line, cast-net and gill-net (Sutherland 1997; Thompson

et al. 1998). Other methods employed to assess the

ichthyofauna and to reduce the chances of missing species

for making species inventories of the different wetlands were

examination of fishers’ catches, interviews with fishers,

recording of data during emptying of drying pools by local

fishers, and visual observations over clear waters - termed as

‘General Collections’ in Tables 3-9.

Sampling was not carried out in two (namely, Madugu

Doruvu and Madugu Vagu) of the ten major wetlands of the

Island (Table 1) due to extremely difficult approach and

sampling related problems, and only collections for the

inventory of species were made in these two wetlands.

Sampling was carried out between 0730 to 1030 hrs from

February 2002 to January 2003, but collection trips, incidental

sampling or observations and examination of fishermen’s

catches continued till April 2004. Sampling was spread out

over a year to cover seasonal hydrological changes, such as

water levels, salinity, drying.

Taxonomy and species names in this paper follow

Talwar and Jhingran (1991) and Jayaram ( 1 999) for freshwater

and brackish water species, and Talwar and Kacker (1984)

for marine species with incorporation of changes since then

following Nelson (2006).

RESULTS

A total of 44 fish species were recorded in Sriharikota

Island (Table 2). Additionally, fishermen reported that nine

more species (denoted by # in Table 2) that occur in Pulicat

lake or in wetlands on the mainland around Sullurpet or/and

some islands in Pulicat lake, also occur in Sriharikota. The

fish fauna of different aquatic habitats in Sriharikota Island

assessed during the present study are detailed below:

Pedda and Chinna vagus: Fifteen species were

recorded from the two major freshwater streams, the Pedda

and Chinna vagus, consisting of 7 freshwater, 3 brackish/

brackish-tolerant ( Oryzias carnaticus , Aplocheilus pawns and

Oreochromis mossambicus) and 1 fresh-brackish-marine

{Megalops cyprinoides) species (Table 3). As sampling in

the vagus was difficult due to the presence of dense aquatic

vegetation, there were high possibilities of missing species.

It was only during the final drying stages after the dense

vegetation was removed by fishers that effective sampling

was possible. However, by this time, most of the fish,

especially the slower and more easily caught species, were

already depleted by fishers and fish-eating birds. Mystus

vittatus, Colisa /alia and Clarias batrachus were recorded

only once in a drying pool.

Abandoned Irrigation Ponds: Twelve species were

recorded in abandoned irrigation ponds (Table 4). Species

such as Anabas testudineus, Clarias batrachus and

Channa spp. were dominant in irrigation ponds. The surface

314

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

FISH FAUNA OF THE WETLANDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND THEIR CONSERVATION ISSUES

Table 1: Major wetlands of Sriharikota

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

315

FISH FAUNA OF THE WETLANDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND THEIR CONSERVATION ISSUES

Table 2: Checklist of the fish fauna of Sriharikota Island

316

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

FISH FAUNA OF THE WETLANDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND THEIR CONSERVATION ISSUES

Table 2: Checklist of the fish fauna of Sriharikota Island (contd.)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

317

FISH FAUNA OF THE WETLANDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND THEIR CONSERVATION ISSUES

Table 2: Checklist of the fish fauna of Sriharikota Island ( contd .)

Common Name

Freshwater Freshwater-Brackishwater Brackishwater-Saline

Wetlands Wetlands* Wetlands**

Family: Osphronemidae

Subfamily: Luciocephalinae

Dwarf Gouramy Colisa lalia (Ham.-Buch.)

Suborder: Channoidei

Family: Channidae

Spotted Snakehead Channa punctatus (Bloch)

Striped Snakehead Channa striatus (Bloch)

Order: Synbranchiformes

Family: Mastacembelidae

Striped Spinyeel Macrognathus pancalus (Ham.-Buch.)

Order: Pleuronectiformes

Family: Soleidae

Oriental Sole Brachirus orientalis (Bloch & Schn.)

Order: Tetraodontiformes

Family: Tricanthidae

Short-nose Tripodfish Triacanthus biaculeatus (Bloch)

Family: Tetraodontidae

Patoka Pufferfish Chelonodon patoca (Ham.-Buch.)

Species recorded

Additional species reported by fishermen

Total

+ +

+ +

#

# #

# +

+ +

18 25 31

1 13 8

19 38 39

* Freshwater stretches or/and becomes fresh during the peak monsoon; brackish water otherwise (Malliplate Vagu).

** Brackish water during the peak monsoon and turns saline as summer progresses (Urugayya).

In the case of creeks, the salinity increase is primarily due to inflows from the Bay of Bengal (Sateneru-Sidimuthu Kayya) or Pulicat

Lake (Penubakkam Basin).

+ = recorded; - = not recorded; # = reported by fishermen

Basin (which borders Pulicat lake) were brackish, brackish-

tolerant and marine species. The only records of Parambcissis

ranga in Sriharikota were from the Penumbakkam Baadava-

Basin. Fishermen on the mainland, but not Sriharikota, were

aware of this species.

Malliplate Vagu: Twenty-nine species were recorded

from Malliplate Vagu (or Mavalam Vagu) comprising largely

of freshwater and brackish water species (Table 7). The

maximum number of gobioid species (7) were recorded from

this stream. There are high possibilities of missing species in

Malliplate due to the depth, debris, litter and silt along most

of its course which made the sampling extremely difficult.

Urugayya: Twenty-six species were recorded from

Urugayya lake (or Chola Doruvu) comprising predominantly

of brackish water and marine forms (Table 8). Some

freshwater groups (barbs and snakeheads) were also recorded

during the peak NE Monsoon, probably originating from the

nearby Madugu Doruvu, but these soon died out. Dromhus

glohiceps , common in Urugayya lake, was not recorded in

any other water body in Sriharikota or in Pulicat lake. Like

the Malliplate Vagu, there are possibilities of missing species

in Urugayya lake also, due to its depth. Local fishers reported

the occurrence of many other species in Urugayya lake,

including Elops machnata. Megalops cyprinoides,

Nematalosa nasus, Chanos chanos, Caranx sexfasciatus,

Scatophagus argus and Chelonodon patoca all of which were

marine and/or secondary freshwater forms.

Sateneru-Sidimuthu Kayya: Twenty species were

recorded in the Sateneru-Sidimuthu Kayya (Table 9). As this

waterbody, mainly serves as an outflow of the Urugayya lake

(and to a lesser extent the Madugu Vagu) into the Bay of

Bengal during the NE Monsoon, the species composition is

similar to Urugayya, but species richness was less due to its

overall shallow nature and drying over large stretches during

the dry season.

DISCUSSION

The Zoological Survey of India (ZS1), which had made

collections in Pulicat lake during 1963, and subsequently

between 197 1 to 1975, recorded a total of 88 species (Rema

Devi el al. 2004). We recorded 22 of these 88 species in

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

FISH FAUNA OF THE WETLANDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND THEIR CONSERVATION ISSUES

Table 3: Fish species recorded in Pedda and Chinna vagus

Rod and Line: One rod and line was used on 6 days for duration of 3 hours each.

Gill-Net: One gill net was used on 12 days for duration of 2 hours each.

Cast-Net: One cast net was used on 4 days with 15 casts per trip.

Draining Pools: Denotes 14 pools drained by fishermen.

+ = incidental records during field trips, collection trips, and examination of fishermen’s catches.

Values are means of catches, followed by the standard deviation.

Sriharikota Island and also recorded another 31 species not

reported by the ZSI. However, comparisons between these

two areas are unjustifiable as Pulicat lake is a brackish-saline

ecosystem with mudflats, while Sriharikota has a variety of

aquatic habitat types, including freshwater lakes and streams.

However, 17 species of brackish-marine migratory fishes that

were not recorded by the ZSI, including common species such

as Etroplus maculatus and Lates calcarifer were encountered

in the present study. There could have been possibilities of

recording more and especially nocturnal species if sampling

was also carried out at night.

The only endangered (CAMP 1998) freshwater fish

species, occurring in Sriharikota is Anguilla bengalensis.

Another Anguilla species reported to be less common in the

study area by local fishers, but not evaluated by CAMP (1998),

is A. bicolor. Species listed as vulnerable (CAMP 1998) and

found in Sriharikota were Clarias batrachus, Mystus vittatus

and Anabas testudineus. CAMP ( 1 998) listed 329 freshwater

species in India, leaving c. 300 others unassessed for their

conservation status. A rare brackish water species (only half

a dozen records of single individuals) of Sriharikota, which

could possibly be listed as a threatened species in future

assessments is Eleotris melanosoma. An endemic species of

India, Drombus globiceps, originally reported from Chilika

lake (Orissa) and subsequently from Ennore Estuary, Chennai

(Rema Devi 1992), and Sankaraparani river. South Arcot

District, Tamil Nadu (Rema Devi et al. 1996), was common

in Urugayya. An exotic, native to Africa, the Mozambique

Tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus and a non-native species,

Dwarf Gouramy Colisa lalia , earlier known only from

drainages in North India but now well-established in southern

India (discussed under conservation issues) were recorded

from the Island.

Table 4: Fish species recorded in abandoned irrigation ponds

Refer notes in Table 3

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

319

FISH FAUNA OF THE WETLANDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND THEIR CONSERVATION ISSUES

The fish species diversity was much higher in Malliplate

Vagu and Urugayya than other wetlands. The Malliplate Vagu

has fresh and brackish water stretches and also receives

seawater inflow at the mouth’s stretch that opens into the

Bay of Bengal. It has high habitat diversity with dense aquatic

vegetation and reeds in the sandy lake-like upper reaches

known as Katangayya, and debris and silt laden marsh-like

conditions with insignificant aquatic vegetation in the lower

reaches. Its perennial nature (except for the Katangayya part)

and seasonal connectivity to the Bay of Bengal also contribute

to the high fish species diversity. Thus, the fish fauna

comprised of freshwater, brackish water and marine groups

such as gobies, eels, cichlids, catfish, mullets and perches,

and typical freshwater groups such as barbs and murrels

(snakeheads).

Urugayya is a sandy-bottom, clear water lake with a

maximum depth of c. 3 m. It lacks aquatic vegetation except

for algae. The fish fauna is somewhat similar to Malliplate

Vagu but with hardly any freshwater species, as those that

move into it during the NE Monsoon die out quickly as the

salinity increases with the cessation of rains. Urugayya is

reported to have dried up only twice in the last 50 years due

to severe drought. When this happened, its bed was found

riddled with burrows of eels, revealing its importance as a

habitat for eels. There is also a fishing season for prawns in

the lake just after the monsoon.

The freshwater Pedda and Chinna vagus, and the rarely

visited Madugu Doruvu and Vagu, primarily support

freshwater species. The Chinna Vagu dries up completely

during summer; the Pedda Vagu also dries along most of its

Table 5: Fish species recorded in Penubakkam Baadava

Refer notes in Table 3

course. Even the deeper regions dry up if the following SW

Monsoon is delayed or fails, and if so, fish remain only in the

perennial two kilometer fresh-brackish water stretch at its

southern end. This portion gets connected periodically to the

Bay of Bengal and the species composition is similar to

Malliplate Vagu.

The Penubakkam Badava is a seasonal freshwater body.

Freshwater fish species move into it from the Pedda and

Chinna vagus and the abandoned irrigation ponds. Brackish

water-marine species also move in from Pulicat lake (via the

Penubakkam Basin) during the NE Monsoon. The

Penubakkam Basin is an interface between Pulicat lake and

Penubakkam Baadava with the fish fauna comprising of

brackish water and marine species, the freshwater species

dying out as soon as salinity increases during dry spells during

the monsoon and post monsoon. The Penumbakkam Basin

may also receive water (and fish) from Pulicat lake during

the SW Monsoon if the influx of water is significant. A similar

waterbody, the Beripeta Basin, was not sampled as it is more

prone to drying and is more like an extension of Pulicat lake

into the Island. The Sateneru-Sidimuthu Kayya is similar to

Penumbakkam Basin with regard to its habitat, but the fish

fauna comprises of only brackish-marine species as it opens

into the Bay of Bengal. Freshwater species that may move

into it during flooding die out quickly as the salinity increases.

An artificial aquatic habitat in Sriharikota is the

abandoned irrigation pond. These are small deep ponds dug

in the low-lying western border of the Island from

Penubakkam in the north to Tettipeta in the south. The ponds

were used to irrigate the paddy crop and also served as fish

ponds. Many of the ponds are perennial, and the fish

recruitment in ponds that dry up during summer is via the

Table 6: Fish species recorded in Penubakam Basin

Refer notes in Table 3

320

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

FISH FAUNA OF THE WETLANDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND THEIR CONSERVATION ISSUES

Table 7: Fish species recorded in Malliplate Vagu

Refer notes in Table 3

basin that gets connected to the other perennial irrigation

ponds and other wetlands of the Island. The fish fauna of

these ponds are dominated by air-breathing fishes WktAnabas

testudineus, Clarias batrachus and Heteropneustes fossilis,

which can survive in murky and less oxygenated waters.

Brackish water species that may move in from Pulicat lake

during the peak monsoon and non-air breathing species cannot

survive in the ponds as they are heavily silted and engulfed

by water hyacinth and cane, resulting in low dissolved oxygen

content.

CONSERVATION ISSUES

Overall, the studies revealed that Sriharikota has a

variety of fairly well-protected, wetland habitats, ranging from

freshwater to marine, that support a diversity of fish fauna

including endangered’ and vulnerable species. However, there

Table 8: Fish species recorded in Urugayya

Refer notes in Table 3

are conservation issues facing the wetlands including

proliferation of invasive species, siltation and over-

exploitation, which are discussed below:

Cane: Cane, Calamus rotang was introduced in

Sriharikota in 1 882-83 during the British Era (Reddy 1981).

It is now seen around all freshwater habitats, engulfing the

smaller ones and forming impenetrable brakes in streams

obstructing the water flow. According to the tribals, cane

proliferated after ISRO stopped its exploitation on takeover

of the Island. To generate employment for the tribals, the

SDSC started extraction of cane in 2002, but this has not

made a significant impact till now, and may take a few years

to witness a decline. Otherwise, cane will have to be eradicated

or its spread checked to save the wetlands.

Water Hyacinth: The exotic aquatic weed, water

hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes has almost completely covered

the surface of many abandoned irrigation ponds, especially

the perennial ponds in the northern areas. The mat-like

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

321

FISH FAUNA OF THE WETLANDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND THEIR CONSERVATION ISSUES

formations over the water prevent sunlight and oxygen reaching

the water column and submerged plant causes oxygen depletion

affecting fisheries (Naskar 1 990). For this reason, the fish fauna

in abandoned irrigation ponds were found to comprise primarily

of hardy, air-breathing fishes. Eradication of water hyacinth in

Sriharikota is not a difficult task as the ponds are small in size

and the species occurs only in (some) abandoned irrigation

ponds and nowhere else in the Island.

Ipomoea carnea: Another South American aquatic

species that is now a major weed in India is Ipomoea carnea

(Chaudhuri et at. 1994). The species was also recorded in

Sriharikota, but unlike some wetlands on the mainland where

it is a problem, it occurs only in patches at the edges of some

wetlands. One reason for this could be dominance of cane

along the edges of freshwater bodies. However, the species

will have to be monitored to see if it turns out to be an invasive.

Siltation: Siltation is a major problem confronting

abandoned irrigation ponds, the Madugu Doruvu and Pedda

and Chinna vagus. According to the locals, desilting

operations used to be taken up once every few years in the

irrigation ponds and deeper regions of the Pedda and Chinna

vagus (which were maintained as fish ponds) prior to the

takeover of the Island by ISRO. The silt collected was used

in crop fields. Along with the spread of cane, some of the

smaller freshwater bodies have almost disappeared with the

build-up of silt. On our recommendations, the authorities of

SDSC have started de-silting stretches of the Pedda and

Chinna vagus, which will help restore the streams.

Table 9: Fish species recorded in Sateneru-Sidimuthu Kayya

Refer notes in Table 3

Exotic/Non-native fish species: Two non-native fish

species now occur in Sriharikota, namely Mozambique Tilapia

Oreochromis mossambicus and Dwarf Gouramy Colisa lalia.

The Mozambique Tilapia, first introduced as a food fish in

India in 1952 and now widespread in many parts of southern

India, occurs in freshwater and brackish water habitats and

also tolerates high salinity (Jones and Sarojini 1952; Editors

1954; Daniels 2006). The species is now common in Pulicat

lake and Sriharikota. The impact of this hardy species on the

other species is unknown as affected species may have already

disappeared or declined in numbers. The Dwarf Gouramy, a

popular aquarium fish, is native of northern India (Talwar

andJhingran 1991; Jayaram 1999). It is now known to occur

in the wild in Chennai, a major aquarium fish breeding centre

in India (Daniels 2002, 2006), c. 40 km from the southern tip

of Sriharikota. It could have come to Sriharikota via the

Buckingham Canal during the peak NE Monsoon or through

intentional or accidental introductions in the mainland waters

and islands in Pulicat lake by aquarists and fish hobbyists.

The species was found to be common in two village ponds in

two islands of Pulicat lake. The species was rare in Sriharikota,

and the local fishermen either did not know the species or

said it was a new entrant to the Island. The only other similar

same-sized species that it could possibly impact in Sriharikota

is Pseudosphromenus cupanus. The Dwarf Gouramy is a

small, peaceful and harmless aquarium species (Mondadori

1977), but competition for the same food and other resources

could have an impact on native species and especially

P. cupanus.

Fishing: Fishing was one of the major occupations of

the locals till ISRO took over the Island. After its takeover,

ISRO gave fishing rights to some tribals to earn their

livelihood by selling fish to the employees of the SDSC.

Fishing is on a low scale, but there are reports that outside

contractors (illegally) supply the tribals with fishing gear to

catch prawns and fish species that find a good market on the

mainland. The demand for fish by the locals has also increased

with the development of the spaceport and facilities over the

years. However, there are definite plans by ISRO to

completely shift the residential areas to the mainland, which

will be a boon for the fish fauna.

Other than these conservation issues, another issue

apparently concerning the freshwater fish fauna is they are

more prone to extinction as these inhabit an island ecosystem.

However, though the island is surrounded by the brackish-

saline waters of Pulicat lake and the Bay of Bengal,

Sriharikota gets connected to the freshwater wetland, streams

and rivers of the mainland during the peak SW Monsoon

season, as almost freshwater conditions prevail in Pulicat lake

during the peak NE Monsoon season. Additionally, the

322

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

FISH FAUNA OF THE WETLANDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND THEIR CONSERVATION ISSUES

cyclonic storms that lash the region once in a few years result

in massive flooding, permitting even the immigration of large

mammals into the Island (Kannan and Manakadan 2004;

Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004b).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Indian Space Research Organisation for

funding the projects undertaken in Sriharikota, and especially

late Prof. Satish Dhawan, former Chariman, ISRO, whose

love for the wilderness was instrumental in the projects being

conceptualized and getting sanctioned. We also thank

ISRO authorities at the SDSC, Sriharikota, for providing us

the necessary permission and other facilities for stay and

to carry out field surveys. The paper has benefitted by

perusal of drafts by V. Kannan, Vidyadhar Atkore and Patrick

David, and especially from the comments and exhaustive

corrections on the earlier drafts of this paper by the anonymous

referee. And, last but not least, we thank our local assistant

M. Parandamaiah for help during the fieldwork.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(3), Sept-Dec 2009

324-334

DIVERSITY, CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS

IN BAGO YOMA, RAKHINE YOMA AND ALAUNGDAW KATHAPA

NATIONAL PARK IN MYANMAR

SURENDRA VARMA1

'Asian Elephant Research & Conservation Centre (A division of Asian Nature Conservation Foundation),

C/o Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru 560 012, Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]. in

This investigation was aimed to provide baseline data for the occurrence and diversity of mammals and their conservation

status in Bago Yoma, Rakhine Yoma and Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park (AKNP) in Myanmar. Direct and indirect

evidences of animals were assessed along transect lines, existing forest trails, waterholes, caves, from animal observation

posts, and through village visits. A total of 33 species of mammals was reported across all the regions investigated and

an average of 22.3 mammalian species per region was reported. Among these, 21% were classified as endangered,

21% as vulnerable, 7% as Data Deficient as per the IUCN (Menon 2003) Red list status; thus about 50% of the species

reported had high conservation significance. Differences in mammalian diversity across all the regions investigated

were not statistically significant. For every 5 individuals, a new species of mammal was encountered in AKNP; for

Rakhine, this occurred for only every 12 individuals and in Bago for every 9 individuals. The percentage of all

mammals, including large mammals and endangered species reported in Rakhine Yoma was high. Although the region

surveyed was considered as being rich in mammal diversity, continuing commercial exploitation of the forest for the

timber industry, destructive agricultural practices, and unrestricted hunting have resulted in rapid loss of natural habitat

and a significant decline of wildlife.

Key words: large mammals, IUCN Red list, habitat modification, hunting, conservation significance

INTRODUCTION

Myanmar, covering a total land area of 677,577 sq. km,

is known for its rich floral and faunal diversity (Wint 1993).

The country is home to nearly 7,000 species of plants,

300 species of mammals, 1,000 species of birds, about

360 species of reptiles and other taxa, which are poorly

documented (IUCN 1989). Conservation of nature is a

tradition among the people of Myanmar (Htut 1993).

However, wildlife in Myanmar suffered greatly during the

Second World War (IUCN 1989; Htut 1993). Even after

independence, it suffered a great deal from issues such as

insurrection and ineffective law enforcement, and

consequently, large mammals, particularly the Asian Elephant

Elephas maximus and the Tiger Panthera tigris today face

serious threats for survival (IUCN 1989; Htut 1993), while

the Sumatran Rhinoceros Didermocerus sumatrensis is very

close to extinction (Salter 1983; Rabinowitz and Schaller

1995).

Bago Yoma, located in central Myanmar, has been

recognised as being rich in wildlife and containing the largest

and most valuable block of Teak forest in the world (Uga

1995). The FA O/UNDP survey carried out in 1981 (FAO

1982) suggested that within Bago Yoma the entire Yenwe

catchment upstream of the dam and the rich wildlife habitat

in north of Zamari needed protection. Proposing a protected

area of not less than 320,000 acres, FAO ( 1 982) recommended

that the Yoma be protected as an instance of outstanding

landscape and also as a habitat of rare animals, such as the

Serow Nemorhaedus sumatraensis.

Rakhine Yoma located in the western region of the

country has greater number of endangered and vulnerable

species, making it a more important region for large mammal

conservation (Sayer 1983). According to Sayer (1983), the

rugged topography and dense vegetation cover in the Rakhine

region made it difficult to hunt animals enabling existence of

a diverse animal population. He also felt the reduced presence

of settlements/clearings in the forest was due to the low

agricultural value of the land.

The Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park (AKNP),

located in northern Myanmar still has a large area under forest

cover, harbouring the endangered Eld’s Deer (Cervus eldi )

along with other species of large mammals (Tun 1997).

Although the regions have been considered to be rich

in mammal diversity, since 1856, under sustainable

management of forests, intensive timber extraction has been

practiced in these regions. The commercial exploitation of

forests on 30 years of felling cycle for 1 30 yrs for the timber

industry have negative effects. In addition, the destructive

agricultural practices, and unrestricted hunting have resulted

in significant wildlife decline and rapid loss of natural habitats

and has resulted in a large area being occupied by Bamboo

spp. (Salter 1983; Uga 1995; Tun 1997; Rao et al. 2002).

Effective wildlife conservation and management

DIVERSITY, CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS IN MYANMAR

programs are yet to make an impact in these regions. Only in

1997, 1,775 sq. km (out of 16,000 sq. km area of Rakhine

Yoma) area was gazetted as Rakhine Yoma Wildlife Sanctuary

(Uga 1995; Rao et al. 2002). Under the Bago Yoma Teak

Nature Reserve (covering 1 ,500 sq. km), there was a proposal

to preserve the pristine nature of the teak and other forests.

To fulfill this objective a survey was conducted in 1983,

however, the areas are yet to be brought under the legal

management system. AKNPone of the oldest forested regions

of the country, was legally gazetted as a Wildlife Sanctuary

only in 1984.

Evaluating the status of animals and their habitat in

Myanmar is difficult as visibility within the forests is very

poor and many of the forests are inaccessible. The survey

regions are very remote, with rugged terrain, infested with

mosquitoes carrying malaria, and non-existent or extremely

poor logistical facilities, making direct observation of animals

extremely difficult. However, these regions are very important

due to the presence of globally threatened species (Salter

1983; IUCN 1989; Htut 1993). Therefore, observation of

tracks, defecation and other signs, along with information

collected from local hunters and villagers were used to provide

basic data on the occurrence and status of the animal species

found in these regions (FAO 1982; Salter 1983; IUCN 1989;

Htut 1993; Uga 1995; Rao et al. 2002).

For a country like Myanmar, to specifically assess the

status of animals found in different regions is never easy given

the constraints of time, manpower and other resources

available, and the difficulties associated with carrying out a

survey in most of the region. A study on the status of the

Asian Elephant and its conservation was initiated in Myanmar

in the regions of Bago Yoma (formerly known as Pegu Yoma),

Rakhine Yoma (formerly known as Arakkan Yoma), and the

Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park (AKNP) of northern

Myanmar. The areas were chosen as they are considered to

be important regions for elephants (FAO 1982; Salter 1983;

Htut 1993; Myint 1994; Tun 1997).

The elephant survey provided an opportunity for

investigations on the presence and relative abundance of

mammalian species, trends of species diversity, similarity and

conservation status of mammals and their habitats in these

regions. Conservation of mammals, including Asian

elephants, in survey regions or for an entire country is possible

only through knowing their presence and absence or

reviewing the current management status of these regions.

The investigation was also aimed at reviewing the

establishment of protected areas, staff strength, status of

hunting, annual net deforestation rate, legislation to protect

mammals and their habitat, law enforcement, budget, and land

use polices. Myanmar still contains large areas of relatively

intact forest (Rao et al. 2005), as one-third of the country’s

total area is still under forest cover (Aung 2007) coupled with

a low human population density and impact (Sanderson et

al. 2002). Relative importance of these factors and their scope

for conservation of mammals and their environment is also

discussed through this survey.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Investigation sites

The investigation sites (Fig. 1) were Bago Yoma (17°-

20° N; 96°-97° E), Rakhine Yoma (17°-21° N; 93°-95°E),

and Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park (AKNP) (22°-23°N;

94°-95°E). The Bago, Rakhine, and AKNP regions, situated

in the central, western and northern regions of Myanmar,

respectively, have very extensive tracts of hills. The hill

ranges of Rakhine Yoma are a southward extension of

the Himalayas. AKNP is in a well-forested mountainous

region, situated west of the lower Chindwin river and the

Myittha valley. The average elevation of the Bago Yoma

is about 700 m; the highest point is 900 m above msl.

In Rakhine Yoma, which runs for nearly 600 km, the height

ranges between 1 ,000 and 1 ,400 m above msl and the average

elevation in AKNP is about 1,000 m (ranging between

200 and 1 ,400 m); steep slopes and narrow ridges characterise

all regions.

All these regions have good drainage systems: the Pegu

and tributaries of Yenwe Chaung, and the Kun Chaung are

the major river sources in Bago Yoma. The Sandoway river

(Sandoway Chaung) is the major river system in Rakhine.

AKNP is drained by a number of tributaries of the Patolon

river, the Petpa Chaung and Taungdwin Chaung being

perennial. In all these regions, the wet season lasts from May

to October, and is heaviest in August and September. The

annual mean rainfall for Bago is 1,700 mm, for Rakhine it is

1 ,800 mm and for AKNP it is 1 ,500 mm. In all these regions,

the vegetation is largely mixed deciduous forest, with semi-

evergreen forests occurring in areas of high precipitation.

Patches of evergreen trees consisting, mostly of secondary

growth occur in a few places.

The mammalian species reported in these regions

include the Rhesus Macaque Macaco mulatto , Hoolock

Gibbon Hylobates hoolock , Phayre’s Langur Semnopithecus

phayrei, Sambar Cervus unicolor , Barking Deer Muntiacus

muntjac. Hog Deer Axis porcinus. Eld's Deer Cervus eldi.

Gaur Bos gaurus. Tsaine (Saing) or Banteng Bos javanicus ,

Serow Nemorhaedus sumatraensis. Elephant Elephas

maximus , Sumatran Rhino Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, Asiatic

Black Bear Ursus thibetanus , Malayan Sun Bear Ursus

malayanus , Leopard Panthera pardus. Tiger Panthera tigris ,

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

325

DIVERSITY, CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS IN MYANMAR

ALAUNGDAW KATHAPA NP

N

BAGO

Fig 1 : Survey sites in Myanmar: The sites are marked among the forested regions of the country

and Wild Dog Cuon alpinus. The sources for the common

and scientific names are Corbet and Hill (1992), Yin (1993)

and Menon (2003).

Besides the author, the study team for the Bago and

Rakhine yoma were drawn largely from the Forest

Department and Myanmar Timber Enterprise (MTE), which

included Range Forest Officers, Rangers, and Deputy

Rangers. In AKNP, the study was conducted with the help

of a 14-member expedition team from the UK-based

Scientific Exploration Society. Separate training programs

for each region were conducted for the teams on various

aspects of the investigation. The investigation was carried

out in five reserves of the Bago Yoma - 1 ) South Zamari,

2) North Zamari, 3) Yenwe, 4) Idokan, and 5) Okkan. Seven

forest reserves of the Rahine Yoma - 1) Part of Thandwe

Reserved Forest (RF) (DDNSAND1), 2) Sabyin and Mindon

326

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

DIVERSITY, CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS IN MYANMAR

area (DDNARAKAN 2), 3) Part of Gwa RF (DDNGAW),

4) North of May Yu RF (DDNMAYU 1 ), 5) south of May Yu

RF (DDNMAYU2), 6) Part of Miva Pya (DDNMYAP), and

7) Part of Sin Tanung RF (DDNSINT) were studied. The

locations within the AKNP were referred to as South-west

(SW), North-west (NW), Mindon, Kunze and Kanthat. In

each reserve, the team was split into a number of groups

(each consisting of three to four persons, including a field

tracker) and data was collected through various methods.

SURVEY METHODS

Line transect method

Direct and indirect evidence of animals was assessed

along transect lines to record the species of animals, the

number and frequency of occurrence, and their diversity.

A total of 142 transects for Bago, 148 for Rakhine, and 22 for

AKNP were laid. The length of transects in a particular

reserve, within a region, was roughly proportional to the total

area of the reserve and lines were well-distributed, covering

different regions of the reserves sampled (Table 1 ). In a given

site, not more than three subgroups operated to cut transects,

and a minimum distance of 2 km was maintained between

two subgroups.

Forest Trail survey method

Existing forest trails were considered for systematic

sampling and the start time and end time of every forest or

sampling route were noted. During this time, sightings of

mammals were recorded through direct and indirect

observation (vocalisation, tracks, signs, defecation and other

evidence). At every sighting, the time of sighting, name (where

possible) and numbers of the animal sighted or indirect

evidence was recorded along with other features of the habitat.

Whenever possible, the GPS location was noted and acetate

transfers of tracks obtained.

Village survey method

The clearest indication of the abundance of wildlife

could be obtained from the village survey, for which the

systematic approach of a questionnaire-based survey was used

in villages situated close to forests. A total of 89 villages were

visited for this survey; 76% of the villages were located within

the forests and 24% villages were located in a mean distance

of 2.88 km (SE = 0.55) from the forests.

Other methods

Specific places such as waterholes, watch towers and

animal observation posts were visited. Image Intensifier (II)

Table 1: Forest reserves sampled, area, number and percentage of transects surveyed and

distance covered for Bago, Rakhine and AKNP regions

‘Part of Thandwe Reserved Forest (DDNSAND1), Sabyin & Mindon (DDNARAKAN2), part of Gwa Reserved Forest (DDNGWA),

north of May Yu Reserved Forest (DDNMAYU1), south of May Yu Reserved Forest (DDNMAYU2), part of Miva Pya (DDNMYAP) and

part of Sin Tanung Reserved Forests (DDNSINT).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

327

DIVERSITY, CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS IN MYANMAR

was used and observations were made by selecting a site,

depending on the visibility of the location, with a 50 m radius

(The II device works on available light without magnification).

Observations were made between 1930 and 2130 hrs. Apart

from these methods; observations were also made by waiting

for animals near rivers and streams (without II), and on

journeys between camps from vehicles or while alighting from

vehicles. Signs of animals were also observed in and around

the camp, and while creating transects. Caves were visited to

observe bats. Mist nets were set up over rivers and within the

camp areas, and observers waited for at least an hour at each

site, sometimes the wait extending up to two hours.

The ground investigation was initiated in 1 995 and was

continued till 2000, and the current information (since 2001)

on the status of mammals and their habitat was based on

personal communications (Uga and Hpone Thant (Harry)),

and literature (James etal. 1999; Gutter 2001 ; Rao etal. 2002;

Bennett and Rao 2002; Sanderson et al. 2002; Leimgruber et

al. 2003, Aung etal. 2004; FAO 2004; Rao etal. 2005; Lynam

etal. 2006; Aung 2007). The systematic investigations carried

out for Bago were from May 1995 to December 1995, for

Rakhine, from December 1995 to May 1996, and for AKNP,

only in January 1999. Specific locations of Rakhine and Bago

Yoma were investigated again in May 1998 and January 2000

respectively. An attempt to cover the northern Myanmar

(regions such as Tamu, Homalin, Tamanthi and Tanai) was

made in 2000, but insurgence and other logistic reasons made

actual ground investigation impossible. Overall, a total of

8,100 man-hours in Rakhine, 8,500 man-hours in Bago, and

1,350 man-hours in AKNP, respectively, were spent on

investigations.

Data analysis

Only the line transect, trail and village investigations

provided meaningful observations; though considerable time

was spent for observing animals using other approaches

(observations with and without II, and using mist nets for

bats), they did not provide much scope as number of animals

observed through these approaches were substantially low.

Results of all these methods were pooled together only to

construct a species list, and their presence and absence in the

regions sampled. Results of line transect sampling were used

for arriving at the frequency occurrence, species diversity

and similarity.

Initially, the total number of mammalian species

encountered for all the regions together was computed and

an overall mean number for species (with standard error -

SE and % coefficient of variation - CV) was calculated for

each region. Mammals were classified based on their size or

weight, or a combination of both, also taking into

consideration their mention in literature (Datta 1999; Shankar

and Sukumar 1999; Nameer et al. 2001). Body length (head

to base of tail) was given more importance as the weight of

an animal could change depending on its food intake and

other factors. Animals above 50 cm were considered large

mammals, those between 20 and 40 cm were small/to medium

size mammals, and animals below 20 cm were treated as small

mammals with body size measurements based on Yin (1993)

and Menon (2003).

The percentage of Endangered, Vulnerable and Data

Deficient categories of the IUCN Red List (Menon 2003;

IUCN 2007) was calculated to arrive at the conservation

significance of each survey region. This was done in relation

to the occurrence of different categories for all three regions

taken together and also individually. Mammalian diversity

and other associated parameters for each region were

calculated using the computer program BIODIVERSITY Pro

(McAleece et al. 1997). Diversity and species abundance

calculated across the regions were tested using the Kruskal

Wallis (He) test for significance, through the computer

program PAST (Hammer et al. 2001).

The number and percentage of similar species shared

(based on similarity matrix) across regions were calculated,

more specifically large mammal similarity across different

regions. This was based on a Bray-Cluster Analysis (Single

line) using BIODIVERSITY Pro (McAleece et al. 1997). In

addition, for each region, the mean percentage (with SE and

% CV) of large mammals shared with other regions was

calculated. For both these sections, the computation was done

in relation to the occurrence of similar species across different

regions, and surveys carried out in the same region at different

times and in regions that had geographical and ecological

similarities.

RESULTS

A total of 33 species of mammals were reported for

all the three regions and an average of 22.3 (SE =1.8, CV %

7.9) mammalian species were reported for a region. A total

of 15 species (45%) of large mammals was recorded for all

the regions investigated, and 93% species were readily

identifiable (Prater 1971; Corbet and Hill 1992; Yin 1993;

Menon 2003). Among the species identified, 21% were

classified as endangered, 21% vulnerable, and 7% belonged

to the Data Deficient category of the IUCN Red List status;

thus about 50% of the species were reported to have high

conservation significance. A total of 14 species (42%) of small

to medium sized mammals (Rabinowitz and Schaller 1995)

were reported for the regions surveyed; 57% of them were

identifiable either to genera or to species; only 42% were

328

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (3), Sept-Dec 2009

DIVERSITY, CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF MAMMALS IN MYANMAR

Fig. 2: Large mammal similarity across different regions of

Myanmar; the results are based on Bray-Curtis Cluster Analysis

(Single Link)

identifiable up to species level. Four species (12%) of small

mammals were reported for these regions and none of them

were identifiable (Table 2) by specific species name.

Significance of occurrence of mammalian species

for different regions

Bago Yoma