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VOLUME 82(1) : APRIL 1985

Date of Publication : 29-4-1985.

CONTENTS

Page

Some observations on the singing behaviour of the Hoolock Gibbon

{Hvlobates hoolock ). By Elliott H. Haimoff. ( With five text-figures ) .. 1

Environmental factors and planktonic communities of Baigul and Nanak-

sagar reservoirs, Nainital. By Saleem Mustafa and Zubair Ahmad .. 13

Observations on the social organisation and sex ratio in three species of

Indian bats. By A. Krishna and C. J. Dominic . . 24

Studies on the activity patterns of the larvae and adults of Aedes albopictus

(Skuse) and Aedes vittatus (Bigot) of the scrub jungles of Palghat-Gap,

India. By David Livingstone and K. Krishnamoorthy. ( With six graphs) 30

Insectivory by Grey Langurs. By Jim Moore . . 38

Ecological interactions between mistletoes and their avian pollinators in

South India. By Priya Davidar. {With two text-figures ) .. 45

Breeding habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats. Part X —

Taphozous kachhensis (Dobson) — Emballonuridae. By V. M. Sapkal and

A. H. Deshmukh .. 61

Material for the Flora of Mahabaleshwar - 6. By P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida 68

A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of Bombay Natural History

Society-29. By Humayun Abdulali . . 87

Observations on the habitat-distribution of Orchids of Arunachal Pradesh.

By Sadanand N. Hegde. {With two plates and a text-figure ) .. 114

Comments on Ripley’s ‘ A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan’ —

second edition (1982). By Biswamoy Biswas .. 126

Breeding, development and culture prospects of the Himalayan Barbel,

Schizothorax plagiostomus Hf.ckel. By S. B. Raizada .. 130

Ethology of some Rhyparochromines (Lygaeidae: Heteroptera: Insecta). By

K. Thangavelu . . 138

An interesting collection of Amphibians and Reptiles from Cholistan Desert,

Punjab, Pakistan. By M. S. Khan .. 144

New Descriptions:

Eulophid parasites ( Hymenoptera : Eulophidae) of Agromyzidae in India.

By M. A. Khan. {With fifty six text- figures ) .. 149

A new species of the genus Simocephaius Schoedler, 1858 (Cladocera, Daphnii-

dae) from Madhya Pradesh, India. By Pramod Rane .. 159

Three new species of Pediobius Walker (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) from

South India. By S. Adam Shafee and Seema Rizvi. {With nine text-figures) 162

A new species of Amphipod, Hyale gopalaswamyi sp. nov. — A commensal of

sponges. By M. R. Kanakadurga, K. Hanumantha Rao and Shyamasundari.

( With twenty two text-figures) . . 165

On A NEW CYPRIN1D FISH OF THE GENUS BarilillS HAMILTON (PlSCES: CYPRINIOAE)

from Arunachal Pradesh, India. By R. P. Barman. (With a text-figure ) 170

A new species of Ophiorrhiza L. (Rubiaceae) from Kerala State, India. By

K. Ramamurthy and R. Rajan. ( With six text-fiures ) .. 174

Review:

Flora of Karnataka. (M. R. Almeida) .. 177

Miscellaneous Notes:

General: 1. An “Island" Sanctuary in Kutch. By M. K. Ranjitsinh (p. 180).

Mammals: 2. A note on the scavenging behaviour of Stripednecked Mongoose on Tiger's

kill. By K. K. Ramachandran (p. 182); 3. A note on the behaviour of captive dholes

(Cuon alpinus). (With two plates ). By James A. Cohen (p. 183); 4. Unusual use of the trunk

for sound production in a captive Asian Elephant: A second case. By Chris Wemmer,

Hemanta Mishra and Eric Dinerstein (p. 187); 5. A female Blackbuck with horns. (With

a photograph) . By D. R. Chauhan (p. 188); 6. Geographic variation in the Barasingha

or Swamp Deer ( Cervtts duvauceli). (With a text-figure). By Raja Dinesh Pratap Singh

(p. 188).

Birds: 7. An additional record of the least frigate bird Fregata aeriel in India. By S.

Faizi (p. 191); B. Chick-Feeding in Ibises at Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. By

Usha Bhutia (p. 191); 9. Sighting of Whooper Swans (Cygnus cygnus) in Baluchistan.

By Ashiq Ahmad (p. 192); 10. Indian Blackcrested Baza (Aviceda leuphotes): A

sighting record from Karnataka. By K. Ullas Karanth (p. 193); 11. The Osprey (Pandion

haliaetus haliaetus) preying on a gull. By D. N. Goenka (p. 193); 12. Observations on

the roof-nesting habit of the Redwattled Lapwing (Vanellus irtdicus) in Poona, Maha-

rashtra. By Taej Mundkur (p. 194); 13. Redwattled Lapwing (Vanellus indicus) suffering

from cataract. By Nitin Jamdar (p. 197); 14. Occurrence of the Great Blackheaded Gull

(Larus ichthyaetus Pallas) in Kutch. By Himmatsinhji (d. 197); 15. On the status of

Psittacula intermedia (Rothschild). By Michael Walters (p. 197); 16. Down plumage in

Parakeets, Genus Psittacula. (With a photograph). By S. R. Sane and P. Kannan (p. 200);

17. On the juvenile plumage of female Chrysocolaptes festivus (Boddaert) and other

nesting notes near Bombay. (With a plate). By Humayun Abdulali (p. 202); 18. On the

collection of hair from the tail of live cattle (Cow) by the Jungle Crow ( Corvtts

macrorhynchos) for nest-building. By N. J. George (p. 203); 19. Feeding lerritories of

the small sunbird (Nectarinia minima Sykes). With a text-figure). By Priya Davidar

(p. 204); 20. Blackbreasted weaver bird (Ploceus benghalensis) observed in Hyderabad.

By Aasheesh Pittie and Siraj A. Taher (p. 206); 21. Blackheaded Munia, Lonchura

malacca malacca in Jasdan, Gujarat. By Shivrajkumar Khachar (p. 208); 22. Comments

on “Some interesting aspects of the avifauna of the Point Calimere Sanctuary. Thanjavur

Dist., Tamil Nadu By R. Sugathan (JBNHS 79, pp. 567-75, 1983)”. By Humayun

Abdulali (p. 209).

Reptiles: 23. On the infantile mortality of Olive Ridley. Lepidochelys olivacea (Esch-

choltz) in captivity. By R. Banerjee. N. C. Nandi and S. K. Raut (p. 212); 24. Freshwater

Turtles capturing coots. By R. Kannan (p. 213); 25. Mating behaviour in garden lizard

oi blood sucker, Calotes versicolor Daudin. (With a plate). By Raju Vyas and Nitin

Vyas (p. 213); 26. Nest guarding by estuarine crocodile — A behaviour study in the

Sunderbans. By R. Banerjee (p. 214); 27. Results of 1981 Survey for Gharial ( Gavialis

gangeticus) in North National Chambal Sanctuary. (With a text-figure). By R. K. Sharma

(p. 215); 28. Observations on the banded krait. Bungarus fasciatus. By H. S. A. Vahya

(p. 219).

Amphibia: 29. Replacement names for two Indian species of Philautus (Anura: Rhaco-

phoridae). By Sushil K. Dutta (p. 219); 30. Notes on the correct spelling of the Indian

Bull Frog, Raiia tigerina Daudin. By Sushil K. Dutta (p. 220).

Fishes: 31. On the type specimen of Danio ( Danio ) annandalei Chaudhuri, 1908 with

a redescription of the species (Pisces: Cyprinidae). ( With two text-figures). By R. P.

Barman (p. 221); 32. Some observations on the salinity tolerance of marine fishes at

the Taraporevala Aquarium, Bombay. By A. M. Andhare and V. N. Hegde (p. 224).

Invertebrates: 33. Extension of range of the estuarine crab llyoplax gangetica (Kemp)

to the west coast of India. (With a text-figure) . By B. F. Chhapgar and (Mrs.) S. S.

Borgaonkar (p. 226).

Insects: 34. Some observations on the biology of Japanese mint defoliator, Syngamia

abruptalis Wlk. (Lepidoptera : Pyralidae). By A. C. Mathur (p. 228).

Botany: 35. Family Haloragaceae in the North Western Himalayas. By A. Majeed Kak

(p. 230); 36. Abelmoschus angulosus Wallich ex Wight and Arnott in the former Bombay

Presidency and its collection after 73 years. By T. S. Nayar (d. 233); 37. A little known

plant from south India. By Ravindra P. Subhedar (p. 234); 38. Ficus albipila (Miq.)

King (Moraceae) — A New record for India. ( With a text-figure). By N. Rani (p. 235);

39. On the occurrence of Schouwia purpurea (Forsk.) Schweinf. (Brassicaceae) in Andhra

Pradesh. By G. H. Bhaumik and R. N. Banerjee (p. 237); 40. Notes on Micrococca

mercurialis (Linn.) Benth. (With a text-figure). By S. M. Almeida. A. R. Kulkarni and

S. R. Yadav (p. 238); 41. Three species of orchids new to Kerala Forests. By N. Sasi-

dharan and Muktesh Kumar (p. 241); 42. Ischaemunt lacci Stapf ex Bor (Poaceae) :

A new addition to the flora of India. (With a text-figure). By P. R. Sur (p. 242);

43. Gymnopteris delavayi (Bak.) Und. — A new fern record for India. By S. R. Ghosh

and R. K. Ghosh (p. 243); 44. Seasonal succession in Chlorophyceae in Lakhotia lake.

(With two plates). By T. C. Khatri (p. 244).

VOLUME 82(2) : AUGUST 1985

Date of Publication : 23-9-1985.

CONTENTS

Page

Female emigration in Presbytis johnii: a life-history strategy. By Rauf Ali,

J. M. Johnson and Jim Moore - • 249

Fecundity of the Garhwal Himalayan mahseer Tor putitora (Ham.). By Prakash

Nautiyal and M. S. Lai ■ • 253

A contribution to the Flora of Dcdital — a high altitude lake in the

Garhwal Himalaya (Uttarkashi), U. P. (With two plates). By K. S. Negi,

J. K. Tiwari and R. D. Gaur . . 258

Display leap of the Lesser Florican Sypheotides indica. ( With three text-figures).

By M. W. Ridley, R. D. Magrath and J. C. Z. Woinarski .. 271

Notes on some common breeding raptors of the Rajpipla Forest. (With seven

plates, four text-figures & a map). By Rishad Naoroji .. 278

Revised nomenclature for Taxa in Wynter-Blyth’s book on the Butterflies

of Indian Region — II. By R. K. Varshney . . 309

Distribution and variability of the Sri Lankan pipe snake (Cylindrophis

maculatus) , (With three text-figures). By Eric S. Bachman .. 322

Additions in the last two decades to the Angiosperms of West Bengal.

By B. P. Uniyal and B. C. Banerjee . . 328

Population ecology and communal roosting behaviour of Pariah Kite Milvus

migrans govinda in Pune (Maharashtra). (With six text-figures). By Anil

Mahabal and D. B. Bastawade . . 337

On the export of frog legs from India. (With two plates & a text-figure). By

Humayun Abdulali . . 347

New Descriptions:

Two new species of Chrysocharis Forster (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) from

high altitude OF India. By M. A. Khan. (With fourteen text-figures) . . 376

Five new species of Siobla Cameron (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) from

India with a key to the Indian species. By Malkiat S. Saini, Devinder Singh.

Major Singh and Tarlok Singh. (With nine text-figures) .. 381

On a new cladoceran Latona narendrai sp. nov. from Madhya Pradesh, India.

By Pramod Rane. (With three text-figures) . . 387

A new Ischaemum Linn. (Poaceae) from Kerala, India. By P. V. Sreekumar,

V. J. Nair and N. C. Nair. (With a text-figure) .. 390

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. Note on Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica). By Divyabhanusinh (p. 393);

2. An observation of Lynx in Nepal. By Joseph L. Fox (p. 394); 3. A possible sighting

of Blandford's Fox (Vulpes cana) in Kutch. By M. K. Ranjitsinh (p. 395); 4. On the

extension of range of the vespertilionid Bat — Pipistrellus paterculus (Thomas) to Poonch

Valley (Jammu and Kashmir State). By Surendra Nath (p. 396); 5. The reflected glow

from the eyes of the large red flying Squirrel (Petaurista petaurista). By Nitin Jamdar

(p. 397); 6. A note on the field rodents of Mandsaur District, Madhya Pradesh. (With three

text-figures). By A. P. Jain (p. 397); 7. Tool-Use by elephants. By James B. Reid (p. 402).

Birds: 8. The black stork in Kutch: Old record confirmed. By Himmatsinhji (p. 403);

9. Occurrence of Baer's pochard (Aythya baeri), in Bharatpur, Rajasthan. By R. Kannan

(p. 403); 10. Some Sparrow-Hawks ( Accipiter ) from India. By G. F. Mees (p. 404);

11. Imperial Eagle, Aquila heliaca Savigny, in Maharashtra — A Southward extension of

its wintering range. By Debi Goenka, Sunjoy Monga and Kiran Srivastava (p. 406); 12. Saker

Falcons in the Melghat. By M. K. Ranjitsinh (p. 406); 13. Observations on Spoonbilled

Sandpiper ( Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus ) in its wintering ground at Point Calimere, Thanjavur

District, Tamil Nadu. By R. Sugathan (p. 407); 14. Indian Whiskered Terns Chlidonias

hybridus mobbing a female blackbuck Antilope ccrvicapra. By Bharat Bhushan (p. 409);

15. Occurrence of the Sandwich Tern ( Sterna sandvicensis) in India — A ring recovery.

By V. C. Ambedkar (p. 410); 16. European Bee-eaters ( Merops apiaster) in Karnataka.

By Eric J. Lott (p. 411); 17. Bee hunting by the Black Drongo. By Taej Mundkur (p. 411);

18. Three apparently natural hybrids between Walden’s barwing Actinodura waldeni and

the Hoary barwing A. nipalensis, in the collections of the British Museum (Natural History).

By C. J. O. Harrison (p. 412).

Reptiles: 19. Notes on tracking and terrestrial activities of the freshwater turtle Kachuga

tentoria in river Mahanadi, Orissa. (With a plate). By L. A. K. Singh (p. 414); 20. Captive

breeding at Bhagabatpur Crocodile Farm, Sundarbans (West Bengal), India: The case of

a wild caught female ( Crocodyhis porosus Schneider). By Tapas Acharva (d. 417); 21. A

note on the habits and breeding of the Lizard Japalura major (Jerdon). ( With a text-figure) .

By Nitin Jamdar (p. 420); 22. On the status of Chamaeleon zeylanicus Laurenti in Kutch.

By Himmatsinhji (p. 421); 23. Range extension of the skink Dasia haliana (H. Nevill,

1887). ( With a text-figure). By Justus Joshua and A. G. Sekar (p. 422); 24. A note on

green whip snake predating on Phylloscopus sp. By R. Panneerselvam and S. Alagar Rajan

(p. 423); 25. Young common sandboa (Eryx conicus Schneider) swallowing barred wolf-

snake ( Lycodon striatus Shaw) double its length. By Raju Vyas (p. 424).

Crustacea: 26. On the taxonomic status of A pus kashmiriensis Das (Crustacea: Branchio-

poda: Notostraca: Apodidae). By Surendra Nath (p. 424).

Insects: 27. New record of Long-horned Grass-hopper, Holochlora indica Kirby attack on

peach at Raian (Punjab, India). By D. D. Narang and B. S. Chahal (p. 428); 28. Infestation of

Solanum indicum Linnaeus by Dacus ( Bactroeera ) dorsalis Hendel. By M. L. Agarwal

(p. 428); 29. Some observations on the biology of mint defoliator Scopula remotata Guenec

(Geometridae: Lepidoptera). (With a plate). By V. K. Walia and H. R. Pajni (p. 429);

30. Occurrence of flea beetles, Chaetocnema spp. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) on Firmiana

colorata. By T. K. Narayana Swamy, R. Govindan, D. N. R. Reddy and L. Krishna Naik

(P- 431).

Botany: 31. Two new records of Cyperaceae from upper Gangetic plain. (With two text-

figures). By D. C. Saini, N. K. Sharma and S. K. Singh (p. 431); 32. Family Cerato-

phyllaceae in the Kashmir Himalayas. By A. Majeed Kak and Sulochana Durani (p. 435);

33. Seasonal variations in the peaks of Phytoplankton in Lakhotia lake. (With a text- figure).

By T. C. Khatri (p. 436); 34. A new name for Acacia wightii Baker ex Benth. By Ravindra

P. Subhedar (p. 439); 35. Hibiscus calyphyllus Cav. : A new record for Andhra Pradesh.

By B. Suryanarayana (p. 440); 36. Occurrence of Onychium fragile Verma ct Khullar from

Kumaon Himalaya. By P. C. Pande and S. S. Bir (p. 441); 37. Incidence of seedling

formation in Rhizophora lamarckii Montr. at Pichavaram mangrove, Tamil Nadu, India.

By K. Muniyandi and R. Natarajan (p. 441); 38. Oxygonunx Burch. (Polygonaceae) — an

interesting new record from India. (With a text-figure). By N. Ravi (d. 442); 39. Article

25 of ICBN and its application in nomenclatural changes of some intra-specific taxa from

India. By S. M. Almeida and M. R. Almeida (p. 444); 40. On the occurrence of Achyran-

thes aspera L. var. pubescens (Moq.) Towns, in the Tamilnadu Carnatic. (With three text-

figures). By N. Rani (p. 446).

VOLUME 82(3) : DECEMBER 1985

Date of Publication : 18 February 1986.

Page

Status of Blacknecked Crane in Ladakh — 1983 Problems and Prospects. By S.

A. Hussain. ( With two plates) .. 449

A review of the Genus Soriculus (Mammalia: Insectivora). By Robert S.

Hoffmann. (With six text-figures ) .. 459

Functional anatomy of the egg and nymphal morphology of the grass tingid

Agramma hupehanum (Drake & Maa) (Heteroptera: Tingidae) with a note

on its egg parasites. By David Livingstone, S. Jeyanthi Bai and Md. Yacoob.

(With two plates ) .. 482

Occurrence of Cajaninae in the Indian subcontinent, Burma and Thailand.

By L. J. G. van der Maesen, P. Remanandan, N. Kameswara Rao and R. P. S.

Pundir. (With three plates and five maps) .. 489

The Birds of Durgapur and the Damodar Valley. By F. M. Gauntlett. (With a

text-figure) . . 501

Zangi Nawar — Portrait of a unique lake in the desert. By T. J. Roberts . . 540

Observations on the biology of Haemaphysalis spinigera Neumann, 1897 (Aca-

rina: Ixcdidae) under natural conditions in KFD area. By H. R. Bhat 548

Freshwater algae of Shillong, Meghalaya (India). By G. R. Hegde. (With three

plates) . . 563

Commentary on “A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Sub-continent”.

By Tom Roberts, Richard Grimmett and Craig Robson . . 567

Ecological distribution of Rattus meltada in India. By B. D. Rana. (With two

text-figures) 573

Ecological observations on Schizothorax richardsonii (Gray). By S. P. Baloni

and Raj Tilak . . 581

Studies on the Indian Strachiini (Pentatomidae: Pentatominae). By M. Nayyar

Azim and S. Adam Shafee. (With two text-figures) . . 586

Breeding habits and associate^ phenomena in some Indian bats. Part XI —

Miniopterus schreibersii fulWinosus (Hodgson) — Vespertilionidae. By A.

Gopalakrishna, A. T. Varute, V. M. Sapkal, A. R. Unune and G. C. Chari 594

New Descriptions:

A new Cyprinid fish of the Genus Danio Hamilton (Pisces: Cyprinidae) from

Andhra Pradesh, India. By R. P. Baman. (With a text -figure) .. 602

Descriptions of three new species of Schizaspidia Westwood (Hymenoptera :

Eucharitidae) with a key and a check-list to the species of Indian sub-

continent. By T. C. Narendran. (With eighteen text-figures) . . 606

On a new species of Genus Hydronomidius (Bagoinae: Curculionidae) from

India. By H. R. Pajni and P. Kamal Tewari. (With five text-figures) .. 610

A new species of the Genus Chlorissa Stephens from north India (Geome-

trinae: Geometridae: Lepidoptera) . By H. S. Rose and Devinder. (With

614

five text-figures)

Primula subansirica — a new species from Arunachal Pradesh, India. By G. D.

Pal. (With eight text-figures ) .. 617

A new species of Hedyotis L. (Rubiaceae) from south India. By D. B. Deb and

Ratna Dutta. (With a text-figure) .. 619

Reviews :

1. The Fall of a Sparrow. (J. C. Daniel) .. 622

2. (1) Vrikshgan and (2) Kapashichi Diary. (Ulhas Rane) .. 622

3. Wildlife Resources and Economic Development. (M. K. Ranjitsinh) .. 623

4. The Birds of the Wetlands. (Humayun Abdulali) .. 625

5. The Book of Indian Reptiles. (George R. Zug) .. 626

6. The Breeding Birds of Europe. (Humayun Abdulali) .. 627

Miscellaneous Notes:

Mammals: 1. On some aspects of reproduction among the tigers (Panthera tigris) of

Nandankanan Biological Park (Orissa). By L. N. Acharjyo and Ch. G. Mishra (p. 628);

2. A note on Golden Jackals (Canis aureus) and their relationship with langurs (Presbytis

cntcllus) in Kanha Tiger Reserve. By Paul N. Newton (p. 633); 3. The Indian Bear

Melursus ursinus ursinus for the control of ticks (Acari-Ixodidae). By Sarvamangala Harlapur

and L. S. Hiregoudar (p. 636); 4. Food and nesting habits of Funambulus tristriatus Water-

house in Malabar. By S. Keshava Bhat and D. N. Mathew (p. 637); 5. Report on the

occurrence of the Brown Spiny Mouse, Mus platythrix Bennett, 1832 (Rodentia: Muridae)

in West Bengal, India. By Ajay Kumar Mandal (p. 643); 6. The phenomenon of bamboo

flowering and associated increase in rodent population in Mizoram. By N. S. Chauhan and

R. N. Saxena (p. 644); 7. Gangetic Dolphin Platanista gangetica: observations on habits

and distribution pattern in National Chambal Sanctuary. (With two text-figures). By L. A.

K. Singh and R. K. Sharma (p. 648).

Birds: 8. Yellow Bittern nesting, a new record for Poona. By Taej Mundkur (p. 653);

9. Sight record of the Black Crested Baza (Aviceda leuphotes) in Madras. By R. Kannan

(p. 654); 10. The Black Eagle (lctinaetus malaycnsis) Temm. and Laug at Sawai Madhopur

(Rajasthan). By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 655); 11. On the parental care of Yellow-

wattled Lapwing Vartellus malabaricus. By N. J. George (n. 655); 12. Large Grey Shrike

killing a snake. By Asad R. Rahmani and Bharat Bhushan (p. 656); 13. A bird sitting on

a flying bird. By Asad R. Rahmani and Carl D'Silva (p. 657); 14. Longtailed Minivet

record in Saurashtra. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (d. 657); 15. “Blind” or “Closed”

nests of Baya Weaverbird. (With a plate). By T. A. Davis (p. 658); 16. Use of wet dung

in egg chamber of half built nest by the black throated weaver bird. (With three text-figures).

By Satish Kumar Sharma (p. 661); 17. Patterns of deposition of mud inside the egg cham-

ber of the half built nest of PIoccus philipp'nus and P. benghalensis. (With five text-figures) .

By Satish Kumar Sharma.

Reptiles: 18. A gharial ( Gavialis gangeticus) at Gahirmatha coast, Orissa, India. (With

a photograph and a text-figure). By Chandra Sekhar Kar (p. 671); 19. Unusual egg-laying

in a captive softshelled turtle Trionyx gangeticus (Cuvier). By R. J. Rao (p. 674); 20. Con-

tributions to the breeding biology of the Skink (Leiolopisma himalayanum) , from Kashmir.

By Nitin Jamdar and A. G. Sekar (p. 675); 21. Two cases of “backward” swallowing of

prey by the rat snake ( Ptyas mucosus). By Taej Mundkur (p. 676); 22. A note repro-

duction in the flying snake Chrysopelea ornata (Shaw). (With a plate). By Shekar Dattatri

(p. 677).

Amphibians: 23. Comment on cannibalistic propensities in Himalayan newts. By Tej Kumar

Shrestha (p. 678).

Fishes: 24. Aberrant colour pattern in the striped loach, Botia striata Rao (Pisces: Cobi-

tidae). (With a plate). By B. F. Chhapgar and S. R. Sane (p. 680).

Insects: 25. New addition to the list of host plants of the Citrus butterfly, Papilio demoleus

(Papilionidae: Lepidoptera). By R. H. Patil and R. Rajashekhargouda (p. 681); 26. First

record of two hyperparasites of Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.) (Homoptera — Aphididae) parasi-

tizing Aphidius rapae (Curtis) (Hymenoptera — Aphidiinae). By S. C. Dhiman and Vijay

Kumar (p. 681); 27. Occurrence of Celosterna scabrator var. spinator on eucalyptus. (With

a photograph). By Ravi Ralph (p. 682); 28. Scientific versus popular names. By D. G.

Sevastopulo (p. 683) .

Other Invertebrates: 29. Description of an unknown female of Pseudostenhelia secunda

Wells, 1971 (Copepoda — Harpacticoida). (With twelve text-figures). By B. Kondalarao

(p. 684); 30. On the occurrence of the Amphipod — Gammaras pulex (Linn.) in Kashmir

Valley, with remarks on the ecology of the species. By Surendra Nath (p. 687); 31. Invasion

of Purulia, an arid district of western West Bengal, India, by Achatina fulica. By S. K. Raut

and A. Shahbabu (p. 688); 32. The first report of the Order Schizomida (Arachnida) from

southern India. By D. B. Bastawade (p. 689).

Botany: 33. Family Hippuridaceae in the Kashmir Himalayas. (With a text-figure) . By A.

Majeed Kak (p. 691); 34. Bothriospermum tenellum (Homem.) Fisch. et Mey. (Boragi-

naceae) — a new record for Kashmir Himalaya. (With a text-fiure). By G. H. Dar and

A. R. Naqshi (p. 692); 35. Cyathea albosetacea (Bedd.) Conel. — a little known endemic

tree-fern of Nicobar Islands, India. (With a plate & eight text-figures). By R. D. Dixit and

A. K. Tripathi (p. 694); 36. Notes on ferns of Maharashtra. By S. M. Almeida and M. R.

Almeida (p. 697); 37. A contribution to the algae of Sahastradhara, Dehradun (U.P.).

By Anil Kumar Tripathi (p. 700).

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the year 1983-84 703

Statement of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society 714

Minutes of the Annual General Meeting . . 728

t

JOURNAL

r

i

of the

Bombay Natural History

Society

(Vol. 82, No. 1

Editors : J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole & A. N. D. Nanavati

APRIL 1985

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Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1985 APRIL

Vol. 82

No. 1

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE SINGING

BEHAVIOUR OF THE HOOLOCK GIBBON

( HYLOBATES HOOLOCK V

Elliott H. Haimoff1 2

(With five text-figures)

The songs of both wild and captive hoolock gibbons ( Hylobates hoolock) were

analysed. This species is one of only three which produce elaborate duets only,

consisting of three sequences : the introductory sequence, which is produced only at

the beginning of the bout; the interlude and great-call sequences, which are then

produced in alternating succession. There is apparently no sexual dimorphism in the

vocal repertoire of the adult pair during the duet, with both sexes producing the same

types of sound during all three sequences. Lone females have been observed

previously to sing alone, and it was found here that one female in particular may

sing the male's contribution to the great-call sequence, as well as her own. These

findings indicate that although the general overall structural organization of the duet

of this species is similar to most other gibbon species, the lack of sex-specific sounds

produced during the duet is unique amongst gibbons, the implications of which are

discussed.

Introduction

The western hoolock gibbon (Hylobates

hoolock hoolock Harlan, 1834) is a mono-

gamous and territorial ape, inhabiting the

tropical evergreen rain forests of Assam, Bang-

1 Accepted July 1983.

2 Sub-dept. of Veterinary Anatomy, University of

Cambridge, Cambridge, England. Present address:

Biology Department, University of California, Los

Angeles, California, U.S.A. 90024.

ladesh, and Burma, from the Brahmaputra,

Lohit, and Dibang rivers east to the Chindwin

river (Groves 1972, Tilson 1979, Gittins

1984, Gittins and Tilson 1984). Like all

other gibbon species, adult mated pairs pro-

duce loud and elaborate duets; amongst other

possible functions, the duet has been proposed

to serve as a means of territorial defence by

advertisement of their presence in a territory,

willingness to defend it. or of their relative

fitness (Carpenter 1940, Chivers 1974, Marshall

and Marshall 1976, Haimoff 1983, 1984).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

The frequency, pattern, and timing of the

singing behaviour of wild western hoolock

gibbons have been studied by Tilson (1979)

and Gittins and Tilson (1984), where it was

found that the adult pair sing duets only,

normally in the mid-morning hours. In most

other gibbon species, the adult mated males

produce long and complex solo song bouts.

Mated males do not sing solos in the hoolock

gibbon, concolor gibbon (//. concolor), and

siamang ( H . syndcictylus ) (Haimoff 1983,

1984).

Although the duets of the hoolock gibbon

were among the first to be described phoneti-

cally (see Candler 1903, McCann 1933),

there have been no recent studies on the

vocal repertoire of both sexes during the duet,

nor have there been any studies on the struc-

tural organization of the duet. Spectrographic

display of a small part of the duet (i.e. great-

call sequence), have been presented by Mar-

shall and Marshall (1976), Marler and Tenaza

(1977), Gittins and Tilson (1984), and

Haimoff (1984); these preliminary obser-

vations and reports indicate (at the least) that

there is no apparent sexual dimorphism in

their songs (i.e. no sex-specific sounds), which

is unique amongst gibbon species.

An analysis of the song bouts of wild

hoolock gibbons is presented here; recordings

were made in Hollongapar Forest Reserve in

Upper Assam by Dr. R. L. Tilson, and in

West Bhanugach Forest, Sylhet, Bangladesh

by Dr. S. P. Gittins, and made available for

analysis. Since this species is so rare in capti-

vity, with no adult pairs currently existing

anywhere outside India, Bangladesh, and

Burma (see Mootnick 1984; Schilling 1984),

no direct observations or recordings of

the songs of captive pairs were possible; how-

ever, some recordings were made of the singing

behaviour of a lone captive female. Since no

direct observations were made on adult pairs

during their songs, this study is limited to

presenting a catalogue of the various sounds

produced by the adult pair throughout the

entire song bout, in addition to presenting a

preliminary analysis of the structural organi-

zation of the duet and the solo singing by the

captive female.

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Study Animals and Methods

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Three duets (one almost complete) of the

western hoolock gibbon were recorded of

different groups in the Hollongapar Forest

Reserve, Upper Assam, India, during a short-

term behavioural ecology study of this species

by Tilson (1979), which were analysed here.

Also analysed were four partial duets recorded

of different groups in the West Bhanugach

Forest, Sylhet, Bangladesh, during the survey

and preliminary observations of this hoolock

gibbon subspecies by Gittins (1984) and

Gittins and Tilson (1984). Since none of

these groups were ever habituated, the com-

positions and ages of the individuals of these

groups recorded, are unknown.

Direct observations and recordings of the

solo singing of a lone adult female were made

while she was at the San Francisco Zoo (Cali-

fornia. USA), shortly before she was mated

with a young adult male (Haimoff 1977).

Unfortunately, the adult pair never duetted,

and the male died of an unrelated disease

shortly after the pair were brought together.

This particular female has all the features of

the western subspecies (see Groves 1967,

1972), as opposed to the eastern subspecies

(which inhabits the tropical rain forests from

the Chindwin river east to the Salween river

in Burma), and is currently located at the

Gibbon and Gallinaceous Bird Center (Saugus,

California) (Mootnick 1984).

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HOOLOCK GIBBON SONGS

The songs of the lone female and the

duets of the gibbons in Assam were recorded

on a Uher 4400 Report Stereo IC open reel

tape recorder, while the duets in Bangladesh

were recorded with a Uher 4000-L Report

open reel tape recorder, all of them using

standard audio tape. Audiospectrograms

of all parts of these duets and solos were

made, using a Kay Elemetrics 7029A sound

spectrum analyser (sonagraph).

The inherent nature of the methods used

by most previous analysts of gibbon songs

(e.g. Marshall and Marshall 1976, Marler

and Tenaza 1977), was to intuitively and

possibly prematurely categorize parts of the

song bout as belonging to what is known as

the ‘great-call sequence’ (=song) and there-

fore worthy of note, while neglecting all other

sounds produced by both sexes during the

other parts of the bout. The general result

is that the most elaborate and least variable

parts of the song bout (the great-calls) are

depicted as being produced in a vacuum.

The method used here in analysing the

structural organization of the bouts has been

used previously in gibbon song analysis

(Haimoff 1981, 1983, 1984; Caldecott and

Haimoff 1983) and human conversation analy-

sis and behaviour (Kendon and Ferber 1973,

Sacks el al. 1974, Schegloff el at. 1977). This

method is essentially inductive, which avoids

premature construction of categories; it in-

volved the search for recurrent patterns

throughout the entire bouts, in contrast to

the immediate categorization of restricted data

which has been the typical first step in the

work of most previous investigators.

The problems of analysis arose when it

was revealed that what previous investigators

considered to represent the great-call sequence

in the hoolock gibbon, was much more vari-

able in both structure and male-female parti-

cipation than exhibited in other gibbon species.

In addition, since both sexes apparently pro-

duce the same types of sound throughout the

entire song bout, final analysis of their duets

must await further direct observations of the

vocal behaviour of the adult pairs.

Results

Vocal Repertoire

Since no examinations of the vocal re-

pertoire of both sexes of this species during

their songs have been conducted, no syste-

matic set of terms have been given to the

various sounds made, other than the brief set

of terms presented for some of the sounds

made during the great-call sequence by

Marshall and Marshall (1976) and at some

other parts of the bout by Haimoff (1983,

1984). A set of terms is presented herein

for the sounds made by both sexes, which

is compatible and comparable with those

sounds produced by other gibbon species (see

Haimoff 1983, 1984).

Marshall and Marshall (1976), Marler

and Tenaza (1977). Tilson (1979), and Gittins

and Tilson (1984) all observed and noted

that there was no clear sexual dimorphism in

sound production between the sexes (i.e. that

there were no overt sex-specific sounds pro-

duced by either sex) during their duet. Tilson

(1979) and Gittins and Tilson (1984) did,

however, observe that some sounds (described

below) tended to be produced more often by

the adult male, and that there were some re-

current parts of the bout which were produced

by one sex or the other.

Based on the findings of this study, the

beginning of the bouts were marked by the

production of short oo and wa-oo notes by

both sexes (fig. 1). Observations of the cap-

tive female indicate that the oo notes are

3

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

produced by an expiration while the lips are

pursed; the wa-oo notes are also produced by

an expiration, with the mouth and lips opening

wide (the wa sound) and closing (the oo

sound) during the note’s production.

In addition to these notes which are also

produced throughout the bout, a variety of

other notes are produced, the most prominent

N

I

Seconds

Fig. 1. Tracings of sonagrams illustrating samples of notes produced at the beginning

of the duets recorded here. Since it was impossible to determine the sexes apart,

these note were not distinguished by which sex produced them.

kHz

HOOLOCK GIBBON SONGS

are eek, ow, and wa notes (fig. 2); all of these

notes have also been observed to be produced

by an expiration. The ow and wa notes are

often produced as a characteristic figure (i.e.

sounds almost always produced together),

with the most prominent phrase produced by

both sexes being the eek note followed by the

ow-wa figure (fig. 2). These terms wa, ow,

r

CH

0 5 1

Seconds

Fig. 2. Tracings of sonagrams showing the most

prominent phrase produced during the organizing

sequence, comprising an eek note

followed by ow and wa notes.

(Top) a male from Hollongapar, Assam;

(Bottom) a male from West Bhanugach, Bangladesh.

and eek, are the same sounds as those termed

hah, who, and hah e5, respectively, which has

been presented by Marshall and Marshall

(1976). Another type of sound produced by

both sexes is an unusual growling sound

(fig. 3.) This sound is not regularly produced

and its significance is not known, since it is

audible for only about 50 metres (if that),

indicating that it may not be for intergroup

communicative value; in contrast, the other

sounds described above are audible for at

least 1-2 kilometres (Gittins, pers. comm.).

The adult females in all gibbon species

produce long, standardized, and recurrent

sounds during the duet, termed the ‘great-call’

(Marshall and Marshall 1976, Haimoff 1983,

1984). The great-call in the hoolock gibbon

has been described previously as including an

accelerated passage of alternating high and

low notes (Marshall and Marshall 1976, Tilson

1979, Gittins and Tilson 1984). Upon

closer investigation of these notes near the

beginning of the great-call (figs. 4 & 5), it is

clear that these notes are similar to the wa-oo

notes which are produced at a more rapid

rate as the great-call progresses, with the notes

themselves becoming shorter then longer to-

wards the end of the wa-oo note production.

Organization of Duet

From the recorded duets currently avail-

able for analysis which have either the be-

ginning of the bout or just after (one Tilson’s,

one Gittins’), it appears as though both

animals produce only wa-oo and oo notes

(fig. 1), and do not produce any other notes

of their communication. Both sexes produce

these notes in the form of several vocal ex-

changes for the first several seconds (or even

minutes); there was no overt progression,

direction, or trend in the way the adult pair

produced these sounds. Since this particular

vocal behaviour is produced only once and at

the beginning of the bout, it has been tenta-

tively termed the introductory sequence, be-

haviour which is also exhibited during the

duets of most other gibbon species (all but

the concolor gibbon. H. concolor ) (Haimoff

1983. 1984).

The transition from the production of

these wa-oo and oo notes (comprising the

introductory sequence) to the remainder of

the bout, was much less marked than other

gibbon species that produce an introductory

sequence. However, the boundary marking the

end of the introductory sequence may be

defined as when the animals began to produce

5

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

other notes of their vocal repertoire which

were not produced previously.

Although the periods after the intro-

ductory sequence (and between great-call

sequences) were too variable and the sample

size too small to find any overt and consistent

set of vocal features throughout, by far the

most prominent feature of these periods were

the production of ow-wa figures and phrases

shown in fig. 2. All adult individuals ob-

served in the wild produced this phrase ex-

tensively (Tilson, pers. comm.; Gittins, pers.

comm.), as well as the captive female. The

growls were also produced during these periods

(fig. 3), but less frequently. Both sexes of all

wild groups also produced the eek note singu-

larly or in a short succession of notes during

this period (Tilson. pers. comm.).

also noted here, that some of the males pro-

duced one or more ow-wa figures after the

(last) eek note, often in overlap with the be-

ginning of their mate’s great-call.

This vocal behaviour is indicative of some

form of ‘negotiation’ between the adult pair

prior to the production of the standardized

great-call sequences, or at the very least it re-

presents a possible coordinating cue by the

male for his mate to produce her great-call.

Since the periods after the introductory

sequence and between great-call sequences

appear to be a time by which the adult pair

organize and coordinate their behaviour just

prior to the production of the standardized

great-call sequences, they are therefore tenta-

tively termed the interlude sequences.

Mailer and Tenaza (1977) noted that the

Fig. 3. Tracings of a sonagram of two ‘growls’ produced in succession by the captive

female studied here. Note the wide frequency bandwidth of the sounds.

Tilson (1979) believed that when the adult

male produced the eek notes in short succes-

sion, he was eliciting a response from the

female in the form of her great-call; if she did

not respond, he repeated the series until she

began her great-call (see fig. 4). All of the 37

great-calls recorded of the wild groups studied

here were preceded by eek notes, presumed by

Tilson (1979) and Gittins and Tilson (1984)

to be produced by the adult males. It was

great-calls and great-call sequences produced

by adult hoolock gibbon pairs were more varia-

ble than any other gibbon species in duration,

relative contribution of both sexes, and in the

types of sound produced. In addition, Marshall

and Marshall (1976) could not even determine

the role of the sexes during this sequence,

because it sounded like the cacophony of seve-

ral different individuals.

From the brief analysis possible here, once the

6

HOOLOCK GIBBON SONGS

male initiated the sequence by his production

of eek notes, the female began her great-call

proper which initially comprised of relatively

long and separate wa and oo notes (fig. 4).

Shortly after these first few notes were pro-

1-5

N 1

X

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dary of the end of the great-call sequence.

Upon completion of the great-call sequences,

the vocal features were characteristic of the

features described above for the interlude

sequences. On 11 of the 37 recorded great-

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Fig. 4. Tracings of scnagrams illustrating the structural organization of the great-call

sequences in two groups (the females’ sounds are in closed shapes, the males’ are in

open shapes). Note initial high pitched eek notes at far left of both tracings, and

the females’ great-calls which includes an accelerated passage of wa-oo notes.

(top) a pair from West Bhanugach, Bangladesh;

(bottom) a pair from

duced, she gave much shorter wa-oo notes,

which were given at a more rapid pace than

just before. Once she gave several notes of

this type, the pace slackened where she then

gave longer wa and oo notes for several seconds

more. The males of the different wild groups

often produced a variety of notes during this

part of the great-call sequence, but became

more vocal at the middle and later stages of

the sequence, which varied the most.

At this particular point of the great-call

sequence, the male (presumably) produced a

number of eek notes, followed by ow-wa

figures. The female likewise produced a num-

ber of ow-wa figures, and both sexes usually

ended the sequence with an exchange of wa-oo

notes. A period of silence usually ensued, with

the last note prior to the period of silence

representing the best definition for the boun-

Hollongapar, Assam.

call sequences analysed here, however, both

sexes continued on with the rapid production

of vocal exchanges of all the different notes

of their vocal repertoire for up to two minutes

without the slightest pause. In addition, 4 of

the remaining 26 sequences seemed to end

with the immediate beginning of another

great-call sequence, giving the impression of

two great-call sequences connected together.

Therefore, no accurate measurements of their

great-call sequences could be made until fur-

ther observations and several recordings are

made on specific groups, so as to account for

both the individual variation within groups

and the range of variability in the structural

organization of the great-call sequences.

Solo Singing of a Lone Female

Female solo singing is believed to be a very

7

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

rare phenomenon, presumed to occur only in

females who have either lost or have been

separated from their mates; their solo singing

has therefore been proposed to serve as a means

of either attracting their mate or a new one,

and has been reported in four of the nine

gibbon species (H. hoolock: Marshall and

Marshall 1976, Haimoff 1983; H. lar: Marler

and Tenaza 1977; H. klosii: Tilson 1981; H.

pileatus: Srikosamatara 1982). Observing a

lone female hoolock gibbon at the Calcutta

zoo, Marshall and Marshall (1976) reported

that not only did she sing alone; but that she

sang the male’s apparent contribution to the

great-call sequences as well. Although it is

still not clear as to the precise extent of the

male’s vocal (and non-vocal) contribution to

the sequences of the duet, similar behaviour

has also been observed of lone female hoolock

gibbons at the Bombay zoo (Dr K. K. Tiwari,

pers. comm.) and San Francisco Zoo (pers.

obs.) (this female currently located at the

Gibbon and Gallinaceous Bird Breeding

Center).

duce the notes characteristic of the interlude

and great-call sequences, usually as a result of

either being teased by spectators or from the

singing of other gibbon groups ( H . syndacty-

lus and H. concolor ), which were close by and

within visual contact with each other. On rare

occasions, however, she initiated the singing

and stimulated the other groups into duetting,

then sang intermittently throughout the duets

of the other gibbon groups at the zoo.

It is noteworthy here to point out that she

never began singing by producing the notes

described for the initiation of the duets in wild

groups (the introductory sequence), instead

bursting out with several phrases like those

shown in fig. 2, with growling sounds inter-

mingled between, and followed by what is in-

terpreted here to represent her great-call (fig.

5). Although the structure of her great-call was

variable (much more so towards the end) and

not well defined, she did produce the entire

range of sounds documented for this species

during the great-call sequence, and did produce

the characteristic acceleration of wa-oo notes.

vVVVVVV V

— 1 11 i — 1 '

0 5 10 15 20

Seconds

Fig. 5. Tracings of sonagrams illustrating the great-call produced by the lone captive

female. Note the cck notes at the start, which has previously been presumed to be

produced by the male just before her great-call. Since the extent of the males vocal

contribution to the great-call sequence is not yet clearly defined, the extent of the

vocal imitation of the male's contribution by the female cannot yet be determined.

15-

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When the lone female was located at the

San Francisco Zoo, she never sang for any

sustained duration (more than about five

minutes), but did tend to sing at various times

throughout the day. She would most often pro-

What is interpreted here to be the lone

female’s great-call (fig. 5), is strikingly similar

to those of normally organized great-calls (and

sequences) (fig. 4); although from fig. 5, one

could not yet conclude conclusively that the

8

HOOLOCK GIBBON SONGS

female attempted to produce the male’s con-

tribution to the great-call sequence. This female

did however, produce the eek notes just prior

to her great-calls, which have previously been

observed in wild groups to be produced by the

male only (Tilson 1979, Gittins and Tilson

1984). If further analyses of the solo sing-

ing of this female (and others already observ-

ed) do conclude that they were producing

the male’s contribution to the great-call

sequences, then the functional significance pro-

posed previously for the solo singing of females,

must be reassessed.

Discussion

Based on the findings presented here, the

overall acoustical features of most sounds pro-

duced by the hoolock gibbon are virtually

identical to those of other gibbon species

(Marshall and Marshall 1976, Marler and

Tenaza 1977, Haimoff 1983); however, the

growling sounds analysed here are a unique

feature, in that they are the only sounds pro-

duced during the duet which are not pure

toned. There also appears to be a complete

lack of sexual dimorphism in the vocal reper-

toire of both sexes (i.e. no sex-specific sounds)

of this species during the duet, which is also

a unique feature amongst gibbon species; the

accelerated passage of notes at the start of the

great-call sequence seems to be characteristic

of the female only. Although the structural

organization of the duet has been found to

be generally similar to other gibbon species in

the way three sequences have been tentatively

identified (introductory, interlude, and great-

call) (see Haimoff 1983. 1984), both sexes

contribute vocally during all three, a feature

shared only with the siamang (//. syndactylus)

(Haimoff 1981).

Tntergroup communication in the form of

territorial defence and mate defence by adver-

tisement have been the main functions pro-

posed for gibbon duets (Carpenter 1940,

Chivers 1974, Tenaza 1976, Gittins 1979,

Haimoff 1983, 1984). Since hoolock gibbon

family groups live in defended territories of

about 20-25 hectares (50-62 acres) (Gittins

and Tilson 1984), the selective pressures on the

acoustical features of their duets should be

(if the proposed functions were accurate) for

the long-range propagation of sound and

penetration through the forest of the songs.

With regards to the environment in which

the hoolock gibbon lives, there are three (at

the least) ecological factors and constraints

directly affecting the evolution of the acousti-

cal properties of their songs: 1) the complex

structural properties of the dense tropical forest

canopy produce ‘sound windows’, the attenua-

tion of sounds produced at these frequencies

is less than for sounds made at higher or lower

frequencies (Morton 1975), while the foliage

acts as an amplifier of the sounds made in

the midfrequencies (Martens 1980); 2) sounds

with wavelengths shorter than objects in the

sound path will be reflected and partly ab-

sorbed, whereas sounds with longer wavelengths

will not (Stephens and Bate 1966); and 3)

lower frequency sounds are absorbed less

rapidly by humid air (a constant feature in the

rain forest) than high frequency sounds

(Evans and Bass 1972 in Waser and Waser

1977).

If the selection for long-distance propaga-

tion of sound through the forest was a major

factor in the evolution of the songs of the

hoolock gibbon (and other .gibbon species),

then the acoustical features of their songs in-

dicating that this process had taken place, are

as follows: 1) compressing all of the sound

energy into a narrow frequency bandwidth, so

as to minimize energy loss and attenuation; 2)

9

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

producing sounds within the low- to mid-

frequencies (within the sound window); and

3) evolving the vocal tract and apparatus to

reinforce the sounds made at these frequencies

at the expense of harmonics, which would be

filtered out by the forest canopy. All of these

features are exhibited in all sounds made (ex-

cept the growl) during the song of the hoolock

gibbon, indicating that the sounds evolved for

the long-range propagation through the forest,

possibly for inter-group communicative pur-

poses. The growling sounds may therefore not

be considered as having any inter-group com-

municative value, but may be used by the

adult pair as a possible coordinating cue in the

organization of the duet or perhaps as an

agonistic sound (Gittins, pers. comm.).

The unusual lack of any sexual dimorphism

in the singing behaviour of this species is diffi-

cult to account for, since all of the previous

studies proposing a function of territorial

advertisement for the duets (cited above),

suggested that the clearly dimorphic sounds

made by both sexes transmitted a message of

relative fitness to non-mate conspecifics of the

same sex; a proposal which is clearly not appli-

cable to the vocal behaviour of the hoolock

gibbon. It is possible, however, that the message

transmitted by a hoolock gibbon pair may be

of the relative fitness or strength of the pair

as a whole in a given territory, not as indivi-

duals as may be the case in other gibbon

species. Further detailed analyses of their songs

would be necessary to account for this feature

more adequately.

The organization of the duct bout by the

hoolock gibbon has been found here to be

generally similar to those of other gibbon

species in the way the adult pair produce

sounds characteristic of the beginning of the

bout (the introductory sequence), followed by

relatively distinct sequences which are then

produced in alternating succession (the inter-

lude and great-call sequences). Preliminary

analysis of these duets indicate that they are a

complex and interactively organized pheno-

mena; the complex duetting behaviour of the

siamang has been proposed by Chivers (1974,

1976) and Haimoff (1981, 1983) to serve as

the basis for the maintenance, cohesion, and

reinforcement of the pairbond. Although

Serpell (1981) has disputed this, it would

appear that since duetting is virtually the only

social behaviour in which the adult pair may

react to the same stimulus and engage in an

interactive manner to produce the mutually

coordinated display, the mere presence of such

behaviour would necessarily have some effect

on the cohesiveness of the pairbond.

From the context in which the introductory

sequence is produced, it seems likely that this

sequence initiates the duet as a possible form

of warming up, prior to the production of

more ‘difficult' sounds and its associated vigo-

rous activity. The great-call sequences are

apparently analogous to the features which

characterize the ‘song’ of a bird species (see

Thorpe 1961), being the most conspicuous

and elaborate sequence, representing the least

variable of sequences and possibly the part of

the bout transmitting the information of the

singer's fitness. As argued by Haimoff (1981,

1983, 1984), since these great-call sequences

are a highly organized and complex activity

from the beginning, it would not be surprising

tc observe that the adult pair may need a

period prior to the start of the great-call

sequences in order so that they may prepare,

organize, and coordinate their behaviour for

such a complex, sequence. The interlude

sequences were termed as such, because they

were always quite variable in vocal terms and

thus the actual sounds made were probably

of little communicative value between groups, r

10

HOOLOCK GIBBON SONGS

but it did appear to be a time when the adult

oriented themselves to produce the great-call

sequences (as indicated by the male’s produc-

tion of the eek notes). The unusual nature

of the variability of all three sequences in the

hoolock gibbon’s duet, and less marked boun-

daries between sequences in comparison with

other gibbon species, must await further

analysis.

Acknowledgements

I am deeply grateful to Drs D. J. Chivers,

1

Refer

I

t Caldecott, J. O. & Haimoff, E. H. (1983):

Female solo singing by a wild lar gibbon in Penin-

, sular Malaysia. Malay. Nat. J. 36: 167-173.

^ Candler, G. (1903): Notes on the habits of the

hoolock. Proc. Zoo!. Soc. Loud. 1: 187-190.

II Carpenter. C. R. (1940): A field study in Siam

^ of the behavior and social relations of the gibbon

'• ( Hylobates lar). Comp. Psychol. Mono". 16: 1-212.

J Chivers. D. J. (1974): The siamang in Malaya,

jj Contrih. Primatol. 4: 1-335.

(1976): Communication within

' and between family groups of siamang. Behaviour

JS 57: 116-135.

lit

Of.

he

1.

;es

ty

Gittins, S. P. ( 1979) : The Behaviour and Eco-

logy of the Agile Gibbon ( Hylobates agilis). Docto-

ral dissertation. University of Cambridge.

(1984) : The distribution and

status of gibbons in Bangladesh. In The Lesser Apes:

Evolutionary and Behavioural Biology (H. Preus-

choft, D. Chivers. N. Creel and W. Brockelman,

eds). pp. 13-15. Edinburgh Univ. Press. Edinburgh.

Gittins. S. P. and Tilson. R. L. (1984) :

Notes on the ecology and behaviour of the hoolock

^ gibbon, hi The Lesser Apes: Evolutionary and Be-

lie. havioural Biology (H. Preuschoft, D. Chivers, N.

Creel and W. Brockelman, eds.) pp. 258-266. Edin-

burgh Univ. Press. Edinburgh.

Groves. C. P. (1967): Geographic variation in

' the hoolock or white-browed gibbon (Hylobates

- hoolock Harlan 1834). Folia Primatol. 7: 276-283.

[Ji|y (1972): Systematics and phylo-

geny of the gibbons. In Gibbon and Siamang (D.

R. D. Martin, and P.J.B. Slater for their in-

valuable comments on an earlier draft. I also

thank the Linguistics Dept. (Cambridge) for

allowing access to their Kay Elemetrics 7029A

sonagraph. Drs. R. L. Tilson and S. P. Gittins

kindly allowed access to their tape recordings,

and the San Francisco Zoo director, Dr. S. L.

Kitchener, supplied much needed aid and

assistance during my many visits to the zoo.

This research was funded by research grants

from Pembroke College (Cambridge) and the

Anatomy Dept. (Cambridge).

ENCES

Rumbaugh, ed), vol. 1, pp. 1-89. Karger, Basel.

Haimoff, E. H. (1977): Hoolocks in spring. San

Francisco Zool. Soc. Monthly 14: 1-2.

(1981): Video analysis of sia-

mang ( Hylobates syndactylus) songs. Behaviour 76:

128-151.

(1983): Gibbon Songs: An Acou-

stical, Organizational, and Behavioural Analysis.

Doctoral dissertation. University of Cambridge.

(1984) : Acoustical and orga-

nizational features of the songs of gibbons. In The

Lesser Apes: Evolutionary and Behaviour Biology

(H. Preuschoft, D. Chivers, N. Creel and W. Broc-

kelman. eds). pp. 333-353. Edinburgh Univ. Press,

Edinburgh.

Harlan, R. (1834): Description of a species of

orang from the northeastern province of British East

India, lately the Kingdom of Assam. Trans. Amer.

Ph’los. Soc. 4: 52-59.

Kendon, A. & Ferber, A. (1973): A description

of some human greetings. In Comparative Ecology

and Behaviour in Primates (R. Michael and J.

Crook, eds). pp. 591-668. Academic Press. London.

McCann, C. (1933): Notes on the colouration

and habits of the white-browed gibbon or hoolock.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 395-405.

Marler P. & Tenaza. R. R. (1977): Signalling

behaviour of anes with special reference to voca-

lization. In How Animals Communicate (T. Sebeok,

ed). pp. 965-1033. Indiana Univ. Press, Blooming-

tcm.

11

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Marshall, J. T. & Marshall, E. R. (1976):

Gibbons and their territorial songs. Science 193 :

235-237.

Martens, M. J. M. (1980): Foliage as a low-pass

filter: experiments with model forests in an anechoic

chamber. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 67: 66-72.

Morton, E. S. (1975): Ecological sources of

selection on avian sounds. Am Nat. 109 : 17-34.

Mootnick, A. (1984) : A census of gibbons

in North America. In The Lesser Apes: Evolutio-

nary and Behavioural Biology (H. Preuschoft, D.

Chivers, N. Creel and W. Brockelman, eds). pp. 61-

73. Edinburgh Univ. Press, Edinburgh.

Sacks, H., Schegloff, E. & Jefferson, G. (1974) :

A simplest systematics for the organization of turn

taking for conversation. Language 50: 696-735.

SCHEGLCFF, E.. JEFFERSON, G. & SACKS, H. (1977) :

The preference for self-correction in the organiza-

tion of repair in conversation. Language 53: 361-382.

Schiling, D. (1984) : An inventory of gibbons

in European Zoos. In The Lesser Apes : Evolu-

tionary and Behaviour Biology (H. Preuschoft,

D. Chivers, N. Creel and W. Brockelman, eds).

pp. 51-60. Edinburgh Univ. Press, Edinburgh.

Serpell, C. A. (1981): Duetting in birds and

primates: a question of function. Anim. Bchav. 29:

963-965.

Srikosamatara, S. (1982) : Imitation of vocal duet

by a widow of the pileated gibbon ( Hylobates pilea-

tus) in South-east Thailand. Int. J. Primatol. 3:

336 (abstract).

Stephens, R. W. B. & Bate, A. E. ( 1 966) :

Acoustical and Vibrational Physics. Arnold, London.

Tenaza, R. R. (1976): Songs, choruses, and coun-

tersinging of Kloss’ gibbons ( Hylobates klossii) in

Siberut Island. Indonesia. Z. Tierpsychol. 40: 37-52.

Thorpe, W. H. (1961) : Bird Song. Cambridge

Univ. Press, Cambridge.

Tilscn, R. L. (1979): On the behaviour of hoo-

lock gibbons ( Hylobates hoolock) during different

seasons in Assam. India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

76: 1-16.

(1981): Family formation strategies ■

of KIoss's gibbons. Folia Primatol. 35: 259-287.

Waser, P. and Waser. M. (1977): Experimental

studies of primate vocalization: Specializations for i

long-distance propagation. Z. Tierpsychol. 43: 239- |

263.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AND PLANKTONIC

COMMUNITIES OF BAIGUL AND NANAKSAGAR

RESERVOIRS, NAINITAL1

Saleem Mustafa and Zubair Ahmad2

Studies were carried out on physico-chemical conditions and the plankton in two

reservoirs, Baigul and Nanaksagar. The duration of investigations extended from

April to September. Monthly fluctuation in the various environmental factors have

been discussed and their influence on planktonic organisms highlighted.

Introduction

Rational management of fisheries in large

impoundments requires a thorough knowledge

of the environmental conditions. Increased

attention must, therefore, be given to the

i limnological characteristics such as physico-

chemical and biological conditions prevailing

in the water bodies since these directly or in-

directly affect the lives of fishes and other

aquatic inhabitants. Although considerable

literature exists on the limnology of several

Indian reservoirs (Ganpati 1940, 1960, Rao

and Govind 1964, Sreenivasan 1964, Upa-

dhayaya 1964, Sreenivasan 1965, 66, Armitage

and Simmon 1975, Planas 1975. Jayangoudar,

1980, Kannan and Job 1980), the authors are

not aware of any satisfactory published report

on the Baigul and Nanaksagar reservoirs.

These reservoirs are located in district Naini-

tal, Western Uttar Pradesh. The area covered

by the basin of the Baigul is estimated to be

118 square miles while that of Nanaksagar is

as large as 220.6 square miles. An attempt

was, therefore, made to present information on

1 Accepted July 1982.

2 Division of Ichthyology and Fisheries Depart-

ment of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh-202 001.

the physico-chemical conditions and plankton

populations of the two reservoirs.

Materials and Methods

Water samples were collected monthly from

the Baigul and Nanaksagar reservoirs at a

fixed time to avoid the influence of diel fluctua-

tions. Three sampling sites were selected in

each reservoir and from each site 100 ml

water sample was collected from the surface,

transferred to the bottles and fixed by addition

of Lugol’s solution for subsequent analysis of

phytoplankton. Incubation of the samples

for 24 hours at room temperature, resulted in

sedimentation of plankton. By siphoning out

the supernatant liquid, leaving only 10 ml of

the basal content, plankton were concentrated.

Known volumes of this plankton concentrate

were examined under the microscope. Plank-

ton were identified up to generic level with the

help of keys given by Ward and Whipple

(1963) and Needham and Needham (1964).

The number of phytoplankton were expressed

per milli-litre of the environmental sample.

For studies on zooplankton, 100 litres of

water was filtered through a plankton net

made up of organdi cloth and sample was

collected in a specimen tube of known volume

tied at the rear end of the conical net. 10%

13

Physico-chemical conditions of reservoirs

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

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Measured sub-samples were examined under 1

microscope. The number of organisms per

litre was computed.

Atmospheric and surface water temperatures '

were recorded by mercury thermometer gradu- 1

ated up to 100°C. Transparency of water :

was measured by standard secchi disc.

Water samples for chemical analysis were

collected in the morning from the surface.

Oxygen concentration was determined by the

standard Wrinkler’s method. Carbonate and

bicarbonate were estimated by titrating 100 ml

samples of water with N/50 sulfuric acid using

phenolphthalein and methyl orange as indi-

cators. Presence of carbondioxide was tested

by phenolphthalein. Chloride was estimated

by titrating 50 ml of sample with standard

silver nitrate solution using potassium chro-

mate as indicator (Barnes 1959). Hydrogen

ion concentration was indicated by pH paper

readings.

For comparison of plankton composition in

Baigul and Nanaksagar reservoirs, a ‘simila-

rity co-efficient’ was calculated using the for-

mula as adopted by Beattie et al. (1978):

2c

S =

a+b

where S = Similarity co-efficient; c = number

of the types of organisms common in the two

reservoirs; a = number of the types of orga-

nisms in one reservoir (Baigul); b= number

of the types of organisms in other reservoir

(Nanaksagar).

The value of this co-efficient varies from 0 to

1 depending upon the amount of similarity or

difference.

Results

(A) PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CONDITIONS

The physico-chemical conditions of the

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ETC. OF BAIGUL & NANAKSAGAR RESERVOIRS

Baigul and Nanaksagar reservoirs have been

tabulated (Tablet ).

1. Temperature. Air temperature ranged

from 30°C in July to 36.2°C in April at

Baigul. At Nanaksagar also the minimum

temperature was recorded in July (32.2°C)

and maximum in April (35.8°C). Trend

of monthly fluctuation in the surface

water temperature was exactly identical to

that of atmospheric temperature, the maximum

value in the month of April was 34.2°C in

Baigul and 33.6°C in Nanaksagar. While the

minimum obtained in July was found to be

28.9°C in Baigul and 29.5°C in Nanaksagar.

Air and water temperatures increased gradual-

ly from July to September.

2. Transparency. Secchi disc reading

varied from 80 cm to 140 cm in Baigul and

100 cm to 160 cm in Nanaksagar. During

the period of investigation, water transparency

was observed highest in April, poorest in July

and medium in September.

3. pH. Maximum pH value (7.8) was

recorded in the month of April in both the

reservoirs and minimum (7.2) in Baigul and

7.1 in Nanaksagar in June. pH seemed to in-

crease from July to September.

4. Dissolved Oxygen. Highest concentra-

tion of dissolved oxygen was noted in the

month of April (8 ppm in Baigul and 7.8

ppm in Nanaksagar) and lowest in the month

of July (6.8 ppm in Baigul and 6.6 ppm in

Nanaksagar). The values were higher in the

month of September compared to that of June.

5. Carbondioxide. Carbondioxide was ab-

sent in all the reservoir water samples during

the period of investigation.

6. Carbonate. Carbonate content of water

varied from 9 ppm to 25 ppm in Baigul and

8 ppm to 24 ppm in Nanaksagar. Peaks were

recorded in the month of April and trough

in July in both the reservoirs.

7. Bicarbonate. Bicarbonate ranged from

76 ppm in July to 82 ppm in April (Baigul)

and 73 ppm in July to 80 ppm in April

(Nanaksagar).

8. Chloride. Chloride concentration in

both the reservoirs was low and pattern of

variation was similar to carbonate. The maxi-

mum concentration (15 ppm in both the re-

servoirs) and minimum (8.3 ppm in Baigul

and 8.6 ppm in Nanaksagar) were observed

in the month of April and July, respectively.

(B) PLANKTON

Little generic difference in the phyto- and

zooplankton existed in the Baigul and Nanak-

sagar. This was revealed from the value of

similarity co-efficients (0.90 for phytoplank-

ton and 0.83 for zooplankton).

1. Phytoplankton. Population estimates

of the various genera of the phytoplankton

have been indicated in Table 2. The phyto-

plankton in Baigul and Nanaksagar reservoirs

mainly consisted of chlorophyceae, myxo-

phyceae, desmidiaceae and bacillariophyceae.

Their mean percentages were 34.4 13.3, 17.4,

35.7 in Baigul and 32.2, 14.7, 20.8, 32.0

in Nanaksagar, respectively.

Chlorophyceae. This group was encounter-

ed in large numbers throughout the study

period. Protococcus was numerically the

most superior. This was followed by Ankis-

trodesmus. April was the period of domi-

nance. The number dwindled in September.

Other genera Tetraedron, Botryococcus, Pedia-

strum, Coelastrum, Scenedesmus, Oocystis,

Oedogonium, Crucigenia, Phaeus, Tetraedri-

ella, Arthrodesmus and Zygnena occurred in

moderate numbers, being high in summer

months and low in the monsoon. Kirchneriella

and Gunodium were present in Baigul and

absent from Nanaksagar.

Myxophyceae was represented by only

four genera in each reservoir, the dominating

15

Phytoplankton abundance in the reservoirs (number/millilitre)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

genus being Anabaena. Next to it in order

of abundance were Clastidium, Oscillatoria and

Phormidium. Their population densities were

high in summer and low in monsoon.

Desmidiaceae. This group was represented

by 10 genera in Nanaksagar and 7 in Baigul

reservoir. Drapanaldia, Micrastarias and Acti-

nastrum did not occur in Baigul. Clasterium

was noted for its dominance in both the re-

servoirs, followed by Staurastrum, Cosmarium,

Gonatozygon, Euastrum and Mesotaenium.

Their numbers were high in April and low in

monsoon. Penium was found only in the last

sampling month in the reservoirs.

Bacillariophyceae. Synedra and Nitzschia

were the most preponderant in Baigul as well

as Nanaksagar. Others including Dlatoma,

Navicula, Melosira and Amphora were re-

corded in moderate numbers. The population

densities of Cocconies, Cyclotella, Tabellaria,

Epitheinia and Surirella were low in the two

reservoirs. Most of the genera showed their

peak in summer months and trough in the

monsoon season. Three more genera, viz.

Rhopalodia, Gyrosigma and Fragillaria were

found only in the Baigul.

2. Zooplankton. The genera recorded

from the Baigul and Nanaksagar reservoirs

belonged to four groups : Cladocerans, Cope-

pods, Rotifers and Ostracods. Data for this

have been given in Table 3.

Cladocerans. Occurrence of this group was

high in Baigul compared to Nanaksagar. A

total of five genera: Scaphopoda, Bosmina, Dia-

phanosoma, Scapholebris and Simocephalus

were recorded in Baigul reservoir, but out of

these, Scapholebris and Simocephalus were not

found to occur in Nanaksagar. Cladocerans

showed a direct relationship with phytoplank-

ton as their numbers were high in summer

months and low in monsoon.

Copepods. This group consisted of Cyclops,

Diuplomus and their nauplii larvae. Their

maximum numbers were recorded in the

month of September, moderate numbers in

April and low in July. Nauplii were found

from July onward.

Rotifers. Brahionus and Keretella were

the two genera common to both the reservoirs. .

These were most abundant in April and their

population seemed to decline in monsoon.

Fillinia and Colurella were observed in Nanak-

sagar only in the last two months.

Ostracods. Entocythere, Cypticercus and

Cyprinotus were the only representative genera

in Baigul and Nanaksagar. Their population

densities were high in April and June and

lower in the month of July. Cyprinotus were

obtained in summer.

Discussion

Thermal conditions in the superficial layers

of reservoir water are chiefly influenced by

atmospheric temperature. Hence the identity

in the pattern of variation in the temperature ,

of air and water. The premonsoon period is

generally characterised by intense solar radia-

tions and high temperature of air and water, i

With the onset of monsoon rains in July

cloudy weather and weak radiations, the

temperature of air and water is markedly i

lowered.

High transparency of water in April seemed

to be related to greater amount of sunshine,

better penetration of light, moderate velocity i

of wind and hence stillness of water and lesser

proportion of dissolved and suspended matters. |

Some of the causative factors have been iden-

tified earlier (Welch 1952, McCombine 1953, '

Ruttner 1953, Hutchinson 1957, Bamforth

1958). Decline in transparency in the mon-

soon could be attributed to cloudy condition, I

poor sunshine and inrush of surface run off

18

Table 3

Zooplankton abundance in Baigul and Nanaksagar reservoirs (number/litrl)

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ETC. OF BAIGUL & NANAKSAGAR RESERVOIRS

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

laden with silt and different kinds of organic

material causing turbidity in water.

No appreciable difference was noted in the

temperature of water of the two reservoirs.

Baigul water was more turbid, with lesser

transparency.

Amount of oxygen dissolved in water de-

pends upon the partial pressure of the gas in

the air, close to the water surface, rate of

photosynthetic activity (which releases oxygen)

in the ecosystem and the oxygen holding

capacity of water. It has conclusively been

proved that temperature of water and concen-

tration of salts determine the quantity of

oxygen which can be dissolved in the water.

Although the oxygen holding capacity of

water reduces at higher temperature. Yet high

dissolve oxygen values in April (hottest of

the months investigated) and low values in

July, a relatively cooler month observed by

the authors serve to emphasize the overriding

influence exerted by factors (other than tem-

perature) such as penetration of light to a

larger depth, greater abundance of photosyn-

thesizing organism on the dissolved oxygen

level of the water.

Carbondioxide was not found in a free

state in the two reservoirs, but occurred in

combination with other substances. Immedi-

ately on being produced during metabolic

activity of the reservoir’s biota, it is used up

in photosynthesis or gets combined with the

available carbonate to form bicarbonate. Such

a sequence of chemical transformation has

been documented by Welch (1952). In seve-

ral other Indian reservoirs investigated the

free carbondioxide has also not been detected

(Rao and Govind 1964, Upadhayaya 1964,

Sreenivasan 1972).

Carbonate and bicarbonate contents of water

showed similar trend of monthly fluctuations

in both the reservoirs, related evidently to

temperature and water level. Ambient tern- lc

perature before monsoon leads to more evapo- sc

ration and decrease in the water level. This r

increases the concentration of carbonate and i:

bicarbonate. Following the rains, fall in tem-

perature and hence evaporation coupled with ik

the influx of a large volume of water, these i

substances got diluted. Rao and Govind

(1964) have also correlated alkalinity fluctua- ni

tions with the temperature and rainfall.

Pattern of pH changes resembled that of

carbonate content of the water. This is con- .

sistent with findings of Lauff (1953) and J

Jana and Sarkar (1971).

Chloride concentration in both the reservoirs

was very low which indicated that they were s

well protected from pollution. That high

concentration of chloride is suggestive of

pollution has been emphasized by Sarkar and p!

Rai (1964). Dynamics of change in chloride :

content of the reservoirs emphasizes that the r

two main factors, viz. temperature and rainfall,

which bring about changes in carbonate and

bicarbonate also lead to alterations in chloride

content. I

Biomass production of both the reservoirs ;

seemed to be affected by the physico-chemical

conditions of the ecosystem. Higher tempe-

rature and light penetration (April to June)

appeared to cause increased production of p

plankton in general. Green algae flourished -

when the temperature was highest and the

diatoms when the temperature was moderate.

Blooming of phytoplankton in the month

of April has been reported by Sreenivasan

el al. (1974), Arumugon and Furtado (1980)

and Kannan and Job (1980) in some tempe-

rate and tropical reservoirs. Bhardwaja (1940)

and Michael (1969) have also pointed out

temperature and light as the factors responsible

for the higher population of phytoplankton.

According to Worrington (quoted by Round

20

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ETC. OF B AIGUL & NANA KSAGAR RESERVOIRS

1961) tropical waters are more productive on

account of higher temperature. In temperate

areas also it is known that changes in water

temperature affect the seasonal cycle of phyto-

plankton (McCombie 1953). Contrary to

these findings Tailing (1957), Sreenivasan et

al. (1974) and Andreoli and Rascio (1975)

could not observe direct influence of tempera-

ture on phytoplankton.

In Baigul and Nanaksagar both, phytoplank-

ton density reduced in monsoon months. Simi-

lar to this observation Sreenivasan (1964),

Saha et al. (1971) and Kannan and Job (1980)

encountered minimum number of phytoplank-

ton in the monsoon months. Welch (1952) sug-

gested that the higher turbidity values unfav-

ourable to the growth of plankton. Roy (1955)

observed that turbidity limits the growth of

plankton population due to the blanketing

effect of suspended materials interfering with

photosynthetic activity of phytoplankton. Rain-

fall alters physico-chemical conditions in the

water and influences the planktonic life

(Berner 1951, Chandler and Weeks 1954).

Kannan and Job (1980) attributed the low

density of phytoplankton in rainy season to :

dilution of medium, loss through outlet and

silting. Sreenivasan (1964) reported exces-

sive flooding as the causative factor of low

population of phytoplankton in monsoon

months.

The monthly variations in zooplankton

population during the period of investigation

were similar in the two reservoirs. Maximum

numbers of crustaceans, rotifers and ostracods

were recorded in the month of April and

minimum in July. Factors like temperature,

turbidity, pH, discharge of water from tribu-

taries, breeding rate of zooplankton, selective

predation of large zooplanktons on smaller

ones are reported to cause fluctuations in the

population of these invertebrates (Cowell

1967, Vasisht 1968). Higher temperature in

the month of April might enhance the breed-

ing rate of crustaceans. Abundance of phyto-

plankton in this month also seemed to favour

the growth of crustaceans which generally feed

on minute phytoplankton in addition to other

organic matter (Vaas and Vaas-Van-Oven

1959). According to Arora (1966) high pH

and temperature arc responsible for the change

in rotifer population. Factors like turbidity,

flooding etc., which tend to curtail phytoplank-

ton population also result in numerical decline

of the zooplankton.

Ack nowledgements

We are grateful to Prof. Nawab Hasan

Khan, Chairman, Department of Zoology,

Aligarh Muslim University. Aligarh for pro-

viding necessary facilities.

References

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flora in the thermal baths of Montegrotto Terme

(Padua), its distribution over one year period.

Hydrobiologia 60: 857-871.

Armitage, B. & Simon, G. M. (1975): Phyto-

plankton periodicity in a new reservoir. Lake Anna

Virginea. Vcrh Ini. Ver. Theor. Angew. Lininol. 19:

(pt 3).

Arora, H. C. (1966): Responses of rotifera to

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Arumugon, P. T. & Furtado, J. I. (1980):

Physico-chemistry, destrification and nutrient budget

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its limnological implications. Hydrobiologia 70: 11-

24.

Bamforiii, S. (1958): Ecological studies on the

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

nol. Oceanogr. 3: 398-412.

Barnes, H. (1959): Apparatus and Methods of

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Beattie, D. M.. Golterman, H. L. & Vijverberg,

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Berner, L. M. (1951): Limnology of the lower

Missouri River Ecology 33: 1-12.

Bhardwaja, Y. (1940): Some aspects of the study

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Sci. Cong. Madras, p. 168.

Chandler, D. C. and Weeks, O. B. (1954): Lim-

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production of phytoplankton 1942. Ecol. Monogr.

15: 435-456.

Cowell. C. B. (1967): The copepoda and clado-

ccra of a Missouri river reservoir: a comparison

of sampling in the reservoir and the discharge.

Limnol. oceanogr. 12: 125-136.

Ganapati, S. V. (1940): A two year observation

of the Errakuppam reservoir. Madras. J. Madras

Geogr. Assoc. 15: 151-181.

( 1 960) : Ecology of tropical

waters. Proceeding of symposium oil algology, New

Delhi, Indian Council of Agricultural research, pp.

200-21 8.

Hutchinson, G. E. (1957): A treatise in limno-

logy. I. Geography, Physics and Chemistry. John

Wiley and Sons Inc. New York: p. 1015.

Jona, B. B. and Sarkar. H. L. (1971) : The limno-

logy of ‘Swet Ganga' a Thermal spring of Backes

War, West Bengal. India. Hydrobiologia 10: 307-319.

Jayangaudar, I. (1980): Hydrobiological studies

on the Ajwa reservoir, the source of raw water

supply to the Baroda water Works. Hydrobiologia

72: 113-123.

Kannan, V. & Job, S. V. (1980): Diurnal depth-

wise and seasonal changes of physico-chemical factors

in Sathior reservoir. Hydrobiologia 70: 103-117.

Lauff, G. H. (1953): A contribution to water

chemistry' and the phytoplankton relationships of

Rogers Lake, Flathead country, Montana. Proc.

Montana Acad. Sci. 13: 5-19.

McCombie. A. M. (1953): Factors influencing the

growth of phytoplankton. J. Fish. Board Can. 10:

253-282.

Michael. R. G. (1969) : Seasonal trend in physico-

chemical factors and plankton of a freshwater fish

pond and their role in fish culture. Hydrobiologia

33: 144-160.

Needham, J. C. & Needham, P. R. (1964): A

guide to the study of freshwater biology. Holden

Day. Inc. San Francisco constabee and comp. Lon-

don 5th edition.

Planas, D. (1975): Distribution and productivity

of phytoplankton in Spanish reservoirs. Verh. hit.

Ver. Theor. Angco. Limnol. /9(pts).

Rao, D. S. & Govind. B. V. (1964) : Hydrobiology

of Tungbhadra reservoir. Indian J. Fish. 11: 321-344.

Round, F. E. (1961): Studies on bottom living

algae in some lakes of the English lake District

Pond. V. The seasonal cycle of the cyanophyceae.

J. Ecol. 1: 31-38.

Roy, H. K. (1955): Plankton ecology of the river

Hoogly at Polta. Ecology 36: 169-175.

Ruttner, F. (1953): Fundamentals of limnology.

University of Toronto Press, Toronto.

Saha, G. N., Sehgal, K. L., Evamitra & Nandy,

A. C. (1971): Studies on the seasonal and diurnal

variations in physico-chemical and biological condi-

tions of a perennial freshwater pond. J. Inland Fish.

Soc. India 3: 79-102.

Sarkar. H. L. & Rai, H. (1964): The limnology

of Suraj Kund, India. Physico-chemical conditions

and plankton. Trans. Amcr. Micro. Soc 83: 260-265.

Sreenivasan. A. (1964): Limnological studies and

fish yield in three upland lakes of Madras State.

India. Limnol. Oceanogr. 9: 564-575.

(1965): Limnology of tropical

impoundments. III. Limnology and productivity of

Amravathy reservoirs. Madras State. Tndia. Hydro-

biologia 26: 501-516.

(1966): Limnology of tropical

impoundments. I. Hydrobiological features and fish

production in Stanley reservoir. Metturdam. Int. Res.

Ges. Hydrobiologia 51: 295-306.

(1972) : Limnology of a seepage

type impoundment. Odathurai Tank. J. Inland. Fish.

Soc. India 4: 162-168.

> SOUNDERRAJ. R. & FRANKLIN, T.

(1974): Diurnal and seasonal changes in a pro-

ductive shallow tropical pond. Phycos 86-103.

Talling. J. E. (1957): The longitudinal succes-

sion of water characteristics in the White Nile.

Hydrobiologia 11: 73-83.

Upadhayaya, M. P. (1964): Physico-chemical

conditions in relation to productivity of fishery

waters. In seminar on Inland Fisheries Development

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in U.P. held on 28th and 29th Jan. 1964. pp. 127-136.

Vaas, K. F. & Vaas-Van-Oven, A. (1959) : Studies

on the production and utilization of natural food

in Indonesian carp ponds. Hydrobiologia 12: 308-

392.

Vasisht, H. S. (1968): Limnological studies of

Sukhna lake, Chandigarh (India). Proc. Symp. Re-

cent. Adv. Trop. Ecol. pp. 316-325.

Ward, H. B. and Whipple, G. C. (1963): Fresh-

water biology. John Wiley & Sons Inc.. London.

Welch, P. S. (1952): Limnology. McGraw-Hill,

New York.

23

OBSERVATIONS ON THE SOCIAL ORGANISATION

AND SEX RATIO IN THREE SPECIES OF

INDIAN BATS1

A. Krishna and C. J. Dominic2

Data on the social organisation and sex ratio in three species of bats, namely

Scotophilus hcathi, Taphozous longimanus and Cynoplerns sphinx are presented. In

S. heathi harem formation occurs during the breeding season. At other times the females

live in small unisexual groups, while the males remain solitary. In T. longimanus

individuals are found during the breeding season in mixed groups of 15-25 females

and 5-10 males; during the non-breeding season females roost in large colonies while

males are found in small groups. In C. sphinx the sexes remain separate, except during

the mating season and during the winter months. In all the three species the sex ratio

is even in the juveniles. However, in S. heathi and T. longimanus there is an uneven

sex ratio among adults favouring the females, whereas in C. sphinx the adult sex

ratio is almost even.

Introduction

Several studies suggest that in bats there is

an unbalanced sex ratio in the adults with

females outnumbering the males in most

species (Wimsatt 1945, Gopalakrishna 1947,

1955, Ramakrishna 1951, Pearson et al. 1952,

Abdulali 1949, Ramaswamy 1961, Brosset

1962a, b, c, 1963, Gopalakrishna and Madha-

van 1970). However, the sex ratio is even

during juvenile life in these species. Tapho-

zous melanopogon and Hipposideros lankadiva

are the only species in which the males exceed

the females (Abdulali 1949). An unequal sex

ratio is also reported in hibernating colonies

of bats (cf. Bradbury 1977).

Due to the nature of the roosts and the

nocturnal habits and due to the practical diffi-

culties in tracking one population which in-

volves trapping, marking and periodic census-

1 Accepted July 1982.

- Department of Zoology. Banaras Hindu Univer-

sity. Varanasi 221005, (U.P.).

tng of entire groups, social organisation,

especially social dynamics, has been only in-

completely investigated in almost all the bat

species. Brosset (1974) and Bradbury (1977)

have admirably reviewed the current know-

ledge pertaining to the social organisation in

chiropterans. The complex social behaviour

and the variety of social organisations exhi-

bited by bats are similar to those found in other

highly social mammals. Whether such social

organisation is manifested by Indian bats re-

mains to be investigated. Males and females

of some Indian bats have been reported to

occupy separate sleeping quarters in the non-

breeding season (Prater 1971). However, our

knowledge of the social organisation in Indian

bats is fragmentary. During an investigation

on the reproductive cycle and associated

phenomena in certain Indian bats (Krishna

1978, Krishna and Dominic 1978, 1981, 1982-

a, b) some preliminary data were obtained

pertaining to the social organisation and sex

ratio of three species of bats. These are

presented in this communication.

SOCIAL ORGANISATION & SEX RATIO OF INDIAN BATS

Materials and Methods

Three species, the greater yellow bat, Scoto-

philus heat hi (Family: Vespertilionidae), In-

dian sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus

(Family: Emballonuridae) and short-nosed

fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Family: Ptero-

pidae) are included in this study. The bats

were trapped alive in the Banaras Hindu Uni-

versity campus and adjacent areas from Sept-

ember 1974 to October 1976. Most specimens

were collected by using a gummed stick.

Occasionally butterfly nets were also employed.

S. heathi was obtained from the crevices on

the walls of buildings. All the individuals

(usually 2-6) in a roost were trapped on each

occasion. Specimens of T. longimanus were

collected from the hollows of trees. Each roost

contained 20-30 individuals. Specimens of C.

sphinx were collected from their roosting sites

on palm trees ( Phoenix sylvestris and Boras-

sus flabellifer). The 20-40 individuals in a roost

were huddled on the ventral side of the fronds.

On each visit effort was made to examine

all roosting sites for bats. The numbers of adult

males and females, and immature individuals

present in each roosting site were noted. The

pelage colour, body weight, wing span and

histology of the gonads and accessory repro-

ductive organs were the parameters employed

for separating the adults from the juveniles

(Krishna 1978). The sex ratios of adults and

juveniles of each species were calculated from

the total number of bats collected from all

roosting sites.

Observations

Scotophilus heathi

Social organisation. The species is mono-

estrous, producing litter in July. Mating takes

place from January to March (Krishna and

Dominic 1981). Females and males have diffe-

rent roosting places except in the breeding

season. In the breeding season, 2-6 females are

found in association with a single adult male

forming a harem. In January and February,

a total of 50 such groups were found. After

mating the sexes live together for sometime.

Later the females aggregate in unisexual groups

while males remain solitary. Parturition occurs

in July (Krishna and Dominic 1981). The

bond between the mother and young lasts for

about two months after lactation. During this

period also mature males remain in individual

isolation. From November to early January

both males and females are found in small

unisexual groups of 2-6 adults.

Sex ratio. During the two years of random

collection 130 adult females and 70 males were

obtained. However, the sex ratio is almost even

during the juvenile life. Out of the 26 young,

14 were females and 12 males.

Taphozous longimanus

Social organisation. The study of social orga-

nisation in T. longimanus is made difficult by

the fact that it roosts in hollows of trees. Mixed

groups consisting of 15-25 females and 5-10

males are found most of the time. Between

October and June, 21 such groups were re-

corded. Segregation of sexes occurs during the

non-breeding season (July to September) when

the females roost in large unisexual colonies

while males live in small unisexual groups.

Sex ratio. During the two years of random

collection, 124 females and 56 males were ob-

tained indicating an abnormal sex ratio. Out

of 38 young collected, 20 were females and 18

males indicating an even sex ratio during juve-

nile life.

Cynopterus sphinx

Social organisation. The sexes remain segre-

gated. except in the breeding season (October

25

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

to March) and in the winter months. During

the winter both males and females congregate

into large camps. In the breeding season groups

comprising 6-10 males and 10-15 females are

formed. Fifteen such groups were found during

the period covered by the present study. Males

remain with the females for sometime after

mating. Later they segregate to form unisexual

groups which persist throughout the non-

breeding season (June to September). Ten sepa-

rate colonies, consisting exclusively of either

males or females were found from June to

September.

Sex ratio. In contrast to S. heathi and T.

longimanus, in C. sphinx the sex ratio is more

balanced. Of the 203 adults collected, 112

were females and 91 males. The sex ratio is

also even during the juvenile life.

Discussion

Even though detailed studies on social organi-

sation have been made only in very few species,

it is obvious that bats exhibit varied social

organizations such as solitary life, promiscuity,

grouping according to age, unisexual groups,

monogamous, families, harem, the lek and in-

terspecific groups (Brosset 1974, Bradbury

1977). Solitary species are not reported in bats

though certain European rhinolophids and

Myotis hibernate in isolation in caves. In pro-

miscuous species, e.g. Miniopterus schreihersii ,

Rhinolophus euryale, males and females of all

ages are seen in the same colony. Colonies of

Miniopterus schreihersii comprising over

100.000 individuals are reported from India

(Brosset 1962c) and of the American molas-

sid. Tadarida hrasiliensis exceeding even

20.000.000 individuals (Davis el al. 1962).

Segregation of sexes, with monosexual groups

at least during parts of the year, is reported

in the Indian species. Taphozous melanopogon.

Tn such species, males are invariably excluded

from the “nurseries”. In Hipposideros caffer c

and Megaloglossus waermani, during night in-

dividuals hunt for prey in unisexual groups'

(Brosset 1974). Monogamic families, though;

rare, are reported in Kerivoula harrisoni and

Agelena consociata living in the equatorial

forests of Africa (Brosset 1974). The mega-

chiropteran species, Hypsignathus monostrosus

exhibits a very peculiar social organization,

viz. lek or arena mating (Allen et al. 1917).

The males aggregate at night and make loud

calls and females visit the singing assemblies ■

(“leks”) to mate (Bradbury 1977). Interspecific

associations are reported between Myotis

emarginatus and certain rhinolophids (Brosset

1974). though it is not known whether this is

due to the occupation of the same niche by

the two species or to any genuine attraction

between the cohabiting species.

Harem as a social unit is typically found in

tropical and neotropical species, e.g. Myotis

adversus (Dwyer 1970), Saccopteryx bilineata

(Bradbury and Emmons 1974), Phyllostomus

hastatus and P. discolor (Rasweiler 1975),

Myotis hoccagei (Brosset 1976) and Tylonyc-

teris pachypus and T. rohustula (Medway and

Marshall 1972). Tn several species harems are

seasonally invariant social units. Olfactory sig-

nals are presumed to play an important role in

the social integration in the harem (Bradbury

1969). Tn S. heathi harem formation occurs

only in the breeding season (January and

February). Tn general, the social organisation

of .S', heathi resembles that of M. adversus

(Dwyer 1970). Tn both species, sexual segre-

gation occurs between copulation and parturi-

tion and harem formation during the breeding

season.

The social organisation of T. longimanus is

similar to that of ,S. heathi in several respects.

In contrast to the typical harem formation in

5. heathi, in T. longimanus several males are

26

SOCIAL ORGANISATION & SEX RATIO OF INDIAN BATS

associated with a group of females in the

breeding season. Furthermore, the females as

well as males of this species segregate into

unisexual groups during the nonbreeding sea-

son. This contrasts with the year-round multi-

male/multi-female groups described in the

neotropical emballonurids, Saccopteryx leptura

(Bradbury 1977) and Rhynchonycteris naso

(Dalquest 1957, Bradbury and Emmons 1974).

In the tropical species, Taphozous melanopog-

on, mixed aggregations are formed at parturi-

tion with the females in the centre and the

males in a concentric ring around them (Bros-

set 1962b).

The social organisation of Cynopterus

sphinx resembles in certain respects that of

T. longimanus. However, in T. longimanus the

females in the breeding group far outnumber

the males whereas in C. sphinx the groups are

formed of more or less equal number of males

and females. In several bat species, the sexes

segregate soon after copulation and remain so

at least up to parturition. This is especially true

of the pteropids (Bradbury 1977). In the

Australian species, Pteropus poliocephalus.

Nelson (1965) noted unisexual groups between

copulation and parturition and mixed groups

during lactation. The sexes live apart for about

two-thirds of the year. A similar organisation

appears to operate in P. gouldii and P. scapu-

latus (Nelson 1965), P. conspicillatus (Rat-

cliffe 1932). P. ornatus (Sanborn and Nichol-

son 1950), P. geddiei and P. eotinus (Baker

and Baker 1936). The social organisation in

C. sphinx appears to be similar to that of the

above-mentioned species. By contrast. Pteropus

giganteus of Tndia and Sri Tanka lives in

permanent colonies with adults of both sexes

(numbering occasionally over a thousand)

present throughout the year (Ncuweiler 1969).

In most chiropterans studied, even though

the sex ratio is even among the juveniles it is

uneven in the adults (cf. Gopalakrishna and

Madhavan 1970, Bradbury 1977), with the

females outnumbering the males; however, in

Taphozous melanopogon and Hipposideros

lankadiva (Abdulali 1947, Megaderma spasma

(Brosset 1962b), Hipposideros bicolar (Bros-

set 1962b), Eumops perotis (Howell 1920)

and tropical and temperate species of Pipis-

trellus (Davis 1966), the males outnumber

the females. It is not clear whether this is

due to a real excess of males in the popula-

tion, or to the recording of all male groups

or to other factors which has biased sampling.

The even sex ratio in the juveniles as seen

in the three species in the present study is

consistent with the findings in other chiropte-

rans. The uneven sex ratio among adults

favouring the females as seen in S. heathi and

T. longimanus is true of most chiropterans. C.

sphinx appears to be peculiar in that the adult

sex ratio is almost even.

The differential use of environment and the

existence of differential rates of maturation,

mortality and longevity are some of the fac-

tors which contribute to the unequal sexual

composition of bats. In species like Megaderma

lyra (Ramaswamy 1961) and Plecotus auritus

(Stebbings 1966), males mature earlier than

females, whereas in Macrotus water housii

(Bradshaw 1962) and Tadarida brasiliensis

(Short 1961. Constantine 1967), the reverse is

true. This may contribute to adding adults of

one sex to the population faster and may also

expose them to dangers of adult social beha-

viours earlier such as increased predation. The

different maturation times of males and females

may also influence the rate of mortality (Bros-

set 1966a. Barbour and Davis 1969).

According to Rradbury (1977). unequal sex

ratios as seen in bats correlate with particular

kinds of social systems. It is possible that the

skewed sex ratios resulting in the excess of

27

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

one sex or another may result in a particular

type of social organisation. In S. heathi, the

sex ratio favours the females and the species

is polygamous. This is also true of most molo-

ssids (Verschuren 1957). Harems in bats seem

to exist in species where adult females out-

number adult males (Brosset 1976). However,

harem formation in the true sense is not seen

in T. longinianus, even though in this species

the sex ratio favours the females. While unequal

sex ratios seen in many bat species may tend

R E FE !

Abdulali, H. (1949): Sex-ratio in Indian bats.

/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 423-428.

Allen, J. A., Lang, H. & Chapin, J. P. (1917):

The American Museum Congo Expedition Collection

of Bats. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 37: 405-563.

Baker, J. R. & Baker, Z. (1936): The seasons in

a tropical rain-forest (New Hebrides). Pt. 3. Fruit

bats (Pteropidae). Jour. Linn. Soc. Lond. 40: 123-

141.

Barbour. R. W. & Davis, W. H. (1969): Bats of

America. University of Kentucky Press, Lexington

Kentucky.

Bradbury, J. W. (1969): Rapport fait au Congres,

International d' Ethologic de Rennes.

(1977): Social organization and

communication. In Biology of Bats. pp. 1-72. ed.

W. A. Wimsatt, Academic Press, New York.

& Emmons, L. (1974): Social

organization in some Trinidad bats. I. Emballonu-

ridae. Z. Tierpsychol. 36: 136-183.

Bradshaw, G. V. R. (1962): Reproductive cycle

of the California leaf-nosed bat, Macrotus califor-

nicus. Science 136 : 645-646.

Brosset, A. (1962a): La reproduction de Chirop-

teres de l'ouest ct du Centre de l'lnde. Mammalia 26:

176-213.

(1962b): The bats of Central and

Western India. Pt. 1. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59:

1-57.

(1962c): The bats of Central and

Western India. Pt. 2. ibid. 59: 583-624.

(1963): The bats of Central and

Western India. Pt. 4. ibid. 60: 337-355.

(1966): Les Chiropteres du Haut-

Ivindo (Gabon). Biol. Gabonia 2: 47-86.

to correlate with particular kinds of social

systems, it is difficult to sort out the cause

from the effect.

Acknowledgements

The investigations were supported by grants

from Indian Council of Medical Research,

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,

and University Grants Commission, New

Delhi.

E N CE S

(1974) : Structure sociale des popu-

lations de chauves-souris. Jour. Psychol. (Paris) 7:

85-102.

(1976): Social organization in the

African bat, Myotis boccagei. Z. Tierpsychol. 42:

50-56.

Constantine, D. G. (1967): Activity patterns of

the Mexican free-tailed bat. Univ. New Mexico Publ.

Biol. 7: 8-79.

Dalquest, W. W. (1957): Observations on the

sharp-nosed bat, Rhynchonycteris naso. Texas Jour.

Sci. 9 : 219-226.

Davis, R. B., Herreid, C. F. & Short, H. L.

(1962): Mexican free-tailed bat in Texas. Ecol.

Monogr. (USA) 32: 311-346.

Davis, W. H. (1966): Population dynamics of

the bat. Pipistrellus subflavus. Jour. Mammal. 47:

383-396.

Dwyer. P. D. (1970): Social organisation in the

bat. Myotis ad versus. Science 168: 1006-1008.

Gopalakrishna, A. (1947): Studies on the em-

bryology of Microchiroptera. Part. I. Reproduction

and breeding seasons in the south Indian vesperti-

lionid bat, Scotophilus wroughtoni. Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. 26(B): 219-232.

(1955): Observations on the

breeding habits and ovarian cycle in the Indian

sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longinianus. Proc. Nat.

Inst Sci. India 21 (B) : 29-35.

& Madhavan. A. (1970) : Sex-

ratio in some Indian bats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

67: 171-175.

Howell, A. B. (1920): Contribution to the life-

history of the California mastiff bat. Jour. Mammal.

1: 111-117.

28

SOCIAL ORGANISATION & SEX RATIO OF INDIAN BATS

Krishna, A. (1978): Aspects of Reproduction in

seme Indian Bats. Ph.D. Thesis, Banaras Hindu

University, India.

& Dominic, C. J. (1978): Storage

of spermatozoa in the female genital tract of the

Indian vespertilionid bat. Scotophilus heathi. J.

Rcprod. Fert. 54: 319-321.

: (1981): Repro-

duction in the vespertilionid bat, Scotophilus heathi

Horsefield. Arch. Biol. 92: 247-258.

(1982a): Repro-

duction in the Indian sheath-tailed bat. Acta Theriot.

27: 97-106.

(1982b): Differen-

tial rates of fetal growth in two successive pregnan-

cies in the emballonurid bat, Taphozous longimanus

Hardwicke. Biol. Reprod. 27: 351-353.

Medway, Lord & Marshall, A. G. (1972):

Roosting association of flat-headed bats, Tylonycteris

species (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) in Malaysia.

Jour. Zool. Lond. 168: 463-482.

Nelson, J. E. (1965) : Behaviour of Australian

Pteropidae ( Megachiroptera) . Anint. Behav. 13:

544-557.

Neuweiler, G. (1969): Verhaltensbebachtungen

an einer Indischen Flughundkolonie ( Piero pus g.

giganteus). Z. Tierpsychol. 26 : 166-199.

Pearson, O. P., Koford, M. R. & Pearson, A. R.

(1952): Reproduction in the lump-nosed bat, Cory-

norhinus rafinesquei, in California. Jour. Mammal.

33: 273-320.

Prater, S. H. (1971): Book of Indian Animals.

3rd Ed. pp. 323, Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

Ramakrishna, P. A. (1951): Studies on the re-

production in bats I. Some aspects of reproduction

in the oriental vampires, Lyroderma lyra lyra (Geoff)

and Megaderma spasma (Linn). Half-Yearly Jour.

Mysore Univer. 1 IB: 107-118.

Ramaswamy, K. R. (1961): Studies on the sex

cycle of the Indian vampire bat, Megaderma lyra

lyra. Part I. Breeding habits. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci.

India 21: 287-300.

Rasweiler, J. J. (1975): Maintaining and breed-

ing neotropical frugivorous, nectarivorous and polle-

nivorous bats. Int. Zool. Yb. 15: 18-30.

Ratclifee. F. N. (1932): Notes on the fruit bats

(Ptcropus sp.) of Australia. Jour. Anim. Ecol. 1:

32-57

Sanborn. C. C. & Nicholsen, A. J. (1950): Bats

from New Caledonia, the Solomon Islands and New

Hebrides. Fieldiana Zool. 31: 318-338.

Short. H. L. (1961): Age at sexual maturity of

Mexican free-tailed bats. Journ. Mammal. 42: 533-

536.

Stebbings, R.E. (1966): A population study of

bats of the genus Plecotus. Jour. Zool. Lond. 150:

53-75.

Verschuren, J. (1957): Ecologie, Biologie et

Systematic des Cheiropteres. Exploration du Parc

National de la Garamba. Brussels.

Wimsatt. W. A. (1945): Notes on breeding be-

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mal. 26: 23-33.

29

STUDIES ON THE ACTIVITY PATTERNS OF THE

LARVAE AND ADULTS OF AEDES ALBOPICTUS

(SKUSE) AND AEDES VITTATUS (BIGOT) OF THE

SCRUB JUNGLES OF PALGHAT-GAP, INDIA1

David Livingstone and K. Krishnamoorthy2

( With six graphs )

In the Maruthamalai Scrub Jungles, Aedes albopictus and Aedes vittatus are the

dominant species, the former breeding in tree holes and the latter in rock pools. The

peak hours of activities of the adults and larvae of these two species vary considerably.

Though their pupation time by and large determines the time of their adult emergence,

their other activities are not predetermined. The relationship between their peak

hours of adult emergence and the peak hours

Introduction

It is a well-established fact that both adults

and immature stages of mosquitoes maintain

a set pattern of activities at set times of either

day or night. Gillett (1971) reported that this

activity rhythm is not uniformly the same in

all species. Aperiodic pupation and aperiodic

emergence of adults in Aedes aegypti, as re-

ported by Haddow et al. (1959), have been

considered as significant complementary

factors in determining the vector role of these

mosquitoes. The pupation rhythms in Aedes

taeniorhynchus (Nielson and Haeger 1954,

Nielson and Evans 1960, Nayar 1967 and

Provost and Lum 1967) and Anopheles gam-

biae (Jones and Reiter 1975) have been docu-

mented and the mechanisms that operate the

eclosion timing in A. gambiae (Reiter and

Jones 1975) and pupation periodicity in Ae.

vittatus (Service 1970) have been partially

known. But, while most of the reports deal

1 Accepted January 1982.

2 Division of Entomology, Department of Zoo-

logy, University of Madras, P. G. Centre, Coimba-

tore-641 041, India.

of their biting activity has been discussed.

with the feeding and oviposition activities of H

the imago of various species, much less in- t

formation is documented on the activity I

rhythms of the immature stages and their con- 1

sequent impact on the behaviour of the imago.

Therefore, an attempt is made here to fill

certain prevailing lacunae in this area of

mosquito research. Aedes albopictus and Ae.

vittatus have been chosen, the former breed-

ing in tree holes and the latter in rock pools,

rock crevices and rock holes in the scrub

jungles of Maruthamalai hills of the Palghat-

Gap.

Materials and Methods

Colonies of Aedes albopictus and Ae. vitta-

tus were maintained in the laboratory. Eggs

collected from the colonies were allowed to

hatch in separate rearing vials (7.5 cm x 2.5

cm) under room temperature (26°C-30°C)

and humidity (59% at 7.22 hrs and 90% at

14.22 hrs). Along with the eggs in each vial,

about 5 mg of yeast was added, for the pur-

pose of hatching, since bacterial stimulus is

known to be an essential requirement for

30

ACTIVITY PATTERNS OF AEDES ALBOPICTUS & AEDES VITTATUS

50r

— • — Aedes albopictus

— A --- Aedes vittatus

40 -

10 -

OL

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

TIME IN HOURS

Graph 1. Hatching rhythm.

— o — Aedes albopictus

— A — Aedes vittatus

*

TIME IN HOURS

Graph 2. Moulting rhythm.

31

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

eclosion. Observations were recorded at

hourly intervals and the larval and pupal cast-

ings were removed periodically in order to

protect the life stages from contamination.

Fresh yeast was provided daily with the chang-

ing of water. The time of sunrise and sunset

were recorded at 5.42 hrs and 18.29 hrs.

respectively, each day.

Results and discussion

a) Hatching rhythm. The minimum period

of incubation has been recorded at 96-97 hours

in Aedes albopictus and Ae. vittatus. After

the hatching of the first batch of eggs, it is

found that the hatching time of the subsequent

batches depends on the stage of advancement

of respective embryos as well as the grade of

intensity of hatching response, as reported by

Gillett (1955). Though the eggs do hatch

during night and day in both species, a distinct

peak has been registered at 19 and 20 hrs

(Graph 1). It is interesting to report here that

these two peak hours of hatching exactly

coincide with the peak hours of their oviposi-

tion. If the breeding habitats are not readily

accessible, they retain the eggs for a few days

and if favourable conditions are not restored

within the stipulated period, they perish with-

out releasing the eggs. This behaviour, how-

ever, is not time bound, as the eggs are

deposited at any time of the day or night

whenever moisture is found available on the

substratum. It is also found that these two

species, unlike as observed in a few species

of Anopheles, never deposit their eggs in dry

substratum and they do not show any manner

of gonadotropic dissociation.

During the peak hours of hatching, larvae

of both males and females hatch almost simul-

taneously in equal numbers. Qutubuddin

(1954) however, has reported that in Culex

pipiens fatigans the males hatch earlier than

the females.

b) Moulting rhythm. Though the moulting

timings of all the three instars of both Ae. albo-

pictus and Ae. vittatus are not quite uniformly

paced, the daily maxima in the former has

been recorded at 5 and 6 hours and that of

the latter at 10 and 11 hrs (graph 2). In Ae.

albopictus, the larval period ranges from 115

to 141 hrs for the males and 119 to 149 hrs

for the females. In Ae. vittatus, the larval

period for males is 103 to 135 hours and for

the females 112 to 143 hrs. (Table 1). Accord-

ing to Service (1970), the relatively longer

larval period of the females is due to their

slower rate of development. In the present

investigation, the rate of development of the

females in both species is comparable with

Table 1

Larval period in hours in Ac. albopictus and Ae. vittatus

32

ACTIVITY PATTERNS Oh 4.EDES ALBOPICTUS & AEDES VITTATUS

TIME IN HOURS

Graph 3. Pupation rhythm.

those of Aedes taeniorhynchus (Nielson and

Haeger 1954) and Aedes aegypti (Christophers

1960).

c). Pupation rhythm. The pupation timings

are not evenly paced during the 24 hr.

period, though there is a distinct maximum

at certain hours of the day. In Ae. albopictus,

the maximum pupation of the female larvae

occurs between 10 and 11 hours without any

coincidence with its moulting peaks (Graph

3), whereas in the males, the pupation occurs

throughout the day, almost without any peak

to record as the daily maximum. Such a

phenomenon appears to be uncommon among

other species of mosquitoes.

In Ae. vittatus, however, there exists a

daily peak between 10 to 11 hours and the

peak significantly corresponds with the peak

of its moulting activity (Graphs 2 & 3).

Service (1970) reported a peak of pupation

activity in this species in Northern Nigeria

between 24 and 01 hours and according to

Gillett (1971) such behavioural variations

could be attributed to the prevailing geogra-

phic as well as microclimatic variations.

Nielson and Haeger (1954) and Reiter and

Jones (1975) however, have not reported

such a pattern of pupation in Ae. taeniorhyn-

chus and Anopheles gambiue respectively.

Table 2 indicates that in both Ae. albopictus

and Ae. vitiatus, the duration of pupal period

is more for the females and that in the former

species this period is much more prolonged

than in the latter.

However, the pupal period of Ae. vittatus in

this biotope is found to be less than that re-

corded by Service (1970) for the same species

in Northern Nigeria (44.8 hrs and 45.00 hrs

33

3

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Table 2

Duration of pupal period in Ae. albopictus and

15r

— O —

— A —

is 12 to 16 hrs less than that of the females,

in Ae. vittatus the difference is almost always

negligible (1 to 3 hrs). Such significant differ-

ence in the pupal periods of both sexes in

Ae. albopictus accounts for the arhythmic

pupation and emergence of males in this

species, as mentioned earlier. In Ae. vittatus,

this difference is very narrow.

When the pupae are exposed to continuous

light, the pupal period is reduced to 17 to 24

hrs for males and 26 to 28 hours for females

in the case of Ae. albopictus and 17 to 21

MALE

FEMALE

10

ui

o

UJ

o

tr

<u

2 5

UJ

0L

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

TIME IN HOURS

Graph 4. Emergence rhythm in Aedes albopictus.

for males and females respectively). Thus

the present observations provide additional

evidence of behavioural variations that are

regulated by geographic and climatic varia-

tions, a view advanced by Gillett (1971). It

is also interesting to report here that while in

Ae. albopictus, the pupal period of the males

hours for males and 20-21 hours for

females in the case of Ae. vittatus. When

the pupae are exposed to continuous dark-

ness, the pupal period is reduced to 12 to

14 hrs for males and 24 hrs for females in

Ae. albopictus whereas in Ae. vittatus the

duration of pupal period in both sexes in

34

BITING IN Vo EMERGENCE IN %

ACTIVITY PATTERNS OF AEDES ALBOPICTUS & AEDES VITTATUS

50 "

40-

30 -

20 -

— MALE

20-

10 -

TIME IN HOURS

Graph 5. Emergence rhythm in Aedes vittatus.

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

TIME IN HOURS

Graph 6. Biting rhythm in Aedes albopictus.

35

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

darkness remains the same (12 hrs). The

longer duration of the pupal period of

female Ae. albopictus, even under experimen-

tal conditions, further suggests that these

pupae need to be subjected to a minimum

period of 24 hrs of darkness to complete

their development. In Ae. vittatus, however,

darkness has significant effect on the develop-

ment in both sexes.

Since the pupal period in both species under

control conditions as well as when exposed

continuously to light, is longer for the females,

it may suggest that developmental rate of the

female is slower than the males, a view ad-

vanced by Nielson and Haeger (1954) in the

case of Ae. taeniorhynckus. However, the

rate of development of females in the case of

Ae. vittatus appears to have been accelerated

by darkness, the biological reasons for which

are difficult to explain at this stage.

d) Adult emergence rhythm. In the females,

in both species, the peak of adult emergence

activity appears at certain fixed time of the

day. In the males this appears to be quite

erratic.

In Ae. albopictus, the females emerge bet-

ween 7 and 8 hours and therefore rhythmic.

But the males do not maintain a peak hour

of emergence and therefore arhythmic (Graph

4). The rhythm in the emergence of females

in this species can be readily correlated with

the peak hour of biting activity, as observed

in the field (Graph 6). In the laboratory, it

is found that a female requires a minimum

period of four hours of rest, following emer-

gence, before it is ready to take its first blood

meal. The peak of its emergence occurring

at 8 hours therefore is responsible for its peak

of biting activity at 16 or 17 hours, leaving

an interval of approximately 8 hours between

emergence and first blood meal.

In Ae. vittatus, the males and females

emerge rhythmically, at the same time the

adult emergence peak occurring at 20-21 hrs.

(table 3 and Graph 5). The biting activity

Table

3

Pupation time in Ac. albopictus and Ac. vittatus

m

is

m

:

SI

ai

,\

of this species could not be studied in this

biotope and Service (1970) reported its peak

hour of biting activity as 20-21 hrs in Northern

Nigeria. However, since other biological fi

rhythms of this species reported by Service

are not in conformity with the observations

made in this biotope, it is not probable that

the same time of biting activity is maintained

by it in this biotope too. e

e) Determination of rhythms. In the two ‘

species it has been found that the larvae that

hatch at different times of the day moult

almost simultaneously at the peak hour of ,

moulting activity and the range of larval

period does not remain constant. Thus it is

clear that the time of hatching does not have

any influence on the moulting activity and the

larval moulting does not influence pupation.

The pupation rhythm is also found to be not

predetermined. The rate of larval develop-

ment plays a more important role in the pupa-

tion activity than the time of moulting itself.

Pupation follows a rhythm and the pupa-

tion period ranges from 1 to 5 hours in both

Ae. albopictus and Ae. vittatus. Therefore,

the rate of development during pupation

36

ACTIVITY PATTERNS OF AEDES ALBOPICTUS & AEDES VITTATUS

appears to be almost constant. Thus the

present studies confirm the suggestion of

Nielson and Haeger (1954) and Nayar (1957)

that the time of adult emergence is predeter-

mined by the time of pupation which in turn

is not determined by the time of larval

moulting.

Refer

Christophers, S. R. (1960) : Aedes aegypti.

The yellow fever Mosquito. Cambridge Univer-

sity Press 739 pp.

Ccluzzi, M. (1972) : Inversion Polymorphism

and adult emergence in Anopheles stephensi. Science

N. T. 170 : 59-60.

Gilett, J. D. (1955): The inherited basis of

variation in the hatching response of Aedes eggs

(Diptera : Culicidae). Bull. Ent. Res., 46 : 255-265.

(1971) : Mosquitoes — Weiden-

field and Nicolson London.

Goma, L. K. H. (1959) : Periodic pupation in

Anopheles gambiae Giles. /. Ent. Soc. South Africa,

22 : 275-276.

Hacdow, A. L, Gillett, J. D., & Corbet, P. S.

(1959) : Laboratory observations on pupation and

emergence in the mosquito Aedes ( Stegomyia )

aegypti (Linnaeus). Ann. Trop. Med Parasit. 53 :

123-131.

Jones, M. D. R. & Reiter, P. (1975) : Entrain-

ment of the pupation and adult activity rhythms

during development in the mosquito Anopheles

gambiae. Nature, London 254 : 242-244.

Nayar, J. K. (1967) : The pupation rhythm in

Aedes taeniorhynchus II. Ontogenetic timing, rate

ACK NOWLEDGE M E NTS

Grateful thanks are due to the University

of Madras for providing the facilities, and

Mr. Md. Yacoob for assistance. The Junior

author is also grateful to the University Grants

Commission, Government of India for finan-

cial assistance.

ENCES

of development and endogeneous diurnal rhythm of

pupation. Ann. Ent. Soc. America. 60 : 846-871.

Nielson, E. T. & Haeger, J. S. (1954) : Pupation

and emergence in Ae. taeniorhynchus. Bull. Ent. Res.

45 : 757-768.

& E’ans, D. G. (1960) : Duration

of pupal stage of Ac. taeniorhynchus with a dis-

cussion of the velocity of development as a func-

tion of temperature. Oikos. II : 200-222.

Provost. M. W.. & Lum, P. T. M. (1967) : The

pupation rhythm in Aedes taeniorhynchus I-Intro-

duction. Ann. Ent. Soc. America. 60: 138-149.

Reiter. P. & Jones M. D. R. (1975) : An eclo-

sion timing mechanism in the mosquito Anopheles

gambiae. J. Ent. (A). 50 (3) : 161-168.

Sen. P. (1935): Observations on the emergence

of anophelines. Rec. Malar. Survey, India 5 : 161-

171.

Service, M. W. (1970): Studies on the biology

and taxonomy of Aedes (Stegomyia) vittatus (Bigot)

(Diptera: Culicidae) in Northern Nigeria. Trans.

R. Ent. See. Lond. 122 (4) 101-143.

Qutcbldoin. M. (1954) : The emergence and

sex ratio of Culex fatigans in laboratory experi

ments. Bull. Ent. Res. 43 : 549.

37

INSECTIVORY BY GREY LANGURS

ii

1

at

(c

A

Jim Moore1 2

Si

During a field study of langur all-male bands. I observed 5 episodes of active insect

predation, whereas previous langur watchers have reported only occasional instances

of langurs feeding on non-mobile prey (insect pupae, bird eggs, etc.). If this difference

is real, it may represent a sex difference in food needs or it may be a reflection of

restriction of male bands to “suboptimal” habitats. Data on these observations is

presented, together with a discussion of incidental insectivory in the course of eating

figs. I conclude that insect-eating by langurs is best explained by an energy/nutrient

maximization model, rather than as a consequence of any special characteristic of

meat itself.

Introduction

Despite numerous field studies, there are

very few reports of “meat” eating by grey

langurs ( Presbytis entellus) (Roonwal &

Mohnot 1977). On one occasion, Yoshiba

(1968) saw langurs at Dharwar feeding on

caterpillars, and they infrequently fed on insect

galls from the leaves of Terminalia foment osa.

While surveying the langurs of the Gir Forest,

Rahaman (1973) observed one case of langurs

eating bird eggs, and states that they ate pupae

found on leaves. In addition, Hladik (1977a)

has pointed out that P. entellus undoubtedly

ingests a number of insects while feeding on

figs, although he apparently does not consider

them a significant part of the diet.

During a long term study of langur all-male

bands (AMBs) in Rajasthan, I observed seve-

ral cases of deliberate predation on insects.

These are presented below along with some

information on the possible dietary significance

of insects to the langurs studied.

1 Accepted May 1982.

2 Anthropology Dept., Harvard University, Cam-

bridge, MA. U.S.A., 02138.

Methods

This paper is based on approximately 950

hours of observation on langur male bands at

Mt. Abu and Ranthambhore Tiger Sanctuary,

both in Rajasthan, India. Groups at Mt. Abu

were studied from September 1979 to April

1980, and at Ranthambhore from mid- April to

mid- June 1980. The langurs were habituated

to observers and all observations were made

on foot at distances of 3 to 20 metres from

the animals. The langurs’ behaviour was re-

corded using focal, scan, and extensive ad lib.

sampling; most of the insect predations obser-

ved occurred during ad lib. sampling periods.

Mt Abu is the highest point between the

Himalayas and the Nilgiris, and consequently

enjoys greater and more evenly distributed

rainfall than the surrounding semi-desert

(Mehta 1979). The langurs studied live on

the edge of the town of Mt Abu and in the

surrounding Forest Reserve; the habitat here

is primarily subtropical evergreen forest (Jain

1967). Ranthambhore lies in the low hills of

the northern Aravallis and the habitat is highly

seasonal, with almost 90% of the annual rain

falling during July through September (Khullar.

38

INSECTIVORY BY GREY LANGURS

n. d.; compare to c 50% for the same period

at Mt Abu, from Mehta 1979 Fig. 2). The

forest at Ranthambhore is dry deciduous

Anogeissus pendula and Acacia catechu, with

scattered evergreens near waterholes and in the

seasonal nullahs (Mathur 1979).

Cases of insect-eating

Grasshoppers (Abu)

Note. I did not obtain any specimens. At

least two distinct types were taken — a bright

green, large-winged one, and a stockier brown

one with reddish markings on the leg joints.

All individuals chased or eaten were large,

more than 2 inches long (despite the presence

of many smaller ones).

1) Oct. 23, 1979. All ad lib.; rainy day.

1354 PT (small juvenile male) pounces on a

large green grasshopper, jumping about

50 cm from a resting position in a Ficus

religiosa tree. He grabs it, holds it in

both hands by the back and with some

hesitation over the legs he eats the

whole insect. It is about 3 inches long

and takes him about 1 minute to eat.

2) Oct. 29, 1979. Ad lib.

0832 MS (large infant male) chases a grass-

hopper; it escapes.

D2 (large juvenile male) and then FR

(adult male), each cuing on the actions

of the preceding monkey, watch the

insect’s flight and try to catch it as it

lands; both miss. FR came jogging from

about 10 m away. In all three cases

the grasshopper took wing before the

monkey got within 1 m.

3) Nov. 24, 1979. Ad lib.

1558 Large grasshopper lands about one-half

metre from PT; he tenses, pounces and

misses and it flies away.

4) Dec. 2. 1979. During focal observations

on EA, a large juvenile male. Observa-

tions began at 1603; EA feed /forage on

leaves for the first 12 minutes

1615 EA resting, eyes open, scratches. 1615:

58 he suddenly grabs a large brown

grasshopper and immediately begins

eating, starting with the abdomen. He

continues chewing until 1618:30, finish-

ing the entire insect.

1619 EA begins eating a stalk of Euphorbia

sp., continues eating it until 1622.

1621 A large grasshopper flies past and EA

watches it, conspicuously orienting to-

ward it. It lands near by and PT jumps

at it but misses. Note — PT had watch-

ed EA eat his.

1624 EA jumps at another grasshopper, but

misses.

1627 JH (young adult male) tries for one

but misses; Note — I do not know if

JH was in sight when EA ate his.

1636 MS (large infant male) tries for and

misses another (same?) grasshopper.

Termites (Ranthambhore)

5) June 26, 1980. The morning after the first

heavy rain of the monsoon. Termite alates

are out in force, and it seems like more than

one nest — certainly more than one exit.

Specimens of the alates were later identified

by M. L. Roonwal as Odontotermes flavoma-

culatus. Observations began before 0600; the

monkeys spent the first 30 minutes of the day

feeding on ripe fruit of Diospyros melanoxylon.

I am with 6 young adult males of the “DS”

band.

0638 MR vigilant, scratches; then grabs and

eats a termite from the ground. He

then takes several flying ones and appa-

rently begins to try to trace them to

the nest exit. Neither he nor I succeed,

but he continues to eat them, preferring

flying ones.

39

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

0641 MR feeds briefly on young Anogeissus

pendula leaves, then resumes feeding on

termites.

0643 MR continues feeding; note that his

nearest neighbour is more than 25 m

away.

0644 RS comes near enough that he must be

aware of the termites, but shows no

reaction to them. MR slows down his

feeding.

0647 RS starts to feed on the termites, and

several others have by now arrived and

they join in.

Up to now. it seems that none of the mon-

keys have eaten more than about 15-30

termites; MR was eating about 5/minute at

most for just over 6 minutes and he did not

seem especially interested in them (i.e., he

did not eat as many as were readily avail-

able).

0700 We come across more termites as the

group works its way along a nullah.

Most of the 6 feed on them, preferring J

flying ones. Feeding is more intensive, 1

and I estimate they eat about 50/indi-

vidual. MR and RS are the most active,

and MR (the alpha in this group) dis-

places RS to take a flying termite.

It is probably unrelated but worth noting

that this male group initiated a takeover

attempt and successfully seized a nearby bi-

sexual troop at about 0945 this morning.

Cecidomyiid fly larvae (Abu)

6) Nov. 14, 1979. At 1608, the old male

Harelip moved into a backyard garden and

began eating unripe Ficus ( pal mat a ?) at an

unusually fast rate, feeding continuously for

17 minutes. Unripe figs were rarely eaten by

Table 1

1 Where available; this fig is found primarily in cultivated areas at Abu.

2 The actual weight consumed depends on when the fig is eaten (see text). Among Agaonid

wasps, lOf: lm sex ratios are standard (see Hamilton 1967); following emergence of the

alate females the wasp biomass/fig is reduced by a factor of about 10.

3 Based primarily on measurements for other species in other locations, approximations only.

4 Value for Locusta migratoides. International Institute, for African Languages and Culture 1937.

5 Value for “caterpillars7’, Hladik 1977b.

0 Value for the ant Macrorniscoides aculeatus, Hladik 1977b.

7 Value for Odontortermes assmuthi, Basalingappa 1970.

s Value for unid. African termite alates. Tihon 1946 (cited in Wood and Sands 1978).

40

IN SECT IVORY BY GREY LANGURS

these langurs and so I examined some of them;

11 of 17 contained massive infestations of

maggots. These were later identified by N.

Woodley as being cecidomyiids (Diptera).

Dietary significance

Samples of termite alates (in formalin), fig

maggots and fig wasps (both in alcohol) were

taken and later weighed after freeze-drying to

constant weight. These dry weights are given

in Table 1, together with the estimated total

intake (dry weight) of each insect type by the

monkeys. The langurs ate grasshoppers, mag-

gots and termites very rarely and these cer-

tainly had a negligible energetic impact on the

monkeys. The estimated calorific value for

termites is about 31.3 kJ/g (dry weight)

(Wood & Sands 1978); thus the Ranthambhore

males obtained approximately 22 kcal each

from their morning's excursion into predation

— - less than 3% of their daily energy require-

ment (based on Parra 1978, T. 10).

Fig wasps (mostly symbiotic Agaonidae, with

some parasitic species also) are the only in-

sects that were regularly consumed by the

langurs. Are the monkeys deliberately eating

them? It is hard to measure selection for wasp

containing figs directly, since only figs not

eaten are available for examination. It is pos-

sible to gather indirect evidence, though, by

comparing the proportion of wasp-containing

figs on branches where langurs have fed to

that on branches that have not been fed upon.

When the wasps mature, they burrow

through the wall of the syconium and the alates

(which make up the greater part of the wasp

biomass) leave the fig (see Wiebes 1976. 1979).

The hole left by the wasps is easy to see and

its presence or absence is a good indicator

of presence /absence of significant numbers of

alate wasps in the fig ( personal observation).

About 809c of the figs eaten by the “CB”

band at Abu were of Ficus ( virensl ). I exa-

mined figs from three areas of a single F.

{virensl) after the “CB” group had finished

feeding in the tree, on their first visit to it

during that fruiting period. The three areas

were:

1) a patch skipped over by CT, an adult, as

he foraged (no other langurs entered it

that morning);

2) a patch in which CT fed for several

minutes before shifting to another feed-

ing site; and

3) a patch near where the alpha male, FR,

had fed; because other males avoided

feeding near FR, this patch hopefully re-

presents the baseline, unforaged distribu-

tion of figs.

Three or more separate stems were examined

from each area, and figs were scored for

presence /absence of a hole near the ostiole

and for being hard or soft to the touch (soft

figs are “ripe”, i.e. come easily from the stem

and do not drip latex sap when plucked; F.

( virensl ) figs did not change colour notice-

ably as they matured).

The results are presented in Table 2, and

suggest that these langurs were choosing ripe

figs, not wasp-containing ones. Since all ripe

figs examined had wasp emergence holes, pre-

ference for ripe figs means the monkeys are

actually consuming much less wasp than in-

dicated in Table 1. Evidently avoidance of

Table 2

Fig choice

NOTE: "Hole"’ = wasps emerged; “No hole” =

wasps contained; "Hard” = unripe (latex

present); “Soft" = ripe (latex absent).

41

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

secondary compounds in the latex sap and/or

selection for increased sugars associated with

ripeness (Janzen 1979) is more important to

the langurs than is the animal protein available

from the wasps. It is interesting to note that

this balance was evidently tipped the other

way in Case 6, in which Harelip fed exten-

sively on unripe Ficus ( palmatal ) infested with

cecidomyiid fly maggots. In that case, the

average fig contained approximately 0.03 g dry

weight of insect (60% infested x 0.042 g/in-

fested fig), versus 0.007 g dry weight/fig of

fig wasps. The fourfold increase in available

insect matter per fig seems to have made coping

with the latex worthwhile. (It is possible, of

course, that chemical differences between the

different Ficus species and/or differing nutri-

tional states of the langurs were also involved).

Discussion

Although langurs have been studied at

numerous locations in India, Nepal and Sri

Lanka, predation on large, active insects such

as grasshoppers and termite alates has not been

previously reported. During this research, such

predation was observed at two ecologically

distinct sites. Though the total number of cases

is small, it is interesting to speculate that this

higher incidence is a real phenomenon, related

to the fact that I was following all-male bands

while previous workers have focussed almost

exclusively on bisexual troops (see Hrdy 1977,

Bishop 1979, Roonwal & Mohnot 1977). This

suggests two possible explanations. The first

is that males need meat /insects more than do

females (cf. Hausfater 1976), and since bi-

sexual troops are predominantly female the

occasional cases of insect predation by troop

males simply have been missed However,

growing juvenile males may be even more

prone to insectivorv than adults (Aldrich-

Blake 1980, p. 163), and both successful grass-

hopper predations observed during this study

were by juveniles. If studies of bisexual troops

have been observationally biased against juve-

nile males, the higher frequency I observed

could be due to sampling bias. In this case,

we may conclude that there really is a sex

difference in insectivory for this species. The

second, and perhaps more interesting, alter-

native comes from the observation that AMBs

are actively excluded from optimal foraging

areas by the bisexual troops (Sugiyama et al.

1965, personal observation). It is possible that

AMBs in these “suboptimal” areas are com-

pensating for the absence of some nutrient

readily available to the bisexual troops by an

increased intake of insect prey. I consider this

second explanation more complex and so less

likely; more studies of feeding by males in

both bisexual troops and AMBs are needed

to resolve the question.

After this paper was submitted, R. S. Pirta

very kindly provided me with his unpublished

observations of female P. entellus feeding on

unidentified caterpillars and occasionally hunt-

ing for and eating grasshoppers at Khandagiri

(Orissa). It may be that insect predation by

females has been under-reported in the litera-

ture; alternatively, Khandagiri may be sub-

optimal langur habitat (R. S. Pirta, personal

communication). More fieldwork is clearly

needed.

An interesting feature of several of the

grasshopper hunting episodes is that following

a first apparently spontaneous attempt by one

individual, several other males began actively

hunting. These clusters of hunting events

could not be explained by spatial or temporal

variations in grasshopper density or behaviour.

The pattern is very similar to that described

for chimpanzees preying on vertebrates —

after weeks or months with no hunts, a success-

42

IN SECT IVORY BY GREY LANGURS

ful kill would initiate a period of active hunt-

ing that would then wane over a period of

weeks (van Lawick-Goodall 1971). Among

male langurs, the active period is compressed

from weeks to minutes, but in both cases it

implies a social as well as nutritional compo-

nent to the hunt.

Finally, the obvious question: why do these

langurs prey on insects? Three general hypo-

theses have been suggested to explain meat

and insect eating in otherwise herbivorous

primates (see Hamilton & Busse 1978).

Micronutrients. Hausfater (1976) specu-

lates that Amboseli baboons may be eating

meat in order to obtain vitamin B12, an essen-

tial vitamin not available from most plant

foods. While this idea may be applicable to

baboons and other cercopithecines, colobines

seem to be able to utilize vitamin B12 pro-

duced by bacteria in their specialized stomachs

(Oxnard 1966). Some micronutrient other than

B12 may be critical for colobines; to my

knowledge none has been suggested, and this

hypothesis can be tentatively rejected.

High-quality protein. Because animal

protein is both more digestible and a more

balanced source of amino acids for primates,

it has been suggested that meat-eating provides

individuals with necessary high-quality protein

(Dart 1963, cited in Hamilton & Busse 1978).

Given the small quantity of insects normally

consumed in figs and the rarity of deliberate

insect predation by langurs (and its absence

in females?), high-quality protein cannot be

a requirement for these monkeys. It may how-

ever be a better-than-average protein source;

see below.

Energy /Nutrient maximization. Animals

should, in theory, attempt to maximize their

net intake of energy and optimize intake of

essential nutrients (Schoener 1971). Predation

usually involves high costs (e.g. searching,

chasing) for high benefits (animal matter is

high in energy and nutrients) (Gaulin & Kur-

land 1976). Most reported langur insectivory

has been on slow-moving (maggots, cater-

pillars, pupae) or superabundant (termite

alates) prey. Only two out of ten attempts at

grasshoppers were successful, and both were

by resting monkeys who opportunistically seiz-

ed the insect. Together with the sporadic

occurrence of langur insect-eating, these obser-

vations support the energy/nutrient hypothesis.

Animal matter is not necessary for langurs,

but does represent an acceptable, and perhaps

favoured, alternative food when it is easily

obtained. Whether or not this conclusion can

be applied to non-colobines depends on more

detailed testing of the competing hypotheses.

Acknowledgements

I thank S. Bacchus, M. L. Roonwal, B.

Thorne and N. Woodley for very generously

taking the time to identify the termites and

maggots, and Terry Deacon for his invaluable

help in the lab. Sarah and Dan Hrdy, S. M.

Mohnot, Sylvia Howe, and Fateh Singh

Rathore all provided advice and encourage-

ment during fieldwork, for which I am grate-

ful; T also thank S. D. Misra. P. Mehendiratta,

K. Sankhala and the Government of India for

making this work possible. This research was

supported by NSF grant BNS-7908267 to D.

B. Hrdy and NSF Doctoral Dissertation Im-

provement grant BNS-7923014.

43

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

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macaques, pp. 147-166 in D. J. Chivers (ed.) Mala-

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Basalingappa, S. (1970) : The differential occur-

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Physiol. 17: 105-110.

Bishop. N. (1979): Himalayan langurs: tempe-

rate colobines. J. Hum. Evol. 8: 251-281.

Dart, R. A. (1963): The Carnivorous propensity

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Gaulin, S. J. C. & Kurland, J. A. (1976): Pri-

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Hamilton, W. D. (1967): Extraordinary sex

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Hamilton, W. J. Ill & Busse, C. D. (1978): Pri-

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Hausfater, G. (1976): Predatory' behaviour of

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leaf monkeys: Presbvtis senex and Prcsbytis entellus.

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(1977b): Chimpanzees of Gabon

and chimpanzees of Gombe: Some comparative data

on the diet. pp. 481-501 in T. H. Clutton-Brock

(ed.). Primate Ecology. London. Academic Press.

Hrdy. S. B. (1977): The langurs of Abu. Cam-

bridge. Harvard University Press.

International Institute of African Languages

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India 9: 68-78.

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Khullar. N. K. (n. d.) : Working plan of Tonk

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sperms). Ph. D. dissertation. Jodhpur University.

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bay nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 294-314.

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D. (1965): Home range, mating season, male group

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bytis entellus). Primates 6: 73-106.

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point de vue alimentaire. Bull. Agricole du Congo

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van Lawick-Goodall. J. (1971): In the Shadow

of Man. Boston. Houghton-Mifflin.

Wiebes, J. T. (1976): A short history of fig wasp

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(1979): Co-evolution of figs and

their insect pollinators. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 10:

1-12.

Wood, T. G. & Sands, W. A. (1978): The role

of termites in ecosystems, pp. 245-292 in M. V.

Brian (ed.). Production ecology of ants and ter-

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Yoshiba, K. (1968): Local and intertroop varia-

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York. Holt. Rinehart and Winston.

44

ECOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN

MISTLETOES AND THEIR AVIAN POLLINATORS IN

SOUTH INDIA1 2

Priya Davidar-

{With two text-figures)

Seven species of mistletoes (Loranthaceae) in the Nilgiris were pollinated by four

species of birds, the flowerpecker, white-eye, small sunbird and the purple sunbird

species, belonging to three families (Dicaeidae, Nectariniidae and Zosteropidae).

Individual birds and the plants were mutually adapted to a degree that limited flexible

utilisation of other sources for nectar. Interference competition was more intra-

rather than interspecific. These data suggest that interspecific competition is not an

organising force in this system, unlike communities in the neotropics and in East

Africa. Independent coevolution between pollinators and the species of plants they

pollinate seems a more plausible alternative. I suggest that selection against hybridi-

sation as well as host and microhabitat preferences of the mistletoes might have been

important in determining these interactions

Introduction

Studies on tropical nectar feeding birds have

suggested that inter-specific competition for

nectar is responsible for the organisation of

bird communities (Colwell 1973, Feinsinger

1976, Gill and Wolf 1975, Wolf, Stiles and

Reed Hainsworth 1976). The foraging efficiency

of particular bird species and their relative

success at excluding less efficient bird species

from nectar sources is thought to form the

organising base for hummingbird communities

(Feinsinger 1976, Feinsinger and Colwell 1978,

Wolf, Stiles and Reed Hainsworth 1976), and

consequently considered to effect the pollina-

tion strategies of plants (Feinsinger 1976, Stiles

1975). This study examines the relationships

among seven species of montane mistletoes

(Loranthaceae) in the Nilgiris, southern India,

1 Accepted December 1983.

2 Department of Zoology, University of Iowa,

Iowa City, IA 52242, U.S.A.

over evolutionary time.

and four species of nectar feeding birds be-

longing to three families (Dicaeidae, Nectar-

iniidae and Zosteropidae). This system appears

to be similar in different regions in the Indian

subcontinent, although the mistletoes and

bird species that form the community

differ (Ali 1931, Kannan 1966, personal obser-

vation). This study investigates three aspects:

1) the birds’ food and habit preferences;

2) the mistletoes’ host preferences, floral

morphology, nectar secretion patterns and

pollination characteristics; 3) and finally the

foraging patterns, territoriality and dominance

interactions of birds at nectar sources, and the

effects of these aspects of bird behaviour on

flower pollination.

Study area

The study area, the Nilgiris, lies between

latitude 11° 12' and 11° 43' N and longitude

76° 14' and 77° 1' E. The Nilgiris is com-

posed of an upper plateau of average height

2000 m and a lower plateau of about 1000 m.

45

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

The study area included montane forests,

secondary vegetation and cultivated areas at

about 1800 m elevation on the eastern por-

tion of the upper plateau. The montane forest

is commonly known as a ‘shola’ and supports

a diversified tropical flora and fauna with

notable endemic and Indo-Malayan elements

(Champion and Seth 1968).

Climate

The monsoons play an important part in

the climate of this area. The effect of the

monsoons is modified by elevation and topo-

graphy (Lengerke 1977). The Nilgiris receives

rainfall from both the NE and SW monsoon

winds. There is a decrease in rainfall from

west to east. The Kundah range in the west

receives more than 5000 mm rainfall annually

on average, whereas some areas on the north-

eastern lower slopes receive less than 500 mm.

Dry months are January, February and March.

Methods and Materials

Four study sites were chosen. Transects

marked through the study sites were 250 m

long in Sims Park shola, 100 m long in

Wellington shola, 250 m long in the disturbed

habitat and 500 m long in the horticultural

park (Sims Park).

Four species of birds visited mistletoe flowers

for nectar : the plain coloured flowerpecker

( Dicaeum concolor Jerdon) of the Dicaeidae,

the small sunbird [Nectarinia minima (Sykes)],

the purple sunbird [Nectarinia asiatica (Lat-

ham)], both of the family Nectariniidae, and

the white-eye [ Zosterops palpebrosa (Tem-

minck)] of the family Zosteropidae.

The purple sunbird and the white-eye are

widely distributed in the Indian subcontinent.

The small sunbird and the local subspecies of

the plain coloured flowerpecker occur only in

the higher altitudes of the Western Ghats (Ali

and Ripley 1974).

Relative abundances of nectar feeding birds

were approximated by recording them about

5 m to the left and right of me while walking

through the transect at a particular hour (8

a. m. to 10.30 a.m.). These censuses were carri-

ed out once every two weeks. The birds were

recorded by species and sex. When recorded

by vocalisation alone, only the species was

noted. When sighted, the activity at the moment

of sighting was recorded. If feeding, the type

of food taken and feeding level in relation to

the surrounding vegetation was recorded. Birds

were captured in the sites in mist nets and

marked with colour bands on their tarsus for

future identification.

Ecology of the Plants

Seven species of mistletoes (Loranthaceae)

occur in the study area. They are Helixanthera

intermedia (Wt.) Danser, Taxillus recurvus

(DC.) van Tieghem, Taxillus cuneatus (Roth)

Danser, Dendrophthoe neelgherrensis (Wt. &

Arn.) van Tieghem, Dendrophthoe memecyli-

folia (Wt. & Arn.) Danser, Dendrophthoe fal-

cata (Linn, f.) Etting and Macrosolen parasi-

ticus (Linn.) Danser. Two species Taxillus

recurvus and Dendrophthoe memecylifolia are

endemic to the Nilgiris. Dendrophthoe falcata

is widely distributed in the Indian subconti-

nent. The other four species are distributed in

the higher altitudes of the Western Ghats and

a few occur in Sri Lanka as well (Hooker

1890, Fyson 1932, Gamble and Fischer 1967).

General observations were made on host

plant preferences of mistletoes in different

habitats. All mistletoe plants in the study sites

were recorded and tagged. The number of

flowers produced by these plants were record-

ed once every two weeks. Individual flowers

are open for 2 days. In species where the

flowers were produced in compact masses,

about 1 sq. m. of ground under the plant was

46

ECOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN MISTLETOES & AVIAN POLLINATORS

cleared of all debris, and the numbers of fallen

flowers, corolla tubes, buds, epicarps and fruits

were recorded 24 hours later. In species where

flowers were produced in diffuse masses, the

number of flowering inflorescences was count-

ed. Flowering times of two species — Taxillus

recurvus and Macrosolen parasiticus — were

recorded from observations elsewhere or in

adjacent areas.

Nectar secretion patterns were recorded by

enclosing flowers in mosquito mesh bags and

measuring the accumulated nectar. The flowers

were re-enclosed and the nectar re-measured

at hourly intervals. This measurement was

started in the morning and continued for the

rest of the day. A syringe graduated to 0 . 1

ml was used. Due to the imprecision of the

method only relative values could be obtained.

In species where the bud does not open with-

out external manipulation the nectar was mea-

sured in manually opened flowers, the flowers

were re-enclosed and the nectar was measured

thereafter at hourly intervals.

Observations were made on individual plants

of each species to determine the number and

species of birds visiting flowers for nectar. The

number of flowers visited per foraging bout,

and the revisitation rates of individual birds

to the same plant were recorded. Behavioural

interactions between birds at flowering mistle-

toe plants were recorded.

To determine the importance of birds in

pollinating the flowers, some experiments on

seed set with and without birds were carried

out. Species were tested for autogamy by

enclosing inflorescences in mosquito netting to

exclude birds and insects. Fruit set was noted.

Chicken wire mesh bags were also used to ex-

clude birds but not insects and fruit set was

noted. Fruit set in open pollinated flowers was

recorded.

Results and Discussion

Morphology and Distribution of the Birds

The white eye is the heaviest species, fol-

lowed by the purple sunbird, the flowerpecker

and the small sunbird (Table 1). The sunbirds

(Nectariniidae) with long slender bills (Figure

1), tubular extensile tongues, appear to have

more highly developed morphological adapta-

tions for a nectar diet than the flowerpecker

(Dicaeidae) which has a semi-tubular tongue

Dicaeum

concolor

Nectarinia

minima

Nectarinia

asiatica

Zosterops

palpebrosa

Fig. 1. Bill morphology of the birds.

47

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 82

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ECOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN MISTLETOES & AVIAN POLLINATORS

and a short slender bill, and the white-eye

(Zosteropidae) which has a semi-tubular brush

tipped tongue (Kannan 1966).

Relative abundances and food preferences

The abundances of the birds were different in

the different study sites. In the shclas the most

abundant species was the white-eye followed by

the small sunbird. There were fewer flower-

peckers. No purple sunbirds were recorded

from the sholas (Table 1). The small sunbirds

were most abundant in the secondary vegeta-

tion followed by the white-eye, flowerpecker

and the purple sunbird. The small sunbird

migrated to lower elevations from November to

April and was not found in the study sites

during that period. The most abundant species

in the sholas, the small sunbirds and the white-

eyes, were also the most insectivorous (Table

2) . The flowerpecker feeds on fruits, with nectar

and insects being less important (Table 2).

Observations suggest that mistletoe fruits and

nectar are an important part of its diet and

that it is closely tied in with the flowering and

fruiting phases of the mistletoes. A possible

explanation for their lower abundance is their

dependence on a limited food resource. The

small sunbirds and the white-eyes commonly

foraged in single or mixed species flocks

( personal observation), unlike the other two

species.

The plants

Distribution and host preferences

H. intermedia and D. memecylifolia are

found in the sholas on a few tree species. The

rest of the mistletoes are found on a wider

range of hosts (Table 3).

Flowers

Corolla length in the seven species varied

between the longest ( Dendrophthoe falcata:

= 35.5 mm), and the shortest ( Taxillus re-

curvus : x= 10.5 mm) (Table 4). The anthers

are introrse and placed at the rim of the corolla

tube in all species. Two different types of

Table 3

Host preferences

Seven native species, and one exotic.

Four native species.

Thirteen native species and eight exotics.

Eighteen native species and nine exotics.

Thirty seven native species and fourteen exotics.

Six native species and four exotics.

Thirteen native species and five exotics.

from Davidar 1980.

49

4

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 82

Table 4

Flower characteristics and preferences by pollinators

Species of Length of Colour of Visits/hour/clump Remarks

Plant corolla corolla Dc Nm N1 Na Zp

Dc Dicaeum concolor Na — Nectarinia asiatica

Nm — Nectarinia minima Zp — Zosterops palpebrosa

N1 — Nectarinia lotenia

flowers are produced. Certain species have

flowers that open naturally, whereas other

species have flowers that require external

pressure to open (Table 4). These types

of flowers have been termed ‘exploding’

flowers (Kannan 1966) and are characteristic

of many Old World mistletoes (Keeble 1901,

Docters van Leeuwen 1954, Gill and Wolf

1975b, Davidar 1983). The buds can be divid-

ed into a distinct base, neck, and apex (Kannan

1966). Mature buds have either slits at the

region of the neck or the apex becomes swollen

and turgid (Figure 2a & b). Birds use their

bills to open the flowers by either pinching

the apex or zipping it open along the slit

(Davidar 1983, Kannan 1966). ‘Exploding’

flowers are characteristic of T. recurvus, T.

cuneatus, D. neelgherrensis, D. falcata and M.

parasiticus. Spontaneously opening flowers were

produced by H. intermedia and D. memecyli-

folia (Table 4).

The flowers are either brightly coloured in

some shade of red ( H . intermedia, D. meme-

cylifoiia, D. falcata and M. parasiticus) or

ECOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN MISTLETOES & AVIAN POLLINATORS

mdro PHfno£ wenecyufOLi/i

Fig. 2a. Flowering mistletoes.

51

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Helixanthera INTERMEDIA

Macrosoiem pa>as<'ii6as

Fig. 2a. (contd.)

ECOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN MISTLETOES & AVIAN POLLINATORS

Helixanthera Dendrophthoe

intermedia meraecylifolia

Taxillus

recurvus

neelgherrensis

fairly cryptic and inconspicuously coloured (T.

recurvus, T. cuneatus and D. neelgherrensis )

(Table 4).

Flowering and nectar phenology

The data on flowering phenology gives the

length and seasonality of flowering but not

the numbers of flowers produced. Three diffe-

rent patterns can be recognised when flower-

ing is considered together with the fruiting

phenology (Davidar 1983). In certain species

the flowering is temporally separated from the

fruiting phase. In others the flowering and

fruiting phases run into each other, and in the

third pattern, the fruits start ripening at the

start of the next flowering season (Davidar

1983).

D. metnecylifolia and H. intermedia reple-

nish nectar on depletion on the first day of

flowering (Table 5). In T. recurvus and D.

neelgherrensis, the nectar is not replenished on

depletion (Table 5). There are intermediates

Taxillus

cuneatus

tlacrosolen

parasiticus

Fig. 2b. Opened flowers and closed buds of the

mistletoe species.

Table 5

Nectar secretion pattern

(in relative amounts; x roughly = 0.2 yul)

* from Davidar (1983).

between these two categories like T. cuneatus,

D. falcata and M. parasiticus (Table 5). Gene-

rally, species that replenish nectar on depletion

produce spontaneously opening brightly colour-

ed flowers, whereas the species in the ‘explod-

ing’ flowers generally do not replenish nectar

on depletion and have fruiting and flowering

times that are tied together.

53

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Foraging behaviour of Birds

Flower Preferences

The birds have marked flower preferences

(Table 4). The small sunbirds visit the open

flowered H. intermedia and D. memecylifolia.

( H . intermedia is visited by other sunbird

species at lower elevations.) The closed flower-

ed T. recurvus and D. neelgherrensis are visited

by the flowerpecker and the white-eye. The

small sunbird, flowerpecker and white-eye visit

T. cuneatus and D. falcata. Both species of

sunbirds and the white-eye visit M. parasiticus.

This is the only mistletoe species in the area

that is visited by the purple sunbird. Flower-

peckers preferentially visit closed flowers and

do not visit flowers once they are opened,

whereas the sunbirds preferentially visit flowers

which have opened in all species they pollinate.

The white-eyes opportunistically visit both

types of flowers (Davidar 1983).

Territoriality

The birds showed different degrees of terri-

toriality and site specificity. Banding data in-

dicate that the small sunbirds were the most

site specific. Seventeen small sunbirds were

colourbanded and two were subsequently

observed defending flowering mistletoes. Indi-

vidual male birds were also recognised by their

distinctive moult patterns. From May until

October the male birds moult from breeding

to eclipse plumage, and individual moult pat-

terns are distinctive. Twelve different males

defended mistletoe flowers over the flowering

season of H. intermedia and D. memecylifolia.

One male small sunbird (Z-20072) was record-

ed defending the same M. parasiticus plants c

for three consecutive years. ••=

The white-eyes appear to be least site speci- °

fic. The eleven individuals that were colour

banded were not sighted subsequently. Flower-

peckers were impossible to capture in misi

nets, and so there is no banding record or.

individuals. However, flowerpeckers seem fair-

ly site specific since individuals or pairs ol

birds are found in a particular area over a

long period of time, and foraging birds can be

followed by their loud and distinctive voca-

lisations. However, flowerpeckers usually

forage over a wider area than small sunbirds,

and territories seem to be maintained over a

longer period of time (pers. observation).

The small sunbirds and flowerpeckers active-

ly defend mistletoes against other nectar feed-

ing birds. Advertisement appears to be more

important in territorial defence than direct

aggression. The territorial birds use call notes

constantly, whereas intruding birds do not.

However, if the territorial bird found an in-

truder on a plant, it was chased off. In inter-

specific conflicts the hierarchic pattern was not .

constant. Conflicts between bird species were ;

minimised by flower specialisation. The white-

eye was chased off from plants by sunbirds

and flowerpeckers (Table 6) even though it

was larger (Table 1). The purple sunbird did

not actively defend mistletoes, though it did

Table 6

Dominance interactions

Loser

54

Birds-foracing pattern

ECOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN MISTLETOES & AVIAN POLLINATORS

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displace the smaller territorial species from

flowers. However, intraspecific conflicts appear

to be more common. In the small sunbird,

the males seemed dominant over the females.

In other species this was not clear (Table 6).

It also appeared that the birds were defending

a particular site rather than specific plants as

bird intruders were always chased off from the

territory even when visiting plants that the

territorial bird did not feed from ( personal

observation) .

Only a few small sunbird males acquired

territories. In luly 1976 only two out of seven

males in Wellington shola defended territories.

In May 1976, there were no territorial birds

of the six recorded in Sims Park Reserve.

Three out of 25 in Sims Park garden were ter-

ritorial. A large population of small sunbirds,

non-territorial males, females and juveniles

were found in the shola forests. They frequent-

ly visited flowers as intruders in already esta-

blished territories. They commonly foraged in

mixed or single species flocks in the shola.

Usually one or two flowerpeckers were found

around mistletoes, often foraged and defended

mistletoes together. Therefore it is conjectured

that these were pairs which defended terri-

tories together.

Pollination of the flowers

Movement of pollen

The small sunbirds have similar flower visi-

tation patterns in different areas. The bird

stayed on the plant for an average of 34

seconds, and visited a mean of 10 flowers

(Table 7). The bird spends a shorter time at

H. intermedia than at D. memecylifolia plants.

It usually visits all the flowers on an indivi-

55

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

dual D. memecylifolia, and about one-third of

the flowers on an individual H. intermedia.

The small sunbird visits approximately one-

fourth of the flowers on a T. cuneatus plant

during peak flowering time (Table 7). The

flowerpecker spends a mean of 14 minutes on

a T. recurvus and visits all the available

mature buds. Opened flowers are not revisited

(Davidar 1983). While the foraging pattern

of the flowerpecker at T. cuneatus plants is

similar to that at T. recurvus, it spends less

time at D. neelgherrensis and visits approxi-

mately half the available flowers. The white-eye

visits T. cuneatus infrequently and D. neelgher-

rensis approximately four times an hour, often-

er than does the flowerpecker. M. parasiticus

was visited by both species of sunbird and the

white-eye. The small sunbird and white-eye

* n indicates the number of experiments.

**n indicates the number of inflorescences.

foraged as in other species. The purple sunbird

was an infrequent visitor (Table 7).

Speculation on the type of pollination that

is taking place within plants based on forager

visitation patterns indicates that in species with

specific territorial pollinators like the small

sunbird with H. intermedia and D. memecyli-

folia, most of the pollinations will be geitono-

gamous with pollen being transferred from one

flower to its neighbour on the same plant. Out-

crossing will occur only if there are a few

flowers on a plant and most of the pollen

deposited will be from outside sources. In the

flowerpecker system there is a chance for

greater outcrossing as two species of pollina-

tors are involved, one of which is not a fre-

quent visitor to flowers. However here again

data indicate that each flower of T. recurvus

Table 8

Percentage fruit set {%)

56

ECOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN MISTLETOES & AVIAN POLLINATORS

and D. neelgherrensis is visited only once by

the flowerpecker and the white-eye (Davidar

1983). These birds rarely visit opened flowers.

Thus there is the risk of flowers not getting

adequate amounts of pollen.

Another problem that could be encountered

in these systems is the clogging of stigmas

with pollen from a different species, as both

the flowerpecker and the small sunbird terri-

tories contain two species of mistletoes flower-

ing at the same time. However in both systems

one of the species has a longer corolla tube

and correspondingly longer styles and anthers,

hence the pollen might not be deposited on

the same place on the pollinator. D. neelgher-

rensis has similar-sized flowers as T. recurvus,

but flowers at a different time of the year.

Seed set and Autogamy

In most species with ‘exploding flowers’ the

buds did not open without avian assistance.

The only exception to this was M. parasiticus.

Without avian intervention the buds dried up

unopened (Table 8). In species with exploding

buds no fruit set occurred if the flower did not

open. However in D. neelgherrensis and M.

parasiticus occasionally a few fruits were set

in unopened buds. H. intermedia seems to be

pollinated partially by insects, as H. hooke-

riana, a related species. The other species

appear to be mostly bird pollinated (Table 8).

Autogamy is infrequent in T. recurvus, T.

cuneatus, D. memecylifolia and D. falcata

(Tabic 8). It is more frequent in D neelgher-

rensis and M. parasiticus.

Conclusions

This study indicates that the individual in-

teractions between the bird species and the

plant are more important than community level

interactions. The aggressive interactions bet-

ween birds show that intraspecific conflicts

are commoner than interspecific conflicts. In

conclusion, interspecific competition and the

relative foraging behaviours of the different

species of birds are not important in organis-

ing this system although might have been im-

portant over evolutionary time. Rather, it

appears as though there has been a long period

of coevolution between mistletoes and their

particular bird pollinators. The ecology and

behaviour of each bird species, specially the

small sunbird and the flowerpecker, appears

to be closely tied in with the biology of the

mistletoes. This appears to be different from

hummingbird communities in early successional

habitats and in mature forests in the neotro-

pics. In the successional community, Fein-

singer (1976) found that short-billed generalist

hummingbirds were organised along a re-

source gradient and interference competition

played an important role in determining the

patterns. Often one pivotal species modified all

other species patterns. Whereas in the mature

forests there was a dichotomy between long-

billed hummingbirds, the hermits, and short-

billed hummingbirds. The non-hermits are

limited by corolla length, and behaved more

like hummingbirds in early successional com-

munities. whereas the hermits although not

limited to flowers by bill length, are non-terri-

torial and active interference competition was

rare. The hermits were specialised on flowers

with long corolla tubes and seem to be most

coevolved with the flowers (Stiles 1975). In

East Africa there is a dichotomy between bird

visitation to open and closed flowers, with the

more dominant and efficient sunbirds taking

more closed flowers (Gill and Wolf 1975),

and the rest of the species falling into a

hierarchy. Both these systems are organised by

interspecific competition for nectar.

Tn the south Indian system, there is no

57

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

dichotomy between the long-billed and short-

billed birds. The one long-billed species, the

purple sunbird was an inconsistent visitor to

Macrosolen parasiticus, and did not exclude

other birds from flowering plants. (It occurred

in such few numbers that it might be a recent

colonist to the area.) It did not visit any of

the flowers with short corolla tubes. It did not

even visit Dendrophthoe falcata the long

corolla. The other two main pollinators — the

small sunbird and the white-eye visited diffe-

rent species of mistletoes with short corollas.

Although the sunbird preferentially visited

open flowers, it did not visit any of the open

flowers in the flowerpecker pollinated species

like T. recurvus and D. neelgherrensis. Reci-

procally the flowerpecker rarely visited flowers

of H. intermedia and D. memecylifolia, even

though these birds often perched on flowering

plants of these species ( personal observation) .

Thus the dichotomy here is between ‘explod-

ing’ and ‘non-exploding’ flowers. The different

flower preferences of the birds seem to be

maintained by colour and nectar secretion pat-

terns (Stiles 1976). Flowers pollinated by the

flowerpecker were inconspicuously coloured

and nectar was produced in the mature bud,

and often not replenished, whereas flowers

visited by the small sunbird were brightly

coloured and nectar was secreted continuously

in the first day. Patterns intermediate between

these were also noted.

This suggests that this system is a result of

the different evolutionary and phylogenetic his-

tories of the bird species. The birds have

remarkably different behaviours, and these are

to an extent characteristic of their respective

families. These behaviours have been impor-

tant in selecting for the characteristics of the

plants they pollinate. The sunbirds are more

nectarivorous than the other two species. The

white-eye is omnivorous and gregarious. The

flowerpecker is solitary, more frugivorous and

territorial (Ali and Ripley 1974). This implies

a certain inflexibility of behavioural reper-

toires, although individual birds, particularly

small sunbirds, do respond flexibly to differen-

tial availability of resources in the particular

species of plant they visit (Davidar ms.).

The striking pollinator specialisation of the

plants might be a result of selection against

hybridisation and clogging of stigmas with

foreign pollen, and/or because of the specific

habitat preferences of the birds and the plants.

Related mistletoe species like T. recurvus and

T. cuneatus (and also T. tomentosus) were

pollinated by the flowerpecker and overlapped

in flowering times. H. intermedia and D. meme-

cylifolia, pollinated by the small sunbird also

overlapped in flowering times. Therefore there

might be strong selection for pollinator specia-

lisation as one way of avoiding hybridisation.

Data on microhabitat preferences of mistle-

toes indicates that the birds specialise on

species that have particular distributions. The

small sunbirds pollinate species that are re-

stricted to specific host species in sholas,

whereas flowerpeckers and white-eyes visit

species that occupy a wider range of habitats

and hosts, and also parasitise introduced

plants. Likewise the small sunbirds occur

more commonly in sholas, whereas the flower-

peckers range over a variety of habitats. As

the flowerpecker disperses the seeds of all

mistletoes, the occurrence of its preferred

species vis-a-vis nectar, in a wide variety of

hosts might not be an artifact of its behaviour

patterns. The microsite selection hypothesis is

also supported by data on pollinators and host

selection by the closely related Helixanthera

group. H. obtusata is the most omithophilous

in this group (Kannan 1966), and occupies

the middle levels in the forest where sunbirds

are common. H. intermedia and H. wallichiana

58

ECOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN MISTLETOES & AVIAN POLLINATORS

occupy and canopy and subcanopy and are

pollinated both by sunbirds and bees (Davidar

1979). H. hookeriana which is light tolerant and

canopy dwelling is entomophilous. There is a

gradation of flower structure from the ornitho-

philous H. obtusata, to the partially insect

pollinated H. intermedia and H. obtusata, to

the entirely entomophilous H. hookeriana

(Kannan 1966, unpublished data).

In conclusion, this bird-flower system in the

higher altitudes of southern India suggests

close knit evolution between specific bird and

plant species. Community level interactions

based on interference competition and resource

use of the bird species were not important,

although they might have been over evolution-

ary time. However, patterns based on inter-

ference competition might be more apparent

in a community composed of a single family

of nectar feeding birds, as in the neotropics

and in E. Africa, where the similarity of

morphology and behaviour might lead to

greater competition than in a system comprised

of different families of- birds.

Refer

Ali, S. A. (1931): The role of the sunbirds and

flowerpeckers in the propagation and distribution of

the tree parasite Loranthus longiflorus Desr. in the

Konkan (W. India). /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35:

144-149.

(1932): Flower-birds and bird-flowers

in India, ibid. 35: 573-605.

(1949): Indian Hill Birds. Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

(1968): The Birds of Kerala. Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

and Ripley, S. D. (1974): Handbook

of the Birds of India and Pakistan vol. 10. Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

Champion. H. G. & Seth, S. K. (1968) : A Revis-

ed survey of the Forest types of India. Government

of Tndia Press. Delhi.

Colwell, R. K. (1973): Competition and coexis-

ACK NOWLEDGE M E NTS

This study was submitted for my Ph.D.

thesis at the University of Bombay and funded

by a senior research fellowship of the Salim

Ali-Loke Wan Tho Ornithological Research

Fund of the Bombay Natural History Society.

I am grateful to Dr Salim Ali who supervised

this thesis and was a constant source of inspi-

ration, support and encouragement. J. C.

Daniel, R. B. Grubh, P. Kannan, M. Gadgil,

M. A. R. Khan, V. S. Vijayan, S. A. Yahya

and N. Chaturvedi proferred help and advice

during the course of this study. The Bombay

Natural History Society provided space and

facilities. I thank the Botanical Survey of

India, Southern Circle, and the Tamilnadu

Agricultural University for use of their herba-

rium and research facilities. My various re-

search assistants were always cheerful and

ready to climb trees in search of mistletoes.

My family helped out with some aspects of

the field work like photography. Kathy Grove

and Lucinda McDade reviewed this manus-

cript.

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60

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA

IN SOME INDIAN BATS1

PART X — TAPHOZOUS KACHHENSIS (DOBSON) —

EMBALLONURIDAE

V. M. Sapkal and A. H. Deshmukh2

The female genitalia of Taphozous kachhensis exhibits a pronounced dominance of

the right side since ovulation and pregnancy as a rule occur on the right side of the

genitalia. This species experiences an annual sexual cycle. Copulation followed by

fertilization and conception occurs in early April. Deliveries take place during the

first half of July. The gestation period is 98 days. While the female attains sexual

maturity in the year of birth the male does so when it is about 20 months of age.

There is an uneven female dominant sex ratio in the adults although the sex ratio

at birth appears to be nearly even.

Introduction

Among the Indian emballonurids details of

the breeding habits are known about Tapho-

zous longimanus (Gopalakrishna 1954, 1955)

and Taphozous melanopogon (Khaparde

1976, Sapkal and Khamre 1983). Whereas

Taphozous longimanus is a continuous breeder

and the female experiences pregnancies in

quick succession, the two uterine cornua al-

ternating in successive pregnancies in carrying

the foetus (Gopalakrishna 1954, 1955). Tap-

hozous melanopogon has a sharply restricted

annual sexual cycle. In this species copula-

tion occurs during the last week of January

and conceptions start immediately in the

colony. A single embryo is carried as a rule

in the right uterine cornu. The left uterine

cornu bears the embryo in rare exceptional

cases (Sapkal and Khamre 1983). A preli-

minary study of Taphozous kachhensis at Agra

revealed that this species differs from the

1 Accepted June 1981.

2 Department of Zoology, Institute of Science,

Nagpur.

emballonurids mentioned above. It was,

therefore, felt that a detailed study of the re-

productive habits of Taphozous kachhensis

may ultimately throw some light on the basic

breeding pattern of Indian emballonurids.

Material and Methods

The specimens of Taphozous kachhensis

(Dobson) were collected from an old fort in

Fatehpur Sikri near Agra, Uttar Pradesh.

The collections were made during the period

between 26th June 1978 and 24th May 1981

so that at least there is one collection repre-

senting each calendar month of the year. The

specimens were collected in the day time with

a butterfly net. After noting the significant

characters of the external genital organs in

the males and the size and nature of the

mammary nipples in the females, the speci-

mens were killed by chloroform and their

body weights recorded by a sensitive spring

balance. The genital tracts of both males

and females were fixed in Bouin’s fixative or

10% formalin and were preserved in 70%

ethanol. The right testis of each male was

61

Summary of the collection diary

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

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BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART X

taken out of 70% ethanol, gently rolled on

filter paper and weighed in a Mettler balance.

This gave accurate relative weights of the

testes of different specimens since all the testes

were subjected to the same procedure. A

detailed field record was maintained on the

basis of which tables 1 and 2 were made.

Table 1 gives a summary of the collection

diary and table 2 gives month-wise collection

of the specimens.

Table 2

Monthwise collection of specimens

Observations

1. General remarks

Taphozous kachhensis is one of the largest

Indian microchiropteran bats with a promi-

nent deep gular pouch on the ventral side of

the lower jaw. The specimens were found at

various places hanging from the roof and walls

of the fort in isolated groups of 10 to 12. This

species is not as active as other bats, and, if

disturbed, it flies only for a short distance

and settles down. Males and females are

found in the same roost throughout the year.

and hence no segregation of sexes occurs at

any time of the year.

A characteristic feature of this bat is the

presence of a large amount of fat in the in-

guinal region and at the base of the tail. The

amount of fat accumulated varies in different

seasons of the year. The largest amount of

fat was observed during the winter months

of November, December and January. The

fat undergoes depletion from March and

remains in reduced quantity until August.

Thus, the weight of the animal varies with

the accumulation and depletion of fat. The

maximum body weight of the adult male in

July was 50 gm. During the winter months

the bat is extremely sluggish and does not fly

away even when touched. The young ones are

not carried by the mothers on their backs as

was mentioned by Brosset (1962), but are

carried at the breast. During the mating

season, that is, during the latter half of March

the entire ventral surface of the head and

neck in the male was covered with a sticky

secretion. During this season a small, but

distinct aperture occurs posterior to the gular

pouch. It is not clear whether the secretion

oozes out of the aperture or not of the gular

pouch since the whole area is covered with

secretion.

2. Female genitalia

The ovary is ellipsoidal in shape and mea-

sures 2 mm in length and 0.8 mm in breadth

and is enclosed in a complete ovarian bursa.

The fallopian tube arises from the postero-

median aspect of the bursa, and circles the

cranial and lateral margins of the ovary, bends

caudally and opens into the cranial end of

the respective uterine cornu. The two uterine

cornua of the non-parous females are equal in

size, while the right cornu is thicker than the

left in the parous ones. The two cornua, each

63

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

measuring 9 mm in length, meet caudally

forming a ‘V’ shaped structure.

Examination of serial sections of the geni-

talia reveals that the lumina of the two uterine

cornua continue as two distinct cervical canals

which extend to about two-thirds of the length

of the cervix before joining to form a com-

mon canal which opens into the vagina at the

tip of the cervix. The vaginal lumen is narrow

where the fomices of the vagina surround the

cervix and wide caudally. The vagina mea-

sures 15 mm in length and opens to the ex-

terior by a transverse opening.

3. Breeding habits

An examination of the collection diary and

Table 1 reveals that pregnancy, as evidenced

by the presence of a bulbous uterine cornu,

was noticed from 13th April to 4th July.

Out of the 9 adult females collected on 4th

July, four carried a fully developed foetus

each in the right uterine cornu, and five had

just delivered the young, their uteri showing a

swollen and flabby appearance typical of post-

partum condition. Among the five delivered

females, one carried two young ones attached

to her mammary nipples, one had just partu-

rated since the placenta had not been expelled

and two carried a young one each at the

breast. The ninth female although showing

a parturated right uterine cornu did not carry

a young one at her breast. Evidently, the

young one must have been lost accidentally.

All the females collected on 23rd July and

15th August were in lactation. These facts in-

dicate that all the deliveries must be taking

place during the first three weeks of July.

No lactating female was found after 15th

August and the young ones collected on the

17th September were all free.

Microscopic examination of the female re-

productive tract reveals that the right ovary

of females collected on 25th March had vesi-

cular and Graafian follicles. Some of the

adult females collected on 13th April had a

corpus luteum each in the right ovary, and

those collected on 16th April had each a

corpus luteum in the right ovary and an im-

planted blastocyst in the right uterine cornu.

From this date onwards the females carried

progressively advanced concept uses. The first

batch of females which had delivered their

young was collected on 4th July. All females

collected on 23rd July were in lactation, and

the size of the young at the breast indicated

that they may have been delivered about a

week earlier. From the above data it is

evident that copulation takes place in a

sharply defined period in the last week of

March, and conception commences immedi-

ately. Progressively advanced stages of

pregnancy were noticed during the following

weeks and delivery occurred in a sharply

defined period during the first half of July.

The first batch of young ones delivered on

4th July includes a young one weighing 13 gm

which had been just delivered and the mother

had not yet expelled the placenta. The fully

developed foetus collected on the same date

weighed 13 gm. Specimens collected on 15th

August included young ones at the breast and

they weighed 16 gm. The first batch of free

young ones collected on 17th September

weighed 23 to 24 gm. Pregnancies were not

noticed during any month of the year except

the ones mentioned above.

From the above description of the breeding

habits of Taphozous kachhensis, the annual

sexual cycle of the adult females can be cate-

gorised as follows :

(1) Period of sexual quiescence — from the

middle of September to the last week of

March.

(2) Oestrus — copulation and fertilization

64

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART X

during the last week of March and first week

of April.

(3) Pregnancy — from April to the middle

of July.

(4) Lactation — from July to the middle

of September. This conclusion was arrived

by taking into consideration the fact that

females collected on 17th September were not

in lactation, the uterine cornua were normal

and the young ones were free.

As a rule a single young one is brought

forth during each cycle. There was one ex-

ceptional case on 4th July which carried two

young ones at the mammary nipples, and both

the uterine cornua were swollen and flabby

indicating that both the uterine cornua had

borne a conceptus each.

From the foregoing it is evident that Tapho-

zous kachhensis is a restricted breeder similar

to Taphozous magnus (A1 Rabaake 1968),

Taphozous georgianus (Kitchner 1973) and

Taphozous melanopogon (Khaparde 1976,

Sapkal and Khamre 1983). This bat differs

from the other emballonurids such as Tapho-

zous longimanus (Gopalakrishna 1954, 1955)

and Rhynchonycteris naso (Burt and Stirton

1961) which are continuous breeders.

4. Number of young and symmetry of the

female genitalia

All the females which showed unquestion-

able pregnancy, carried their conceptuses in

the right uterine cornu. Out of the 13 lacta-

ting females collected 12 gave birth to one

young each and one to twins. Examination

of the ovaries of the lactating females showed

a persisting corpus luteum in the right ovary.

Thus, as a rule the right ovary releases the

ovum and implantation occurs in the right

uterine cornu only. The ovaries of the female

which gave birth to twins were not examined.

Examination of the ovaries of females col-

lected on 25th March showed the presence of

vesicular and Graafian follicles in the right

ovary and multilaminar follicles in the left

ovary. All the females collected on 13th April

showed a corpus luteum in the right ovary

indicating that the right ovary had released

the ovum. During pregnancy the left non-

functional ovary showed a typical anoestrous

condition.

Since all the females collected on 13th April

had a corpus luteum in the right ovary and

an implanted blastocyst in the right uterine

cornu and since all females collected after this

date showed progressively advanced pregnan-

cies in the right cornu, it is evident that as a

rule only the right side of the female genitalia

is functioning. Only as a rare exception does

the left side also become functional.

5. Duration of pregnancy

Histological examination of the genital tract

of females collected on 23rd March revealed

the presence of spermatozoa in the vagina,

uterus and fallopian tubes, but ovulation had

not occurred. All the females collected on

13th April had a corpus luteum in the right

ovary and an implanted blastocyst in the right

uterine cornu. The size and age of the embryo

indicate that conception must have started

about 15 to 17 days earlier, there being no

delayed implantation nor retarded embryonic

development, that is, conception must have

commenced between 27th and 29th March.

The collection diary and table 1 reveal that

pregnancies in progressively advanced stages

occur between 13th April and 4th July. A

female collected on 4th July had just delivered

the young and the newly born young one

weighed 13 gm. The latter had closed eye-

lids, no hair on the body and a stump of the

umbilical cord which was still attached to the

young one. This taken along with the fact

65

5

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

that the weight of the other young ones at-

tached to the mammary nipples ranged between

13 to 14 gm, and the average weight of the

foetuses collected on that date was also 13 gm

indicates that the young one must have been

delivered a few hours earlier.

From the above data it is evident that the

duration of pregnancy in Taphozous kach-

hensis is about 98 days allowing a couple of

days on either side.

6. Growth and maturity

The collection diary and table 2 give some

data on the age of maturity of Taphozous

kachhensis. The newly born young one

weighed 13 gm and the last sucking young

ones collected on 15th August weighed 16 to

19 gm. The first few young ones collected

on 17th September weighed 23 to 24 gm.

The mammary nipples of the females did not

ooze out any milk on being pressed and the

uterine cornua were normal in appearance on

17th September. At the commencement of

the breeding season in March the immature

specimens could not be distinguished from the

adult ones on the basis of the body weight

and size. However, the size of the testes in

the male and the size and nature of the

mammary nipples in the females (the size of

the mammary nipples of parous females are

very conspicuous) and the fact whether the

uterine cornu bears an embryo or not arc

valid criteria to determine the sexual maturity

of this species. On the basis of these criteria,

during the breeding season, there are many

immature males in the colony but not a single

immature female as was revealed by the fact

that the collections made from the last week

of April onwards show that all the females

were pregnant. Since this species experiences

a single sexual cycle in a year, since immature

males with small testes are present in the [A!

colony during the breeding season and since

|U

all the females become pregnant during the

breeding season it is evident that while the i

males do not attain sexual maturity within the if

year of birth the females do so. This is d

further substantiated by the fact that during

early pregnancy the virgin females experien-

cing their first pregnancy can be distinguished

from the parous ones by their possessing in-

significant mammary nipples.

The above facts reveal that the males require

about 20 months to attain sexual maturity

while the females reach sexual maturity when

they are about 9 months of age. The avail-

able data do not warrant any conclusion re-

garding the possible longevity of this species.

7 . Sex ratio

Collection record and Tables 1 and 2

indicate that out of the total of 335 specimens

collected of all ages there were 123 (36.7%)

males and 212 (63.3%) females. This gives

a predominantly female dominant sex ratio

for this species. Among the juvenile young

ones born in the year, 28 were males and 26

were females, thereby giving a nearly even

sex ratio during this period of life. This wide

inequality in the number of males to the

number of females during adult life is possibly

due to preferential mortality of the males

during the growth period.

Ack noweedgement

We are grateful to Dr. A. Gopalakrishna,

Director, Institute of Science, Nagpur under

whose guidance this work was carried out.

66

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART X

References

A1 Rabaake, K. (1968) : Notes on the biology

of the tomb bat, Taphozous nudiventris magnus. v.

Wettstein 1913, in Iraq. Saugetiere Milt. 16 (1) :

21-26.

Brosset, A. (1962) : The bats of Central and

Western India, Part I. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59:

707-746.

Gopalakrishna, A. (1954) : Breeding habits of

the Indian sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus

(Hardwicke). Curr. Sci. 23 : 60-61.

(1955) : Observations on the

breeding habits and ovarian cycle in the Indian

sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus (Hard-

!\vicke). Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. 21 : 29-41.

Khaparde. M. S. (1976) : Notes on the breeding

habits of the Indian sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous

melanopogon (Temm). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

73 : 321-324.

Kitchner, D. J. (1973) : Reproduction in the

common sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous georgianus

(Thomas). (Microchiroptera : Emballonuridae) in

Western Australia. Aust. J. Zool. 21 : 375-389.

Sapkal, V. M. & Khamre, K. G. (1983) : Breed-

ing habits and associated phenomena in some Indian

bats. Part VIII. Taphozous melanopogon (Temm.)

— Emballonuridae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80 :

303-311.

♦Burt, W. H. & Stirton, R. A. (1961): The

mammals of El Salvador. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool.

Uni. Michigan 117 : 1-69.

(* Reference marked in asterisk was not available

in the original.)

67

MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR-6

P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida

[Continued from Vol. 81(2): 379]

SCROP H U LARIACEAE

1. Leaves all alternate; corolla tube short Verbascum

1 . Leaves all or nearly all opposite : corolla tube elongated 2

2. Climbers Maurandia

2. Erect or prostrate herbs 3

3. Corolla spurred Kickxia

3. Corolla not spurred 4

4. Corolla bilabiate 5

5. Leaves heterophyllus Limnophila

5. Leaves all similar 6

6. Calyx spathaceous Pedicularis

6. Calyx not spathaceous 7

7. Throat and lip of corolla with palate Lindenbergia

1. Throat and lip of corollawithout palate Lindernia

4. Corolla regular or sub-equal 8

8. Parasites 9

9. Leaves pinnatisect 10

10. Flowers white; capsules beaked Rhamphicarpa

10. Flowers pink or violet; capsules not beaked Sopubia

9. Leaves entire 11

11. Calyx spathaceous Centranthera

11. Calyx tubular 12

12. Corolla tube straight; lobes sub-equal Buchnera

12. Corolla tube curved; upper two lobes smaller than the lower ones Striga

8. Non-parasitic plants 13

13. Corolla with palate Mazus

13. Corolla without palate 14

14. Prostrate or creeping herbs: flowers axillary, solitary; leaves spathulate 15

15. Perfect stamens 2 Glossostigma j

15. Perfect stamens 4 Bacopa |

14. Erect herbs; flowers in axillary and terminal racemes; leaves not spathulate 15

15. Perfect stamens 4 Scoparia •

15. Perfect stamens 2 Vernonia j

D

I!

»■

f

(

i

Bacopa Aublet (nom. cons.)

1. Bocopa monnieri (Linn.) Wettst., in

Engl. & Prantl., Pflanzenf. 4(3b): 77, 1891;

Santapau, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

49 (1): 30, 1950; Puri & Mahajan, 128.

Lysimachia monnieri Linn., Cent. PI. 2: 9, 1756.

Herpestis monniera Benth., Scroph. Ind. 30, 1835;

68

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR-6

Graham, 144; FBI 4: 272; Cooke, T 651, 1885;

Birdwood, 20.

Moniera cuneifolia Mihcaux, FI. Bor. Amer. 2: 22,

1803; Cooke, T. 2: 285 (2: 356).

Rare, in wet places along watercourses be-

low Venna lake.

flowers: January-May.

local name: Bam.

Buchner a Linn.

1. Buehnera hispida Buch.-Ham., ex D.

Don, Prodr. FI. Nepal. 91, 1825; Dalz. & Gibs.

182; Wight, Icon. t. 1413; FBI 4: 298; Bird-

wood, 20; Cooke, T. 2: 301 (2: 373): Santa-

pau, 49: 42.

A root parasite on grasses. Frequently seen

on rocky grounds at Lodwick point.

flowers : November-December.

Centranthera R. Br.

1. Centranthera indica (Linn.) Gamble, in

FI. Pres. Madras 5: 683, 1923; G. L. Shah, FI.

Gujrat, 496, 1978.

Rhinacanthus indica Linn., Sp. PI. 603, 1753.

C. nepalensis D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nepal. 88, 1825;

Santapau, 49: 46.

C. hispida Graham. Cat. Bombay PI. 145, 1839

(non R. Br. 1810); Dalzell & Gibson, 182; FBI

4: 301; Cooke, T. 2: 308 (2: 381).

This species is reported by Cooke from

Wada and Koyna, below Mahabaleshwar. We

have not seen it on the plateau.

Glossostigma Arn.

1. Glossostigma diandrum (Linn.) O.

Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. 461, 1891; Santapau,

186.

G. spathulatum (Hook.) Arn. ex Bentham, in

Comp. Bot. Mag. 2: 59, 1836; Dalzell & Gibs.

180; FBI 4: 288; Cooke, T. 2: 299 (2: 371);

Santapau, 49: 41.

Microcarpaea spathulata Wight ex Hook., in Bot.

Misc. 2: 101. suppl. t. 4. 1831; Graham, 142.

Rare, in moist places near the Venna lake.

flowers: October-December.

Kickxia Dumort

1. Kickxia incana (Wall.) Pennell, Acad.

Nat. Sci. Phil. Mon. 5: 59, 1943; Santapau,

49: 37.

Linaria incana Wall. PI. As. Rar. 2: 43-4, 1831;

FBI 4: 252.

L. cabulica Benth.. in DC. Prodr. 10 : 270, 1846.

L. cabulica var. pubescens Hook., FI. Brit. Ind. 4:

251, 1883.

Rare, found on rocky walls at Kate’s point.

flowers: December.

Limnophila R. Br. (nom. cons.)

1 . Flowers pedicellate L. indica

1 . Flowers sessile L. sessiliflora

1. Limnophila indica (Linn.) Druce, in Rep.

Bot. Exch. Club Brit. Isles, 3: 420, 1914;

Santapau, 49: 34; Puri & Mahajan, 128.

Hottonia indica Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 10, 919, 1759.

Cyrilla aquatica Roxb.. PI. Cor. 2: 47, t. 189, 1798.

L. gratioloides R. Br., Prodr. 442, 1810; Dalz. &

Gibs. 177; FBI 4: 271; Cooke, T. 651 & 2:

291 (2 : 361).

L. raccmosa Benth.. Scroph. Ind. 26, 1835; Dalzell

& Gibson. 177; FBI 4: 271; Birdwood, 20;

Cooke, T. 2 : 290 (2 : 362).

Rare, known from a single collection by T.

Cooke.

flowers: October.

2. Limnophila sessiliflora (Vahl) Benth.,

Scroph. Ind. 25. 1835; FBI 4: 270; Cooke, T.

2: 290 (2 : 362).

Hottonia sessiliflora Vahl, Symb. Bot. 2: 36, 1791.

L. heterophylla Birdwood, Cat. FI. Matheran &

Mahabaleshwar 20. 1897 (non Benth., 1835);

Woodrow. Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12:

174, 1898.

Common and gregarious, along margins of

Yenna Lake.

flowers: August- April.

Lindenbergia Lehm.

1 . Lindenbergia muraria (Roxb. ex D.

Don) P. Bruchl., in Journ. Dept. Sci. Calcutta

Univ. 2 (Bot.) 27. 1920; Santapau, 330.

69

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Stemodia muraria Roxb., in D. Don, Prodr. 89,

1825.

L. urticifolia Lehm., in Link et Otto, Icon. PI.

Rar. Hort. Berol. t. 48, 1828; Graham, 143;

Dalz. & Gibs. 176; Hook., Ic. PI. t. 875, 1855;

FBI 4: 262; Cooke, T. 2; (2: 379).

Rare, weed in cultivated fields and on old

walls.

flowers: Throughout the year.

local name: Dhol.

Lindernia All.

1 . Leaves parallel nerved 2

2. Flowers twice as long as calyx; leaves

ovate L. parviflora

2. Flowers 3-4 times as long as calyx; leaves

lanceolate L. hyssopioides

1 . Leaves penninerved 3

3. Plants diffuse, rooting at lower nodes

L. antipoda

3. Plants erect, basal branches sometimes diffuse

but without roots L. numularifolia

1. Lindernia antipoda (Linn.) Alston, in

Trimen, Handb. FI. Ceylone, 6: 214, 1931;

Santapau, 180.

Ruellia antipoda Linn., Sp. PI. 635, 1753.

R. anagallis Burm. f., FI. Ind. 135, 1768.

L. anaggalis (Burm. f.) Pennell, in Joum. Arn.

Arbor. 20: 81, 1939; Puri & Mahajan, 128.

Bonnaya verbenaefolia Sperng., Syst. 1: 42, 1825;

Dalz. & Gibs, 178; Wight, Icon. t. 1412, 1849.

B. veron:cicaefolia Spreng. var. verbenaefolia

Hook., f., in FI. Brit. India, 4 : 295. 1884:

Cooke, T. 2: 298 (2 : 370).

B. veronicaefolia (Retz.) Spreng., Syst. 1: 41, 1824;

Graham, 143; Dalz. & Gibs. 178; Cooke, T. 2:

298 (2 : 369); Blatter & Hal!., in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 25: 418, 1918.

Gratiola veronicaefolia Retz., Obs. Bot. 4: 8, 1786.

G. grandiflora Retz., 1. c.

Fairly common herb in moist grounds near

Venna lake. A very variable plant.

flowers: August.

2. Lindernia hyssopioides (Linn.) Hains,

Bot. Bihar & Orissa, 635, 1922; Mukherjee,

Joum. Ind. Bot. 24: 132, 1945; Santapau, 49;

Puri & Mahajan, 128.

Gratiola hyssopioides Linn., Mant. 174, 1767.

Bonnaya hyssopioides Benth., Scroph. Ind. 34, 1835;

Graham, 143.

lllysanthes hyssopioides Benth., in DC. Prodr. 10:

419, 1846; Dalz. & Gibs. 179; FBI 4: 283;

Birdwood. 20; Woodrow in Journ. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 12, 174, 1899; Cooke, T. 2: 296 (2 :

368)); Blatter & Hall. 25: 419.

This species is included here on the autho-

rity of earlier reports only. We have not seen

this plant at Mahabaleshwar.

3. Lindernia parviflora (Roxb.) Haines,

Bot. Bihar & Orissa. 4: 635, 1922; Santapau,

49: 38.

Gratiola parviflora Roxb., PI. Cor. 3: 3, t. 203,

1819.

lllysanthes parviflora Benth., in DC. Prodr. 10:

419, 1846; FBI 4: 283; Cooke. T. 2 : 296 (2:

368); Blatter & Hall. 420.

Vandelia sessiliflora Benth.. Scroph. Ind. 37, 1835;

(non Benth. 1835).

This species is known only from a single

specimen in Sedgwick’s herbarium, collected

by Nana (No. 7349).

flowers: May.

4. Lindernia numularifolia (Don) Wettst.

in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 4 (3b) : 79,

1891; Gupta, in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58:

765. 1961.

Vandelia numularifolia Don. Prodr. FI. Nepal. 86,

' 1825.

Vandelia sessiliflora Benth.. Scroph. Ind. 37, 1835;

FBI 4: 282.

Vandelia sessiliflora (Benth.) Wetstt., in Pfianzen-

fam. 4 (3a): 79, 1895; Santapau, 308. 1963.

Bonnaya micrantha Blatter & Hallberg, J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 25: 417, 1918.

Common and locally abundant along Fitzge-

rald Ghat.

flowers: September.

Maurandia Ort.

1 . Maurandia lophospermum Bailey, Man.

Cult. PI. 895. 1949.

Lophospermum scandens D. Don. Trans. Linn.

Soc. London 15: 353. 1827.

70

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR-6

M. scandens (Don) Gray, in Proc. Amer. Acad.

7: 377, 1868 (non Pers. 1807); Cooke, T. 2:

309 (2 : 382); Santapau, 49: 47.

A climbing, cultivated, ornamental plant.

English name: Plumeseed Maurandia.

Mazus Lour.

1. Mazus pumilus (Burm. f.) Van Steenis,

in Nou. Guines N. Soc. 9: 31, 1958; G. L.

Shah, FI. Gujrat, 502, 1978.

M. japouica (Thunb.) O. Kuntze. Rev. Gen. PI.

462. 1891; Santapau, in Journ. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 49: 48. 1950.

M. rugosa Lour., FI. Cochinch. 385. 1790; Dalz. &

Gibs. 176; Blatter & Hall., 424.

Lobelia pumila Burm. f.. FI. Ind. 186. t. 60. f. 3.

1768.

Lindernia japon'ca Thunb., FI. Jap. 253, 1874.

Common, along grassy slopes in moist and

partially shaded places.

flowers: September-November.

Pedicular is Linn.

1. Pedicularis zeylanica Benth.. Scroph.

Ind. 54, 1835; FBI 4: 317; Wight, Icon. t.

1419; Birdwood, 20: Cooke, T. 2: 309 (2 :

381); Puri & Mahajan, 128; Santapau. l.c. 49:

46.

This species is included on the authority of

earlier authors. We have not seen it at Maha-

baleshwar.

Scoparia Linn.

1. Scoparia dulcis Linn., Sp. PI. 116, 1753;

FBI 4: 289; Cooke, T. 2: 310 (2:383); Blatter

& Hall. 426; Santapau, 47.

Weed in wastelands and among the grasses

in open fields.

flowers: September.

Sopuhia Buch.-Ham.

1. Sopubia delphinifolia (Roxb) Don, Gen.

Syst. 4: 560, 1837; Graham, 145; Dalz. &

Gibs. 182; FBT 4: 302; Cooke, T. 651 & 2:

305 (2: 378); Blatter & Hall., 428; Santapau,

49: 45; Puri & Mahajan, 128.

Gerardia delphinifolia Roxb.. PI. Cor. 1 : t. 90,

1795.

Frequent, elegant looking root parasite on

grasses, generally found during the second half

of the monsoon.

flowers: November.

Striga Lour.

I . Stems purple; leaves reduced to scales

S. gesneroides

1. Stems green; leaves not reduced to scales

S. densiflora

1. Striga densiflora (Benth.) Benth., in Hook.

Comp. Bot. Mag. 1: 363, 1835; FBI 4: 299;

Dalz. & Gibs. 181; Cooke. T. 2: 303 (2: 375);

Santapau, 49: 43.

Buchnera densiflora Benth., Scroph. Ind. 41, 1835.

This species has been reported by T. Cooke,

from Koyna Valley below Mahabaleshwar.

We have not seen any specimen from the area

under investigation.

2. Striga gesneroides (Willd.) Vatke ex

Engl., in Abhadnl. Preuss. Akad. Wissensch.

28: 1894; Santapau. 49: 42; Puri & Mahajan,

128.

Buchnera gesneroides Willd.. Sp. PI. 3: 338. 1801.

B. orobanchoidcs R. Br. ex Endl. in FI. 2: 387.

t. 2. 1832.

S. orobanchoides (R. Br.) Benth.. in Comp. Bot.

Mag. 1: 361, t. 19. 1836; Wight, Icon. t. 1414;

Dalz. & Gibs. 181; Lee. 625; Birdwood. 20; FBT

4: 299; Cooke. T. 2: 302 (2: 374).

S. coccnea Don ex Graham. Cat. Bombay PI.

145. 1839 (non Benth., 1836).

A root parasite on Lepidagathis cuspidata.

The live plant is purplish and it turns black

on drying.

flowers : November.

Verbascum Linn.

1 . Verbascum chinense (Linn.) Santapau,

FI. Purandhar 90. 1958 & FI. Khandala. ed. 3.

177.

71

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Scrophularia chinensis Linn. Mant. 2: 250, 1771,

V. coromandelianum (Vahl) O.K., Rev. Gen. PI.

1: 468, 1891; Santapau, 49: 25.

Celsia coromandeliana Vahl, Symb. Bot. 3: 79,

1794; Dalz. & Gibs. 176; Wight, Icon. t. 1406;

Birdwood, 20; Cooke, T. 2: 281 (2: 352).

Rare plant in wastelands along roadsides.

flowers: February-June.

Veronica Linn.

1 . Leaves lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate upto 8 cm.

long V. anagallis-aquatica

1. Leaves ovate, less than 2.5 cm. long

V. javanica

1. Veronica anagallis-aquatica Linn., Sp. PI.

12, 1753; Pennel, in Acad. nat. Sci. Phil. Mon.

1: 362, 1935.

Veronica anagailis Benth., Scroph. Ind. 44, 1835;

FBI 4: 293; Cooke. T. 301 (2: 373); Blatter &

Hall., 427; Dutta. in Joum. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 57: 594, 1960.

Quite frequent in moist ground near China-

man’s Falls.

flowers: April-May.

2. Veronica javanica Blume, Bijdr. 742,

1826; FBI 4: 296; Pennel, l.c. 87; Dutta, l.c.

393.

Weed along the margins of cultivated fields

and in waste-lands near Yenna Lake.

flowers: April.

Lentibulariaceae

Utricularia Linn.

1 . Leaves orbicular or reniform U. striatula

1. Leaves not orbicular or reniform 2

2. Pedicels recurved in fruits 3

3. Spur straight, short, conical

U. a/bo-coerulea

3. Spur falcate, linear U. arcuata

2. Pedicels not recurved in fruits 4

4. Spur curved U. graminifoUa

4. Spur straight U. uliginosa

1. Utricularia albo-coenilea Dalz., in Kew

Journ. Bot. 3: 279, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs. 135;

FBI 4: 330; Birdwood. 20; Cooke, T„ 651 &

2: 318(2: 391); Puri & Mahajan, 128.

Rare, occasionally found on wet rocks.

flowers : September-November.

local name: Siteche Ashru.

2. Utricularia arcuata Wight, Icon. 4: t.

1571, f. 1, 1850; Dalz. & Gibs. 136; Cooke, T„

2: 318 (2: 391-2); Santapau, in J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 218, 1950.

U. ogmosperma Blatter & McCann, in Joum. Ind.

Bot. Soc. 3: 123, 1931.

Very common and abundant and at times

gregarious on wet rocky ground. Very con-

spicuous plant due to its bright blue flowers.

flowers : September-October.

local name: Blue Bonnet.

note: Utricularia ogmosperma Blatter &

McCann, is merged here with U. arcuata Wt.

In the original description the authors placed

it as allied to U. albomarginata Dalz., and

pointed that it differs from the latter in the

following characters :

1 . Lateral bracts oblong-ovate below the pedicels.

2. Upper corolla lobe narrowly obovate.

3. Style short, stout.

4. Fruiting pedicels less recurved.

5. Fruits broadly ovoid, almost orbicular, much

compressed.

6. Seeds longitudinally and deeply multifurrowed.

All these characters seem to agree closely

with the description of U. arcuata Wt. We have

examined the type of U. ogmosperma Blatter

& McCann and compared it with Wight’s plate.

We do not find any difference in these two taxa

and therefore consider them as conspecific.

3. Utricularia graminifolia Vahl, Enum. 1 :

195, No. 3, 1805; Santapau, in Journ. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 219, 1950.

U. purpurascens Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 165,

1839.

U. coerulca auct. (non Linn., 1753); Cooke, T.,

FI. Pres. Bombay 2: 319 (2: 392). 1905; Bird-

wood. 20; Puri & Mahajan. 128; Santapau. 400.

1962 & 298. 1963.

U. uliginoides Wight. Tcon. t. 1573. 1850.

U. pcdicellata Wight. Tcon. t. 1578. 1850.

72

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR-6

U. equiseticaulis Blatter & McCann, Joum. Indian

Bot. Soc. 10: 122, 1931.

Very common and abundant herb in water-

logged soils and along streams in open places.

flowers: September- June.

4. Utricularia striatula Sm., in Res. Cyclop.

37: N0. 17, 1819. Cooke, T. 2: 320 (2: 393-4);

Santapau, 400, 1962 & 298, 1963.

U. pusilla Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 165, 1839

(non Vahl, 1805).

U. orbiculata Wall, ex Oliver, in J. Linn. Soc. 3:

187, 1859; Dalz. & Gibs. 136; FBI 4 : 334.

U. glochidiata Wight, Icon. t. 1581, 1850.

Very common on wet rocks and wet tree-

trunks in monsoon. An attractive tiny plant

with large violet flowers with yellow spot at

the base of the lower lip.

flowers: July-December.

5. Utricularia uliginosa Vahl, Enum. 1 :

203, No. 25, 1804; Santapau, in Joum. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 218, 1950.

U. off inis Wight, Icon. t. 1580, f. 1, 1850; FBI 4:

330; Santapau. 400, 1962.

U. decipiens Dalz., in Kew lourn. Bot. 3: 279,

1851.

Common herb on moist rocks among mosses.

flowers : August -November.

Gesneriaceae

1 . Seeds tipped with a long hair; stamens

didynamous Acschynanthus

1 . Seeds not tipped with hair; stamens not

didynamous 2

2. Capsule linear Chirita

2. Capsule ellipsoid or oblong

Rhynchoglossum

Aeschynanthus Jack. (nom. cons.)

1. Aeschynanthus perottetii A. DC., Prodr.

9: 261, 1845; Dalz. & Gibs. 135, Birdwood, 20;

Cooke, T. 2: 321 (2: 395).

A. ceylanica Wight. Icon. t. 1347. 1850.

A. grandiflora Graham. Cat. Bombay PI. 146. 1839

(non Spreng.. 1827).

This species is reported by T. Cooke as

occurring in Koyna Valley below Mahabale-

shwar. We have not found it on the plateau

nor we have seen any specimen from the area

under study.

Chirita Buch.-Ham.

1. Chirita hamosa R. Br., in Benn. PI. Jav.

Rar. 117, 1840; FBI 4: 360; Cooke, T. 2: 322

(2: 396).

Didymocarpus cristata Dalz., in Kew Joum. Bot.

3: 225, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs. 134.

Rhynchoglossum Blume

1. Stamens 4; calyx winged R notonianum

1. Stamens 2; calyx not winged R. obliquum

1. Rhynchoglossum notonianum (Wall.)

Burtt, Notes Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinburgh 24:

170, 1962.

Wulfania notoniana Wall., Tent. FI. Nepal. 46,

1826.

Klugia notoniana (Wall.) A. DC. n Prodr. 9:

276, 1845; Wight, Ic. t. 1353, 1848; FBI 4 : 366.

1884; Lee, 625; Cooke, T. 2: 323 (2: 397);

Santapau. 190.

K. scabra Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 134. 1861.

Common herb along roadsides on broken

walls and on embankments during monsoon. It

is more common near Wada and on Pratap-

garh Fort.

flowers : September-October.

2. Rhynchoglossum obliquum Blume, Bijdr.

741. 1826; var. parviflorum C. B. Clarke, in

DC. Monogr. Phan. 5: 162, 1883; FBI 4: 367,

1884; Cooke. T. 2: 324 (2: 398); Santapau,

190.

R. obliquum DC.. Prodr. 9 : 274. 1845 (p.p.);

Wight. 111. t. 150. f. 7 bis. 1850; TP Rama-

murthy. in FI. Hassan Dist. 531. 1976 (non

Blume. 1826).

Common herb along road-sides and on old

walls. Abundant on walls of Pratapgarh Fort.

flowers: September-October.

Bignoniaceae

Heteropliragma DC.

1 . Heterophragma quadriloculare (Roxb.)

73

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

K. Schum., in Pfam. 4(3b): 243, 1895; Puri

& Mahajan, 128; Santapau, 290, 1963.

Bignonia quadrilocularis Roxb., PI. Cor. 2: 24, t.

145, 1798; Graham, 125.

H. roxburghii A. DC.. Prodr. 9: 210. 1845; Dalz.

& Gibs. 160; FBI 4: 381; Lisboa, 219; Cooke,

T. 2: 330 (2: 404).

Common tree near Chinaman’s water falls.

flowers: February- April.

local name: Varas.

Acanthaceae

1 . Climbers Thunbergia

1 . Erect or prostrate plants, not climbers 2

2. Lower lip of corolla large, 3-lobed Blepharis

2. Lower lip of corolla not 3-lobed, sub-equal 3

3. Corolla lobes twisted to the left in buds 4

4. Ovules more than 2 in each cell; seeds 6-many in each fruit 5

5. Corolla distinctly 2-lipped Hygrophila

5. Corolla sub-equally 5-lobed Hemigraphis

4. Ovules 2 in each cell; seeds 4 or less in each fruit 6

6. Placenta separating elastically from the base of ripe capsule Phaulopsis

6. Placenta not separating from the base of ripe capsule 7

7. Stamens 2 Eranthemum

7. Stamens 4 8

8. Pollen grains globose, echinulatc Thelepaepale

8. Pollen grains ellipsoid 9

9. Bands on pollen grains punctate Nilgirianthus

9. Bands on the pollen grains wavy Mackenzia

9. Bands on pollen grains septate 10

10. Flowers bracteolate Pleocaulis

10. Flowers ebracteolate Carvia

3. Corolla lobes twisted to the right in buds 11

11. Ovules 3-10 in each cell 12

12. Cladodes absent indrographis

12. Cladodes present Haplanthus

1 1 . Ovules 2 or rarely one in each cell 13

13. Corolla of 5 subequal lobes 14

14. Calyx segments 4, unequal Barleria

14. Calyx segments 5, subequal Asystasia

13. Corolla distinctly 2-lipped 15

15. Stamens 4 Lepidagathis

1 5 . Stamens 2 16

16. Placentas separating elastically from the valves from the base upwards 17

17. Bracts in unilateral spikes Rungia

17. Bracts clustered in the leaf-axils or laxly cyrnose Dicliptcra

16. Placentas not separating elastically from the valves 18

18. Annual herbs Rostellularia

18. Perennial shrubs or undershrubs 19

19. Lower anther cells with spur-like aDnendagc at the base Justicia

19. Lower anther cells not spurred at the base 20

20. Anther cells apiculate Adhatoda

20. Anther cells muticous RUinacanthus

74

FLORA OF MAH ABA LESHW A R-6

Adhatoda P. Miller

1 . Adhatoda zeylanica Medic., Hist. & Com-

mentat. Acad. Elect. Sci. Theod.-Palat. 6: 393,

1790; T. P. Ramamurthy, in FI. Hassan Dist.

540. 1976.

Justicia adhatoda Linn., Sp. PI. 15, 1753; Graham.

164, Bot. Mag. t. 861, 1805.

A. vasica Nees in Wall. PI. As. Rar. 3: 103, 1832;

FBI 4: 540; Cooke T. 2 : 414 ( 2:494); Santapau.

Bot. Mem. Univ. Bombay 2: 92, 1951.

Very rare, in cultivation as a hedge plant.

Leaves are reputed for vaso-dilatory properties

and used as a remedy in cough and colds.

flowers ; August-December.

local name: Adulsa.

Andrographis Wall.

1. Andrographis echioides Nees, in Wall.

PI. As. Rar. 3: 117, 1832; Dalz. & Gibs. 198;

FBI 4: 505; Cooke, T. 2: 374 (2: 451); Puri

& Mahajan, 129.

This species is reported here on the autho-

rity of Puri & Mahajan. We have not seen

this plant on the plateau.

Asystasia Blume

1. Asystasia dalzelliana Santapau, in Kew

Bull. 1948: 278, 1948; Santapau, 401, 1962 &

286, 1963.

A. violacea Dalz. ex C. B. Clarke, in Flora Brit.

India 4: 495, 1884 (non Dalz., 1850); Birdwood,

21; Cooke, T. 649, 1885 & 2: 399 (2: 467);

Puri & Mahajan, 129.

A. coromandeliana Nees, in Wall. PI. As. Rar.

3: 89, 1832; Bot. Mag. t. 4248, 1846 (non

Wight, 1850); Dalz. & Gibs. 186, 1861.

Rare, but occasionally fairly abundant among

the undergrowth in forest areas as well as along

road-sides.

flowers: August-October.

local name: Akra.

Barleria Linn.

1 . Corolla 7 cm. or more long

1 . Corolla less than 6 cm. long B. strigosa var.

terminalis

1. Barleria lawii T. Anders, in J. Linn. Soc.

London 9: 492, 1867; FBI 4: 486; Cooke, T.

2: 383 (2: 460); Santapau, in Mem. 59.

B. longiflora Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 161, 1839

(non Linn. f. 1781 nec Roxb. 1832).

B. beddomei T. Anders ex Bedd., Icon. 62. t. 258.

1874.

Occasionally on grassy slopes and along

forest paths. Flowers white which make plant

very conspicuous during flowering season.

flowers : October-December.

Lee (1885) reports Barleria grandiflora

Dalz. from Mahabaleshwar. Rev. Fr. Santapau

(memoirs, 62) states, “I have not seen this

plant in Khandala or anywhere else within

the present limits of Bombay State”. He has

compared it with B. lawii and pointed out

the differences in size of flowers, apex of

corolla-lobes and nervation on dry corollas. It

appears these differences are based on the des-

criptions of the two taxa, as he has not men-

tioned any specimen belonging to this species.

If these two species are treated as distinct

then Lee’s B. grandiflora should be B. lawii

Dalz.. since all plants from Mahabaleshwar

have rounded corolla lobes and very conspicu-

ous nerves. The differentiating characters point-

ed out by Rev. Fr. Santapau are not distinct

enough to separate these two species. If they

are treated as conspecific B. grandiflora Dalz.

will have priority as a valid name over B. lawii

T. Anders. To settle this nomenclatural pro-

blem. study of the type specimen of both these

species is necessary.

2. Barleria strigosa Willd. Sp. PI. 3: 379,

100; var. terminalis (Nees) Clarke, in Flora

Brit. India 4: 490, 1884; Birdwood, 21; Cooke.

T. 2: 384 (2: 462); Santapau, in Memoirs 61.

B terminalis Nees, in DC. Prodr. 11: 225, 1847;

Dalz. & Gibs. 188; Cooke. T. 649. 1885; Lee.

625.

B. lawii

75

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

B. caerulea Graham, Cat. Bombay PI 161, 1839;

(non Roxb., 1832).

A common bushy shrub on grassy hill-slopes

and along forest paths, Fitzgerald ghat and

Hart point.

flowers : November-December.

local name: Koranti, Nili Itari.

Blepharis Juss.

1. Blepharis asperrima Nees. in DC. Prodr.

11: 267, 1847; Dalz. & Gibs. 192; Wight, Icon,

t. 1534, 1850, FBI 4: 478; Lee, 625; Cooke,

T. 651 & 2: 349 (2: 424); Lisboa, 219; Bird-

wood, 21; Puri & Mahajan, 129; Santapau, in

Memoir 14.

Common and abundant prostrate or some-

times ascending herb in partially shaded forest

margins.

flowers: October- January.

local name: Dikna.

Carvia Bremek.

1. Carvia callosa (Wall.) Bremek., in Mat.

Mon. 187, 1944; Santapau, in Memoirs, 46;

Puri & Mahajan, 128; Santapau, 399; 1962 &

286, 1963.

Strobilanthes callosus Wall., PI. As. Rar. 3: 85,

1832; Dalz. & Gibs. 188; Cooke, T. 649 & 2:

368 (2: 444); Lisboa 219; Markham, 385; Bird-

wood, 21.

S. grahamianus Wight, Icon. t. 1520, 1850; Dalz.

& Gibs. 188; Lee, 625.

S. ciliata Graham. Cat. Bombay PI. 162, 1839 (non

Nees, 1832).

One of the commonest and most abundant

plants, often gregarious on hill slopes. During

the explorations of Mahabaleshwar, the senior

author has twice observed the general flower-

ing of this species: once in September 1954

and again in between August and November

1959. Tt appears that the flowering cycle of this

species at Mahabaleshwar is rather irregular.

For full details of this species see H. Santapau

(/. Bombay na* Hist. Soc. 44: 605, 1944).

local name: Carvi, Karau.

Dicliptera Juss.

1 . Dicliptera zeylanica Nees, DC. Prodr.

11: 474, 1847; FBI 4: 552; Cooke, T. 2: 403

(2: 482); Santapau, in Memoirs 79; Bird-

wood, 21; Puri & Mahajan, 128.

D. bivalvis Nees, l.c. 475, 1847; Wight. Icon t.

1551, 1850; Dalz. & Gibs. 196 (non Juss., 1807);

Lee 625; Cooke, T. 651, 1885.

Justicia bivalvis Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 164,

1839 (non Linn. 1760).

Fairly common on shady hill-slopes and

among the forest undergrowth.

flowers: June-July.

v

c

Eranthemum Linn.

$

1. Eranthemum roseum (Vahl) R. Br., ,

Prodr. 477, 1810; Dalz. & Gibs. 195; Santapau, (|

in Memoirs, 34.

Justicia rosea Vahl, Enum. 1: 165, 1804.

Daedalacanthus roseus T. Anders, in Joum. Linn.

Soc. London, 9: 487, 1867; FBI 4: 419; Bird- v

wood, 21; Cooke. T. 2: 363 (2: 439). 1

A common undershrub in shady places o

among the undergrowth in forest areas. ii

flowers: October- January. !

Haplanthus Nees v

1 . Haplanthus verticillatus (Roxb.) Nees, in

DC. Prodr. 11 : 513, 1847; Dalz. & Gibs. 197; |

FBI 4: 506; Birdwood, 21; Cooke, T. 651 & ?

2: 375 (2: 452); Puri & Mahajan, 129 ( H . ‘

verticillaris ) .

Justicia verticillata Roxb.. FI. Ind. 1: 135, 1832;

Graham. 165.

Fairly common and abundant herb along

road-sides and among the forest undergrowth

in shady places. It is a very conspicuous plant

due to its cladodes. p

flowers: January- June. p

local name: Kala Kiraita, Kala Ankra.

76

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR-6

Hemigraphis Nees

1. Hemigraphis latebrosa (Heyne ex Roth.)

Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 723, 1847; FBI 4: 423;

Wight, Icon. t. 1504, 1850; Birdwood, 21;

Cooke, T. 2: 358 (2: 434).

Ruellia latebrosa Heyne ex Roth., Nov. PI. Sp.

307, 1821.

R. elegans Sm., Bot. Mag. t. 3389, 1835; Graham,

162; Dalz. & Gibs. 186.

Hemigraphis latebrosa Nees, var. heyneana Bre-

mek. in Mat. Monogr. Strob. 139, 1944; Santa-

pau, Memoirs, 26 & FI. Khandala ed. 3, 196,

1967.

Common in undergrowth in forest areas

and along road-sides in shade.

flowers: January-February.

Following Bremekamp (l.c.) Rev. Fr. H.

Santapau accepts the name as Hemigraphis

latebrosa Nees var. heyneana Bremekamp for

this taxon. Later authors follow this nomencla-

ture in all recent works. Bremekamp, however,

distinguished his variety heyneana from other

varieties of Hemigraphis latebrosa based on

Heyne’s specimen, which is actually the type

of Ruellia latebrosa Heyne ex Roth. Accord-

ing to Article 53 of International Code of

Botanical Nomenclature, when a species is

divided into two or more varieties the typical

variety should be called by its specific epithet

only. Therefore Bremekamp’s varietal name is

superfluous and must be rejected. The correct

name for this taxon should be Hemigraphis

latebrosa (Heyne ex Roth.) Nees var. late-

brosa.

Hygrophila R. Br.

1. Plants armed with whorl of spines

H. auriculata

I . Plants unarmed H. serpyllum

1. Hygrophila auriculata (K. Schum.)

Heyne, Kew Bull. 16: 172, 1962; Santapau,

FI. Khandala, ed. 3, 194.

Barlcria auriculata K. Schumach., in Schumach. &

Tonn. Beskr. Guin. PI. 285, 1827.

B. longifolia Linn., Amoen. Acad. 4 : 320, 1759

(non H. longifolia Nees, 1847).

Asteracantha longifolia Nees in Wall. PI. As. Rar.

3: 90, 1832; Wight, Icon. t. 499, 1841; Dalz. &

Gibs. 189; Cooke. T. 2: 352 (2: 428); Santapau,

in Mem. 17; Puri & Mahajan, 129.

//. spinosa T. Anders, in Twaites, Enum. 225, 1860;

FBI 4: 408.

Common along watercourses and in stag-

nant water pools.

flowers: October-February.

local name: Talim Khana, Kolsunda.

2. Hygrophila serpyllum (Nees) T. Anders,

in J. Linn. Soc. London, 9: 456, 1867; FBI 4:

406; Cooke, T. 651 & 2: 354 (2: 429); Bird-

wood, 21; Santapau, in Memoirs 19; Puri &

Mahajan, 129.

Physichilus serpyllum Nees, in Hook. Comp. Bot.

Mag. 2: 31 1, 1837; Dalz. & Gibs. 184; Wight,

Icon. t. 1493, 1849.

Very common and abundant herb, found in

large dense patches in wet grounds and along

watercourses.

flowers : October- April.

local name: Ran Tewan.

Justicia Linn.

1. Shrubs; Flowers more than 25 cm. long

/. santapaui

1 . Perennial herbs or undershrubs; flowers less than

15 mm. long 2

2. Bracts foliaceous 3

3. Procumbent herbs J. trinervia

3. Erect undershrubs J. betonica

2. Bracts linear, very small J. gendarussa

I. Justicia betonica Linn. Sp. PI. 15, 1753;

FBI 4: 525; Talbot 2: 338; Santapau, Memoirs

85, & FI. Khandala, ed. 3, 208; Puri & Mahajan,

129.

J. ramosissima Roxb. FI. Ind. 1: 129, 1832;

Graham. 165.

Adhatoda betonica Nees, in Wall. PI. As. Rar. 3:

103, 1832.

A. ramosissima Nees, l.c. 103, 1832; Dalz. & Gibs.

193.

77

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

J. beton'.ca var. ramosissima Clarke, FI. Brit. Ind.

4: 525, 1885; Cooke, T. 2: 407 (2: 486).

Common straggling or at times erect under-

shrub in open forests and along road-sides.

Conspicuous because of its scarious white bracts

with green nerves.

flowers : November-December.

2. Justicia gendarussa Burm.. FI. Ind. 10,

1768; FBI 4: 532; Graham, 164; Dalz. & Gibs,

suppl. 71; Cooke, T. 2: 412 (2: 492); Santa-

pau. Memoirs 91.

Cultivated occasionally as a border plant in

gardens.

flowers: January-May.

3. Justicia santapaui Bennett, in J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 67; 358. 1970.

J. montana (Nees) Wall, ex T. Anders, in Journ.

Linn. Soc. 9: 509, 1867 (non Roxb., 1805);

FBI 4: 525; Cooke. T. 2: 406 (2: 485); Santa-

pau, Memoirs, 85.

Hemichoriste montana Nees, in Wall. PI. As. Rar.

3: 102, 1832; Dalz. & Gibs. 194; Wight, Icon,

t. 1538, 1850.

A rare species at Mahabaleshwar. Only

known from a single collection by Dalzell.

flowers : February.

4. Justicia trinervia Vahl, Enum. 1: 156.

1804; FBI 4: 256; Cooke, T. 2: 408 (2: 487);

Santapau, Memoirs, 86; Puri & Mahajan, 129.

Adhatoila trinervia Nees, in Wall. PI. As. Rar. 3:

103, 1832; Dalz. & Gibs. 194.

Rare prostrate herb on rocky grounds in

open fields.

flowers: October-January.

local name: Suta. Pandhra Suta.

Lepidagathis Willd.

1. Seeds 2 in each capsule L. prostrata

1. Seeds 4 in each capsule L. cuspidata

1. Lepidagathis cuspidata Nees, in Wall.

PI. As. Rar. 3: 97, 1832; FBI 4: 519; Cooke,

T. 2: 396 (2: 474); Santapau, in Memoirs, 73;

Puri & Mahajan, 129.

Fairly common erect or straggling deciduous

undershrub on rocky grounds. Bracts, bracteo-

les and leaf-apices are with sharp spines. Very

often a parasitic plant Striga gesnerioides is

found growing on roots on this species.

flowers: January-March.

2. Lepidagathis prostrata Dalz., in Kew

Journ. Bot. 2: 138, 1850; Dalz. & Gibs. 190;

FBI 4: 518; Cooke. T. 2: 395 (2: 473); Lisboa,

219.

This species is included here on the autho-

rity of Lisboa.

Nilgirianthus Bremekamp

1. Nilgirianthus reticulatus (Stapf) Bremek.,

in Mat. Mon. Strob. 173, 1944; Santapau, in

Mem. 41 & FI. Khandala. ed 3, 197.

Strobilanthus reticulatus Stapf in Kew Bull. 1894:

347, 1894; Cooke, T. 2: 366 (2: 442); Puri &

Mahajan, 129.

Very common and abundant, often grega-

rious in large clumps, on open grounds and

on grassy slopes. Very showy plant when in

bloom.

flowers : November-December.

Rhinacanthus Nees

1. Rhinacanthus nasuta (Linn ) Kurz. in

Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 39: 79, 1870; Santa-

pau, Memoirs, 92 & FI. Khandala, ed. 3, 210.

Justicia nasuta Linn. Sp. PI. 16, 1753; Graham,

164.

R. communis Nees, in Wall. PI. As. Rar. 3: 109,

1832; FBI 4: 541; Wight, Icon. i. 464. 1843;

Dalz. & Gibs. 194; Cooke, T. 2: 415 (2: 494).

A rare species along the ghats in partially

shaded places but conspicuous due to its leaf-

less condition when it has numerous white

flowers.

flowers: November- April.

local name: Gajakarni.

Rostellularia Reichenb.

1 . Bracts linear; white hairs on bracts not jointed.

78

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR-6

R. procumbens

1 . Bracts elliptic-ovate; white hairs on bracts

jointed R. mollisima

1. Rostellularia procumbens (Linn.) Nees,

in DC. Prodr. 11: 351, 1841; Santapau, FI.

Khandala, ed. 3, 209.

Justicia procumbens Linn., Sp. PI. 15, 1753; FBI

4: 539; Cooke, T. 2: 412 (2: 491); Santapau.

in Memoirs, 90, Puri & Mahajan, 129.

Rostellaria procumbens Nees, in Wall. PI. As. Rar.

3: 101, 1832 (non Gaertn., 1791); Dalz. & Gibs.

193.

A rare herb in waste-lands and along road-

sides.

flowers: July-October.

local name: Karambal.

2. Rostellularia mollisima (Nees ex Wall.)

Nees ex DC. Prodr. 11; 373, 1847.

Justicia simplex D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nepal. 118,

1825; FBI 4: 539; Cooke, T. 2: 441 (2; 490);

Puri & Mahajan, 129. (non Rostallularia sim-

plex Wt., 1850).

Rostellaria mollisima Nees. in Wall. PI. As. Rar.

3: 101, 1832.

Common annual herb among grasses on

rocky ground. Very often the plants are seen

growing on old broken walls.

flowers : August-November.

Rungia Nees

1 . Bracts dimorphic R. pectinata

1 . Bracts all similar R. repens

1. Rungia pectinata (Linn.) Nees, in DC.

Prodr. 11: 469, 1847; Wight, Icon. t. 1547,

1850; Santapau, in Memoirs. 77; Puri & Maha-

jan, 129.

Justicia pectinata Linn., Amoem. Acad. 4 : 299.

1759; Graham, 165.

R. parviflora Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI. 195, 1861

(non Nees, 1832); Birdwood, 21; Lisboa, 219.

R. parviflora var. pectinata Clarke, in Flora Brit.

Ind. 4: 550, 1885; Cooke, T. 2: 400 (2: 478).

Common herb along roadsides and in open

grounds.

flowers: October-March.

2. Rungia repens (Linn.) Nees, in Wall. PI.

As. Rar. 3: 110, 1832; Dalz. & Gibs. 196;

Wight, Icon. t. 465; FBI 4: 549; Birdwood,

21; Cooke, T. 2: 402 (2: 480); Lisboa, 219.

Justicia repens Linn., Sp. PI. 15, 1753; Graham.

165.

This species is reported here on the autho-

rity of Lisboa. We have not seen it at Maha-

baleshwar and there is no specimen in any

herbaria from the area under study.

Phaulopsis Willd. emend. Spr. (nom. cons.)

Graham (1839) and Puri & Mahajan (p.

129) have reported Phaulopsis dorsiflora

(Retz.) Santapau from Mahabaleshwar. We

have not seen this species at Mahabaleshwar

or in any of the herbaria consulted. The report

of its occurrence at Mahabaleshwar seems to

be persisting due to the mention of Ruellia

imbricata in Graham’s catalogue for which

he gives a vernacular name ‘Waiti’. T. Cooke,

in FLORA OF PRESIDENCY OF BOMBAY cites Ruellia

imbricata Vahl as synonym of present taxon,

whereas Rev. Fr. Santapau, in memoirs (1951)

as well as in fl. khandala ed. 3 (1967) cites

Ruellia imbricata Forsk. as the synonym of

this taxon. What aggrevates the nomenclatural

confusion further is that Ruellia imbricata of

Graham has been cited in synonymy of the

present species as well as in the synonymy of

Thelepaepale ixiocephalus (Benth.) Bremek.,

in fl. khandala ed. 3, by Rev. Fr. Santapau,

probably because it is called ‘Waiti’ in

Khandala.

Thelepaepale Bremek.

Thelepaepale ixiocephalus (Benth.) Bremek.,

in Mat. Mon. Strob. 188, 1944; Santapau, 399.

1962 & Fl. Khand. ed. 3, 198.

Strob:lanthes ixiocephalus Benth.. in Flora 32: 557,

1849; Birdwood, 21; Cooke. T. 2 : 372 (2 : 448);

Puri & Mahajan, 129.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

S. neesiana Wight, Icon. t. 1523, 1850; Dalz. &

Gibs. 188; Lisboa, 219.

S. glutinosa Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 162, 1839

(non Nees 1832).

Ruellia imbricata Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 162,

1839 (non Roxb. 1832).

Common shrub along forest borders.

flowers: October- June.

local name: Warti.

Thunbergia Retz. (nom. cons.)

1 . Flowers axillary, solitary or in pairs (rarely up

to 6) white T. laevis

1 . Flowers in racemes, coloured 2

2. Flowers yellow T. mysorensis

2. Flowers blue or purple or lilac

T. grandiflora

1. Thunbergia laevis Nees, in Wall. PI.

As. Rar. 3: 77, 1832; Santapau & Panthaki, in

Joum. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 500, 1956.

T. fragrans auct. (non Roxb., 1795); Graham, Cat.

Bombay PI. 163, 1839, Dalz. & Gibs. 183; Cooke

T. 2 : 342 ( 2 : 417); Santapau, Memoirs 8.

(Omnes pro parte tantum).

T. fragrans var. laevis Clarke, in FI. Brit. India,

4: 391, 1884.

Common climber among bushes.

flowers: July-December.

2. Thunbergia grandiflora (Roxb. ex Rottl.)

Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 34, 1832; Graham, 163;

Wight, Icon. t. 872, 1845; Dalz. & Gibs. Suppl.

70; FBI 4: 392; Santapau, in Memoirs, 9.

Flemingia grandiflora Roxb. ex Rottl. in Ges.

Natur. f. Neue Schr. 4: 202, 1803.

A cultivated climber occasionally grown in

gardens. Flowers purplish-blue, showy.

flowers: September- April.

3. Thunbergia mysorensis T. Anders, in

Journ. Linn. Soc. London, 9: 448, 1867; FBI

4: 393; Birdwood, 20; Cooke, T. 2: 342 (2:

417).

Hexacentris mysorensis Wight, Icon. t. 871, 1845;

Dalz. & Gibs. 183; Bot. Mag. t. 4786, 1854.

Rarely cultivated in gardens.

flowers: December- January.

Verbenaceae

1 . Inflorescence with the lowest flowers opening first

(centripetal) 2

2. Fruit a one-seeded pyrene 3

3. Flowers sessile, in spikes Lantana

3. Flowers pedicellate, in racemes. .Duranta

2. Fruits 2-seeded pyrenes Priva

1 . Inflorescence cymose, centrifugal 4

4. Leaves digitate Vitex

4. Leaves not digitate, simple 5

5. Corolla regular; stamens

equal Callicarpa

5. Corolla irregular, 2-lipped; stamens

didynamous Clerodendrum

Callicarpa Linn.

1. Callicarpa tomentosa (Linn.) Murr., in

Linn. Syst. Veg. ed. 13, 130, 1774; Meeuse, in

Blumea 5: 71, 1942; Santapau, 399, 1962 &

310, 1963; Puri & Mahajan, 130.

Tomex tomentosa Linn. Sp. PI. 172, 1753.

C. lanata Linn. Mant. 2: 331, 1771; Graham, 156;

FBI 4: 567; Birdwood, 22; Cooke, T. 2: 423

(2: 502); Talbot, 2: 345.

C. eana Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay FI. 200, 1861 (non

Linn. 1753); Markham, 385; Cooke, T. 649;

Lisboa, 220.

Common shrub, rarely attaining height of a

small tree, found generally on way to China-

man’s Falls and Lodwick point. Very beauti-

ful tree during flowering season when it pro-

duces purple flowers and the leaves are coated

with white woody tomentum, which is easily

detachable in the form of felt.

flowers: December- April.

local name: Yesur.

Clerodendrum Linn.

1. Clerodendrum serratum (Linn.) Moon,

Cat. 46, No. 386, 1824; Graham, 157; Dalz. &

Gibs. 200; Wight, Icon. t. 1472, 1849; FBI

4: 492; Cooke, T. 651 & 2: 432 (2: 512);

Birdwood, 22; Talbot 2: 359; Puri & Mahajan,

130.

80

FLORA OF MAFIA BALESHW A R-6

V olkameria serrata Linn. Mant. PI. 90, 1767.

Shrub occasionally, found among the under-

growth of forests mostly in sunny situations,

j Light purple flowers and sharply serrate

: leaves render identification of this species

i easy.

flowers : J uly-September.

local name: Bharang.

Duranta Linn.

1. Duranta repens Linn., Sp. PI. 637, 1753;

Bailey, Man. Cult. PI. 843, 1949; Santapau,

FI. Khandala, ed. 3, 215.

Duranta plumieri Jacq., Select. Stirp. Amer. Hist.

1S6. t. 176, f. 76, 1763; Dalz & Gibs, suppl. 70;

FBI 4: 560 — (in note); Cooke. T. 2: 437

(2: 518).

Common hedge plant all over Mahabaleshwar.

flowers & fruits: May-June.

local name: Duranti.

Lantana Linn.

1. Unarmed trailing shrubs L. montevidensis

1 . Armed, erect or straggling shrubs

L. camara var. aculeata

1. Lantana camara Linn. var. aculeata

(Linn.) Moldenke, in Torreya 34: 9, 1934;

Bailey, Man. Hot. 842, 1949; Santapau, FI.

Khadala, ed. 3, 211.

Lantana aculeata Linn. Sp. PI. 627, 1753; Graham,

156, Dalz. & Gibs, suppl. 68; Lisboa, 220; Talbot

2: 344; Bor, Man. Ind. For. Bot. 300, 1953.

L. camara auct. (non Linn., 1753) : C. B. Clarke,

in Flora Brit. Ind. 4: 562, 1888 (in note);

Birdwood. 22; Cooke. T. 2: 419 (2: 498); Puri

& Mahajan. 130.

The plant was an introduction from Tropi-

cal America as an ornamental garden plant.

But now it has thoroughly established itself all

over the country, and in many parts of Maha-

rashtra it is a serious pest, generally forming

very dense and often impenetrable thickets.

Scratches caused by spines on the stems often

cause septic wounds and ulceration of

skin. At Mahabaleshwar, so far, the plant does

not appear to be so wide-spread as to be a

nuisance.

flowers: Throughout the year.

local names: Ghaneri, Tantani.

2. Lantana montevidensis Briq. in Ann.

Conserv. Jard. Bot. Geneve 7-8: 301, 1898;

Bailey, 842.

Lippia montevidensis Spr., Syst. Veg. 2: 751, 1825.

A trailing shrub, cultivated as an ornamental

at Bhilar Estate.

flowers: November.

Priva Adans.

1. Priva leptostachya (Linn.) Juss., in Ann.

Mus. Paris 7: 70, 1806; Dalz. & Gibs. 198;

FBI 4: 565; Birdwood, 22; Cooke, T. 2: 422.

(2: 502).

Streptium asperum Roxb., Cor. PI. 2: 25, t. 146,

1798; Graham. 154. (non Priva aspera H.B.K.,

1817).

Phryma leptostachya Linn. Sp. PI. 601, 1753.

This species is reported by Birdwood from

Kate’s point and Luisa point. We have not

seen any authentic specimen from Maha-

baleshwar.

Vitex Linn. f.

1 . A large deciduous tree V. leucoxylon

1 . An evergreen shrub 2

2. Margins entire V . negundo var.

negundo

2. Margins serrate V. negundo var.

incisa

1. Vitex leucoxylon Linn, f., suppl. 293,

1781; Graham, 156; Dalz. & Gibs. 201; FBI 4:

587; Cooke, T. 2: 430 (2: 510).

Wallrothia leucoxylon Roth., Nov. PI. Sp. 319.

1821; Wight, Icon. t. 1467, 1850.

This species has been reported by T. Cooke

from Koyna Valley below Mahabaleshwar. We

have not seen it on the plateau, nor have we

seen any authentic specimen from the area

under study.

81

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

2. Vitex negundo Linn. Sp. PI. 638, 1753;

Wight, Icon. t. 519, 1842; FBI 4; 583; Cooke,

T. 649 & 2 : 428 (2 ; 508); Lisboa 220; Bird-

wood, 22; Talbot 2: 353; Puri & Mahajan,

130.

V. bicolor Willd., Enum. Hort. Berol. 600, 1810;

Dalz. & Gibs. 201.

V. trifolia Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 155, 1839

(non Linn., 1753).

A common evergreen shrub or a small tree,

cultivated as a hedge plant. It is also found

wild near villages. This species is locally re-

puted as a cure for arthritis.

flowers: Throughout the year.

local names: Nirgudi, Lingar.

3. Vitex negundo Linn. var. incisa (Lamk.)

C. B. Clarke, in FI. Brit. India 4: 584, 1885;

Birdwood, 22.

V. incisa Lamk. Diet. 2: 611. 1788; Bot. Mag. t.

364, 1797.

V. negundo f. intermedia Pei. Mem. Sci. Soc. China

1(3): 105-106, 1932.

V. negundo var. intermedia (Pei) Mold.. Revist.

Sudam. Bot. 5: 3, 1937 & Phytologia 6: 16, 1957.

This variety is quite common as a hedge

plant and it could be distinguished from its

typical variety due to its serrate margined

leaves.

flowers: Throughout the year.

local name: Katri Lingar.

* Premna nimmoniana Graham, Cat. Bombay

PI. 155, 1839; Cooke, T. 2: 427 (2: 507)

(Doubtful and unknown species).

"Table lands, Mahabaleshwar and on way

to Rotunda Ghat, leaves alternate” Graham.

The identity of this taxon by Graham which

remained doubtful for so many years mainly

due to the non-availability of Dr Murray’s

specimens, is cleared by Dr D. J. Mabberly

(BOTANY AND HISTORY OF HORTUS MALABARICUS,

edited by K. S. Manilal. p. 88, 1980). His

comments on the identity of the species and

the new combination is produced below:

"This is a description of the Goora or

Kal-goora, collected by Dr Murray. I can find

no specimen at Kew or British Museum

(Natural History). Indeed, the identity of

Murray is obscure: Mr Desmond commented,

"In the 1930s there were two Murrays on the

Bombay Medical Establishment, both assistant

surgeons; James Murray at the convalescent

Hospital, Mahabaleshwar and Andrew Murray

serving with a European Regiment.” I have

no idea what happened to the collections.

Nevertheless, the tree described is clearly that

currently known as Nothopodytes foetida (Wt.)

Slender, which therefore needs a new name:

Nothopodytes nimmoniana J. (Graham)

Mabberly.”

Labiatae

1 . Perfect stamens 2 Salvia

1 . Perfect stamens 4 2

2. Stamens decimate 3

3. Attachment of nutlets basal, at the base of

the calyx 4

4. Lower lip of corolla deflexed, boat-

shaped or saccate, much longer than the

upper lip 5

5. Calyx equally 5-toothed

Plectranthus

5. Calyx very oblique. 2-lipped

Anisochilus

4. Lower lip of corolla, declinate, flat,

hardly longer than upper lip. . .Ocimum

3. Attachment of nutlets dorsal Lavandula

2. Stamens erect, spreading or ascending 6

6. Corolla lobes 4; stamens equal or sub-

equal 7

7 . Calyx 5-partite. lobes plumose; stamens

inserted Colebrookia

Calyx 5-toothed, segments not plumose;

stamens exserted 8

8. Leaves whorled Eusteralis

8. Leaves opposite Pogostemon

6. Corolla 2-lipped; stamens didynamous. . . .9

9. Upper pair of stamens longer. . . .Nepeta

9. Lower pair of stamens longer 10

10. Calyx 1 3-nerved Micromeria

82

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR-6

10. Calyx 5-10 nerved 11

1 1 . Upper lip of corolla short,

nearly flat Anisomeles

1 1 . Upper lip of corolla

hooded 12

12. Upper lip of corolla densely

woolly Leucas

12. Upper lip of corolla not

woolly Scutellaria

Anisochilus Wall.

1. Anisochilus verticiliatus Hook, f., in FI.

Brit. India 4: 629, 1885; Cooke, T. 2: 451 (2:

532); S. K. Mukerjee, in Rec. Bot. Surv. India,

14(1): 59, 1940; Puri & Mahajan, 130.

A rare species at Mahabaleshwar, known

from only one collection. Corolla of this speci-

men is described as dirty white, whereas corolla

in typical plant is pale blue.

flowers: October.

Anisomeles R. Br.

1 . Flowers white or creamy yellow; leaves mem-

branous, glabrous or sparsely hairy A. heyncana

1 . Flowers reddish purple; leaves thick, pubescent or

woolly A. indica

1. Anisomeles heyneana Benth., in Wall. PI.

As. Rar. 1: 59, 1830; Dalz. & Gibs. 210; FBI

4: 672; Birdwood, 22; Cooke, T. 2: 460 (2:

543); Mukherjee, 152; Puri & Mahajan, 130.

A common shrub along forest paths. Leaves

emit strong odour of essential oils.

flowers : October-February.

local name: Chandhara.

* N. C. Majumdar (l.c.) seems to have accepted this

genus for species with verticillate leaves, based

on the comments of Bakhuizen van der Brink and

van Steenis ( Taxon 17: 235-6, 1968) that Euste-

ralis Rafinesque (fl. tellur 2: 95, 1836) is the

existing synonym of Dysophylla sens, auct., based

on Eusteralis pumila (Graham) Rafin. (Basionym:

Mentha pumila Graham, 1828). Secondly, com-

plete omission of reference to the Taxonomic Treat-

ment of species of Dysophylla by S. K. Mukherjee

[A revision of the Labiatae of the Indian Empire,

in Rec. bot. Surv. India 14(1), 1940], suggests that

Majumdars studies are neither based on critical

work on Indian material nor he has well surveyed

2. Anisomeles indica (Linn.) O. Kuntze,

Rev. Gen. PI. 2: 512, 1891; Mukherjee, 152.

Nepeta indica Linn. Sp. PI. 799, 1753.

A. ovata R. Br., in Ait. Hot. Kew. ed. 2, 3: 364,

1811; Graham, 153; Dalz. & Gibs. 210; Wight,

Icon. t. 865, 1845; FBI 4: 672; Birdwood, 22;

Cooke, T. 2: 461 (2: 543); Puri & Mahajan, 130.

Ajuga disticha Roxb., Fl. Ind. 3: 2, 1832; Cooke,

T. 651, 1885.

A rare species at Mahabaleshwar.

flowers : August-October.

local name: Gopali.

Colebrookea Sm.

1. Colebrookea oppositifolia (Poir.) Smith,

Exot. Bot. 2: 111, t. 115, 1805; FBI 4: 642:

Birdwood, 22; Cooke, T. 2: 459 (2: 541);

Talbot 2: 365; Mukherjee, 84; Puri & Mahajan,

130.

Escholtzia oppositifolia Poir., Diet, suppl. 5: 663,

1817.

C. tenuifolia Roxb., Cor. PI. 3: 40, t. 245, 1819;

Graham, 150; Dalz. & Gibs. 209; Cooke, T. 649,

1885; Lisboa, 220.

Common in clearings of forest and also along

forest paths.

flowers: January-March.

local names: Bhaman, Bamni.

*Eusteralis Rafin.

1 . Plants less than 25 cm. tall E. tomentosa

1. Plants over 30 cm. tall E. tomentosa

var. gracilis

the literature on the subject, but has based on a

few remarks available in taxon, and on personal

communications and presumptions.

Following J. D. Hooker (fl. brit. India 4 : 640,

1885), Majumdar has reduced Mentha pumila Gra-

ham (Edinb. New Phil. Journ. 393, 1828) to the

varietal rank of Dysophylla crassicaulis Benth.

(Wall., PI. As. Rar. 1: 30, 1830). However in

pumila-crassicaulis complex, M. pumila Graham has

priority. Since earlier authors consider them as allied

varieties, we propose a new combination for D.

crassicaulis Benth. as: Eusteralis pumila (Graham)

Rafin. var. crassicaulis (Benth.) comb. nov.

83

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

1. Eusteralis toinentosa (Dalz.) Majumdar,

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 385, 1978.

Dysophylla toinentosa Dalzell, Hook. Kew Journ.

2: 337, 1850; Dalz. & Gibs. 208; Keng. Gard.

Bull. Straits Settlm. 24: 71, 1969; K. N. Gandhi,

in FI. Hassan Dist. 500, 1976.

A common herb, often gregarious in drying

ricefield and along water courses. When the

plant is in bloom the whole ground covered

by this plant looks like a mat of bright purple

colour from a distance.

flowers: November-January.

According to Keng (l.c.), Bentham, while

describing this species, used basionym Mentha

stellata Lour. (fl. cochinch. 2: 361, 1790)

for this species, which is a distinct species.

Therefore Bentham’s name becomes superflu-

ous for this taxon and has to be rejected.

2. Eusteralis tomentosa (Dalz.) Mazumdar,

var. gracilis (T. Cooke) comb. nov.

Dysophylla stellata var. gracilis (Dalz.) T. Cooke,

in Fl. Pres. Bombay 2: 458. 1906; Mukherjee 81.

D. gracilis Dalz., in Hook. Kew Journ. Bot. 2 :

337. 1850; Dalz. & Gibs. 208; FBT 4: 641; Cooke

T. 651; Birdwood. 22.

D. erecta Dalz.. in Kew Journ. Bot. 2: 337. 1850:

Dalz. & Gibs. 208; FBI 4: 641.

This is the more common variety at Maha-

baleshwar, growing in the same habitat as that

of typical variety, from which it differs in hav-

ing slender habit sometimes reaching to 2-3

feet in height. We follow Dr S. K. Mukherjee.

who in his monograph on labiatae of Indian

empire considers it as a variety of D. stellata

Benth., which is the superfluous name of the

typical variety.

iMvandula Linn.

1 . Lavandula gibsoni Graham, Cat. Bom-

bay PI. 149. 1839; FBI 4: 631. Birdwood, 22;

Cooke. T. 2: 451 (2: 533-4); Mukherjee, 64.

L. pcrrottetii Benth.. in DC. Prodr. 12: 147, 1848;

Dalz. & Gibs. 206; Santapau. Fl. Purandhar.

108, 1958.

L. lawii Wt., Icon. t. 1439, 1850. IF

There is one specimen of this species in [

Blatter Herbarium collected by Asrana from \

Mahabaleshwar. We have not seen this plant ^

on the plateau. However, it is quite common j|]

between Wai and Panchgani. Asrana’s speci- $

men might have come from that ghat on his (p

way to Mahabaleshwar. p

flowers: February.

local name: Nivale. j,

Leucas R. Br.

1 . Calyx mouth oblique 2

2. Calyx smooth L. I ini folia

2. Calyx villouse within L. cephalotes

1 . Calyx mouth straight 3

3. Calyx teeth slender, ciliate. 10 mm. long or

longer L. ciliata

3. Calyx recurved, very short. 5-9 nun. long

L. stelligera

1. Leucas ciliata Benth., in Wall. PI. As.

Rar. 1: 61, 1829; Dalz. & Gibs. 211; Lee, 625;

FBI 4: 687; Cooke, T. 651, 1885 & 2: 471 I

(2:554); Birdwood. 23; Puri & Mahajan, 130;

Santapau. 298. 1963.

Very common and abundant herb along

road-sides in exposed lands.

flowers: September-March.

local names: Bhurumbi, Bhuram.

2. Leucas cephalotes Spreng. Syst. 2: 743,

1825; Graham, Cat. 153; Dalz. & Gibs. 211;

FBI 4: 689; Wight. Icon. t. 337, 1840.

A rare species at Mahabaleshwar in partially

shady places.

flowers: October-November.

3. Leucas lavandulaefolia J. Smith, in Rees,

Cycl. 20; No. 2, 1819; Mukherjee. 67: Santa-

pau. Fl. Khandala. ed. 3, 219.

L. linifolia Spreng... Syst. 2: 743. 1825; FBI 4: 690;

Cooke. T. 2: 465 (2: 548).

Rare herb in cultivated fields. More promi-

nent after harvests of crops.

84

FLORA OF MAH A BALESHW AR-6

flowers: September-November.

local name: Goma.

4. Leucas stelligera Wall, ex Benth., in

Wall. PI. As. Rar. 1: 61, 1829; Dalz. & Gibs.

211; Lee, 625; FBI 4: 686; Cooke, T. 651,

1885 & 2: 470 (2: 553-4); Lisboa, 220; Bird-

wood. 23; Mukherjee 177; Puri & Mahajan,

130; Santapau. 401, 1962.

A very common and abundant weed all over

in open ground.

flowers: October-May.

local name: Goma.

Mentha Linn.

Mentha spicata Linn. Sp. PI. 576, 1753.

Mentha viridis Linn. Sp. PI. ed. 2, 804. 1763; FBI

4: 647; Cooke. T. 2: 475 (2: 559).

This also is cultivated for its scented leaves.

local name: Pudina.

Micromeria Benth.

1. Micromeria capitata Benth., in DC.

Prodr. 12: 218; 1848; FBI 4: 649; Birdwood,

23; Woodrow, Joum. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

12: 362, 1899; Cooke, T. 2: 459 (2: 542);

Mukherjee, 97.

M. matcomiana Dalz.. in Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay

FI. 209. 1861; Cooke, T. 651. 1885; Lee. 625:

Lisboa, 220.

A rare endemic species found abundantly

near Yenna Lake.

flowers: April.

Ocimum Linn.

1. Ocimum sanctum Linn. Mant. 1: 85,

1767; Graham, 147; Dalz. & Gibs. 204; FBI

4: 609; Cooke, T. 2: 439 (2: 521).

Commonly cultivated in front of Hindu

houses as a sacred plant. Occasionally found

growing wild in waste-lands.

flowers: Throughout the year.

local name: Tulas.

Plectranthus L’Herit

1 . Annuals. 30-60 cm. tall; calyx with minute red

glands; stamens exserted P. stockii

1 Perennials, 1-2 metre or more tall; calyx without

red glands; stamens included P. japonicits

1. Plectranthus japonicus (Burm. f.) Koid-

zumi, in Bot. Mag. Tokyo, 43; 386, 1929;

Santapau & Wagh, Bull. Bot. Surv. India 5(2):

107.

Scutellaria japonica Burm. f., FI. Ind. 130. 1768.

P. coesta Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. FI. Nepal. 117,

1825: FBI 4: 619; Cooke. T. 2 : 447 (2 : 529);

Mukherjee, 44.

P. menthoides Benth.. in Wall. PI. As. Rar. 2:

17. 1830; FBI 4: 620.

Occasional, along roadsides in open grounds,

near streams and on forest fringes.

flowers: December- June.

2. Plectranthus stocksii Hook. f„ in FI.

Brit. India, 4: 618 1885; Cooke, T. 651 & 2:

446 (2: 528); Mukherjee. 43; Puri & Mahajan.

130; Santapau, 400. 1962.

P wightii Graham. Cat. Bombay PI. 148. 1839;

(non Benth.. 1831); Dalz. & Gibs. 205: Birdwood

22.

Fairly common and abundant along road-

sides in shady places and among the under-

growth in the forests.

flowers : September-October.

Pogostemon Desf.

I . Shrubby perennials 2

2. Stems glabrous P. benghalensis

2. Stems pubescent or villose . . . P. parvif torus

I . Annual herbs 3

3. Bracts linear-oblong; corolla tube

included P. myosuroides

3. Bracts lanceolate; corolla tube exerted 4

4. Leaves with rounded

bases P. auricularia

4. Leaves with acute

bases P. salicifolia

1. Pogostemon auricularia (Linn.) El-Gazar

& Watson. Taxon, 16: 186. 1967.

85

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Dysophylla auricularia Blume, Bijdr. 826, 1825;

Graham, 150; Wight, Icon. t. 1445, 1850; FBI

4: 638; Cooke, T. 2: 457 (2: 538-9).

Mentha auricularia Linn., Mant. PI. 81, 1767.

This species is reported here on the autho-

rity of Graham, who mentions it from Maha-

baleshwar. According to T. Cooke, Graham

might have mistaken Dysophylla salicifolia

Dalz. for this taxon.

2. Pogostemon benghalensis (Burm. f.)

Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI. 529, 1891; Santapau, FI.

Khandala, ed. 3, 217.

Origanum benghalense Burm. f., FI. Ind. 128, t. 38,

f. 3, 1768.

P. plectranthoides Desf., Ann. Mus. Natl. Hist.

Nat. 2: 156, t. 6. 1808; Dalz. & Gibs. 207;

Bot. Mag. t. 3238, 1833; FBI 4: 632; Cooke.

T. 2: 453 (2: 536).

Common all over the plateau on exposed

rocky ground.

flowers : December- April.

3. Pogostemon myosuroides (Roth.) El.

Gazar & Watson, in Taxon, 16: 186, 1967.

Dysophylla myosuroides Benth., in Wall. PI. As.

Rar. 1: 30, 1830; Dalz. & Gibs. 208; Lee, 625;

Cooke. T. 651 & 2: 456 (2: 538); Birdwood.

22; FBI 4: 638; Puri & Mahajan, 130.

Mentha myosuroides Roth., Nov. PI. Sp. 257, 1821.

A rare species in wet places and along

watercourses.

flowers: January.

4. Pogostemon parviflorus Benth.. in Wall.

PI. As. Rar. 1: 31, 1829; FBI 4: 632; Cooke,

T. 2: 453 (2: 536); Birdwood, 22; Mukherjee,

68; Puri & Mahajan, 130.

P. purpuricaulis Dalz., in Hook. Kew Joum. Bot.

2: 336. 1850; Dalz. & Gibs. 207; Cooke. T. 649.

1885; Lisboa. 220.

P. frutescens Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 149, 1839.

A shrub in partially shaded places along

forest borders.

flowers: December- April.

local names: Phangli, Pangli.

Salvia Linn.

1. Salvia plebeia R. Br., Prodr. 501, 1810;

Dalz. & Gibs. 209; FBI 4: 655; Cooke, T. 651,

1885 & 2: 474 (2: 557); Birdwood, 23;

Mukherjee, 111; Puri & Mahajan, 130.

A rare species at Chinaman’s falls and in

the Hindu Cemetery near Yenna Lake in moist

ground.

flowers : December- April.

local name: Birambola.

Scutellaria Linn.

1. Scutellaria discolor Coleb., in Wall. PI.

As. Rar. 1: 66, 1829; Dalz. & Gibs. 210; FBI

4: 667; Lee, 625; Birdwood, 23; Mukherjee,

146.

S. indica Blume, Biidr. 839. 1826 (non Linn., 1753);

Graham. Cat. 152.

This species is reported by Graham from

Mahabaleshwar, Graham mentions colour of

the flowers to be white which makes the identity

of Graham’s plant rather doubtful. We have

seen this plant elsewhere only in blue-purple

flowers. We have neither seen this at Maha-

baleshwar or in any herbarium, nor collected

it from the localities under study.

(to be continued )

86

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION

OF BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY-29

Muscicapidae

(Muscicapinae, Pachycephalinae)

Humayun Abdulali

[Continued from Vol. 80(2) : 369]

1124 specimens of 75 species and sub-

species are dealt with in this part. The last

bird handled is Register No. 26338. Mr. Eric

D’Cunha, Research Assistant at BNHS has

continued to help on a whole time basis.

1402 Rhynomyias brunneata nicobarica

Richmond (Great Nicobar) Olive Flycatcher

8:627

2 9 9 Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar.

Measurements on p. 104.

EL. Muscicapa striata striata (Pallas)

(Netherlands) European Flycatcher

4:233 1 ? 1 o?

Isle of Wight, U.K.

4 birds from the Isle of Wight were marked

as Muscicapa grisola ( striata ) with a J. L.

Bonhote Coll, label. In one instance the label

had been accidentally transferred to a speci-

men of M. sibirica (with no other label) but

has now been put back on to a striata with no

label. The coir stuffing as in the other three

and also a piece of red thread on the leg,

present only in one other from the same place,

confirm the error.

Measurements on p. 104.

1403/1404 Muscicapa striata sarudnyi (East-

ern Iran and Transcaspia) Spotted Flycatcher

2 : 202

24:933499 11 o?

2 R. Tanhat, Yemen; 1 Fahama, Baghdad, 2 Basra,

1 Shaiba, 2 Feluja, River Euphrates, 1* Sheikh Sand,

1* Fao, Persian Gulf ; 1 Hajarganj (27° 28 N, 66

10' E) Baluchistan; 1 Chitral Sanatorium, 1 Gilgit,

1 Karachi, Pakistan; 1 Sakesar, Saharanpur, Punjab;

2 Bhuj Fort, 3* Manjal, Nakhatiana dist., Kutch;

1 Dhari, Amreli dist., 2 Dwarka, Okhamandel,

1 Victoria Park, Bhavnagar, Kathiawar.

5 marked (*) are slightly darker above and

marked neumanni by Salim Ali and Ticehurst

but this race is now synonymised with

sarudnyi.

Measurements oil p. 104.

1405 Muscicapa sibirica gulmergi (Baker)

(Gulmerg, Kashmir) Kashmir Sooty Flycatcher

2:205

23: 15 3 3 (4 juv.) 3 9 9 (1 juv.) 5 o?

1 7500'. Baradam; 1 Chitral; 1 Gilgit; 1 Mogul

Maidan, Kishtwar, 1 Yusmarg, 2 Lidar Valley, 1

Kashmir; 10 Simla; 1 Garhwal, Kumaon; 1 Bhutan

Duars; 1 Sulor, S. Tibet; 1 Nyaunggyo, Prome dist.;

Burma; 1 no data.

The bird from Burma was marked cacabata

by Salim Ali many years ago, but this has

been cut out and replaced by gulmergi by

Ticehurst.

In ind. hand. (7, p. 143) reference is made

to M. latirostris being separable from sibirica

by the latter’s folded wing almost reaching the

tip of the tail as against a larger gap of 15 mm

in latirostris. In specimens available, this

character holds good for the subspecies sibi-

[511]

87

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

rica and cacabata only, the gaps being 4.5 to

8.8 mm, av. 6 and 8 to 8.5 mm respectively,

but 8.5 to 25, av. 15.4 in gulmergi. The pink-

ish-buff inner webs of the tertials referred to

in the key on p. 140 (l.c.) in all races of

sibirica and the distinctly broader bill in lad-

rostris appear to be more certain characters

between the species.

Measurements on p. 104.

1406 Muscicapa sibirica cacabata Penard

(Nepal) Nepal Sooty Flycatcher 2:205

2: 1 $ 1 o?

1 Gedu. West, 1 Shamgong, Central Bhutan.

Both show darker above than gulmergi and

the nominate form.

c? No. 25183 from Shamgong, has the bill

bent over, showing an unusual curve.

Measurements on p. 104.

EL. Muscicapa sibirica sibirica (Gmelin)

(Lake Baikal) Siberian Sooty Flycatcher

7:3$$ (1 juv.) 3 $ $ 1 o?

All Temple of Heaven, Peking, China

(Major H. A. Walton, 1901). This race with

the greater amount of white on the underparts

is more easily distinguishable than the others.

The specimens also appear larger than sug-

gested by the measurements.

Measurements on p. 104.

1407 Muscicapa latirostris Raffles (Sumatra)

Brown Flycatcher 2:248

45: 18 3 3 16 $ 2 11 o?

1 Solon, 1 Bhagat State; 1 Koti State, Simla Hills;

1 Gujiri, Dhar State; 1 Bigwar, Indore; 1 Waghai.

Surat Dangs; 1 Bombay City, 1 Kihim. Alibag. 2

Khandala, Maharashtra; 4 Karwar, 1 Alanki, N.

Kanara; 1 Bangalore, 1 Kolar, 1 Margimatta, Sagar.

Karnataka; 1 Thattakad, North, 1 Rajanpara, 1

Merchistan (Ponmudi), South Travancore; 1 Cheran-

godu, Chcrambadi; 1 Kottamalai, Gudalur. Nilgiris;

1 Point Calimere, Tanjore Dt., Tamil Nadu; 1

Chitteri Range; 1 Kala Vaghu. Shri Harikota:

2 Sheshachalam Hills, S. Cuddapah, 1 Nallamalai, 1:

S. Kurnool; 1 Lamasinghi, 1 Upper Sileru. Vizaga- I

patnam; 1 Bamboo Flats, 1 Chirria Tapu, 1 Betapur, Vat

1 Long Island, M. Andamans, 2 S. Andamans; 2 Isf

Car Nicobar; 1 Camorta, Central Nicobars; 1 Nar- mir

condam Island; 1 Singapore ; 3 Temple of Heaven, 1 1

Peking, China. Pot

The birds show considerable variation in ’

the amount of grey and white on the under-

parts, but with the material available it is not (N

possible to isolate any group. Koelz (JBNHS

43, p. 16) draws attention to these variations

and rightly says that it will only be possible 8k

to understand their significance when breeding

material is available. 2 No. 4158 from Thatta- C.

kad, N. Travancore, collected on 3 Feb., 1933 3

has the bill noticeably smaller than in all the br

others. In some, the legs and feet have dried

pale brown, but most are dark contra yellow

in muttui. While it is accepted as a winter

visitor over most of India, there are breeding

records in peninsular India. Perhaps there is a

resident and a migrant race, but suitable series

must be available to decide if they are different.

Measurements on p. 104.

1408 Muscicapa muttui muttui (La yard) (Pt.

Pedro, Ceylon) Brownbreasted Flycatcher

2:251

13:6 33 3 22 4 o?

4 Molem. Goa; 1 Gersoppa (Jog Falls), Shimoga

dt.; 1 Saklespur. Hassan dt.. Karnataka; 1 Wynaad;

1 Thattakad, 1 Urumbikera Reserved Forest, Mun-

dakayam. 1 Merchistan (Ponmudi). South Travan-

core; 2 Point Calimere. Tanjore dt, Tamil Nadu;

1 Ceylon.

Two specimens of M. latirostris were includ-

ed with this species. Apart from other differ-

ences the black, contra, yellow, legs are

distinctive.

Measurements on p. 105.

1409 Muscicapa ruficauda Swainson (India=

Kashmir) Rufoustailed Flycatcher 2 : 250

88

[512]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECT ION -29

iiai. 15: 5 3$(1 juv.) 6 9 9 4 o?

?a- 1 Chitral Sanatorium, 1 Chitral, Pakistan; 2 Lidar

L Valley, 1 Dachigam, 1 Naglal, 3 m. below Yusmarg,

- I seven miles below Yus, near Chasm-i-Sherif, Kash-

* mir; 1 Gama-Ki-hatti. Dharni State, 1 Patiala State,

" 1 Kufri, Koti State, 4 Simla. N. W. Himalayas; 1

Ponmudi, (Merchistan) S. Travancore.

in Measurements on p. 105.

t 1410 Muscicapa ferruginea (Hodgson)

(Nepal) Ferruginous Flycatcher 2:206

j 2 o?

"■ 1 Sima. Upper Burma; 1 6000’ Mt. Victoria,

If Burma.

i{ Sp. 391 from Mt. Victoria, collected by K.

■ C. Macdonald is marked “Shot off nest with

o 3 set eggs. Nest of moss on fork of horizontal

le branch 30 ft up on bank of stream 13-5-06”.

d Measurements on p. 105.

1

iV

1411 Muscicapa parva parva Bechstein

r (Thuringerwald) Western Redbreasted Fly-

' catcher 2:210

3 62 : 40 3 3 1 8 9 9 4 o?

s (a) 5 3 3 with dark rufous on breast;

1 Bahawalpur: 1 Bharatpur: 2 Satara. Maharashtra;

1 Baghowni, Bihar.

(b) 18 3 3 with a little rufous on breast;

1 Chitral; 1 Patiala State. N. W. Himalayas, 1

; Lalru, 4 Ambala, 1 Ladwa, Kanal dt., Punjab; 1

Delhi, 1 Hamnabad, 1 Bahawalpur; 1 Lakput, Kutch,

1 Karaghoda. Gujarat; 1 Nasik, 1 Ambernath.

Kalyan, 1 Nagotna. Kolaba. 1 Pt. Calimere, Tamil

Nadu; 1 no data.

(c) 39: 17 3 3 in 9 plumage. 18 9 9 + 4 o?

All in similar plumage.

1 Chitral Drosh, Pakistan; 2 Simla. N. W. Hima-

layas: 1 Ladwa, Kanal dt.. 1 Ambala, Puniab; 2

Delhi: 1 Hamavas Lake, Pali dt., Jodhpur, 1 Bharat-

our, Raiasthan; 1 Bahawalpur town environs; 1

Dalkhonia, Amreli Dist., 1 Khoda, Pacham Is., 1

Dholavira, Khader Is., 1 Lakhput, Kutch; 1 Jambu-

ghoda, Gujarat; 1 Pandwa, 1 Laschoti. Surat Dangs,

Gtiiarat; 1 Kuno, Gwalior State, 1 Mathar, Narbada

Valley, C.T.; 1 Sonwani. Balaghat Div., 1 Chota

Dongar, Bastar. C. P.; 1 Nasik. 1 Pali Hill. Bandra.

1 Khandala. 1 Pancheani. 1 Mehda, Satara, Maha

j rashtra; 1 Anantgiri, 1 Uoper Sileru, Visakhapatnam.

1 Badrama. Bamra. 2 Koira. Bonai. 1 Ranipathar.

Phulbani dt., Orissa; 3 Meerut, 1 Cawnpore. 1 Phili-

bit Terai, U.P.; 1 Lodrai, C. Bhutan; 1 North

Cachar.

Measurements on p. 105.

1412 Muscicapa parva albicilla Pallas

(Dauria) Eastern Redbreasted Flycatcher

2:211

32: 18 3 3 10 9 9 4 o?

(a) 10 3 3 with rufous chin and throat:

I Cawnpur; 1 Phulbani. Orissa; 3 Shillong. Assam;

5 Temple of Heaven, Peking, Chma.

(b) 1 3 with little rufous on chin: 1 Madhubani,

Bihar.

(c) 21 : 7 3 3 in 9 plumage, 10 9 9 4 o?

1 Murbad Road, Kalyan. Bombay; 1 Molem, Goa;

I N. Kanara; 1 Bhanuprattapur. Kanker; 1 Sonwani,

Balaghat. C.I.; 2 Baghowni. Darbhanga, Bihar; 1*

Monayx (C. M. Inglis, Dec. 1903 — Kumaon); 1

Ghazipur, U.P.; 1* Dibrugarh, 1 Shillong, Assam;

1 Narcondam Is.; 1 N'Krang, Upper Burma ; 1

Pankuang, 1 Nathmaw, Prome, Burma ; 6 Temple

of Heaven. Peking, China.

Some of the identifications have been guided

by notings of earlier workers, as also the geo-

graphical position of the places where obtained.

Those marked * may well be parva.

As admitted by almost all previous workers

in Tndia, it is impossible to separate the young

males and females of nominate parva and

albicilla-, even some of the males in full plum-

age are difficult to name, for they are badly

damaged on the breast having been

placed in shallow drawers in which the feathers

were rubbed off when pulled open. The deeper

colour of the upperparts of albicilla is not

always visible for many have no doubt faded.

It is also very doubtful if birds from Tndia

accepted as albicilla arc the same as those

from Peking which, though going back to

1901, have their chins a pale orange rather

than the chestnut of Indian birds, birds of

the soviet union, VI, p. 126, refers to the

“gular spot less bright with dimensions narrow-

er. sometimes in form of longitudinal stripe”.

f5131

89

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

This factor does not appear to have been re-

ferred to in Indian literature but shows in

some of the males from Peking.

In addition, the Peking birds all have notice-

ably smaller bills, a character I have used in

separating Indian birds as of this race, though

they are not quite so small. On these differ-

ences the Chinese birds are easier to separate

from those named albicilla from India, than

several of the latter from those under parva.

The fact that eleven specimens of six other

species M. rubeculoides, M. latirostris, M.

hyperythra, M. hodgsoni and M. subrubra and

Rhyacornis fuliginosa were registered as

parva may be an indication of the confusing

position.

Measurements on p. 105.

1413 Muscicapa subrubra Hartert & Stein-

bacher (Ceylon) Kashmir Redbreasted Fly-

catcher 2:212

7: 4 $ $ (1 * juv.) 2 9 9 1 o?

2 Dachigam, 2 Kashmir; 1 Koti State; 1* Bum-

thang, E. Bhutan; 1 Pt. Calimere. Tamil Nadu.

In addition to the dark rufous chin and

upper breast of the males being bordered

black, the wing formula of 2nd primary being

shorter than or equal to the 7th (which is

shorter than the 6th) appears to be consistent.

The key in ind. handbook 7, p. 139 requires

that the 2nd primary in subrubra should be

shorter than the 6th, but this character is

shared with parva, and as indicated earlier, it

should also be shorter than the 7th. It is cor-

rectly stated on p. 139 Joe. cit. that the 2nd

primary is equal to or shorter than the 7th.

while in parva it is invariably longer. I had

examined the matter earlier (JBNHS 71, p.

502), but inadvertently reversed the facts.

We have no juvenile parva for comoarison

but the specimen from Bumthang (10 October

1973) in addition to extending its distribution

further east than so far recorded, is very dark

and has an almost black tail. Of the two

females. No. 23727 from Dachigam has no

rufous in front, while No. 16810 from Koti

State has an appreciable amount of rufous

on the chin and breast, and is marked by A. E.

Jones “Ovaries much enlarged. This is the first

female personally noted in male plumage”.

Measurements on p. 105.

1414 Muscicapa strophiata strophiata (Hodg-

son) (Nepal) Orangegorgeted Flycatcher

2:208

lire

ant

"PI

noi

or:

ch:

in

Sir

tin

36: 21 $ $ 12 9 9 (1 juv.) 3 o?

1 Kufri, 1 Kalka, Koti State; 1 Tara-Devi, Patiala

State, 1 Baghi Bushahr, 2 Simla; N. W. Himalayas;

1 Deoban. Jaunsor, Kumaon; 2 Sandakphaw, 1 so

Longview, 1 Tongloo, Darjeeling, 1 Rinchinpong. »

West, 1 Rangpo, 1 Martam, Rongni Valley, Sikkim;

2 Chimakothi, West, 3 Batase, 1 nr. Tongsa, 1 Sham-

gong, Central, 3 Deothang, 3 Gomchu, 2 Rongtong,

2 Bumthang. East Bhutan; 1 Ratana, 1 Dening, cc

Mishmi Hills; 1 Kangpokpi. 1 Bishenpur, Manipur; 1[

1 Mt. Victoria, Burma.

In 1939 Koelz described another series of

new races from “Asia chiefly from India”

and this included emphonia of this species from

Kulu, Kangra Dist. and Arsu, Punjab, Chaura

and Serahan, Simla Hills, which he said were

generally paler, except for the throat. Whistler

commenting on these races (JBNHS 43 p. 34)

accepts this as definitely paler than those from

the Eastern Himalayas. In ind. handbook 7

p. 158 and synopsis (1982) this is synony- i

mised with the nominate race. The first seven c

(3d'd'4 9 9) in the above list do have

their upperparts a paler brown than in all

the others, and among them No. 16805 from

6600 ft. Simla marked adult 9 , is a very

pale rufous or light brown on the chin, neck t

and breast and shows no grey below as in

the others.

If No. 16805 from Simla is representative of

a resident population, and the others are non-

90

[514]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION-29

breeding migrants then it is certainly different

and deserves recognition. The paleness of the

upperparts may be due to fading.

The seven eastern females have grey and

not black chins, within a very small and pale

orange gorget. Excluding the very pale bird

(16805) the two western females have the

gorget as dark as in the males as also a black

chin and throat. No. 3916 $ juv. from Darjee-

ling is spotted like other flycatchers and the

Simla bird is probably an undescribed imma-

ture phase.

Measurements on p. 106.

1415 Muscicapa monileger monileger (Hodg-

son) (Nepal) Himalayan Whitegorgetted Fly-

catcher 2:244

1 9 Kalaktang, Western Arunachal Pradesh.

In addition to the rufous on the forehead

contra white in the next (1416), the tail

appears to be more rufous than in that form.

Measurements on p. 106.

1416 Muscicapa monileger leucops (Sharpe)

(Shillong) Assam Whitegorgetted Flycatcher

2:245

3 9 9

1 Miao, 2 Embiong, Tirap. Arunachal Pradesh.

Measurements on p. 106.

1417 Muscicapa hyperythra hyperythra

Blyth (Darjeeling) Rufousbreasted Blue Fly-

catcher 2:217

28: 18 $ $ (3 by plumage) 8 9 9 2 o?

1 Dakuri, Kumari; 1 Shama, Chembo 7000' S.

Tibet; 5 Gedu, 2 Honka, West, 4 Mangdechu, 3

Shamgong, 2 Tama, Central Bhutan; 1 Goma Re-

serve. Goalpara; 1 Dening, Lohit Valley; 4 Marghe-

rita, Assam; 1 Miao, 2 Hombill Camp, Tirap div.,

Arunachal Pradesh; 1 Mt. Victoria, Burma.

The blue of the upperparts fades away in a

few years. It is deepest in No. 26318 dated

8 Dec. 1981 from Hornbill Camp.

Measurements on p. 106.

1418 Muscicapa hodgsonii (Verreaux)

(Chinese Tibet-Paohing, Eastern Sikang) Rusty-

breasted Blue Flycatcher 2:216

6: 3 $ $ (one in 9 plumage) 1 9 2 o?

1 Kurseong, Darjeeling; 1 Chamakothi, West, 2

Shamgong, 1 Tama, Central Bhutan; 1 Mindon

Yoma, Thayctmyo, Burma.

Measurements on p. 106.

1419 Muscicapa westermanni collini Roths-

child (Nepal, Darjeeling) Western Little Pied

Flycatcher 2 : 224

3: 2 $ $ 1* o? (juv.)

1 Chahala Simlipal Hills, Orissa; 1 Pilibhit Terai,

U.P.; 1* Dhanaulti, Mussoorie.

The two males cannot be distinguished from

those of the next form (1420) and the identi-

fication is distributional. The unsexed juvenile

(26 June, 1974) with the usual spotting of

flycatchers is quite different from the juvenile

of the next race, being lightly spotted with

greyish white on a greyish background while

the other is more heavily spotted with rich

ochraceous. The absence of both white in the

tail and of black and white in the wing suggests

a female. The primaries in the juvenile of the

next form Sp. No. 4028 are black with the

outer edges to the tertiaries marked with white.

The base of the black tail is white. This may

well be the difference between the male and

female juveniles but the first is unsexed and

the latter collected at Shillong by Stuart Baker

is marked 9 ! The specimens and literature

available do not permit any further remarks.

Measurements on p. 106.

1420 Muscicapa westermanii australorientis

Ripley (Phou Kobo, Laos) Eastern Little Pied

Flycatcher 2 : 224

21 : 14 $ $ (3 by plumage), 7 9 9 (1 juv.)

1 near Phuntsholing. West, 3 Tama. 2 Batase,

[515]

91

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Central. 4 Rongtong, 1 Gomchu. East Bhutan; 1

Goma Reserve, Goalpara; 1 Sadiya. 1 Margherita,

2 Shillong, Assam; 2 Miao, Tirap Div., Arunachal

Pradesh; 1 Bagho Bahar, Cachar; 1 N. Shan

States, 1 Kamaing, U. Burma.

See remarks under 1419 regarding juvenile

marked 9 in plumage resembling cf.

Measurements on p. 106.

1421 Muscicapa super ciliaris superciliaris

Jerdon (Ajunta, N. Ghats) Whitebrowed Blue

Flycatcher 2:221

41 : 27 $ $ (2 juv. by plumage) 10 9 9 4 o?

1 Dalhousie. 16 Simla, 2 Almora, Himachal Pra-

desh; 1 Ambala. Punjab; 1 Mussoorie. 1 Pandu-

keshwar, 1 Terguji, Narayan, 2 Ramni. 2 Lamba-

thach. 1 Yoshinath. Garhwal. 1 Dakuri. Kumaon,

U.P.. 2 Darba, 1 Kameli, Bailadila. 1 Chota Dongar*,

Bastar; 1 Sonawani, Balaghat, C. P.; 1 Raipur. Mel-

ghat. 1 Chikalda. Berar; 1 Molem, Goa; 1 Shankra-

metta* Vizagapatnam. A.P.; 1 Mahendragiri. 1

Koiva (Bonai), 1 Orissa. * missing.

Two chicks in juvenile plumage (1st June

and 18th July) have the basal portion of the

outer tail feathers white, a character presum-

ably restricted to the male, though 9 15857

from Ambala also has half of the outer tail

feather white. 9 15857 referred to above is

one of the three with blue on the tail. After

the spotted phase the male acquires blue on

the tail which spreads upwards, finally reach-

ing the head. The number of specimens is in-

sufficient to table these changes date-wise.

Measurements on p. 107.

1422 Muscicapa superciliaris aestigma Gray

(Nepal) Little Blue-and-White Flycatcher

2: 223

3: 1 ^299

1 Salumba. S. Tibet ; 1 Mangdechu. Central Bhutan;

1 Naga Hills.

The male lacks the white eye stripe and

the white at the base of the tail feathers. The

females are smaller than those of the nominate

form. Biswas (JBNF1S 59. pp. 810-812) dis-

cusses the validity of the name aestigma and

relevant matters.

Measurements on p. 107.

lbs

1423 Muscicapa ieucomclanura leucomela- "

nura (Hodgson) (Nepal, Central Hills) Western

Slaty Blue Flycatcher 2 : 219

15: 7 $ $ 4 99 4 o? (1 juv.)

1 Yusmarg, 1 Maw Padar, Kishtwar; 4 Kashmir;

2 Simla, 1 Kufri, Koti State, 1 Kalka, 1 Bhagat "

State, 1 Chandigarh. 1 Thanesa, Kamal Dist., 1

Ambala, Punjab, 1 Darbhanga. Bihar.

Measurements on p. 107.

M<

Iri

1 424 Muscicapa leucomelanura minuta

(Hume) (Mount Tongloo, Sikkim) Eastern $

Slaty Blue Flycatcher 2:219

10: 4 $ $ 6 9 9 of

1 Bhutan Duars; 1 nr. Phuntsholing, 5 Gedu, 1

Honka. West Bhutan; 1 Kaziranga, Assam; 1 Firm 1

Base. Tirap Div., Arunachal Pradesh.

Measurements on p. 107. oi

V

1425 Muscicapa leucomelanura cerviniven-

tris (Sharpe) Manipur Slaty Blue Flycatcher

2:220

1 5 (by plumage) Mt. Victoria. -

Measurements on p. 107.

1426 Muscicapa sapphira sapphira (Blyth)

(Darjeeling) Sapphireheaded Flycatcher 2: 225 1

12: 9 $ $ (1* missing) 3 9 9 (2 by plumage, f

1 missing).

1 Longview T.E.. Darjeeling; 1 Kalijpora, 1 Ber-

rick. 1 * Pershoke, 1 * Martam, Rongni Valley, 3 (

Rangpo. Sikkim; 1 Gedu. West Bhutan, 1 Marghe- (

rita. Assam; 1 Deban Dist. Arunachal Pradesh; 1

Htawgaw, U pper-Burma.

Of the 8 available males only one from

Htawgaw, Upper Burma is in adult plumage,

c? No. 4035 from Darjeeling has the chin

darker than in the others. Nos. 25193 and

26338 from Deban, Arunachal Pradesh and

West Bhutan, doubtfully sexed have their

92

[516]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION-29

breasts paler orange-rufous and have been put

down as females in which the upper and lower

parts are different from subadult males. The

absence of the only definitely sexed female

prevents any decisions.

Measurements on p. 107.

1427 Muscicapa nigrorufa (Jerdon) (Nil-

giris) Black-and-Orange Flycatcher 2: 253

19: 13 3 5 (2 juv.) 6 2 2

2 Honnametti T. E., 2 Bellaji, Billigirirangan Hills;

3 Avalanche, 1 Naduvattam, 1 Mullumund, 2

Marappalam, 1 Upper Bhavani, Nilgiris; 2 Munnar,

Travancore; 3 Kodaikanal, 2 Shembagnur, Palnis.

2 c? c? from the Nilgiris (one marked ad.

<$) have their heads and wing-coverts olive-

brown as in the females and unlike the black

of the adult males. All six females have the

tertiaries finely bordered with rufous, a charac-

ter missing in the young males. The dry bills

of the females and the young males appear to

be less black than in the males.

Measurements on p. 107.

1428 Muscicapa grandis grandis (Blyth)

(Darjeeling) Large Niltava 2 ; 257

27: 18 3 3 (2 juv.) 9 $ 2

1 Sipuri, Nepal; 1 Kurseong, 2 Jorepothi, Darjee-

ling Dt.; 2 Temi, 1 Rinchinpong, West, 1 Ringli.

| Ringliot, Sikkim; 3 Shamgong, 2 Batase, 1 Gangli-

pokti, 1 Mangdcchu. Central, 1 Wamrong, 1 Rong-

tong. 1 Deothang, East Bhutan; 2 Margherita,

Assam; 1 Miao, 1 Embiong. 1 Hornbill Camp, Tirap

Div., Arunachal Pradesh; 1 Kohima, Nagaland; 1

Kangpokpi, Manipur; 1 Guilang, N. Cachar; 1 Mt.

Victoria, Burma.

Almost all the males show slight white tips

to their under tail-coverts forming white bars

in some. ind. handbook (7: 176) refers to the

belly being purplish black, but this colour is

not visible in any of the specimens, the most

recent having been obtained two years ago.

Measurements on p. 108.

1429 Muscicapa macgrigoriae macgrigoriae

(Burton) (Himalayas, restricted to Western

Himalayas) Western Small Niltava 2: 260

5:433 1 2.

1 Mandal, Chameli, Garhwal; 2 Ranibagh,

Kumaon; 2 Longview Tea Estate, Darjeeling,

Bengal.

The material available is barely separable

into a pale and a dark race, but has been

divided on geographical grounds. The juvenile

was listed in M. rubeculoides and is appreciably

darker above than the females.

Measurements on p. 108.

1430 Muscicapa macgrigoriae signata (Hors-

field) (Assam) Eastern Small Niltava 2: 260

19: 10 3 3 (2 by pi.) 6 2 2 3 o? (1 juv.)

3 Singtam, Teesta Valley, 1 Pershoke, 1 Koalij-

hora, 1 Sikkim; 1 Bhutan Duars, 1 Honka, West, 1

Shamgong, 1 Tama, Central, 4 Deothang, Eastern

Bhutan; 2 Margherita, 1 Sadiya, Upper Assam; 2

Laisong, N. Cachar.

Of six fairly recent males from Bhutan

some show darker and others paler both above

and below.

The original description applied to a female

only and no attempt was made to compare

it with the nominate form with which Stuart

Baker synonymised it without comment.

2 No. 4264 collected by Dr. H. N. Coltart

at Margherita Assam on 28th November 1901,

the oldest female specimen in the collection

is more rufous, both above and below, than

any of the others, the rufous of the tail ex-

tending over the back and head.

Measurements on p. 108.

1431 Muscicapa sundara whistleri (Tice-

hurst) (Murree) Western Rufousbellied Niltava

2:259

11: 6 3 3 (1 juv.) 4 2 2 1 o? (juv.)

5 Koti State, 3 Simla; 1 Dhanaulti, Mussoorie, 1

Panibagh. 1 Mornaula. Kumaon, Naini Tal Dist.,

U.P.

[5171

93

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

This form is said to differ from the nominate

by the paler underparts of the male and the

paler under and upperparts of the female.

It also differs from sundara by the smallness

of the bill which appears more noticeable than

is suggested by the actual measurements.

c? No. 7246 from Mornaula, Kumaon, (5th

Oct. 1934) has the underparts as deeply colour-

ed as sundara but the bill is smaller, and in

keeping with 2 No. 16950 from the same area.

Measurements on p. 108.

1432 Muscicapa sundara sundara (Hodgson)

(Nepal) Eastern Rufousbellied Niltava

2: 259 (part)

30: 11 $8 (2 by pi.) 17 2 2 2 o?

1 Shema Chembo, S. Tibet; 2 Moraghat forest,

Duars, Jalpaiguri dt.; 2 Jorepothi, 1 below Sokipokv,

Darjeeling; 1 Singtam, Teesta Valley, 1 Rangpo,

1 Namring, 1 Martam, Rongni Valley, 1 Sikkim;

1 Gedu, 1 Honka, 1 nr. Phuntsholing, West, 1

Shamgong, Central Bhutan; 1 Bhutan Duars, 5 Mar-

gherita. Assam; 2 Tirap Div., Arunachal Pradesh;

1 Kangpokpi, Manipur; 1 Gora, 1 Hai Bum, Chind-

win; 1 Pumsin, 1 Mt. Victoria, 1 Dimla (?) Burma,

1 no data.

Individual females of both races show a

varyingly pale forehead made largely by the

pale or buff bases of the feathers.

Females of the nominate form also show

darker underparts than in whistleri but there

is considerable variation in the depth of grey

and the more recently collected skins are

darker both above and below. It is possible

that representative series from different places

may establish differences not yet appreciated.

See other remarks under 1431.

Measurements on p. 108.

1433 Muscicapa vivida oatesi (Salvadori)

(Muleyit) Rufousbellied Blue Flycatcher

2: 226

nil.

1434 Muscicapa concreta cyanea (Hume)

(Muleyit) Whitetailed Blue Flycatcher 2: 215

7:2$$ 5 22

6 Margherita, Assam; 1 Hai Bum, Chindwin Exp.

The two males collected in 1902 show noi

blue on the underparts, this presumably having!;

become grey. One 2 3984 from Margherita

has one blue feather on the forehead.

Measurements on p. 108.

1435 Muscicapa pallipes Jerdon (Coonoorj

Ghat) Whitebellied Blue Flycatcher 2: 2281!

18: 11 $$ (1 by plumage) 7 2 2

1 Bhimashankar. Poona, 2 Mahabaleshwar, Satara,

Maharashtra; 4 Molem, Goa; 1 Kodra, 1 Bilimani,

1 Naiti Savas, N. Kanara; 1 Bababudan Hills; 1 ,

Mercara, Coorg, Karnataka; 1 Cherambadi, Guda-

lur, Nilgiris; 1 Santhanpara, Cardamon Hills;

1 Manalur, Palnis; 1 Thekady, Periyar Lake, 1

Murchiston, Ponmudi, S. Travancore; 1 no data.

2 23580 from Mahableshwar shows an ex- 1

ceptionally hooked bill.

Measurements on p. 108.

1436 Muscicapa poliogenys poliogenys \

(Brooks) (Salbari, Sikkim Terai) Western

Brooks’s Flycatcher 2 : 247 (part)

3: 1 $ 1 2 (juv.) 1 o?

1 Sarun, 1 Jalpaiguri, Bengal; 1 Shillong.

We have no specimens to substantiate the I

statement that two populations of this sub- :

species are separated by cachar'tensis and the |

identity of this juvenile is based entirely on the |

distribution as in ind. handbook 7 p. 186/7.

See remarks under 1438.

Measurements on p. 109.

1437 Muscicapa poliogenys cachariensis |

(Madarasz) (Dhilkusha. Cachar) Eastern ;

Brooks’s Flycatcher 2 : 247 (part) i

5: 2 $ $ 3 2 2

1 Dibrugarh, 3 Margherita; 1 no data.

These are distinctly more rufous than nomi- u

nate poliogenys both above and below. The

94

[518]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION-29

bills are slightly larger than in the other races.

Measurements on p. 109.

it

HIM

nta

1438 Muscicapa poliogenys vernayi (Whist-

ler) (Sankrametta, Vizagapatam dist., Eastern

Ghats) Peninsular Brooks’s Flycatcher

22: 8 $ $ 11 $ 2 3 o?

3 Anantgiri, 5 Sankrametta, 1 R. V. Nagar, Viza-

[gapatnam, A.P.; 7 Gurguria, 2 Chahala, 1 Upper

Barakamra, Simlipal Hills, 2 Badrama, Bamra, 1

Berbera, Puri dt., Orissa.

I The blue on the upperparts in 4 c? <$ 1 $

" 2 o? is very distinctive but in the absence of

a suitable series of nominate poliogenys it is

impossible to be sure if all those without blue

I I are of this race and not immigrants.

«■ Measurements on p. 109.

k\

1439 Muscicapa unicolor unicolor (Blyth)

(Darjeeling) Pale Blue Flycatcher 2: 230

7:68$ ( 1 by pi.) 1 2 (by pi.)

1 Shamgong, 2 Tama, Central Bhutan; 1 Teju,

Lohit Valley, 3 Margherita, Assam.

iyi

TE

ft)

Only one of the series is olive-brown with

no blue and though unsexed is put down as

a female.

Measurements on p. 109.

he 1440 Muscicapa rubeculoides rubeculoides

h- (Vigors) (Darjeeling) Bluethroated Flycatcher

2: 231

33: 18 $$ (1 juv., 2 mm.) 12 2 2 (1 juv.) 3 o?

(1 juv.)

1 Shogi, Kathlighat, 3 Besantpur, Bhajji State, 1

Solon, Bhagat State, 1 Goma-ki-hatti, Dhami State,

1 Khill, Patiala State, 1 Almora, 1 Kumaon, N. W.

Himalayas; 1 New Delhi; 2 Goa; 1 N. Kanara, 1

ijj Mercara, Coorg, Karnataka; 3 Thattakad, N. Travan-

core; 3 Point Calimere, Tanjore dt., T. N.; 1 Nalla-

malai, S. Kurnool, 1 Upper Sileru, Visakhapatnam,

A. P.; 1 Baramba, 1 Orissa; 1 Baghowni, 1 Madhu-

bani, Tirhut, Bihar; 1 Tama, 2 Mangdechu, C.

Bhutan; 1 Dibrugarh. 2 Shillong, Assam; 1 Hungrum,

N. Cachar.

The specimen from New Delhi d1? No. 23771

obtained by A. J. Gaston on 21.10.1971 ex-

tended the range further westward than accept-

ed in INDIAN HANDBOOK.

Measurements on p. 109.

EL. Muscicapa rubeculoides dialilaema (Sal-

vadori) (Taho Plateau, N. Tenasserim) 2: 233

11: 5 $8 (1 imm.) 3 2 2 (1 juv.) 3 o? (1 juv.)

1 Kani, Lower Chindwin, 1 Pakokku; 2 N . Shan

States; 1 Maymyo, 1 Mt. Victoria; 1 Mindon Yoma,

1 Leindon, 1 Khayauk Chaung, Thayetmyo; 1

Ngaphaw, Pro?ne; 1 In bin, Henzada, Burma.

The differentiating character is said to be

the rufous of the breast encroaching triangu-

larly upon the blue of the chin, but this is not

an infallible character being absent in No.

4044 from Mindon Yoma, Thayetmyo (5 Feb.

1930) and present in several from Indian limits,

e.g. No. 4060 Kumaon (11 May 1902), No.

16809 Dharni State 5000’, N. W. Himalayas

(11 Sept. 1921), No. 23280 Pt. Calimere (12th

Oct. 1969), No. 24130 Valvoi, Goa (10th Oct.

1972), No. 4054 Baghowni, Bihar (26 Nov.

1902); though not accepted, some of them may

be migrants of this form. Rogersi described

by Kinnear & Robinson from the Arakan

Yomas is also difficult to identify, and I am

for the moment leaving all the Burmese birds

under the present form. Sp. 4044 from Thayet-

myo mentioned above is marked dialilaema by

Ticehurst as also two others from Inbin,

Henzada and Ngaphaw, Prome dist. When

dealing with the birds from Southern Arakan

(JBNHS 36, p. 926) Ticehurst named two

other birds from Thayetmyo (first year d

No. 4047, 7th Jan. 1930) and 2 No. 4050 (12

Jan. 1930) as nominate rubeculoides, but both

have pale yellowish rufous breasts which are

quite different from any of the others either

under 1440 or dialilaema and agree more

closely with the description of rogersi. Smythies

in birds of Burma (1953) p. 582 says a revi-

[5191

95

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

sion is required and this is still awaited.

Measurements on p. 109.

1441 Muscicapa bany uinas magnirostris

(Blyth) (Darjeeling) Largebilled Blue Flycatcher

2: 236

nil.

1442 Muscicapa tickelliae tickelliae (Blyth)

(Central India = Borabhum) Tickell’s Red-

breasted Blue Flycatcher 2 : 234

55: 36 $ $ (6 juv., 1 with spotted head) 13 2 2

6 o? (1 juv.)

1 Chanderi. Gwalior State; 1 Dalkania, Amreli dt.,

Kathiawar, 1 Cambay City, 1 Malegaon, 1 Pandura,

Surat Dangs, Gujarat; 1 Sanchi, Bhopal State; 1

Choral. Indore State; 1 Gujni. 1 Mandu, Dhar State;

l Paryat. Jubbalpore; 1 Madhmeshwar, Nasik, 1

Matheran, 1 Trombay Island, Bombay, 2 Poona, 2

Satara, 1 Ratnagiri, 1 Sawantwadi, Maharashtra; 3

Molem, I Valpoi. Goa; 1 Karwar. 1 Potoli, 1 Mok-

kigodda, 1 Kodra, 1 Alanki, 3 N. Kanara; 2 Murgi-

matta. Sagar, Mysore; 1 Begur, Manantoddy, 1

Chand Kunnu, Nilambur Valley, 1 Rajampara, 1

Maraiyur, S. Travancore; 1 Gudalur, 1 Ootacamund,

Nilgiris; 1 Mudumalai, 1 Perumalmalai Coffee

Estate Palnis; 2 Kurumbapatti; 1 Chitteri Range,

Salem dt., 1 Shevaroy Hills; 1 Lamasinghi. Vizaga-

patnam, A.P.; 1 Badrama, Bamra, Orissa; 1 Anta-

garh. Bastar. 1 Lohatter, 2 Bhanuprattapur. Kanker.

1 Sonwani, Balaghat; 1 Pilibhit Terai. 1 Bahraich,

U.P.; 1 Kausarden (?).

There is some variation in the intensity of

the blue of the upperparts, partly at least, due

to fading; on the whole the females are defi-

nitely paler.

Juvenile <S No. 4091 dated 29 August 1940

from Choral, Indore State, has a brown head

spotted /streaked with buff. The wing-coverts

are similarly marked. The blue of the upper-

parts is similar to that of 6 juvenile males

[November. December (2), January, March,

April] which are similar to the females, both

in plumage and size. Among the unsexed birds

No. 4096 from Mandu, Dhar State (9th Sept.,

1938) is also very slightly streaked on the 1

head and wingcoverts. |*PI

Measurements on p. 109.

1443 Muscicapa tickelliae jerdoni (Holds-

worth) (few miles from Colombo, Ceylon) gii

Ceylon Tickell’s Flycatcher 2: 236

nil.

Hi

1444 Muscicapa sordida (Walden) (Ceylon) 1

Dusky Blue Flycatcher 2; 241 k

1 $ Hakgalla, Ceylon.

Measurements on p. 110.

se

1445 Muscicapa thalassina thalassina bt

(Swainson) (India) Verditer Flycatcher 2; 239 fe

58: 33 $ 8 (1 spotted juv.) 17 9 2 8 o? (3 juv.) bl

I Balaish, Badrawan, Kishtwar; 9 Simla, 1 Koti

State, 2 Musscorie. 1 Yoshinath. Garhwal, 3 Almora. ^

1 Jaunsar. Kumaon, 1 Ramgarh, Nainital, N. W.

Himalayas, 1 Meerut, U.P.; 1 Vaghijipur, Mehsana “

dt., 1 Cambay City, Gujarat, 1 Chikalda, Berar, 1 l<

Geedum, 1 Amraoti, Bastar, C. P., 1 Sawantwadi. s|

Maharashtra; 1 Molem, 1 Valpoi, Goa; 1 Karwar, f

N. Kanara; 1 Mercara. Coorg, Karnataka; 1 Wynaad.

S.I.; 1 Nallamalai, S. Kurnool, 1 Sankrametta, Viza-

gapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, 1 Badrama, Bamra, 1

Keonjhargarh. 1 Gurguria. 1 Upper Barakamra,

Simlipal Hills, 1 Orissa; 1 Hathiban, Nepal; 1 Long-

view T. E., 1 Darjeeling; 2 Gedu, West, 1 Tama,

2 Batase, Central. 2 Rongtong. I Deothang, 1 Tashi- |

gong. East Bhutan; 1 Abor Country, Mishmi Hills,

1 Margherita, 1 Shillong, Assam. 1 N' Krang, Upper ^

Burma, 1 Taikmaw, 1 Prome dt., 1 Henzada dt.,

Burma; 1 no locality.

The males show variation in the extent of

shiny blue feathers on the forehead, a few

lacking them completely. Except for three or

four the females show much less blue and can

probably be separated from the males in the

field. The juveniles are brown and spotted all

over, these characters being retained lastly on

the head.

Two males from Simla bearing collector

(A. E. Jones) Nos. 61 and 62 have dark brown |

“faces” but in one the dark of the head is

96

[520]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION-29

icovered by blue feathers and the darkness

(appears to be artificially acquired.

Measurements on p. 110.

1446 Muscicapa albicaudata Jerdon (Nil-

giris) Nilgiri Verditer Flycatcher 2: 242

24: 15 $ $ 8 22 lo? (juv.)

4 Honnametti Estate, 2 Edbathi, Biligirirangan

Hills, Coorg, Karnataka; 2 Naduvattam, 2 Coonoor,

1 1 Mullumund, 1 Avalanche. Nilgiris; 1 Kodai, 2

Kodaikanal, 6 Shembagnur, 1 Palnis; 1 Anaimudi

. Peak, 1 Santhanpara, Travancore.

The key in ind. handbook (7, p. 139)

j separates the males by the white in the tail

being restricted to the basal half and the

f females with the whole plumage tinged with

blue. The white in the male tail hardly extends

1 over a third of the basal part, while the bluish

tinge in the females is barely visible. Stuart

Baker (2, p. 242) referred only to the upper

tail-coverts as blue. The key to the many

| species of Muscicapa is however a very diffi-

cult piece of work well carried out.

Measurements on p. 110.

EL. Muscicapa narcissima subsp.

3: 2 $ $ 1 $

Purchased alive in Peking (May 1901) and

later marked Muscicapa narcissima xantho-

pygia Hay.

Measurements on p. 110.

1447 Muscicapella hodgsoni hodgsoni

(Moore) (Nepal) Pygmy Blue Flycatcher

2: 237

1 3 Rangpo. 2000' Sikkim.

I measure the bill 8 mm from feathers as

against 6 mm in Stuart Baker and “c. 1 1 from

skull” in INDIAN HANDBOOK.

Measurements on p. 110.

1448 Culicicapa ceylonensis calochrysea

Oberholser (Quaymoo Choung = left bank of

[521]

Thaungyin R., latitude 17° 15' N. Amherst

dist., Tenasserim) Northern Greyheaded Fly-

catcher 2 : 254

63: 32 $ $ (2 juv.) 13 2 $ 18 o?

10 Simla, 1 Koti State, 1 Dhanaulti, Mussoorie,

2 Garhwal, 3 Almora. N. W. Himalayas; 2 Meerut,

U.P.; 1 Sanchi, Bhopal State. 1 Jubbulpore, 1 Bori

Forest, Hoshangabad. M.P.; 1 Kutch; 1 Hathidara,

Palanpur State, 1 Cambay City, Gujarat; 1 Chikalda,

Berar. 1 Antagarh, 1 Choti Dongar, 1 Bastar dt., C.

P.; 1 Sankrametta. Vizagapatnam Hills, A.P.; 2

Koira. Bonai, 2 Badrama, Bamra; 1 Chahala, Simli-

pal Hills, 1 Orissa; 1 Baghowni, 1 Darbhanga, Bihar;

1 Sarsawa, in Saharanpur. U.P.; 1 Tribani, 2 Bans

Bahari, Nepal; 1 Kewzing. 1 Rinchinpong, West, 1

Rangpo. Sikkim; 1 Tama, 1 Batase. Central, 1 Wam-

rong. 1 Rongtong, 1 Gomchu. E. Bhutan; 5 Dibru-

garh. Assam; 1 Miao, Tirap div., Arunachal Pra-

desh; 1 Loukin, 1 Loha Kaw, Chindwin Expdn.,

1 N'Krang, U. Burma, 2 Prome dt., 1 Lindon Yoma,

Thayetmyo dt., Burma; 1 Puntha Bat Watershed

5000'. China (?).

The juveniles do not differ from the adults

in colour. Ticehurst (JBNHS 31: 494) went

so far as to say they were for this reason, not

flycatchers.

The rictal bristles are not as long or as

dense as illustrated in Stuart Baker's fauna

and reproduced in Indian handbook 7, p. 202.

The last work (p. 203) suggests its breed-

ing in the Central Satpuras above 900 m (Betul

and Pachmari) “but nesting not substantiated,

and almost certainly the Eastern Ghats

(Visakhapatnam district) but summer data

entirely wanting”. The Eastern Ghats Survey

(JBNHS 36. p. 88) obtained specimens in

March and 1 noted several at Lamasinghi

during the last week in May (JBNHS 45, p.

337). The last is presumably the “almost cer-

tain evidence” for its breeding but is not

accepted as “summer data”. Later, Trevor

Price (JBNHS 76, p. 415) obtained a recently

fledged juvenile on 13th July, leaving no doubt

regarding its breeding in the area.

* Specimen No. 4218 from Puntha Bat

97

7

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Watershed 5000', was collected by Major H. J.

Walton on 28 Dec. 1900. No other data is

available but as other specimens were obtained

by him on 1 Sept. 1900 and 7 June 1901 at

Peking, China, Puntha Bat may be accepted

as somewhere in China. The specimen differs

from the others in having a 55 mm tail which

is 94.8% of the 58 mm wing. In none of the

other specimens does this proportion exceed

92% (as in one from Shillong) being usually

under 90%.

Measurements on p. 110.

only in having the eye-band blackish olive-

brown contra black in the male. Some of

the specimen of both sexes have brownish

upperparts with or without eye stripes of the

same colour, but most of the specimens are in

very poor conditions (as in several other

species of flycatchers) and it is not possible

to link these differences with size, age, date

or place of origin.

None of them can be said to be juvenile.

Measurements on p. 110.

1

(B1

uii

i -

Viz

ID'

se:

ft

wc

CO

1449 Culicicapa ceylonensis ceylonensis

(Swainson) (Ceylon) Southern Greyheaded Fly-

catcher 2: 254

9: 3 $ $ 3 $ $ 3o?

1 Longwood Shola. Kotagiri, 1 Coonoor, Nilgiris;

3 Shembagnur. 1 Kodaidinal. Palnis; 1 Maraiyur, 2

Travancore.

We have no topotypical material from

Ceylon but the birds from Southern India are

much darker both above and below than those

from further north and can presumably be

accepted as of the nominate race.

Measurements on p. 110.

1450 Rhipidura hvpoxantha Blyth (Darjee-

ling) Yellowbellied Fantail Flycatcher 2: 275

28: 17 $ $ 5 $2 6 o?

1 Simla, 1 Mashobra. Koti State. 1 Kalka. Bhagat

State. 1 Bamra. 1 Khulasa, Garhwal, N. W. Hima-

layas; 1 Labru. Ambala, Punjab; 1 Godaveri, Nepal;

1 Suiting Ba, S. Tibet, 1 Martam, Rongni Valley, 1

Darjeeling Terai; 1 Singtam. Tcesta Valley, 1 Singhik.

Sikkim; 1 Bhutan Duars. 1 Batase. 1 Shamgong, 1

Bumthang, Central. 1 Deothang. East Bhutan; 1 N.

Lakhimpur. 1 Dibrugarh, 2 Tezu, Lohit Valley,

1 Sadiya. Upper Assam, 1 Bipani, Dibong Valley.

Mishmi Valley. Assam; 1 Tipi, 1 Miao, Tirap Div.,

Arunachal Pradesh; 2 Mt. Victoria, Burma, 1 Pun-

thabat Water Shed, China.

The upperparts of both sexes are said to be

dark greyish olive and the females to differ

1451 Rhipidura aureola aureola Lesson

(Bengal) Northern Whitebrowed Fantail Fly-

catcher 2: 277

25: 12 $ $ 8 $9 5o?

tai

frc

(«

de

2 Bhung, Bahawalpur; 2 Shikahpur, Jullunder, 2

Ambala, Punjab; 2 Meerut; 1 Delhi; 1 Gwalior; 1

Cambay City environs, 1 Bodeli, Baroda, Gujarat;

1 Sanchi. Bhopal State, 1 Jubbulpore, 1 Golapalli, fl

Bastar. 2 Bhanuprattapur, Kanker C.P.; 1 Barkot, ^

Bamra, 1 Koira, Bonai, 2 Keonjhargarh, 1 Chahala,

Simlipal Hills, Orissa; 1 Kalianpur, 1 Cawnpore,

U.P.; 1 no locality.

The above have been separated largely on c

the white of the outer rectrices reaching the m

white of the undertail-coverts, but as indicated c

by Whistler in the Eastern Ghats report it is 1,1

not easy to separate all the specimens, because ^

of the poor condition of most of the skins. ^

Six of them (3 c ? cT 1 $ 2 o?) from Bodeli,

Baroda; Keonjhargarh, Simlipal Hills, Orissa

and Golapalli, Bastar, have two pairs of black

feathers in the middle of the tail, while an-

other eight (2 Shikahpur, Jullunder, 1 Bhung, 1

Bahawalpur, 2 Cawnpore, 2 Meerut, 1 Delhi) F

have brown heads not very different from the

single specimen from Burma which is really

in tatters. This bird from Burma has 2 black

central rectrices. We have no specimen in juve-

nile plumage. f

Measurements on p. 111. f

98

[5221

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION-29

1452 Rhipidura aureola compressirostris

of (Blyth) (Ceylon) Southern Whitebrowed Fan-

h tail Flycatcher 2: 277, 279

a 4: 1 3 3 9 9

^ 1 Kottayam, 1 Golf Links, Trivandrum, Kerala;

1 Seshachalum Hills, S. Cuddapah; 1 Sankrametta,

Vizagapatnam.

; No topotypes were available for comparison

; and the British Museum was good enough to

send in 2 from Ceylon and 4 from S. India

; identified as of this race by Whistler when

working out the Eastern Ghats and Travancore

collections. The character of the two central

tail feathers being black is shared with others

] from the north ( supra ) and the compressed

(wider?) bill suggested by Blyth’s original

' description is not visible.

Measurements on p. 111.

1453 Rhipidura aureola burmanica (Hume)

(Thoungyeen Valley, Tenasserim) Eastern

Whitebrowed Fantail Flycatcher 2: 278

1 3 Kerenuth, Burma.

Hume’s original description was based on a

carbolised specimen in which the tail was in

moult. The discriminating characters are very

confusing and I have already referred to speci-

mens under nominate aureola having heads as

brown as the back, the character on which

this is separated from aureola in the key in

IND. HANDBOOK (7, p. 207).

Measurements on p. 111.

1454 Rhipidura albicollis canescens (Koelz)

(Bhadwar, Punjab) Western Whitethroated

Fantail Flycatcher 2: 279 (part)

6: 4 $ $ 2 9 2

1 Kharda Ghat, Patiala State, 1 Goma-ki-hatti,

Dharni State, 1 Keonthal State, 1 Simla; 1 Mound-

khal. Garhwal, 1 Kumaon, N. W. Himalayas.

Slightly paler than other Himalayan birds

from the east. The dark portion of the rectrices

fades into the paler tip which is not sharply

demarcated white by a straight line, as in

albicollis.

Measurements on p. 111.

1455 Rhipidura albicollis albicollis (Vieil-

lot) (Bengal) Eastern Whitethroated Fantail

Flycatcher 2: 279 (part)

2: 1 9 1 o?

1 Kumbhia. Nepal; 1 Singtam, Teesta Valley,

Sikkim.

This is darker than canescens but in the

specimens obtained over a long period the

different grades of fading do not permit sepa-

ration from 1456, ( stanleyi ), and the grouping

has been done on the distributional limits in

IND. HANDBOOK.

Measurements on pp. 111/2.

1456 Rhipidura albicollis stanleyi Baker

(Abor Hills) NEFA Whitethroated Fantail

Flycatcher 2: 279 (part)

ll:4 33 4 99 3 o?

2 Dibrugarh, 1 Dening, Lohit Valley, 1 Mishmi

Hills, 1 Margherita, 1 Bahra Pari, Shillong, Assam;

1 Firm Base, Tirap Div., Arunachal Pradesh; 1

Kohima, Naga Hills, 1 Laisong. N. Cachar, 1

Mogoki, 1 N’Krang, Upper Burma.

The last specimen No. 26324 from Firm

Base, Arunachal Pradesh (Dec. 1981) is sooty

black with ashy underparts cf. various shades

of brown in the others going back to 1900.

Without fresh material it is not possible to

express any opinion.

Measurements on pp. 111/2.

1457 Rhipidura albicollis orissae Ripley

(Toda, Bonai, Orissa) Orissa Whitethroated

Fantail Flycatcher 2: 279 (part)

5: 4 3 3 1 9

1 Rosul, 1 Toda, 1 Koira, Bonai, 1 Keonjhargarh,

1 Upper Barakhamra, Simlipal Hills, Orissa.

The underparts are slightly paler than in

canescens but “the patch of buff in centre of

[523]

99

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

belly” which was the main difference for its

separation in 1955, is not now visible.

Measurements on pp. 111/2.

1458 Rhipidura albicollis albogularis (Les-

son) (Salem dist., Madras) Whitespotted

Fantail Flycatcher 2: 282 (part)

15:7 $ $ 1 9 9 (1 juv.) 1 o?

1 Cambay City environs. 1 Vaghjipur. Mehsana

dt., 1 Ajwa, Baroda, dt.; 1 Jubbulpore, 1 Chikalda,

Berar; 1 Murbad Rd., Kalyan. 2 Trombay Island,

Bombay; 1 Poona, Deccan, 1 Rajapur. Ratnagiri,

1 S. Konkan; 1 Karwar, N. Kanara, 1 Kurumbapatti,

Salem dt.. 2 Nallamalai, S. Kurnool.

The spots on the breast appear less distinct

in the cabinet specimens than in the live birds

in the field.

Measurements on pp. Ill / 2.

1459 Rhipidura albicollis vernayi (Whistler)

(Jeypore Agency) Dandkaranya Whitespotted

Fantail Flycatcher 2:282 (part)

7:6 $ $ 1 $

4 Bailadila, Bastar dt.. C. P.; 1 Sankrametta. 2

Anantgiri, Vizagapatnam. Andhra Pradesh.

This race with a broad pectoral band, the

almost complete absence of spots on the breast

and the rufous on the under belly is distinctive.

Measurements on pp. 111/2.

1460 Terpsiphone paradisi leucogaster

(Swainson) (Simla) West Himalayan Paradise

Flycatcher 2: 268

26: 17 $ $ (8 white) 9 9 9

5 Chitral; 1 Kutyara. 1 Mogul Maidan. Kishtwar;

1 Dharamsala. Punjab; 1 Keonthal State; 8 Simla,

1 Sairi. Patiala State. 1 Almora, N. W. Himalayas;

1 Guna. Gwalior State; 1 Rapur. Kutch, 1 Juna.

Rajpipla. Gujarat; 1 Molem. Goa; 1 Settihalli.

Shimoga dt.. Mysore; 2 Cherambadi, Gudalur.

Nilgiris.

The rufous males and females can be dis-

tinguished by their paler upperparts and the

former by the white of the underparts being

separated from the black of the chin in a

straight line. The white males are from their »o

accepted breeding grounds. Vaurie (1959 p.

325) states that in addition to the paler upper-

parts this has the outer web of the blackish

primaries white instead of reddish, but this is n

not consistent and may only be preliminary to ^

acquiring an all-white plumage.

Measurements on p. 112.

ib

1461 Terpsiphone paradisi paradisi (Lin- r

naeus) (Chandernagor) Peninsular Indian br

Paradise Flycatcher 2:264 (part) |

29: 18 $ $ (7 white) 9 9 9 2 o? j;

l Bijwar, Vindhyas, Indore State; 1 Songadh.

Navsari. Gujarat; 1 Rajora. C. P.; 1 Chikalda, Berar.

2 Khandala, 1 Vengurla. Ratnagiri," Maharashtra; 2

Karwar, North Kanara, I Antarsante, Mysore; 1 ft

Thatlakad. North, 1 Kumili, 1 Tenmalai, 1 Edanad.

Travancore; 1 Manalur, Palnis, 1 Kalutura, Ceylon;

2 Point Calimcre, Tanjore dt.. 3 Kurumbapatti, Salem

dt., Tamil Nadu; 1 Palkonda Hills, 1 Seshachalam ^

Hills, S. Cuddapah. 1 Sankrametta, Vizagapatnam.

A.P.; 4 Baghowni. Dharbhanga. Bihar; 1 Cawnpore. '

U.P.

Except for white male No. 4261 collected

on 16th June 1903 at Baghowni, Darbhanga

dist., Bihar, the 6 other white birds were ob-

tained between 26th Sept. (Ceylon) and 5 April c

(Sankrametta, Vizagapatnam dist.) and may ||

well be leucogaster. n

The 6 from the Eastern Ghats [4 cT cT ( 1 fi

white) 2 9 9] from Kurumbapatti, Salem

dist., to Sankrametta, Vizagapatnam, have their f

bills distinctly larger from 21.5 x 7.8 at j

nostrils to 23.7 x 9.2 compared to 4 rf1 (1 c

white 3 rufous) from Darbhanga, Bihar which 3

are 17.7 x 8.4. 20.5 x 8.2. 19.3 x 7.3, 18.7 x t

7.6. f

The last are the nearest to the type locality

(Chandernagore) available to us, and the diffe-

rence in the size of the bill is very striking.

Tt is quite possible that a series from the type

locality or any other place now accepted as

100

[5241

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION-29

in the breeding range of nominate parodist

would permit recognition of a new race.

Measurements on pp. 112/3.

1462 Terpsiphone paradisi ceylonensis

(Zarudny & Harms) (Ceylon) Ceylon Para-

dise Flycatcher 2: 264 (part)

I 2 Ceylon.

This race is separated from the others by the

absence of a fully white adult male phase. The

specimen was obtained in June, during the

breeding season and would presumably be of

this race, while a white male obtained at

Kalutura on 31 Oct. 1920 is to be accepted

as a migrant paradisi. In the single female the

underparts are also a purer white as in leuco-

guster rather than in paradisi.

Measurements on pp. 112/3.

1463 Terpsiphone paradisi saturatior (Salo-

monsen) (Buxa Duars, Bhutan) East Himala-

yan Paradise Flycatcher 2: 267

6:5 3 3 (2* white, 1 red juv.) 1 2

1 Kurseong, Darjeeling, 1* Lakhimpur, 2 Dibru-

garh, 1 Haflong. N. Cachar, 1* Kani, Lower Chind-

win, Burma.

The birds in red plumage have no prolonged

crest and in the white male it is also shorter

than in paradisi and leucogaster. In the white

male the black shafts and edges to the tail

feathers are wider and more prominent.

The white male from Kani, the type locality

of burmae, has a shorter crest and is more

heavily streaked on the upperparts than

others from the same place and is possibly

a migrant of this form. The white male

obtained in the Andamans had its tail

examined by Hume who thought it was affinis.

This may also have been a saturatior which

is presumably a migrant form.

Measurements on pp. 112/3.

1464 Terpsiphone paradisi nieobarica Oates

(Great Nicobar) Nicobar Pradise Flycatcher

2: 269

5 : 3 33 2 2 2

4 Camorta, 1 Trinkut, Central Nicobars.

When examining the Nicobar collection

(JBNHS 64, p. 183) I drew attention to

8 d d from Central Nicobars being chestnut

and four from Great Nicobar white and res-

tricted the type locality to Great Nicobar.

The chestnut birds from Central Nicobars

are very close to saturatior but have a slight

wash on the upper surface and the males pre-

sumably like Ceylon birds, and unlike satu-

ratior, do not acquire a white phase.

Measurements on pp. 112/3.

EL. Terpsiphone paradisi burmae (Salomon-

sen) (Kani, Lower Chindwin. Burma) Bur-

mese Paradise Flycatcher

2 white 3 3 Kani, Lower Chindwin. Burma.

These differ from saturatior in having a

larger crest and less streaking on the upper-

parts.

Measurements on pp. 112/3.

EL. Terpsiphone paradisi affinis (Blyth)

(Malay Peninsula and Tenasserim)

2: 1 white 3 1 9 (both by plumage)

2 M alaccc.

The male is heavily streaked with black on

the upperparts and the female is a much darker

chestnut above with no olive wash as in nico-

harica. The white (by plumage) No. 4310

was marked nieobarica by Salim Ali many

years ago.

Measurements on pp. 112/3.

EL. Terpsiphone paradisi incei (Gould)

Chinese Paradise Flycatcher

3 3 3' Temple of Heaven, Peking, China.

2 with long tails are dark chestnut above,

have a black chin followed by a grey upper

breast and whitish below. No. 4306 * marked

cf has a short tail, with paler chestnut on the

upperparts. The head is duller and the crest

[•525]

101

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

shorter, being prominent in the others.

Measurements on p. 112.

1465 Monarcha azurea styani (Hartlaub)

(Harhow, Hainan) Indian Blacknaped Monarch

Flycatcher 2: 271

66: details below.

In JBNHS 64, p. 185 I had referred to 14

females from peninsular India being greyer

above than 10 from Assam and Burma which

appeared brown. Three more females from

Goa and Kerala have been added to the col-

lection and these are very distinctly greyer

above as compared to the older skins. It is

quite probable that with fresh series from

different parts of India and Burma it should

be possible to accept Stuart Baker’s sykesi

which was to replace Sykes’s Muscicapa caeru-

leophala from Dukhun. I am for the moment

grouping them separately under styani.

(a) 15: 5 $ $ (1 in juv. plumage) 8 9 2 2 o?

1 Abor country, Mishmi Hills, 2 Assam; 1 Kani,

Lower Chindwin, 1 Kamaing, 1 Manku, North Shan

States, 2 Jobni, 1 Thayetmyo dt.; 1 Sandoway dist .;

1 Nyaunggyo, 1 Rankuang, Prome dt.. 1 Kyibirt, 1

Panktaing, Henzada dt.; 1 Burma.

(b) 51 : 27 $ $ (1 by pi. and 6 juv.) 21 9 2 3 o?

1 Dwarka, Okhamandal, Kathiawar, 1 Chikli, 1

Sarwar, Surat Dangs, 1 Songadh, Navasari dt., Guja-

rat; 2 Gondia, C. P.; 1 Kolkaz, Melghat, Berar, 1

Borivli, 1 Mulund Hills, Salsette Island, 1 Kihim.

Alibag, Kolaba dt., 1 Ratnagiri, 1 Savantwadi, Maha-

rashtra; 1 Molem. 2 Valpoi, Goa; 2 Karwar, 1

Kumta, N. Kanara, Karnataka; 1 Kottamalai, Guda-

lur, Nilgiris, 1 Begur, Manantoddy, 1 Periyar Lake

environs; 1 Maraivur, 3 Manalur, Palnis, 2 Kurum-

bapatti, Salem dt.; 2 Nallamalai Range, S. Kurnool:

1 Borgampad, 1 Nelipaka, Hyderabad; 1 Anantgiri.

Vizagapatnam. A. P., 1 Lahatter Res. Forest, 2

Bhanuoratappur, Ranker. 2 Chota Dongar, 1 Baila-

dila, Bastar. M.P.; 2 Badrama, Bamra, 1 Koira.

Bonai, 1 Tikerpada, Angul dt., 1 Rosul, Hindol.

Orissa; 2 Madhubani. 3 BaghowTii, Darbhanga, Bihar:

1 Tama, 1 Gaylegphug, C. Bhutan, 1 no data.

Males of the year (14 Oct-24 April) are like

the females but can be distinguished by the

horny contra black bills in the adults.

Measurements on p. 113.

inn

1466 Monarcha azurea ceylonensis (Sharpe) PP

(Cotta, Ceylon) Ceylon Blacknaped Blue Fly-

catcher 2: 272

2: 1 9 1 o?

1 Labugama, 1 Ceylon.

The 2 No. 4324 has the blue of the throat

equivalent to that on the head, both brighter

than in Indian birds. The unsexed bird No. \

4325 is in poor condition and it is not possible

to determine the colour of the head.

Measurements on p. 113.

1467 Monarcha azurea tytleri (Beavan)

(Port Blair, Andamans) Andaman Blacknaped

Blue Flycatcher 2: 273

9: 6 $ $ 2 9 9 1 o?

1 Landfall Island, N. Andaman; 3 Long Island,

1 Bakultala, Middle Andamans; 1 Chirria Tapu,

1 Wrightmyo, 2 South Andamans.

Measurements on p. 113.

1468 Monarcha azurea idiochroa (Oberhol-

ser) (Car Nicobar) Car Nicobar Blacknaped

Blue Flycatcher 2: 274

4: 2 $ $ 2 9 9

1 Perka. 3 Car Nicobar.

Measurements on p. 113.

1469 Monarcha azurea nicobarica (Bianchi)

(Nancowry, Central Nicobar) Nicobar Black-

naped Blue Flycatcher 2 : 273

3: 1 $ 2 o? Trinkut. Central Nicobars.

5:4 $ $ 1 9 Campbell Bay. Great Nicobars

When dealing with my first collection of

Nicobar birds (1967. JBNHS 64, p. 184) I had

referred to Great Nicobar birds being smaller

than those from Central Nicobar, and the

females being browner and less grey above. At

that time I had 15 specimen in hand, and in

the absence of any additional material. T am

unable to say anything more.

102

[526]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION-29

The 13 males from the Andaman and Nico-

bar Islands do not include any definitely sexed

immature male with blue head and brown

upperparts, i.e. in female plumage.

Measurements on p. 113.

PACHYCEPHALINAE

1470 Pachycephala grisola (Blyth) (neigh-

bourhood of Calcutta) Grey Thickhead or

Mangrove Warbler 2: 484

8: 5 8 8 3 o?

2 Landfall I., North Andamans; 1 Long Island;

2 Port Blair, 2 Chirria Tapu, 1 S. Sentinel I., S.

Andaman.

The two most recent skins from Chirria

Tapu (3rd & 5th Feb. 1980) have pale yellowish

bills and the rufous edges to the secondaries

indicate juveniles. All the birds sexed are

males. I measure the tarsi smaller and the tails

longer than in Baker’s Fauna repeated in Ind.

Handbook.

Measurements on p. 113.

[527]

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(1H measurements as in 1422)

1422 aestigma (1) 62 10 14.1 44

(TH 60-66 from skull 12-14 15-17 42-48)

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113

8

OBSERVATIONS ON THE HABITAT-DISTRIBUTION

OF ORCHIDS OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH1

Sadanand N. Hegde2

( With two plates and a text-figure)

Observations on the habitat distribution of 208 species of Orchids of Arunachal Pradesh

have yielded interesting data. Based on the variations in altitude, temperature, rainfall and

humidity along with the type of vegetation, four orchid zones have been recognised

which seem to determine primarily, the habitat of both terrestrial and epiphytic orchids.

Other factors like light and shade, phorophyte type and quality, soil pH, type and organic

content also seem to be responsible for determining the habitat and distribution of individual

species. Details are given under each zone and a list of species occurring in each of them

is given in a tabular form indicating the area of distribution of the individual species.

Competition among and between the orchid species and other associate plants appears to

be an important factor responsible for migration. Based on these observations and floristic

analysis it appears that the species of orchids from a particular region tend to migrate to

the neighbouring regions with favourable habitat conditions in a radiating pattern and the

rate of distribution is inversely proportionate to the distance of their migration.

Introduction

Arunachal Pradesh comprising an area of

83,578 sq. km lying between the parallels of

latitude 26°30' and 29°28' North and meridian

of longitude 91°36' and 97°25' East is situated

towards the extreme North-East India. This

region is considered to be one of the richest

floristic regions of the world and phytogeo-

graphically forms a meeting ground of the

Indo-Malayasian and Sino-Japanese floras

(Sahni 1979). It is a mountainous State of

the Eastern Himalayas with the altitudinal

variations ranging from 170 to 5000 m re-

sulting in varying climatic zones of hot valleys

at the foothill regions and of the snow-clad

peaks at higher elevations. It receives an annual

rainfall ranging from 700 mm to 6500 mm

1 Accepted December 1982.

2 Orchidologist, Orchid Research and Development

Centre. Forest Department. TIPI. Bhalukpong-790 114.

resulting in big and small rivers and rivulets

and therefore enjoys a humid climate through-

out the year in varying degrees. These elements

have favoured the vegetation to flourish in all

its diversity of composition.

Among the various floristic compositions,

orchids are one of the major groups found in

almost all the vegetational types. Several ex-

plorers like Bose (1940), Burkill (1924), Deb

and Dutta (1974), Panigrahi and Naik (1961),

Panigrahi and Joseph (1966), Rao and Deori

(1980 a,b) & Sahni (1969, 1979) have noted

Orchidaceae as the richest family consisting

of the maximum number of species in Aruna-

chal Pradesh. In preliminary observations on

the orchids of this territory, (Hegde

1980) listed 170 species distributed in

various vegetational types. Of late, there have

also been reports of new species and distri-

butional records from this territory (Joseph

& Rao 1979, Hegde 1981a and b, Joseph,

Hegde & Rao 1981. Jain & Das 1978).

114

DISTRIBUTION OF ORCHIDS

Although there are about 350 species of

orchids so far recorded in this territory, suffi-

cient information is not available about them,

regarding their habitat, ecology and distribu-

tion of the individual species. Therefore, in

the present communication field observations

made for the last four years on 208 species

pertaining to their habit, habitat and distri-

bution pattern have been presented and

discussed.

Material and Methods

While surveying and demarcating the areas

of occurrence of orchids of Arunaciial Pradesh,

data pertaining to the habit and habitat of

individual species and the factors like type of

vegetation, elevation, light condition, soil or

phorophyte quality and other general environ-

mental factors were noted. The temperature

and rainfall data were subsequently collected

from district Statistical Officers of the respec-

tive districts. All these data were analysed and

incorporated in Tables 2 and 3.

The soil samples of six terrestrial orchids

were analysed by the Mobile Soil Testing Labo-

ratory, Tezpur and are presented in Table 1

below:

Sessa, and properly labelled. A portion of each

specimen with flowers was processed for the

herbarium and maintained at the Orchid Her-

barium Tipi. The specimens were identified

with the help of floras and also by compar-

ing the Herbarium (ASSAM) of the Botani-

cal Survey of India, EC, Shillong.

Observations

As mentioned in the introduction, Arunachal

Pradesh is essentially mountainous with altitu-

dinal variations ranging from 170 to 5000 m,

receiving an annual rainfall ranging between

700 mm and 6500 mm. It enjoys a humid

climate in varying degrees throughout the year.

These factors have influenced the type of vege-

tation which has in turn influenced the habitat

of various orchid species. Based on the obser-

vations on the habitat and place of occurrence

in different vegetational types and altitudes with

varying temperature and rainfall, four orchid

zones have been recognised as in Table 2.

Under each of the above broad classifica-

tions, the species of orchids with that particular

habitat-requirement are found to grow in vary-

ing density. Accordingly, they have been listed

under each zone with relevant remarks on

Table 1

Analysis of terrestrial orchid soil samples

The live specimens collected were introduced habit and frequency of occurrence (Table 3).

in the Orchidarium, Tipi and Orchid Sanctuary, Certain species that occur overlappingly in

115

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Table 2

different zones under favourable habitat condi-

tions have also been included in the list sepa-

rately.

The salient features of each zone and the

habitat conditions of the species occurring in

them are given below (also see Table 3).

ZONE I

This zone is characterised by broad-leaved

evergreen vegetation with high rainfall, warm

temperature, and humidity (90 to 100%). Some

common trees (Phorophytes) that occur here

are Castanopsis Iribuloides, Terminalia myrio-

carpa, Canarium resiniferum, Artocarpus

chaplasha, Altingia exulsa, etc. Several epiphy-

tic orchids thrive well on them in abundance

(cf. Table 3). At times, as many as 20-30

species of orchids are found to occur on a

single large tree. Often these epiphytes are

found singly or in large numbers along with

other aroids and ferns. Most common ones

among them are the species of Aerides, Bulbo-

phyllum, Coelogyne, Cymbidium, Dendro-

id um, Eria, etc. It is interesting to note that

species like Cymbidium aloifolium, Dendro-

bium fimbriatum v. oculatum and D. moscha-

tum are generally found in sunny spots of the

tree-trunk, others like Aerides fieldingii, A.

multiflorum, Cymbidium pendulum, Eria flava

in partial shade conditions generally occupying

the top canopy and species like Dendrobium

cumulatum, D. aduncum, Ornithochilus juscus,

Pteroceras suaveolens in dense shade areas of

the trees or middle canopy in tropical vegeta-

tion.

Among the terrestrial orchids, Arundina

graminifolia, Goodyera procera, Spiranthes

lanceu, Spathoglottis pubescens var. parviflora

are sun-loving types invariably found in open

type of forests or sun-exposed newly cleared

areas. The former two appear in newly cleared

areas especially on earth-cut-ends, as pioneers.

On the other hand, Acanthephippium sylhetense,

Anoectochilus roxburghii var. regalis, Cymbi-

dium munronianum, etc. are shade loving types

found in damp humus soil.

ZONE II

This zone receives comparatively lesser

rains. However it is characteristically cooler

and humid. The common phorophytes in this

zone are Schima wallichii and Castanopsis in-

dica. Even the moss-covered rocks form

congenial habitat for orchids. The following two

forms of vegetation of this zone greatly

]

E:

I:

i:

K

\i

Jc

It

M

•is

Jr

fi

ft

a

ci

G

116

DISTRIBUTION OF ORCHIDS

Table 3

List of orchids occurring under each orchid zone

Following abbreviations and symbols have been used in the Table:

* - Burmese elements. S = Saprophyte.

+ = West Himalayan elements. R = Rare.

E = Epiphyte. En = Endangered.

T = Terrestrial. C = Common,

a = Zone Ila. b = Zone lib.

ZONE I:

Name of Species

Acampe

papillosa Hochr. + EC

rigida (Buch. -Ham. ex Sm.) Lindl. EC

Acanthcphippium sylhetense Lindl. TR

A erides

multiflorum Roxb. EC

odoratum Lour. + EC

williamsii Warn. EC

Agrostophyllum

brevipes K. & P. EC

Anoectochilus

roxburghii var. regalis

(Bl.) U. C. Pradhan TC

Arundina

graminifolia (Don) Hochr. TC

Bulbophyllum

capilipes par & Reichb. f. ER

clarkeanum K. & P. EC

delitescens Hance ER

*hirtum Lindl. EC

reptans Lindl. EC

sikkimense (K. &P.) J. J. Sm. EC

Calanthe

clavata Lindl. TC

Ceratostylis

teres Reichb. f. EC

Chiloschista

Ittnifera (Hook, f.) J.J. Sm. EC

Cleisostoma

*aspersum (Reichb. f.) Garay ER

filiforme (Lindl.) Garay EC

subulatum Bl. EC

Coelogyne

flavida Wall, ex Lindl. EC

*rigida par et Reichb. f. ER

Cymbidium

*aloifolium (L.) Sw. + EC

*eburneum v. parishii (Reichb. f.)

Hook. f. EEn

munronianum K.&P. TR

pendulum Sw. + EC

Dendrobium

acinaciforme Roxb. EC

aduncuni Wall. EC

*anceps Sw. EC

aphyllum (Roxb.) Fisch. + EC

*cathcartii Hook. f. EC

cumulatum Lindl. EC

fimbriatum v. occulatum Hook. f. + EC

lituiflorum Lindl. EC

*moschatum Sw. + EC

nobile Lindl. EC

terminate Par. & Reichb. f. EC

transparens Lindl. + EC

Diplomeris

hirsuta Lindl. TEN

Eria

acervata (D. Don) Handl.-Mazz. EC

* biflora Griff. EC

*flava Lindl. + EC

*fragrans Reichb. f. EC

pannea Lindl. EC

stricta Lindl. EC

Gastrochilus

*calceolaris (Sm.) Don + EC

crassilabris (K.&P.) Garay EC

dasypogon (Sm.) O. K. EC

Geodorum

*purpureum R.Br. + TC

Goodyera

procera Hook. f. + TC

Kingidium

deliciosum (Roxb.) Sweet. EC

117

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Li par is

duthiei Hook. f. + EC

longipes Lindl. + EC

plantaginea Lindl. EC

Luisia

teretifolia Gaud. + TC

trichorhiz.a Bl. EC

Malaxis

latifolia Sw. ex Rees. + TC

wrayii Hook. f. TR

M ic roper a

*mannii (Hook, f.) Tang. & Wang. EC

obtusa (Lindl.) Tang. & Wang. EC

Oheronia

iridifolia Lindl. EC

Ornithoch'lus

fuscus Wall, ex Lindl. + EC

Papilionanthe

*teres (Roxb.) Schlecht. EC

Phalaenopsis

*parishii Reichb. f. EC

Pomatocalpa

*armigerum (K. & P.) Tamg. & Wang EC

*wendlandorum (Reichb. f.) J. J. Sm. ER

Pteroceras

suaveolens (Roxb.) Holtt. EC

Rhyncostylis

*retusa (L.) Bl. + EC

Saccolabium

trichromum Reichb. f. EC

Spathoglottis

pubescens v. parviflora Lindl. TR

Trixspermum

pygmaeum (K. & P.) Holtt. EC

Tylostylis

*discolor Hook. f. EC

Vanda

coerulea Griff, ex Lindl. EEn

*coerulescens Griff. ER

Zeuxine

strateumatica (L.) Schltr. TC

ZONE II :

Acanthephippium

striatum Lindl. TR

Anthogonium

*gracile Lindl. a, TC

Arachnis

clarkii (Reichb. f.) J. J. Sm. EEn

Bulbophyllum

acutifolium Reichb. f. ER

cauliflorum Hook. f. a, EC

cylindraecum Lindl. a, EC

guttulatum Wall, ex Hook. f. a, EC

helenae (O.K.) J. J. Sm. a, EC

Icopardinum (Wall.) Lindl. a, EC

Calanthe

alismaefolia Lindl. + a, TR

bilba Lindl. a, TC

densiflora Lindl. b. TR

mannii Hook. f. + b, TC

Ceratostylis

h'malaica Hook. f. EC

*sagittiformae Garay ER

*simondii (Gagnep) Seiden. f. ER

williamsonii (Reichb. f.) Garay EEn

Coelogync

corymbosa Lindl. EC

data Lindl. + b. EC

*flaccida Lindl. EC

longipes Lindl. EC

*ovalis Lindl. + EC

*prol;fera Lindl. b, EC

schultesii Jain et Das b, EC

Cryptochilus

sanguinea Wall, a, EC

Cymbidium

devonianum Paxt. b, EREn

macrorhizon Lindl. + a, b. TSR

mastersii Grill. EC

Dendrobium

chrysanthum Wall. + a, EC

Chrysotoxum Lindl. ER

*densiflorunt Lindl. EEn

*fa!coneri Hook. f. a, EC

*farmeri Paxt. a, ER

*g!bsonii Lindl. EC

*heterocarpum Wall, ex Lindl. a, EC

*hookerianum Lindl. a, EC

longicornu Lindl. ex wall, a, EC

nobile Lindl. EC

var. schroederianum Veitch. ER

* pendulum Roxb. ER

primulinum + Lindl. ER

wardianum Warnr. a, EC

Epigeneium

amplum (Lindl.) summrh. a, EC

rotundatum Reichb. f. a. EC

Eria

*acervata Lindl. a, EC

118

DISTRIBUTION OF ORCHIDS

arnica Reichb. f. a, EC

bractescens Lindl. a, EC

connata Joseph, Hegde & Rao a, EC

coronaria Reichb. f. EC

graminifolia Lindl. a, EC

hindii summerh. a, EC

rufinula Reichb. f. a, EC

Gastrochilus

intermedins (Griff, ex Lindl.) O.K. a, EC

Gastrochilus sp. a, EC

Habenaria

latilabris Hook. f. + a, TC

polytricha (Hook, f.) U. C. Pradhan a, TC

prainii Hook. f. a. TC

* Kingidium

taeniale (Lindl.) P. F. Hunt. + a, ER

Li pans

delicatula Hook. f. EC

Luisia

inconspicua Hook. f. + a, EC

Monomeria

barbata Lindl. + a, EC

Nervilia

gammieana (K. & P.) Schltr. TC

Oberoma

anthropophora Lindl. a, ER

caulescens Lindl. EC

myriantha Lindl. a, EC

longilabris K. & P. EC

Otochilus

*fusca Lindl. EC

Phaius

maculatus Lindl. a, TC

tankervilliae Lindl. TR

Pholidota

*articulata Lindl. EC

*rubra Lindl. EC

Phreatia elegans Lindl. a, EC

Epipog:um roseum (D. Don) Lindl. SR

Thelasis

longifolia Hook. f. a, EC

Uncifera

obtusifolia Lindl. EC

Vanda

alpina Lindl. + a, ER

crist at a Lindl. + a, EC

ZONE 111 :

Bulbophyllum

eublepharum Reichb. f. EC

wallichii Lindl. EC

Cleisostoma

*racemiferum (Lindl.) Garay EC

Coelogyne

barbata Griff. E. En

*fuscescens Lindl. EC

griffithii Hook. f. ER

*nitida (Wall, ex Don) Lindl. EC

occultata Hook. f. EC

punctulata Lindl. EC

Cymbidium

elegans Lindl. E. En

giganteum Wall. E. En

grandiflorum Guill. E. En

longifolium D. Don -f E. En

Dendrobium

*jenkinsii Wall, ex Lindl. EC

Epigeneium

fuscescens (Griff.) Summerh. EC

Eria

*spicata (D. Don) Hand-Mazz. + EC

Galeola

falconeri Hook. f. + S. En

lindleyana Reichb. f. S. En

Gastrochilus

acutifolium (Lindl.) O. K. a. EC

Herminium

angustifolium Benth. TC

Li par is

bootanensis Griff, a, EC

compressa Lindl. ER

Oberonia

pyrulifera Lindl. EC

Panisea

tricallosa Rolfe, ER

Paphiopedilum

fairieanum (Lindl.) Pfitz. T. En

Pholidota

imbricata Lindl. + EC

Pleione

*praecox (Sm.) D. Don + EC

Satyrium

nepalense D. Don + TC

ZONE IV :

Bulbophyllum

retusiusculum Rchb. f. EC

Habenaria

cumminsiana K. & P. TR

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Herminium

longilobatum Hegde et Rao

ORCHIDS COMMON TO ZONE I AND II :

Agrostophyllum

*khasianum Griff. EC

Bulbophyllum

* odoratissimum Lindl. EC

*protractum Hook. f. EC

scabratum Reichb. f. + EC

Calanthe

masuca (D. Don) Lindl. TC

Chrysoglossum

crraticum Hook. f. TR

Dendrobium

* bicameratum Lindl. EC

Jenkinsii Wall, ex Lindl. EC

sulcatum Lindl. ER

Ephemerantha

*macraei Lindl. EC

Eria

carinata Gibs.

paniculata Lindl. EC

Eidonhia

influence the occurrence of orchids and their

habitat :

a) Mixed Wet Forest Belt. This forest belt

mostly remains wet and cool. Every phoro-

phyte is heavily moss-covered and forms con-

genial habitat for orchids. The epiphytic species

of Bulbophyllum, Coelogyne, Dendrobium, Eria,

are invariably found on the tree-trunks and

moss-covered rocks in exposed areas. While

species like Dendrobium densiflorum, Coelo-

gyne juscescens are generally seen in sun-

exposed areas, those of Dendrobium falconeri,

D. chrysanthum, D. wardianum, Dortis taeni-

alis, etc, are in partially exposed portions of

the phorophyte. However, Arachnis clarkii,

Cleisostoma aspersum, Cymbidium devonianum

are found under shady portions indicating their

shade requirements.

On damp forest floors full of humus and

in heavy shade Phaius mishmensis, Tainia

sp., Habenaria sp. and Calanthe alismaefolia

zollingeri (Reichb. f.) Sm. SR

Goodyera

procera Hook. f. TC

Liparis

mannii Reichb. f. EC

Malaxis

acuminata var. biloba Hunt. & Summerh. TC

khasianum (Hook, f.) O. K. TC

josephiana (Reichb. f.) O. K. TR

Nervilia

macroglossa Hook. f. TC

Otochilus

alba Lindl. EC

Phalaenopsis

mannii Reichb. f. EC

Schoenorchis

gemmata (Lindl.) J. J. Sm. EC

Sm'tinandia

*micrcntha (Lindl.) Holtt. + EC

Spathoglottis

pubescens

var. parviflora Lindl. TR

Spiranthes

lancea (Thumb, ex Sw.)

B R & V. S. + TC

are generally seen. Occasionally another ter-

restrial, viz. Acanthephippium striatum is

noticed. The most interesting saprophyte Eulo-

phia zollingeri occurs in this belt under

thickets in damp forest floor, and Epipo-

gium roseum in decomposed wood matter.

In partially exposed areas, the terrestrial

forms like Malaxis khasiana, and Nervilia sp.

are commonly seen. Rarely one comes

across another interesting saprophytic Cymbi-

dium, C. macrorhyzon on the damp humus

forest floor.

b) Mixed or Pine ( Partially dry) forest

Belt. This belt is characterised by less rain,

dry winter and is mostly inhabited by

the Pinus, Quercus and Rhododendron species.

The forest is mostly open allowing considerable

sunlight. The epiphytic orchids like Dendro-

bium fimbriatum var. oculatum, Coelogyne

el at a, C. occult at a, Eria sp.. Otochilus fusca,

Cleisostoma racemiferum are common. How-

120

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82

Hegde : Orchids of Arunachal Pradesh

Plate 1

Above: Galeola lindleyana

a giant saprophyte in its

natural habitato

Left-above: Epipogium sp.

a rare saprophyte typical

of primitive forest in

subtropical zone<> below:

Paphiopedilum fairieanum

an endangered species in

its natural habitat.

(Photos : Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82 Plate 2

Hegde : Orchids of Arunachal Pradesh

Above : A branch of Quercus tree loaded with orchids.

Below : Several epiphytic orchids on moss-covered rock in subtropical zone.

Right : A tree with several species of orchids competing with epiphytic ferns and lichens.

(Photos : Author)

DISTRIBUTION OF ORCHIDS

ever, on pine trees no orchid is generally seen

excepting Olochilus fusca which is very rarely

noticed on them. The terrestrial species gene-

rally found here are those of Habenaria and

Satyrium. The species like Calanthe densiflora

and Phaius tankervilliae are found in wet

shady and humus filled calcareous soil.

In grass land formations of this belt one of

the spectacular Orchids Paphiopedilum fariea-

num popularly known as the ‘Lost Lady Slipper

Orchid’ is found occurring in isolated patches

in rock crevices or calcareous soil along with

the members of Crassulaceae. They also occur

in association with grass in Lower temperate

zone in Pine-Quercus-Rhododendron forest

types (Hegde 1981) in sun-exposed areas.

ZONE 111

This zone, mostly inhabited by Magnolia,

Quercus, and Pinus species experiences suffi-

cient rain and hence may be considered wet.

• In winter there is frost in the form of heavy

fog and occasionally experiences snowfall for

a short period. The common epiphytes collected

in this zone are Cymbidium sp., Coelogyne sp.,

Bulbophyllum sp.. Eria coronaria, Pleione

praecox, Otochilus sp. etc. These species are

also seen growing on moss-covered rocks.

Rarely, one comes across the spectacular

Cymbidiums , i.e. C. grandiflorum and C. gig-

anleum on Quercus trees or moss-covered

rocky terrains. In the exposed terrains the

terrestrials like Calanthe mannii, Habenaria

sp. etc., grow in large numbers. The spectacular

saprophyte-Gafeo/a lindleyana with its golden

yellow flowers on 2-4 m high spikes are found

occurring in this zone in damp forest floors

on decaying wood. Another saprophyte, G.

falconeri commonly found in zone TT is also

seen occurring in this zone.

ZONE IV

This zone is snow-covered for about 5-6

months. A few terrestrial orchids like Habe-

naria, Herminium, and occasionally a species

of Bulbophyllum are found in this zone.

Floristic Analysis

Among the orchids in the present study, the

sub-tribe Sarcanthinae is the most heterogenous

group consisting of 20 genera and 39 species.

Among the genera, Dendrobium forms the

largest taxon consisting of 28 species.

A perusal of the distribution of the species

in the present context reveals that the follow-

ing species that occur in Arunachal Pradesh

are widely distributed in India, down up to

Western Ghat ranges and the Nilgiris, up to

Garhwal ranges of Himalayas in the west and

down South East up to Burma (cf. Index

Kewensis I & II and Floras viz., by Banerjee

and Thapa 1978; Duthie 1906; Grant 1895;

Hooker et al. 1883; King and Pantling 1898;

Pradhan 1976 and 1979).

1. Spirant hes lancea.

2. Rhynchostylis retusa

3. Pholidota imbricata

4. Geodorum purpureum

5. Cymbidium aloifolium

6 . Luisia tereti folia

7. Arundina graminifolia

8. Zeuxine strateumatica

The following 20 soecies are also found in

Malaya (Holttum 1964):

1. Arundina graminifolia, 2. Bulbophyllum

capillipes Par. et Reichb. f., 3. B. retusiuscu-

lum, 4. Calanthe masuca, 5. Cleisostoma subu-

latum Bl. 6. C. williamsonii, 7. Cymbidium

eburneum var. parishii, 8 . Epimerantha

macraei, 9. Eria biflora Griff.. 10. Eria pannea,

11. Eulophia zollingeri, 12. Gastrochilus cal-

ceolaris, 13. Liparis bootanensis. 14. L. com-

121

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

pressa, 15. Oberonia anthropophora Lindl., 16.

Phaius tankervilliae, 17. Pholidota articulata,

18. Rhynchostylis retusa, 19. Spirant hes lancea,

20. Epipogum roseum.

Out of the 208 species enumerated in this

paper 68 species (*) are distributed in Burma

(Grant 1895) and 46 species (+) in west Hima-

layan ranges (Banerji & Thapa 1978, Duthie

1906, Hooker et al. 1888) (Table 3).

The following 11 species also occur in

Western Ghat Ranges of South India (Santapau

& Kapadia 1966):

1. Arundina graminifolia, 2. Bulbophyllum

acutifolium, 3. Calanthe masuca, 4. Cymbidium

alofolium, 5. Gastrochilus dasypogon 6. Geo-

dorum purpureum, 7. Luisia teretifolia, 8.

Pholidota imbricata, 9. Rhynchostylis retusa,

10. Satyrium nepalense, 11. Spirant hes lancea.

It is interesting also to note that the follow-

ing elements represented here also occur in

China, (Index Kewensis Vols. I & II) : 1. Aeri-

des odoratum, 2. Bulbophyllum delitescens

(also in Hongkong), 3. Dendrobium nobile, 4.

Ornithochilus fuscus, 5. Phaius maculatus, 6.

Spathoglottis pubescens var. parviflora.

A few other species like Micropera obtusa,

Bulbophyllum leopardinum, Pteroceras suaveo-

lens, Cleisostoma subulatum are also reported

from Java.

Further, it is interesting to note that the

orchid flora of the Western part of Arunachal

Pradesh (Kameng) is to a certain extent diffe-

rent from the eastern part of the State (i.e.

Tirap). Out of the 50 species reported by

Panigrahi and Joseph (1966) from Tirap Forest

15 species are yet to be found in Kameng

District.

Discussion

From the preliminary survey made, it is clear

that Arunachal Pradesh is rich in Orchid Flora

not only in the number of species but also in

the density of occurrence (Hegde 1980a). The

altitudinal variations resulting in diverse clima-

tic conditions accompanied by varying rainfall

humidity, light and temperature (Table 2)

seem to be responsible for the rich occurrence

UT:vL‘

of orchids finding themselves in a conducive

habitat.

The habitat of terrestrial orchids depends

a lot upon the soil type (humus or dry), soil

quality, exposure (shade or sun), temperature

and rainfall. Competition for space and nutri

tion appears to be another important factor.

The species of Arundina graminifolia, Good

yera procera, etc. are found in the newly clear-

ed fresh soil areas where other plant species

have not yet migrated and do not compete

for space & nutrition. As shown in the table 1.

pH of the soil, its organic content and texture

appear to be critical factors for terrestrial

orchids. The occurrence of specific mycorhyzal

fungus in the microclimate might also influence

the habitat of the orchids. According to Case

(1962) the environmental factors that catego-

rize orchid habitats are: 1. Soil requirements

(clay, sandy or peaty, black humus), 2. freedom

from competition, 3. Mycorrhiza, 4. Acidity-

basicity, 5. Soil temperature & 6. Exposure. For

epiphytic orchids the habitat depends upon

exposure, temperature, amount of rainfall and

humidity, in addition to phorophyte quality

(Case 1962). In Arunachal Pradesh, Kataki

(1978) has noted about 15 phorophytes (host-

trees) on which orchids generally are found.

Tn the present study the common phorophytes

have been noted under each zone. However,

phorophyte specificity could not be recognised

for any species of orchids. Sanford (1974) dis-

cussing about phorophyte specificity opines

that totality of habitat is important as against

a single combination of characters like phoro-

phvte specificity. Many a times, it has also

been observed that the epiphytic orchids are

V

32*

28*

24*

20*

122

DISTRIBUTION OF ORCHIDS

k found growing profusely on moss-covered rocks

i- under suitable conditions. However, on trees

- having smooth or peeling-off -bark, orchids are

■ generally not found. Therefore, phorophyte bark

x

72

qualities such as rough or smooth, peeling or

non-peeling, resinous or non-resinous types

appear to influence the habitat of epiphytic

orchids.

e 24°

72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96°

Fig. 1. Map showing distribution pattern of species of orchids from Arunachal Pradesh.

100°

123

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

However, for both forms of orchids-terres-

trial or epiphytic the vegetational types in

which the individual orchids inhabit appear to

be important factors. Pradhan (1976) in his

book on “Indian Orchids” has out-lined five

major orchid zones based on altitudinal zona-

tions. In the present study, however, the 4 main

orchid zones as described earlier are based on

the vegetational types recognised by Rao and

Panigrahi (1961) and Sahni (1969). These

zones appear to have greater impact on deter-

mining the habitat and distribution.

In the present study it has also been observed

(Table 3) that in a particular habitat, several

species of Orchids occur. As noted in zone I,

as many as 20-30 species of orchids are found

on a single large tree, thereby suggesting com-

petition between and among the orchid species

in addition to other orchids and ferns. This

obviously results in the migration to another

congenial habitat with less competition, through

dispersal of seeds in all the favourable direc-

tions in a radiating pattern after attaining the

so called “ecological niche”. Sanford (1974),

discussing the ecology of orchids, is of the

opinion that there exists gradual short-range

and long-range dispersal mechanism which

represents the infra-structure of distribution.

Arunachal Pradesh with diverse ecological

habitat has large number of species occurring

in abundance and distributed far and wide.

This warrants one to believe that both short-

range and long-range dispersal and distribution

are in operation.

A perusal of distribution pattern of orchids

in the present study has revealed that out of

208 species studied in Arunachal Pradesh. 68

are found in Burma, 46 in West Himalayas,

20 in Malaya, 11 in South India, 6 in China,

4 in Java thereby suggesting a phytogeographi-

cal link far and wide.

While continuity of link, exists from west

Himalayas through Sikkim, a greater affinity

and link is evident towards South east along

Burma to Malaya. Towards China, however,

the snowzone of the East Himalayas might be

acting as a barrier. Possible explanation for

such a phytogeographical link and distribution

appears to be short-range and long-range dis-

persal in a radiating pattern. Further a careful

examination of the distribution pattern in the

present study reveals that the number of species

distributed is almost inversely proportionate to

the distance of their migration (Fig. 1). It

appears therefore, the species of orchids from

a particular region (say, Arunachal Pradesh

in the present context) tend to disperse and

migrate to the neighbouring regions with

favouring habitat — conditions after reaching

the so called “ecological niche” and, the rate

of distribution is inversely proportionate to the

distance of their migration.

8

ftf

'

C

of

II:

l

lo

:

[

Wi

(

h

I

/

:

Pr,

sir.

Or

lio

frt

SI)

Acknowledgements bl

fa

Grateful thanks are due to Sri E. S. Than- p

gam, TFS, Chief Conservator of Forests, Aruna-

chal Pradesh, Itanagar and Sri D. P. Borah,

TFS, Conservator of Forests, Western Circle, q,

Banderdewa for their encouraging interest and

facilities to carry out the present investigation.

Thanks are also due to the Divisional Forest

Officer, Khellong Forest Division. Bhalukpong j

for his help during the field study.

124

DISTRIBUTION OF ORCHIDS

References

Bose, K. (1940): The flora of the Aka Hills. Ind.

For. Rec. 5(1): 49-52.

Banerji, M. L. & Thapa, B. B. (1978): Orchids

of Nepal : New Delhi.

Burkill, I. H. (1924): The Botany of the Abor

expedition. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 10(1): 376-381.

Case, F. W., jr. (1962): Growing native Orchids

of the Great lakes region. Am. Orchid Soc. Bull.

31: 473-445.

Deb, D. B. & Dutt, R. M. (1974): Contribution

to the flora of Tirap Frontier Division. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 7/(2): 285-290.

Duthje, J. E. (1906): Orchids of the North-

Western Himalaya. Dehra Dun.

Grant, C. B. (1895): The Orchids of Burma.

Rangoon.

Hfgde, S. N. (1980a): Preliminary observations

and list of orchids of Arunachal Pradesh. Arunachal

Forest News 3 (3) : 1-11.

(1980b): Orchids of Arunachal

Pradesh — Their conservation and commercialization

strategies. Presented at the National Symposium on

Orchids, Bangalore. Abstract, pp. 24.

(1981a): Cultivation and Conserva-

tion of Lost-Orchid. Indian Florticulture. 24(4) : 7-9.

(1981b): Three Saprophytic Orchids

from Arunachal Pradesh. Am. Orchid Society Bull.

50(10): 1220-1222.

& Rao, A. N. (1982): Herminium

longilobatum Hegde et Rao — a new species of Orchid

from Arunachal Pradesh. Himalayan Plant-joum. (in

press) .

Hooker, J. D. et at. (1890-1894): F.B.S. V & VT

Orchidaceae. London.

Holttum, R. F. (1964): Flora of Malaya. Vol. I.

Orchids. Singapore.

Jackson, H. D. (1977): Index Kewensis Vols. I &

IT. London.

Jain, S. K. & Das, S. (1978): Two new species

of the genus Coclogyne Lindl. Proc. Indian Acad.

Science. Bull. 27B( 5): 119-124.

Joseph, J.. Hec.de, S. N. & Abbareddy, N. R.

(1981): Eria connata Joseph, Hegde & Abbareddy,

a new species of Orchids from Kameng Dist., Aruna-

chal Pradesh, India, Bull. Bot. Surv. India (Accepted

for publication).

& Abbareddy, N. R.

(1979): Bulbophyllum capillepes Par et Reichb. f.

(B. uniflorum Griff.) A rare orchid from Arunachal

Pradesh. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 2/(l-4) : 196-198.

Kataki, S. K. (1978): Notes from the Orchid

Station, Tipi, Arunachal Pradesh — A Note on the

Cultivation of Orchids. Indian Forester, 104(8) : 558-

560.

King, G. & Pantling, R. (1898): The Orchids of

Sikkim Flimalaya. London.

Panigrahi, G. and Joseph, J. (1966): A botani-

cal tour to Tirap Frontier Division, NEFA. Bull.

Bot. Surv. India 8(2): 142-157.

& Naik, V. N. (1961): A botani-

cal tour to Subansiri Frontier Division (NEFA).

ibid. 3(3 & 4) : 361-388.

Pradhan, U. C. (1976 & 1979): Indian Orchids

— - Guide to identification and culture. Vol. I & II.

Kalimpong.

Rao, A. S. & Deori, C. (1980): A preliminary

census of the orchids of Kameng District, Arunachal

Pradesh. Indian Journ. For. 5(3) : 225-260 & 5(4) :

324-335.

& Panigrahi, G. (1961): Distribution

of vegetational types and their dominant species in

Eastern India. Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 40: 274-285.

Sahni, K. C. (1969): A contribution to the Flora

of Kameng and Subansiri Districts NEFA. Indian

Forester 95(5): 330-335.

(1979) : Endemic relict, primitive and

spectacular flora and strategies for their conservation.

Ind. Journ. For. 2(2): 181-190.

Sanford, W. W. (1974): The Ecology of Orchids.

In: The Orchids Scientific Studies. Ed. Withner, C. L.

John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Varma, J. C. & Sahni, K. C. (1976) : Rare Orchids

of the North-Eastern region-and their conservation.

Indian Forester: 102(1): 424-431.

125

p

COMMENTS ON RIPLEY’S

“A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND

PAKISTAN” — SECOND EDITION (1982)1 P

Biswamoy Biswas2 3

Revised, enlarged, and greatly improved, this

second edition of the synopsis appears 21

years after the publication of the first. The

issue of this edition is something of an event

since the book which has so long been regard-

ed as one of the most complete and invaluable

compendium on Indian ornithology, has been

out of print for several years.

The second edition of the synopsis differs

in someways from the first. There is a reduction

in the number of illustrations, and the chapter

on zoogeographic considerations (including the

list of Indian endemic species) is gone. A wel-

come chapter explaining the new geographical

names in relation to the older ones is added,

and the chapter on forest types is thoroughly

revised. In comparison to the first edition’s 402

genera this edition lists 400, and 35 species

and 40 subspecies are added to the list.

The present edition is published in 1982,

but no cut-off date is given, so that in some

cases updating does not seem quite complete,

e.g. the author’s own work on Actinodura nipa-

lensis / waldeni published on 12 February 1980

in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History

Society is not covered, while his later work on

Brachvptervx cry plica' published on 21 Novem-

ber 1980 in the same journal is listed.

1 Accepted April 1983.

2 Present address'. Zoological Survey of India,

Indian Museum. Calcutta 700 016.

3 Since synonym ised with Trichastoma tickelli

assamense (see JBNHS 81(3): 700-701) — EDS.

I have a few more comments to make chiefly

to supplement the information already contain-

ed in the book. p.

p. 6, no. 15 Fregetta tropica melanogaster

(Gould) : There is a sight record of this bird

from Car Nicobar Island by Abdulali (1981,

JBNHS 78 : 46). p

p. 7, no. 17 Phaethon aethereus indicus Hume:

and p. 53, no. 175 Icthyophaga ichthyaetus

ichthyaetus (Horsfield): Andaman Islands

should be included in the ranges of these p.

birds.

p. 7, no. 18 Phaethon rubricauda rubrieauda

Boddaert : ‘(?)’ after Nicobars should be

deleted.

p. 7, no. 19 Phaethon lepturus lepturus Daudin : p

Abdulali (1981. JBNHS 78: 46) has record-

ed it from Car Nicobar Island,

p. 12, no. 33 Ardea insignis Hume: The date

of publication of Hume’s reference is 1878. p.

p. 29, no. 88 Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield):

Abdulali (1965), JBNHS 61: 504-505) states

that it has been reported from the Andamans

by Butler, Osmaston, Davison, as well as p

by himself, and from the Nicobars by Butler,

p. 55, no. 181 Gyps himalayensis Hume: The

type-locality was restricted to Simla, northern p

Punjab [ = Himachal Pradesh] by Baker

(1922. JBNHS 28: 583).

p. 60. Add no. 201a Spilornis cheela malay-

ensis Swann : Recorded from Great Nicobar p

Island by Saha & Dasgupta (1980, Rec. zool.

Surv. India 77: 89).

126

COMMENTS ON RIPLEY'S SYNOPSIS

p. 60, no. 203 Pandion haliaetus haliaetus

(Linne) : There is sight record of Pandion

haliaetus from Great Nicobar Island by

Abdulali (1967, JBNHS 64: 156).

p. 65, no. 223 Falco tinnunculus interstinctus

McClelland, line 3 of text: Biswas’s refer-

ence is 1976, JBNHS 71 : 461.

p. 84, no. 298 Lophura leucomelana moffitti

(Hachisuka) : The wild example of ‘moffitti’

referred to has proved to be only an inter-

grade between melanota and latkami.

p. 107, no. 438 Esacus magnirostris magnirostris

(Vieillot) : Abdulali (1979, JBNHS 75: 745)

has reported seeing it in Great Nicobar

Island.

p. 115, no. 381 Charadrius alexandrinus ale-

xandrinus Linne: It has been recorded from

Nicobar Islands by Dasgupta (1976, JBNHS

73: 222).

p. 117, no. 386 Numenius phaeopus variegatus

(Scopoli): Abdulali has reported ft from

Narcondam Island (1976, JBNHS 71: 497)

and from Great Nicobar Island (1979.

JBNHS 75: 755).

p. 118, no. 391 Limosa lapponica lapponica

(Linne): It has also been reported from Car

Nicobar Island by Abdulali (1979. JBNHS

75: 767).

p. 124, no. 411 Scolopax rusticola rusticola

Linne: There is a sight record of this bird

from Port Blair, Andaman Islands, by White-

head (1912, JBNHS 21: 1085).

p. 126, no. 414 Calidris alba (Pallas) : Abdulali

(1979, JBNHS 75: 768) has reported it

from Car Nicobar Island,

p. 141, no. 478 Sterna bergii velox Cretzsch-

mar: There is a sight record of Sterna bergii

from Great Nicobar Island by Abdulali

(1967, JBNHS 64: 163).

p. 154. Add no. 527b: Macropygia rufipennis

tiwari Abdulali (1979, JBNHS 75: 757 —

Great Nicobar Island).

p. 159, no. 551 Psittacula alexandri fasciata

(P.L.S. Muller): Biswas (1960, JBNHS 57:

536) has discussed about its type-locality.

p. 170. Surniculus lugubris has been sighted by

Abdulali (1979, JBNHS 75: 758-759) in

Great Nicobar Island.

p. 184. Add no. 647a: Ninox affinis rexpimenti

Abdulali (1979, JBNHS 75: 760 — Great

Nicobar Island).

p. 200, no. 705 Apus affinis nipalensis (Hodg-

son): Biswas (1961, JBNHS 58: 119) has

restricted its type-locality to Kathmandu,

Nepal Valley.

p. 206, no. 727 Ceyx erithacus erithacus (Linne):

Abdulali (1979, JBNHS 75: 761) has re-

corded it from Great Nicobar Island.

pp. 209-210. Mukherjee & Dasgupta (1973,

Bull. Br. orn. Cl. 93: 79-81) have resuscitat-

ed the genus Sauropatis Cabanis & Heine to

include the species Halcyon chloris (and H.

sanctus, extralimital).

p. 221, under Megalaima zeylanica (Gmelin):

The reference of Mukherjee, A. K. (1952)

may be deleted, for it pertains to Megalaima

lineata (Vieillot).

p. 222, after line 7: Add ‘Mukherjee, A. K.

1956 (1954), Rec. Indian Mus. 52: 162-163’.

p. 222, no. 784 Megalaima lineata hodgsoni

(Bonaparte) : ‘[sic]’ after Bonaparte’s name

Megalaimus hodgsoni should be deleted.

p. 233, line 5: The author’s name should be

Horsfield.

p. 233, line 10: In the original citation the

name appeared as Picus (C hr y so not us Swain-

son) grantia, and the author was Horsfield.

p. 246, no. 872 Mirafra javanica cantillans

Blyth: The genus name should be given as

M.(irafra), Blyth’s reference is dated 1844,

and the type-specimen was taken in the vici-

nity of Calcutta.

127

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

p. 246, no. 873 Mirafra assamica assamica

Horsfield: The species name originally ap-

peared as Assamica.

p. 260, no. 926 Hirundo daurica japonica Tem-

minck & Schlegel: Abdulali (1979, JBNHS

75: 769) observed it in Car Nicobar Island,

p. 280, no. 1002 Sturnus contra contra Linne:

In the reference cited, Stresemann referred

to Sturnus capensis Linne, 1766 and not to

Sturnus contra Linne, 1758. Since Sturnus

capensis Linne is not cited, the reference to

Stresemann’s work should be deleted,

p. 289, line 10 Dendrocitta frontalis Horsfield:

‘Nepal’ should be deleted, for the bird does

not occur there.

p. 317, no. 1146 Hypsipetes mcclellandi mccle-

Uandi Horsfield: In the original citation the

species name appeared as McClellandii.

p. 318, no. 1147 Hypsipetes flavalus flavalus

(Blyth) : Its type-locality has been restricted

to Hitaura, Chisapani Garhi district, Nepal

by Biswas (1961, JBNHS 58: 467).

p. 341, no. 1241 Paradoxomis nipalensis humii

Sharpe: The name of the author, Sharpe,

should be in parentheses,

p. 380, line 14 from bottom, and no. 1399

Heterophasia gracilis (McClelland): The

author’s name should be Horsfield.

p. 385, no. 1412 Muscicapa parva albicilla

Pallas: Abdulali (1976, JBNHS 71 : 502) has

recorded it from Narcondam Island,

p. 402, no. 1472 Tesia olivea (McClelland):

McClelland’s name was published in 1840

in the issue due in 1839.

p. 412, no. 1507 Prinia cinereocapilla (Hodg-

son), lines 8, 11 and 12: The author should

be Moore (not in parentheses),

p. 423, no. 1554 Acrocephalus orientalis

(Temminck & Schlegel): Abdulali (1979,

JBNHS 75: 764) has recorded it from Great

Nicobar Island.

p. 435, no. 1592 Phylloscopus inornatus inorna-

tus (Blyth): It has been recorded from

Narcondam Island by Abdulali (1976, JBNHS &

71: 502). He has also reported sighting it Rip

in Car Nicobar Island (1979, JBNHS 75: and

770), but I do not know how a specimen of

this difficult group of leaf warbler was iden-

tified up to subspecies through field glasses,

p. 438, no. 1605a Phylloscopus tenellipes

Swinhoe: Abdulali (1976, JBNHS 71: 502)

has recorded it from Narcondam Island,

p. 491, no. 1781 Prunella rubeculoides (Moore):

In the first reference, after Moore ‘in Llors-

field & Moore’ should be added,

p. 521, no. 1883 Motacilla citreola calcarata

Hodgson: In the original citation the name

appeared as Motacilla ( Budytes ) calcarata.

p. 535, no. 1936 Zosterops palpebrosa nicoba-

rica Blyth: Abdulali (1979, JBNHS 75: 765)

has recorded it from Great Nicobar Island,

p. 562, top: Heading for the species Carpodacus

rhodopeplus (Vigors) is left out.

p. 594, right hand column, line 6 from

bottom: The page numbers should be 110,

111.

Lack of uniformity has been noticed in the

style of citation, e.g. on p. 158, no. 545 the

genus name is given as P. [ aleornis ] while in

most cases, as on p. 199, no. 698, as C.

( ypselus ); and the years of delayed publica-

tions as both 1839 (1840) and 1840 (1839)

for the same journal.

The casual remark on p. viii ‘With the

absorbtion of the State of Sikkim, West Bengal

may in future include Sikkim’ should better

have been avoided, for it is liable to create

only unpleasantness and misunderstanding.

These comments apart. Dr. Ripley is to be

complimented on the way he has revised the

text in this new edition so that the book still

remains probably the best and most compre-

hensive of its kind available to ornithologists.

128

COMMENTS ON RIPLEY’S SYNOPSIS

Acknowledgements

My grateful thanks are due to Dr. S. Dillon

Ripley who kindly read a draft of this paper

and offered helpful advice, and to my erstwhile

colleague at the Zoological Survey of India,

Shri J. M. Dasgupta, for his valuable assistance,

specially regarding birds of the Andaman and

Nicobar Islands.

129

9

BREEDING, DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURE

PROSPECTS OF THE HIMALAYAN BARBEL,

SCHIZOTHORAX PLAGIOSTOMUS HECKEL1

S. B. Raizada2

I NTRODUCTION

Schizothoracine represented by the genera

Schizothoraichthys and Schizothorax are an im-

portant group of fishes in the cold waters of

the Himalaya right from the high reaches of

loaches down to water zone little above 20°C

temperatures. Though the fish, which gains

weight up to 2.5 kilogrammes and 60 cm3,

do not constitute a commercially important

group on a national level, they are however in

high demand locally in the Himalayan states

from Jammu and Kashmir to Arunachal Pra-

desh. The fish has all the more importance

as a fishery of balancing link in the cold waters

where the exotic carnivore Salmonids (trouts)

have been introduced. The juveniles of the

exotic trout find a palatable food in the fish,

though the bigger ones also prey upon them

equally avidly. Similar dependence is observed

in case of Mahseer when living in the higher

reaches of its migration limits. Population of

Schizothoracine is thus an indicator of the

population of trouts and Mahseers in these

1 Accepted May 1982.

- District Fisheries Officer, P.O. Katrain, Distt.

Kulu. H.P. 175 129.

3 A cast net catch record in river Parbati, a tribu-

tary of river Beas, for the Himalayan barbel is 4.2

kg. length 80 cm.

* During 18 years of angling with artificial baits,

only once have I landed a Himalayan barbel on a

golden spinner. That was perhaps a fluke.

waters. The fish is of no sporting importance

directly4.

Propagation through culture has not been

tried though the relationship with Salmonids

and Mahseers is well established. Over-exploi-

tation on unrestricted bag limit besides killing

through illegal means including use of explo-

sives and poisoning with plant extracts such

as Artemisia and Euphorbia (Thor) all along

the Himalayan belt, particularly the eastern,

have reduced the population affecting adversely

the fishery. The importance of restoring the

population through other than natural means

is now gaining importance.

distribution. Schizothoraichthys esocinus

Heckel and S. progastus McClleland are avail-

able in the headwaters of the Indus, Ganges

and other headwater streams up to Assam.

Schizothorax plagiostomus Heckel (- Schizotho-

rax sinuatus = Oreinus sinuatus Heckel, known

as Gulguli in Hindi, Asia in Nepali, and

Mouli in Lepcha languages), S. molesworthii

Chaudhri, and S. richardsonii Gray are from

the subglacial to the subtemperate zones of

cold waters in the western, central and eastern

Himalaya in that order.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

This study was made on Schizothorax plagio-

stomus of river Beas in the Kulu district of

Himachal Pradesh. Work was concentrated on

potential spawning grounds in the three tribu-

taries of river Beas. namely Mohal. Sujain and

Shirir.

130

THE HIMALAYAN BARBEL SCHIZOTHORAX PLAGIOSTOMUS

Breeding migration, spawning habit, fecun-

dity of wild fish (unpublished works of the

author) and development of eggs derived from

stripping were observed. Period of work and

observation was: 1. January-December, 2.

April- June and 3. July-September. Qualitatively

the stream selection was made to represent

different altitudes that have cold and hot atmos-

pheric environment, and influenced by rain

and snow melts.

Hypophysation was tried on broods collect-

ed earlier as pre-mature fish and reared in

natural ponds making sure of the availability

of natural food. Homoplastic freshly collected

pituitary in one case, and alcohol preserved in

another, was used at dosage mentioned below.

Only two trials were made. Females were select-

ed in the weight group 200 to 500 grammes,

in stages close to maturation, and males in

weight group 200-280 grammes. Two doses at

the rate of 5 mg and 2 mg per kg of fish, were

given to females at an interval of six hours,

and males were injected one dose of 3 or 2

mg per kg only. Care was taken to inject the

final dose in the evening as spawning in nature

takes place during night.

Stripping was done of mature females and

males collected from the snow-fed stream

S.ujain and the rain-and-snow fed stream Shirir.

Weather on both occasions was dry. The first

set of females was 200 grammes each and the

second set of 400 grammes each in weight.

For stripping a female, its belly was first press-

ed at the centre above ventral fin, thus ex-

truding easy jets of ova, thereafter the belly

5 Figures in paranthesis are hours converted into

days, shown in order from the day of stripping

followed after a hyphen by the days after hatching,

e.g. (21-16) is 21 days from stripping and 16 days

after hatching.

was taken between the forefinger and thumb

and was worked down to ensure complete

removal of ova. In the first instance dry method

was applied and for the second the wet method.

Eggs were retained in sperm solution (milt)

for ten minutes, then washed and sorted.

The eggs derived from each female were

divided and placed under two different water

types every time — one close to the mouth

of spring source and the other at an edge of

snow-fed channel. Egg trays were wooden —

37x45 cm, lined with 1/16 mesh synthetic

screen. The water from the spring had a tem-

perature of 17.5° to 18°C, of pH 7.2, and

dissolved oxygen content 5.2 parts per million.

Only 1 . 8% of the eggs hatched, and no young

survived up to fry stage. The water from the

snow-fed Beas river had a temperature of 12°

to 14.5°C, of pH 7.8, and dissolved oxygen

concentration 9.5 to 9.8 ppm. 92% of the

eggs hatched and 63.8% survived up to fry

stage. Eggs of each batch were observed at

hours5 6 (1/4-0); 24(1-0); 52(2-0); 76(3-0);

96(4-0); 120(5-0); 192(8-3); 216(9-4); 240

(10-5); 264(11-6); 360(15-10); 504(21-16);

600(25-20); 696(29-24) and 840(35-30). Since

the batch kept at spring water perished after

112 hours on both occasions, development

stages have been recorded from the second

batch under snow-fed water. Eggs were picked

at random for observation from the trays.

Observations

General characteristics. Body cylindrical,

torpedo shaped, mouth ventral with fleshy

adhesive sucker, lower jaw (fringed) for hold-

ing on and browsing on the substrate rocks.

The male is identifiable from female, having

pores on snout, that has a compressed inter-

orbital surface (more so in S. richardsonii) ,

131

Quality parameters or spawning ground streams of Schizothorax in Kulu district

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

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colour bright grey on dorsal and light pale

ventrally. Hydrophyte dominate in the omni-

vorous feed derived from the stream substrate.

Mature female has soft belly and a protruding

anal papilla. Ovary runs to complete body

cavity lengthwise and occupies approximately

70% of its space when ripe. The eggs when

ripe are set free into body cavity to pass to

the outside when pressure is brought to bear

on the belly. Eggs are whitish, opaque when

immature and change to colourless transparent

on maturity, particularly after water absorption.

Unlike Mahseer, the ovary contains eggs of

the same size and stage, indicating spawning

in one stage and batch. Total volume of ovary

ranged from 45 to 60 cc. in the size group of

fishes observed. Fecundity average was 5578

eggs per kilogramme body weight, and number

of eggs per gramme of ovary 66.3. Egg diameter

ranged from 1.9 to 2.7 mm and a fish of

half a kg contained approximately 3000 or

more eggs. On an average 10 cc contain 511

eggs without water hardening. Testes are pin-

kish white containing white, thick, viscous milt;

when stripped the fish produces 0.2 to 0.5 cc

milt.

Two spawning periods have been identified.

The first is mid April to mid June with peak

in May, and the second is mid July to mid

September with a peak in early August. Fish

of the second year group were found mature.

Spawning is influenced by the rise in water

level of streams, first by snow melt and second

by rain when the side streams get flooded. A

dry weather during July-August resulted in

delayed and subdued spawning. Goudy weather

was not a necessary factor. It was related more

to the rise in water level of side streams. Males

precede females in the spawning run and

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THE HIMALAYAN BARBEL SCHIZOTHORAX PLAGIOSTOMUS

usually flood the site before the females arrive.

Spawning takes place at very late hours of the

night and most of the spent fishes return to

the mother stream before sunrise. There is no

excavation of the breeding ‘redd’ and eggs are

deposited in shallow pits and pools 20 to 45

cm deep, of slow currents of 3 to 5 cm per

second velocity, (see Table for quality para-

meters of streams observed for spawning).

Spawning was in groups where several males

joined in splashing and churning to mix milt

in the water. Majority of eggs, on water hard-

ening, get drained down the river and hatch

while shifting in flows. This perhaps meets their

oxygen requirements. In the process a large

number of eggs perish, yet the stream sides

and channels are flooded with hatchlings and

fry.

Structure of eggs (fig. 1 A & IB). Schizothorax

egg is soft, pulpy, small and shrunken when

released. Outer egg shell is very thin to the

extent that picking with forceps or tweezers

causes puncture. Perivitelline space large on

the upper side of egg body. Yolk sac with ger-

GERMINAL DISC

Fig. 1. Egg of Schizothorax plagiostomus.

A. side view; B. top view.

minal disc protruding into large perivitelline

fluid, and the rest occupying the lower space.

The germinal side always keeps facing the wider

perivitelline space — a phenomenon different

from other carp eggs. Egg heavy and demersal.

Water absorption rate is very rapid and egg

swells to nearly twice the original size. The

osmotic pressure enables the egg to get imme-

diately attached to the substrate more intensely

than Salmonid or Mahseer eggs, so much so

that the mass of eggs if taken without water

turns into a ball of jelly, making eggs in the

centre impenetrable to milt. The eggs were freed

in a period of three hours on absorbing water.

Hypophysation in both cases resulted in the

death of both sexes. In the first instance the

females and males died the next morning and

in the second the female died the third day

morning and male in the evening. On dissec-

tion, the eggs found were fully mature but the

genital space was not free and the genital

papilla hard. The dead males similarly extrud-

ed milt on applying pressure to the belly.

During the process of stripping, mixing of

milt was difficult in the dry method as the eggs

had formed into a mass of jelly at one end

of the enamel basin used for stripping. Pressure

was applied to the mix but the mass remained

in lumps. Next day a large number of eggs

were removed dead from the two trays (at

spring and snow base). In the wet method

milt was collected in 250 cc water in an enamel

basin, eggs were stripped over it and more

water added later. In both cases care was taken

to keep a gap of not more then ten seconds

between the time of stripping the female and

adding milt. Mixing of egg mass into sperm

was easy. Very few eggs had to be removed.

Fertilization percentage was 66% and 98.7%

from dry and wet methods respectively. Deve-

lopment under the spring source that had more

favourable water condition but poor dissolved

oxygen had a survival percentage of 45 up to

eyeing stage, 1.8 up to hatching, and there-

after all died. In the second case though the

eggs were visibly under unfavourable condi-

tion. had 92% survival up to eyeing. 86.6%

133

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

up to hatching and 63.8% to fry stage. It is

evident that high dissolved oxygen was the

demand.

Development of egg to fry

6 hours (fig. 2-A). Blastodisc formed at the

germinal disc region.

24 hours (fig. 2-B). Embryo formed as a

Fig. 2. Development of egg: A. 6 hours; B. 24

hours; C. 52 hours; D. 76 hours.

Fig. 3. 96 hours: A. side view; B. viewed dorsally.

lifted notch over the yolk body without any

distinguishing features, though the future head

and body side could be identified.

52 hours (fig. 2-C). Embryo elongated, co-

vered half the yolk sphere with identifiable

optic lobes; the head facing into perivitelline

medium whereas rest of the body passes

through lower edge.

76 hours (fig. 2-D). Embryo elongates into

a thin cord-like body with a small head on

one side and tapering tail on the other side

of the now obliterated yolk. Eye spot is

visible and vertebral segments marked.

96 hours (fig. 3). The elongated embryo

takes shape and size. The future mouth

groove is formed, eye well marked without

melanophore coloration. A finfold starting

from the future anal point, round the tail and

backward to the dorsal side, is formed. The

head is distinct and the embryo produces

occasional twitches.

120, 216 & 240 hours (fig. 4-A & B). At the

end of 120 hours the whole lot emerged as

alevin from the ‘not very active’ embryo which

had no difficulty to come out of the fissure

even if the tail came first, as the egg shell is

soft so that it drops away by itself. The

emerged alevin lies sideways of a dispropor-

tionately large and bulky yellow yolk. Length

of alevin is 5.5 to 6 mm. Gill opening visible

to the naked eye. At 216 hours the hatchling

comes to rest upside occasionally; larval fin-

fold is well defined, running from the future

anal point to back and round the tail end and

up to the frontal base of future dorsal. Sclero-

tic ring complete. Air sac appears as a trans-

verse sac that in fact gives buoyancy to the

bulky body even at such an early stage. Heart

visible as a speck and pectoral appears as a

small bud; large eye and 4 gill covers are

clear; vertebral column with spines clearly

visible. Chromatophore band from snout to

134

THE HIMALAYAN BARBEL SCHIZOTHORAX PLAGIOSTOMUS

head, and two other bands run backwards

up to the vertebral notch region. The length

is 8 mm.

264 hours (fig. 4-C). Two significant appea-

rances are the melanophores around the eye

and chromatophores over the head in a trape-

zoid shape and the rows on either side of the

finfold get denser up to the caudal. The

heart is prominent, and of a red colour. The

air sac enlarges lengthwise. The urostyle is

distinct and 7 to 8 rays of the lower caudal

lobes are visible. Mouth, lower jaw and gill

covers more distinct. Two days later the fin-

fold on the dorsal side gets reduced from a

little behind the origin of the future dorsal,

leaving a hump of the future dorsal fin, and

another finfold appears from anal towards the

head in the region of the yolk sac. The anal

opening is distinct and the yolk sac fairly

reduced. Blood vessels more clear and the

hatchling now heads into water current, darts

up and down, living gregariously converge in

corners; spinal cord and vertebrae with spine

rays distinct.

360 hours (fig. 5). The hatchling is 12 mm

Fig. 4. A. 216 hours; B. 240 hours; C. 264 hours.

Fig. 5. 360 hours.

long. Cranium bone is prominently lifted;

readily feeds on phytoplankton. Heart cham-

bers distinct, and so are the blood vessels,

especially those leading to the brain. Chroma-

tophore distribution more dense. Eye occu-

pying one third space in the head, starting

from snout at a distance half the diameter of

length of eye in profile. Melanophore com-

pletely cover eye. Gill filament visible, pec-

toral large, viewed from dorsal it appears as a

transparent fan reaching over the heart line.

Undivided rays of the dorsal visible; 8 to 9

rays of caudal distinct. The ventral finfold

also reduced at a point to identify space for

anal fin. Lateral marking clear. Hatchlings

now face into the current and dart up and

down.

504 hours (fig. 6). The late hatchling is 14

mm long. The eye 0.75 mm diameter, loc-

ated less than the eye diameter from snout

in profile (that in adult is 2 to 2£ diameters

from snout). Sclerotic ring transparent that

A

Fig • 1

Fig. 6. 504 hours: A. side view; B. Head viewed

from top.

Fig. 7. A. Fry with post larval finfold; B. Cross

section of body for position of finfold.

135

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

is prominent and a pupil in the centre. A

golden iris. Lower lip distinct. Auricle and

ventricle of heart identifiable. Oval shaped

dorsal with 1+7 fin rays (one osseous). 9

divided rays of the upper lobe of the caudal

also appear. Gill cover transparent. Yolk

hangs insignificantly.

600 hours. Dorsal embryonic finfold re-

duced: pair of pelvic fins appears as small

specks at mid-region of 264 hours finfold.

Anal finfold deepens. The simple trapezoid

zone of chromatophores divided into two un-

evenly triangular sets.

696 hours. Body changes to translucent

from the hitherto transparent body. Embryo-

nic finfold dissociated at caudal which is now

fully formed of 9+9 rays and is homocercal.

Yolk completely absorbed.

35th day. Active fry complete in all respects

yet a prominent finfold that had appeared

on 264-hour stage at the yolk sac region con-

tinues to exist from the region of heart to

anal aperture, with a pair of 1.5 mm long

ventral fins alongside. Mouth continues to

be antero-ventral as against the ventral mouth

of adults. Snout having attained a prominent

shape, the eye has occupied posterior position

at nearly 2 diameter eye distance. A faint

triangular blotch appears on the lower part

of the caudal base.

Result

It is thus seen that the fish migrate, to

spawn into rivulets and creeks some of which

are seasonally dry. Like Salmonids the fish

can be subjected to stripping and fertilised

but the effective method is wet stripping as

against the dry one preferred for Salmonids.

The reason is clear, namely that the egg shell

is thin, perivitelline fluid thick and egg initially

shrivelled so that it exerts greater osmotic

pressure than a Salmonid egg; thus turning

into a heap of eggs in the receiving pan,

making the central mass impenetrable to

sperm fluid. Any forceful manual effort

causes injury resulting in low survival.

Though a higher temperature reduces the

hatching period, it is seen that the developing

embryo, alevin and the sac fry have high

oxygen demand and to meet that even cold

turbid water is preferred to a warmer clear

spring. In nature the eggs are deposited not

under high current but get swept slowly into

the current, get lodged under stones where

the egg receives oxygen of its requirement.

Under the experiment the two batches though

kept in identical trays and conditions, the

first at the head of spring source with low

oxygen and water entirely free of any kind

of contamination (the same water further

down was used for trout hatching and fry of

trout and Schizothorax coexist well) had poor

hatching result. On the other hand steady

development was maintained under the snow,

fed, occasionally turbid, colder water of the

river, although hatching was faster by 24

hours under spring source.

The post-larval fin membrane (finfold) that

developed early, lasts up to a late stage of

fry at the region of belly, plays the important

role of a keel in balancing the alevin and fry

under high currents that the fish has to meet

with from the early stage of its life. This is

combined with the early development of air

sac to make it remain upright within a day

or two of hatching. These are an assembly

of conveniences that Nature has granted to

compensate for early hatching and slow post

larval development.

The mouth continues to be antero-ventral

as against ventral in adults. The fry has a

heavy frontal and lean posterior body. The

heavy frontal helps in an easy dive to obtain

food from the substrate.

136

THE HIMALAYAN BARBEL SCHIZOTHORAX PLAGIOSTOMUS

It is also seen that the growth period ratio

of larva are inversely related to Salmonid

development process. In the later case the

alevin emerge at three-fourth the total period

; of development of egg to fry, whereas in the

; case of Schizothorax the alevins emerge at

about one fifth the period and rest of the

: growth proceeds slowly outside fhe egg shell.

Growth observed after 264 hours under the

experiment has been faster in nature due to

feeding on abundant natural diet. The homo-

: cereal caudal in fact originates from hetero-

cercal development process.

The study also reveals that Schizothoraich-

■ Ihys at the approach of summer migrate up-

stream to spawn, into the smaller tributaries

of glacial waters which are too cold, whereas

the Schizothorax spawn twice, in milder

waters once at the approach of summer snow

melt and second at the rain rise. The tempe-

rature preference of Schizothorax is 15° to

17°C. The dissolved oxygen and pH demand

is wide though very low limits are damaging

and the fish does not live there.

Conclusion and the Prospects of Culture

The fishery of Trout and Mahseer have a

rich source of sustenance in Schizothoracine

in open natural waters in the Himalaya. Sur-

vival of spawn in nature where these get

drained into the turbulent waters is poor. The

stripping process mentioned in this paper and

the survival obtained artificially (hatchery

conditions) is an assurance that the wild

stocks can be replenished from farm efforts.

Brood can be seasonally obtained from the

wild. Farms for the fish would need hat-

cheries and nursing pits that can be planned

at low lying places in temperate and sub-

temperate zones of the Himalaya, fed from

stream rapids. This is important where the

Salmonid and Mahseer propagation is planned

or already exist. Transportation at egg stage

in large quantities is difficult because of the

soft quality of egg but the hatchlings after

21 days can be transported, packed in oxygen

like other carp fry.

Failure to induce spawn cannot be conclu-

sively described a failure of the method al-

together. This can be tried at various other

doses for standardisation. However since

the fish responded, like Salmonids, to strip-

ping, it is not necessary to depend upon in-

duced breeding.

The large stock in the rheophilic conditions

of the mountains would however grow only

when the chain of food cycle is maintained

to the level demanded. This can be done by

restoring river bank vegetative cover, that

would stabilise the strata, the algal sheath

over stones for a rich diatom population and

the chain thereafter.

Acknowledgements

1 am grateful to many persons in the field,

especially the field staff of Fisheries Depart-

ment in Kulu district of Himachal Pradesh,

who helped me to collect ripe stocks and were

with me on observation trips at late hours

of the night.

137

ETHOLOGY OF SOME RHYPAROCHROMINES

(LYGAEIDAE : HETEROPTERA : INSECTA)1

K. Thangavelu2

Feeding behaviour involving ‘seed-dragging', ‘seed-defence" and ‘seed-territoriality’;

courtship dance and antennal drumming leading to mating and ovi-position behaviour

involving site selection; significance of aposematic and cryptic coloration and mimicry

patterns of several common species of Rhyparochrominae are discussed.

Introduction

Lygaeids exhibit several interesting behavi-

oural patterns like ‘seed-defence’, courtship

dance, stridulation, positive phototaxis, apose-

matic and cryptic coloration, camouflaging and

mimicry. Thangavelu (1979) reviewed the

works on the ethology of Lygaeidae and noted

that most of the reports were from temperate

countries and tropical Africa except for a pre-

liminary study on the feeding and mating

behaviour, stridulation, aposematic coloration

and ant mimicry of a few Oriental lygaeids

(Thangavelu 1978). Hence detailed observa-

tions were made on some commonly occurring

rhyparochromines by frequent field trips with

reference to their feeding, mating and ovi-

position behaviour; also on their coloration

and mimicry patterns. These behavioural pat-

terns were also observed in the laboratory

culture.

Results

Feeding behaviour. There are nearly 30

species of Rhyparochrominae commonly found

1 Accepted January 1982.

2 Central Institute for Cotton Research, Regional

Station (ICAR), Coimbatore-641 003. Present ad-

dress: Joint Director, Regional Muga Research

Station, Central Silk Board, Mirza-781 125, Kamrup,

Assam.

in southern India and of these, except Clerada j

sp., all other rhyparochromines are observed ,

to feed on fallen seeds in the ground litter

and are of stylet-sheath feeding type. A few

species exhibit some interesting behavioural j

patterns of ‘seed-dragging’ and ‘seed-defence’. (

Poeantius jestivus Dist. carries the fallen seeds |

of Acalypha indica with its labium and moves

to a more protected and isolated place and

if another Poeantius intrudes while feeding,

the seed owner shows evidence of excitement

and defends by rapidly swinging the antennae

back and forth and fluttering the hind legs

as if kicking at the ground; if the intruder

persists and gets near, the defender spreads

its fore and mid legs and attempts to kick

the intruder. At this stage, the intruder de-

camps from the spot; at times the defender

runs away from the seed and quickly returns |

to collect, and run away with the seed; this

act often baffles the intruder. Pachybrachius

nigriceps (Dali.) also exihibits similar protec-

tive behaviour; it carries the seeds of Echino- ■

chloa crusgalli with its labium and at times

between the fore tarsi to a considerable di-

stance: when it senses intrusion, it becomes

alert and takes a threatening stance, with the

antennae straight and lifted above the head,

and the legs well spread; at times it suddenly

pounces on the intruder. Seed dragging is

also reported in Horridipamera nietneri

138

ETHOLOGY OF RHYPA ROCHROMINES

(Dohrn) and Pseudopachybrachius guttus

(Dali.) and the behaviour is more readily

seen in a larger colony than among isolated

members. Elasmolomus sordidus (Fabr.) car-

ries seeds of Capsicum annuum, and such

collected seeds were found in its habitat.

Obviously they had been transported from the

harvested fields. The various stages leading

to feeding in Dieuches discoguttatus (Dist.)

are as follows. The bug approaches with the

fore legs forward so that the tibiae aids in

holding the seed, then the rostrum and the

labium protrudes. The tip of the labium pierces

the outer surface of the seed coat and if the

seed is unsuitable there is no attempt to feed.

If suitable, further probing continues; the

formation of a salivary sheath followed by

the injection of the labium initiates the feeding;

the rostrum returns to the venter of the thorax

and the labium is thrust deeper and no external

digestion is noticed. However, profuse secre-

tion of saliva is noticed when the seeds are

fairly large and dry. It is therefore, inter-

preted that the saliva might dissolve the seed

content before pumping through the stylet and

also that the salivary fluid might act as a

lubricant aiding in penetration of the stylets.

It is doubtful, however, whether the hard seed

coats of some seeds are dissolved by the sali-

vary secretion. Very dry seeds were not pre-

ferred for feeding; when seeds that had been

fed on were dissected, damage to the coty-

ledons was quite obvious. The remnants of

the stylet sheath show clear marks of feeding.

After feeding, the labium is withdrawn from

the seed and the tip is invariably cleaned

between the fore-tarsi; the rostrum simultane-

ously elbows and the labium is inserted in it.

E. sordidus and Naphiellus dilutus (Horv.)

were observed to feed in congregation, mostly

consisting of first, second and third instars,

intensive feeding was observed by such con-

gregations. Only one individual feeds on one

seed at any time and the fruits of Ficus spp.

have a large number of seeds; therefore, this

aggregation might be due to the presence of

a large number of seeds. Nymphs and adults

of D. discoguttatus were observed to climb

the host plants (A. indica and Lucas aspera )

and feed on the seeds in situ; when disturbed,

they fell to the ground and preferred to quickly

run away, though they can fly. The femoral

teeth were used in climbing on the host plants;

all other species were recorded to feed only

on fallen seeds. Feeding intensity varies in

different species. E. sordidus, N. dilutus, D.

discoguttatus, P. guttus, H. nietneri often show

more intensive feeding than P. festivus and

Metochus uniguttatus (Thun) this agrees with

their agility and constantly alert behaviour;

also the latter two species are mostly recorded

in sparse numbers as isolated individuals,

while the intense feeders are often recorded

in fairly good numbers in a colony. Inten-

sive feeding in the field is seen during morning

and evening hours.

Mating behaviour. In all the species ob-

served. a premating period of 2-3 days was

noticed. Mating is invariably initiated by the

male. The meeting of opposite sexes is faci-

litated by sight and neither antennae nor any

sex pheromone seem to be involved in bringing

together the sexes. But once the opposite

sexes encounter each other, antennal rubbing

is noticed as part of the courtship. Usually

the male recognizes the passing female and

walks across; on encounter, the male rapidly

waves the antennae; on coming closer to each

other, the male holds the fore-tarsus of female

with his fore-tarsus, and moves to the lateral

side, parallel to the female, and extends the

hind legs to lift the genital segments of the

female’s abdomen. The female, if responding,

remains motionless and opens the genital

139

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

chamber releasing the ovipositor and immedi-

ately the male releases the aedeagus and

secures genital connection. Generally the

genital connection is achieved from the lateral

side or from above the female. After the

genital connection is made, the end-to-end

copula position is taken up and they remain

motionless if undisturbed, otherwise the female

drags the male to a secluded place, usually

to small crevices or under fallen leaves and

wood. The courtship lasts only a few seconds.

The copulating pair remains in mating posi-

tion for a considerable time (2-5 hrs.) if un-

disturbed. Tf disturbed during copulation, the

female charges the intruder with the antennae

and flutters the hind legs; if the intruder persists

the female drags away the male to an isolated

place. Just mated females never respond to

fresh attempts by other males. Such females

escape from the attempting males by violent

shaking of their bodies, kicking the attempting

males and swiftly running away. Mating

occurs frequently, 5-8 matings are common

in a female during its life. Mating generally

occurs at an interval of 3-5 days between co-

pulation, while the males mate quite often.

Generally feeding ceases during copulation.

The above account concerns D. disco gut tat us.

A more or less similar behaviour is noticed in

E. sordid us and N. dilutus also. P. festivus at

times suddenly jumps on to the female and

secures genital connection from above the

female. In this species courtship involves

repeated drumming of the female by the male

with the antennae and mating lasts only 30-60

minutes. M. uniguttatus has a quite interesting

mating behaviour. On encountering the female,

the male detains the female and touches the

head of the female with the antennae, and the

female responds similarly by touching the head

of the male; then the fore legs on one side

are inter-locked; in this position, they do a

kind of shaking dance. The mating lasts 1-3

hrs, in M. uniguttatus and 2-3 hrs in E. sor-

didus and N. dilutus. The post-copulatory

behaviour is also interesting; after mating, the

male and the female separate and walk in

different directions in E. sordidus and N. dilu-

tus. D. discoguttatus detains the female for

a few seconds and then they leave. Before

moving from the copulation site, both the

male and the female clean their genital seg-

ments with the hind-tarsi. Mating in field

condition is intense during 10.00-12.00 hrs

in most of these species; however, in the insec-

taries they mate throughout the day and more

frequently during evening hours (18.00-20.00

hrs).

Oviposition behaviour. Oviposition starts

1-3 days after mating; all the species lay eggs

in the litter, rarely on fallen fruits of Ficus

and twigs. The females of E. sordidus select

moist places for oviposition. The ovipositing

female moves away, selects a suitable site and

releases her ovipositor by sideways movements

of the terminal segments of the abdomen; the

ovipositor is thrust in the sand and debris of

the litter, where the eggs are deposited. Before

the release of eggs, the abdomen is straightened

and then flexed downwards in a rhythmic

rocking motion several times, the ovipositor

then moves sideways and the egg is finally

deposited. Along with the ovipositor, the

terminal segments of the abdomen also enters

the debris while inserting the eggs. During

oviposition, all the three pairs of legs are well

spread and tarsi are firmly planted onto the

substratum giving a firm grip for the insect;

the fore and mid legs are drawn anteriorly

while the hind legs are drawn posteriorly; the

antennae are flexed backward against the head,

almost parallel to the body. Before the eggs

are laid, they are held in the ovipositor for

one or two seconds. Tt takes 15-20 seconds

lor

egg

tfti

dra

doi

the

e»s

Ire

eg!

tio

del

coi

pr<

otl

wo

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ho

eg

cli

da

co

pc

a

tht

let

(hi

sp

eg

ah

in

lal

20

is

i

eg

lei

thi

ad

140

ETHOLOGY OF RHYPAROCHROM1N ES

for the first egg to be laid and the subsequent

eggs are laid in 8-12 seconds. Immediately

after laying the eggs, the ovipositor is with-

drawn and the posterior segments of the ab-

domen contract sideways twice or thrice and

then the next egg is laid. E. sordidus lays

eggs in small clusters of 3, 5, 7, 9 and less

frequently, single eggs are scattered and the

egg clusters are cemented together by a secre-

tion of the female; in the field the sand and

debris adhere to the egg surface. When field

condition is created in the laboratory, they

prefer to lay eggs in sand and among twigs,

otherwise they readily oviposit on wet cotton

wool, which is preferred to dry cotton wool;

at times they oviposit in the crevices of the

rubber stopper, cork, muslin cloth, but the

smooth surfaces of the rearing glass jars are

never preferred. Mostly the eggs are laid

horizontally in the long axis; when clusters of

eggs are laid, they are haphazard. The largest

cluster of eggs laid, by a single female in one

day had 17 eggs. 15-30 minutes prior to

commencement of oviposition, the female sus-

pends feeding and moves about searching for

a suitable site. Immediately after oviposition,

the female cleans the ovipositor with the hind

legs and then the ovipositor is retracted into

the abdomen; at times it kicks the ground,

spreading the sand and dust particles on the

egg surface and feeding commences immedi-

ately after oviposition. Oviposition is noticed

iin the field at dusk, after 18.00 hrs. In the

laboratory, the oviposition is noticed during

I 20.00 hrs to 04.00 hrs. The same behaviour

< is true of N. dilutus, M. uniguttalus and D.

' discoguttatus, P. festivus always lays fewer

I eggs, generally single eggs, and they are scat-

i tered. Cleaning of ovipositor is not seen in

I this species.

Protective coloration and mimicry. The

adults of E. sordidus, E. lineosus, and N. dilu-

tus are sandy coloured with one or more black

spots on the corium of the forewing which

match extremely well with the environmental

background, this cryptic coloration deceives

predators. Plinthisus spp. which are found

deep in the litter are dark brown similar to

the fallen dry leaves and twigs. The cryptic

coloration in the adults of P. guttus and H.

nietneri is already on record (Malipatil 1979).

First instars of these species and P. festivus,

D. discoguttatus and M. uniguttatus are apo-

sematic, bright red and have a greater survival

value; the later instars are black, yellow and

white spotted or speckled giving them cryptic

coloration. Several rhyparochromines mimic

the ants in their coloration as well as in their

habitat and behaviour. The adults of P. festi-

vus are excellent ant-mimitic forms; most of

them are brachypterous (85%) while macrop-

terism is not uncommon (15%). Bergroth

(1921) indicates that macropterous forms

would be less ant-like and hence selected

against and more easily recognized as foreign

animals by the ants. Similarly the species of

the genera Dieuches, Metochus, Pachybrachius

and Horridipamera are also ant-mimitic.

Species of Dieuches and Metochus are gene-

rally black, linear and elongate in body form

and the appendages like antennae and legs

are very long and slender; the wings have spots

of white and yellow like maculae, more re-

sembling the abdominal constriction of the

hymenopterous insects and mimic the campo-

notine ants. Species of Pachybrachius and

Horridipamera are also black in general

appearance but have extremely swollen protho-

rax similar to the ants. In general the various

members of Rhyparochromini and Myodochini

have unusually long appendages similar to the

ants which they mimic. These species also

mimic their model in their behaviour. D. dis-

coguttatus moves fast; while walking or

141

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

running, it constantly taps the ground with its

antennae; if excited, it runs fast with great

agility. P. festivus is generally seen running;

on its way, it abruptly stops and turns sudden-

ly in another direction like the fast moving

ants. M. unigutlatus frequently lift the fore

legs and rub the fore tarsi against each other.

Species of Pachybrachius, Pseudopachybrachi-

us and Horridipamera run helter-skelter if dis-

turbed, which have selective advantage against

a predator, as this behaviour and cryptic colo-

ration baffles the predator and even the insect

collector (the investigator himself). They

make the mimicry much more effective by

their constant association with ants; often

sharing their habitat. But in their association

with the ants, they are not recorded to be

predatory on the ants, nor as entering the ant-

hill as reported by Bergroth (1921). The

association of these bugs with ants has been

thus found to be of survival value since they

are not easily attacked by their predators.

Discussion

The several interesting aspects of feeding

behaviour involving, ‘seed-dragging', ‘seed-

defence’ and ‘seed-territoriality’ as reported by

Sweet (1964) and Malipatil (1979) appear to

have no significance except that they might

be useful to avoid competition. As stated

earlier all the seed feeders are of stylet-sheath

feeding type as Sweet (1964) had reported

earlier. Miles (1968) reported ‘stylet-sheath

to be a characteristic feature not of the phyto-

phagous bugs but of the Homoptera and the

pentatomomorpha, whether phytophagous or

not and he doubted the exception cited by

Schmidt (1959). Of the other behavioural

phenomena it is particularly worthwhile to

observe D. discoguttatus often touching the

ground with its long antennae while walking

or running and running with great agility when

excited. A similar behaviour was reported in

Ozophora picturata (Sweet 1964). Species like

E. sordidus, M. uniguttatus, and P. nigriceps

run swiftly when disturbed and hide under

fallen leaves and stones or in crevices.

Another striking feature is the prevalence of

aposematic and cryptic coloration among the

various species. The earlier instars of E. sor-

didus, A7, dilutus, L. singalensis, and D. dis-

coguttatus are bright red and they are also

gregarious. This aposematic coloration and

gregarious habit might provide them a better

survival value. Sexton, Hoger and Ortleb

(1966) suggest that the aggregation of the

nymphs of Oncopeltus fasciatus (Dali.) makes

their aposematic coloration more effective.

Lvgaeids generally are ‘sombre’ or ‘dull’

coloured. Species like E. sordidus, N. dilutus

and E. lineosus are earth-brown and match

excellently with the background of the environ-

ment, which provides concealment.

The culmination of the several morpholo-

gical adaptations and behavioural patterns is

found in the ant-mimitic feature of some of

these rhvparochromines. As previously stated,

they mimic the ants not merely in their mor-

phological features; but also behave like them.

Thus the constant association and the behavi-

oural pattern make the mimicry more perfect

than mere coloration or swollen thoracic seg-

ments or maculae in the forewings and long

segments. Sweet (1964) could not assign the

mimicry pattern of the rhyparochromines either

to Batesian or Mullerian types and therefore

suggested a combined Batesian-Mullerian type.

Remold (1962) assumed that the rhyparochro-

mines may be distasteful because of their scent

glands and therefore assumed Mullerian mimi-

cry. Sweet (1964) could not accept Batesian

mimicry because of the abundance levels when

compared to the ants, which would help a

142

ETHOLOGY OF RHYPAROCHROM1N ES

bird predator to distinguish them. But as far

as the south Indian forms are concerned, the

; ants are also equally abundant. Further, the

: adults in which the scent gland secretion is

• not as much as in the nymphs also mimic the

ants therefore, if they are of Mullerian mimitic

type, the adults should be under selection pres-

; sure and preyed on more commonly than the

nymphs. During the study it was found that

there is no difference between the nymph and

the adult as far as predation is concerned;

[

i

' Bergroth, E. (1921) : An aberrant genus of Geo-

corinae. Ent. Mon. Mag. 3(7) : 110-113.

Malipatil, M. B. (1979) : The biology of some

Lygaeidae (Hemiptera: Heteroptera) of South-East

Queensland. Aust. J. Zool. 27 : 231-249.

Miles, P. W. (1968) : Insect secretions in plants.

Ann. Rev. Phytopath. 6: 137-164.

Remold, H. (1962) : Uber die biologische beden-

tung der Duftdru sen bei Landwanzen (Geocorisae) .

Z. Vergl. Physiol. 45 : 636-649.

Schmidt, H. B. (1959): Beitrage zur kenntnis der

Ubertragung pflanzlicher Viren durch Aphiden.

Biol. Zentr. 78 : 889-936.

therefore, it can only be of Batesian type.

However, it is certain that cumulative effects

of cryptic and aposematic coloration and

mimicry render a better survival value to these

rhyparochromines.

Acknowledgement

The permission of the University of Madras

for publishing the doctoral thesis of the author

is gratefully acknowledged.

Sexton, O., Hoger, C. and Ortleb, E. (1966) :

Anolis carolinensis : Effects of feeding on reaction

to aposematic prey. Science 153 : 1140.

Sweet, M. H. (1964) : The biology and ecology

of the Rhyparochrominae of New England — Parts

T & II. Entomol. Am. 43: 1-124; 44: 1-201.

Thangavelu, K. (1978) : On the ethology of the

Lygaeidae of the scrub jungle of South India (Hemi-

ptera: Heteroptera). J. Nat. Hist. 75: 289-294.

(1979): Bioecology of some

Rhyparochrominae from Southern India (Insecta :

Heteroptera : Lygaeidae). Ph. D. thesis, Univer-

sity of Madras, Madras.

References

143

AN INTERESTING COLLECTION OF AMPHIBIANS

AND REPTILES FROM CHOLISTAN DESERT,

PUNJAB, PAKISTAN1

M. S. Khan2

This report is based on a collection of 60 amphibians and reptiles made from Northern

Cholistan Desert, Punjab, Pakistan. The collection includes new records for the area

Rana breviceps and Spalerosophis arenarius, and validate taxa Natrix sancti-johannis

and Bungarus sindanus. Moreover, it throws light on the importance of Cholistan

Desert as a zoogeographical barrier between Oriental and Palaearctic Regions.

Kl

lull

p°

jfll

/II

l

p

ci!

In summer 1980, 1 had a chance to tour

northern Cholistan Desert and make a small

(60 specimens) but interesting collection of

amphibians and reptiles. Information perta-

ining to the herpetology of this area is scanty.

However, recently our knowledge about the

herpetology of Pakistan has been furthered by

the works of Minton (1962, 1966) and Mertens

(1969). These concern the herpetology of the

Lower Indus Valley and Baluchistan. Other

works pertaining to nearby area are Blanford

(1879) and Loveridge (1959) dealing with

herpetofauna of Rajputana, Bahawalpur, and

Thar Parker.

Geography of Cholistan Desert

Cholistan is the south-eastern desert of

Pakistan, spread over an area of about 27,800

sq. km in the districts of Bahawalpur, Baha-

walnagar, Khairpur and the greater part of

Thar Parker. It lies between latitude 24°52'

and 29°45' North and longitude 69°52' and

73°5' East.

The topography of Cholistan is divided into

southern Greater Cholistan and north-western

1 Accepted August 1983.

2 Herp. Laboratory, 15/6 Darul Saddar North,

Rabwah, Pakistan.

Lesser Cholistan. This collection is from Less-

er Cholistan, which includes desert margins,

with undulating to rolling dunes and inter-

dunal depressions of sand and loam of light

grey colour. The collections were made from

Dahranwala, Chak 141 Murad, Chistian, Fort

Abbas, Haroon Abad, Fort Mroat in Bahawal-

nagar District; Chak 190 Murad and Bakshan

Khan in Bahawalpur District. The land in

these districts is being rapidly reclaimed and

dunes are being bulldozed, destroying natural

land form, fauna and flora. Two canals,

Fordwah, and Sadquia from Sulaimanki Head-

works, ramify throughout the districts.

The climate is arid, tropical and continental

with a mean truly erratic annual rainfall of 100

to 200 mm and mean minimum temperature of

the coldest months is — 2.2°C and maximum

of the hottest months 49.7°C (Beig et al.

&

P

At

(n

spt

r

hii

ha1

fee

die

Ni

1979).

Habitations are extremely scattered and

small sized. Economy is mainly pastoral,

large herds of camel, cattle, sheep and goats

graze the area. At spots near Indo-Pak

border, brackish water occurs at a depth of

30 to 90 metres, with salt content 9000 to

24000 ppm. However, sweet water is also

available at many places at shallow depths,

making cultivation possible.

tut

chi

ma

lici

wa

144

AMPHIBIANS & REPTILES EROM CHOL1STAN DESERT

Natural vegetation of Cholistan is of typically

xerophytic in character and has trees, shrubs,

grasses and forbs.

Trees. Prosopis spicigera, Tamarix articu-

lala, Capparis decidua.

Shrubs. Zizyphus nummularia, Calligonum

polygonoides, Haloxylon salicornicum, Aerua

javanica, Calotropis gigantea, Tamarix gallica,

Alhagi camelorum, Salsola foetida.

Grasses. Lasiurus hirsutus, Aristida de-

pressa, Cymbopogon jwarancusa. Cenchrus

ciliaris, Saccharum munja.

Forbs. Citrullus colosynthis, Dipterygium

glaucum, Crotalaria burhia, Corchorus de-

pressus and Tribulus terrestris.

Systematic Account of Species

amphibians

Family Bufonidae

Bufo stomaticus Liitken

Material collected. Dharanwala (5), Haroon

Abad (3), Fort Abbas (4), Fort Mroat (3),

(number in parenthesis indicates number of

specimens collected).

Taxonomic remarks. Snout-vent length 52-

61 mm, females larger. Males have longer

hind limbs reaching to shoulders, while females

have short, reaching to elbow. Tarsal ridge

feebly (3 specimens) or prominently (12) in-

dicated. Males less wartier than females.

Nuptial excrescences in male on the inner

side of 1, 2, and 3rd finger and inner carpel

tubercle. Distinct transverse stripes on bra-

chium and antibrachium, in both sexes.

Family Ranidae

Rana breviceps Schneider

Material collected. 141 Murad (1), three

males were spotted calling alongwith B. stoma-

ticus, and Rana tigerina, in the shallows of a

water course. Two escaped in the thick grass.

Taxonomic remarks. Snout-vent length 75

mm, body slender than those of Alpine Punjab

(Khan 1979). No sub-tibiotarsal tubercle as

noticed by Leviton et al. (1956) and Bha-

duri and Kirpalani (1954) in the material

from southern India.

This report is the first record from Cholistan

Desert for this frog. However, it has been

reported from desert areas in the lower Indus

Basin (Minton 1966). Apparently, present

collection is due to Sutlej River and its

canals, irrigating the area. Similar riverine

distribution for the species has been demon-

strated for the Ravi River (Khan in Mirza

and Ali 1972) and the Chenab River (Khan

1968).

Rana cyanophlyetis Schneider

Material collected. Chak 141 Murad (4),

Fort Mroat (3), Haroon Abad (1).

Rana tigerina Daudin

Material collected. Chak 141 Murad (1),

Dahranwala (1).

Specimens are typical t. tigerina, but are

slimmer than those of alpine Punjab.

lizards

Family Gekkonidae

Hemidactylus leschenaulti Dumeril and Bibron

Material collected. Daharanwala (1), Chak

141 Murad (4), Fort Mroat (1).

Taxonomic remarks. Snout-vent length

males 46-49, females 52-56; upper labials 9-

10, lower labials 7-9; preano-femoral pores

20-26 in males, in females absent; lamellae

under fourth toe 10-12.

Specimens were collected from inhabited

houses, during night, feeding on photophylic

insects.

145

10

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. S2

Stenodactylus orientalis Blanford

Material collected. Chak 141 Murad (4),

Fort Mroat (1).

Taxonomic remarks. Females longer (50

mm) than males (46 mm); however females

have shorter tails (35 mm) than males (37 mm);

upper labials 10-12, lower labials 9-11.

Ground geckos, active from sunset to dawn.

Very agile on loose sand, while running throw

up sand. When handled twitch tail and faint

squeaks are given.

Family Scincidae

Mabuya dissimilis (Hallowell)

Material collected. Chak 141 Murad (2).

Taxonomic remarks. Two mid-dorsal scale

rows bicarinate, rest tricarinate.

Inhabits reclaimed areas, frequenting grass

fields. Very agile. The specimens were caught

from under the light of a lamp, apparently,

attracted by the photophylic insects. They

perhaps avoid the intense day heat, and were

active during night.

Family Agamidae

Agama sp.

A large agama of the size of about 170 mm,

with flat body, crept into a burrow at the roots

of a dry Alhagi camelorum bush. The dorsum

of the body had a row of 3 large dark and

white ocelli, in mid-dorsal body. All efforts

to extract it failed, due to the failing light and

loose sand. Most probably it was Agama

minor, reported from Jhang District, Punjab,

Pakistan by Khan (1972).

Family Lacertidae

Acanthodactylus cantoris cantoris Gunther

Material collected. Chistian (2), Fort Abbas

(3), Fort Mroat (3), Chak 141 Murad (2),

Bakhshan Khan (1).

Taxonomic remarks. Females longer (79

mm) than males (68 mm); supralabials 7-9,

infralabials 6-9; wide range of variation in

number of supralabials in contact with large

suboculars: 3, 4, 5th in contact (in three

specimens); 4, 5, 6 on right side while 4, 5, 6

on left (1); 5, 6 on left, while 4, 5, 6 on right

(1); on both sides 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 (2).

Ventrals in 10-13 rows; femoral pores in males

and females 35-43.

Adults of both sexes with a dark reticulum

on light grey dorsum, tail tip blue. Juveniles

of S. V. length of 26-29 mm with 7-8 dark

longitudinal stripes on the body dorsum.

Family Varanidae

Varanus bengalensis (Daudin)

A large varanid with distinct double keel

on tail, was seen on roadside, near Fort Mroat

Town. It quickly went down a burrow at

the root of a thorny bush.

SNAKES

Family Colubridae

Natrix sancti-johannis Boulenger

Material collected. Fort Mroat (2), Bakshan

Khan (1).

Taxonomic remarks. Ventrals 149-158,

subcaudals 85-88; mid body scale rows 18-19

supralabials 9, infralabials 10; there is no oculo-

supralabial dark stripes, validating the taxon

sancti-johannis (Khan 1984 a). The present

report is the first of this snake from Pakistan.

Psammophis schokari (Forskal)

Material collected. Fort Mroat (1), Chak

190 Murad.

Taxonomic remarks. Ventrals 186-187, tails

in both damaged; mid body scale rows 17.

Specimen from Chak 190 Murad has no

lineate design like that from Fort Mroat.

146

AMPHIBIANS & REPTILES FROM CHOUSTAN DESERT

This snake is typical of the dunes, and is

very agile on loose sand. It is called “Tir

Mar” or arrow snake by local people, as it

moves with considerable speed on sand.

Spalerosophis arenarius (Boulenger)

Material collected. Fort Mroat (1), Chak

141 Murad (1).

Taxonomic remarks. Ventrals 238 and 245;

subcaudals 82 and 90; mid body scale rows

25; supralabials 11, infralabials 12/11, 11/12;

temporals 4, 4.

Differs from material reported by Smith

(1943), in having higher ventral and subcaudal

counts. However, except for the higher sub-

caudal counts, scutellation falls within the

range of material reported from Sind (Mertens

1969) and southern Baluchistan (Minton

1966).

This is the first report of the Red Spotted

Diadem snake from Punjab, Pakistan.

Family Elapidae

Bungarus sindanus Boulenger

Material collected. Chak 141 Murad (1),

Chak 190 Murad (1).

Taxonomic remarks. The Kraits are clearly

distinct from B. caeruleus because of their

higher scutellation.

Naja naja naja (Linnaeus)

Material collected. Bakshan Khan (1).

Taxonomic remarks. Male, ventrals 188, sub-

caudals 67; scale rows at hood 24, mid body

21; a cuneate scale between 4th and 5th infra-

labial; posterior genial long and narrow, un-

like as in Smith (1943) where anterior is long.

No dark stripes at the ventrals on the ven-

trum of hood, unlike the material reported

from Pakistan (Minton 1966, Mertens 1969,

and Khan 1977 and 1982).

ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL IMPORTANCE OF

Cholistan Desert

The Cholistan Desert demarcates humid and

mesic Ganges Basin from dry and arid Indus

Basin. Undulating sand dunes, general absence

of vegetation, high temperature and prevailing

xeric conditions not only make it impassable

for Oriental forms but also for highland Palae-

arctic forms. Recently, due to the elaborate

canal systems and gradual reclamation of

lower and upper Indus Valley, environmental

conditions have changed. However, the Cholis-

tan zoogeographical barrier does not allow free

East-West flow of species, for which the Mekran

coast was the route in the past.

Many Cholistan-o-Sindian elements do not

cross into Pakistani Punjab on the West, simi-

larly into India in the East. On the West, the

Sutlej River forms the boundary. Forms con-

fined to the Cholistan Desert are Stenodactylus

orientalis, Psammophis schokari, Spalerosophis

arenarius and Bungarus sindanus.

147

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 82

References

Bhaduri, J. L. & Kirpalani, M. (1954): Notes

on the frog Rana breviceps Schneider. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 52 (2-3): 620-623.

Beig, M. S.. Akram, M. & Hassan, M. A. (1979) :

Possibilities for range development in Cholistan as

reflected by its physiography and soils. Soil Survey

of Pakistan. Govt, of Pakistan, Lahore, pp. 15.

Blanford, W. T. (1879): Notes on a collection

of reptiles made by Major O. B. St. John at Ajmere

in Rajputana. J. Asiatic Bengal. 48(2): 119-127.

Khan, M. S. (1968): Amphibian fauna of Distt.

Jhang with notes on habits. Pakistan J. Sci. 20 ( 5-6) :

227-233.

(1972): Checklist and key to the

lizards of Jhangh District, West Pakistan. Hcrpetolo-

gica. 28(2): 94-98.

(1977): Checklist and key to the

snakes of Jhang District. Punjab, Pakistan. Biologia

(Pakistan), 25(2): 145-157.

(1979): On a collection of amphi-

bians from northern Punjab and Azad Kashmir, with

ecological notes. Biologia (Pakistan). 25(1-2): 37-50.

(1982): An annotated checklist and

key to the reptiles of Pakistan. Part: 111. Serpcntes

(Ophidia). Biologia (Pakistan), 28(2): 215-254.

(1984 a): Validity of the natricine

taxon Natrix sancti-johannis Boulenger. J. of Her-

petology 18(2): 198-200.

(1984 b): Rediscovery and validity

of Bimgarns sindanus Boulenger. The Snake, 16:

43-48.

Leviton, A. E., Myers, G. S. & Swan, L. W.

(1956): Zoological results of the California Hima-

layan Expedition to Makalu. eastern Nepal. 1. Amphi-

bians and Reptiles. Occa. pap. Nat. Hist. Mus.

Stanf. Univ. No. 1: 1-18.

Loveridge, A. (1959): Reptiles and amphibians

collected by the expedition in Saudi Arabia and in

Baluchistan and Bahawalpur, West Pakistan. Pap.

Peabody Mas. Arch. Ethnol. Harvard University, 52:

226-227.

Mertens, R. (1969): Die amphibians und repti-

lien Wcst-Pakistans. Stutt. Beit. Naturk. No. 197:

1-96.

Minton, S. A. jr. (1962): An annotated key to

the amphibians and reptiles of Sind and Las Bela.

American Mas. Novit. No. 2081: 1-60.

(1966) : A contribution to the her-

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Hist. No. 134: 27-184.

Mirza. M. R. & Ali, A. (1972): Amphibians

and Chelonians of Lahore. Biologia (Pakistan), 18:

82-87.

Smith, M. A. (1935): Fauna of British India.

Reptilia and Amphibia. 2. Sauria. London.

(1943) : Fauna of British India. Rep-

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148

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

EULOPHID PARASITES (HYMENOPTERA: EULOPHIDAE)

OF AGROMYZIDAE IN INDIA1

M. A. Khan2

(With fifty six text-figures )

Additional generic characters of mandibles,

maxillary and labial palpi, subgenital plate and

external female genitalia are proposed for the

genera Diglyphus Walker, Hemiptarsenus

Westwood, Pediohius Walker and Euderus

Haliday. One known species of Euderus (E.

agromyzae Gangrade) and five new species

( D . horticola sp. nov., D. mandibularis sp. nov.,

D. funicularis sp. nov., Hemiptarsenus indicus

sp. nov., and Pediohius indicus sp. nov.) are

described in detail. Key to the Asiatic species

of Diglyphus is also provided. Type material

is being deposited in Zoological Survey of

India. Calcutta, India.

Genus Diglyphus Walker

Diglyphus Walker, 1844. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.

14:409.

Type species Cirrospitus chabrias Walker 1838

Monotypic.

The distinguishing characters of the genus

have been given in detail by Peck et cd. (1964)

and Gordh and Elendrickson Jr. (1979). Some

new generic characters are suggested which

will further facilitate the identification of this

genus from closely allied ones, viz. mandibles

1 Accepted April 1984. Research Paper No. 3102

through the Experiment Station, G. B. Pant Univer-

sity of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar, Naini-

tal, U.P., India.

2 Department of Entomology, G. B. Pant Univer-

i sity of Agriculture and Technology. Pantnagar, UP.,

India.

quadri to pentadentate (Fig. 2), maxillary

(Fig. 3) and labial palp (Fig. 4) two and one

segmented respectively, subgenital plate (Fig.

12) deeply concave, middle of anterior margin

connected with the central notch of posterior

margin by longitudinal groove, first valvifer

(Fig. 13) triangular, outer plate (Fig. 13) of

ovipositor narrow at base gradually widening

posteriorly with a submarginal ridge along one

half length of dorsal margin, third valvulae

short (Fig. 13), conical.

The genus is recorded for the first time from

India.

Key to the Asiatic species of the genus

Diglyphus Walker

1. Forewings hyaline 2

— Forewings infuscated 6

2. Funicle segments longer than broad 3

— Funicle segments greatly transverse except first

which is quadrate, scape entirely pale yellow,

pedicel and flagellum blackish; notauli always

complete, extending parallel towards transscutal

suture; trochanter, femora and tibiae uniformly

pale nearly white D. albiscapus (Girault)

3. Entire tibiae predominantly metallic coloured

4

— Entire hind tibiae pale yellow or with faint to

dark brown bands 5

4. Forewing narrow, uniformly densely haired from

basal vein to apex, basal cell open below or

closed distally; cubitus strongly sinuate upwards

D. isae (Walker)

— Forewing broader with a speculum or at least

a narrow less densely haired strip just beyond

basal vein; cubitus hardly sinuate; funicle seg-

ment atleast 1.5 times as long as broad

D. minocus (Walker)

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 82

5. Mandible quadridentate; thorax green with

scutellum purplish; hind tibiae pale yellow

without any brown band; marginal cilia long,

in smaller specimen nearly as long as stigmal

vein, postmarginal vein small

D. pusztensis (Erdos & Novicky)

— Mandible pentadentate, thorax dark brown with

golden reflections, hind legs with a large dark

band in the middle; post marginal vein very

long, stigmal vein half the length of postmarginal

vein, marginal fringe short

D. horticola sp. nov.

6. Entire club white, funicle segments quadrate,

subequal in size; stigmal vein longer than post

marginal vein D. mandibularis sp. nov.

— Entire club uniformly brown except apex white,

funicle segments longer than wide, postmarginal

vein longer than stigmal vein

D. funicularis sp. nov.

Diglyphus horticola sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-13)

Female: Head (Fig. 1). Dark brown with

golden reflection, wider than long in facial view

(0.44: 0.35), width of frons between eyes more

than half the head width; frontovertex wide,

wider than long; ocelli arranged in obtuse

angle triangle; antennae inserted well above

the lower level of eyes; distance between two

antennal sockets less than their distance from

eye rim (0.06: 0.08); mandibles (Fig. 2)

pentadentate, the three outer teeth well deve-

loped, long with sharp apices, the inner two

short and saw-like; maxillary (Fig. 3) and

labial palp (Fig. 4) two and one segmented

respectively.

Antennae (Fig. 5). Dark brown with funicle

segments and club white; scape cylindrical, six

times longer than wide (0.21: 0.035); pedicel

long, twice as1 long as wide (0.07: 0.035),

shorter than preceding first funicle segment,

two anelli intervening between pedicel and

first funicle segment; first funicle segment

(0.08: 0.06) distinctly longer than second seg-

ment (0.065: 0.055); club three segmented,

three times longer than wide (0.2: 0.069),

shorter than funicle and pedicel combined; first

funicle to last club segment with 9, 7, 6, 5 & 4

sensoria respectively.

Thorax (Fig. 6). Dark brownish with golden

reflections, with fine reticulate sculpture; poste-

rior margin of pronotum (Fig. 7) with 8 setae;

scutum wider than long (0.26: 0.25) with four

long, strong bristle, parapsidal furrows weak;

scutellum (0.25: 0.21) shorter than scutum

with six long, strong bristles, propodaeum

highly carinated.

Figs. 1-13. Diglyphus horticola sp. nov., $.

1. Head, frontal aspect: 2. Mandible; 3. Maxillary

palp; 4. Labial palp; 5. Antenna; 6. Thorax, dor-

sal aspect; 7. Pronotum; 8. Forewing; 9. Fore leg;

10. Middle leg; 11. Hind leg; 12. Subgenital plate;

1 3 Ovipositor.

150

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fore Wings (Fig. 8). Hyaline, densely

setose, more than two and a half times longer

than wide; submarginal vein long (0.5), with

six strong setae, marginal vein (0.31) dis-

tinctly longer than postmarginal vein (0.2),

stigmal vein (0.12) less than half the length

of postmarginal vein; costal cell narrow, with

10 setae; marginal fringe short.

Hind Wings. Hyaline, less than five times

longer than wide; apex of marginal vein with

three curved hooklets; marginal fringe long.

Forelegs (Fig. 9). Coxa, trochanter and

femora except apical \ dark brown, apical \ of

femora and basal tip of tibiae whitish, rest of

the tibiae yellowish brownish with faint brown

patches on basal half and on apical half; tarsal

segments yellowish brown.

Middle legs (Fig. 10). Coxa, trochanter

and femora except basal tip and apical ^ dark

brown, rest of the leg yellowish with dark

brown bands on basal half and on apical half

of tibiae, last tarsal segments brownish.

Hind legs (Fig. 11). Coloration same as of

middle legs.

Abdomen. Dark brownish, longer than

thorax; subgenital plate deeply concave (Fig.

12) , middle of anterior margin connected with

central notch of posterior margin by longi-

tudinal groove; first valvifer triangular (Fig.

13) with articular knobs prominent, second

valvifer long with thickened dorsal margin

through out; third valvulae short (Fig. 13)

moveably articulated with second valvifer,

outer plates of ovipositor (Fig. 13) narrow at

base, broad at apex, basal with thickened

dorsal margin and a ridge in the middle, ovi-

positor slightly exserted.

Length of female, 1 .4 mm.

Male. Not known.

Holotype. 9 Tndia, Pantnagar, ex pea leaf

miner, Chromatomyia hordeola (Diptera:

Agromyzidae) on field peas, Pisum sativum L,

3-1-1979 (M.A. Khan) Hym. Eulo. Nr. 1005

(M. A. Khan).

Paratype. 60 $ $ (Same data as holotype)

Hym. Eulo. Nr. 1006 (M. A. Khan).

Diglyphus mandibular is sp. nov.

(Figs. 14-20)

Female. Head (Fig. 14). Dark metallic with

bluish green reflections; frontovertex wide;

ocelli arranged in acute angle triangle, basal

Figs. 14-20. Diglyphus mandibularis sp. nov., $.

14. Head, frontal aspect with antenna; 15. Mandi-

ble; 16. Maxillary palp; 17. Labial palp; 18. Tho-

rax, dorsal aspect; 19. Forewing; 20. Ovipositor.

Figs. 21-22. Diglyphus funicularis sp. nov., $.

21. Antenna; 22. Fore wing.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

ocelli about twice its diameter from eye rim;

subocular suture distinct; mandibles with

apical half reddish (Fig. 15).

Antennae (Fig. 14). Uniformly brown ex-

cept club white; pedicel twice as long as white

(0.09 : 0.045), funicle segments quadrate,

subequal (0.081 : 0.081), club three times

longer than wide (0.21 : 0.06).

Thorax (Fig. 18). Dark brown with bluish

green reflections on the dorsum, scutellum

with fine reticulations, surface of propodaeum

shagreened, weakly sculptured, spiracles sepa-

rated from anterior propodael margin by a

space equal to diameter of spiracle.

Forewings (Fig. 19). Infuscated with five

contrasting hyaline areas, namely proximal

part of basal triangle, a small oval area beneath

apex of submarginal vein, two large areas

beyond venations and an apical hyaline area;

wings almost two and a half times as long as

wide; submarginal vein with six setae, costal

cell rather broad, marginal vein shorter than

submarginal vein, stigmal vein longer than

post-marginal vein.

Legs. Coxa dark brown, femora, tibiae

brown with greenish reflections, tarsal seg-

ments white.

Abdomen. Dark metallic with shining

bluish green reflections on the dorsum, as long

as thorax.

Length of female. 1.52 mm.

Male. Not known.

Holotype. °. Tndia, Nainital, Jeolikot (4000

ft) ex Melangromyza obtusa on Flemingia sp.

6-11-1979 (Hym. Eulo. Nr. 1007) (M. A.

Khan).

Paratype. 18 $ $ . Same data as holotype

(Hym. Eulo. Nr. 1008 (M. A. Khan).

Diglyphus funicularis sp. nov.

(Figs. 21-22)

Resembles Diglyphus mandibularis sp. nov.

except in the following characters.

Antennae (Fig. 21). Uniformly brown ex- ai

cept apex of club white, scape dilated, dis- 1

tinctly less than three times longer than wide, p

pedicel twice longer than wide (0.09 : 0.04), a

distinctly longer than first funicle segment, tl

funicle segments longer than wide, subequal

in size (0.065 : 0.05), club distinctly less n

than three times longer than wide (0.16 : p

0.065). longer than funicle. I

Forewing (Fig. 22). Almost twice as long j

as wide, submarginal vein with 8 setae, post-

marginal vein longer than stigmal vein

(0.025 : 0.019).

Length of female. 1.5 mm.

Male. Not known. e

Holotype. $. India, Nainital. Jeolikot i

(4000 ft) ex Melangromyza obtusa on Flemi - s

gia sp. 6-11-1979 (Hym. Eulo. Nr. 1009) c

(M. A. Khan). t

Paratype. 6 $ $ . Same data as holotype (

Hym. Eulo. Nr. 1010 (M. A. Khan).

Hemiptarsenus Westwood

Hemiptarsenus Westwood, 1833, Mag. Nat. Hist.

6: 122.

Type Species. Hemiptarsenus fulvicollis

The genus Hemiptarsenus Westwood can

be separated from other genera in having

parapsidal grooves (Fig. 28) incomplete or

only faintly indicated in posterior third, an-

tennae with four funicle segments, segments i

elongated (Fig. 27), male antennae with three i

long branches.

In addition some new generic characters are

suggested which will further facilitate the iden-

tification of this genus from closely allied ones,

viz. mandibles (Fig. 24). quadridentate with

very sharp apices, maxillary (Fig. 25) and

labial palp (Fig. 26) with two and one seg-

mented respectively; subgenital plate (Fig. 31)

with anterior margin cone like in the middle,

posterior margin with a deep notch in the

centre, first valvifer (Fig. 32) triangular with

152

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

articular knobs prominent, third valvulae

(Fig. 33) short, lanceolate, outer plate of ovi-

positor (Fig. 33) narrow at base, rounded at

apex, dorsal margin thickened with a ridge in

the middle.

Gokulpure (1972) recorded the genus ( He -

miptarsenus sp.) for the first time from India

parasitic on the Phytomyza atricornis (Meigen).

In the present work a new species Hemiptar-

senus indicus is described.

Hcmiptarsenus indicus sp. nov.

(Figs. 23-33)

Female. (Fig. 23). Dark brown with gold-

en reflections, wider than long in facial view

(0.44 : 0.4), width of frons between eyes

slightly more than half of head width, front-

overtex wide, ocelli arranged in obtuse angle

triangle; malar space as long as transverse

diameter of eye (0.11: 0.11), distance bet-

ween two antennal sockets almost twice

the distance from eye rim (0.04: 0.075);

antennae inserted in the middle of face; man-

dibles quadridentate with sharp apices (Fig.

24), maxillary (Fig. 25) and labial palp (Fig.

26) two and one segmented respectively.

Antennae (Fig. 27). Dark brown except

scape yellowish with a dark band on dorsal

surface of the apical half, apical one third of

the club yellowish; antennae eight segmented

consisting of scape, pedicel, an anellus, three

segmented funicle and an unsegmented club.

Scape slightly dilated, less than five times

longer than wide, pedicel twice longer than

wide (0.08 : 0.04), less than half of first

funicle segment, an anellus intervening bet-

ween the pedicel and first funicle segment,

funicle segments longer than wide, first and

second segment subequal in size (0.19 :

0.04), third segment (0.17: 0.06) shorter

than second, fourth funicle segment very short

(0.13: 0.06); club unsegmented, less than

three times longer than wide (0.17: 0.06),

longer than preceding segment.

Thorax (Fig. 28). Dark brown, uniformly

reticulate sculpture; scutum less than twice

wider than long (0.45 : 0.24), with incom-

plete parapsidal furrows, with four long,

strong bristles, axillae triangular, widely sepa-

rated from each other; scutellum wider than

long, shorter than scutum, without any bristle,

Figs. 23-33. Hcmiptarsenus indicus sp. nov., $

23. Head, frontal aspect; 24. Mandible; 25. Maxi-

llary palp; 26. Labial palp; 27. Antenna; 28.

Thorax, dorsal aspect; 29. Fore wing; 30. Hind

wing; 31. Subgcnital plate; 32. First valvifer; 33.

Ovipositor.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

scutum with its axillae resembles with that

of an encyrtid; surface of the propodaeum

smooth, propodael spiracle separated from

anterior margin by a space equal to twice the

diameter of a spiracle, mesopostphragma

short.

Forewings (Fig. 29). Hyaline, slightly less

than four times longer than wide (1.4: 0.38),

densely setose with two longitudinal Y shaped

light brownish bands, bands are rather densely

setose, basal area of parastigma sparsely

setose; costal cell narrow with 11 setae, sub-

marginal vein with 10 dorsal bristles, marginal

vein (0.46) almost twice the length of post-

marginal vein (0.25), stigmal vein (0.09)

short; 10 admarginal hairs present, marginal

fringe long, spaced by a distance equal to

more than ^ length of a fringe.

Hindwings (Fig. 30). Hyaline, narrow, less

than seven times longer than wide, densely

setose, 3 curved hooklets at apex of marginal

vein, marginal fringe long.

Forelegs. Uniformly yellowish except apical

Abdomen. Brownish with yellowish reflec-

tions, slightly longer than thorax; petiole

yellow, short, subgenital plate (Fig. 31) with

anterior margin cone like in the middle, pos-

terior margin with a deep notch in the centre,

first valvifers (Fig. 32) triangular with articu-

lar knobs prominent, third valvulae (Fig. 33)

movably articulated with second valvifers;

outer plates of ovipositor (Fig. 33) narrow at

base, rounded at apex, dorsal margin thicken-

ed, with a ridge in the middle, ovipositor

slightly exserted.

Female length. 1.61 mm.

Male. Not known.

Holotype. $ , India, U.P., Pantnagar, ex

Cliromatomyia hordeola (Diptera: Agromy-

zidae) on field peas Pisum sativum 3-1-1979

Hym. Eulo. Nr. 1011 (M. A. Khan).

Paratype. 1 9 (Same data as Holotype)

Hym. Eulo. Nr. 1012 (M. A. Khan).

Hemiptarsenus indicus sp. nov. resembles

Hemiptarsenus unguicellus (Zetterstedt) from

which it can be distinguished in Table 1.

Table 1

Hemiptarsenus unguicellus (Zetterstedt)

• Hemiptarsenus indicus sp. nov.

Antennal scape blackish

Thorax wholly metallic

Forewings usually immaculate

Legs uniformly yellowish except coxae wholly or

partly brown, tarsal segment 2-4 brown

Petiole strongly transverse

Mandible not likewise

half of coxa and tarsal segment 2-4 brownish.

Middle legs. Uniformly yellowish except

coxa and tarsal segments 2-4 brownish, femora

with a single, strong setae at basal end.

Hind legs. Uniformly yellowish except coxa

on major portion, basal half of femora and

tarsal segments 2-4 dark brownish.

Antennal scape yellowish with a dark band on

apical half

Thorax dark brown

Forewings with two longitudinal Y shaped light

brownish bands which are rather densely setose

Legs with hind and mid coxae concolorous with

thorax and occassionally femora infuscate medially

Petiole yellow, short but not transverse

Mandible quadridentatc with sharp apices.

Pediobius Walker 1846 (= Pleurotropis Fore-

ster 1856)

Pediobius Walker, 1846, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.

17-184.

Type species — Entedon ( Pediobius ) imbreus Walker

Desig. by Ashmead 1904. P. 384.

Ferriere (1953) considered the genus Pleu-

rotropis Forester to be a synonym of Pediobi-

154

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

us Walker. Crawford (1912) recorded the

genus for the first time from India while des-

cribing Pleurotropis foveolatus parasitic on the

larvae of Epilachna beetle. Rohwer (1921)

reported another new species P. epilachnae

parasitic on the same host. There are only

ten species reported from India so far. Here

in the present work P. indicus is described as

a new species.

The genus Pediobius Walker can easily be

separated from other genera in having body

strongly sclerotized, head (Fig. 34) and thorax

(Fig. 38) with fine sculpture, parapsidal fur-

rows usually partly indicated, scutellum with-

out distinct median groove, abdomen convex

with distinct petiole, propodaeum with com-

plete plicae and two submedian longitudinal

carinae diverging posteriorly, latter rarely

vague and replaced by narrow basal elevation

moderately sloping backward, pronotal collar

carinate.

Some new generic characters are suggested

namely mandible bidentate (Fig. 35,) maxil-

lary (Fig. 36) and labial palp each one seg-

mented, subgenital plate (Fig. 42) of uniform

width, anterior margin almost straight, posterior

margin with a deep notch in the middle, first

valvifer (Fig. 43) triangular with basal margin

concave, third valvulae very short (Fig. 44),

outer plate of ovipositor (Fig. 44), narrow at

base, gradually widen in the middle and

finally turns narrow at apex.

Pediobius indicus sp. nov.

(Figs. 34-44)

Female. Head (Fig. 34). Dark metallic

with predominantly bright bluish green reflec-

tions on the face, with fine reticulate sculpture,

wider than long in facial view (0.5 : 0.42);

frontovertex wide, one half of head width

(0.25 : 0.5); ocelli arranged in obtuse angle

triangle, basal ocelli almost twice its diameter

from eye rim and removed from occipital

margin by its own diameter, eyes large, reach-

ing near to the facial margin; malar space

very short (0.1); distance between two anten-

nal sockets less than half the distance from eye

rim (0.04 : 0.09), their lower margin well

above the line drawn across lower eye mar-

gins; mandibles bidentate with blunt tooth

Figs. 34-44. Pediobius indicus sp. nov., $ .

34. Head, frontal aspect; 35. Mandible; 36. Maxi-

llary palp; 37. Antenna; 38. Thorax; dorsal aspect

with Petiole attached; 39. Pronotum; 40. Fore

wing; 41. Hind wing; 42. Subgenital plate; 43.

First valvifer; 44. Ovipositor.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. S2

(Fig. 35), maxillary (Fig. 36) and labial palp

one segmented each.

Antennae (Fig. 37). Dark brown, scape

cylindrical, less than seven times longer than

wide (0.19 : 0.03); pedicel long, more than

twice longer than wide (0.065 : 0.03), shor-

ter than first funicle segment (0.08: 0.05);

an anellus present between pedicel and first

funicle segment; funicle three segmented, first

funicle segment (0.8 : 0.05) a trifle longer

than second (0.75 : 0.05), third segment

quadrate (0.06 : 0.06), club two segmented,

three times as long as wide (0.15 : 0.05),

almost as long as preceding two funicle seg-

ments combined.

Thorax (Fig. 38). Dark metallic with shining

green reflections on the dorsum, w'ith fine reti-

culate sculpture, pronotum as shown in Fig.

39, its posterior margin with six strong setae;

scutum less than twice wider than long (0.45:

0.25) with incomplete parapsidal furrows,

with four bristles, axilla widely separated

from each other; scutellum wider than long

(0.35 : 0.25), shorter than scutum, with

two long bristle; propodaeum highly carinated.

Forewings (Fig. 40). Flyaline, less than twice

longer than wide, densely setose, costal cell

narrow; submarginal vein with two stout,

strong setae, six small setae arranged down-

wards. basal vein with three setae; subcubital

line of hairs with only seven small setae;

marginal vein very long (0.56); postmarginal

vein (0.07) almost twice the length of stigmal

vein (0.04). 13 admarginal hairs present;

marginal fringe short, spaced by a distance

equal to one third their length.

Hindwings (Fig. 41). Hyaline, almost six

times longer than wide, marginal fringe short,

spaced by a distance equal to one half their

length.

Forelegs. Uniformly brown with tarsal seg-

ment except first light brownish.

Middle legs. Dark brown except apex of

coxa, apex of trochanter, apical end of tibiae

and tarsal segments 1-3 whitish; apical rim

of tibiae with 3 small pegs.

Hindlegs. Coloration same as that of fore-

legs except tarsal segments 1-3 white, last

segment dark brown.

Abdomen. Dark brown with bluish green

reflections on the dorsum, longer than thorax

(0.75 : 0.6), petiole almost one and a half

times longer than wide; ovipositor slightly ex-

serted; subgenital plate (Fig. 42) of uniform

width, anterior margin almost straight, poste-

rior margin with a deep notch in the middle;

first valvifcr (Fig. 43) triangular with basal

margin concave, articular knobs prominent;

second valvifer of uniform width; third val-

vulae very short (Fig. 44), movably articulated

with second valvifer; outer plate of ovipositor

(Fig. 44) narrow at base, gradually widen

in the middle and finally turns narrow at apex.

Length of female. 1 . 7 mm.

Mai.k. Not known.

Holotype. 9, India, U. P. Pantnagar, ex.

Chromatomyia horticola (Diptera : Agromy-

zidae) on field peas — Piston sativum. 3-1-

1979. Hym. Eulo. Nr. 1013 (M. A. Khan).

Paratype. Same data as holotype Hym.

Eulo. Nr. 1014 (M. A. Khan).

P. indicus sp. nov. is easily distinguished

from the related P. mitsukurii (Ashmead) as

in Table 2.

Genus Euderus Haliday

Eudcrus Haliday, 1843. Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.

3 : 298.

Type species : Entedcm am phis Walker.

The genus Euderus Haliday can be easily

recognized from other culophid genera by the

presence of 3 hair lines radiating from the

base of stigmal vein, by the postmarginal vein

in the forewing and by complete nataulices.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

P. mitsukurii (Ashmead)

Table 2

P. indicus sp. nov.

Frontovertex about 1.5 times breadth at its median

length.

Eyes moderately hairy.

Scape slightly swollen at its apical one third, five

; times as long as broad.

Pedicel as long as first funicle segment, slightly

i less than twice as long as wide, flagellum rather

slender, hardly stouter than pedicel,

i Funicle segment subequal in length, about 1.5 as

i long as broad, club as long as pedicel and first

| funicle segment.

Costal cell bare.

Post marginal vein more than twice as long as stig-

mal vein.

Coxae concolorous with thorax, rest of the leg pale

brownish yellow.

Recently the genus has been well revised by

Yoshimoto (1971) and distinguishing charac-

ters given by him apply well to the species

under study. In addition some new generic

characters are suggested which may further

help in distinguishing Euderus from allied

genera, viz. (i) first valvifer semicircular with

base little concave; (ii) second valvifer with

dorsal margin thickened; (iii) outer plates of

ovipositor narrow at base, gradually widening

posteriorly with a submarginal ridge running

three fourth length of dorsal margin.

Euderus agromyzae Gangrade

(Figs. 45-56)

Euderus agromyzae Gangrade 1960, Indian J. Ent.

22 : 80-82.

Female, (redescribed in detail). Head. (Fig.

45) : Dark brown with metallic reflections,

surface reticulate, wider than long in facial

view (0.63 : 0.45), fronto-vertex wide (0.

32), wider than long, one half of head width;

eyes large; bare, more than twice longer than

wide; Ocelli arranged in obtuse angle triangle;

Frontovertex about 0.5 times breadth at its median

length.

Eye bare.

Scape uniformly cylindrical seven times as long as

broad.

Pedicel shorter than first funicle segment, more

than twice longer than wide, flagellum stouter than

pedicel.

Funicle segment not subcqual in length, first funicle

segment a trifle longer than second, third segment

quadrate, club two segmented, shorter than pedicel

and first funicle segment.

Costal cell not bare.

Post marginal vein twice the length of stigmal vein.

Legs not likewise uniformly dark brown coloration

with some parts white.

antennal sockets placed in the middle, well

above the imaginary line joining the orbital

border, distance between the two antennal

sockets less than twice their distance from eye;

mandibles tridentatc with acute teeth (Fig.

46); maxillary (Fig. 47) and labial palp (Fig.

48) two segmented.

Antenna (Fig. 49). Dark brown except the

scape with ventral side yellowish; scape less

than six times longer than wide (0.23 : 0.04);

pedicel distinctly less than twice longer than

wide (0.09: 0.05) longer than first funicle seg-

ment (0.08), anellus very small; funicle seg-

ments cylindrical except fourth segment quad-

rate, second and third funicle segment sub-

equal in size (0.09 : 0.07); club three seg-

mented, less than three times longer than

wide (0.21 : 0.08), longer than preceding

two funicle segments combined; first funicle

to last club segments with 7, 9, 12, 14, 16, 10,

8 and 5 sensoria respectively.

Thorax (Fig. 50). Dark brown with reticu-

late sculpture, pronotum short, narrow;

scutum wider than long (0.58 : 0.4); scutel-

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

lum slightly longer than wide (0.38 : 0.35),

shorter than scutum, rounded at apex; propo-

Figs. 45-56. Euderus agromyzae Gangrade.

45. Head, frontal aspect; 46. Mandible; 47. Maxi-

llary palp; 48. Labial palp; 49. Antenna; 50. Tho-

rax, dorsal aspect; 51. Fore wing; 52. Fore wing

venation; 53. Fore leg; 54. Middle leg; 55. Hind

leg; 56. Ovipositor.

daeum reticulate with median carina very

short.

Forewings (Fig. 51). Hyaline, sparsely

setose, almost twice longer than wide; posterior

and apical margin with five hair lines, seven

admarginal hairs present; submarginal vein

subequal to marginal vein, with seven long

dorsal setae; post marginal vein twice the

length of stigmal vein (Fig. 52), marginal

fringe short.

Hindwings. Almost three times as long as

wide, sparsely setose, apex of marginal vein

with three curved hooklets; marginal fringe

short.

Forelegs (Fig. 53). Uniformly brownish

except the first tarsal segment almost white;

coaxe with eight long setae on outer face of

distal half; femora thickened; tibiae with a

small spur.

Middle legs (Fig. 54). Coloration same as

of fore legs except the last tarsal segment dark

brown; tibial spur long.

Hind legs (Fig. 55). Coloration same as of

middle legs.

Abdomen. Dark brown, longer than thorax;

petiolate, tapering at apex; ovipositor conceal-

ed; first valvifer semicircular (Fig. 56) with

base little concave, articular knobs prominent,

second valvifer long with dorsal margin slightly

thickened, third valvulae (Fig. 56) narrow,

movably articulated with second valvifers,

outer plates of ovipositor (Fig. 56) narrow

at base, gradually widening posteriorly with a

submarginal ridge running three fourth length

of dorsal margin.

Length of female. 2.25 mm.

Male. Resembles female except head and

thorax non-metallic, abdomen shorter than

head and thorax combined, pale brown to

dark.

Length of Male. 1 . 9 mm.

Holotype, 2, <S India, U.P., Pantnagar ex

Melangromyza obtusa (Diptera: Agromyzidae)

in the pods of Cajanus cajan 10-11-1979.

Hym. Eulo. Nr. 1015 (M. A. Khan).

Paratype. Same data as holotype Hym. Eulo.

Nr. 1016 (M. A. Khan).

158

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Dr. K. C. Sharma, Dean,

College of Agriculture and Dr. B. P. Khare,

Prof. & Head, Deptt. of Entomology, G. B.

Pant University of Agriculture & Technology,

Pantnagar for providing necessary laboratory

facilities. I am also thankful to Dr. V. K.

Sehgal, Assoc. Prof. Deptt. of Entomology

for identifying host species.

Financial assistance from I.C.A.R., New

Delhi under the project is gratefully acknow-

ledged.

References

Ashmead, W. H. (1904): Classification of the

Chalcid flies. Mem. Carnegie Mus. 7(4) : 225-555.

Erdos & Novicky (1951): Eulophidae Novae.

Acta biol. Acad. Sci. Hung. 2: 180-183.

Crawford, J. C. (1912): Description of new

hymenoptera. U. S. Nat. Mus. 42 : 1-10.

Ferriere, C. (1953): Les Parasites de Litho-

collites platani en Italie. Balonga U. 1st di Ent. 19:

395-404.

Gangrade, G. A. (1960): Description of a new

species of the genus Euderus Haliday, 1844 (Eulo-

phidae : Chalcidoidea). Ind. J. Ent. 22 : 80-82.

Gokulpure, R. S. (1972): Notes on the hosts

and parasites of Phytomyza atricornis (Meigen)

(Diptera : Agromyzidae). Indian J. Agric. Sci., 42

(7) : 638-640.

Gordh, G. & Hendrickson, R. Jr. (1979): New

j species of Diglyphus, a world list of the species,

1 Taxonomic notes and a key to the new world

species of Diglyphus & Diaulinopsis (Hymenoptera:

Eulophidae). Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 81(4):

666-684.

Kami jo, K. (1977) : Notes on Ashmead’s and

Crawford's Types of Pediobius Walker (Hymeno. :

Eulophidae) from Japan, with description of a new

species. Kontyu, Tokyo 45(1): 12-22.

(1978): Chalcidoid parasites (Hyme-

noptera) of Agromyzidae in Japan with description

of a new species. Kontyu, Tokyo 46(3): 455-469.

Kerrich, G. J. (1973): A revision of the Tropi-

cal and Subtropical species of the Eulophid genus

Pediobius Walker (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea).

Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Ent. 29: 115-119.

Peck, O., Boucek, Z. & Hoffer, A. (1964): Key

to the Chalcidoidea of Czechoslovakia (Insecta :

Hymenoptera). Mem. ent. Soc. Canada 34: 1-120.

Rouwer, S. A. (1921): Description of new Chal-

cidoid flies from Coimbatore, South India. Ann.

Mag. nat. Hist. 27-126.

Walker, F. (1844) : On the species of Chalcidites

inhabiting the Arctic region, ibid. 74(43) : 407-410.

Yoshimoto, C. M. (1971): Revision of the genus

Euderus of America, North of Mexico (Hymenop-

tera: Eulophidae). Cand. Ent. 103(4): 541-578.

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS SIMOCEPHALUS SCHOEDLER,

1858 (CLADOCERA, DAPHNIIDAE) FROM MADHYA PRADESH,

INDIA1

Pramod Rane2

Introduction

Cladocera of the genus Simocephalus Scho-

edler, 1858 are not so well known from India.

1 Accepted March 1984.

2 Zoological Survey of India, 1544/A, Napier

Town. Jabalpur (M.P.) 482 002, India.

Biswas (1965, 1980) reported six species from

Rajasthan and North East India, and I (1983)

have described S. vidyae sp. nov. from Tewar,

Jabalpur district, Madhya Pradesh, India.

Recently again I came across several speci-

mens of Simocephalus sp. from Deotal,

Madhya Pradesh. A female specimen of the

159

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. S 2

different set of teeth at outer and inner margin; 4. Antennulc showing spines at

anterior margin; 5. Hook-like denticles of posterior dorsal half margin of valve.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

above lot is described here as a new species,

it differs both from S. vidyae Rane

described from Tewar, M. P. and S. exspinosus

(Koch) reported from North West India.

The other specimens of the same lot are para-

types.

Simocephalus surekhae sp. nov. (Figs. 1-5)

Description, female. Carapace seen late-

rally is broad, oval or somewhat rhomboidal

in outline, with a well marked protuberance

posteriorly; dorsal margin evenly curved;

posterior edge of the valve nearly straight

and rather oblique, joining the ventral edge

at a well-marked angle. Posterior half of the

dorsal margin strongly denticulate; paired,

hook-like, continued to the terminal protube-

rance. Ventral posterior half of valve almost

straight, with several small, equal denticles

attached submarginally. Head small, angulate,

with dorsal margin evenly curved. Rostrum

absent. Antennules with ten terminal aesthe-

tascs and lateral sensory seta originate from

knob-like expansion. 3-4 spines present along

the anterior edge of the antennules. Eye com-

paratively large, with refractive bodies cons-

picuous. Ocellus small, rhomboidal. Very

large tongue-like expansion present at the

ventral margin of head, clothed with several

large hairs. Valves with distinct pattern of

polygon cells at various places. Postabdomen

broad posteriorly, with acute supra-anal angle,

anal denticles 11-12 on each side. Proximal

four large, decreasing in length posteriorly

with groups of hairs on both upper and lower

side. Postabdominal claw nearly straight, spinu-

lated both on the outer and inner margins.

Outer margin with two sets of teeth. Proximal

set with 30 small equal teeth about two-thirds

as long as longest and half as broad as broadest

teeth of the distal set. Distal set with about

50 teeth, decreasing gradually toward the tip

of claw. Inner margin of claw also with 44-

45 teeth about three-fourths as long as longest

of distal set at outer margin. Length of female,

1.8 to 2.4 mm and height 1 . 32 to 1.84 mm.

male unknown.

Material examined. India. Madhya Pradesh,

Jabalpur district, Kola tank near Deotal

on Nagpur Road, Holotype 2 and 10 ? ?

paratypes, 5 October, 1981, Coll. P. D. Rane;

deposited in the National Collection of Zoo-

logical Survey of India, Calcutta, West Bengal.

Remarks. Literature reveals that only two

spinulated species of Simocephalus are known

so far from India, namely S. vidyae Rane

and 5. exspinosus (Koch) which have 13 to

15 and 9 to 12 teeth respectively in the pro-

ximal pecten. S. surekhae sp. nov. can be

differentiated from the above species in having

28-30 and 47-50 teeth, respectively in the

proximal and distal part of claw, at outer

margin. The teeth in proximal part of S. sure-

khae appear similar to those of S. exspinosus,

having the same size throughout but differing

in their numbers. S. vidyae Rane comes close

to the new species in having angulate vertex

and spinulate claws but differs by its very

large rostrum and larger teeth in the proximal

pecten. In addition to above differences, the

large 3-4 spines at the anterior edge of anten-

nules, absence of rostrum and different spina-

tion on both outer and inner margin of claw

are unique characters only for the new species.

Acknowledgements

This study was made under a research

project of the Zoological Survey of India. I am

indebted to Mr. Ram Kishore Singh of this

station for his encouragement and interest and

also thankful to Mr. Satish Fadnavis, depart-

mental artist, for his kind help in drawing the

figures.

11

161

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. H2

References

Biswas, S. (1965): Fauna of Rajasthan. India

Part II, Crustacea, Cladocera. Rec. Zool. Surv.

India, 63 : 95-141.

(1980): Cladocerans (Crustacea:

Branchiopoda) from Assam and adjacent hill states

in North East India, ibid. 76: 93-113.

Rane, P. D. (1983): A new species of Simoce-

phalus Schoedler, 1858, Cladocera, Daphniidae

from India. Crustaccana 45(2) : 154-156.

THREE NEW SPECIES OF PEDIOB/US WALKER

(HYMENOPTERA: EULOPHIDAE) FROM SOUTH INDIA1

S. Adam Shafee and Seema Rizvi2

( With nine text -figures )

Three new species of Pediobius Walker (P.

gunturensis sp. nov., P. pondicherry ensis sp.

nov. and P. maduraiensis sp. nov.) are des-

cribed and illustrated. The new species are

differentiated from their closely allied species.

Types are deposited in Zoological Museum,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

Pediobius gunturensis sp. nov.

(Figs. A-C)

female. Head dark, strongly sclerotized and

distinctly sculptured; distinctly wider than long

in facial view; frontovertex slightly less

than one-half the total head width; ocelli white,

arranged in obtuse triangle, lateral ocellus

separated by its diameter from inner orbital

margin and close to occipital margin; malar

space slightly shorter than eye width; malar

sutures indistinct; antennae inserted just above

lower level of eyes, inter-antennal space about

one-fourth the width of frons between eyes at

median ocellus. Antennae dark except scape

yellowish brown (fig. A); scape cylindrical,

slightly less than five times as long as wide;

pedicel one and a half times as long as wide,

1 Accepted May 1984.

2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology.

Aligarh Muslim University. Aligarh. India.

slightly shorter than first funicle segment; one

ring segment present; funicle segments 1-3

gradually decreasing in length and increasing

in width distad, first twice as long as wide,

third slightly longer than wide; club 2-seg-

mented, slightly more than twice as long as

wide, shorter than preceding two funicle seg-

ments together.

Thorax dark, strongly sclerotized and dis-

tinctly sculptured; posterior margin of prono-

tum with six thick setae; mesoscutum with

two pairs of long setae, parapsidal furrows

indistinct; scutellum with a pair of long setae;

propodeum dark, strongly sclerotized with

metallic bluish reflections. Fore wings (fig. B)

hyaline, slightly more than twice as long as

wide; disc with basal one-third naked except

a row of six setae; costal cell broad, bare,

shorter than marginal vein; submarginal, pre-

marginal, marginal and post-marginal veins

with 2. 5, 14 and 3 setae respectively; post-

marginal vein slightly longer than sligmal vein

(fig. C); a row of 12 long setae beneath margi-

nal vein; marginal fringe short, spaced by a

distance equal to one-third their length. Legs

dark except apical three-fourth of mid and

hind tibiae, apical one-third of fore tibiae and

tarsi of all legs white.

162

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. A-C. Pediobius gunturensis sp. nov.. 2 : (A) Antenna, (B) Fore wing, (C) Part

of fore wing venation.

Figs. D-F. Pediobius mcuiuraiensis sp. nov., 2 : (D) Antenna, (E) Fore wing, (F) Part

of fore wing venation.

Figs. G-I. Pediobius pondicherrycnsis sp. nov., 2 : (G) Antenna, (H) Fore wing,

(I) Part of fore wing venation.

163

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. H2

Abdomen dark with metallic reflections,

distinctly longer than thorax; ovipositor slight-

ly exserted, arising from base of abdominal

venter; first abdominal tergite short, about

one-fourth the length of abdomen.

Body length. 1 . 84 mm.

Holotype $ . India: Andhra Pradesh. Gun-

tur. 4. iii. 1982 (5. Adam Shafee).

Comments'. The new species is closely re-

lated to Pediobius longicorpus Khan and

Shafee (1982) from which it can be separated

in having antennae with one ring segment,

funicle segment third slightly longer than wide;

marginal vein of fore wing with 14 long setae

and row of 12 long setae beneath marginal

vein.

Pediobius maduraiensis sp. nov.

(Figs. D-F)

female. Head dark, reticulately sculptu-

red; frontovertex slightly wider than long;

ocelli white, arranged slightly in obtuse triangle,

lateral ocellus separated by twice its diameter

from inner orbital and occipital margins sepa-

rately; antennae inserted on lower level of

eyes; malar space slightly shorter than eye

width. Antennae (fig. D) dark with metallic

reflections; scape cylindrical, four times as

long as wide; pedicel as long as wide, as long

as first funicle segment; one ring segment

present; funicle segments 1-3 rounded, first

and third subequal, second slightly longer than

first; club 2-segmented.

Thorax dark, strongly sclerotized and dis-

tinctly sculptured; posterior margin of pro-

notum with thick setae. Fore wings (fig. E)

hyaline, slightly more than twice as long as

wide; disc sparsely setose; costal cell narrow,

bare, slightly more than one-half the length

of marginal vein; submarginal, premarginal,

marginal and postmarginal veins with 3, 2.

II and 4 setae respectively; postmarginal as

long as stigmal vein (fig. F); marginal fringe

short, spaced by a distance equal to one-fourth

their length. Legs dark, except tarsal segments

1- 3 white.

Abdomen dark, about as long as thorax;

ovipositor hidden.

Body length : 0.8 mm.

Holotype $. India: Tamil Nadu. Madurai,

10. iii. 1982 (5. Adam Shafee).

Comments : The new species is closely re-

lated to Pediobius inexpectatus Kerrich (1973),

from which it can be separated by its having

tarsal segments 1-3 of all legs white, obtuse

triangular arangement of ocelli, absence of

carinae from lateral ocelli to orbital margins.

Pediobius pondicherryensis sp. nov.

(Figs. G-I)

female. Head dark with metallic bluish

reflections, finely setose; strongly sclerotized

and distinctly sculptured; distinctly wider than

long in facial view; ocelli brownish, arranged

in obtuse triangle, lateral ocellus separated by

about its diameter from inner orbital margin

and less than its diameter from occipital

margin; antennae inserted just above lower

level of eyes; inter-antennal space about one-

third the width of frons between eyes at me-

dian ocellus; malar space shorter than eye

width. Antennae (fig. G) dark with metallic

reflections; scape cylindrical, five times as long

as wide; pedicel two and a half times as long

as wide, as long as first funicle segment; two

ring segments present; funicle 3-segmented,

segment first longest, two and a half times as

long as wide, second and third subequal, each

slightly more than twice as long as wide; club

2- segmented, shorter than preceding two

funicle segments together.

Thorax dark with metallic bluish reflections,

strongly sclerotized; posterior margin of pro-

notum with six long setae: mesoscutum reti-

164

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

culate, sparsely setose, parapsidal furrows

present anteriorly; scutellum distinctly sculp-

tured, densely setose. Fore wings (fig. H)

infuscated except a transverse broad band

beyond venation hyaline, infuscated area with

coarse setae; slightly more than twice as long

as wide; costal cell narrow with row of fine

setae, less than half the length of marginal

vein; submarginal, premarginal, marginal and

postmarginal veins with 2, 2, 22 and 3 long

setae respectively; postmarginal vein slightly

longer than stigmal vein (fig. I). Legs dark

except tarsal segments of fore legs brownish,

tarsal segments 1-3 of mid and hind legs white;

hind femora thickened with lower margin

dentate.

Abdomen dark with metallic reflections,

Refe

Kerrich, G. J. (1973): A revision of the tropical

and subtropical species of the eulophid genus

Pediobius Walker ( Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea).

Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Ent. 29: 115-199.

slightly longer than thorax; ovipositor hidden,

arising from basal one-third of abdominal

venter; first abdominal tergite short, one-sixth

length of abdomen.

Body length : 1.7 mm.

Holotype $. India: Pondicherry, 15.iii. 1982

( S . Adam Shafee).

Comments : The new species differs from

all the known species of Pediobius in having

fore wings with infuscation beneath venation,

costal cell with a row of fine setae, thickened

hind femora with dentate lower margin.

Ack no wledge m e n ts

We are deeply indebted to Prof. Nawab

H. Khan, Chairman, Department of Zoology,

for providing research facilities.

E n ce s

Khan, M. Y. and Shafee, S. A. (1982): Species

of the genus Pediobius Walker (Eulophidae: Ente-

dontinae) from India. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79:

370-374.

A NEW SPECIES OF AMPHIPOD, HY ALE GOPALASWAMYl

SP. NOV. — A COMMENSAL OF SPONGES1

M. R. Kanakadurga, K. Hanumantha Rao

and K. Shyamasundari2

( With twenty two text -figures )

Hyale gopalaswamyi sp. nov. an amphipod

(Crustacea) was collected from the sponge,

Callyspongia fibrosa, washings from Visakha-

patnam coast. H. gopalaswamyi sp. nov. differs

from its allied species in the presence of a

groove for the dactylus fitting into the palm

of gnathopod 2, striated spines on the pro-

1 Accepted October 1984.

2 Department of Zoology, Andhra University,

Waltair-530 003.

podus of pereopods 1-5 and the telson lobes

being set apart from each other.

Family. Hyalidae

Genus. Hyale Rathke, 1837

Hyale gopalaswamyi sp. nov.

Diagnosis. Maxilla 1 with 1 articulate palp;

article 4 of maxillipedal palp unguiform;

gnathopods subchelate in both sexes, male

gnathopod 2 longer than 1; article 5 not pro-

jecting between articles 4 and 6, female gnat-

165

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Fig. 1-10. Hyale gopalaswamyi sp. nov.

h — Head with antenna 1; 11 — Lower lip; m — Mandible; ul — Upper lip; u&t —

Uropods and telson; u1 — Uropod 1; u3 — Uropod 3; x1 — Maxilla 1; x2 — Maxilla

2; xp — Maxilliped. A, C and D are the scale measurements.

166

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

hopod 2 like gnathopod 1; uropod 3 lacking

inner ramus, telson cleft.

male. (Length 5 mm).

Body robust, dull white in colour, cephalon

smaller than the first two pereon segments:

ocular lobes produced; eyes large, oval in

shape with central black uneven core and

peripheral ocelli. Antennae unequal: Antenna

1; three fourths length of 2nd; peduncle

shorter than that of antenna 2 and peduncular

articles subequal, primary flagellum with 8-10

subsimilar articles, asthetascs present along

with setae at the base of each article. Antenna

2; Slightly smaller than body length, basal

peduncular article broader 2nd article longer

and 3rd article half the length of 3rd, flagellum

with 14 subsimilar articles bearing small spines

at their apices.

Upper lip. Longer than broad, evenly round-

ed at ventral margin, bearing long setules.

Mandible: Palp absent, incisor toothed, lacinia

mobilis with 5 projections spine row with 4

large pinnate spines; molar large with trans-

verse ridges and a long plumose seta; Maxilla

1 : inner plate distally narrow, bearing two

long plumose setae and inner marginal setae;

outer plate with inner apical setae and 6 bar-

bed spines; palp slender, slightly longer than

outer palp with spines and a few sub-apical

setae; Maxilla 2 : Plates slender, inner plate

carrying 1 long plumose seta, subapically 7-8

pinnate spines and a few fine setae apically.

outer plate with setules on inner margin and

long setules at the apex; Lower lip : Tnner

lobes absent, lobes setose at the apical region,

mandibular process short and decurrent;

Maxilliped : Tnner plates rectangular with 3

chisel teeth and a median apical row plumose

setae present; outer lobe reaching half of 2nd

palp article, carrying plumose setae at the

inner margin. 2nd and 3rd palpar articles

setose. 3rd horse-shoe shaped. 4th article

slightly smaller than 3rd, with a pointed spine.

Gnathopods 1 and 2 subchelate. Gnathopod

1 : Coxal plate angular in shape, anterior

border straight. Basal article broadens dis-

tally with 3 submarginal spine setae and one

spine present distally; ischium small and

broader, merus also widens distally, carpus

smaller than merus and triangular with

6 spinules; propodus rectangular in shape,

palm oblique with setose margin; 2 spines

present, at the palmar edge, dactylus scarcely

reaching the defining spines and distally nar-

row. Gnathopod 2: Coxa 2 rounded ventrally;

basal article widens distally, merus small and

widens to form a protrusion, with a few spine

setae at the distal margin; carpus triangular

in shape, with single seta on either side of the

distal margin; propodus very long and broad;

nearly rectangular in shape; the basal palmar

margin ends in a cavity into which the dactylus

fits, followed by two blunt spines and setae;

the dactylus long and narrows distally.

Pereopod 1 and 2 subsimilar; pereopod 1

longer than perepod 2. coxal plate almost

rectangular in shape; ventral margin with

minute spinules. Basal article longer than that

of gnathopod 2, widens towards distal margin;

merus very small, rectangular in shape, widens

distally and possesses a protuberance along the

ventral margin. Carpus smaller and three

fourths length of propodus, spine setae arise

as fascicles along inner margin; propodus

thrice the length of carpus bearing 3 large

striated spines on inner margin; last spine the

largest; dactylus curved with 4-5 setae at its

base anteriorly. Pereopod 3 : Coxal plate

with two lobes: basis broad with lobate and

spinulate ventral margin; ischium small; merus

as long as propodus and produced antero-

distallv with spine setae at its apex and pro-

minent spines along the margins; carpus half

the length of propodus. it also widens antero-

167

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Figs. 11-22. Hyalc gopalaswamyi sp. nov.

G1 — Gnathopod 1; g2 — Gnathopod 2; fg2 — Female gnathopod 2; p1, p2, p3, p 4

& ps — Pereopods 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5; epl, ep2 & ep3 — Epimeron 1, 2 and 3; c2 —

Coxa 2; c* — Coxa 4; t — Telson.

168

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

distally, distal apical and marginal spines

present; propodus elongate, spines subsimilar

to those of pereopod 2. Pereopod 4 and 5 sub-

similar except for the longer and broader

basis in 5th, propodus with 5 striated spines

on inner margin; dactylus curved.

PI eon. Smooth dorsally, 1st epimeron sub-

rounded, ventral margins of pleon 2 and 3

subrounded and produced to small tooth

postero-ventrally without any spines.

Uropod 1. Peduncle subequal to rami in

length, with 1 large apical spine and 3 outer

and 1 inner marginal spines; rami subequal

in length, outer ramus with one marginal spine

and 3 distal apical spines; inner ramus with

2 inner marginal spines, apex subsimilar to

that of outer ramus.

Uropod 2. Subequal and subsimilar to uro-

pod 1 except in which peduncle lacks distal

marginal elongated spine.

Uropod 3. Uniramus, peduncle as long as

the ramus and broad, with 5 median spines

and 2 stout inner apical spines, ramus with

unarmed margin, with 5 apical stout spines.

Telson : Cleft to base, lobes conical, each

with 2 outer median submarginal setae, left

lobe with a small median submarginal seta.

female. (Length 6 mm).

Coxa 2. Quadrangular in shape with spinules

along the ventral margin. Basis broad and

short, ischium small with roundly produced

outer margin; merus as long as carpus; carpus

triangular in shape with inner apico-marginal

setae; propodus double the length of carpus

and rectangular in shape; palm oblique with

few spines alternating with setae. Palmar

margin ends in 2 spines. Anterior basal region

of the dactylus possesses elongated setae.

The holotype specimen was deposited in the

museum of the Zoology Department of

Andhra University. Waltair and the paratype

specimens will be deposited in the museum

of Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Discussion

This specimen closely resembles Hyale rubra

(Thomson 1879) from Australia and it forms

an intergrade between Hyale honoluluensis

Shellenberg 1938 and Hyale ayeli (Barnard

1970).

The present specimen resembles Hyale rubra

in the structure of the head, mandible, maxil-

liped, shape of gnathopod 1, striated spines

on the propodus of pereopods 2 to 5, and it

differs from H. rubra in the presence of a

groove for the dactylus on the propodus of

gnathopod 2 and plumose setae along the

palmar margin. The uropod 3 almost similar

but the setae on the peduncle is widely spaced,

there are two spines apico laterally on the

peduncle in the present specimen. The telson

in H. rubra is with closely set lobes whereas

in this present form the telson lobes set apart

from each other.

Hyale gopalaswamyi sp. nov. bears striated,

spines on the propodus of all pereopods 1 to 5

whereas H. honolulunensis lacks these spines

and in H. ayeli there is only one striated spine

on pereopod 2 and one small spine followed

by a locking spine on the perepod 5 and nor-

mal spines below. Gnathopod 2 in the present

specimen shows broad propodus with a dactyl

fitting palm whereas in H. honolulunensis male

form possesses elongated dactylus and the

juvenile with normal sized dactylus but groove

for dactyl fitting palm is absent and in H. ayeli

short with a dactyl fitting palm.

Hyale gopalaswamyi sp. nov. resembles H.

guasaye Barnard 1970 from California in the

presence of produced lateral cephalic lobe,

presence of locking, striated, corkscrew fashion-

ed spines on the article 6 of pereopods and

169

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

differs in the dactyl failing to fit into palm in

H. guasaye and the 6th article with a hump

defining enlarged palm, hump bearing stridu-

lation ridges whereas in the present specimen

the 6th article of gnathopod 2 is devoid of the

hump with stridulation ridges and the dactyl

clearly fits into the palm. The telson in H.

guasaye with 3 setae on the mid-lateral edge

of each lobe whereas in the given specimen

only 2 setae are present on each lobe.

R E F E 1

Barnard, J. L. (1970): Sub-littoral Gammaridea

(Amphipoda) of the Hawaiian islands. Smithson.

Contrib. Zool., 34: 1-286.

Schellenberg, A. (1938): Littorale amphipoden

des tropischen Pazifiks. Kungl. Svenska Vetenska-

Hence it is regarded as new species. The

present amphipod is named as Hyale gopala-

swamyi sp. nov. in honour and memory of

the late Dr K. V. Gopalaswainy, former

Registrar of Andhra University.

Acknowledgement

One of us (MRK) is grateful to the Council

of Scientific and Industrial Research for finan-

cial assistance during the tenure of this work.

ENCES

pakcui. Hand!. Ser. 3, 16: 1-105.

Thomson, G. M. (1879): New Zealand Crustacea,

with descriptions o-f new species. Trans. Proc. New

Zealand Inst.. 11: 230-240.

ON A NEW CYPRINID FISH OF THE GENUS BAR/LIUS

HAMILTON (PISCES: CYPRTN1DAE) FROM ARUNACHAL

PRADESH, INDIA1

R. P. Barman2

I NTRODUCTION

The cyprinid fishes of the genus Barilius

Hamilton are distributed throughout India,

Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka,

Burma, Thailand, Malaya, China, Egypt and

West Africa. Day (1889) recorded 14 species

and Jayaram (1981) recorded 16 species under

the genus from the Indian region. While re-

vising the subfamily Rasborinae from the

Indian region, three examples of a species from

Arunachal Pradesh (formerly N.E.F.A.), India

referable to the genus Barilius were found.

When compared with the known species of

the genus they proved to be of a hitherto un-

1 Accepted October 1984.

2 Zoological Survey of India. Calcutta-700 016.

described species. The species is described

here and named Barilius jayarami after Dr. K.

C. Jayaram. one of the pioneer workers on

the freshwater fishes of India and Joint Direc-

tor, Zoological Survey of India, who confirmed

the new species.

The new species is apparently related to

Barilius dogarsinghi Hora and Barilius infra-

fasciatus Fowler but distinctly differs from the

latter two species in morphological details.

Material. Holotype (fig. 1): 71 mm in stan-

dard length. Reg. No. Zoological Survey of

Tndia. Calcutta. FF 2150. Locality: Namdapha

Wildlife Sanctuary. Tirap district, Arunachal

Pradesh. Coll. Dr. S. Biswas and party. Date

of collection : 17.12.1983.

Paratypes. 2 examples, 73 mm-77 mm in

standard length; Reg. No. Zoological Survey

170

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

of India, Calcutta, FF 2151. Locality, collector

| and date of collection same as in holotype.

Diagnosis

Dorsal fin commences opposite interspace

between pelvic and anal fin and extendine

entirely over the latter. Lateral line scales 42-

43. Head length 3.70-3.93 and body depth

3.52-3.70 in standard length. Eye diameter

l| 3.00-3.20 in head length, Height of caudal

peduncle 2.00-2.40 in its length. Lateral trans-

verse bands vary from 8 to 9.

(1.20-1.60) in postorbital part of head, equal

to or slightly shorter than interorbital distance.

Gape of mouth wide, extending beyond ante-

rior margin of eye. Two pairs of barbels pre-

sent, anterior or rostral barbels very short and

posterior or maxillary barbels are about one

fifth in eye diameter. Height of caudal pedun-

cle 2.18 (2.00-2.40) in its length.

Scales 42-43 in lateral line, 6\ above, 3^

below to base of pelvic fin; 19-20 predorsal

and circumpeduncular 14.

Fins: D. ii-iii, 8; A. iii, 11; P. i, 12-13; V. i,

8; C. 19.

Fig. 1. Lateral view of Barilius jayarami sp. nov.

Description

Head length 3.79 (3.70-3.93), body depth

3.63 (3.52-3.70), predorsal distance 1.83

(1.81-1.85), prepelvic distance 2.30 (2.25-

2.36), preanal distance 1.56 (1.53-1.59) and

length of caudal fin 4.67 (4.50-4.91) in

standard length. Height of head 1.19 (1.15-

1.23) and width of head 1.99 (1.87-2.12)

in head length. Snout length 3.71 (3.40-4.00)

in head length, 1.18 (1.10-1.25) in interor-

bital distance, 1.54 (1.50-1.60) in postorbital

part of head. Eye anterior, dorso-lateral, dia-

meter 3.10 (3.00-3.20) in head length, 1.35

Dorsal originates opposite interspace between

pelvic and anal, extending entirely over the

latter; nearer to base of caudal fin than to tip

of snout. Pelvic nearer to tip of snout than

to base of caudal fin. Pectoral fin well ex

tending pelvic which reaches anal fin. Height

of dorsal 5.39 (4.84-5.90), height of anal

(6.73-7.00), pectoral length 5.51 (5.36-5.72)

and pelvic length 5.05 (4.91-5.25) in stan-

dard length. Caudal fin deeply forked with un-

equal pointed lobes lower one slightly longer

than upper one.

Different body proportions, their range and

mean have been shown in table 1.

171

‘

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Table 1

172

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Colour in alcohol. Dorsal surface dark and

ventral surface bright silvery white. Along the

lateral sides of trunk and caudal peduncle 8

or 9 transverse dark bluish bands, narrower

than pale interspaces and extending from back

to downwards till below lateral line, those on

caudal peduncle shorter, and last as dark

blotch at base of caudal fin. The dark longi-

tudinal band in lower lobe of caudal fin is

an unfailing character of distinction. A dark

longitudinal line extending from base of caudal

fin to below commencement of dorsal fin.

Dorsal fin provided with dark bands across

their rays. Pectoral, pelvic and anal fin dull

white colour.

Relationships

Barilius jayarami is apparently related to

Barilius dogarsinghi Hora (1921) and Barilius

infrafasciatus Fowler (1934). The new species

resembles B. dogarsinghi in having anal fin

entirely under the dorsal fin, two pairs of

barbels and lateral vertical bands 8 or 9. How-

ever, it can be easily separated from the latter

by the following characters. Eye diameter 3.00-

3.20 in former species vs. 4.00-4.75 in the

later species in head length; lateral line scales

42-43 vs. 38-39; lower lobe of caudal fin with

a longitudinal bar vs. no such bar on the lobes

of caudal fin.

The new species can be also separated from

B. infrafasciatus in having the anal fin entirely

under the dorsal fin vs. anal fin partly under

the dorsal fin; lower lobe of caudal fin is

provided with a longitudinal band vs. caudal

fin with three dark transverse bands and a

dark longitudinal band present over the caudal

peduncle and trunk of the new species vs. no

such band is present in the latter species.

A comparison of the new species with the

related species is given in table 2.

Key to the Indian species of the genus Barilius

1 . Cleft of mouth wide, extending far beyond pos-

terior margin of eye. A well developed sym-

physical knob on the lower jaw 2

Cleft of mouth moderate, not extending beyond

middle of eye. Symphysical knob absent or

ill-developed 3

2. Lateral line scales 88-95. Predorsal scales 38-40

and circumpeduncular scales 22-24

B. bola (Hamilton)

Lateral line scales 48-50. Predorsal scales 23-24

and circumpeduncular scales 14

B. guttatus (Day)

3. Anal fin entirely under the dorsal fin 4

Part of anal fin under the dorsal fin 5

4. Lateral line scales 38-39. Eye diameter 4.00-

4.75 in head length. Lobes of caudal fin

without any band B. dogarsinghi Hora

Lateral line scales 42-43. Eye diameter 3.00-

3.20 in head length. Lower lobe of caudal

fin with a longitudinal band

B. jayarami sp. nov.

5. Body without vertical bands 6

Body with vertical bands 11

6. Lateral line scales 38-43 7

Lateral line scales 56-75 10

7. Lateral line scales 38-40. Anal fin rays 14-18

8

Lateral line scales 40-43. Anal fin rays 11-12.

Each scale with a black spot

B. bendelisis bendelisis (Hamilton)

8. Body uniformly silvery B. evezardi Day

Body with rows of spots 9

9. Anal fin rays 14-15. Body with two rows of

spots B. canarensis Day

Anal fin rays 17-18. Body with single row of

spots B. bakeri Day

10. Lateral line scales 56-62. Rows of spots absent

B. radioiatus (Gunther)

Lateral line scales 70-75. Two rows

of spots B. tileo (Hamilton)

11. Lateral line scales 39-46 12

Lateral line scales 63-75 15

12. Vertical bands 8-12 13

Vertical bands 14-15 14

13. Vertical bands 8-9. Body depth 3.32-3.68 in

standard length. Barbels absent or rudimen-

tary B. barna (Hamilton)

Vertical bands 10-12. Body depth 5.06-5.36 in

standard length. Barbels well developed.

173

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

rostral barbels greater than eye diameter...

B. vagra vagra (Hamilton)

14. Lateral line scales 39-40. Anal fin rays 15-17.

Body depth 3.27-3.54 in standard length.

B. gatensis (Valenciennes).

Lateral line scales 43-46. Anal fin rays 13-14.

Body depth 4.77-5.22 in standard length

B. barila (Hamilton)

15. Lateral line scale 65. Vertical bands 18-19.

Barbels rudimentary B. menoni Sen

Lateral line scales 70-75. Vertical bands 12-13.

Barbels well developed B. shacra

(Hamilton)

Refer

Day, F. (1889): The fauna of British India, in-

cluding Ceylon and Burma. Fishes 1 :i-xx, 1-548.

Taylor & Francis, London.

Fowler, H. W. (1934): Zoological results of the

third De Schauensee Expedition. Part I — Fishes.

Proc. Acad. nat. sci. Philad.. 86: 335-352.

Acknowledgements

1 am grateful to Dr. B. K. Tikader,

Director, Zoological Survey of India for labo-

ratory facilities and to Dr. K. C. Jayaram,

Joint Director, Zoological Survey of India for

confirming the new taxon and for going through

the manuscript. I am also thankful

to Dr. A. K. Ghosh, Deputy Director and to

Dr. P. K. Taiwan Superintending Zoologist for

their encouragement and valuable suggestions.

;nces

Hora, S. L. (1921) : Fish and Fisheries of Mani- i

pur with some observations on those of the Naga 1

Hills. Rec. Indian Mus., 22: 165-214.

Jayaram, K. C. (1981): The Freshwater Fishes of

India, Pakistan. Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka — 1

A handbook. Govt, of India. XXII+475, pis. XIII.

A NEW SPECIES OF OPHIORRHIZA L. (RUBIACEAE) FROM

KERALA STATE. INDTA1

K. Ramamurthy and R. Rajan2

(With six text-figures )

Ophiorrhiza nairii sp. nov.

O. roxburghiana Wight affinis sed, stipules

interpetiolaribus linearibus, adbasim latioribus,

bilobatis; foliis ovatolanceolatis, magnioribus,

crassis, supra persparsim villosis, infra minute

villosis plus dense in nervis; petiolis longiori-

bus; inflorescentia corymbosa; fioribus in uter-

que pedunculo helicoidis; tubo corollae parvi-

oribus; stigmate 2-lobato. distincte lanceolato

et fructuobovoido differt.

1 Accepted October 1984.

2 Botanical Survey of India. Southern Circle,

Coimbatore-641 003.

Ophiorrhiza nairii sp. nov.

Allied to O. roxburghiana Wight but

differs in: interpetiolar stipules linear, broader

at base, bilobed; leaves ovate-lanceolate, larger,

thick, coriaceous very sparsely villous above,

minutely villous below, more dense on veins;

petioles longer; inflorescence corymb-like but

flowers in each peduncle with distinct helicoid

arrangement; corolla tube smaller; stigma

dilated into 2 lobes, distinctly lanceolate and

fruits obovoid.

Undershrubs; stems erect, branched, terete,

densely hairy; internodes 4-12 cm long. Leaves

opposite decussate, simple, unequally paired;

174

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-6. Ophiorrhiza nairii sp. nov.

1. Portion of a branch; 2. A typical flower and bud; 3. Corolla exposed showing

the arrangement of stamens; 4. Stamens; 5. Gynoecium; 6. Typical fruit.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. S2

lamina 10-15 x 4-7 cm, ovate to elliptic-lanceo-

late, acuminate, attenuate at base, leathery,

coriaceous, very sparsely villous above, minu-

tely villous beneath, more dense on veins;

nerves 10-15 pairs; petioles 1-3 cm long,

villous; stipules interpetiolar, 5-12 mm long,

linear, broadly at base, bilobed; inflorescence

terminal, corymb-like, flowers in each peduncle

with distinct helicoid arrangement; peduncles

villous; pedicels 2 mm long, hairy; bracteoles

many, linear, subulate, hairy. Calyx tube terete,

lobes lanceolate. Corolla 1.5-2 cm long funnel

shaped above, ribbed, villous within, more

dense near the stamens base, less villous with-

out, veins distinct, corolla tube lobbed. Stamens

5. inserted on the corolla tube; anthers oblong,

base densely villous, dorsifixed, introrse, dehi-

sing longitudinally. Ovary 2-loculed, style fili-

form, hairy; stigma dilated into 2 lobes, dis-

tinctly lanceolate. Fruits obovoid, pilose.

Holotype Ramamurthy 66561, (CAL) and

isotypes Ramamurthy 66561, (MH ACC. No.

127789 to 127793) were collected at Adimali

Reserve forest, Idukki District, Kerala at an

altitude of 1800 m on 28-3-1980.

The specific name is given in honour of

Dr. N. C. Nair, D. Sc., Joint Director, Botani-

cal Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coimba-

tore for his valuable contribution to Indian

Botany.

Acknowledgements

We wish to express our thanks to the Deputy

Director, Botanical Survey of India, Central

National Herbarium, Howrah for his valuable

comments on this taxon. Our thanks are also

due to Dr. V. J. Nair for latin diagnosis.

Dr. A. N. Henry, Regional Botanist for his

valuable suggestions, to the Director, Botanical

Survey of India, Howrah and Joint Director,

Botanical Survery of India, Southern Circle,

Coimbatore for their constant encouragement

during this investigations. We are also thank-

ful to Mr. K. Sivanandan. Artist, for the

illustration.

REVIEW

FLORA OF KARNATAKA. By Cecil J. Saldanha (with the help of S. R.

Ramesh, B. R. Ramesh. B. Gurudeo Singh, M. S. Eshwar Rao, B. Ajaya-

kumar and Uday Kumar) — Vol. I ( Magnoliaceae to Fabaceae) pp. xi+535

(24 cm x 16 cm) with 3 maps, 62 figures and 19 coloured plates (1 unnum-

bered + 1-18). New Delhi. 1984. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Price not

mentioned.

This is the second state flora published

after the formation of linguistic states in India;

the first being “Flora of Gujarat state” by

Professor G. L. Shah of Sardar Patel Univer-

sity, Vallabhvidyanagar. Both these authors

are products of Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s

College, Bombay.

According to the information made avail-

able in the introduction, the book is expected

to cover all 19 districts of Karnataka and will

be completed in three volumes and will in-

clude details of about 3410 native angiosperms

out of which about 1050 belonging to 315

genera and 64 families have been incorporated

in this first volume, 946 species and intraspeci-

fic taxa are described in full text, while re-

maining about 120 are found in cultivation

which are just mentioned after their generic

and family accounts.

816 species out of the 946 described in full

text are found in “Flora of Madras Presi-

dency” by G. S. Gamble (and C.E.C. Fisher),

another 30 species have been mentioned from

North Kanara by Theodore Cooke in “Flora

of Bombay Presidency” and some more have

been reported by several other authors. 65

species are included in the flora without any

exhiccata and seem to have found place in

the flora only on the earlier reports. No men-

tion in the text is found regarding their pos-

sible misidentification or possible loss of the

species from their original habitats.

The book reveals that 213 species from Gam-

ble's Flora have undergone nomenclatural

changes and have been brought upto-date in

the present work. Many of these changes how-

ever have already been effected in several

other works like “Flora of Mysore”, “Flora

of Bangalore” and the author’s own “Flora

of Hassan District”. Out of 62 plates of figures

given in the book, 40 are reproduced from

earlier work on “Flora of Hassan District”.

The Flora has been completed in a record

time of four years and due to hasty compilation

lacks in many things as compared to the

‘Flora of Hassan District’. Collections defi-

nately are not exhaustive enough and the

reasons for this according to the author is the

termination of the help of scientific assistants

from time to time. No team member from the

‘flora of Hassan District’ is associated with the

present work. There is also substantial lack

of collaboration with the Botanical Survey of

India, in a work of this nature.

The flora does not account for all earlier

published works on floristics in Karnataka

which is obvious from omissions of the follo-

wing data which is available at hand for

comparison:

1 . Hibiscus cancellatus Roxb. var. fusifor-

mis Hook, is reported from North Kanara

12

177

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

(Bull. Bot. Surv. India 2 : 170, 1960).

2. Sida schimperiana Hochst. is reported

from North Kanara (Joum. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 34 : 628, 1930).

3. Piper crenulatibracteatum C. DC. is re-

ported from North Kanara (Repert. Spec,

nov. Reg. Veget. 10 : 521-2, 1912).

4. Cerasiocarpum bennettii (Miq.) Cogn.

[= Kedrostis courtalensis (Am.) Jeffrey] is

also reported from North Kanara (Rec. Bot.

Surv. India 17: 167-8, 1959).

5. Diospyros kanjilalii Duthie is described

from North Kanara (Indian Forester 31 : 307,

1905).

The work is not upto-date in field observa-

tions. There are hardly any original field

notes which add to the present knowledge re-

garding plants of the region. Routine repeated

information from earlier works has made the

book monotonous. As an example, it would

not be out of place to mention that Pilea

microphylla (Linn.) Liebm. which is reported

in the flora as a cultivated garden plant and

weed in cultivated fields, was collected from

Agumbe, along road-sides, near sunset point

growing on walls and embankments in enough

quantity to study its chemical constituents.

In taxonomical presentation of the flora

citations of nomenclature should be complete

and self-explanatory. As far as possible all

names mentioned in the synonymy should have

their basionyms for correct judgement of the

nomenclature. In a number of cases names

cited in the synonmy are without basionyms:

1. Neolitsea foliosa (Nees) Gamble var.

caesia (Meissn.) Gamble.

2. Lepisanthes umbellata (Linn.) Raf.

3. Alternanthera ficoidea (Linn.) R. Br.

var. petlziakiana (Regel) Baker.

4. Caesalpinia paniculata (Lam ) Roxb.

5. Erythrina varietal a Linn. var. orientalis

(Linn.) Merrill.

6. Rhynchosia albiflora (Sims) Alston

Cinnamomum travancoricum Gamble is re-

ported on authority of Kamathy & Rao, from

Biligirirangan Hills; but no reference is cited

and no exhiccata mentioned. In such cases at

least a citation should be given for reference

to original paper, for consultation, (see p. 62).

Ranunculus subpinnatus Wt. & Arn. In the

distribution it is mentioned that this species

is reported by Blatter (JBNHS 18: 396, 1908)

as R. diffusus DC. It is not clear whether the

identification of the species was wrong or

R. diffusus DC. is synonymous with the taxon,

(see p. 91).

Cinnamomum zeylanicum Garc. ex Blume

is placed in synonymy of C. verum J. S. Presl.

Nomenclature given in the flora does not

reveal information about who unites these two

taxa. Second reference, in this case is essential

to show who merges these two taxa. [see p.

62 and also p. 361 — Kalancboe pinnata

(Medik.) Kuntze],

It is not clear from the nomenclature of

Beilschmiedia wightii [Bentham] Hook. f.

whether Haasia wightii Nees is used as a basi-

onym in new combination or considered as

a new name.

Phoebe paniculata Nees (1936) (pro parte)

has priority over P. wightii Meissn. (1964).

Nomenclature is not clear whether the synonym

here excludes the type which may be the

cause of its rejection.

Cyclea peltata (Lamk.) Hook. f. & Thomas.

— This name involves Article 55.2 of Inter-

national code of Botanical Nomenclature. It

is necessary to cite “Excl. descr.” after the

reference, (p. 98).

Meliosma simplicifolia (Roxb.) Walpers ssp.

simplicifolia : Beusekon is given as the author

of the sub-species. As per the rules of ICBN

when a species is divided into intraspecific

taxa. the typical intraspecific taxon is to be

178

REVIEW

retained under the same epithet as that of the

species and the authority goes to its original

author only. (p. 102).

Pi lea wightii Weddell (1854): The synonym

Pilea radicans Wt. (1853) seem to have prio-

rity over the accepted name.

Notes given after taxonomic treatment, in

many cases, are unwarranted if the nomen-

clature is self-explanatory:

1. Note under genus Bauhinia does not

justify acceptance of wider connotation and

hence was unnecessary, (p. 376).

2. Note under Crotalaria pallida Ait. is un-

necessary, since the nomenclature is self-ex-

planatory.

3. Note under Glycine wightii Verdcourt. is

unnecessary. Lackey’s treatment if unaccept-

able should be shown in the synonymy

(p. 466).

4. Note after Mezoneuron cucullatum (Roxb.)

Wight is only partly correct. Although Vidal

& Thol have used Mezoneuron as a sub-genus

for purpose of classification they have merged

the genus in the synonymy of Caesalpinia Linn.

The authors, in fact, have failed to justify

retention of Mezoneuron Defontes as a distinct

genus.

The printing of the book is excellent but

some typographical errors have remained in

the text:

Page 67. Litsea chinensis Lam. (1972

should be 1792).

Page 81. Aristolochia bracteata Lam. —

After Santapau “and Wagh”

should be added.

Page 96. var. hirsuta should be block

letters.

Page 376. In note under Bauhinia —

Instead of distinct species, it

should be distinct genera.

The reader’s special attention is invited to

check on following points and references:

1 . Nyctanthus arbor-tristis Linn. is placed

Nyctaginaceae. Reference to this treatment should

have been highlighted (See Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci.

93(3): 349-58, 1984).

2. Garcinia spicata (Wt. & Am.) Hook. & Butea

superba Roxb. (See discussion by S. M. Almeida,

in Proc. Symposium held at Dehradun, pp. 182-5

(1983), Edited by S. K. Jain & R. R. Rao).

3. Mammea suriga (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.) Kos-

terman. This is an illegitimate name based on

illegitimate basionym.

4. Canavalia rosea (Sw.) DC. (See Chatterjee,

J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 28 : 87, t.D, 1949).

5. Hydnocarpus laurifolius (Dennst.) Sleumer

(See Taxon 10 : 80, 1961 & 17 : 496-503).

6. Cucumis melo Linn, is reported at two places

(pp. 296 & 307). Similarly Trichosanthes cucumerina

Linn. var. anguina (Linn.) Hains is also mentioned

at two different places (pp. 304 & 308).

M. R. ALMEIDA

179

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. AN “ISLAND’’ SANCTUARY IN KUTCH

The concept of conservation of island eco-

systems as geographical and ecological enti-

ties often holding unique, endemic and rare

species of fauna and flora in a circumscribed

and threatened environmental situation, has

been increasingly accepted in the past two

decades. There has been an effort to identify

and set apart islands for science and as re-

positories of genetic resources. Since the last

10 years an effort has also been underway

to identify and effectively protect areas in the

mountain, marine and desert areas.

The country has made a headway in esta-

blishing a desert national park in Rajasthan

and the Little Rann of Kutch sanctuary in

Gujarat. Mountain parks are being set up in

the Himalaya. However, the concept of island

conservation has not made much progress.

In the case of Kutch there are more than

one conservation area which has the ingre-

dients of both desert and arid biotopes, and

an island situation. Both in the Little and the

Great Rann of Kutch there are outcrops

which rise from and are surrounded by the

great saltpans of the two Ranns. They are

complete geographical entities separated from

the “mainland” of Kutch and Saurashtra and

have all the attribute of island ecosystems

except that during the major portion of the

year (excluding the rainy period and its im-

mediate aftermath) they are separated from

the mainland not by a sheet of water but

by an expanse of flat saltpans. During the

monsoons, fresh water from the rains and the

rivers and the salt water coming in from the

sea, make these outcrops islands in the true

sense of the term.

The “islands” in Little Rann — Mardak.

Kesmaria, Pung and others are rather small

and being stopover places of cattle moving

between Kutch and Saurashtra, are subjected

to demographic pressures and are not very

viable areas of conservation on their own,

though, of course, they are extremely impor-

tant concommitants of the Little Rann of

Kutch where they provide refuge to the wild

ass ( Equus hemionus khur ) and other desert

fauna, specially during the rainy season. They

are also very important from a geological

standpoint.

However, from the viewpoint of viable eco-

logical areas of conservation we must turn to

the much larger islands in the Great Rann of

Kutch. On the southern flanks of the Great

Rann of Kutch are two great projections of

the habited “mainland” of Kutch — Bela and

Pachcham. Both, however, are not true “is-

lands”, being connected with strips of arid

lands higher than the saltpan of the Rann.

They are in fact ‘peninsulas’ and not islands.

They arc both important from the defence

standpoint, are fairly extensively inhabited and

an aerial survey carried out from a helicopter

in January. 1984 revealed that their range-

lands are being fairly extensively used and

have deteriorated, more so in Bela than in

Pachcham.

The same aerial survey revealed a different

picture for the island of Khadir and the ad-

jacent small islands around it. Khadir is the

180

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

largest true “island” in either of the two Ranns

of Kutch. It comprises of a high rising ridge

running east to west and providing a very

impressive precipitous feature viewed from the

north, towering as it does over the Great

Rann. Southward, the escarpment slopes

gradually and is covered with climax desert

flora — Acacia Senegal, Acacia specigera, Ac-

acia nilotica, Prosopis cineraria, Zizyphus

nummularia, Capparis decidua. The introduced

Prosopis juliflora which has overrun Pach-

cham, Bela, the Banni and almost the entire

borderlands of the two Ranns, has not yet

pervaded Khadir for the reason that it is still

clothed with its original flora.

On the southern flanks of Khadir and on

the small “islands” which are adjacent to it

here, we saw from the helicopter 36 wild

asses and the only chinkara ( Gazella dorcas

christii) during our entire aerial perambula-

tions over Kutch. It holds populations of

nilgai ( Boselaphus tragocanielus) and of the

wild pig (Sus scrofa). On a fresh water lake

on Khadir, we saw large flocks of Demoiselle

Crane ( Anthropoides virgo), and a few East-

ern Common Crane (Grus grus ). The habitat

seemed ideal for partridges (Francolinus

sp.). quails (Cofurnix, and Perdicula sp.

Common, Spotted. and painted sand-

grouse (Pterocles sp.), the desert hare

(Lepus nigricollis day anus), the wolf ( Canis

lupus pallipes), the jackal (Canis aureus), the

Indian and desert foxes ( Vulpes bengalensis

and Vulpes pusilla ) and other desert and arid

land fauna. Of special significance amongst

the birds is the spotted sandgrouse, which is

getting very rare and localised. It harbours the

houbara (Chlamydotis undulata) as a winter

visitor. The habitat appeared to be an ideal

one for the conservation of that most endan-

gered feline, the caracal (Felis caracal) and

may well be perhaps the most suitable area

for the preservation of this threatened cat in

the whole country. It, of course, is the habitat

of another endangered feline, the desert cat

(Felis libyca) and could well be a suitable

place for the reintroduction of the Asiatic

Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) if ever

an endeavour is made to reintroduce this

animal in India. From the air we also saw

a pair of foxes which answered closely to the

description of Blandford’s fox (Vulpes cana)

about which a separate note has been sub-

mitted to the Journal.

To the north-west and west of Khadir, in-

cluding the wide belt of the Rann between

Khadir and Pachcham is a vast tract of the

Rann slightly lower than the continuous salt-

pan. Here the water accumulates and stands

and with the process of evaporation turns

gradually more saline. In this terrain in the

past the Bombay Natural History Society led

by Dr. Salim Ali rediscovered nesting colo-

nies of the Greater flamingos (Phoenicopte-

rus ruber) and of the rosy Pelicans (Pelicanus

onocrotalus) . This area, therefore, is of special

significance to the Bombay Natural History

Society. Tn the last three or four years, how-

ever, there is no report of flamingo breeding

here. This could be due to a number of

reasons, but the aerial spraying of pesticides

on Pachcham and other islands in the vicinity

to kill the locusts a few years back, which

resulted in the dead locusts as well as the

pesticide draining into and accumulating into

this inland drainage area, may well be a con-

tributory factor. However, it is very likely

that in the years to come the flamingos will

breed once again in this their traditional

breeding ground.

It is recommended that the entire Khadir

island together with its adjacent smaller islands

and portions of the Great Rann of Kutch

around it should be declared as a wildlife

181

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

sanctuary and effectively protected. The head-

quarters of the sanctuary should be established

in the largest village of Khadir. In the north

and northwest of Khadir the sanctuary boun-

dary should extend up to at least 25 kms

from the edge of Khadir island. Westwards

the sanctuary boundary should be along the

edge of Pachcham where it meets with the

Great Rann. Eastwards, it should be along

the edge of Bela and Gangtabet, where the

Rann meets with Bela and Gangtabet, south-

wards and southeastwards the sanctuary boun-

daries should be at least 20 km from the

southwestern edge of Khadir.

I have been a regular visitor to Kutch from

1954 to 1961 and had travelled extensively

in this vast expanse of fascinating terrain so

rich in the fauna and avifauna of the arid

region. It was one of the last and greatest

havens for wildlife and of nature, albeit of

an arid kind, in our subcontinent. After a

lapse of precisely 23 years I was able to re-

visit some of the areas and to see new ones

from the air. Flying low from a helicopter it

was easy to see what was happening. The

desert biotope of acacia species had been

decimated and the exotic Prosopis juliflora

was fast taking over in most parts. In others

the land lay barren. The rich grasslands

specially those of Banni were obviously over-

grazed, criss-crossed with innumerable cattle

The Palace,

Wankaner, Saurashtra,

February 3, 1984.

trails and were fast becoming dust bowls.

Where the wolf ( Canis lupus pallipes ) was

common and met with almost every day in

the wilder tracts of Kutch, we saw not a

single sign from the air and they are now re-

ported to be very rare. Of the Chinkara,

which I have seen more than 400 in the

course of a day’s outing in the past, we saw

but five specimens all around Khadir, in our

entire flying time of almost five hours. To save

the representative original fauna and flora of

Kutch, indeed of the entire arid and semi-

arid western India and of the Thar desert,

together with remnant, rare and threatened

populations of fauna as well as to safeguard

the only known traditional breeding ground

where flamingoes have been known to breed

in large colonies in the recent past, it is im-

perative that the area earmarked and dis-

cussed above, encompassing the whole of

Khadir “Island” and its neighbourhood and

covering certain portions of the Great Rann,

be declared a wildlife sanctuary. If, thereafter,

it is found feasible, the area of the sanctuary

could be extended to cover portions of

Pachcham, a greater portion of the Great

Rann and could even extend up to that unique

area of inland drainage and semi-brackish

water called Chhari-no-Dhand, and the Banni

grasslands.

M. K. RANJITSINH

2. A NOTE ON THE SCAVENGING BEHAVIOUR OF

STRIPEDNECKED MONGOOSE ON TIGER’S KILL

Stripednecked mongoose Herpestes vetticollis

vetticollis Bennet has been seen in the

grasslands, adjacent forests and near the lake

shore in Periyar Tiger Reserve.

A dead male specimen of the animal which

was found on the lake shore near Mullakkudy

had the following characters. The coat colour

was chestnut and a prominent black stripe

182

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

extended from behind the base of the pinnae

towards the shoulder. The distal end of the

tail was black.

Very little is known about the feeding habits

of this largest Asiatic mongoose though they

are said to feed on frogs, fishes, crabs, fruits

and roots (Prater 1965). A stripednecked

mongoose was reported seen chasing a young

chital fawn (Krishnan 1975). On 24th October

1979 during our field studies at Periyar I

and my colleagues were sitting on a tree at

about 20 m away from an approximately 2

days old tiger’s kill of a sambar stag. At about

2 p.m. in the afternoon two stripednecked

mongoose came to the kill which was lying

Wild life Biology Division,

Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi 680 653,

June 21, 1984.

among grass. One mongoose came to

the carcass and tore about half a kilogramme

of sambar meat with its mouth and carried

the same in its mouth to a nearby bush. The

other mongoose followed it and both started

feeding on the meat. This observation was

made through binoculars.

It is quite interesting to note that the mon-

goose are mostly diurnal. In the case of tiger’s

kill under observation the tiger came to it

during the subsequent two nights.

This scavenging behaviour of stripednecked

mongoose brings to fight the animals’ varied

habits.

K. K. RAMACHANDRAN

References

Krishnan, M. (1975): India’s wildlife in 1959- ciety, Bombay.

70. An Ecological survey of the larger mammals Prater, S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian

of Peninsular India. Bombay Natural History So- Animals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

3. A NOTE ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF CAPTIVE DHOLES

( CUON ALPINUS )

( With two plates)

Recent reviews of existing knowledge con-

cerning the dhole, or Asiatic wild dog ( Cuon

alpinus), have highlighted the need to begin

both ethological and ecological studies of this

threatened carnivore (Davidar 1975; Cohen

1977, 1978). A major contribution to dhole

ecology has been made by Johnsingh (1979)

but little is known of the behaviour patterns

utilized by dholes and their relationships to

those of other canid species. Although the

observations reported here were made over

a short time period, under less than ideal

conditions, they represent one of the first at-

tempts to study the behaviour of this species

and may therefore be of interest.

Data were collected between 0900 and 1600

hrs from 10 to 12 March 1978, on two groups

of adult dholes housed at Duisburg Zoo,

Duisburg, West Germany, which has been

breeding them in recent years (Gewalt 1978).

Group A, maintained in an enclosure 5x7 m,

consisted initially of three siblings born 17

March 1975. This included one male (c?A)

and two females ( $ A-3 and $ A-4). Female

183

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

A-3 had lost one forelimb at the age of one

month, but this had healed well and she

appeared to move about the enclosure with

facility and to interact socially without handi-

cap (Gewalt 1978). Group B. kept in an en-

closure measuring 3x7 m. consisted of one

male (c?B; also a sibling of Group A) and

one female ($B). On the afternoon of 10

March. 2 A -4 was removed from the pen for

whelping and another adult female ($ A-M).

which had given birth on 1 1 February to a

litter sired by cf A, was returned to the pen

in her place. Also at this time, 2 B was locked

into her nest area for whelping, and c?B

provided with a new nest-box in the enclosure.

These two animals were able to maintain visu-

al. olfactory, and auditory contact through

the bars of the female’s nest area. Isolation

of whelping females has become necessary due

to a high frequency of pup-cannibalism in

captivity (Gewalt 1978). These alterations in

group composition, while not ideally timed

for my observations, likely caused some dis-

equilibrium in social organization and may

have led to artificially-high frequencies of in-

teraction. This is, however, of some advantage

in a short study such as this.

Summary of observations

Davidar (1975) has stated that dholes may

growl, whine, howl, and whimper, but

did not describe the contexts in which these

vocalizations are given. Among the Duisburg

animals, whining was heard in the following

contexts : by 2 A-3 while actively submitting

(see Fox 1971) to 2 A-4, and by 2B after

being separated from her mate. A more ex-

cited form of whining, possibly similar to the

“twittering" of African hunting dogs, Lycaon

pictus (Kuhme 1965). was given simultane-

ously by B and 2 B just prior to entering

the nest-area together. High-pitched squealing

was occasionally heard while these two animals

ran about their enclosure. A sharp “Kak-Kak"

was given once by cfA just before leaping

against the wall and rebounding back. Grow-

ling was heard during all three of the agoni-

stic encounters observed. The high-pitched

whistling sound said to be a characteristic

“assembly call" of dholes (e.g. Burton 1940;

Krishnan 1972) was never heard. On two

occasions the wolves and malamute dogs in

nearby enclosures engaged in lengthy group-

howling sessions. The dholes did not join in

this and seemed to take little notice of it, thus

corroborating the report of Sosnovskii (1967).

Active submission consisted of the animal

lowering its entire body while approaching a

conspecific. followed by a further lowering of

the shoulders and turning the head approxi-

mately 130°. exposing an open-mouth sub-

missive grin (see Fox and Cohen 1977). The

submissive animal then licked the dominant

animal’s lips. An alert posture was charac-

terized by forward-arching ears, vertical tail,

and slight piloerection of the nape of the neck.

The tail arches forward over the animal’s

back during aggressive threats. During agoni-

stic encounters both animals may rear up

against each other, displaying an open-mouth

gape (Plate 1). sometimes accompanied

by growling. Such mutual gaping is more

characteristic of fox-like, rather than dog-like

canids (see Fig. 7b, d in Fox and Cohen 1977).

The dominant animal was occasionally seen

to display a slight “aggressive mouth-pucker”

(Fox 1971). while the subordinate dhole’s

mouth was open wider. On no occasion, how-

ever, were the teeth bared in a “snarl”, as is

common among other dog-like canids.

Areas seen to be sniffed were the anal re-

gion. temporal region, and the lips, suggesting

the presence of glands in these areas (see

184

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82

Cohen : Cuort alpinus

Plate 1

9 -

Above: Agonistic open-mouth gaping; ears flattened in subordinate animal, erect in dominant.

Below: Marking-over.

(Photos : Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82

Cohen : Cuon alpinus

Plate 2

Above: Mounting with scruff-bite.

Below: Head-shake used to “kill” food.

(Photos : Author)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

also Fox 1971). Feces and urine of all animals

in an enclosure were almost always deposited

in the same communal location, corroborating

the field reports of Davidar 0975) and Cohen

et al (1978) regarding “dung-piling”. Table 1

shows that while female used the squatting

“crouched”, feline-like posture reported by

Davidar (1973). On two occasions the male

bit and held the scruff of the female’s neck

in his mouth during mounting (Plate 2).

The dholes were usually fed inside their

nest boxes where they could not be observed.

Table 1

Frequencies of urination in each of two postures

(all observation pooled)

INDIVIDUAL

urination posture exclusively, males used both

the squatting and raised leg postures. Raised-

leg urination was used by tfA only once

during “marking-over” (Plate 1), while the

female was still defecating. Male B used this

posture only to mark the sides of his newly-

installed nest-box, suggesting that raised-leg

urination may be a response to either promi-

nent vertical objects in the environment, or

simply to novel objects. All contributions to

the communal “dung pile” (whether feces or

urine) were made in the squatting posture by

animals of both sexes. “Marking-over” was

defined as one dhole urinating on the feces

or urine of a group-mate within 15 seconds

after the latter had been deposited. This was

done twice by c? A. three times by cTB, and

once bv $ A-3. Urination in a handstand

posture, as described by Keller (1973) was

not seen.

Male A mounted $ A-4 six times, but on

no occasion achieved intromission. All mounts

were performed in the typical canid, standing

fashion (Kleiman 1968), rather than in the

On 1 1 March, however, at my request, fresh

meat was given to the animals outside in their

enclosures. It was at this time that c ? B was

seen to tear off a piece of meat and rapidly

shake it in his mouth (Plate 2). This is a

common canid behaviour used for killing

small prey (Fox 1971) and, indeed, in south

India small mammals such as lagomorphs and

rodents may provide as much as 38% of the

dhole’s diet (Cohen et al. 1978).

A few observations were made of two 8-

week old pups (l<d\ 19), born to <S A and

9 A-M. These were placed in an arena mea-

suring approximately 150 x 60 cm. Much of

the time they walked about the enclosure and

reared up against the walls, attempting to

climb out. On several occasions the male

placed his forepaws on the female’s back,

biting the scruff of her neck, rapidly shaking

his head laterally, and growling. This elicited

no apparent response from the female. When

isolated from the female, the male pup whined

continually.

185

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

Discussion

It can be seen even from these limited

observations that the dhole is an unusual canid

species. It clearly displays a number of be-

havioural adaptations to a highly social exis-

tence, as evidenced by the diverse body, ear,

tail, and facial postures, vocalizations, and

elimination patterns. It is however, quite dis-

tinct from other dog-like canids in its agoni-

stic (mutual gaping) behaviour, “Kak-Kak”

vocalization, and apparent lack of a “snarl”

display (vertical retraction of the upper lip

to display teeth). Indeed, while the dhole has

been classified in the subfamily Simocyoninae,

together with the African hunting dog ( Lycaon

pictus) and the South American bush dog

Department of Zoology,

University of Florida,

Gainesville, Florida 32611, U.S.A.

May 26, 1982.

(Speothos venaticus), recent evidence (Clut-

ton-Brock et al. 1976) suggests that two of

the dhole’s three nearest phylogenetic neigh-

bours are foxes of the subfamily Caninae.

These facts help underline how poorly the

species is understood and suggest that further

research would be both feasible and reward-

ing. Since captive breeding of dholes has been

problematical (Gewalt 1978), a better under-

standing of dhole behaviour is needed in order

to help preserve this unusual endangered

species.

Acknowledgements

The cooperation and assistance of Dr W.

Gewalt, Director, and the staff of the Duisburg

Zoo. is greatly appreciated.

JAMES A. COHEN

References

Burton, R. W. (1940): The Indian wild dog.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41 : 691-715.

Clutton-Brock, J., Corbett, G. B., & Hills, M.

(1976): A review of the family Canidae, with a

classification by numerical methods. Bull. British

Mus. (Nat. Hist.) 29: 119-199.

Cohen, J. A. (1977): A review of the biology

of the dhole or Asiatic wild dog ( Cuon alpinus

Pallas). Anim. Regul. Stud. 1: 141-158.

(1978): Cuon alpinus. Mammal.

Species 100 : 1-3.

, Fox, M. W. Johnsingh, A. J. T.,

& Barnett. B. D. (1978): Food habits of the

dhole in south India. ./. Wildl. Manage. 42 : 933-

936.

Davidar, E. R. C. (1973): Dhole or Indian wild

dog (Cuon alpinus) mating. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 70 : 373-374.

(1975): Ecology and behavi-

or of the dhole or Indian wild dog Cuon alpinus

(Pallas). In M. W. Fox (ed.), The Wild Canids.

Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, pp. 109-119.

Fox, M. W. (1971) : Behaviour of Wolves, Dogs,

and Related Canids. Harper & Row, New York,

220 pp.

& Cohen, J. A. (1977): Canid com-

munication. In T. A. Sebeok (ed.), How Animals

Communicate. Indiana Univ. Press, Bloomington,

pp. 728-748.

Gewalt, W. (1978): Some remarks on keeping

and breeding the Red dog or dhole Cuon alpinus

at Duisburg Zoo. Int. Zoo Yearb. 18 : 173-176.

Johnsingh, A. J. T. (1979): Ecology and be-

haviour of the dhole or Indian wild dog, Cuon al-

pinus Pallas 1811, with special reference to pre-

dator-prey relationships at Bandipur. ETnpubl. Ph.D.

diss., Madurai University.

Keller, R. (1973): Einige Beobachtungen zum

Verhalten des Dekkan-Rothundes (Cuon alpinus

dukhunensis Sykes) in Kanha National park. Vier-

teljahresschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in

Zurich 118: 129-135.

186

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Kleiman, D. G. (1968): Reproduction in the

Canidae. bit. Zoo Yearb. 8: 3-8.

Krishnan, M. (1972): An ecological survey of

the larger mammals of peninsular India. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 69 : 42-47.

Kuhme, W. (1965): Freilandstudien zur Sozio-

logie des Hyanenhundes ( Lycaoti pictus lupinus

Thomas 1902). Z. Tierpsychol. 22: 495-541.

Sosnovskii, I. P. (1967): Breeding the red dog

or dhole Cuon alpinus at Moscow Zoo. Int. Zoo

Yearb. 7: 120-122.

4. UNUSUAL USE OF THE TRUNK FOR SOUND PRODUCTION

IN A CAPTIVE ASIAN ELEPHANT: A SECOND CASE

In an earlier report we described an un-

orthodox method of sound production using

the trunk by a captive 20 year old sarin (nulli-

parous cow) named Gyanendra Kali in the

Government Elephant Camp of Sauraha,

Nepal (Wemmer and Mishra 1982). This

particular elephant produces long, penetrating,

and eerie whistles by pressing and blowing

with the tip of her trunk against the lower

lip. As reported, there is good evidence the

pattern was learned from an aged and now

deceased sarin who had evidently invented

the calling method, and with which Gyanendra

Kali had been raised.

In 1983 after our report was published an-

other elephant at this camp was found to

whistle using a somewhat similar method.

This particular elephant (Prithivi Kali) was

purchased in 1978 in the Birganj area (Parsa

District) of the Nepalese terai, and is estimated

by Subbha Ram Lotan to be about 22 years

old. This animal whistles by curling the trunk

and pressing the tip against the ventral surface

to form a tight curl. The sound has the same

high pitch as that made by Gyanendra Kali,

but is only emitted in short bursts. According

to Ram Lotan, the sound was first heard two

years after the elephant was purchased, and

has become more frequent since then.

Elephants which are tethered nightly in the

‘pilkhana’ commonly develop individualistic

habits such as chain rattling or special sounds.

The repertoire of these habits, however, is

limited, and the same variants can be seen in

different camps. The whistling habit reported

herein is distinctive. The occurrence of whist-

ling in these two elephants may be coinci-

dental, a case of observational learning, or an

example of sound mimicry. We would be in-

terested in learning of any other similar

examples.

References

Wemmer, C. & Mishra, H. (1982): Observational

learning by an Asiatic elephant of an unusual sound

production method. Mammalia 46 : 556-557.

Conservation and Research Center, CHRIS WEMMER

National Zoological Park,

Front Royal, VA 22630,

U.S.A.

Nepal Terai Ecology Project, HEM ANT A MISHRA

P.O. Box 38, ERIC DINERSTEIN

Kathmandu, Nepal,

October 19, 1984.

187

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. H2

5. A FEMALE BLACKBUCK WITH HORNS

(With a photograph)

The photograph of a female Blackbuck

(Ant Hope cervicapra) was snapped on 20th

May at Velavader Blackbuck National Park,

70 km away from Bhavnagar city in Saurashtra

(Gujarat). The picture and the information

thereon may be useful to people and students

who are interested in the study of wildlife.

Normally female Blackbuck are hornless

while the female Blackbuck in the photograph

has horns, which is rare in nature. According

to local experts she seems pregnant. Judged

by the size of horns, she must be 2-3 years

old.

In the reference cited in “The Indian

Blackbuck Antelope-A Texas view” by Eliza-

beth Cary Mungall, Blanford (1888-91) saw

a horned female near Nagpur. He bequeathed

the skull of one to the British Museum (Natu-

ral History) (Skull No. 1912. 10.31.26; Ly-

dekker 1913) and about 1909 was accused of

shooting the tame horned female that lived

in an Indian village.

Takhteshwar Hill Plot,

Jailor’s Bungalow,

Kalubha Road,

Bhavnagar 364 002,

May 28. 1984.

(Photo: author)

D. R. CHAUHAN

6. GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN THE BARASINGHA OR

SWAMP DEER (CERVUS DUVAUCELI)

( With a text-figure )

The article “Geographic Variation in the your esteemed Journal Vol. 79, No. .■> is very

Barasingha or Swamp Deer (Cervus duvau- interesting. One of the differences mentioned

cell )” by Colin P. Groves on page 620 of about the Assam variety of Swamp Deer is

188

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ig. 1. Swamp Deer head from Nepal forest bor-

sring Mirchia Swamp Deer Preserve, Khairigarh

aj. Kheri Dist.. U.P., India.

that the antlers are palmated whereas in the

Kheri /Nepal variety the antlers are not palm-

ated. In this connection I would like to men-

tion that palmation in the antlers of Swamp

Deer is not unknown in the Kheri/Nepal

variety. I am enclosing three photographs of

a trophy in our collection which shows palma-

tion clearly; this specimen was shot by my

father the late Yuvraj Diwakar Prakash Singh

in 1938 in the Nepal forest bordering the

famous Mirchia Swamp Deer Preserve of

Khairigarh Raj, in District Kheri, U.P., India,

and was mounted by Van Ingen and Van

fngen, Mysore. Palmation occurs in other

Indian Deer species as well. An example is

the photograph of a Sambar antler which

appears in the B.N.H.S. Journal Vol. 27,

No. 1. July 1920, in the article, “Abnormal

Sambhar Horn” on page 170. in the Mis-

cellaneous Notes section. In the “Hangul”

Kashmir Stag also palmation is not unknown.

If indexes of old journals are checked,

it is possible that other examples might find

mention under headings like “Abnormalities

in deer Antlers” or “Palmation in Deer Ant-

lers” etc. A study of the journal records

might throw light on this question

As for the other characteristics mentioned

bv Colin P. Groves in his article he himself

mentions that “while none of the differences

by itself quite reaches the conventional level

of subspecific differenciation (75% rule) ”

on page 623 and in the Notes on page 626

he regrets the small number of specimens for

comparison. It would, therefore, be expedient

to truly identify this new subspecies by

thorough study before coming to a final con-

clusion. As collecting specimens of rare

fauna is not possible in the interest of preser-

vation of the species, I would suggest:

(a) Photographs be taken of the males with

powerful telephoto lenses after approach-

ing them on elephants as close as possible

or from machans, if the herds are near

them at particular times of the day.

189

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 82

(b) In the season when the antlers are shed

if a watch is kept on the herds, the likely

areas where the antlers are dropped could

possibly be identified and then if the area

is dry, a line of men like beaters could

be employed to scrutinize the area to

pick up the shed antlers.

(c) The old Clubs, Army messes, residences

Kasmanda House,

2, Park Road,

Lucknow, U. P.,

June 23, 1984.

Raja D. P. Singh’s letter is very welcome,

supporting as it does both the letter and the

spirit of my paper.

That a particular population has been

designated as a separate taxonomic entity,

such as a subspecies, is often a crucial factor

in awarding it formal protection: “our unique

subspecies...” etc. There is of course good

reasoning in this: preservation of a unique

gene-pool is one of the most important goals

of the conservation movement. Yet, and here

is the irony, in order to demonstrate that the

population actually is distinct, warranting

formal taxonomic designation, it is necessary

to have a series of specimens for study; if

such specimens are not already available, it

is hardly appropriate to go out and shoot

some — diametrically opposite to what one is

trying to achieve !

Raja Singh’s suggestions are the only really

feasible alternative. Wildlife photography has

The Australian National University,

Department of Prehistory &

Anthropology,

GPO Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2601,

Australia,

August 17, 1984.

of Tea Estate Managers and residences

of gentry, who were fond of hunting

formerly would also surely have numer-

ous Assam Swamp Deer trophies which

could be studied.

The National Park staff at Kaziranga

(Assam) would have the knowledge and be

in a position to help methods (a) and (b).

RAJA DINESH PRATAP SINGH

for some time now been in the position of a

potent taxonomic aid, in just such a fashion:

indeed, M. K. Ranjitsinh’s photographs, pub-

lished as part of my paper, are possibly more

useful in illustrating the points I was making

than are my own of museum specimens. Again,

with deer we are unusually lucky, as in cast

antlers we have voucher specimens obtained

in an ideal, conservationist, manner.

As for Raja Singh’s point (c), I did try to

find old trophies throughout India, by means

of letters to newspapers; on the basis of the

response I got, I made a four-month tour of

India in early 1979. Undoubtedly, though,

there are many more in odd corners: nobody

could tell me of any trophy collections in the

eastern states (Assam, Bengal etc.), which I

therefore did not visit. So any news of such

collections- — of any species, not only of deer

— would be very welcome.

COLIN P GROVES

190

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

7. AN ADDITIONAL RECORD OF THE LEAST FRIGATE BIRD

F REG AT A ARIEL IN INDIA

A pelagic bird was picked up during the

monsoon on the seashore near Quilon town,

and has been art exhibit at the Museum of the

Shree Narayan College for Men at Quilon for

several years. It was evidently a frigate bird but

it did not agree with any of the descriptions in

the literature available and I mentioned this

to Mr. Humayun Abdulali. At his instance.

Dr. S. Ramachandran, Head of the Depart-

ment of Zoology of the College had the

mounted specimen packed and sent to the

Bombay Natural History Society where it was

photographed and the measurements (left

wing 556 mm, other damaged, tail 310 mm,

fork 119 mm, bill from feathers 85 mm) sent

to Dr. S. D. Ripley of the Smithsonian Insti-

tution. It has been identified as the Least

Frigate Bird ( Fregata ariel) in juvenile plum-

age in which the chin, throat and upper breast

are white, bordered by a dark head and a

white belly.

The type locality of the only subspecies

accepted in India F. a. iredalei Mathews is

Aldabra Island, off the east coast of Africa

P. G. Dept, of Zoology,

The New College,

Madras 600 014,

July 28, 1983.

and a juvenile ringed at that place was found

washed up on the beach near Bombay in

June 1970 (Rauf Ali, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

67: 569). The present, apart from several

from Ceylon is the fourth record from Indian

limits, and all of them have presumably been

brought in by the Southwest monsoon.

J. B. Nelson (1976, Living Bird 14: 113-

155) has reported a prolonged breeding cycle

and long deferred maturity in frigate birds.

It takes more than twelve months to accomp-

lish a single breeding cycle and the period of

immaturity is carried up to six years. At least

three of the four specimens found in India

had white underparts. Would it be possible

that the majority of specimens are in this

plumage?

I am indebted to Dr. Ramachandran and

Mr Abdulali for the trouble which they took

and to the Charles McCann Vertebrate Zoo-

logy Field Work Fund at the Bombay Natural

History Society for meeting the not inconsider-

able expenditure of packing, transport and

photography.

S. FAIZI

8. CHICK-FEEDING IN IBISES AT KEOLADEO NATIONAL

PARK. BHARATPUR

After early intensive foraging, an ibis gene-

rally returned to its nest and regurgitated its

crop contents either on the nest floor or

directly into the chick, handbook of the

birds of India and Pakistan, mentions that

in ibises the food is not picked up from nest

floor as in storks’, but on 6th September 1982

around 7.30 a.m., during a nest-bird count by

boat in the Sapan Mori Heronry, at Keoladeo

National Park (Bharatpur), I observed a

White Ibis {T hreskiornis aethiopica) regurgi-

tating food on the nest floor (in a manner simi-

191

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vo, I. 82

lar to neighbouring Openbiil Storks and Median

Egrets) and the hungry circle of nestlings

■fell to’ very noisily. On another nest, the

parent rested a while after alighting and shook

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Opp. Lion Gate,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023,

October 19, 1983.

out food into the chick, only after the chick

forced an entry into its gape. This procedure

was repeated more than six times after arrival

of this bird.

USHA BHUTIA

9. SIGHTING OF WHOOPER SWANS ( CYGNUS CYGNUS)

IN BALUCHISTAN

According to Volume 1 of handbook of

the birds of India and PAKISTAN1 there are

only a dozen records of the sighting of this

swan in the subcontinent since 1829 and no

records within the last thirty years. The exact

subspecific identification of the birds recently

sighted cannot be determined, but by reference

to a standard field guide2 which I had taken

with me. the pattern of their bill corresponded

exactly with that of the illustrations of the

Whooper Swan, not of the Bewick's Swan

( Cygnus cygnus bewickii).

Following a report from Mr Inayatullah

Arbab. Sub-divisional Forest Officer, Wildlife,

Quetta that three ‘Swan’ had been sighted in

the winter of 1981/82 on the Lake Zangi

Nawar in southwestern Baluchistan, the writer

made a personal visit early in 1983. On Feb-

ruary 7th and 8th 1983, eight Whooper Swans

( Cygnus cygnus) were watched through 10 x

1 Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. Dillon (1968): A

Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol.

1. Oxford University Press, Bombay, p. 136.

2 Heinzel, H., Fitter, R. & Parslow, John

(1972): The Birds of Britain and Europe with

North Africa and the Middle East. Collins, St.

James’ Place. London, pp. 44-45.

50 binoculars at a distance of less than 150

metres. It was reported that they had been on

the lake for more than a month.

Zangi Nawar is the second largest natural

lake in Baluchistan, an arid region which is

practically devoid of any other significant wet-

lands. It lies approximately 50 kilometres

west of Nushki, the principal town in Chaghai

District in southwest Baluchistan. The exact

location is 29°25' N. and 65°47' F. The lake

is a perennial body of water and resulting

from recent above-average rainfall covered

approximately 1000 hectares at the time of

my visit. It is formed by drainage from a

‘Lora’ (non-perennial channel) which flows

in a southwesterly direction from the Seistan

basin in Afghanistan. The lake itself is sepa-

rated into lagoons by sandhill ridges and

fringed by low bushes of Tamarix troupii. It

is dotted with a few stands of reeds and

sedges in the deeper parts, including Phrag-

niites, Carex and Juncus species. It is not

much more than 3 meters deep at its deepest

part. In winter it is a resort of large numbers

of migratory waterfowl, the Common Coot

( Fulicu atra) being the dominant species, but

there are also numerous dabbling ducks.

192

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Wildlife Management Specialist, ASHIQ AHMAD

Pakistan Forest Institute,

Peshawar, Pakistan,

July 16, 1983.

10. INDIAN BLACKCRESTED BAZA (AVICEDA LEUPHOTES ):

A SIGHTING RECORD FROM KARNATAKA

On 10-xi-1983, I was in Agumbe State

Forest (Shimoga Forest Division; locality,

Mallandur) on the ridge of the Western

Ghats in Karnataka State. During the course

of a survey to locate troops of Liontailed

Macaques, driving along a forest track, in a

large clearing in dense evergreen forest, I saw

two pigeon-sized birds of prey in striking

black-and-white plumage alight on a Ficus

tree. Getting down from the vehicle, I was

able to approach on foot to within 30 metres

of them and had a good look through 8 x 50

binoculars. I was able to positively identify

the birds as Indian Blackcrested Bazas.

According to Ripley (1982) this bird is a

499, J. T. Extension,

Mysore 570 009,

November 21, 1983.

resident in the foothills of Kerala. According

to Ali and Ripley (1968), it is described as

uncommon and recorded only from Kerala,

Wynaad and Nilgiris, though they speculate

on its occurrence in western Karnataka. My

sighting record confirms this speculation and

extends the recorded northern range of

A. leuphotes to lat. 13°15' N. Evergreen forest

habitats similar to those in Agumbe extend

further northwards up to Jog Falls (lat. 14°

16' N) and it is likely that this Baza occurs

there also. Incidentally in the last 20 years

of birdwatching in Karnataka, this is my first

sighting of this Baza which is perhaps an

evidence for its rarity.

K. ULLAS KARANTH

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1968): Handbook of Ripley, S. D. (1982): A synopsis of the Birds

the Birds of India and Pakistan (Vol. 1). Oxford of India and Pakistan, 2nd ed., Bombay Natural

University Press, Bombay. History Society, Bombay.

11. THE OSPREY (PAN DION HALIAETUS HALIAETUS)

PREYING ON A GULL

In December 1983, I was watching an

Osprey circling over Mahim Bay in Bombay.

Suddenly the Osprey dived down over a mixed

flock of gulls (mainly Blackheaded and Brown-

headed) caught one of them in its talons and

then flew off in the direction of Mount Mary

in Bandra.

I was unable to find any previous record of

Osprey preying on another bird in India. Mr

Humayun Abdulali, when consulted, could not

recollect ever having seen the Osprey feeding

on another bird.

Ali-Ripley (1968) state that the food of

the Osprey is “Exclusively fish. Often strikes

13

193

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 82

mahseer ( Barbus ) and others heavier than

itself.”

Stuart Baker (1928) records that the

Osprey’s food “is almost entirely fish’.

Witherby et al. (1945) state that “when

pressed by hunger has been known to take

chickens. Also seen to take wounded sand-

piper. Jackdaws and wild duck recorded, re-

mains of coot and small duck seen at nest,

perhaps wounded birds”.

Brown & Amadon (1968) in their book,

state that the food of the Osprey is

13 Neel Tarang,

210 Veer Savarkar Marg,

Mahim, Bombay 400 016,

October 31, 1983.

Refer

Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. Dillon (1968): Hand-

book of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1.

Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Baker, E. C. Stuart (1928): Fauna of British

India, Vol. 5. Taylor and Francis, London.

Brown, Leslie & Amadon, Dean (1968): Eagles,

“almost entirely fish, usually taken alive, and

up to four pounds in weight Unusual

items include some birds, possibly wounded,

such as storm petrel, sandpipers and duck,

very occasionally land birds like the jackdaw,

frogs and Crustacea (probably by unskilled

young)”.

In this case, the Osprey had a clearly

defined brown breast-band and was presum-

ably an adult. The gull that was preyed on

was part of a flock and there were no indi-

cations to suggest that it was injured.

D. N. GOENKA

EN CE S

Hawks & Falcons of the World. Vol. 1. The Hamlyn

Publishing Group Limited, Great Britain.

Witherby, H. F., Jourdain, F. C. R., Ticehurst,

Norman F. & Tucker, Bernard F. (1945): The

Handbook of British Birds. H. F. Witherby Ltd..

London.

12. OBSERVATIONS ON THE ROOF-NESTING HABIT OF THE

RED WATTLED LAPWING ( VANELLUS IND/CUS ) IN POONA,

MAHARASHTRA

Notes about the Redwattled Lapwing nest-

ing on roof tops have accumulated over the

years (Gole & Mundkur 1980, Tehsin &

Lokhandwala 1982, Patnaik 1980). Various

reasons have been offered to explain this

phenomenon, an interesting one being that

the pair are able to gauge the severity of the

oncoming monsoons in advance and build on

high ground to avoid their eggs and siblings

from getting wet.

Apparently, this roof nesting, habit is not

a new one (Baker 1935) notes that even

though the normal nesting place of this bird

is the open ground, it also nests on flat roofed

two storeyed houses and the roof of an indigo

factory has also been used.

In the last four years a study of at least

three pairs (the three were found to be nesting

at the same time) of roof-top nesters was

done in the Erandavana, Deccan Gymkhana

area of Poona. In all five roofs were found

to be used, though many similar roofs also

existed in the area. It is interesting to note that

all the roofs used shared the following charac-

ters:

a. All are at least two storey tall buildings.

194

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

b. Roofs are flat or very slightly sloped.

c. Roof surfacing being bitumen tar felt

sheets with numerous scattered pebbles

and stones.

d. Absence of tall brick walls or railings.

A seven inch single brick boundary

existed on three of the roofs.

e. Presence of nearby additional ground

cover such as water tanks, rock piles,

pipe lines, heaped trash that afforded

ready protection to the birds were also

noted.

f. All the buildings are fairly close to water

(within one and half a kilometres of the

river Mutha).

Description of the nest. As all the roofs had

pebbles and small cement pieces, these were

heaped to form a circular nest with an outer

diameter of about 6.5 inches, an inner dia-

meter of 5 . 5 inches and a height of 2 . 5 inches.

These measurements were of one nest only,

the others weren’t measured as they appeared

very similar in size. The moment after the

last chick hatched the nest was abandoned,

flattened out and filled up. This behaviour

seems very similar to that of the Yellow-

wattled Lapwings that nested around two

kilometres away on a plateau land.

The following observations are those depic-

ting the fate of each of the nests yearwise.

March 22, 1980. The first nest (nest 1) was

discovered on the roof of the Garware College,

a three storeyed building with all the charac-

ters listed above. Four eggs lay cradled in the

nest, their conical ends pointing to the centre.

When the nest was approached the incubating

parent slunk off into some rocks, her back

parallel to the ground.

April 6, 1980. The nest was empty and

flattened out. After a search four chicks were

located and photographed. Their camouflage

was perfect as were the eggs a few days earlier.

One chick, smaller in size was covered with

ants.

May 7, 1980. The chicks were no where to

be seen. A new nest had been constructed

and it contained four eggs. One egg was much

smaller than the others and so I removed it

and blew it.

May 29, 1980. Only two chicks were about,

their legs seemed very long and dispropor-

tionate. The body was covered in brown,

black and white; a black bib was clearly visible

on the breast.

During the year 1981, the birds nested bet-

ween March and June but none of the chicks

survived, on nest 1.

In mid April a second pair nested on the

roof of another college building, a two storey

one, lying east to the first (nest 2). The birds

could be seen incubating a numbei of times

but the number of eggs couldn’t be ascertained

and their fate is unknown.

The complaints of a friend helped me loc-

ate another roof with three chicks (nest 3),

as the parents cried every night to the dis-

pleasure of the residents in the area. The

owner of three stroeyed building found two

dead chicks on the ground the next morning,

the fate of the third was perhaps the same.

This building lies about 250 metres northwest

of the nest 1 roof.

In 1982, nest 1 roof hosted two broods,

three eggs in the first and four in the second.

As mentioned by Bapat (1982) all chicks

were found dead, the crows eating some of

them.

Roofs 2 and 3 had no nests built that year.

In 1983, nest roof 1 had three nests with

four eggs in each. During the third brood,

another pair of lapwings nested on another

wing of the main building in early August,

(nest 4).

195

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 87

August 5, 1983. Two chicks of nest 4 were

seen on the roof edge with their parents.

Attacks by crows, often drawn to the roof

by our presence quickly brought both parents

of both the nests to fight, and they succeeded

in chasing the crows off every time. As I didn’t

expect two nests on the same roof I only

found the nest remains after the young had

hatched. A fifth nest was found on a three-

storey building half a kilometre away but no

chicks were seen.

August 6, 1983. Both chicks of nest 4 fell

to their death.

August 20, 1983. Nest 1 — Two chicks

hatched out and so to prevent this brood

also from falling to their death, a friend and

I enclosed the nest area with an old wooden

frame some six inches tall. The enclosure

measured 4x6 feet. The parents were seen

to incubate even with the frame in place.

August 24, 1983. Four chicks were located

in a rock pile outside the frame. How they

got over the frame is a mystery !

August 25, 1983. Two out of the four chicks

that were found on the ground below were

124/9 Erandavana,

Poona 411 004.

Maharashtra,

December 9, 1983.

dead, while the other two were replaced on

the roof.

August 27 ', 1983. Both were found on the

ground below again, this time one died. The

survivor looked very worn out so I took it

home as it would have probably been eaten

up by a mongoose family that lived close

by. A few days earlier I had seen one mon-

goose eat a fallen bat.

The chick was fed with tepid milk diluted

with water from my finger at night and once

in the morning, but it died later during the

day.

Whether this roof habit could indicate a

loss of normal nesting sites has not been ade-

quately answered as a search for ground nest-

ing lapwings proved a failure, even though

there are a few spots of broken ground in the

area where the birds could have nested.

Finally, it seems a shame that this alternate

site should prove so unsuccessful (atleast in

the case of the Poona birds). And if this

trend continues we would probably see a

decrease in this charming bird.

TAEJ MUNDKUR

References

Baker, E. C. S. (1935): The nidification of the

birds of the Indian empire, Vol. 4, Tailor and

Francis, London.

Bapat, A. ( 1 982) : Reef herons in Poona. News-

letter for Birdwatchers 22 (3/4) : 15.

Gole, P. & Mundkur, T. (1980): An unusual

nest of a pair of Redwattled Lapwings. Newsletter

for Birdwatchers 20 (6/7) : 15.

Tehsin, H. R. & Lokhandwala, J. (1982): Un-

usual nesting site of Redwattled Lapwing. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 79 (2) : 414.

Patnaik, H. P. (1980): Unusual nesting site of

Redwattled Lapwing. Newsletter for Birdwatchers

20(11) : 9.

196

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

13. REDWATTLED LAPWING ( VANELLUS INDICUS)

SUFFERING FROM CATARACT

On 25th January, 1983, an adult Redwattled

Lapwing ( Vanellus indicus) was caught and

ringed during the Bird ringing/camp organised

for members at Nandur-Madhmeshwar. The

bird had developed a cataract in the right eye

due to which it was blind on the right side. This

was confirmed by medical members present.

27-A/l, Civil Lines,

Nagpur,

July 8, 1983.

The bird appeared quite active and apparent-

ly had no difficulty in flying away when re-

leased.

As little is recorded about the disease of

birds in the wild state, especially in India,

the above observation would be of interest.

NITIN jamdar

14. OCCURRENCE OF THE GREAT BLACKHEADED GULL

( LARUS 1CHTHYAETUS PALLAS) IN KUTCH

On February 25, this year (1983) I saw

some Great Blackheaded Gulls on Hamirsar

lake, just outside the town of Bhuj. There

was a group of 25 + of these gulls in company

with about 8 or more Caspian Terns — Hydro-

progne caspia and other waders usually seen

on the waterside, along with a flock of Rosy

Pelicans (Pelecanus onocrotalus ) numbering

about 100 + which were joined by about an-

other 100 birds towards evening. Owing to

Jubilee Ground,

Bhuj, Kutch,

November 28, 1983.

the paucity of the monsoon rains in the 1982

season, there was very little water left in this

smallish lake; and hence there was a good

concentration of fish and other water life.

To the best of my knowledge, Larus ichth-

yaelus has not been previously recorded in

this area. As in Saurashtra (Dharmakumar-

sinhji, birds of saurashtra), in Kutch also

this gull is not at all a common winter visitor.

HIMMATSINHJI

15. ON THE STATUS OF PSITTACULA INTERMEDIA

(ROTHSCHILD)

This taxon was first described by Roths-

child in 1895, and is known from approxi-

mately seven specimens, all collected at about

the same time and from an unknown locality,

but presumed to be somewhere in the Indian

region, since the form closely resembles the

parakeets of the Psitttacula cyanocephalaj

himalayana / roseata group. The status of in-

termedia has never been satisfactorily settled,

it has been claimed to be either a species, or

a hybrid between P. himalayana and P. cyan-

ocephala. The matter is still unproven, but a

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

reference, previously apparently overlooked,

suggests that there is no concrete evidence for

the latter view. The history of the controversy

is as follows :

Rothschild originally described the taxon

on the basis of a single skin which he said

was of the “Bombay preparation” and was

therefore likely to have come from the Western

Provinces of India. Two skins of P. himala-

yana accompanied the type of intermedia and

Rothschild believed it to be intermediate bet-

ween himalayana and cyanocephala but closer

to the former. Subsequently further specimens

turned up, and Hartert (1924) in a follow-up

note explained that these had come from a

“Mr. Dunstall, a dealer in feathers” who had

selected six specimens from a much greater

number, which he had had in his possession.

The fate of these remaining skins is not known,

but they probably do not now survive.

“Mr. Dunstall” appears to be identifiable as

G. K. Dunstall who lived in London at New

Zealand Avenue in the Barbican area; few

details appear to be available about his life

other than that he collected in New Guinea

and British Guiana (Guyana) in about 1895

and he supplied skins from these localities

and also from New South Wales and New

Zealand to the British Museum (Natural

History). It seems unlikely that any further

details will now come to light as to the precise

origin of the skins of Psittacula intermedia.

Hartert believed that P. intermedia would

prove to be a local form of which the exact

habitat had still to be discovered. He pointed

out that if it were a hybrid it would be un-

likely that all the known specimens would

be found at the same time, and one would

expect them to vary somewhat rather than

be all alike.

In 1959 two papers appeared almost simul-

taneously, one by K. Z. Husain putting for-

ward a case for the bird being a hybrid, and

the other Biswamoy Biswas claiming that it

was a valid species. The latter stresses HarteiTs

point that if intermedia were a hybrid one

would expect occasional specimens to appear

over a long period of time, not to find a great

many at once and then never to find further

ones. Unfortunately Biswas’s presentation is

couched in far less convincing terms than

Husain’s, which may be why his views have

been largely ignored. Husain, on the other hand,

argues seemingly convincingly that intermedia

is a hybrid between himalayana and cyanoce-

phala but his case rests solely on the undoubted

fact that it is exactly intermediate between the

two in appearance. He dismisses Hartert’s

point that the known specimens are all alike,

suggesting that first generation hybrids would

not necessarily vary in appearance, but igno-

ring the fact that it would be most unlikely

for all the specimens taken from a wild hybrid

population to be first generation hybrids. He

quotes, but makes no attempt to refute,

Hartert’s more important point about the

unlikelihood of finding so many hybrids all

together at the same time. Husain then con-

tinues by comparing all the taxa in the hima-

layana I cyanocephala /roseat a group, and shows

that intermedia resembles more closely an in-

termediate between himalayana and cyanoce-

phala and is less like either of the other main

forms, finschi and roseata. He concludes :

“Thus it can be shown that no other combi-

nation of these four species of parakeets than

cyanocephala and himalayana can produce a

hybrid like ‘intermedia’ in nature”. But we

have little real knowledge of the actual gene-

tics of the four forms, and in any case a hybrid

is not necessarily intermediate in appearance

between its two parents, and so this statement

has little real meaning. Thus Husain’s case

is really weak, and it is weakened still further

198

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

by reference to a note which seems to have

escaped his notice, namely that a hybrid bet-

ween himalayana and cyanocephala is different

in appearance to intermedia.

Tavistock (1932-1938) repeatedly paired a

male himalayana with a female cyanocephala

and several times obtained young birds. These

birds resembled young cyanocephala but their

central tail feathers were brighter blue with

white tips and their heads had a dusky tinge.

One of these hybrids was given to a Mr. Whit-

ley and began to show adult plumage with its

first complete moult. This description is diffi-

cult to reconcile with that of P. intermedia,

of which I quote below the description by

Forshaw, as being the most conveniently

worded :

General plumage green, brighter on rump

and more yellowish on underparts; forehead

and periophthalmic region rufous pink; re-

mainder of head slaty-purple; chin, broad

stripes across lower cheeks, and narrow collar

around nape black; ill-defined bluish-green

band on neck; maroon patch on wing-co-

Sub-Dept. of Ornithology,

British Museum (Natural History),

Tring, Hertfordshire HP 23 6AP,

U.K.,

December 26, 1983.

verts; under wing-coverts bluish green; tail-

feathers bluish-green tipped with yellow.

The most striking point of dissimilarity is

the tail which is yellow-tipped in intermedia

and white-tipped in Tavistock’s hybrids. This

difference seems unlikely to be due to the

immature plumage of the latter birds.

Thus there would appear to be no hard

evidence at all in favour for intermedia being

a hybrid, and all the available evidence

(though admittedly it is not conclusive) points

to it being a discrete taxon. Whether it be a

species or a subspecies of one of the species

in the himalayana / cyanocephala / roseata group

cannot be determined with any certainty, but

I would suggest that it be treated as a species

owing to lack of information. In view of the

fact that no specimens have been found for

so many years, Psittacula intermedia is now

probably extinct; it was in all likelihood a

very small population and may well have

been exterminated by the collectors who found

it and sent its skins to Dunstall. If it is not

extinct, it is very probably highly endangered.

MICHAEL WALTERS

R EFEREN CES

Biswas, B. (1959) : On the Parakeet Psittacula

intermedia (Rothschild) [Aves : Psittacidae], J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56 : 558-562.

Forshaw, J. M. (1973): Parrots of the World.

Melborne. Australia.

Hartert, E. (1924): Types of Birds in the Tring

Museum. B Types in the General Collection TV.

Nov. Zool. 31 : 126.

Husain, K. Z. (1959): Is Psittacula intermedia

(Rothschild) a valid species? Bull. Br. Orn. Club

79 : 89-92.

Rothschild, W. (1895): On a new parrot Nov.

Zool. 2 : 492.

Tavistock, Marquis (1932-1938): Avicultural

Magazine. 1932: 251; 1933 : 387; 1934: 260; 1935:

229; 1936 : 258; 1937 : 337; 1938 : 88.

199

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

16. DOWN PLUMAGE IN PARAKEETS, GENUS PS1TTACULA

(With a photograph )

Notes on various aspects of the breeding

biology of Indian parakeets are found in

Stuart Baker (1927, 1934) and Ali & Ripley

(1969). However, these authors and other

accounts of field ornithologists consulted by

us contain no reference at all to the down

plumage of some parakeet chicks, a fact which

has recently been pointed out by aviculturists

G. A. Smith (1979) and Rosemary Low (1980).

In fact, Stuart Baker (loc. cit.) and Dorst

(1964) have remarked ‘naked young’ as a

feature of parrots in general. This generali-

sation is unacceptable even when taken as

limited to family Psittacidae (or sub-family

Psittacinae) as any experienced aviculturist

would readily testify. The following genera of

Psittaci, many of which often breed under

captive conditions, include species in which

the young hatch with a down plumage or

assume the down soon thereafter, before their

eyes open: Agapornis (African Lovebirds),

Poicephalus (Senegal and Mayer’s parrots),

Psittacus erithacus (African Grey parrot),

Loriculus (Lorikeets, Hanging or Bat parrots),

Ara (Macaws), Aratinga — (Conures), Derop-

tyus (Hawkheaded parrot), Bolborhynchus

(Liniolated parakeets), Pionus (Sordid parrot).

Photo: Redbreasted parakeet chick stuffed specimen,

showing hair like down.

Graydidascalus (Short-tailed parrot), Nestor

(Kea parrot), Opopsitta (Fig parrot), Proso-

peia (Taviuni parakeet), Psititrichas (Pesquet’s

parrot) and Amazona (Amazon parrots).

2. Recently, a pair of Redbreasted para-

keets Psittacula alexandri (fallow male x nor-

mal female) in the aviary of one of us (Sane)

bred, but the young died when about 16 days

old. The down plumage of this young (refer

to the accompanying photograph) has promp-

ted us to highlight in this note this hitherto

largely ignored fact. The following observa-

tions relate to this chick:

4. V.82: Egg had started to hatch at about 17.45

hrs.

5. V.82: 09.20 hrs. — already hatched and the

chick being fed by the mother; the

mother aggressive to permit observations

on the chick.

6. V.82: Long but sparse hair-like down on the

lower back clearly visible; head naked.

12. V.82: Eye membrane slit clearly seen but eyes

not open; no trace of feather pins but

fluffy feathers of the secondary down

slightly seen, especially on the back.

13. V.82: Eyes not open, but the body skin darker

than before; secondary down clearly

visible in the lower back, but it is not

as soft and dense as the down of Rosel-

las, Conures and Lovebirds; primary

down also clearly seen.

15.V.82: Eyes open in the evening and the gene-

ral body colour still darker.

17.V.82: Flight feather pins have started to

appear; secondary down more prominent

and is also seen on the abdomen and

flanks bordering the rudimentary wings.

20.V.82: In the morning, the young found in

good condition but at about 18.00 hrs

it was dead and the body still warm.

Death probably due to over-feeding of

the young by the mother on an extre-

mely hot and humid day.

200

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

These observations, are similar to down

plumage described for Psittacula derbyana and

P. longicauda respectively by Smith and Low

in that a long thin hair-like primary down is

followed by a dense woolly secondary down.

Describing the down of derbyana, Smith (loc.

cit.) states ‘Two chicks, when observed at

approximately 14 days old were covered in

a thick woolly bluish-grey down’. This is

confirmed by Low’s (loc. cit.) statement

‘Newly hatched young have some white down.

The second down is grey dense giving a

woolly appearance’. In the case of longicauda

Smith reports ‘Rather surprisingly, the chicks

have white thin long down and are not ‘stubby-

naked’ as are most other Psittacula parakeets’.

It is interesting that the three species of

Psittacula in which a well marked down plum-

age has been noted ( derbyana , longicauda and

alexandrx) resemble each other in possessing

a prominent black moustachial patch and

conspicuous black forehead extending to the

eyes in the form of a black band. P. caniceps,

which resembles these three species, has not

been studied at all and the bird has hardly

ever been kept in captivity by aviculturists,

but it is possible that this species also possesses

a down plumage. All these four species also

possess a more massive head with a somewhat

flat top as opposed to the more rounded and

relatively small heads of cyanocephala, roseata

and calthropae which are known to have

naked young, a fact confirmed by first-hand

observations on captive bom birds by one

of us (Sane).

P. eupatria and P. krameri which resemble

M/s. Sachetan,

L 4-5, Sit aram Bldg.,

Palton Road,

Bombay 400 001.

each other in coloration to a remarkable ex-

tent, appear to be in-between these two groups

of Psittacula. In krameri, having a rounded

and relatively smaller head, the chick is

naked without even a trace of down. Accord-

ing to Smith, in eupatria (which has a large

flat-topped head) the chick is “ covered

with fine and unobstrusive, extremely short,

one mm. long or so thinly scattered natal down

which abrades off to leave them naked after

a day or two.” The black chin patch of these

two species begins at the base of the lower

bill and is not comparable to the moustachial

patches of alexandri, derbyana and caniceps

which start from the sides of the lower beak.

Smith refers to the difference between the

observations in respect of down plumage of

P. himalayana by Alston (1967) and Baele

(1977). According to the former, in himala-

yana the young was naked, but the latter re-

ported ‘thin down’ in a chick of a partially

yellow mutant crossed with a normal speci-

men of the same species.

It is not our intention to correlate the

presence or absence of down plumage in

Psittacula chicks only with the head shape of

these birds or any other character. Our aim

in writing this note is to draw attention of

ornithologists to the presence of down plum-

age in some parrots including a few Indian

Psittacula and to suggest that species showing

this character appear to have certain other

common bodily features indicating a closer

taxonomic affinity between them than others

of this genus.

S. R. SANE

Wild Life Regional Office, P. KANNAN

11, Air Cargo Complex,

Sahar, Bombay-400 057,

October 16, 1982.

201

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

References

Ali, S. A. & Ripley, S. D. (1969): Handbook of

Birds of India, Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon Vol. 3.

Alston, T. H. (1967): Breeding of the Slaty-

headed parakeet. Parrot Society Magazine I (II) :

15-17.

Baele, E. M. (1977) : Finsch’s Parakeet. Parrot

Society Magazine 11 : 131.

Baker, E. C. Stuart (1927): Fauna of British

Tndia — Birds, Vol. 4.

(1934): Nidification of

the Birds of the Indian Empire 3: 373-386.

Dorst, J. (1964): ‘Parrot’ in the New Dictionary

of Birds by A. Landsborough Thompson (ed.) pp.

600-602.

Low, Rosemary (1980): Parrots, their Care and

Breeding. Blanford Press, Poole, Dorset, U.K.

Smith, G. A. (1979): Lovebirds and Related

Parrots. Paul Elak, London.

17. ON THE JUVENILE PLUMAGE OF FEMALE

CHRYSOCOLAPTES FESTIVUS (BODDAERT) AND OTHER

NESTING NOTES NEAR BOMBAY

( With a plate )

This morning (24 Feb., 1983) I visited the

Borivli National Park, Salsette, Bombay with

Shri G. S. Kandey, Divisional Manager of the

park, with a view to putting up some nest

boxes on trees along the roadside. Starting at

the southern end of the park we put up some

seven boxes when we reached the several old

palmyra palms riddled with holes (Plate) which

we had over several years seen visited by the

Spotted and Jungle Owlets ( Athene brama

and Glaucidium radiatum), Roseringed Para-

keets ( Pstittacula krameri), Blackbacked

Woodpeckers (Chrysocolaptes festivus ) and

Mynas (Acridotheres tristis). Though the

young of several species had been seen looking

out and other behaviour left no doubt

regarding their nesting in these holes, we

never had had the opportunity of actually

examining the contents.

Today we were accompanied by a climber

and we sent him up to examine two holes in

two separate palms. The first yielded a young

woodpecker, about three-fourth fledged. The

feathers on the head were yellow shot with red

and T have earlier (JBNHS 72. pp. 129-30) re-

ferred to two females with shorter bills (presu-

mably young) and the yellow of the crest show-

ing traces of red. Together with an old note of

a redheaded bird being fed by an adult male,

it would appear that young females have a

yellow head shot with red, while young males

have completely red heads. Stuart Baker, 1927,

( Fauna 4, p. 77) states that young females

“if we can judge from the young of the closely

allied C. striatus have the head black spotted

with white”. This is an erroneous presumption

accepted in Indian Handbook (4, p. 241).

The second nest contained three young

parakeets and one well-fledged bird pulled out

was on the point of being put back as of the

Roseringed, when several of us noticed its

large size and binoculars revealed the red

patches on the shoulders, indicating that it

was the large Indian or Alexandrine Parakeet

(P. eupatria). Almost 50 years ago Salim Ali

and I (JBNHS 40. p. 167) had referred to

this bird as occasionally seen in Bombay City,

but not in the forest areas and treated it as

an escape. Tn more recent years pairs and

small parties were occasionally seen at the

202

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82 Plate

Abdulali : Chrysoco/aptes festivus

The nesting palms.

(Photos : S. R. Nayak)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

entrance to the Film City, but this appears to

be the first record of a nest being actually

found. There was considerable difference in

size between the three young parakeets, one

other being almost featherless.

Both young were extraordinarily pretty

birds. The palmyra palms referred to above

are no doubt dying out (one is already head-

less) and it would appear that in many in-

stances, the bottom of a hole has dropped

through the top of the one below and rendered

75 Abdul Rehman Street,

Bombay 400 003.

March 9, 1983.

both uninhabitable. I remember a time when

you could knock at the bottom of a palm

and have a young or adult put out its head

to inquire, while further knocking produced

another head from a ‘flat’ higher up.

Dead wood is getting scarcer and scarcer

and it is hoped that some of the birds will

use the nests offered and continue to be able

to find their food within the park.

I thank Shri Kandey, for his assistance.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

18. ON THE COLLECTION OF HAIR FROM THE TAIL OF LIVE

CATTLE (COW) BY THE JUNGLE CROW ( CORVUS

MACRORHYNCHOS) FOR NEST-BUILDING

During the last two years (1981-82) I have

been observing Jungle crows ( Corvus macro-

rhynchos) extracting the long hairs from the

end of the tail of cattle (cows) during the

birds’ breeding season. On a morning (11.45

a.m.) of March 1983, I happened to look

through the office window and saw a single

Jungle crow alighting in between the two

horns of a cow lying in the portico of the

Zoology Department of Calicut University.

The bird started picking up insects or fleas

and slowly climbed down to the back of the

animal and then gradually to the anal por-

tion till it could reach the hairy end of the

tail. This process appeared to me as some-

thing comparable to that of a man calming

down an unfriendly cow before milking.

Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut,

Kerala 673 635.

July 2, 1983.

Later, the crow started forcefully ‘pulling’

and extracting the hairs. The extracted hairs

were evenly placed crosswise in the beak and

then the bird flew away. The entire collec-

tion process lasted about 7 minutes and the

cow at times appeared to be disturbed pro-

bably due to pulling of the hairs, but she did

not get up to move away. Thanks to the

hundreds of village cattle living in the campus,

the Jungle crows could collect enough hairs

from the tail of live cattle to line their

nests. Though I did not actually see the bird

placing the hairs in any nearby nest, it was

apparent that the crow was engaged in the

process of building one somewhere in the

campus.

N. J. GEORGE

203

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

19. FEEDING TERRITORIES OF THE SMALL SUNBIRD

(NECTARINIA MINIMA SYKES)

(With a text -figure)

During the non-breeding season nectar

feeding birds often defend territories with

flowering plants against other nectar feeding

birds (Stiles 1975, Gill and Wolf 1975).

Thus certain individual birds have continual

access to a nectar source. Acquiring non-

breeding territories might help the individual

gain better breeding territories and thereby

increase its fitness. These territories appear to

be resource based (Gill and Wolf 1975). The

dynamics of territoriality in the small sun-

birds (Nectarinia minima Sykes), a nectar

feeding species occurring in the Western

Ghats, were observed in the Nilgiris, southern

India from May until September 1976 and

1977. The relationship between defence and

the quantity of food in the territory was

estimated.

The methods employed in answering this

question were : 1) selecting a suitable study

site with many individual flowering plants;

2) tagging all the flowering individuals on the

site, and monitoring flower production during

the study period by counting all flowers on

the plants at regular intervals (approximately

once a week); 3) and observing individual

plants to note visitation patterns and territo-

rial defence by marked and recognisable

birds. Birds were either colour banded, or

could be easily recognisable by their distinctive

moulting patterns (Davidar, in press).

The study site chosen was Wellington shola

which has an area of about one hectare. The

flowering plants in this site were Helixanthera

intermedia Wt. (Danser), Dendrophthoe fal-

cata (Linn, f.) Etting, D. memecylifolia (Wt.

& Arn.) Danser, D. neelgherrensis (Wt. &

Arn.) van Tieghem, and Taxillus cuneatus

Roth (Danser) — all of the hemiparasitic

mistletoe family Loranthaceae. Helixanthera

intermedia, D. memecylifolia and Taxillus

cuneatus were visited by small sunbirds for

nectar and flowered from May to September

(Davidar 1983, ms.). Only male small sun-

birds defended territories, and advertisement

appeared to be more important in territorial

defence than direct aggression (Davidar ms.).

Territories were defended intra- and inter-

specifically between small sunbirds and flower-

peckers.

Territorial zones were marked in Wellington

shola from May to September 1976 and 1977.

The zones were based on observations on in-

dividual sunbirds and flowerpeckers (Fig. 1).

Area A contained 9 plants of H. intermedia,

and 2 plants of D. memecylifolia. Area B had

one plant of H. intermedia, 2 plants of T.

cuneatus, 4 plants of D. memecylifolia, one

plant of D. falcata and one plant of D. neel-

gherrensis. Area C and 2 plants of D. meme-

cylifolia, and area D had 7 plants of H. inter-

media.

In May 1976 one adult male small sunbird

established a territory in B and C, and an-

other male in A. A juvenile male small sun-

bird visited territory A when the territorial

bird was not there (Fig. 1). This continued

in June and D was visited by an assortment

of birds. In July flowering intensity decreased,

both males visiting A left, the male in B and

C was still there, and a female visited the

other undefended flowers in the study site.

In August the bird in B and C left, the female

sunbird was still around, and a flowerpecker

204

Number of Flowers Number of Flowers

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

10Q

90 "

80 -

70 -

60

50 -

40 _

30 -

20 -

10 _

Territory 0

A

/ v

/ \

BIRD

ABSENT

1977.

r — i r

J J A

H. intermedia

T.cuneatus

Fig. 1.

205

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

which had visited the T. cuneatus plants earlier

on, was joined by another. In May 1977 (Fig.

1) area A was defended and visited just as in

the previous year — there was an adult terri-

torial male, and a juvenile intruder male.

Another male defended B. C and D were

not visited at all. In June the male visiting A

visited D. In July D had no visitors except

for one flowerpecker which foraged over the

entire area.

The territories seemed to be formed before

the flowering peaks (Fig. 1). It seems as if

birds return to a specific site the early wet

season, and then defend the flowers that

blossom later. Two marked small sunbirds

returned to the same site on consecutive years.

Department of Zoology,

The University of Iowa,

Iowa City, Iowa 52242,

U.S.A.,

December 5, 1983.

one of which (Z- 10072) returned for three

consecutive years. It also appears that H. in-

termedia is defended for a longer period in

mixed rather than in single species stands be-

cause the quantity of nectar produced is

lower than in other species. There appears

to be a definite relationship between defence

of areas and the quantity of food on the terri-

tory (Fig. 1) toward the peak and the tailend

of the flowering season, however initially the

territories appeared to be established based

on prospective value of resources, rather than

their actual value. This has not been docu-

mented for other nectar feeding birds (ref.

Gill and Wolf 1975).

PRIYA DAVIDAR

References

Davider, P. (1983): Similarity between flowers

and fruits in some flowerpecker pollinated mistle-

toes. Biotropica 15 : 32-37.

(ms.) : Ecological interactions bet-

ween mistletoes and their avian pollinators in

southern India.

Stiles, F. G. (1975): Ecology, flowering pheno-

logy and hummingbird pollination of some Costa

Rican Heliconia species. Ecology 56 : 285-301.

Gill, F. B. & Wolf, L. L. (1975): Foraging

strategies and energetics of East African sunbirds

at mistletoe flowers. Am. Nat. 109 : 491-510.

20. BLACKBREASTED WEAVER BIRD ( PLOCEUS

BENGH ALENSIS) OBSERVED IN HYDERABAD

On 5th June, 1983, we had been on a bird-

watching trip to a place about 15 km on the

outskirts of Hyderabad City (17°20' N; 78°

30' E) along the banks of River Musi. There

was very little water in the river but a luxu-

rious growth of water hyacinths and reeds

was seen. A few boulders in the almost

stagnant water, some spots of small marshy

areas and a couple of mounds with algae

growth could be seen. There was bushy vege-

tation along the slopes with a few trees on

the banks. Undulating fields, some under

cultivation (paddy and fodder grass) and

others still unploughed. A dry nullah leading

to the river with bushes growing in it and a

poultry farm near by made up the surround-

ing habitat. There was a fairly large palm

grove near by. Most of the trees and bushes

206

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

were babool with a few wild castor plants.

Cactus was growing as field dividers. Our

observations were made between 1300 hours

and 1700 hours. Here we observed for the

first time the Blackbreasted Weaver Bird

( Ploceus benghalensis ) in the wild. There

were about 100-150 birds in small flocks

along with the Baya ( Ploceus philippinus )

and a few Streaked Weaver ( Ploceus manyar),

the total number of birds being about 250-

300. Since all the 3 species of birds were seen

together, identification of the Blackbreasted

Weaver was not difficult. Most of the birds

seen were in full breeding plumage. The male

P. benghalensis had a bright yellow/golden

crown with the nape and side of the neck

brownish black. The throat was dirty white,

as also the under belly. A dark brownish

black band across the breast up to the side

of the ‘shoulders’, speckled at the edges but

distinctly separating the dirty white throat

from the under belly. Wings and upperpart

of the tail was brown, streaked with black

and the beak ashy grey. The female had dark

brown speckled band across the breast but

less prominent than in the male. Head and

ear-coverts, brownish with a little yellow on

the side of the neck. Under belly was dirty-

white.

The birds were seen in flocks of 50-60 each

with several such flocks totalling nearly 250-

300 birds. These birds were in mixed flocks

of Bayas, streaked weavers and Blackbreasted

weavers. About half the flock must have been

Ploceus benghalensis the other half being P.

philippinus as this was the ratio of each

species seen amongst the flocks observed. Not

more than 30-40 P. manyar were seen though

they could have been more. Of the birds seen

(all 3 species) there were more males than

females. Every 20-30 minutes a flock would

suddenly take off from the fields or

from the top of the trees or bushes and 2 or

3 flocks would zip around criss-crossing once

or twice before alighting again in a field

or settling down on a tree. Some birds

would come in twos and threes and sit on

the electric wires. A few birds were seen

taking a water bath in the paddy fields which

had a little standing water. The movement of

the flocks was more frequent around 1430

hours than at 1600 hours and by about 1700

hours most of the activity had seized even

though a few birds could still be seen. Except

for a few nests of the Baya on some babool

trees, no nesting or nesting activity of either

of the Streaked Weaver or the Blackbreasted

Weaver was observed. Still being in full bree-

ding plumage and at a time when it is their

breeding season (March-September), the

Blackbreasted Weavers could very well be

breeding or preparing to nest as the habitat

and other conditions were quite suitable for

it. According to the handbook (Ali & Ripley,

Vol. 10, 1974) Ploceus benghalensis is

“an endemic species. Resident, subject to

local movements; common but locally and

capriciously distributed” and its distribution

given as “Pakistan, northern India, Sind, Guja-

rat, Punjab, the Gangetic plains, Bangladesh,

Assam, Manipur and Bhandup (Bombay).

There is only one record from South-west

Madhya Pradesh. Breeds in the duns of U.P.”

Further they state : “the southernmost point

of distribution of the Blackbreasted Weaver

is Bhandup (Bombay) and Bastar (M.P.),

both places between 18°-20° N; and breeding

in the duns of U.P. and in north and north-

east India up to 1200 m.”

Note. The local pet bird trappers report

netting of Ploceus benghalensis from the re-

gion around Hyderabad City environs, espe-

cially near the place where we sighted these

birds. In 1982 (about the 3rd week of July,

207

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

we have seen the Ploceus benghalensis in the

local pet shops which are reportedly being

trapped for the past 3-4 years only and were

not found amongst the Bayas netted in the

earlier years (prior to 1978-79).

The following interesting questions arise

from our observations of P. benghalensis

in the environs of Hyderabad.

1 . Since a fairly large number of P. bengha-

lensis were seen (about 100-150) in a

relatively small area of about 1 sq. km,

and in full breeding plumage, they could

be nesting somewhere further down the

river where there could be more such

flocks.

2. Could the birds seen be ‘escapes’ which

have established themselves and started

breeding? What is their status since the

14-7-370,

Begum Bauar,

Hyderabad 500 012.

6-3-249/3, Road No. 1,

Banjara Hills,

Hyderabad 500 034.

June 27. 1983.

species has been known to occur in this

region only for the past 3-4 years re-

gularly?

3 . When such sizeable numbers are being ob-

served in the wild in this region for so

many years, could it be that the range of

the P. benghalensis has extended which

till now had not been noted. If so can

it be accepted?

4. Are there reports of similar observations

from other regions, especially from

around northern Andhra Pradesh, north-

eastern or eastern Maharashtra or South-

ern Madhya Pradesh?

P.S. The Blackbreasted Weaver birds were

again observed on 7th June, 1983 at the

same place mentioned above by one of the

authors (Aasheesh Pittie) and another person.

AASHEESH PITTIE

SIRAJ A. TAHER

References

Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1974): Handbook

of the birds of India & Pakistan, Vol. 10. Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

21. BLACKHEADED MUNIA, LONCHURA MALACCA

MALACCA IN JASDAN, GUJARAT

On the 23-X-83 I saw a flock of 8 Black-

headed Munias in a river bed with water and

some reeds and grass about 6 miles from

Jasdan below the Shivsagar Tank. The birds

were flying about strongly and were in ex-

Jasdan,

Gujarat 360 050,

November 2, 1983.

cellent plumage.

I have not previously seen this bird in

Gujarat and it would be interesting to know

of other records in Gujarat and the adjoining

areas of Maharashtra.

SHIVRAJKUMAR KHACHAR

208

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

[Gujarat does not fall within the distributional

range of the three races of the species

inhabiting the Indian subcontinent. The nominate

race occurs in Sri Lanka and Southwest India

and south of Belgaum in the Peninsula, the other

two races rubroniger and atricapilla are restricted

to Nepal, Uttar Pradesh, part of the Punjab, and

Bihar. The nominate race has been reported from

time to time from further north in the Peninsula —

Pachmari, Hoshangabad district, Warrangal and

Godavari districts, and Ratnagiri. Br. A. Navarro,

S.J. took eggs of the bird at Khandala on 28-x-

1938, and Mr Humayun Abdulali collected a speci-

men of the nominate form on 26-i-1954 in the

Thane district of Maharashtra. The latter had

clipped wings and was certainly a cage escape.

The Blackheaded Munia is a much sought after

cage bird and the flock reported by Mr Shivraj-

kumar Khachar could be of such escapees or their

progeny. — Eds.]

22. COMMENTS ON “SOME INTERESTING ASPECTS OF THE

AVIFAUNA OF THE POINT CALIMERE SANCTUARY,

THANJAVUR DIST., TAMIL NADU BY R. SUGATHAN

(JBNHS 79, pp. 567-75, 1983)”

Eight species are listed as being the first

records for this area and are placed in sepa-

rate sections. Almost every one of them calls

for some remarks.

(a) Phoeniconaias minor : The first two

paragraphs deal with the Large Flamingo and

as one begins to wonder if there is an error

in the title, reference is made to the first re-

cord of the Small Flamingo in July 1980. A

footnote tells us that it was first reported by

R. A. S. Melluish in February 1968 in News-

letter for Birdwatchers (edited by Zafar Fute-

hally then Hon. Secretary of B.N.H.S.).

Some information regarding the different foods

of the two species is already available and

though we are told that “the feeding ecology

needs to be studied”, no effort yet appears to

have been made. There is at least no indica-

tion of the kind of work done.

(b) Nominate Aviceda leuphotes (127)

was described from Pondicherry and another

race syama from the N. E. Himalayas. The

form reported as a migrant into Ceylon is

suspected to be of this race. In my Catalogue

( JBNHS 65: 697) I have indicated my inabi-

lity to separate the 6 specimens in the Bombay

collection into these two forms, but the single

bird netted at Pt. Calimere has prompted

the suggestion that it was of the nominate

race and on its way to Sri Lanka.

(c) An Otus scops (617) was obtained and

it is suggested that it was of the race leggei

from Ceylon. The specimen is available and

is very close to a rufipennis (type, Eastern

Ghats) from Vizagapatnam, Leggei is sug-

gested because of a short tarsus (19 mm.)

ignoring the fact that the 140 mm. wing makes

it too large for leggei (IH 118-127). Why

was it compared with specimens of sunia and

not rufipennis of which we have a topotype

collected in March 1981.

(d) Two species of Green Pigeons (both

of which are represented by insular races in

the low country in Sri Lanka) are recorded

and without reasons for accepting them as

of the Ceylonese race(s) it is said “it will be

interesting to know whether there is any local

migration between the peninsula and Sri

Lanka”.

(e) Indian Cliff Swallow (922). The cap-

ture of a single specimen is quoted as “in

a way, corroborative of an earlier sight re-

cord from Sri Lanka”.

(f) Erithacus brunneus: In a contribution

14

209

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

to the collection of essays on Hora’s Satpura

Hypothesis, it was suggested that the Eastern

Ghats were a possible route of migration alter-

native to the Satpura and the Western

Ghats, for the Indo-Malayan Fauna from the

north-east to the south-west1. The numerical

evidence in favour of the Western Ghats was

then greater, possibly due to the area being

better known. The evidence in favour of the

Eastern Ghats is being added to in recent

years and it is strange that the occurrence of

Erithacus brunneus at Pt. Calimere should

be brought forward as further evidence of the

passage down the Western Ghats.

(g) Carpodacus erylhrinus : One was ob-

tained at Pt. Calimere and this is not very

far from the southernmost record in India.

It is again mentioned that it has not been

found in Sri Lanka hinting (?) that it was on

its way thereto.

(2) The term Checklist heading the list of

species in the second half of the paper implies

that all previous records have been included.

Several however, i.e. Whitethroated Ground

Thrush, Phylloscopus affinis, Wigeon and

Acci piter gularis gularis are omitted, and the

list is nowhere near complete.

75 Abdul Rehman Street,

Bombay 400 003,

February 27. 1985.

Comments on Mr Abdulali’s note on

Dr. Sugathan’s paper on Avifauna of Point

Calimere

1 . First records : All the species recorded

in the said paper were carefully examined

in hand with the help of standard reference

books before being ringed and released (or

1 Proceedings of National Institute of Sciences of

India. Vol. XV. No. 8, 1968.

(3) The list adds very appreciably to the

last list and a closer examination of these

records may have raised points of interest.

The dates indicating autumn and spring migra-

tion are not (clearly) stated, several of the

mass migrants presumably going into Ceylon

showing a one-way movement. This can be

due either to a different return route or netting

on the wrong dates in spring. A clarification

of this point would be of great interest.

(4) Several of the birds listed are almost

certainly wrongly identified, e.g. Turdoides

strialus. Mirafra erythropterus, Galerida cris-

tata, and Caprimulgus europaeus. In comment-

ing on a recent record of Sterna veredes from

off Madras, Salim Ali has very rightly stressed

the need of a specimen to substantiate records

of a rare or extraordinary value. Tf there are

wrong identifications in any of the reports of

the present projects, they will be very difficult

to eliminate for they have presumably been

vetted by Dr Salim Ali.

(5) The report would have been more use-

ful if accompanied by a sketch showing the

geographical situation of the area concerned,

particularly with relation to the Eastern and

Western Ghats.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

preserved as specimen, when found necessary

to do so. Specific instructions were followed

by the field staff in recording field data).

(a) Flamingos: Earlier reference to Lesser

Flamingos were only sight records. The

paper is based on the specimen actually

examined in hand and ringed as the case may

be. Feeding ecology of both species of Flam-

ingos in Chilka. Point Calimere. Rameshwa-

ram and Sri Lanka have not been studied

according to our knowledge. The project staff

210

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

have made attempts to study this but this

aspect does not come under the purview of

this paper. When sufficient data is collected,

the results will be offered for publication in

the Society’s journal in due course.

(b) Baza : It is a common knowledge that

separating subspecies in the museum speci-

mens is difficult, leading sometimes to errone-

ous assumptions. The Point Calimere identi-

fication was based on a living bird examined

in hand, therefore there was no doubt about

its subspecific identity as mentioned in the

paper.

(c) Scops Owl : The Point Calimere speci-

men is definitely darkest of the only three

rufipennis available in the BNHS collection

including the topotype from Eastern Ghats.

The reference in the paper should have read

rufipennis not sunia. The error is regretted.

(There are more than three sunia in the col-

lection). Tarsus is definitely smaller than that

of both sunia and rufipennis though the wing

is 140. Attention is drawn to the fact that the

identity of the bird is followed by a query,

which is an accepted norm whenever there is

doubt about the identity.

(d) Green Pigeons: handbook specifically

states that pompadora affinis occurs in the hill

regions of S. W. India. Its occurrence in Point

Calimere is noteworthy, while bicincta is said

to be subject to local migration in Sri Lanka.

(f) Blue Chat : If one carefully reads the

paper it is apparent that what is implied is

that the birds may be taking different routes

(either Eastern or Western Ghats) in their

autumn and spring migration.

2. Omissions are regretted.

3 . Attention is drawn to the ringing totals

tabulated in the project reports I & II which

show the possible trend of the autumn and

spring migration through Point Calimere.

4. The species were identified after exami-

ning in hand. Turdoides from Point Calimere

is assumed to belong to striatus species since

not a single bird caught and ringed in the

field (over 400 individuals) had any trace of

white on head. In this particular case, ironi-

cally, Mr Abdulali appears to have based his

judgement on a single specimen purported to

have been collected from Point Calimere. The

label bears Dr Gaston’s name and to the best

of our knowledge, the only time he visited

Point Calimere, Dr. Gaston did not collect

any specimen from the area. However, detailed

study may reveal the status of Turdoides

population in Point Calimere. As for the other

identifications, the species mentioned by Mr.

Abdulali are not so rare and their occurrence

in peninsular India, though not recorded from

Point Calimere, is an accepted fact. The field

identification is based on live birds, examined

in land with the help of standard literature,

and there is no reason not to accept their

occurrence from Point Calimere, especially

when there have been earlier confirmed re-

cords and some of the species of evergreen

biotopes of Western Ghats ( Schoenicola

platyura, Cey.x erithacus erithacus, Mirafra

erythroptera erythroptera, Zoothera wardii and

Zoothera citrina citrina). I would, with due

respect, ask Mr Abdulali to physically exa-

mine the birds concerned before commenting

on the identification. A visit by him to Point

Calimere would perhaps remove some of the

misconceptions.

Attention is drawn to a specimen of Acci-

piter recently collected by the field staff at

Point Calimere. This specimen was caught

alive but was preserved since the field staff

thought its identity rather intriguing. Later in

the Society’s bird room I drew Mr Abdulali’s

attention to this as well as earlier Accipiter

specimens brought from Point Calimere and

added to the collection. It was pointed out to

211

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Mr Abdulali that the latest specimen from

Point Calimere as well as earlier one collected

from Bharatpur calls for re-examination and

revision of a recently published paper on

Accipiter by Prof. Mees (see JBNHS 77:

371-412) which also includes a newly describ-

ed subspecies (incidentally this subspecies was

described based on a single male specimen!)

Mr Abdulali has informed me since then that

the Bharatpur specimen has been identified

by Prof. Mees himself as A. v. affinis a Hima-

layan subspecies, believed to be winter mig-

rant to Burma and Indo-China. Prof. Mees,

I understand, has made necessary corrections

in a subsequent paper submitted for publica-

tion in the Journal.

This episode is mentioned here to illustrate

the point that the field staff follow the in-

structions and are careful in either identifying

the birds or when a particular bird is intri-

guing or beyond their capacity to identify,

preserve it and send it to Bombay for further

study/verification.

S. A. HUSSAIN

Project Scientist

Avifauna Project

23. ON THE INFANTILE MORTALITY OF OLIVE RIDLEY,

LEP1DOCHELYS OLIVACEA (ESCHCHOLTZ) IN CAPTIVITY

The Pacific (Olive) Ridley, Lcpidochelys

olivacea (Eschcholtz) is an endangered spe-

cies. So, attempts are being made to rear and

rehabilitate this species at Bhagabatpur Croco-

dile Rearing Centre, Sunderbans, West Bengal.

In the course of rearing, 117 Ridley hatch-

lings emerged from their artificial nests

at Bhagabatpur within a hatching span of 6

days with effect from May 17 to May 22,

1983. Of these, 99 healthy hatchlings were

released and 1 8 were segregated for

study (Banerjee 1984). Of the 18 hatchlings

3 had certain developmental abnormalities,

namely 2 had unusually bent carapace and

one had no eyes. But, within a month, i.e.

by June 17. 1983. the abnormal Ridleys along

with 2 other weak hatchlings died.

On June 19. 1983. there was an outbreak

of skin infection among juvenile Ridleys

similar to that reported by Whitaker (1982).

It was treated successfully with Terramycin

Bhagabatpur Crocodile Project,

Bhagabatpur, 24-Parganas, West Bengal,

Antigerm-77 solution by July 7, 1983 without

any mortality (Banerjee 1984). But, since

then, one hatchling went off its food and con-

sequently showed stunted growth. It completely

stopped feeding and died on August 16, 1983.

One healthy hatchling was found dead on

July 13. 1983. Post-mortem report revealed

internal haemorrhage and injury to heart. It

happened due to an accident during pool

cleaning and was not unfortunately brought

to our notice.

One hatchling with bifurcated fore flipper

also showed retarded growth in compa-

rison to others. This juvenile turtle stopped

feeding a week after the disappearance of the

second attack of skin infection and died on

April 12. 1984. The post-mortem report re-

vealed enlargement of liver.

To date, i.e. over a period of one year, the

total infantile mortality rose to 8 (44.4%) and

10 yearlings are surviving.

R. BANERJEE

212

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82 Plate 1

Vyas & Vyas : Calotes versicolor

1 . Male blood sucker holding female; 2. Male and female in the copulatory position; 3. Male in

agony, hanging by right forelimb. See its tail and hindlimbs; 4. Blood drops coming out from

cloaca.

(Photos : Author)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Zoological Survey of India, N. C NANDI

SUNDERBAN FIELD RESEARCH STATION,

Kakdwip 743 347, 24-Parganas, W B.

Department of Zoology, S. K. RAUT

Calcutta University,

Kerala,

July 9, 1984.

References

Banerjee, R. (1984): Captive rearing of Olive Whitaker. R. (1978): Captive rearing of marine

Hidleys. Hamadryad, Madras Snake Park Trust 9 turtles. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(1): 163-166.

(2): 12-14.

24. FRESHWATER TURTLES CAPTURING COOTS

On the morning of 8th Ocober 1984, I

observed a scuffle between a freshwater turtle

and a coot in one of the open water areas

of Bharatpur’s Keoladeo National Park. The

turtle had a firm hold of one of the coot’s

feet, and the bird tried to escape by flapping

about noisily, dragging the reptile along.

The struggle lasted for more than 5 minutes

during which the bird kept floundering and

splashing about the water surface, while the

turtle remained almost submerged most of

the time with only its head and carapace

Junior Field Biologist,

BNHS Ecological Research Station,

Bharatpur 321 001, Rajasthan,

October 29, 1984.

showing up now and then. Finally the ex-

hausted bird managed to ‘shake-off’ the turtle’s

strong hold by squeezing through a clump of

grass.

My enquiries with the sanctuary personnel

and also with the other BNHS staff reveal

that such incidences of turtles harassing coots

are not uncommon. Some say that the turtles

at times amputate the birds’ feet, leaving it

handicapped and helpless in the marshes. But

none of them have seen the turtle actually

feeding on the bird.

R. KANNAN

25. MATING BEHAVIOUR IN GARDEN LIZARD OR BLOOD

SUCKER, CALOTES VERSICOLOR DAUDIN

(With a

We have been observing the garden lizard

(Calotes versicolor) for quite some time in

the hedgerows surrounding our house. On the

fourth of June, we saw a male lizard in brilli-

plate)

ant breeding coloration head, shoulders and

forelegs crimson, and black patches on the

sides of the throat and cheeks bulging. At the

sight of a female lizard, the male ran after

213

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

and chased it until he got a grip on the

female’s neck with his jaws and he immedi-

ately took the position of mounting (see

plate 1,1). Then the male lizard twisted his tail

and tried to copulate with the female (plate 1,

2). The female escaped from the copulatory

embrace and jumped to a nearby twig. At

this moment the male lizard shrank back

and hung on to the tree by the claws

of the right forelimb only. The digits of both

the hindlimbs were bent inwards (Plate 1, 3).

Suddenly, we saw 3 to 4 drops of blood

falling down. After about two to three minutes,

the male became normal and was on all

1 1 , Desai Nagar,

Bhavnagar Para,

Bhav NAGAR 364 003,

June 7, 1984.

four limbs. Then we realized that those blood

drops were coming out of the cloacal region

(Plate 1, 4).

We are of the opinion that whilst the

female was escaping, one of the claws of her

hindlimb must have scratched the hemipenes

of the male lizard resulting in injury. It is also

possible that the sudden tearing away by the

female during copulation could have caused

the bleeding injury in the male.

A few days after the above incident, we

often saw the same male in the hedgerow

but with a noticeable swelling under the base

of the tail.

RAJU VYAS

NITIN VYAS

26. NEST GUARDING BY ESTUARINE CROCODILE —

A BEHAVIOUR STUDY IN THE SUNDERBANS

While the aggressive behaviour of croco-

dilians at nest is widely acknowledged and

has been commented upon by several

authors (Bustard and Singh 1981, Whitaker

1982. Deraniyagala 1939), Biswas (1982)

stated that “Guarding the nest is

not necessary or always associated with the

breeding behaviour of the estuarine crocodile”.

This however is not adequately documented.

It may be useful to place on record a few

observed instances of response to egg preda-

tion. and behaviour near a nest among free

living estuarine crocodiles.

During collection of Crocodylus porosus

eggs in the Sunderban for artificial hatching

at Bhagabatpur crocodile project of the Forest

Department. Government of West Bengal,

one nest mound was detected on 4-vi-83. A

wallow observed near by had crocodile paw-

marks in it. The hind paw measured 24 cm.

No crocodile could however be seen. On 7-

vi-83 at 6 a.m., the same nest was approached.

A 3 metres long crocodile was seen lying

under a dense low bush, approximately 1 8

metres away. It was totally indifferent to our

presence. The air temperature recorded was

31.5°C. 45 eggs were collected from the nest,

which took approximately 10 minutes. The

crocodile was never disturbed.

On 5-vi-84 one crocodile was observed

floating near the mouth of a narrow creek about

one kilometre away from the previous year’s

nest. It dived at an approach distance of 15

metres by boat. Crocodile pawmarks found

near the spot were followed through the creek

2 minutes later in knee deep silt and mud.

The hind paw measured 18.5 cm. 100 metres

away the spoors were lost in thick mangrove

214

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

vegetation comprising mostly of Phoenix

paludosa. Careful investigation led to a croco-

dile nest approximately 10 metres away from

the bank. A wallow near by had no discernible

mark of use by a crocodile. No crocodile was

Bhagabatpur Crocodile Project,

P. O. Patharpratima,

Dist. 24-Parganas,

West Bengal,

July 2, 1984.

encountered on the way back. The nest was

again approached on 6-vi-84 and 51 eggs were

collected from the nest. The crocodile was

not in the area.

R. BANERJEE

References

Biswas, S. (1982): Nesting behaviour of Estua-

rine Crocodile, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74(2) :

361.

Bustard. H. & Singh. L.A.K. (1981): Gharial

attacks on man. ibid., 78(3): 610-611.

Deran iyagala, P. (1939) : Tetapod Reptiles of

Ceylon. Dalan and Co. Ltd. pp. x + 412.

Whitaker, R. (1982): Attack by a nest guarding

female Mugger (Crocodylus palustris). Hamadryad

7(2) :3.

27. RESULTS OF 1981 SURVEY FOR GHARIAL ( GAVIALIS

GANGET/CUS) IN NORTH NATIONAL CHAMBAL SANCTUARY

(With a text-figure)

1 NTRODUCTION

Chambal river from Kota to Pachnada a

total of 560 km was declared as National

Chambal Gharial Sanctuary in 1978-79. This

is a tristate Sanctuary under the forest depart-

ments of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and

Rajasthan. The Gharial which was on the

verge of extinction (F.A.O. 1974) was con-

served under a grow and release programme.

In this programme Uttar Pradesh initiated a

large scale rearing work and collected a number

of eggs and at a size above 5 feet during 1979-

1981, a total of 272 Gharials were released in

the present study area (Bhavesuri-Gyanpura)

and 166 upstream of the area (Table 1). T had

participated during the releasing programme

of Gharials by U P. forest department in the

study area described in this paper.

From 1981 Madhya Pradesh also started

collection of eggs and is operating a Gharial

Rearing Project, but they have not released

any Gharial so far. The present paper gives

an account of Gharial population in a limited

area of Chambal river on the northern region

of the Sanctuary during 1981.

Study Area

The present study area of 138 km of Cham-

bal river (26°45'N. 78°45' E) was surveyed

on both the banks from Bhavesuri to Gyan-

pura during October 1981 over 7 days. 7

different stretches were described (see Table

2) to carry out the observations. This area

consists of sandy banks and rocky hills. The

Gharials usually bask on these sandbanks.

215

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

216

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

Number of Gharial released in the study area (Bhavesuri to Gyanpura) during 1979-1981

Bracketed figures in the second column show the date of survey. Figures in brackets in the last column

indicate number of gharials released during 1981 before census.

217

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Study Procedure

The survey was conducted on the Madhya

Pradesh bank from upstream to downstream

by me and on the Uttar Pradesh side by a

field assistant. Visual count was made of the

Gharials basking and their approximate size-

group was noted.

Results and Discussion

Gharial counts in the study area are pre-

sented in Table 2. The maximum population

of Gharials resides between Bhavesuri and

Nagra (Stretches 1-5). The highest number of

Gharial located was from Bhavesuri to Pureni

(Stretch 1), where 44 out of 160 small and

medium size gharials were observed. This

large number may be due to the Gharials

released in this area. The minimum number

cf Gharials found in the study area-7 might

be due to human activities in this area.

Based on a survey conducted in 1975/1976.

Singh (1982) recorded about 10 isolated

adult gharials in River Chambal in U.P./M.P.

area. Basil and Choudhury (1982) stated that

a total of 73 Gharials were observed in the

Chambal river during their survey in 1976-78.

However, the large counts made in the present

National Chambal Gharial Sanctuary,

Deori, Morena (M.P.),

March 30, 1984.

study is a result of ‘grow and ielease pro-

gramme’. The results of the present study also

indicate that effective protection measures

were followed in the Sanctuary. However, the

results in the present study reveals that the

distribution of Gharial population is influenced

by the habitat destruction in certain areas.

A thorough survey should be conducted

along the entire Chambal river to identify fav-

ourable habitats for Gharial release in the

future.

Acknowledgements

I thank the Chief Conservator of Forests

(WL). Madhya Pradesh for giving permis-

sion to carry out the study in the National

Chambal Sanctuary. 1 am grateful to

Dr L. A. K. Singh (Crocodile Research

Centre. Govt, of India) for his encourage-

ment. guidance and critical correction of

manuscript. Thanks are due to Sri R. J. Rao

(CS1R Senior Research Fellow. Bhopal) for

his valuable suggestions in preparing the

manuscript. 1 am also grateful to the field

staff of Uttar Pradesh who had assisted me

during the census and with whom I partici-

pated in the gharial release programme.

R. K. SHARMA

References

Basu, D. & Choudhary, S. (1982): Status of the

Gharial in Chambal river (Madhya Pradesh/ 'Rajas-

than). In Singh, L. A. K. and Choudhury, B. C.

(Eds.): Indian Crocodiles : Conservation and Re-

search. Proc. I. Indian Crocodile Research Scholars

Symposium. Forum of Crocodile Researchers, India.

Page 7.

F. A. O. (1974): India a preliminary survey of

the prospects for crocodile farming (Based on the

218

work of H. R. Bustard) F.O.: IND/71/033. Octo-

ber 1974.

Singh. V. B. (1982): Status of the Gharial in

Uttar Pradesh. In Singh, L. A. K. and Choudhury.

B. C. (Eds.) : Indian Crocodiles Conservation and

Research. Proc. I. Indian Crocodile Research

Scholars Symposium. Forum of Crocodile Re-

searchers. India. Page 5.

( Dec. 30)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

28. OBSERVATIONS ON THE BANDED KRAIT,

BUNGARUS F ASCI AT US

Like many other Indian snakes, information

on the various ethological aspects of the

Banded Krait is very scanty (Whitaker 1982)

I observed a Banded Krait in the vicinity

of a pond at Nazramohamda (Darbhanga

District, Bihar) on 20th July, 1984. The

snake was apparently full grown and had bright

and beautiful yellow and black bands quite con-

spicuous in the grassy background. Several

village boys had already seen the snake before

I saw it and the snake appeared a little ner-

vous due to their presence. I observed the

snake from 0815 to 0930 hrs and whenever

I approached closely for photographing, the

snake hissed loudly but did not strike at any

Dept, of Zoology,

P. K. College,

Madhubani 847211,

Bihar,

August 18, 1984.

time. Finally it disappeared into the thick

grass.

The local people report to this snake as a

resident in this locality seen at times with

young.

The snake is locally known as 'Ganguar' and

as mentioned by Biswas (1984) it is protected

by the local people in this area as it

is supposed to bring prosperity to the

house by its presence in the vicinity. It is also

a common belief in this area that other snakes

do not live in the area where the Banded

Krait resides. Probably this belief supports

the fiindings of Traill (1895, Editor’s note),

Evans (1902) and Wall (1903) .

H. S. A. YAHYA

References

Biswas. S. (1984): A note on food habit of

Banded Krait. Hamadryad. Madras Snake Park

Trust 9(1): 10-11.

Evans, G. H. (1902): Food of the Krait. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 14 : 599.

Traill, W. H. (1895) : The food of the Krait. ibid.

9: 499.

Wall, F. (1903): Cannibalism in snakes, ibid,

15: 524-525.

Whitaker. R. (1982): Common Indian snakes.

A field guide. Macmillan India Ltd., New Delhi.

29. REPLACEMENT NAMES FOR TWO INDIAN SPECIES OF

PHILAUTUS (ANURA: RHACOPHORIDAE)

Rao (1937) described 8 new species of

Philautus from southern India, but none of

his materials are available for study. Probably,

the types of all the new species have already

been lost. However, the names of two of the

species out of eight Philautus described as

new by Rao (1937). are found to be pre-

occupied. So I provide here replacement names

for the two species.

Philautus ernri nom. nov.

Original name : Philautus longicrus Rao.

1937.

Type locality: Kempholey, Hassan

( Mysore).

219

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 82

The name Philautus longicrus has already

been preoccupied by Ixalus ( =Philautus ) lon-

gicrus which has been described by Boulenger

(1894) from Palawan, Borneo.

KTYMOLOGY

The new name has been given after C. R. N.

Rao. for his contributions to Indian Herpeto-

logy.

Philautus hassanensis nom. nov.

Original name: Philautus montanus Rao,

Division of Herpetology,

Museum of Natural History and

The Department of Systematics and

Ecology,

The University of Kansas,

Lawrence, Kansas 66045.

U.S.A..

August 27. 1984.

1937.

Type locality: Hills of Kempholey, Hassan

(Mysore).

This species has also been preoccupied by

Philautus montanus described by Taylor.

1920 from the Mount Bongao. Bongao Island.

Sulu Archipelago (Philippines).

ETYMOLOGY

The new name has been given after Hassan,

which is the type locality of this species.

SUSHIL K. DUTTA

References

Boulenger, G. A. (1894): On the Herpetologi-

cal fauna of Palawan and Balabac. Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist., Ser. 6(14): 88.

Rao, C. R. N. (1937): On some new forms of

Batrachia from S. India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 6

(6) : 387-427.

Taylor. E. H. (1920): Philippine Amphibia.

Philippine J. Sci. 16: 305-307.

30. NOTES ON THE CORRECT SPELLING OF THE INDIAN

BULL FROG. RANA TIGERINA DAUDIN

There is considerable confusion regarding

the correct nomenclature of the Indian bull

frog. In most of the scientific publications on

this species, it has been referred as Rana

tigrina. But. Daudin (1803a. 1803b) used

tigerina in the original description of the

species. Merrem (1820) for some reason

changed the spelling to tigrina. Boulenger

(1882) followed the misspelling, tigrina as

provided bv Merrem (1820). Most of the

workers after Boulenger (1882, 1890 and

1920), followed the misspelling, tigrina, be-

cause perhaps Boulenger’s publications were

readily available for reference to most of the

Indian biologists who were working on differ-

ent biological aspects of Rana tigerina. As

Rana tigerina is one of the laboratory animals

used by most Indian biologists for ex-

perimental purposes, we find innumerable

publications on this species dealing with

different aspects of scientific investigations,

but most of the workers are not aware about

the correct spelling given by Daudin (1803).

Even most of the systematic publications on

the Indian amphibians contain the wrong

spelling. Rana tigrina.

220

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Stejneger (1907) even reverted the spelling not accessible to most Indian workers,

to tigerina, but perhaps his publication was

Division of Herpetology, SUSHIL K. DUTTA

Museum of Natural History, and the

Department of Systematics and Ecology,

The University of Kansas,

Lawrence, Kansas 66045,

USA,

October 30, 1984.

References

Boui.enger, G. A. (1882): Catalogue of the

Batrachia Salientia s. Caudata in the collection of

the British Museum, London. Trustees of the British

Museum. London, 2nd Ed., pp. 26-27.

(1890): The fauna of

British India, including Ceylon and Burma, Rep-

tilia and Batrachia. Taylor and Francis, London,

pp. 449-450.

(1920): A monograph of

the south Asian, Papuan, Melanesian and Austra-

lian frogs of the genus Rana. Rec. Indian Mas.

Calcutta. 20: 17-23.

Daudin, F. M. (1803a): Histoire Naturelle des

Rainettes. des Grenouilles et des Crapauds, Paris,

p. 42.

(1803b): Histoire Naturelle gene-

rale et particuliere des Reptiles, Paris, Vol. 8, p. 125.

Merrem, B. (1820): Tentamen systematis Am-

phibiorum. Marburg, p. 174.

Stejneger, L. (1907): Herpetology of Japan and

adjacent territory. United States Nat. Mus., Smith-

sonian Inst., 58 : 139-142.

31. ON THE TYPE SPECIMEN OF DANIO ( DANIO )

ANNANDALEI CHAUDHURT. 1908 WITH A REDESCRIPTION

OF THE SPECIES (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE)

(With two text -figures )

Chaudhuri (1908) described Danio annan-

ilalei from Lower Burma. While discussing its

affinity emphasis was given to the presence or

absence of scaly appendages at the bases of

paired fins, but having examined all of the

species from the Indian region it has been

found that it is not a unique feature as con-

sidered by Chaudhuri. Further the presence

of preorbital spinous process in this species

seems to have been overlooked by the earlier

workers. This species, therefore, is redescribed

here based on this finding.

Introduction

Chaudhuri (1908) described Danio annan-

dalei collected from a jungle stream near

Kawkareik, at the base of Dawna Hills in

Tenasserim, Lower Burma. He gave a detailed

description of the colour pattern of the species

which is not very different from that of Danio

(Danio) clangila (Hamilton), and in establi-

shing the relationships of the species gave

much importance to the presence or absence

of scaly or fleshy appendages at the bases of

paired fins. Examination of all the Indian

species reveals that all species of Danio possess

scaly or fleshy appendages at the bases of

paired fins. It is worth mentioning that Hora

& Mukerji (1934) also had opined in a

similar manner. On the other hand while going

221

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

through a paper of Myers (1953) on the clas-

sification of the danios, it was found that cer-

tain remarks made by the author are very

interesting in the light of the present author’s

work on the revisionary studies of the cyprinid

genus Danio Hamilton. Myers (1953) stated

that in 1937 while he was discussing Hora &

Mukerji’s principal paper on the danios he had

pointed out that “its authors had failed to exa-

mine and distinguish two important characters

which are present in several species and which

almost certainly indicate relationship — the

‘spines’ over the eye (as in Danio spinosus

Day) and the strange ‘preorbital spine’ a

protuberance on the front rim of the orbit”.

In another paper Herre and Myers (1937)

commented, “The fact that the preorbital

process has been almost completely over-

looked in so common a species as Danio

aequipinnatus (McClelland)”. These com-

ments have induced me to examine all the

species of the genus Danio in the collection of

the Zoological Survey of India. In the course

of this examination I found that Danio

(Danio) annandalei Chaudhuri, has the

character of the backwardly directed

preorbital spinous process on the front rim

of the eye socket. The preorbital structure

derived from the lachrymal bone of the orbit

in some of the species of the genus Danio

had been considered of sufficient generic im-

portance by Chu (1935) to erect a new genus

Danioides with Danio khienensis Anderson,

from Yunnan, as the type species and of sub-

generic importance by Fowler (1934) to des-

cribe a new subgenus Rambaibarnia with

Danio regina Fowler, from the peninsular

Thailand, as the type species. Based on my

findings the species is redescribcd and illus-

trated for the first time.

Danio (Danio) annandalei Chaudhuri

Danio annandalei Chaudhuri. 1908, Rec. Indian

Mas.. 2(2): 125 (type locality: Dawna Hills,

Tenasserim, Lower Burma).

Danio annandalei, Myers. 1924. Am. Mas. Novit.,

150 : 2 (Review of Danio).

Danio (Danio) annandalei, Hora and Mukerji,

1934, Rec. Indian Mas., 56(1): 134 (synoptic

table to species of the genus Danio).

222

Fig. 1. Lateral view of one of the syntypes of

Danio (Danio) annandalei Chaudhuri

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Material examined. Syntypes (Fig. 1): ZSI

F 1599/1, 2 exs., 55 mm. -57 mm. S L.; jungle

stream at the base of Dawna Hills, Tenasse-

rim. Lower Burma; N. Annandale.

Other example : ZSI F 11496/1, 1 ex. 59

mm. S.L.; Western drainage of the Pegu

Yomas, Upper Burma; V. P. Sondhi; 9.4.

1934.

Diagnosis

Head length 3.80-3.93 and body depth

2.85-3.10 in standard length. Eye diameter

3.11-3.33 in head length, provided with a

small backwardly directed spinous process at

the anterior rim of the orbit (Fig. 2). Least

height of caudal peduncle 1.57-1.69 in its

length. Lateral line scales 54-56. Barbels 2

pairs.

showing the preorbital spinous process. (A) on the

anterior rim of the orbit.

Description

Head length 3.88 (3.80-3.93), body depth

2.94 (2.85-3.10), predorsal distance 1.75

(1.71-1.78), prepelvic distance 2 10 (2.03-

2.18), caudal peduncle length 5.18 (5.00-

5.36) in standard length. Least height of

caudal peduncle 8.34 (8.14-8.46) in standard

length, 1.61 (1.57-1.69) in its length. Height

of head 1.00 (1.00-1.00) and width of head

2.00 (1.87-2.14) in head length. Eye dia-

meter 3.25 (3.11-3.33) in head length, 1.33

(1.33-1.33) in interorbital width. Eye is

provided with a small posteriorly projecting

preorbital spinous process on the front rim

of the eye socket derived from the lachrymal

bone. Snout length 3.66 (3.50-3.75) in head

length, 1.50 (1.50-1.50) in interorbital

width. Barbels 2 pairs, anterior or rostral pairs

half eye diameter and posterior or maxillary

pairs much shorter than rostral pairs.

Scales 54-56 in the lateral line, lateral

transverse row of scales 14, scales between

lateral line and base of pelvic fin 3L Pre-

dorsal scales 17-18 and circumpeduncular

scales 18.

Fins. Dorsal rays ii, 13-14; Anal rays ii,

15-16; Pectoral rays i, 12; Pelvic rays i, 7.

Height of dorsal 5.18 (5.00-5.36), height of

anal 6.33 (6.11-6.55), pectoral length 4.38

(4.23-4.53), pelvic length 7.12 (6.87-7.37)

in standard length. Both the paired fins

possess scaly or fleshy appendages at their

bases.

Colour in alcohol. Three longitudinal sil-

very coloured bands extending from head to

base of caudal fin. A dark notch present at

the superior margin of gill opening.

Distribution. Burma: Dawna Hills, Tenas-

serim. Lower Burma and Pegu Yomas, Upper

Burma.

Relationships

Dunio annandalei is related to Danio spin-

osus Day in having the preorbital spinuous

223

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

process on the anterior margin of the orbit

and lateral line scales 54-56 but can be easily

separated from the latter by the absence of

the supraorbital spine which is directed an-

teriorly. Further the two species are different

in the colour pattern of the body.

Remarks. Chaudhuri (1908) gave the late-

ral line scale counts 46-50 and he did not

mention anything about the body depth.

Further the original description lacks any illu-

Zoo logical Survey of India,

Calcutta,

September 10, 1984.

st ration which is required to identify the

species.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. B. K. Tikader, Director, Zoolo-

gical Survey of India for laboratory facilities

and Dr. K. C. Jayaram, Joint Director and

Dr. P. K. Talwar, Superintending Zoologist,

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for their

valuable suggestions in preparation of this

paper.

R. P. BARMAN

References

Chaudhary, B. L. (1908): Description of a new

species of Danio from Lower Burma. Rec. Indian

Mus. 2(2): 125-126.

Chu, Y. T. (1935): Comparative study on the

scales and on the pharyngeals and their teeth in

Chinese cyprinids with particular reference to

taxonomy and evoluton. Biol. Bull. St. John’s Univ.

Shanghai No. 2: 10. 34 & 123.

Fowler, H. W. (1934): Zoological results of the

third de Schauensee Siamese Expedition. Part-5.

Additional fishes. Proc. Acad. nat. Sci. Philad. 86:

335-352.

Herre, A. W. C. T. & Myers, G. S. (1937): A

contribution to the Ichthyology of the Malayan

Peninsula. Bull. Raffles Mus. 13: 5-75.

Hora, S. L. & Mukerji, D. D. (1934): Notes on

fishes in the Indian Museum. XXII. On a collec-

tion of fish from the S. Shan States and the Pegu

Yomas, Burma. Rec. Indian Mus. 36(1): 123-138.

Myers, G. S. (1924): On a collection of fishes

from Upper Burma. Am. Mus. Novit. 150: 1-7.

(1953): Classification of the

Danios. Aquar. J. 24: 235-238.

32. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE SALINITY TOLERANCE

OF MARINE FISHES AT THE TARAPOREVALA AQUARIUM,

BOMBAY

The Taraporevala Aquarium. Bombay, is

one of the large, popular public aquaria in

India which exhibits live marine fishes. Unlike

some of the public aquaria (for example the

one at Monaco), the Taraporevala Aquarium

maintains a closed circulation; that is, the sea

water once pumped in is not circulated just

once and then thrown back into the sea. In-

stead, the same sea water after passing

through display tanks is recirculated again

and again through the slow sub-sand filters

which are about 2 metres in height.

The total sea water capacity at the Tara-

porevala Aquarium is 5,68,750 litres of which,

the 18 marine display tanks comprise 86,450

litres. Below the room in which are housed

the pumps and compressors, are the under-

ground reinforced concrete reservoirs, one for

fresh water and the other for sea water. The

sea water reservoir which has a capacity of

1,91,100 litres is partitioned from the fresh-

water reservoir by a reinforced concrete wall.

224

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

From the fifth to the eighth August, 1984,

very high mortality was noticed in the lobster

tank. It was surmised that it could have been

either due to copper sulphate in the sea water

circulatory system or due to low salinity.

Copper sulphate is used as a medication to

cure common marine fish diseases such as

the dinoflagellate Oodinium (Marine White

Spot) and the ciliate Cryptocaryon. The con-

centration for treatment is 0.4 parts per

million (ppm) of CuSO* (i.e. 1 ppm of Cu

(Copper) ion, made by adding one drop/3.5

litres of a 4% solution of CuS04). The chemi-

cal, though not lethal to fishes at the concen-

tration used, is highly toxic to invertebrates.

The possibility of high percentage of copper

sulphate as the cause of mortality of the

lobsters was ruled out as new sea water was

taken in just before the rainy season (May 26

to May 28, 1984). This was done as it is not

advisable to take in sea water during the rainy

season because of low salinities due to dilu-

tion of sea water by fresh water, thrown into

the Chowpatty Bay from the storm water

drains and sewers. From 28th May to the

5th August, 1984, only about 80 ml of 30%

copper sulphate solution was added in eight

marine tanks (but not in the lobster tank)

and that too only for a period of 24 hours.

The water from each of these tanks was then

drained off into the circulatory system.

In view of the improbability of copper

sulphate being the causative factor of morta-

lity, the only other possibility was low sali-

nity. The salinity of samples of sea water

taken at three different places in the circu-

latory system was found to be 11 parts per

thousand (ppt). The salinity of the sea water

instead of showing the expected increase due

to evaporation, had actually decreased, yet

the marine fishes were not showing any signs

of distress such as listlessness, loss of appetite,

etc. On investigating into the cause of low

salinity, it was found that water from the

underground freshwater reservoir was seeping

into the sea water reservoir through cracks in

the dividing wall and this was instrumental in

lowering the salinity. Sea water samples from

the Chowpatty Bay were tested for salinity on

9th August, 1984 and showed a salinity of

21%c. It was, therefore, decided to pump in

fresh sea water immediately into the circula-

tory system so as to alleviate any physiolo-

gical imbalance to the fish.

Jayaram (1981, p. 3) in his book fresh

WATER FISHES OF INDIA A HANDBOOK,

has also included several brackish water

fishes; he has given as his reason for this the

observation that “they are either visitors or

inhabitants of estuaries. They do occur in the

freshwater zone of the rivers and may even

extend beyond that zone. These are listed un-

der the sub-heading ‘species visiting Fresh

Water.’ The above statement of Jayaram cor-

roborates our observation regarding the toler-

ance of marine fishes to low salinities.

The sharks ( Carcharias spp.), stingrays

( Dasyatis spp.), Butterfly fish ( Chaetodon

collaris). Parrot fish ( Platyglossus spp.). Bat

fish ( Platax teira ), Sergeant Major ( Abudef -

duf sextilis). Cat fish ( Arius spp.). Surgeon

fish ( Acantlwrus strigosus). Pseudo Pomfrets

( Trachynotus ovatus), Jig saw puzzle fish

( Siganus spp.). Spotted grouper ( Epinephalus

spp.). File fish ( Tricanthus brevirostris) ,

spotted dory ( Drepane punctata), Therapon

jarbua and Monodactylus spp. — which are

normally considered to be “marine” fishes,

were found by this experience of ours, to be

able to tolerate substantial dilution of sea

water in which they live, thus refuting the

popular belief that these fishes are very sensi-

tive to changes in salinity.

225

15

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Curator, A. M. ANDHARE

Taraporevala Aquarium,

Netaji Subhash Road,

Bombay 400 002,

Taraporevala Aquarium, V n. HEGDE

Netaji Subhash Road,

Bombay 400 002,

November 14, 1984.

33. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE ESTUARINE CRAB

ILYOPLAX GANGET1CA (KEMP) TO THE WEST COAST

OF INDIA

(With a text -figure)

Mr. S. K. Alam and Mrs. S. S. Borgaonkar

sent me specimens of a crab for identification,

which they had collected from Malad Creek

and Thane Creek respectively. These turned

out to be the estuarine crab Ilyoplax gange-

tica (Kemp).

This crab was first described by Kemp in

1919 based on two specimens from Matlah

river in the Gangetic delta. He named these

crabs Tympanomerus gangeticus. Like most

species of this genus, these crabs frequent

waters of low salinity, burrowing in clayey

or muddy sand.

The crab belongs to the subfamily Scopi-

merinae (Mictyrinae of Tesch) of the family

Ocypodidae. The name Tympanomerus was

proposed by Rathbun in 1897 ( Proc . Biol

Soc., Washington IT. 164) to replace de Man's

generic name Dioxippe (1888; de Man, Journ.

Linn. Soc., Zool. 22: 137) which is preoccu-

pied. From as early as 1900. authors like

Alcock (1900. p. 371), de Man (1908, p. 212)

and Kemp (loc. cit., p. 336) have remarked

on the inappropriateness of the name Tympa-

nomerus, as only in Tympanomerus pusillus

(de Haan) from Japan are small ‘tympana’

present on the meropodites of the last pair

of legs. Tympana are curious thin-walled,

membranous, elliptical areas on the meropo-

dites of the walking legs, and sometimes on

the thoracic sterna, of Scopimerine crabs.

Kemp had correctly predicted (loc cit., p.

310) that Tympanomerus would be synony-

mous with Ilyoplax — a genus created by

Stimpson in 1858 (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.,

Philadelphia 10 : 98) for the species tenella

from the Canton river in China. Finally, in

1921 Rathbun (Proc. Biol, soc., Washington

34 : 156) considered that Tympanomerus and

Ilyoplax were inseparable, the latter name

having priority. Tweedie (1937) has given a

key to the identification of crabs of the genus

Ilyoplax.

Ilyoplax differs from Dotilla and Scopimera

in having the last segment of the second

maxilliped attached terminally to the penul-

timate segment, which is not expanded. It

differs from Dotillopsis in the absence of

sculpturing on the upper surface of the cara-

pace and of deep convoluted sculpture on the

lateral walls.

Ilyoplax gangetica is most closely related

226

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1

Fig. 1. llyoplax gangetica (Kemp).

to /. orient alis (de Man) from Mergui and

/. longicarpa Tweedie from the west coast of

Malay Peninsula. /. gangetica differs from /.

orientalis in having the crest defining the late-

ral borders of the upper surface of the cara-

pace being convex and not sinuous. The lower

border of the orbit near its outer end does

not have the large obtuse lobe found in /.

orientalis. The chelipeds in the adult male

are greatly elongated in /. longicarpa, but only

moderately so in /. gangetica. Moreover, the

ratio of length to anterior breadth of the

carapace is 0.8 : 1 in /. longicarpa, but only

0.75 : 1 in I. gangetica.

llyoplax longicarpa, collected from Port

Swettenham on the west coast of the Malay

E-31, Cusrow Baug,

Colaba Causeway,

Bombay 400 039.

Peninsula, when first seen by Tweedie (1935),

was identified by him as /. gangetica. Sub-

sequently, when the specimens were compared

with /. gangetica from the collections of the

Indian Museum, Tweedie (1937) created a

new species, I. longicarpa, for them.

The dimensions of a large specimen from

Bombay are :

length of carapace 8 mm.

breadth of carapace 6 mm.

The present finding of the crab from the

Thane creek extends its range of distribution

to the west coast of India.

The junior author (S. S. B.) acknowledges

thanks to Dr. (Mrs.) K. S. Gokhale for assis-

tance in her studies.

B. F. CHHAPGAR

(Mrs.) S. S. BORGAONKAR

Bandodkar College of Science,

Thana,

December 21, 1983.

227

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

References

Aecock, A. (1900): Materials for a carcinologi-

cal fauna of India. No. 6. The Brachyura Catome-

topa, or Grapsoidea. Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 69,

pt. 2, No. Ill : 279-456.

Chhapgar, B. F. (1957): On the marine crabs

(Decapoda Brachyura) of Bombay Slate. Parts I &

II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54 (2 & 3) : 399-549.

De Man, J. G. (1908): The fauna of brackish

water ponds at Port Canning, lower Bengal. Part X.

Decapod Crustacea, with an account of a small

collection from brackish water near Calcutta and

in the Dacca District, eastern Bengal. Rec. lnd.

Mas. 2: 211-231.

Kemp, S. (1919): Notes on Crustacea Decapoda

in the Indian Museum. XII. Scopimerinae. ibid.

16: 305-348.

Tesch, J. J. (1918): Die Decapoda Brachyura

Der Siboga Expedition. Hymenosomidae, Retro-

plumidae, Ocypodidae, Grapsidae and Gecarcinidae.

Siboga E.xpcd. Rep. 39(1): 1-148.

Tweedie, M. W. F. (1935): Notes on the genus

llyoplax Stimpson (Brachyura, Ocypodidae). Ball.

Raffles Mas. Singapore 10: 53-61.

(1937): On the crabs of

the family Ocypodidae in the collection of the

Raffles Museum, ibid. 13: 140-170.

34. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF JAPANESE

MINT DEFOLIATOR, SYNGAM1A ABRUPT ALIS WLK.

(LEPIDOPTERA: PYRALIDAE)

Menthol, an industrial product used in

pharmaceuticals and toiletries, is still obtained

from the plant Mentha arvensis (Labiat.).

Though cheap synthetic substitutes have been

developed, but quality products still depend

on natural menthol, because of slight varia-

tion in the aroma of the former. The last

few decades have seen a considerable increase

in the acreage under this crop and the country

is now largely self sufficient in menthol. Since

the leaves are the source of essential oil which

on chilling yield menthol crystals, defoliators

obviously make a big dent in the yield.

Mentha arvensis harbours a large number of

defoliators (Mathur and Anand 1964) of

which Syngamia abruptalis is an important

pest.

This insect has not received much atten-

tion in the past, because its host plant spec-

trum did not include many economic crops

and, also because, the pest population did not

cross the economic threshold. Only after the

introduction and subsequent large scale culti-

vation of Japanese mint in Jammu and Pun-

jab, that the importance of S. abruptalis as a

pest was realised and control measures

formulated.

For laboratory observations larvae and

adult moths were collected from the field and

maintained at room temperature. Larvae were

reared in petri dishes.

The attack on mentha crop starts in mid

July when humidity goes up after a few

showers. The initial attack is restricted only

to the leaf buds at the growing shoots. By

mid August the population builds up consi-

derably and reigns high till 2nd-3rd week of

September followed by a decline never to

rise again in the season. One of the important

factors responsible could be the high para-

site activity of a hymenopterous wasp (iden-

tification pending) in the field. The III instar

larvae collected from the field on three dates:

23rd August, 20th September and 4th Octo-

ber, were parasitised to the extent of 6.25%,

75.00% and 6.64% respectively.

228

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Like all other nocturnal lepidopterans the

moths become highly active at dusk, per-

forming one of the important functions, the

oviposition. It is observed that more number

of eggs are laid between dusk and midnight

(63%) than during the latter half of the night

(37%) and none during daytime. A marked

preference for the undersurface of the leaves

as compared to the upper surface or stem

was noticed.

female moths look for the angular spaces and

the lower surface of leaves offer such sites

in plenty because of the relief veins. On the

upper leaf surface eggs are laid only in the

veinal depressions. Normally the eggs are laid

singly but at times 3-5 are cramped up at one

spot, sometimes partly overlapping, thereby

obliterating the usual circular egg outline. An

egg is pearly white, but as the development

of embryo proceeds the colour changes to

a dirty hue. A black spot is visible on one

side, where the larval head develops. On the

day of hatching the black head is clearly dis-

cernible through the thin transluscer.t chorion.

The entire process of hatching takes 35-45

minutes and one can watch the larva nibbling

its way out. A diurnal hatching pattern was

observed in the eggs wherein maximum

numbers hatched between 12 and 14 hrs.

The duration of egg and other immature

stages is given below in the table.

In all there are five larval instars of appro-

ximately 14 days’ duration. All the instars

shun strong sunlight and prefer to occupy

the undersurface of the leaf. Spinning habit

Table

Duration of immature stages

is common to all of them. The first instar

larva selects two elevated sites on the leaf

surface and positioning itself inbetween/

weaves a silken canopy glueing the threads

on the crest of the two sides. The tunnel so

formed has a front opening and is kept clean

even of the faecal pellets by dumping them

out. The second and subsequent instars

usually fold the leaf along the midrib and

reside in it. The later instars at times spin

2-3 leaves together to make an abode, keep-

ing the central area clean of the faecal pellets.

On being slightly disturbed the larva has the

habit of wriggling backwards in jerky move-

ments; but on further jabbing it tries to move

away at a fast pace. On strong shaking of

the twig it descends to the ground like a

spider. All the instars scrape the chlorophyll

bearing tissue of the leaf, of course, in in-

creasing quantity as they advance in age spar-

ing the epidermis of the opposite leaf surface.

In the first and second instars the larval

head is black, but in third the head develops

big brown patches which coalesce in IV and

V instars turning the head completely brown.

The larval body which in I and II instars is

dirty white acquires a greenish colour in

the III instar. In IV instar the abdominal

segments 1-9 develop black patches at the base

229

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

of the abdominal setae. The V instar larva

which grows to a length of 1.5 cm develops

pink patches on the abdominal segments and

is distinct from the rest of the early instars.

Just before prepupation the entire larva turns

pink but for the head which retains its deep

brown colour.

For pupation the mature V instar larva

drops to the ground and spins a cocoon.

Sand grains are incorporated in the cocoon

on the outside. Given an alternative of say

filter paper pieces along with sand grains

during cocoon spinning, the latter are prefer-

red to the soft filter paper pieces. When moist

and dry sand was provided no particular pre-

ference was shown to either of them. The

pupal stage lasts for about 7 days.

In moth emergence no particular time

pattern was noticeable between day and night

hours. The moths are sluggish immediately

after emergence but become active after 30

minutes or so. A high flying activity was

noticeable only in 10-12 h old moths. Under

Regional Research,

Laboratory (CSIR),

Jammu 180 001.

April 6. 1984.

normal laboratory conditions the moths re-

mained alive for approximately seven days;

however, in one solitary instance a moth

survived for 16 days. In the 200 laboratory

reared moths the ratio between S and 9

was 1:1.

While handling the larval stages of S. abrup-

talis an interesting observation was made by

me. The larvae feed on mint foliage

which on steam distillation yields 0.45%

essential oil on fresh weight basis. The oil

contains free menthol 65-70%, methyl acetate

15%, menthone 10% and other terpenes 5-10%.

The first three chemicals which make the

bulk of the oil are strong smelling, but sur-

prisingly this smell is completely absent from

the faecal pellets indicating that the larva

has been able to convert and degrade the

entire quantity of aromatic chemicals to highly

polar compounds for excretion. There is no

sequestering of these components either in

the larval body as is seen by the absence of

characteristic smell.

A. C. MATHUR

Reference

Mathur, A. C. & Anand, M. (1964) : Pests of

Medicinal Plants. In ‘Entomology in India’. E.S.I.,

New Delhi.

35. FAMILY HALORAGACEAE IN THE NORTH WESTERN

HIMALAYAS

Haloragaceae, a natural group of plants

with about 6 genera and 120 species, repre-

sented by a single genus in our area.

Myriophyllum L. Sp. PI. 992 (1753).

A genus with about 45 species, cosmopolitan

in distribution. It is represented by about 3

species in the local flora, forming dense mats

in the bottom of all the deep water lakes in

association with Ceratophyllum demersuni

and Nymplioides peltutwn. It is very common

230

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

in the Wular and the Manasbal lakes. The

pollen grains of both the species ( M . spicatum

and M. verticil latum) are almost similar,

except that in M. spicatum where the exine

arises at the pores gradually, so that the as-

pids are lower, wider and rather more poorly

defined. The grains are 3-5 aperturate, oblate-

oblate spheroidal, showing some resemblance

with terrestrial Onagraceae, but differs mar-

kedly from its related family Callitrichaceae

in the absence of exine bacculation — a

characteristic feature for the family Callitri-

chaceae. There is a slight resemblance in the

pollen grains of Myriophyllum, Alnus and

Betula (Wodehouse 1935). Auer, 1953 has

studied the pollen grains of Myriophyllum

of European deposits.

Key to the species

1 . Marsh herbs; spikes thickly leafy, more than

10 cm long. Flowers in the axils of leaf like

pectinate bracts; bracts much longer than the

flowers. Leaves usually five in a whorl

.... .... .... M. verticillatum

1 . Aquatic herbs; spikes mostly naked, less than

10 cm long; Flowers in the axils of entire

bracts; bracts shorter than the flowers. Leaves

usually four in a whorl

2. Leaves 2-4 in a whorl, pinnately divided

into 6-14 pairs of capillary segments, 4-5

mm long. Fruit subglobose, 2 x 1.8 mm,

tubercled, carpellary bracts acute, keeled

.... .... M. tuberculatum

2. Leaves 3-5 in a whorl, pinnately divided

into 25-39. long acicular, acute segments,

0.2 x 2.5 cm long. Fruit globular 2.2 x

2.5 mm, muricate, carpellery bracts obtuse,

round .... .... M . spicatum

Myriophyllum spicatum L. Sp. PI. 992 (1753);

Clarke, FI. Brit. Ind. 2: 433 (1878);

Schindler, Das Pfanzen. 23 : 90 (1905).

Rhizomatous, emerged, prostrate herbs, can

be readily distinguished in the field in having

leaves in whorls of 2-3, pinnately divided into

25-39 long, acicular, acute segments. Spikes

aerial, upper portion staminate; lower pros-

trate; stamens 4, ovary tetragonal with 4 deep

furrows; stigma 4, plumose. Fruit globular,

2.2 x 2.5 mm, black, dehiscing by 4 longi-

tudinal sutures. Nuts trigonal with 2 flat sides

and an outer convex side, black. Pollen grains

tetraporate, oblate, spheroidal, 30.9-26.0 x

27.3-23 exine 1.3/x thick; sexine as thick

as nexine, intine thin, pores 2.6/x, dia.,

oval, aspidote, meshes of the reticulum

obscurely circular.

Common in lakes, ponds, slow running

streams. Leper Hospital (Nagin lake) a. m.

kak, 3557, 3723, 3862; Manasbal lake a. m.

kak, 606, 3042; Nilang lake, a. m. kak, 2008;

Dal lake (Ruph tank) a. m. kak 610.

Distribution. Cosmopolitan.

The land forms of this species are common.

When the water recedes in the ponds and

channels, a dense turf of these plants is seen,

with dwarf, unbranched stems, rooting pro-

fusely from the nodes. The leaves are also

smaller, broader and thicker, few in number

than those of the submerged species.

Myriophyllum verticillatum L. Sp. PI. 992

(1753); Schindler, 1. c. 37; Clarke, 1. c. 433.

A perennial herb of marshlands. Leaves

dimorphic; submerged ones pinnately divided,

4-6 in a whorl; each divided into 22-28 linear,

pectinate fleshy segments aerial ones smaller,

never regularly divided, spikes 13-23 cm long.

Flowers uni- or bisexual — all stages of sex

distribution occur within the same individual;

sometimes the whole spike bears bisexual

flowers, in some cases the bisexual flowers

are in the centre, male above and female

below. In certain cases male and female

flowers are borne on the same node; stamens

8, stigma 4. Fruit a globular nut, 3-5 x 3 mm,

smooth with persistant stigma. Pollen grains

3-4 porate, subprolate 27.3-22.1 exine 2 . 6/t

thick; sexine as thick as nexine, intine thin;

231

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

pores 2.6/a dia. oval or elliptical, aspidote,

meshes of the reticulum obscurely circular,

fine.

Common in swamps and marshes on the

sides of lakes in irrigating channels. Shalimar,

a. m. kak 828; Anchar lake, a. m. kak 830;

Bemna, a. m. kak 69 6.

Distribution. Europe, N. Africa, America,

N. Asia, Kashmir.

The vegetative forms of the species persist

throughout the year, even under the thick

cover of snow. The species seems to be a

recent introduction in the valley. S. C. Koul

(1946) reports that some 20 years ago he had

not seen a single plant in the Dal lake

(Kashmir), but when he made further ex-

ploration he found this species widely dis-

tributed in the lake. It is obvious that the

species is an adventive introduction through

human agency from Europe.

Myriophyllum tuberculatum Roxb FI. Ind.

1: 451 (1832); Schindl., 1. c. 96; Clarke,

1. c. 432; Subramanyam Aq. Ang. 17

(1962).

Dwarf, simple herbs can be easily distin-

guished from the other species in having stems

Dept, of Botany,

Islamia College of Science & Commerce,

Srinagar 190 002,

February 26, 1981.

angular near nodes. Leaves dimorphic; sub-

merged ones 2-4 in a whorl, pinnately divided

into 6-14 pairs of capillary segments, 4-5 mm

long; upper ones much shorter; spikes aerial

3-7 cm long. Flowers mostly unisexual;

stamens 8, exerted; ovary 4 locular; stigma

plumose. Fruit subglobose, tube'rcled, 2x1.8

mm with the outer convex faces. Rare near

swampy and marshy places. Leper Hospital

(Nagin lake) a. m. kak 3552; Dal lake

(floating islands) a. m. kak 3967.

Distribution. Europe, N. America, Asia,

India, Kashmir.

The species has been recorded for the first

time from the area and is confined only to the

Dal lake area. It seems that the species is

the most recent introduction in the valley and

makes us to believe that the seeds have been

introduced through human agency from

Europe and America.

Acknowledgements

I thank Principal, Syed Sarwar Hussain, for

providing facilities preparing this manuscript

and to the UGC for financial assistance under

the teachers grant.

A. MAJEED KAK

References

Love, A. (1961): Some notes on Myriophyllum

spicatum. Rhodora 63: 139-145.

Linnaeus, C. (1753): Species plantarum. Hol-

miae.

Nagaraj, M. & Nijalingappa (1967): Embryo-

logical studies of Myriophyllum inlermediatum DC.

Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. Vol. 65.

Nijalingappa (1967): Morphological studies in

Myriophyllum intermedium. Curr. Sci. 36(4) 104-

105.

Wodeiiouse, R. P. (1935): Pollen grains their

structure, identification and significance in science,

New York. London.

232

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

36. ABELMOSCHUS ANGULOSUS WALLICH EX WIGHT AND

ARNOTT IN THE FORMER BOMBAY PRESIDENCY AND

ITS COLLECTION AFTER 73 YEARS

Theodore Cooke (1958) included Abelmos-

chus angulosus Wall, ex Wight and Arnott

(= Hibiscus angulosus Steud.) in his the

FLORA OF THE PRESIDENCY OF BOMBAY On the

basis of a single collection made by Stocks

from Konkan and commented ‘the only speci-

mens I have seen from Bombay are those

marked as above (Konkan : Stocks)* in Herb.

Kew. The plant does not seem to have been

found by any other Bombay collector.

There is a single specimen of this species

in the Herbarium of the Botanical Survey of

India, Western Circle, Pune (BST) collected

by Talbot from Mahabaleshwar on 16th of

October, 1905 (Talbot 4505) and recently

correctly determined by J. van Borssum

waalkes. Talbot (1976), however, did not

include this species in his ‘Forest Flora of

Bombay Presidency and Sind’. There has

been no further collection of this taxon from

the Bombay Presidency either in the above

Herbarium (BSI) or in the Blatter (BLAT)

nor does exist any report in the literature

surveyed for the Bombay Presidency on the

occurrence and/or collection of this species

though many parts of the Presidency have

been centres of botanical interest to many a

* Words in parenthesis by the author.

Tropical Botanic Garden

& Research Institute,

Navaranga Road,

Trivandrum 11,

March 23, 1984.

plant taxonomist since 1905.

I collected this taxon from Gurekhar,

Panchghani on 26th of November, 1978

and the specimen (TSN 156208) along

with its duplicates have been deposited in the

Herbarium of the Botanical Survey of India,

Western circle, Pune (BSI). It is apparent

that this taxon is a rare one in the Presidency,

though M.T. Masters in Hooker’s flora of

British India has Malabar and Nilghirris too

as localities of its occurrence in India.

In the light of Cooke’s remark about the

doubtful occurrence of this species in the

Presidency and of the fact that no collection

of this species has been made for the last 73

years from the area, the present collection

constitutes an important addition for the

botany of the ‘Presidency’ in general and for

that of the Maharashtra State in particular.

ACK NOWLEDGE M E NTS

This work was carried out while I was

working at Botanical Survey of India (WC),

Pune on a Junior Research Fellowship from

the Director of Botanical Survey of India and

I thank him for the same; I am also thankful

to the authorities of Blatter Herbarium for

consultation facilities.

T. S. NAYAR

233

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

References

Cooke, T. (1958): The Flora of the Presidency

of Bombay. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta

(repr. ed).

Hooker, J. D. (1973): The Flora of British

India 1 : 341-2. Bishensingh Mahendra Pal Singh,

Dehra Dun (repr. ed).

Talbot, W. A. (1976) : Forest Flora of the

Bombay Presidency and Sind. Vol. 1. Today and

Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers, N. Delhi

(repr. ed.).

37. A LITTLE KNOWN PLANT FROM SOUTH INDIA

Critical studies of the genus Entada Adans.

based on herbarium specimens deposited at

various herbaria in India, have revealed that

two species occur in India, namely E. pur-

saetha DC. and E. monostachya DC. E. pur-

saetha DC. has been described in detail by

many taxonomists in India. E. monostachya

DC. is being reported here for the first time.

It has been considered conspecific with E.

scandens auct. (non Benth.) =E. pursaetha

DC. by various taxonomists, namely Baker,

in Hooker’s fl. brit. India (1879), Bentham

in Revision of the suborder Mimoseae (1875),

Brenan in Kew Bulletin 1955.

The specific epithet refers to the solitary

inflorescence occurring in the species. Further

it differs from E. pursaetha DC. in having

leaflets with curved midrib dividing the

lamina into unequal halves, bases unequal,

leaflets falcate, slightly sickle shaped. These

differences were noted by De Candolle as

early as 1825.

Entada monostachya DC. Prodr. 2 : 425,

1825. Mimosa entada Linn. Sp PI. 518.

1753.

A huge liana with branches and branchlets

grey to brown, glabrous. Leaves bipinnate,

alternate, rachis 4-5 cm long ending in bifid

Blatter Herbarium,

St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay 400 001.

August 25. 1983.

tendril, glabrous, grooved; pinnae 1-2 pairs,

5-15 cm long their racheses glabrous; leaflets

4-5 pairs, 2-5 cm long, 1-3 cm wide, stalked,

stalk 1-2 mm long, falcate, slightly sickle

shaped, midrid curved, bent dividing the

lamina into unequal halves, apex retuse,

emarginate, base oblique, midvein hairy in the

beginning, later becoming glabrous. Flowers

yellow, on axillary, solitary spike 10-15 cm

long, axis pubescent. Calyx very small.

Corolla exceeding the calyx, yellow 2-3 mm

long. Stamens reddish, slightly exerted. Pods

large 20-50 cm long, 5-8 cm wide. Seeds 4-10,

compressed, smooth, orbicular.

Flowering. March-May;

Fruiting. Throughout the year.

Type. Rheede, Hort. Ind. Mai. 9: 151, t 77,

1689 (Lectotype); (Iconotype) De Candolle,

425.3 (G) Cotype.

Distribution. India: South India: Kerala.

Endemic.

Specimens examined. Kerala : Calder &

Ramswamy 1466 (CAL); Bourdillon, Acc.

no. 138918-19 (CAL); Calder 1408 (CAL);

Subramaniyam 5624 (CAL); Henry 53231

(CAL); Narayanswamy 1227 (CAL); Tin-

nevelly Dist. Subramaniam 5624 (CAL).

RAVINDRA P. SUBHEDAR

234

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

38. FICUS ALBIP/LA (MIQ.) KING (MORACEAE) —

A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

(With a text-figure)

Among 21 species of Ficus in the Flora of

the Tamilnadu Carnatic (Mathew 1983: 1511-

1532), two differed from the rest in the 2-

fid styles (most species have undivided style)

and by the presence of a pair of glands at

the lowest nerve axil (most species have them

at the base of the lamina near the petiole).

These two species belong to subg. Pharma-

cosycea.

Of the two species, F. nervosa Heyne ex

Roth was easily enough identified while the

identity of the other remained uncertain. This

latter was erroneously listed under F. dal-

housiae Miq. in Matthew (1981).

Later, E. J. H. Corner (pers. conun.) iden-

tified this species as F. albipila (Miq.) King

[too late for the Flora of the Tamilnadu

Carnatic (Matthew 1983 : 1531), where it

was referred to as Ficus sp.], pointing out

that it was the first record not only for India

but west of Thailand and the Malay Penin-

sula.

A detailed, illustrated account of the

species (nomenclature, description, field

notes, distribution and a documented list of

specimens examined) is given below.

Ficus albipila (Miq.) King, Ann. Roy. Bot.

Gard. (Calcutta) 2: 179. 1888; Corner, Gard.

Bull. Straits Settlem. (ser. 4) 21 : 29. 1965.

Covellia albipila Miq. FI. Ned. Ind. (suppl.)

175, 434. 1860. Eicus sp. Matthew, FI. Tamilnadu

Carnatic 3: 1531. 1983. Ficus dalhousiae Miq.

sensu Matthew, Mat. FI. Tamilnadu Carnatic 344.

1981.

Tree, (10) 15-20 m tall. Leaves alternate,

broadly elliptic-ovate to cordiform. 15-30 x

9-18 cm. (sub) coriaceous, 3-5-nerved from

base, lateral nerves 12-14 pairs, flattened

above, raised below, intercostals obscure,

softly pubescent below, base rounded to cor-

date, margin entire, apex gradually narrowed,

shortly acuminate, cusp 1 cm, glandular in

the axils of basal nerves; petiole to 8 cm;

stipules lanceolate, to 3.5 cm, deciduous

leaving annular scars. Fig(s) monoecious,

axillary, 1 or 2, stalked, (sub) pyriform, 1-

1.5 cm across, puberulous, top truncate; ped-

uncle to 5 mm; basal bracts ovate-concave,

3.5 mm, puberulous without (sub) acute;

orifice raised; internal bristles scaly, 1 mm,

scarious. Tepals 3, ovate-concave, connate in

$ flowers, 1.5 mm, cream with brown shade,

glabrous, ' disperse. Stamen 1, included;

anther sessile, cells oblong, parallel, 0.5 mm;

connective pouched, brown. $ : sessile.

Ovary obovoid to bilateral, 1 mm, brownish;

style filiform. 1.5 mm, 2-fid, curled. Gall

flowers similar, pedicellate. Achenes smooth.

Tree with a crown of equal spread from

the massive horizontal branches. Tender leaf

greenish above, coppery below, thick cori-

aceous with age. Figs green, globose, pustu-

late.

Common in the dry and evergreen forests

(400) 800-1300 m, generally erect, at times

by rocks or even epiphytic.

Distribution. Thailand, Malaya, Sumatra,

Borneo, Java, Timor, Queensland, New

Guinea (Corner 1965, l.c.).

Specimens examined : tiruchi dist. Pacchai-

malais. Karuppankadu thittu (850 m) : rht

3911; Kannimar shola (950 m) : rht 7037,

12486, 22601. Salem dist. Kollimalais, Arap-

puleeswarer Falls (1000 m): rht 2198; be-

235

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 82

Fig. 1. Ficus albipila (Miq.) King

A. twig; B&C. $ flowers; D. stamen, back & front; E. receptacle, l.s.; F. $

flower; G-T. pistil, entire, l.s. & t.s.; J. receptacle (part) enlarged; K&L figs, entire.

236

2 cm

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

low Solakkadu (1200 m): rht 3071; Rasi-

puram slopes (400-850 m): rht 15844,

15969, 22491; Periakalrayans, Nagalur (850

m): rht 5455; Bodamalais, Melur (950 m):

rht 15391; Servarayans : ghat road (1300

m) rht 23478; bridle path from Yercad

The Rapinat Herbarium,

St. Joseph’s College,

Tiruchirapalli 620 002,

Tamilnadu,

April 18, 1984.

down to Gundur (750 m) : rht 5083.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Prof. E. J. H. Corner

(Cambridge), for the determination of this

species.

N. RANI

References

Corner, E. J. H. (1965): Check-List of Ficus

in Asia and Australasia with Keys to Identification.

Garcl. Bull. Straits Settlem. (ser. 4.). 21: 29.

— in Dassanayake M. D. &

Fosberg, F. R. (Eds.) (1981): Revised Handbook

to the Flora of Ceylon 3: 232-234.

Matthew, K. M. (1981): Materials for a Flora

of the Tamilnadu Carnatic 344.

Rani, N. & Matthew, K. M. in Matthew, K.

M. (1983): The Flora of the Tamilnadu Carnatic

3: 1531.

39. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF SCHOUW1A PURPUREA

(FORSK.) SCHWEINF. (BRASSICACEAE) IN ANDHRA PRADESH

While working at the Central National

Herbarium (CAL), the authors have come

across a specimen (Tadpatri, Anantapur

District, Andhra Pradesh, T. Pullaiah F.A.P.

416, 6.x. 1981) received for identification

from the Herbarium, Department of Bio-

Sciences, Srikrisnadevaraya University. The

specimen, on critical examination, has been

identified as Schouwia purpurea (Forsk.)

Schweinf.

A native of Abyssinia, Egypt and Arabia,

the species is widespread from Sahara to

Arabia and N. E. Tropical Africa, and is a

new introduction in India. In India, it is so

far known from Maharashtra State, where it

is said to be naturalised (Rao 1963, Thombre

1963). Recently, Bhaumik (in press ) revised

the genus for India and recorded its occur-

rence from Bellary and Chitradurga Districts

of Karnataka. Thus, its occurrence from

Anantapur District is recorded here as a new

addition to the flora of Andhra Pradesh as

well as its further extension of distribution

towards the east. A detailed description of

the taxon is provided here to facilitate its

identity in the field.

Schouwia purpurea (Forsk.) Schweinf. in

Bull. Herb. Boiss. 4. App. 2: 183. n. 486.

1896; Schulz in Engler & Prantl of Pflanzenr.

84 (IV. 105): 53.1923; Thombre in J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 60; 289. 1963. Subularia

purpurea Forsk. FI. Aegypt. — Arab. 117.

1775. Thlaspi arabicum Vahl. Symb. Bot. 2:

76. 1791 (excl. syn. Linn.). Schouwia arabica

(Vahl) DC. Syst. Nat. 2: 644. 1821 et Prodr.

1: 224. 1824; W. J. Hook. Icon. PI 3. t. 223.

1840 (excl. pi. Sieb.) ; Rao in Bull. Bot. Surv.

Ind. 5 : 265. 1963.

237

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Annual, glabrous herbs, 25-75 cm tall.

Stem erect, dicotomously branched from the

base. Leaves 1.5-9 x 1-4 cm, simple, alter-

nate, sessile. Basal leaves obovate or oblanceo-

late, tapering towards the base, acute at apex,

crenately lobed or wavy-dentate to almost

entire; upper leaves oblong-ovate or obovate,

deeply cordate-auricled at base. Flowers

purple, in terminal and leaf-opposed racemes,

elongating up to 30 cm long in fruits. Sepals

4-5 mm long, outer-2 linear, inner-2 oblong-

ovate, saccate at base. Petals 7.5-9 mm long,

obovate or spathulate, clawed. Stamens tetra-

dynamous, anthers linear, attenuate at the apex,

sagittate at base. Siliqua 1.5-2 cm in diameter.

Botanical Survey of India,

Howrah 711 103,

March 12, 1983.

sub-elliptic to ovate-orbicular, laterally com-

pressed with a cordate base, reticulate and

broadly winged; replum linear, membranous.

Style persistant, pyramidal, 5-7 mm long, much

shorter than the length of the valves. Seeds

many, 2-seriate, globose, reddish brown,

mucilagenous. Cotyledons conduplicate.

FIs. and Frts. : Jan. — Nov.

Ecology. In dry sandy soil, weed in culti-

vated fields.

ACK NOWLEDGE M E NT

We thank the Keeper, Central National

Herbarium for encouragement.

G. H. BHAUMIK

R. N. BANERJEE

40. NOTES ON MICROCOCCA MERCURIAL/S (LINN.) BENTH.

(With a text -figure)

Micrococca mercurialis (Linn.) Benth., a

tropical Euphorbiaceous weed, has been re-

cently observed occurring, quite frequently,

in Greater Bombay as well as in some other

parts of Maharshtra. The first record of this

species from India is found in Hendrik An-

drian van Rheede’s hortus malabaricus

vol. 10, p. 163, t. 82, 1703, under local name

Be-cupa-meni. J. D. Hooker (1885), has re-

ported it from Bihar and Deccan Peninsula

and Gamble (1925) reported it from the

Presidency of Madras. From Old Bombay

Presidency, John Graham mentioned it in his

catalogue without any precise locality, where-

as N. A. Dalzell and A. Gibson (1861) des-

cribed it from Southern Concan and T.

Cooke (1907) from Karwar and Porbandar.

This species considerably resembles Acaly-

pha indica Linn, and was found mixed with

various Acalypha species in Blatter Herba-

rium.

Due to the uncertainties regarding the loca-

lities mentioned by Graham (1839) and Dal-

zell & Gibson (1861), we consider this com-

munication as a new record of this species

from the present Maharashtra State. Com-

plete synonymy and citations of literature

consulted for identification of this species,

description, illustrations of floral parts, and

enumeration of specimens examined from

different localities are given:

Micrococca mercurialis (Linn.) Benth. ex

Hook. FI. Nigritiana 503, 1849; Prain Ann.

bot. 25: 631, 1911; Pax et Hoffman ex Engler

et Prantl, Pflanzenreich. 4: 147 (6): 133, t.

18, f. D-F, 1912 & Planzenfam. 112, 1931;

238

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Micrococca mercurialis (Linn.) Benth.

A. Flowering twig; B. Male flower; C. Female flower; 4. Dorsal view of perianth

— male flower; E. Stamens and Staminodes; F. Pistil; G. Lacerate stigma lobe;

H. Remnants of pistillate flower; I. Dorsal view of fruit; J. Lateral view of fruit;

K. Seeds.

239

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62

Gamble, FI. Madras 7: 1327, 1925 (2: 928,

1956 in Repr. ed.); Tadulingam et Venkat-

narayana, Handb. South. Indian Weeds 407,

1955; Santapau & Janardanan, Check-list in

suppl. Bull. bot. Surv. India 8: 45, 1966

(Publ. 1967). Tragia mercurialis Linn. Sp. PI.

2: 980, 1753; Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 186,

1839. Microstachys mercurialis (Linn.) Juss.

ex Dalz. et Gibs., Bombay Flora 227, 1861.

Claoxylon mercurialis (Linn.) Thwaites,

Enum. Ceylon PI. 271, 1864; DeCandolle,

Prodr. 15: 790, 1886; J. D. Hooker, in FI.

Brit. India 5: 412, 1887; T. Cooke, FI. Bom-

bay Presidency 2: 609, 1908 (in repr. ed. 3:

107, 1958); V. D. Vartak, Enum. PI. Goman-

tak, 94, 1966.

An erect, branched annual herb, 20-60 cm

tall. Stem cylindric to obsurely terete, covered

with fine hairs. Leaves simple, alternate, 2-5

cm long, ovate-lanceolate, sub-acute, crenate-

serrate, rounded or sub-acute at base, with 5

(rarely 4) pairs of veins, glabrous above,

minutely villose with white hairs below, petio-

late. Petiole 0.7- 1.6 cm long, slender, pube-

scent with minute hairs. Inflorescence axillary

spikes. Main axis filiform, usually longer than

the leaves, pubescent with minute white shining

hairs. Flowers monoecious, unisexual, in

clusters, distantly placed on the axis, brac-

teate. Each cluster consists of one female

flower and 3-5 male flowers. Male flowers

shortly pedicellate, bracteate. Bracts broadly

ovoid, acute with a distinct mid-vein. Perianth

lobes 3 (rarely 4), ovate, fleshy, acute, alter-

nate, with small, linear, yellow appendages.

Blatter Herbarium,

Bombay.

Department of Biological Sciences,

Ramnarain Ruia College,

Bombay 400 019,

April 16, 1983.

Stamens 3, alternating with the perianth lobes;

anthers 2-celled, divergent at the apex, fila-

ments short. Staminodes 3, alternating with

stamens. Female flowers bracteate; bracts

ovate, acute at apex. Perianth lobes 3, broad,

ovate, acute. Ovary hypogynous, tri-carpellary,

trilocular, syncarpous, with single ovule in

each locule. Style tri-lobed, lacerate. Fruit

capsule, 0.3-0. 4 cm in diameter, 3-lobed,

each cocci bearing a single seed. Seeds sub-

globose, pitted, minutely apiculate, foveolate,

brown becoming black on drying.

Specimens Examined. M. R. Almeida:

Azad Maidan, Bombay — 520-526 (30.x.

1967), Goregaon — 529-36 (5 .xii. 1967), Fort,

Bombay— 1275 (20 . viii . 1970); Narayanan P.:

Goa-305 (7 . ix . 1969) ; Santapau, H.: Bombay

Reclamation — s.n. (27.iv. 1942), Waltair, A.

P. — 21344 (21.x. 1956); Sedgwick, L. J. &

Bell, T. R. D. — Karwar-6691 (Oct., 1919),

6752 (Oct. 1919), 6777 (Oct., 1919); S. Ver-

ghese: Fort, Bombay — s.n. (16. viii. 1970);

Wagh, S.: Shivadurg, A. P. — 6756-58 (l.viii.

1957), Guntur, A. P. — 3694 (4.ix.l956);

Sinhvachalam-4395 (2.x. 1956).

We thank the authorities of Blatter Herba-

rium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay (BLAT)

and Western Circle, Botanical Survey of

India, Poona (BSD for permitting us to con-

sult the herbaria and libraries, to Prof. P. V.

Bole for going through the manuscript and

suggesting some useful changes and, to Mr.

M. R. Almeida for rewriting the paper in the

present format.

S. M. ALMEIDA

A. R. KULKARNI

S. R. YADAV

240

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

41. THREE SPECIES OF ORCHIDS NEW TO KERALA FORESTS

During the study of the Orchid flora of

Kerala forests, we collected three species,

namely Dendrobium mablae Gammie, Smith-

sonia maculata (Dalz.) Saldanha, and Poma-

tocalpa mannii (Reich, f.) J. J. Sm., which are

additions to the flora of Kerala State.

Dendrobium mablae Gammie, J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 16 : 567, 1905; Santapau &

Kapadia, Orch. Bombay 89, 1966; Saldanha

& Nicholson, FI. Hassan Dist. 821, 1976.

This species was collected from Chandrana-

thode in Wynaad District, where it is com-

mon on W endlandia lawii Hook. f. in the

sholas near the grassland. The species re-

sembles closely Dendrobium nanum Hook. f.

and D. anamalayanam Chandrabose et al., in

the vegetative stage, but in the flower the lip

is distinct with two rows of papillate hairs

along the margin.

Specimen examined. Kerala State, Wynaad

District, Chandanathode 800 m, 18-xi-1982;

Sasidharan 2613.

Smithsonia maculata (Daltz.) Saldanha, j.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71 : 74, 1974, et

Saldanha & Nicholson, FI. Hassan District,

850, 1976; Micropera maculata Dalz., J. Bot.

Kew Misc. 3: 282, 1851; Gastrochilus macu-

latus (Dalz.) O. Ktze., Rev. Gen. PI. 2: 661,

1891.

This species was found growing on

Terminalia paniculata Roth, in the moist-

Botany Division,

Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi 680 653,

Trichur, Kerala,

July 26, 1983.

deciduous forests of Nelliampathy in Palghat

District. The species has conspicuous yellow

flowers. Its occurrence has been reported from

other states of the Western Ghats. The pre-

sent collection extends its range further south.

Specimen examined. Kerala State, Palghat

District, Nelliampathy, 29-H-1983, Muktesh-

kumar 2921.

Pomatocalpa mannii (Reich, f.) J. J. Sm.

in Nat. Tijd. Ned. Ind. 72: 105, 1912; Cleis -

osloma mannii Reich, f. in Flora 55 : 274,

1872; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 6 : 74, 1890;

Fischer in Gamble, FI. Madras. 1448, 1828.

This was collected from Walayar, Palghat

District. It is seen growing on the understorey

trees in evergreen forests. This orchid is very

rare and its earlier record in South India is

from Palkonda Hills of Andhra Pradesh.

Specimen examined. Kerala State, Palghat

District, Walayar, 400 m, 7-iv-1979, Sasidharan

759.

The specimens cited are deposited in the

Kerala Forest Research Institute Herbarium.

Ack nowi.edgements

We are thankful to Prof. V. P. K. Nambiar,

Scientist-in-charge, Botany Division, and Dr.

S. Kedarnath, Director, Kerala Forest Re-

search Institute for helpful suggestions and

facilities.

N. SASIDHARAN

MUKTESH KUMAR

241

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

42. ISCHAEMUM LACCI STAPF EX BOR ( POACEAE) :

A NEW ADDITION TO THE FLORA OF INDIA

Fig. 1. Ischaemum lacci Stapf ex Bor

A. Habit; B. Spikelets.

( With a text -figure)

Ischaemum lacci Stapf ex Bor belongs to

subfamily Panicoideae, tribe Andropogoneae

and subtribe Ischacmineae. This species was

described by Bor in Kew Bull. 1950, 187

(1950). This grass has not so far been re-

ported from India. Bor (1960), has mentioned

its distribution in Burma, where it seems to

be endemic. But collection from Shillong,

Khasia, altitude 4000 ft, by J. D. Hooker &

T. Thomson (CAL), and Shillong, Barapani,

M. P. Guha 43 (CAL) reveals its distribution

in India. The present note is intended to

provide a description and illustration of this

grass.

Ischaemum lacci Stapf ex Bor In Kew Bull.

1950: 187 (1950).

Perennial grass, culms upto 120 cm long,

erect. Leaves usually 7-17 cm long. 15 cm

wide, elliptical, multi-nerved, middle nerve

prominent, pubescent at both sides, more in

lower surface; ligule 5 mm long, oblong.

Racemes 2. 7 cm long. Sessile and pedicelled

spikelet jointed, rhachis fragile. Sessile spike-

let 8 mm long; lower involucral glume 7-8

mm long, ovate-lanceolate, apex marginate,

middle part densely pilose multi-nerved.

Upper involucral glume 3-10.5 mm long,

lanceolate acute, 3 nerved, minute awned.

awn 2.5 mm long. Lower floret male; lemma

up to 7 mm long elliptical, hyaline, 3 nerved,

acute; stamens 3. anther 2 mm long; palea

5.5 mm long otherwise same as lemma. 2

nerved. Upper floret hermaphrodite; lemma

up to 6.5 mm long, bidentate, 3-nerved,

awned, awn up to 3 cm long, column 1 1 mm

long; stamens 3, anther 3-3.5 mm long; palea

4.5 mm long, linear lanceolate 2-nerved. Pedi-

celled spikelet-lower involucral glume 8 mm

long, dorsal part pilose, awned. Upper in-

volucral glume 7.5 mm long, upper lemma

242

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

similar to sessile spikelet, awned. awn 1 1 mm

long.

Flowering lime. November to February.

Distribution. India, Burma.

Botanical Survey of India,

Central Botanical Laboratory,

P. O. Botanic Garden,

Howrah 711103,

August 25, 1983.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Director, Botanical Survey

of India. Howrah, for his encouragement and

to Dr. N. C. Majumdar, Ecologist. Botanical

Survey of India, for suggestions.

P. R. SUR

References

Bor, N. L. (1950) : Two new species of Ischae-

mum. Kew Bulletin: 187.

(1960): Grasses of Burma, Ceylon,

India and Pakistan. Pergamon Press, London.

43. GYMNOPTERIS DELAVAYf (BAK.) END. — A NEW FERN

RECORD FOR INDTA

During a study of herbarium specimens

in CAL herbarium, we came across a

specimen collected by Mr. Gour Maity, from

Kutty valley, Pittargarh District, Uttar Pradesh.

The specimen Gymnopteris delavayi (Bak.)

Und. which was described by Baker from

Yunan. China. The specimen is exactly iden-

tical with authentic materials from China, kept

in CAL herbarium. This is a new report for

India. Description of the species is provided

here.

Gymnopteris delavayi (Bak.) Und. Bull.

Torry Bot. Cl. 29: 627, 1902; C. Chr. Tnd.

341, 1906.

Basinym : Gumnogrammc delavayi Bak. Ann.

Bot. 5: 484. 1891.

Synonym : Neurogramme delavayi (Bak.) Diels,

Npfi. 262, 1899.

Cryptogamic Section,

Botanical Survey of India,

P. O. Botanic Garden,

Howrah 711 103,

September 9, 1983.

Rhizome short creeping, densely covered

with long linear, ferruginous scales. Fronds

oblong-lanceolate, simply pinnate, 10-15 cm

long, stipe tufted, wiry, castaneous, pilose, 4-

5 cm long, pinnae oblong, 5 mm to 1.5 cm

long, 5 mm broad, upper surface nearly glab-

rous, greenish, lower surface densely covered

with ovate-lanceolate brown membranaceous

scales, apex of scale acuminate, margin of

scale entire. Lower pinnae lobed on both

sides, sorus covered under the scale, cxin-

dusiate.

Specimen examined. Garbyang. ± 3110 m,

near Garbyan village, Kutty valley. Pittargarh

district, Uttar Pradesh, October 8, 1976, Gour

Maity 611 (CAL).

It grows on exposed rocks.

S. R. GHOSH

R. K. GHOSH

243

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

44. SEASONAL SUCCESSION IN CHLOROPHYCEAE IN

LAKHOTIA LAKE

(With two plates)

Ecological succession is very common in

sand dunes, grasslands, forests, marine

shores and other sites. In aquatic ecosystem

particularly in fresh waters it is rare among

primary producers. Although a number of

attempts have been made to study the sea-

sonal variation of the phytoplankton in Indian

fresh waters yet little attention has been

given to the analysis of seasonal succession.

The present study carried out from March,

1977 to February, 1978, is an attempt to

observe the seasonal succession of phyto-

plankton specially among the members of

Chlorophyceae, in a tropical lake of western

Rajasthan. The state has three seasons, name-

ly summer (March to June), monsoon (July

to October) and winter (November to Feb-

ruary).

Lakhotia lake is a man-made, rain fed,

perennial lake of Pali. It is roughly triangular,

having a maximum length of 1823 m in the

east-west direction and a breadth of 950 m

in the north-south direction. During the pre-

sent study the maximum depth of the lake

was 4.5 m. The vegetation around the vici-

nity of the lake consisting of xerophytic

shrubs and trees, is confined mainly to the

southern side. In the littoral zone an aquatic

grass Scirpus tuherosus grows on the eastern

bank. The lake is rich in phytoplankton popu-

lation and colour of the water is yellowish

green due to muddy nature of the bed.

For phytoplankton analysis water samples

were collected from three stations (St. 1, 2

and 3) and three depths (surface, 1 m and

bottom) to got a complete picture of variation

in population along vertical as well as hori-

zontal profile of the lake. Phytoplankton were

counted by sedimentation method, after fixing

in Lugol’s Iodine solution and preserving in

3% formalin. Identification was done up to

generic level.

Phytoplankton population comprised of cya-

nophyceae, chlorophyceae, basillariophyceae

and dinophyceae. In chlorophyceae fifteen

senera were identified out of which seasonal

succession was shown by Desmidium sp., Pedi-

astrum sp., Ankistrodesmus sp. and Closte-

rium sp., Mougeotia sp. and Vo! vox sp. sea-

sonal variation of above mentioned genera

are shown in plates 1 and 2, figures 1-9. The

population had been given in percentages

calculated in respect to total phytoplankton

count.

Desmidium sp. was most dominating genus

among the members of Chlorophyceae. Its

population started increasing in April, attain-

ing its peak at the end of summer (June).

The percentage ranged (Sts. 1-3) from nil

to 47.10 at the surface, nil to 37.39 at 1 m

depth and nil to 34.72 at the bottom (Plate

1, Figs. 1-3).

Ankistrodesmus sp. showed erratic distri-

bution, appearing at all the stations and

depths during March, June and February

only. The maximum and minimum popula-

tions were recorded in February and May

respectively. Its percentage fluctuated (Sts.

1-3) from nil to 4.76 at the surface, nil to

7.84 at 1 m and nil to 8.70 at the bottom

(Plate 1, Figs. 4-6).

Pediastrum sp. was present throughout the

summer months, with maximum population

in early summer (March). Later it appeared

244

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82

Khatri: Chlorophyceae

Plate 1

Depth r

MONTHS

MAMJJ ASONDJ F

! "I 1 I

B

S

M

B

S

M

B

S

M

B

S

M

B

S

M

B

S

M

B

S

M

B

S -

M -

B '

I r

1—r

~l 1 r-

“]l I I I

|des[mid^

ijmsp.

I

-I 1 r

ANKISTRftDESMUS Sp

PEDLASTRUM SR

I

-r~i 1 r

t 1 1 r

FIGwl ST. 1

F1G.2 ST. 2

FIG. 3 ST. 3

FIG.4 ST.1

FIG. 5 ST.2

FIG. 6 ST3

FIG. 7 ST.1

FIG .8 ST2

FIG.9 Sf.3

100%

S-SURFACE M- 1m DEPTH B-BOTTOM

Seasonal succession among members of Chlorophyceae in Lakhotia lake.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82

Khatri: Chlorophyceae

Pi ate 2

Depl£

M *

bJ

S ■

M -

B-

S *

M ■

B-

Si

M-

B-

S i

M

B

S •

M-

B«

S

M

BJ

S

M

B J

S

M '

B J

MONTHS

M A M J J A S

' — t 1 1 1 r~

0 N D J F

—i 1 1 1 *

CLOSTERIUM Sp.

MOUGEOTI A Sp

' T — — I 1 « <~

VOLVOX Sp

1 1 r — n — — ' 1 1 1 1 1 • 1

FIG.1 ST-1

FIG. 2 ST. 2

FIG.3 ST. 3

FIG.4.ST1

FIGS ST. 2

FIGS ST. 3

-l r — 1 T

FIG.7ST1

FIGS ST. 2

FIGS ST.3

S-SURFACE M-lm DEPTH B- BOTTOM 100.X

Seasonal succession among members of Chlorophyceae in Lakhotia lake.

24b

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

occasionally and was recorded during follow-

ing monsoon and winter months at most of

the depths and stations. The percentage com-

position ranged (Sts. 1-3) from nil to 5.88

at the surface and 1 m depth and nil to 6.17

at the bottom (Plate 1, Figs. 7-9).

Closterium sp. appeared in monsoon (July)

at all the stations, after attaining maximum

population in November it disappeared in

January. Its percentage varied (Sts. 1-3) from

nil to 4.26 at the surface, nil to 4.84 at 1 m

and nil to 7.69 at the bottom (Plate 2, Figs.

1-3).

Mougeotia sp. like Closterium sp. appeared

in July and was present at the bottom at

stations 1 and 2 up to January. In February

I it disappeared. The population varied (Sts.

1-3) from nil to 6.45 at the surface, nil to

5.52 at 1 m depth and nil to 10.58 at the

bottom (Plate 2, Figs. 4-6).

Volvox sp. made its appearance in mon-

soon (August) and after attaining its peak in

November the population declined in the

following months and totally disappeared in

February. Population varied (Sts. 1-3) from

nil to 7.58 at the surface, nil to 4.02 at

1 m and nil to 9.23 at the bottom (Plate 2,

Department of Zoology,

University of Jodhpur,

Jodhpur, India,

July 14, 1983.

Figs. 7-9).

The results clearly indicate that the suc-

cession among members of Chlorophyceae

varies from season to season in Lakhotia lake.

Desmidium sp., Pediastrum sp. and Ankis-

trodesmus sp. flourished during summer sea-

son. At the onset of monsoon their popula-

tion declined and they were succeeded in the

following months by Closterium sp., Mouge-

otia sp. and Volvox sp. The latter genera

flourished during monsoon and early winter

months when the former genera were either

absent or their population was insignificant.

Towards the end of winter due to the re-

appearance and increase in the population of

Desmidium sp., Pediastrum sp. and Ankistro-

desmus sp. Closterium sp., Mougeotia sp. and

Volvox sp. totally disappeared. Thus it was

observed that in Lakhotia lake such a type

of seasonal succession hampers the blooming

of any genera which leads to the eutrophic

condition. The physical and chemical factors

responsible for the seasonal succession in

fresh water bodies are unknown. Therefore,

an intensive study is required for ascertaining

the role of various parameters responsible for

the seasonal succession of phytoplankton.

T. C. KHATRI1

1 Present address : Zoological Survey of India, 36/

802, Karakkamuri Cross Road. Cochin 11, India.

247

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

ERRATA

VOLUME 81, NO. 2: AUGUST 1984

Misc. Note No. 24. A note on species named Lycaena pavana (Lepidoptera:

Lycaenidae)

On page 493,

Right side column,

Line 2, For Kollar (1948: 416) read Kollar (1848: 416)

Misc. Note No. 25. Correct name of the Red-base Jezebel butterfly

(Lepidoptera: Pieridae)

On page 495,

Left side column.

Line 7 — For aglaid, read aglaia

Line 13 — For agalaja, read aglaja

Line 14 — For aglaja, read aglaia

JOURNAL

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August 1985

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JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

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1985 August

Vol. 82

No. 2

FEMALE EMIGRATION IN PRESBYTIS JOHN II:

A LIFE-HISTORY STRATEGY1

Rauf Ali,2 J. M. Johnson3 and Jim Moore4

Between 1976 and 1981 a number of female Nilgiri langurs ( Presbytis johnii ) were

observed associating with other primate species or with nonbreeding conspecifics in

dry deciduous forest at Mundanthurai, Tamil Nadu (India). Such associations have

not been reported for this species where it occurs in neighbouring evergreen forests.

These observations, combined with census data showing a male-biased sex ratio in

the deciduous forest (indicative of suboptimal habitat), suggest that female inter-

group transfer in this species represents a search for high-quality habitat. Unlike

many social primates, females of this species evidently place greater emphasis on

territory quality than on genetic relationships when deciding where to live and whom

to live with.

Female emigration has now been docu-

mented for a number of primate species

including bonnet macaques (Ali 1981), chim-

panzees (Pusey 1980), gorillas (Harcourt et al.

1976), howler monkeys (Rudran 1979), pur-

ple-faced langurs (Rudran 1973), and red

1 Accepted November 1983.

2 Department of Biology, Mahidol University,

Rama VI Road, Bangkok 4, Thailand.

3 Mudumalai Sanctuary, Templeton Cottage, Uthga-

mandalam 643 001, Tamil Nadu, India.

4 Anthropology Dept., Harvard University, Cam-

bridge, MA, U.S.A. 02138.

colobus (Struhsaker & Leland 1979, see Moore

1984 for review). Four explanations have

been proposed for this phenomenon: (1)

avoidance of inbreeding (Pusey 1980), (2)

attempts to avoid infanticidal males (Marsh

1979), (3) an adaptive response to ecologi-

cal changes in a patchy environment (Marsh

1979), and feeding competition leading to

active expulsion from the group (Jones 1980).

In this paper we summarize observations

made at different times since 1976 on instan-

ces of female emigration among Nilgiri langurs

at the Mundanthurai Sanctuary in Tamil

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Nadu, India. The bulk of these observations

were made on the Mundanthurai Plateau, in

lowland dry deciduous forest. Nilgiri langurs

( Presbytis johnii) occur at lower densities

here than in their normal highland (above

600m) evergreen forest habitat: approximate-

ly 1.4 groups/km2 as opposed to 4 groups/

km2 in evergreen forests (Oates 1979). Group

sizes are also much smaller, being, on ave-

rage, 6-8 animals in each bisexual group com-

pared to the normal 18-20 animals /group in

evergreen forest. The habitat in which they

were observed is at the edge of their range

and there is an area of partial sympatry with

the Hanuman langur ( Presbytis entellus ) in

this area. Group social structure is characte-

rized by the existence of the typical langur

uni-male group as well as all-male bands (c/.

Hrdy 1977); in the evergreen forest, all-male

bands were not seen and males outside bisexual

groups were solitary (Ali, unpublished obser-

vations) .

A striking feature of observations on Nilgiri

langurs in this area was the unusual places

in which juvenile and subadult females were

observed. The first observation, in Nov. 1976,

was of a large juvenile in association with a

multi-male bisexual troop of Hanuman lan-

gurs. The same individual was present with

the Hanuman langur troop 4 years later, in

Dec. 1980, and was seen interacting normally

with her troopmates. She changed groups in

January 1981 to a neighbouring P. entellus

troop.

A second large juvenile was observed at the

same time associating with a group of bonnet

macaques in semi-evergreen forest approxi-

mately 30 km from the first site. This asso-

ciation lasted from January until May, 1977.

Yet another observation of a single subadult

female Nilgiri langur with a group of Hanuman

langurs was made in a lowland area at Nam-

bikoil, near Kalakad, further south in the hill

range (see also Johnson 1982). In addition,

juvenile and subadult females regularly join

male bands to form ‘predominantly male

groups’ similar to those reported for P. senex

by Rudran (1973) and Manley (1978). Juve-

nile Nilgiri langur females travelling alone or

in pairs were first reported by McCann (1932).

Further observations were made on Nilgiri

langur groups in this area in December 1980

which revealed the following breakdown in

group compositions. There were 8 groups in

the area. Of these, 2 were all-male and one

was ‘predominantly male’. This consisted of

3 adult males and 2 subadult females. The

remaining five groups were bisexual. Reason-

ably accurate group counts were possible for

6 of the groups and these are given in Table 1.

Table 1

P. johnii census at Mundanthurai (lowland dry

deciduous forest), 1980

(AM = adult male; AF = adult female;

SF = subadult female; I = infant)

Earlier census results from Kodamadi, about

9 km upstream from Mundanthurai, in moist

deciduous forest on the fringe of the langur’s

evergreen forest habitat, yield an interesting

comparison. Three groups censused there gave

a total count of 5 males and 10 females.

Although this is not significantly different

250

FEMALE EMIGRATION IN P. JOHNII

from the lowland sex ratio ( X 2 = 1.42 with

1 df; NS), the relative predominance of males

in the suboptimal habitat agrees with findings

for P. entellus at Dharwar (Sugiyama et al.

1965) and at Mt. Abu (Moore, in prepara-

tion). For the larger sample at Mt. Abu, a

similar comparison of overall adult sex ratios

for 22 groups divided between “optimal” and

“suboptimal” habitats shows a highly signifi-

cant skew ( X 2 = 25.38 with 1 df; p<< .001;

N = 178).

Discussion

The salient factors that emerge are as

follows:

a) The data given here suggest that females

disperse from their natal groups in the

deciduous zone.

b) There is as yet no record of female

emigration in the evergreen zone, though

this might well occur.

c) Male emigration has been documented

both in the evergreen zone and in the

deciduous zone.

d) Sex ratios show excess males in the

deciduous zone, and excess females in

the evergreen zone.

e) The presence of all-male bands appears

to indicate that the deciduous habitat

is suboptimal.

This brings us to the reasons why the emi-

gration pattern described above occurs. Since

nulliparous subadult females emigrate, infanti-

cide avoidance can be ruled out. Inbreeding

avoidance can also be excluded, since males

transfer as a matter of course (Moore & Ali

1984). These observations are consistent

with hypothesis (3), that females migrate to

increase their access to resources, moving

from a suboptimal to an optimal habitat.

The possibility of limited female emigration

within the evergreen zone cannot be ruled out

at this stage. The difficulties of recognizing

individuals in the dense forest habitat make

this possibility difficult to test.

It must be pointed out that the phenomena

described above are, essentially, transient

phenomena. It is hardly likely that a female

might stay forever in a predominantly male

group, given the observations so far on the

uni-male structure of the Nilgiri langur’s breed-

ing groups. Long-term associations with other

species would also result in reduced repro-

ductive success. The phenomenon can best be

described as “hitchhiking” — in this sense,

gaining an advantage out of a temporary asso-

ciation, rather than remaining solitary. It is

not clear, however, whether the next stage

would be to join a unimale group or to

splinter off with one of the members of the

predominantly male group to form the nucleus

of a new unimale group. It is possible of

course that both happen. There are interesting

possibilities for future research in this area.

ACK NOWLEDGEM E NTS

Dr. Warren Brockelman commented criti-

cally on an earlier draft. R. A.’s field study

was funded by NIMH grant 24269 to Steven

Green. He would like to thank the Tamil

Nadu Forest Dept, for permission and faci-

lities to work at Mundanthurai. J. M.’s work

was funded by NSF grant BNS-7923014 and

by BNS-7908267 to D. B. Hrdy. He would

like to thank S. B. and D. B. Hrdy, S. M.

Mohnot, the Rajasthan Forest Dept, and the

Government of India for encouragement and

for allowing him to study Indian langurs.

251

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

References

Ali, R. (1981): The ecology and social beha-

viour of the Agastyamalai bonnet macaque ( Macaca

radiata diluta). Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Bristol.

Harcourt, A. H., Stewart, K. S. & Fossey, D.

(1976): Male emigration and female transfer in

wild mountain gorilla. Nature 263: 226-227.

Hrdy, S. B. (1977): The Langurs of Abu. Har-

vard University Press, Cambridge.

Johnson, J. M. (1982): Intra-generic troop for-

mation in Presbytis genera in sanctuaries of Tamil

Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79: 658-659.

Jones, C. B. (1980): The function of status in

the mantled howling monkey, Alouatta palliata

Gray: Intraspecific competition for group member-

ship in a folivorous neotropical primate. Primates

21: 389-405.

Manley, G. H. (1978): ‘Wanderers’ in Presbytis

senex. In: Chivers, D. G. and Herbert, J. (eds.),

Recent Advances in Primatology. Vol. I. Academic

Press, New York, pp. 193-195.

Marsh, C. W. (1979): Female transference and

mate choice among Tana River red colobus. Nature

281: 568-569.

McCann, C. (1932): Observations on some of

the Indian langurs. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36:

618-628.

Moore, J. (1984): Female transfer in primates.

hit. J. Primatol. 5: 537-589.

Moore, J. & Ali, R. (1984): Are dispersal and

inbreeding avoidance related ? Anim. Behav. 32:

94-112.

Oates, J. F. (1979): Comments on the geogra-

phical distribution and status of the South Indian

black leaf-monkey ( Presbytis johnii). Mammalia

43: 485-493.

Pusey, A. E. (1980): Inbreeding avoidance in

chimpanzees. Anim. Behav. 28: 543-552.

Rudran, R. (1973): Adult male replacement in

one-male troops of purple-faced langurs ( Presbytis

senex senex) and its effect on population structure.

Folia Primatol. 19: 166-192.

(1979): The demography and social

mobility of a red howler ( Alouatta seniculus) popu-

lation in Venezuela. In: Eisenberg, J. F. (ed.),

Vertebrate Ecology in the Northern Neotropics.

Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, pp. 107-

126.

Struhsaker, T. T. & Leland, L. (1979): Socio-

ecology of five sympatric monkey species in the

Kibale Forest, Uganda. Adv. Study Behav. 9: 159-

228.

Sugiyama, Y., Yoshiba, K. & Parasarathy, M

D. (1965): Home range, mating season, male group

and inter-troop relations in Hanuman langurs ( Pres-

bytis entellus). Primates 6: 73-106.

252

FECUNDITY OF THE GARHWAL

HIMALAYAN MAHSEER TOR PUT1T0RA (HAM.)1

Prakash Nautiyal and M. S. Lal2

This paper describes studies on the fecundity of the Garhwal Himalayan mahseer

Tor putitora procured from the river Nayar. Both gravimetric and volumetric methods

were used to determine the average fecundity. It ranged from 26,997.71 to 98,583.5

in total length range of 780.0-1377 mm. Linear relationship existed between log

fecundity and log ovary length, weight and volume as well as with log fish length

and weight. Comparative fecundity ranged from 3.374 to 8.943.

Introduction

Reproduction provides the replenishment so

essential for the preservation of the species

and its abundance. The reproduction capa-

city is an adaptation which ensures the survi-

val of the species under the conditions in

which it originated and exists. It has been

defined as the mean number of ripening eggs

per brood prior to the next spawning period.

Studies on fecundity are essential from the

viewpoint of production, stock management

and assessment in any water body. Consider-

able work has been done on the fecundity of

the fishes in India as well as abroad (Keste-

ven 1942, Khan 1939, Simpson 1951, 1959a

& b, Lehman 1953, Pillay 1954, Alikunhi

1956, Bagenal 1957, 1978, Sarojini 1957, Das

1964, 1967, Verghese 1973, 1976, Chondar

1977, and Natrajan and Reddy 1980).

The fecundity of mahseers has been studied

by Desai 1973, Chaturvedi 1976 and Pathani

1981. However, there is no literature pertain-

ing to the same on the Garhwal Himalayan

mahseer.

1 Accepted December 1982.

2 Deptt. of Zoology, Garhwal University, Srinagar

Garhwal.

Materials and Methods

Mahseer was procured regularly for two

years from the river Nayar during the spawn-

ing season by angling or gill netting in the

vicinity of Banghat, an important fish landing

centre on this river. Length and weight of the

fish and ovary was recorded in fresh condi-

tion. They were then dissected out and fixed

in 10% formalin.

After allowing the ovaries to attain hard-

ness they were taken out and dehydrated using

cotton or blotting paper. This weight and

volume of each ovary was recorded. Three

samples from the anterior, middle and poste-

rior section were mixed and centrifuged for

homogeneity. In fact there was no discrimi-

nation in ova-diameter frequency in different

parts of the ovary. The subsample of the homo-

genised mass was subjected to volumetric

(Kandler & Pirwitz 1957) and gravimetric

counts (Wet method — McGregor 1922 and

Dry method — Simpson 1959a). The average

of all these methods was recorded as mean

fecundity. Comparative fecundity was calculat-

ed as the ratio of total number of ova and

total weight of fish (Das 1964). Relationships

between fecundity and fish, and ovary weights

and lengths (log), were determined by Least

Squares method, i.e. Y = a + bx.

253

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

Observations

The fecundity varied from 26,997.71 to

98,583.5 in the weight range of 3,500-23,000

gm (table 1). The average comparative fecun-

dity was calculated to be 6.13.

Various relationships such as log fecundity

— fish length and weight and log fecundity —

ovary length, weight and volume, were esta-

blished to be linear (table 2). It is noteworthy

that fecundity bears a closer relationship to

weight and volume, especially that of the ovary

as compared to the length.

Discussion

The fecundity of Tor tor varies from 6,667-

43,610 in the size range of 290-750 mm

according to Karamchandani et al. (1967) and

from 7,000-1,01,600 in the fishes ranging

Table 1

Fecundity estimates of Tor putitora as assessed by various methods

Table 2

Regression data and analysis of variance for linearity of various relationships

* Significant

254

FECUNDITY OF TOR PUTITORA

between 283-750 mm by Desai (1973). Recent-

ly, a Tor khudree measuring 630 mm and weigh-

ing 3.6 Kg, was reported to possess 20,000

eggs (Kulkarni & Ogale 1978) while fecun-

dity estimates of Tor putitora from Kumaon

Lakes revealed that the fish measuring 33.9-

51.7 cm in length possessed 7,076-18,525 eggs

(Pathani 1981). The Garhwal Himalayan

mahseer, if compared to these estimates can

certainly be considered to be equally produc-

tive, for the average fecundity ranged between

26,997.71-98,583.5. However, when compared

to fishes like Labeo bata, it can be categorised

as having low fecundity, for in the latter, the

size range of 441-544 mm, according to Bhat-

nagar (1964) was able to produce 3,01,861-

5,76,251 eggs, and fishes measuring 280-480

mm in length, according to Joshi & Khanna

(1980) have fecundity range of 45,910-3,99,050.

Das (1964) propounded the concept of

comparative fecundity (CF) for evaluating the

actual breeding powers of the fishes and con-

sidered Mystus bleekeri with an average

fecundity of 15,962 to be a ‘prolific breeder’,

value of CF being 7.03 as compared to 6.13

of Tor putitora. Obviously, the latter is a ‘poor

breeder’.

The food consumed by the fish, especially

the parent population, determines not only

the fecundity but also the quality of the sexual

products and the viability of the offspring

(Nikolaev 1958, Nikolskii 1961a & b), thus

emphasizing the fish-food relationship, which

Ber (1854) saw to be a complex one. Scott

(1962) reported that the lowering of fecun-

dity is intensified by poor food intake which

seems to stand true in case of the Garhwal

Himalayan mahseer for there probably exists

scarcity of ‘basic’ food, i.e. insects, especially

in case of the Ganga near the foot hills of the

Garhwal region. This probability is based on

the fact that the tributaries Alaknanda and

Nayar, especially the former which is one of

the main tributaries, possessed poor quantities

of the heterotrophic population (Nautiyal &

Lai 1978).

Fecundity was considered to vary as a

square of the fish length (Franz 1910a & b,

Keisselevitch 1923, Clark 1934). Later on

Simpson (1951) reported egg production to

be an internal phenomenon associated with

the manner in which the germinal epithelium

is folded so as to fill the volume of the ovary

thus relating it to the ovary volume and

therefore to the cube of the length. As in the

present case, a linear relationship between

fecundity — length and weight of the fish and

ovary, have been established by several authors

(Kesteven 1942, Lehman 1952, Bagenal

1957, Sarojini 1957, 1958, Pillay 1958, Ver-

ghese 1961, 1973, 1980, Desai 1973, Joshi and

Khanna 1980 and Pathani 1981).

The interesting feature of the present study

was a closer relationship of fecundity to fish

weight as compared to its length as also re-

ported by Smith (1947) and Spanovskaya et

al. (1963).

It is apparent from the above discussion

that the Garhwal Himalayan mahseer is a

‘poor breeder’ and that breeding in the natu-

ral environment is surely a handicap for the

mahseer to flourish.

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to Dr. H. R. Singh, Prof.

& Head Department of Zoology, Garhv/al

University for the laboratory facilities and

encouragement and advice tendered by him

to the first author (P.N.).

255

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

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Chondar, S. L. (1977): Fecundity and its role in

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(1967): Studies on the gonads and

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(1910b): Zwei Eiproduction der

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Josh i, S. N. & Khanna, S. S. (1980): Relative

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M. D. & Bhatnagar, G. K. (1967): Biological in-

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river (1958-1966). Bull. Cent. Inld. fish res. Inst. 10:

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Keisselevitch, K. A. (1923): Materials on the

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Khan, H. (1939): Study of the sex organs of

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FECUNDITY OF TOR PUTITORA

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257

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF DODITAL — A

HIGH ALTITUDE LAKE IN THE GARHWAL HIMALAYA

(UTTARKASHI), U.P.1

K. S. Negi, J. K. Tiwari and R. D. Gaur2

( With two plates )

The present communication is an account of Angiosperms collected from a high

altitude lake (Dodital) in Garhwal Himalaya during the year 1982. Dodital is situated

on way to Gangotri, a famous pilgrim place. It lies between 30° 47' 15" N latitudes

and 78° 29' 40" E longitudes. The dominant families of this zone are Ranunculaceae,

Rosaceae, Saxifragaceae, Asteraceae, Primulaceae, Lamiaceae, Polygonaceae, Orchida-

ceae and Poaceae. The paper enumerates a list of 275 species and 150 genera, repre-

sented by 60 families.

Introduction

The Himalayas, inspite of being the toughest

to approach, have been receiving the atten-

tion of plant explorers since time immemorial.

Thomas Hardwicke (1757-1835) was the first

European to collect the plants from North-

Western Himalaya, including the Alaknanda

valley. William Spencer Webb, Hyder Jung

Hearsay and Felix Vincant Rapet, who were

the members of an expedition, organised dur-

ing 1802-1803, collected plants from Gangotri

and Yamunotri areas (see Burkill 1965).

Strachey and Winterbottom made extensive

collections from Garhwal, Kumaon and adja-

cent parts of Tibet from 1846-1849 (see

Duthie 1906). Osmaston (1927) published

forest flora for Kumaon in which he describ-

ed the trees, shrubs and climbers of erstwhile

Kumaon division including some area of Garh-

wal. Some other known workers are Ghildyal

(1957), Gupta (1956, 1957, 1962), Rao (1959,

1 Accepted June 1983.

2 Department of Botany, Garhwal University,

Srinagar- 246 174. U.P.

1960), Naithani (1967), Bhattacharyya and

Malhotra (1982), Dey et al. (1968), Semwal

and Gaur (1981), Kala and Gaur (1982).

However, this part of the Himalaya which

embodies a high altitude lake, associated

with temperate as well as alpine vege-

tational features, has not been covered

by the earlier workers. Therefore, it was

thought desirable to study the flora of Dodital.

It is worthwhile to note that this lake is one

of the important scenic sites, visited by a

number of tourists during the favourable

period. The vegetational features enumerated

in the following text, have special importance

to the tourists and the conservation ecologists.

Geography and Climate

Dodital is situated on way to Gangotri, in

Uttarkashi district, 32 Km. away from the main

township, Uttarkashi (Plate 1). This lake is

located at an elevation of 3004 m a.s.l. and

lies in between 30° 47' 15" N latitude and

78° 29' 40" E longitude. The lake is sur-

rounded by precipitous lofty mountains and

glaciers. Several pretty falls and hill streams

258

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82 Plate 1

Negi, Tiwari & Gaur : Flora of Dodital

Map of Dodital.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82

Negi, Tiwari & Gaur : Flora of Dodital

Plate 2

t

Above : View of lake Dodital.

Below : Last inhabited village. Agora enroute to Dodital.

FLORA OF D0D1TAL

add to the charm of the valley. The approach

of the lake begins from Gangori, a place

situated at a distance of 4 Km from Uttar-

kashi town. The route leads through Kalyani

and Agora. Agora, enroute Dodital, is the last

inhabited village (Plate 2). It follows a 16 km

spectacular hill route through dense forest to

reach the lake proper. The lake is situated at

the timber line zone, which constitutes the

vegetation of temperate as well as of alpine

zone. Higher up to the lake, there are steep

mountainous slopes with alpine vegetation.

The principal climatic factors influencing

the mountainous zone, are high rain fall, high

relative humidity and low temperature. Upper

mountainous limits of the area are covered

with snow for nearly 9-10 months in a year.

Vegetation and Floristic Composition

The vegetation of Dodital is characterised

by a comparatively lush flora, represented by

temperate and high altitudinal himalayan

plants. The area may be divided into three

sections, comprising of the aquatic zone or the

lake proper (approximately 200 x 150 m),

encircling marshy zone and the outer most

mountainous slope covered by thick vegetation.

The route on way to this high altitude

lake, crosses areas having almost all diversities

of high altitude vegetation and floristic com-

position rarely met with in other areas of the

Garhwal Himalaya. Abies pindrow, Acer cae-

sium, Betula utilis, Quercus himalayana, Q.

semecarpifolia associated with Rhododendron

arboreum make the tree limit on the route.

Undergrowth in the Rhododendron forest is

rather poor and the few notable plants are re-

presented by Cirsium involucratus, Good-

yera repens, Habenaria ensifolia, Hemiphragma

heterophyllum, Primula edgeworthii and Rubus

niveus. The area presents a panoramic view

of the thick forest of Pinus excelsa, Abies pin-

drow occurs on drier slopes. A mule track goes

down through a thin forest of Quercus himala-

yana, Rhododendron arboreum mixed with

Alnus nepalensis, Cotoneaster affinis var. bacilla-

ris, Lyonia ovalifolia, Viburnum cotinifolium and

common temperate herbs like Anaphalis busua,

A. contort a, Elsholtzia polystachya, E. strobi-

lifera and several others. It offers an interest-

ing assemblage of temperate species and a

good number of epiphytes. Some of the fine

herbaceous members are Corydalis cornuta,

C. cashmeriana, Desmodium tiliaefolium,

Elsholtzia cristata, Geranium wallichianum,

Polygonum polystachyum, Sedum trifedum,

Swerlia cordata, Cirsium involucratus, Soli-

dago virga-aurea, Valeriana hardwickii and

many others. While approaching the lake

vegetation becomes dense with more shrubby

members dominated by Berberis chitria, Coto-

neaster microphylla, Indigofera heterantha,

Salix elegans and Viburnum foetens.

The area near the lake is occupied mostly

by the species of Salix, Caltha palustris,

Potent ilia fulgens, P. fruticosa, Androsace

rotundifolium, Pedicularis hoffmeisteri. The

slopes hold growths of Polygonum polysta-

chyum, Impatiens brachycentra, Cirsium in-

volucratus, and Parnarsia nubicola. There is

a rich herbaceous growth comprising of Poly-

gonum alpinum, Thalictrum sp., Senecio nudi-

caulis, Swertia cordata, Oxyria digyna. Tara-

xacum officinale met in moist places. At higher

elevations white flowered Sedum linerifolium

and yellow flowered Potentilla atrosanguinea

are quite common. Surrounding mountains in

the neighbourhood of the lake support a thick

forest of Quercus semecarpifolia, Acer caesium,

Salix elegans. Rhododendron campanulatum,

Taxus baccata with a rich assemblage of

climbing shrubs as well as temperate herbs and

shrubs.

Darwa top is at the edge of a precipitous

rock and the surrounding panorama reveals a

259

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

pictorial view of the snow clad mountains and

glaciers in the back ground and the vast ex-

tension of the ‘Bandarpuchh’ with large widen-

ing course disappearing with the great wilder-

ness of the snowy heights. On the Darwa top

are beautiful reddish carpets of Polygonum sp.,

Cassiope fastigiata, Rhododendron anthopo-

gon, Cotoneaster falconerii. The dry and shady

rocks and slopes hold mainly Bergenia stra-

cheyi, Meconopsis aculeata, Syringa emodi

and Potentilla atrosanguinea.

Enumeration of species

This work is primarily a record of high

altitude plants collected from Dodital and its

vicinity during the year 1982, with short field

notes. In this work Bentham and Hooker’s

system of classification has been followed with

some modifications as suggested by Hutchin-

son (1973). As far as possible recent names

of plants have been followed. Botanical names

and localities with altitude have been men-

tioned. Field number of each specimen follows

the month and year in the list and the speci-

mens are preserved in the Herbarium of Botany

Department, Garhwal University, Srinagar

(GUH).

DICOTYLEDONS

Ranunculaceae

Anemone rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex DC.

Branched silky pubescent herb with white

flowers. 3000 m, June 1982, 2693.

A. obtusiloba D. Don

Herb with white flowers. 3200 m, June 1982,

2700.

Caltha palustris Linn.

Herb with yellow flowers. 3000 m. May

1982, 2695.

Clematis buchaniana DC.

Climbing shrub with creamy white flowers.

2500 m. May 1982, 627.

C. montana Buch.-Ham. ex DC.

Climbing shrub with white or tinged with

pink flowers. 2500 m, June 1982, 1023.

Delphinium denudatum Wall, ex Hook. f.

Herb with deep blue flowers. 2700 m, May

1982, 1947.

Ranunculus diffusus DC.

Hairy herb with yellow flowers. 2800 m,

June 1982, 1095.

R. laetus Wall, ex Royle

Herb with yellow flowers. 2700 m, June

1982, 1577.

Thalictrum foliolosum DC.

Herb with white flowers. 2800 m, June 1982,

1653.

T. javanicum Bl.

Herb with white flowers. 3000 m, June

1982, 817.

Berberidaceae

Berberis asiatica Roxb. ex DC.

Shrub with yellow flowers. 2700 m, May

1982, 616.

B. chitria Lindl.

Shrub with yellow flowers. 2700 m, May

1982, 617.

B. lycium Royle

Shrub with yellow flowers. 2500 m. May

1982, 618.

Papaveraceae

Papaver dubium Linn. var. glabrum (Royle)

Koch.

Glabrous herb with red flowers. 2400 m.

May 1982, 1683.

Meconopsis aculeata Royle

Prickly herb with blue flowers. 3200 m,

June 1982, 2816.

260

FLORA OF DODITAL

Fumariaceae

Corydalis cashmeriana Royle

Delicate herb with blue flowers. 3100 m.

May 1982, 772.

C. cornuta Royle

Branched herb with yellow flowers. 3000 m,

June 1982, 870.

Fumaria indica (Haussk.) Pugsley

Herb with rose and deep purple tipped

flowers. 2500 m. May 1982, 3813.

Brassicaceae

Arabidopsis thaliana (Linn.) Heyn.

Herb with white flowers. 2700 m. May 1982,

1845.

Cardamine scutata Thunb.

Glabrous herb with white flowers. 3000 m,

June 1982, 1724.

VlOLACEAE

Viola biflora Linn.

Glabrous herb with yellow flowers. 2500 m,

June 1982, 2708.

CAR YOP H YLLACEAE

Arenaria serpyllifolia Linn.

Herb with white flowers. 2800 m, June 1982,

1590.

Stellaria paniculata Edgew.

Herb with white flowers. 2800 m, June

1982, 741.

S. latifoiia Benth.

Herb with white flowers. 2500 m, June 1982,

812.

Hypericaceae

Hypericum elodeoides Choisy

Herb with yellow flowers. 2500 m. May

1982, 1744.

H. perforatum Linn.

Herb with yellow flowers. 2500 m, June 1982,

841.

Malvaceae

Malva verticillata Linn.

Herb with white-blue flowers. 3100 m, June

1982, 4782.

Geraniaceae

Geranium nepalense Sweet

Soft hairy herb with dark purple flowers.

2500 m, June 1982, 853.

G. wallichianum D. Don

Hairy herb with pinkish purple flowers.

3000 m, June 1982, 667.

Balsaminaceae

Impatiens brachycentra Kar. & Kir.

Herb with white flowers. 3200 m, June

1982, 2669.

I. cristata Wall.

Herb with yellow flowers. 2700 m. May

1982, 3253.

I. scabrida DC.

Herb with yellow flowers. 2500 m, June

1982, 1103.

Rutaceae

Boenninghausenia albiflora (Hook.) Reichb.

Herb with white flowers. 2700 m. May 1982,

623.

Skimmia laureola Sieb. & Zucc.

Glabrous aromatic shrub with yellow

flowers. 3000 m, May 1982, 1064.

Aquifoliaceae

Ilex dipyrena Wall.

Tree with greenish yellow flowers. 2800 m,

April 1982, 4743.

261

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Celastraceae

Euonymus tingens Wall.

Tree with yellow flowers. 2700 m. May

1982, 4730.

Rhamnaceae

Rhamnus virgatus Roxb.

Shrub with greenish flowers. 2700 m, April

1982, 5157.

VlTACEAE

Ampelocissus divaricata (Wall, ex Lawson)

Planch.

Climbing shrub with red flowers. 2700 m,

April 1982, 4783.

Tetrastigma serrulatum (Roxb.) Planch.

Climbing shrub with yellowish flowers. 2500

m, June 1982, 4784.

Aceraceae

Acer caesium Wall.

Tree with yellow green flowers. 3000 m,

April 1982, 1730.

A. lavigatum Wall.

Tree with white flowers. 2700 m, April 1982,

4785.

Aesculus indica Colebr. ex Canbess.

Tree with white pinkish flowers. 3000 m,

June 1982, 4170.

Anacardiaceae

Pistacia integerrima Stewart

Tree with greenish yellow flowers. 2500 m,

April 1982, 4184.

Rhus wallichii Hook. f.

Tree with greenish yellow flowers. 2500 m,

April 1982, 4786.

Fabaceae

Astragalus hinialayanus Klotzsch.

Shrub with yellow flowers. 2800 m, April

1982, 1412.

Desmodium tiliaefolium D. Don

Shrub with pink flowers. 2700 m, June

1982, 1916.

Indigofera heterantha Wall, ex Brand.

Shrub with bluish flowers. 2500 m, June

1982, 976.

Parochetus communis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

Hairy herb with blue flowers. 3000 m, April

1982, 2608.

Rosaceae

Cotoneaster bacillaris Wall, ex Lindl.

Shrub with white flowers. 2500 m. May

1982, 4186.

C. acuminata Lindl.

Shrub with white flowers. 3200 m. May

1982, 2834.

C. microphylla Wall, ex Lindl.

Shrub with white flowers. 3000 m. May

1982, 836.

Fragaria indica Andr.

Herb with white flowers. 2600 m, June 1982,

1109.

F. vesca Linn.

Silky hairy herb with white flowers. 3000

m, June 1982, 981.

Geum datum Wall.

Herb with bright yellow flowers. 3200 m,

June 1982, 2720.

Potentilla atrosanguinea Lodd.

Herb with purple flowers. 3300 m, June

1982, 863.

P. fulgens Wall, ex Hook.

Herb with yellow flowers. 2800 m, April

1982, 720.

P. fruticosa Linn.

Herb with bright yellow flowers. 3300 m,

June 1982, 2721."

262

FLORA OF D0D1TAL

P. nepalensis Hook.

Hairy herb with dark crimson flowers. 2700

m, June 1982, 865.

Pyracantha crenulata (D. Don) Roem.

Spiny shrub with white flowers. 2500 m,

April 1982, 834.

Rosa macrophylla Lindl.

Prickly shrub with pink white flowers. 2900

m, June 1982, 982.

Rubus niveus Wall.

Prickly shrub with pink white flowers. 2500

m, April 1982, 3871.

Spiraea bella Sims.

Shrub with pink flowers. 3200 m, June 1982,

980.

S. canescens D. Don

Shrub with white flowers. 3100 m, June

1982, 981.

Saxifragaceae

Bergenia ciliata (Royle) Raizada

Herb with pink purple flowers. 2800 m,

April 1982, 3866.

Deutzia corynibosa R. Br.

Shrub with pink purple flowers. 2700 m,

June 1982, 4787.

D. staminea R. Br.

Shrub with white flowers. 2700 m, April

1982, 765.

Parnassia nubicola Wall, ex Wight

Glabrous herb with white flowers. 3000 m,

April 1982, 2621.

Saxifraga brunoniana Wall, ex Sternb.

Tufted herb with yellow flowers. 3400 m,

April 1982, 846.

S. diversifolia Wall, ex DC. var. parnassifolia

(D. Don) Engl.

Erect herb with yellow white flowers. 3600

m, June 1982, 1056.

S. filicaulis Wall.

Small herb with yellow flowers. 3300 m,

June 1982, 847.

S. pallida Wall, ex DC. syn. S. micrantha

Small shrub with white flowers. 3000 m,

June 1982, 2603.

Crassulaceae

Sedum linearifolium Royle

Glabrous herb with white flowers. 3100 m,

June 1982, 905.

S. trifiduni Wall.

Glabrous herb with pale pink flowers. 3000

m, June 1982, 3284.

Onagraceae

Circaea alpina L.

Herb with pale pink flowers. 3100 m, June

1982, 966.

Epilobium brevifolium D. Don

Herb with pale pink flowers. 3000 m, June

1982, 3168.

E. royleanum Haussk.

Erect herb with pale pink flowers. 3000 m,

June 1982, 2803.

Oenothera rosea Soland

Herb with pink flowers. 2600 m. May 1982,

903.

Begoniaceae

Begonia amonea Wall, ex DC.

Glabrous herb with pink flowers 2500 m.,

April 1982, 622.

Datiscaceae

Datisca cannabina L.

Glabrous herb with yellow flowers. 2700 m.

May 1982, 4788.

Apiaceae

Bupleurum candollii Wall, ex DC.

Herb with white flowers. 3200 m, June 1982,

1013.

263

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

B. lanceolatum Wall, ex DC.

Herb with white flowers. 2800 m, June

1982, 3300.

Heracleum candicans Wall, ex DC.

Herb with white flowers. 3200 m, April

1982, 3747.

Pimpinella diversifolia DC.

Herb with white flowers. 2900 m, June 1982,

1051.

Selinuin wallichianum (DC.) Raizada &

Saxena

Herb with white flowers. 3300 m, June 1982,

2629.

Araliaceae

Hedera nepalensis K. Koch.

Climbing shrub with yellow flowers. 2700

m, April 1982, 954.

Caprifoliaceae

Leycesteria formosa Wall.

Bushy shrub with white flowers. 2700 m,

June 1982, 963.

Lonicera quinquelocularis Hardw.

Shrub with white flowers. 3000 m, May

1982, 965.

Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don

Small tree w’ith white flowers. 2700 m, April

1982, 964.

V. foetens Decne.

Shrub with white flowers. 3000 m, April

1982, 896.

V. stellulatum Wall.

Small tree with white flowers. 2800 m, May

1982, 894.

Rubiaceae

Galium aparine Linn.

Climbing herb with white flowers. 3000 m,

April 1982, 1105.

G. asperit'olium Wall.

Herb with white flowers. 2700 m, June 1982,

887.

G. rotundifolium Linn.

Small herb with minute white flowers. 2900

m, June 1982, 888.

Leptodermis lanceolata Wall.

Shrub with pinkish purple flowers. 2700 m,

June 1982, 1772.

Valeria naceae

Valeriana hardwickii Wall.

Aromatic herb with white flowers. 3300 m,

June 1982, 2623.

V. jatamansi DC.

Aromatic herb with dull white flowers. 2800

m. May 1982, 519.

Dipsacaceae

Dipsacus mitis D. Don

Herb with white heads. 3300 m, June 1982,

648.

Morina longifolia Wall.

Prickly herb with deep pink flowers. 3300

m, June 1982, 687.

Asteraceae

Anaphalis busua (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don)

Hand-Mazzetti

Erect woolly herb with full yellowish

flowers. 2500 m, April 1982, 607.

A. contorta Hook. f.

Erect woolly herb with small dense dirty

white flowers. 3000 m, June 1982, 604.

Artemisia vestita Wall.

Herb with whitish flowers. 2700 m, June

1982, 910.

A. vulgaris Linn.

Herb with white grey flowers. 2900 m,

June 1982, 2209.

264

FLORA OF DODITAL

Aster peduncularis Wall, ex Nees

Herb with purple blue flowers. 2700 m, April

1982, 3201.

Cirsium involucratus DC.

Robust herb with dull yellow flowers. 3000

m, June 1982, 2648.

Dichrocephala integrifolia (W. Ait.) Kurtze

Erect herb with whitish flowers. 2700 m,

June 1982, 775.

Erigeron alpinuni Linn.

Herb with pinkish yellow flowers. 2700 m,

April, 1982, 663.

Inula cappa (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) DC.

Shrub with yellow flowers. 2800 m. May

1982, 1982.

Jurinea macrocephala (DC.) Clarke

Herb with sessile purplish heads. 2800 m,

June 1982, 2891.

Myriactis wallichii Less.

Branched herb with whitish yellow flowers.

2700 m, June 1982, 917.

Senecio alatus Wall, ex DC.

Pubescent herb with dirty brown pappus.

3100 m, June 1982, 737.

S. chrysanthemoides DC.

Erect glabrous herb with yellow flowers.

3100 m, June 1982, 2633.

S. nudicaulis Buch.-Ham.

Glabrous herb with yellow flowers. 3000 m,

May 1982, 811.

Solidago virga-aurea Linn.

Herb with deep yellow flowers. 2700 m,

June 1982, 1900.

Taraxacum officinale (Weder.) Wiggers

Herb with white flowers. 2700 m, April

1982, 1096.

Tanaeetum longifolium Wall, ex DC.

Aromatic herb with yellow corymbose

heads. 3100 m, June 1982, 1088.

Campanulaceae

Campanula colorata Wall.

Erect herb with blue flowers. 2700 m, April

1982, 908.

Ericaceae

Cassiope fastigiata D. Don

Erect herb with drooping dull yellow flowers,

3300 m. May 1982, 2725.

Gaultheria trichophylla Royle

Small herb with white flowers. 3200 m. May

1982, 666.

G. nummularioides D. Don

Small herb with pink flowers. 3300 m, June

1982, 1071.

Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don

Small shrub with dull yellow flowers. 3200

m, June 1982, 2727.

R. arboreum Sm.

Tree with red flowers. 2700 m, June 1982,

1041.

R. campanulatum D. Don

Small tree with light pink flowers. 3300 m,

June 1982, 2728.

Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude

Tree with white flowers. 2500 m, April

1982, 991.

Primulaceae

Androsace lanuginosa Wall.

Silky villous herb with purple flowers. 3100

m, June 1982, 603.

A. rotundifolia Hardw.

Herb with pink purple flowers. 3200 m,

April 1982, 1015.

Lysimachia pyramidalis Wall.

Glabrous shrub with pale purple flowers.

2700 m, June 1982, 792.

Primula denticulata Sm.

Herb with pinkish purple flowers. 3300 m.

May 1982, 1033.

265

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

P. petiolaris Wall.

Herb with purple flowers. 3300 m. May

1982, 699.

Myrsinaceae

Myrsine africana Linn.

Shrub with light reddish coloured flowers.

2700 m. June 1982, 1518.

Oleaceae

Fraxinus micrantha Lingelsh

Tree with drooping white flowers and

samara fruit. 2500 m. May 1982, 4715.

Syringa emodi Wall, ex G. Don

Small tree with white flowers. 2800 m, April

1982, 744.

Asclepiadaceae

Cynanchum glaucum Wall.

Hairy herb with yellow flowers. 2700 m,

May 1982, 770.

C. vincetoxicum Pers.

Herb with yellowish flowers. 2900 m, June

1982, 1067.

Gentianaceae

Gentiana argentia (Royle ex D. Don) DC.

Herb with white flowers. 3000 m, April

1982, 1021.

G. capitata Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

Erect herb with whitish purple streaked

flowers. 3200 m, April 1982, 995.

Swertia eordata Clarke

Erect herb with white marked purple

streaks on the margins of flowers. 3300 m,

April 1982, 1403.

Boraginaceae

Cynoglossum glochidiatum Wall, ex Benth.

Erect hairy herb with deep blue flowers.

2700 m, June 1982, 929.

C. microglochin Benth.

Herb with dark blue flowers. 2800 m, June

1982, 1759.

Onosma emodi Wall.

Densely hairy herb with light pink flowers.

3100 m, June 1982, 2602.

Solan ace ae

Datura stramonium Linn.

Erect glabrous herb with white flowers.

2500 m. May 1982, 1775.

Physalis minima Linn.

Erect herb with yellow flowers. 2400 m, June

1982, 4077.

SCROPH U LARIACEAE

Hemiphragma heterophyllum Wall.

Hairy herb with pink flowers. 3200 m, June

1982, 1030.

Pedicularis carnosa Syn. P. bifida Wall.

Herb with pink flowers. 2800 m, June 1982,

925.

P. hoffmeisterii Klotz.

Herb with pink flowers. 2800 m, June 1982,

713.

Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth.

Spreading herb with bluish flowers. 3100 m,

June 1982, 804.

Veronica agrestis Linn.

Herb with blue flowers. 2600 m, April 1982,

1010.

V. cana Wall.

Herb with blue flowers. 3200 m, April 1982,

744.

Acanthaceae

Strobilanthes dalhousianus Clarke

Herb with dark blue flowers. 2600 m, June

1982, 1954.

266

FLORA OF D0D1TAL

S. atropurpureus Nees

Herb with blue flowers. 2700 m, June 1982,

742.

Lamiaceae

Calamintha umbrosa Benth.

Herb with pinkish flowers. 3200 m, June

1982, 638.

Elsholtzia polystachya Benth.

Aromatic herb with pale yellow flowers.

2700 m, June 1982, 944.

E. strobilifera Benth.

Herb with pale purple flowers. 2800 m, June

1982, 2668.

Salvia nubicola Sweet

Hairy herb with pale yellow flowers. 2700

m, June 1982, 950.

Nepeta govaniana Benth.

Erect herb with yellow flowers. 2800 m,

June 1982, 1055.

Origanum vulgare Linn.

Erect herb with pink flowers. 2700 m, June

1982, 2932.

Phlomis bracteosa Royle

Hairy herb with dull yellow flowers. 3100

m, June 1982, 715.

Thymus serpyllum Linn.

Aromatic hairy herb with purple flowers.

3100 m. May 1982, 700.

Plantaginaceae

Plantago major Linn.

Herb with green spikes. 2900 m, April 1982,

806.

Amaranthaceae

Achyranthes aspera Linn.

Herb with white flowers. 2700 m, June

1982, 2169.

Cyathula capitata Moq.

Herb with white flowers. 2700 m, June 1982,

3881.

Polygon ace ae

Oxyria digyna Hill.

Glabrous herb with green pink flowers.

3100 m, June 1982, 692.

Polygonum alatum Buch.-Ham.

Herb with white flowers. 3200 m, April

1982, 680.

P. amplexicaule D. Don

Glabrous erect herb with red flowers. 3000

m, June 1982, 985.

P. polystachyum Wall.

Shrub with white tinged pink flowers. 2800

m, June 1982, 2636.

P. sinuatum Royle

Creeping glabrous herb with pink flowers.

2900 m, June 1982, 2637.

Rheum emodi Wall, ex Leisson

Herb with white flowers. 3200 m, June

1982, 2804.

Thymelaeaceae

Daphne oleoides Sehreb.

Shrub with white tinged pink flowers. 2700

m, June 1982, 658.

Euphorbiaceae

Buxus sempervirens Linn.

Small tree with yellow green flowers. 2700

m, April 1982, 4722.

Sarcococca pruniformis Lindl.

Glabrous shrub with pale yellow flowers.

2700 m, April 1982, 731.

Urticaceae

Urtica parviflora Roxb.

Erect herb with small green flowers. 2700

m, June 1982, 2003.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Pilea urnbrosa Wedd.

Hairy herb with minute green flowers. 2800

m, June 1982, 719.

Betulaceae

Betula alnoides Buch.-Ham.

Tree with male and female catkins 4" long.

2600 m, June 1982, 4701.

B. utilis D. Don

Tree with male and female spikes 3" long.

3200 m, June 1982, 4709.

Fagaceae

Quercus himalayana Bahadur

Tree, fruit ovoid, half hurried in the cup,

2500 m, June 1982, 4731.

Q. semecarpifolia Smith

Tree with dark brown smooth and globose

nut. 2700 m, June 1982, 1084.

Salicaceae

Salix elegans Wall, ex Anders.

Small tree with yellow or pale green cat-

kins. 3100 m, April 1982, 4789.

S. hastata Linn.

Small tree with densely black catkins. 3300

m, April 1982, 4791.

PlNACEAE

Abies pindrow Sach.

A large deciduous tree with light green

foliage. 2600 m, April 1982, 4701.

Pinus excelsa Wall.

Tree foliage grey green with cylindric cones.

2800 m, April 1982, 4790.

MONOCOTYLEDONS

Orchidaceae

Epipactis latifolia Linn.

Erect leafy herb with yellow white flowers.

2800 m. June 1982, 4093.

Goodyera repens R. Br.

Leafy herb with white flowers. 3000 m. May

1982, 968.

Habenaria ensifolia Lindl.

Herb with pale white flowers. 2500 m, June

1982, 670.

H. marginata Colebr.

Glabrous herb with yellow flowers. 2700 m,

June 1982, 3347.

Herminium angustifolia Benth.

Herb with green flowers. 2600 m, June 1982,

675.

Cypripedium cordigerum D. Don

Glabrous herb with green flowers. 2800 m.

May 1982, 769.

Oberonia platyrachis Rchb. f.

Succulent leaved herb on tree trunks. Spike

with cylindric fleshy rachis, minute flowers

depressed in it. 2700 m, June 1982, 4792.

Satyrium nepalense D. Don

Erect glabrous herb with pink flowers.

2600 m, June 1982, 3229.

SCITAMINEAE

Cautleya lutea Royle

Herb with green flowers. 2600 m, June 1982,

624.

Roscoea alpina Royle

Erect herb with dark purple flowers. 3200

m, June 1982, 727.

R. procera Wall.

Erect herb with dark purple flowers. 3100

m. June 1982, 3303.

Iridaceae

Iris kumaonensis Wall, ex D. Don

Small herb with bright lilac flowers. 3200

m, June 1982, 1032.

268

FLORA OF DODITAL

Liliaceae

Gagea Iutea Schult.

Small herb with yellow flowers. 3000 m,

June 1982, 2743.

Polygonatum cirrifolium Royle

Glabrous herb with white flowers. 2900 m,

June 1982, 1061.

Smilax glaucophylla Klotzsch

Climbing shrub with purple flowers. 2700 m,

April 1982, 990.

S. pallida Royle

Herb with white flowers. 2900 m, June 1982,

2742.

JUNCACEAE

Juncus consinnus D. Don

Herb with dark brown flowers. 3000 m,

June 1982, 679.

J. elegans Royle ex D. Don

Herb with white flowers. 3200 m, June 1982,

2649.

Luzula multiflora (Retz.) Lef.

Hairy herb with brown flowers. 3300 m,

June 1982, 2830.

L. spicata DC.

Herb with dark brown flowers. 3300 m,

June 1982, 2874.

Araceae

Arisaema intermedium Blume

Erect herb with green purple and white

striped spathe. 3100 m, June 1982, 3891.

Typhonium diversifolium Scholt ex Lindl.

Erect tuberous herb with purple striped

spathe. 2900 m. May 1982, 1022.

Cyperaceae

Carex breviculmis R. Br.

Grass with green spickes. 3000 m, June

1982, 1028.

C. condensata Nees

Grass with red brown spikes. 2900 m, June

1982, 4793.

C. neiogyna Strachy

Grass with red brown spikes. 2900 m, June

1982, 4794.

C. setigera D. Don

Grass with brownish spike. 3100 m, June

1982, 2748.

Eriophorum comosum Wall, ex Nees

Erect herb with brown spikes. 2800 m,

April 1982, 1998.

POACEAE

Agrostis alba Linn.

Grass with shining green spikes. June 1982,

3100 m, 4795.

A. canina Linn.

Grass with purple green panicles. 3200 m,

June 1982, 2642.

A. pilosula Trin.

Grass with green panicles. 3200 m, June

1982, 2654.

Andropogon tristis Nees

Erect grass with green spikes. 3100 m, June

1982, 1040.

Festuca gigantca Vill.

Grass with pale green spikelets. 3100 m, June

1982, 2880.

F. rubra Linn.

Erect grass with green spikelets. 3100 m,

June 1982, 2882.

Poa annua Linn.

Glabrous grass with green spikes. 3000 m,

June 1982, 2696.

P. nepalensis Wall, ex Duthie

Erect grass with green spikelets. 3200 m,

June 1982, 2885.

Pennisetum orientale Rich.

Grass with light yellow spikes, 2800 m, June

1982, 1902.

269

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Polypogon monspeliensis Desf.

Grass with yellow green spikelets. 2700 m,

June 1982, 4781.

Refer

Bh attach aryya, U. C. & Malhotra, C. L. (1982) :

A Botanical Exploration Enroute Roopkund Lake

(North-East Garhwal). In: The Vegetational Wealth

of the Himalaya, (ed. G. S. Paliwal). 161-74.

Burkill, I. H. (1965) : Chapters on the History

of Botany in India. Calcutta.

Collet, H. (1921): Flora Simlensis. Calcutta.

Dey, A. C., Uniyal, M. R. & Shankar, V. (1969) :

Flora of the Bhillangana Valley of the erstwhile

Tehri Garhwal State. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65:

387-407.

Duthie, J. F. (1906): Catalogue of the Plants

of Kumaon and of the Adjacent portion of Garh-

wal and Tibet based on the collections made by

Strachey & Winterbottom during the years 1846-49.

London.

Ghildyal, B. N. (1957): A botanical trip to

Valley of Flowers. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54:

365-386.

Gupta, R. K. (1956): Botanical Exploration in

the Bhillangana Valley of erstwhile Tehri Garhwal

State, ibid. 53: 581-594.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Department of

Environment for financial assistance under the

All India Coordinated Research Project

(Ethnobiology).

ENCES

(1957): Botanical Exploration in

the erstwhile Tehri Garhwal State U. ibid. 54:

878-886.

(1962): Botanical Exploration in

the erstwhile Tehri Garhwal State Til. ibid. 59:

486-512.

Kala, S. P. & Gaur, R. D. (1982) : A Contribution

to the Flora of Gopeshwar (Chamoli Garhwal). In:

The Vegetational Wealth of the Himalaya, (ed. G.

S. Paliwal). 347-313.

Naithani, B. D. (1967): Plant collection with

Kedarnath Parvat Expedition. Bull. Bot. Surv. India

II: 224.

Osmaston, A. E. (1927): A Forest Flora for

Kumaon. Allahabad.

Rao, T. A. (1959): Report on a Botanical Tour

to Milam Glacier, Bull. Bot. Surv. India 1: 97-120.

(1960) : A Botanical Tour to Pindari

Glaciers and Kumaon Hill Stations, ibid. 2: 61-94.

Semwal, J. K. & Gaur, R. D. (1981): Alpine

Flora of Tungnath in Garhwal Himalaya: J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 78: 498-512.

DISPLAY LEAP OF THE LESSER FLORICAN

SYPHEOTIDES INDICA1

M. W. Ridley2, R. D. Magrath3 and J. C. Z. Woinarski3

(With three text-figures )

Breeding male Lesser Floricans display by giving conspicuous, fluttering leaps. From

a study of floricans in the Kathiawar Peninsula, western India, we deduced the

conditions and sites preferred by displaying males. They display in overcast weather

throughout the day but especially in the early morning. They choose sites in open

grassland, well covered with vegetation but not on high ground or small knolls. One

male used nine such sites (three intensively, six occasionally) within an area of 1.2 ha.

It displayed for an average of 17.3 minutes at each site and spent 38% of the day

displaying. We speculate that the display is designed to attract females and advertise

territory ownership to males, while minimising exposure to potential predators.

affecting the frequency of displays and the

choice of display sites. We speculate that this

and other aerial displays in the bustard family

differ among species in the height of the leap

and the frequency of repetition, depending on

the vegetation in which the species lives.

Study area and methods

Displaying male floricans were watched on

69 occasions at 21 separate sites throughout

western Kathiawar. All were on or close to

‘vidis’ (ungrazed, natural grasslands used for

hay production). For each displaying bird seen,

we noted as many of the following details of

weather, display rate and site as possible.

A. Weather: cloud cover (fraction of the

sky covered by cloud in eighths); wind speed

(to the nearest 5 knots); rainfall (on a sub-

jective scale from 0 to 3); light intensity

(camera lightmeter reading when pointed at

the horizon due north with 35 mm lens, at

ASA 64, 1/125 sec.).

B. Display rate: number of leaps per 10

minutes (at 30 minute intervals); intervals

between leaps, in seconds.

Introduction

The Lesser Florican or Likh Sypheotides

indica is a small bustard which breeds during

the monsoon in the grasslands of western and

central India. Dharmakumarsinhji (1950) has

described various courtship displays perform-

ed by males, the commonest of which is a con-

spicuous, fluttering leap about 2 m into the

air repeated at regular intervals. The male

squats and then springs upwards with a series

of shallow wing beats, inflating its neck and

throwing back its head, simultaneously utter-

ing a loud rattle. It then folds its primaries

and falls back to the ground with its white

shoulders, black neck and underparts and

yellow legs clearly visible. During a survey of

Lesser Floricans in the Kathiawar Peninsula,

Gujarat, in July to September 1982 (Magrath

et al. 1983), we observed this display on many

occasions. We report here details of factors

1 Accepted December 1983.

2 Edward Grey Institute, Zoology Department,

South Parks Road, Oxford 0X1 3PS, U.K.

s Zoology Department, Monash University, Clay-

ton. Victoria 3168, Australia.

271

of displaying Floricans

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

N= 39 74

03

0

6 9

40

16

33

i

12 15 18 21

<u

Time of day

<u

-C

c

D

O

<v

Q.

, v_

O <u

z s

B

N =

0 % 100

Cloud cover

Fig. 1A. Florican display frequency at different times of day.

Fig. IB. Florican display frequency in different weather conditions.

272

DISPLAY OF THE LESSER FLO RICAN

C. Sites: evidence of regular use (trampled

grass, bare ground) ; topography (whether

high or low relative to areas within 500 m

and whether concave, level or convex rela-

tive to areas within 30 m); substrate (%

stones); grass thickness (height and percen-

tage cover of grass); shrub density (distance

to the nearest shrub and number of shrubs

within 30 m).

For detailed analysis of display behaviour

we watched one male from a hide for a total

of 42.5 hours on eight days between July 27th

and August 17th. The hide was occupied from

0600 to 1100 or from 1300 to 2000. This male

displayed at nine sites on a small, plateau-

shaped vidi at Harshadpur, near Jamnagar. At

least two other males and one female were

seen on the same vidi.

Results

In this section one display refers to one

leap. A bird was defined as displaying if it

made at least one leap every ten minutes. In

practice, the repetition rate was usually higher.

Display rates

Two factors are reported to affect the fre-

quency of displaying: time of day and cloud

cover (Dharmakumarsinhji 1950, Goriup and

Karpowicz 1981). Figure la shows the fre-

quency of displays recorded at different times

of day relative to the number of hours spent

in the field. While it was true that floricans

were more likely to display in the early morn-

ing than at other times, the effect was only

just significant (X2 = 11.01, n = 4, P<0. 05) ,

and display behaviour was recorded at all

hours.

The effect of cloud cover was mere marked

(Figure lb). Displays were more often seen

in overcast weather (X2 = 7.9, n = 2, p < 0.05).

Display rates were also higher when the sun

was hidden by cloud (Table 1). This prefe-

Table 1

Intervals between leaps were shorter when the

SUN WAS HIDDEN BY CLOUD

t= 3. 13, p < 0.002.

rence is well known (Dharmakumarsinhji

1950). Our results suggest that cloud cover

itself is a more important factor than time of

day or light intensity. Heavy rainfall did pre-

vent floricans displaying, but after a storm

they usually displayed at a high rate.

The Harshadpur male displayed for 38%

of the 42.5 daylight hours it was watched.

While displaying, it averaged one leap every

61 seconds (Figure 2). Longer intervals bet-

ween leaps were common, but intervals shorter

than 20 seconds were rare. Nevertheless, we

did see it leap as little as 2 seconds after

landing from the last leap. Such bouts of rapid

display were often (perhaps always) caused

by a female florican flying over the area (cf.

Dharmakumarsinhji 1950).

Display sites

Within a vidi, males were sometimes wide-

ly dispersed but usually in sight and earshot

of each other. This is consistent with Dharma-

kumarsinhji’s (1950) opinion that each male

defends a territory. A convex polygon joining

the outermost display sites used by the

Harshadpur male had an area of about 1.2 ha,

smaller than Dharmakumarsinhji’s estimate of

273

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Interval (secs) between consecutive leaps

Fig. 2. Intervals between consecutive leaps of displaying male floricans.

territory size (2.5 ha). We did see aggression

between males twice. In both cases a male

approached another male, threatened it by

raising the tail and back feathers (cf. Dharma-

kumarsinhji 1950) and pursued it until the

second bird ran or flew away. However, we

do not have evidence that the area surround-

ing the display sites is actually defended.

Sites were not randomly distributed with

respect to topography and vegetation. Regu-

larly used sites become trampled and bare by

the end of the season (Baker 1921, Ali and

Ripley 1980). To investigate how a site is

chosen, we measured the intensity of use of dif-

ferent sites by one male and compared the

position of sites with nearby habitat.

(1) Site use. The Harshadpur male spent

72.8% of the observed display time (969

minutes) at one of three spots; for most of

the rest of the time it used six other sites,

and the remaining displays were given while

moving between sites (Figure 3). After dis-

playing on one site for a mean of 17.3

( ±: 17.1) minutes, the bird usually walked

directly to another site and began to display

there (Figure 3).

(2) Topography. Floricans are reported to

display on high ground (Dharmakumarsinhji

1950). Vidis are often in hilly areas, because

these are rocky and less easily cultivated.

Many are on the small plateaux which are

scattered over the Kathiawar countryside; con-

274

DISPLAY OF THE LESSER FLO RICAN

sequently floricans were often found on the

tops of hills. However, we recorded a prefe-

rence for flat vidis (Magrath et al. 1983) and

there was no clear preference for high situa-

tions within each vidi: compared with areas

within 500 m, 18 sites were higher, 11 lower

and 5 were on the same level. The site itself

was usually on level or slightly concave

ground. Vidis consisting mostly of sloping

ground rarely held floricans (Magrath et al.

1983).

(3) Vegetation. Shrub density did not

appear to be important in the choice of display

sites. While floricans were commonest on open

grassland (Magrath et al. 1983, Voinarski et

Table 2

Characteristics of display sites

Fig. 3. Display sites of one Lesser Florican at Harshadpur, near Jamnagar. Numbers

represent the number of minutes for which the bird was seen to display at each site.

Each line between two sites represents an occasion on which the bird was seen to

move directly from one site to the other.

275

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

al. in prep.), we also saw displaying males

in scrub and open Acacia woodland (Table

2); on one occasion a male displayed among

trees of up to 5 m in height and shrubs at a

density of more than 200 per hectare. Sites

were on a variety of substrates from rocky

ground to soft soil (Table 2). A more impor-

tant factor was grass height.

Especially in the early part of the season

when grass was short everywhere, males chose

sites well covered with relatively long grass

(Table 2). The display sites were often in

the only patches of long grass in the vicinity

(e.g. Figure 3). By September, when grass was

longer, males no longer preferred, and possibly

even avoided, the thickest grass, as found by

Hume and Marshall (1878) and Baker (1921).

Discussion

For about three months, male Lesser Flori-

cans spend more than one-third of the day

displaying by springing about 2 m into the

air, at a rate of about once a minute. They

probably leap more than 400 times each day.

The display flight therefore represents a con-

siderable investment of time and energy and

is presumably only possible because males are

emancipated from nesting duties. In addition

it probably exposes the male to a substantial

predation risk from birds of prey (Dharma-

kumarsinhji 1950). What is the function of

the display ?

It has been interpreted either as an adver-

tisement display intended to attract passing

females or as a territorial display advertising

ownership to rival males (Hume and Marshall

1878, Baker 1921, Dharmakumarsinhji 1950).

The sight of a passing female causes males to

leap several times in quick succession (this

study; Dharmakumarsinhji 1950). Males are

probably promiscuous (i.e. form only brief pair

bonds with females) since they continue to

display throughout the season and are very

rarely seen in pairs (this study; Jeidon 1877,

Dharmakumarsinhji 1950). In the presence of

a female, a male performs a different sequence

of pre-copulatory ground displays (this study;

Dharmakumarsinhji 1950). So the leaping dis-

play is probably intended to be as conspicu-

ous as possible in an effort to be noticed by

nearby females and/or males. Both the loud

rattle — probably made by the tongue as in

Eupodotis ruficrista. (Kemp and Tarboton

1976) — and the flash of white wings during

the leap are highly conspicuous to human

observers.

The Indian plains can be very hot and

shadeless in July and August, so males pro-

bably avoid displaying in direct sunshine be-

cause the sun heats the black body of the

bird too much or because females are per-

haps more active in overcast conditions. It is

unlikely that dull conditions make males more

conspicuous. Little Bustards Tetrax tetrax also

prefer to display at low light intensities

(Cramp and Simmons 1980, H. Schulz, pers.

comm.). They are, however, more strictly

crepuscular than Lesser Floricans which do

not confine their displays to twilight.

The choice of display site is probably

affected by two factors: effectiveness as a

signal to other floricans and risk of attracting

predators. Most sites we found were on rela-

tively level ground which meant that they were

visible from some distance away, both to other

floricans and to predators. However, in the

open vegetation preferred by displaying males,

ground predators could not easily approach

unseen. To avoid aerial predators such as

eagles, the birds leap briefly, repeat the leap

unprcdictably. change sites often and remain

hidden in the grass between leaps (but using

the long neck as a form of ‘periscope').

276

DISPLAY OF THE LESSER FLO RICAN

Other small bustards have aerial displays.

At one extreme, male Little Bustards Tetrax

tetrax leap only about 0.5 m into the air

(Cramp and Simmons 1980, H. Schulz, pers.

comm.). By contrast, male Red-crested Bus-

tards ( Eupodotis ruficrista ) fly up to a height

of about 30 m and ‘parachute’ down again

(Pitman 1957, Kemp and Tarboton 1976). We

suggest that the height to which males of each

species leap or fly is adapted to the length of

the vegetation they inhabit. Those in short,

open grassland (Little Bustard, Lesser Flori-

can) give small, but frequent, leaps, while those

in savannah woodland (Red-crested Bustard,

Black-bellied Bustard Eupodotis welanogaster,

Black Korhaan Eupodotis afra) fly above the

trees (Kemp and Tarboton 1976). In East

Africa, however. Black-bellied Bustards may

have two separate displays, one a short, flori-

can-like leap, the other a long display flight

(Pitman 1957). The Bengal Florican Eupo-

dotis bengcdensis of the Terai region in Eastern

India and Nepal is intermediate: it inhabits

Refer

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1980): Handbook of

the birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 2. Oxford

University Press, Delhi.

Baker, E. C. S. (1921): Game birds of India,

Burma and Ceylon. Vol. 2. Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay.

Cramp, S. & Simmons, K. E. L. (1980): Birds

of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 2. Oxford Univer-

sity Press, Oxford.

Dharmakumarsinhji, K. S. (1950): The Lesser

Florican [Sypheotides indica (Millar)]: Its court-

ship display, behaviour and habits. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 49: 201-216.

Goriup, P. D. & Karpowicz, Z. J. (1981): An

account of the decline of the Lesser Florican

Sypheotides indica in north-western India. Unpublish-

ed Report, International Council for Bird Preserva-

grassland which may be up to 10 m tall and,

in display, leaps 4-10 m off the ground (Baker

1921, Ali and Ripley 1980, Inskipp and In-

skipp 1982). Among species, a short leap is

generally associated with more frequent re-

petition of the display than a long flight,

probably for energetic reasons.

Acknowledgements

We are very grateful to Wing Commander

S. D. Jadeja, Jamsaheb of Nawanagar, for

his hospitality and practical assistance. We

thank also Miss Shakuntala, Shyam Sunder,

Narendra Sinh Jhala, Lavkumar Khacher, J.

C. Daniel, S. A. Yahya, the Gujarat Forest

Department, Paul Goriup and David Ferguson

for all their help. K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji

generously shared his knowledge of floricans

with us. The study was supported by the

International Council for Bird Preservation.

Patrick Osborne, Nigel Collar and Paul

Goriup commented on an early draft of this

paper.

:N CE S

tion.

Hume, A. O. & Marshall, A. H. T. (1878): The

game-birds of India, Burma and Ceylon. Calcutta.

Inskipp, T. & Inskipp, C. (1982): I.C.B.P. pro-

ject on the Bengal Florican. I.C.B.P. Newsletter 4:

no. 4/5.

Jerdon, T. C. (1877): The Birds of India. Vol 2,

Calcutta. P. S. D'Rozario and Co.

Kemp, A. & Tarboton, W. (1976): Small South

African Bustards. Bokmakierie 28: 40-43.

Magrath, R. D., Ridley, M. W. & Woinarski,

J. C. Z. (1983): Status and habitat requirements of

the Lesser Florican Sypheotides indica in Kathia-

war, Western India. Unpublished report, International

Council for Bird Preservation.

Pitman, C. R. S. (1957): Uganda’s bustards.

Uganda Wildlife and Sport 1: 1-7.

277

NOTES ON SOME COMMON BREEDING RAPTORS

OF THE RAJ PI PL A FOREST1

Rishad Naoroji2

( With seven plates, four text -figures & a map )

Introduction

This is a chronological account on the

nesting habits of the Crested Hawk-Eagle

( Spizaetus cirrhatus) and to a lesser extent

of the Crested Serpent Eagle ( Spilornis cheela )

and the Crested Honey-buzzard ( Pernis ptilor-

hyncus ) based on a five and a half month

study in the Rajpipla forest from 1 1 . iii . 1983

to 22 . viii . 1983. Male/female identification was

based on size/physical characteristics and

general behaviour at the nest. The Hawk-

eagles’ nests were generally larger and higher

than those of the other two species. In most

cases, a second substitute nest was observed

in close proximity to the currently occupied

nests. Serpent eagles were observed to

occupy a new nest every season. None

of their old nests observed in subsequent years

could have been used as they were damaged

beyond repair and re-use by the monsoon. The

nests of Hawk-eagles being larger, withstood

for years the onslaught of the weather.

Hatching coincided roughly with prey availa-

bility. The Hawk-eagles nest first during the

dry season concluding just before the monsoon.

Serpent eagles a little later, rearing young prior

to and during the monsoon when snakes

were more active and conspicuous. Honey-

buzzards still later mainly during the monsoon

when honey-combs and chameleons are plenti-

1 Accepted August 1984.

2 Belha Court, 24 Strand Road, Bombay-400 039.

ful and easily found. One pair of honey-

buzzards near Namgir village were observed to

have nested in an old (previous year’s) crow’s

nest.

At a Serpent Eagle’s nest observed in 1982

before the onset of the monsoon a variety of

snakes were brought to the nest (See Naoroji

1983 JBNHS80, No. 2). During the latter half

of the nesting stage, with the monsoon firmly

set in, the most frequently caught snakes were

Checkered Keelbacks ( Xenochrophis piscator)

and these formed 90% of the main diet of

the Mozda pair observed during the rains

supplemented by other snakes and the occa-

sional frogs ( Rana tigerina). Lizards (Calotes

versicolor ) and bush rats (Golunda ellioti).

The Honey-buzzards fed their young solely

on Honey combs (yellowish-white in colour)

and chameleons (Chamaeleon zeylanicus). One

day an unusually high number of visits (most-

ly with prey) by both adults was witnessed

at the nest. 14 visits in 3 hours out of which

only 3 visits consisted of Honey combs being

brought, the rest being chameleons ( Chamae-

leon zeylanicus). No visits were observed while

it rained.

These raptors are still abundant but the

forests are now under considerable pressure.

Disturbances are caused during the breeding

season by the following factors in this predo-

minantly bamboo area. (1) New roads are

constructed in different blocks every year by

the Central Pulp Mills to facilitate the trans-

port of bamboo to their Songardh pulp factory.

Though trees are largely untouched except

when building roads, the disturbance caused

278

RAPTORS OF THE RAJPIPLA FOREST

when harvesting and transporting the bamboo

is considerable. (2) More alarming is the

annual indiscriminate clear felling of trees for

charcoal. Large tracts of mixed deciduous

forest are leased out to as many as 15-25

societies who enlist the local adivasis, to sense-

lessly harvest this valuable resource for the

incredible monetary gains it offers (Plate 1).

These once forested areas, now barren as a

moonscape are then converted to mono culture

mainly teak. (3) The population of the adivasis

has increased dramatically over the last few

years. While more land is annually being put

under the plough illegally and local wood

poachers operate openly the authorities are

turning a blind eye to this ever increasing en-

croachment. The forests supply the Bheels with

most of their basic necessities and their depen-

dence on these forests is considerable. Every

year the sparse under-growth is burnt and

over-grazing by cattle virtually leaves no cover

for ground birds and mammals possibly also

affecting prey preferences of some raptors. The

adivasis, who once lived in harmony with their

surroundings, are now jeopardising their basic

existence by destroying the forests on which

their survival still depends. (4) The so called

development of this area for the betterment of

the adivasis, e.g. bus stops, electricity, a plann-

ed network of roads etc. is making serious

inroads into the last remaining good patch of

forests between the Uppla Junna Raj and

Namgir areas.

Spizaetus cirrhatus Crested Hawk-Eagle

Nests and Eggs

I reached the forests in mid-March when

the Hawk eagles were already incubating. The

Serpent eagles were by this time displaying

and pairing off prior to their laying soon.

Five nests of Spizaetus cirrhatus were

found and some specifications are given in

Table 1. The map shows nesting sites of

the three species mentioned and illustrates how

the Hawk-eagles have their nests widely

spaced, commanding a larger territory. While

observing an incubating Hawk-eagle pair, other

raptors including the Honey-buzzard, Serpent

Eagle, Shikra and Black-winged kite were seen

in close vicinity to their nest. In fact from

Serpent eagle nest No. 3 at Namgir the near-

by nest of Hawk eagle No. 1 could be seen

across the valley, both nests in close proxi-

mity to each other.

Altogether four nests of the Hawk eagle

were found containing eggs. Some hawk eagles

nested close to villages in more disturbed areas

than others, on high isolated trees. Such was

the case with nest No. 2. Most of the sur-

rounding vegetation had been cut and a young

teak plantation was maturing in the area. The

nest tree was in a deep river bed and at the

same level as the nest was a hillock from

where one stood at almost the same height

as the nest and about 50 feet away. The nest

was subject to stone throwing by young boys

and this bird was so shy that the incubating

and later brooding female would leave the

nest when villagers were more than 50 metres

away. Even after the young hatched this bird

brooded much less than the nest No. 1

9 where I found the pair less disturbed and

more confiding. The male’s arrival to the nest

is sometimes triggered off by human distur-

bances or a threat to the nest. This was observ-

ed with a Serpent eagle and also with Hawk-

eagle pair No. 2. The first time Hawk eagle

nest No. 2 was climbed for inspection the pair

became very agitated and, only when we were

about 100 metres away, did the female settle

down to incubate. A little later the male flew

to the nest and stood there for about half a

minute as if to reassure himself that everything

279

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

^RAJPIPI/

ghopaoj

M?T > 1

•X'' f < \ v : -t

'*) V '''i sAGM

X V I* v_\,' • /

NCTRA.HG

A SPILORNIS CHCEIA

■ PfRNIS PTiuORHfRCHUS

vvara. °'-s,0N

Map of Rajpipla east division.

280

MAHARASHTRA STATE

RAPTORS OF THE RAJP1PLA FOREST

was in order. Many times, though the birds

could not be seen, their vocalizing gave them

away as did the alarm calls of Tree-pies,

Mynas, Parakeets and Palm squirrels.

from the immediate vicinity of the nest tree.

All nests were usually built in the highest suit-

able crotch of the nesting tree and an alter-

native nest was usually found nearby. The

Table 1

Nest details of Spizaetus cirrhatus

The nests of the Hawk-eagles were situated

higher and were the largest amongst the raptor

species observed. Some nests were visible from

a quarter to half a mile away in high isolated

trees. The table above shows that Nest Nos. 1

& 5 were the highest with Nest No. 1 being

the largest, dwarfing the incubating ? . Nest

No. 3 was the lowest but larger than Nest

No. 2 and contained the smallest egg. The

outside circumference of Nest No. 1 was 3.45

metres. The general habitat in which the nests

were located was in a dry deciduous forest

interspersed with bamboo and Strobilanthes

with no undergrowth at all and what little

existed had been burnt off. Most nests were

open to the sky and roughly faced east to

west. The nesting trees were almost bare ex-

cept for a few branches carrying green and

yellowing leaves. The trees would leaf again

during the monsoon. All nests were lined with

green sprays. Nest No. 1 was lined with sprays

from the following trees: Dalbergia lanceo-

laria, Dalbergia volubilis, Pterocarpus marsu-

pium and Diospyros melanoxylon. The $ of

nest No. 1 was observed to bring leafy sprays

Hawk-eagles like the Serpent eagles and Honey-

buzzards are close sitters when incubating and

leave the nest when a climber is half way up

a tree. Later after the eggs had hatched they

would leave when we were within 100 ft. of a

nest. All nest trees were situated on the higher

slopes of hills.

Only one egg is laid by the Hawk-eagle.

Most eggs of the same species were observed

to generally hatch within a few days of each

other.

Egg Measurements

The eggs oval in shape are white and not

blotched with red like the Serpent eagle’s and

Honey-buzzard’s.

Incubation

While the $ Hawk-eagle was incubating

281

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

the male, when not hunting would remain in

close proximity to the nest. At this time of

year, day temperatures go up to 40CC and it

gets progressively hotter till the month of June.

In nests Nos. 2 & 3 of the Hawk-eagles, fully

intact palm squirrels were found. This ensures

the incubating bird has enough food in the

nest to be eaten later as and when required.

Late evenings after 5, when it got cooler the

incubating $ (nest No. 2) would stand up

in the nest for long periods of time. Also,

visits by the male to the nest at this stage are

limited and adult birds do not kill as much

as when there is a fledgling to be fed. As nest

No. 2 was kept under observation for most of

the day with no sightings of a feeding visit

it could be surmised that most of the prey

was brought during the very early hours of

the morning.

The exact incubation time for Hawk-eagles

is not known. When I arrived on ll.iii.83,

they were already incubating but we do know

that incubation goes on for more than a month,

probably a month and a half. Just before

hatching the pipping of the young can be clear-

ly heard and some eggs become slightly dis-

coloured. The developed egg of Hawk-eagle

nest No. 3 was found covered with leaves and

days before hatching two holes were observ-

ed on either side of the egg somewhat near

the middle. This has been observed with

Eleanora’s Falcon and also with egg No. 4 of

S. cheela on 25.V.83. The Hawk-eagle female

of nest No. 3 appeared to be the most aggres-

sive and would frequently feint at a climber

* Three of the nests under observation hatched

within a few days of each other. Nest No. 1 on

10.4.83. Nest No. 2 on 8.4.83, Nest No. 3 on

17.4.83. On 17th morning pieces of egg shell were

found sticking to the back of the newly-hatched

Nest No. 3 young.

but never actually make contact. On one

occasion she flew upto 3 ft. of an assistant who

was half way up the nest tree before veering

off. A day later it was noticed that the slit in

the shell of egg No. 3 had widened and the

young could be clearly heard from inside.

At nest No. 1 the female Hawk-eagle was

often mobbed near the nest by crows and at

the nest persistently for a few days by a shrike.

At nest No. 2 just after the female left off

incubating she was mobbed so persistently by

a black-winged kite that she took shelter in

a foliaged tree. The black winged kite would

rise to a pitch and with wings pressed tightly

to its sides dive-bomb the eagle repeatedly

3/4 times. The last dive made some contact,

unsettling the eagle out of the tree. Incubating

birds would after long intervals leave the nest

and fly out of sight. Whether the same bird

returned after 10-15 minutes from a feed or

whether a change-over took place is impossi-

ble to say as both adults were rarely visible

together at the same time and observations

were made at a great distance from a vantage

point.*

Adoption of Young

On 17.iv.83 machan building commenced

near Hawk-eagle nest No. 1. Fledgling’s

measurements and weight were restricted only

to nest No. 2. The machan was eventually

completed to a height of 65 ft. and took 15

days to build — an hour a day. While the

machan was being built we saw the male arrive

with prey in the evening on 2/3 occasions,

the prey held in its talons pressed close against

the body. Both adults would sometimes circle

around the nest as machan construction con-

tinued. The female would then perch nearest

to the nest while the male disappeared before

resuming circling sometimes with prey. At

other times he was seen perched close to nest

282

RAPTORS OF THE RAJPIPLA FOREST

No. 3 of the Serpent eagle. We would leave

before sundown and watch from afar, prey

being fed to the young. On one occasion while

machan building was in progress, we saw three

adult Hawk eagles together. One slightly

smaller with underside of wings paler than the

other two. Occasionally one of them would

effortlessly float pass close to the nest just

above the tree line without flapping its wings

with just the primaries upturned slightly. The

wings on the whole are held in line with the

body and not higher as in the case of S. cheela

(Fig. 1).

1

Fig. 1. Spizaetus cirrhalus — gliding at nest level.

Fig. 2a. Spilornis cheela — gentle v while soaring;

2b. Spilornis cheela — sharp v during mating display.

The Hawk-eagle machan was completed on

29.iv.83 and after we left we watched from a

safe distance the eaglet being fed and the hide

accepted by the adults without any kind of

apprehension. Compared to the other pairs

observed, this pair had a very strong bond

with the nest and were given the usual two

rest days to get accustomed to the hide. The

next day, on 30.iv.83, the female was observ-

ed brooding. On l.v.83 both the adults were

seen flying agitatedly above the nest the $

showing no intention of brooding and, not

wanting to disturb them, I went to occupy

the hide on 2.V.83. My apprehension

proved founded and the catastrophe I in-

wardly feared had materialised. Nest

No. 1 was empty. One of the locals as we sub-

sequently found out for devious reasons was

responsible. While Shahroukh Mistry, a Zoo-

logy student from Baroda, went to inform the

Forest Dept, and the police, I took a quick

decision. Nest No. 2 was a disturbed nest and

even though the birds had so far managed to

raise their nestling quite effectively, I did have

some doubts as to the eaglet reaching matu-

rity. Nest No. 3 and No. 4 had by this time

been destroyed by vandals. As the nest No. 1

pair were still circling around in the vicinity,

they obviously still had a close bond with the

nest which must have been empty for over

24 hours. I then decided to immediately

transfer the young of nest No. 2 to nest No. 1

as quickly and quietly as possible. If the young

was not accepted after a couple of hours we

decided to move it back to nest No. 2. The

transfer was done silently and quickly. A

common myna found intact along with the

young in the nest was also transferred to nest

No. 1 where the adults kept vocalizing for

about ten minutes. Twenty minutes after we

had left the immediate vicinity the female

landed at the nest. She stood in the nest with

her head deep in the nest cavity occasionally

looking out. She then left the nest and came

back after an hour making an attempt to sit

on the young which appeared to rebuff her.

She flew off and later made two visits, firstly

perching on the nest for a few seconds before

flying away and later perching on the nest

tree for about a minute. After 2 p.m. she

brooded the young almost continuously till

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 82

7 p.m. except when she left to arrive soon

after with prey. 2/3 feeding sessions were

observed in the afternoon, the last at 6.45 p.m.

At 7 p.m. as it was getting dark we left the

female brooding the young for the night. The

immediately accepted nestling, was on the day

of its adoption 24 days old and eventually

flew from the nest fully fledged. This nest was

immediately given adequate protection and the

offending tribal dealt with.

Growth of Nestling

Intensive brooding is characteristic with

raptors throughout the first post hatching 15

to 25 days after which in the case of Hawk-

eagles the female would perch a few feet from

the nest or on the nest rim without actually

brooding but keeping a close protective watch,

mainly during the cool morning and late

evening hours when the sun’s rays lose their

strength and sometimes remaining even so

after dark.

On 22.iv.83 the Hawk-eagle young of nest

No. 2 later adopted at nest No. 1 was 14 days

old and weighed 300 gm. It was in the preli-

minary downy stage, the down being soft and

sparse with the skin showing through. Its wing

stubs were also covered with down as also the

tarsus. There was hardly any down on the

belly. Eyes black, lores greyish black, toes

creamish or yellowish-white tinged with light

green. When I imitated the adults’ call the

young attempted to raise itself on its feet taking

support with its stubby wings.

20 days : on 28.iv.83 the young weighed

450 gm. Initial quill like black feathers had

already sprouted from under the down on the

head and back. The feet appeared to be overly

large and strong in proportion to the body.

At this stage the young had a vocabulary of

‘cheep’s of different durations and pitch. Some

cheeps were rendered in quick staccato.

25 days: Black feathers could be seen

sprouting on wing edges and scapulars. The

fledgling would doze a lot occasionally adjust-

ing its position and sometimes glaring bale-

fully at the ? who broods standing. The young

even at this early stage would preen itself by

sitting on its rump with feet outstretched and

talons facing outwards and sometimes curling

between the feet of the ? and under her

breast. It even managed to stand up for a few

secs., stretching its wings downwards for

balance and support. Parental calls would

herald the arrival of prey and at such times

the young roused itself becoming extremely

alert. Whenever hungry and impatient for a

feed a 3-note call metallic and vaguely simi-

lar to adults in pitch and call v/as uttered.

90% of prey brought to the nest was fed to

the eaglet, the $ taking occasional mouth-

fuls. Small slivers of meat held out at the tip

of her beak were taken with great speed and

accuracy. Large pieces were also gulped down

and hungrily swallowed. The young was

normally fed 4-5 times a day. Mostly fleshy

portions were fed to the young and at 25

days old the young was observed swallowing

half a lizard (abdomen and tail), taking 2\

minutes. A feed was usually followed by deep

slumber lasting 30 minutes to an hour before

the young would usually wake up to defecate

in the manner of all young raptors. The day

temperatures being very high it was a won-

der how the fledgling did not get dehydrated.

A young captive Hawk-eagle was known to

drink water copiously. During the hot months

from March to June adult Hawk-eagles have

been observed and filmed drinking at water

holes.

30 days: When a month old the young’s

attention would be occupied with its surround-

ings. With this awareness that all raptor young

exhibit at the same age the young watched

284

RAPTORS OF THE RAJPIPLA FOREST

with fascination a pair of Serpent eagles circl-

ing overhead, a sunbird flitting above the nest,

parakeets calling noisily, a shrike mobbing

the 9 etc.

When it felt threatened it would sink down

into the nest cavity like Serpent eagle and

Honey-buzzard young observed from this age

onwards till they leave the nest. The young

would often stand up for a few minutes as

its feet were getting stronger. After the initial

emergence of feathers from the down, they

grow rapidly.

32 days: At 32 days old on lO.v.83 quill

like feathers emerging from the down on wings,

crown and faintly on rump were clearly visi-

ble. On scapulars black feathers were visible

sprouting in an oval shape. Tail feathers had

also begun to emerge. At the base of where

the scapulars were emerging through the down,

inch long tuft of feathers were now visible.

Upper part of wings looked mottled with

black and white. Here the feathers were grow-

ing very rapidly. The primaries growing faster

than the secondaries. Under side, from neck

down to tibia was white down.

The young was now being brooded less ex-

cept during the hot hours and feather growth

had generally accelerated.

On seeing or hearing the adults the eaglet

calls out a metallic almost fluted 4 to 5 note

call “Kwe Kwe Kwe Kwe Kwe” very vaguely

resembling the adult’s. Tt could now stand up

comfortably when scanning the sky for the

adults. During the hot hours when it was some-

times not brooded, it chose the shadiest spot in

the nest. When 32 days old the >oung once

swallowed the leg of a ground bird intact

with most of the tarsus, toes and claws.

Sometimes food brought to the nest was not

fed immediately and the eaglet performed beg-

ging gestures, turning its head sideways to the

left and the right all the while pecking ineffec-

tively at the prey and staring at the 9 . At

such times the young attempted to eat though

totally ineffectively on its own, observed atten-

tively by the 9 . L. Brown writes in ‘Eagles’

that a month old downy young of the African

Crowned Hawk-eagle was able to tear and

feed on prey independently of the adults hav-

ing to spend at least another month in the

nest. Not so with Spizaetus cirrhatus. This

delaying feeding behaviour by the 9 was

noticed for the first time when the eaglet was

34 days old.

35 days: At 35 days brownish feathers were

visible on the underside of the neck, breast,

abdomen and wings as brownish streaks. Upper

side of wings were now almost completely

covered with feathers. The young was still be-

ing brooded at this stage, though for lesser

periods of time and was rapidly increasing in

size. After 28.V.83 when the young was 50

days old and still hesitant to feed itself, brood-

ing was restricted to the hottest hours. It had

also just begun to stretch and exercise its

wings leaping up and down vertically facing

into gusts of wind. The eaglet now began to

demonstrate an effective threat display when

disturbed at the nest. A much younger Serpent

eaglet was observed to give a very aggressive

threat display when about three weeks old

and still very much in the secondary downy

stage. The Hawk-eaglet displayed aggressive-

ness by crouching low on its posterior and

with wings outstretched, beak open and claws

facing outwards at the ready, and calling while

thus demonstrating until the intruder left. The

9 would, while a climber was inspecting the

nest, swoop past menacingly sometimes close

enough to hear the wind through her feathers.

Around this time in May the Honey-buzzards

were incubating while Serpent eagles were

rearing downy young. When 50 days old the

young could stand comfortably and was observ-

285

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

ed standing at the edge of the nest for half

an hour. Young is now rarely brooded while

being occasionally accompanied at the nest by

the $ for short periods of time. On 30.V.83

at 52 days when the young was 6 \ weeks old

it weighed 1.3 kg. Bill length was 24.13 mm

while body length (bill to tip to cloaca) was

33 cms. Lores were greyish white like an

ageing beard. Toes were greenish yellow and

claws black while the bare skin on joint of

tarsus and tibia was greenish yellow. Down

was visible on chin and throat to upper breast,

abdomen & under tail, and under side of wings.

Head was light brown covered with small light

brown feathers tipped with while. Centre

brown head feathers showed black streaks.

Body feathers on neck, abdomen, wings, tail

and back were light brown tinged with black

and tipped with white. Wing 27 cms. Primaries

dark brown to almost black tipped with white,

calamus of primaries bare and blue on the

under side of wings and appeared to be strong

and thick. Secondaries light brown tinged with

black and tipped white. Tail feathers 15 cms.

long while the under side of tail feathers re-

sembled the primaries and under tail coverts

consisted of fluffy light brown feathers. Under

side of primaries and tail had alternating

horizontal bands of black and dirty white.

Upper tail coverts were brown while upper

side of tail was black tipped with white. The

dorsal parts of the eaglet were by this time

completely covered with feathers except for

the lower back region having some down.

Mouth pink, the Iris grey with black pupils,

nictitating membrane white, tarsus white with

light brown streaks.

The young was silent and co-operative

during handling though an initial vigorous

threat display was performed at the nest. It

continually made use of gusts of wind by

vigorously flapping its wings into the wind

and leaping up higher and higher. Usually

these exercises ended with three noted calls.

The eaglet appeared to be about three-quarters

the size of the $ . When prey was left in the

nest the young would call and peck at the

prey even at this stage rather ineffectively.

It could not as yet readily feed itself easily

and was offered small bits of meat by the $ .

Some young become independent and learn to

feed themselves earlier than others. At 55 days

old it was observed that the $ was not accom-

panying the young at night but the exact

date when this occurred is not known. When

a bait killed by the $ but not eaten was be-

ing placed in the nest, the 59 days old young

adopted its threat display in a crouched posi-

tion when the climber was half-way up the

nest tree. When the climber reached the top

the young stood upright with open beak and

spread its wings. Its tail was fanned out and

cocked at 45° to the body. The eaglet first

stood as far away as possible from the dead

bait and warily observed it for 3-4 mins. It

then sat down and appeared unconcerned after

which it tried to pluck out the tail feathers.

It then tried to break off pieces of the half

eaten calotes present in the nest (which had

been brought earlier by the g ) unsuccessfully.

Observing the prey from all possible angles it

later called “Kwee kwee Kwee kwee” softly

in a begging tone entreating the 9 to feed

it, after it had failed to feed itself. However

it fed for 5 minutes tearing up the soft belly

but could not rip off the tail from the hind

legs. At 7.20 p.m. on this very day the $

arrived triggering off a begging display that

continued right through her feed as she fed

on the prey without offering a morsel to the

young which twice tried to forcibly tear off

meat from the prey. The $ then getting a

good purchase on the remains of the bait flew

off to a nearby perch 300 metres away to roost

286

RAPTORS OF THE RAJPIPLA FOREST

for the night. On 14.vi.83 when the young

was 67 days old it was found perched outside

the nest at the end of the nest-supporting

branch. On seeing us it hopped back to the

nest and sat close. This common self-preser-

vation trait is instinctive and inborn in eaglets

of all species and observed also with S. cheela

and Pernis ptilorhyncus. On 15.vi.83 it was

still being fed and took a great interest in

its surroundings spending most of its time

outside the nest on the branches above it or

supporting it, regularly exercising its wings.

Young at this stage was ever alert and active

and it could recognize its parents high up in

the sky. The eaglet called on recognising

its parents but never called when another pair

of S. cheela were circling high up above the

nest. The young was now the best indicator

to the adults’ proximity and approach to the

nest. At 67 days the crest feathers were just

beginning to emerge while there was more

white on the nape than anywhere else on the

head. On the back a single patch of down was

still visible through the feathers. Tts calls

though weak and not penetrating like the

adults’, resembled now the adults’ in pitch

and tone. On 16.vi.83 when 68 days old the

first flight of the young was observed. After

a morning’s heavy rain the hide was occupied

at 2.16 p.m. The eaglet was not in the nest

but 40 ft. away on an Aasun (Bridelia retusa )

tree showing no fear as we climbed the machan.

We also spotted the 9 50 yards away in the

valley below. As the 9 changed her position

mobbed and followed by crows, the young

excitedly moved a few feet away and looked

around eagerly as if anticipating a visit. Young

looked inquiringly in the female’s direction

and hesitatingly at the nest, hopping in stages

to nearby branches looking all around. It later

called “Phew Phew Phew” and then “Phew

Phew Phew Phew” the first note being the

longest and fading out in the last. It again

called impatiently and not getting any response

flew towards the 9 away from the nest at

the edge of the valley. To get to the 9 the

young would have to fly 150 yards across the

valley to the other side. Seven minutes later

it flew non-stop to the nest from that tree, a

distance of 40 ft. It didn’t quite reach the

nest-rim and clinging to the side of the nest

scrambled up on to the nest with a lot of

wing flapping. It then looked around and

called, watching a pair of white bellied drongos

calling above the nest tree and occasionally

played with sticks and leaves in the nest. The

sticks were picked up in the beak with one

end held firmly by a foot while it tried to

snip the ends off with sideway motions of the

head as it would later twist and cut through

the neck of a victim. This pouncing on sticks

and teasing act was performed with great

enthusiasm and wing flapping. The sound of

cattle below warily made it sit close and when

one of the cows stumbled the young actually

flinched at the sound of hoof striking stone.

A lot of variations were now apparent in its

calls. Sometimes the young would revert back

to the cheeping of the downy days. On other

occasions a total of 6-8 notes were heard in

each call, each note different from the other.

Some calls rose in pitch with changing notes,

others faded towards the end of the calls. When

70 days old the young was observed calling

with great intensity. Desirous for a feed the

young replied to the 9 ’s calls with frantic

impatient vocalising. These were the most

powerful vocalisations as yet heard from the

young. These calls were however ignored by

the 9 who did not reply. Much of its time

was spent in preening, mainly the breast fea-

thers and sometimes comically twisting its head

almost 300 degrees to look at a sun-bird flitt-

ing above the nest. At this almost fully fledged

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

stage the young goes on long exploratory hop-

ping expeditions to the branches above the

nest. Should an adult be spotted flying in with

prey it immediately hopped down to the nest

calling wildly. Prey is seized immediately in

the talons with wings widespread and a begging

gesture adopted by crouching with head up

looking beseechingly at the 5 (plate 1).

The young, now mostly left alone with prey

was seen on 17.vi.83 to eat a lizard compe-

tently and was also able to tear off the whole

tail from the base. From 17.vi.83 till 25.vi.83

the eaglet, though it would leave the nest tree,

was still dependent on the nest. On 24.vi.83

the young was located 200 metres away across

the valley opposite the nest tree. It then flew

to a perch 70 metres from the nest. Ten

minutes later the $ dropped a Calotes in the

nest following which the young called and flew

eagerly to the nest coming in very fast and

appropriating the whole nest making the male

fly off immediately. The $ arrived later to

feed. Though the young could clumsily feed

itself at this stage it was still being fed. From

26.vi.83 there was no sign of the eaglet now

using the nest though seen nearby and by

28.vi.83 we were sure that the young was

totally independent of the nest. The machan

poles however were covered with droppings so

the young must have been using the machan

occasionally as a perch. The young stayed

dependent on the nest for a total of 81 days

just about 2\ months.

At nest Nos. 1 & 2 light brown headed young

were seen in the vicinity and on occasions

very close to the currently occupied nests. The

juvenile seen near nest No. 2 appeared to be

a first year bird while the one observed near

Nest No. 1 appeared to be an older bird —

probably in its second or third year. Tts plumage

was similar to the adults though it was moult-

ing but its head was light brown. Tt was also

observed hunting capably. Two weeks before

my departure in mid-August when a spell of

exceptionally heavy rain prevented my enter-

ing the Honey-buzzard hide I heard two Hawk-

eagles, a female and a recently fledged juve-

nile, calling to each other during short lulls

in the rain.

Food and Hunting

The following prey species were found in

the nests of Hawk-eagles and also observed

being brought to the nest:

(1) Indian Chameleon ( Charnaeleon zeyla-

nicus)\ (2) Common Garden Lizard ( Calotes

versicolor)-, (3) Other lizards — unidentified;

(4) Common Myna ( Acridotheres tristis)-, (5)

Parakeet ( Psittacula sp.); (6) Bush Rat

( Golunda ellioti ); (7) A small foot long worm

like snake locally known as Tiler’. Unfortu-

nately no specimen was obtainable and the

nest No. 1 male was seen flying with this prey

in his talons; (8) Unidentified mantled game

bird, the size of a small chicken; (9) One feed

consisted of an unidentified rodent. The prey

was brought headless to the nest, the body be-

ing dirty grey, in shape resembling a rodent’s

as did the intact legs. The tail 3/4 inches long

and also dirty grey was very hairy like a bottle

brush but not so thick; (10) Palm squirrels

{Funambulus sp.) — many a times found

wholly in nests 2 & 3 along with chameleons

when the birds were incubating.

Calotes and chameleons however were the

major prey species brought to nest No. 1 .

Late afternoon on 6.V.83 the brooding $

was alerted when a loud rustling amongst the

dried leaves was heard. The 9 stood up as

the sound continued from below. She sudden-

ly swooped down to the ground directly from

the nest, landing with an audible thud grip-

ping a bush rat ( Golunda ellioti) in her talons.

288

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82

Naoroji : Raptors of Rajpipla Forest

Plate 1

Above V One of the many wood and charcoal depots around Rajpipla spelling doom

for the only remaining salvagable patch of forest between Uppla Junna Raj.,

Namgir, Piplod and Kokum villages. Senseless exploitation in all its forms continues

unabated resulting in the outer forest on the periplieri of the range near habitation

being irrevocably destroyed. At the present rate of abuse the remaining forest should

soon disappear within a few years. (Photo : Sunjoy Monga)

Below : Spizaetus cirrhatus — Male at nest with prey. Note begging posture of

young. (Photo : Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82 Plate 2

Naoroji : Raptors of Rajpipla Forest

Above : Spizaetus cirrhaius — Both adults at nest. Male is just leaving after having

brought prey to the nest. He is lighter in colour.

Below : Spizaetus cirrhatus — Female alighting at the nest with a lizard.

( Photos : Author)

RAPTORS OF THE RAJP1PLA FOREST

She stood thus, her talons embedded in her

prey till all struggles ceased. She then flew

to a nearby tree and arrived at the nest 15-20

minutes later to feed. This was the only time

that a natural killing was observed.

The 5 was far bolder than the male and

when induced to kill live bait in the form of

chickens she readily took them, sometimes

within 20 minutes of the bait being tied.

Twelve baits in all were offered 20 metres

from the nest. As seen from the diagram (Fig. 3)

the baits were killed from all possible angles.

Sometimes she would swoop down in a beauti-

fully long low angled dive. On other occasions

Angles of Attack

her final attack would be from a short dis-

tance away from a height, thus attacking from

a very acute angle. She would observe our

arrival and circle above us expectantly. While

the bait was being tied she would perch nearby

waiting fearlessly. On some occasions she

would be perched far away and after the bait

was secured would fly and perch almost above

it sometimes for upto 40 minutes and then

dropping down she would unerringly grip the

prey at the end of her swoop sometimes catch-

ing it off the ground as it leapt up in its

last moments to escape. Occasionally

the prey would be caught with the talons of

both feet in its back at high speed, both prey

and eagle hurtling forward with the momen-

tum until they were stopped by the leash,

securing the bait. Subsequent examination of

the bait showed a deep gash on the back.

Should the prey struggle making it difficult to

subdue she would slash their necks with her

beak and change her grip to the nape leaving

the other foot anchored deep in the body.

Initially prey were tied to heavy stones and

twice she showed her great strength by trying

to fly off with baits tied to a 4/5 kg. stone,

dragging them on one occasion actually 15 ft.

on a downward slope and on the other 8 ft. in

one great burst of energy. She would also tug

at the prey with her beak like a dog worrying

a piece of tied meat landing exhausted on her

back in her efforts to free the prey. Giving

up temporarily she would begin mantling, later

trying to tug it free again. This proving in-

effective she would eat her fill on the spot,

subsequently tearing the prey at the leg joint

taking with her the upper half, leaving the

legs intact still attached to each other and

the stone. Due to her frenzied efforts to free

the baits they would become quite shapeless

and unrecognizable. The young however was

fed from these kills only twice. Before actual

mantling began the baits were usually be-

headed and scalped, all the flesh from the head

being eaten exposing the skull. Sometimes the

eyes were first torn out and eaten. At all

these induced kills I have found skulls be-

side the feathers and uneaten remains. De-

pluming now follows, the feathers from the

legs and lower abdomen first being plucked,

and later, the breast feathers. When the abdo-

men is free of feathers she splits open the

lower abdomen between the legs using her

beak like a surgeon’s scalpel. She initially

begins feeding on internal organs like the

liver, kidneys etc. The wings feathers are

then plucked. Much of the intestines are left

with only a few choice lengths being swallow-

ed. Slivers of meat from the neck are also

neatly sliced and eaten while portions of the

neck are sometimes swallowed. Feeding usually

289

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

lasted about 45 minutes. If the $ was still

hungry as she was on some occasions, por-

tions from the breast, back and rump would

also be eaten. Usually after the inhards

and part of the breast are devoured the

rest is carried off or remains uneaten. She

twice gorged herself hungrily oblivious of

everything but the urge to eat. After such

feeds her bulging crop resembled a pouch and

her beak and forehead were spattered with

blood. With a full crop she would waddle like

a duck swaying from side to side as she walk-

ed around the kill, before flying away heavily

to perch close by still showing an interest in

the remains.

When small prey which appear to be their

normal diet are killed (Calotes, Chamaeleons

and the occasional squirrels and bush rats)

nothing is wasted and the whole prey consum-

ed. Though their normal prey are small in size

Sp'zaetus cirrhatus are competently capable of

killing larger prey. Domestic hens and cocks

upto 2 kgs. were easily taken unhesitatingly

with great alacrity. There are records of Spizae-

lus cirrhatus sometimes taking a peahen.

Trained mountain Hawk eagles ( Spizaelus

nipalensis) have been flown successfully at

Bubo bengalensis and have been known to

kill larger prey in the wild state. I have observ-

ed the closely related Bonellis Hieraaetus

fasciatus about the same size as Spizaelus cirr-

hatus bring monitors Varanus (2\ to 3 ft.

long) to the nest along with partridge and

spurfowl. After observing the 2 feeding on

large baited prey it became apparent that the

stomach contents and breast of a medium

sized hen is usually more than enough to

* In April 1985 I observed a 2 swoop from her

nest in a Mohwa (Madhuca indica) tree into a flock

of feeding Rcdvented Bulbuls neatly catching one

which she feathered in a neat pile on the spot before

flying to the nest (Fig. 4).

satisfy a large adult. After satiating herself

the 2 would tear off the upper part of the

body and fly away storing the remains for

later consumption. The legs being tied were

left intact on the ground as too much effort

was required to free them.

On one occasion just after the 2 had deli-

vered the coup de grace to a small hen the

d dropped a calotes in the nest. The 2 look-

ed skywards and after inspecting the nest re-

turned quickly to the bait silently except for

the sound of her wings fanning the dried

leaves as she landed. She then left shortly

afterwards disturbed by village cattle that had

grazed too close for comfort leaving the dead

bait on the ground which was placed in the

nest. She ate substantially without feeding the

young flying off with the remains. It was notic-

ed that the male would hunt further afield

while the female nearer the nest. On two

occasions the male was observed hunting one

and half to three kilometres away from the

nest. On one of these occasions he was spotted

with a freshly caught calotes in his talons,

flying from the ground to a tree.

Spizaetus cirrhatus do appear to have a pre-

ference for a varied assortment of small sized

prey. The fact that they successfully prey on

mynas and parakeets prove that they can be

very agilek The only ground birds seen hunted

however were nearby village poultry. There is

no doubt that Hawk eagles do take every

opportunity to attack domestic hens during

their breeding season but these opportunities

do not come often and attacks are rarely suc-

cessful. 1 myself have seen one such determin-

ed but unsuccessful attack. The commotion of

desperate cackles emitted from about 12 to 15

hens running for their lives once drew my

attention and a Hawk eagle was seen rising on

the wins from the end of its near successful

stoop. The Rajpipla forests being disturbed and

290

RAPTORS OF THE RAJPIPLA FOREST

degraded, affords little if any cover for game

birds. Has Spizaetus cirrhatus adjusted to this

deteriorated environment by almost solely liv-

ing off smaller prey which they are also very

adept at catching ? It would however eco-

nomise energy to kill larger prey which they

probably would with reasonable ease given the

opportunity. An undisturbed study area with

HOT TO SCAU

a balanced prey population might reveal a true

percentage between large and small natural

kills. Could prey preferences change during the

breeding season ? If the adult’s preference is

for large prey in a balanced environment, they

could gorge themselves going without food till

the next easy availing opportunity without

expending energy daily. The young however

Fig. 4. The figure shows the second attack witnessed directly from the nest in 1985.

In 1983 a bush rat was similarly taken though the angle of attack was much more

acute. The 2 in this case flew directly from the nest which commanded a wide view

into a flock of feeding unsuspecting redvented bulbuls on the Ghat road from Rajpipla

town to Junna Rajpipla village. She caught a young bird that was moulting (feathers

retrieved positively indicate a moulting juvenile) and leaving the plucked feathers

neatly in a pile by the side of the road she flew back to the nest mobbed conti-

nuously by the bulbuls. The nest tree was the highest and largest in the area, the

surrounding forest having been cleared the Mohwa tree has survived because its

flowers once fermented provide the adivasis with their favourite home made intoxicant.

The 2 was observed between 8 a m. -9.30 a.m. to pluck green sprays from the nearby

stunted trees.

291

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

needing a daily food supply could be causing

a change to smaller prey which are easily

caught in numbers.

Voice & Calls, and General Behaviour of

Adults at the Nest

Male/female identification was made by size

differentiations when both birds were at the

nest and by certain physical characteristics and

behaviour.

The 2 was larger, dumpier and darker in

colour. She displayed a self-assured demeanor

lacking in the much shyer male especially at

the nest. The cf was slimmer, lighter in colour

and more dashing in flight. The $ could posi-

tively be identified by a white patch at the base

of her crest.

Brief Description of the Female

White breast — (extending from lower neck

to abdomen) with dark brown vertical streaks,

each streak being dark brown down the centre

and lighter towards the edges. Eyes bright

yellow and crest (consisting of about six large

and four smaller dark brown to black feathers

tipped with white) on crown horizontal to the

head. Head brown with thin black horizontal

streaks. Rest of the plumage uniformly brown.

Beak and lores black. Underside of primaries

white tipped with dark brown with thickish

uneven brown bands running horizontally

across each feather. Tarsus light brown.

Tail extends well beyond primaries and

underside is black tipped with 2 white bands

separated by a very thin black band. The upper

tail feathers are brown with 4 thick very dark

brown bands across them. From a head on view

a faint facial disc is discernible which is darker

than the surrounding brown of the head.

An unusual occurrence or a disturbance or

threat to the nest would trigger of a response

from the cf who would then join the 2 at the

nest (e.g. a climber climbing up a nest-tree for

the first time) as if to re-assure himself that

all was in order. The cf would do all the hunt-

ing and would when incubation was under

way remain near the nest for long periods when

not away hunting. When the young had hatch-

ed and until it was about 6 weeks old the

< S did almost all the hunting. The 2 spent

most of the time brooding and remaining

perched nearby. Impatience at the cf’s arrival

would be voiced by the 2 as she occasionally

glanced skywards. The cf would often bring

prey sometimes half eaten directly to the nest,

heralded and beckoned by frenzied, urgent

calls and shrieks of different intensity, volume

and notes from the 2 . L. Brown observed

that males of African Hawk-eagles tend to come

more readily to the nest than other species.

I found this true with Spizaetus cirrhatus. On

other occasions prey would be brought by the

cf near the nest and the female would fly

out and join him. Sometimes losing patience

the 2 would call beckoningly and fly out to

meet the cf- Prey would be brought a few

minutes later by the 2 to the nest. As the

young progressively matured, and brooding

correspondingly lessened the 2 would venture

out to hunt in the general vicinity of the nest

but not too far so that she could guard the

nest and fly back post haste if danger threat-

ened, though the cf continued to do most of

the hunting. Communication through calls

played a very important role in strengthening

the pair bond between cf and 2 and when

performing ritualistic behaviour. Calls varied

from the normal 6 to 7 notes upto even 12

and 14 with varying pitch and tone depend-

ing to what extent the 2 was impatient or

agitated, her urgency represented by additional

notes. A few instances of behaviour and result-

ing vocalising of varied intensity are note-

worthy.

292

J . Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82 Plate 3

Naoroji : Raptors of Rajpipla Forest

Above : Spizaetus cirrhatus — Portrait of a fully-fledged young.

Below : Female Spizaetus cirrhatus on nest-tree.

(Photos : Author)

J . Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82 Plate 4

Naoroji : Raptors of Rajpipla Forest

Above : Spizaetus cirrhalus — Female on a freshly killed bait.

Below : Spilornis cheela — Young giving threat display. Note the well formed crest.

(Photos : Author)

RAPTORS OF THE RAJPIPLA FOREST

9.30 a.m. Late morning and $ is brooding.

Alarm calls heard and 9 calls twice, then

a 7 note and subsequently an impatient 8 note

call there being a direct relation between no.

of notes and urgent impatience or eagerness.

$ calls again 10.49 a.m. 9 leaves nest and

perches on a nest supporting branch overlook-

ing the valley. 11 a.m. 9 flies off calling. 11.35

a.m. 9 arrives without prey and calls con-

tinuously 7 notes, 5 notes and 3 note calls.

Then some single note calls followed by 7 note

calls. She is excited and doesn’t settle on the

nest moving from one side to the other follow-

ing the male’s movements and calling conti-

nuously. 11.48 a.m. Male arrives with prey

and leaves immediately. After the feed 9

perches on nest supporting branch and return-

ing to the nest rubs beaks with the young.

Later during the day the male arrives again

with prey but the female vocalizes passively.

12.18 p.m. Early afternoon — Brooding

female calls. Later 5 notes then six, seven,

eight and a nine note calls made summoning

the male. She moved to her look-out perch

3 ft. away from nest. Till 12.44 p.m. she called

but instead of screaming the calls she shrieked

them out the last notes extremely high-pitched,

piercing and frenzied. 12.44 p.m. Male brought

a chameleon.

8.43 a.m. Early morning and nest occupied

only by young. Alarm calls. Four eagles seen

and heard. Male circling over the valley.

Female calls in anticipation. The whole valley

now flooded with alarm calls as female calls

louder, her calls high-pitched with last notes ex-

citedly accentuated. 8.54 a.m. Female circles and

glides over valley calling, her wings in line with

her body, adjusting to the wind by slightly rais-

ing wings for a few seconds without a flap. She

then flies over hide and nest and alights oppo-

site the nest. No calls heard now. Later heard

calling and seen circling over the valley and

above her the male, buoyant in flight but not

as much as S. cheela. 9.54 a.m. Female arrives

with a chameleon. Later the same day 11.54

a.m. female leaves nest after scanning the

valley. Calls occasionally and then in quick

succession rising to a crescendo. Alarm calls.

She then flies low over the nest (two and a

half feet) and utters the most hideous shrieks.

1.04 p.m. Female arrives with a chameleon.

On this occasion and a previous one when

chameleons were brought to the nest the in-

testines (black in colour) were eaten by the

female.

10.24 a.m. Female leaves nest when I enter

the hide. 11.50 a.m. calls heard. Till then there

was silence. 12.24 p.m. Female calls urgently

from her perch. Male arrives and the two give

vent to high-pitched shrieks. The young’s

metallic calls can also be heard. The adults

vocalize differently. The male “Klee Klek” and

“Klee kee kee Keee Kee Kee Kleee” by the

female. 12.31 p.m. 9 arrives with prey. Later

the same day when the young was 33 days

the female at 2.25 p.m. silently arrived at the

nest after an hour’s absence with a chameleon

which she probably caught herself. No calls were

heard and she was seen circling opposite the nest

tree before coming into land. On other days the

young would be alone in the nest, the male’s

visits with prey heralded by vocal female perch-

ed nearby. For four hours with the remains of

the hen and calotes in the nest, the female ac-

companies the young but does not feed. The

young is on one side of the nest and the female

on the other. Later the same day an unusual

incident occurred. The young had after four

hours been fed on the hen. Female calling in

falsetto flies off to meet the male. A few

minutes later the male alights alone at the nest

without prey. Female continues calling while

he’s at the nest.

2.52 p.m. Brooding 9 calls frantically. Male

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Yol. 82

alights on a nearby tree where the female joins

him. They interchange positions sideways from

left to right, the $ trying to get at the prey

whereupon the male flies to the ground leav-

ing the prey. The female descends and carries

the prey to a nearby perch from where she

brings it to the nest at 3.03 p.m. The female

(young now 36 days old) also being hungry eats

substantially of the prey. Meat is torn with side-

ways twists of the head and fed in the manner

of most raptors — held out at tip of beak

close to beak of young which takes it at great

speed.

When the young was in the downy stage

the $ spent most of the time brooding. When

away from the nest especially when the young

was older and brooded less, the <2 was often

mobbed by crows and drongoes. For 4 conti-

nuous days the brooding $ was persistently

mobbed at the nest at various intervals during

each day by a brown shrike ( Lanius cristatus).

The shrike for these 4 days kept up a barrage

of bombing raids, each sortie directed at the

$ ’s nape and head and carried out with great

speed, dexterity and persistence. Quite often

audible contact was made. It became impos-

sible for the $ to ignore these irritating attacks

and she would follow its movements with gape

wide open and duck every time the shrike at-

tacked. Even when the $ was feeding on the

bait on the ground the shrike suddenly appear-

ed and mobbed her. It would keep up a con-

tinuous swearing, a harsh, metallic “ch-r-r

ch-r-r ch-r-r”. These attacks were always made

from above, the shrike improvising on the

direction of each sortie. On one occasion while

these raids were being enthusiastically carried

out a common drongo was seen perched above

the nest, watching the proceedings with great

interest but without taking part.

At the nest flies interfered with brooding.

They would settle enmass on the eyelids of

the young and female. It was noticed with

Serpent eagles, Shikra and Honey-buzzards, that

flics have a preference for the eyes of perch-

ed and brooding raptors. The ? would try

to flick them off by blinking but they would

soon be back and when they got too bother-

some she would shake her head sideways

vigorously 3 to 4 times.

All visits to the nest (6 in all observed)

with green sprays were brought during the

morning hours invariably between 8.30 a.m.

and 9.45 a.m. On two occasions the $ was

observed flying to some nearby trees 120 feet

away from the nest returning with green sprays.

These trees were, Dalbergia latifolia, Diospy-

ros melanoxylon, Hymenodictyon excelsum,

Anogeissus latifolia, Aegle marmelos, Termi-

nalia bellirica. She would snip off stout twigs

with great ease and while adjusting sticks in

the nest she once broke off a protruding end

of 4 inches with one quick fluent twist of her

head.

When young was around 35 days old the

? started hunting a little on her own. As the

female was also hunting sporadically though

not regularly like the male, prey bringing visits

to the nest sporadically increased Definitely

more kills were being made than had been

earlier observed at the nest. The $ ’s own prey

bringing visits were conspicuous by the absence

of calls.

Most raptor calls were mimicked by dron-

gos. On many occasions a genuine Hawk eagle

call or series of calls would be followed by

a convincing rendering by nearby drongos,

almost an echo of the real calls. This was

misleading at times and one tended to be

very careful about verifying the origin of calls

heard. Their mimicry was true to pitch but

differed in volume intensity and number of

notes. The $ herself was misleadingly alerted

one day by these mimics.

294

RAPTORS OF THE RAJPIPLA FOREST

Most of the prey brought to the nest was

fed to the young, the female taking random

mouthfuls not enough to sustain her through

the day especially when she was brooding.

The male too had to maintain a high meta-

bolism for the energy required for hunting

and keeping three birds alive. Many more kills

were obviously made than what was actually

brought to the nest. Only on two instances

was the $ observed eating substantially from

prey at the nest. Once the intestines of a chame-

leon and on another she ate substantially of a

lizard while feeding the young. On three occa-

sions she gorged herself on baits so that her

crop resembled a pouch and her flight was

exceptionally heavy and sluggish. During the

early stages when the $ was almost continu-

ously brooding and feeding the young, she was

dependent only on the male for food and was

probably fed away from the nest. Later when

brooding progressively lessened after the first

four to five weeks she hunted for both the

young and herself, staying away from the nest

for longer intervals but never straying away

too far. On two occasions she killed near the

nest 30-50 ft. away, — a bush rat and calotes.

When the young was four weeks old the

$ just accompanied the fledgling at the nest,

both birds two to three feet apart dwarfed by

the huge nest. Feeds were now erratic and

prey would not be fed immediately even with

kills present in the nest.

When the young was around 52 days old

about weeks before it became independent

of the nest brooding had tapered off com-

pletely though on the odd day the young was

briefly accompanied at the nest. Likewise with

both S. cheela and Spizaetus cirrhatus it was

noticed that even when fledged young were

capable of feeding themselves (if rather

clumsily) the females would still indulge in

feeding their young occasionally. Both adults

were now hunting regularly as no apparent

danger threatened their fully grown eaglet.

One day 2 km. away from the Hawk eagle

nest I saw Buzzards (unidentified) and a pair

of Shikras about 10 in all circling high over-

head.

Some unusual calls were also heard. Once

while feeding on the bait on the ground the

c? flew over-head and the $ uttered 3 to 4

nasal snort like calls never heard before

almost as if she were sneezing and at the

nest she uttered 2 syllable calls increasing to

5 syllables. Both these calls were never heard

again. Intensity of calls tapers off as brooding

lessens and young matures. Prey is brought

silently to the nest and visits are not ushered

in by frenzied calling, though low-keyed calls

are frequently heard.

One day a spectacular aerial display was

performed when an assistant was climbing the

nest-tree. Circling high up above the nest the

female with folded wings dived repeatedly

upto within a few feet of the climber. The

wind passing through her feathers could be

heard from the hide. She was then joined by

the male who was by this time (4.vi.83) under-

going a moult. The male followed her closely

till they were shortly joined by another Hawk

eagle in semi-juvenile plumage also just be-

ginning to moult. As mentioned earlier during

machan building 3 adults were seen together

near the nest. This third bird was followed

closely by the female and it appeared to me

that the female was gently but firmly escort-

ing it away from the nest. They flew out of

sight and while leaving the hide I saw the

female perched alone nearby. On another

occasion after feeding the young the female

left the nest and joined two Hawk eagles across

the valley where they finally flew into the trees

on a ridge above the valley.

From nests where young were casualties, no

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

further breeding was observed and when check-

ed a few weeks later they remained empty

showing no potential signs of breeding like

fresh leaf linings etc.

As we were baiting the 9 regularly but

sporadically, she would circle above us when-

ever we approached the nest checking in fact

if there was going to be an opportunity to get

an easy and filling meal in the form of live

bait.

At around 58 days the young was being left

alone at night though when exactly is not known.

During the young’s first flight the 9 was

perched nonchalantly 50 yds. away. She was

mobbed and chased by crows as she changed

her position causing the young to excitedly

change position too. Though the 9 gave no

visible encouragement as it was probably not

required, she could have enticed the young

further away from the nest had she wanted

to. This sort of encouragement was observed

at a 1981 S. cheela nest at Sankri (see Jour-

nal Vol. 80 No. 2, August ’83). Even with

the young hopping among the branches call-

ing inquiringly, there was no response from

the adults. This prompted the young to fly

towards the female when it for some apparent

reason flew back to the nest. Prior to its arrival

at the nest the female had been observed

killing a calotes and eating it by herself. The

young thinking a feed was in the offing flew

back to the nest but later showed indifference

after the $ had demolished the calotes. The

young at 70 days was being largely left to its

own devices. The female would on occasions

still feed the young though this chore was

executed at her own discretion now that the

young could somewhat feed itself. This capi-

talizing on the young’s hunger would accele-

rate the young’s independence to feed itself.

The <$ was never observed actually to feed.

During the eaglet’s last days at the nest the

female arrived with a lizard at 5.09 p.m.

Begging gestures of the young were ignored

and she joined the c? flying above the valley

at nest level. The 9 later perched for an hour

in the valley below visible in silhouette called

twice. The young desperately hungry turned

its attention to the prey instead of waiting

fruitlessly for the female. It managed with

some intial difficulty to tear up the prey eat-

ing competently till 6.05 p.m., taking only

12 minutes to completely demolish the lizard,

a prime example of how the female reacted

with her fully-fledged young. Seven days later

the $ was observed feeding the young four

days before it finally became independent of

the nest on 28.vi.83. In early July, I visited

the nest-site and the $ conditioned to our

arrivals with bait circled overhead expectantly.

The nest was empty.

By 17.viii.83 while S. cheela young had

all flown with immatures occasionally spotted,

the Honey-buzzards were rearing their almost

fledged young. On that day a 9 Hawk-eagle

and juvenile were spotted perched silently and

motionless in heavy rain opposite old Mozda

village just off the main road near the river

about 3 kms. from nest No. 1. During two short

lulls the juvenile would call eagerly the 9 vocal-

ly reciprocating, joining the young twice before

finally flying off to perch 50 metres away.

Both juvenile and the 9 were about the same

size. The juvenile was constantly mobbed by

a lone crow and the 9 looked magnificent as

she perched near the juvenile, spreading her

wings to dry after a heavy shower. The young

appeared to be hungry and still dependent on

the 9 . This juvenile could have been the off-

spring of nest No. 1 but until these birds are

ringed and their movements plotted it will be

impossible to answer many intriguing and

perplexing questions.

296

RAPTORS OF THE RAJP1PLA FOREST

Spilornis cheela Crested Serpent Eagle

Courtship

Some Serpent eagle displays were observed

while watching an incubating Hawk-eagle. On

most occasions pairing off of S. cheela involv-

ed three birds participating, 2 more actively

than the third. Displaying Serpent eagles are

extremely vocal and being densely populated

and so common their calls were heard through-

out the area. Their courtship display consist-

ed of frantic vocalizing by a pair soaring and

circling high overhead. Usually a third adult

would be circling on its own some distance

away or perched nearby also vocalizing. Some-

times a pair would circle, one slightly above

the other, the higher bird suddenly breaking

off and soaring away over a hill resuming

circling, all the while closely followed by its

partner. Sometimes three Serpent eagles would

be seen circling together and often flying over

a Hawk-eagle’s nest. Both species tolerated

and nested in close proximity to each other.

The Serpent eagles aerial ballet display is

beautiful to watch. They glide circling in slow

motion, sometimes flying very low and slowly

calling continuously. The wings are held ex-

ceptionally high forming a sharp V and due

to slow flying the birds have to occasionally

flap their wings to regain momentum after

stalling (Fig. 2). They circle round thus fol-

lowing each other until one turns around

crossing the other but maintaining the con-

centricity of the circle. One morning after

thus displaying a pair settled on different

trees calling to each other. A third eagle was

observed perched nearby. A few minutes later

one of the pair joined the other on the tree

and perched above it. The lower bird took

five minutes hopping with wings flapping to

reach the top, calling excitedly all the time.

When the bird eventually reached the same

height it made a move towards its beau which

flew off. It immediately followed and they re-

circled and vocalized as before with wings

held well back. They then disappeared follow-

ing the third eagle which had already flown

in that direction. On another occasion two

adults were seen soaring above nest No. 2

of the Hawk eagle 2\ km. apart. Their voca-

lizing first drew my attention and I am now

quite convinced that vocalizations play an

important role during the Serpent eagle’s

courtship display. These two birds interacted

through vocalizations while a third perched

nearby answered with long drawn out one note

screams and whistles “Phweeee” and “Keeu”.

Later one of the circling pair was answered for

a few minutes only by the perched adult and

not the circling partner. The circling pair flew

in circles rising higher and higher calling out to

each other. They then circled in opposite

Nest specifications

Table 2a

297

4

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION-29

directions maintaining the circle and when the

lower bird (the 2 ) passed close under the

<S it flipped over performing a complete somer-

sault, its talons outstretched towards the c?

who, however, veered away just when it appear-

ed their talons would lock. Flipping over was

observed twice in about 10 minutes. No actual

contact was made but both the birds were

very close to each other.

Nests and Eggs

As seen in table No. 2a, the nest trees in ’83

consisted of many species but Terminalia

crenulata. Yet in 1982 most nests found were

on Sadar ( Terminalia crenulata). Nests are

lower than those of the Hawk-eagles and much

smaller. Some nests were so small that the tail

of the incubating $ could be clearly seen

projecting out of the nest. These small untidy

nests resembled a crow’s but larger. The

general habitat was dry deciduous inter-

spersed with Bamboo and Strobilanthes, and

nests were usually better concealed than the

Hawk-eagle’s. Oval nests were situated gene-

rally facing East to West on convenient

forks three-fourths up the tree to the

top most suitable crotch. The nest trees are

usually bare at this time when these eagles are

incubating. Coinciding with their early-nesting

period the outbreak of the monsoon ensures

a thick leafy canopy around the nests. Nest

lining in two nests contained leafy sprays of

the same species as the nest-tree. Whether they

were taken from the nearby vicinity or from

the nest tree itself is not known.

The eggs are large (Table 2b) and oval in

shape, normally broad and narrow at either

ends. Some eggs are exceptions with both ends

similar in shape and size. They are white with

variations of rusty-red blotches, sometimes just

speckled with red spots and rarely, a large

Table 2b

Egg measurements

Sp'lornis clieela

From: Baker's nidification.

61 eggs averaged 71.8 x 56.2 mm.

Maxima 77.3 x 57.6 mm.

Minima 66.3 x 52.7 mm.

blotch of red restricted solely to the broad

end.

Incubation

The first nest of S. cheela was found on

6.iv.83, the $ observed incubating. While the

Hawk-eagles were rearing young, the Serpent

eagles were incubating. After an egg was des-

troyed the $ was observed sitting in the nest

for a few days during the early morning hours.

This nest was never re-used though the pair

may have nested elsewhere. Displays at this

stage were frequently seen sometimes directly

over the nesting area.

Growth of Nestling

A one day old young of S. cheela weighed

65 gms. Its tarsus was pale yellow, lores black

with thick black distinct eyebrows near the

lores. Faint yellow streak running down bare

belly. Head, Body and Wings pure downy

white. Mouth pale yellow to grey, eyes blue

black, bill black with egg tooth visible and

claws light brown. Both ear-holes black. An

approximately three week old young from an-

other nest weighed 310 gms. It lores were

blackish green, covered throughout densely in

298

RAPTORS OF THE RAJPIPLA FOREST

down. Feather growth just emerging on crown

and wings. Primaries emerging but white in

colour. Through down on back two faint

parallel feather lines emerging on either side

of vertebral column. Mouth pink tinged with

greyish black, bill black, eyes grey, pupils blue,

tarsus yellow green, claws greyish brown, gape

and cere green.

Some fledglings reacted more aggressively

than others. A 3-week old S. cheela young

gave a convincing threat display when handled.

The Hawk-eagle young at the same age was

relatively docile. A perky 14 days old Honey-

buzzard young gave a typical threat display

spreading its stumpy wings following the

climber’s every movement ready to peck.

Behaviour of a fully-fledged young

In early July, S. cheela young are almost

fully fledged some whose tails, however, are

just beginning to emerge beyond their prima-

ries. Observations on the Mozda nest showed

that while the young’s crest was well deve-

loped the $ ’s was missing. Could this be the

beginning of a moult ? Her plumage was

otherwise perfect. The young was capa-

ble of locating and feeding from a tear

made in a carcass by an adult. Once fleshy

parts were exposed the young easily fed on

the innards and tore off and swallowed large

chunks of meat. Snakes when not sometimes

swallowed required a tear in the body to ini-

tiate feeding. The $ ’s help was required to

pass snakes from beak to beak into head first

swallowing position, otherwise snakes would lie

uneaten in the nest. A snake would be dropped

into the nest, the 2 returning later to offer

it to the young. Young once swallowed in

great gulps the complete lower half of a Rana

including both feet in just a minute. This last

mouthful was large even for an experienced

adult. Two to three visits to the nest were

made only by the $ and after dropping prey

into the nest she would immediately depart.

Both adults were now regularly hunting along

the banks of the Mozda river \\ kms. away

from the nest. This nest was the smallest

observed. When the $ visited the nest she

perched on the rim at a very odd angle as the

fully grown young fully took up all available

space. Towards the middle of July a few days

before the young would finally fly off, the

flattened dilapidated nest was sloping from the

left to the right appearing to almost slide off

the supporting crotch. Its general behaviour

was similar to all young fledged raptors giving

effective threat displays, spending long hours

standing, preening back, breast, primary fea-

thers and dozing, its chin resting on the nest-

rim. Heavy rain did not bother it while gusts

of wind were utilized for exercising wings. The

young unusually quiet would emit shrill, loud,

long drawn out, one note screams on seeing

the adults with prey adopting a crouched

begging posture and continuing calling after a

visit. Defecation followed feeds and it would

sometimes stand resting on its right leg, the

left leg bent and supported at the tarsus/tibia

joint on the nest-rim. When danger threatened,

it would like all raptor young sit close on the

nest almost merging with it. Even though young

could feed itself it was sometimes fed by the

? . A Rana was eaten wholly by the young

but later the same day a bush rat was fed by

the $ .

Description of fully-fledged young in nest

as on 19.7.83.

Tail stumpy on 1 .vii.83 and slightly protrud-

ing beyond the primaries. Crest dark brown

and white tipped appeared well-developed

merging with the mottled head. Base of mottled

head feathers was pure white. When the wind

ruffled up the white-tipped brown head feathers

299

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

they stood out, stuck as they appeared into

the pure white crown. Lores were greyish

yellow, eyes yellow and bill black. Upper parts

dark brown with feathers tipped white along

the curve. Underparts light brown with white

spotted designs on breast, belly and tibia typi-

cal of the species though still faint and scatter-

ed. Tibia feathered and very light brown.

Tarsus dull yellow (Plate 5).

1 . vii . 83 Underside of secondaries and pri-

maries whitish. 19.vii.83 underside of primaries

have broad white horizontal bands with nar-

rower alternating dark brown bands on either

side.

All available references on immature plum-

ages describe synonymously only the juveniles

of the nominate race S. cheela cheela. These

descriptions which suit the specimens of the

nominate immatures in the B.N.H.S collection

differ considerably in appearance from the

fully-fledged young of Spilornis cheela observ-

ed over two seasons in the Rajpipla forests.

Geographically these birds come within the

range of the Southern race melanotis (see Jour-

nal Vol. 80 No. 2). In brief the nominate

immatures have a mottled white and brown

upperside ,the underside being pure white with

dark brown vertical streaks mainly on the

breast (Plate 5). Tails of all the juvenile

specimens are well developed indicating that

they had most probably been collected after

being nest-independent but well within the first

year. The only similarity between the descrip-

tions of the nominate immatures and the Raj-

pipla young observed are the mottled heads.

Another immature seen by me in Rajpipla out

of the nest after the nesting season was also

uniformly brown, upperside however darker

than the underside as in the adults, the head

being somewhat mottled. A previous year’s

young also fitted this description ( Journal Vol.

80 No. 2).

This is thus only an interesting pointer to-

wards differences in plumage among immature

Serpent eagles though far more substantial

evidence is required as to whether this diffe-

rence in plumage is consistent between the

races. In the light of there being no adequate

description of immature Spilornis cheela mela-

notis in reference literature, the above obser-

vation appears to be of interest.

Food and Hunting

Prey preferences of Spilornis cheela change

at the outset of the monsoon in mid- June. The

young would by now be about a month and

a half old in early July and the variety of

snakes caught earlier during the dry season

(see Journal Vol. 80 No. 2, August 1983) is

now mainly restricted to checkered keelbacks

( Xenochrophis piscator) of all sizes along with

the occasional rat snake. At this lime Xeno-

chrophis piscator are probably the easiest

snakes to spot and capture. Each day the

Mozda pair (first the male during the early

brooding sessions and later also the female)

were seen perched along the banks of the

nearby river only three quarters of a mile away

from the nest. One day an adult was seen

descending from its perch and disappearing

from view below the high bank of the river.

Ten minutes later it was seen rising with a

snake in its talons. In 1982 a pair (possibly

the same) nesting nearby were seen with a

snake at almost the same spot. The Indian bull

frog ( Rana tigerina), the Bush rat ( Golunda

ellioti) and other lizards mainly calotes figure

to a lesser extent in the diet of these birds.

Voice & Calls and General behaviour at Nest

The Serpent eagles are very vocal and active

during their incubation stage. Once while

watching an incubating pair soaring I saw a

third stoop down at great speed upto them, all

300

RAPTORS OF THE RAJPIPLA FOREST

three then circled screaming to each other. The

pair then flew away together while the third

flew in the opposite direction. On two occa-

sions, two birds were seen calling excitedly

to each other but each went their own oppo-

site ways.

By end June Hawk eagles have completed

nesting and the monsoon has set in. The Ser-

pent eagle nesting season is in full swing and

they continue being very vocal at the nest and

while displaying. All eggs hatched by middle

to end May, latest early June, while the Honey-

buzzards were still incubating, their eggs hatch-

ing around end June or later.

Territorial displays of S. cheela sometimes

involved four adults (2 pairs) who settled

matters by what appeared to be mainly voca-

lising. These vocal disputes occur just before

and during the nesting season where two

occupied nests are in close proximity to each

other. Sometimes 2 pairs were seen vocalising

and pairing off to their different territories after

settling the matter by circling and vocalising.

No physical contact was ever observed. On

other occasions two birds (a pair) would be

observed vocalising and soaring high above an

active nesting area, also a sure indication of

an occupied nest. Sometimes a third and fourth

bird would appear. They would soar, circle

and vocalise, then separate in pairs, e.g. one

pair to their nesting area to the left of a hill

and the other to the right where they each had

a nest.

Pernis ptiiorhyncus Crested Honey Buzzard

Courtship

At about mid-April to May, Honey-buzzards

perform their mating displays. These thrilling

displays involved deep undulations, much

deeper than that of the Accipiters. First a

downward swoop of great speed, flattening out

and with the momentum rising, finally flapping

the wings vigorously actually hovering at the

apex of the ascent for a few seconds. This

would be repeated over and over again with

variations until the birds would fly out of sight.

By this time they have finished repairing old

nests or building new ones and though they

haven’t begun to lay as yet, the lining of

green twigs in otherwise empty nests indicate

that they would be laying soon. One such

empty but lined nest was found on 30.iv.83

at Sankri when the nest-tree Diospyros mela-

noxylon was totally bare and the nest clearly

visible. Its future potential was realised due

to fresh green leaf linings present in the empty

nest. Checking later on 8.vi.83 the tree had

a luxuriant growth of foliage the nest being

completely hidden. It contained two eggs

smaller in size than those of S. cheela and

Spizaetus cirrhatus. When again inspected on

21.vi.83 two fledglings were found in the

nest.

Nests & Eggs

Honey-buzzard nests were found on the fol-

lowing trees: Timuru ( Diospyros melanoxy-

!on)\ Teak ( Tectona grandis ); Sheeshum

( Dalbergia latifolia)', Bedo ( Terminalia belli -

rica) .

Though Inglis and Blewitt found nests 15 ft.

up in a Mango tree and 16 ft. up in a Sheeshum,

all nests located were much higher. Coltart

took 2 eggs from an old Kite’s nest and one

pair usurped the nest of a Shikra. At Namgir

a 1983 Honey-buzzard nest 45 ft. high with 2

eggs had been a previous year’s 1982 crow’s

nest. The nest had however since been enlarg-

ed by the Honey-buzzards.

All active nests of Honey buzzards were

well concealed by monsoon foliage and were

located half way to 3 /4s up the nesting trees

on suitable forks formed by three boughs. Nest

No. 2 at Sankri facing NW-SE was 16^ metres

high. Its specifications — 79 cms. outside dia-

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

meter, 30 cms. inside diameter, 12 cms. depth.

Two egg were found. The first weighed 52^

gms.. Length 54.02 mm, Max. Dia. 44.26 mm.

Second weighed 53 gms., Length 53.18 mm,

Max. dia. 44.92 mm.

The second egg was literally splashed with

rust brown, darker at the broad end.

The specifications of the two eggs measure

up closely to Baker’s average.

Incubation

During incubation Honey-buzzards sit tightly

on the nest flying off reluctantly when a clim-

ber is more than half way up the nest tree.

The first time the tree was climbed on 8.vi.83

the 2 refused to bulge till the adivasi almost

reached the nest. She circled above us calling

“pheeuw pheeuw” then settled nearby watch-

ing us anxiously till we departed.

Growth of Nestling

Honey-buzzard eggs hatch, towards the

middle of June, the young reminiscent of

4-6 day old domestic chicks. Though both eggs

usually hatch only one young generally attains

maturity. Out of 4 nests inspected, one at

Sankri and three at Singloti, only one young

survived. Two nests, one at Sankri and the

other at Singloti had two young, but when

later observed they were found to contain only

one nestling each. At a Singloti nest where the

weaker and smaller sibling died the body was

left in the nest cavity for 3 days attracting

numerous blue-bottle flies. The surviving

fledgling about weeks old perched near the

nest rim to avoid the flies.

Honey-buzzard young though covered with

down are not pure white like other downy

raptors. Head being light brown with body

light brownish white. Beak black and gape

yellowish white. Base of beak yellowish white.

Tarsus yellow.

Throughout the nesting season it was observ-

ed that Honey-buzzard young defecate mini-

mally especially during the initial nesting stages.

Unlike other raptor young like Shikras, Ser-

pent eagles and Hawk-eagles, Honey-buzzard

young defecate into the nest either on the rim

or into the nest cavity. This was consistently

observed. One unlikely sleeping posture was

observed in a 20 day old young. While sitting

the young turned its head around (facing

rump) and resting its chin on its back fell

asleep. Young keep up a continuous “cheep

cheeeep” during feeding. A wet and bedraggled

young was observed being preened by the 2 ,

after a heavy downpour. The 2 preened the

fledgling’s crown as it slept after a feed, later

changing her position to preen its rump. Brood-

ing involved standing over the young as in the

case of Hawk-eagles and not by lightly sitting

on their offspring like Shikras and Serpent

eagles. A severe bout of malaria ended all

observations on the initial development stages

of Honey-buzzard young.

Observations on the Honey-buzzards conti-

nued from 28.vii.83 onwards during their

secondary nesting stage. The rains had by now

set in without letting up for days. Feeds were

erratic and no visits to the nest were observed

during rainy spells. When an adult’s visit was

imminent the young adopted a submissive

posture hunched up like a vulture, crouched

with head and neck craned forward, turning

around to keep the adult in view, its calls in-

creasing in tempo and pitch finally ending with

a crescendo and wing flapping just before and

during the actual arrival at the nest. Even after

prey was deposited in the nest and the adult

departed, its calls would continue for many

seconds before it settled down to feed.

Chameleons were always passed head-on for

swallowing easily. The young continued to

defecate only into the nest-cavity until it was

302

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82

Naoroji: Raptors of Rajpipla Forest

Plate 5

Above : Spilornis cheela — Specimens of fully-fledged juveniles nominate race.

Below : Spilornis cheela — Fully-fledged juvenile southern race it the nest.

(Photos: Author)

J . Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82 Plate 6

Naoroji : Raptors of Rajpipla Forest

Above : Honey-buzzard — Young displaying a frenzied show of activity.

Below : Honey-buzzard — A feed.

(Photos : Author)

RAPTORS OF THE RAJP1PLA FOREST

independent of the nest by squatting with rump

directly over nest-cavity or nest-rim, and

defecating straight down perpendicularly.

Occasionally excited due to an adult’s immi-

nent visit the young adopted various contor-

tions of the neck first craning its neck for-

ward and then backward towards its

breast in an extended or elongated swallowing

motion. Anticipating a feed the excited young

would involuntarily defecate occasionally into

the nest.

Description of Young — Secondary Stage

Tarsus bare and deep yellow. Claws black.

Primary, secondary and tail feathers sprouting

and dark brown in colour. Primaries about

two and a half inches long and growing rapid-

ly. Back still covered with down. Gape yellow.

Nostrils till lores deep yellow. Bill black and

in shape similar to adults’ though smaller. Tar-

sus bare and deep yellow. Minute feather

quills appearing like black spots also sprouting

on crown and nape. Lores similar to adults’

but dirty white in colour. Ear holes black. Eyes

and pupil black. Upper wings have a mottled

appearance due to down showing through bet-

ween the smaller secondaries and the tertiary

feathers. Forehead downy. Neck sides to

shoulder downy. Lower neck sports a few

growing feather quills. Underside — Breast

light brown. Belly centre light brown with

sides downy. Tibia downy with scattered brown

spots.

Young would spend its time alternately preen-

ing and standing in the nest. As wing feathers

were well developed young would make use

of any available patch of sunlight on the nest

to dry its wings. Sunshine or not, the young

would hold its wings away from its body

sometimes stretching them taut to dry. During

the final stage extremely energetic bouts of

wing flapping were observed. Honey-combs

would now be held in talons like the adults

reminiscent of a parakeet. A feed would be

followed by crosswise wiping of bill on nest-

rim sticks.

On an average about 7-8 feeding visits per

day were made to the nest by the adults. No

visits were made during rainy spells and actual

time spent by adults at the nest was short,

about a minute or less. On some relatively

clear days upto 12 to 15 visits per day were

recorded but on the 10th August 14 feeds

almost alternatively by both adults were observ-

ed between 12.50 p.m. to 4.10 p.m. In this

case both the Honey-buzzard pair were active

in bringing prey. It would be interesting to

know whether the male also helps in incuba-

tion. A lot of fresh green sprays were usually

visible in the nest but never observed being

brought indicated that this activity was usually

carried out very early in the morning. Both

adults continued feeding till the young was

independent of the nest.

Towards the end of the secondary stage the

young’s feathers had grown phenominally fast

and the only down visible on the upper parts

was between the shoulders and on the fore-

head, crown and around the lores.

Primaries were white-tipped and it spent most

of its time preening and stretching its wings

forwards and backwards. The young in its final

stage was very active and took every advan-

tage of strong gusts of wind to flap its

wings, sometimes continuing for over a

minute if the gust of wind was ex-

ceptionally strong. It would also hop across

the nest exercising its wings. A rainy spell

was always endured by standing up in the nest

with some initial vigorous wing flapping. Post

downpour period was always followed by meti-

culous preening of back and breast feathers

(from base to tip), with wings stretched out

to dry. Around 10.viii.83 young had become a

303

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

more accomplished feeder and could tear up

a chameleon competently and swallow it.

In appearance the young was now a uniform

dark brown above and uniformly light brown

on the underside, except for its cheeks and

lores. The tail had also grown. Remaining

down on forehead was rapidly disappearing.

On 10.viii.83 and 14.viii.83 the young was fed

so much that its crop was swollen pushing

aside the dark brown chest feathers that con-

cealed it when the crop was empty. By

18.viii.83 young was consistently eating chame-

leons on its own, moving out of the nest perch-

ing on topmost branches of the nest tree 6-7

ft. above the nest, dependent on the nest only

at night and during feeds.

The curved and twisted ends of chameleon

tails posed a swallowing problem to the

young after swallowing the body. The

tail would be straightened out with the

right or the left foot depending on which side

of the beak the curved end was protruding.

The young was now extremely active during

its last two and a half weeks in the nest and

flapping of wings now increased in tempo. By

22.viii.83 the nest had been flattened and there

being not much difference in height between

the nest-cavity and the nest-rim. By this time

the young was almost the same size as the

adults, a bit plumper and not as streamlined.

An unusually energetic display was observed

on 22.viii.83, the last day of observation. From

the nest the young clambered up a vertical

limb supporting the nest to its right frantically

flapping its wings at a blurring speed never

before observed (plate 6). It then hopped to a

branch to the left of the nest later flying

directly to a perch to the right of the nest.

Extensive preening at this stage was meticu-

lously done after heavy rains making use also

of available wind and sunlight if any to dry its

feathers. Each individual primary feather was

attended to from the rachis base to the tips.

Tail and breast feathers were similarly preened.

On 9 . ix . 83 the nest was found to be empty.

Food and Hunting

In mid- July the young of Honey-buzzards

are around 15 days to a month old. Young

at 15 days are capable of feeding themselves

partially only on small fleshy parts of honey

combs, swallowing large pieces when fed more

adequately by the female (plate 6). At this

age whole chameleons cannot be swallowed

and have to be fed piecemeal to the

young. Honey combs are brought in the feet

and sometimes in the bill. Chameleons always

in the bill. During feeds the female

would feed herself if the fledging was

slow in accepting a morsel. When a feed is

over the $ often lowers her head deep in the

nest cavity to retrieve remaining bits of flesh

and comb. Once after completing a feed, the

$ retrieved the dried remains of a chameleon

from the nest cup, reminiscent of a parakeet

by transferring the discoloured remains from

her beak to her right talons by bringing her

foot upto bill level and back to her bill. This

extraordinary and versatile use of the feet had

never before been observed by me with other

raptors. Both young and adults have this trait.

Holding the hardened remains in her right foot

at neck level she broke off pieces of putrified

flesh standing on her left foot.

Prey brought by both adults consisted solely

of Honey combs (yellowish white from 4-7

inches in diameter) and chameleons. No feeds

were observed during rainy spells. The ’83 mon-

soon being unusually heavy very few feeds were

in fact observed each day, always during a lull

in the rain. On 10.viii.83 however 14 feeds

were observed between 12.45 p.m. in the

afternoon and 4.10 p.m. in the evening. It was

a wet, cloudy rain filled monsoon day and

304

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82

Naoroji : Raptors of Rajpipla Forest

Plate 7

Above : Honey-buzzard — A rare picture of both adults at the nest. Note the dif-

ference in the coloration of the eyes and the plumage. Young has just been given

both feeds which can be seen in its beak. A honey comb and the tail of a chameleon

near its right eye can be clearly seen.

Below : Shikra (Aecipiter badius ) — Female with fledglings tugging on a Calotes.

(Photos: Author)

RAPTORS OF THE RAJP1PLA FOREST

these were in fact the only dry hours during

the whole day. I reached the hide at 12 noon

due to morning’s heavy rain and left at 4.15

p.m. when it got overcast after which it rained

incessantly till 12 p.m. midnight. Out of these

14 feeds just three consisted of honey combs,

the rest being chameleons. The first honey

comb was eaten by the young on its own at

12.55 p.m., the second eaten partially at 1.10

p.m. the third being untouched. The

eleven chameleons, some brought whole and

others dismembered were swallowed. How did

the adults manage to locate and procure such

a large number of chameleons in such a short

time ? Both adults fed young almost alterna-

tively.

Visits

tarsus half way. Eyes black while the other

lighter adult presumably the male had the eyes

bordered by a yellowish orange circle (plate

7). Some birds have ruby red eyes. This

eye colour difference in adult birds could be

due to differences in age and varying also bet-

ween male and female. Neck long and beak

thin and weak. Upper tail black with a broad

white band.

Young was very active in the nest alertly

watching S. cheela call overhead, pecking and

playing with sticks and preening during this

early downy stage. Alarm calls of birds alerted

it into looking around intently for the adults.

Honey-buzzards though common near human

settlements were found to be extremely shy at

2.44 p.m., 2.59 p.m., 3.15 p.m., 3.28 p.m., 3.35 p.m., 3.43 p.m., 4.09 p.m.

Lighter adult y/ V V

Darker adult V V V V

2.44 p.m., 2.59 p.m., 3.15 p.m., 3.28 p.m., 3.35 p.m., 3.43 p.m., 4.09 p.m.

Lighter adult V V V

Darker adult V V

Voice & Calls, Description and General

Behaviour at Nest

At a destroyed nest where a Honey-buzzard

young disappeared, characteristic mourn-

ful calls vaguely reminiscent of the wailing of

a kitten calling for its mother “peeuw peeeeuw”

were emitted by the $ . With two pairs observed

it was noticed that one adult assumed to be

the cf in each pair was considerably lighter

than the other, mainly on the breast. Lores

with scale like feathers lighter than rest of the

head. Upper parts are uniformly light to dark

brown. Wings dark brown and underside uni-

formly brown. Tibia covered with pale brow-

nish white feathers covering the brownish yellow

V V

the nest and ready to desert given the slightest

cause. Of course as with all raptors some pairs

were shyer than others.

Other Raptors

Around the 12th of May, while the Hawk-

eagle’s downy young were being reared, the

Serpent eagles incubating. Honey-buzzards

mating and displaying prior to nesting, Shikras

were rearing their young. A Shikra’s and

Sparrow-hawk’s nest were both located in

Sadar ( Terminalia tomentosa ) trees.

The Shikra nest contained two young nestl-

ings and an addled egg (Plate 7). The egg re-

mained in the nest for 7 days. During feeding

the 2 made conscious efforts to feed both

305

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

young alternatively. The prey brought to the

nest were solely Cables versicolor, a favourite

prey also of the Hawk-eagles. The hot hours

were spent brooding and the $ would tuck

the young under her belly, sitting lightly over

them with wings half open. One of the pair

presumably the male was seen driving away a

trespassing eagle. On 5.vi.83 the fully-fledged

young were seen perched outside the nest,

flapping their wings. Brooding amongst these

raptors especially during the early stages of

nestling development was almost continuous

during the hot hours of the day. While Serpent

eagles would sit lightly over their young, the

Hawk-eagles rarely did so. They would crouch

or stand over their young shading them from

the sun with their wings and feathers some-

times slightly puffed out.

General remarks and inter intra species

REACTIONS

One evening while observing the Hawk-eagle

nest No. 2 at around 6 p.m. the female arrived

at the nest. 120 metres away amongst the only

tall tree remaining in the nearby seasonal river-

bed a Hawk-eagle was heard calling, after the

female had settled in the nest. On investigating

I noticed a brown fish-owl perched before me

and a few minutes later spotted the Hawk-

eagle to my left. It was a juvenile and its

plumage considerably differed from that of the

adults. It’s head and crest was light brown,

underparts pure white (neck to lower belly)

with faint vertical brownish streaks. Tarsus

pure white, underparts of wings dark; back

and rump mottled with white and brown. Call

identical to that of the adult Spizaetus cirr-

hatus. The owl flew off and the juvenile flew

half-heartedly in pursuit settling nearby. Last

year’s young ?

There was no apparent competition between

the various species of raptors observed. In fact

l believe that competition would rarely arise

unless prey populations declined drastically.

Food /prey competition appears improbable as:

1) though different species nest in close

proximity to each other their nesting periods

are different, though some overlapping occurs

between the Accipiters & Hawk-eagles, Hawk-

eagles and Serpent eagles, Serpent-eagles and

Honey-buzzards.

2) Each species have their prey preferen-

ces. C. spizaetus prefer Cables, lizards, ground

birds etc., S. cheela mainly snakes though here

too some prey species are common to both

Serpent and Hawk-eagles, e.g. lizards and bush

rats which supplement to a lesser extent their

major snake diet. Honey-buzzards take mainly

honey combs, chameleons and other small

prey like rodents. They rear their young when

the Serpent eagles have almost finished nest-

ing. Thus, if prey population densities remain

at normal levels no conflict should arise as

most of the prey species appear to be nume-

rous. A small decline would not cause any

severe competition for food while a great cala-

mity, e.g. a raging fire or excessive floods

might have a temporary set back on prey

populations causing perhaps a change of prey

preferences, e.g. Serpent eagles preying mainly

on Cables and Ranas whose numbers may

even temporarily increase due to a decline in

snake numbers. Man-made encroachment and

random destruction & exploitation of the

habitat however ensures that prey population

are permanently affected resulting in a sharp

decline in raptor numbers.

On no occasion was any aggression seen

between pairs of different species. The male

C. spizaetus was seen quite often near nest

No. 4 of S. cheela and from the Hawk-eagle

hide I could hear and see Serpent eagles every

day. close to the Hawk-eagle nest and soaring

306

RAPTORS OF THE RAJPIPLA FOREST

above it. The adults Hawk-eagles never gave

them more thought than just an upward

glance. That pair of S. cheela were in fact

incubating about a 10 minutes walk away on

lO.v.83 when the young Hawk-eaglet was 32

days old, while other nearby S. cheela nests

had already hatched.

Conclusion

From the above basic observations restrict-

ed mainly to nests it is clear that more exten-

sive and detailed work is necessary in areas

of predator-prey relationships and prey pre-

ferences at different times and in different

study areas. More details are required on pair-

ing off and mating behaviour, how pair bonds

are established, accurate time periods of in-

cubation, the sex’s role during incubation and

post fully fledged period. Detailed work is also

necessary in ascertaining the average territory

of a species by studying and mapping the

movements of individual pairs before and after

the nesting season. Territorial areas might also

fluctuate with different study areas depending

on prey/density populations. How long do the

young remain with the adults, do the same

pairs nest every year, and how do they survive

if they do and adjust to a changing environ-

ment ? Most of these questions are left largely

unanswered. Yet the present observations and

data will hopefully be useful for future

workers.

Breeding success appeared to be more suc-

cessful in Crested Serpent eagles and Honey-

buzzards as compared to the Hawk eagles. As

Hawk-eagles tend to nest on high isolated

trees, their large nests stand out con-

spicuously especially during the incuba-

tion and fledgling period when the

trees are bare thus making them more

vulnerable to human attacks. As these eagles

have a tendency to attack village poultry dur-

ing the nesting season, their nests are often

tampered with, the eggs being removed or

young killed. Often the nest-tree is chopped

down if the nest is inaccessably high. The local

‘gowals’ or herdsmen sometimes also eat the

eggs. Thus a very small proportion of Hawk

eagle young survive to maturity. Serpent eagle

and Honey buzzard nests are usually lower

and more difficult to locate. Serpent eagle nests

that do stand out generally mingle with the

surrounding foliage due to their low height

making them inconspicuous. The Honey-

buzzards on the other hand incubate when the

monsoon is well under way and all their nests

found were almost completely hidden from

view.

Ack nowledgements

To Shri Dharmakumarsinhji my sincere

gratitude for his continued interest, support and

critical advice. Special thanks to Mr. Dhar-

mendrasinh Ratnasinh Mahida for having ex-

tended all facilities to me both at Rajpipla and

at Mozda where free accomodation was accord-

ed to me for six months at his ashram for adivasi

children. Dossu & Roshan Modi of Rajpipla ex-

tended their hospitality to me during my first

bout of sickness. Shahroukh Mistry. a Zoology

Student and a dedicated field worker from

Baroda helped out for 2\ months and made

many important observations. I also remember

him and his parents Veena & Rumi for having

looked after me so well at Baroda during a

severe bout of Malaria. Mr. H. Abdulali as

usual spared the time to listen and comment.

Many thanks also to Mr. Parvez Tamboli of

Navsari and Mr. K. P. Patel of Surat both work-

ing for the C. P. M. for having taken off time to

assist me in a variety of ways which made life

more comfortable in the field. Their knowledge

307

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

of the local labour in the area came in very

useful during periods when labour was scarce

and had to be mobilized and disciplined when

building machans. To Mr. J. C. Daniel my

thanks for his willing help and assistance and

to staff members of the B.N.H.S. namely

Robert Grubh, Isaac Kehimkar and Eric

Refe

Ali. Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1978). Handbook

of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. I. 2nd Ed.

Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Baker, Stuart (1935): Nidification of Birds of

the Indian Empire. Taylor and Francis, London.

Brown. Leslie (1955): Eagles. Michael Joseph,

London.

(1976): Birds of Prey, Biology

and Ecology. Hamlyn, London.

Brown. Leslie & Amadon, J. (1955): Eagles,

Hawks & Falcons of the World. Country Life Vol. 1.

Michael- Joseph. London.

Dharmakumarsinhji, K. S. (1955): Birds of

Saurashtra. Dil Bahar, Bhavnagar.

D’Cunha. Alusius Gnanasekar kindly sketched

the map and line drawings. Carl D'Souza kindly

prepared the sketch at short notice. Mr. Desh-

pande. Vice Principal of the Ranger’s College,

Rajpipla, helpfully identified all the tree species.

The Forest Dept staff at Rajpipla and Dedia-

pada were helpful, co-operative and courteous.

ENCES

Grossman, M. L. & Hamlet, John (1956): Birds

of Prey of the World. Cassel & Co. Ltd., London.

Hume, Allan O. (1890): The nests & eggs of

Indian Birds. Porter, London.

Naoroji, Rishad K. & Monga, S. G. (1983):

Observations on the Crested Serpent Eagle ( Spilor -

nis cheela ) in Rajpipla forest, south Gujarat. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 80(2) : 273-285.

Steyn. Peter (1973): Eagle Days. A study of

African eagles at the nest. Macdonald & Jane's

Sable Press S.A.

Walter. Hartmut (1979): Eleonora's Falcon.

University of Chicago, Chicago.

308

REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR TAXA IN WYNTER-

BLYTH’S BOOK ON THE BUTTERFLIES OF

INDIAN REGION — IT

R. K. Varshney1 2

[Continued from Vol. 76(1): 40]

In an earlier paper five families were dealt

with, namely: Danaidae, Satyridae, Amathu-

siidae, Papilionidae and Pieridae (Varshney

1980, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(1): 33-

40). Three more families: Lycaenidae, Acraei-

dae and Hesperiidae, are covered in this

paper.

Family Lycaenidae

The largest family of butterflies, comprising

about a third of the total species of butterflies

recorded from the Indian region {vide Table,

in Wynter-Blyth’s book, p. 12). Talbot has not

dealt with this family in his two volumes of

the fauna of British India -Butterflies, 2nd

edition. However, after Wynter-Blyth’s book,

two very important revisions of this family

are available, as follows:

(i) Evans, W. H. 1957. A revision of the

Arhopala group of Oriental Lycaeni-

dae (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera).

Bull. Br. Mus. {Nat. Hist.), Ent., 5

(3): 85-141.

(ii) Cantlie, K., 1962. The Lycaenidae por-

tion {except the Arhopala group ) of

Brigadier Evans' The Identification

of Indian butterflies 1932 {India,

1 Accepted December 1981.

2 Zoological Survey of India, 34, Chittaranjan

Avenue, Calcutta-700 012. Present address: Desert

Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Paota

B Road, Jodhpur 342 006 (Rajasthan).

Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma). (Mimeo-

graphed). Bombay Natural History

Society: vi + 156 pp. (+ 12 pp. Index),

5 pis.

Besides, a number of revisionary papers on

different genera and a book of Corbet &

Pendlebury (1956, the butterflies of Malay

peninsula, 2nd ed.) are available for detailed

studies on this family. Some of the former may

be indicated in Table 5A.

For a revised classification of this family

Clench (1955, Ann. Carneg. Mus., 33: 261-

275) and Eliot (1973, Bull. Br. Mus. {Nat.

Hist.) Ent., 28: 373-505) may be followed.

It appears that Wynter-Blyth has listed

most of the species, particularly in this family,

from the famous work of Evans (1932, identi-

fication OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES, 2nd ed.).

Cantlie (1962, l.c.) has revised Evans’s work,

sometimes remarking “no change in Evans”.

Cantlie’s work is an important guide on

this family and I am compelled to cite it re-

peatedly in my notes below.

Major nomenclatorial changes may be indi-

cated as follows:

Poritia was revised by Corbet (1940, Trans.

R. ent. Soc. Lond., 90: 337-350), where pleu-

rata was changed to phama. However, he re-

stored the former some years later (Corbet,

1948, Proc. R. ent. Soc. Lond., 77(7-8)). Eliot

(1957, l.c.) disregarding Corbet’s later action

has upheld phama, since pleurata is a Malayan

species and not Burmese. Miletus is prior name

309

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Table 5A

than Gerydus. M. longeana and chinensis have

been treated by Evans (1932) and some other

workers as separate species, but Eliot (1961,

l.c.) considered them conspecific. Gerydus

[= Miletus ] sy me thus has been shown by

Wynter-Blyth as occurring in Naga Hills and

Burma. Cantlie has expressed doubt on this

distribution. G. biggsi which has been shown

in Wynter-Blyth’s book to occur in Burma,

with one record from Coorg, is corrected as

nymphis porus (Eliot 1961, l.c.). The nomi-

nate biggsi biggsi of Distant, which is very

rare, is restricted to Victoria Point in Burma.

Corbet (1939, Trans. R. ent. Soc. Lond.,

89(5): 63-78) has revised Allotinus. Follow-

ing it, as well as the arrangement in British

Museum (Nat. Hist.), Cantlie has agreed that

multistrigatus is merely the wet season form

[WSF] of drumila, but surprisingly he has

treated them as two separate subspecies, name-

ly A. d. drumila and A. d. multistrigatus. It

seems undesirable, since the latter is esta-

blished by Corbet as WSF of drumila. Thus,

disagreeing with Cantlie, the subspecies A.

drumila multistrigatus de Niceville, sensu

Cantlie, (1962, p. 26) is synonymized with

A. d. drumila Moore [syn. nov.]. These two

seasonal forms shall retain the names drumila

for DSF and multistrigatus for WSF, but then

the seasonal form names are not species group

names and not covered by the International

Code of Zoological Nomenclature.

310

REVISED NOMENCLATURE OF BUTTERFLIES — 11

In genus Spalgis, epius is corrected as epeus.

In Tarucus, theophrastus is changed as indica,

because the former is confined to Africa and

Arabia (vide, Evans 1955, l.c.) . Pithecops hylax

(Fabricius, 1775), is really a species of Zizula

(Corbet, 1940, Entomologist, 75(40): 275-

277), while the species of Pithecops is corax

Fruhstorfer, 1919 (see Opinion No. 822 of

I.C.Z.N., 1967). Cantlie reports after genitalia

studies that Evans (1932) has mistakenly des-

cribed Everes diporides for E. dipora and vice

versa.

The Hedge cupid, Bothrinia chennelli has

been included by Wynter-Blyth among the

species of Lycaenopsis without demarcation.

He simply stated ‘a closely related genus’ in

parenthesis. It is an unique departure in

Wynter-Blyth’s book, since all genera have

been separately dealt with and numbered clear-

ly even when only one species is included.

Cantlie feels Bothrinia resembles Celastrina

closely, but he has placed it in between Everes

and Megisba. At another place, Cantlie has

mentioned that Bothrinia and Cupido (a Palae-

arctic genus) differ from each other ‘in respect

of habitat’ and due to the presence of andro-

conia in the latter. While Wynter-Blyth has

used Lycaenopsis in a very broad way, this

treatment has not found favour with later

workers. It is now divided into three genera,

of which all species included by Wynter-Blyth

now come under Celastrina (see Cantlie 1962,

p. 49). Genus Moorea was formed to separate

vardhana from binghami in genus Notarthri-

nus. However, Moorea turned out to be pre-

occupied and was replaced by Arietta by

Hemming. Corbet (1936, Proc. R. ent. Soc.

Lond., B5( 10)) may be referred to for changes

in this complex.

The Common Hedge Blue butterfly, called

by Wynter-Blyth as Lycaenopsis puspa, has

been revised by Cantlie as Celastrina puspa

lavendularis, but he has restricted its distri-

bution to Sri Lanka only. It looks odd since

the Common Fledge Blue is a commonly

occurring and very widely distributed butterfly

of which Wynter-Blyth gives the range as

Peninsular India, Himalayas, Assam, Ceylon

and Burma. The Plain Hedge Blue butterfly

recorded by Wynter-Blyth as Lycaenopsis

lavendularis and shown as very widely distri-

buted, too has been restricted by Cantlie to

Sri Lanka only as C. limbata amitra. There

seems to be no error in this case, since two

other sub-species of limbata occur in the range

shown by Wynter-Blyth.

Incidentally, non-inclusion in Wynter-Blyth’s

book of the change in name of Lycaenopsis

lavendularis to Celastrina limbata amitra made

by Evans (1953, l.c.), has substantiated my

earlier assumption concerning the period of

writing of Wynter-Blyth’s book. Although this

book was published in 1957, its text must have

been prepared perhaps during the war years

(vide, my paper in this Journal, 76(1): 33).

In genus Celastrina, Evans (1930, J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc., 5/(3)) has synonymized

argiolus sikkima with jynteana, making the

latter a subspecies of argiolus, on the basis

of genitalia. Corbet (1938, Trans. R. ent. Soc.

Lond., 57(5); 1940, Proc. R. ent. Soc. Lond.,

B9) has shown that quadriplaga is not con-

specific with dohertyi. It seems that what was

called quadriplaga dohertyi by Evans (1932),

was retained by Wynter-Blyth as quadriplaga

only, in accordance with his constant usage

of avoiding subspecies names. It is due to this

usage that it may appear from the correction

list below in present paper that Celastrina

(= Lycaenopsis ) quadriplaga is synonymous to

C. dohertyi, which is not so.

Wynter-Blyth has included a large number

of species in Polyommatus, but on the basis

of later studies these species are now placed

311

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

in 13 different genera and such treatment is

in general use already for Palaearctic

butterflies. Under Polyommatus s. str. in our

area, now only two groups of species remain

— one with smooth eyes and other with hairy

eyes (see Cantlie, 1962, p. iii for detailed

discussion).

Chapman (1910, Trans. R. ent. Soc. Lond.,

1910: 479-497) divided Zizera into Zizina,

Zizeeria and Zizula. Evans (1932) treated all

of them under Zizeeria (mark, not Zizera)

and Wynter-Blyth has followed the same. How-

ever, Corbet & Pendlebury (1956) have re-

surrected these 3 genera and divided them on

the basis of geographical distribution also.

Zizeeria gaika (Trimen, 1862) is synonymous

with Papilio hylax Fabr. 1775 ( vide Corbet,

1940, Entomologist, 73: 211) and is now plac-

ed in Zizula as its type species. Zizeeria otis

has been shown to occur in Ceylon also by

Wynter-Blyth, but Cantlie has not reported

any of the two subspecies of otis from Ceylon.

Nominotypical otis otis is confined to China.

Catochrysops is in some works (not Wynter-

Blyth) cited as Catachrysops, which is errone-

ous ( vide Hemming, 1929, Ann. Mag. nat.

Hist. (10) 3: 217). Wynter-Blyth reported C.

lithargyria as very rare in Ceylon, but not rare

in Burma. Cantlie (1962, l.c.) shows pano-

rmus as the species name and lithargyria is

its subspecies restricted to Ceylon only. The

Burmese subspecies is panormus exiguus. Lam-

pides boeticus also has not been shown to

occur in Burma by Cantlie .

Generic name Anthene has priority over

Lycaenesthes. A. lycaenina and A. lycaenoides

are not conspecific ( vide Tite, 1963 l.c.). In

Jamides, cleodus is now treated as a separate

species than pura and is restricted to Philip-

pines. Instead pura is raised as species for

our region {vide Riley & Corbet, 1938, Trans.

R. ent. Soc. Lond., 57(5): 147-159). The

spelling of J. coerulea needs correction as

caerulea. Genus Orthomiella has been erro-

neously cited as Orthiomella by Cantlie (1962,

pp. 7, 73).

For Nacaduba, I have followed in Table 6

the revision by Tite (1963, l.c.). N. calauria

evansii in Cantlie (1962) should be emended

to evansi. However, in corrigenda of his book

(affixed to p. 157) Cantlie states that Cowan

has pointed out evansi as a homonym and

substituted it by toxopeusi. N. dana has been

placed in Petrelaea, following Corbet & Pendle-

bury (1956, l.c.).

In a few cases, the measurement of wing-

span has been founded to vary. For example

in Lycaena kasyapa, it has been shown by

Wynter-Blyth as 27-32 mm and by Cantlie

as 30-36 mm. In Callophrys rubi, the fore

wing length has been shown by Wynter-Blyth

as 28-32 mm and by Cantlie as 20-32 mm.

Secondly, while many races of various species

in Evans’s and Wynter-Blyth’s books have

been upgraded as subspecies in Cantlie’s book,

it has not been done in the case of L. kasyapa

var. zariaspa. A rare, major lapse in Cantlie’s

work is on p. 89 listing Strymon assamica in

the place of S. sassanides. He has tried to

correct this on p. 156. For L. panava (Wd.)

in place of L. pavana Hors., see my note in

this Journal, 57(2): 493-494.

Listeria is preoccupied, hence substituted

with Pamela by Hemming (1935, Stylops, 4

(1)). Heliophorus is studied in detail by Riley

(1929, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 33: 384-

402). Iraota rochana boswelliana is further

recorded from Nongpoh, Khasi Hills by Best

(1954, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 52: 365-

373). Curetis thetis saronis is restricted to

Andamans and the subspecies found from

Assam to Burma is C. t. gloriosa. Mahatala

in Wynter-Blyth is an incorrect subsequent

citation of Mahathala and the former is sup-

312

REVISED NOMENCLATURE OF BUTTERFLIES — II

pressed here. Thaduca m. multicaudata is

from S. Burma; the South Indian subspecies

is T. m. kanara. Zesius has been mis-spelt as

Zezius in Cantlie’s work. Catapoecilma in

Wynter-Blyth should be Catapaecilma, and

Deudoryx should be corrected as Deudorix

( vide Hemming, 1967, Bull. Br. Mus. {Nat.

Hist.) Ent. Suppl., 9).

All species of Amblypodia { Arhopala ) are

now placed in three other genera: Narathura

(most spp.), Panchala and Flos {vide, Evans,

1957, l.c.). All species of Thetla are now

placed in five other genera: Chrysozephyrus

(most spp.), Esakiozephyrus, Teratozephyrus,

Neozephyrus and Euaspa {vide, Shirozu &

Yamamoto, 1956, l.c.).

While subspecies category has been tho-

roughly utilized in Indian butterflies, it is

rather surprising that subgenus category has

been ignored. I take this opportunity to plead

for the introduction of subgenera in this field

There are certain genera, which are quite large

considering the number of species they con-

tain. They are presently divided in various

ways, like ‘Groups’ etc. The case under refer-

ence is that of Narathura. Evans (1957, l.c.)

has recognized 12 ‘Groups’ of which some

have been further divided into ‘Subgroups’. In

this case, altogether 73 species are reported

under Narathura from the Indian region only.

Since the arranging of such a large number of

species is obvious, all these ‘Groups’ and

‘Subgroups’, in my opinion, are fit to be treat-

ed as subgenera, which is a recognized cate-

gory of Zoological Nomenclature, while

‘Group’ etc. are not. Evans’s study of Arhopala

Group [“Group of genera”] is excellent. I am

convinced that his ‘Groups’ of species and Sub-

groups’ of species, will eventually be

recognized as definite taxonomic units, being

well defined and segregated by morphological

characters, I am therefore inclined to treat

them as subgenera. Accordingly, all the Groups

and Subgroups of Narathura are treated as of

subgeneric level here [subgen. nov ] and cited

as such in the correction list below (see Table

6). ‘Epimuta Group and Sub-group, which

contain the type species hypomut'a, are syno-

nymized with nominate Narathura subgenus

[Syn. nov.].

Evans (1957) and Cantlie (1962) however,

have a minor flaw, in my opinion, which is

found existed in Evans’s famous work of 1932

also. In all these treatises, the author’s name

of species and subspecies where the genus has

subsequently changed has not been enclosed

in parentheses. Such use of parentheses is

necessary under Article No. 51 (d) of the

International Code of Zoological Nomencla-

ture and is a very common and useful prac-

tice. In the above works of Evans and Cantlie,

while parentheses in author’s name has been

ignored, there is no other indication also to

show whether a species was originally des-

cribed in the given genus in which it is re-

ported or some other genus. This flaw has

naturally made difficult the preparation of

the correction list for this paper. I have made

only a limited effort to correct. Needless to

add that except for this point, the works of

Evans and Cantlie are the best on Indian

Lycaenidae (See Table 6).

Family Acraeidae

This Ethiopian family is represented by only

two species in the Indian region. Wynter-Blyth

has placed these two species under two diffe-

rent genera, Pareba and Telchinia. However,

Talbot (1947, fauna of British india-

B utter flies, 2nd ed., 2) has recorded both

genera as synonyms of Acraea.

The species name needs to be changed too

in one case. Hemming (1967, Bull. Br. Mus

313

5

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Table 6

Lycaenidae

314

REVISED NOMENCLATURE OF BUTTERFLIES — II

Page No. For

Correct

Celaslrina transpecta (Moore)

Celastrina dilecta (Moore) [new emend.]

Celastrina musina musinoides Swinhoe

Celaslrina limbata (Moore)

Celastrina huegelii (Moore)

Celastrina ladonides gigas Hemming

Celastrina argiolus kollari (Westwood)

Celastrina argiolus jynteana (de Niceville)

Celaslrina argiolus jynteana (de Niceville)

Celastrina dohertyi dohertyi Tytler

Celastrina melaena melaenoides Tytler

Celastrina melaena melaenoides form minima Evans

Celastrina binghami (Chapman)

Phcngaris atroguttata (Oberthur)

Philotes vicrama (Moore)

Aricia agestis nazira (Moore)

Albulina galathca (Blanchard)

Glaucopsyche alexis aeruginosa Staudinger

Lycaeides christophi (Staudinger)

Freyeria trochilus putli (Kollar)

Zizeeria knysna karsandra (Moore)

Zizula gaika (Trimen)

Euchrysops parrhasius (Fabricius)

Euchrysops parrhasius minuta Evans

Catochrysops panormus Felder

Genus Anthene Doubleday

Jamides pura pura (Moore)

Jamides celeno aelianus (Fabricius)

Jamides cl pis (Godart)

Jamides caerulca (Druce)

Nacaduba subperusia Snellen

Ionolyce helicon (Felder)

Nacaduba calauria toxopeusl Corbet

Nacaduba sinhala Ormiston

Nacaduba aluta coelestis de Niceville

Nacaduba dubiosa indica Evans

Petrelaea dana (de Niceville)

Lycaena panava (Westwood)

Lycaena solskyl tampon (Lederer)

Tomares callimachus Eversman

Hcliophorus epicles indicus (Fruh.)

Subfamily theclinae

79. 307 Genus Listeria [de Niceville] Genus Pamela Hemming

80. 308 Genus Thecla Genus Thecla Fabr.*

* Thecla is not represented in Indian region. See notes.

315

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Page No. For Correct

Esakiozcphyrus icana (Moore)

Esakiozephyrus mandara (Doherty)

Chrysozephyrus ataxus (Db. & Hew.)

Euaspa pavo (de Niceville)

Chrysozephyrus duma (Hewitson)

Chrysozephyrus zoa (de Niceville)

Chrysozephyrus kabrua (Tytler)

Chrysozephyrus birupa (Moore)

Chrysozephyrus syla (Kollar)

Chrysozephyrus khasia (de Niceville)

Chrysozephyrus assamicus (Tytler)

Euaspa ziha (Hewitson)

Chrysozephyrus letha (Watson)

Neozephyrus suroia (Tytler)

Chrysozephyrus vittatus Tytler

Tcratozephyrus tsangkie (Oberthur)

Chrysozephyrus jakamensis (Tytler)

Chrysozephyrus kirbariensis (Tytler)

Chrysozephyrus paona (Tytler)

Curetis thetis gloriosa Moore

Genus Amblypodia Horsfield

Genus Mahathala Moore

Apporasa atkinsoni (Hewitson)

Thaduka multicaudata kanara Evans

Genus Narathura Moore

Narathura ( Camdeo ) camdeo (Moore)

Narathura ( Cleander ) silhetensis (Hewitson)

Narathura ( Aedias ) aedias yendava (Grose-Smith)

Narathura ( Eumolphus ) singla (de Niceville)

Narathura ( Eumolphus ) bazalus teesta (de Niceville)

Narathura ( Eumolphus ) eumolphus eumolphus

(Cramer)

Narathura (Acetes) bazaloides bazaloides (Hewitson)

Narathura (Agaba) ormistoni (Riley)

Narathura ( Eumolphus ) amantes (Hewitson)

Panchala ganesa (Moore)

Panchala paraganesa (de Niceville)

Narathura ( Centaurus ) centaurus (Fabr.)

Narathura ( Atrax ) ocnea (Hewitson)

Narathura (Atrax) oenea khamti (Doherty)

Narathura (Atrax) alea (Hewitson)

Narathura (Atrax) atrax (Hewitson)

Narathura (Rama) rama (Kollar)

Narathura (Rama) dodonaea (Moore)

Narathura (Perimuta) perimuta (Moore)

Narathura (Rama) paramuta paramuta (de

Niceville)

316

REVISED NOMENCLATURE OF BUTTERFLIES — II

Page No. For Correct

Narathura ( Abseus ) abseus indicus (Riley)

Flos diardi diardi (Hewitson)

Flos fulgida fulgida (Hewitson)

Flos adriana (de Niceville)

Flos asoka (de Niceville)

Flos chinensis (Felder)

Flos areste (Hewitson)

Narathura (Fulla) fulla ignara (Riley & Godfrey)

Narathura (Anthelus) anarte anarte (Hew.)

Narathura (Camdeo) opalina (Moore)

Narathura (Aedias) allata suffusa (Tytler)

Narathura (Atrax) ace arata (Tytler)

Narathura (Atrax) agrata binghami (Corbet)

Narathura (Agaba) agaba (Hewitson)

Narathura (atrax) alax (Evans)

Narathura (Agaba) paralea (Evans)

Narathura (Rama) comica (de Niceville)

Narathura (Agelastus) asopia (Hewitson)

Narathura (Agaba) arvina ardea (Evans)

Panchala ammonides (Doherty)

Panchala birmana birmana Moore

Panchala aberrans (de Niceville)

Flos apidanus ahamus (Doherty)

Surendra vivarna (Horsfield)

Yasoda pita tripunctata (Hewitson)

Spindasis syama peguanus (Moore)

Spindasis lohita himalayanus (Moore)

Pratapa penicilligera (de Niceville)

Remelana jangala ravata (Moore)

Tajuria jalajala albiplaga de Niceville

Tajuria jalajala pallescens Druce

Tajuria jalajala thyia de Niceville

Tajuria luculentus nela Swinhoe

Genus Jacoona Distant

Genus Drupadia Moore

Drupadia scaeva cyara (Hewitson)

Horaga syrinx moulmeina Moore

Genus Catapaecilma Butler

Catapaecilma major (Fruh.)

Hypolycaena erylus himavantus Fruh.

Zeltus amasa (Hewitson)

Genus Deudorix Hewitson

Deudorix hypergyria Elwes

Rapala elcia nicevillei Swinhoe

Rapala manea schistacea (Moore)

Rapala rectivitta (Moore)

Rapala iarbus sorya (Kollar)

Rapala iarbus iarbus (Fabricius)

Rapala pheretima petosiris (Hewitson)

317

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

(Nat. Hist.), Ent. Suppl., 9: 344) has shown

that Pareba vesta (Fabricius 1787) is a homo-

nym of Papilio vesta Cramer, 1777, and thus

it should be rejected. It has been substituted

by issoria Huebner, 1819 [not 8819 as given

in Hemming],

Regarding the other species, A. violae, it

may be stated that in the Fauna volume by

Talbot (1947, l.c.) its distribution has been

shown as Ceylon and Peninsular India only,

which should be corrected. This butterfly is

common in North and Eastern India also, as

recently pointed out by Varshney (1973, Curr.

Sci. 42(3): 107). Wynter-Blyth has also shown

wide distribution under ‘habits’ of this species

(see Table 7).

For the revision of names of taxa in this

family, I have followed Evans (1949, a cata-

logue OF THE HESPERIIDAE FROM EUROPE, ASIA

AND AUSTRALIA IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM

(natural history): 502 pp.), to a large ex-

tent, alongwith his subsequent paper [Evans,

1956, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (12)9 (106): 749-

752]. Wynter-Blyth himself recommended the

former (p. 458, foot-note).

The important changes in the generic names

are as follows: Syrichtus has been changed to

Spialia, because the former was erected by

Boisduval for some European skippers. Ismene

Swainson is invalid, being a junior homonym

of Ismene Savigny, which is a vertebrate

genus. The species of Ismene have now been

Table 7

Acraeidae

Family Hesperiidae

In Wynter-Blyth’s book, names have par-

tially been corrected at the printing stage, for

the family Hesperiidae also, besides Papilio-

nidae and Pieridae. The style of correction is:

“Baoris oceia (now B. farri )” (p. 484), or

“Genus Syrichtus (now Spialia)” (p. 466).

These corrections are not only insufficient, but

in some cases erroneous also, e.g., Wynter-

Blyth has placed some species of Baoris in

the corrected genus Polytrema (p. 485),

which should be Polytremis, as no genus with

the name Polytrema has ever been proposed

in the butterflies.

placed under Bibasis. Generic name Astychus

in Wynter-Blyth’s book is an incorrect spelling

for Astycus Huebner. However, the latter

name also is an invalid name, being a junior

objective synonym of Erynnis Schrank, vide

Hemming (1967, Generic names of Butterflies

and their type-species. Bull. Br. Mus. (Nat.

Hist.) Ent. Suppl., 9: p. 63). The Indian

species of Astycus have now been placed

under Telicota Moore, following Evans (1949,

l.c.). Genus Padraona Moore is a junior sub-

jective synonym of Potanthus Scudder. The

old genus Baoris (s.l.) has been split up and

its Indian species have been distributed among

many genera.

318

REVISED NOMENCLATURE OF BUTTERFLIES — II

However, in the following few cases I have

not agreed with the findings of Evans (1949)

as adopted in Wynter-Blyth’s book: (i) Gene-

ric name Celaenorrhinus has been cited as

Celanorrhinus, which is an incorrect subse-

quent spelling, (ii) Generic name Hasora has

been replaced by Chromus, in Wynter-Blyth’s

book (p. 467), apparently following Evans’s

work. However, no genus called “Chromus”

has been ever proposed for the butterflies.

Hemming (1967, l.c.) has also not catalogued

any such genus. In my opinion Hasora is an

available valid name. It appears that in

Wynter-Blyth’s book, the correction of species

name alexis to chromus has been mistakenly

put for the genus and printed as “ Hasora

(now Chromus)” . (iii) Generic name Sancus

has been corrected to Psolos in Wynter-

Blyth’s book. Evans (1949, p. 278) has

brought forward the name Psolos Staudinger

in place of Sancus de Niceville. However,

Psolos Staudinger is a manuscript name and

it was originally published as a synonym.

Therefore, it is invalid under Article 1 1 (d) of

the International Code of Zoological Nomen-

clature. Thus, Sancus is the oldest valid name

applicable to this genus.

For the species names, the changes may be

summarised as follows: Hasora alexis to H.

chromus; Astychus pythias to Telicota ohara

jix; Halpe egena to H. homolea; H. moorei to

H. porus; Baoris oceia to B. farri; B. philippina

to Caltoris brunnea Caere ; B. contigua to Poly-

tremis lubricans; B. zelleri to Borbo cinnara;

and Sancus pul I i go to S. fuligo (See Table 8).

A few other points may be clarified: (i)

Wynter-Blyth has divided this family into 9

subfamilies “following the arrangement of

Bell” (p. 459). However, Evans (1949) has

revised the classification and recognized only

3 subfamilies, all of which occur in the Indiau

region. The third subfamily, Hesperiinae,

however, has been split up into a number of

‘Genus Groups’, (ii) Regarding SI. Nos. 20 and

21 in Table 8 below. Wynter-Blyth himself has

stated in a note (p. 478) that both Astychus

pythias and A. augias are now classified as

mere ‘forms’ of Telicota ancilla. (iii) The

author of Pelopidas assamensis is shown as de

Niceville by Evans (1949, l.c.), but Swinhoe

(1912, Lep. Indica, 10: 311) shows that both

Wood-Mason and de Niceville are authors of

this species, which appears correct, (iv) For

Parnara naso bada in place of guttatus (SI.

No. 41 in Table 8), my note with Shri Nandi,

published recently in this Journal (77(1):

157-158) may be seen.

Like Lycaenidae, in this family also I faced

the difficulty of proper use of parentheses on

author’s name of a species, since Evans (1932,

1949, 1956) has altogether ignored this prac-

tice. However, I consider the use of paren-

theses, as recommended under the rules, as an

useful tool to differentiate the changed com-

binations from the original. Therefore, I adhere

to it. For this purpose, besides other papers,

I have followed Swinhoe’s monumental work

(1911-13, lep. indica, Vol. 9, 10) and placed

the parentheses appropriately in Table 8.

319

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Table 8

Hesperiidae

Page No. For Correct

Subfamily pyrginae

Celaenorrhinus ruficornis fusca (Hampson)

Tagiacles japetus (Stoll)

Tagiades japetus (Stoll)

Tagiades japetus atticus (Fabr.)

Subfamily pyrginae

Genus Spialia Swinhoe

Subfamily coeliadinae

Genus Hasora Moore

Hasora chromus chromus (Cramer)

Hasora vitta indica Evans

Genus Bi basis Moore

Choaspes benjamini (Guerin-Meneville)

Subfamily hesperiinae

Erionota thrax (Linn.)

Subfamily hesperiinae

Genus Telicota Moore

(i) Telicota augias (Linn.)

(ii) Telicota ancilla bambusae (Moore)

Telicota ohara jix Evans

Oriens gola pseudolus (Mabille)

Oriens concimia (Elvves & Edwards)

Genus Potanthus Scudder

Hal pc homolca Hindu Evans

Hal pc porus (Mabille)

Thoressa honorei (de Niceville)

Baracus vittatus hampsoni Elwes & Edwards

Subfamily hesperiinae

Baoris farri farri (Moore)

Caltoris canaraica (Moore)

Caltoris kurnara (Moore)

Caltoris brunnea caere (de Niceville)

Polytremis lubricous (Herrich-SchaefTer)

Polytremis eltola (Hewitson)

320

REVISED NOMENCLATURE OF BUTTERFLIES — II

Page No. For Correct

Polytremis discreta (Elwes & Edwards)

Pelopidas assamensis (Wood-Mason & de Niceville)

Pelopidas conjuncta (Herrich-Schaffer)

Pelopidas sinensis (Mabille)

Pelopidas mathias (Fabr.)

Parnara naso bada (Moore)

Borbo cinnara (Wallace)

Bor bo bevani (Moore)

Subfamily hesperiinae

Notocrypta feisthamclii alysos (Moore)

Genus Sancus de Niceville

Sancus fuligo subfasciatus (Moore)

321

DISTRIBUTION AND VARIABILITY OF THE

SRI LANKAN PIPE SNAKE

( CYL1NDROPH1S MACULATUS )1

Eric S. Bachman2

{With three text -figures )

Introduction

The genus Cylindrophis is endemic to south-

eastern Asia and Cylindrophis maculatus, its

westernmost species, is restricted to the island

of Sri Lanka (Smith 1943). This note pro-

vides a detailed summary of its range on the

island and discusses variation of character states.

It is based on material collected as part of the

activities of C. Gans, as well as on selected

museum specimens, and is part of a series of

notes on the herpetofauna of Sri Lanka (Gans

& Fetcho 1982, Nussbaum & Gans 1980).

Methods

Forty-two specimens of Cylindrophis macu-

latus were examined; of these thirty-eight have

locality data and form the basis of this report.

The specimens are derived from the Museum

of Comparative Zoology (MCZ), the American

Museum of Natural History (AMNH), and

the Gans collection, now at the American

Museum of Natural History (AMNH), Car-

negie (CM) and U.S. National Museum

(USNM) (AL, P. CG, F). Most specimens

were sexed and numbers of midventrals, cau-

dals, and of rows of scales at midbody and

cloaca were recorded (Table 1). Also re-

1 Accepted March 1984.

2 Division of Biological Sciences, The University

of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA.

corded was the snout-vent length, the diameter

of the head, midbody and cloaca, and the tail

length. Finally noted were arrangements of

the cloacal scales and colour patterns.

Methods of counting

The number of ventrals was determined by

counting the first midventral posterior to the

chin shields up to and including the last scale

before the cloaca.

The number of subcaudals included the first

scale posterior to the cloaca up to the distal

spine. All tails were sketched.

The number of scale rows at midbody were

counted from, but not including the rrndven-

tral row.

The number of scale rows at the cloaca in-

cluded the last midventral scale.

The total length was determined by pressing

the specimen against a meter stick, or by ad-

pressing string to the snake and measuring the

string. The alternative method was used as

many specimens had hardened substantially in

preservative.

The caudal length was measured under a

stereomicroscope and snout-vent length was

recorded as the total length minus the tail

length.

The diameter of each specimen was mea-

sured at neck, midbody and cloaca.

Count of dorsal spots started with the two

white spots just posterior to the head on either

322

DISTRIBUTION AND VARIABILITY OF CYLINDROPHIS MACULATA

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side of the back. The general shape and

colour of spots was recorded, but small specks

were ignored. The fraction indicates the count

for the left side over that for the right.

All specimens were sexed, noting the pre-

sence of testes and vasa deferentia or ovaries

and oviduct through an incision along the

ventral surface anterior to the cloaca.

The map reference for each specimen per-

tains to the map of Sri Lanka seen in figure 1.

As in Nussbaum & Gans (1980: Fig. 1), the

map of Sri Lanka (1 inch to 1 mile. Survey

Department, Colombo) was used with the

sixteen north to south divisions given numbers

and the west to east sheets given letters. The

combination is listed in parentheses after each

locality. Spelling of locality names follows

those in the Gazetteer of the U.S. Board on

Geographical names. The elevation of the

localities was determined from field notes or

from the maps.

General Observations

Only two meristic characters varied signi-

ficantly. These are the numbers of ventral

scales and the dorsal spots.

Dorsal spots on the two sides of specimens

differ : however. Figure 18 shows that two-

thirds of the specimens have more spots on

the right than on the left side. Hence, com-

parisons used the total number of dorsal spots.

Vertical distribution was not considered for

this paper as only four specimens were defi-

nitely collected above 1000 feet.

(The record for Namunukula may be suspect,

see Gans & Fetcho, 1982 : 276.)

All specimens (N = 38) showed a direct

relation between the number of dorsal spots

and the number of ventral scales (Figure 2A).

Variation

The individual variation of two characters

324

DISTRIBUTION AND VARIABILITY OF CYLINDROPHIS MACULATA

56

ft

I

6

H 54

0 48

e

N

0

H

1 44

N

1

0

R 48

38

36

A 3434

9EXED DORSAL SPOT COMPARISON

A ? A

36 30 40 42 44

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N

48

DORSAL SPOT COMPARISON

A A

AAA

A A

34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 58 58

LEFT HALF-NUMERATOR

DORSAL SPOT COUNT VS LOCALITY

O A O OO

VENTRALS VS LOCALITY

Fig. 1. Cylindrophis maculatus. Comparisons of characters. Diamonds and triangles

represent males and females, respectively, unless symbols are uniform or unless

otherwise indicated. A. Plot of male and female dorsal spots, left half (abscissa)

versus right half (ordinate). B. Plot of dorsal spots for entire population. Axes

labelled as in A. C. Plots of total count of dorsal spots (abscissa) versus locality

(ordinate) for males and females. Refer to Table 1 for locality data. D. Plot of

ventral scales (abscissa) versus locality (ordinate) for males and females.

seems to be associated, respecitively with geo-

graphy and sex. No trends are apparent in

the variation of most measured aspects of

Cylindrophis.

The ventral count of females differed con-

siderably from north to south. As seen in

Figure 2B, the ventral counts of specimens

from south of the Kandy area are markedly

lower (mean = 204, N = 8) than are those of

the northern ones (mean = 216, N=10).

The specimens supposedly from Jaffna do not

fit this pattern.

Figure ID reveals that ventral count gene-

rally increases from south to north. The

Jaffna specimens again disagree.

325

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 82

L

S 105

P

0

T 100

S

95

90

VENTRALS VS DORSAL SPOTS

7^00 ICS 200 205 210 2 1 5

L

0

C

A

L

I

T

Y

18

16

14

12

VENTRALS VS LOCALITY-FEMALES

□

□ □ a

a □

□D

Fig. 3. Cylindrophis maculatus .

Histogram of ventrals for sexed specimens. Males

are shown as striped bars and females as open bars.

B ®I90 |9S 200 205 210 216 220 22E5NTRAL2g30

Fig. 2. Cylindrophis maculatus. Comparison of

characters.

A. Graph of ventral counts (abscissa) versus total

number of dorsal spots (ordinate) for the entire

population. B. Ventral counts versus locality (refer

to Table 1) for southern females (squares) and

northern females (plus signs).

Variations associated with sex include

characters of ventral scales and dorsal spots.

The ventral count of males (N = 10) were

markedly lower than those of females (N=18),

The histogram in Figure 3 makes this point

obvious.

The number of dorsal spots also shows

sexual dimorphism (Figure 1A). The males

(N = 10, mean = 41/42) have fewer dorsal

spots than do females (N = 18, mean = 47/

47). The total dorsal count also reveals lower

values for males (Figure 1C).

Locality Records

Sri Lanka. Jaffna Lagoon (?) (2B), sea

level : FMNH 121489-121490. Puttalam (7A),

sea level : FMNH 165049-165050. Polonna

ruwa (8D), elev. 200ft: (AL545); CM 93667-

93668 (CG 586a-586b). Nawadamkulama,

3 miles from Mundal (9A), sea level : CM

93655, 93662 (AL 591-592); USNM 238005

(CG 092582). Naula (Matale district) (9C),

elev. 900 ft : USNM 235802 (CG 5548).

Inirigama (Deraniyagala) (9C?) : FMNH

25928. Erunwila, 3 miles from Madampe

(10A) : CM 93658 (AL 564). Galamuna

(10A) : AMNH 126603 (CG P74/4). Polga-

hawcla, Kandy district (10B) : FMNH 95132.

Illukkumbura (10D), elev. 1800 ft : CM

93659 (AL 281). Pallewatta (10D) : CM

93666 (AL 543). Kandy (11C): CM 93653-

93654 (F 520A-520B). Gampola (11C), elev.

326

DISTRIBUTION AND VARIABILITY OF CYLINDROPHIS MACULATA

470 m : CM 93657 (AL 670c). Boralesgamuwa

(Colombo district) (12A), elev. 30 ft: AMNH

126607 (CG 5547). Nugegoda (12A), elev. 30

ft: USNM 235801 (CG 5546). Biyagama, Kela-

niya (12B), elev. 50 ft: CM 93661 (AL287).

Namunukula, Uva (12D), elev. 4000 ft :

FMNH 120917. Gonapola (13A) : FMNH

142395. Horana (13A), elev. 50 ft : CM

93663 (AL 329); FMNH 130982. Ratnapura

(13B), elev. 100 ft : AMNH 126604 (CG

P74/17), 126605 (CG 1000), 126606 (CG

5545); CM 93656 (AL 508); USNM 235803

(CG 092503A). Balangoda (13B), elev. 1500

ft : CM 93652 (F 398). Pusnelbombla, Ben-

tota (14A) : MCZ 57194-57195. Kudawa

(14A) : USNM 23804 (092581A). Yapiti-

kanda, Deniyaya (14B), elev. 1200 ft : CM

Refei

Gans, C. & Fetcho, J. R. (1982) : The Sri

Lankan genus Aspidura (Serpentes : Reptilia : Colu-

bridac). Ann. Carnegie Mus. 51(14) : 271-316.

Nussbaum, R. A. & Gans, C. (1980) : On the

93651 (CG 092512A). Talgaswella (15A),

elev. 150 ft : CM 93660 (AL 480). Galle

(16A), sea level : CM 93669 (AL 330). No

locality: CM 93664-93665 (AL 611); (CG

092582); MCZ 34886.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr Carl Gans for suggesting and

guiding the project and for making the mate-

rials collected by him available for study. I

appreciate the loan of specimens from several

museum collections. See Gans & Fetcho

(1982) for acknowledgement of the grants and

field assistance involved in the assembly of

the materials. Mr P. B. Karunaratne donated

some of the specimens. Prepared with assis-

tance from NSF DEB 8121229 (to Gans).

ENCES

Ichthyophis (Amphibia : Gymnophiona) of Sri

Lanka. Spolia Zeylanica 35(1 & 2): 137-154.

Smith, M. A. (1943) : Fauna of British India,

Vol. Ill, Serpentes, London.

327

ADDITIONS IN THE LAST TWO DECADES TO THE

ANGIOSPERMS OF WEST BENGAL1

B. P. Uniyal2 and B. C. Banerjee3

The paper includes 192 plants which have been added to the Flora of West Bengal

during the years 1959-1981.

After Hooker’s Flora of British India, David

Prain’s comprehensive consolidated work, which

included the area of undivided Bengal and

some parts of Bihar and Orissa States, was

published in 1903 as Bengal plants. Since then

many workers have undertaken collection tours

to different regions of West Bengal and

published floristic accounts in different

scientific journals from time to time. With the

re-organisation of the Botanical Survey of

India in 1956, more and more collection tours

were undertaken by the workers of the Bota-

nical Survey of India in different districts of

West Bengal and their new findings were

published in different journals including the

Bulletin of the Botanical Survey of India.

Since those records are scattered, an attempt

has been made by us to bring together such

information published during the last two

decades (1959-1981) with the idea that it will

be helpful to the students of the Flora of West

Bengal.

Though efforts have been made to accumu-

late all such information, there might be some

ommissions due to non-availability of certain

scientific journals.

Names marked with an asterisk (*) denote

the ‘new species’ and with double asterisks

(**) denote ‘new records for India’ from West

1 Accepted August 1983.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Dehra Dun, U.P.

3 Botanical Survey of India, Howrah, W. Bengal.

Bengal and with three asterisks (***) as ‘new

records for West Bengal’. The names in the

list are given as they were originally published

without any changes.

*** Abelmoschus inanihot (L.) Medik ssp.

tetraphyllus var. tetraphyllus Borss.

Blumea 14: 98. 1966; R. K. Basak in

Bull. Bot. Surv. India 10 (3 & 4): 254.

1968.

*** Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatt. &

McCann in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35:

495. 1932; R. K. Basak in Bull. Bot.

Surv. India 10 (3 & 4): 257. 1968.

* Actinodaphne longipes Kostermans in

Reinwardtia 9: 98. 1974.

*** Aeluropus lagopoides (L.) Trin. ex Thw.

Enum. PI. Zeyl. 374. 1864; T. A. Rao

et al. in Sci. & Cult. 33 (3): 125. 1967.

*** Aerva monsonia (L.f.) Mart. Nov. Octo.

Acad. Caes. Leop.-Carol. Nat. Cur. 13 :

291. 1826; Subir Sen in Bull. Bot. Soc.

Bengal 33 : 35. 1979.

*** Alchornea tiliaefolia Muell.-Arg. in Lin-

naea 34: 168. 1865-66; B. Ghosh & G. G.

Maiti in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(2):

525-26. 1978.

*** Alternanthcra paronychioides St. Hill,

Voy. Brasil 2 (ed. 2): 439. 1833; N. M.

Dutta & D. Mitra in Ind. Forester 87(5):

304-308. 1961.

*** Alternanthcra philoxeroides Griseb. in

Goett. Abh. 24: 36. 1879; J. K. Mahe-

328

ANGIOSPERMS OF WEST BENGAL

shwari in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 6(2-4):

313-314. 1964.

*** Amaranthus lividus L. ssp. polygonoides

(Moq.) Probst. in Wool Aliens 1949; S.

S. R. Bennet in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

68: 491. 1971.

** Amblyanthopsis bhotanica (Cl.) Mez. in

Das Pflanzenr. IV: 236. 1902; J. K.

Sikdar in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 18: 246.

1976.

*** Argyreia imbricata (Roth) Santapau &

Patel in Trans. Bose Res. Inst. Calcutta

22: 40. 1958; B. Krishna & Ratna Dutta

in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 21 (1-4): 211.

1979.

*** Ascocentrum inicranthum (Lindl.) Holtt.

Gard. Bull. 11: 275. 1947; J. K. Sikdar

in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(2): 420.

1981.

*** Atalantia missionis Oliv. in J. Linn. Soc.

Suppl. 25; R. B. Ghosh et al. in J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(3): 851-52. 1971.

*** Atylosia volubilis (Blanco) Gamble in

FI. Pres. Madras 369. 1918; R. K. Basak

in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 10 (3 & 4) :

254. 1968.

*** Bambusa pallida Munro in Trans. Linn.

Soc. 26: 97. 1868; S. K. Jain et al. in J.

Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 72(3): 767. 1975.

* Begonia flaviflora Hara in J. Jap. Bot.

45 (3): 91. 1970.

* B. foveolata Irmsch. in Engl. Bot. Jahrb.

78: 193. 1959.

*** Blainvillea aemella (L.) Philip, in Blumea

6: 350. 1950; R. K. Basak in Bull. Bot.

Surv. India 10 (3 & 4): 255. 1968.

*** Boerhavia erecta L. Sp. PI. 3 1753; G.

G. Maiti & D. K. Hore in Bull. Bot. Soc.

Bengal 32: 36. 1978.

*** Brachiaria subquadripara (Trin.) Hitchc.

in Lingnan Sci. J. 7: 214. 1931; D. K.

Banerjee & D. C. Pal in Bull. Bot. Surv.

India 12 (1 & 4): 70. 1970.

*** B. villosa (Lamk.) A. Camus var. barbata

Bor, Grasses Burma, Ceylon, India &

Pakistan 286. 1960; D. K. Banerjee &

D. C. Pal in Bull Bot. Surv. India 12

(1 & 4): 70. 1970.

** Bruguira hainesii Rogers in Kew Bull.

1919. 225. 1919; S. K. Mukherjee in Bull.

Bot. Surv. India 8: 357. 1966.

*** Bulbophyllum affine Lindl. in Gen. Sp.

Orch. 48. 1830; B. Krishna & S. N. Das

in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 18: 225. 1976.

* Cardanthera uliginosa Buch.-Ham. var.

birbhumensis B. P. Guha in Bull. Bot.

Soc. Bengal 21(1): 47-48. 1967.

*** Carex japonica Thunb. FI. Jap. 38. 1784;

J. K. Sikdar in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

78 (2): 420-21. 1981.

* Casearia sikkimensis N. Mukherjee in J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (2): 392-93.

1972.

** Centrosema virginianum (L.) Bth. in Ann.

Wien. Mus. 2: 120. 1838; K. Thothathri

& R. Prasad in Curr. Sci. 39 (15): 353.

1970.

*** Cephalostachyum fuchsianum Gamble in

Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calc. 7: 107. 1896;

S. K. Jain et al. in J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 72(3): 767. 1975.

*** Ceropegia angustifolia Wight Contrib.

Ind. Bot. 31. 1834; J. K. Sikdar in J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78(2): 419-420.

1981.

*** Cestrum diurnum L. Sp. PI. 191. 1753;

N. Paria & S. K. Sahoo in Bull. Bot. Soc.

Bengal 33: 126. 1979.

*** C. noctumum L. Sp. PI. 191. 1753; N.

Paria & S. K. Sahoo in Bull Bot. Soc.

Bengal 33: 126. 1979.

*** Chenopodium murale L. Sp. PI. 219.

1753; G. C. Das in Bull. Bot. Soc. Ben-

gal 23(2): 197. 1969.

329

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

*** Chrozophora parvifolia Klotzsch ex

Schweinf. PI. Nilot. 11. 1862; B. Ghosh &

G. G. Maiti in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

75 (2): 526. 1978.

*** Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L. Sp. PI.

888. 1753; Debika Das & Bhabesh

Pramanik in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

67 (3): 613. 1970.

*** Claoxylon longipetiolatum Kurz in J.

Asiat. Soc. Bengal 42(2): 244. 1873; J. K.

Sikdar in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78

(1): 105. 1981.

** Cleome rutidosperma DC. Prodr. 1: 241.

1824; P. K. Mukherjee in Ind. Forester

95(4): 237. 1969.

*** Clerodendrum phlomidis L.f. Suppl. 292.

1781; R. K. Basak in Bull. Bot. Surv.

India 10: 256. 1968.

*** Coelorhachis khasiana (Hack.) Stapf ex

Bor in Ind. For. Rec. (Bot.) 1 (3): 101.

1938; D. K. Banerjee & D. C. Pal in

Bull. Bot. Surv. India 12 (1-4): 71. 1970.

*** Convolvulus arvensis L. Sp. PI. 153.

1753; M. K. Ghosh in Sci. & Cult. 35(8):

403. 1969.

* Cotoneaster sandakphuensis Klotz. in

Bull. Bot. Surv. India 5 (3 & 4): 213.

1963.

*** Cotula australis (Sieb. ex Spreng.) Hook,

f. FI. Nov. Zeal. 128. 1855; K. M. Vaid

& H. B. Naithani in Ind. Forester 96

(6): 426. 1970.

** Cuscuta campestris Yuncker in Mem.

Torrey Bot. Cl. 18 : 138, f. 14. 1932; H.

Santapau & B.C. Korlahalli in J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 62 (3): 598-99. 1965.

* C. sharmanum S. K. Mukherjee et P. K.

Bhattacharyya in Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal

24 (1 & 2): 147-149. 1970.

*** Cymbidium giganteum Lindl. Gen. Sp.

Orch. 163. 1833; B. Krishna & S. N. Das

in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 18 : 225. 1976.

*** Cynodon arcuatus J. S. Presl ex C. B.

Presl, Rel. Haenk. 1: 290. 1830; S. K.

Jain in Ind. Forester 92(3): 201-202.

1966.

*** C. barberi Rang, et Tad. in J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 24: 846. 1916; S. K. Jain

in Ind. Forester 92(3): 201-202. 1966.

** Cyperus alulatus Kern in Reinwardtia 1:

463. f. 1. 1952; B. C. Korlahalli in Bull.

Bot. Surv. India 9 (1-4): 237. 1967.

*** C. arenarius Retz. Obs. 4: 9. 1786; A.

K. Mukherjee & L. K. Banerjee in J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (1): 268. 1968.

*** C. bulbosus Vahl Enum. 2 : 342.

1806; B. C. Korlahalli in Bull. Bot. Surv.

India 9 (1-4): 238. 1967.

*** C. diffonuis L. var. breviglobosus

Kukenth. in Pflzenr. 101. 246. 1936; B. C.

Korlahalli in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 9

(1-4): 238. 1967.

*** C. esculentus L. Sp. PI. 45. 1753; T. A.

Rao et al. in Sci. & Cult. 33(3): 125. 1967.

*** C. flavidus Retz. Obs. 5: 13. 1789; B. C.

Korlahalli in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 9

(1-4): 238. 1967.

*** C. laevigatus L. Mant. PI. 2: 179. 1771;

B. C. Korlahalli in Bull. Bot. Surv. India

9 (1-4): 238. 1967.

*** C. pumilus L. var. membranaceus (Vahl)

Kukenth. in Pflzenr. 101: 376. 1936; B.

C. Korlahalli in Bull. Bot. Surv. India

9 (1-4): 238. 1967.

* C. sanguinolentus (Vahl) Nees ssp. sacer

Korlahalli in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 9

(1-4): 235. 1967.

*** C. substramineus Kukenth. in Engl.

Pflzenr. 101. 398. 1936; J. K. Sikdar in

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78 (2): 421.

1981.

* Dalbergia duarensis K. Thothathri in

Bull. Bot. Surv. India 14: 192. 1972.

330

ANGIOSPERMS OF WEST BENGAL

*

***

*

***

*

***

Derris cuneifolia Benth. var. longipedi-

cellata K. Thothathri in Bull. Bot. Surv.

India 3 : 191. 1961.

Desmodium benthamii Ohashh in Gink-

goana 1: 249. 1973; R. K. Basak in Ind.

Forester 105(6): 478. 1979.

D. pulcbellum (L.) Benth. in FI. Hongk.

83. 1861; R. K. Basak in Bull. Bot. Surv.

India 10 (3 & 4): 254. 1968.

Desmos dumosus (Roxb.) Salford in Bull.

Torrey Bot. 39 : 506. 1912; J. K. Sikdar

in GEOBIOS 6: 90. 1979.

Dichanthium aristatum (Poir.) Hubb. in

Kew Bull. 654. 1939; S. K. Jain & D.

K. Banerjee in Sci. & Cult. 33(3): 117.

1967.

D. pallidum (Hook, f.) Stapf ex C.E.C.

Fischer in Gamble FI. Madras 1741.

1934; U. C. Bhattacharya & B. P. Uniyal

in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 15: 167. 1973.

Digitaria didactyla Willd. Enum. PI.

Hort. Berol. 91. 1809; D. N. Guha Bakshi

in Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 30: 95. 1976.

Diplotaxis nepalensis Hara in J. Jap. Bot.

49 (5): 129. 1974.

Dittoceras andersonii Hk. f. in Hook.

Ic. PI. t. 1422. 1883; R. B. Ghosh et al.

in J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 74 (3): 564.

1977.

Drosera indica L. Sp. PI. 282. 1753; R.

K. Basak in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 17:

106. 1975.

Echinochloa cruspavonis (H.B.K.) Schult.

Syst. Veg. 2 Mant. 269. 1824; S. K. Jain

& D. K. Banerjee in Sci. & Cult. 33 (3):

117. 1967.

Elaeagnus infundibularis Momiyama in

J. Jap. Bot. 48(9); 262-264. 1973.

Elatostemma cuneatuin Wight Ic. f. t.

2091. f. 3. 1853; Chatterjee in Sci. &

Cult. 26 (5): 232. 1960.

Eleutheranthera ruderalis (Sw.) Sch.-Bip.

in Bot. Zeit. 24: 165. 1866; S.S.R. Bennet

in Curr. Sci. 34(13): 411. 1965.

Eragrostis aspera (Jacq.) Nees in FI. Air.

Austr. 408. 1841; D. N. Guha Bakshi

et al. in Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 30: 92.

1976.

Eragrostis riparia (Willd.) Nees, Agrost.

Bras. 512. 1829; D. K. Banerjee & D. C.

Pal in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 12 (1-4): 71.

1970.

Eria stricta Lindl. Coll. Bot. t. 41B.

1821; B. Krishna & S. N. Das in Bull.

Bot. Surv. India 18: 225. 1976.

Eriocaulon eleanorae Fyson J. Ind. Bot.

2: 316. PI. 3. 5. 1921; S. S. R. Bennet in

Sci. & Cult. 33 (3): 122. 1967.

E. gracile Mart, in Wall. PI. As. Rar. 3:

79. 1832; S. S. R. Bennet 1. c. 122.

E. odoratum Dalz. in Kew J. Bot. 3:

280. 1851; S.S.R. Bennet 1. c. 122.

E. redactum Ruhl. in Pflzenr. 13: 113.

1903; S. S. R. Bennet 1. c. 122.

Eryngium foetidum L. Sp. PI. 232. 1753;

N. Paria & S. K. Sahoo in Bull. Bot.

Soc. Bengal 33: 124. 1979.

Eupatorium erythropappum Robinson in

Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 31 (6): 248.

1908; R. B. Ghosh et al. in J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 73 (3): 554-56. 1976.

E. ligustrinum DC. Prodr. 5: 181. 1836;

G. S. Yonzone et al. in Ind. Forester

96(5): 351. 1970.

Euphorbia helioscopia L. Sp. PI. 459.

1753; B. Ghosh & G. G. Maiti in J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(2): 526. 1978.

E. prostrata Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 1. 2:

139. 1789; R. L. Mitra in Ind. Forester

95(6): 425. 1969.

E. serpens H. B. & K. Nov. Gen. et Sp.

2: 52. 1817; R. L. Mitra in J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 68(3): 852. 1971.

**

***

:|c #

***

**

***

331

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

** E. systyla Edgew. in Journ. As. Soc.

Bengal 16(2): 1218. 1847; R. B. Ghosh

& S. N. Murmu in GEOBIOS 4: 276.

1976.

*** Fimbristylis alboviridis Cl. in Hook. f.

FI. Brit. India 6: 638. 1893; S. S. R.

Bennet in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68:

491-92. 1971.

*** F. cymosa R. Br. Prodr. 228. 1810; B.

C. Korlahalli in Bull. Bot. Surv. India

9 (1-4): 238. 1967.

** F. squarrosa Vahl var. esquarrosa

Makino in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 17: 47.

1903; B. C. Korlahalli in Bull. Bot. Surv.

India 9 (1-4): 237. 1967.

*** Fissistigma bicolor (Roxb.) Merr. in

Philippine J. Sc. (Bot.) 15: 131. 1919;

J. K. Sikdar in GEOBIOS 6: 90. 1979.

* Garnotia acutigluma (Steud.) Ohwi in

Kew Bull. 27: 540. 1972.

*** Gisekia pharnaceoides L. Mant. 2: 562.

1771; T. A. Rao et al. in Sci. & Cult.

33 (3): 125. 1967.

** Globba schomburgkii Hook. f. in Bot.

Mag. Ser. 3: 33. t. 6298. 1877; R. N.

Banerjee in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 8:

357-59. 1966.

*** Gniclina asiatica L.. Sp. PI. 626. 1753;

P. K. Bhattacharya in Bull. Bot. Soc.

Bengal 28: 101. 1974.

*** Gonotheca ovatifolia (Cav.) Santapau &

Wagli in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 5: 107.

1963; R. K. Basak in Bull. Bot. Surv.

India 10 (3 & 4): 255. 1968.

*** Hedyotis macrophylla Wall, in Wight &

Arn. Prodr. 408. 1834; J. K. Sikdar in J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78 (1): 103. 1981.

*** H. monocephala R. Br. ex Wall, in

Wight & Arn. Prodr. 408. 1834; J. K.

Sikdar in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78

(1): 103. 1981.

*** Hibiscus micranthus L. f. Suppl. 308.

1781; M. K. Ghosh in Sci. & Cult. 32

(5): 260. 1966.

*** Hoya obcordata Hook. f. FI. Brit. India

4: 55-56, 1883; J. K. Sikdar in J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 78 (2): 420. 1981.

* Hypericum himalaicum N. Robson in J.

Jap. Bot. 52: 287-288. 1977.

** Impatiens scitula Hook. f. in Rec. Bot.

Surv. India 4: 14-18. 1905; L. K. Ghara

et al. in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 22: 191.

1980.

*** Imperutn cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv. var.

major (Nees) C. E. Hubb. ex Hubb. &

Vaughan in Grass. Mem. 96. 1940; D.

K. Banerjee in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 10

(3 & 4): 247. 1968.

*** Indigofera aspalathoides Vahl ex DC.

Prodr. 2: 231. 1825; K. K. N. Nair in J.

Ind. Bot. Society 60(2): 182-83. 1981.

*** I. pulchclla Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 382. 1832;

R. K. Basak in Bull. Bot. Surv. India

10 (3 & 4): 255. 1968.

*** I. spicata Forsk. in FI. Aegypt. Arab.

138. 1775; Vuppuluri Sharma in Ind.

Forester 95. 311. 1961.

*** Ipomoea carnea Jacq. Enum. PI. Carib.

13. 1760; A. K. Mahapatra in Bull. Bot.

Soc. Bengal 32: 55. 1978.

*** I. leari Paxt. in Mag. Bot. 6: 267. 1839;

Debika Mitra & Bhabesh Roy in J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74 (1): 211. 1977.

*** I. quinata R. Br. Prodr. 486. 1810;

R. K. Basak in Ind. Forester 105 (6):

479. 1979.

*** Isachnc miliacea Roth, Nov. PI. Sp. 58.

1821; S. K. Jain et al. in J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 72(3): 790. 1975.

*** Iscilcma anthephoroidcs Hack, in DC.

Monogr. Phan. 6: 683. 1889; D. K.

Banerjee & D. C. Pal in Bull. Bot. Surv.

India 12: 71. 1970.

332

ANGIOSPERMS OF WEST BENGAL

* Ixora athroantha Bremek. in Ind. Fores-

ter 85: 372. 1959.

*** I. nigricans R. Br. ex Wt. & Arn. Prodr.

428. 1834; B. Krishna & Ratna Dutta

in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 21 (1 & 4): 211.

1979.

* I. tenuifolia Bremek. in Ind. Forester

85: 373. 1959.

* I. tigrimustax Bremek. in Ind. Forester

85: 373. 1959.

*** Jatropha lieynei Balak. in Bull. Bot.

Surv. India 3: 40. 1961; R. K. Basak in

Bull. Bot. Surv. India 10: 256. 1968.

*** J. tanjorensis Ellis et Saroja in J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 58 (3): 834-836. 1962;

S. S. R. Bennet in J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 62 (2): 329. 1965.

*** Kaempferia angustifolia Roscoe in

Trans. Linn. Soc. 8 : 351. 1807; R. B.

Ghosh et al. in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

75 (1): 245. 1978.

** Kallstroemia pubescens (G. Don) Dandy

in Kew Bull. 138. 1955; N. Paria & S.

K. Sahoo in Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 33:

122. 1979.

*** Knema erratica (Hk. f. & Th.) J. Sinclair

in Gard. Bull. Singapore 18: 205. 1961;

J. K. Sikdar in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

78 (1): 105. 1981.

*** aurantiaca Zoll. in Nat. Geneesk

Arch. Neerl. Ind. 2: 557. 1845; R. N.

Banerjee & C. R. Babu in Tnd. Forester

97: 19. 1971.

** Lepidium ruderale L. Sp. PI. 645. 1753;

C. R. Babu & M. C. Biswas in Curr.

Sci. 39: 288. 1970.

*** Leptochloa cynosuroides R. & S. Syst.

2: 579. 1817; Guha Bakshi et al in Bull.

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* Lindenbergia titensis J. K. Sikdar & G.

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77 (1): 121. 1980.

*** Lindernia oppositifolia (Retz.) Mukher-

jee in J. Ind. Bot. Society 24: 134. 1945;

S. S. R. Bennet in J. Bombay nat. Hist.

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*** Lobelia radicans Thunb. in Trans. Linn.

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*** Ludwigia ereeta (Linn.) Hara in J. Jap.

Bot. 28: 292. 1953; Vuppuluri Sharma

in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 421.

1969.

*** L. byssopifolia (G. Don) Exell Garcia

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* Lysionotus atropurpureus Hara in J. Jap.

Bot. 48 (12): 359. 1973.

*** Melinis minutiflora P. Beauv. Ess. Agrost.

54. t. 11. f. 4. 1812; D. K. Banerjee &

D. C. Pal in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 12

(1-4): 71. 1970.

*** Melochia pyramidata L. Sp. PI. 674.

1753: Vuppuluri Sharma in Ind. Forester

95. 311. 1969.

*** Micrococca mercurialis (L.) Benth. in

Hook. Niger FI. 503. 1849; S. S. R. Ben-

net in Ind. Forester 92 (4): 227. 1966.

*** Microstegiuin vagans (Nees ex Steud.) A.

Camus in Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyan. n. s.

68. 200. 1921; D. K. Banerjee & D. C.

Pal in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 10(1-4):

71. 1970.

*** Mitracarpus verticillatus (Schumm. &

Thonn.) Vatke in Linnaea 40. 196.

1876; J. K. Sikdar & R. B. Ghosh in

GEOBTOS 6: 237-238. 1978.

*** Mitrasacme pygmaea R. Br. var. malae-

censis (Wight) Hara in J. Jap. Bot. 30:

23. 1955; R. K. Basak in Bull. Bot. Surv.

Tndia 10: 255. 1968.

*** Mollugo disticha (L.) Ser. in DC. Prodr.

1: 392. 1824; L. K. Banerjee in Sci. &

Cult. 35 (2): 63. 1969.

333

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

*** Neasea brevipes Koehne in Engl. Bot.

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Bot. Soc. Bengal 33: 36. 1979.

*** Oldenlandia umbellata L. Sp. PI. 119.

1753; R. K. Basak in Bull. Bot. Surv.

India 10 (3 & 4): 255. 1968.

* Ophiorrhiza seshagiriana J. K. Sikdar &

G. G. Maiti in J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 78 (1): 143. 1981.

*** Orobanche aegyptiaca Pers. Syn. PI. 2:

181. 1806; D.C. Bandyopadhyay & D.

Mukherjee in Sci. & Cult. 39 (7): 306.

1973.

*** Oxalis latifolia H. B. & K. Nov. Gen. et

Sp. 5: 237. t. 467. 1821; D. N. Guha

Bakshi in Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 23 (1):

71. 1969.

*** Oxalis martiana Zucc. in Denkschr.

Acad. Muench 9: 144-46. 1823; Vuppu-

luri Sharma in Ind. Forester 95: 313.

1969.

** Panicum elegantissimum Hook. f. FI.

Brit. India 7: 52. 1896; D. K. Banerjee

in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (2):

494-95. 1971.

*** P. psilopodium Trin. var. coloratum

Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 7: 47. 1896; S.

K. Jain et al in J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 72 (3): 764. 1975.

*** Panisea uniflora (Lindl.) Lindl. Fol.

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in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 18. 225. 1976.

*** Parthenium hysterophorus L. Sp. PI. 988.

1753; N. Paria & S. K. Sahoo in Bull.

Bot. Soc. Bengal 33: 125. 1979.

*** Paspalidium geminatum (Forsk.) Stapf

in Prain FI. Trop. Afr. 9: 583. 1920; D.

N. Guha Bakshi et al in Bull. Bot. Soc.

Bengal 30: 90. 1976.

*** Paspalum dilatatum Poir. in Lamk.

Encycl. Meth. Bot. 5: 35. 1804; S. K.

Jain et al in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

72 (3): 765. 1975.

*** P. longifolium var. lorrirhachis Bor in FI.

Assam 5: 253. 1940; P. Sur & Shyamali

Das in Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 30: 100.

1976.

*** Passiflora nepalensis Wall. Tent. FI. Nep.

20. t. 11. 1824; A. K. Dutta in Sci. &

Cult. 37 (1): 37. 1971.

*** Pentabothra nana (Buch.-Ham. ex Wt.)

Hook. f. Ic. PI. 15: 21. t. 1426. 1883;

Debika Mitra & Bhabesh Roy in Bull.

Bot. Surv. India 13 (1 & 2): 163-164.

1971.

* Peristrophe bicalyculata (Retz.) Nees

var. subaequibracteata S. S. R. Bennet

in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66 (1): 229.

1969.

*** Persicaria viscosa (Ham. ex D. Don)

Nakai in Riga 24: 300. 1926; J. K. Sik-

dar in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78 (1):

105. 1981.

** Petiveria alliacea L. Sp. PI. 342. 1753;

N. M. Dutta & D. Mitra in Ind. Forester

87 (5): 304. 1961.

*** Pholidota articulata Lindl. var. griffithii

(Hook, f.) King & Pantl. in Ann. Roy.

Bot. Gard. Calc. 8: 147. t. 204. 1898; J.

K. Sikdar in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

78 (2): 420. 1981.

* Phyllanthus mukerjeeanus Mitra & S. S.

R. Bennet in Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 19 :

145. 1967.

** Pogostemon aurieularius (L.) Hassk. in.

Tijdsch. Nat. Geschied (ed. Hoeven & de

Vries) 10: 127. 1843; J. K. Sikdar in J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78 (1): 104. 1981.

*** P. elscholtzioides Benth. in DC. Prodr.

12: 153: 1848; J. K. Sikdar in J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 78 (1): 104. 1981.

*** Polygala crotalarioides Buch.-Ham. ex

DC. var. glabrescens Collett & Hemsl. in

J. Bot. Soc. Bot. 28: 22. 1890.

334

ANGIOSPERMS OF WEST BENGAL

*** Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf. FI.

Atlant. 1: 67. 1798; B. Ghosh & R. N.

Banerjee in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

76 (2): 376-77. 1977.

** Polytrias ainaura (Buse) Ktze , Rev. Gen.

PI. 788. 1891; S. K. Jain & D. C. Pal

in Sci. & Cult. 34 (8): 361. 1968.

*** Portulaca tuberosa Roxb. (Hort. Beng.

91. 1814 nom. nud.) FI. Indica 2: 464.

1832; A. K. Mukherjee & L. K. Banerjee

in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (1): 268-

69. 1968.

*** Pseudarthria viscida (L.) W. & A. Prodr.

1: 209. 1834; R. K. Basak in Ind. Fores-

ter 105 (6): 478. 1979.

** Pseudelephantopus spicatus (Juss.) Glea-

son in N. Amer. FI. 33: 109. 1922; N.

M. Dutta & D. Mitra in Ind. Forester

87 (5): 308. 1961.

*** Pulicaria crispa Benth. in Gen. PI. 2:

336. 1873; D. N. Guha Bakshi & A. K.

Naskar in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 9 (1-4):

277. 1967.

*** Pycnarrhena pleniflora (Wall.) Miers.,

Contrib. 3: 553. t. 141. 1871; J. K. Sikdar

in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78 (2):

419. 1981.

*** Ranunculus muricatus L. Sp. PI. 555.

1753; A. K. Dutta in Sci. & Cult. 37

(1): 37. 1971.

** R. sardous Crantz., Strip. Austr. 2: 84.

1763; A. K. Mukherjee & A. Sinha in

Bull. Bot. Surv. India 20: 158. 1978.

*** Rhynchelytrum villosum (Pari.) Chiov.

in Ann. 1st Bot. Roma 8: 310. 1908; B.

Ghosh & R. N. Banerjee in J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 76 (2): 376-77. 1979.

*** Rliynchospora longisetis R. Br. Prodr.

230. 1810; R. K. Basak in Ind. Forester

105 (6): 480. 1979.

*** Rotala vertieillaris L. Mant. 2: 175. 1771;

R. K. Basak in Ind. Forester 105 (6):

479. 1979.

*** Rothia trifoliata Pers. ex DC. Prodr.

2: 382. 1825; D. N. Guha Bakshi in J.

Bengal Nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 37. 1966.

** Rubus phengodes Focke in Biblioth. Bot.

72: 48. 1909; R. B. Ghosh in Bull. Bot.

Soc. Bengal 33: 92. 1979.

** Senecio bhot Cl. Comp. Ind. 187. 1876;

J. K. Sikdar & R. B. Ghosh in GEOBIOS

5: 86-88. 1978.

*** S. vulgaris L. Sp. PI. 867. 1753; J. K.

Sikdar & G. G. Maiti in Bull. Bot. Surv.

India 21 (1-4): 220. 1979.

*** Setaria paniculifera (Steud.) Fourn. ex

Hemsl., Biol. Centr. Amer. Bot. 3: 505.

1885; D. K. Banerjee & D. C. Pal in

Bull. Bot. Surv. India 12 (1-4): 71.

1970.

*** Sporobolus minutiflorus Link, Hort.

Berol. 1: 88. 1827; D. Chatterjee in Sci.

& Cult. 26: 231-232. 1960.

*** Stenotaphrum dimidiatum (L.) Brongn.

in Duperr. Bot. Voy. Coquille 127:

1831; S. K. Jain et al. in J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 72 (3): 765. 1975.

*** Strobilanthes anisophyllus T. Anders. In

Cat. PI. Hort. Bot. Cal. 43. 1861 et in

J. Linn. Soc. 9: 478. 1867; J. K. Sikdar

in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78 (1): 104.

1981.

*** Strophanthus walliehii A. DC. Prodr. 8 :

418. 1844; S. K. Chandra & J. R. Bhat-

tacharjee in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 8;

342. 1966.

*** Stylidium tencllum Swartz, var. minima

Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 3: 420.

1881; R. K. Basak in Ind. Forester 105

(6): 479. 1979.

*** Syzygium ruscifolium (Willd.) Santapau

& Wagh in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 5: 109.

1963; A. K. Mukherjee & L. K. Baner-

335

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

jee in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (1):

269. 1968.

* Teramnus hookerianus Ajita Sen in J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 187-88. 1976.

*** Terminalia catappa L. Mant. 2: 519.

1767; D. N. Guha Bakshi in Bull. Bot.

Soc. Bengal 23 (1): 31-32. 1969.

* Tetrastigma indicum M. Maulik in Bull.

Bot. Surv. India 13: 352. 1971.

*** Thespis divaricata DC. in Quill. Arch.

Bot. 2: 517. 1833; J. K. Sikdar & G. G.

Maiti in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 21 (1-4):

220. 1979.

*** Trianthema triquetra Rottl. ex Willd., in

Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berlin. Schr. 4: 181.

1803; S. K. Chandra in J. Bengal Nat.

Hist. Society 35: 40. 1966.

*** Turnera subulata J. E. Sm. in Rees Cycl.

36. 1819; Vuppuluri Sharma in Ind.

Forester 95: 313. 1969.

*** Utricularia hirta Klein ex Link in Jahrb.

1: 55. 1820; R. K. Basak in Ind. Forester

105 (6): 479. 1979.

*** U. minutissima Vahl Enum. 1 : 204.

1804; R. K. Basak in Bull. Bot. Surv.

India 17: 102-103. 1975.

*** Vernonia teres Wall, ex DC. Prodr. 5:

15. 1836; R. K. Basak in Bull. Bot. Surv.

India 10 (3 & 4): 255. 1968.

* Viola thomsonii Oudemans in Miq. Ann.

Mus. Bot. Lugd. Bat. 3: 74. 1867; Hara

in FI. E. Himal. 1: 212. 1966.

*** Vitex glabrata R. Br. Prodr. 512. 1810;

R. K. Basak in Bull. Bot. Surv. India

10: 256. 1968.

*** Acanthus carduaceus Griff. Itin. Notes,

144. 1837-38; J. K. Sikdar & G. G. Maiti

in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78 (3):

635-37. 1981.

Acknowledgement

We are thankful to Dr. K. Thothathri, Joint

Director, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah

for encouragement and valuable suggestions.

336

POPULATION ECOLOGY AND COMMUNAL

ROOSTING BEHAVIOUR OF PARIAH KITE MILVUS

MIGRANS GOV IN DA IN PUNE (MAHARASHTRA)1

Anil Mahabal and D. B. Bastawade2

( With six text-figures)

Introduction

The Pariah Kite Milvus mi grans govinda

Sykes is a common resident bird found near

human habitation in both urban and rural

areas. It is widely distributed and found

throughout the Indian Union, Pakistan, Bangla

Desh, Nepal, Burma, Sri Lanka and Andaman

Islands (Ali and Ripley 1968). There is prac-

tically no information on its population ecology

and roosting behaviour. The present work deals

with the above aspects of the life of Pariah Kite

studied during 1975-77 in Pune City (Maha-

rashtra State).

Materials and Methods

We have been censusing the major bird

species forming communal roosts in Pune

city and studying their social behaviour. As a

part of this study, communal roosts of Indian

Myna, Brahminy Myna, Rosy Pastor, Cattle

Egret, Pond Heron, House Sparrow, Rosering-

ed Parakeet, House and Jungle Crow and

Pariah Kite have been located. We have observ-

ed altogether four permanent and four tem-

porary roosts of the Pariah Kite in the Pune

city area (Fig. 1). These eight roosts were

censused once a month in the evening for 28

1 Accepted January 1984.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional

Station. PUNE -41 1005.

consecutive months from June 1975 to Sept-

ember 1977. Later, these roosts were also cen-

sused in two representative months, August

1978 and February 1979. Further, the pre-

roosting behaviour of Pariah Kite was observ-

ed at their roost at Peshave Park during the

years 1979-1983.

Records were maintained on the number of

kites arriving at their communal roost in the

evening at 5-minute interval. As the kites

arrive slowly at the roost, they can be accu-

rately counted. The time of arrival of the first

kite and of all the successive arriving birds

upto the last one, as well as the total time

span of arrival of the birds were noted at each

roost. Some observations on their peculiar

behaviour, particularly the pre-roosting com-

munal displays, were also made.

Population ecology

The total population of Pariah kites fluctuat-

ed monthly and seasonally.

Monthly fluctuations The monthly variations

in the total number of kites has been plotted

in Fig. 2, which indicates that during the first

year of observation (1975-76) the number of

kites increased from June 1975 onwards till

August 1975 at which time the population

reached its peak. From August 1975 onwards,

the population declined slowly till January

1976 reaching the lowest level of the year.

From January 1976 onwards, a slow rise in

337

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

• Permanent roost

0 TEMPORARY ROOST

MAP OF PUNE CITY

_§RMS.

Fig. 1. Map of Pune city showing the location of eight roosts of Pariah kites.

number of kites was again noticed till July

1976.

This pattern of monthly fluctuations in

population continued cyclically till September

1977. The censuses carried out in August 1978

and February 1979 also indicated that the

population of kites in these months was simi-

lar to that in identical months of the two

previous years. In general, it was noticed that

highest peak in August and the lowest level

of population in January seem to be charac-

teristic features of the population of Pariah

kites.

Seasonal fluctuations In the biology of

Pariah kites, the following three seasons were

noticed the pre-breeding season (June to Sept-

ember), the breeding season (October to

February) and the post-breeding season (March

to May). The pre-breeding season had the

highest population as compared to the remain-

ing two seasons during the years of observa-

tions (Table 1). The table also indicates that

the average populaition is more or less con-

stant for the years 1975-76 and 1976-77.

Factors causing fluctuations in population :

The monthly and seasonal fluctuations in the

population of Pariah kites described above may

be influenced by one or more of the follow-

ing factors — the immigration of kites into the

city area, the emmigration of kites from the

city area, addition of newly born young ones

to the population.

338

TOTAL POPULATION OF KITES AT ALL ROOSTS

ECOLOGY & ROOSTING BEHAVIOUR OF PARIAH KITE

MONTHS OF OBSERVATION

Fig. 2. Monthly fluctuations in total population of Pariah kites in Pune city.

339

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Table 1

Seasonal changes in the average population of

KITES DURING THE PERIOD OF STUDY

In all the years of observation, an increase

in the number of kites was noticed during the

months July to September, coinciding with the

monsoon season. This increase seems to be

due to the immigration of Pariah kites into

the city. This inference is supported by views

of various authors. Aitken (1947) has stated that

the Common Pariah kites go to Poona from

Bombay for the monsoon months. Smythies

(1953) has reported that Pariah kite, a com-

mon breeding bird in Burma, disappears at

the break of rains. He suspects that possibly

they migrate to India. Henry (1955) has

suspected that Pariah kites migrate from

Ceylon to South India with the onset of south-

west monsoon and return to the Island by

about August. Ali and Ripley (1968) have in-

dicated that Pariah kites migrate from localities

of heavy rainfall to drier areas before com-

mencement of monsoon.

Pune gets an average rainfall of about

750 mm per annum. Compared to this, towns

like Lonavala (6026 mm per annum), Karjat

(3278 mm per annum), Panvel (2741 mm per

annum) which are situated to the west of Pune

city, receive heavy rainfall. Heavy rainfall may

Fig. 3. Monthly changes in the population of kites at four permanent communal roosts.

340

TEMPORARY ROOST PERMANENT ROOST

ECOLOGY & ROOSTING BEHAVIOUR OF PARIAH KITE

^PERIOD OF OCCUPATION

MONTHS AND VEARS OF OBSERVATION

Fig. 4. Periods of occupation of permanent and temporary roosts of Pariah kites

during the study period.

cause scarcity of food provoking kites to

migrate to lower rainfall areas like Pune where

they can get sufficient food.

The slow decrease in population of kites

from September onwards may be due to

emigration of kites to their original towns for

breeding. This could also be related to staying

of one of the partners of a breeding pair at the

nest for various nesting activities. The slow

rise in number of kites from January onwards

may be because of addition of newly born

young ones which come to the roost along-

with their parents.

Fluctuations in dispersal of population

among different roosts : Variations in the

monthly population of Pariah kites at the four

permanent roosts have been shown in Fig. 3. It

is seen that at roosts R-I and R-U, fluctua-

tions in number of kites are inversely related

to each other. Thus some of the kites seem

341

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

to change their roost regularly and periodi-

cally. The availability of good food sources

may be a factor causing this change of roosts.

Further, it can be observed from the Figure

that during successive years of study the kites

have congregated in large numbers at roost

R-1V only during the pre-breeding season and

once at roost R-1II in 1975. The Figure also

indicates that the count of kites at roost R-IV

in all the years is negligible except in the pre-

breeding season. At roost R-III, the popula-

tion was markedly reduced after January 1976

and remained at that level throughout the

period of observation. It can be noticed from

the Figure that kites gathered in large numbers

at roost R-I during the early part of breeding

season in each year of observation. Among the

four permanent roosts, roost R-I has substan-

tial population and hence it can be considered

as a major roost of kites in the Pune city. Thus,

it was noticed that the population at a com-

munal roost of kites is not constant but it

changes from season to season.

Abandoning of roosts and roosting trees :

The roosts were classified into two cate-

gories according to the period of their occu-

pation-permanent roosts and temporary roosts.

The permanent roosts were occupied by the

Pariah kites almost throughout the period of

study, while the temporary ones were abandon-

ed frequently or totally during the study period

(Fig. 4). The figure indicates the following :

i) During the study period four communal

roosts were found to be permanent and

the remaining four were temporary.

ii) Of the four temporary roosts, two (R-VI

and R-VITI) were observed just for four

and one month respectively over the period

of study.

iii) The remaining two temporary roosts

(R-V and R-VII) were abandoned for a

certain period and again reoccupied.

The kites used only a single tree for roost-

ing at each temporary roost. At a permanent

roost however, they used 2 to 4 different trees,

some of which were abandoned occasionally

and again occupied during the period of

study. The number of kites at a permanent

roost R-IV was occasionally reduced to a very

small number, but total abandonment of that

roost was not noticed (Fig. 3).

Seasonal changes in the composition of flock

sizes:

The flock sizes of Pariah kites arriving at

the roost in the evening were recorded through-

out the year at all the roosts under observa-

tion. The composition of various flock sizes of

kites in the pre-breeding, breeding, and post-

breeding seasons is shown in Fig. 5. It is clear

from the Figure that flocks of more than 3

birds were noticed only in the pre-breeding

season. On the whole it is noticed that there

is a majority of solitary and paired birds in

all the seasons.

Communal roosting behaviour

Roosting sites: Pariah kites were found to

occupy four permanent and four temporary

roosts during the period of the study in Pune

(Fig. 1). It was observed that generally the

kites preferred trees like Banyan ( Ficus sp.)

and Tamarind ( Tamarind us sp.) for commu-

nal roosting at night. At a few roosting sites

Pariah kites invariably form mixed communal

roost in company with Indian Myna Acrido-

theres tristis, Brahminy Myna Sturnus pagoda-

rum, House Crow Corvus spiendens and

Jungle Crow Corvus macrorhynchos. Beside

these species, Rosy Pastor Sturnus roseus,

Roseringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri,

Cattle Egret Bubuicus ibis, Pond Heron

Ardeola grayii and House Sparrow Passer

342

ECOLOGY & ROOSTING BEHAVIOUR OF PARIAH KITE

Fig. 5. Flock size composition of kites flying into the communal roost R-I during

different seasons.

domesticus were also seen roosting close to the

kites as mixed roosting companions. Besides

these mixed communal roosts, pure roosts of

kites were also noticed particularly at tempo-

rary roosts (R-VI and R-VIII) and at some

roosting trees at the permanent roost R-I in

all the seasons. Such pure roosts have also been

reported by Gadgil and Ali (1975).

Daytime activities: Daily activities of Pariah

kites start a little before sunrise. All the kites

depart from the communal roost 5 to 12

minutes after sunrise, one by one or in pairs.

They disperse in different directions for feed-

ing. After leaving the roost, (without making

any circular flights overhead) they fly straight

in a particular direction very rapidly as if they

were in a hurry.

During daytime, the kites were observed

feeding either solitarily or gregariously near

fish and mutton markets, slaughter houses, gar-

bage dumps, etc. Much of their daytime is

spent in manoeuvring in the sky in search of

food. Crows often compete with kites and

chase them while in search of food.

Pre-roosting behaviour : After spending the

daytime in the feeding area in various acti-

vities, kites start their movements towards the

communal roost in the evening about 30

minutes before sunset. They arrive from diffe-

rent directions, gather above the roost, and

manoeuvre in the sky for some time before

settling down.

The time assembly of kites at roost R-I

at 5-minute interval in different seasons has

been plotted in Fig. 6 (a-d). This Figure in-

dicates the following:

i) Kites roost after the time of sunset in

all the seasons.

ii) The time of arrival of the first kite at

the roost is more or less similar in the breed-

ing and post-breeding seasons, whereas they

arrive little later in the pre-breeding season.

343

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

a

O

Fig. 6. Variations in time of arrival of kites at roost R-I in relation to the time of

sunset in different seasons.

344

ECOLOGY & ROOSTING BEHAVIOUR OF PARIAH KITE

iii) In all the seasons, the time of arrival

of the last kite is between 30 and 35 minutes

after sunset.

iv) The median time of arrival of kites (i.e.

the time at which 50% of the total roosting

population arrives) in the breeding season is

earlier (+11.0 minutes) as compared to post-

breeding and pre-breeding seasons (+16.5 and

+17.5 minutes respectively).

v) The total time span of arrival of the kites

is more (35 minutes) in the post-breeding

season as compared to the remaining two

seasons (25 minutes in each).

Pre-roosting display: Generally, in all the

months Pariah kites gather above the roost

and manoeuvre for sometime in the sky before

coming down and settling at the roost. This

gathering is in loose formation. However, dur-

ing the pre-breeding season they exhibit pecu-

liar pre-roosting displays. The intensity of

these displays is much more towards the end

of August and in early September. In this pre-

breeding season, number of kites start gather-

ing about 5 to 15 minutes before sunset and

fly above the roost in a tight formation. The

displaying flocks, comprising of 50-250 birds

ascend high up in the sky by circling around

and round, then descend slowly just over the

communal roost and again ascend. This pro-

cess is repeated a number of times. Such a

displaying flock appears as a cylindrical

column from a distance. After a period of

about 6 minutes, the displaying flock slowly

settles down at the roost.

Sometimes, the kites which have already

roosted, suddenly take off from the roost with-

out making any noise, and take a complete

round of about half a kilometre radius over

the roost. Each kite makes a number of circles

around itself while following this circular

course. Such displays were more pronounced

at roost R-IV. Many times, kites perform semi-

circular displays and return to the roost mostly

in pairs. The distance between such pairs was

found to be between 0.7 and 2.7 metres. All

these types of pre-roosting communal displays

are performed silently.

During July to September of the years 1978

to 1983, the Pariah kites were found to gather

in large numbers at roost R-IV when they

showed these pre-roosting displays.

The ultimate function served by these aerial

pre-roosting displays is unknown. It is assum-

ed that they are related to pair formation and

communication of information regarding pre-

paration for return journey to their original

localities. This could be clearly noticed at roost

R-IV where the kites assembled in large num-

bers only during the pre-breeding season (coin-

ciding with the monsoon) and showed such

pre-roosting displays. From the commencement

of the breeding season in October almost all

kites abandoned this roost coinciding with a

marked decrease in the total population of

Pune city.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta for the facilities

provided and to Prof. Madhav Gadgil of Indian

Institute of Science, Bangalore for stimulating

this investigation. We are thankful to Dr. V.

G. Vaidya, M.A.C.S. Research Institute, Pune

for his valuable suggestions. We also wish to

thank Mr. P. W. Garde, Artist of Zoological

Survey of India, Pune, for his skillful render-

ing of the diagrams.

345

7

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. &2

References

Aitken, E. H. (1947): The Common Birds of

India, Thacker & Co. Ltd., Bombay. (Edited by

Salim Ali).

Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. Dillon (1968): Hand-

book of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1,

Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Gadgil, Madhav & Ali, Salim (1975): Commu-

nal roosting habits of Indian Birds. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc., 72(3): 716-727.

Henry, G. M. (1955) : A Guide to the Birds of

Ceylon. Oxford University Press, London.

Smythies, Bertram E. (1953): The Birds of

Burma. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh.

346

ON THE EXPORT OF FROG LEGS FROM INDIA

Humayun Abdulali1

( With two plates & a text-figure)

This is a revised version of the report submitted to the Indian Council of Agricultural

Research in June 1979 under their 3-year project No. 12-15/73-PP entitled “Determi-

nation of Ecological Disturbances in Agricultural and adjoining lands by the removal

of Rana tigrina and Rana hexadactyla for export.”

It appears to be established that the frog plays an important part in the ecological cycle

around the rice field and this is confirmed by an inquiry among villagers. The 15 tables

covering its restricted breeding season, its growth, its readiness to breed in the year

after hatching and its food at different ages and seasons etc. add new information to

what is known. The small frog feeds largely on insects which have gathered together

in numbers. Crabs which are harmful to rice in different ways form a large part of

its diet when larger. It is held that the earning of Rs. 12 crores (in 1981) by the

export of frog legs is more than offset by the use of chemical pesticides which apart

from the cost, have deleterious side-effects yet largely unknown. The business is

ecologically and economically unjustified, and

protests both in India and abroad.

Having worked as an exporter of raw and

waste material for many years (with an ama-

teur interest in natural history for a longer

period) I was surprised in 1962 to notice in

the Daily List of Exports issued by the Cus-

toms authorities that shipments of frog legs

were going out from Bombay.

While we had all heard of French epicures

eating frog legs, what immediately struck the

naturalist was the very obvious fact that the

removal of large numbers of frogs from the

wild would eliminate an important destroyer

of insects and increase the damage being done

to our cultivation.

This was of particular importance to the

Bombay area where the main crop is rice in

wetlands and where the large Bull Frog ( Rana

tigrina 2) was abundant. This animal was com-

mon in gardens and near residences and was

1 75 Abdul Rehman Street, Bombay-400 003.

2 Spelt as tigerina in the original description — Eds.

the inhuman cruelty involved has aroused

also used for dissection in the zoological de-

partments of the Bombay University. Its large

gape and the fact that rats, birds and snakes

were occasionally found eaten by them, led to

a popular belief that it ate its own weight of

food every day.

3-4000 tons of frog legs were exported from

India every year. The export of 3000 tons

meant, it was surmised, the destruction of at

least 6000 tons of frogs which would have

eaten the same quantity of insects or other

animal food every day i.e. 6000 x 90 days

of monsoon = 540000 tons ! What tonnage of

insecticides would be required to off-set the

removal of this controlling force, and at what

cost ?

Letters to the newspapers and to Govern-

ment Departments produced no response. On

20th October 1969 I attended the opening of

the Karnala Bird Sanctuary (which had

originally been suggested by BNHS) by the late

Shri Naik, then Chief Minister of Maharashtra.

347

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Shri Naik made a speech regarding the pro-

tection of birds and animals and referred to

the diminution in their numbers. When he had

finished, a resident of the neighbourhood stood

up and referred to the commercialisation of

frogs and said the time was soon coming when

no frogs would be left and a benefactor of

the farmer would be lost. I seized the oppor-

tunity to refer to the problem in greater detail

and the minister asked me to make a represen-

tation to him which he would arrange to have

examined and followed up.

A representation was made almost imme-

diately and finally after several reminders,

during which time the problem was passed

from hand to hand, I received a letter from

the Department of Fisheries that as the frog

was not a fish, they were unable to handle the

inquiry.3

Thus the matter lay for several years until

T was flying to Delhi and in the course of a

conversation with the gentleman seated next

to me, discovered that he was Dr. D. N.

Srivastava, Asst. Director General (P.P., In-

dian Council of Agricultural Research

(I.C.A.R.). I told him about the export of

frogs and the likely repercussions on agricul-

ture in the Konkan and other places, and he

asked me to undertake a research atudy. I said

my business did not give me much spare time,

and such as I had was devoted to birds. He

had however got interested and offered to pay

for assistants to work under my supervi-

sion. Telephone calls from Delhi and the keen-

ness shown by him, finally prompted me to

act as Principal Investigator for a 3-year re-

search project (I.C.A.R. Project No. 12-15/

73-PP) entitled “Determination of ecological

3 In subsequent years and currently, frog legs are

included in statistical figures for export of Marine

Products.

disturbances in agricultural and adjoining lands

caused by the removal of Rana tigrina and

Rana hexadactyla for export” routed through

the Bombay Natural History Society.

Dr. A. G. Joshi, Ph.D. and Shri M. M.

Hosalkar, M.Sc. were appointed as Scientist

and Research Assistant, and I must clarify at

the outset that though 1 retained an interest

in the project and kept overall check upon the

work, it was not possible to give it all-time

personal attention and credit must go to these

two workers for having continued working on

a subject with which they were not familiar,

often under trying conditions.

Considering the circumstances under which

the project was undertaken, and the time and

personnel available, no detailed plans of acti-

vity had been prepared and the general pro-

gramme of activity was allowed to develop

concurrently with the actual work and findings

and the report after 3 years breaks up under

the following headings :-

1 . General remarks.

2. Field notes — habits and habitat.

3. Population dynamics, breeding and

growth.

4. Sex ratios

5. Food

5a. Food outside Konkan

6. Notes on Rana hexadactyla

7. Inquiry among farmers regarding ecolo-

gical consequences of frog removal.

8. Experimental efforts in the field.

9. Export Regulations and Conservation.

10. Conclusions.

1 1 . Acknowledgements.

12. Eclectic Bibliography.

1. General Remarks

Based in Bombay, the work was primarily

restricted to the adjoining rice-growing dis-

tricts of Thane and Kulaba (now Raigadh)

348

EXPORT OF FROG LEGS FROM INDIA

which have an average annual rainfall of

about 1875 mm. (75 inches) restricted to the

south-west monsoon, June to September. The

main work is concerned entirely with Rana

tigrina, for this is the only large frog of the

area. Rana hexadactyla has only been doubt-

fully recorded and is certainly not large or

numerous enough (here) to be of commercial

or ecological significance here. Unless other-

wise specified or evident from the context,

the term “frog” will, in the following notes,

apply to R. tigrina only.

The first few trips into the field, mostly at

night, drew forcible attention to the fact that

the animal was not as abundant as it had been

a few years ago. and the number to be seen

or captured on every trip, sometimes only 2 or

3, would not provide enough data or oppor-

tunity for the study of their food, as had been

initially envisaged. More attention was, there-

fore, given to material brought to the cutting

centres where the frogs were processed for

the foreign markets.

Again with some experience it was found

that the bulk of the material received in Bom-

bay was brought over considerable distances,

even from Gujarat, and transport having taken

several days, the stomach contents were partly

or wholly digested, making them difficult or

impossible to identify. For this reason, the

bulk of the material examined was obtained

from the frog-processing factory at Karjat,

Table 1

Annual exports of frog legs after 1963

* excluding spoilts & rejects.

349

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Kulaba district, where supplies were mostly

from the surrounding countryside, and often

available for examination within a few hours

of capture.

These difficulties were to some extent over-

come at least on an experimental basis by

working over the paddy fields of the Agricul-

tural Research Centre of the Konkan Krishi

Vidyapeeth at Karjat, where the fields are

protected by watchmen and had not yet been

cleared of frogs. Their capture no doubt imme-

diately affects the population. On a trip over

about 20 hectares of these grounds, 23 frogs

were collected on the first night, 19th Septem-

ber 1977, Thereafter on subsequent visits, the

number available dropped and on the 5th visit

(20 October) only 6 were obtained. According

to the Zippin (1956, 1958) Method, this popu-

lation works out at 5.2 per hectare or 1364 per

square mile. As indicated earlier, no statistical

information is available but there can be no

doubt that this is only a fraction of what exist-

ed a few years ago. This is also confirmed by

local opinion dealt with under part 7 of this

report.

158 field trips, including 55 at night, were

made to 28 different places.

Unless otherwise specified, the following

observations are from notes and data retained

in the course of this study. Attention is drawn

to instances where our findings differ from

those of earlier workers. There appears to be

no doubt that the number of frogs has declined

and only a few were seen in places where we

had expected to see many. This rarity refers

to frogs which were large enough to be of

commercial value, for occasionally large num-

bers of small non-commercial size were seen.

2. Field notes — habits and habitat

Rana tigrina is essentially a frog of wet

places, being found on the edges of small ponds

and lakes, in permanent and temporary pools

and puddles, in paddy fields and in the marshes

formed during the monsoon. They are not

ordinarily found actually swimming in water

and their occurrence in wells and tanks with

vertical stone sides is accidental or due to in-

troduction by man. It is entirely carnivorous

and most of its food is found in and near

water, usually by sitting in a suitable place

and waiting for its prey to appear. Near human

habitations, it visits dung and garbage heaps

where insects are found and which may be

some distance from water. During the day,

they usually secrete themselves in holes in the

ground, under cover of logs and stones, or

grass and other vegetation.

After the monsoon when the pools and

tanks start drying up, there is a concentration

at the restricted puddles. A stage later the

frogs enter cracks and crevices as well as crab-

holes, rat-holes and other cavities in the

ground, where they normally disappear from

human view and lie dormant until the break

of the next monsoon. The process of aestiva-

tion appears to be controlled entirely by

the desiccation of its habitat and a small pro-

portion in suitable ecological conditions may

remain active throughout the year. But the com-

mercial collecting of frogs in the Konkan ends

in about November, when most frogs have

disappeared.

In Gujarat, Bengal and Andhra Pradesh, a

considerable amount of collection continues

even later, for the locals dig them out of their

aestivating holes where many may often be

found together.

Collecting in Tamil Nadu and Kerala con-

tinues after the monsoon but this is due to

(a) the double monsoon, (b) a larger amount

of irrigation, and (c) the fact that three other

species Rana hexadactyla, Rana crassa and

Rana cyanophlyctis, of different habits and

habitat arc also captured for the same purpose.

Incidentally, the live frog is purchased at

350

EXPORT OF FROG LEGS FROM INDIA

Frequency of occurrence of different-sized

individuals in different months June- December.

% Small frogs under 30 gms. in weight available

in July- August are not included.

I

June July August September October November

Frequency of occurrence of different-sized

frogs over whole season.

30-100 101-200 201-300 30-100 101-200 201-300 30-100 101-200 201-300

& above & above & above

Fig. 1.

351

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Table 2

Frequency of occurrence, in percentages, of diffferent weights and sizes of frogs in different

months of 1977 & 1978

prices between Rs. 2/- and Rs. 4.50 per kg.

As only one-third is recovered as finally pro-

cessed legs, the base cost of the legs is Rs. 6/-

to Rs. 13.50 per kg. while current (1976-79)

F.O.B. prices are between Rs. 25/- and Rs. 32/-

per kg. This leaves the difference as the ex-

porter’s profit, less the actual cost of process-

ing and shipping.

3. Population dynamics, breeding & growth

The frequency of size variation in different

months was analysed (Table 2 & Figure 1).

This shows a simple population structure. At

the beginning of the monsoon, tiny individuals

below 50 grammes were totally absent, while

frogs of the larger sizes were common. Later

in July and August, tiny frogs were available

and there was a steady increase in size in

subsequent months until they attained 60/80

grammes (75-90 mm.) i.e. almost adult size,

by December.

The number of tiny frogs seen in different

years varied widely, and this must be due

mainly to the amount of water available parti-

cularly at the tadpole stage. Apart from heavy

mortality due to desiccation, excess rain can

flood the pools and wash away large numbers.

Only a small proportion of the eggs /tadpoles

grow to maturity.

The sexual organs in both males and females

were found enlarged by mid-May, though the

actual courting and pairing did not take place

until the break of the monsoon and lasted

only a few days. At this time, distinct sexual

dimorphism is exhibited by the adults, the

males having (a) a dark lemon yellow colour

above, (b) dark bluish green vocal sacs, and

(c) enlarged nuptial pads on the forelimbs.

All three characters disappear very soon.

Character (a) i.e. the dark lemon yellow colour

of the male comes on and disappears frequent-

ly and very rapidly, being controlled by physio-

logical processes linked with their seasonal

sexual condition/activity — some individuals

packed closely in bags with hundreds of others

were found to be yellow on 8th May. At this

time all adult males had enlarged gonads, in-

creasing from the dormant size of 10-15 mm.

x 1-1.5 mm. to 10-25 mm. x 3-4 mm. in thick-

ness (Table 3). The females were full of

352

EXPORT OF FROG LEGS FROM INDIA

Table 3

Observations on size and colour of gonads of R. tigrina in different months

Month Male

April Testes light yellow and small

May Testes dark yellow and enlarged in size

June Testes dark orange-yellow; greatly enlarg-

ed, length 10-25 mm., diameter 3 to 4 mm.

July Testes dark yellow, and reduced in size

August Testes light yellow and greatly reduced 10

to 15 mm length and 1 to 2 mm diameter

Sept. Testes light yellow or whitish

Oct. Testes whitish yellow and very thin

Nov. to — do —

March

mature ova weighing 20 to 100 grammes ac-

cording to the size of the female, each

ovary containing 1500 to 10000 eggs.

The minimum size of both males ancl females

at maturity is about 65 grammes (85 mm. from

snout to vent).

The largest individual handled was a female

of 640 gms. though we were informed that

they grew upto one kilogram.

The breeding was seen to commence imme-

diately after the first showers i.e. end May

or early June and the gonads were found to

be completely spent by the end of June, most

breeding being completed by 25th June. There

is no evidence of this frog breeding more than

once during the season.

Males and females were seen in amplexus

during the day as well as at night. Such pairing

usually takes place in shallow stagnant water

in or near small ponds rather than in large

Female

Ovary dark yellow with black spots, slightly en-

larged in size.

Ovary fully developed and matured with numerous

eggs.

As in May. Weight of ovary varied from 20 to

100 gms. and consisted of 1500 to 10000 eggs each.

I-ater, many ovaries spent and with a few un-

developed eggs.

All ovaries spent and with a few undeveloped

eggs.

Ovary small and whitish.

Ovary small, soft and light yellow.

Ovary small without any black spots; light yellow

or white.

— do —

lakes and streams. Even when deliberately

disturbed in this condition, they moved away

together. The eggs are exuded in a continuous

stream which is finally left as a clump or heap

in the water. The process may last for several

hours.

McCann (1932, 1940) has written in some

detail about the breeding and other habits of

this species which was then available in every

garden around Bombay and thrust itself upon

the attention of anybody with the most casual

interest in natural history. More detailed ac-

counts of courtship and mating are included

in his papers and with small variations the

present study confirms his observations, and

reference is made to his notes only when there

appears to be any difference of opinion or

record. He refers to several scores of male

frogs croaking together and making a deafen-

ing noise. Today, it is unlikely that any such

353

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

number would be found together anywhere

within “striking’ distance of a collecting centre.

In captivity the female may release its eggs

in the absence of the male. They may also

be exuded when held by the waist between

thumb and finger.

For growth of tadpoles /young frogs see

Table 4.

The eggs hatched in about 24 hours and

the tadpoles developed into tiny frogs, yet with

rudimentary tails, in another 4 weeks.

No actual studies were made but the tad-

poles appeared to feed largely on the scrap-

ings from the weeds growing in water, and

in their absence, on the micro-organisms, dead

and alive, both sedimental and suspended in

stagnant water. McCann (loc. cit.) fed them

on pieces of mutton suspended in water. Kamat,

N.D. (1962), refers to unidentified tadpoles

at Kolhapur, Maharashtra feeding on several

species of algae but not (1) Chara vulgaris,

(2) Cladophora callicoma, (3) Nostoc sphae-

ricum and (4) Pithophora oedogonia.

From 21st July to 15th December, 8 batches

Table 4

Growth of tadpoles and young frogs (R. tigrina ) from Thane region

354

EXPORT OF FROG LEGS FROM INDIA

of small frogs were collected in one small

marsh near Thane. Table 4a shows the periodic

increase in weight and size. It would appear

that tadpoles hatched in June /July reach an

average weight of 65.9 grammes by Decem-

ber.

At the commencement of the following

season i.e. in June, the smallest individuals

were 65 grammes in weight and 85 mm. from

snout to vent and had mature testes and

ovaries. McCann (loc. cit.) refers to frogs of

this size being found in amplexus but says

that they were “non-breeding” and had their

testes 10 mm. The only explanation can be

that he has omitted to allow for the thickness

of the testes which is the real indication of

their maturity and only compared the length,

which may be the same in small breeding and

large non-breeding males.

It will be noticed that the frogs actually

breed effectively only at the break of the

monsoon which may be any time between 15th

May and 25th June.

The above data indicates that all individuals

existent at the beginning of the season are

ready to breed, those in Group I having hatch-

ed and developed in the previous season and

attained a weight of 65 grammes. At this rate

of growth the largest individual weighing 640

grammes would be 10 years of age. It has

been held that Rana tigrina attains maturity

after several years, but even if it breeds after

one year, (as per our recordings) there can

be no doubt that it would do so for several

years afterwards, while it continues to increase

in weight and size.

4. Sex Ratios

1186 frogs were sexed in 1976. In 4 of the

6 size-groups there were more females than

males; only among the largest, the number of

females suddenly dropped to 35.3%. A month-

wise statement of 729 frogs of different sizes

was retained from June-November 1977. Here

also the females were slightly more numerous

in the earlier months with the males catching

up at the end. The figures for June show

58.5% males but this may be due to their

bright colours and greater visibility at this

period (Table 5 & 6).

5. Food

This carnivorous animal is unselective and

except perhaps for a few unpalatable items,

feeds on whatever is available, waiting in suit-

able places for the prey to approach it. Its

feeding places may be largely grouped as

follows: (a) banks of rivers or brooks, (b)

edges of ponds and lakes, (c) paddy field

embankments, (d) heaps of garbage and orga-

nic wastes, (e) drying ponds, puddles and rice

fields, (f) under electric lights attracting photo-

tropic insects and (g) any other places where

insects or their larvae are found in numbers.

Tables 7-7d cover the variety and proportion

of different foods taken by frogs of different

sexes, size-groups and periods in the Bombay

Konkan. It will be immediately evident how

widely the food can and does vary, but the

larger frogs are almost entirely subsistent upon

crabs of 3 species, all of which are recognised

pests in rice fields, damaging the bunds and

destroying seedling rice (see Jabir Ali 1955).

All its food is captured on the ground or

by jumping upon it on the surface of water

from land. There is no evidence of any animal

being pursued and captured under water, the

reflex action of the nictitating membrane pre-

sumably preventing it from seeing anything

once its eyes are submerged. Though essen-

tially an inhabitant of wet grassland, it has to

leave the more heavily grassed areas and come

out into the open to see its prey. Its feeding is

almost entirely at night, though its courting and

355

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Table 5

Sex and sex ratios of frogs of different size groups examined in 1976

mating may be carried out in broad daylight

(see McCann, loc cit. ) . Wadekar (1963)

refers to more food being taken on

moonlit rather than on dark nights. Movement

attracts attention and the first reaction is to

jump upon and swallow its prey, all in a single

movement. This has often led to the frog catch-

ing and attempting to swallow, not always suc-

cessfully, snakes and other items, too large for

it. This habit no doubt accounts for the several

notes in the Journal of Bombay Natural His-

tory Society, referring to the frog swallowing

snakes, birds, rats etc.

Movement may be detected as far as 15'

away, and then approached in a series of

3 or 4 bounds, the last leap being made on

to its prey which may be on or some distance

off the ground.

The fore legs are used to push into the

mouth any item which it may not be able

to swallow completely. The occurrence of paper,

bits of grass, leaves and fruit, and even stones.

356

Frequency of occurrence of different items in stomachs of frogs of different sizes and sexes (1976)

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Table 7d

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EXPORT OF FROG LEGS FROM INDIA

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

in their stomachs is no doubt due to their

being pushed in accidentally, and remaining

undigested.

3624 frog stomachs have been examined

and analysed. These include 700 taken in the

field and the rest from cutting centres, mostly

at Messrs Jadhav & Dabhia’s at Karjat.

In both instances the bulk of the material

is from the Bombay Konkan and, as explained

earlier, our activities were restricted to this

place because the captured frogs were brought

in more quickly and the food was found less

digested. Though unsupported by experimen-

tal evidence, it did appear the digestion was

abnormally slowed by capture and the atten-

dant treatment.

Tables 8 and 9 (pp. 363/4) give in greater

detail the items identified. The material includes

Annelids (earthworms), Centipedes, Millipedes,

Arachnids (scorpions and spiders). Crustaceans

(crabs and prawns), insects and insect larvae

of many kinds, Molluscs (snails) and verte-

brates including fish, frogs and toads, lizards

and snakes, birds and mammals (rats and

shrews).

4Some 400 tubes containing Coleoptera

(beetles) are still unidentified with the Zoo-

logical Survey of India but the material was

weighed and is included in the calculations

and discussions relating to the quantitative

analysis of food.

It is evident that the quantity of crabs eaten

increases with the size of the animal until

it constitutes almost 100% of its food. The

main requirement of the food of the species

is its availability and insects of all sizes, their

larvae, earthworms, and other items are accept-

ed as and when numerically sufficient.

4 This list has now, September 1984, been received

(the original sent in February 1983 having been lost

in the post) and is included as supplementary to

Table 9.

It has not been possible to obtain any earth-

worms in a condition good enough to permit

identification even down to genus, but it is

worth noting that in 1977 as many as 44% of

stomachs of Group I i.e. animals of the smaller

sizes, contained earthworms, followed by only

8% in Group 2 and none in Group 3. In the

previous year the same figures were 10.66,

2.68 and 0.1.

Crabs, earthworms, insects and insect larvae

account for about 90% of their food both in

terms of weight and frequency. Most of the

other items can be treated as sporadics being

taken more or less indiscriminately as and

when available.

The food of a few specimens taken during

the short trip to Karwar, Hyderabad. Trivan-

drum and Madras, has also been similarly

tabulated and it will be found that there is no

appreciable difference in the general picture.

The ecological importance of the many

species of insects has not been determined but

the fact that the frog takes advantage of every

concentration or getting together of indivi-

duals of the same species, is a good index of

the apparent efficacy of their control on their

numbers.

Curiously, the weight of the food in Table

7d (p. 361) is less than in the material collect-

ed at the cutting centres but this may be due

to one or more of the following reasons:

(1) At the cutting centres, there was a

general tendency to pick and examine the

stomachs which appeared to be full rather than

the empty ones,

(2) the rough handling and transport may

have arrested or slowed the digestive process

and

(3) the supplies examined from Karjat were

obtained mostly early in the morning, when

the animals, having fed throughout the night,

contained more food.

362

EXPORT OF FROG LEGS FROM INDIA

Table 8

Lists of items identified in stomachs of frog

(R. tigrina )

ARTHROPODA

I CRUSTACEA (crabs and prawns)

*1. Paratelphusa guerini (496 stomachs)

*2. Paratelphusa jacquemontii (133)

*3. Gecarcinucus jacquemontii (201)

4. Varuna litterata (10)

II PRAWNS (14)

III INSECTS (see also Table 9)

Coleoptera (beetles)

1. scarabaeidae — Melolonthinae

(31)

Coprinae, Onthophagus sp.

Catharsius sp.

Onitis sp.

Rutelinae — Rhynyptia sp.

Dytiscidae — Cy bister sp. (17)

ClCINDELIDAE (23)

Carabidae — Chlaenius sp.)

Siagona sp.

118

(180)

(52)

3. Belostomatidae — Belostoma sp.

4. Cydnidae — Cydnus sp.

5. Pentatomidae — Podops sp.

6. Reduviidae —

7. Dinidoridae — Aspongopus sp.

Hymenoptera

1. Formicidae — Camponotus sp.

2. Megachilidae — Megachilla sp.

Bi.attaria

1 . Blattidae — Periplaneta sp.

IV ARACHNIDA

1 . Spiders ( Araneae )

2. Centipedes and Millipedes

3. Scorpions

V ANNELIDA (Earthworms)

Pheritima ? sp.

MOLLUSCA (Gastropoda)

Ariophanta maderaspatana

Planorbis sp.

Pila virens

1.

VI

1.

2.

♦3.

*4. Vivipara bengalensis

5. Limnaea sp.

6. Melania sp.

2. Carcinophoridae

Heteroptera

(7)

(4)

(30)

(4)

(3)

(41)

(4)

(15)

(40)

(57)

(23)

(319)

(124)

Euborellia sp.

1 . Nepidae — Laccotrephes sp.

2. Lygaeidae — Dieuches sp.

I

(9)

Figures in parenthesis indicate the number of speci-

mens containing this species.

Groups marked * are accepted as injurious to agri-

culture. For insects see Table 9.

363

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Table 9

Insects No. of insects/

identified No. of stomachs

I COLEOPTERA*

Supplementary list of COLEOPTERA as per

FOOTNOTE ON P. 362

Family Name of No. of insects/

the Species No. of stomachs

Groups marked * are accepted as injurious to

agriculture.

364

EXPORT OF FROG LEGS FROM INDIA

Table 10

Table 10 shows the number of different

kinds of food items found in single stomachs

at different times of the year. It will be noticed

that a single item (one or more individual of

the same species) forms a consistently large

portion of the food of each individual, becom-

ing more and more restricted with the in-

crease in size of the frog.

For the same reason the sudden appearance

of a large number of insects of one species at

one place brings in the frog as an active pre-

dator and implies that it is a most useful con-

troller under such conditions.

It will also be noticed that after the peak

of the monsoon i.e. in September /October, the

number of individuals in groups I & II which

are found to contain more than one or two

species increases, due either to their availabi-

lity or to the absence of sufficient numbers of

one kind.

Tables 11 and 12 cover the amount of food

taken by individuals. It has generally been

accepted in natural history circles in India that

the Bull Frog takes its own weight of food

per day, but in the course of this examination

the gorged ones held only 20 to 30%, with the

overall average of the different size groups,

(after excluding the empty stomachs) varying

between 3 and 7%. This may possibly be due

to their having been captured at different

times of the day or night and at different stages

of feeding and also the fact that some of the

food must have been digested in the period in

captivity.

The data regarding time, size, weight and

nature of food for 1976 and 1977 was com-

365

Quantitative food intake i.e. food *s percentage of body weight (1976)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 82

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sults. The overall findings are similar to those

found earlier i.e. the average stomach contents

do not exceed 7% of the body weight, while

the relative percentages (by weight) of crabs,

insects, insect larvae and miscellaneous items

are 82.7, 4.74, 3.85 and 8.7 respectively.

Reference has already been made to the

fact that in 1977 the number of small-sized

individuals was much greater and this reduced

the percentage of the crab-eating population

and increased that which fed on insects and

insect larvae. The computer has also helped

to confirm that the small individuals found at

the beginning of the season i.e. m June, are

only slightly bigger than those at the end i.e.

November, the average weight of group I

having dropped to 36 gms. (including young

of the year) in August and then increased to

62 gms. in November.

All this confirms that the Bull Frog will

ordinarily take all food as is available and

its importance and/or usefulness as a pest

control may be found to be based on different

items in different districts. In the Konkan the

food has been consistently similar in the diffe-

rent years, and its main prey are undoubtedly

the crabs Paratelphusa spp. and others.

5a. Food outside Konkan

The little material that we have been able

to obtain in Karwar and Hyderabad shows the

food to be of different species from that in

the Konkan, e.g. in Karwar the few crabs

were Varuna litterata while those of the genus

Paratelphusa were completely absent. Aquatic

insects also showed a higher incidence.

In Hyderabad the crab Paratelphusa was

again the main food, while the insects includ-

ed a larger proportion of aquatic forms e.g.

Cybister sp. (26%) water scorpions (26%)

and water bugs (15%). But these differences

366

Table 12

Stomach contents expressed as percentages of total body weight with respect to sex, size and month (1977)

EXPORT OF FROG LEGS FROM INDIA

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II 27.20 13.80 4.05 3.66 39.43 41.97 40.84 38.27 19.08 14.81 5.63 4.93

III 14.20 11.00 4.58 5.07 34.78 29.41 34.78 43.13 21.73 17.64 8.69 9.80

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Table 13

Computerised percentages of various food items in frogs of different sizes in different months

percentage

were no doubt dependent upon the availabi- for rice, and that the very radical trait (of

lity or otherwise of the different species and aestivation) varies from place to place being

the general pattern of feeding remains the controlled by rainfall or the amount of suitable

same.

biotope available.

The collections were made only in March

and the food suggested that the frogs had been

feeding largely near small ponds. It is quite

possible that the overall picture may change

if the inquiry was spread over a longer period.

It also indicated that the frog did not aesti-

vate in areas which are now largely irrigated

6. Notes on Rana hexadaetvla

The title for the project under report in-

cludes Rana hexadaclyla but, as already clari-

fied under General Remarks above, this species

does not occur in Bombay.

Less information was available about its

368

EXPORT OF FROG LEGS FROM INDIA

Table 14

Computerised percentages weight of various food items in frogs of different sizes in different

MONTHS.

food than of tigrina and concurrent with our

work we were able to persuade Dr. M. I.

Andrews of Mar Thoma College, Tiruvalla,

Kerala, to undertake a similar inquiry with the

assistance of a grant from the Charles McCann

Fieldwork Fund administered by BNHS. His

results are published in Society’s Journal

(1979).

During a short visit to Madras and Trivan-

drum, Joshi and Hosalkar were also able to

obtain a few specimens and the food as deter-

mined is listed in Table 8 and indicates 8%

crabs, 72% insects, 8% insect larvae, 4% each

of snails and earthworms, together with mis-

cellaneous items like spiders, centipedes, fish,

tadpoles and snakes ( Typhlops sp.).

This animal is found most often in water

and the more aquatic habitat showed that a

369

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

greater number of aquatic insects had been

eaten. But both reports confirm that the con-

stant representations of the trade that this

species is herbivorous and therefore of almost

no ecological importance as a pest controller,

is exposed as baseless.

7. Inquiry among farmers regarding ecological

consequences of frog removal

Though every effort was made to study the

Bull Frog in its natural habitat, it has already

been explained how it was found to be much

rarer than anticipated and very difficult to

meet in the field, and the bulk of our inquiry

into its food has been carried out on specimens

obtained at cutting centres. However, the far-

mer/villager has always been in direct contact

with the frog and it was evident from the few

personal conversations made with the culti-

vators that they had very definite views about

frog-catching and associated matters. With the

approval of the Collectors of Thane and

Kulaba, reply-paid postcards were sent to 1650

police patils in different villages in these dis-

tricts bearing the following questions:

(1) Has the number of frogs reduced in your

place over the last five years ?

(2) Is there any loss or benefit due to the

removal of frogs ?

(3) What is the reason for the loss or benefit

and how much is the loss or benefit ?

588 replies were received and tabulated. 582

stated that there was a considerable depletion

in the number of frogs. Some said that it had

disappeared from their area while others re-

ported decreases of 50 to 90%.

577 complained of agricultural losses due

to their removal, while 361 specifically stated

that this was because of the fact that they

used to feed on paddy pests i.e. insects,, insect

larvae and crabs. 158 said that the pests had

increased due to the decrease in frogs. 80 re-

ferred to the increased menace of crabs.

To this extent our findings are fully sub-

stantiated by local opinion. It was also evident

that frog catching, which is essentially at night,

creates very serious problems regarding

trespass into and damage to standing rice.

8. Experimental attempts in the field

In 1978 arrangements were made with the

Agricultural Research Station at Karjat manag-

ed by the Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli,

whereby three adjoining plots of land of the

same size under rice cultivation were selected.

One was completely encircled with nylon

netting and 40 adult frogs placed therein, an-

other cleared of all frogs and similarly netted

and the third left open to natural conditions.

The entomologist attached to the farm, was to

make periodic examination of the three plots

to determine the differences in pest incidence,

if any, and to capture and periodically examine

the stomachs of frogs found in plots 1 and 3.

The main purpose was to count the inci-

dence of dead hearts (whiteheads) and ascer-

taining if rice yields in the three plots varied

to any extent. Unfortunately, the Konkan

Krishi Vidyapeeth failed to supply us with the

information which we had expected to receive.

A report was published by them with no

acknowledgement to us and the data included

may be treated with caution.

9. Conservation and Export Regulations

In response to the first protests against the

indiscriminate collection and export of frog

legs, this item was first placed under Open

General Licence No. 3 which was a mere for-

mality to keep an eye on quantities exported.

Later the export of animals (1) captured

between 15th June and 15th August, and (2)

370

EXPORT OF FROG LEGS FROM INDIA

small ones showing a count of more than 80

pairs of legs per kilogram, was completely

prohibited. But this did not lessen the trade for

there was no administrative machinery to deter-

mine when the material exported after 15th

August was collected and processed, while

there was apparently no market for the smaller

legs. Attention was drawn to this anomaly,

but to no effect.

All frogs of the genus Rana have now been

brought on the list of animals protected under

the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 and the

packers have to obtain licences and collect and

process the legs according to certain terms and

conditions. This year (1984/85) an undisclosed

ceiling has been placed on the quantity to be

exported and it will hopefully be appreciably

less than for the previous year.*

10. Findings and conclusions

Much of the information noted above has

been recorded piece-meal by earlier workers

over many years, but this is the first attempt

to re-examine it critically and to put it all

together. The following findings differ from

what has been accepted or implied:

(a) Maturity is attained at the end of the

first season i.e. by about December,

though both sexes continue to grow in

size for several years.

(b) Frog legs after skinning, cleaning, trim-

ming and processing amount to about

1 /3rd of the weight of the live frog.

(c) The breeding season covers a short

period at the break of the rains, and

there is no evidence of its occurring

more than once. Around Bombay, this

may commence as early as 25th May

and finish by 15th June, rendering in-

effective, the protection in the breeding

* The export quota of 4000 tons has been

reduced to 2500.

season, attempted under the export re-

gulations.

(d) 90% of the food has been ascertained

to consist of crabs, insects and insect

larvae. Single crabs are taken for their

bulk, but small insects and their larvae

must be numerous and in concentrations

to permit their being taken in sufficient

numbers. The frog therefore takes the

role of controller whenever a food item

shows an increase in numbers.

(e) It has also been discovered that in

addition to Rana tigrina and R. hexa-

dactyla, large examples of R. crassa

and R. cyanophlyctis are also captured

and packed for export. No information

is available if this is acceptable to the

buyer or if it makes any difference at

all. The ecology of these species remains

to be studied and the period of protec-

tion covered either by the Export Policy

or the rules under the Wildlife (Pro-

tection) Act 1972 must be suitably

arranged for different parts of the

country.

The total data now available would warrant

the following observations and conclusions.

Ecological

As is evident from the export figures, de-

tailed in Table 1 (p. 349), exports of frog-

legs have been rising over the last few years

and the business is large enough to have

tempted parties like Greaves International,

Britannia Seafoods, Tata Oil Mills, and Indian

Tobacco to enter it. The total quantity ex-

ported in 1977 was about 3000 (4368 in 1981)

tons which is equivalent to 9000 (13104 in

1981) tons of live frogs. The food obtained

in their stomachs was as high as 29 say 30%

of the total weight of the frog, though the

average contents are, for various reasons.

371

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

much lower viz. 7%. Accepting a not un-

reasonable daily food figure of 10% of its own

weight, the removal of 9000 tons of frogs

results in the survival or non-destruction of

900 tons of frog food every day, which during

the four months June to September adds upto

1,08,000 tons of frog food i.e. 1,00,000 tons

(approx. 90%) of crop pests. This is per

season of 120 days and reference has already

been made to places where living conditions

for the frog may be retained for longer periods,

as also to the fact that each frog now having

attained maturity may live for two or more

additional seasons. Considering the obvious

depletion which has already taken place in

their numbers in the field, their total number

can increase several fold, resulting in a pro-

portionate increase in the quantity of agricul-

tural pests eaten by them.

Table 15 indicates the break-up of the food

in terms of agricultural pests left undestroyed

in the different years in accordance with Table

1. These figures are based on the actual con-

sumption of food by frogs which are killed

every year. For every additional year that the

animal would have lived, each figure will have

to be increased i.e. doubled for two years,

tripled for three years, et. seq., until the total

frog population has reached the original level

which was presumably ecologically stable. A

suspension of frog catching may safely be esti-

mated to result in the destruction of at least

twice the quantity of pests determined above,

i.e. 200,000 tons of crop pests per annum.

There is statistical evidence to the effect that

the frogs will ordinarily only eat such items

as are available in plenty, for the same item

appears consistently in the diet of each indivi-

dual. Does this not show the frog as a natural

controller of any insect or other possible pest

which threatens to increase in numbers and

appreciable numbers of which are found to-

gether ?

The food may vary from place to place but

Table 15

Estimated weights of undestroyed pests (in tonnes) in different years 1963-78

372

EXPORT OF FROG LEGS FROM INDIA

the principle of controlling all these items

which are increasing in numbers remains. If

the land crab today forms the bulk of its food

in the Konkan, something else may take its

place in the neighbouring Deccan, but this

again will be some form of animal which occurs

in numerical concentrations and where the frog

continues to serve as a controller.

The biological background and consequen-

ces are evident, and one can say without hesi-

tation that the removal of large numbers of

frogs from their natural environment upsets

the existing balance of nature, and in culti-

vated areas the process is highly detrimental

to crops. The consequences have had to be

offset by the introduction of pesticides which

in turn have further detrimental side-effects

and there can be no doubt that the losses will

be found to be double-edged and increase with

time. It is now generally accepted that biolo-

gical controls are within reason the safest and

only methods which do not produce any harm-

ful reactions, and the removal of large numbers

of frogs from our countryside and the collate-

ral use of pesticides is bound to tell strongly.

The quantity exported shows no decline,

but this is not because frog numbers are un-

affected, but because with rising prices and

better organisation, supplies are obtained from

over a greater part of the 1,300,000 square

miles which make our country. It is an accept-

ed tenet of wild life conservation that the

surest means of exterminating or radically

reducing the number of any species of plant

or animal is to put a price on it, for no species

can naturally continue to reproduce itself as

fast as man, assisted by mechanical means, can

destroy it.

The effects of pesticides are also already

visible. DDT taken through their food of rats,

mice and insects affects the reproductive capa-

city of birds of prey. The smaller raptors like

the Kestrel ( Falco tinnunculus) and the White-

eyed Buzzard ( Butaster teesa) which were

quite common a few years ago, have now

almost completely disappeared from the Kon-

kan. What is the additional number of rats

and mice which survive to eat and damage

rice and other edibles of man ?

Many species of raptors have been recorded

from the Konkan some resident and some

migrant. Their numbers have fallen greatly

over the last few years, and the absence of the

migrants is evidence that the same conditions

exist in northern India, Pakistan and beyond,

where they breed. The Egyptian Vulture

{Neophron percnopterus ) and the Longbilled

Vulture ( Gyps indicus ) which used to nest

on the bare rock cliffs at Mumbra, near Thane,

on the pinnacle rock at Karnala, and at other

places in the neighbouring ghats have also

disappeared and the nesting sites are vacant.

We do not know how DDT has reached these

large birds, or if they have been affected in

some other manner.

Economic

The analysis of the food eaten shows

that at least 90% is made up of crabs,

insects and insect larvae, all of which are un-

doubtedly detrimental to agriculture i.e. 200,000

tons of pests which would have been destroyed

by the surviving frog population after one year

of protection, remain untouched. This is

cumulative to an incalculable extent.

3000 tons frog leg exports were last valued

at Rs. 7 crores and we find that for every

35 paisas earned in foreign exchange, we have

prevented the destruction of 1 kg. of agricul-

tural pests. What is the cost to be incurred for

their destruction ?

Attention must be drawn to the fact that a

very conservative amount of food per frog has

been allowed for and no provision has been

made for the areas which receive both the

373

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

southwest and northeast monsoons or have

three crops of rice arranged by irrigation. In

such areas the period of activity will be much

more than 120 days per annum.

The value of pesticides used in India every

year is said to be rupees 200 crores and it is

anybody’s guess as to how much of this is

needed to kill the pests which have escaped

the frogs.

The frog is not ordinarily eaten in India and

its removal does not lessen any food normally

available to the villager. The very emphatic

opinion expressed by the villagers to the effect

that the removal of the frog is harmful to

agriculture is unprejudiced and must command

respect.

The crab is a great pest in rice-growing

areas. Apart from eating and destroying fresh

seedlings, their burrows in the bunds act as

drain pipes removing the water essential to

rice, and requiring additional labour for

repeated repairs.

Collecting the frogs does provide labour for

some Kathoris, and other tribals, but this

activity coincides with that of rice planting

and harvesting and much of this work is done

at night. The real profits are made by the

middle-man i.e. the processors and the expor-

ters. See concluding paragraph under Field

Notes (p. 352).

Educational

The bull frog was the standard subject for

dissection and experimental purposes in Zoolo-

gical/Medical colleges over most of India, the

earlier text books being based on them. The

difficulty of obtaining specimens has interrupt-

ed the practical side of this teaching, which is

now compulsorily restricted to theory.

Humanitarian

An inordinate amount of cruelty is

attached to this business. The frog is caught

alive and several hundred are dumped

into a gunny bag which is banged on the

ground to permit the contents to settle and

then sewn up.

Many such bags are then piled into trucks

and driven hundreds of miles to the cutting

centres, reaching them several days after cap-

ture. We have been informed of consignments

in which 90% of the frogs were found dead

upon arrival.

At the cutting centres, they are extracted

from the bag one by one, gripped by the hind

legs, placed under a chopper, and cut into

two parts, the front and rear halves both being

left to die separately — the front half of the

frog resting on its bleeding belly, propped up

by its fore feet and staring helplessly at the

world around it, is a ghastly sight. Protests

against these barbarous methods have appeared

in foreign journals and magazines concerned

with conservation and the avoidance of cruelty

to animals. The Society for the Prevention of

Cruelty to Animals in Bombay has failed to

take sufficient action, for the whole process is

linked with and inseparable from the export

of frog legs which is permitted by Government.

Prior to this cutting, the animal is momen-

tarily dipped into a solution of salt and chlorine

which is said to be anaesthetic. This is not

so, for the solution is only used as a ward

against Salmonella and other infections and

does not lessen the pain in any manner.

I have been unable to obtain evidence of

frogs of any species being bred in captivity,

either in India or anywhere else on a com-

mercial basis but it is unlikely that any serious

374

HMMH|

J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 82

Abdulali: Export of frog legs

Plate I

If**

“Front half of the frog resting on its bleeding belly, propped up by . its front feet

and staring helplessly at the world around it...” (page 374).

Photo : Courtesy — World Society for Protection of Animals.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82

Abdulali: Export of frog legs

Plate II

Discarded portions — still alive and to be dumped into garbage heaps.

Photo-, (above): Courtesy — World Society for Protection of Animals,

(below): Courtesy — Beauty Without Cruelty.

EXPORT OF FROG LEGS FROM INDIA

effort will be undertaken in this direction so

long as sufficient quantities can be caught in

the wild, and there is no base cost. Nor am I

aware of such business (i.e. catching in the

wild) being possible or permitted in any deve-

loped country.

With cheaper labour and all the other

natural factors being available, it may be pos-

sible to breed them in India, though it is

difficult to estimate if the price would be

workable. In any case, the present removal of

an important link in the biological chain sus-

taining the economy and ecology of our coun-

tryside is unwarranted and should be stopped

immediately.

Acknowledgements

In concluding this report, I would like to

Refer

Ali, Jabir (1955): Hunting the land crab ( Para -

telphusa guerini). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52:

941-945.

Andrews, M. I. (1979): Food and feeding

habits of Rana he.xadactyla. ibid. 76: 175-179.

Daniel, J. C. (1963) : Field Guide to the Amphi-

bians of Western India. Part I. ibid. 60(2) : 415-

438; (1963), Part II, 60(3): 690-702; (1975), Part

III, 72(2): 506-522.

Kamat, N. D. (1962) : On the intestinal contents

of tadpoles and algae of small ponds. Curr. Sci. 31 :

300-301.

record my indebtedness to the Indian Council

of Agricultural Research for giving me the

opportunity of undertaking the inquiry sug-

gested by me; the Bombay Natural History

Society for having sponsored the project;

Messrs Sawant Fisheries Pvt. Ltd., Exporters

of Frog Legs in Bombay, and Messrs Jadhav

and Dhabia, Frog Suppliers at Karjat, for

having given us access to the material collected

by them and enabling us to handle large num-

bers which would not otherwise have been

available; Agricultural Research Station of

Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth at Karjat, for hav-

ing permitted access to their rice fields; the

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for the

identification of stomach contents; and Mr.

Nazar Futehally of Technical Development Pvt.

Ltd., for the computerisation of the data relat-

ing to the stomach contents.

ENCES

McCann, Charles (1932): Notes on Indian

Batrachians. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(1): 152-

180.

(1940) : A Reptile and Amphi-

bian Miscellany, ibid. 42(1): 45-64.

Wadekar, U. L. (1963) : The diet of the Bull Frog

(Rana tigrina Daud.) ibid. 60(1) : 263-268.

Zippin, C. (1956): An evaluation of removal

method of estimating animal population. Biometrica.

12: 163-189.

(1958) : The removal method of popu-

lation estimation. J. Wildlife Management 22: 92-90.

375

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

TWO NEW SPECIES OF CHRYSOCHAR1S FORSTER

(HYMENOPTERA: EULOPHIDAE) FROM HIGH ALTITUDE

OF INDIA1

M. A. Khan2

(With fourteen text-figures)

Chrysocharis indicus sp. nov. and Chrysocharis funicularis sp. nov. reared from pupae

of Phytomyza sp. (Diptera: Agromyzidae) from high altitude of India are described

and illustrated. Key to some Asiatic species of the genus Chrysocharis based on females

is proposed.

Genus Chrysocharis Forster 1856, Hym. Stu-

dies Heft 2: 79, 83.

Type species: Chrysocharis femoralis Forster.

Chrysocharis Forster is an easily recognised

genus of the subfamily Entedontinae (Eulo-

phidae). It is characterised by the parapsidal

furrows usually partly indicated, body weakly

sclerotized, pronotum without margined collar,

marginal vein moderately arched, post margi-

nal vein generally much longer than stigmal

vein, antennae usually with 3 annelli, some-

times with 2.

Recently Yoshimoto (1973a, b) has revised

the genus in great detail. The generic charac-

ters proposed by him apply well to the species

under study. In addition, some new characters

have been suggested which might help in the

separation of this genus from closely allied

ones. The characters are: first valvifer triangu-

lar with articular knobs well prominent, third

valvulae short, lanceolate, movably articulated

1 Accepted December 1984. Research paper No.

3434 through the experiment station, G. B. Pant

University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar-

263 145 Distt. Nainital, U.P., India.

2 Deptt. of Entomology, G.B.P.U.A. & T., Pant-

nagar (India).

with second valvifer, outer plate of ovipositor

with broad apex and a ridge along dorsal mar-

gin.

Key to some Asiatic species of the genus

Chrysocharis based on females

1 . Flagellum with three funicle segments and two

segmented club 2

1 . Flagellum with four funicle segments and two

segmented club, antennae uniformly dark

brown, scape, greatly flattened, two anneli pre-

sent C. funicularis sp. nov.

2. Legs (except coxae) pale 3

2. Legs beyond coxae pale except hind femora &

pulvillus brown 4

3. Petiole mainly strongly reticulate, coxae uniform-

ly brown 5

3. Petiole not likewise, coxae pale except bases

slightly infuscated, ocelli arranged in obtuse angle

triangle, head with very poor reticulations, pro-

notum with anterior margin deeply concave in

the middle, posterior margin almost straight

with six long setae; petiole long, almost one

third length of abdomen C. indicus sp. nov.

4. Head broader than thorax, antennae dark brown

to fuscous except scape pale to light brown

along ventral margin and fuscous along dorsal

margin with three large ring segments, forewing

hyaline, scape more than three times longer than

wide, pedicel longer than first funicle segment,

less than twice longer than wide

C. pentheus (Walker)

376

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

4. Head nearly as wide as thorax, antennae dark

brown except scape with basal half pale, one

minute, narrow ring segment, forewing hyaline

except for a conspicuous and short brown in-

fumation from the stigma backwards across the

width of a short distance and gradually dis-

appearing before the middle of wing, scape

slender, almost seven times as long as wide, first

funicle segment about three-fourths the pedicel

C. horticola Mani

5. Scutellum purplish, rest of the thorax greenish,

petiole transverse, roughly reticulate

C. phryne (Walker)

5. Scutellum coloured green to blue or golden like

the rest of the thorax, occiput margined through-

out, propodaeum-alutaceous, shiny

C. polyzo (Walker)

Chrysocharis indicus sp. nov. (Figs. 1-9)

Female:

Head: (Fig. 1): Dark brown with greenish

reflections, wider than long in facial view (0.54 :

0.35), width of frons between eyes more than

half the head width, frontovertex wide, ocelli

arranged in obtuse angle triangle; malar space

slightly shorter than transverse diameter of eye

(0.1:0.12); antennae inserted just above the

lower eye margins; distance between two anten-

nal sockets almost their distance between eye

rim (0.07-0.06); mandibles (Fig. 2) biden-

tate with sharp apices, maxillary & labial palp

each one segmented.

Antennae (Fig. 3): Uniformly light brown

except scape yellowish with slight infuscation

on apex; scape cylindrical, slightly more than

six times longer than wide (0.19:0.3); pedicel

less than twice as long as wide (0.07:0.04),

three anneli present, 3rd anneli almost quadrate

(0.03: 0.25), funicle three segmented, 1st

funicle segment three times as long as wide

(0.09:0.03), funicle segments 2nd and 3rd

decreasing in length distad, club two segment-

ed, slightly more than three times longer than

wide, shorter than preceeding two funicle seg-

ments combined, 1st funicle to last club seg-

ment with 3, 4, 5, 7, 4 & 4 sensoria respec-

tively.

Thorax (Fig. 4): Dark brown with shining

bluish green reflections on the dorsum with

fine hexagonal reticulate sculpture; pronotum

(Fig. 5) with anterior margin deeply concave

in the middle, posterior margin almost straight

with six long setae; scutum slightly more than

twice wider than long (0.42:0.2), axilla wide-

ly separated from each other; scutellum wider

than long (0.37:0.23), shorter than scutum;

sparsely setose; surface of propodaeum smooth;

mesal length two fifth as great as length of

scutellum, both median and lateral carinae

present, propodael spiracle separated from

anterior margin by a space equal to diameter

of a spiracle; callus sparsely setose with fine,

thin setae.

Fore Wings: (Fig. 6): Hyaline, two times

longer than wide; costal cell short with three

setae, basal cell almost asetose with only a few

basal setae on ventral surface; marginal vein

very long (0.55); post marginal vein (0.24)

more than three times the length of stigmal

vein (0.07); marginal fringe very short.

Hind Wing (Fig. 7) : Hyaline, slightly more

than four times longer than wide; apex of

marginal vein with three curved hook-lets.

Legs: Pale yellow except bases of coxae

slightly infuscated.

Abdomen: Dark brown with shining bluish

green reflections, longer than thorax excluding

length of petiole, petiole long, one third length

of abdomen (0.16:0.5); ovipositor concealed;

first valvifer triangular with articular knobs

prominent (Fig. 8); second valvifer of uniform

width; third valvulae short, lanceolate, mova-

bly articulated with second valvifer; outer

plates of ovipositor with broad apex (Fig. 8).

Length of Female: 1 .52 mm.

377

9

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

005mm

1. Head, frontal aspect, 9; 2. Mandible, 9; 3. Antenna, 9; 4. Thorax, dorsal

aspect, 9; 5. Pronotum, 9; 6. Forewing, 9; 7. Hindwing, 9; 8. Genitalia, 5;

9. Antenna, $ (see p. 379).

378

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 10-14. Chrysocharis funicularis sp. nov. $

10. Antenna; 11. Pronotum; 12. Part of forewing venation; 13. Abdomen, dorsal

aspect; 14. Genitalia.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Male: Resembles the female except in the

following characters:

Antennae (Fig. 9) : Uniformly brownish,

scape whitish; scape greately flattened, almost

two and a half times longer than wide (0.17:

0.07); pedicel one and a half times longer

than wide (0.06:0.04), an anellus present,

first funicle segment less than three times

longer than wide (0.1:0.04), longer than

preceding second funicle segment (0.09), third

funicle segment (0.15) a trifle longer than

first, fourth segment (0.09) equal to second

segment in length; club unsegmented, less than

four times longer than wide (0.14:0.04),

longer than preceding segment, mandible

bidentate with blunt teeth.

Length of male: 1.42 mm.

Holotype: $, c? India, U.P., Ranikhet

(6500') ex Phytomyza sp. (Diptera:

Agromyzidae) on Thalictrum 3.11.1977.

Hym. Eulo. Nr. 1017 (M. A. Khan).

Paratype : 80 $ $ , 20 S S same data as

holotype. Hym. Eulo. Nr. 1018 (M. A.

Khan). Material will be deposited in the

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Chrysoeharis funicularis sp. nov. (Figs. 10-14)

Female: Differs from C. indicus sp. nov.

as follows :-

Antennae (Fig. 10): Uniformly dark brown

except a yellowish strip at ventral side of the

scape, scape greatly flattened, a trifle three

times longer than wide (0.22:0.07), pedicel

almost one and a half times longer than wide

(0.08:0.05), two anneli present, first funicle

segment more than twice longer than wide

(0.1:0.04), second funicle segment a trifle

longer than first, third and fourth funicle seg-

ments subequal (0.095:0.045), club two seg-

mented, less than three times longer than wide

(0.14:0.05), longer than preceding segment.

Fore Wings: More than twice longer than

wide, post marginal vein more than twice the

length of stigmal vein (Fig. 12).

Legs: Uniformly light brown except the hind

coxae dark brown.

Abdomen (Fig. 13): Light brown except

petiole and basal end yellowish shorter than

thorax excluding length of petiole, petiole

short, less than one fifth length of abdomen;

apex of abdomen deeply rounded; genitalia as

shown in Fig. 14.

Length of female: 1-1.5 mm.

Male: Not known.

Holotype: $, India, U.P., Ranikhet (6500')

ex Phytomyza sp. (Diptera: Agromyzi-

dae) on Thalictrum 4.11. 1977 Hym. Eulo.

Nr. 1019 (M. A. Khan).

Paratype: 10 $ ? same data as holotype.

Hym. Eulo. Nr. 1020 (M. A. Khan).

Material will be deposited in the Zoologi-

cal Survey of India, Calcutta.

Acknowledgements

I thank the Dean, College of Agriculture,

& Head Deptt. of Entomology, G. B. Pant

University of Agriculture & Technology, Pant-

nagar for providing necessary facilities. Finan-

cial assistance from I.C.A.R. New Delhi re-

ceived under the project is gratefully acknow-

ledged.

References

Yoshimoto, C. M. (1973a): Review of North

American Chrysoeharis (Kratochviliana) (Eulophi-

dae: Chalcidoidea) North of Mexico, especially

species attacking birch casebearer (Lepidoptera :

Coleophoridae) and birch Leafminer (Hymenop-

tera: Tenthredinidae). Can. Ent. 105 : 1309-1349.

(1973b): Revision of the

genus Chrysoeharis Forster (Subgenus Chrysoeharis

S. Str.) (Eulophidae: Chalcidoidea) of America

North of Mexico. Can. Ent. 105 (11): 1377-1405.

380

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

FIVE NEW SPECIES OF SIOBLA CAMERON (HYMENOPTERA:

TENTHREDINIDAE) FROM INDIA WITH A KEY TO THE

INDIAN SPECIES1

Malkiat S. Saini, Devinder Singh,

Major Singh and Tarlok Singh2

(With nine text-figures )

Five new species, Siobla infuscata, S. kala-

topi, S. malaisei, S. bengalensis and S. darjee-

lingia, and one subspecies, S. kalatopi ahla-

ensis, are described from India. A key to the

known Indian species is provided.

Introduction

Five new species and one new subspecies of

Siobla from northern and northeastern India

are described below. So far, only one species,

S. turneri Malaise 1934 and a subspecies

S. mooreana punctata Cameron 1899,

have been reported from this region. With the

first record of S. mooreana Cameron 1877,

from India, the number of known species and

subspecies from this region is seven and two,

respectively. The concerned literature reveals

that after Malaise (1934) no additions have

been made to the list of Indian Siobla. Holo-

types will be deposited in the Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta.

This is the second report in the series of

papers dealing with new records of Symphyta

from India.

Siobla infuscata sp. nov.

Female: Length 13.8 mm. Body metallic

blue except antennal segments 6-9 which are

black and following brownish black; labrum,

mouthparts and tarsi of four front legs. Fore-

1 Accepted December 1984.

2 Department of Zoology, Punjabi University,

Patiala- 147 002 (India).

wings strongly infuscated all over, hindwings

sub-infumated, stigma and veins brown to

black.

Clypeus truncate, labrum convex with

roundly pointed deflexed anterior margin;

malar space almost 2x diameter of an ocellus;

inner margins of eyes emarginate and slightly

converging downwards; lower interocular dis-

tance 1.25x eye length; ratio of distance from

posterior ocellus to eye, to distance between

posterior ocelli, to distance from posterior

ocellus to hind margin of head, 1.0:0.75:1.0.

Antenna longer than head and thorax com-

bined; 1st and 2nd antennal segments each

longer than broad; length of 3rd and 4th in

ratio 3:1 .75; 4-9 gradually decreasing in length.

Frontal area raised to level of eyes; supra-

antennal tubercles raised and confluent with

frontal ridges; circum and interocellar furrows

sharp; lateral furrows deep and postocel-

lar area slightly broader than long. Head

strongly carinate behind eyes. Scutellum pyra-

midally raised.

Head densely punctured, size and shape of

punctures variable. Pronotum densely punc-

tured with its anterior border impunctate.

Mesonotum distinctly punctured, but punc-

tures smaller than those on head, irregular

area in middle of each mesonotal lateral lobe

with minute punctures; scutellum with

very large and deep punctures; appendage

impunctate; postscutellum likewise punctured.

Mesopleuron rugously punctured; mesosternum

densely and minutely punctured. Metapleuron

381

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

and metasternum distinctly punctured. Stripe

along the posterior aspect of each pleural

suture impunctate. All abdominal segments

minutely cross-striated and irregularly punc-

tured. Body covered with silvery pubescence.

Female lancet (Fig. 5).

Male: Unknown.

Material examined : Holotype $ , 5.6.83,

collected from Mandal area, U.P., India 2195

m.

The name of this species is derived from

the distinct infuscation of the forewings.

This specimen is included in the genus

Siobla since it runs in Malaise’s (1945) key to

that genus. However, in contrast to all other

known species of Siobla, it has only one closed

middle cell instead of two in the hindwing. In

all other respects it resembles Siobla.

Siobla kalatopi sp. nov.

Female: Length. 12.1 mm. Body reddish

yellow, labrum yellowish, dark brown to black

are: narrow stripe encircling each ocellus, tip

of mandible, posteroventral borders of prono-

tum, entire propleuron, large spot on each

mesonotal middle lobe, irregular spots lateral

to scutellum, dorsal borders of mesopleuron,

entire mesosternum, most of metapleuron ex-

cept a large irregular spot in its middle, entire

metasternum, and spot in middle of first abdo-

minal tergum. 5th and 6th sterna with a

brownish tinge. Legs reddish yellow, dark

brown to black are: spots on lateral sides of

forecoxae and proximal 3 /5th of mid and hind

coxae. Wings yellowish hyaline, front ones

sharply infuscated from apex to proximal end

of stigma, hind ones infumated toward tips;

intercosta reddish yellow; stigma and veins dark

brown.

Clypeus truncate; labrum convex with deflex-

ed and roundly pointed anterior margin; malar

space 2x diameter of an ocellus; inner margins

of eyes slightly emarginate and converging

downwards; lower interocular distance about

1 . 3x eye length; ratio of distance from poste-

rior ocellus to eye, to distance between poste-

rior ocelli, to the distance between posterior

ocellus and hind margin of head, 1.0: 0.4: 0.6.

Antenna as long as head, thorax and first

abdominal segment combined, 1st and 2nd

antennal segments longer than broad, length

of 3rd and 4th in ratio 5:3; 4-9 gradually

decreasing in length. Frontal area raised to

level of eyes, supraclypeal pits distinct, supra-

antennal tubercles raised and confluent with

frontal ridges; circum and interocellar furrows

deep; postocellar furrows sharp and diverging

posteriorly, postocellar area broader than long.

Head carinated and narrowing behind eyes.

Head densely and uniformly punctured.

Punctures on pronotum larger than those on

head; propleuron shining and minutely punc-

tured. Mesonotum uniformly and finely punc-

tured; scutellum with few isolated punctures

on its anterior slope and large confluent punc-

tures on posterior slope; appendage impunc-

tate; postscutellum densely punctured.

Punctures on mesopleuron larger than those

on mesonotum; mesosternum shining but with

distinct punctures; metapleuron distinctly punc-

tured. Punctures missing in narrow stripes

posterior to pleural sutures; metasternum uni-

formly punctured. Abdomen shining, segments

4-8 with minute punctures on their lateral

sides. Body covered with golden pubescence.

Female lancet (Fig. 2).

Male: Unknown.

Material examined : Holotype 5 , 7.8.82,

collected from Kalatop area (H.P.), India —

2500 m.

Paratypes: 4 9 9, with same data as the

holotype.

The name of the species is from the type

locality.

382

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Siobla kalatopi ahlaensis subsp. nov.

Resembles Siobla kalatopi but differs by its

dark brown colour, which covers following:

supra-antennal and interocellar areas, prono-

tum except posterodorsal yellow spots, meso-

pleuron except two large yellow spots, meta-

pleuron, spot in front of scutellum, first

abdominal segment except lateral yellow spots,

anterior border of 2nd segment, 5th and 6th

segments entirely, distal border of 4th and

proximal border of 7th. Infuscation of fore-

wings reaching the base. Female lancet (Fig.

4).

Male: Unknown.

Material examined : Holotype ?, 4.7.83,

collected from Kalatop area (H.P.), India-

2500 m.

Paratypes : 2 $ $ , with same data as the

holotype.

The name of the subspecies is from the type

locality.

Siobla malaisei sp. nov.

Male: Length, 11.1 mm. General body

colour black, brown are: tips of mandibles,

mouthparts and four front legs except coxae,

trochanters and posterolateral side of femora

which are black. Wings hyaline, veins and

stigma brown to black.

Clypeus truncate, labrum convex with de-

flexed and roundly pointed anterior margin;

malar space equal to diameter of an ocellus;

inner margins of eyes slightly emarginate and

strongly converging downwards, lower inter-

ocular distance almost equal to eye length;

ratio of distance from posterior ocellus to eye,

to distance between posterior ocelli, to dist-

ance from posterior ocellus to hind margin of

head, 1 . 5 : 0 . 7 : 1 . 0. Antenna as long as head,

thorax, and first two abdominal segments

combined, 1st and 2nd antennal segments

longer than broad; length of 3rd and 4th in

ratio 4:3; 4-9 gradually decreasing in length.

Frontal area raised to level of eyes; supra-

clypeal pits distinct; middle fovea raised;

supra-antennal tubercles raised and confluent

with frontal ridges; inter and circumocellar

furrows distinct; postocellar furrows sharp and

outwardly curved; lateral area broader

than long. Head carinated and converging be-

hind eyes.

Head densely punctured; punctures more

dense in frontal region. Pronotum with dis-

tinct punctures that are less dense near ante-

rior border. Propleuron shining and impunc-

tate. Mesonotum uniformly punctured,

punctures smaller than those of head.

Scutellum with few scattered punctures on its

anterior slope and densely punctured on pos-

terior one; appendage impunctate. Mesopleu-

ron strongly punctured; punctures missing from

a stripe posterior to pleural sutures. Mesoster-

num densely punctured, punctures similar to

those on mesonotum. Postscutellum densely

punctured; metapleuron with uniform small

punctures; metapostnotum impunctate. Abdo-

minal terga 1-3 punctured only on their lateral

aspects, remaining terga minutely punctured,

all over. Body covered with thick silvery

pubescence. Male genitalia (Figs. 6 and 8).

Female: Unknown.

Material examined : Holotype <S , 5.5.1983,

collected from Darjeeling area (W.B.), India

— 2286 m.

Paratypes : 70 d d , with same data as the

holotype.

This species is named after the late Dr. R.

Malaise, known the world over for his work

in the field of sawfly taxonomy.

Siobla bengalensis sp. nov.

Female: Length, 13.5 mm. Antenna black

with segments 6-9 entirely and distal tip of

383

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Figs. 1-9. 1. Female lancet of Siobla darjeelingia sp. nov.; 2. Female lancet of

Siobla kalatopi sp. nov.; 3. Female lancet of Siobla betigalensis sp. nov.; 4. Female

lancet of Siobla kalatopi ahlaensis subsp. nov.; 5. Female lancet of Siobla infuscata

sp. nov.; 6. Penis valve of Siobla malaisei sp. nov.; 7. Penis valve of Siobla mooreana

Cameron; 8. Male harpe and parapenis of Siobla malaisei sp. nov.; 91. Male harpe

and parapenis of Siobla mooreana.

384

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

5th yellowsh white. Head black; tip of mandi-

ble reddish brown, mouthparts brownish and

distal 2/3 of clypeus yellowish white. Thorax

black, yellowish white are: posterior and pos-

terodorsal borders of pronotum, scutellum,

appendage, and postscutellum. Abdomen black,

yellowish white are; triangular spot in middle

of first tergum, deflexed sides of 2nd, inconspi-

cuous spots on lateral sides of 8th, and the

last entirely. Legs yellowish white, blackish are:

coxae except their apical tips, four front

femora except their proximal and distal ends,

hind femora except their proximal ends, and

distal 2/5th of hind tibia. Four front tibiae and

all tarsi are subinfumated towards their distal

ends. Wings hyaline, stigma and veins brown

to black.

Clypeus truncate to narrowly rounded;

labrum strongly convex with its anterior margin

deflexed and roundly pointed; malar space

about 1 . 5x diameter of an ocellus; eyes con-

verging downwards; lower interocular distance

1 ,3x eye length; ratio of distance from poste-

rior ocellus to eye, to distance between posterior

ocelli, to distance from posterior ocellus to

hind margin of head, 1.3: 0.4: 0.9. Antenna

as long as head, thorax, and first abdominal

segment combined; 1st and 2nd antennal seg-

ments longer than broad; length of 3rd and

4th in ratio 8:5 and 4-9 gradually decreasing

in length. Frontal area raised to level of eyes;

inter and circumocellar furrows distinct; late-

ral furrows sharp and diverging posteriorly,

postocellar area convex and broader than long.

Head carinate and converging behind eyes.

Head distinctly punctured; punctures more

dense and irregular in frontal region; hind

orbits sparsely punctured. Pro and mesonotum

densely punctured, punctures smaller than

those on head. Scutellum with large punctures

on its anterior slope and densely punctured on

posterior slope; appendage impunctate; posts-

cutellum with distinct punctures. Propleuron

impunctate; mesopleuron with large punctures;

mesosternum densely punctured, punctures

smaller than those on mesopleuron. Metapleu-

ron and metastemum densely and minutely

punctured. A stripe along the posterior side of

each pleural suture impunctate. Abdomen

minutely punctured, impunctate are: three

basal segments entirely and broad spots in

middle of segments 4-6. Female lancet (Fig. 3).

Male: Unknown.

Material examined : Holotype 9, 4.5.1983,

collected from Darjeeling area (W.B.), India-

2286 m.

Paratypes : 4 9 $ , with same data as the

holotype.

The name of this species is from the state

in which the type locality is situated.

Siobla darjeelingia sp. nov.

Female: Length, 13.6 mm. Antenna black,

yellowish to fulvous are: segments 6-9 entire-

ly, tip of 5th and dorsal side of 1st. Head

black, fulvous are: clypeus, labrum, basal half

of mandible, palpi, triangular spot on middle

fovea, irregular spots on lower inner and hind

orbits, and most of postocellar area. Thorax

black, yellowish to fulvous are: spots near

anteroventral margins and posterior and pos-

terodorsal borders of pronotum, basal halves of

tegulae, scutellum, appendage, and postscutel-

lum. Abdomen black, fulvous are: 1st and

2nd abdominal terga entirely and large spots

on lateral sides of 3rd. Legs fulvous, black

are: coxae except their distal tips. Wings hya-

line, stigma and veins dark brown to black.

Clypeus truncate with irregular anterior

margin; labrum convex with deflexed anterior

margin semicircularly rounded; malar space

about the length of pedicellus; inner margins

of eyes slightly emarginate and converging

downwards; lower interocular distance almost

385

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

1.5x eye length; ratio of distance from poste-

rior ocellus to eye, to distance between poste-

rior ocelli, to distance from posterior ocellus

to hind margin of head, 1.5:0.75:1.0. Antenna

slightly longer than head and thorax combin-

ed; 1st and 2nd segments each longer than

broad; length of 3rd and 4th in the ratio 4:3,

4-9 gradually decreasing in length. Frontal

area raised to level of eyes; supra-antennal

tubercles raised and confluent with frontal

ridges; supra-clypeal pits distinct; inter and

circumocellar furrows deep and distinct; late-

ral furrows sharp, outwardly curved, and

postocellar area broader than long. Head cari-

nate and converging behind eyes.

Head densely punctured and area between

punctures shining; punctures larger and area

sub-shining in frontal region. Pro- and meso-

notum uniformly punctured, punctures smaller

than those on head. Anterior slope of scutellum

with few large and isolated punctures, poste-

rior one densely punctured; appendage im-

punctate. Propleuron shining with small but

distinct punctures. Mesopleuron with very

large and confluent punctures; mesosternum

with punctures similar to those on mesonotum.

Postscutellum distinctly punctured; metapleu-

ron and metasternum minutely punctured.

Punctures missing and area shining from stripes

posterior to pleural sutures. First three abdo-

minal segments impunctate except lateral sides,

all others cross striated and minutely punctured

with impunctate areas in middle of segments

4-7. Female lancet (Fig. 1).

Male: Unknown.

Material examined: Holotype 9, 9.5.1983,

collected from Darjeeling area (W.B.), India

2286 m.

Paratypes: 2 9 $ with same data as the

holotype.

The name of this species is from the type

locality.

Key to the Indian species of Siobla Cameron

1. — Body without metallic lustre 2

— Body metallic blue except apical four anten-

nal segments black and following brownish

black: labrum, palpi, and tarsi of four front

legs

Mandal (U.P.) .... Siobla infuscata sp. nov.

2. — At least 4 basal segments of antenna

black 3

— Antenna reddish yellow, without black.

a) Narrow dark brown stripe encircling each

ocellus; supra-antennal and interocellar areas

of general body colour. Dorsal border of

mesopleuron and a spot in the middle of

first abdominal segment, brownish black. Apex

of front wing infuscated

Kalatop, Dalhousie (H.P.)

Siobla kalatopi sp. nov.

b) Entire antennal and supraclypeal area, most

of the mesopleuron, first abdominal segment

except lateral spots, 5th and 6th abdominal

segments, brownish black. Front wings infus-

cated all over.

Ahla, Kalatop, Dalhousie (H.P.)

Siobla kalatopi ahlaensis

subsp. nov.

3. — Forewings distinctly infuscated towards apex.

a) Labrum, clypeus, base of mandibles, apical

four antennal segments, pronotal upper and

lower angles, scutellum, appendage, post-

scutellum, middle of broad hind margin of

propodeum, entire 2nd tergite, lateral spots

on 3rd tergite, four front legs except bases

of coxae and a broad stripe along femora,

basal 3/5th of all tibiae, and all tarsi, pale.

Mandal (U.P.) Siobla mooreana

Cameron 1877

b) Antennae, scutellum and hind legs black,

without pale markings. Anterior aspects of

front legs sordid brown

Shillong Siobla mooreana punctata

Malaise 1945.

— Front wings hyaline or only infumated at

base 4

4. — Antenna including general body colour black,

brownish are: apex of mandible, mouthparts,

labrum. four front legs (except coxae, tro-

chanters and postero-lateral sides of femora)

Darjeeling (W.B.) Siobla malaisei

sp. nov.

386

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

— At least apex of antenna pale 5

5. — Only extreme apex of antenna paler, hind

trochanters black. Puncturation on head rather

dense; hind tibiae at apex only with a minute

black spot or infuscation on inner side

Shillong Siobla turneri Malaise 1934

— Four apical antennal joints, hind trochanters,

posterior and posterodorsal angles of proter-

gum, and scutellum, pale to fulvous 6

6. — Coxae except their apical tips, four front

femora except their proximal and distal ends,

hind femora except their proximal ends, distal

2/5th hind tibiae, and entire abdomen, black.

Darjeeling (W.B.) Siobla bengalensis

sp. nov.

— Legs entirely fulvous except basal 4/5th of

coxae. First and second abdominal terga

entirely and large spots on lateral sides of

third fulvous

Darjeeling (W.B.) Siobla darjeelingia

sp. nov.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. D. R. Smith of Systematic

laboratory, U.S.A., Washington, D.C. for con-

structively criticizing and going through the

manuscript. Thanks are also due to the ICAR,

New Delhi for providing financial assistance.

References

Cameron, P. (1877): Description of new genera

and species of East Indian Tenthredinidae. Trans.

Ent. Soc. London, pp. 87-92.

(1899): Hymenoptera orientalia, or

contributions to a knowledge of the Hymenoptera

of the oriental Zoological Region, Part VIII. The

Hymenoptera of Khasia Hills: First paper. Mem.

Proc. Manchester Lit. Phil. Soc. 33: 1-50.

Malaise, R. (1934): On some sawflies (Hyme-

noptera: Tenthredinidae) from the Indian Museum.

Rec. Indian Mas. 36: 453-474.

(1945): Tenthredinoidca of South

eastern Asia with a general Zoogeographical review.

Opuscula Entomologica Supplementum IV, 288 pp.

ON A NEW CLADOCERAN L AT ON A NARENDRAl SP. NOV FROM

MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA1

Pramod Rane2

{With three

Cladocera of genus Latona Straus, 1820

(Family: Sididae) are not so well known from

India. Previously only one species Latona

tiwarii was described from Rajasthan by

Biswas (1964). In the present note the genus

Latona is recorded for the second time from

the Indian subcontinent and a new species is

described from Mandla district of Madhya

Pradesh.

1 Accepted January 1984.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Central Regional

Station, Jabalpur 482 002, India.

text-figures)

Latona narendrai sp. nov.

Female: Body flattened, nearly quadrangular

in shape. Infero-postal and supro-postal angles

rounded. Long setae on posterior margin of

valves (often lost as shown in fig. 1). Setae

also present along the entire ventral margin

of valve. Distinct dorsal impression between

head and shell. Head very large, rounded, some-

what more than half the total length of body.

Eyes placed centrally, with numerous lenses

and very large pigmented area. Rostrum ab-

sent. Basal joint of antenna large, stout, as in

387

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Figs. 1-3: Latona narendrai sp. nov.

1. Holotype female — lateral view; 2. Right valve of female with two-branched shell

gland; 3. Right antennule.

388

JUJJU

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

other species of the genus, armed with one

thorn at the base. Dorsal ramus 2-jointed, basal

joint more than twice as long as broad, with

4-5 feathered setae and without lateral anten-

nary expansion. Distal segment of dorsal ramus

with 7 setae. Ventral ramus three-jointed, first

segment without setae, second with one seta,

and third with one lateral and three terminal

setae. Hepatic caeca, two-branched shell gland

and ocellus present (fig. 2). Postabdomen

conical in lateral view, slightly lobular near

the distal end; abdominal setae long, two- joint-

ed, born on a pair of papillae. Terminal claw

with two basal spines, distal one larger than

proximal. Postabdomen with 7 marginal denti-

cles. Antennules of female with a basal part

and one long slender flagellum (fig. 3). Olfac-

tory setae 5-6 attached on one side end of

so called basal part. Small tongue-shaped pro-

jection on ventral side of head. Intestine sim-

ple, terminating at distal end of postabdomen.

Colour greenish-white but not transparent.

Length of female: 0.98-1.1 mm.

Male: Unknown.

Types-. One female holotype and five female

paratypes, collected from temporary water pool

near Sahastradhara, Mandla, M.P., India, by

Narendra Rane on 25.3.1981, deposited in

the National Zoological Collection, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta. C 3485/2, C 3486/2.

All types are preserved in 5% formalin.

Latona narendrai sp. nov. differs from L.

tiwarii Biswas, 1964 in its smaller size (for

L. tiwarii length, 1.82 mm), larger head, cen-

R E F E

Biswas, S. (1964): A new species of the Clado-

ceran genus Latona Straus, 1820 (Crustacea: Clado-

cera: Sididae) from Rajasthan, India. Proc. Zool.

Soc., Calcutta, 17: 149-152.

trally situated eye and less number of marginal

denticles on postabdomen. L. setifera (O. F.

Muller), 1785 and L. parviremis Birge, 1910

are large and more elongated species (Length:

2-3 mm and 2.5 mm respectively). They differ

from the present (new) species in the structure

of antenna which has very large and small

antennary expansion. There is also great diffe-

rence in setal formula of all four species,

10-11 5-8

which is for L. setifera; for L.

0-1-4 0-1-4

10-10 5-7

parviremis; for L. tiwarii and

0-1-4 0-1-4

for L. narendrai. Latonopsis australis Sars in

general appearance resembles L. narendrai, but

the distinct dorsal impression between the head

and trunk and tongue-like expansion at the

ventral side of head are adequate to confirm

the status of this new species. The three

long setae on the post-ventral corner of the

shell are a conspicuous feature of Latonopsis

australis, but in place of them there are 8-10

large equal setae in the new species (Thomas

1961).

Ack nowledgements

This work was carried out under a project

of the Zoological Survey of India. I am grate-

ful to Dr. K. Reddiah, Officer-in-Charge of

Central Regional Station, Jabalpur for faci-

lities and to Sri R. K. Singh of this office for

his suggestions and guidance.

EN CES

Thomas, I. F. (1961): Review of the genera

Pseudosida Herrick, 1884 and Latonopsis Sars, 1888

(Cladocera). Crustaceana 3(1): 1-8.

389

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

A NEW 1SCHAEMUM LINN. (POACEAE) FROM KERALA, INDIA1

P. V. Sreekumar, V. J. Nair and N. C. Nair2

(With a text -figure)

Ischaemum copeanum sp. nov.

Ischaemum burmanicum Bor affinis sed foliis

angustioribus (c. 10 mm) ovato-lanceolatis,

basibus foliorum cordatis, foliis inferorum

numquam petiolatis, nodis barbatis, racemis 2,

glumis inferarum brevioribus (c. 4.5 mm)

differt.

Creeping annuals. Culms 20-40 cm high,

creeping or geniculate; upper nodes villous,

lower ones sparsely villous or glabrous. Leaves

2-5 cm long, 4-10 mm wide, ovate-lanceolate,

acuminate, rounded or shallowly cordate at

base, sparsely covered with tubercle based

hairs. Sheaths 1-5 cm long, shorter than the

internodes, striate glabrous. Ligule 1-2 mm,

an ovate acute membrane. Inflorescence with

1-2 peduncules from a spathe, peduncles long

exserted. Racemes two on each peduncle, 2-3

cm long, slender, sparsely villous. Joints of

racemes 3 . 0-3 . 5 mm long, linear-clavate, coria-

ceous or chartaceous, densely villous along the

margins and dorsal side. Lowest group of

sessile spikelets in three, two of them are un-

awned. Unawned sessile spikelets 4. 5-5.0 mm

long, linear or oblong-lanceolate, single flower-

ed, floret male; lower glume 4. 5-5.0 x 1 .0-1 .5

mm, lanceolate when spread, chartaceous, silky

villous in the lower half, hairs 0.5-2. 5 mm

long, margins infolded, scabrid towards apex.

Awned sessile spikelet 4. 0-4. 5 mm long,

ovate-acute, callus bearded; lower glume 4.0-

4.5 x 1.50-1.75 mm, ovate-oblong, chartace-

1 Accepted January 1984.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003,

India.

ous, faintly 11-13-nerved, silky villous in the

lower half, margins inturned, narrowly winged

on one side, scabrid towards apex; upper

glume 4. 0-4. 5 x 1.0- 1.5 mm, boat-shaped,

lanceolate when spread, chartaceous, sharply

keeled, faintly or strongly 3- nerved, margins

hyaline, ciliolate in the upper half; lower floret

male; lemma 3. 5-4.0 x 1.0- 1.5 mm, oblong-

lanceolate, delicate, hyaline, faintly 3-5-nerved,

margins infolded, ciliolate in the upper half;

palea 3. 0-3. 5 x 0.75-1.00 mm, oblong-lanceo-

late, delicate, hyaline, 2-keeled, 2-nerved, gla-

brous; stamens 3, anthers 1. 5-2.0 mm long;

upper floret bisexual; lemma 3. 0-3. 5 x 1.0-1. 5

mm, notched, lobes acute, delicate, hyaline,

faintly 3- nerved, awn 10-15 mm long, geni-

culate, column 4-6 mm long, brown, bristle

pale, scabrid; palea 2. 5-3.0 x 0.50-0.75 mm,

oblong, delicate, hyaline, 2-keeled, 2- nerved,

glabrous, with a few wart like dots towards

apex; stamens 3, anthers 2. 0-3.0 mm long,

filaments short; ovary 0.4-0. 5 mm long,

oblong, styles c. 1 mm long, stigmas 1.0- 1.5

mm long, feathery. Pedicelled spikelet 4. 0-4. 5

mm long, oblong-lanceolate or linear-oblong,

unawned; pedicels 0. 5-1.0 mm long, linear-

clavate, densely villous; lower glume 4. 0-4. 5

x 1.00-1.25 mm, linear-oblong, chartaceous,

densely villous in the lower half, margins

narrowly inturned, scabrid towards apex; upper

glume and florets similar in shape and struc-

ture to that of the sessile spikelet.

Holotype : kerala, Cannanore District,

Cherkala, ± 250 m, 24th November 1981, P.

V. Sreekumar 71838 (CAL). Isotypes in K

& MH.

390

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1. Ischaemum copeanum sp. nov.

A. Plant; B. Unawned sessile spikelet (Dorsal view); C. Lower glume (Dorsal

view); D. Upper glume (Dorsal view); E. Joint (Rhachis); F. Awned sessile spikelet

(Dorsal view); G. Lower glume (Dorsal view); H. Upper glume (Dorsal view);

I. Lower lemma (Ventral view); J. Palea (Dorsal view); K. Upper lemma (Lateral

view); L. Upper palea (Dorsal view); M. Stamen of the lower floret; N. Stamen of

the upper floret; O. Pistil; P. Pedicelled spikelet (Dorsal view); Q. Lower glume of

the pedicelled spikelet (Dorsal view).

391

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Table

Ischaemum burmanicum Bor

lschaemum copeanum sp. nov.

1. Leaf blades up to 10 cm long, 15 mm wide,

lanceolate, acuminate, lower ones shortly petiol-

ed, base sagittate

2. Nodes glabrous

3. Raceme solitary on each peduncle

4. Lower glumes of sessile spikelets — 6.5 mm long

5. Lower glumes of pedicelled spikelets — 6.5 mm

long.

Leaf blades up to 5 cm long, 10 mm wide, ovate-

lanceolate, lower ones not petioled, base cordate.

Nodes bearded.

Racemes 2 in number on each peduncle.

Lower glumes — 4.5 mm long.

Slender, creeping or geniculate annuals grow-

ing in moist rocky places. A shade-loving

species; locally rare.

This species is allied to Ischaemum burma-

nicum Bor, but markedly differs from it as

shown in the Table.

The species is named after Dr. Thomas A.

Cope of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in

recognition of his constant help throughout our

studies on South Indian Grasses.

Ack nowledgements

We thank Dr. Thomas A. Cope of the Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kew for kindly examining

our specimens and giving his opinion. Smt.

C. P. Malathi has drawn the habit sketch.

392

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. NOTE ON ASIATIC LION {PANT HERA LEO PERSIC A)

The capture of large carnivora and their

release again in their natural habitat has been

a matter of debate and controversy for some-

time. On a recent visit to the Gir forest

(December 1984), I obtained the following

facts which are relevant.

As is well known large lions live often in

pairs in the Gir. There are many such pairs

and probably the oldest among them is a pair

believed to be 17 years of age and christened

by the “shikaris” as “Akbar” and “Sultan”.

In May 1982, it was reported that Sultan was

injured possibly in a fight with another male

lion. He was located at Mundachowk. It was

found that he had a large wound on his head

between his ears, it had festered and was full

of flies. His general condition was poor. His

brother Akbar was in the same locality.

Sultan was lured into a cage with the help

of a bait. Subsequently, he was transported to

Sakarbagh Zoo at Junagadh a distance of about

50 km. from Sasan. He was treated there for

six weeks until his wounds had completely

healed. During his stay there, he took a dislike

to the compounder who applied medicines to

his wound and he was lured back into the

cage by a simple expedient of making the

compounder stand behind it. As the lion enter-

ed it to go for him, he found himself trapped

in the cage.

Sultan was taken back to Mundachowk in

the Gir forest and was released. Within 24

hours he had made contact with Akbar by roar-

ing and teamed up with him. He took to his

natural existence without difficulty and he was

seen on natural kills of buffalo and cheetal

alongwith Akbar. A watch was kept by the

Forest department staff for a week after his

release in case something unexpected happen-

ed. But nothing did.

I saw this lion in the Gir, he has obviously

aged and looks much older than what I had

found him the last time I saw him in 1978.

His teeth are intact but badly worn. His mane

was cut for treatment, while it has grown again,

it does not have the splendour of its luxuriant

growth of his pre-injury and youthful years.

In the early 70s there was another pair of

large male lions christened “Ubhdo” and

“Bhilio”. In this case one of the lions Ubhdo,

was removed to Junagadh for treatment to the

injuries he had received in a fight. He was

treated there but was not released in the jungle

after his wounds had healed. It is interesting

to note that Bhilio followed the truck carrying

Ubhdo to the edge of the forest before giving

up.

In September 1983, a female cub of about

3 months’ age and which belongs to a pride of

about 20 lions, fell in an open well near Dhanej

in the forest. It spent nearly 24 hours in it

before it was pulled out on a “khatla” (village

bed). The cub was removed to Sakarbagh Zoo

for treatment where it was nursed back to

health in 6 weeks.

It was taken back to Gir forest, the pride

in question was located and it was released

within sight of it. The cub went straight to 3

lionesses, one of whom promptly accepted

it and licked it. I saw this cub living with the

pride on this visit, i.e. more than one year after

393

10

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

its return to the jungle. It has become a vator of Forest (Wildlife) Gir, and Shri Abhla

healthy animal. Bha, a shikari who was involved in the trapp-

The information I have given here was ing, treatment and release of Sultan,

obtained from Mr. D. S. Narve, Dy. Conser-

Area Director, DIVYABHANUSINH

Northern Region,

Taj Group of Hotels,

The Indian Hotels Co. Ltd.,

1, Man Singh Road,

New Delhi-110 011,

January 4, 1985.

2. AN OBSERVATION OF LYNX IN NEPAL

On 6 June 1975 a single adult lynx ( Lynx

lynx ) was observed in the western Dhauligiri

Range of north-western Nepal (28°46'N,

83°01'E). The location was in the upper valley

of the Seng Khola, about 30 km north of the

village of Dhorpatan. The elevation of the

sighting was about 4500 m. Vegetation in the

vicinity was alpine tundra dominated by vari-

ous sedges and grasses. More detailed descrip-

tions of the area can be found in Wegge (1979)

and Wilson (1981).

The lynx was first seen close to the valley

bottom about one kilometre downstream of the

river’s emergence from glaciers at the valley

head. It was observed with 7 x 35 binoculars

at a distance of 50-200 m for about two minutes

as it crossed the river on large rocks and dis-

appeared quickly up and over a steep hillside.

College of Forest Resources AR-10,

University of Washington,

Seattle, WA 98195,

USA,

'November 22, 1984.

The lynx was golden-brown in colour and had

no distinctive markings.

Only one collection of lynx has been made

in Nepal, and that was from the Mustang area

(Mitchell and Derksen 1976). The present

observation was about 80 km west-southwest

of the above collection site. No other reports

on lynx occurrence in Nepal are apparent in

the literature. Further observations are needed

to document the range of lynx in Nepal. Lynx

probably occur throughout most of Tibet

(Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1966, Prater

1971), so their presence in northern Nepal is

not surprising. A very sparsely distributed

population of lynx probably exists across the

far northern parts of west Nepal, generally

north of the Great Himalaya Range.

JOSEPH L. FOX

394

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Ellerman, J. R. & Morrison-Scott, T. C. S.

(1966): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals.

2nd ed. Alden Press, Oxford. 810 pp.

Mitchell, R. M. & Derksen, D. V. (1976):

Additional new mammal records from Nepal. Mam-

malia 40(1): 55-61.

Prater, S. H. (1971): The book of Indian ani-

mals. Third (revised) edition. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

Wegge, P. (1979): Aspects of the population eco-

logy of blue sheep in Nepal. J. Asian Ecology 1 :

10-20.

Wilson, P. (1981): Ecology and habitat utiliza-

tion of blue sheep in Nepal. Biol. Conserv. 21 :

55-74.

3. A POSSIBLE SIGHTING OF BLANDFORD’S FOX ( VULPES CANA)

IN KUTCH

Flying low in a helicopter in January, 1984

a pair of foxes were flushed in one of the

smaller islands south of the “Island” of Khadir,

in the Great Rann of Kutch. We flew for

some distance hovering close over the fleeing

animals and had an excellent view. The dark

tail tip excluded the possibility of either the

white-footed fox ( Vulpes vulpes pusilla) which

occurs in Kutch, or an aberrant RiippeH’s

sand fox ( Vulpes riippelli ) which has not been

recorded there.

The animals which we saw were larger than

the Indian fox ( Vulpes bengalensis) which

also occurs in Kutch, with tails much longer

and heavier-furred than those of the Indian

fox and with very prominent black tips. The

tail in fact was almost as long as the body and

the ‘Bush’ as heavy as that of the Himalayan

red fox ( Vulpes vulpes montana ) in winter,

but of course of a different colour. The body

coat was also heavier than that of the Indian

fox and had a distinct greyish brown sheen.

The ears were also noticeably larger. There

were conspicuous dark markings on the lower

parts of the face and on the limbs. M.K.S.

Himmatsinhji of Kutch who is a keen natu-

ralist and was with us on the flight, agreed

with me that they did not appear to be Indian

foxes.

All the physical characteristics barring one

seem to indicate that they were Blandford’s or

Hoary foxes ( Vulpes cana). The one excep-

tion is the size. Blandford’s foxes are describ-

ed as having bodies as small as that of the

Indian fox, even smaller. There is, however,

no other known species or subspecies of fox

which comes nearer in approximation to the

animals we saw.

The known south-eastern range of Bland-

ford’s fox is Baluchistan and possibly Sind

in Pakistan. I have not come across any

record of its occurrence in any tract south of

the Indus. It is however just possible that its

range may have extended further south-east-

ward than now, and relict populations may

survive on the hilly and very wild tracts along

the southern flanks of the Great Rann of

Kutch, where due to the extreme remoteness

of the terrain and low human population, the

affinity in appearance, to the undiscerning eye,

that this fox has to the common Indian fox,

and the fact that no real mammalogical survey

has oeen carried out in these areas, may

account for it not having been located

here. Or it is possible that a discreet

population of the Indian fox has in

this remote area evolved a physical form or

race which differentiates it from the animal

395

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

met with elsewhere in India. It would be inte-

resting to know whether the common form of

the Indian fox is also met with in these parts.

The Palace,

Wankaner, Saurashtra,

February 3, 1984.

At any rate, it would be interesting to get a

“feed-back” on this note, particularly from

our naturalist friends in Pakistan.

M. K. RANJITSINH

4. ON THE EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE VESPERTILIONID

BAT — PIPISTRELLUS PATERCULUS (THOMAS) TO POONCH

VALLEY (JAMMU AND KASHMIR STATE)

Vespertilionid bats of the genus Pipistrellus

(Kaup) are widely distributed in Jammu and

Kashmir State and comprise about 25% of the

total chiropteran fauna of the State. The

common species of bats of the genus Pipistrel-

lus (Kaup), which I have recorded from this

State so far, are: Pipistrellus pipistrellus

(Schreber), P. kuhli (Kuhl), P. coromandra

(Gray), and P. mimus (wroughton). All from

Kashmir Valley (Nath 1979).

During the course of extensive collections

of bats made by me in Poonch Valley (Jammu

Professor & Head,

Department of Zoology,

Islamia College of Science

& Commerce,

Srinagar- 190 002,

October 5, 1984.

Province) during 1971-1972, three specimens

of the species Pipistrellus paterculus (Thomas)

were obtained from a fairly-deep hole in a

tree stump near an old uninhabited building

in Poonch town. The present report is a new

record for the State and also extends the range

of distribution of this species further westwards

from Burma and Bihar, as given by Sinha

(1983).

I am thankful to Dr. J. E. Hill of the British

Museum of Natural History, London, for con-

firming the identification of the specimens.

SURENDRA NATH

References

Nath, Surendra (1979): On a collection of

Microchiropterid bats from Kashmir Valley and

adjacent areas, with some new records. Proc. 66th

Indian Sci. Congress, III(D) : 3.

Sinha, Y. P. (1983): Occurrence of Pipistrellus

paterculus Thomas, 1915 (Chiroptera: Vespertilio-

nidae) in Bihar: An addition to the Indian Mammal

fauna. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 50(1): 206-207.

396

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

5. THE REFLECTED GLOW FROM THE EYES OF THE LARGE

RED FLYING SQUIRREL ( PETAURISTA PETAURISTA )

On 29th May 1984 we were camping at a

forest guard’s hut at 10,200', surrounded by

thick oak forest at Manzi, 6 km below Dodital

in the Uttarkashi dist. of Garhwal.

At late dusk while we were struggling with

the campfire, my attention was drawn to a

large object which glided and landed on a tree

near the tents. Quickly a 4-cell commander

torch was obtained and focussed on the ani-

mal which as suspected turned out to be a

Large red flying squirrel (Petaurista petau-

3, Rocky Hill,

Malabar Hill,

Bombay 400 006,

October 18, 1984.

rista). The torch was focussed on the squirrel

at a distance of 20 feet. In the beam its eyes

shone bright orange red. Later even when it

climbed up, its eyes shone brightly as it turned

to face the beam.

I do not know whether the colour of eyes

when reflected of this particular species is

recorded before, otherwise it may be an addi-

tional character for the field identification of

the species.

NITIN JAMDAR

6. A NOTE ON THE FIELD RODENTS OF MANDSAUR DISTRICT,

MADHYA PRADESH

(With three text-figures)

It was reported by the farmers that the

field rodents were ravaging wheat crop and

the estimates of losses ran to 50 per cent of

the expected yield at Malhargarh (Distt.

Mandsaur, M.P.). A small scale campaign

was launched (14 to 18.3.76) by me to

demonstrate and manage the rodent pests in

the standing crops of wheat, gram and opium

poppy. These field rodents were controlled

following the technology as outlined in a sup-

plement (published by Central Arid Zone

Research Institute, Jodhpur) to the National

Programme for Rodent Pest Management

(Prakash 1976). The burrows were also dug

out for studying the burrow patterns. The

dead rodents were collected, preserved in 10

per cent formaldehyde and later identified at

the Central Arid Zone Research Institute,

Jodhpur. Present note embodies information

on the field rodents of Madhya Pradesh with

respect to their taxonomy, distribution, general

habits, habitat preference, burrow patterns,

breeding and hoarding behaviour.

Vandeleuria o. oleracea (Bennet), The tree

mouse : This arboreal rodent was found dead

under a large banyan tree ( Ficus indica) near

a wheat threshing floor. Previously it has been

reported from Gwalior region (Ellerman

1961). Present record, thus extend its range

further to north west. This rodent was not

found to breed at the time of this study.

Golunda e. ellioti (Gray), The bush rat:

They were observed to be crepuscular in habit

and generally preferred to inhabit the hedges

397

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

of the garden located between the crop fields

from where they had an easy access to the

standing crops. They were also recorded to

devour the gram pods which were heaped in

the field for drying. These rodents had quite

simple burrows (fig. 1), only two bulbous

structures connected by a horizontal gallery.

BURROW OF BUSH- RAT. GOLUNDA ELLIOT I

Fig. 1. Burrow system of Bush-Rat, Golunda e. ellioti

in Madhya Pradesh.

Whenever, I tried to observe their feeding

behaviour in the standing wheat crop, they

immediately entered the burrows of Rattus m.

meltada. They were seen to move about on dis-

tinct runways and this proved to be the best

place for baiting them. I was able to collect

their young also from the hedges, underneath

the dried leaves. They were estimated to be

about two week old as the fur had developed.

These were lying outside the burrow opening

and one young and partly devoured skull in-

dicating cannibalistic habit of this rodent

species. This appears to be the first record

of a rodent species being cannibalistic under

natural conditions.

Rattus m. meltada (Gray), The soft-furred

field rat: This nocturnal rodent was relatively

abundant in all the crop fields and was also

BREEDING SEASON

Fig. 2. Burrow system of Rattus m. meltada in Madhya Pradesh.

398

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

collected from lucerne fields. Their burrows

were found to be quite simple (fig. 2) with a

central nesting and resting chamber. No bolt

run, as described by Barnett and Prakash

(1975) was observed in all the burrows ex-

cavated. In one case, where a litter of five

young ones (one juvenile was captured outside

the burrow opening, staggering as the legs were

unable to sustain weight of the body and its

eyes were open) was recovered along with its

dead mother, a small opening in the burrow

was presumably provided for the juveniles. I

collected these young ones one by one from

the same arm of the burrow where the small

opening was provided. They were squeaking

trying to come of the burrow and were in a

queue, quite way from their dead mother lying

in the central chamber.

Bandicota b. bengalensis (Gray), The lesser

bandicoot rat: Its identity was obvious from

the large number of heaps of soil ex-

cavated at each burrow opening. The burrows

were invariably plugged and located right in-

side the wheat fields. They had distinct runways

also. Each burrow system had 12-16 openings

on an average. Chakraborty (in press) record -

I Metre

A TYPICAL BURROW SYSTEM OF BANDICOTA BENGALENSIS IN MADHYA PRADESH DURING

PREHARVEST WHEAT CROP SEASON - 1976

Fig. 3. Burrow system of Bandicota b. bengalensis in Madhya Pradesh.

399

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

ed 1-10 openings in Bengal. The burrows were

labyrinthine, complicated and well architec-

tured, were comparatively wider (fig. 3). to

accommodate the large body size of the bandi-

coots. They were normally 30 cm deep and

had resting chambers at 45 cm depth. I

actually recovered them from the nesting

chambers after zinc phosphide baiting. The

burrows had distinct granaries. However, cer-

tain previous reports did not include such

granaries in the burrow system (Barnett and

Prakash 1975). Probably these burrow systems

were studied either before pre-harvest period

or during non-cropping season. But Chakra-

borty (in press) and Roy (1974) have describ-

ed this system from Bengal and Bihar in some

detail. My study indicated that the burrow

system is 5.5 metres long on an average,

whereas in Bengal it is 7.5 metres (Chakra-

borty in press) and 45 metres (Deoras 1964)

and 10 metres (Kamath 1961) in Bombay State.

Hoarding behaviour : It is a fairly common

and characteristic feature of the life of the

lesser bandicoot rat prevalent particularly

during pre-harvest period. On an average 3.69

kg of (de-husked) wheat was recorded by me

to be hoarded per burrow system. In Punjab

these bandicoots hoarded 7.3 kg of wheat ears

per burrow (Sood and Guraya 1976). Chakra-

borty (in press) in Bengal, also recorded these

values to be 3.20 kg. for paddy. But Roy

(1974) evaluated 0.53 kg paddy for each bur-

row in Bihar. So in the wheat field under

observation (0.65 hectare), total number of

such burrow systems recorded were 47 and

thus the total amount of de-husked wheat come

to be 173.43 kg or 267.59 kg per hectare. This

amount is apart from what the free living popu-

lation of these bandicoots was consuming. But

Greeves et al. (in press) reported a hoarding

capacity of bandicoots in Pakistan to be 100

kg of paddy per hectare. Looking at the consi-

derable differences in the data so far available

on hoarding activity, detailed studies may be

initiated to evaluate the actual loss which these

bandicoots exact throughout the country.

Another interesting feature of hoarding is

that the bandicoots arrange wheat ears in a

anticlock-wise centrifugal-concentric direction.

Further, they had cut all the ears approximate-

ly equidistant, i.e. 1 cm from the base. Roy

(1974) also recorded similar behavioural pat-

tern. Obviously then, this becomes a fixed

behavioural pattern of these bandicoot rats.

Furthermore, these bandicoots had partly buried

the ears outside their burrow openings possibly

for drying. Not only this, in certain arms of

the burrow system ears had thin lining of the

soil over them and again ears were arranged.

Due to heavy winter rains wheat had germi-

nated in certain pockets. Besides, straw of

wheat plants was also found in appreciable

amount inside the burrows. No apparent sign

of consuming the hoarded wheat ears was

encountered, possibly the free living population

of these bandicoots was being maintained by

the standing crops.

Survival value of hoarding : It has been

stated that hoarding simply provide a cache

from where young rodents can get the food at

a shorter distance without being exposed to

predators (Jackson 1966). My contention is

that the hoarded food is ample enough to tide

over the lean period, particularly for young

rodents. But Roy (1974) maintained that the

hoarded rice is never consumed by the bandi-

coots and eventually the cache is either dug

up by local people or left to rot. In my opinion

these bandicoots possibly do not migrate either

to bund or to other fields, because here the

next crop is scheduled only in the monsoon.

Since Mandsaur area comes under semi-arid

zone, the rains too. are not heavy so as to

400

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

compel these rodents even to migrate to

bunds.

A single bandicoot consumes 13 g of food

per day but hoards 67 g per day under captive

conditions (Parrack 1969). The present study,

however, indicates that 3690 g of wheat grains

were hoarded in a burrow which was shared

by two adult and two sub-adult bandicoots,

and if these figures are superimposed to

Parrack’s data it would be clear that on an

average the daily consumption of these four

rodents dwelling in a burrow will be about

36 g per day. Thus the hoarded wheat should

be sufficient to live on for 102.5 days. The next

crop in the study area (maize or sorghum

and other pulses) is scheduled roughly after

90 days and this period can easily be passed

safely without being exposed. This hoarded

Central Arid Zone Research

Institute,

Jodhpur,

March 26, 1985.

material remains safe inside the burrow even

when the fields are prepared as plough can

hardly probe 30 cm deep into the black cotton

soil.

Funambulus pennanti (Wroughton), The

five striped palm squirrel: This arboreal rodent

was fairly common in the orchards as well as

in the vegetable and crop fields. However, reli-

gious taboos still do not permit the killing of

this potent rodent pest.

Acknowledgements

Dr. H. S. Mann, Director, Central Arid

Zone Research Institute very kindly provided

laboratory facilities, for which I am thankful.

I also feel highly indebted to Dr. Ishwar

Prakash, Animal Ecologist for his painstaking

guidance in the identification of the rodents.

A. P. JAIN

References

Barnett, S. A. & Prakash, I. (1975): Rodents

of economic importance in India. Arnold and Heinne-

man Publishers, New Delhi.

Chakraborty, S. (In press) : Field observations on

the biology and ecology of the lesser bandicoot rat,

Bandicota bengalensis (Gray) in West Bengal. Proc.

All India Rodent Seminar. Ahmedabad.

Deoras, P. J. (1964): Rats and their control.

Indian J. Ent. Silver Jubilee pp. 18.

Ellerman, J. R. (1961): The fauna of India in-

cluding Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon, Mammalia

Vol. Ill, Rodentia pts. 1 & 2.

Greeves, J. H., Fulk, G. W. & Khan, A. Z.

(In press) : Preliminary investigations of the rice-rat

problem. Proc. All India Rodent Seminar, Ahmeda-

bad.

Kamath, M. K. (1961): Studies on Bombay rats,

rat burrows and ectoparasites in Mahim area (Un-

published M.Sc. dissertation, Dept, of Entomology,

Haffkine Instt. Bombay.

Parrack, D. W. (1969): A note on the loss of

food to the lesser bandicoot rat, Bandicota benga-

lensis. Curr. Sci. 38(4) : 93-94.

Prakash, I. (1976): Rodent Pest Management —

Principles and Practices. C.A.Z.R.I. Monograph No.

4. Jodhpur. 1-28.

Roy, S. K. (1974): Pre-harvest loss of rice due

to field rodents. Economic and Political Weekly, 9

(26): 66-67.

Sooo, M. S. & Guraya, S. S. (1976): Rats and

their control. Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana. 1-31.

401

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

7. TOOL-USE BY ELEPHANTS

There are about a dozen instances of tool-

use by elephants on record (Beck 1980). These

pertain to both wild and captive individuals

of the two extant species Loxodonta africana,

the African elephant, and Elaphus maximus,

the Asian elephant. Most examples refer to the

use of sticks and other objects in body care,

but there is a record of an African elephant

using a twig to extend its reach to food. There

are also examples of elephants throwing vari-

ous materials. The aims of this communication

are 1) to draw readers’ attention to a mid-

nineteenth century reference to a possible case

of tool-use by an Asian elephant; and 2) to

put on record a new instance of elephant tool-

use which is unique as it differs in one impor-

tant respect from other recorded instances of

tool-use by these animals.

Henry Metcalfe, a private serving in the

British army in India described the following

incident which he witnessed in 1852 (Tuker

1953).

“Perhaps it will not be out of place here to

relate a little incident in which the obstinacy

and sagacity of the elephant was displayed.

We were crossing the Cabul River (a very

rapid river). We had two elephants drawing a

heavy siege gun. When we came to the brink

of the river the elephants would not budge a

peg further, not even when urged forward by

the native drivers’ spears. When the Comman-

dant of the Artillery found they would not move,

he ordered up the master elephant to see what

effect that would have on the refractory ones,

but not a bit of notice would they take of him.

Well, the master elephant had a tremendous

thick chain attached to his trunk which he

shook in the face of the stubborn ones, but

not a move. At last tired of remonstrating, he

belaboured the two elephants with this chain

till their roars could be heard miles off. The

chain had had the desired effect. Without wait-

ing for a repetition of the chain, they plunged

through the river with their load, and we had

no trouble with them.”

If this is an accurate description of what

the author saw then as far as I am aware it is

the earliest recorded instance of elephant tool-

use.

On 7 November 1983 at Amber in the state

of Rajasthan, India (27°00'N 75°51'E) three

elephants passed me on the road, each carry-

ing a load of straw on its back. The second

of these also held a small bundle of straw in

its trunk. When this elephant was about 15 m

from me it flicked its trunk up smartly with

the consequence that the straw struck its right

ear. The end of the little bale hit the ear with

some force and the blow seemed to be a well-

aimed one.

In all but three previously recorded obser-

vations of elephant body care where the animal

used an implement as an extension of its trunk

the part of its body involved could not have

been reached with the trunk alone. In the

other three examples it is not clear whether or

not the animals concerned could have reached

their target using only the trunk. The example

of elephant tool-use reported here is unique in

that the part of the animal’s body which was

struck with the straw (the ear) was within

reach of its trunk. I saw no swarms of flies

around the elephant’s head, so if it was ward-

ing off an insect then the most likely type

would have been one that was difficult to re-

move with a mere wave of the trunk or ears.

As the ears contain many blood vessels then

perhaps a blood sucking parasite was the cul-

prit — one that would require a firm strike to

dislodge. The elephant could easily have carri-

402

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ed the little amount of straw held in its trunk

on its back, therefore it seems possible that the

elephant had been given this small bale for

the specific purpose of repulsing insects.

This observation also provides a clue to the

possible discovery of this category of tool-use.

If an elephant is carrying something in its trunk

Department of Psychology,

University of Keele,

Keele, Staffordshire ST5 5BG,

Great Britain,

December 13, 1984.

and then attempts to deflect insects from its

body using its trunk then the material carried

fortuitously becomes a tool as it nears the in-

sects. Via simple reinforcement principles the

animal might then learq. to use implements as

fly whisks.

JAMES B. REID1

References

Beck, B. B. (1980): Animal Tool Behavior. New Tuker, F. (1953): The Chronicle of Private Henry

York, Garland. Metcalfe. London, Cassell & Co.

1 Present address : Department of Psychology,

University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife, KYI 6

9JU, (U.K.)

8. THE BLACK STORK IN KUTCH: OLD RECORD CONFIRMED

I saw two black storks on November 25,

1983 at Pragsar Lake in the Chadva range of

hills, about 24 km west of Bhuj. One of them

was in adult plumage, while the other appear-

ed to be a juvenile. Salim Ali’s survey did not

meet with Ciconia nigra and I, during my bird

watching trips or otherwise, have not come

across it over the last 35 years or more in

Kutch. Capt. C. D. Lester recorded this stork

as a cold weather visitor in this area, but this

Jubilee Ground,

Bhuj, Kutch,

February 29, 1984.

was in late 19th or the beginning of the pre-

sent century. Darbar Saheb Shivrajkumar

Khachar informed me that he has recorded

the Black Stork often in Jasdan.

Similarly, I saw a spotted Redshank Tringa

erythropus on the village tank of Lodai on

January 26, this year. This wader too has

eluded the various surveys in Kutch. Neverthe-

less it finds a place in the appendix on page

171 in the birds of kutch.

HIMMATSINHJI

9. OCCURRENCE OF BAER’S POCHARD ( AYTHYA BAERI), IN

BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN

On the second March 1984, at about 8.30 aquatic birds in the marshes of Keoladeo

a.m., as I was watching waterfowl and other National Park, I noticed a dark head of a duck

403

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

standing out from the grass about a hundred

feet away. On closer examination with my

10 x 35 binoculars, I realised that the head

was not black as it appeared from the distance,

but was dark glossy green. The eyes were

contrastingly pale, and when the duck made

a move, I had a good view of the breast which

was rich rufous-chestnut sharply demarcated

from the whitish underparts. The bird was later

identified as Baer’s pochard.

The pochard always kept company with a

group of Ferruginous ducks ( Aythya nyroca ),

and this greatly facilitated comparison. I could

well make out that Baer’s was a bit larger and

had a faster flight than the latter. The duck

Junior Field Biologist,

BNHS Ecological Research Station,

Bharatpur 421 001,

March 22, 1984.

was always seen resting in watery grassland,

at times awkwardly waddling about to forage.

I saw the duck once again the next day and

also on the 7th, 9th and the 10th of March.

On all these occasions, it was invariably in

company of the flock of Aythya nyroca and

was seen in the very same spot where it was

first noticed.

Baer’s pochard is recorded as “an uncom-

mon and erratic winter visitor to Manipur

(fairly regular), Assam, West Bengal, and

Bangladesh” ! (Ali & Ripley 1978). Thus the

occurrence of this duck in Bharatpur, so far

from its normal distributional range seems

noteworthy.

R. KANNAN

Reference

Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1978): Handbook

of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1, 2nd

edition, pp. 184-185. Oxford University press, Delhi.

10. SOME SPARROW-HAWKS

Through the courtesy of Messrs. H. Abdulali

and S. A. Hussain, I was recently able to

examine a further small number of sparrow-

hawks from the collection of the Bombay

Natural History Society. The following speci-

mens merit discussion, as providing informa-

tion supplementary to that given in my pre-

vious paper (Mees 1981).

1. Accipiler virgatus affinis Hodgson. S ad.,

23. i. 1969, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, leg. BNHS

bird banding camp (BNHS no. 23587). Mea-

surements: wing 167, tail 124, tarsus 54, mid-

dle toe without claw 30, bill from cere lOf,

wing tip 40 mm. Tail /wing 74.2%, wing tip

( ACCIPITER ) FROM INDIA

24.0%. The black streak on the throat of this

specimen is rather weak, although fluffy as it

should be, but in every other respect, this is

a thoroughly typical specimen of affinis.

The present specimen is important as pro-

viding the first definite record from the Indian

Plain; all earlier records have either been

shown to be erroneous, or could not be veri-

fied. Previously, I gave as my opinion that this

subspecies has mistakenly been regarded as

being migratory. It might be thought that the

new record now provides evidence for migra-

tion. Whereas there is obviously some truth in

this, two other possibilities seem more likely

404

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

to me. One is that A, v. affinis is a resident

at Bharatpur, where the famous sanctuary

might well provide suitable habitat for it, the

other that the specimen was a straggler (like

the specimen of A. v. besra from Bhavnagar,

mentioned in my previous paper).

2. Accipiter virgatus kashmiriensis Whistler,

c? ad., 5.iv.l926, Ranikhet, leg. F. E. W.

Venning (BNHS no. 12700). Measurements:

wing 165, tail 129, tarsus 52, middle toe with-

out claw 30f, bill from cere 11, wing tip 38

mm. Tail/wing 78.2%, wing tip 23.0%. This

specimen is very pale on the under surface

and also its upper parts, particularly the secon-

daries, are rather pale. Although I am still

doubtful of the validity of kashmiriensis, it

should certainly not be definitely rejected with-

out further study. If the subspecies is valid, it

ought to have a definable range. Further, I wish

to draw attention to the fact that, according

to Ali & Ripley (1968: 247) and Ripley (1982:

46), who recognise A. v. kashmiriensis, it

“affects broken forest country’, whereas the

two other Indian subspecies, A. v. affinis and

A. v. besra, inhabit “heavy forest”. I would

hesitate to accept the existence of such an

ecological difference, without supporting evi-

dence.

3. Accipiter virgatus abdulalii A/ees. $ ad.,

17. ii. 1980, Interview Island, Andamans, leg.

Salim Ali (BNHS no. 26116). Measurements:

wing 182, tail 132, tarsus 53, middle toe with-

out claw 35, bill from cere 14J, wing tip 47

Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke

Histoire,

Leiden,

February 13, 1985.

mm. Tail/wing 72.5%, wing tip 25.8%. This

bird agrees entirely with the adult females pre-

viously described; it is very close to females

of A. v. besra, but differs by having a slightly

heavier bill.

Interview Island is a new locality for this

subspecies, which previously was known from

Middle Andaman and South Andaman.

4. Accipiter gularis gularis (Temminck &

Schlegel). <$ ad., 10 . iii . 1983, Point Calimere,

leg. BNHS Avifauna Project (BNHS no.

26410). Measurements: wing 166, tail 111,

tarsus 49, middle toe without claw 28, bill from

cere 11, wing tip 52 mm. Tail/wing 66.9%,

wing tip 31.3%.

This additional specimen from Point Cali-

mere, from where there are two previous re-

cords, confirms the species as an apparently

regular migrant visitor to that locality. It ought

to be more widely distributed in India and is

also to be expected in Sri Lanka (where else

could birds passing Point Calimere go?). The

specimen is in an advanced state of primary

moult, the two outer primaries on each side

being short and in sheath.

Users of my 1981 paper should be aware

that through an unfortunate error, the captions

of the figures 1 and 2 have been placed side-

ways, and not at the bottom of the pages where

it was intended that they would be. The referen-

ces to top and bottom figures should be read

as if the captions had been placed at the

bottom.

G. F. MEES

405

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

11. IMPERIAL EAGLE, AQUILA HELIACA SAVIGNY, IN

MAHARASHTRA — A SOUTHWARD EXTENSION OF

ITS WINTERING RANGE

Whilst visiting Nandur-Madhameshwar in

Nasik District (40 km east of Nasik-Pune

road) on 17th December 1983 we sighted a

large raptor flying over open country in the

vicinity of the River Godavari.

We noted the following field characteristics —

1. Overall plumage was blackish brown,

2. Pale tawny head — very distinct, even

at long range,

3. Prominent white scapulars,

4. Yellow legs.

Our identification of this raptor as an adult

Imperial Eagle was made after consulting the

two field-guides we were carrying A field

Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe by

Peterson, Hollom and Mountfort, and Birds

of Europe by Bertel Bruun. This preliminary

13 Neel Tarang,

210 V. S. Marg,

Mahim, Bombay 400 016.

45/46 Madhurima,

M. G. Road,

Kandivli (west),

Bombay-400 067.

131, Mehr-dad, 13th Floor,

Cuffe Parade,

Bombay-400 005,

December 19, 1983.

identification was confirmed on checking with

the specimens and other reference material at

the BNHS.

This bird is not listed in the “Checklist of

the Birds of Maharashtra” (1981) by Huma-

yun Abdulali. Ali and Ripley, (handbook

Volume 1, p. 275) have stated “Rare resi-

dent (?)?, but mainly winter visitor. W. Pakis-

tan (Baluchistan, Sind, NWFP), N. & N.W.

India (Kashmir, Himachal Prodesh, Nepal)

south to Gujarat (Kutch, Saurashtra). How

much further east and south uncertain due to

records being vitiated by confusion in field

identifications. Affects open treeless country.

This sighting clearly indicates that the Im-

perial Eagle does stray south of its known

wintering range.

DEBI GOENKA

SUNJOY MONGA

KIRAN SRIVASTAVA

12. SAKER FALCONS IN THE MELGHAT

On the morning of 31st January, 1984, I view of them at a range of 30 metres. The pale

saw a pair of falcons close to the Kukru rest head and face with the narrow dark streaks;

house in Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. I the broad streaks on the ear-coverts; the dull

was able to watch them through binoculars, brown-and-rufous back; the off-white belly

both at rest and in flight and had an excellent and chest spotted with brown droplets, the dis-

406

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tinctive white oval spots visible on the tail,

and the body size identified the raptors as

saker falcons ( Falco biarmicus cherrug Gray,

1834).

The Kukru highlands are an open plateau

3700 feet above m.s.l. and are contiguous with

The Palace,

Wankaner, Saurashtra,

February 16, 1984.

and an extension of the Melghat of Maha-

rashtra. The birds were hunting the grasslands

on the top of the plateau. It would be inte-

resting to find out whether this species has

been recorded in this area, or further south-

wards or eastwards.

M. K. RANJITSINH

13. OBSERVATIONS ON SPOONBILLED SANDPIPER

( EURYNORHYNCHUS PYGMAEUS ) IN ITS WINTERING GROUND

AT POINT CALIMERE, THANJAVUR DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU

The Spoonbilled Sandpiper is a rare winter

visitor to the Indian subcontinent (Ali &

Ripley 1969). The occurrence of this species

at Point Calimere has been reported earlier

(Sugathan 1983). Dementiev & Gladkov (1969)

have recorded some aspects of its ecology on

its breeding grounds in Siberia but very little

information is available on the ecology and

feeding habits of the species in its winter quar-

ters. During the winter months of 1982 and

1983 I had the opportunity of observing the

feeding behaviour of this bird at Point Cali-

mere. The species is very difficult to distinguish

from the similar looking Little stint ( Calidris

minutus ) and Dunlin ( Calidris alpinus) when

inactive. However, the birds can be readily

recognised by their typical feeding behaviour

which resembles that of the Spoonbill ( Platalea

leucorodia ) .

On November 17th 1982, while on a wader

census I saw 13 birds roosting at the western

end of the Vedaranyam swamp on a dry mud-

flat. Seven birds among these were slightly

bigger than the Little Stint, and when seen

through the telescope turned out to be Spoon-

billed Sandpipers. For about 35 minutes the

birds continued to remain stationary. The tide

was slowly advancing and hundreds of Stints

and Curlews Sandpipers were feeding along

the waters edge, chasing each other and call-

ing. The flock I was observing joined their

companions in feeding. However, Spoonbill

sandpipers did not join the others but confined

themselves to feeding at the water’s edge and

on the dry ground, in a loose flock. They ap-

peared to catch insects emerging from the

crevices in the dry mud as the tide water seep-

ed into these cracks. Most of the food items

were pecked from the ground itself, but some

were caught in the air up to about 4 inches from

the ground. After about 10 minutes of obser-

vation some fishermen disturbed them and all

the birds flew off. For the next one week des-

pite intensive search I could not see them.

On the 3rd December 1983, a rainy day, we

came across four waders feeding vigorously

along a sandy shore at the sanctuary. The tide

was receding. We could approach very closely

and it was possible to see the spatulate bill

of the single spoonbilled sandpiper among the 3

sanderlings ( Calidris alba) even without a

pair of binoculars. While the sanderlings were

pecking food organisms from the exposed sand

after the receding of the waves, the Spoon-

407

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

billed Sandpiper was seen making continuous

scoops in a zigzag manner, raising its head

from the sand to swallow the food particles

at intervals ranging from 45 seconds to 3

minutes. I did not see it again during the fol-

lowing days, and thereafter the species was

not met with in the area.

Altogether five birds were trapped for ring-

ing at Point Calimere between Nov. 1980 and

Dec. 1983. Out of these two were preserved

in the BNHS collection.

The stomachs of the two birds collected

were examined; they contained the following

material:

Sample: 1) Weight: 5 g.

Fragments of head and body of

beetles.

A few parts of Dipteran flies.

30 small sand particles.

Three pieces of chironomus larvae.

A few unidentified particles.

Sample: 2) Weight: 4.5 g.

Mouth parts of water beetle.

A few pieces of insect larvae.

A few parts of a ground beetle.

Tiny particles of a white hard sub-

stance (most probably fine parti-

cles of shell or calcium).

19 fine grains of sand with smooth

surface. Greenish mass with un-

identified particles.

Senior Field Biologist,

BNHS Avifauna Project,

Point Calimere Sanctuary,

Kodikkarai 614 807,

Thanjavur dist.,

Tamil Nadu,

August 17, 1984.

The spoonbilled sandpiper can be easily

overlooked among flocks of little stints and

Sanderlings. Unless carefully looked for its

occurrence in the wintering quarters is not

often noticed.

It is clear from the above observations that

the feeding zone of E. pygmaeus occupies a

wide range of micro-habitats ranging from

sandy shore to dry mud flats of the swamps.

They appear to adopt three kinds of feeding

methods: (a) long continuous scoops on wet

sand of the tidal zone, while walking; (b)

semi-circular side to side scoops standing at

one place in the soft mud, followed by few

steps and repeating the same procedure and

(c) pecking food particles or insects from dry

hard soil or catching them at ground level or

in the air. From the stomach analysis it appears

that they take beetles, flies, insect larvae, fine

sand particles and some amount of calcium.

Acknowledgements

The field studies were carried out as a part

of the Society’s Project ‘Studies on the move-

ment and population structure of Indian

Avifauna” funded by the PL-480 grant No.

8851-658-01 released through U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service and Ministry of Agriculture,

Government of India. I am grateful to Mr. S.

A. Hussain, Project Scientist, for advice and

help in preparing this paper.

R. SUGATHAN

408

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. Dillon (1969): Hand-

book of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 2,

Oxford University Press.

Dementiev, G. P. & Gladkov, N. A. (1969):

Birds of Soviet Union. Vol. III. Israel programme

for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem.

Sugathan, R. (1983): Some Interesting aspects

of the Avifauna of the Point Calimere Sanctuary,

Thanjavur Dist., Tamil Nadu. /. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 79(3): 567-575.

14. INDIAN WHISKERED TERNS CHLIDONIAS HYBRIDUS

MOBBING A FEMALE BLACKBUCK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA

A lone female Blackbuck Antilope cervi-

capra was observed being mobbed by four

Whiskered Terns Chlidonias hybridus at the

Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary, Karera

(Shivpuri district of Madhya Pradesh), on 9th

March 1983. I was doing the weekly bird census

along a 2 km. stretch on the mud road in the

scrub area — mainly Zizyphus sp. and Acacia

sp. — between the villages of Fatehpur and

Dihala. Just halfway along, the terns were

observed flying from Dihala jheel, hovering and

diving into the scrub. Their dives were accom-

panied by a loud cacophony from a neigh-

bouring Large Grey Babbler Turdoides mal-

colmi flock on an Acacia sp. about 1.80 m.

tall. Soon after, the doe burst out from behind

a rise directly below the hovering terns. The

road on which I was standing was about 0.6

m. higher than the open-scrub level and as

such I was easily visible for a great distance.

The doe ran for about 8-10 metres approx,

and stopped with an alert look towards me.

Each of the four terns dived at it while station-

ary but, without coming into contact. Their

target seemed to be the doe’s head and they

pulled out of their dives when near it. Thus

disconcerted, the doe ran ahead for 6-8 metres

and stopped on the road, looking at me. The

terns did not dive at the doe while it was

running. The moment it stopped on the road,

the terns repeated their performance making

the doe run ahead towards Fatehpui. The doe

soon went out of sight behind the rise, but I

could follow its’ movement by the flight of the

terns and their occasional dives. The babblers

however flew to an adjoining wheatfield and

did not pursue the doe. They may have been

apparently disturbed while foraging and hence

raised their alarm.

Ali and Ripley (1983) mention that the

Indian Whiskered Tern calls out in a sharp

kreak, kreak, “especially when nesting birds

are disturbed by an intruder and demonstrate

agitatedly overhead. “During the period of my

above observation, I did not hear the terns

call out at all. The nearest breeding records

with reference to Karera are for Delhi and

Lucknow, the season being June to August

and varying locally (Ali and Ripley 1983). I

made a circum-trek of the Dihala Jheel —

roughly 3 sq. km. — but could not find any

evidence of nesting by the terns.

409

11

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Dr. Asad Rahmani for

comments on an earlier draft.

Junior Field Biologist, BHARAT BHUSHAN

Endangered Species Project,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023,

February 3, 1984.

Reference

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1983): Handbook of the

Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edition, pp.

189. Oxford University Press. Delhi.

15. OCCURRENCE OF THE SANDWICH TERN (STERNA

SANDVICENSIS ) IN INDIA — A RING RECOVERY

The Sandwich Tern was known to occur on

the Mekran and the Sind coasts of Pakistan

in some numbers (handbook 3: 70) and it

was sighted three miles away from Veraval on

the west coast of Saurashtra by Dharmakumar-

sinhji in May 1958 (JBNHS 55: 357). How-

ever no specimen has been collected in India

so far, and, as far as I know, there was no

recent sight record of this species. In this con-

text, the following account of the recovery of

a Russian ring in India is of special interest.

Mr. C. K. Krishnaprasad of Ihundathil,

Cherai, Emakulam dist., Kerala (c. 10°00'N;

76°15'E), shot a bird and recovered a ring

Junior Field Biologist,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023,

March 27, 1984.

(MOSKWA, P-348.842) on 11th March 1976.

The Centre of Ringing and Marking Birds,

Moscow, informed the Society that the ring

was put on a juvenile specimen of the Sand-

wich Tern at Krasnovodsk Reserve, Krasno-

vodsk Gulf, Caspian Sea, Turkmenian SSR,

on 26th June 1975.

This recovery establishes the fact that the

Sandwich Tern visits the western seaboard of

India in winter. On account of its very similar

appearance to the Gullbilled Tern Gelochelidon

nilotica in winter, this species may have been

overlooked so far.

V. C. AMBEDKAR

410

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

16. EUROPEAN BEE-EATERS ( MEROPS API ASTER)

IN KARNATAKA

In their handbook (compact edition 1983)

Ali and Ripley refer to only one sighting of

the European Bee-eater ( Merops apiaster) in

South India, viz. in Salem district of Tamil

Nadu in 1952. In the past two years, in late

February and early March, I have seen a small

flock of between 5 and 7 European Bee-eaters,

both adult and immature, in the Kanakapuram

District of Karnataka, which is some 50 kms

SSW of Bangalore. The birds were perched on

electric wires, from which they were feeding,

in an open, rather rocky and barren area, at

United Theological College,

17 Miller’s Road,

Bangalore-560 046,

March 27, 1984.

least 2 kms from water and about 10 to 15

kms south of Kanakapuram. It was reported

that they come each year and stay about 10

to 14 days. The last time I saw them (March

4, 1984) it was beginning to rain heavily and

the birds were fluffing out their feathers for

protection, thus not looking as strikingly

colourful as on previous sightings. They were

photographed (900 mm lens), but as I had no

stand at the time results were a little blurred,

though quite clear enough for definite identi-

fication.

ERIC J. LOTT

17. BEE HUNTING BY THE BLACK DRONGO

On February 13, 1984, I watched a pair of

Black Drongos ( Dicrurus adsimilis) hunting

bees, a noted item of their diet (Ali and Ripley

1983), from a large hive of Rock Bees ( Apis

dor sat a) hanging under the roof of a three

1 storey college building.

An interesting style of hunting seemed to

emerge, where one bird flapped past the hive

while the second soon followed only to capture

any disturbed inhabitants. The bird then re-

turned to the ledge to batter the prey against

the cement and then swallow the bee in one

or two gulps. The birds also waited for the

Blue Rock Pigeons ( Columba livia) that roost-

ed under the roof to take off or land in the

vicinity of the hive, an activity that never failed

to disturb atleast a few bees.

Incidentally, it is on this roof that a pair of

Red Wattled Lapwings ( Vanellus indicus )

have been building their nests for the last five

years, but unfortunately not a single brood

has survived.

The drongos attracted my attention at about

5-30 p.m. by their Shikra-like call and in the

half hour I watched them, the pair had eaten

twelve bees.

TAEJ MUNDKUR

124/9 Erandavana,

Poona-411 004,

April 17, 1984.

Reference

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1983): Handbook of

the Birds of India and Pakistan, Compact edition,

Oxford Univ. Press, Delhi, London, New York.

411

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

18. THREE APPARENTLY NATURAL HYBRIDS BETWEEN

WALDEN'S BARWING ACTINODURA WALDEN 1 AND THE HOARY

BARWING A. NIP ALENS1S, IN THE COLLECTIONS OF THE

BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY)

The Barwings, genus Actinodura, are six

species of small brown and grey babblers. The

Taiwan Barwing A. morrisoniana is restricted

to that island; while another four — the Streak-

ed Barwing A. souliei, Spectacled Barwing A.

ramsayi, Walden’s Barwing A. waldeni and the

Hoary Barwing. A. nipalensis — mainly replace

each other over a range from southern China

and North Vietnam, through Burma to the

central Himalayas. The Rusty-fronted Barwing

A. egertoni has a general range overlapping

those of the last two, but mainly occurs at

lower altitudes.

The subspecies of A. waldeni occurring from

Manipur south to the Chin Hills, and in the

Naga Hills, north-east Burma and north-west

Yunnan, are brown above and rufous below,

with grey heads. A. w. daflaensis Godwin-

Austen 1875 of the North-east Frontier Agency

of India and adjacent south-east Tibet differs

in being pale greyish-brown on the throat,

breast and belly, with whitish feather edges

that give it a streaked appearance. The back

is brown but the upper mantle is pale grey.

The crown feathers are elongated, dark greyish-

brown and tapering, with a very narrow pale

margin. The sides of the head are grey, with

whitish streaking on the ear-coverts.

This subspecies is closest in general appear-

ance to A. nipalensis (Hodgson 1836) which

replaces it from Bhutan to Nepal, occurring

in similar habitats and at similar latitudes. The

eastern population of the latter has been sepa-

rated as A. n. vinctura Ripley 1950 on the

basis of a broader black tail-band which is not

relevant to the present discussion. A. nipalensis

is a more uniform pale grey on throat, breast

and belly. There is a blackish moustache streak

and the ear-coverts are more uniform pale

grey. There is no grey on the upper mantle.

The elongated crown feathers have rounded

tips and are dark brown with a pale stripe

along the middle, palest along the rachis; with

similar but less striking and less numerous pale

streaks on the brown mantle.

When specimens of the last two species in

the collection of the British Museum (Natural

History) were studied, three were found to

show some intermediacy and a slightly varia-

ble mixture of characters. These appear to be

natural hybrids. They are : -

Specimen 1. BMNH no. 1937.1.17.294. Collector’s

no. 4036. Nyug La, Pachakshiri, S.E. Tibet. 10.000

ft. Female. Collected 7 July 1936 by F. Ludlow

and G. Sherrill'.

Specimen 2. BMNH no. 1949. Whi. 1.13,329. Pin La,

Bompu La. Bhutil Hills, Assam. 7.050 ft. Male.

Collected 14 March 1938. H. Whistler Collection.

Specimen 3. BMNH no. 1949. Whi. 1. 13,330. Dirang

Dyong, N.E. Frontier Agency. 5,200 ft. Male.

Collected 20 April 1938. G.S. Lightfoot Collection.

As the tabulation of principal characters

(Table 1) shows, specimen 1 is more similar

to A. waldeni and the other two to A. nipal-

ensis, but with a mixture of characters. All

three show the dark brown feathers with paler

streaks along the rachis, but the streaks are

darker and much less conspicuous than in A.

nipalensis.

The throats and breasts show an interme-

diate condition in the light streaking. The

mantles appear a little darker than those of

the two species. In general they lack the pale

streaks of A. nipalensis, but there is a slight

indication of them on specimen 2 which has

412

Comparisons of some characters of Actinodura waldcni daflaensis, A. nipalensis and three hybrids

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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pale bases to feathers, with some tapering to-

wards the rachis. Specimen 1 has a few, less

obvious pale bases; and specimen 3 lacks

them.

Specimen 3 shows some resemblance to A.

waldeni in that the mantle feathers are greyer

than those of the other two. On the last two

these mantle feathers show faint and very fine

transverse barring. In general the barred

tertiaries of A. nipalensis are rufous in ground

colour and those of A. waldeni are greyish.

Of the three hybrids, specimen 3 resembles

A. waldeni most in having the tertiaries greyish,

specimen 1 is intermediate, and specimen 3 is

rufous.

In addition to the diagnostic differences in

the plumage of head, mantle and underside in

the two species A. waldeni and A. nipalensis,

they also appear to differ in their calls (Ali

& Ripley 1972). However, the evidence of these

three specimens suggests that hybridisation

may occur at times in the wild.

C. J. O. HARRISON

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Sub-department of Ornithology,

British Museum (Natural History),

Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 6AP.

U.K.,

April 17, 1984.

Reference

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1972) : Handbook of the

birds of India and Pakistan, vol. 7. Oxford Univer-

city Press, Bombay, London, New York. pp. 236.

413

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

19. NOTES ON TRACKING AND TERRESTRIAL ACTIVITIES OF

THE FRESHWATER TURTLE KACHUGA TENTORIA IN RIVER

MAHANADI, ORISSA

( With a plate)

Introduction

During a study on crocodilians in the River

Mahanadi, Orissa at least four species of turtles

were observed resident in the river within the

Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary. These were Trio-

nyx gangeticus, Lissemys punctata, Kachuga

tentoria and Chitra indica(l) with the respec-

tive local names as “Chabeda Kainchha”

(Chabeda = one which bites, Kainchha or

Kaichha = turtle), “Panka Kainchha (Panka =

mud), “Kurma” or “Andeicha Kainchha”

(Kurma = turtle, hard; Andakara = oval), and

“Balera Kainchha” (Bali = sand; Balera = a

colloquial term for ‘clumsy’ — perhaps refering

to clumsy spoor left on the basking site). Iden-

tification of Chitra indica was only during their

basking. It is believed that more than one

species of Kachuga may be occurring in the

river.

Observations reported in the following had

stemmed while identifying the various animal

tracks leading out of or entering into the river.

These tracks included those of gharial ( Gavia -

l is gangeticus), mugger ( Crocodylus palustris),

otter (Lutra lutra), soft-shelled turtles, hard-

shelled turtles (Kachuga), and snakes. The

method for identifying Kachuga tracks is des-

cribed below. Also discussed are the

methods of determining the direction of move-

ment from the tracks, the various terrestrial

activities and observations from the nest. All

information were recorded in the 22 km stretch

of river within the sanctuary.

Turtle Tracking

In the field a Kachuga track and an otter

track may sometimes appear similar but these

are not confused with the tracks of soft-shelled

turtles where the hind flap trails behind the

body and the body drag is heavily swept

from behind continuously. In Kachuga and

otter the pug marks are closely set. Indistinct

and interrupted tail spoor may be seen in a

track of male Kachuga. The tail drag in otters

is very distinct and because of hair the track

is swept lightly. Distinction between Kachuga

and otter tracks finally rest on the examina-

tion of the pattern of lines drawn while shift-

ing the limbs forward — these lines in otter

are wider and curve before drawing close to

the axis of locomotion (Plate 1 C).

Ordinarily a turtle track cannot be mistaken

for a crocodilian track. Crocodilian tracks

seldom lead much away from the river, and

these are characteristically accompanied by

distinct (‘scaled’) pug marks, tail spoors and/

or body spoors showing the marks of indivi-

dual scutes (Bustard and Singh 1977a, Singh,

in press). A snake track is typical in being

smooth, undulating and without any other body

mark.

Direction of movement :

Tn Kachuga two lengths of lines are drawn

by the limbs during locomotion (Plate 1 B).

The longer ones are drawn when a limb shifts

414

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82 Plate 1

Singh : Kachuga tentoria

A. Kachuga tentoria from Mahanadi.

B. Nesting emergence tracks of a Kachuga showing direction of movement (arrow).

C. Track of an otter showing direction of movement (arrow).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

its position to a step ahead, and the shorter

ones continuous with the former are drawn

while bringing the limb closer to the body axis

to support the body for forward propulsion.

The longer lines are drawn forward and away

from the locomotory axis. Therefore, the direc-

tion of movement is determined by finding out

the direction in which the longer lines are

drawn away from the centre of a track (loco-

motory axis). The lines, under good ground

conditions can be counted to provide the count

of claws. This technique has been found useful

in determining the direction of movement of

all clawed forms performing a bipedal or

quadrupedal gait (see Introduction and Bus-

tard and Singh 1977 b). The best time to study

tracks is early morning or late afternoon when

the sun is low in the sky.

Terrestrial Activities

The following are the types of terrestrial

activities identified with Kachuga tracks in the

sanctuary. (1) Tracks leading from drying

water holes to the main river. These water

holes are situated between the hill (mainland)

and the river separated by continuous or

broken flat sand banks. The water holes are

formed away from the main river after floods.

(2) Tracks from foot or middle of a sand

bank to the main river. These are usually seen

after unusual floods followed by quick reces-

sion. (3) Tracks of various lengths emerging

from water over to sand banks and returning

back almost parallel or rarely to a different

point in the river. These tracks are inverted

U-shaped and are normally associated with

nesting activities. (4) Tracks leading from

water to the foot-hill and getting ‘lost’. (5)

The normal diurnal activity of basking, mostly

on rocky banks, half-submerged rocks or

branches of water willows like Salix.

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Return tracks to a back-water closeby.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

nesting:

During discussions with local Kandha

tribals and fishermen it was gathered that

Kachuga in Mahanadi has two nesting seasons

— one before winter during October-early

November and the other after January. The

Kandha tribals and jackals are the main pre-

dators for Kachuga eggs. Apparently, both

these predators adopt the same method of

tracking to the nest as discussed in the above.

Olfaction may also be a help for jackals.

Eight nests were obtained between the 5th

and 11th of November 1978 from the sand

bank opposite GRACU. Data on nesting are

given in Table 1. The nests were located at a

along-the-ground distance of 7.0 = 41.4 m

(n=8) from water and at a height of 0.3 -2.5 m

above the surface (n=6). The area disturbed

for nesting varied from 30x30 cm to 75x75 cm

(n=5). The depth of nest varied from 18-24 cm

(n=7) and diameter 10-12 cm (n=3). Nest

temperatures were recorded for three nests at

0800 hrs and it varies from 28.5°-29.5°C. The

body width of females, measured from tracks,

were 14.0-16.5 cm (n=5). The clutch size

varied from 3 to 6 (n=8) and the egg length

(n=40), egg breadth (n=40) and egg weight

(n=40) were 45.5 mm (range: 43.0-48.0

mm), 27.0 mm (range: 26.0-28.5 mm) and

20.1 g (19.0-22.5 g range) respectively. The

eggs were 10-12 cm below the surface.

Discussion

Gibbon (1970) found that nearly 30% of

the aquatic turtles inhabiting a Bay

in South Carolina (USA) exhibited some type

of terrestrial activity and that these terrestrial

activities included a considerable amount of

time other than nesting. Migrations away from

water have been associated with wintering by

Cahn (1937), Cagle (1944), Carr (1952),

Gibbon (1970), Bennett et al. (1970) and

Bennett (1972). From observations on terres-

trial activities of Kachuga presented in the

above, movements from land to water are expli-

cable as related to fluctuations in the water level

(activities 1 and 2). While activities 3 and 5

are respectively for nesting and basking, acti-

vity 4 can perhaps be for over-wintering.

However, more studies are necessary to con-

firm any over-wintering activity although the

area experiences a minimum temperature as

low as 4.5°C.

Tracking is a valuable means of studying

animals for those aspects which offer limited

opportunities to study otherwise. Lillywhite

(1982) has rightly stated that “apart from

early descriptive studies, a tracking approach

has not been widely applied in quantitative

ecological studies by herpetologists.” Although

the present paper, identifies the types of

terrestrial activities in Kachuga, the subject re-

mains wide open. The tracking procedure

given in this paper is believed to form an use-

ful guide for further field studies on the group.

Acknowledgements

I wish to record my gratitude to Orissa

Forest Dept., Sri D. K. Sahoo and Sri I. C.

Sahoo, Research Assistants at GRACU, and

the Kandha tribals and Gharial Guards in the

sanctuary for extending help. I am also thank-

ful to Sri R. J. Rao. CRIR Senior Research

Fellow at the National Chambal Sanctuary

camp for his assistance during the preparation

of the manuscript.

416

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Gharial Research and L. A. K. SINGH1

Conservation Unit,

Tikerpada 759 122, Orissa,

February 11, 1984.

References

Bennett, D. H. (1972) : Notes on the terrestrial

wintering of mud turtles ( Kinosternon subrubrum) .

Herpctologica, 28(3) : 245-247.

Bennett, D. H., Gibbon, J. W. & Franson, J. C.

(1970) : Terrestrial activity in aquatic turtles. Eco-

logy, 51: 738-740.

Bustard, H. R. & Singh, L. A. K. (1977a):

Studies on the Indian Gharial Gavialis gangeticus

(Gmelin) (Reptilia, Crocodilia) — I: Estimation of

body length from scute length. Indian Forester 103

(2) : 140-149.

(1977b):

Studies on the Indian Gharial Gavialis gangeticus

(Gmelin) (Reptilia, Crocodilia) : Change in locomo-

tory pattern with age. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74

(3) : 534-536.

Cagle, F. R. (1944): Home range, homing beha-

viour. and migration in turtles. Misc. Publ. Mus.

Zool. Univ. Michigan, 61: 1-34.

Cahn, A. R. (1937) : The turtles of Illinois.

Illinois Biol. Monogr. 16: 1-218.

Carr, A. (1952): Handbook of turtles. Cornell

University Press, Ithaca.

Gibbon, J. W. (1970): Terrestrial activity and the

population dynamics of aquatic turtles. Amer. Mid-

land Natur., 83: 404-414.

Lillywhite, H. B. (1982): Tracking as an aid

in ecological studies of snakes. In: Herpetological

Communities (Ed. Scott, N. I.), United States De-

partment of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service,

Wildlife Research Report 13: 181-191.

Singh, L. A. K. (in press) : Method to distinguish

Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) and Mugger (Croco-

dylus palustris) from tracks and spoor. Indian

Forester.

1 Present address: Crocodile Research Centre of

the Wildlife Institute of India, 19-4-319, Lake Dale,

Bahadurpura, Hyderabad-500 264 (A.P.).

20. CAPTIVE BREEDING AT BHAGABATPUR CROCODILE FARM,

SUNDARBANS (WEST BENGAL), INDIA: THE CASE OF A WILD

CAUGHT FEMALE ( CROCODYLUS POROSUS SCHNEIDER)

Introduction

At the Bhagabatpur Crocodile Farm, Sun-

clarbans (W.B.), a wild-caught female estua-

rine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus Schneider)

mated with a captive male, smaller in size,

and produced in 1982 a viable clutch of ten

eggs from which two young ones hatched. This

is the first captive breeding record of the

species in India.

In Tndia, the estuarine crocodile is known

to occur in the mangrove-lined tidal creeks of

Sundarbans in West Bengal, Bhitarkanika in

Orissa and in the Union Territory of the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Since 1976 a captive rearing project of the

State Government of West Bengal is in opera-

tion at Bhagabatpur for the conservation of

Salt-water Crocodile. Sometime during May-

July 1978 the Farm received a 2.56 m female

crocodile that was rescued from a fisherman’s

net.

At Bhagabatpur farm each rearing pool is

connected with the main branch of the river

417

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Saptamukhi. Pools are flooded during the high

tide and emptied during the low tide period.

Enormous natural food enters during the high

tide inside each pool. Pools are surrounded

by Rhizophora sp., Sonneratia apetala, Exo-

caria agallocha, Phoenix paludosa, Thespesia,

populnea, Heritiera minor, Avecennia alba,

which simulates the natural surrounding.

During 1978 the female was first kept in a

translocation pool where other crocodiles

smaller in size to it were housed. The female

established her territory and drove away the

other crocodiles from the pool. So the female

was shifted to a separate translocation pool

in the beginning of 1979 and from that year

onwards it was housed alone. It was fed with

live goggled-eyed mudskippers ( Poliopthalmus

or Boleopthalmus sp.) crabs, frogs or toads,

prawns and occasionally with domestic ducks

and rats. The female was larger than any other

male crocodile present in the farm.

Observations related to reproductive beha-

viour and growth of this wild-caught female

are described in the following:

Observations

EGG-LAYING AND HATCHING

During 1980 and 1981 the female was

housed alone yet it produced eggs. At 2.64m

length in May 1980 although nesting materials

were available, the female had dropped 16

eggs in water. Next year, on May 25th, the

female (size: 2.86 m) constructed a nest

mound (43 cm dia. x 45 cm high) of mud,

weeds, grass. Phoenix and Avecennia (Hetal

and Beno plants) and on 29th it laid 36 eggs

in it. Eighteen of the eggs were found broken.

During the third week of April 1982 the

female dug a passage into an adjoining pool

where other crocodiles, including males 1 .25-

2.1 m long; were housed. A nest mound (71

cm dia. x 76 cm high) was completed on the

29th May and on 30th May (female size: 2.9

m) 10 eggs were laid in the nest. One of the

eggs was spoiled, three were left in the nest

and six transferred to an artificial nest. From

the last six, two young ones hatched on 14th

August after an incubation period of 76 days.

Actual egg-laying was not seen in any of the

years, but it is presumed that the act was

accomplished very early in the morning.

During 1983 (female size: 2.95 m) broken

egg shells were recovered from water and no

other detail regarding nesting and egg-laying

have been recorded. Earlier in the year, during

the second week of March, the largest male

had died and possibly successful mating had

not occurred with any other male.

Fourteen eggs of 1981 clutch were measured

and weighed: L x B x W = 6. 4-7. 5 cm x 4.5-

4.7 cm x 51.8-65.9 g. One egg of 1982 with

a partially developed young measured and

weighed thus: LxBxW = 6.4cmx4.4cm

x 89.6 g; the maximum circumference along

with width was 15 cm.

NEST-GUARDING BEHAVIOUR

During 1981 and 1982 the female had zea-

lously guarded the nest-mound either from an

adjacent dug-out wallow or from the pool. At

the sign of slightest disturbance, it used to j

lunge with open mouth and reach the nest in a

single leap. During 1982 nest-guarding was

seen throughout the incubation period.

Discussion

1. Captive breeding :

Outside India C. porosus have bred in

captively Bangkok- 1960 (Youngprapakon 1960),

Higashi-Izu-1971 (Fukuda 1971), Singapore- I

1976 (Mitchell 1981) and Djakarta- 1977 (Mac-

kinnon 1981). As regards first captive breeding

418

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

in India the present report describes a situa-

tion where a wild female mated with a captive

male and produced eggs during the 4th year

of captive life.

2. Reproduction:

The first clutch of eggs was laid when the

female was 2.64 m. In the absence of males

the eggs in the first two years were infertile

but the urge to mate was strong in the third

year and it dug into an adjacent pool having

a male, though smaller in size. Laying of the

maiden clutch of eggs in the absence of a male

C. porosus has been reported earlier by

Acharjyo and Mishra (1981) in Nandankanan.

Production of fertile eggs suggests that

mating can be successful even if the male

is younger and smaller than the female.

This observation does not agree with

Bustard’s (1969) view that for successful

breeding the male should always be larger.

During 1980 and 1981 although the female laid

infertile eggs, it had apparently not been at-

tracted by the males. Perhaps the male salt-

water crocodile reaches sexual maturity when

at least 2.1 m long and 6-8 years old. The

period between mating and egg laying is about

a month and a half. The egg-laying season in

captivity correspond with the period in

Senior Research Fellow,

Crocodile Breeding

Ecosystem Project,

Department of Mathematics,

Jadavpur University,

Calcutta-700 032,

September 7, 1984.

R E F E

Bustard, H. R. (1969): A future for crocodiles.

Oryx 70(4): 249-255.

& Kar, S. K. (in press) : Defence

of the nest against man by the saltwater crocodile

(C. porosus). Brit. J. Herpetol.

the wild. Youngprapakon (1971) mentioned

that the species reaches sexual maturity at the

age of 12-15 years. Nest guarding from wallow

have been recorded in captivity in the present

set of observation. Such behaviour of C. poro-

sus has been reported by Smith (1931),

Loveridge (1946), Webb et al. (1977) Chou-

dhury & Bustard (1979), Bustard & Kar (in

press). Bustard & Maharana (in press).

3. Growth:

During the first two years after capture the

crocodile had grown only 8 cm. The growth

during the next three years were 6 cm., 4 cm.

and 5 cm.

Acknowledgements

The study was carried out as a part of the

U.G.C. research project on Crocodile Breed-

ing Ecosystem. I am grateful for the support

of the Forest Department of 24-Parganas

(W.B.), the D.F.O., the farm officials and

caretakers of Bhagabatpur Crocodile Breeding

Farm. I am also indebted to Jadavpur Uni-

versity for co-operation and field assistance.

Discussions with Prof. S. K. Mukherjee, Prof.

D. K. Sinha, Prof. A. Choudhury and Sri P.

K. Dutta aided in developing the techniques

and the manuscript.

TAPAS ACHARYA

EN CES

& Maharana, S. (in press) : The

Behaviour of the Nest guarding saltwater crocodile

(C. porosus) a preliminary quantitative study. In

Indian Crocodiles' Conservation and Research. Occ.

Pubis. No. 1. Cen. Croc. Br. Mgmt. Trg. Inst.. Hyde-

419

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

rabad, India.

Choudhury, B. C. & Bustard, H. R. (1979):

Predation on Natural Nests of the Saltwater Croco-

dile (C. porosus Schneider) on North Andaman

Island with Notes on the Crocodile Population. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(2): 311-323.

Fukuda, H. (1971): On the growth formulae of

snakes and their applications to other reptiles.

Bullkyoto Univ. Educ. Ser. B. Mat. Nat. Sci. 17 :

16-40.

Loveridge, A. (1946): Reptiles of the Pacific

World. New York, Macmillan.

Mackinnon, J. (1981): Project ecologist, FAO

Nat. Parks Developmental Project — Indonesia. In

Litt., Via — J. Mackinnon, 7th May.

Mitchell, A. (1981): WWF Project — Siberut

Nature Reserve. In Litt., 3rd March, Via — J.

Mackinnon.

Smith, M. A. (1931): The Fauna of British India,

Reptilia and Amphibia 1. Talyor and Francis, Lon-

don, PP. 42-44.

Webb, G. J. W., Messel, H. & Magnusson, W.

(1977): The nesting of Crocodylus porosus in Arn-

hem Land, Northern Australia. Copcia 7977(2) : 238-

250.

Youngprapakon, U. (1960): Illustrated publicity

brochure Samut Prakan Crocodile Farm pp. 1-14.

— (1971): Captive Breeding

of Crocodiles in Thailand. Crocodiles 1, I.U.C.N.

Pubis. N. S. suppl. Rap. No. 32: 98-101.

21. A NOTE ON THE HABITS AND BREEDING OF THE LIZARD

JAPALURA MAJOR (JERDON)

(With a text -figure)

A female Japalura major (Jerdon) was col-

lected at Belak (Nr. Budhakedar) 8200' Tehri

Garhwal Dist., U.P. on 7th June 1984. This

species is widely distributed in Western Hima-

layas (see Smith 1935). The Society’s Collec-

tion has specimens from Nainital, Almora,

Langira (Chamba), Simla, Lamgarh.

Boulenger (1885) described the colour of

upper parts as olive and Smith (1935) as

greyish brown. The specimen collected in

Garhwal had grass green upper parts. The

coloration according to Boulenger (1885)

Fig. 1. Japalura major (Jerdon).

420

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

“Upper parts with dark brown, triangular or

V shaped markings on back with apex direct-

ed backwards, flanks reticulated with blackish

head from above with blackish cross streaks

a oblique black band from eye to tympanum

continued along the sides of the neck, limbs

and tail with dark cross bars”. Annandale

(1907) records a patch of pale lilac scales

under the throat. Measurements of the collect-

ed specimen — total length — 193 mm, head

— 19 mm, width of head — 14.5 mm, fore

limb — 27 mm. Hind limb — 45 mm, tail —

121 mm.

There is little information available on the

habits of this lizard. The specimen collected by

Annandale (1907) in the outskirts of Simla

was sunning on bare rock by the road side

and was very sluggish. The specimen collected

in Garhwal was from an open grassy patch

in the forest. Its grass green colour blended

perfectly with the surroundings. It was sluggish,

3, Rocky Hill Flats,

Malabar Hill,

Bombay-400 006,

August 24, 1984.

possibly because it was gravid. It was the only

one observed in the trip.

I could not find any information on the

breeding of this lizard. The specimen I collected

had 10 eggs, five in each oviduct. The eggs

were large for the size of the body, and were

situated from the base of the tail to the fore

limb. Eggs were soft, elliptical, and yellowish

white in colour and measured as follows: 14.5

x 8 mm, 14x8 mm, 14.5x8 mm, 13x8.5

mm, 13x8.5 mm, 14x8 mm, 13.5x8 mm,

14x8 mm, 13.5x8 mm, and 14x8 mm. Ave-

rage length 13.8 mm, average width 8.1 mm.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Mr. A. G. Sekar of the

Reptile Section at the Society for help in iden-

tification and also for the drawing. I am also

thankful to Dr. (Miss) M. Haribal, Mr. H.

Shinde and Miss A. Kaikini for their assis-

tance in the field.

NITIN JAMDAR

References

Annandale, N. (1907) : Himalayan Lizards. Rec.

Ind. Mus. Vol. 1, page 149.

Boulenger, G. A. (1885) : Catalogue of the

Lizards in the Museum. British Museum (N.H.),

London.

Hora, S. L. (1926): Notes on Lizards in Indian

Museum, Rec. Ind. Mus. Vol. 28, page 214.

Smith, M. A. (1935): Fauna of British India.

Reptilia and Amphibia — 3 — Sauria — London.

22. ON THE STATUS OF CHAMAELEON ZEYLANICUS LAURENTI

IN KUTCH

I come across the Indian Chameleon for the

first time in Kutch in my garden here in Bhuj

on 4 July 1984. On the publication of a press

note about this occurrence in the local daily

by the Pelican Nature Club of Kutch, there

was a good response from the readers, giving

useful information about the distribution of

this reptile in the district. The Kutchhi name

of Chamaeleon zeylanicus is ‘sav sambho’. It

appears from the information given, that it

421

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

exists in Kutch wherever there is certain

amount of vegetation and scrub jungle. The

chameleon I saw was uniform leaf green in

Jubilee Ground,

Bhuj, Kutch,

August 18, 1984.

colour with light yellow and dark green speckles

and spots. There was no trace of either black

or any other colour.

HIMMATSINHJI

23. RANGE EXTENSION OF THE SKINK DAS I A HA LI AN A

(H. NEVILL, 1887)

(With a text-figure)

On 18 August 1984, one of us (J.J.) was

walking in the gallery forest along the bank

of the Thambiraparani River, in Mundanthu-

rai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tirunelveli District.,

Tamil Nadu, looking for lower vertebrates

when we noticed a cluster of leaves on a

Manilkara hexandra tree. The leaf cluster was

of the creeper Strychnos aenea which is the

dominant creeper species in this forest. At this

moment a bonnet macaque happened to jump

exactly on this leaf cluster and something

green in colour was seen dropping down. It

fell from a height of about 8 metres and a

search of the area immediately thereafter prov-

ed futile. However about half an hour later a

curious stump like projection was noticed on

the sandy forest floor and surprisingly on being

dug out, proved to be a skink.

The animal was very sluggish and did not

even move when persistently teased for about

ten minutes. When left alone it again buried

itself in the sand but this time completely in

about ten minutes. It was collected.

The gallery forest along the river is the only

area in the Mundanthurai forests where one

can see tall trees with thick foliage and large

creepers with similarly thick foliage. There is

good canopy continuation.

The skink was strikingly different in colour

and pattern from species so far known in India

and was identified as Dasia haliana a species

till now considered as endemic to Sri Lanka.

Annandale (1906), Smith (1935) and Dera-

niyagala (1953) describe this species as more

or less arboreal in habits. The species is now

Fig. 1. Dasia haliana (H. Nevill)

422

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

reported from the southern-most part of the The specimen measured 86 mm in snout

Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, India. to vent length with a 92 mm tail.

Mundanthurai Wildlife JUSTUS JOSHUA

Sanctuary,

Pabanasam (via),

Ambasamudram Taluk,

Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu.

Research Assistant, A. G. SEKAR

Herpetology Section,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House,

S. B. Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023,

January 10, 1985.

References

Annandale, N. (1906): New and interesting

Lizards in Colombo Museum. Spolia zeylanica Vol.

Ill, Part XI, page 189.

Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1953): A coloured Atlas

of some Vertebrates from Ceylon, Govt. Press, Sri

Lanka.

Smith, M. A. (1935) : The Fauna of British India.

Reptilia and Amphibia — 3 — Sauria — London.

24. A NOTE ON GREEN WHIP SNAKE PREDATING ON

PHYLLOSCOPUS SP.

On 10th of October 1984 I heard the distress

call of a small bird at 14.40 hrs and as the

pitch of the distress call increased I stepped

out of my house and saw a small bird in the

jaws of a Green Whip Snake Ahaetulla nasu-

tus approximately 4 ft. in length coiled up on

a Wodina odiar tree at a height of c 12 ft. The

head and fore body on one of the branches of

the tree with the rest of the body hanging

downwards. The snake had caught what ap-

peared to be a Phylloscopus spp., from its

plumage and a stripe above the eye on the

right shoulder. When I saw the snake, the

bird was struggling to escape, but in vain and

finally the bird stopped its calling.

After a lapse of about 15 minutes the snake

began to swallow the bird by changing its

‘catch position’ slowly towards the neck of the

bird. The head was taken in first and, the

buccal cavity of the snake looked like a small

pouch, I was surprised when the swallowed

portion of the bird was brought out again and

I wondered if the bird would be dropped but

it was not. The bird was held by the neck

and the process of swallowing started again

with the ‘head first’ position. This time the

process was very slow but did not stop till

the entire bird was swallowed. I watched the

prey moving in the throat of the snake, which

raised its head and by movements of its ante-

rior body the bird was apparently pushed down

to almost the middle of the intestine. The snake

423

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

started moving away from its original position

around 14.43 hrs. I was curious to see the

state of the prey after it had been swallowed

and caught the snake. On dissection the

swallowed bird was seen to be quite intact

with the legs and head placed in such

Avifauna Project,

Kodikkarai 614 807,

December 30, 1984.

a position giving the whole a spindle shape.

There were also remnants of food in

the viscera, in the form of feather and un-

digested remnants of a small bird. The snake

is preserved in the Museum at the Society’s

field station at Point Calimere.

R. PANNEERSELVAM

S. ALAGAR RAJAN

25. YOUNG COMMON SANDBOA ( ERYX CONICUS SCHNEIDER)

SWALLOWING BARRED WOLFSNAKE ( LY CODON STRIATUS

SHAW) DOUBLE ITS LENGTH

I am collecting snakes from urban areas

from the point of conservation and research

work. On the morning of eleventh May, I re-

ceived a call from a resident of Bhavnagar

City about a snake seen in his garden. I col-

lected it, a young common sandboa {Eryx

conicus ) and bagged it in a cotton bag. While

returning, I saw a wolfsnake by the side of

the road. As I did not have another bag, I kept

both snakes together.

On reaching home, I found that the sandboa

had swallowed the wolfsnake upto half of its

body length. The wolfsnake was almost double

the length of the sandboa.

11, Desai Nagar, RAJU VYAS

Bhavnagar Para,

Bhavnagar 364 003,

May 11, 1984.

26. ON THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF APUS KASHMIRIENSIS DAS

(CRUSTACEA: BR ANCHIOPODA : NOTOSTRACA: APODIDAE)

I NTRODUCTION

The palaearctic tadpole shrimp of Kashmir

— Triops cancrijormis (Bose) — has had a

remarkably chequered history. The earliest

reference to the occurrence of Triops in

Kashmir is by Lawrence (1895) who, in his

celebrated report on the valley of Kashmir,

stated that “among the vegetable pests may

be mentioned snails ( hangi ), leeches (drik)

and a fish-like insect known as Dadu. These

cause injury to the rice-plant”. He also men-

tioned that “the cultivator also has to be on

the lookout for snails and for Dadu, a fish-like

insect with hard scaly wings, both of which

eat up the young rice plants. When the rice

plant is a foot high, the Dadu does no harm

and is said to be of use, as it works the soil

around the roots ....”. It may be pointed

out that even now Triops is called Dadu in

424

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Kashmiri language and constitutes a fairly seri-

ous pest in the early stages of rice cultivation.

It is evident that Lawrence’s fish-like insect

with hard scaly wings is none other than the

Branchiopod Triops, whose hard shield-like

carapace Lawrence mistook for wings.

Kemp (1911) described the specimens of

Triops collected from Kashmir Valley by Major

Walton and assigned these to the species T.

cancriformis. He also collected specimens of

this species from Banihal area (south of Pir

Panjal range) at an altitude of about 8000 ft.

and remarked that there are noticeable dis-

tinctions between the specimens obtained from

Kashmir and those collected from the plains of

India, but these are probably due to differ-

ences in biological conditions correlated with

high altitude.

Tiwari (1951) gave an account of the

Indian species of Triops and erected two new

species ( A pus orientalis and A. mayliensis).

He also listed Triops cancriformis as being

found in Kashmir in addition to such localities

as Buland Shahr, Sargodha district, Punjab and

Gujarat.

Hora et al. (1955) gave a brief account of

some interesting features of the aquatic fauna

of Kashmir Valley and stated that Triops

cancriformis is very abundant in the rice-

fields of Kashmir Valley as well as in the Dal

Lake. The latest contribution by Das (1966)

on the palaearctic elements in the fauna of

Kashmir lists Triops (= A pus) longicaudatus

as being found in Kashmir. In a subsequent

contribution he (Das 1970) erected a new

species for the Kashmir specimens of Triops

and named it A pus kashmiriensis.

Distribution : In India Triops cancriformis

(Bose) has been recorded from Buland

Shahr (Kemp 1911, Walton 1911), Nuriwalla,

Sargodha district, Punjab (Bond 1934),

Gujarat (Mahabale 1939) and Kashmir

(Kemp 1911, Tiwari 1951, Hora et al. 1955).

I collected specimens of this species from the

Dal Lake and rice-fields at Sopore and

Handwara (Kashmir Valley) as well as

Poonch Valley (Jammu Province) (Nath

1979).

Discussion

The palaearctic branchiopod — Triops can-

criformis (Bose) — shows an erratic distribu-

tion, being found in several widely separated

localities such as Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh

(India), England, Italy, W. Germany, and

Europe. It is certain that this branchiopod

reached Kashmir along with several other

palaearctic animals long before the geographi-

cal barriers between the palaearctic region and

the rest of India were formed. Exceptionally

well-preserved specimens of Triops cancrifor-

mis (Bose) have been recovered from the

Frankish Keuper (Upper Triassic), indicating

that this species of Triops has survived un-

changed for the last 200 million years, facing

everything in the “asylum” of short-term

water spates and long periods of dormancy

within the egg, buried in dry mud. It is not

surprising, therefore, that, in spite of its iso-

lated existence in Kashmir from prehistoric

times. Triops has not evolved into a new

species. This offers a sharp contrast to the

fate of several other palaearctic elements in the

aquatic fauna of Kashmir (Das 1966) which,

due to prolonged isolation and evolution under

mountain-terrain conditions, have evolved into

new species (e.g. Schizothorax, Noemacheilus,

Glyptothorax, etc.).

Kemp (1911), Tiwari (1951) and Hora et al.

(1955) studied the specimens of Triops col-

lected from Kashmir and assigned these to the

species Apus cancriformis Sch. Longhurst

(1955) revised the Notostraca and reassessed

the validity of a number of taxonomic charac-

425

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

ters. He also reduced the number of species

of Triops (= A pus) to four.

I collected about 500 specimens of Triops

from Dal Lake and adjacent canals and rice-

fields at Sopore and Handwara (Kashmir) as

well as from Poonch Valley (J. & K. State).

Detailed study of these specimens has reveal-

ed that all of them belong to the species Triops

cancriformis ( Bose) .

Das (1970) studied the specimens of Triops

collected from the Dal Lake and adjacent areas

and erected a new species for them which

he named A pus kashmiriensis on the basis

of the following characters:

1 Size of the carapace;

2. Length of caudal styles;

3. Size of shell gland;

4. Number of abdominal segments;

5. Size of antennules and

6. Absence of antennae.

Das (op. cit.) further stated that his speci-

mens differed from Triops cancriformis (Bose)

in:

a) The possession of a larger and stouter

carapace;

b) The presence of a shorter second endite

of the thoracic foot and

c) The length of the fourth endite which

reaches far beyond the abdomen.

A large number of specimens of Triops

cancriformis (Bose) were obtained from Dal

Lake and adjacent areas and compared with

the specimens of Triops obtained from other

localities in the State. As pointed out by

Tiwari (1951) the important taxonomic charac-

ters for the identification of various species of

Triops are:

a) The shape of the nuchal organ, and

b) The number of apodal segments.

As all the specimens of Triops collected

from Kashmir and Poonch agree with Triops

cancriformis (Bose) in the shape of the nuchal

organ (oval) and the number of apodal seg-

ments (6-8), I regard Apus kashmiriensis Das

and Triops cancriformis (Bose) as conspecific,

and have assigned all specimens of Triops

collected from Poonch Valley and Kashmir

Valley to the latter species. The differences

between Triops cancriformis (Bose) and Apus

kashmiriensis Das are non-taxonomic and pro-

bably due to the differences in biological

conditions correlated with high altitudes. Thus

there are insufficient grounds for the erection

of a new species for the Kashmir specimens

of Triops.

Moreover, according to the ruling given by

the International Commission on Zoological

Nomenclature in Opinion 502 (1958) the

correct valid name for the branchiopod genus

previously known as Apus Schaeffer, 1756, is

Triops Schrank, 1803. Therefore Schaeffer’s

name Apus has been declared invalid as a

pre-Linnaean usage and the generic name Apus

Scopoli 1777 is the valid name for an avian

genus of swifts (Tiwari 1972).

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Dr. G. A. Boxshall of the

Department of Zoology, British Museum of

Natural History, London, for confirming the

identification of the specimens under report.

Thanks are also due to Dr. K. K. Tiwari,

Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,

for his valuable opinion.

426

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Systematics

Triops cancriformis (Bose)

1911 Apus cancriformis, Kemp,

1925 Apus cancriformis, Gurney,

1931 Apus cancriformis, Barnard,

1934 Apus cancriformis, Bond,

1951 Apus cancriformis, Tiwari,

1955 Triops cancriformis, Longhurst,

1964 Triops longicaudatus, Das et a!.,

1970 Apus kashmiriensis, Das,

1979 Triops cancriformis, Nath,

Department of Zoology,

Islamia College of Science &

Commerce,

Srinagar-2, (Kashmir),

July 15, 1983.

Refer

Anon, (1958): Opinion 502. Ops. Decls. int.

Comm. Zool. Nomencl., 18(3) : 65-120.

Bond, R. M. (1934): Report on the phyllopod

Crustacea, (Anostraca, Notostraca, conchostraca)

including a revision of Anostraca from the Indian

Empire. Mem. Connecticut Acad. 10: 29-62.

Das, S. M. (1966): Palaearctic elements in the

fauna of Kashmir. Nature 212: 1-6.

(1970): On a new species of Apus

( Triops ) Schaeffer 1756 (Crustacea, Branchiopoda,

Notostraca) from Kashmir. Ichthyologica, 10(1-2) :

5=7. - _ , _

Gurney, R. (1925): Some Asiatic specimens of

Apus: (i) Apus cancriformis Schaeffer, (ii) A. grana-

rius Lucas. Rec. Indian Mus., 27: 439-442.

Hora, S. L., Malik, G. M. & Khajuria, H.

(1955): Some interesting features of the aquatic

fauna of the Kashmir Valley. /. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 53(1) : 140-143.

Kemp, S. (1911): Notes on the occurrence of

Apus in Eastern Asia, II. Notes on Major Walton’s

specimens and on others from Kashmir with a list

of previous records from Eastern Asia. Rec. Indian

Mus., 6: 353-357.

Rec. Indian Mus., 6: 353-357

Ibid., 27: 439-440

Ann. S. Afr. Mus., 29: 241

Mem. Connecticut Acad. Sci., 10: 55, fig. 16

Rec. Indian Mus., 49: 203

Bull. Brit. Mus. (N.H.), 3(1): 1-57

Kashmir Sci., 1(1-2): 100-111

Ichthyologica, 10 : 5-7

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 76(3) : 543-544.

SURENDRA NATH

iNCES

Lawrence, W. R. (1895): Valley of Kashmir.

London.

Longhurst, A. R. (1955): A review of the

Notostraca. Bull. Brit. Mus. (N.H.) Zoology 3(1) :

1-57.

*Mahabale, T. S. (1939): On the occurrence of

Apus in Gujarat, Western India. Curr. Sci. 8: 471.

Nath, Surendra (1979): Extension of range of

Triops cancriformis (Bose) (Branchiopoda; Noto-

straca; Apodidae) to Poonch Valley (Jammu &

Kashmir State). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(3):

543-544.

Tiwari, K. K. (1951): Indian species of the

genus Apus, with description of two new species.

Rec. Indian Mus. 49: 197-206.

(1972): Taxonomic status of two

recently described Branchiopoda from Kashmir,

India. Crustaceana, 23(3) : 311-314.

Walton, H. J. (1911): Notes on the occurrence

of Apus in Eastern Asia I: On the occurrence of

Apus Latreille in the United Provinces of India.

Rec. Indian Mus. 6: 351-352.

* Not consulted in original.

427

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

27. NEW RECORD OF LONG-HORNED GRASS-HOPPER,

HOLOCHLORA INDICA KIRBY ATTACK ON PEACH AT RAIAN

(PUNJAB, INDIA)

Long-horned grass-hopper, Holochlora in-

dica Kirby, was found severely infesting a four

year old orchard of peach ( Primus persica

Batsch) at village Raian of District Ludhiana

(Punjab) during March-May, 1981. Out of

300 peach trees, seventy five per cent were

attacked by this pest. The damage was con-

fined only to this orchard as the survey in the

adjoining orchards did not reveal its presence.

Crops like wheat and berseem, Trifolium

alexandrium Linn, were harvested during April

from the nearby fields.

The attack by adults of this grass-hopper

was first noticed along the boundary of the

orchard during the last week of March. They

started feeding on leaves especially on the

eastern side (Sunny side) of the tree Canopy.

The affected portion appeared as ‘burnt up’

due to the feeding injury, often confused with

sun affectation of the tender shoots. During

April-May, the adults began to feed on deve-

loping fruits. At times the entire fruit was

eaten up, leaving behind the stone that remain-

Department of Entomology,

Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana-141 004,

November 1, 1983.

ed attached to the branch by the pedicel.

The partially attacked fruits did not grow

further and became deformed and thus proved

to be complete loss to the fruit grower. Esti-

mates based on the samples drawn from a

hundred randomly selected trees, revealed that

the infestation on the fruits ranged from 22 to

96 per cent with an average loss of 52 per cent.

As a result of severe damage by Holochlora

indica, the fruits could not be sold in the

market, thus the grower had to suffer consi-

derable financial loss.

The incidence of Holochlora indica Kirby

thus seems to be the first record as a sporadic

serious pest of peach tree in India. It may be

taken as potential threat on early maturing

peach fruits that are being grown in the north-

western region of India.

We thank peach growers of Raian

village, for providing facilities and field assis-

tance. Sincere thanks are also due to the

Director, Commonwealth Institute of Entomo-

logy, London for the identification of the pest.

D. D. NARANG

B. S. CHAHAL

28. INFESTATION OF SOLANUM INDICUM LINNAEUS BY DACUS

( BACTROCERA ) DORSALIS HENDEL

During a recent survey of fruit fly fauna in

Eastern India, heavy infestation of a fruit fly

species was observed on Solanum indicum

fruits. The infested fruits were brought to the

laboratory and flies reared. The flies which

emerged were identified as Dacus ( Bactrocera )

dorsalis. The female fly was also observed

laying eggs in semiripe fruits of S. indicum.

The number of eggs and larvae was found to

be only 1 to 3 in each fruit. The larvae were

observed feeding and growing in the pulpy

material of the host fruits leaving the hard

428

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

seeds undamaged. A single larva was found

to be enough to destroy a fruit completely.

The infestation was so heavy that nearly 75

per cent fruits observed were infested.

S. indicum is a new host record of D. ( B .)

dorsalis. It is interesting to note D. (B.) dor-

salis, a serious pest of a large number of fruits

Department of Zoology,

College of Basic Sciences

& Humanities,

Rajendra Agricultural

University, Bihar,

Pusa (Samastipur)-848 125,

November 14, 1984.

infesting a weed plant S. indicum (a common

weed in waste grounds) and controlling its

spread biologically.

Thanks are due to Dr. Harsh Kumar,

Assistant Professor of Genetics, Rajendra Agri-

cultural University, Bihar, Pusa (Samastipur)

for identificaiton of weed plant.

M. L. AGARWAL

29. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF MINT

DEFOLIATOR SCOPULA REMOTATA GUENEE (GEOMETRIDAE :

LEPIDOPTERA)

(With a plate )

Scopula remotata Guenee has been reported

from India and has been described by several

authors (Hampson 1895, Prout 1913, 1938).

However, nothing is so far known about the

host plants and the biology of this species.

Some notes on the outlines of the Biology

have been published in respect of Scopula

cleoraria (Walker) (Sevastopulo 1943) and a

few other geometrid species (Sevastopulo

1942, 1943, 1945, 1947). The present commu-

nication records some observations on the

biology of Scopula remotata, procured from

the mint runners in the Pharmaceutical Gar-

den, Punjab University, Chandigarh.

Scopula remotata Guenee is a small-sized,

creamish geometrid moth attacking the mint

(Podina) plants (Plate I, 1) in North-West India,

from middle of April to Middle of November

during which period it passes about six gene-

rations. The adults live for 5-7 days and only

occasionally consume a drop of water or sap

from the injured parts of the host plants. The

caterpillars are voracious eaters and defoliate

the plants, reducing them merely to twigs (Plate

I, 2). In such a condition, it becomes difficult to

differentiate the caterpillars as they have a

curious habit of holding the branches of the

plants with the help of their last pair of pro-

legs and keeping the body stretched in a

motionless posture (Plate I, 4), as also observed

by Sevastopulo (1943) for Scopula cleoraria.

The caterpillars also show cannibalistic ten-

dencies, specially during the shortage of plant

foliage. The male moths have ciliated antennae,

short and dilated hind tibiae, narrow abdomen

and a single spine-like frenulum in contrast

to the serrate antennae, slender tibiae with two

pairs of spurs each, swollen abdomen and the

frenulum consisting of numerous bristles in

the female.

429

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

life cycle: The adults copulate soon after

their emergence. The oviposition starts 24-30

hrs. after copulation. The eggs are laid singly

but some of the eggs stick to each other form-

ing small groups on the leaves. A female lays

a total of about 70-85 eggs during its life span.

Freshly laid eggs are light green and somewhat

oval. The egg surface is divided into promi-

nent squarish areas (Plate I, 3). After one day,

the colour of the eggs turns to white and then

gradually from light yellow through red to

brownish-black before hatching. The embryo-

nic stage lasts for 60-72 hrs. At the time of

hatching, the caterpillar makes a circular hole

in the egg shell at the narrow end or close to

it. The portion of the egg shell cut off by the

caterpillar is frequently consumed as the first

meal. The larva takes an average of 14

seconds to make the exit hole and hatches

out within about 2 minutes. The freshly hatched

larva is very active and starts feeding on

tender leaves of mint plants. The larva is fus-

cous dorsally and light yellow laterally and

ventrally, with the latter surface carrying pro-

minent black spots. It is about 2 mm long. The

larva moults six times within a period of 18-21

days when the atmospheric temperature ranges

from 29°C-32°C.

Department of Zoology,

Punjab University,

Chandigarh,

January 5, 1985.

R EFE

Hampson, G. F. (1895): Fauna of British India.

Moths, 3: 1-546.

Prout, L. B. (1913): Revision of Palaearctic Geo-

metridae. In Seitz Macrolep. Wld., 4: 17-152.

(1938): Geometridae. In Seitz

Macrolep. Wld., 12: 141-236.

Sevastopulo, D. G. (1942): The early stages of

Indian Lepidoptera. Parts IX and X. J. Bombay nat.

The fully grown larva measures about 20-22

mm in length. It stops feeding and becomes

motionless. After 5-10 hrs., contraction of the

larval body begins, reducing its length to 14-16

mm (Plate I, 5). At this stage the larva starts

spinning the cocoon around itself. The site of

cocoon formation varies a great deal in diffe-

rent circumstances. The cocoon can be pre-

pared between two leaves, within a single rolled

leaf (Plate I, 7) or by entangling sand parti-

cles and beads of faecal matter amongst silken

threads (Plate I, 6). The preparation of the

cocoon, irrespective of the mode of its forma-

tion, is completed within about 1 hr. and 40

minutes. After the completion of cocoon, the

length of the caterpillar is further reduced to

about 8-9 mm, marking the onset of prepupa

stage. The prepupa moults into pupa within

3^-4 minutes (Plate I, 8). The freshly formed

pupa is glossy and light green. The pupal stage

lasts for 5-7 days after which the adult moth

emerges out. The total life cycle is completed

in an average period of 28 days.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Chairman, Department

of Zoology, Punjab University, Chandigarh for

providing necessary research facilities.

V. K. WALIA

H. R. PAJNI

EN CES

Hist. Soc. 43: 39-47; 409-415.

(1943): The early stages of

Indian Lepidoptera. Part XI. ibid. 44: 78-87.

■ (1945): The early stages of

Indian Lepidoptera. Part XIII. ibid. 45: 188-198.

(1947): The early stages of

Indian Lepidoptera. Parts XVI-XVIII. ibid 46: 413-

430, 575-586; 47: 26-43.

430

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82

Walia & Pajni : Scopula remotata

Plate I

See text.

Abbreviation : CAT — Caterpillar.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

30. OCCURRENCE OF FLEA BEETLES, CHAETOCNEMA SPP.

(COLEOPTERA: CHRYSOMELIDAE) ON FIRMIAN A COLOR AT A

Eirmiana colorata is a moderate sized orna-

mental tree. It produces orange scarlet flowers

borne in long pendulous clusters. During the

period of July to August, 1984, two year old

F. colorata plants were found to be infested

by three species of flea beetles: (Coleoptera:

Chrysomelidae) namely: Chaetocnema basalis

Baly, C. concinnipennis Baly and C. indica

Weise on Agricultural College Campus, Uni-

versity of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad,

Karnataka.

Joshi et al. (1969) recorded C. basalis as a

serious pest of wheat in Rajasthan. Similarly,

C. concinnipennis caused severe damage to new-

ly transplanted seedlings of rice at Cuttack

(Kulshreshtha and Mishra 1970). Reddy et al.

(1980) observed C. basalis and C. indica

Department of Entomology,

College of Agriculture,

Dharwad 580 005,

Karnataka,

January 14, 1985.

Refer

Joshi, H. C., Doval, S. L. & Mathur, B. P. (1967):

New record of Chaetocnema basalis Baly: (Chryso-

melidae: Coleoptera) as a serious pest of wheat

in Rajasthan. Indian J. Ent., 29: 305.

Kulshreshtha, J. P. & Mishra, B. C. (1970):

Occurrence of Chaetocnema concinnipennis Baly

31. TWO NEW RECORDS OF

damaging an ornamental hedge plant, Alter-

nanthera sp. at Dharwad in Karnataka.

The adults of all the three species scrap-

ed the leaf lamina on the dorsal surface in

irregular fashion and the damaged leaf pre-

sented characteristic scrape markings which

turned brownish later. Severely injured leaves

dried and dropped down. The number of

beetles ranged from 1 to 13 per leaf. The beetles

hid on the ventral surface of leaves during

the sunny hours of the day. The species were

observed in large numbers in mating pairs on

the leaf surface. They used to fall to the

ground at the slightest disturbance.

The present report of C. basalis, C. concinni-

pennis and C. indica on F. colorata appears to

be the first of its kind.

T. K. NARAYANA SWAMY

R. GOVINDAN

D. N. R. REDDY

L. KRISHNA NAIK

NCES

(Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera) on rice in the Indian

Union. Indian J. Ent., 32: 166-167.

Reddy, D. N. R., Puttaswamy & Nalawadi, U.

G. (1980): Record of pests infesting Alternanthera

sp. an ornamental hedge plant. The Lai- Baugh

Journal, 25(4): 1-4.

CYPERACEAE FROM UPPER

C PLAIN

(With two text -figures )

Introduction resting cyperaceous species which were sub-

sequently identified and confirmed as Fitnbris-

During floristic exploration of Basti District tylis argentea Vahl and Scirpus setaceus L. The

(UP.), one of us (DCS) collected two inte- former, although said to be a species of

431

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Fig. 1. Fimbristylis argentea Vahl.

a. Habit of the plant; b. Nut; c. Glume; d. Stamen; e. Nut with style and stigma,

f. Spike; g. Inflorescence.

432

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

2. Cm

I

Fig. 2. Scirpus setaceus Linn.

a. Habit of the plant; b. Glume; c. Nut with style and stigma; d. Stamen; e Spike-

f. Nut. ’

433

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo'. 82

Tropical Africa, has been distributed through-

out Bengal, Bihar and Central India. (Hooker

1893, Haines 1961, Plain 1963). The latter

is a temperate species occurring at high alti-

tudes in Himalayan forests from Sikkim to

Kashmir (Hooker 1893, Singh & Kachroo

1976). But these are not recorded from the

region of Upper Gangetic Plain by earlier

workers Duthie 1903-1929, Raizada 1976, Rau

1969, Singh 1979, Vishwanathan et al. 1984).

Occurrence of both tropical and temperate

species close to Nepal territory within the

geographical limits 20°30' and 27°30' N

and 82° 12' and 83°53' E, is a new

record and may be of interest from the

phytogeographical, ecological and taxonomic

view point.

Fimbristylis argentea (Rottb.) Vahl. Enum,

PI. 2: 294. 1805; Clarke, FI. Brit. India 6:

640, Scirpus argenteus Rottb. Programme.

27, 1772.

A caespitose annual sedge upto 20 cm.

height. Roots fibrous. Stem slender, trigonous.

Leaves filiform, glabrous, shorter than the

stem; sheath short, glabrous, reddish brown.

Inflorescence terminal, with 4-20 spikelets,

aggregated on the apex of culms. Bracts 2-4,

3-5 cm. long. Glume 0.6-8. 8 x 0.4-5 mm.,

ovate, acute or shortly mucronate, glabrous,

membraneous with red spots. Stamen 1 ; Style

2-4 mm. long, glabrous, slightly hairy below

the bifurcation. Stigma nearly as long as the

style, bifid, hairy. Nut 4 mm. long, obovoid,

biconvex, white with 7 longitudinal striations

(on both surfaces), slightly margined, apex

pointed, base with minute gynophore.

Flowers and Fruits : August-December;

Saini, 4848.

Locality & Field Note: The specimens were

collected from paddy fields near the village of

Bansi in the district of Basti, chiefly associat-

ed with Aeschynomene indica Linn., Alternan-

thera sessilis (Linn.) DC., Cyperus rotundus

Linn., C. alulatus Kern., Phyla nodiflora (Linn.)

Greene, Paspalum scrobiculatum Linn, and

Echinochloa colonum (Linn.) Link.

Scirpus setaceus Linn. Sp. PI. 49. 1753; C. B.

Cl. in FI. Brit. India, 6: 654, 1893.

A caespitose, small, glabrous, annual sedge

up to 7 cm. high with brown, fibrous roots.

Stem filiform, weak. Leaves about 2 cm.

long, setaceous, sometimes nearly as long as

the stem, glabrous; sheath short, glabrous, straw

coloured. Spikelets pseudolateral, single on

each stem. 2-3 x 1 .2-1 .5 mm., chestnut colour-

ed with 6-20 flowers, bract as through the con-

tinuation of stem, about 6 mm. long. Glumes

0. 7-1.0 x 0.5-0. 7 mm., glabrous, ovate, keel

green with 3 prominent nerves, sides dark

reddish with two nerves. Bristles none. Stamens

3, filament short; anther apiculate, style short;

stigma 3, filiform, longer than the style. Nut

brown, 0. 6-1.0 mm, long obovoid, trigonous,

apiculate, 9 longitudinal striations on each

surface, transversely trabeculated between the

striations.

Flowering & Fruiting: October-March.

D. C. Saini, 5909.

Locality & Field Note: I (D.C.S ) collected

only one colony of the plant along Banganga

River in association with Bacopa monnieri

Linn., Cyperus difformis Linn., Dentella repens

Forst. and Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Greene.

The collected specimens have been depo-

sited to the Herbarium, Botany Department,

Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur.

Ack nowledgement

We thank Prof. E. Govindarajalu, Head,

Botany Department, Presidency College, Madras

for confirming the identity of specimens.

i

!

t:

(

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Department of Botany,

Gorakhpur University,

Gorakhpur, U.P.

December 3, 1984.

Refer

Duthie, J. F. (1903-1929): Flora of Upper Gan-

getic Plain and of the adjacent Siwalik and Sub-

Himalayan Tracts. (Rep. ed. 1960), Calcutta.

Hooker, J. D. (1893): Flora of British India,

London.

Haines, H. H. (1961): The Botany of Bihar

and Orissa, Calcutta.

Prain, D. (1963): Bengal Plants, Calcutta.

Raizada, M. B. (1976): Supplement to Duthie's

Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain and of the

adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan Tracts. Dehra

Dun.

1 Present address'. Birb

botany, Lucknow, U.P.

D. C. SAINT

N. K. SHARMA1

S. K. SINGH

ENCES

Rau, M. a. (1969): Flora of Upper Gangetic

Plain and of the adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan

Tracts — Check list. Suppl. 2. Bull. hot. Surv. India

10: 1-87 (1968).

Singh, G. & Kachroo, P. (1976): Forest Flora

of Srinagar. Dehra Dun.

Singh, K. K. (1979): New Plant records from

Kheri district (U.P.) for the Upper Gangetic Plain.

Indian Journal of Forestry, 2(2) : 158-160.

VlSHWANATHAN, M. V., SlNGH, H. B. & BHAGWAL,

P. R. (1984): New plant records for the Upper

Gangetic Plain from Delhi, ibid. 7(2) : 157-158.

1 Sahni Institute of Palaeo-

32. FAMILY CERATOPHYLLACEAE IN THE KASHMIR

HIMALAYAS

In our area the family is represented by a

single species, Ceralophyllum demersum L.,

which is a winter dormant, forming compact

terminal buds giving new plants in the spring.

Ceratophyllum L. Sp. PI. 992 (1753)

Submerged, perennial, olive green herbs,

with articulate fragile stems. Leaves whorled,

1-4 times divided into filiform segments. Flowers

solitary in the axils of the leaves; male flowers

with 10-20 stamens; perianths oblong, 2-3

toothed, white; pistillate flowers with green

perianth. Fruit headed by the slender persis-

tent style.

Ceratophyllum demersum L. Sp. PI. 992 (1753).

Hook f. FI. Brit. Ind. 5: 639 (1888). Subra-

manyam, Aq. Angios. 52 (1962). Aziz, FI.

Pak. 70 (1-3) 1974.

Much branched rootless perennial herbs can

be easily recognised in the field in having

leaves in whorls of 4-10, forked once or twice

into 2-4, filiform linear dark green segments,

segments acute, finely serrate. Flowers small,

axillary, monoecious sessile, solitary in the

axils of leaves; perianth rarely present herba-

ceous; stamens 10-18 on a flat torus, anthers

coloured; ovary sessile, unilocular with a

solitary ovule. Fruit an achene, oblong 2-6 x 2

mm with 3 spines; upper spine double the size

of fruit, 2 basal spines almost equal to fruit.

Pollen grains acolpate (non-aperturate)

spheroidal 26.0 x 26.0 /*, exine very thin,

undifferentiated into sexine and hexine; intine

thin, psilate; stratification obscure. The genus

seems to be unique among the hydrophytes

bearing psilate pollen grains showing close re-

semblance with the family Callitrichaceae.

Abundant in the lakes, ponds, streams and

in the rice fields Harwan, A. M. Kak 3717:

435

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Shalimar, A. M. Kak 3620; Leper Hospital

(Nagin lake) A. M. Kak 3567; Dialgam

(Anantanag) A. M. Kak 3429; Sd, 251;

Distribution : Caucasus; Europe, Siberia, Cen-

tral Asia, Kashmir (India), Pakistan.

Occasionally the seeds and foliage provide

food for wild fowl. The dense vegetative growth

provide shelter for fish and other aquatic

animals. Also as a room for insects that are

valuable as a fish food. The young seedlings

are grown in aquaria for decoration. The

leaves are used as purgative, diuretics and

remedies for biliousness and jaundice. Some-

Department of Botany,

Islamia College of Science

and Commerce,

Srinagar 190 002, Kashmir,

December 26, 1981.

times the extract from plants are mixed with

oil or mucilagenous base and applied exter-

nally to treat elephantiasis. In Kashmir it is

mainly used in the preparation of floating

islands, also used as manure along with other

aquatic plants.

ACK NO WLEDGE M E NTS

We are thankful to Dr. J. N. Javeid, for

going through the manuscript and one of us

(AMK) is also grateful to the Principal, Sarwar

Hussain and Hussain Ahmad, Head, Botany

department for providing laboratory facilities.

A. MAJEED KAK

SULOCHANA DURANI1

1 Department of Botany, Kashmir University,

Srinagar- 190 006.

33. SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN THE PEAKS OF

PHYTOPLANKTON IN LAKHOTIA LAKE

(With a text -figure)

The chlorophyll bearing, microscopic plant

plankton, the phytoplankton, form a basic

component of an aquatic ecosystem as they are

the main primary producers. The seasonal

variations of phytoplankton depend on the

supply of nutrients in the ecosystem. The sup-

ply of nutrients is governed by the catchment

area and the source from which the fresh-

water bodies receive the water. Most of the

literature both on south as well as on north

Indian freshwaters is concentrated only on the

relation of phytoplankton and nutrients. In the

present study, therefore, an attempt was made

to observe the seasonal variations in the peaks

of phytoplankton during hydro-biological

studies of Lakhotia Lake, located at Pali.

Pali district comes in the western region of

Rajasthan. The climate of this region is

characterised by extremes of temperature and

aridity. Owing to the dryness of the atmos-

phere, nature of soil and lack of thick vege-

tation, the annual variations of temperature

are very high. Following seasons have been

reported in the study area.

Summer: March-June; Monsoon: July-

October; Winter: November-February.

Lakhotia is on the north side at the foot of

(25.8°N Lat. and 73.3°E Long.) Pali city. It

436

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

Seasonal variations of nutrients and phytoplankton in Lakhotia lake

£

o

X

CL

34

32

30

2.5

26

2JL

2 2

f.3

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

03

0.6

0.2

r , Silica

..Phoiphatt

SUMMER MONSOON WINTER

Fig. 1. Seasonal variations of phytoplankton and nutrients in Lakhotia lake.

K

JS

i

0

<

£

Z

o

2

z

<

— i

CL

0

1

x

CL

437

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 82

is a man-made, rain-fed, perennial lake rough-

ly triangular in shape having a maximum length

of 1825 m in the east-west direction and a

breadth of 950 m in the north-south direction

with a maximum depth of 4.5 m during the

study period. It's northern limits are marked by

the boundary wall of Umaid Textile Mills pre-

mises while the southern border is encircled

by a series of Pucca ghats. On the eastern bank

are Dharamsalas and temples and the western

side has a spillway. For more details see

Khatri (1983).

For the assessment of nutrients and phyto-

plankton along horizontal as well as vertical

profile of Lakhotia lake three stations (st. 1,

2 and 3) and three depths (surface, 1 m and

bottom) were selected. Samples were collect-

ed at monthly intervals for a period of twelve

months (March, 1977 — through February,

1978). 500 ml of water from surface and sub-

surfaces for the detection of nutrients were

collected. Silica was estimated after Jhingran

et aJ. (1969). Phosphate was determined by

stannous chloride reduction method (Murphy

and Riley 1962) and nitrate as per Mullin and

Riley (1955). Phytoplanktons were counted by

sedimentation method after fixing 500 ml

samples in Lugol’s Iodine solution and pre-

serving in 3% formaldehyde solution. Identi-

fication was done up to generic level results

were expressed in units/lit. (Table 1)

Th& phytoplankton population comprised

of the members of chlorophyceae, cyanophy-

ceae, bacillariophyceae and dinophyceae. Three

peaks of phytoplankton were observed one

each in summer, monsoon and winter seasons

(Fig. 1). The first peak was recorded in June

but in the following month the population of

phytoplankton sharply declined due to dilution

caused by rain and water coming from an

adjacent Lhoria Tank into the lake. The con-

centration of nutrients increased first being

washed out along with the inflowing water.

The overflow of the spillway carrying a bulk

of phytoplankton disturbed the ecosystem in

the lake. There was also decrease in nutrient

level but not to the extent of phytoplankton.

Hence, to re-establish the disturbed ecosystem

a quick cycling of phytoplankton took place

resulting in the second peak in monsoon season

(October) and third in winter season (Febru-

ary).

In the other lakes of western Rajasthan,

Bohra (1976) observed two peaks each in

Padamsagar (monsoon and winter), Ranisagar

(summer and winter) and Misra et al. (1978)

reported only one peak in the monsoon season

in lake Balsamand. Although, Bchra (1976)

observed overflow of banks in Padamsagar and

Ranisagar during monsoon yet there was no

decrease in phytoplankton. The above authors

viewed these differences with the developmen-

tal stages of the lakes. It is apparent that the

established eutrophic lakes have only one peak

as in the case of Balsamand while compara-

tively less developed lakes (Padamsagar and

Ranisagar) have two peaks of phytoplankton.

The occurrence of three peaks in Lakhotia lake

during the study period shows that the

lake is still in an early stage of eutrophic

condition as most of the characters are of

oligotrophic level. The number of peaks of

phytoplankton, hence, may be considered as a

character along with others such as nutrient

level, phytoplankton density and depth, to diffe-

rentiate the oligotrophic lakes from eutrophic

ones.

438

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Department of Zoology, T. C. KHATRI1

University of Jodhpur,

Jodhpur, India,

August 12, 1983.

References

Bohra, O. P. (1976): Some aspect of limnology

of Padamsagar and Ranisagar, Ph.D. Thesis, Uni-

versity of Jodhpur, Jodhpur.

Jhingran, V. G., Natrajan, A. V., Banerjea,

S. M. & David, A. (1969): Methodology on Re-

servoir fishing Investigation in India. Bulletin No.

12, C.I.F.R.I. (I.C.A.R.), Barrackpore, West Bengal.

Khatri, T. C. (1983): Seasonal variations in

phytoplankton pigments in relation to phytoplankton

population in a tropical lake of western Rajasthan.

Environ. & Ecol. 1 : 101-104.

Misra, S. D., Bhargava, S. C., Jekher, G. R. &

Dey, T. (1978): University of Jodhpur, U.G.C. Pro-

ject: Hydrobiol. Prod. Reservoir Lakes Semi-arid

Zone. Jodhpur, Report.

Mullin, J. B. & Riley, J. P. (1955): The spectro-

photometric determination of nitrate in natural water,

with particular reference to seawater. Anal. Chim.

Acta, 12: 464.

Murphy, J. & Riley, J. P. (1962): A modified

single solution method for determination of phos-

phate in natural waters. Anal. Chim. Acta. 27: 31-36.

1 Present address: Zoological Survey of India, 36/

802, Karakkamuri Cross Road, Cochin, India.

34. A NEW NAME FOR ACACIA WIGHTI1 BAKER EX BENTH.

A plant growing on the sea coast of Malabar

was collected by R. Wight and was noted by

Baker as Acacia wight ii. One of these speci-

mens is located at Calcutta herbarium and an-

other at Kew herbarium. The species was

described by Bentham and the authority was

attributed to Baker. Hence the author citation

should be as follows —

Acacia wightii Baker ex Benth. in Trans. Linn.

Soc. 30: 506, 1875. and not A. wightii

Baker in Hooker’s FI. Brit. India 2: 298,

1870 as is cited in most Indian Floristic

works.

Wight 896, thus becomes lectotype of the

species. There are two specimens — one depo-

sited at CAL and other at KEW. It is propos-

ed here to consider KEW specimen as lecto-

type and CAL specimen as isolectotype.

Graham collected a plant and listed it in

Wallich’s Catalogue under no. 5259 as Acacia

wightiana. It is a nomen nudum and its des-

cription was provided by Wight and Amott in

Prodr. FI. Ind. Or. 1: 274, 1834 under the name

Acacia wightii and authority was attributed to

Graham. Hence the citation should run as

follows —

Acacia wightii Graham ex Wt. and Arn. Prodr.

FI. Ind. Or. 1: 274, 1834.

Graham’s species is conspecific with Albizzia

amara Boiv. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 30: 567,

1875 and subsequent researchers have follow-

ed him.

Thus Acacia wightii Baker ex Benth. (1875)

is a later homonym of Acacia wightii Grah.

ex Wt. and Arn. (1834) and must be rejected

in accordance with Art. 64 of International

code of Botanical Nomenclature.

At present there is no other name available

for this plant. Hence it is proposed here to

call this plant as Acacia bold nom. nov. The

specific epithet is given in honour of Prof. P.

439

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

V. Bole, Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s Col-

lege, Bombay.

Its new name and its pertinent synonymy is

as follows —

Acacia bolei nom. nov.

A. wighlii Baker ex Benth. in Trans. Linn.

Blatter Herbarium,

St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay - 400 001.

August 25, 1983.

35. HIBISCUS CALYPHYLLUS

ANDHRA

Hibiscus calvphyllus Cav. Diss. 5 : 283. t.

140, 1787; Rakshit & Kundu in Bull. Bot.

Surv. India 12 : 172. 1970. Hibiscus cannas-

cens Heyne in Wall. Cat. 2698. 1828-49 (nom.

nud.). Wt. & Am. Prodr. 49. 1834; Masters

in FI. Brit. Ind. 1: 337. 1874; Gamble, FI. Pres.

Madras 1: 70. 1957 (repr. ed.). (Malvaceae).

Shrubs 2-2.5 m tall. Leaves 4-12 cm x 3.5-

9.5 cm, broadly ovate-cordate, palmately 7-

nerved, hairy above, stellate-tomentose below,

margins distantly toothed, entire or shallowly

lobed, acute or acuminate at apex, petioles

1.5-12 cm long, stipules 0.8-1 cm long, linear,

setaceous, caducous. Flowers solitary, large

yellow with purple centre at base inside, epi-

calyx 5 segments, 1.5-2. 5 cm long, longer

than calyx, calyx trinerved, connate near middle,

lobes ovate, acute or obtuse. Capsules in per-

sistant calyx, 1.5-2. 5 cm x 1-2 cm densely

hairy, spinous-pointed. Seeds 5 mm long, cot-

tony hairy.

Rare, but conspicuous on hill slopes in thick

forest with its large purple centered yellow

flowers. I noticed two or three plants in flowers

and fruit.

Soc. 30: 567, 1875. (non Graham ex Wt. and

Am. 1834).

The type would be the type of A. wightii

Baker ex Benth., i.e. Wight 896, lectotype at

KEW and isolectotype at CAL. In accordance

with Art. 7 of International Code of Botanical

Nomenclature.

RAVINDRA P. SUBHEDAR

CAV.: A NEW RECORD FOR

PRADESH

Herbarium specimens examined: Udayagiri

in Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh: BS 4314,

30.1.1972, BS 4745, 21.12.1973.

Distribution : Karnataka: Mysore; Tamil

Nadu: Tinnevelly; Andhra Pradesh: Udaya-

giri in Nellore district (author’s collection);

Ceylon.

The identity of this plant is confirmed by

the courtesy of Central National Herbarium,

Howrah. The specimens are deposited at the

Visvodaya Government College Herbarium,

Venkatagiri Town in Andhra Pradesh and

Madras Herbarium. BSI, Coimbatore.

This plant hitherto is known to occur in

Western Peninsula only and its report now

from Udayagiri in Nellore District is a new

record for Andhra Pradesh from Eastern

Peninsula.

Ack nowledgements

1 thank the Director, Botanical Survey of

India for necessary information and help and

Dr. M. Sanjappa, Systematic Botanist, BSI,

440

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Howrah for his helpful suggestions. I am also

grateful to the Principal, Jawahar Bharati,

Head of the Department of Botany,

Visvodaya Government College,

Venkatagiri Town, A.P.,

October 21, 1983.

Kavali for facilities and to the UGC for finan-

cial assistance under COSIP.

B. SURYANARAYANA

36. OCCURRENCE OF ONYCHIUM FRAGILE VERMA ET

KHULLAR FROM KUMAON HIMALAYA

While exploring the flora of Kumaon Hima-

laya the senior author came across a specimen

of Onychium fragile Verma et Khullar at

Jageshwar in Almora district. This species has

so far been reported only from Kashmir and

Mussoorie, and is now being reported for the

first time from this region.

Onychium fragile Verma et Khullar, Nova

Hedwigia, 9, 85, 1965; Khullar & Sharma,

Aspects of Plant Science (Ed.) Ill, 82, 1980.

Dhir, Ferns of North-Western Himalaya, 35,

1980.

Plants small, fragile. Rhizome short, creep-

ing, apex clothed in brown coloured lanceolate

scales. Fronds small. Stipe straminuous black

at base. Lamina 4-pinnate. Infertile apex of

fertile segments mucronate. Inducial margins

pale coloured. Ripe capsule brownish. Spores

large, trilet with a broad equatorial girdle hav-

ing reticulate ornamentation.

This species does not appear to be common

in this area. Few plants were found growing

under shade of Deodar forest.

Specimen examined : Kumaon Himalaya,

District Almora, Jageshwar 1810 m, P. C.

Pande 10363. The voucher specimen is depo-

sited in the Herbarium of Department of

Botany, Punjabi University, Patiala, India.

Ack nowledgement

P. C. Pande is grateful to the University

Grants Commission. New Delhi, for financial

assistance.

P. C. PANDE

S. S. BIR1

Department of Botany,

Kumaon University Campus,

Almora, U.P., India,

January 16, 1984.

1 Present address : Professor of Botany, Punjabi

University, Patiala, India.

37. INCIDENCE OF SEEDLING FORMATION IN RHIZOPHORA

LAMARCKII MONTR. AT PICHAVARAM MANGROVE,

TAMIL NADU, INDIA

Occurrence of Rhizophora lamarckii has

already been reported from New Caledonia,

Papua New Guinea and Queensland (Tomlin-

son and Womersley 1976) and also Pichava-

ram mangrove forest (Lakshmanan and

Rajeswari Mahalingam 1983). Complete ab-

sence of seedlings in these plants in the Port

Moresby area (New Guinea) has been report-

ed (Tomlinson and Womersley 1976). This

particular character of these plants and their

441

13

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. S2

presence along with R. apiculata and R. stylosa

has led to a suggestion that, possibly, R.

lamarckii is a hybrid between R. apiculata and

R. stylosa. Sterility of the female, possession

of intermediate characters (between those of

R. apiculata and R. stylosa ) by the flowers of

R. lamarckii and aberrations in stamen mor-

phology were given as supporting evidence for

the above suggestion. Formation of seed in

these plants in New Caledonia and Occa-

sional seedlings in Hinchinbrook population

(Queensland) has however been indicated.

Rhizophora lamarckii in Pichavaram man-

grove forest is a tall tree with a spreading

canopy. It can be easily recognized by its

height and broad and leathery leaves. It

is intermingled with R. apiculata and another

species resembling R. stylosa (this species has

all the characters of R. stylosa, but has only

CAS in Marine Biology,

Parangipettai 608 502,

January 30, 1984.

short style). Seedlings are mostly absent in

these trees. However a rare case of a seedling

was observed from a R. lamarckii during one

of our visits on 10.7.1983.

This viviparous seedling along with its

parent twig, was collected and is preserved in

the Herbarium CAS in Marine Biology, Anna-

malai University. An examination of this

seedling suggests that the hypocotyl is broader

than the hypocotyl of either R. apiculata or

the other species resembling R. stylosa. Nothing

is known about its viability as no other seedling

could be observed in these trees during sub-

sequent visits.

The very rare occurrence of seedling in these

plants which are present in appreciable num-

bers suggest the need for genetic and embryo-

logical studies to know about their propaga-

tion.

K. MUNIYANDI

R. NATARAJAN

References

Lakshmanan, K. K. & Rajeshwari Mahalingam Tomlinson, P. B. & Womersley, J. G. (1976):

(1983): Distribution of organic contents in the A Rhizophora new to Queensland and New Guinea,

leaves of Rhizophora species. Abstract No. 405, Proc. with notes relevant to the genus. Contrib. Herb.

10th Ind. Sc. Cong. 3, Abstracts. Austral. 19: 1-10.

38. OXYGONUM BURCH. (POLYGON ACE AE) — AN

INTERESTING NEW RECORD FROM INDIA

(With a text -figure)

In the course of my studies of the Flora of

Quilon Town, Kerala State, I collected a poly-

gonaceous species which was identified by

Kew authorities as Oxygonum sinuatum

(Hochst. et Steud. ex Meisn.) Dammer. There is

no record of the occurrence of any species of

Oxygonum Burch, anywhere in India. There-

fore the genus itself is an addition to Indian

Flora.

The combined characters of (1) herbaceous

habit, (2) terminal racemose inflorescence, (3)

bisexual flowers, (4) gamophyllous nature of

the perianth and (5) prickly fruit make this

genus distinct from all other Indian polygo-

naceous genera.

Oxygonum sinuatum, diffuse scabrid herbs;

branches upto a metre long, decumbent to

procumbent; internodes terete, striate, and

442

6 Cm

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Oxygonum sinuatum (Hochst. et Steud. ex Meisn.) Dammer.

1. Habit; 2. A portion of twig enlarged; 3. L. S. of flower; 4. Fruit; 5. L. S. of fruit.

443

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

scabrid. Leaves simple, alternate, ochreate,

upto 4.5 cm. x 2 cm.; ochrea 0.5 to 0.7 mm.

long, faintly striate, scabrid with a straight

mouth carrying 8 to 9 slender, basally slightly

hairy 5 mm. to 6 mm. long setae; blade elliptic-

lanceolate in outline with undulate entire to

pinnatifid margin, acute-mucronate at tip and

cuneate at base tapering into a short petiole;

veins 5-6, faintly impressed above and raised

below; the margins and veins below scabrid,

glabrous otherwise. Inflorescence terminal, elon-

gate and racemose with one to a few flowers

in the axils of ochreate bracts; peduncle

triquetrous and scabrid on the margins. Flowers

actinomorphic, bisexual, with a ± 3 mm. long

slender pedicel scabrid on the margins.

Perianth lobes 5, ± 4 mm. long, less than

■|-way basally connate; the gamophyllous por-

tion greenish and scabrid outside, with 3

spinescent emergents at the base; the free lobes

elliptic-lanceolate with acute to obtuse tip,

quincuncial. mauve to white, the outer greenish

and faintly scabrid along the back. Stamens 7-8,

epiphyllous, arising from the mouth of the

perianth tube, variable in length, inserted; fila-

ments with a tuft of hairs at the base, just

above the point of insertion, glabrous other-

wise; anthers 2-celled with longitudinal dehis-

cence. Pistil small, ± 2.75 mm long, ovary

elongate-lanceolate, about 0.75 mm. long with

Department of Botany,

Sree Narayana College,

Quilon, Kerala, S. India,

August 24, 1984.

3, ± 2 mm. long slender basally connate

styles, each ending in a globular stigma; ovary

1 -celled and 1-ovuled with a basal placentum.

Fruit is an achene enclosed in a hard covering

of the persisting basal portion of the perianth,

the whole more or less top-shaped with 3 radiate

sharp and hard prickles, conical base and apex

and 8 mm. x 6 mm. including the prickes. Seed

endospermous; embryo straight.

Ravi 1630 A, collected from Quilon, Kerala

State on 2nd August, 1984 has been deposited

in the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta

(CAL), Ravi 1630 B, is deposited in the Re-

gional Herbarium of the Southern Circle of

B. S. I. (MH) and Ravi 1630 C-F, are depo-

sited in the Sree Narayana College Herbarium,

Quilon.

I first collected the plants from near a rail-

way track in 1968. Since then the plant has

spread to the neighbouring localities and now

it is a menacing weed. Oxygonum sinuafum

which is an Egyptian plant might have been in-

troduced into the locality by accident through

the railway. The hard and sharp prickles of

the fruit help easy dispersal of the plant through

the agency of grazing animals.

I am grateful to the Indian Liaison

Officer at the Kew Gardens for his help in the

identification of the taxon.

N. RAVI

39. ARTICLE 25 OF ICBN AND ITS APPLICATION IN

NOMENCLATURAL CHANGES OF SOME INTRA-SPECIFIC

TAXA FROM INDIA

The Article 25 of the International Code

of Botanical Nomenclature states, “For nomen-

clatural purposes, a species or any taxon be-

low the rank of species is regarded as the

sum of its subordinate taxa, if any”.

During the course of our studies on Indian

444

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

plants we have come across some names in

taxonomic nomenclature which need correc-

tion as follows:

1. Symplocos laurina (Retz.) Wall, ex

Rehd. & Wills, ssp. cochinchinensis (Lour.)

comb. nov.

Basiopym: Drupatris cochinchinensis Lour.

FI. Cochinchin. 314, 1790.

Recently, Ramamoorthy (in Saldanha &

Nicolson, FI. Hassan Dist. 198, 1976) has pub-

lished a new combination Symplocos cochin-

chinensis (Lour.) Moore ssp. laurina (Retz.)

Nooteboom apud Ramamoorthy, based on

basionym Myrtus laurina Retz. (Obs. Bot. 4:

26, 1786). It is obvious from the nomenclature

given and the note at the end by the editors

that Nooteboom considers Drupatris cochin-

chinensis Lour, and Myrtus laurina Retz. dis-

tinct at sub-specific rank within a single species.

However, the name Myrtus laurina Retz. is

the earliest binomial available for the taxon at

species rank and should be accepted and there-

fore Drupatris cochinchinensis Lour, should be

treated as a subspecies of the former. There-

fore, a new combination under genus Symplo-

cos N. Jaquin is proposed.

2. Marsilea ballardii Gupta var. rajasthan-

ensis (Gupta) comb. nov.

Basionym: M. rajasthanensis Gupta, in Bota-

nical Monog. 2, (Marsilea) CSIR: 29, 1962.

Gupta (1955), described a new species of

Marsilea from Ajmer and named it Marsilea

ballardii Gupta (Journ. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 53: 289, 1955). Later in Botanical Mono-

graph (l.c.), he described another species

Marsilea rajasthanensis Gupta and reduced M.

ballardii Gupta to a varietal rank to M. rajas-

thanensis Gupta, stating that it is only a distinct

variety of M. rajasthanensis Gupta, with

abnormal sporocarps.

According to the Article 25 of ICBN, if M.

ballardii Gupta and M. rajasthanensis Gupta

are to be considered as two distinct varieties

of some species, then M. ballardii Gupta has

the priority over M. rajasthanensis Gupta and

should be accepted as the correct name at

species level and consequently other variety

will go as Marsilea ballardi Gupta var. rajas-

thanensis (Gupta) comb, nov., as proposed

here. If the typical variety ballardii is the ab-

normal form or if it is only partly described,

its specific description may be emended. But

the specific name should not be changed from

M. ballardii Gupta to M. rajasthanensis Gupta.

3. Arthraxon microphyllus (Trin.) Hochst.

var. hindustanicus (Jain et Deshpande) comb,

nov.

Basionym: A. lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst.

var. hindustanicus Jain et Deshpande, Journ.

Ind. Bot. Soc. 51: 176; 1972.

Jain and Deshpande (l.c.), described a new

variety of Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst.

as A. lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst. var. hindus-

tanicus Jain et Deshpande. Arthraxon micro-

phyllus (Trin.) Hochst. and A. lancifolius

(Trin.) Hochst. have been based on Andropo-

gon microphyllus Trin. and Andropogon lanci-

folius Trin. respectively and they were pub-

lished and used in new combinations simulta-

niously by the same authors. However, Hackel

(in DC. Monogr. 6: 35, 1889), is the first

author who merged them in a single species

under the name Arthraxon microphyllus

(Trin.) Hochst. Therefore under Article 25 of

ACBN A. microphyllus (Trin.) Hochst. is

445

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

accepted as the correct name for the species and Hochst. var. hindustanicus (Jain et Deshpande)

a new combination A. microphyllus (Trin.) comb. nov. is proposed.

Blatter Herbarium, S. M. ALMEIDA

St. Xavier \y College,

Bombay-400 001.

Alchemie Research Centre, M. R. ALMEIDA

Thane-400 601. ,

September 6, 1984.

40. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ACHYRANTHES ASPER i L. VAR.

PUBESCENS (MOQ.) TOWNS. IN

(With three

The two species Achyranthes as per a L. and

A. bidentata Blume are easily recognized

(Gamble 1925). However, three collections,

RHT 1124 (Pennagaram), RHT 20544 (Den-

kanikotta) and RHT 24561 (Thally) from

Dharmapuri District at the northwestern corner

of the ‘Tamilnadu Carnatic’ bordering on

Karnataka State, differed from these two

species and the group was subsequently referr-

ed to Achyranthes aspera L. var. pubescens

(Moq.) Towns, or intermediate (s) between

var. aspera and var. pubescens by C. C. Town-

send (Kew).

In Volumes 1 and 3 of the flora of the

tamilnadu carnatic scries (Matthew 1981,

1983), published before this determination was

received, some inaccuracy had crept in and in

the former work this taxon was referred to part-

ly under A. bidentata Blume (RHT 24561) and

partly under A. aspera L. (RHT 1124. 20544),

while in the latter work, the description of A.

bidentata Blume includes these three specimens

as well. This error is intended to be cleared

The Rapinat Herbarium,

St. Joseph’s College,

Tiruchirapalli 620 002,

November 24. 1984.

THE TAMILNADU CARNATIC

text-figures )

up in the following key and illustrations of the

three taxa.

1 Leaves oblanceolate, 7-18 x 2.5-4 cm, sparsely

hirsute, apex gradually acuminate. Staminal sheath

truncate or minutely dentate A. bidentata

1 Leaves elliptic to (ob)ovate, 4-8 x 2.5-5 cm,

thinly pubescent, apex obtuse to subacute. Stami-

nal sheath fimbriate A. aspera

2 Bracts broadly ovate. Wings of the bracteoles

equal, entirely adnate to the midrib. Staminal

sheath obscurely fimbriate. Fruiting perianth

strongly deflexed, < 4(5) mm long

var. aspera

2 Bracts lanceolate. Wings of the bracteoles un-

equal, apically free. Staminal sheath clearly fim-

briate. Fruiting perianth horizontal or mode-

rately spreading, > (5)6 mm long

var. pubescens

Specimens examined: C. C. Townsend (Kew)

has kindly determined the identity of the fol-

lowing specimens: RHT 18385 (A. bidentata ):

RHT 26634 (A. aspera var. aspera): RHT

24561 (intermediate between var. aspera and

var. pubescens; “it has the larger flowers of

var. pubescens and the broad apiculate leaves

of var. aspera” (pers. comm.). See also C.

Townsend (1973 & 1974).

N. RANI

446

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

i

(A) Achyranthes bidentata Blume (RHT 18385); (B) Achyranlhes aspera L. var.

aspera (RHT 26634) ; (C) Achyranthes aspera var. aspera-pubescens intermediate

(RHT 24561).

1. Twig; 2. bract; 3. bracteoles; 4. staminal sheath, split open.

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

References

Gamble, J. S. (1925) : Flora of Presidency of

Madras 2: 1176 (823-824).

Matthew, K. M. (1981): Materials for a Flora

of the Tamilnadu Carnatic. 313.

Rani, N. & Matthew, K. M., in Matthew, K. M.

(1983): The Flora of the Tamilnadu Carnatic. 1298.

Townsend, C. C. (1973): Notes on Amarantha-

ceae. Kew Bull. 28: 145-146.

(1974): Notes on Amarantha-

ceae. Kew Bull. 29: 473.

ERRATA

Volume 81(3) : December 1984

Miscellaneous Note

5. A note on antler casting of barking deer ( Muntiacus muntjak) in captivity.

On page 690, right side column,

Table to be read as under:

448

of the

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Society

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Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1985 DECEMBER Vol. 82 No. 3

STATUS OF BLACKNECKED CRANE IN LADAKH — 1983

PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS1

S. A. Hussain2

{With two plates)

Introduction

Cranes, wherever they occur, have attracted

the attention of mankind down the ages. Their

sheer graceful demeanour, the trumpeting uni-

son call that haunts the mind long after the

echoes are stilled in the air, the empyrean

ballet of courtship display and that special

aura of eternal pair bond had caught the

imagination of man as he ploughed his fields,

tended his cattle or gazed down from the

monasteries and temples, overlooking grassy

meadows and marshlands. Poems have been

composed, legends have been intervoven with

the folk art and religious anecdotes and from

all these emerged a special awe, almost bor-

dering on reverence for the cranes which were

1 Accepted November 1983.

2 Project Scientist, Bombay Natural History So-

ciety, Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

considered to be symbols of love, prosperity

and good luck wherever they occurred. It was

therefore not surprising that the cranes, which

build their nest in the open ground, were not

only unharmed by man but were actually

welcomed within his domain as harbingers of

good luck.

Of the world’s 15 species of cranes the

Blacknecked Crane is perhaps the only species

that had eluded the critical scrutiny of both

professional biologist and amateur naturalist,

retaining its aura of Tibetan mysticism, and

carried on its existence sharing the precious

marshlands with man and beast.

Distribution

The Blacknecked Crane is perhaps the only

crane in the world having an exclusive dis-

tributional breeding range between the alti-

tudes of 3500 m and 5500 m in the tablelands

of central Asia, and also an equally unique

449

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

migratory pattern. Ever since Przeswalski,

that great Russian naturalist-explorer dis-

covered them near lake Ko Ko Nor in

northern Tibet there has been but a sporadic

trickle of information about their sighting or

breeding. Cranes have been recorded from ex-

treme eastern Ladakh (breeding), southern,

south central and southeastern Tibet (breed-

ing/passage migratory) Central Bhutan and

Arunachal Pradesh (wintering) to Szechwan

and Yunnan (breeding/migratory/wintering)

and Vietnam (wintering) to its eastern limit.

A review of whatever fragmentary data we so

far have suggests that there are two distinct

populations polarized at either extreme of the

Tibetan tableland and a winter dispersal pat-

tern that looks like a crescent on a map. The

eastern population, which moves in a north-

south course, has a clear-cut breeding area in

the high altitudes and a wintering area at

least about a thousand kilometres southwards

in the lowlands of Vietnam. In contrast the

status and distribution of the western population

is rather confusing. Breeding and passage areas

seem to overlap along a crescentic tangent

from Ladakh up to the lower hills of north-

eastern India, skirting the northern faces of

the Himalayas along the southern approaches

of the Tibetan Plateau. However, our know-

ledge of the birds in these areas is scanty

and judging from the records available to us

it can be hopefully assumed that somewhere

beyond the bamboo curtain, safe from inter-

national intrigues, the cranes are fairly plenti-

ful in numbers. The records of the cranes con-

gregating in considerable numbers (wintering

in Bhutan c. 35, 1980) Zining, Tsinghai, pro-

vinces of China (10 nests, 17 eggs), and the

information that surfaced during the recent

International Ornithological Congress in

Moscow in August 1982, leads one to believe

that the actual situation may not be as alarm-

ing as is generally assumed to be.

The information on the occurrence and

distribution of the Blacknecked Crane within

Indian limits had been, until recently rather

scanty, except for two major ornithological

expeditions, one in 1925 by that indomitable

pioneer of Indian ornithology B. B. Osmaston,

followed closely by another irrespressible natu-

ralist, Col. Meinertzhagen, both of whom in

the course of their sojourn saw but two or

three pairs in Ladakh. Elsewhere within the

Indian limits they have been reported to occur

in Bhutan and NEFA (present Arunachal

Pradesh).

Habitat overview

The Tibetan Plateau is perhaps one of the

least studied and explored among the world’s

different faunal regions. The plateau is charac-

teristically a bleak wind-swept desert and

barren hills where arctic conditions prevail.

A review of the pattern of occurrence and dis-

tribution of the biota of this region shows a

dominance of specialised endemic and general

species of plants, insects and other animals

which were perhaps driven there due to in-

tense competition in their original habitats. The

wetlands and marshes throughout the plateau

support complex biotic communities providing

the last strongholds for the delicately balanced

high altitude forms. This phenomenon is

similar to the conditions prevailing in oceanic

islands and the environmental factors that in-

fluence the habitat and biota in such islands

may as well apply here. Due to political and

other reasons it is not possible to assess the

existing conditions and status of the fauna and

flora of the major portion of the Tibetan

Plateau. The only accessible portion lying

within the Indian territory is Ladakh which

forms the southwestern extremity of the plateau.

450

BLACKNECKED CRANE IN LADAKH — 1983

The lakes and wetland areas of Ladakh sup-

port a high altitude biota and offer an oppor-

tunity to study the Tibetan ecosystem and its

animals and plants. Basic data about the lake

I ecosystem, geology and insect fauna are

available, but recent information concerning

the status of its mammals and birds is lacking.

Geographic features

Ladakh occupies an area of roughly 83168

sq. km in the eastern portion of Jammu and

Kashmir State. Four main mountain ranges,

the Himalayas in the east and then Zanskar,

Ladakh and Pangong ranges traverse NW-SE.

The main body of the massive Karakorams

which lie north of the Shyok river provide

the northwestern border for the tableland. The

vegetation zonation is sharply defined beyond

the eastern facies of the main Himalayan

range. As one negotiates the Zojila (Pass)

c. 3600 m on the way to Leh the HQ Town

of Ladakh, the lush green tree line of the

Kashmir Valley abruptly gives way to a bare,

rocky landscape, with isolated pockets of

poplar and willow groves around village culti-

vation.

The main rivers, the Indus and Shyok run

along either side of the Ladakh range on a

SE-NW course until both meet and turn

sharply southwest in Baltistan. The three main

ranges of Karakoram, Ladakh and Zanskar,

divide the entire area into the broad valleys

of the Shyok, Indus, Rhupshu and Zanskar.

The last two collectively known as Changtang,

contain the four major lake systems, the

Pangong, Tso Moriri, Tso Kar and Mitpal

Tso, besides some other smaller water bodies.

The wetlands and marshes are scattered

around the lake regions.

Climate

The climatic conditions are harsh. The

entire area is under heavy snow during the

winter and the lakes and rivers freeze. Summer

sets in late May when most of the snow melts

except in the higher peaks, and warm condi-

tions prevail till late September. The intensity

of solar radiation is very high due to the

thin and rarified atmosphere. The contents of

oxygen-nitrogen-carbondioxide combined varies

conversely with altitude. Another characteristic

aspect of such high altitude environments is

the quick changes in atmospheric temperature

brought on by strong winds often culminating

in dust storm.

Climatic oscillations through the years have

had a detrimental effect on the physiography

of the area. Rate of precipitation, fluctuation

in the lake levels, rainfall and glacial move-

ments phenomenon have a direct impact on

the entire ecosystem.

Rainfall and Temperature

Rainfall is higher in the Suru and Dras

valleys and gradually decreases eastwards. The

average annual rainfall as recorded at Leh

and Kargil is about 30 mm for the year 1975.

This includes snowfall (computed at 250 mm

snow — 25 mm rain). This is considerably

less than the seasonal average for the years

between 1880 to 1930, when the average stood

around 75 mm. The maximum temperature

recorded at Leh in 1975 was 23.8°C and at

Kargil 39.9°C and the lowest temperature at

Leh, 17.4°C and at Kargil, 12.4°C. Tempera-

ture around lake regions could be much lower.

Vegetation

Most of the vegetation is confined to moist

valleys flanking glacial streams and the main

451

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

river systems. The broad flat marshes also

host several species of stunted vegetation,

mostly Cyperaceae and flowering plants.

Willows and poplars occur in the river valleys.

The dominant high altitude vegetation of

Ladakh at an average elevation of c. 3400

metres is mainly the thorny scrub Lonicera

spinoides, with an average height of 2 ft and

Hippophae rhamnoides; between the altitudes

of 3657 and 4267 m small white flowers of

Myricaria cyane are common. The vegetation

of altitudes above 4300 m consists mainly of

Tibetan furze Caragana sp.

Present status of Blackneckfd Crane

The present status of the cranes is based

on a series of exploratory forays into Ladakh

initiated by the Joint BNHS — WWF Expe-

dition to Ladakh in 1976 and followed by two

more and a third to their wintering quarters

in Bhutan. The 1976 expedition led by Dr.

Salim Ali visited the three known breeding

areas. On the way to the first of the areas at

Chushul, the expedition was greeted by the

sight of an egg in the process of being taken

to Leh. Predictably, one third of the Ladakh

breeding population had suffered, thanks to

some thoughtless collector of eggs. Deprived

of their eggs, the Chushul pair was wary of

human approach. A second pair was observed

with a week-old chick at Hanle. Altogether five

cranes (two pairs and a singleton) were seen

during the expedition. The second visit by

Prakash Gole in 1978 saw almost the same

number in the same areas, but this time (early

June) the Chushul pair was observed incubat-

ing two eggs. (It was subsequently learnt that

the eggs were destroyed due to floods in the

marsh.) The third sojourn resulted in a wider

coverage of the area.

In the meantime the Jammu and Kashmir

wildlife department reported sighting of 17

cranes in Ladakh in 1982.

Background

At the International Crane Workshop held

at Bharatpur in early 1983, it was emphasised

that the Blacknecked Cranes in their breeding

areas are threatened, and captive breeding of

the species was advocated. The delegates from

India drew a rather dismal picture about the

breeding status in Ladakh, though according

to one delegate, 17 cranes had visited the area

in 1981. The Chinese delegation spoke about

their studies on 10 nesting pairs in Tsinghai

province and mentioned the sighting of Black-

necked Crane flocks on passage different parts

of the central Asian tablelands. It was appa-

rent that the populations in eastern Tibet are

perhaps better off than those on the western

periphery, especially in Ladakh. There is

definite evidence of at least 30-35 cranes win-

tering in Bhutan and these were said to be

from the western population. If so, by simple

deduction, it is apparent that : (a) there is a

bigger population breeding in Tibet, east of

Ladakh, or ( b ) there is a third population

breeding somewhere north of central Bhutan.

In the recent years there has been a flow of

some authentic information on the status of

Blacknecked cranes. The report of the Crane

Working Group of the XVIII World Confe-

rence of the ICBP held at Cambridge, England,

in August 1982, quoted the report of the Insti-

tute of Zoology, China findings of 140 winter-

ing cranes in western Guizhon province near

Yunnan. The report also mentioned 12

captive cranes and the establishment of a re-

search centre near Zining in Tsinghai province.

A paper on the distribution of Blacknecked

Cranes in China, presented at the 18th Inter-

national Ornithological Congress in Moscow

452

BLACKNECKED CRANE IN LADAKH — 1983

1982, by Ma Yi-Ching mentions about large

migrating flocks of 300-400 Blacknecked

Cranes at the Tangra Range and another flock

of 600 in the Tsaidan Basin. It is apparent

that the status in China is quite encouraging.

Present survey

As mentioned earlier, one of the main

reasons for the need to assess the present

breeding status of the Blacknecked Crane in

Ladakh was due to the opinion expressed by

a section of the delegates to the International

Crane Workshop at Bharatpur that captive

breeding was the only solution for the reha-

bilitation of Blacknecked Cranes and that

urgent efforts should be made to collect at

least 10 eggs, during current season, and

should be sent to International Crane Founda-

tion in Baraboo, Wisconsin for artificial in-

cubation and hatching. It was also mentioned

that a captive breeding centre should be

established in India at a later stage. A resolu-

tion to the above effort was passed at the

conclusion of the Workshop. An attempt was

also contemplated jointly by the International

Crane Foundation authorities and the Jammu

& Kashmir Wildlife Department to collect

crane eggs from Ladakh.

Serious doubts about the feasibility of

obtaining eggs from Ladakh were expressed

by the Bombay Natural History Society and

the haste with which the egg collecting pro-

gramme was being pushed through both by

the International Crane Foundation and the

Jammu & Kashmir Wildlife Department with-

out prior clearance from the Government of

India, was objected to by Dr. Salim Ali both

as the President of the Bombay Natural History

Society as well as Vice Chairman of the Bird

Wing of the Indian Board for Wildlife. As a

consequence a joint BNHS/WWF expedition

was proposed with the following aims and

objectives.

Aims and objectives

(a) To determine how many pairs of

Blacknecked Cranes actually breed in Ladakh;

( b ) the breeding success; (c) whether it is

feasible/advisable to collect eggs for captive

breeding; and ( d ) to gather information on the

breeding biology and behaviour of the Black-

necked Cranes in Ladakh.

Itinerary

The team comprising of Vice Admiral M.P.

Awati (Retd.), Prakash Gole, WWF Repre-

sentative, and S. A. Hussain (BNHS) reached

Leh, Ladakh on 22nd May 1983. Alter a short

period of acclimatization at Leh during which

period, expedition details were discussed and

finalised with the Army authorities, the party

left for eastern Ladakh. It was decided, firstly

to visit all the areas where the cranes were

claimed to have been seen by the earlier re-

ports, and secondly once the nesting pairs had

been identified to spend more time at each

nesting site to study the breeding biology and

fledging success. The duration of the entire

trip was to depend upon the feasibility of

monitoring nesting pairs.

The team travelled about 1000 km by jeep

and ponies, spent 24 days in the field, and

visited 5 marshes in different parts of eastern

Ladakh.

Survey

Harong Lake. First in the series of the areas

investigated was Harong Lake, c. 4500 m. The

‘Lake’ supports extensive grassland ideal for

cranes but no cranes were seen. The local

shepherds in the area also mentioned, when

questioned, that they had not seen any cranes

in this area previously.

453

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Chushul (28th May-22nd June 1983, and 17/

18th June)

Chushul has a pair nesting in a marsh at

the northern periphery, just below Furchuk

La. Two eggs were laid on a flat mound in

the middle of a boggy marsh. The pair, though

wary of visitors initially, accepted our pre-

sence once they got used to the observers.

Eventually, the pair was incubating at inter-

vals. A singleton was also seen at a nearby

marsh. However, the eggs were reported miss-

ing on 7 /8th June, and birds had deserted the

area by 17th June.

Fuckche (3.6.83 to 5.6.83)

The cranes were reported from a marsh on

the banks of the Indus by the Forest per-

sonnel. No cranes were seen during the present

trip.

Hanle (5.6.83 to 6.6.83, again on 16.6.83)

One pair was incubating at Lai Pahadi,

c. 15 km short of Hanle on the Loma-Hanle

track. The nest was c. 50 m from the track

situated on a mound in the middle of a small

pool of water. The pair was incubating at

intervals. Though the locals mentioned having

seen the cranes in Hanle marsh in the previ-

ous years, there was no report of them nesting

there ever since 1976. The crane pair at Lai

Pahadi were seen still incubating during our

subsequent trip on 16.6.1983.

Puga/Tso Kar (7.6.83 to 10.6.1983)

One pair was seen near Tugzhe Gompa on

7.6.83. No evidence of nesting but some kind

of display by the pair was noticed. The wea-

ther deteriorated during the next two days

and the cranes were not seen on a subsequent

trip.

Assessment of Nesting

1. Chushul. The pair had nested on a bare

mound in the middle of a small boggy marsh

north-west of Chushul Village. The marsh (one

of the many in the area) is well concealed

between flat-topped sand dunes, and as such

it was extremely difficult to detect its presence

unless one actually climbed the flat-topped

mounds. Gole in 1978 had found a nest in the

same marsh and once again in 1980. Chushul

is one of the largest villages in the extreme

eastern Ladakh, and is one of the traditional

breeding areas of at least one pair. In 1976

the Chushul pair had lost its eggs due to

some curious locals’ enthusiasm to show the

eggs to authorities at Leh.

There is no clear information on the nest-

ing success of the Chushul birds. Nobody,

locals, civil and military authorities stationed

there seem to be aware of any recent nesting

success. Reports of cranes’ occurrence, nest-

ing or incubating is available, though rather

sketchy, but nobody seems to be aware of the

birds actually raising chick/s and successfully

flying off with the young ones at the end of

the breeding season. An army officer, station-

ed in that area, however, showed a colour

photograph of five cranes feeding in a marsh

in Chushul. The photograph had been taken

in October 1982. According to him the cranes

remained in the marsh till late October and

were rather tame, allowing a close approach.

Of the five cranes, three appeared to be defi-

nite adults while two were obviously younger

birds but were not the brood of the year. Our

estimate was that these birds were at least two

years old. What then is the nesting status at

Chushul ? It is obvious that, whether they

are successful or not, or whether they were

disturbed at nest or not, the cranes (are they

the same pair?) do visit Chushul every sum-

mer. How long will they continue to come ?

454

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Sot. 82

Hussain: Blacknecked Crane

Plath I

Nesting pair at Lai Pahadi, near Hanle.

Above: Female preparing to incubate.

Below: Male and female at nest. Sheep and shepherd in the background.

( Photos : Author)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82

Hussain: Blacknecked Crane

Plate II

Breeding locations of the Blacknecked Cranes.

BLACKNECKED CRANE IN LADAKH — 1983

Hanle Nesting Success

The status of Hanle birds is more or less

the same as Chushul, but there was definite

evidence of the pair raising at least one chick

(Salim Ali et al. 1976, Gole 1978, 1980).

However, lately the pair seems to have moved

out of the Hanle marsh, and has found a suit-

able nesting site in a marshy ground about

18 km short of Hanle on the Loma-Hanle

road. They were observed visiting Hanle marsh

occasionally to feed. Information about suc-

cessful hatching was later relayed by the army

authorities.

Tso Kar/ Start sapuk Tso

This area is perhaps the best and safest

breeding ground for the crane. The lakes are

situated well away from human habitation ex-

cept for a small hamlet situated on the north-

ern corner. During this trip the pair was seen

still displaying and it was obvious that the

nesting had not yet started. Unfortunately due

to inclement weather, it was not possible to

gather more data on their behaviour. How-

ever, there were encouraging reports of the

visiting pairs having successfully reared young

in the previous years.

Conclusions

The evidence so far gathered suggests that

the population Blacknecked Crane in Ladakh

has been constant for the past 50 years. One

pair each nests in Chushul, Hanle and Tsokar

while unmated (?) singletons also visit these

areas. There are possibilities of cranes occur-

ring in the southern edge of Tso Morari but

definite evidence is not available. It is now

obvious that Ladakh is a peripheral breeding

ground for the Blacknecked Cranes and a

larger and more suitable areas exist on the

Tibetan Plateau. Recent information available

from China indicates that Blacknecked Cranes

do occur in large number in Chinghai (breed-

ing), Zechuan (breeding), Quizon (wintering).

Chinese researchers have found several cranes

breeding in a 45 km2 area is Qighai province.

Gole and Lavkumar have reported having

seen about 35-40 Cranes wintering in Bhutan

in 1980. It is possible that these cranes are

part of a population that exists somewhere

between the eastern and western population.

Conservation outlook

1 . Status

It is now obvious that the Blacknecked

Crane as a species is not as rare as it has

been believed to be. Lack of information,

inaccessibility of the areas where they occur,

and their exclusive movement patterns may

have led the conservationists to conclude that

they are extremely rare. In recent years it is

encouraging to note that more information is

forthcoming regarding their status and the

Chinese ornithologists are making serious

efforts not only to study them in the wild

also safeguard their nesting/wintering areas.

The information is about the establishment of

a study-cum-breeding centre in Chinghai

province in China.

2. Status in Ladakh

The marshes in extreme eastern Ladakh

bordering Tibetan Plateau have been the tradi-

tional breeding areas of at least three pairs of

cranes. The cranes arrive in the area in early

May, passing through the Indus Valley as the

river enters Indian territory and move along

the river banks, finally arriving in three or four

traditional breeding marshes (Plate II). The nest

there and remain till about end of October

before moving towards their winter quarters.

The population estimates put out by the state

455

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Forest Department for the year 1980-82 may

not be accurate as it would seem that the

cranes were counted many times over on pas-

sage to breeding marshes.

Conservation problems

1. Captive breeding

One of the aims of this expedition was to

examine (a) feasibility, ( b ) possibility of

establishing an artificial incubation centre for

captive breeding the cranes in India, prefe-

rably in Ladakh. Considering the difficulties

and lack of proper facilities such as transpor-

tation, equipment, impracticability of collect-

ing cranes’ eggs from several nests simultane-

ously within a particular incubation period,

such a programme is not presently advisable.

On the contrary it would be sensible to look

at the status of the habitat of the nesting

cranes in their traditional nesting sites in

Ladakh, and safeguard these with all availa-

ble resources.

2. Habitat assessment

In the past few years it is becoming in-

creasingly apparent that population pressures,

both human and livestock, as well as from

free ranging animals such as the Tibetan Wild

Ass on the marsh ecosystem is becoming more

and more acute. Since these high altitude

marshes have a very restricted and critical

life span available to them in the summer

months and the entire life forms of the eco-

system are dependent on this period the

pressure would be specially heavy. The in-

crease in human population has consequently

brought in a greater number livestock as is

1 The water inflow is temperature controlled. Even

feeder streams are frozen in the morning and start

melting only if there is adequate sunlight.

apparent from the information available from

the local administration. The very survival of

livestock is rather bleak during the lean season

as well as in the winter months. What effect

will this have on indigenous flora and fauna

by the competition posed by the greater num-

ber of domestic livestock ? Apart from this

there is also evidence of the fact that even

under natural conditions the life sustaining

water flow system into the marshes fluctuates

to a great extent, jeopardising the seasonal

stability.

Management — Problems and possible

Solutions

1 . Problems

As mentioned earlier, there is an urgent

need to study the status of the wetlands of

eastern Ladakh and identify the problems. The

problems seem to be both natural and man-

made. Habitat manipulation to the advantage

of a species affected, even by natural cause,

is advocated, considering the limited number

of cranes that come to Ladakh and the criti-

cal time and space factor that controls their

breeding success.

A. Natural causes

High altitude wetland systems, especially

those in eastern Ladakh, depend mainly on

the water received from the melting snow

since the rainfall in these regions is virtually

non-existent. The inflow into such ecosystems

is completely dependent upon the climatic

conditions.1 * 3 Thus a late summer would deprive

adequate life giving water supply to these

marshes resulting in a delay in the ecological

process very necessary for the regeneration of

a host of life forms of the area. In the case

of the Cranes this also means, apart from non-

availability of marshland food supply, lack of

456

BLACKNECKED CRANE IN LADAKH — 1983

safe nesting sites due to the absence of boggy

marshes. The most critical period would be,

as evidenced in the case of Chushul nesting

pair, when the oscillating weather conditions

completely jeopardise the water regime of the

marshlands. When the Chushul pair arrived

there, the marsh had just received enough

snow melt to provide a minimum nesting con-

dition (i.e. emergence of aquatic food plants

plus a promising bog to nest). However, the

weather conditions changed at a critical period

when the incubating pair needed the maximum

safety, as the water inflow virtually stopped

due to drop in temperature thus stopping snow

melt and resulted in the marsh drying up

rapidly. The crane eggs were vulnerable to

predation /disturbance, and as a consequence

the pair lost their eggs. On the other hand, in

a reversal process increased melting of snow

due to excessive radiation during early sum-

mer, causes the flooding of the same marshes,

resulting in disaster for the nesting crane pair.

Once again, during one such season the

Chushul pair lost their eggs due to excess

flooding of their nesting marsh.

B. Manmade causes

One of the main factors that went in favour

of the nesting Cranes in Ladakh so far had

been the socio-religious protection the cranes

enjoyed there. While the cranes accepted the

presence of man and his live stock very close

to its nest sites the inhabitants actually look-

ed upon the nesting pair as a sign of prosperity

and took care not to disturb them. However,

this atmosphere of peaceful co-existence would

not last long as the sociological, political, and

economic conditions are bound to change and

such a process is already accelerated due to the

recent happenings in the adjoining border

areas.

One of the main considerations for the ad-

vancement of the economic conditions of the

people in the remote areas in Ladakh is animal

husbandry. Since all other considerations, in-

cluding, agriculture have a very limited scope,

greater emphasis is laid on increasing the

livestock. Unfortunately in their zeal to in-

crease the livestock populations no serious

thought seems to have been given towards the

life-support system of these livestock result-

ing in {a) a severe strain on the existing pas-

ture lands, ( b ) excessive loss of life during

winter months due to shortage of food for the

livestock and people, as well as competition for

space has adversely affected the successful

breeding of the cranes in these marshlands.

The increased presence of shepherd dogs is

also a potential threat to rearing crane chicks,

as is the steep rise in the number of other

predators in the area such as ravens, foxes,

wolves that follow the nomadic shepherds.

An increase in the human population has

also placed a corresponding pressure on the

prime space for habitation as well as to a lesser

degree, agriculture. The tendency seems to be

to reclaim areas most advantageous both in

terms of suitable land and access to water

courses. The trend noticed recently in Ladakh

is to alter waterflow system into the marshes —

in some cases completely diverting the water

flow — so as to reclaim land for housing and

agriculture/pasture lands (Hanle marsh is a

typical example).

2. Suggested solutions

Acknowledging the fact that the main threat

for the Blacknecked Cranes in Ladakh is the

rapid increase in the loss of nesting habitat

and the disturbance caused by the increase

in human population pressures, the following

solutions are strongly recommended with em-

phasis on speedy action from the concerned

authorities :

457

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo!. 82

1. ABSOLUTE PROTECTION OF ALL

RECOGNISED TRADITIONAL NEST-

ING SITES ESPECIALLY DURING

BREEDING SEASON.

2. MANAGEMENT OF WATERFLOW

SYSTEMS TO THE NESTING

MARSH.

3. CREATION OF A SPECIAL FIELD

FORCE FOR MONITORING /PRO-

TECTING BREEDING PAIRS/

CHICKS.

1. Cordon off a minimum area around the

nest site and prohibit all activities within a

perimeter of at least one kilometre. No habi-

tation, permanent or temporary (tenting),

should be allowed in the nesting marsh. If

necessary a low fencing to keep off livestock,

dogs, etc. should be erected in the above 1 km

perimeter.

2. Waterflow system to the nesting marsh

should be monitored so as to keep it at a

constant level. Drainage system in case of ex-

cess flooding and artificial feeder system in

case of decrease in inflow regime, should be

established.

3. A special task force of the Dept, of

Wildlife drawn both from the state and centre,

should be stationed at all known nesting

areas. The task force, consisting of a field re-

searcher, and watch and ward staff should

remain in the vicinity of the nesting marsh

from early May to end of October.

The details of the above should be worked

out by the J&K State Wildlife Department

with the collaboration of Dept, of Environ-

ment, Govt, of India, Ladakh District Civil

Administration, Defence authorities stationed

in Ladakh (including paramilitary organisa-

tions), and the Bombay Natural History Society

and the World Wildlife Fund in advisory

capacity.

Ack nowledge m e n ts

Assistance received at all levels from the

Defence authorities is gratefully acknowledged.

Excellent cooperation received from my col-

leagues, Adm. Awati, and Prakash Gole is

equally appreciated.

458

A REVIEW OF THE GENUS SORICULUS (MAMMALIA:

INSECTIVORA)1

Robert S. Hoffmann2

( With six text -figures)

The red-toothed shrews (subfamily Soricinae)

of eastern Asia include six genera. Blarinella

and Sorex are included by Repenning (1967)

in the tribe Soricini, while the superficially

similar long-tailed shrews of the genus Sori-

culus (sensu lato) he placed in the tribe

Neomyini, together with the more specialized

mole-shrew ( Anourosorex ), and water shrews

( Chimarrogale , Nectogale). None of these

genera has received systematic attention in

recent years, and it is my intent to clarify

certain problems of nomenclature and syste-

matic relationships that I have encountered

during the course of a more extensive study

of Holarctic mammals.

The genus Soriculus Blyth, 1854 is here em-

ployed in a broad sense to include, as sub-

genera, Chodsigoa Kastschenko, 1907, and

Episoriculus Ellerman and Morrison-Scott,

1951. These latter two are sometimes consi-

dered genera (Repenning 1967, Jameson and

Jones 1977). The distinctions between these

taxa involve small differences in shape of arti-

cular facets of the mandible, amount of reddish

dental pigmentation, number of upper uni-

cuspid teeth, and relative proportions of teeth,

forefeet and tail. These characters, while use-

ful in defining groups, are variable, and a single

inclusive genus is employed here.

1 Accepted April 1984.

2 Museum of Natural History and Department of

Systematics and Ecology. University of Kansas,

Lawrence. KS 66045, USA.

Soriculus is found from northern China

southward to northern Vietnam, Thailand, and

Burma, on Taiwan, and westward along the

Himalayas to Kashmir. Within this area, Eller-

man and Morrison-Scott (1951) recognized

six species: 1) Soriculus (S.) nigrescens Gray,

1842 including caurinus, centralis, pahari, and

rad ulus\ 2) S. ( Episoriculus ) caudatus Hors-

field, 1851, including baileyi, fumidus, sacratus,

and umbrinus', 3) S. ( Episoriculus ) leucops

Horsfield, 1855 including macrurus and Irene,

4) S. (Chodsigoa) hypsibius De Winton, 1899

including lamula, larvarum, and parva\ 5) S.

( Chodsigoa ) salens kii Kastschenko, 1907 in-

cluding furva, parca, and smithii, and 6) the

monotypic S. (Chodsigoa) lowei Osgood,

1932. Chodsigoa sodalis Thomas, 1913, was

left incertae sedis\ the name was based on a

single skull from Mt. Arisan, Taiwan, 8,000 ft.,

which is also the type locality of S. (E.)

fumidus.

Honacki et at. (1982) recognized ten species

based on further work: 1) S. baileyi was con-

sidered distinct from S. caudatus, since Abe

(1971) found them to be sympatric in Nepal;

2) S. fumidus was elevated to specific rank

and sodalis was included following Jameson

and Jones (1977); 3) S. gruberi Weigel, 1969.

was recognized as new; and 4) S. smithii was

considered specifically distinct from S. salen -

skii, based on Corbet (1978); Corbet and Hill

(1980) recognized all of the above but baileyi.

As a result of my work, I also recognize

ten species of Soriculus, but the composition

459

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

of these species is, in some cases, quite diffe-

rent from the present view.

Materials and Methods

Holotypes of most of the named forms listed

above have been examined, as well as series

of Soriculus from throughout the range of the

genus (see Specimens Examined). Three exter-

nal measurements were taken, where available,

from collector’s original labels. Seven cranial

measurements were made to the nearest 0.05

mm with dial calipers. These included: 1)

condyloincisor length (CIL), occipital con-

dyles to anterior tips of first incisors; 2) cranial

breadth (CB), greatest breadth of braincase,

approximately across the mastoids; 3) maxil-

lary breadth (MB), greatest distance between

tips of maxillary processes; 4) M2 to M2

breadth (M2-M2), greatest distance between

anterior labial margins of second upper molars;

5) interorbital breadth (IOB), least lateral

diameter of skull at anterior end of orbits, just

posterior to maxillary processes; 6) palato-

incisor length (PIL), posterior margin of palate

in midline to anterior tips of first incisors;

7) upper tooth row length (UTRL), greatest

length of tooth row from posterior margin of

alveolus of M3 to anterior tip of I1. These

measurements were selected for the speed and

accuracy with which they could be made, and

in some cases differ from those of earlier in-

vestigators. For example, condvlobasal length

is a traditional measure of skull length, but it

is usually difficult and time-consuming to mea-

sure the anterior margin of the premaxillary

bone. Employing the anterior tips of the first

incisors for the anterior terminator results in

a more accurate and repeatable measurement.

Ack nowledgf.ments

I thank those curators who assisted me in

using collections in their care; these include

S. Anderson, K. Koopman, M. Lawrence, G.

Musser (American Museum of Natural His-

tory); I. Bishop, G. Corbet, J. Hill, J. Ingles,

P. Jenkins [British Museum (Natural History)];

R. Izor, B. Patterson, R. Timm (Field Museum

of Natural History); J. Kirsch, E. Rutzmoser

(Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard

University); M. Carleton, R. Fisher, A. Gard-

ner, L. Gordon, C. Handley, R. Thorington,

D. Wilson (National Museum of Natural His-

tory); C. Smart (Academy of Natural Sciences

of Philadelphia) and M. N. Meier (Zoological

Institute, Academy of Sciences, Leningrad).

I also thank the University of Kansas for the

sabbatical leave during which this research

was carried out; Jan Elder and Coletta Spen-

cer, who typed the manuscript; and Deb Ben-

nett, who prepared the figures. G. B. Corbet,

K. Koopman, M. A. Lawrence, and G. G.

Musser, read early drafts and contributed valu-

able suggestions.

Results

Soriculus (Soriculus) nigrescens Gray, 1842.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 10: 261. Type locality:

Darjeeling, West Bengal, India.

This is a large Soriculus with fossorial adap-

tations. It retains four upper unicuspid teeth,

a primitive state for the genus, but its enlarged

forefeet and claws, relatively short tail, reduc-

ed Ms and entoconid crest of M,, and spatu-

late coronoid process (Repenning 1967) are

derived characters associated with its fossorial

habits. Thomas (1922) described S. radulus

on the basis of two specimens that were smaller

than typical nigrescens , and Hinton (1922)

subsequently described three new subspecies of

nigrescens based upon differences in size and

color. The magnitude of these differences

among samples is small, however, throughout

most of the geographic range of S. nigrescens

(Table 1). Mitchell (1977), on the basis of

245 specimens taken throughout Nepal, con-

460

REVIEW OF THE GENUS SORICULUS

Table 1

External and selected cranial measurements of Soriculus nigrescens

S. n. nigrescens occurs at middle altitudes

in the Himalayas from Kumaon throughout

Nepal and Sikkim; S. n. radulus is known from

two localities in northern Assam and south-

west China, but is likely more widespread in

the eastern Himalayas (Fig. la).

Soriculus (Episoriculus) leucops Horsfield,

1855. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 16; 111. Type

locality: Nepal.

There has been confusion concerning to

which taxon this name should be applied. It

is usually given to a light gray, very long-tailed

form of moderate body size (cf. Anthony

1941, Abe 1971, 1982, Mitchell 1977). How-

field’s (1855) description confirms this, for he

states: “Colour uniform blackish-brown

Length of the body 3 inches [76 mm], of the

tail 3£ in. [82.5 mm].” In contrast, the type

of S. macrurus (see below) is of a smaller

shrew, comparable to the pale gray, very long-

tailed type of S. irene (BMNH 11.9.8.22)

(Table 3). I conclude that S. macrurus is not

a synonym of S. leucops, as Osgood (1932)

listed it without comment. He was subsequently

followed by Allen (1938) and others, all of

whom employed the name S. baileyi for the

larger, darker, relatively shorter tailed taxon,

although Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951)

incorrectly listed baileyi as a subspecies of S.

461

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Fig. la (top). Distribution of Soriculus nigrescens. Solid symbols, specimens examined;

open symbols, literature records (Abe 1982, Mitchell 1977).

Fig. lb (bottom). Distribution of Soriculus leucops. Solid symbols, specimens exa-

mined; open symbols, literature records (Abe 1982, Feng et al. 1980).

462

External and selected cranial measurements of Soriculus leucops

REVIEW OF THE GENUS SORICULUS

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caudatus. Soriculus leucops was also listed as

a synonym of caudatus by Blanford (1888),

but it is reasonably certain from the measure-

ments he cites that the specimens were the

larger, longer-tailed leucops, and not caudatus.

Soriculus leucops (inch baileyi) is sympatric

with S. macrurus (inch Irene) over a large

area extending from central Nepal to southern

China, northern Burma and northern Vietnam

(Figs, lb, 2a). Abe (1971, 1982) reported

that S. leucops (which he called S. baileyi)

was trapped in wet grass and shrubs, and fed

on earthworms, whereas S. macrurus (which he

called S. leucops) was caught in rhododendron

forest, and ate insects. S. leucops is, in size,

relative tail length, and dentition, generally

primitive, but shows some specialization to-

wards fossoriality (Abe 1982), though not to

the degree exhibited by S. nigrescens.

Soriculus baileyi was described by Thomas

(1914) from a single specimen, a skin and

toothrows only taken in the Mishmi Hills,

Assam, India. Subsequent collectors re-

ferred specimens from Vietnam and Nepal

to baileyi (Osgood 1932, Abe 1971).

Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951) placed

baileyi as a subspecies of S. caudatus, but Abe

(1971, 1982) pointed out that the two are

morphologically distinct and sympatric in

Nepal. I have examined other specimens from

Burma and Nepal reported under the name

caudatus (Anthony 1941, Mitchell 1977) and

some of these also belong to the larger species

(Table 2). I therefore arrange baileyi as a sub-

species of leucops, and assign to it specimens

of leucops from Burma, south China, and

north Vietnam.

Soriculus gruberi was described by Weigel

(1969) on the basis of seven specimens col-

lected from Solukhumbu District, northeastern

Nepal. It is darker in colour than S. macrurus

and larger than S. caudatus, both of which are

geographically sympatric, and appears to be

464

REVIEW OF THE GENUS SORICULUS

Fig. 2a (top). Distribution of Soriculus macrurus. Solid symbols, specimens examin-

ed; open symbols, literature records (Abe 1982, Mitchell 1977).

Fig. 2b (bottom). Distribution of Soriculus caudatus (mainland) and S. fumidus

(Taiwan Island). Due to uncertainty concerning identification of literature

records, only specimens examined are plotted.

465

2

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

a synonym of S. 1. leucops (Abe 1977). Un-

fortunately, no specimens were seen, but the

published measurements are close to those of

S. 1. leucops from Nepal.

Soriculus (Episoriculus) macrurus Blanford,

1888. Fauna Brit. India, 1, p. 231. Type loca-

lity: Darjeeling, India.

As noted in the account of S. leucops above,

Osgood (1932), without comment, placed

macrurus as a synonym of leucops, and was

followed by subsequent authors. This led to

confusion, since when leucops was applied to

the smaller, very long-tailed taxon, the larger

one was then named either baileyi or caudatus.

This confusion is evident in Anthony’s (1941)

discussion (pp. 67-70) where he is impelled

to employ the name combination S. sacratus

umbrinus to accommodate the smaller S. cau-

datus, since he has assigned the larger 5.

leucops baileyi to 5. caudatus, all because the

name S. leucops was in use for S. macrurus

(see also Cranbrook 1960-61). Soriculus

macrurus is a shrew of moderate body and

cranial dimensions, pale gray in dorsal pelage,

and with a very long tail which always exceeds

its head-body length (Table 3). The holotype

(BMNH 90.1.1.19) has a tail more than \\

times as long as its body (Blanford 1888),

and its skull is small (CIL 17.20 mm), with

short, broad rostrum typical of macrurus (Fig.

3a; see below). Blanford (op. cit.) quoted

measurements of two other specimens that

clearly refer to this species. Its range extends

from central Nepal eastward through western

and southern China to northern Burma and

Vietnam (Fig. 2a), and as noted above, it is

broadly sympatric with both S. leucops and 5.

caudatus. Soriculus irene was described by

Thomas (1911b) from Yuanching Hsien, near

Emei-shan, southwest Sichuan. Earlier that

year (1911a) he had assigned a specimen from

Emei-shan to S. macrurus with the comment

that it “agrees closely with Blanford’s type

from Darjeeling.” Subsequent, Thomas (1921)

doubted whether irene was distinct, and Allen

(1938) formally arranged it as a synonym of

macrurus.

Soriculus macrurus is a forest-dweller (Abe

1982, Mitchell 1977, as leucops) and its long

tail and relatively large hind feet suggest that

it may be at least partly arboreal. Abe (op.

cit.) also suggested that macrurus (which he

called leucops) might be altitudinally segre-

gated from leucops (which he called baileyi),

but at several localities in Nepal, southern

China, and northern Burma (vie. Num; Gang-

fang, Adung Valley, Hpare-Saulang road)

both species occur, and they overlap broadly

in altitude, judging from the specimens I have

examined.

Soriculus (Episoriculus) caudatus Horsfield,

1851. Cat. Mammals Mus. East India Co., p.

135. Type locality: Darjeeling, India.

The cotype from Sikkim and lectotype from

Nepal consist of skins without measurements,

plus rostra only. The holotype designated by

Horsfield may be lost. This species is close to

5. macrurus (with which it is widely sympa-

tric) in skull and body size, but the tail is

shorter, being equal to or less than head-body

length (Table 4). The skull of caudatus may

be distinguished from that of macrurus in that

its rostrum is longer and more slender, and

the upper unicuspids, especially the second,

are longer than wide; the braincase and inter-

orbital region are also relatively narrow (Fig.

3b). In S. macrurus the rostrum is short and

broad, and the upper unicuspids are quadrate

to wider than long (Fig. 3a). This species is

less specialized morphologically than either

leucops or macrurus, and is also more wide-

spread and common. It occurs from Kashmir

466

External and selected cranial measurements of Soriculus caudatus and S. fumidus

REVIEW OF THE GENUS SORICULUS

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467

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

eastward to western and southern China, and

northern Burma (Fig. 2b), but not, apparently,

Vietnam. Hence it occurs sympatrically with

both macrurus and leucops, but may occupy

a broader range of habitats than either of

those species (Abe 1982, Mitchell 1977).

Soriculus (Episoriculus) fumidus Thomas,

1913. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 11: 216. Type

locality: Mt. Arisan (= Alishan), 8,000 ft.,

Chiai Hsien, Taiwan.

This species is best regarded as an insular

allospecies of the mainland S. caudatus (Fig.

Fig. 3a (left). Skull of Soriculus macrurus, KU 138572, Pass between Dharpatan

and Gurjakani, 15 km. W Dadar Dhuri Mts., Nepal.

Fig. 3b (right). Skull of Soriculus caudatus, KU 135571, Chowki, Nepal.

Thomas (1911) described S. sacratus as “a

small species allied to S. caudatus.” The type

series was from Emei-shan, Sichuan. Allen

(1923) considered sacratus a subspecies of

caudatus, and described a third subspecies,

S. c. umbrinus, from Mucheng, southern

Yunnan, as being a darker race. However,

body and cranial size are similar in most of

the samples I have examined (Table 4), and

the subspecies are, at best, weakly characte-

rized.

2b). It has been arranged as a subspecies of

caudatus (cf. Ellerman and Morrison-Scott

1951), but its geographical isolation and mor-

phological divergence (i.e., short, narrow ros-

trum, mandible with long angular and coro-

noid processes), support its recognition as a

distinct species (Jameson and Jones 1977). It

is also larger than S. caudatus, with a rela-

tively shorter tail (Table 4). Thomas (1913)

named at the same time, on the basis of a

single skull from the same type locality Chodsi-

468

External and selected cranial measurements of Soriculus hypsibius and S. I amnia

REVIEW OF THE GENUS SORICULUS

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

goa sodalis. The holotype lacks fourth upper

unicuspids, hence its (sub)generic allocation.

Jameson and Jones (op. cit.) concluded that

sodalis was a synonym of fumidus, based on

an aberrant individual, and I concur. In a

series of 19 S. fumidus that I examined, an-

other specimen lacked upper fourth unicuspids,

but was otherwise typical.

According to Jameson and Jones (op. cit.),

S. fumidus" \s widely distributed in the tempe-

rate montane forests of Taiwan, and extends

upward into the dwarf bamboo zone at 3,200

m. The ancestor of fumidus probably reached

Taiwan during a glacial period, when tempe-

rate forests were more extensive in eastern

China, and when the island was connected by

a land bridge to the mainland.

Soriculus (Chodsigoa) hypsibius De Winton,

1899. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1899:574. Type

locality: Yangliu-pa, Sichuan, China.

Chodsigoa was proposed as a genus by

Kastschenko (1907). It differs from Soriculus

and Episoriculus in several derived characters,

including loss of the fourth upper unicuspids;

more concave posterior margin of P4-M2; lon-

ger, more slender and sharply hooked anterior

tine of I1, with posterior tine relatively small,

and more flattened braincase (Allen 1938,

Repenning 1967). Soriculus hypsibius is in ex-

ternal dimensions only slightly larger than S.

caudalus, with a tail no longer, and usually

shorter than, the head and body. Cranially,

however, it averages larger (Table 5), and is

close to leucops. The ecological relationships

of this species with S. caudatus would likely

be of interest, given their similar body sizes

and proportions, but they are not known.

Soriculus hypsibihs appears not to occur at

localities where caudatus is found, but this

needs verification; its range also extends east-

ward from the area of potential sympatry in

Sichuan to include the Qin (=Tsing) Ling

Shan in Shaanxi (Fig. 4a). Moreover, a dis-

junct population, named by Thomas (1911b)

C. lar varum, is known from Hebei. The few

specimens available are morphologically simi-

lar to nominate hypsibius, and it probably

occurs more widely in northeastern China; I

regard larvarum as a synonym of hypsibius.

Two other taxa have also been described

which are usually placed as subspecies, S. h.

lamula and S. h. parva (cf. Corbet 1978), but

these names are applicable to a smaller species

(see below).

Soriculus (Chodsigoa) lamula Thomas, 1912.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 10: 399. Type locality:

40 m SE Taochou, 9,500 ft., Gansu, China.

When Thomas described this species, he

noted that it was “allied to C. hypsibia, but

smaller.” Since the name was based on a single

specimen, it was reasonable for Allen (1938)

to arrange lamula as a subspecies of hypsibius,

and he has been followed by other workers

(Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1951, Corbet

1978). However, both small S. lamula and

large S. hypsibius occur in a sample from Tsao

Po, 15 mi SW Wenchuan, Sichuan, and it is

evident from the distribution of other speci-

mens that S. lamula is sympatric with S. hypsi-

bius over a considerable area of Sichuan (Fig.

4b). In Yunnan the representative of this

smaller species was originally named Chodsigoa

hypsibia parva by Allen (1923), but he sub-

sequently decided it was a distinct species, C.

parva (Allen 1938). However, Ellerman and

Morrison-Scott (1951) and Corbet (1978)

continued to regard parva as a subspecies of

hypsibius, even though Wang et al. (1966)

pointed out that parva and hypsibius both

occurred “in southwestern Szechwan [Sichuan]

and northwestern Yunnan without any signs

of hybridization ” Those authors did not,

470

REVIEW OF THE GENUS SORICULUS

Fig. 4a (top). Distribution of Soriculus hypsibius. Solid symbols, specimens examined;

open symbol, literature record (Feng et al. 1980).

Fig. 4b (bottom). Distribution of Soriculus lamula. Solid symbols, specimens exa*

mined; open symbols, literature records (Lehmann 1955, Lu et al. 1965, Wang

et al. 1966).

47 J

External and selected cranial measurements of Soriculus salcnskii, S. smithii, and S. parca

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

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measurements from Allen, 1938 (my measurements of holotype).

REVIEW OF THE GENUS SORICULUS

however, discuss the relationship of parva to

lamula. The two taxa are allopatric, and parva

is smaller (Table 5) and darker than lamula,

but these differences are not great (external

measurements as reported are very small, but

these are sometimes unreliable; the few cranial

measurements are close to those of lamula).

Lehmann (1955) reported one specimen of

parva from Fujian. Given the few specimens

available, it seems best to consider parva a

subspecies of lamula.

The ecological relations of S. lamula to S.

hypsibius and S. caudatus are unknown. The

latter species was not taken at the place in

Sichuan where the other two occurred,

but lamula and caudatus both occur in the

Lichiang Range, Yunnan, where hypsibius is

not known.

Soriculus (Cliodsigoa) salenskii Kastschenko,

1907, Ann. Mus. Zool. Akad. Sci. St. Peters-

burg. 10: 253. Type locality: Kho-tszi-gou,

Lun-ngan-fu (Linganfu), Sichuan, China.

This species is known only from the holo-

type, which I have examined. It was taken by

Berezovskii in autumn, 1893, at Lun-ngan-fu

(transliterated from Russian). Allen (1938)

gave the type locality as “Linganfu, northern

Szechwan.” Pingwu, in northern Sichuan, was

formerly called Lunganfu, and is probably the

type locality. Although Ellerman and Morrison-

Scott (1951) regarded salenskii as a senior

synonym of smithii (inch furva and parca),

Corbet (1978) opined that smithii was “...

most unlikely to be conspecific with S. salen-

skii ” This appears to have been based

on size difference (Table 6); if the original

measurements given by Kastschenko (see Allen

1938) are accurate, salenskii is indeed un-

usually large, especially in cranial and hind

foot length. The holotype consists of a fluid-

preserved adult specimen from which the skull

has been removed. The original label bears

the collecting locality, date, collector’s name

and field number, but no measurements, which

were presumably made by the describer.

External measurements which I made on the

holotype were somewhat smaller than those

reported by Kastchenko (Table 6, values in

parentheses), and are within or close to the

range of values for head-body and tail length

in S. smithii from Sichuan, although the hind

foot of the holotype is unusually large. Un-

fortunately, the skull of the holotype is missing,

and a notation on the specimen label, appa-

rently in A. A. Gureev’s hand reads (in

Russian) “no skull ?”. Until more specimens

are available, I retain salenskii as a monotypic

species restricted to northern Sichuan (Fig.

5a), but I strongly suspect that it will prove

to be conspecific with S. smithii.

Soriculus (Chodsigoa) smithii Thomas, 1911.

Abstr. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 90:4. Type

locality: Tatsienlu, Sichuan, China.

This is also a large, long-tailed representa-

tive of the subgenus Chodsigoa, but it is some-

what better known, with a wider distribution

than S. salenskii. It is somewhat larger in skull

and body size than S. hypsibius, but with a

much longer tail (Table 6), thus paralleling

the difference between S. macrurus and 5.

caudatus. It is tempting to suppose that

smithii represents the arboreal portion of the

moiety, but nothing is known of its ecology.

It occurs from central Sichuan to western

Shaanxi (Fig. 5a).

The forms S. s. parca (Allen 1923) and

5. 5. furva (Anthony 1941) were both des-

cribed as subspecies of smithii from Yunnan

and northern Burma respectively, being smaller.

Additional material reveals that they instead

represent a distinct species (see below).

473

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

/ Soriculus smith!)

f Soriculus saltnskil

Fig. 5a (top). Distribution of Soriculus smithii (solid symbols) and S. salenskii (open

symbol).

Fig. 5b (bottom). Distribution of Soriculus parca.

Soriculus parca

REVIEW OF THE GENUS SORICULUS

Soriculus (Chodsigoa) parca Allen, 1923.

Amer. Mus. Novitates, No. 100: 6. Type loca-

lity: Homushu Pass, Yunnan, China.

While describing parca as a race of smithii,

Allen (1938) nevertheless pointed out that it

was much smaller than smithii, with “...the

rostrum relatively shorter and more gradually

tapering from braincase to tip instead of be-

ing abruptly narrowed in the premaxillary

region.” (Figs. 6a, b) (Table 6). Specimens

from Ta Cho Fu, Sichuan, represent both

smithii and parca, and the distribution of other

records (Figs. 5a, b) indicates probable para-

patry between the two species. Moreover, both

furva and another form named S. (C.) lowei

Osgood, 1932, appear to be closer to parca

than to smithii, though they are somewhat

larger in size than parca. These forms from

Fig. 6a (left). Skull of Soriculus parca, FMNH 39622, Ta Cho Fu, Sichuan, China.

Fig. 6b (right). Skull of Soriculus smithii, FMNH 39614, Ta Cho Fu, Sichuan, China.

475

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

northern Burma, Thailand (reported as S.

salenskii parca by Lekagul and McNeely

1977), and Vietnam (Fig. 5b) are south of

the range of hypsibius as well as smithii, and

their increased size may be related to the

nature of interspecific interactions among con-

geners inhabiting this area. I therefore place

furva and lowei as subspecies of S. parca.

Discussion

Species distributions in the genus Soriculus

fall into two broad groups — Himalayan and

Chinese. The Himalayan group includes the

three species of the subgenus Episoriculus,

and S. ( Soriculus ) nigrescens. The Chinese

group includes the members of the subgenus

Chodsigoa.

Among the Chinese group, S. hypsibius has

the largest, more northern distribution, S.

lamula and S. smithii are mainly western, while

S. carpa is southern, extending as far as north-

ern Thailand and Vietnam.

Soriculus caudatus has the broadest distri-

bution of the Himalayan forms, from Kashmir

to central Sichuan, and thus penetrates east-

ward well into the range of the Chinese

Chodsigoa species. However it is not known

south of central Yunnan. Soriculus macrurus

does not range so far west, but eastward ex-

tends to centra] Sichuan (with caudatus), and

also southward to southern Yunnan and north-

ern Vietnam. The range of leucops is more

restricted, from central Nepal east and south

to northern Vietnam.

The two groups meet in the mountains of

northeastern Burma and adjacent Yunnan.

Greatest species richness occurs around Gang-

fang, where five Soriculus are geographically

sympatric — S. (S.) nigrescens, S. (E.) leucops,

S. (E.) macrurus, S. (E.) caudatus, and S.

(C.) parca. This is comparable to the number

of sympatric Sorex found in some places such

as the Altai Mountains (Yudin et al. 1979).

Among the Chinese Chodsigoa shrews,

maximum species richness was found at Tsao

Po, Sichuan, where in addition to S. (C.)

hypsibius, S. ( C .) lamula, and S. (C.) smithii,

S. (E.) macrurus also occurred. In each case

of high species richness, all except one be-

longed to the same geographic group (Hima-

layan or Chinese), and the “outsider” was a

medium-size, long-tailed species ( parca or

macrurus) .

Within an area of geographic sympatry, alti-

tudinal and habitat segregation may result in

niche separation among the species. Soriculus

nigrescens is the most fossorial species, follow-

ed by leucops and probably hypsibius; these

latter two are completely allopatric, and simi-

lar in size. The most generalized species, mor-

phologically, appear to be S. caudatus and S.

lamula, both of which are smaller than

leucops / hypsibius. Their ranges are mostly

allopatric, but meet in northwestern Yunnan.

The remaining three species are long-tailed

forest inhabitants, and are probably more

arboreal or at least scansorial, than the previ-

ous species. As noted previously, S. smithii

and S. parca overlap but little in distribution.

S. macrurus occurs with one or the other at

several localities, with no indication of alti-

tudinal separation. However, it is smaller than

either.

Abe (1982) thought that altitudinal segre-

gation might account in part for niche segre-

gation between sympatric Soriculus in Nepal.

The records I have examined indicate that

there is much overlap among the species in

altitude. However, S. leucops does not extend

as high as other congeners (to 8700 ft in

Nepal and 9500 ft in Burma, compared to

11-12,000 ft. for macrurus and caudatus).

Altitudinal records for other species are so

476

REVIEW OF THE GENUS SORICULUS

scarce that generalizations are unwarranted at

this time.

Key to the genus Sori cuius

1 . Four upper unicuspid teeth present (small fourth

unicuspid missing in rare cases) (Fig. 3) 2.

1'. Three upper unicuspid teeth present; subgenus

Chodsigoa (Fig. 6) 6.

2. Size large; head-body length more than 70,

usually more than 80, but tail short, usually

about half that of head-body; foreclaws and feet

large; subgenus Soriculus

S. (S.) nigrescens

2'. Tail longer, forefeet and claws not enlarged,

subgenus Episoriculus 3.

3. Size large, condyloincisor length of skull usually

more than 18.8 mm; tail length about equal

to that of head-body or slightly longer

S. (£.) leucops

3'. Size smaller, condyloincisor length of skull

usually less than 18.8 mm (except on Taiwan);

tail variable 4.

4. Tail much longer than head and body; upper

unicuspid teeth quadrate to wider than long;

rostrum broad (Fig. 3a) S. ( E .) macnirus

4'. Tail about equal to or shorter than head-body;

upper unicuspid teeth longer than wide; rostrum

slender (Fig. 3b) 5.

5. Ratio of maxillary breadth to palatoincisor

length usually more than 0.65; found on main-

land Asia S. ( E .) caudatus

5'. Ratio of maxillary breadth to palatoincisor

length usually less than 0.65; found on Taiwan

island S. (£.) fumidus

6. Tail longer than head and body; hind foot

larger, usually more than 17 7.

6'. Tail shorter than head and body; hind foot

smaller, usually less than 17 9.

7. Size very large, condyloincisor length about 25

mm; tail length more than 110, hind foot more

than 21 mm; northern Sichuan

S. (C.) salenskii

7'. Size smaller 8.

8. Size medium; condyloincisor length 21.1 to

23.3; hind foot less than 21 mm; skull robust,

flattened; rostrum long, abruptly narrowing

anteriorly (Fig. 6b) S. (C.) smithii

8'. Size smaller; condyloincisor length 18.9-20.9;

skull more lightly built, braincase not strongly

flattened; rostrum short, gradually tapering

anteriorly (Fig. 6a) S. (C.) parca

9. Size larger; condyloincisor length of skull more

than 19.0 mm

S. (C.) hypsibius

9'. Size smaller; condyloincisor length of skull less

than 19.0 mm S. (C.) lamula

Systematic Summary

Genus Soriculus Blyth, 1854.

Subgenus Soriculus. Type species, Corsira nigri-

cans Gray, 1842.

Soriculus nigricans nigricans Gray 1842. Type

locality, Darjeeling, West Bengal, India. Synonyms:

atcrrimus Blyth, 1854; caurinus Hinton, 1922; cen-

tralis Hinton, 1922; holosericcus Gray, 1863 (nomen

nudum); oligurus Gray, 1863 (nomen nudum);

pahari Hinton, 1922; sikimensis Hodgson, 1855.

Soriculus nigrescens radulus Thomas, 1922. Type

locality, Dreyi, Mishmi Hills, 5140 ft., Assam, India.

Subgenus Episoriculus Ellerman and Morrison-

Scott, 1951. Type species, Sorex caudatus Horsfield,

1851.

Soriculus caudatus caudatus Horsfield, 1851. Type

locality, Darjeeling, West Bengal, India. Synonyms:

gracilicauda Anderson, 1877; homourus Gray, 1863

(nomen nudum); soluensis Gruber, 1969.

Soriculus caudatus sacratus Thomas, 1911. Type

locality, Emei Shan, 6000 ft., Yuen-ching Hsien,

Sichuan, China.

Soriculus caudatus umbrinus G. Allen, 1923. Type

locality, Mu-cheng, Salween drainage, 7000 ft.,

Yunnan, China.

Soriculus fumidus Thomas, 1913. Type locality,

Mt. Arisan, 8000 ft., Chiai Hsien, Taiwan. Synonym:

Chodsigoa sodalis Thomas, 1913.

Soriculus leucops leucops Horsfield, 1855. Type

locality, Nepal. Synonyms: gruberi Weigel, 1969;

minor Dobson, 1890; nivicola Gray, 1863 (nomen

nudum).

Soriculus leucops baileyi Thomas, 1914. Type loca-

lity, Mishmi Hills, Assam India.

Soriculus macnirus Blanford, 1888. Type locality,

Darjeeling, West Bengal, India. Synonym: irene

Thomas, 1911b.

Subgenus Chodsigoa Kastschenko, 1907. Type

species, Soriculus hypsibius de Winton, 1899.

Soriculus hypsibius de Winton, 1899. Type loca-

lity, Yang-liu-pa, Sichuan, China. Synonyms: bere-

zowski Kastschenko, 1907; larvarum Thomas, 1911b.

477

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Soriculus lamula lamula Thomas, 1912. Type

locality, 40 mi SE Taochou (Lintan), 9500 ft., Gansu,

China.

Soriculus lamula parva G. Allen, 1923. Type loca-

lity, Ssu Shan (Xue Shan) Chang, Likiang Range,

9000 ft., Yunnan, China.

Soriculus salenskii Kastschenko, 1907. Type loca-

lity, Lun-ngan-fu, Sichuan, China.

Soriculus smithii Thomas, 1911. Type locality,

Tatsienlu (Kangting, Uardo), 9000 ft. Sichuan,

China.

Soriculus parca parca G. Allen, 1923. Type loca-

lity, Ho-mu-shu Pass, 8000 ft., Yunnan, China.

Soriculus parca lowei Osgood, 1932. Type loca-

lity, Chapa, Tonkin, Vietnam.

Soriculus parca furva Anthony, 1941. Type loca-

lity, [Mt.] Imaw Bum, Kachin Prov., Burma.

Specimens Examined :

Abbreviations: AMNH, American Museum of Natu-

ral History, New York; BMNH, British Museum

(Natural History), London; FMNH, Field

Museum of Natural History, Chicago; KU, Museum

of Natural History, University of Kansas, Law-

rence; MCZ, Museum of Comparative Zoology,

Harvard University, Cambridge; USNM, National

Museum of Natural History, Washington; ZIN,

Zoological Institute, Academy of Sciences, Lenin-

grad.

Soriculus n. nigrescens. India, West Bengal, vie.

Darjeeling. (BMNH) 42.4.29.65 [holotype]; 43.5.

31.5); Darjeeling Dist., Ghoom (Ghum), 4 (FMNH

82565 through 68); Sandikphu (Sandakaphu), 1 (MCZ

57022); N. P., Kumaon, Dhakuri, 2 (BMNH 14.7.

10.245 [holotype caurinus], FMNH 8257); Sikkim,

Gnatong (Gnateng), 5 (BMNH 15.9.1.56 [holo-

type, pahari], FMNH 82561 through — 64; Lingtam

(Lingbom), 1 (FMNH 35411). Nepal, Bouzini, 3

(BMNH 22.5.16.17 [holotype, centralis ], FMNH

82569, —70); Sukapatal, 1 (KU 135572); Zorn

Khola, Kung Chu (Kuncha) 6 (AMNH 24044

through — 49). Soriculus nigrescens radulus. India,

Assam, Mishmi Hills, Dreyi (Dri River), 1 (BMNH

21.12.5.6. [holotype]); ciiina, Yunnan, Gangfang,

1 (AMNH 114655).

Soriculus l. leucops. Nepal, no exact locality, 1

(BMNH 79.11.21.483 [holotype]); Mayangdi Khola

(River), Tazumsi-brang, 1 (KU 138568); Sankhu-

wasabha Khola, vie. Num, 27°40'N, 87°16'E, 2

(FMNH 114147, 114204). India, Sikkim, Lingtam

(Lingbom), 3 (FMNH 35414, —15, —16). Soricu-

lus leucops baileyi. India, Assam, Mishmi Hills, Tsu

River, 1 (BMNH 14.1.1.1. [holotype]). Burma,

Kachin Prov., Adung Valley, 1 (FMNH 40935);

Hpimaw, 1 (AMNH 114791); Hpare, 2 (AMNH

114795, —97); Hpare Pass, 2 (AMNH 114798,

— 99); Hpare-Saulang road, 3 (AMNH 114705,

114794, 114796); Htawgaw, 3 (AMNH 114769,

— 70, — 71); Hkamkawn, 1 (AMNH 114793); Hpin-

law Kha (River), 2 (AMNH 114637, 114807);

Black Rock, 1 (AMNH 114792); Tangtung, 4

(AMNH 114658, 114660, 114722, —73). china,

Yunnan, Gangfang, 17 (AMNH 114619; 114774

through — 87, — 89, 114863; Liang Shan, 1 (AMNH

111328). Vietnam, Tonkin, Lo-Qui-Ho, Mt. Fan Si

Pan, 8 (BMNH 33.4.1.197, —198, —199; FMNH

39031 through — 36).

Soriculus macrurus. India, West Bengal, Darjeeling

Dist., vie. Darjeeling, 1 (BMNH 90.1.1.19 [holo-

type]) ; Sikkim, Chungtang (Chungthang), 1 (BMNH

15.9.1.81). nepal, Trisuli Valley, Nuwakot Khola,

2 km S. Dunche, 1 (KU 138567); Dar Khola, W

of Dadar Dhuri Mt., 2 (KU 138570, —71); Pass

between Dharpatan and Gurjakani, 15 km W Dadar

Dhuri Mts., 1 (KU 138572). Palpa Dist., Dara

(Dar) Khola, Lumsum, 2 (BMNH 75.106, — 07);

5 mi E Jammagoan (Jamuna), 1 (FMNH 94151);

Sankhuwashabha Khola, vie. Num, 27°40'N, 87°16'E,

2 (FMNH 114137, —50); Mangalbare, 2 (USNM

290034, — 35). ciiina, Sichuan, near Omi-san (Emei

Shan), Yuen-ching Hsien, 2 (BMNH 11.9.8.21,

— 22 [holotype, irene])', Tsao Po, 15 mi SW Wench-

wan (Wenchuan), 2 (AMNH 111088, —89); Chen-

gou Forks, 30 mi W. Wenchwan, 2 (AMNH 111108,

— 10); Omi-san (Emei Shan), 2 (BMNH 11.2.1.47,

— 48); Gan Yang Go 4 (FMNH 36200 through

—03); Dun Shi Go, 5 (FMNH 36241, —42, —44

through — 46); Lu Ting (Luding) Shan, 2 (FMNH

36204, —05); Lu Erh Cheh, 2 (FMNH 39624;

USNM 260750); Mouping (Pao-hsing, Baoxing), 7

(FMNH 36238, —47, —48, —51 through —53;

USNM 260749); no exact locality, 1 (KU 11685);

Yunnan, 20 mi N Taku (T’a-K’o), Ha-Pa, 1 (MCZ

20726); La-chu-mi, 1 (AMNH 44451); Mekong

River, Hsiao-ki-la, 1 (AMNH 44375); Chung-lu

(Chung-lo), 1 (FMNH 35750); Salween drainage,

Mu-cheng. 2 (AMNH 44469; MCZ 20728); Salween-

Irawaddy divide, 1 (BMNH 23.3.7.5); To-mu-

lang, 1 (AMNH 44415); 20 mi S Chungtien (Zhong-

dian), Tu-Gan-Sha, 1 (MCZ 20727); Gangfang, 9

(AMNH 114608 through — 14, — 18, — 56); no

478

REVIEW OF THE GENUS SORICULUS

exact locality, 3 (AMNH 57195, — 97, — 98). burma,

Kachin Prov., Adung Valley, 1 (BMNH 32.11.1.34);

road to Chimeli Pass, 3 (AMNH 114631 through

— 33); Hpare-Saulang road, 14 (AMNH 114642

through — 54, 115533, — 51); Hpimaw road, 4

(AMNH 114638 through —41); Hpawti, 3 (AMNH

114630, — 34, — 35); Imavv Bum, 4 (BMNH 20.8.

7.3, —4; AMNH 114621, 114788); Nyetmaw

River, 11 (AMNH 114622-29; 115558, 115560;

115564); Vijawlaw, 3 (AMNH 114615 through — 17).

Vietnam, Tonkin, Lo-Qui-Ho, Mt. Fan Si Pan, 1

(FMNH 39030).

Soriculus c. caudatus. Nepal, no exact locality, 1

(BMNH 79.11.21.479 [lectotype]; Zom Khola,

Kung Chu (Kuncha), 1 (AMNH 240732); near

Lamnag, 15 (AMNH 240728 through — 43); Gorrcha

Dist., NW of Apoon (Apun), 2 (FMNH 82572,

— 73); Nuwakot Dist., Phulung Ghyang, 3 (FMNH

104103, — 05, — 08); 3 mi above Biqu (Bique), 1

(FMNH 94145); 5 mi E Jammagoan (Jamuna), 1

(FMNH 94153); 27°40'N, 87°16'E, 4 (FMNH

114136, — 38, — 40, — 51); Kasuna (Kasua) Khola,

1 (FMNH 114157), 27°38'N, 87°12'E, 3 (FMNH

114159 through — 61); Balutar, 1 (FMNH 114164);

Chitre, 1 (USNM 290036); Mangalbare, 9 (USNM

290037 through — 45); Chowki, 1 (KU 135751).

India, Sikkim, no exact locality, 1 (BMNH 79.11.

21.480 [cotype]); Bhutan, Gasa, 1 (USNM 395250);

West Bengal, Darjeeling Dist., Sandakphu, 1 (MCZ

57923); Kashmir, Khistwar Dist., Dachin, 2 (USNM

173916, — 17). Soriculus caudatus sacratus. china,

Sichuan, Omi-san (Emei Shan), 6 (BMNH 11.2.1.49

through — 54 [holotype]) ; Fi Shan Kwan (Fu Hsian

Shan), 3 (FMNH 37206, —39, 39652); Pin Yang

Goh, 4 (FMNH 45891 through — 94) ; Lu Erh

Cheh, 1 (USNM 260759); Shan Wan Kun (Shawan),

14 (FMNH 39635 through — 38, — 40, — 43 through

—50); Tao Cho Fu, 11 (FMNH 39625, —27, —28,

— 30 through — 34, — 41, — 42). Soriculus caudatus

umbrinus. china, Yunnan, Salween drainage. Mu-

cheng, 9 (AMNH 44334, —38 rholotvpe], —53, —55,

—67; FMNH 35748, -^9; MCZ 20735-36); Lichiang

(Likiang, Lijiang) Range, 1 (BMNH 23.4.1.11);

Gangfang, 4 (AMNH 114661, —62, 1147116, —53);

Taron Valley, Kui-Kiang, 1 (BMNH 23.3.7.6).

India, Assam, Sienghku Wang, 1 (BMNH 27.3.

7.4). burma, Kachin Prov., Adung Valley, 17

(BMNH 32.11.1.36 through —44; FMNH 40928

through — 34, — 36); Changyinku, 5 (AMNH

114731, — 32, — 35 through — 37; road to Chimeli

Pass, 1 (AMNH 114683); Hpare, 9 (AMNH 114706

through — 8, —30, — 44 through — 47, — 50) ;

Hpawti, 5 (AMNH 114691, —92, 114719-25,

— 59); Hpimaw, 5 (AMNH 114694 through

— 96, — 98, 114729); Imaw Bum, 1 (AMNH

114672); Saulang 2 (AMNH 114659, 114738);

Tantung, 2 (AMNH 114726, —28); above Tosnma,

2 (AMNH 114681, —82); Vijawlaw, 2 (AMNH

114715, —54).

Soriculus [ caudatus ] fumidus. china, Taiwan,

Chiai Hsien, Mt. Arizan (Ali-shan), 12 (BMNH

12.11.23.1 [holotype], — 2 [holotype, sodalis]-, USNM

322804 through —10; 358657 through — 59); 100

mi E Ali-shan Station (in error; as stated, in South

China Sea), 1 (USNM 358108); Han (=Nan) Tou

Hsien, Wu Sheh, Yin Feng, 4 (USNM 322802, —03,

—11, —12); 20 mi NE Wu She (Sheh), 1 (BMNH

71.492); Chuei Feng, 2 (USNM 322800, —01).

Soriculus h. hypsibius. china, Sichuan, Kho-tsi-

gou, Lun-gnan-fu, 6 (ZIN 6436 [holotype, berezow-

ski], 6430 through — 33, — 35); Chengou Creek,

Chengwai, 25 mi W. Wenchwan (Wenchuan), 11

(AMNH 111090 through —92, —94 through —98,

111100, — 02, — 06); Tsao Po, 15 mi SW Wencb-

wan, 58 (AMNH 111011 through —21, —24, —24

through — 27, — 29 through — 31, — 33 through — 36,

— 38 through — 41, — 44, — 45, — 47 through — 50;

52 through — 54, — 56, — 58 through — 60, — 62,

— 64 through — 73, — 75 through — 77, — 81, — 83,

— 84, — 86, — 87); Sungpan (Songpan, Sungqu), 1

(FMNH 43866); Ta Tsai Tsu, 1 (FMNH 43842);

Tze Mei, Minya Konka (Kungka) (Gongga Shan),

1 (AMNH 113533); Tank-ko (Tan Kuo), Chu

Lung Shien (= Hsien?), 1 (AMNH 113534);

Weichou (Weizhou, Wenchuan), Si Ho (River), 2

(BMNH 11.9.8.2.3, —24); Yang-liu-pa, 1 (BMNH

99.3.1.10 [holotype]); Yunnan, Chungtien (Zhong-

dian) Dist., Song-pa (AMNH 4471); Shaanxi, Tsing

Ling (Qin Ling) Shan, base of Tai Pei (Taibai)

Shan, 21 (AMNH 56066, —67, —70 through —72,

—76, —78, —79, —81 through —85), FMNH 35757-

61); MCZ 20729 through —31). Hebei, 65 mi E

Peking (Beijing). Eastern Tombs, 2 (BMNH 8.8.

7.20.-21 [holotype, larvarurn]) .

Soriculus I. lamula. china, Kansu, 40 mi SE

Taochou (Lintan), 1 (BMNH 12.8.5.22 [holotype]);

Chone (Jone) Dist., 2 (AMNH 111069; MC 24117);

Sichuan, Goan Shih Dwe, 1 (AMNH 111065); Tsao

Po, 15 mi SE Wenchwan (Wenchuan), 5 (111028,

— 42, — 61, — 74, — 79). Soriculus lamula parva.

479

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Yunnan, Lichiang (Likiang, Lijiang) Range, Ssu

Shan Chang (Xue Shan), 4 (AMNH 44390 [holo-

type], —91, —95; MCZ 20734).

Soriculus salenskii. china, Sichuan, Lun-ngan-fu,

Kho-tsi-gou, 1 (ZIN 6388 [holotype]).

Soriculus smithii. china, Sichuan, Tatsienliu

(Kangting, Kangding, Dardo), 1 (BMNH 11.2.1.55

[holotype]); Chengou Forks, 30 mi W Wenchwan

(Wenchuan), 2 (AMNH 111009, —11); Chengou

Creek, Chengwei, 25 mi W Wenchwan, 4 (AMNH

111103 through —05, —07); Tsao Po, 15 mi SW

Wenchwan, 1 (AMNH 111032); Dun Shi Go, 1

(FMNH 37240); Lu Ting (Luding) Shan, 1 (FMNH

36199); Ta Cho Fu, 2 (FMNH 39614, —15); Yu

Long Kong, 1 (FMNH 33284); Shaanxi, Tsing Ling

(Qin Ling) Shan, base of Tai Pei (Taibei) Shan,

2 (AMNH 56088; MCZ 20732).

Soriculus parca parca. china, Yunnan, Ho-mu-

shu Pass, 2 (AMNH 44409 [holotype], 44376);

Gangfang, 1 (AMNH 114664); Lichiang (Likiang,

Lijiang) Range, Ssu Shan (Xue Shan), 2 (AMNH

44369; MCZ 20733); Sichuan, Ta Cho Fu, 2 (FMNH

39621, — 22); “Kweichow” (Sichuan), Shuan Lung

(Shuanglong) Chang, 1 (FMNH 39653; skin only,

possibly S. hypsibius). Burma, Imaw Bum, 1

(AMNH 114620 [holotype, furva ]); Laukhaung, 1

(AMNH 114617); Pyepat, 1 (AMNH 114616);

Rawngaw, 4 (AMNH 114636, 114800 through — 02).

Soriculus parca lowei. Vietnam, Tonkin, Chapa, 1

(BMNH 32.4.19.4 [holotype]); Thailand, summit,

Mt. Angka (Doi Angka), 4 (MCZ 35448 through

-51).

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Honacki, J. H., Kinman, K. E. & Koeppl, J. W.,

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pp.

Horsfield, T. (1851): A catalogue of the Mam-

malia in the Museum of the Hon. East. India Com-

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(1855): Brief notices of several

new or little-known species of Mammalia, lately dis-

covered and collected in Nepal, by Brian Houghton

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101-114.

Jameson, E. W., jr. & Jones, G. S. (1977): The

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Uternehmens Nepal Himalaya 3(2) : 170.

481

FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE EGG AND

NYMPHAL MORPHOLOGY OF THE GRASS TINGID

AGRAMMA HUPEHANUM (DRAKE & MAA)

(HETEROPTERA: TINGID AE) WITH A NOTE

ON ITS EGG PARASITES1

David Livingstone, S. Jeyanthi Bai and

Md. Yacoob2

(With two plates )

The development and arrangement of body outgrowths are peculiar in the nymphal instars

of Agramma hupehanum (Drake & Maa), a monophagous grass tingid. The spines that

develop anteriorward from the 9th abdominal segment, have their full complements only

in the 4th instar, but are significantly reduced to rudiments in the fifth instar. The wing

pads that do not appear in the fourth instar develop fully in the fifth instar. The eggs are

parasitised by a Trichogrammatid belonging to the genus Lathromeromyia Girault and a

Mymarid, belonging to the genus Parallelaptera Enock.

Introduction

Our knowledge on the functional anatomy

of the eggs and nymphal morphology of

Tingidae has its beginning from the work of

Roonwal (1952) on the exotic bug Teleonemia

scrupulosa Stal. Since then, a few workers

published brief reports on the biology and

bionomics of a few indigenous species (Patel

and Kulkarney 1955, Mathur 1955, Mathen

1960 and Asari 1972). Livingstone, 1959, 1967,

1976 & 1978 and Livingstone et al. 1981 added

further information on the functional aspects

of eggs and nymphal morphology of six more

species of Tingidae. Tingid eggs and nymphs

vary considerably in their functional morpho-

logy and anatomy and information on these

aspects of grass tingids is not available in lite-

rature. Host plant records (Drake & Ruholf

1965) indicate that members of the subfamily

1 Accepted January 1982.

2 Division of Entomology, Bharathiar University,

Coimbatore 641 046, India.

Agrammatinae are pests of a wide variety of

grasses. The systematic position of this sub-

family still remains open for discussion. In the

present paper, an account of the functional

anatomy of the egg and the nymphal morpho-

logy of one species of grass tingid has been

given.

Materials and Methods

Agramma hupehanum (Drake & Maa) is

a monophagous species. Adults and nymphs

were collected periodically from Heteropogon

fulcrus, a very common grass of South India.

Adults and nymphs exhibit strong geotaxic

tendency and their coloration very appro-

priately matches with the soil on which the

grass grows. Therefore, considerable effort is

required to spot these insects, while searching

an affected grass blade. Eggs were removed

from the affected leaves directly and by treat-

ing them in 10% KOH and then in weak acetic

acid. Before mounting them in polyvinyl lacto-

phenol, they were dehydrated and cleared in

482

THE GRASS TINGID AGRAMMA HUPEHANUM ( DRAKE & MAA)

cellosolve. Nymphs and eggs were also mount-

ed directly in polyvinyl lactophenol, after treat-

ing them briefly in cellosolve. Parasitised eggs

were collected directly from the seriously

affected leaves and the emerging parasites from

these eggs were mounted directly in polyvinyl

lactophenol.

Taxonomic description of the adult

Agramma hupehanum was first reported

from the Lichuan District, Western Hupeh,

China by Drake and Maa on July 17, 1947.

The host plant was not known then and the

original description (Drake & Maa 1954) is

quite inadequate and not illustrated. In order

to include more characters, a redescription of

the insect, with suitable illustrations (Plate I,

Figs. 1 and 2), has been considered neces-

sary. The present description applies to an

adult male collected from Maruthamalai, a

scrub jungle ecotone of Coimbatore district.

Minute in size. Length 2.16 mm and width

across the prothorax 0.56 mm.

Head ferrugineous black, armed with only

a pair of short testaceous clypeal tubercles;

antennae moderately long, distinctly pilose and

somewhat fuscous; antennal segments I and II

fuscous, short stout and subequal in length;

segment III uniformly elongate, fuscous and

thrice as long as the fusiform, apically fuscous

to brown segment IV; brown antenniferous

tubercles very prominent; rostrum long, extend-

ing upto the middle of the mesosternal furrow;

bucculae moderately expanded without areolae,

almost concealing the first rostral segment. Pro-

notum slightly convex, coarsely punctate, with a

median non areolate carina anteriorly extend-

ing a little beyond the pronotal hood and

posteriorly terminating subapically on the pro-

minently areolate, sharply pointed, stramine-

ous, medially brown fuscous and laterally

grading into black fuscous proscutellum.

Elytra stramineous brown, completely cover-

ing and extending beyond the abdomen; sub-

costal area narrow, almost entirely uniseriate

except at the middle with 2-4 additional areo-

lae; areolae moderately enlarged, subquadrate,

transparently clear, gradually increasing in their

size distally; radial area moderately broad,

quadriseriate; discoidal area narrow at both

ends and the areolae of the middle enlarged

region 5-6 seriate; sutural area confluent with

radial area, 5-6 seriate in the middle, areolae

enlarged distally; hypocostal lamina (costa)

uniseriate and moderately prominent; sub-

costa and radius alone beset with moderately

long blunt hairs and rest of the elytra bare;

legs short, slender; distitarsus bearing spatu-

late hairs ventrally; tibiae fringed with pro-

minent setal combs.

Out of the 63 species of Agramma recorded

all over the world, only three species have

been reported from India (Drake & Ruhoff

1965). They include, A. hupehanum, from

Bengal; A. gibba Fieber ( Serenthia gibba

Fieber, Distant 1904) from Eastern India and

A. scitulum Drake & Maa from Tanjore Dis-

trict, S. India (Drake & Maa 1955).

Functional anatomy of the egg

A. hupehanum inserts its eggs singly, mostly

parallel to each other, into the mesophyll,

throughout the length of the midrib and lateral

veins. Abaxial surface is preferred and the

opposite surface of egg deposition site always

reveals the egg as the epidermis transparently

bulges out. The entire egg is buried into the

leaf tissue, leaving only the operculum expos-

ed. There is neither smearing of faecal matter

around the operculum nor any cork formation

around the egg, as often reported in the eggs

of Tingidae (Johnson 1936 and Livingstone

1959).

483

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

The egg (Plate I, Fig. 3) is milky white,

elongately oval and its surface that rests in

the mesophyll distinctly convex. The shape of

the egg is well suited for easy penetration into

the thin lamina.

The egg is divisible into the body, the exo-

chorionic .collar and the operculum. The body

of the egg is smooth, 0.403 ±0.01 mm long

and 0.196 ± 0.005 mm broad. The chorionic

collar is short (0.019 ± 0.002 mm) and the

operculum flushes well with the rim of the

chorionic collar.

The exochorion is very thin (less than

0.0034 mm) and is closely invested by the

thin endochorion which is visible at the mouth

of the egg when the operculum is removed.

When the egg swells, the endochorion lifts the

operculum and projects beyond the rim of the

exochorionic collar.

The exochorionic collar or the “chorionic

rim collar” of Cobben (1964), extends beyond

the mouth of the egg (Platel, Fig. 4 CHC).

The base of the collar on its inner surface is

marked by the circular notch into which the

posterior opercular flange snugly fits as the

sealing bar, as reported by other workers

(Beament 1946, Southwood 1956 and Living-

stone 1962, 1967 & 1978). The chorionic collar

is finely punctate and not profusely reticulate

as it is reported so in several other species

having more elongated collar (Cobben 1964.

Livingstone 1976 & Livingstone et al. 1981).

The rim of the collar reflects back upon

itself slightly (Plate I, Fig. 5 CHC) all around.

The inner surface of the collar develops 10-14

aeropyles (Plate I, Fig. 4 AP). These aero-

pyles are visible as canals upto a length of

0.016 ± 0.003 mm and beyond that they

indistinguishably merge with the punctations

of the collar rim and basally they open inde-

pendently at the mouth of the egg. None of

these canals branch as reported in Leptobyrsa

rhododendri (Johnson 1936) and Teleonemia

scrupulosa (Roonwal 1952) and there is no

indication of any accessory aeropyles as re-

ported in Dasytingis rudis (Livingstone 1976)

and Pontanus puerilis (Livingstone et al. 1981).

There is no trace of micropyles in A. hupe-

hanum and none of the aeropyles reported

here have any trace of direct opening to the

exterior. However, in tingid eggs, Southwood

(1956) and Stusak (1968) have considered

all the aeropyles as true micropyles and Cobben

(1964) concluded that tingid eggs possess

two micropyles, besides many aeropyles.

The operculum (Plate I, Fig. 5) is broadly

ovate and slightly convex exteriorly. It is

composed of a central (OPP) more tough

opercular plate (0.081 ± 0.002 mm diameter).

From its rim, a membranous opercular flange

(OPF) or the sealing bar, that is directed back-

ward to the base of the foliar, snugly fits into

the circular notch. The rim of the opercular

plate further develops anteriorly a reticulate

(spongy) flange (APF) bearing about 20 canals.

This anterior flange remains opposed to the

inner surface of the chorionic collar, extend-

ing upto the rim of the latter. This arrange-

ment establishes an effective air filtering

mechanism for the aeropyles. The number of

the canals present on the opercular anterior

flange is much more than the number of

aeropyles. Structurally, the opercular appara-

tus resembles that of Urentius euonymus (Liv-

ingstone 1959) and of Stephanitis typica

(Mathen 1960).

Nymphai. morphology

A. hupehanum does not show any form of

congregational behaviour, quite unlike several

other species of foliage feeding species of

tingidae. The cuticular and body outgrowths

of the nymphai instars are classified according

484

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Sot. 82 Plate I

Livingstone et al A gramma hupehanum

Agramma hupehanum (Drake & Maa)

Fig. 1. Adult Male insect; Fig. 2. Forewing; Fig. 3. Entire egg; Fig. 4. Mouth of

the egg (AP — Aeropyle. CHC — Chorionic collar, MT — Mouth of the egg); Fig. 5.

Operculum (OPF — Posterior opercular flange. APF — Anterior flange, OPP —

Opercular plate); Fig. 6. Parasitised egg (Notice the compound eyes and ocelli of the

parasite); Fig. 7. Egg shell after parasite emergence; Fig. 8. Trichogrammatid egg

parasite, Lathromeromyia sp.; Fig. 9. Mymarid egg parasite, Parallelaptera sp.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Sot. 82 Plate II

Livingstone et at. : A gramma hupehanum

Agramma hupehanum (Drake & Maa)

Figs. 10-14. I-V nymphal instars; Fig. 15. Cuticular spherules (CS) & Long, blunt

spines (LBS); Fig. 16. Biradiate Scoli (BS); Fig. 17. Short spine (SP) and long

spines (LSP); Fig. 18. Spatulate hairs (SH).

THE GRASS TING ID AGRAMMA HUPEHANUM ( DRAKE & MAA)

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to Livingstone (1978). Morphometric analysis

(Table 1) of the nymphal instars reveals that

the length of the body, the antennae and the

wing pads make significant growth in the fifth

instar nymph.

The cuticular and body outgrowths are:

a. Cuticular spherules (Plate II, Fig. 15,

CS). These are developments of epicuticle as

minute spherical concretions (0.0034 mm

diameter), corresponding to the “circle shaped

structures” of Stusak (1968). In the first instar

they are distributed on the middorsal line

only. In the successive instars they are dis-

tributed laterally and intersegmentally, but

never on the appendages.

b. Biradiate scoli (Plate II, Fig. 16, BS).

These are developments of the entire cuticle

(0.023 mm long) and they first make their

appearance in the second instar as biradiate

erruptions on the occiput, frons, clypeus and

on the dorsomedian line of the thorax and

abdomen. Their arrangement becomes erratic

as their number keeps on increasing in the

successive instars. Similar biradiate scoli have

been reported by Rodrigues (1978) in the fifth

instar nymph of Agramma maynei and they

correspond to the “villi like tiny excrescences”

of Tingis stachydis, as described by Stusak

(1968).

c. Spatulate hairs (Plate II, Fig. 18 SH).

These are spoon shaped hairs (0.02 mm long),

having very restricted distribution on the ven-

tral surface of the distitarsus. They can be

readily distinguished from the globulated

spines by their characteristic shape. Such hairs

are not reported by earlier workers in Tingi-

dae and they appear to be sensory, having

some functional significance for this positively

geotaxic species.

d. Short, sharp spines (Plate IT, Fig. 17 SP)

These are nonpedicellate short spines (0.017

mm long), found on the antennomeres and

tarsomeres.

485

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

e. Long, slender, sharp spines (Plate II,

Fig. 17 LSP) These are development of the

entire cuticle, as pedicellate spines. They are

distributed at the tip of the antennae, tibiae

and tarsomeres. Their pedicel remain constant

in length (0.0034 mm) but the length of spine

increases' steadily in the successive instars.

f. Long, slender, blunt spines (Plate II,

Fig. 15, LBS). These are similar to the long

slender sharp spines in their development and

in having the pedicel length remaining con-

stant in the successive instars. But they differ

from the latter in being blunt apically and they

are distributed on the head, lateral margins

of the thorax and the dorsal and lateral mar-

gins of the abdomen. They make their appear-

ance in the first instar, gradually increase in

length in the successive instars and reach their

maximum length (0.04 mm) in the 4th instar

(Plate II, Fig. 13). In the 5th instar they are

reduced to mere rudiments (Plate II, Fig. 14).

They are not comparable to the globulated

spines of other species of tingids and they do

not exhibit the phenomenon of sweating, as

commonly reported to be so on the globulated

spines of other species of Tingidae. (Livingstone

1978 and Livingstone et al. 1981).

General remarks on the immature stages

Following their sequential order of deve-

lopment on the lateral margins of thorax and

abdomen, the long blunt spines of the nymphal

instars of A. hupehanum can be readily cate-

gorised as primaries, secondaries, tertiaries

etc., as in the thoracic segments of Dasytingis

rudis (Livingstone 1976) and Pont anus puerilis

(Livingstone et al. 1981). Primaries always

occupy the posterolateral position of each

segment and the subsidiaries always develop

anterior to them, except on the 9th segment

of the 3rd (Plate II, Fig. 12) and 4th (Plate

II, Fig. 13) instars. In all other species of

Tingidae, whose nymphal morphology is

known, the marginal tubercles of the abdomen

while increasing in complexity in the succes-

sive instars, are seldom found to be added

by subsidiaries in the successive instars, as

observed in A. hupehanum.

The more significant morphological features

Table 2

Sequemental arrangement of the spines on the abdomen and thoracic segments of the nymphal

INSTARS

486

THE GRASS TING ID AGRAMMA HUPEHANUM ( DRAKE & MAA )

of the nymphal instars of A. hupehanum, not

commonly reported earlier in the nymphal in-

stars of other species of Tingidae are:

a) Only one pair of tubercles, that make its

appearance only on the head (clypeal) in the

first instar, continues to grow and persist in

the adult. These two tubercles are bare, unlike

those of other known species of Tingidae in

which such tubercles are always reported to

be of the compound type (Livingstone 1968).

b) Marginal spines of the thorax and abdo-

men first make their appearance on the 9th

abdominal segment in the first instar and in

the subsequent instars (Table 2) they pro-

gressively develop anteriorward and reach

their maximum number and development in

the 4th instar (Plate II, Fig. 13). In the final

instar, they are reduced to mere rudiments

(Plate II, Fig. 14), unlike those of other

species of Tingidae whose nymphal morpho-

logy is known.

c) The cephalic spines that make their

appearance in the 3rd instar, grow to the

maximum number and size in the 4th instar :

genal pairs 4; frontal pairs 4 and clypeal pairs

2. In the fifth instar they are either reduced

to rudiments or lost.

(d) Total absence of globulated spines and

their secretory globules which are commonly

found in most other species of Tingidae.

(e) Presence of spatulate hairs on the under

surface of the distitarsus.

Egg parasites

Tingid egg parasites have been reported

earlier by Livingstone (1963 & 1976), May

(1977) and Livingstone et al. (1981). In A.

hupehanum the eggs are parasitized by Lathro-

meromyia sp. (Plate I, Fig. 8), a Trichogram-

matid and by Parallelaptera sp. (Plate I, Fig.

9) a Mymarid. Both parasites occur simulta-

neously, parasitising the eggs of the same

batch, deposited on the same leaf. All the

parasitised eggs can be readily recognized by

the accumulation of one or two patches of

opaque material at the posterior end of the

egg and in a more advanced stage of parasite

development the two compound eyes and the

three ocelli of the parasite appear conspicu-

ously as reddish patches (Plate I, Fig. 6).

Livingstone (1976) while reporting such a

phenomenon, appeared to have mistaken the

three ocelli of the parasite to be the five omma-

tidia of the host, thereby giving the interpreta-

tion that the parasite embryo develops at right

angle to the host embryo.

While the nymphs from healthy eggs emerge

through the mouth of the egg by lifting the

operculum, the parasites from a parasitised egg

emerge by making an exit opening on the

chorion immediately behind the mouth of the

egg, mostly on the convex surface (dorsal ?)

of the egg (Plate I, Fig. 7). Emergence of the

parasite through an aperture made at the

posterior end of the egg is also not uncommon

(Plate I, Fig. 9).

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the ICAR, New Delhi

for financial support and the authorities of the

University of Madras for providing facilities.

Thanks are also due to Dr. Michael Lockwood,

M. C. C. Tambaram for providing the photo-

micrographic equipment.

487

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

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Nat. Hist., 12: 377-394.

— : , Jeyanthi Bai, S. & Ramani,

R. (1981): Functional anatomy of the egg and the

nymphal morphology of the teak tingid Pontanus

puerilis Drake & Poor (Heter.: Tingidae). Proc.

Indian Acad. Sci., 90(4) : 389-405.

Mathen, K. (1960): Observations on Stephanitis

typicus Dist. a pest of coconut palm. 1 Description

and life History, Indian Coconut Journal, XIV, No.

1: 1-20.

Mathur, R. N. (1955): Immature stages of Tingis

beesoni Drake. Entomologist, London. 88: 248-251.

May, B. M. (1977): The immature stages and

biology of the lacebug Tanybyrsa cumberi Drake.

(Het.: Tingidae). J. Royal Soc. Newzeland, 7(3):

303-312.

Patel, R. C. & Kulkarney, H. L. (1955) : Biono-

mics of Urentius echinus Dist. (Hemiptera: Heterop-

tera: Tingidae), an important pest of Brinjal (Sola-

rium mclongena) in the North Gujarat. 7. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 53(1) : 86-96.

Rodrigues, P. D. (1978): African Tingidae III:

Nymphs of Dictyla burgeoni (Schout). Mafa lanceo-

lata Hesse and Agramma maynei (Schout) (Heterop-

tera). Arq. Mus. Boc (2a. Serie), 6(13): 241-249.

Roonwal, M. L. (1952): On the natural esta-

blishment and dispersal of an imported bug Teleo-

nemia scrupulosa Stal (lantanae Distant: Heterop-

tera: Tingidae) with a description of its egg, nymphs

and adult. 7. Zool. Soc. India, 4(1): 1-16.

Southwood, T. R. E. (1956): The structure of

the eggs of the terrestial Heteroptera and its rela-

tionship to the classification of the group. Trans ent.

Soc. London, 108: 163-221.

Stusak, J. M. (1968): Notes on the bionomics

and the immature stages of Tingis stachydis (Fieber).

Acta. Ent. Boliemoslov., 65: 412-421.

488

OCCURRENCE OF CAJANINAE IN THE

INDIAN SUBCONTINENT, BURMA AND THAILAND

L.J.G. van der Maesen2, P. Remanandan,

N. Kameswara Rao, and R.P.S. Pundir1

(With three plates and five maps)

The ICRISAT Gene Bank houses the world’s most exhaustive collection of pigeonpea,

Cajanus cajan, and its close relatives, which are classified in the subtribe Cajaninae,

tribe Phaseoleae, family Leguminosae. Wild relatives have a significant role in pigeon-

pea improvement at present and in the future. Many of them are under threat of

extinction, and some may be already extinct. ICRISAT botanists have been collecting

Cajaninae from their major areas of occurrence which include India, Nepal, Burma

and Thailand from 1975 onwards. This paper highlights the manner and frequency

of occurrence of the species of Cajanus (inch Atylosia), Rhynchosia, Dunbaria,

Flemingia, Paracalyx, and Eriosema as observed during recent collection trips

compared with herbarium records. Evidently the habitats of several species have

shrunk. Some species, such as C. elongatus and C. villosus from NE India and C.

grandiflorus in N and NE India are so difficult to find that they may be close to

extinction. These species need to be salvaged. Others may be extinct in some habitats,

such as C. sericeus from the Eastern Ghats.

Introduction

Pigeonpea, arhar, tur, or red gram, Cajanus

cajan (L.) Millsp., is an important food legume

in India. In 1983 India grew 2 498 600 ha

(Anon. 1983). The world area was 2 951 000

ha in 1980, and India produced 1 800 000 out

of 2 017 000 tons (unpublished FAO data file).

Outside India pigeonpea is one of the major

pulse crops in Eastern Africa, particularly

Kenya. Uganda, Malawi and Tanzania, and in

the Caribbean region. It is grown to a smaller

extent in many other tropical countries bet-

ween 30 S and 25 N, often in mixtures or in

subsistence-farming situations, and is therefore

1 Accepted April 1984.

2 Present address: Department of Plant Taxo-

nomy, Agricultural University, 37 Gen. Foulkesweg

Wageningen, The Netherlands.

2 Genetic Resources Unit, International Crops Re-

search Institute for the Semi- Arid Tropics, Patan-

cheru. A.P. 502324.

not properly accounted for in statistical reports.

In those cases a survey on the basis of herba-

rium records can give better information about

the distribution of pigeonpea (van der Maesen

1983). even when plant explorers often ignored

cultivated plant species, and it does not specify

the extent of cultivation.

For pigeonpea improvement a large germ-

plasm collection is a prerequisite. The genetic

resources of any crop include wild species,

which have been exposed to severe selection

pressures. Wild relatives of the pigeonpea have

the potential to contribute desirable genes, and

provide insight into the evolution and diversi-

fication of the crop. These species are often

difficult to obtain, due to genetic erosion in

impoverished or diminishing habitats, and local

endemism. On the other hand, rare species

may prove of more common occurrence than

expected from the records, when intensively

sought.

489

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

In a taxonomical revision of Cajanus DC.

(van de Maesen 1985) Atylosia has been de-

clared congeneric with Cajanus, based on com-

parative morphology, cytology, chemical data

and crossability. The earlier distinction bet-

ween the genera was mainly based on the

absence or presence of a seed strophiole. Caja-

nus cajan has a vestigial strophiole, conspicu-

ous in the developing seeds, and in some culti-

vars this structure persists at maturity. Some

pigeonpea seeds are indistinguishable from

Atylosia seeds, all of which have a persistent

strophiole. The enumeration lists all 17 species

of Cajanus from the area under consideration,

in total this genus now has 32 species. Maps

1 and 2 show the distribution of the species,

based on herbarium study and explorations.

We still have not yet collected four of these

species from India and Burma.

Other wild genera related to pigeonpea,

Rhynchosia, Dunbaria, Flemingia, Paracalyx,

and Eriosema, are also classified in the subtribe

Cajaninae of the tribe Phaseoleae. Other Caja-

ninae genera not mentioned here are small

and mainly of African distribution (Lackey

1980). Both species described in the genus

Endomallus are synonyms of Cajanus goensis

Dalz. (van dcr Maesen 1985). Although less

closely related, it w'ould be useful to continue

and comnlete collection of these genera for

possible future utilization, and possibly to sal-

vage them from extinction.

Occurrence of Cajanus spp. and

other Cajaninae

Other than the basis of information gathered

from herbaria and literature, several pointed

collections were made between 1975 and 1983

to collect Cajaninae. Tn Tndia generally two

periods are suitable for collection of seeds of

wild legumes : in October-November after the

monsoons, and from February to April after

the cool season, depending on area and species.

After a wet monsoon the plants will flower

longer, and produce seeds for a longer span

of time. In some areas of South India, Decem-

ber and January are also suitable for collec-

tion.

Precise location data of the collected Caja-

ninae are listed in various Genetic Resources

Unit Progress Reports (limited availability at

ICRISAT), hence they are not repeated here.

The locations of Cajanus spp. are also listed

for the specimens examined in a monograph

(van der Maesen 1985). This paper summa-

rizes the recent findings in comparison with

the old records, in an attempt to visualize the

present distribution of Cajanus species on

maps, and to point to possible extinction.

Wild species in pigeonpea improvement

Several cross combinations of wild with

cultivated Cajanus produce viable hybrids,

which can be used as intermediaries to intro-

duce genes from wild to cultivated genotypes.

So far several Cajaninae have been screened

and found to possess desirable traits. Rcma-

nandan (1981) summarized the utility of cer-

tain species. For instance, accession of C.

albicans, C. lineatus, C. sericeus and C. crassus

possess resistance to sterility mosaic, C. scara-

baeoides has antibiosis to the pod borer,

Ffeliothis armigera, and most species have high

protein contents. Biochemically the relatives

of pigeonpea are very interesting, for they have

protease inhibitors that could provide selec-

tive resistance against certain insects, and are

destroyed by cooking (Singh and Jambuna-

than 1981).

Many species are now on hand in the

ICRISAT collection, but quite a few are rare

and could not be found during our recent

490

CAJANINAE IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT, BURMA AND THAILAND

explorations. For introgression purposes viable

seeds are required. We make an appeal to

botanists to keep an eye on Cajaninae (and

rare relatives of any crop species), and ICRI-

SAT would be grateful to receive seed and her-

barium samples of Cajaninae, in particular

the species that have so far eluded collec-

tion. Detailed location data can be supplied

upon request.

Maintenance of Cajaninae

Most Cajaninae have been grown success-

fully in ICRISAT’s Botanic Garden. Those

species native to India flower about the same

time as in nature, except Cajanus mollis from

the lower hills of the Himalayas, which flowers

in early August at our Center instead of from

mid-September onwards. Cajanus trinervius,

Map 1. Distribution of Calsnus spp. in South Asia.

491

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Map 2. Distribution of Cajanus spp. in South Asia.

which is adapted to high altitudes, hardly sur-

vives at 600 m and does not flower. To execute

interspecific hybridization, flower buds were

collected in the Nilgiri hills and stored on ice

in a thermos flask, and used for pollination

c. 48 hours after collection. This technique

was successful, and may be applicable to other

species not adapted to the place of research.

At ICR1SAT the species are not grown

under shade, and apparently perennate not as

well as in nature. On the other hand, growth

tends to be luxurious, because competition is

removed, and the plants are irrigated. Insect

pests have to be controlled by spraying insecti-

cides. for instance C. albicans tends to suffer

from scale insects, especially in the second

492

CAJANINAE IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT, BURMA AND THAILAND

year of growth. In nature pod borers and pod

flies also attack Cajanus, but e.g. C. scarabaeoi-

des possesses mechanical resistance and anti-

biosis aganist pod borers. Seeds shatter and

have to be collected daily or biweekly. The

foliage of most Cajaninae appears palatable to

cattle, another factor limiting the survival of

wild pigeonpeas.

Many seeds of Cajaninae have hard seed-

coats, and tend to exhibit dormancy. As a

routine, seeds are scarified before sowing by

a sharp instrument. Seed dormancy can also

be removed by sulphuric acid 98% treatment

for 30 minutes (N. K. Rao et ai, n.d.)

At ICR IS AT seeds are preserved at +4 C

and 30% RH, to ensure longevity and viability.

Enumeration of Cajaninae

Cajanus (incl. Atylosia)

Cajanus albicans (Wt. & Arn.) vdMaesen

India: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala,

Tamil Nadu, sri lanka (500-1700 m). Quite

common, recent finds many. Retreated to more

or less undisturbed forests, near open spaces,

climber in trees or shrubs. FI. Oct. -Apr.

Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.

pantropical (0-2000 m). Widely cultivated

in India, the pigeonpea, arhar, tur or red gram.

Very rarely surviving as an escape, since

grazing is severe outside protected areas. FI.

Sept. -April.

Cajanus cajanifolius (Haines) vdMaesen

India: endemic of the E. Ghats of NE

Andhra Pradesh, Puri and Koraput district of

Orissa, and Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh

(Bailadila) (500-1280 m). Very rare, found

in more locations when searched for. So far

known from less than twenty accessions. The

closest relative of pigeonpea. Erect shrub in not

too dense forests. FI. Nov-Apr.

Cajanus crassus (Prain ex King) vdMaesen

(= C. volubilis sensu Gamble)

Burma, India: quite widely distributed ex-

cept Rajasthan, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, no-

where frequent. java, Nepal, malaya,

PHILIPPINES, THAILAND, VIETNAM (0-800 m).

Climber on trees or shrubs, sal, teak or pine

forests, along streams and on dry soils. In

Burma var. burmanicus pods have long semi-

caducous golden brown hairs, var. crassus has

short puberulous pods. The only wild pigeon-

pea on the Andaman Islands. FI. Jan. -March.

Cajanus elongatus (Benth.) vdMaesen

Bhutan, Burma, India: Assam, Meghalaya:

Khasi hills, Iseira river, Mairung, Sorjung,

Mowphlang, Nongpoh, Nunkloes, Laitlyngkot,

near Kynshi, Nilpara (up to 2000 m), last

collected in India in November 1957, in West

Bengal: Nilpara; nepal, last collected in 1967;

Vietnam. Very rare, not found recently des-

pite thorough searches, may have faced ex-

tinction due to habitat destruction. Collection

and preservation warranted. Twiner on grasses.

FI. July-Nov.

Cajanus goensis Dalz.

Bangladesh, burma, china: Yunnan;

INDIA: Arunachal Pradesh. Assam, Karnataka,

Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram.

Tamil Nadu, Tripura; Indonesia, laos, Malay-

sia, THAILAND, Vietnam (0-1500 m). A pecu-

liar disjunct distribution. Climber in shrubs

and trees, dry deciduous or moist forests, in

shade or near open places. FI. Aug.-March,

mainly Jan.-Febr.

Cajanus grandiflorus (Benth. ex Baker)

vdMaesen

Bhutan, burma, china: Yunnan; India:

NE Uttar Pradesh: Bagesar (Bageshwar),

Kumaon; Upper Garhwal, Manipur: Huining,

Naga Hills, Laimatak; Sikkim: Little Rangit

river; lower hills. In India last found in Mani-

493

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

pur in 1948. Collection warranted. FI. July-

Nov.

Cajanus heynei (Wt. & Arn.) vdMaesen

(= Dunbaria heynei Wt. & Arn.)

India: W. Ghats of Goa, Karnataka, Kerala,

Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, also rarely in the

plains. Not uncommon, this species found a

refuge over a large area in S. India, but fre-

quence of occurrence is low. Climber on shrubs

and trees. FI. Dec.-March.

Cajanus lineatus (Wt. & Arn.) vdMaesen

India: W. Ghats of Goa, Karnataka, Kerala,

Maharashtra, Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu; sri

lanka, found there only once and not traced

recently (400-1660 m). The commonest of

shrubby Cajanus spp., surviving on ungrazed

ledges, hillsides of difficult approach or where

grazing is limited, here and there in large

populations. FI. Oct. -Apr.

Cajanus mollis (Benth.) vdMaesen

Bhutan, India: Arunachal Pradesh, Hima-

chal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Sikkim, Uttar Pra-

desh, Himalaya hills; nepal, Pakistan (700-

2000 m). Not uncommon, always found in

populations of a few or single plants. Climbing

on shrubs, pine and broadleaf trees. FI. Sept.-

Nov.

Cajanus riveus (Benth.) vdMaesen

Burma, china: Yunnan (0-1350 m). Last

found in 1950 between Mandalay and Maymyo,

open jungle, hill sides of upper and lower

Burma, may be found in NE India. FI. Aug-

Dec. Collection warranted.

Cajanus platycarpus (Benth.) vdMaesen

India: Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Himachal Pra-

desh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa,

Uttar Pradesh; Indonesia, nepal, Pakistan

(50-2600 m). Trailing in grasses, along road-

sides, in pine forests, this species suffers from

grazing and is far from common except when

left alone. The earliest flowering species, tends

to grow annual, perennates when conditions

are favourable. Not always found where col-

lected earlier. FI. Aug.-Oct.

Cajanus rugosus (Wt. & Arn.) vdMaesen

India: South peninsular hills; sri lanka

(1300-2400 m). Recently only found in the

Shevaroy hills and Sri Lanka. Tends to be

confused with Rhynchosia filipes, which is

common around Kodaikanal. Twining and

creeping in forests, low shrubs and in open

grassy downs. FI. June-July, Sept. -April, main-

ly Dec. -Jan. Appears to be on the verge oS.

extinction.

Cajanus scarabaeoides (L.) du Petit-Thouars

S and SE asia, parts of Oceania, coastal

AFRICA, MADAGASCAR, JAMAICA (0-1000 m).

The commonest wild species, creeping/climb-

ing in open grass lands, dry scrub or (semi)

deciduous forests such as sal and teak. The

only species which is of frequent occurrence

almost all over India. FI. Sept. -April.

Cajanus sericeus (Benth. ex Baker) vdMaesen

Endemic of India: Western and Eastern

Ghats, Mt Abu, Satpura Mts. (500-1300 m).

Recently only found in the Western Ghats

near Pune, not found on Mt Abu, Endrika

Hill of Visakhapatnam Hills. Undershrub in

dry deciduous forests, grassy lands and hill

slopes. FI. Sept.-Febr.

Cajanus trinervius (DC.) vdMaesen

Hills and hill tops of S India and sri lanka

(850-2650 m). In shrub vegetation, semi-open

evergreen forest, grasslands, between boulders.

Quite localised, this shrub forms populations

of a few dozen plants where left undisturbed.

Flowers throughout the year, except July, seeds

most likely to be present Jan. -March.

Cajanus villosus (Benth. ex Baker) vdMaesen

India: endemic of Sikkim and NW Bengal,

Terai plains, and foothills (150-1300 m).

Creeper in grasses and low shrubs, very rare,

last collected in 1895 in the Eastern Duars.

Possibly extinct. FI. Sept. -Oct.

494

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Sot. 82 Plate

van der Maesen: Cajaninae

Cajanus cajanifolius (JM 2739) Cajanus lineatus (W. Ghats)

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Sot. 82

van der Maesen: Cajaninae

Dunbaria ferruginca (JM 3509) Rhyncosia rolhii (JIM 2296)

CAJANINAE IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT, BURMA AND THAILAND

Dunbaria

Dunbaria circinalis Baker

Burma, India: Assam, Sikkim. A slender

climber.

Dunbaria debilis Baker

India: Meghalaya, Nurting or Nurtiung

(1300 m). Only known from a few old speci-

mens.

Dunbaria ferruginca Wt. & Arn.

Hills of S India, sri lanka. More common

and vigorous than most large Cajanus clim-

bers, this species is commonly found in popu-

lations of a few large specimens covering shrubs

or entire trees. FI. (Sept.-) Dec.-Febr.

Dunbaria fusca (Wall.) Kurz

BURMA, INDIA, LAOS, THAILAND, VIETNAM

(0-1500 m). A rather little-known species.

Dunbaria glandulosa (Dalz.) Prain

India: Assam, Maharashtra. FI.: Aug.-Sept.

Rare, localised.

Dunbaria podocarpa Kurz

BURMA, CHINA, CAMBODIA, INDIA: Assam:

Lushai hills, Mizoram: Aizal; Laos, Vietnam

(1000-1500 m). A climber. FI. Nov.-April.

Dunbaria rotundifolia (Lour.) Merr.

(= D. conspersa Benth.)

AUSTRALIA, BANGLADESH, BURMA, CHINA,

India: Assam, West Bengal, Peninsula; Malay

peninsula, Philippines. Found once recently,

near Jalpaiguri. Climber on grasses. FI. Nov.

Eriosema

Eriosema chinense Vogel

Australia, burma, India: Himalaya foot-

hills; MALAYSIA, PHILIPPINES, SRI LANKA. The

only species in India, in Africa this genus

counts many species. Not found by ICRISAT

collectors. Tubers edible (Singh & Arora 1978).

Flemingia (= Moghania )

We follow the treatment of Nguyen Van

Thuan (1979), which does not conform with

those in Prain (1903), Gamble (1918) or Ali

(1977). Ali recognizes the Baker (1876) varieties

as species. Thuan does not distinguish them for

the flora of Vietnam, but some are distinct

enough. Nair (1977) uses the split species,

under Moghania. The genus is presently receiv-

ing attention for the Flora of India (Thothathri,

pers. commun.). The species and the recent

finds are reflected in Map 3.

Flemingia chappar Ham. ex Benth.

burma, Cambodia, India: Bihar, E Hima-

layas, Orissa, S. India, Thailand, laos (0-1000

m). In dry, open forests, on poor soils, com-

mon in eastern part of area. Erect shrub. FI.

Dec.-Jan.

Flemingia ferruginea Grah. ex Benth.

BHUTAN, BURMA, INDIA: Nilgiris; LAOS,

Philippines, Thailand. On the plains, along

streams, and in wet inundated forests. Erect

shrub.

var. fluminalis (C. B. Clarke ex Prain) Nguyen

Van Thuan.

BURMA, CHINA, INDIA, LAOS, VIETNAM (0-500

m). Along rivers, on sandy and clay loam

soils.

var. glutinosa Prain

BURMA, LAOS, THAILAND, VIETNAM. Open

forests, uncultivated areas. Erect shrub with

long glandular hairs.

Flemingia grahamiana Wt. & Arn.

Africa, burma, china, India: Nilgiri and

Palni Hills, W Karnataka; Laos, Vietnam

(0-1500 m). Of very localised occurrence, not

rare. FL. Oct.-Febr.

Flemingia involucrata Benth.

S & SE asia, India: E Himalaya, Assam,

Sikkim, Konkan (0-1100 m). In open forests,

along coast, hillsides. Erect shrub.

Flemingia lineata (L.) Roxb. ex Ait. f.

var lineata.

Cambodia, India: widely distributed; LAOS,

SRI LANKA, VIETNAM (0-600 m). Erect shrub

495

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

in plains, open forests, along rivers. FI. Febr.-

March.

Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Prain

BURMA, CAMBODIA, CHINA, INDIA: from the

Himalayas to South Peninsula, laos, Pakis-

tan, SRI LANKA, THAILAND (0-2000 m). In

dense and open forest, hedges, on hills, along

rivers, on red and clay soils. Quite common,

often collected, also recently. FI. Oct. -March.

var. nana ( F . nana Roxb.)

India: C & E Himalayas, Konkan (800-1600

m). Found twice recently, possibly not very

rare.

Flemingia paniculata Wall, ex Benth.

forests. Erect shrub. FI. March.

Thailand (0-1100 m). Localised in bamboo

BURMA, INDIA: C & E HIMALAYA; LAOS,

96 70 75*Oa»CO*A ©O OS

Map 3. Locations where Flemingia spp. have been found recently in South Asia.

496

CAJAN1NAE IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT, BURMA AND THAILAND

Flemingia procumbens Roxb.

'(= F. vestita Benth. ex Baker ?)

S&SE asia, India (0-1700 m): Himalayas.

F. vestita is wild, and also cultivated for its

edible tuber (Singh & Arora 1974). FI Oct.-

Nov. Synonymy by Thuan questionable.

Flemingia stricta Roxb. ex Ait. f.

S & SE asia, India: Assam, W. Peninsula

(0-1200 m). In dense or open forests, along

streams, near rice fields and on rocky soil.

Robust shrub. FI. Oct.-March.

Flemingia strobilifera (L.) Ait. f.

var. strobilifera.

S & SE ASIA, INDIA, PAKISTAN (0-1500 m).

Open forests and grasslands, reasonably com-

mon, tall erect shrub. FI. Oct.-March.

Map 4. Locations where Dunbarle and Paracalyx spp have been found recently In

South Asia.

497

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

var. fruticulosa Baker.

INDIA, NEPAL, PAKISTAN (up to 1600 m).

Forests, a prostrate form. FI. Oct. -March.

Fiemingia tuberosa Dalz.

India: Maharashtra, W Ghats along the

coast. Trailing herb. The tuberous roots are

eaten (Singh & Arora 1978). FI. Sept. -Oct.

Paracalyx

Paracalyx scariosa (Roxb.) Ali

burma, India: forest edges and roadsides

of Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Orissa;

Thailand (0-1300 m). Conspicuous with

its white papery extended calyx. Of occasional

occurrence. FI. Nov.-Febr.

Rhynchosia

Rhynchosia acutissima Thwaites

India: Kerala, Meghalaya, Sikkim; sri

lanka. Rare, specific status under review. FI.

Dec. (Kerala).

Rhynchosia avensis Benth. ex Bak.

burma: endemic (800-1200 m). Rare, speci-

fic status under review. FI. Nov. -May.

Rhynchosia aurea DC.

India, sri lanka (0-800 m). Creeper on

grasses, widespread and quite frequent, har-

vested along with grasses for hay and grazed

extensively. Not unequivocally distinguishable

from R. nummularia DC. and R. capitata

(Roth) DC. Ali (1977) retained R. capitata,

and did not discuss R. aurea. FI. Sept. -Jan.

Rhynchosia bracteata Benth. ex Bak.

burma, India: Upper Gangetic Plain, S

Andhra Pradesh, Laos, Thailand (0-1000 m).

Found by ICRISAT collectors in a large popu-

lation E of Mandalay, along roadside near

forest, and in few specimens near the Maha-

nandi Temple (A.P.), and in NW Thailand.

Very vigorous, so despite its scattered occur-

rence not likely to become extinct. FI. Dec.-

March.

Rhynchosia cana DC.

India, Peninsula; sri lanka (200-1400 m).

A small erect shrub, not common and infre-

quent. FI. Sept.-Febr.

Rhynchosia densiflora DC.

India: Peninsula; E. Africa (200-1600 m).

Slender twiner in grasses or shrubs. Not com-

mon. FI. Nov. -Jan.

Rhynchosia falconeri Baker

India: Garhwal, Shahli. Trailing herb, rare,

not found recently, as also stated by Nair

(1977).

Rhynchosia filipes Benth.

India: Nilgiri and Palni Hills (1400-2300

m). A creeper on grasses, or hanging from cliffs.

Endemic to small area, relatively frequent

there. FI. (Oct.-) Dec.-Febr.

Rhynchosia heynei Wt. & Arn.

India: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil

Nadu (c. 1000 m). An erect low shrub, col-

lected twice in recent times from the Tirumalai

hills, not common. FI. Febr.-March.

Grows with difficulty at ICRISAT Center

near Hyderabad (600 m).

Rhynchosia himalensis Benth. ex Baker.

burma, India: Himachal Pradesh, N Pun-

jab, Kumaon, Garhwal; Pakistan (1400-1700

m). Climber or trailing shrub, quite rare, col-

lected once recently. FI. Aug.-Oct.

Rhynchosia hirta (Andrews) Meikle &

Verdcourt [= R. cyanosperma Benth., R.

albiflora (Sims) Alston]

INDIA, SRI LANKA, E. AFRICA (600-1200 m).

A robust woody climber in forests with pecu-

liar blue seeds. Occasional. FI. Dec.-March,

mainly Jan.-Febr.

Rhynchosia memnonia DC.

ARABIA, PAKISTAN, TROPICAL AFRICA. Hardly

more than a variety of R. minima, status under

review.

Rhynchosia minima DC.

India, everywhere in the plains and up to

498

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Sot. 82

van der Maesen: Cajaninae

Plate III

Above: Flemingia slrobilifera (PR 4664).

Below: Cajanus lincatus on hillslope near Devala, Wynad, Kerala.

CAJANINAE IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT, BURMA AND THAILAND

c. 1200 m in the Himalayas, cosmopolitan.

A slender creeping annual, very common in

grasses and scrub vegetation. A useful pasture

legume. Var. laxiflora (Camb.) Baker is, it

seems, found more often as a climber. FI.

July-March.

Rhynchosia piiosa Wall. nom. nud.

Burma, Segaen along the Irrawaddy. Rare,

status under review.

Rhynchosia pseudo-cajan Camb.

India: W. Himalayas; Pakistan (800-3000

m). An erect shrub, poorly represented in the

herbarium and apparently rare. Not found

when searched for. Last specimens are 1953

finds in RAW from Poonch, and in DD from

Jakhri and Neerath in Himachal Pradesh. FI.

May-Oct.

Map 5. Locations where Rhynchosia spp. have been found recently in South Asia.

499

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Rhynchosia pulverulenta Stocks

Africa, arabia, India: Rajasthan, Pakistan:

Karachi (0-200 m?). Found also recently. FI.

Jan. -July.

Rhynchosia rothii Benth. et Aitchis.

(= R. sericea Span.)

India, from the Himalayas to the S Penin-

sula; PAKISTAN, MALAYAN PENINSULA (200-

1300 m). Quite common in Southern India,

climber perennating from woody roots, with

purple and cream flowers. FI. Sept.-Febr.

Rhynchosia rufescens (Willd.) DC.

Bangladesh, India: South Peninsula, sri

lanka, java (0-1800 m). A suberect low shrub

with trailing branches, not rare in S. India,

found recently at many occasions in forests

and along roadsides. FI. Oct. -April.

Refer

Ali, S. I. (1977): Flora of West Pakistan. Vol.

100. Papilionaceae: 217-232.

Anon. (1983): Agric. Situation in India 83(3):

189.

Baker, J. G. & Hooker, J. D. (1876): Flora of

British India. Vol. II: 212-230.

Gamble, J. S. (1918): Flora of the Presidency

of Madras. (Repr. BSI 1967). Vol. 1: 259-267.

Henry, A. N. & Swaminathan, M. S. (1979):

Rediscovery of Rhynchosia vclutina Wight et Arn.

(Papilionaceae) and Toxocarpus beddomei Gamble

(Asclepiadaceae). Bull. bot. Surv. India 21: 227-228.

Lackey, J. ( 1 98 1 ) : Phaseoleae DC. In Advances

in Legume Systematics. Part 1: 301-327.

Nair, N. C. (1977): Flora of Bashahr Himalayas.

Int. Bioscience Publ. Hissar/Madras: 73, 84, 85,

87, 88.

Prain, D. (1903): Bengal Plants. Vol. 1: 266-

273 (Repr. BSI 1963).

Remanandan, P. (1981): The Wild Genepool of

Cajanus at ICRISAT. Present and Future. ICRISAT

Proceedings Intern. Workshop on Pigeonpeas, Vol. 2,

Rhynchosia schimperi Hochst. ex Boiss.

arabia, egypt, India: Rajasthan; Pakistan:

Thar desert. Quite rare. Altitude not reported.

FI. Sept. -March.

Rhynchosia suaveolens DC.

India: South Peninsula, sri lanka (200-

1000 m). Another low shrub with trailing

branches, not rare in forests. FI. Nov.

Rhynchosia velutina Wt. & Arn.

India: Henry & Swaminathan (1979) re-

discovered the species in South Indai: Viveka-

nandapuram near Cape Comorin.

Rhynchosia viscosa DC.

Africa, India: widespread; malaya, Mada-

gascar, MAURITIUS, SRI LANKA (0-1000 m).

Flowers yellow, not easy to distinguish from

R. rothii if flower colour is unknown. FI. Febr.

ENCES

15-19 December 1980, Patancheru, A.P., India, pp.

29-38.

Singh, H. B. & Arora, R. K. (1978): Wild edible

plants of India. Indian Council for Agricultural

Research, New Delhi, pp. 89.

Singh, U. & Jambunathan, R. (1981): Protease

inhibitors and in vitro protein digestibility of pigeon-

pea ( Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. and its wild rela-

tives. J. Food Sci. Technol. 18 : 246-247.

Thuan, Nguyen Van (1979): Flore du Cam-

bodge, du Laos et du Viet-nam. Vol. 17: 106-155.

VAN DER Maesen, L. J. G. (1983): World Distri-

bution of Pigeonpea. Information Bulletin 14: pp.

40. International Crops Research Institute for the

Semi-Arid Tropics.

(1985): Cajanus DC.

and Atylosia W. & A. (Leguminosae). A revision of

all taxa closely related to the pigeonpea, with notes

on other related genera within the subtribe Caja-

ninae. Agricultural University Wageningen. Papers

85-4.

500

THE BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AND THE

DAMODAR VALLEY1

F. M. Gauntlett2

{With a map)

A systematic list is given of birds recorded by the author during a 3 year stay in

Durgapur, West Bengal. The diversity of species was found to be comparable with

other areas of lowland India. The seasonal occurrence of species is examined and

compared with information for the Delhi area. Migrant species were much more

numerous in spring than autumn.

Introduction

Ornithological observations were made for

three years between January 1968 and March

1971 while I was residing in Durgapur,

West Bengal and this paper summarises

the results which it is hoped will fill a gap in

the published literature. E. H. N. Lowther

worked in the Dhanbad area to the west in the

1930’s (Lowther 1949) and various observa-

tions have been made in the Calcutta area to

the east but the intervening area appears to

have been ignored by ornithologists except for

the author’s earlier paper relating to Durgapur

Barrage (Gauntlett 1972). Some details of that

paper are included, extended and amended

where necessary with the third year of obser-

vations.

The literature available to assist the amateur

field ornithologist and relevant to the area was

sparse to start with, compared with other areas

such as Europe, but has improved considera-

bly since, particularly with the completion of

the HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND

PAKISTAN (Ali & Ripley 1968-1974), “The

1 Accepted December 1983.

2 55 Larkfield Avenue, Kenton, Harrow, Middle-

sex HA3 8NQ, U.K.

handbook” henceforth and King et al. (1975).

The standards of field identification of certain

difficult species and groups, particularly birds

of prey, have also been greatly assisted by new

information which has appeared in more recent

years. Some of my records have been reassess-

ed in the light of this new information.

Methods

All observations were made as a part time

hobby, but were almost daily in and around

my bungalow and garden and twice daily trip to

and from my office approx. 1 . 3 km away. On

Saturday afternoons and Sundays excursions

were made locally or further afield as oppor-

tunity and inclination arose. See appendix 1

for frequency of visits to main locations.

A certain amount of travelling was neces-

sary in the course of my work and these jour-

neys were also used for casual observations.

These trips were to Calcutta, usually by train,

occasionally by car, when a track-side tran-

sect of birds was carried out to while away

the time. Road journeys were made by car to

Santaldih or Jamshedpur, the route being

across the R. Damodar at the barrage then via

Maliara, Kusthalia, Saltora, Ragunathpur,

then either continuing westward to Dudra

501

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

and Santaldih, or turning souwards to

Purulia, Balarampur, Chandil and Jamshed-

pur. Purulia was taken as the arbitrary limit

for ornithological records. Trips were also

made by car north-west up the GT road to

Topchanchi, turning south through Gomoh to

Chandrapura. A driver was usually provided

for these journeys.

When the possibilities of making an ornitho-

logical contribution were realised, a regular

diary was kept from March 1968 onwards.

Notes during the first two months acclimati-

sation and familiarisation period were rather

more haphazard and dates quoted are best

estimates. Inevitable absences occurred from

time to time due to local or home leave and

periods of a week or more are listed in appen-

dix 2. The poor coverage for October will be

noted.

The study area

Durgapur is a heavy industrial development

begun in the early 1960’s located at 23° 30'

North, 87° 15' East on the north bank of the

Damodar river 185 km NW of Calcutta about

half way between Burdwan and Asansol in

the Burdwan district of West Bengal. The in-

dustrial area was about 20 km long by 6-7 km

wide on a low Iaterite ridge which was once

dense sal jungle. At the stage of development

reached during the author’s stay it was a

patchwork of factory compounds, housing

colonies, villages, bustees, patches of sal jungle

and scrub, a few tanks and jeels and bare

eroded scrubby wasteland. The highest point

of the area is the triangulation point at 371'

(113 m) above what was to become the town

centre. The river level at the barrage is 219'

(67 m). The axis of the area is governed by

the river and runs from WNW to SSE and is

followed by the Grand Trunk Road and the

main line of the Eastern Railway.

From NW through E to SE a level plain

stretches away to the R. Ganges, R. Hoogly

and Calcutta with a dense rural population

devoted to rice cultivation. The Ajoy (or Ajay)

river some 20 to 30 km to the north follows a

similar directional trend.

To the westward is the Jahria coalfield and

the industrial towns of Asansol, Kulti, Bum,

pur, Dishergarh and the country is more un-

dulating with isolated volcanic outcrops culmi-

nating in Panchet Hill 2110' (643 m) and the

low hills around Maithon dam on the Barakar

river which forms the border with Bihar. South

of the Damodar river is Bankura district which

is less fertile and more undulating, these trends

being more pronounced in Purulia district

which geographically resembles Bihar more

than West Bengal.

Climate

The climate of Durgapur is tropical mon-

soon in character with most (+90%) of the

annual rainfall (c. 1400 mm) falling in heavy

thunderstorms from the end of May to early

September during the SW monsoon (which

actually comes in from the SE). The rainy

season can sometimes be extended into Octo-

ber or November when fringes of cyclones in

the head of the Bay of Bengal cover the area

as was the case in 1970.

The monsoon is followed by a cool (relatively)

dry winter from October to February although

a little rain can occur in early January (known

locally as Christmas rains). Day temperatures

rise to around 18° to 24°C. Frost is unknown,

the minimum temperature during my stay

according to press weather report was 8.3°C.

From early March the temperature begins

to rise and mid-day shade temperatures by

mid April can be expected to reach 43°C and

with 49°C not unknown in May. During the

hot weather brief showers can be brought by

502

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AND THE DAMODAR VALLEY

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503

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

short lived localised squalls called Nor’westers.

This was particularly so in 1969 which also

had cyclonic rain in April.

Monsoon rainfall is notoriously fickle but

was generous in all three years of my stay.

A press report stated the 1968 monsoon was

the Wettest in West Bengal for 50 years. There

was a particularly heavy spell of rain in Sept-

ember 1970 when c 400 mm fell in two weeks.

Rainfall was particularly scant in the early

months of 1968 following a poor monsoon in

1967 and marginal areas looked noticeably

arid.

During the monsoon the flat countryside

with all its paddy fields becomes a shallow

swamp.

Flora

The flora of the region is tropical moist

deciduous monsoon sal type, the Sal tree

Shorea robusta forming a high proportion

(+80% to my unbotanical eye) of the jungle

community. Although sal trees lose their

leaves during February and March, the indi-

vidual trees are asynchronous and many trees

can be found with old leaves, new leaves and

flowers at the same time so that the canopy

is never completely bare. The small proportion

of truly deciduous trees which are bare at this

time are insufficient to make much difference

The original forest cover has long since

disappeared from the level fertile areas which

have been turned into paddy fields and only

pockets of overgrazed, overcut and eroded

scrubby areas persist in less fertile areas. How-

ever I was fortunate that the last remnant

of reasonably natural forest in the area about

400 m x 400 m began about 100 m from my

bungalow. Here the trees produced a closed

canopy about 9 to 1 1 m high but undergrowth

and regeneration was suppressed by annual

burning of the leaf litter in February. This

jungle was visited about 2 to 3 times a week

and unless otherwise stated references to sal

jungle in the systematic list refer to this area.

(I have heard that this was cut down some

time after my departure). This block gradually

deteriorated into a larger area of scrub about

1 km x 2.5 km, which itself was being whittled

away by new roads and housing. A flush of

ephemereal ground cover appeared in the sal

jungle during the monsoon.

Somewhat similar but thinner areas of sal

forest with trees 8 to 11 m tall had been re-

tained in blocks and belts in unused parts of

my housing colony as a deliberate policy.

A fairly extensive area of sal jungle under

the control of the State Forest Dept some km

north of Durgapur towards the Ajoy river

was being developed into commercial planta-

tions.

In the open countryside trees were generally

confined to belts along roads and small clumps

particularly around villages. A variety of trees

are found as isolated specimens, such as silk

cotton Salmalia rnalabarica, Peepul Ficus reli-

giosa, Banyan F. bengalensis, Palmyra palm

Borassus flabellifer and Date palm Phoenix

sylvestris and these in conjunction with Mango

Mangifera indica and Bamboo form much of

clumps around the villages.

An area to the north of the GT road below

and around the triangulation point which was

to become the town centre had a very thin soil

cover with underlying rocks breaking through

supported a thin thorny scrub jungle.

Localities

Bungalow, garden and housing colony.

My bungalow and garden were situated in

a housing colony near the crest of the ridge

north of the GT. road in sal jungle, of which

as much as possible had been retained. My

garden, and others like it, was about 0.27 ha

504

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AND THE DAMODAR VALLEY

(2/3 acre) of lawn, flowerbeds and vegetable

garden dotted with sal and other jungle trees.

Flowering exotics included Gul Mohr Delonix

regia. Frangipani Plumeria rubra. Hibiscus,

Poinsettia Euphorbia pulcherrima, Oleander

Nerium odorum and Malayan cherry Mun-

tingia calabura. Bananas Musa sapientum and

Papayas Carica papaya were grown for fruit.

The bungalow and trees were draped with

flowering climbers such as bougainvillea, big-

nonia, quisqualis, alamanda etc. It was screen-

ed from its neighbours and adjacent roads by

hedges of sal trees with a thick undergrowth

of hibiscus, lantana and other shrubs, again

well covered with flowering climbers such as

ipomoea, ixora, etc.

The verges of the colony roads were lined

with trees such as Mango, Tulip tree Spathodea

campanulata, Indian lilac Lagerstroemia indica

and others. As stated above blocks of sal

had been retained within the colony and were

interspersed amongst the houses and gardens.

The 400 m x 400 m block mentioned under

“Flora” formed the boundary of the housing

colony on one side. About half the distance

of my daily trip to the office had sal jungle on

both sides of the road and half past an area

of waste ground with short grass dotted with

dense clumps of bushes and a few palms with

several hectares of paddy field beyond.

Durgapur Barrage.

This area was described in detail in my

previous paper (Gauntlett 1972) and will not

be repeated here. The heavy rain which fell

in September 1970 occurred after that was

written and the high river flows which result-

ed scoured out a lot of the incipient sand

banks and water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes

islands. It will be referred to as DB in the

systematic list.

Anderson’s Weir.

This was a river control work built in the

1930’s about 19 km downstream of Durgapur

at Rondhia and its sluice fed a north bank

canal but it has been rendered largely redun-

dant by DB. The area around the inspection

bungalow and head works had been landscap-

ed and an avenue of large spreading trees of

the Holm Oak type ( Quercus sp. ?) planted

along the approach road. Some acacias had

also been planted on the sandy river terrace.

Upstream of the weir siltation had produced

large flat areas of wet sand and mud. Down-

stream were large stabilised sandbanks with a

sparse growth of course grasses. This gave a

rather desert like aspect to the area.

The north bank canal had been cut through

a low ridge so that the banks were quite high,

about 10-12 m and the inner slopes carried a

dense growth of low thorny shrubs.

The area is referred to as AW henceforth.

DVC Experimental farm.

This was located between Panagarh (13 Ion

ESE) and Rondhia alongside the Damodar

canal on the way to AW. Parts of it were

sometimes irrigated from the adjacent canal

in winter providing a local wet environment

in an otherwise dry landscape. The kutcha

road ran along the top of the canal bank giving

a wide view over the flat countryside.

Maithon Dam.

The Barakar river has been dammed at

Maithon (53 km WNW) where it flows through

an area of low rocky hills before joining the

Damodar. Visits here were social functions at

the invitation of the yacht club and bird

watching was rather circumscribed. However

the lake was very turbid and did not appear

to support much bird life. Brief aquaintance

of the thick scrub clothing the low hills showed

505

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

it to be a difficult and unpleasant habitat to

work, undergrowth being mostly thorny sting-

ing creepers and shrubs. Sal was still the

predominate tree.

Messenjore Dam.

A single visit was made to this locality, also

known as Canada Dam, the setting being

rather similar to Maithon but the tree cover

is more deciduous. It is about 70 km N of

Durgapur.

Panchet Dam.

On the Damodar close to Maithon and very

similar but with more barren surroundings

except for the wooded mass of Panchet hill

overlooking it.

Topchanchi.

The Jahria Water Board reservoir at Top-

chanchi is at the eastern foot of Parasnath

hill 4481' (1366 m) about 130 km WNW of

Durgapur. The lower slopes of Parasnath and

adjacent hills are well forested with much

greater botanical variety than the sal jungle

around Durgapur. Bamboo was much in evi-

dence. Zoologically it is probably more akin

to the Chotanagpur plateau than the Damodar

valley.

Systematic List

The sequence and nomenclature follows the

handbook, Ali and Ripley 1968-74 with

English names for species according to the

synopsis, Ripley 1982.

Podiceps cristatus (Linnaeus),

GREAT CRESTED GREBE

2 birds at DB on 8 . ii . 69 are the only record.

Podiceps ruficollis (Pallas),

LITTLE GREBE

A small resident population at DB with

numbers buliding up to about 100 at the end

of the hot weather in May when display and

trilling recorded. Although none have been

positively recorded elsewhere the marked drop

in numbers at the start of the monsoon could

indicate a dispersal to flooded jheels.

Phalacrocorax carbo (Linnaeus),

LARGE CORMORANT

Only three records, all at DB: In Feb. 1968,

date uncertain. 3 on 20.xii.70 and 2 on

27.xii.70.

Phalacrocorax fuscicollis Stephens,

INDIAN SHAG

One at DB on 18.V.68 and a possible at

AW on 20.i.68. A bird over my bungalow

on 18.vi.68 which appeared bulkier than a

Little Cormorant may also have been this

species. Not easy to identify and may be more

frequent than the records suggest.

Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot),

LITTLE CORMORANT

A common and widespread resident on

rivers, lakes, tanks, jheels, concentrating on the

larger areas of permanent water in the dry

season and spreading out widely to flood water

during the monsoon when the birds become

very mobile with many small flocks flying over

my garden. Maximum flock of 150 at DB

in Feb. and March.

Anhinga rufa (Daudin),

DARTER

Those recorded at DB as detailed in my

previous paper are the only records in the

area, apart from those in the cormorant colony

in Calcutta zoo.

506

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AND THE DAMODAR VALLEY

Ardea cinerea Linnaeus,

GREY HERON

DB was the main haunt where it was pre-

sent throughout the year except during June

and July. Maximum of 12 on two occasions

in Feb. /March 1970. Also recorded twice from

AW and from the train to Calcutta.

Ardea purpurea Linnaeus,

PURPLE HERON

One at a jheel beside the road to Suri on

19 . i . 69 was the only record away from DB

where it was probably resident with a maxi-

mum of 6 in one day.

Ardeola striatus (Linnaeus),

LITTLE GREEN HERON

Only one further record added to those in

my earlier paper was again at DB on 16 . i . 71 .

One of the first species I encountered in India,

one being seen beside the canal on the way

from Dum Dum airport on the day of my

arrival on 10.i.68. It was never seen there

again.

Ardeola grayii (Sykes),

POND HERON

An abundant resident to be found on almost

every bit of water from large lakes to the

smallest puddles. Very mobile during the

monsoon when often seen flying over my

bungalow.

Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus),

CATTLE EGRET

An abundant resident in both wet and dry

areas, even entering sal jungle. Flocks of up

to 50 in favoured localities. Often seen flying

over my bungalow or walking on the road

outside. Of about 600 egrets to be seen from

the train on a typical trip to Calcutta during

the monsoon, about 2/3 appeared to be Cattle

Egrets. Aquisition of breeding plumage was

noted in April.

Egretta alba (Linnaeus),

LARGE EGRET

8 or 10 present at DB throughout the year.

Also recorded twice at AW in Feb. and 1 or

2 recorded on most train journeys to Calcutta.

Egretta intermedia (Wagler),

SMALLER EGRET

Status much as Large Egret but about twice

as numerous and more likely to be found at

roadside jheels and flooded paddy.

Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus),

LITTLE EGRET

Abundant resident second in numbers to

Cattle Egret but more confined to wet habi-

tats such as DB and AW. Widespread at

jheels and flooded paddy during the monsoon.

About 1/3 of the egrets seen from the train

to Calcutta were this species. Often seen pass-

ing over my garden.

Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus),

NIGHT HERON

Principally a monsoon visitor from May to

September with 50+ mostly immatures at DB

with much commuting to and fro over my

bungalow at dusk. Outside this season, record-

ed at Messenjore Dam on 23.iii.69 and a

single bird over my bungalow on 26.ii.70.

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin),

CHESTNUT BITTERN

Records at DB, c. 6, now extended from

May to September. About a dozen records

on floodwater and paddy during the monsoon.

Ixobrychus sinensis (Gmelin),

YELLOW BITTERN

Unlike the previous species never recorded

away from DB where the status remains un-

changed; 12+ from April to August.

507

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Dupetor flavicollis (Latham),

BLACK BITTERN

Another monsoon bird at DB from May to

September with 7 or 8 on 31.V.70. 5 or 6

records of single birds out in the countryside

during June and July suggests some dispersion.

Ibis leucocephalus (Pennant),

PAINTED STORK

The single immature at DB on 17.iii.68

as given in my previous paper remains the only

record for the area.

Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert),

OPEN BILL STORK

Common resident recorded in every month

of the year with a breeding colony in a village

off the road near Saltora. Flocks of 90 to 100

recorded near Saltora on 18.vi.69, near the

DVC farm on 17.viii.69 and at DB on

28.iii.70 and 18.vi.70. 10 to 20 was the more

usual flock size but singles and pairs by no

means uncommon. Between 10 and 30 record-

ed on most journeys to Calcutta. 18 records

of varying numbers flying high over my

garden.

Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert),

WHITE NECK ED STORK

Odd pairs thinly distributed over the

countryside but a flock of 10 on irrigated

paddy at the DVC farm on 2.ii.68 was un-

usual. Most records from January to May. Not

recorded in June, July, November or Dec-

ember.

Leptoptilos dubius (Gmelin),

ADJUTANT

One beside the road to Jamshedpur in

Bankura district with other storks and egrets

on 25.vii.70.

Leptoptilos javanicus (Horsfield),

LESSER ADJUTANT

One bird at DB on 23.ii.69 was the only

record.

Threskiomis melanocephala (Latham),

WHITE IBIS

A monsoon visitor with 7 records from June

to August at DB or in flooded paddy. Maxi-

mum of 7 seen from the train to Calcutta on

20.vii.68.

Pseudibis papillosa (Temminck),

BLACK IBIS

One bird seen from the train to Calcutta

on 2.V.68.

Anser indicus (Latham),

BARHEADED GOOSE

4 at DB on 17.iii.68.

Dendrocvgna javanica (Horsfield),

LESSER WHISTLING TEAL

Present at DB throughout the year with

numbers building up to a peak at the end of

the dry season with approx. 3000 on 18.iv.70

and 6 . iii . 71 . Spreads out to jheels and flood-

water during the monsoon with many small

flocks passing over my garden. 320 seen from

the train to Calcutta on 17.vi.69.

Dendrocvgna bicolor (Vieillot),

LARGE WHISTLING TEAL

Possibly overlooked amongst the previous

species but the only definite record was a flock

of 7 or 8 passing over my bungalow on 9.vi.68.

Identified by white upper tail coverts and more

ponderous wing beats.

Tadoma ferruginea (Pallas),

RUDDY SHELDUCK

Common winter visitor to sandy river beds

508

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AND THE DAMODAR VALLEY

at DB and AW, usually upto 25 but 35 at DB

on 1 6 . i . 71 and an exceptional 82 on the lake

at DB on 11.1.69. Also recorded on the lake

at Topchanchi on 10.iii.68 and a single bird

flying over my garden on 20.i.69.

Anas acuta Linnaeus,

PINTAIL

Even the large numbers mentioned in my

previous paper were surpassed in 1971. From

about 3000 at the beginning of the year there

were 4500 on 16 . i . 71, 11000 to 12000 on

23 .1.71, 15000 on 7.ii.71 and c. 18000 on

14.11.71. Three weeks later numbers had drop-

ped to c. 6000. A flock of between 100 and

200 flying northwards over my bungalow on

11 . iii .71 may be evidence for my earlier sug-

gestion that this is a pre-migration gathering.

The apparent yearly increase in peak numbers

is believed to be a true effect because, despite

the short duration of the peak, coverage was

fairly regular at the critical season.

The species was also recorded at AW and

Topchanchi.

Anas crecca Linnaeus,

TEAL

Another species where 1971 numbers ex-

ceeded those recorded previously with c. 1000

on 28 . i . 7 1 , 7 . ii . 7 1 and 14.ii.71. Also record-

ed at Topchanchi on 25 . i . 70.

Anas platyrhynchos Linnaeus,

MALLARD

No further record to add to the 4 at DB

on 23._xi.69 reported in my previous paper.

Anas strepera Linnaeus,

GADWALL

Numbers at DB during November and Dec-

ember 1970 were at or near the previous

maximum of 200 but this increased to 500 on

16 . i .71 and 1000 from 23. i. 71 to 14 .ii .71.

The latest date of the season was 4 on 18.iv.70.

Also recorded at AW on 23.xi.69.

Anas penelope Linnaeus,

WIGEON

Unlike other surface feeding ducks there

was no increase in numbers in 1970/1971, the

maximum again being 25. Only recorded at

DB.

Anas querquedula Linnaeus,

GARGANEY

Recorded upto April at DB when 150 still

present on 1 8 . iv . 70. Numbers during the

1970/71 winter built up from 23 on 15.xi.70

to c. 500 on 7 . ii . 7 1 .

Anas clypeata Linnaeus,

SHOVELLER

Only at DB. Maximum numbers up from

the previous 60 to c. 100 in early February

1971.

Netta rufina (Pallas),

REDCRESTED POCHARD

All at DB with two more records bringing

the total to five. The Dec./Jan. season extend-

ed to February and March with 2 birds on

28. iii. 70 and 7 . ii . 7 1 .

Aythya ferina (Linnaeus),

POCHARD

Two more records of 12 on 23.xi.70 and

20 on 7 . ii . 7 1 brings the total number of re-

cords at DB to six. Its status in Durgapur

does not reflect the comment in the hand-

book that it is one of the commonest diving

ducks, that position being held by the Tufted

Duck.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Aythya nyroca (Goldenstadt),

WHITE-EYED POCHARD

The previous two records at DB were

doubled with 15 on 16 . i .71 and 10 on

7 . ii . 7 1 .

Aythya fuligula (Linnaeus),

TUFTED DUCK

The commonest diving duck being a regu-

lar winter visitor to DB from November to

April with a peak of 200 in February and

March. Two out of season records with 1 on

2.vi.68 and 4 males and 1 female on l.viii.70.

Unlike the surface feeding ducks diving ducks

did not show any dramatic increase in num-

bers in 1970/71 compared with previous years.

Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin),

COTTON TEAL

DB was the headquarters for the species in

the area with numbers reaching a maximum

of 150 in March. Numerous small parties dur-

ing the monsoon when it spread out to jheels

and floodwater. Courtship flights seen in May.

Sarkidiornis melanotos (Pennant),

COMB DUCK

An irregular winter visitor to DB, quite

common in some seasons and almost absent in

others. Only two more records of 1 1 birds

in February 1971. 1969/70 appears to have

been a particularly good year.

Elanus caeruleus (Desfontaines),

BLACK WINGED KITE

Quite common, recorded in every month

of the year with 3 together on one occasion.

I can see no grounds for considering the bird

crepuscular, all my observations being in broad

daylight. Most records were of birds over

paddyfields and scrub outside my office. Also

seen quite frequently between Panagarh AW.

Pernis ptilorhyncus (Temminck),

HONEY BUZZARD

A total of nine records in January, Febru-,

ary, March, August and September, three of

these being birds flying over my garden. The

others were over open country, particularly the

better wooded areas such as Maithon and

Messanjore Dam.

Milvus migrans (Boddaert),

BLACK KITE

Abundant resident augmented by winter

visitors showing more prominent carpal

patches. Several birds over my garden daily.

Haliastur indus (Boddaert),

BRAHMINY KITE

A single bird could usually be found on

every visit to DB or AW. Much more wide-

spread over jheels and flooded paddy during

the monsoon when upto 6 could be seen in

an afternoon. 1 over my garden on 30.ix.68.

Accipiter badius (Gmelin),

SHIKRA

Apart from 1 record at Dishergarh on

21.xii.69, the remaining 15 records were of

single birds over or near my garden concen-

trated in the period November to March but

also seen in June and July.

Accipiter trivirgatus (Temminck),

CRESTED GOSHAWK

1 at Topchanchi on 26.i.70. By coincidence

what appeared to be a large accipiter flew

past my office on the following day but was

not identified for certain.

Buteo rufinus (Cretzschmar),

LONGLEGGED BUZZARD

A bird watched at close range on the

ground beside the road between Bolpur and

510

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AND THE DAMODAR VALLEY

Katwa remained a puzzle for a long time but

when my notes and sketches could be com-

pared with detailed descriptions it proved to

be an immature pale phase of this species.

Another Buteo at DVC farm on 26 . i . 68 was

probably this species.

Butastur teesa (Franklin),

WHITE-EYED BUZZARD

Apart from one record in July all other

records were for the dry season from October

to May. A bird of the better wooded areas

and sal jungles, with 15 records of birds over

my garden or adjacent parts of the colony.

Spizaetus cirrhatus (Gmelin),

CRESTED HAWK -EAGLE

5 records between June and September 1968

of birds over my garden or the surrounding

jungle. After an absence in 1969 another 5

records spread evenly throughout in 1970 with

1 more on 2 . i . 7 1 .

Hieraaetus fasciatus (Vieillot),

BONELLl’S EAGLE

1 adult at AW on 16.ii.69.

Hieraaetus pennatus (Gmelin),

BOOTED EAGLE

Single birds over my garden on 14.ii.68

and 3 . vii . 70. A more problematical dark phase

bird near the DVC farm on an unrecorded

date.

Aquila heliaca Savigny,

IMPERIAL EAGLE

1 at the DVC farm on 2 1 . i . 68 identified by

its light coloured shoulder patches.

Aquila rapax (Temminck),

TAWNY EAGLE

The aquila eagles are notoriously difficult

to identify with various immature plumages

and colour phases but more recent published

literature and field guides have thrown some

light on the problem. Unless there was good

reason for thinking otherwise aquilas were

attributed to this species although the only

aquila listed by Lowther for the Dhanbad dis-

trict was A. pomerina Lesser Spotted Eagle.

1 near the road to Dubrajpur on 24.i.68, 1 low

over the road between Panagarh and Ilam

Bazar in Feb. 1968 (actual date not recorded)

had its identification confirmed with the aid

of a colour photograph taken with a 450 mm

telephoto lense and 1 at AW on 5 . i . 69. The

only monsoon record of an Aquila sp. was of

one being mobbed by terns over the Ajoy

river on 16.vi.68, which may have been a

Lesser Spotted. Apart from this record all

the others were confined to January-March

with the majority in 1968 which was the

driest period.

Aquila clanga Pallas,

GREATER SPOTTED EAGLE

1 near the Ajoy river from the Panagarh —

Ilam Bazar road on 24 . i . 68 showing a white

rump. This was about 16 km from where the

Tawny Eagle was seen the same day. 1 over

the lake at Topchanchi on 10.iii.68 showing

the very broad wings and short tail of an

immature and 1 over irrigated paddy at the

DVC farm on 16.ii.69.

Ictinaetus malayensis (Temminck),

BLACK EAGLE

1 record of this unmistakable bird gliding

with its characteristic slow flight along a

wooded slope beside the reservoir at Messan-

jore dam on 23.iii.69.

Torgos calvus (Scopoli),

PONDICHERRY VULTURE

A pair seen at Maithon on most visits, a

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

single bird eating some offal on the office lawn

on 18.xi.68 and 1 on 15.ii.70 in Bankura

district near the road to Purulia.

Gyps fulvus (Hablizl),

GRIFFON VULTURE

9 records of pale Gyps vultures with white

heads. 8 of these occurred in February, 6

of these being over my garden in 1969 and

1971. A single bird was presumably respon-

sible for the 5 records from 6.ii.69 to 19.ii.69.

The only non-February record was 1 on 5.xi.70.

Grubh (1978) has indicated the difficulties of

separating this species from immature Long-

billed Vulture when the latter lacks its black

head and neck. However I believe only

Griffons could display such pale creamy white

plumage as that seen on these birds.

Gyps indicus (Scopoli),

LONGBILLED VULTURE

Probably under-recorded by the 9 records

spread over February, March, April, June,

October and December without any discern-

ible pattern. Single birds over my garden on

'4 occasions. 3 of the other records were of 2

birds together.

Gyps bengalensis (Gmelin),

INDIAN WHITEBACKED VULTURE

Abundant resident with hardly a day going

by without seeing at least one. Seen circling

over my garden on numerous occasions in

flocks upto 45. A steady stream heading east

in ones or twos almost all day long on 1 and

2.iv.68 may suggest some seasonal movement

with the monsoon.

Neophron percnopterus (Linnaeus),

EGYPTIAN VULTURE

Rather scarce in Durgapur itself with only

3 records. Commoner in Purulia District and

beyond Asansol into Bihar when most excur-

sions into these areas would produce a bird

or two.

Circus cyaneus (Linnaeus),

HEN HARRIER

1 at the DVC farm on 20.L68.

Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin),

PALLID HARRIER

The statement in my previous paper that

the species was quite common in winter now

appears to have been over optimistic. There

was 1 outside my office on 15 . i . 68 and then

4 records between 18.xii.68 and 24.iii.69,

one of these being over my garden on 4.i.69.

None at all were seen in either of the next

two winters. A number of female or immature

harriers could not be identified as to species

and this might alter the picture.

Circus melanoleucos (Pennant),

PIED HARRIER

Winter visitor with 19 records between Nov-

ember and March, almost half of which were

at DB. More likely to be found away from

water than the Marsh Harrier. A complete

absence of records for the 1970/71 winter

suggests this was a particularly poor year for

harriers.

Circus aeruginosus (Linnaeus),

MARSH HARRIER

By far the commonest harrier and recorded

in every month except May, June and July.

Most numerous over the reed beds at DB with

upto 4 at once, but also seen over other

watery habitats such as AW, canals and jheels.

2 records of birds flying over my garden. Un-

like other harriers the species maintained its

numbers in 1970/71.

512

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AND THE DAMODAR VALLEY

Circaetus gallicus (Gmelin),

SHORT-TOED EAGLE

1 hunting over the sand banks at AW on

12.V.68.

Spilornis cheela (Latham),

CRESTED SERPENT EAGLE

1 over my garden on 31. v. or l.vi.68 and

1 over the nearby jungle on 23 . i . 70.

Pandion haliaetus (Linnaeus),

OSPREY

June and July remain the only months

when this bird has not been seen at DB. Also

several records from AW with 2 on 15.xii.68.

Falco peregrinus Tunstall,

PEREGRINE FALCON

1 at DB on 15.ix.70.

Falco subbuteo Linnaeus or F. severus

Horsfield, hobby or oriental hobby

A falcon believed to be F. subbuteo from a

brief glimpse as it flew over my garden on

14.V.70 but the date is very late for a sup-

posed winter visitor. The same or a similar

bird was seen over the nearby jungle six weeks

later on 26.vi.70.

Falco chicquera Daudin,

REDHEADED MERLIN

1 clearly seen beside DB on 29.xi.70. A

small blue-grey falcon seen disappearing into

a Borassus palm near my office 21.iii.68 was

probably this species.

Falco naumanni Fleischer,

LESSER KESTREL

A party of 4 birds outside my office on

8 . xii . 69 showing the characteristic blue-grey

wing coverts. Another group of 3 at Dishergarh

on 21. xii. 69.

Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus,

KESTREL

A winter visitor to the open countryside

from early October to the end of March. 17

records in all with 1 over my garden on

29.iii.69, the latest date.

Francolinus francolinus (Linnaeus),

BLACK PARTRIDGE

4 records between 13.iv.68 and 2.vi.68 of

a single bird in scrub habitats varying from

sal jungle to dry riverside scrub downstream

of DB. 1 seen from a train to Calcutta on

22.ix.70.

■ r

Francolinus pondicerianus (Gmelin),

INDIAN GREY PARTRIDGE

11 records spread throughout the year but

not March, November or December. Usually

2 birds but 4 together on one occasion at DB.

The grassy area with clumps of dense bushes

beside the approach road to my office was a

favourite haunt.

Coturnix coroniandelica (Gmelin),

RAIN QUAIL

2 beside the road on the way to Ragunathpur

on 9.vi.70. On several other occasions quaii-

like birds, either singly or in pairs, were seen

scuttling across roads but were not specifically

identified.

Perdicula asiatica (Latham),

JUNGLE BUSH QUAIL

A covey in an area of long grass and lantana

scrub beside the road to Bishnupur on 18.ii.68.

No other record nearer than Hazaribagh N.P.

Gallopcrdix lunulata (Valenciennes),

PAINTED SPURFOWL

No first hand evidence but friends reported

birds seen quite often in the early morning on

513

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

the road to Maithon Yacht Club. This ran

along the side of a wooded rocky hill and

would appear an ideal habitat. Lowther found

the bird at Topchanchi.

Gallus gallus (Linnaeus),

RED JUNGLE FOWL

A call was heard from deep in the sal jungle

on 18.V.68 but nothing could be found on

following it up. An early rising neighbour

reported birds visiting his garden in the early

mornings in April 1969 and two tail feathers

had been picked up.

Tumix tanki Blvth,

YELLOWLEGGED BUTTON QUAIL

1 on fallow land at AW on 30.iii.69.

Tumix suscitator (Gmelin),

BUSTARD-QUAIL

The commonest of the small quail-like birds

of the area and probably more numerous than

the 10 records suggest, being found in most

areas with a mixture of scrub and open

ground, a habitat becoming increasingly wide-

spread as the woodland disappeared. 1 bird

scuttled across the road and into my garden

on 21 viii.69.

Amaurornis phoenicurus (Pennant),

WHITEBREASTED WATERHEN

Quite common along the canal bund road

to AW when they would emerge from the

canal-side vegetation in the evening. Found in

flooded paddy and even the office lawn during

the monsoon. 1970 records at DB were con-

fined to May but 7-8 on 31st was an unusually

large number.

Gallicrex cinerea (Gmelin),

WATERCOCK

Only recorded from DB during the mon-

soon. at least 2 birds but none seen in 1970.

Gallinula chloropus (Linnaeus),

MOORHEN

The March-August pattern at DB continued

in 1970 but with increased numbers of 20-30

at the end of May. An adult with chicks on

1 . viii . 70. Also seen at a roadside jheel near

Ragunathpur on 1 6 . xii . 70 (the only winter

record) and from the train to Calcutta on

7.iv.69.

Porphyrio porphyrio (Linnaeus),

PURPLE MOORHEN

DB was the only place where the species

was recorded and the status remained un-

changed from that reported previously, i.e.

upto 7-8 from March to August.

Fulica atra Linnaeus,

COOT

Wintering in small numbers at DB but maxi-

mum in 1970/71 was only 3. The solitary re-

cord on 2.vi.68 at DB remains the only

summer record.

Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli),

PHEASANT-TAILED JACANA

Common resident at DB with upto 200 in

April. Recorded in every month except Octo-

ber (but only two visits in three years at that

time). Could also be found on suitable

marshy jheels but less likely than next species.

Nuptial display was noted in May and birds

began moulting out of breeding dress in mid-

September. Thus they could be more retiring

and less likely to be seen in October.

Metopidius indicus (Latham),

BRONZF.WINGED JACANA

Common and widespread resident on jheels

and wet habitats, but less gregarious than the

previous species. 24 were recorded from the

train to Calcutta on 7.iv.69. Numbers con-

514

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AND THE DAMODAR VALLEY

centrated at DB during the hot weather with

50-60 in March and April. Smaller numbers

recorded there throughout the year except

October.

Vanellus cinereus (Blyth),

GREYHEADED LAPWING

1 at DB on 18.iv.70.

Vanellus indicus (Boddaert)

REDWATTLED LAPWING

A common resident in wet areas becoming

more mobile during the monsoon. DB and

AW were regular haunts but also found on

jheels and flooded paddy. 2 records of birds

flying over my garden in June.

Vanellus spinosus (Linnaeus),

SPURWINGED LAPWING

1 or 2 records of single birds on the sand

banks at AW in January and February in each

winter.

Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert),

YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING

Usually a pair or two on the dry sandy areas

at AW from January to May. Maximum

number was 6 on 3.i.71. A pair also found

an area of the adjacent factory compound used

for dumping foundry slag to their liking pro-

ducing the only June record on 4.vi.70. 1

downstream of DB on 1 1 . iv . 70 was the only

record there.

Pluvialis squatarola (Linnaeus),

GREY PLOVER

1 downstream of DB on 24.iii.68 and 1 on

fallow land in Bankura district about 1 or 2

km south of DB on 29.ix.68.

Pluvialis dominica (P. L. S. Muller),

LESSER (or eastern) golden plover

The situation at DB remained unchanged

in 1970/71 with upto 50 from December to

April, latest date 18th. Also at AW with 30

on 30.iii.69.

Charadrius dubius Scopoli,

LITTLE RINGED PLOVER

A dry season bird of sandy rivers at DB

or AW, usually 6 or 7 but upto 10 or 12 at

times. Also seen on the Ajoy river on 16.vi.68.

Display flight and mobbing recorded in Janu-

ary.

Charadrius alexandrinus Linnaeus,

KENTISH PLOVER

A common dry season bird of sandy river

beds at DB or AW, maximum number was

62 on 5 . xii . 70.

Charadrius placidus J. E. Gray or C.

hiaticula Linnaeus,

LONGBILLED RINGED PLOVER Or RINGED PLOVER

1 at DB on 16.iii.69, probably the former.

See comments in my earlier paper.

Charadrius mongolus Pallas,

LESSER SAND PLOVER

Two more records at DB of 3 on 30.ix.68

and 1 on ll.i.69 omitted from my earlier

paper bring the total to five.

Numenius arquata (Linnaeus),

CURLEW

Numenius phaeopus (Linnaeus),

WHIMBREL

One more record of 1 at DB on 27.ix.70,

again flying SE like the 2 previous records,

and again the preference was for Whimbrel

rather than Curlew.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Tringa erythropus (Pallas),

SPOTTED REDSHANK

A winter visitor from November to April

at DB or AW with an exceptionally early re-

cord of 1 on flooded paddy near the DVC

farm on 31.viii.68. The latest date was 2 at

AW 21 .iv.68. A flock of 8 or 9 flew over my

garden on 23 . iii . 70. The supposedly commoner

Redshank T. totanus remained as elusive as

ever and I never saw one in W. Bengal, the

nearest being 1 in Madhya Pradesh between

Jabulpur and Katni.

Tringa stagnatilis (Bechstein),

MARSH SANDPIPER

The only additional observation to add to

the 8 records at DB in my previous paper was

1 at AW on 23.xi.69. None at all were seen

in the 1970/71 winter.

Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus),

GREENSHANK

Common winter visitor to the Damodar

river and suitable wet areas such as flooded

paddy. The earliest date was 1st August and

the latest was 18th April. The usual number

was 5 or less but upto 20 on occasions.

Tringa ochropus Linnaeus,

GREEN SANDPIPER

Whilst DB and AW were the main haunts,

it was the small sandpiper most likely to be

found in wet ditches and jheels. Earliest date

14th August and latest 18th April. Common

and often seen in small groups of upto 5.

Tringa glareola Linnaeus,

WOOD SANDPIPER

DB was the birds favourite haunt but also

found regularly at AW and occasionally else-

where. One of the earliest waders to arrive

being found on flooded paddy on 27th July

with 5 August records of upto 15 birds. The

latest date was 21st April. This species was

much commoner than either Green or Com-

mon Sandpipers.

Tringa terek (Latham),

TEREK SANDPIPER

A small sandpiper slightly larger than Com-

mon Sandpiper with similar bobbing action

but with upturned bill and yellow legs was

seen at DB on 1 or 7.ix.68 was omitted from

my previous paper because the bill did not

seem long enough or show a yellow base. How-

ever subsequent experience of the species and

comparison with more detailed descriptions

confirmed the identification.

Tringa hypoleucos Linnaeus,

COMMON SANDPIPER

Common winter visitor with DB and AW

its main haunts but also found on jheels and

wet paddy. Earliest 31st August, latest 18th

April.

Gallinago stenura (Bonaparte),

PINTAIL SNIPE

Some birds flushed from dry grass and lan-

tana scrub beside the road to Bishnupur on

18.ii.68 was the only occasion when I felt

justified in identifying this species. It was a

most un-snipe like habitat (the same place as

the Jungle Bush Quail). The published infor-

mation on the separation of Pintail and Com-

mon Snipe in the field was not available until

after I left India.

Gallinago gallinago (Linnaeus),

FANTAIL (or COMMON) SNIPE

Recorded at DB in every month except June

and July. More numerous in winter when up-

to 15. Also at AW on 15.xii.68. Mobile dur-

ing the monsoon when 2 birds flew over my

garden on 6 . viii . 68 and 1 on 19.ix.70.

516

BIRDS OF DU RGAPUR AND THE DAMODAR VALLEY

Gallinago minima (Brunnich),

JACK SNIPE

1 at DB on 3 . i . 70 was the only record.

Calidris canutus (Linnaeus),

KNOT

The identification of 1 at DB on 3 . i . 70

mentioned in my previous paper received

further confirmation in King et al. (1975) who

state that the Eastern (or Great) Knot C.

tenuirostris shows clear white upper tail coverts

| whereas my notes refer to this area being

greyish white contrasting little with the back,

typical of Knot.

Calidris minuta (Leisler),

LITTLE STINT

Mainly at DB from September to April,

also at AW with a latest date of 21.iv.68.

Less frequent than previously during the

1970/71 winter.

Calidris temminckii (Leisler),

temminck’s stint

The most numerous wader. A very common

winter visitor to the river beds with early

arrivals on flooded paddy, earliest 31st August.

The latest date was 21st April, with a proba-

ble at AW on 12.V.68. The largest concen-

trations were downstream of DB.

Calidris subminuta (Maddendorff),

LONGTOED STINT

1 at AW on 7 . iii . 68. Several other obser-

vations of birds among flocks of Little and

Temminck’s Stints were probably this species.

Calidris testacea (Pallas),

CURLEW SANDPIPER

1 at DB on 13.ix.70.

Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus),

RUFF

A small flock seen at AW several times in

Jan. /Feb. 1968 but I can find written evidence

for only one subsequent record on 15.xii.68.

However I have distinct recollections of grea-

ter regularity there. There were no additions

to the 2 records at DB but this variable species

was probably the origin of a number of un-

identified waders.

Rostratula benghalensis (Lannaeus),

PAINTED SNIPE

The office drain provided a small area of

wet paddy which supported 3 or 4 during

April-June 1968. The only records were from

DB in March- April 1969. These were all hot

weather records when wet habitats were other-

wise scarce.

Himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus),

BLACK WINGED STILT

A flock on a marshy jheel between Bolpur

and Katwa in February 1968 and on flooded

paddy near the DVC farm on 31.viii.68 were

the only records away from DB. No more

records of large flocks there with a maximum

of only 7 between 1. iii. 70 and 23.V.70. The

high rainfall and river flow in September 1970

scoured away much of the shallow areas on

the upstream side of DB which was their

favourite haunt.

Burhinus oedicncmus (Linnaeus),

STONE CURLEW

2 in the scrub on the north side of the GT

road on 6.iv.68 in the area which was even-

tually to become the town centre and 3 birds

flushed from the edge of the lake at Maithon

on 24 . i . 7 1 .

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmelin),

INDIAN COURSER

3 on a stabilised sandbank below AW on

21 .i.68. It should be noted that this was dur-

ing a very dry spell.

Glareola lactea Temminck,

SMALL INDIAN PRATINCOLE

Much scarcer at DB in 1970/71 with only

two more records, both of single birds, 1 on

the unseasonable date of 15.ix.70 and 1 on

23 . i . 70. A small flock at AW on 5 . i . 69 and

4 . i . 70. 2 records of 1 and 4 birds over my

garden in March 1969.

Larus argentatus Pontoppidan,

HERRING GULL

Recorded on the Hoogly at Calcutta in

February.

Larus ichthyaetus Pallas,

GREAT BLACK HEADED GULL

An immature at DB on 27.xii.70 identified

by its huge size and broad black subterminal

tail band. It was watched in flight and through

a telescope at rest.

Larus brunnicephalus Jerdon,

BROWN HEADED GULL

3 at AW on 12.V.68 and 1 at DB in April

1968 suggests spring migration from the

Calcutta area where they winter along with

Herring and Blackheaded Gulls. Latest date

at Calcutta was 26th April.

Larus ridibundus Linnaeus.

BLACK HEADED GULL

Quite common on the Hoogly in winter at

Calcutta in January and February.

Chlidonias hybrida (Pallas),

WHISKERED TERN

The commonest and most numerous tern of

the sandy rivers at DB and AW, also Ajoy

river. It could also be found in flocks over

flooded paddy particularly when attracted by

agricultural operations. Display noted at DB

in April and birds in juvenile plumage in

September. 1 over my garden on 30.V.69 and

several possibles.

Gelochelidon nilotica (Gmelin),

GULLBILLED TERN

2 at DB on 5.xii.70. It is a matter of con-

jecture whether there was any connection with

the record of the Great Blackheaded Gull

three weeks later.

Sterna aurantia J. E. Gray,

INDIAN RIVER TERN

April to August at AW and March to

October at DB. Usually 1 or 2, occasionally

3 but 7-8 at DB on 1 . viii . 70 was exceptional.

Like most other terns it foraged over flooded

paddy during the monsoon when seen over

my garden on 5. viii. 68.

Sterna hirundo Linnaeus,

COMMON TERN

A rather scarce winter visitor. 1 at AW on

23.xi.69 was in line with 3 previous Novem-

ber/December records at DB but 1 at DB on

1 .viii. 70. was outside this pattern.

Sterna acuticauda J. E. Gray,

BLACK BELLIED TERN

This bird preferred sand banks to marshes

and was seen more frequently at AW than

DB, being seen in every month except August

and September. Seen carrying fish at DB on

14.iv.68 which could have been nuptial dis-

play and a pair had 2 small young at AW

518

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AMD THE DAMODAR VALLEY

on 12.V.68. Some dispersal during the mon-

soon with 6 or 7 outside my office on 14.vii.69.

April and May records of birds flying over

my garden.

Sterna albifrons Pallas,

LITTLE TERN

A seventh record at DB on 1 1 . iv . 70 was

added to the previous 6, all between March

and June.

Treron bicincta (Jerdon),

ORANGEBREASTED GREEN PIGEON

1 at Topchanchi on 25 . i . 70.

Streptopelia decaocto (Frivaldszky),

COLLARED DOVE

Much less numerous than the Spotted Dove

but still quite common in the Durgapur area.

More a bird of the open countryside but could

be found in sal jungle in March-May. Rather

scarce in my garden to start with but a regu-

lar visitor by 1970, presumably an effect of

increased de-forestation. Usually outnumbered

the Spotted Dove in counts made from the

train to Calcutta.

Streptopelia tranquebarica (Hermann),

RED TURTLE DOVE

Apart from 1 on the office lawn on 15.vii.68,

only seen at AW between March and August

with a maximum of 4.

Streptopelia chinensis (Scopoli),

SPOTTED DOVE

An abundant resident in gardens and sal

jungle. Display noted in February and Septem-

ber and nesting took place in my garden in

April. Flocks of upto 14 recorded.

Streptopelia senegalensis (Linnaeus).

SENEGAL (or LAUGHING, Or LITTLE BROWN)

DOVE

Thinly distributed over the countryside and

sal scrub. Mostly avoided gardens but appear-

ed in mine on 2 occasions. The telegraph wires

along the approach road to my office were a

favourite haunt. Apparently resident but Dec-

ember records rather sparse.

Columba livia Gmelin.

ROCK PIGEON

Common resident, probably all of feral

origin but a small proportion resembled the

true wild type.

Psittacula eupatria (Linnaeus),

LARGE INDIAN PARAKEET

Recorded at Topchanchi on 10.iii.68. The

species is included in Lowther’s list of breed-

ing birds of Manbhum around Dhanbad.

Psittacula krameri (Scopoli),

ROSF.RINGED PARAKEET

A common resident but nothing like so

abundant as it is around Delhi and Agra.

Flocks of about 20 at DB and AW. A fairly

frequent visitor to my garden particularly dur-

ing the monsoon to raid the sweet com Zea

mays.

Psittacula cyanocephala (Linnaeus),

BLOSSOM HEADED PARAKEET

An influx of 3 or more into my garden in

January 1971 were suspected to be of captive

origin. It was a favourite cage bird and a num-

ber of ex-patriates had recently left. Prior to

this birds had appeared in my garden on

18.vi.68, 7 . ii . 69 and 3 on 10.ii.69. It was

quite common at Topchanchi.

519

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Claniator jacobinus (Boddaert),

PIED CRESTED CUCKOO

A common monsoon visitor whose arrival

dates in the three years were 1st June, 4th

June and 31st May. Most records were from

my garden but seen quite frequently elsewhere.

The latest date, for an adult was 22nd Sept-

ember but young birds were recorded on 5th

and 6th October in different locations. Rather

fewer records in 1970 compared with previous

years.

Cuculus varius Vahl,

COMMON HAWK -CUCKOO

Very common, probably resident but not

in evidence when silent in November and Dec-

ember. 1 January sight record. Heard in and

around my garden in every month from Febru-

ary to October.

Cuculus micropterus Gould,

INDIAN CUCKOO

Probably only a monsoon visitor to my

garden and surrounding area but could be

over looked when silent. Garden records dur-

ing 12.vi.68-14.vii.68 and 25.ii.69-12.vii.69

2 other records on 29.ix.68 and 6.x. 68, the

later being a juvenile at AW.

Cacomantis sonneratii (Latham),

BANDED BAY CUCKOO

1 beside the road near Ragunathpur on

1 3 . ii . 70 and 1 at DB on 1 . iii . 70.

Cacomantis merulinus (Scopoli),

PLAINTIVE CUCKOO

Probably resident in small numbers, occurr-

ing in gardens and surrounding area from

April to October and in reed beds at DB

during November to January. The only re-

cords in 1969 were at DB in January.

Surniculus lugubris (Horsfield),

DRONGO-CUCKOO

1 at AW on 8.ix.68.

o\

Eudynamys scolopacea (Linnaeus),

KOEL sc

Very common resident of gardens, jungle

and almost any grove of trees. Of almost daily |r

occurrence in my garden particularly favour- y

ing the fruits of the Muntingia. f

Centropus sinensis (Stephens), ^

COUCAL

Common resident in gardens and country

with suitable cover. Recorded in my garden

in every month of the year. v

Tyto alba (Scopoli),

BARN OWL

1 in the car headlights on the road from

Ragunathpur after dark on 19.xii.69. No 1

other owl would have looked so white in the

circumstances.

Otus bakkamoena Pennant,

COLLARED SCOPS OWL

Heard calling at night in or near my garden

on 5 occasions; 14 . i . 68, 25.vi.68, 3 . vii . 68,

25.vii.68 and 30.ix.70.

Glaucidium radiatum (Tickell),

JUNGLE OWLET

1 at Topchanchi on 25 . i . 70.

Athene brama (Temminck),

SPOTTED OWLET

Probably much overlooked. A pair in the

avenue of large trees at AW on every visit

during January-May 1968 but not subsequent-

ly: 1 perched in a tree near the colony entrance

on the GT road in January 1968 and another

in a roadside tree between Ragunathpur and

Purulia on 29.xi.68.

520

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AND THE DAMODAR VALLEY

? Strix ocellata (Lesson),

OWL

The silhouette of a large owl was seen flying

over my garden after dark on 10.ix.68. A

couple of weeks later a neighbour reported

seeing an owl about 45 cm (18 in.) tall standing

in a colony road illuminated by his car head-

lights. It was not white like a Bam Owl.

Mottled Wood Owl appears to be the likliest

identification.

Caprimulgus macrurus Horsfield,

LONGTAILED NIGHTJAR

Fairly common in sal jungle and other areas

which could provide dense cover, with a rather

variable pattern of occurrence from year to

year. 9 records between 5.iv.68-23.ix.68, 3

between 28.ii.69-5.vi.69 and 9 between

29.xii.69-3.iv.70. Birds appeared in my gar-

dens on several occasions to hunt termite

swarms with Little Nightjars and drongos at

dusk. The continued destruction of the sal

jungle must adversly affect the species.

Caprimulgus asiaticus Latham,

INDIAN LITTLE NIGHTJAR

A common bird but not in evidence during

November-December. A regular garden visitor

and it would call for hours at a time from my

bungalow roof, January to April being the

most vocal period.

Apus affinis (J. E. Gray),

HOUSE SWIFT

Very common over the area, including my

garden, but absent from October to January.

Cypsiurus parvus (Lichtenstein),

PALM SWIFT

A very common resident throughout the

area and recorded over my garden in every

month, the largest numbers being about 100

in February.

Hemiprocne longipennis (Rafinesque),

CRESTED TREE SWIFT

Several at Topchanchi on 12.i.69 where it

was also found by Lowther.

Ceryle rudis (Linnaeus),

LESSER PIED KINGFISHER

Resident pairs at DB (2 or 3) and AW.

Could also be seen at track side jheels on most

train journeys to Calcutta.

Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus),

COMMON (or SMALL BLUE) KINGFISHER

Scarce winter visitor, the earliest being 1

at a roadside ditch near the DVC farm on

28.ix.68. Otherwise at AW or DB with 4

records in January-March.

Halcyon smymensis (Linnaeus),

WHITEBREASTED KINGFISHER

Common but thinly distributed resident from

waterside habitats at DB and AW to dry

country. The roadside wires on the way to my

office were a favourite haunt and twice seen

from my garden.

Merops philippinus Linnaeus,

BLUETAILED BEE-EATER

Quite common summer visitor to rivers,

jheels and flooded paddy. Earliest date 30th

March and latest 29th September. Several re-

cords during the monsoon of upto 6 birds over

my garden.

Merops orientalis Latham.

LITTLE GREEN BEE-EATER

Common resident in a wide variety of habi-

tats with small parties flying or hunting over

my garden in most months.

Coracias benghalensis (Linnaeus),

INDIAN ROLLER

A common bird of open countryside with

upto 24 being counted on a train journey to

521

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Calcutta. It would occasionally penetrate into

more wooded areas and gardens.

Upupa epops Linnaeus,

HOOPOE

Apparently a thinly distributed resident with

a winter influx. The sandy areas at AW were

a favourite winter haunt with upto 4 birds.

5 records for the period April to September

but over 20 for October to March. Seen in

or from my garden six times; twice in Febru-

ary, twice in March, once in July and once in

September.

Tockus birostris (Scopoli),

GREY HORN BILL

1 at Topchanchi on 26.i.70.

Megalaima zevlanica (Gmelin),

GREEN BARBET

Common only at Topchanchi. It obviously

preferred the more deciduous and varied forest

to the sal jungle around Durgapur. The hand-

book states that it straggles as far as Calcutta

but the synopsis gives the eastern limit as

Bihar. It would be difficult to overlook such

a noisy bird if it were present and hence T

would support the latter distribution.

Megalaima haemacephala (P. L. S. Muller),

CRIMSON BREASTED BARBET

A very common resident with birds’ call-

ing from almost every clump of trees. A pair

took up residence in my garden in 1969 and

began excavating a nest hole in a broken

branch of a Gul Mohr on 2 . iii . 70. Fledged

young were visible at the nest hole on 23.V.70

and flew shortly afterwards. The parents were

excavating a new hole on 26.vii.70.

Jynx torquilla Linnaeus,

WRYNECK

A common winter visitor, regular haunts

being my garden, canal side scrub at AW and

piles of facing stones left along the bund road

at DB. The earliest date was 15th September

and the latest 14th April.

Dinopium benghalense (Linnaeus),

LESSER GOLDEN BACKED WOODPECKER

Fairly common, apparently more so than

the Yellowfronted Pied Woodpecker but this

may be because the larger species is more

conspicuous and more ready to come out in

the open. A permanent feature of my garden

from November 1970 after only 2 previous

records.

Picoides mahrattensis (Latham),

YELLOWFRONTED PIED WOODPECKER

A pair became resident in my garden from

December 1969 until my departure after only

3 records in the two previous years. 3 birds

indulging in a nuptial chase on 20 . ii . 7 1 . The

pair started to excavate a nest hole in a

rather half-hearted fashion in a large

tree in my garden, and it was surprising

to find the Lesser Goldenbacked Woodpecker

taking turns from time to time when they got

bored, with the Blossomheaded Parakeets keep-

ing an eye on overall progress. Unfortunately

I left the country before this intriguing situa-

tion was resolved.

Picoides nanus (Vigors),

BROWNCROWNED PIGMY WOODPECKER

1 in my garden on 9.iv.68.

Chrysocolaptes lucidus (Scopoli),

LARGER GOLDENBACKED WOODPECKER

A goldenbacked woodpecker with a red

rump was seen beside the GT road about

15 km outside Calcutta on 22.viii.70 and was

most probably this species.

522

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AND THE DAMODAR VALLEY

Pitta brachyura (Linnaeus),

INDIAN PITTA

The evidence for this species is somewhat

circumstantial. My notes for 21.iii.68 refer

to an unidentified loud whistle written down

as ‘ke-weEEp’. On 22.iii.68 my wife reported

a strange bird (like a Nuthatch Sitta europa

with long legs) on our bungalow lawn. Finally

on 30.iv.68 I had a fleeting glimpse of a

medium sized passerine with rounded wings,

white wing patches and dipping flight flying

across my lawn. It is difficult to find a conclu-

sion other than a Pitta to fit these facts.

It is a species recorded by Lowther (1949)

as nesting in Manbhum.

Mirafra javanica Horsfield.

SINGING BUSH LARK

A pair of these larks were apparently resi-

dent in scrubby cultivation just upstream of

AW. Probably overlooked elsewhere and was

not specifically identified unless the white

outer tail feathers could be seen.

Mirafra assamica Horsfield,

BUSH LARK

Mirafra erythroptera Blyth.

REDWINGED BUSH LARK

Whistler says these two species may be sepa-

rated by the former being heavier, darker

and greyer. However opportunities for close

inspection or direct comparison were few and

the species have been taken together. One or

both were quite common in thin scrub or poor

cultivation and recorded in all months except

May and November. Most visits to AW or

DB would find a bird or two on the road or

wires.

Eremopterix grisea (Scopoli).

ASHYCROWNED FINCH-LARK

Common in thin scrub and poor cultivation.

During the monsoon flocks occur in drier

areas. On 14.viii.69. my notes refer to fre-

quent flocks of 12-15 birds on a journey to

Ragunathpur. Probably resident but no records

from its usual haunts during November-

Januarv.

Ammomanes phoenicurus (Franklin),

RUFOUSTAILED FINCH-LARK

The only place where this species was seen

was the dam at Maithon where it was quite

regular on the sloping face of the dam near

the water’s edge.

Calandrella einerea (Gmelin).

SHORT-TOED LARK

One in the stock yard of the works com-

pound on 1 . i . 70. This is not as odd as it

might seem because the area in question was

surfaced with coarse gravel with a few weeds,

hence resembled a small stony desert.

Calandrella raytal (Blyth),

SAND LARK

Common on the sand banks below DB and

AW. Display seen in October and a nest with

eggs in March.

Galerida sp..

CRESTED LARK Or SYKES’S CRESTED LARK

There are two records of larger larks, one

in a sandy river bed beside the road to Ham

Bazar on ll.ii.68 which was definitely con-

sidered to be a species of crested lark and

another downstream of DB which was dis-

tinctly larger than the Sand Larks. The hand-

book and the synopsis give the eastern limit

of both species as Bihar.

Alauda gulgula Franklin,

EASTERN SKYLARK

Probably commoner than the comparatively

523

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

few records suggest. It appears to be a thinly

distributed resident in light scrub and culti-

vation, areas which were not examined very

thoroughly. Most car journeys would produce

records of several unidentified larks, probably

this species. The larks of West Bengal would

benefit from a more critical inspection.

Riparia riparia (Linnaeus),

COLLARED SAND MARTIN

Scarce but probably overlooked amongst

other hirundines. Only two records, 5 or 6 at

DB on 14.xii.68. and a few at AW on

26.ix.70.

Riparia paludicola (Vieillot),

PLAIN SAND MARTIN

A large colony in the river bank just up-

stream of AW in Jan. 1968 was washed out

by the monsoon floods. Another smaller colony

was found about 2 km downstream of DB on

22 . ii . 70. Records were confined to the vicinity

of the Damodar river and for the period

November-May, the birds apparently departing

during the monsoon.

Hirundo concolor Sykes,

DUSKY CRAG MARTIN

2 on Parasnath Hill on 10 . ii . 70.

Hirundo rustica Linnaeus,

BARN SWALLOW

Common and widespread winter visitor. The

March gathering at DB in 1970 was only 300

strong, a tenth of previous years. Small flocks

frequently seen over my garden. The earliest

record was 4th August and the latest 12th

May.

Hirundo smithii Leach,

WIRETAILED SWALLOW

Several at the DVC power station on 24.iv.68.

Also at DB in February 1968 probably 4th.

This record was overlooked in my previous

paper.

Hirundo fluvicola Blyth,

INDIAN CLIFF SWALLOW

The only record other than those in my

previous paper at DB was of several birds

at AW on 12.V.68.

Hirundo daurica Linnaeus,

REDRUM PED SWALLOW

Winter visitor in varying numbers, earliest

26th Sept, and latest 20th April. This species

preferred hunting over open area such as the

DVC farm rather than the river. Several 1970

records of birds over my garden, max. 12.

Some swallows seen in the vicinity of Perulia

on 23.vii.70 were probably this species which

Lowther recorded as a nesting species in

Manbhum.

Lanins vittatus Valenciennes,

BAYBACKED SHRIKE

I obtained a photograph of a single bird at

AW on a date which was not recorded but

was probably during Feb. 1970.

Lanius schach Linnaeus,

BLACKHEADED SHRIKE

Apart from a single rufous backed form

on the way to AW on 1 5 . xii . 70, all other

records (c. 60) were of the black headed

form. Usually seen singly but several records

of 2 or 3 together. Status uncertain but pro-

bably a small resident population with a win-

ter influx. About 2/3 of all records were for

the period Nov. -Feb., 5 records for the period

April-June. The birds appeared to be terri-

torial, taking up a favoured perch where they

could be seen day after day. One bird took

up residence in my garden from 28.iv.70 to

13.V.70 and reappeared on 5 . viii . 70.

524

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AND THE DAMODAR VALLEY

Lanius cristatus Linnaeus,

BROWN SHRIKE

A very common and widespread winter visi-

tor to gardens and open countryside, avoid-

ing only closed forest. Earliest date 5th Sept.,

latest 4th May, both being from my garden

where it was almost a permanent feature ex-

cept during the monsoon.

Oriolus oriolus (Linnaeus),

GOLDEN ORIOLE

A common monsoon visitor to gardens, sal

jungle and countryside with trees. In 1968

birds were present from 6th April to 6th Oct.

in 1969 from 6th April to mid- August and

in 1970 from March to July. This is at vari-

ance with the handbook which suggests it is

mainly a winter visitor to the plains with

‘small numbers also resident and patchy

breeding’.

Oriolus xanthornus (Linnaeus),

BLACK HEADED ORIOLE

A common resident of gardens, sal jungle

and wooded country. During the monsoon it

tended to surrender the gardens to the Golden

Oriole and was then found mainly in sal

jungle.

Dicrurus adsimilis (Bechstein),

BLACK DRONGO

Common resident of gardens, scrub and open

country, penetrating sal jungle at times.

Breeding occurred during the monsoon with

fledged young appearing in July and August.

Termite flights would attract parties of 20-30

to my garden.

Dicrurus leucophaeus Vieillot,

GREY DRONGO

The specific identification of all drongos

in winter would be a time consuming process,

and the species was only readily identified in

assemblies with Black Drongos after termite

swarms when smaller size and greyer plumage

could be compared. The speed with which seve-

ral birds could arrive at a termite swarm in

my garden suggests it may have been com-

moner than the four records, all January-April,

suggest.

Dicrurus caerulescens (Linnaeus),

WHITEBELLIED DRONGO

A winter visitor to my garden with 15 re-

cords between 22.xi.69 and 22.ii.70. It, or

another, reappeared the following winter with

8 records between 19.xi.70 and 21 . ii . 7 1 , a

surprising consistency in dates. The species

was also found at Topchanchi and Hazaribagh

in Jan. and Feb. 1970.

Dicrurus aeneus Vieillot,

BRONZED DRONGO

Small glossy blue drongos with less strongly

forked tails were recorded on 4 occasions deep

in the sal jungle on 18.vi.68 (2), 24.viii.68,

13.ii.69 and 2.iv.69. It is possible to birds

may have occupied a territory because they

were always in the same place. A feature of

these birds was a long-headed appearance due

to a tuft of plush-like feathers on the forehead

hiding the base of the bill and longish feathers

on the nape, rather like D. remifer Lesser

Racket-tailed Drongo.

Dicrurus hottcntottus (Linnaeus),

HAIRCRESTED DRONGO

A scarce but annual visitor to my garden

in spring with 4 records on 5.iv.68, 24.iii.69,

19 . ii . 70 and 6 . iii . 71 . Another was seen near

Panagarh on an unrecorded date.

Dicrurus paradiseus (Linnaeus),

GREATER RACKET-TAILED DRONGO

One in the sal jungle on 21.iv.68. Rather

a scruffy specimen without rackets.

525

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

Artamus fuscus Vieillot,

ASHY SWALLOW-SHRIKE

A common resident throughout the area

seen circling in the sky or bunched together

on wires or bare tree branches. The birds were

rather less in evidence over my garden during

April and May but numerous in June, July

and August. This suggests the birds may have

retired to breed during the hot weather so that

free flying young could reap the harvest of

flying insects during the monsoon.

Sturnus malabaricus (Gmelin),

GREYHEADED MYNA

Quite a common resident with small flocks

scattered about the countryside, flowering Silk

Cotton trees and lantana bushes being favour-

ed haunts. Birds recorded in my garden bet-

ween March and July.

Sturnus pagodarum (Gmelin),

BRAHMINY MYNA

Recorded only from Topchanchi. Lowther

listed it for Manbhum.

Sturnus contra Linnaeus,

PIED MYNA

A very common resident favouring the

wetter parts of the area. A well watered lawn

proved attractive during the hot weather. It

would usually outnumber the Common Myna

on Calcutta train counts.

Acridotheres tristis (Linnaeus),

COMMON MYNA

An abundant resident throughout the area,

but outnumbered by Pied Myna in wet paddy.

Fledged young appeared on my lawn in June

1969 and August 1970.

Acridotheres ginginianus (Latham),

BANK MYNA

Birds could be seen regularly at Howrah

station in December 1970 and January 1971.

Apart from these the only record was of two

pairs beside the GT road on the Durgapur

side of Burdwan on 26.V.68.

Dendrocitta vagabunda (Latham),

INDIAN TREE PIE

A common resident throughout the area,

particularly my garden and the sal jungle.

Corvus splendens Vieillot.

HOUSE CROW

An excessively abundant resident through-

out the area. The maximum count from the

Calcutta train was 91.

Corvus macrorhynchos Wagler,

JUNGLE CROW

Thinly distributed resident and much less

numerous than previous species. Maximum

count from the Calcutta train was 23 but usual-

ly only 6 to 8. A bird in Dalhousie Square

on 1 1 . xii . 70 suggests it is quite capable of

penetrating urban areas. Birds were visiting

my garden quite regularly from March 1970

onwards.

Tephrodornis pondicerianus (Gmelin),

COMMON WOOD SHRIKE

Probably resident but rather scarce with 10

records scattered through the year. All were

singles except for 2 together in my garden on

21 .xi.70.

Coracina novaehollandiae (Gmelin),

LARGE CUCKOO-SHRIKE

5 records from in and around my garden in

April and June 1968 and 8 between March

and July 1969 (3 together on one occasion)

526

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AND THE DAMODAR VALLEY

suggested the species was a hot weather and

monsoon visitor. However in 1970 the only

records were in August and December, apart

from January and February records from Top-

chanchi and Hazaribagh. The species is pro-

bably a mobile resident.

Coracina melanoptera (Ruppell),

BLACKHEADED CUCKOO-SHRIKE

In 1968 and 1969 it appeared to be a

monsoon visitor from April to August, once

October. However in 1970 it first appeared on

29th March and was seen regularly upto 21st

November and two more records in January

1971 suggested it was resident. Nearly all the

records were for my garden, the few outside

being in the nearby sal jungle. Never more

than a pair together.

Pericrocotus flammeus (Forster),

SCARLET MINIVET

Only found at Topchanchi on 25 . i . 70.

Aegithina tiphia (Linnaeus),

COMMON IORA

A common resident of my garden and

adjacent jungle, usually in pairs. Seen in every

month of the year but less frequently in Dec-

ember.

Chloropsis cochinchinensis (Gmelin),

GOLDMANTLED CHLOROPSIS

Birds in my garden in every month of the

year, usually a pair but 4 on 2.xi.70. This

nectar feeding species has presumably bene-

fited from the widespread planting of exotics

such as poinsettia, hibiscus etc. in gardens. It

was never found in sal jungle but would be

hard to find in the canopy. It was found at

Topchanchi on 25 . i . 70 which is more open

and varied.

Pycnonotus jocosus (Linnaeus),

REDWHISKERED BULBUL

A very common resident of my garden and

jungle with small parties throughout the year.

It showed a stronger preference for better

wooded areas than the even commoner Red-

vented Bulbul. One or more pairs nested in

my garden every year, activity first recorded

on 17th April with nearly fledged young in

June and July.

Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus),

REDVENTED BULBUL

One of the most abundant birds of West

Bengal, occurring widely in gardens, sal jungle

and scrub. Upto 7 or 8 birds in my garden

throughout the year where it nested regularly.

Activity first recorded on 20th April with

fledged young in July. With so little attempt

to hide the flimsy nest structures the loss

through predation and storm damage must

have been very high.

Pycnonotus luteolus (Lesson),

WHITEBROWED BULBUL

3 together in some scrub in the Forest Dept

plantations towards the Ajoy river on 1 8 . i . 70.

This is about 100 km NE of the Midnapore

limit given in the handbook.

Dumetia hyperythra (Franklin),

RUFOUSBELLIED babbler

A regular monsoon visitor to my garden

between May and August, usually 2 or 3 but

upto 6 in 1970.

Chrysomma sinense (Gmelin),

YELLOWEYED BABBLER

A common resident usually found in pairs

but 4 together on one occasion. Frequent visi-

tor to my garden in every month of the year.

Water-side scrub at AW was another favour-

ed haunt.

527

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Turdoides striatus (Dumont),

JUNGLE BABBLER

A very common bird of gardens and sal

jungle, being seen in my garden almost daily.

It nested during the monsoon with fledged

young appearing in August and September. It

was also found at Topchanchi.

Muscicapa latirostris Raffles,

BROWN FLYCATCHER

Only two records, both in April in different

years. One on the edge of the sal jungle near

my bungalow and one in scrub near

the triangulation point.

Muscicapa muttui (Layard),

BROWNBREASTED FLYCATCHER

Two records, one in sal jungle near my

bungalow and the other at AW, on 20.ix.70

and 26 . ix . 70 respectively. These records fit the

expected migration pattern of birds moving

between their breeding areas in Assam and

beyond and the wintering area in SW India.

Muscicapa ruficauda Swainson,

RUFOUSTAILED FLYCATCHER

One in my garden on 26.iii.69 in company

with the Blackbrowed Flycatcher Warbler

( Seicercus burkii). Additional literature which

was not available to me at the time indicates

the possibility of other flycatchers with red-

dish tails but has not changed my opinion.

Muscicapa parva Bechstein,

REDBREASTED FLYCATCHER

One of the commonest and most conspicuous

of winter visitors to gardens and the fringes

of sal jungle. Low branches of trees border-

ing the colony roads and providing a clear

view of open ground were particularly favour-

ed. The earliest arrival was on 14th Oct. and

the latest on 6th April, a bird with a red

breast. The only other record of a redbreast-

ed bird was on 23 . i . 70.

Muscicapa superciliaris Jerdon,

WHITEBROWED BLUE FLYCATCHER

One at AW on 30.iii.69, also 1 at Hazari-

bagh NP on 9 . ii . 70 which suggests the status

of scarce spring migrant.

Muscicapa rubeculoides (Vigors),

BLUETHROATED FLYCATCHER

One beside the road outside my garden in

the first week of March 1968.

Muscicapa tickelliae (Blyth),

tickell’s blue flycatcher

One in the next door garden on 24.iii.68

and probable females in my garden on 28.x. 68

and 20.xii.69.

Muscicapa thalassina Swainson,

VERDITER FLYCATCHER

Regular winter visitor in small numbers

with at least one record each year from my

garden or the sal jungle. Two together in my

garden on 10 . iii . 7 1 . Also seen at Topchanchi

on 25 . i . 70 and Maithon Dam on 24.i.70.

Culicicapa ceylonensis (Swainson),

GREYHEADED FLYCATCHER

An irregular winter visitor in sal jungle with

7 records between 14.xi.68 and 23.ii.69. Also

at Topchanchi on 26 . i . 70.

Rliipidura aureola Lesson,

WHITEBROWED FANTAIL FLYCATCHER

Not recorded nearer than Topchanchi where

it was seen on 25 . i . 70. It was also found at

Hazaribagh NP on 9 . ii . 70. The species ap-

pears to prefer a more definitely deciduous

biotope than Durgapur could offer.

Rhipidura albieollis (Vieillot),

WHITETHROATED FANTAIL FLYCATCHER

A single individual took up residence in

and around my garden from l.vii.69 to

23.viii.69 during which time it was seen almost

daily.

528

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AND THE DAMODAR VALLEY

Terpsiphone paradisi (Linnaeus),

PARADISE FLYCATCHER

A common and conspicuous monsoon visi-

tor of almost daily occurrence in gardens and

sal jungle between extreme dates of 28th

March and 30th September. Females tended

to arrive a few days before males. The first

males of the year were recorded on 3.iv.68,

3.iv.69 and 4.iv.70.

Hypothymis azurea (Boddaert),

BLACK NAPED FLYCATCHER

A regular winter visitor to the sal jungle

from November to February. Usually singly

or in pairs with mixed groups of warblers and

flycatchers.

Cisticola juncidis (Rafinesque),

STREAKED FANTAIL WARBLER

Rather scarce and local but probably resi-

dent in suitable areas of long grass or dense

low shrubs which were free of grazing pres-

sure. Tussocks of ‘pampas’ grass ( Cortaderia

sp ?) on the sand banks downstream of AW

and also the downstream face of Maithon

Dam.

Prinia hodgsonii Blyth,

franklin’s longtail warbler or

WREN WARBLER

Much scarcer than P. socialis and recorded

only between April and September in 1968

and 1969. Due to closer similarity with P.

socialis when in winter plumage it may have

been overlooked at other times.

Prinia subflava (Gmelin),

PLAIN, or TAWNYFLANKED LONGTAIL, Or

WREN WARBLER

Nearly all records from waterside vegetation

at DB where it was present throughout the

year except Sept. -Oct. and only a single Nov.

record. Birds were nesting in water hyacinth

on 21.vi.68. It was also found in canal-side

vegetation on the way to AW and at Canada

Dam on 23.iii.69.

Prinia socialis Sykes,

ASHY LONGTAIL WARBLER Or WREN WARBLER

A very common resident in and around

gardens occurring in small parties.

Orthotomus sutorius (Pennant),

TAILOR BIRD

A common garden resident, also found in

sal jungle and suitable scrubby cover. A pro-

tracted monsoon breeding season with feeding

of young noted between Aprd and September.

Locustella certhiola (Pallas),

PALLAS’S GRASSHOPPER WARBLER

One at AW in March 1968. Another

Locustella of uncertain species at the same

place on 27.iv.69.

Chaetornis striatus (Jerdon),

BRISTLED GRASS WARBLER

My experience with this species is an exam-

ple of how a mistake once made can be diffi-

cult to rectify. Shortly, after my arrival in

India I found some birds resembling Jungle

Babblers but with streaked upper parts in an

area of long grass between Panag’arh and the

Damodar canal. With my limited experience

at that time I put these down as Common

Babblers, T. caudatus. Similar birds were sub-

sequently seen on four occasions in long grass

or scrub at AW and 1 downstream of DB

on 5.xii.70 and 2 birds were seen in a track-

side ditch from a train to Calcutta. It was

not until after I left India did I learn of the

similarity and possibility of confusion

between this species and Common Babbler,

a bird which reaches its eastern limit in Bihar.

529

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

The fact that I always saw these birds in ones

or twos and not the small parties so typical of

Turdoides spp. should have given a warning

that something was not right. With the benefit

of hindsight it is now evident the original

diagnosis was wrong, hence the entry under

this species.

Acrocephalus aedon (Pallas),

THICKBILLED WARBLER

One bird watched closely at DB on 17.ii.68.

Detailed notes refer to the lack of supercilium.

massive bill and short wings.

Acrocephalus stentoreus (Hemprich &

Ehrenberg),

INDIAN, or CLAMOROUS GREAT REED WARBLER

A winter visitor to waterside vegetation at

AW and DB from 15th Nov. to 11th April.

Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth,

BLYTH’S REED WARBLER

A common spring migrant through my gar-

den and sal jungle in March, April and May

with 2 February records and 1 at AW in

January, the latest date was 23rd May.

Acrocephalus agricola (Jerdon),

PADDYFIF.LD WARBLER

2 records at DB, one in February 1968 and

one on ll.iv,70.

Hippolais caligata (Lichtenstein),

BOOTED WARBLER

Mainly a late winter visitor or spring

migrant between February and May but 1 at

AW on 26.ix.70. 4 records in my garden

during April/May 1970 may have been the

same individual.

Phvlloscopus collybita (Vieillot),

CHIFFCHAFF

Winter resident in small numbers to my

garden and sal jungle. Another regular haunt

was the avenue of large trees leading down

to AW. Recorded between 23rd November

and 20th April.

Phvlloscopus affinis (Tickell),

tickell’s leaf warbler

Winter visitor in small and irregular num-

bers. Several records in sal jungle in February/ I

April 1968 and in my garden in February/ I

March 1971. Only 2 1970 records.

Phylloscopus griseolus Blyth,

OLIVACEOUS LEAF WARBLER Or

S U LPH U RBELLIED WARBLER

The species was quite common at Top-

chanchi on 25.i.70, and also in Hazaribagh

NP the following month. A bird seen in the

sal jungle at Durgapur on 3.iv.68 with other

phylloscopi was thought at the time to be a

Radde’s Warbler P. schwarzi, a species not

officially recorded within Indian limits. Having

had the opportunity of seeing both species on

their respective breeding grounds in the Tien

Shan mountains and Siberia I now think it

probable the bird was P. griseolus. Another

rather uncertain record on 25.ii.69.

Phylloscopus fuscatus (Blyth),

DUSKY LEAF WARBLER

Three records in Dec. and Jan. of several

birds in low thorny scrub at AW and DB.

Phylloscopus inornatus (Blyth),

YELLOWBROWED LEAF WARBLER

Common winter visitor, the second com-

monest Phylloscopus after Greenish Warbler.

Distinctly gregarious, usually in groups of 5-15

in sal jungle but once in my garden. The

earliest arrival was 14th Nov. and the latest

was 16th April, but 1968 was the only year

when it was recorded after February.

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AND THE DAMODAR VALLEY

Phylloscopus magnirostris Blyth,

LARGEBILLED LEAF WARBLER

Single birds in February 1968 and 1969 iden-

tified by larger size, heavier bill and stronger

colouring compared with associated Greenish

Warblers. Could only be identified under opti-

mum conditions and may have been under

recorded. A detailed study, using mist nets,

of the phylloscopi in West Bengal in winter

would be rewarding.

Phylloscopus trochiloides (Sundevall),

GREENISH WARBLER, Or DULL GREEN LEAF

WARBLER

The commonest Phylloscopus to visit West

Bengal in winter. Frequently seen in my

garden, sal jungle or any sort of trees with a

reasonable canopy. The earliest date was 15th

Sept, and the latest 17th May. Much more

likely than other members of its genus to be

found singly but not averse to joining mixed

flocks.

Phylloscopus nitidus Blyth,

BRIGHT GREEN LEAF WARBLER

A single bird in my garden on 4.V.68.

Phylloscopus occipitalis (Blyth),

LARGE CROWNED LEAF WARBLER

Either a late winter visitor or spring migrant.

After 2 or 3 earlier records, birds were seen

on 31.iii.68, 3.iv.68, 4.iv.68, ll.ii.69 and

23.ii.69 in sal jungle, also at Topchanchi on

26 . i . 70.

Phylloscopus reguloides (Blyth),

blyth’s crowned leaf warbler

A single bird in my garden on lO.v.68

was watched at close range for some time and

detailed notes taken enabled it to be identified

as this species rather than the previous one.

This record is rather late and further south

than might be expected from the information

in the handbook.

Seicercus burkii (Burton),

YELLOW-EYED FLYCATCHER-WARBLER

One in my garden on 26.iii.69, in associa-

tion with the Rufoustailed Flycatcher.

Erithacus svecicus (Linnaeus),

BLUETHROAT

Regular winter visitor to waterside scrub at

DB and AW. Earliest 28th Dec. latest 28th

March.

Copsychus saularis (Linnaeus),

MAGPIE ROBIN

Common resident in gardens, seldom seen

in sal jungle. An opportunist nester taking

over old nest of Indian Robin and Crimson-

breasted Barbet. The nesting season was pro-

longed with song and display seen in February,

eggs in July (1969) and fledged young in

August (1969 and 1970).

Phoenicurus ochruros (Gmelin),

BLACK REDSTART

Winter visitor to roadsides, jungle fringes

and open areas, earliest 22nd November, latest

17th April. Only one in my garden but often

seen close to it.

Saxicola torquata (Linnaeus),

STONE CHAT

Winter visitor, probably regular to riverside

vegetation and sandy scrub at AW and DB

between 6th Oct. and 7th April. Usually a pair

but 2 pairs at AW on 6.x. 68.

Saxicoloides fulicata (Linnaeus),

INDIAN ROBIN

A very common bird of gardens, sal jungle

and scrub. Seen almost every day in my garden.

Display noted in February and nesting from

May to July.

531

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Monticola cinclorhynchus (Vigors),

BLUEHEADED ROCK THRUSH

One bird, a male, in the jungle close to my

bungalow on 31.iii.68.

Monticola solitarius (Linnaeus),

BLUE ROCK THRUSH

A single bird wintering at AW favouring an

overgrow pile of old facing stones. Also at

Canada Dam on 23.iii.69.

Zoothera citrina (Latham),

ORANGEHEADED GROUND THRUSH

A regular winter visitor to my garden and

sal j'unglc, normally only one bird but two on

one occasion. Earliest date was 26th October

and the latest 15th April. All the birds I saw

were Z. c. citrina. It is listed by Lowther as a

breeding bird in Manbhum district but pre-

sumably Z. c. cyanotus.

Zoothera dauma (Latham),

white’s thrush

Two birds together in the local sal jungle

on 12.xii.68.

Turdus unicolor Tickell,

tickell’s thrush

A scarce winter visitor to my garden and

sal jungle between 15th November and 14th

March. The only record in 1968 was at Top-

chanchi on 14.iii.68.

Anthus hodgsoni Richmond,

INDIAN TREE PIPIT, Or OLIVEBACKED PIPIT

Common winter visitor to my garden and

adjacent jungle in small flocks upto 6, earliest

date was 24th October and the latest 14th

April.

Anthus trivialis (Linnaeus),

TREE PIPIT

Erratic winter visitor recorded at DB and

AW on several occasions between 14.xii.68

and 1 8 . i . 69. No records for subsequent years.

Anthus novaeseelandiae Gmelin,

PADDYFIELD PIPIT, Or RICHARD’S PIPIT

A. n. rufulus resident in small numbers in

suitable open areas such as bund roads, sand

banks with some vegetation, playing fields etc.

Nesting behaviour noted in April. 2 records of

A. n. richardi at DB in March.

Anthus campestris (Linnaeus),

TAWNY PIPIT

5 winter records from AW and DB between

September and Feb.

Anthus roseatus (Blyth),

HODGSON’S PIPIT, Or VINACEOUSBREASTED

PIPIT

One at DB on 14.iv.68 is the only record.

Anthus similis Jerdon,

BROWN ROCK PIPIT, Or LONGBILLED PIPIT

I obtained photographs of a large almost

unmarked pipit on the shore of Panchet re-

servoir in February 1968 and another in fallow

land near AW on 16.ii.69 which could be

directly compared with photographs of Tawny

Pipits taken in France and Greece. These

birds lacked the dark row of covert spots so

noticeable on Tawny Pipits.

Motacilla indica Gmelin,

FOREST WAGTAIL

A passage migrant in March /April and

September with records in my garden on

28.iv.68, 18.iii.69, l.ix.70 and 6.ix.70 and

1 in nearby jungle on 17.ix.68.

Motacilla flava Linnaeus,

YELLOW WAGTAIL

Numerous winter visitor to AW and DB

532

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AMD THE DAMODAR VALLEY

from November to April. Birds were also seen

on playing fields at Dishegarh on 29.xii.69.

Those which could be assigned to a particular

race appeared to be M. f. beema.

Motaeilla citreola Pallas,

YELLOWHEADED WAGTAIL, Or CITRINE WAGTAIL

Winter visitor to DB and AW in fluctuating

numbers. It was recorded commonly in the

early months of 1968 and again from Decem-

ber 1968 to April 1969. The following winter

it was recorded only during Jan. and Feb.

1970. There were no records at all for the

1970/71 winter.

Motaeilla cinerea Tunstall,

GREY WAGTAIL

1 at DB on 1 3 . ii . 70 and 1 on the village

tank near the hot spring shrine north of

Dubrajpur on 23 or 24.i.68.

Motaeilla alba Linnaeus,

PIED WAGTAIL

Common and widespread winter visitor to

a variety of habitats, including my office

window-sill. It is impossible to know if a bird

at AW on 27.vii.69 really was a very early

winter visitor or an individual which had sum-

mered. Apart from this unusual date the

species was recorded from 26th September to

1 1th April.

Motaeilla maderaspatensis Gmelin.

LARGE PIED WAGTAIL

Apparently resident at DB with 3 birds on

two occasions in March and September 1970.

Recorded 3 times at AW from ll.viii.68 to

5.L69 and on the only visit to Canada dam

on 23.iii.69.

Dicaeum agile (Tickell),

THICKBILLED FLOWERPECKER

One or two records in my garden each

summer between 15th April and 17th Sept.

Dicaeum erythrorhynchos (Latham),

TICKELL’S FLOWERPECKER

A regular monsoon visitor to my garden

from mid-May to mid-September with a single

bird of almost daily occurrence. 2 birds were

seen together on 25.vii.69. It was seen regu-

larly from mid-April in 1970. The fruits of

the Malayan ‘ cherry’ Muntingia calabura

proved irresistable to it.

Nectarinia zeylonica (Linnaeus),

PURPLERUMPED SUNBIRD

1 outside Woodlands Nursing home in

Calcutta on 14 . vii . 70 is the only record. From

the map in the handbook Durgapur would

only be on the extreme border line of the

bird’s distribution.

Nectarinia asiatiea (Latham),

PURPLE SUNBIRD

A common resident which must have bene-

fited greatly from the planting of decorative

trees and shrubs in gardens. The birds ap-

peared to breed in the dry season which

coincided with the peak flowering of the local

flora. Display was noted in my garden in Janu-

ary with the first signs of eclipse plumage

showing at the end of June. By August all

males were in complete eclipse with full

breeding plumage being regained in December.

Zosterops palpebrosa (Temminck).

WHITE-EYE

Quite common in the undergrowth at Top-

chanchi but only a scarce winter visitor to the

Durgapur area. Records of 2 or more birds

in the sal jungle on 16.ii.69 and in my garden

on 3 . i . 70 and exactly a year later on 3.i.71.

Passer domesticus (Linnaeus),

HOUSE SPARROW

Excessively abundant resident around all

houses and habitation. No clearly defined breed-

ing season, being almost year-round.

533

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Petronia xanthocollis (Burton),

YELLOWTHROATED SPARROW

7 records between March and July of 1 or

2 birds in my garden or sal jungle. Seen 4

times in 1968, twice in 1969 and once in 1970.

Ploceus philippinus (Linnaeus),

BAYA WEAVER

An abundant resident, their colony nests

suspended from palmyra palms and other trees

being a common sight. Nest building usually

began in May and continued through the

monsoon.

Ploceus benghalensis (Linnaeus),

BLACKTHROATED WEAVER

Not always distinguished from and some-

times mixed with Baya Weavers. Flocks could

be found fairly regularly in waterside vegeta-

tion at DB and along the canal on the way

to AW.

Estrilda amandava (Linnaeus),

RED MUNIA

A resident flock of 20-30 at DB were the

only ones seen in the area.

Lonehura malabarica (Linnaeus),

WHITETHROATED MUNIA

Common resident with flocks of upto 25

with Spotted Munias on seeding grasses and

flowers during the monsoon. Seen much less

frequently from December to March.

Lonehura punctulata (Linnaeus),

SPOTTED MUNIA

A very common resident with flocks of upto

100 on lawns in May and June. Nest building

was very protracted from June to November

but few nests reached a more productive stage.

Many comolete but empty nests were taken

over by Whitethroated Munias.

Lonehura malacca (Linnaeus),

BLACK HEADED MUNIA

1 appeared at DB on 1 . viii . 70 and was

seen subsequently on 13.ix.70 and 15.xi.70

This was a white bellied bird of the race L. m.

malacca and thus may have been an escaped

cage bird because Durgapur is within the range

of the chestnut bellied race L. m. atricapilla.

However the dates would fit post breeding

dispersal.

Carpodacus erythrinus (Pallas),

COMMON ROSEFINCH

A scarce spring migrant with 2 records in

or near my garden on 4.iii.68 and 5.V.68.

Also at Topchanchi on 25 . i . 70.

Melophus lathami (Gray),

CRESTED BUNTING

A single record of a male of this unmistak-

able species among scrub in a small sandy

river bed beside the Panagarh — Ham Bazar

road on 24 . i . 68. This locality would appear

to be outside the expected range given in the

handbook but the date is suitable for winter

movements. The particularly dry weather at

the time could have caused a wider dispersal

than usual.

Discussion

The systematic list covers 294 species found

in an area about 320 km long from Top-

chanchi to Calcutta by about 150 km from

Messenjore (Canada Dam) to Bankura. Of

these species, 1 1 were found only at

Topchanchi but more diligent searching might

find some of them on the forest clad hills such

as Panchet and those round Maithon. The

latter place was the only locality for 2 species,

Painted Spurfowl and Rufoustailed Finch

Lark. 4 species. Herring Gull, Blackheaded

534

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AND THE DAMODAR VALLEY

Gull, Larger Goldenbacked Woodpecker and

Purplerumped Sunbird were found only in or

near Calcutta but the two gulls could well turn

up in Durgapur as they do occasionally at

Delhi which is a lot of further from the sea.

A further 5 species. Greater Adjutant, Black

Ibis, Black Eagle, Rain Quail, and Bank Myna

were single records more than 50 km from

Durgapur. This leaves a total of 272 species

within an arbitary 50 km from Durgapur in

3 years and 3 months by a single part time

observer.

Hutson (1954) recorded c. 250 species with-

in 16 km of Delhi in 2\ years and the check-

list of the Delhi Birdwatching Club gives 333

species (excluding accidentals). That is the

total effort by numerous observers over a large

number of years. Doubtless the Durgapur list

could be expanded by a similar effort.

Holmes and Wright (1968) working in

Sind for 3 years listed 267 species recorded

by themselves, again on a part time basis but

with more opportunity for observation.

Ghorpade (1973) in his survey of Sandur

district in Karnataka listed 167 species and

suggested the ultimate total might be about

250. However his area was largely devoid of

aquatic habitat.

The number of species recorded in or from

my garden was 126 which compares with the

135 species recorded by MacDonald (1960)

in the larger more mature garden of the British

High Commission in Delhi also over a 3 year

period.

If records for the adjacent colony, sal jungle

and my regular daily route to and from my

office are included, the total rises to 162. This

will be referred to as the colony area. The

observations made in the colony area can be

compared with the work of Gaston (1978) on

the New Delhi ridge who studied a restricted

area there regularly over 3 years.

In a study of this nature the seasonal status

of a species must be of a somewhat subjective

nature. My category of ‘resident’ does not

necessarily imply breeding, only that it was

seen regularly throughout the year.

Table 1 gives the seasonal categories of the

162 species in the colony area and 272 for

Durgapur as a whole and compares them with

the 167 species recorded by Gaston on the

New Delhi ridge (ND ridge) and the 333 of

the Birds of Delhi and District : Field Check

List (ND list). Gaston’s data is slightly diffe-

rent because he considered only 322 species

from the check list.

Table 1

The apparent anomaly of the colony area

having more summer visitors than the whole

of Durgapur of which it is a part, is explained

by a number of species, particularly water

birds which are resident in other parts such

as DB, spread out widely during the monsoon

and turn up in the colony area at that time.

Also, certain species occur only on passage in

the colony area in autumn but winter else-

where in Durgapur. Gaston noted a similar

situation when comparing his study area with

rest of Delhi.

535

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Care must be exercised when comparing the

figures in such a table due to different obser-

vational techniques and different interpretations

of the various categories by the authors.

Gaston’s low figure for residents and high

figure “for occasionals may be due to a more

rigorous definition of resident but the compa-

rative lack of habitat variety in his study area

is a factor. However he recorded 32 species

in every week of his study with 30 species in

every week in my colony area, (see appendix

3). Of the species which occurred in every

week, only 13 . are common to both areas.

It is evident that the whole of Delhi has

much the highest number and proportion of

residents and this reflects the more complete

coverage over the years. The low figure for

occasionals in the Delhi list is misleading be-

cause the table excludes 60 species listed as

accidental (less than 5 records in 40 years).

If these are included, the figure becomes 64

occasionals out of a total of 393 or 19%, the

same percentage as Gaston’s figure for the

ridge. 10 of the Delhi accidentals are quite

common or regular in Durgapur. These are

Crested Hawk Eagle, Bronze-winged Jacana,

Lesser Golden Plover, Blackheaded Oriole,

Ashy' Swallow-Shrike, Greyheaded Myna,

Large Cuckoo-Shrike, Rufousbellied Babbler,

Forest Wagtail and Thickbilled Flowerpecker.

The proportion of winter visitors is very

similar in Durgapur and Delhi but the compo-

sition is a bit different. Due to its geographical

location Delhi is reached by a number of

species from SE Europe and SW Asia which

do not extend across to Durgapur. The Brown

Shrike is the only eastern species which extends

its winter range westwards into the Durgapur

area. The mountain ranges of Tibet and the

Himalayas are a formidable barrier to eastern

palaearcffc birds and they are steered to the

south east away from Tndia.

Durgapur has many more summer visitors

than Delhi. The colony area has almost half

as many again as the ND ridge and the whole

Durgapur area has almost twice as many as

the ND list. The longer and wetter rainy season

in West Bengal is clearly a factor. Some of

the smaller herons listed as summer visitors

in Durgapur may actually be resident but they

are only seen when active during the monsoon.

The low figure for migrants in the ND fist

is a bit surprising compared with Gaston’s

figure but he does say that birds passing

through his area do winter elsewhere in Delhi.

Durgapur has more migrant species but the

most striking difference is the relative propor-

tions between spring and autumn.

Gaston identifies 38 species as passage

migrants, 8 being mainly in autumn, 4 mainly

in spring and the remaining 26 being equally

divided. The 22 migrant species in the colony

area are divided into 4 species in autumn

only, 17 spring only and 1 in both seasons. The

44 migrants in Durgapur are divided into 7 in

autumn only, 35 in spring only and 2 (Grey

Plover and Forest Wagtail) in both.

The likely explanation for this difference in

migration pattern is that birds arriving in the

Delhi region from the north and north-west

in autumn encounter congenial feeding grounds

nourished by the recent monsoon and these

are exploited until increasing dessication forces

the birds to disperse to the more humid south

and east. Thus birds appearing in Durgapur

in spring are completing the last part of their

winter stay in the sub-continent in Bengal.

The Yellowb rowed Warbler becomes more

numerous in late winter and early spring sug-

gesting immigration from elsewhere. It has

already been noted that the sal jungle around

Durgapur still carries a good leaf cover during

February- April whereas the forest 130 km to

the west is almost bare. A single January visit

536

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AND THE DAMODAR VALLEY

to the Hazaribagh NP some 200 km to the

west found the absence of foliage was more

pronounced. Almost half the spring migrants

in Durgapur are canopy feeding insectivorous

warblers and flycatchers which exploit this to

advantage. A second explanation is that some

species which migrate southwards through

Delhi in autumn continue down the west side

of the peninsular and return up the eastern

side in spring for the reason given above.

Blyth’s Reed Warbler is a case in point.

This preponderance of spring migrants gives

a different complexion to the avifauna of

Durgapur compared with Delhi when the num-

ber of species occurring in each month is con-

sidered. See table 2 below.

months, and minima in June and January.

There may be some observer bias tending

to exaggerate the difference between

best and worst periods in that better rewards

may spur greater effort. Also birdwatching

during monsoon thunderstorms is neither very

pleasant nor productive.

The results of the work embodied in this

paper show that the ornithologically neglected

West Bengal plains have a diversity of avi-

fauna comparable with other parts of lowland

India. Thus the naturalist who finds himself

in an area of heavy industrial development

located in a monotonous plain under a mono-

culture of rice need not despair. The results

can be surprising.

Table 2

The Durgapur figures show a single late

winter peak falling to a minimum in July.

The low figure for October is almost certainly

due to the poor coverage in that month, I

was absent for part or the whole of

that month in each year. (See appendix 2).

In contrast the ND ridge figures show peaks

in March and September, the main migration

Acknowledgements

My thanks to Ananta Mitra and Ann Talbot

Smith who responded to my request for help

in identifying Muntingia calabura through the

pages of the Newsletter for Birdwatchers and

its editor, Zafar Futehally for passing the in-

formation on to me.

537

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Appendix 1

Frequency of visits to DB and AW. Visits per month in each year

Appendix 2

My absences of a week or more from Durgapur

An * indicates those species which also appear on

Gaston’s list of birds recorded in every week.

A further 4 species, Collared Dove, Little Brown

Dove, Yellow-eyed Babbler and Blackheaded Oriole

failed to make the above list by only a narrow

margin.

D

3

1

538

r» rl

BIRDS OF DURGAPUR AND THE DAMODAR VALLEY

References

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1968-1974) : Handbook

of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vols 1-10. Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

Anon. (1967) : Birds of Delhi and District: Field

Check List, (with corrections to l.ii.67). Delhi

Bird watching Society.

Brown, L. & Amadon, D. (1968): Eagles, Hawks

and Falcons of the World. Country Life. London.

Gaston, A. J. (1978): The seasonal occurrence

of birds on the New Delhi ridge. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 75(1): 115-118.

Gauntlett, F. M. (1972): Durgapur Barrage as

waterbird habitat, ibid. 68(3) : 619-632.

Ghorpade, K. D. (1973): Preliminary notes on

the ornithology of Sandur, Karnataka, ibid. 70(3) :

499-531.

Grubh, R. B. (1978): The Field Identification of

some Indian Vultures, ibid. 75(2) : 444-449.

Holmes, D. A. & Wright, J. O. (1968): The

Birds of Sind: A Review, ibid. 65(3): 533-556; 66

(1): 8-30.

Hutson, H. P. W. (1954) : The Birds about Delhi,

compiled by H. Williams. Delhi Birdwatching So-

ciety.

King, B. F., Dickinson, E. C., Woodcock, M. W.

(1975): A Field Guide to the Birds of South-East

Asia. Collins. London.

Lowtiier, E. N. H. (1949): A Bird Photographer

in India. Oxford University Press, London.

Macdonald, M. (1960): Birds in my Indian

Garden. Jonathan Cape, London.

Porter, R. F., Willis, I., Christensen, S., Niel-

sen, B. P. (1978): Flight Identification of European

Raptors. T & A. D. Poyser. Berkhampstead.

Ripley, S. D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds

of India and Pakistan, together with those of Nepal,

Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. 2nd edition.

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Whistler, H. (1963): Popular Handbook of In-

dian Birds. (4th revised ed. by Kinnear, N.B.) Oliver

and Boyd. Edinburgh.

539

ZANGI NAWAR — PORTRAIT OF A UNIQUE LAKE

IN THE DESERT1

T. J. Roberts2

Though the Province of Baluchistan lies on

the extreme western boundary of the Indian

sub-continent, its fauna and flora have been

reasonably well documented both in regional

surveys and in publications covering the entire

country of Pakistan or the sub-continent (See

R. I. Pocock and Stuart Baker, fauna of

BRITISH INDIA Series (1900-1929) and Salim

Ali’s HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND

Pakistan 1968-1974). It is a large and exten-

sive province, covering an area of 131,855

square miles (341,500 square kilometres) and

extending from latitude 24° North on the

Mekran coast up to 32° North on the borders

of south Waziristan. Most of the southern

portion of the province is arid semi-desert, and

the northern regions with more extensive moun-

tain systems and plateaus, still remain semi-

arid steppe or steppic montane. There are

only five lakes in the entire Province, of which

3 arc wholly man-made and two of these be-

ing reservoirs near Quetta are devoid of cover

and of little ornithological interest. The largest

of these, Habb Dam reservoir straddles the

Sind border near Karachi and in the five years

since it was flooded, has already become an

important wildlife refuge. The Province lies in

a strategic area for Palearctic bird migrants,

especially those wintering in east and southern

Africa but which breed in central Asia. Also

it forms a staging area for migrant birds which

1 Accepted July 1984.

2 P. O. Box 3311. Malir City P.O., Karachi-23,

Pakistan.

winter in the Indian sub-continent but breed

in the Black and Caspian sea regions as well

as eastern Europe. To the north and west of

Baluchistan lie the inhospitable deserts of the

Seistan basin and to the southeast the vast

deserts of Thar and Rajasthan. It is no wonder

therefore that the very few wetland areas in

this region afford vital resting and staging areas

not only for migrant waterfowl but for a host

of passerine species.

The first and only published accounts of

the ornithology of Zangi Nawar were made

during World War II (Christison 1941) but

it is evident from his writing that he was

not able to explore the lake during the spring

or summer breeding season and compared with

Kushdil Khan Lake located 40 miles (64 kilo-

metres) from Quetta, its ornithology is still

relatively unexplored. Because of its relative

remoteness and inaccessibility, the author did

not make an prolonged visit to the lake until

January 1984, following reliable reports of

sightings during part of January and February

the previous year of seven Whooper Swans

( Cygnus cygnus ) (Ashiq Ahmad, JBNHS Vol.

82, 1985). My winter visit was followed up

by a second during the first week of May in

order to assess the potential breeding popu-

lation of birds.

Physical features

Zangi Nawar lies at 29°27'N latitude and

65°47'E longitude in the district of Chaghai

in extreme southwest part of the province.

540

ZANGl NAWAR — A UNIQUE LAKE IN THE DESERT

Situated at an elevation of about 3200 feet (975

metres), it extends in a chain of lagoons over

a distance of about 8 miles (12.8 kilometres)

in an east-west axis, bounded on both sides

by high sand-dunes and fed naturally from

a stream (locally known as the Bohr Lora),

which drains from the hills to the north east.

According to seasonal rainfall conditions it

varies considerably in both surface area and

depth. After good rains it covers an area of

approximately 2070 hectares with an average

depth of 3.5 feet (1.067 metres) deepening

to 6 or 7 feet (2.13 metres) in the northern

boundary where the inlet stream flows down

from the hills. In the summer months it usually

shrinks considerably both in depth and area

though it never dries out and the southern

portion covering an area of approximately 770

hectares with an average depth of 3 feet (0.9

metres) still provides an extensive refuge for

wildlife. The lake is quite saline, having a pH

value of 9.2 with 7.27 grams per litre of total

dissolved solids, comprising mostly bicarbo-

nates (See water analysis Appendix I). The

bottom of the lake is carpetted with green moss

algae, through which grows a mat of the

aquatic weed Ruppia maritima, with here and

there smaller patches of Potamogeton pecti-

nalus. These aquatic plants provide the major

sustenance in winter time for huge concen-

trations of Coot ( Fulica atra). Despite its high

salinity, fish up to 8 cms. in length occur along

the north-western fringes of the lake nearest

to the inlet stream. Efforts to secure specimens

for identification with a hand net were un-

successful.

The lake itself is completely hidden by high

wing-blown sand dunes on all sides and lies

in a truly desolate uninhabited area which

alternates with stony peneplain or low ridges

of bare sedimentary rocks. It is all the more

astonishing therefore, after grinding over shift-

ing sands in 4-wheel drive, to suddenly come

upon its tamarisk fringed shores, and numer-

ous lagoons and islets covered with luxurious

stands of Typha angustifolia (Reed Mace or

Cattail) and Phragmites karka reeds. Unlike

several species of Tamarisk which grow in

the plains, this particular tamarisk ( Tainarix

articulata ) is deciduous, its leaves turning a

rich tawny orange enhancing the beauty of

the lake and indicating a valuable adaptation

to the harsh cold winters prevalent in the

Chaghai. The dominent emergent vegetation in

the lake is Phragmites karka, which occurs in

dense but isolated clumps of reed beds all

over the lake surface. On the surrounding

sandhills there are thinly scattered bushy

clumps of the xerophytic grass Eluseusine flagi-

lifera, as well as woody stunted bushes of

Calligonum polygonoides.

The climate is arid and dry throughout the

year with an average annual precipitation of

76 mm. at Nushki, the headquarters of Chaghai

district, which is located 30 miles (48 kilo-

metres) distant from Zangi Nawar. There is

no monsoon influence nor any season of relia-

ble rainfall but usually some winter and spring

showers occur. Mean temperatures prevailing

during June and July the hottest months, are

around 39.6°C. (103.3°F.) reaching a maxi-

mum of 42°C. (108°F.) and in January, Febru-

ary average temperatures are 3.3°C. (38°F.),

falling at night time occasionally as low as

— 4°C. (25°F.) (Champion et al. 1965). Overall

then we have a picture of a very isolated and

brackish lake lying in a most inhospitable and

harsh environment. Yet, it is a eutrophic body

of water supporting a rich and diverse plank-

tonic and micro-crustacean fauna and because

of the total absence of any marshy areas or

alternative wetlands within a radius of several

hundred miles (sic) in all directions, Zangi

Nawar constitutes a vital staging area for

541

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

migrant waterfowl, as well as an important

breeding area for a host of unusual Palearctic

birds and an impressive number of palearctic

wintering visitors.

In two days of survey on January 17th. and

18th 1984, the following estimates of resident

winter visiting birds were made (using telescope

and tripod and surveying the lake from both

shores and by boat).

Blacknecked Grebe ( Podiceps nigricollis )

c. 200+, Little Grebe ( Tachybaptus ruficollis)

c. 2000+, Great White Egret ( Egretta alba )

6, Grey Heron ( Ardea cinerea) 8, Large Cor-

morant ( Phalacrocorax carbo ) 2, Greylag

Goose ( Anser anser ) 1, Common Shelduck

(Tadorna tadorna) 2, Marbled Teal ( Marma -

ronetta angustirostris) c. 300, Pintail ( Anas

acuta ) 800, Common Teal (Anas crecca)

approximately 8500, Mallard ( Anas platyr-

liynchos) 900+, Gadwall (Anas strepera) 500+,

Wigeon (Anas penelope) 2000, Shoveller

(Anas clypeata) approximately 7400, Red-

crested Pochard (Netta ruftna) 2, Common

Pochard (Aythya ferina) 400, Tufted Duck

(Aythya fuligula) 10CH- (total Anatidae appro-

ximately 20,900). Longlegged Buzzard (Buteo

rufinus) 2, Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo )

2, unidentified Hen or Pallid Harrier (all

females) (Circus macrourus ) 3. Marsh Harrier

(Circus aeruginosus) 50+, White-tailed Eagle

(Haiiaeetus albiciila) 1, Peregrine falcon

(Faico peregrinus) 2, Hobby (Faico subbuteo )

1, Waders including Water Rails (Rallus

aquaticus) estimated 80, Baillon’s/Little

Crakes (not positively separated) 100+, Moor-

hens (Gailinula chloropus) 400+. Purple Galli-

nules (Porphyrio porphyrio) c. 10, Coot (Fuiica

atra ) estimated 66,000. Waders including Cur-

lew (Numenius arquata ) 9, Wood Sandpiper

(Tringa glareola) c 40, Common Snipe (Galli-

nago gallinago) approximately 126, Common

Sandpiper (Tringa hypoleucos) 4 seen but

certainly more numerous. Blackheadcd Gulls '

(Larus ridibundus) 7. Passerines including ■

White Wagtail (Motacilia alba ) and less com-

monly Yellowheaded Wagtail (Motacilia cit- v

reola). Moustached Sedge Warblers (Aero- £

cephalus melanopogon ) extremely numerous, £

Great Reed Warblers (Acroceplialus stento- 1

reus) much less plentiful than Moustached F

Sedge, Reed Buntings (Emberiza schoeniclus) 1

2 seen. In the tamarisk scrub fringing the shore '

were numerous Pale Brown Shrikes (Lanius

isabellinus) , Chiffchaff (Phylloscopus colly- v

bita), and Afghan Babblers (Turdoides cauda- f

tus huttoni). The author’s previous experience

and comparison with Kushdil Khan Lake in £

central Baluchistan revealed a surprising total a

absence of tern species or of Great Crested r

Grebe (Podiceps cristatus), as well as such '

birds as Lesser Whitethroats (Sylvia curruca ) *

and Wheatears (Oenanthe spp.). The absence 1

of Kingfishers (Alcedinidae), Pond Herons a

(Ardeola gray'd) and other Egret species is

also rather surprising. The striking feature of s

the winter-time bird populations was the in- 3

credible concentration of Coot, blackening the 1

water in some places and in greater total num-

bers than are currently estimated to occur even [

on the largest lakes of Sind. Secondly the

number of Marsh Harriers visible in the air l

at one time far surpassed anything previously I

observed by the author in 34 years of bird

watching in Pakistan. A flock of about 75 ?

Marbled Teal flying overhead in a tight pack £

was also an impressive spectacle for this rela- '

tivcly rare duck. Unfortunately, though a party £

of Whooper Swans were again reported to 3

(

have visited the lake in mid-December

I1

(Mohammad Rafique, Game Watcher, pers.

comm.) they had not stayed more than a few .

days. There have been no other reliable sight- p

ings of any swan species in the sub-continent n

542

ZANG1 NAWAR — A UNIQUE LAKE IN THE DESERT

within the past 50 years, as far as the author

knows.

A second visit from May 3rd to 5th 1984,

was made to the lake during which extensive

exploration by boat and along the lake mar-

gins, was carried out. At this time the lake

level was much lower and new reed growth,

particularly of Phragmites was more extensive.

The whole lake seemed to reverberate with

the harsh grating songs of Acrocephalus sten-

toreus, the Eurasian Great Reed Warbler,

which was conspicuous and abundant in every

reed bed. The dominant water birds were now

Moorhens ( Gallinula chloropus ) and Dab-

chicks ( Tachybaptus ruficollis) both of which

appeared to be present in much greater num-

bers (See Appendix 2) than during the pre-

vious January visit. Whiskered Terns (Chlido-

nias hybrida) and Gullbilled Terns ( Geloche -

lidon nilotica) were also conspicuous, hunting

across the lake in all directions. There were

only 2 or 3 Marsh Harriers ( Circus aerugino-

sus) all females and the local game watchers

asserted that they definitely did not breed,

though they would remain on the lake all

summer. Christison (1941) thought that Marsh

Harriers did occasionally breed on Zangi

Nawar. A detailed list of birds observed is

given in Appendix 2. The number of Marbled

Teal ( Marmaronetta angustirostris) was only

apparent after an extensive boat trip during

which pairs were flushed from almost every

clump of reeds and it was estimated that the

same total wintering population, between 250

or perhaps 300 birds were still on the lake and

many pairs starting to nest, courtship chasing

and displaying while in the water was constant-

ly observed. There were still small numbers

of other bird species which were obviously on

passage or non-breeding, such as Wood Sand-

piper (Tringa glareola). Little Stint ( Calidris

minuta), and Common Sandpiper ( Tringa

hypoleucos) . Yellowheaded Wagtails ( Motacilla

citreola) in full breeding plumage and Spotted

Flycatchers ( Muscicapa striata ) were also pre-

sumed to be on passage. Late lingering ducks

included 2 or 3 pairs of Widgeon ( Anas pene-

lope), also Gadwall (Anas strepera) and at

least 40 or 50 Shoveller (Anas clypeata) and

one pair of Common Pochard (Aythya jerina).

There were now large numbers of Blackwinged

Stilts (Himantopus himantopus ) on the drying

out islands in the lake which the local Game

Watcher staff stated regularly bred there. The

Gullbilled Terns (Gelochelidon nilotica ) had

already started a small nesting colony of 7

pairs on one islet, with one female incubating

2 eggs and much courtship feeding by males

bringing fish to their waiting mates. When this

islet was approached they flew over our boat

and gave rapid-noted threat calls which are

never uttered at other times. The Whiskered

Terns (Chlidonias hybrida) were all in full

breeding plumage and frequented another area

of the lake which was choked with algae but

they did not appear yet to have started nesting.

The fact that both these tern species can sub-

sist largely upon aquatic insects and even

desert locusts is significant in their choice of

this lake for breeding. Perhaps the most sur-

prising discovery was the presence of at least

12 pairs of Whitetailed Lapwings (Vanellus

leucurus) defending territory aggressively

against other waders and performing nuptial

display flights with every indication that they

were settling down to breed, though no nests

could be located. Similarly there were between

30 and 40 White-eyed Pochard (Aythya ferina )

most of them in pairs and with the males con-

stantly displaying and calling, though difficult

to observe in the reed beds which they fre-

quented. Again two game watchers asserted

that a large number of pairs of this pochard

bred on the lake each year (Mohammed

543

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Rafique and Noor Mohammed, pers. comm.).

Despite late evening patrolling of the lake on

two nights no evidence of any crakes or rails

still being resident was obtained, though female

Painted Snipe (Rost rat ula benghalensis) were

calling from several reed beds. There were also

numerous Little Bitterns ( lxobrychus minu-

tus), which had not yet settled down to breed

but were regular summer visitors according to

the game watchers. In one small reed bed as

many as 5 Little Bitterns together were flushed.

The Coot (Fulica atra) was much less nume-

rous than Moorhens, but still numbered about

2000 birds and according to the local Forestry

Staff at least 6 or 700 pairs nested on the lake

each year. In Ali and Ripley’s handbook

Volume 3, it is stated that Coots regularly

breed in Sind. However during over 30 years

of bird study and egg collecting throughout

Sind. Kenneth Eates only had 2 or 3 records

of pairs nesting and all of these were from one

lake, Manchar Lake in Dadu District in the

late 1940’s. Similarly Meinertzhagen (1920)

and Christison (1942) reported that Coot only

very rarely nested on Kushdil Khan Lake in

Pishin district.

The few Large White Egrets and Grey

Herons observed, were not in nuptial plumage

but were presumed to be year round residents.

Collared Sand Martins (Riparia riparia), feed-

ing over the lake had not been observed in

January and previous observers (Meinertzha-

gen, Ibis 1920) believed that they regularly

breed in Baluchistan. Considerable numbers

of Bluecheeked Bee-eaters (Merops supercilio-

sus persicus) were hunting around the lake

environs and also regularly breed there, accord-

ing to the Forestry staff.

Perhaps the two most interesting breeding

birds discovered were the Whitetailed Lap-

wings and Ferruginous or White-eyed Pochard.

The total absence of any Blacknecked Grebes

(Podiceps nigricollis ) or Acrocephalines other

than A. stentoreus was by contrast, rather dis- 111

appointing.

C

Discussion of Survey findings

lo

In central Asia and the Middle East both

the Whiteheaded Duck (Oxyura leucocephala) :

and the Marbled Teal (Marmaronetta angu- 1

stirostris) are probably the most endangered

Anatidae of the region. Pakistan is probably e'

second only to Turkey in importance as a

wintering ground for Oxyura and the bulk of

the entire population which visits the sub-con- ■

tinent usually winters on Khabbaki Lake in the :

Punjab Salt Range which has already been

declared a Sanctuary. Similarly, Zangi Nawar "

may be only second in importance to the ‘

marshes of the Tigris Euphrates in Iraq for

Marbled Teal. Altogether six major wetlands ;

in Pakistan three of them in Sind province,

have been listed as of major importance under -

the Ramsar Convention (1971), to which -

Pakistan is a signatory nation. No lakes in

Baluchistan have been included within these

six.

Fortunately since last year 1983, Zangi Nawar

Lake has been declared a Game Sanctuary

by the Baluchistan Government. As the only

known wetland on the sub-continent which has

been visited by Whooper Swans in recent

decades and as the breeding home of probably

the major population of Marbled Teal any-

where within the region including adjacent

Afghanistan and Tran, it is therefore a wild-

fowl refuge of international importance and

deserves to be recognised as such. Whilst hold-

ing an impressive total of wintering duck and

Rallidae (estimated 22,000 duck and 66,000

Coot), according to the reports of all local

observers and Forestry Department officials,

the number of birds occurring on the lake dur-

544

ZANGI NAWAR — A UNIQUE LAKE IN THE DESERT

ing autumn and spring passage is more than

double the mid-winter totals (K. M. Shams,

Chief Conservator of Forests, Government of

Baluchistan, pers. comm.). It is the only known

locality where the Whitetailed Lapwing ( Vane -

llus leucurus) breeds, besides, having an amaz-

ingly high breeding population of dabchicks,

coots and moorhens.

At present due to lack of funds, the Gov-

ernment of Baluchistan has only been able to

appoint 4 game watchers (Forestry Depart-

ment employees equivalent to wardens). They

are without transport facilities or such equip-

ment as binoculars and it is to be hoped that

some international conservation organisations

may be able to assist with funds to strengthen

the protection needed for this lake. During

both visits there was ample evidence of illegal

shooting on islets in the lake, both in the

form of recently constructed gun butts, re-

mains of campfires and cigarette packets, and

during the January visit distant gun shots were

heard across the lake. Afghan refugees on the

western borders of the lake can only be reach-

ed after nearly half a day's camel ride and

the inability to control poaching is no reflec-

tion on the enthusiasm or integrity of the

limited number of game watchers posted at

Zangi Nawar.

Mammals noted, and positively identified

around the lake included Jackal ( Canis aureus).

Brushfooted Jerboas ( Jaculus blanfordi) and

Desert Pipistrelles ( Pipistrellus kuhli). Reptiles

seen and identified (Minton 1966) included

the Transcaspian Desert Monitor Lizard

( Varanus caspius), the Yellowspeckled Toad

Agama ( Phrynocephalus luteoguttatus), the

Turkestan Platetailed Gecko ( Teratoscincus

seine us), the Reticulate Desert Lacerta ( Ere -

mias acutirostris) and the Leafnosed Viper

( Eristicophis 'macmahoni ) .

Ack no wledge m e n ts

My grateful thanks are extended to Mr. K.

M. Shams, the Chief Conservator of Forests,

Government of Baluchistan, for facilitating

these two field trips and offering all possible

assistance from his staff. I am indebted to

Professor Dr. K. Hamid Sheikh of Punjab Uni-

versity for identification of the waterweeds

and to Dr. Irfan A. Siddiqui of Marker Alka-

loids for chemical analysis of the lake

water and finally to the villagers of Zangi

Nawar for their help and hospitality.

Appendix I

Chemical Analysis of Water from Zangi

Nawar Lake

545

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

Appendix II

546

ZANGI NAWAR — A UNIQUE LAKE IN THE DESERT

References

Ahmad, Ashique (1985): Sighting of Whooper

Swans ( Cygnus cygnus ) in Baluchistan. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 82(1): 192.

Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. Dillon (1968-1974):

Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vols.

1-10. Bombay Natural History Society.

Champion, Harry, Seth, S. K. & Khattak, G. M.

(1955): Forest Types of Pakistan. Pakistan Forest

Institute, Peshawar.

Christison, A. F. P. (1941): Notes on the Birds

of Chagai. Ibis, 1941 : 531-556.

(1942): Some Additional

Notes on the Distribution of the Avifauna of Nor-

thern Baluchistan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 43:

478-487.

Meinertzhagen, R. (1920): Notes on the Birds

of Quetta, Ibis, Jan. 1920.

Minton, Sherman A. (1966) : A Contribution to

the Herpetology of West Pakistan. Bulletin of Ame-

rican Museum of Natural History, Vol. 134, Article

2, New York, 1966.

547

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF

HAEMAPHYSALIS SPINIGERA NEUMANN, 1897

(ACARINA: IXODIDAE) UNDER NATURAL

CONDITIONS IN KFD AREA1

F

The bionomics of Haemaphysalis spinigera vector of KFD virus was studied under

natural conditions in KFD area. Engorged females crawled under ground cover and depo-

sited their eggs in the humus. Oviposition commenced 5 to 11 days after the release and

continued for 10 to 17 days. Eggs hatched after 25 to 52 days. Larvae remained dormant

in clusters under the litter throughout the rainy season, became active and appeared on

the litter and vegetation soon after the end of rainy seasons. Some larvae survived as long

as 230 days.

Engorged larvae settled under the litter for moulting. Nymphs emerged and appeared

on the litter and vegetation 22 to 29 days after larval release. No dormancy was observed

in nymphs in any season. Some nymphs survived as long as 178 days.

Engorged nymphs dispersed and settled under the litter for moulting. Adults emerged

24 to 35 days after nymphal release. Adults that emerged during the dry months remained

dormant under the litter until the onset of the monsoon, while those that emerged during

monsoon months dispersed and settled on plants without undergoing dormancy. Dormant

adults could be induced to activity by spraying water on the litter. Some adults survived

as long as 278 days.

8

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Introduction

The definitive role of Haemaphysalis spini-

gera as the chief vector of Kyasanur Forest

disease (KFD) virus has been established on

the basis of isolation of the virus from naturally

infected ticks, evaluation of vector potentials

under laboratory conditions and the preva-

lence of the species on forest vegetation, mon-

keys and man (Varma et al. 1957, Trapido

el al. 1959, Boshell et al. 1968, Varma el al.

1960, Rajagopalan et al. 1968a. Trapido et al.

1964. Rajagopalan and Anderson 1971, and

VRC unpublished data). Despite the above

1 Accepted March 1981.

? National Institute of Virology. Pune-411001.

fact, other aspects of KFD epidemiology, par-

ticularly the ecology of H. spinigera under

natural conditions, has been poorly studied

except for some information on the seasonal

abundance of different stages on the forest

floor and on vertebrate hosts (Rajagopalan

et al. 1968a & b. Trapido et al. 1964, Raja-

gopalan and Anderson 1971. Rajagopalan

1972, and Bhat 1974).

Taking the importance of the information on

the bionomics of the vector species into con-

sideration, particularly for better understand-

ing the epidemiology and for designing the

control measures, a detailed study on the bio-

nomics under natural conditions was under-

taken. This communication presents the results

of the study.

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548

BIOLOGY OF HAEMAPHYSALIS SPINIGERA NEUMANN. 1897

Materials and methods

General considerations :

H. spinigera is a three host obligatory range

parasite with three long free living phases as

larva, nymph and adult and three brief para-

sitic phases of 2 to 7 days each for larva and

nymph and 6 to 16 days for adult. The three

parasitic and free living phases alternate with

each other (Bnat 1979). The free living phases

which are of long duration are spent in the

forest environment. The free living phases are

totally subjected to the environmental condi-

tions in the forest and their behaviour pattern

is directed to shelter seeking, development,

survival during unfavourable conditions and to

host seeking.

As per the available references (Rajagopalan

et al. 1968a & b) the adults appear on the

vegetation and mammalian hosts after the com-

mencement of monsoon showers and continue

their activity till the end of monsoon and

gradually decline by the end of December.

Larvae appear on the vegetation and mamma-

lian hosts a couple of weeks after the cessation

of the monsoon, reach a peak density in Octo-

ber and November and gradually decrease

henceforth. Nymphs appear in November,

reach a peak density in January and February

and gradually decrease in the summer months.

Rearing :

Adults collected from forest vegetation in

the KFD area were used to initiate a labora-

tory colony. They were fed on calves in metal

capsules. Larvae obtained from these females

were reared to adults and a colony was esta-

blished. Larvae and nymphs were fed on calves,

white bellied rats ( Rattus rattus wroughtoni),

Blanford’s rats ( Rattus hlanfordi), jungle strip-

ed squirrels (Funamhulus tristriatus tristriatus)

and white leghorn chicks.

Field studies :

Studies on the development, metamorphosis

and behaviour of ticks were conducted by

releasing appropriate stages in the forest, fol-

lowed by sequential observations. Unengorged

ticks were taken to Sagar Field station where

they were fed on calves. Engorged females

were collected, washed to remove the blood

stains, marked with a dot of plastic acrylic

paint on the dorsal surface pocterior to the

scutum and released on the forest floor at the

experimental site. A group of 24 ticks was

released with a meter long nylon thread fixed

on the dorsal surface of each tick to facilitate

tracing and observations. Three different micro-

habitats were selected to study the engorged

adults through to the larvae; two in the forest

and one in the grazing ground. The first forest

habitat had thick forest litter overlying loose

humus and was shaded with thick forest canopy

and undergrowth. The second forest habitat

had a discontinuous canopy and was more ex-

posed to sunlight and the floor covered with

thin litter intermingled with forest grass.

Larval behaviour was studied by observing

the larvae hatched out from the eggs laid by

engorged females released, by observing larvae

hatched out from the eggs deposited or by

releasing larval broods as such. A number of

larval broods from natural population were also

observed. The metamorphosis of fed larvae

into nymphs and the behaviour of fed larvae

and unfed nymph were studied by observing

the released engorged larvae and questing

nymphs.

Similarly the phase from engorged nymphs

to questing adults was studied by releasing

engorged nymphs and following the subsequent

events till the death of the questing adults. As

nymphs and larvae could not be marked, there

was no way to distinguish the introduced ticks

from natural population; but as far as possible

549

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

the experimental areas were cleaned off of

questing ticks by repeated flag draggings before

the release. Proportionately large number of

ticks released in each experiment made the

observation more reliable. Further, the limited

horizontal migration, formation of clusters of

large number of larvae and nymphs and the

persistence of clusters on the foliage tips also

made possible the sequential follow up and

step by step observations.

Study area :

All the studies were carried out in a small

patch of (3 hectares) thick semievergreen

forest at Bhimneri village situated on the west-

ern side of Sagar-Sorab road, about 3 miles

north of Sagar. An area of about 500 sq.

metres was fenced with closely set barbed wire

so as to exclude larger mammals. Within this,

five shady stations each of 2 sq. m. were pre-

pared by isolating the area with rectangular

metal moats fixed on the ground. The physical

structure consisting of a cluster of plants and

the litter was kept undisturbed. In order to

prevent the lateral spread of ticks, the moats

were filled with water during the study. Birds

were kept away by enclosing the stations with

nylon nettings. A part of the study pertaining

to longevity and behaviour was done inside

these stations .

The temperature and humidity of the bio-

topes were recorded as frequently as possible

with a whirling psychrometer. A thermophil

was used to measure the temperature of the

humus. Standardized cobalt chloride papers

were used for estimating relative humidity of

the litter.

Description of the area :

The activity of the KFD virus is restricted

to the Malnad areas of Shimoga and North

Kanara districts of Karnataka state. Situated

in the zone of heavy rainfall the area receives

about 150 to 400 cm. annual rainfall mainly

between June and September. There is a sharp

reduction in rainfall from west to east. The

year may be roughly divided into four seasons:

Wet southwest monsoon from June to Septem-

ber, Postmonsoon warm weather from October

to November, Cold weather from December

to February and hot weather from March to

May.

The air remains humid during monsoon

months and dry during March to May. From

October to February days remain dry but

nights remain wet from heavy dew or fog.

The meteorological records at Sagar shows

that monthly mean maximum temperature dur-

ing the hottest month (April) rarely goes

above 38°C. The maximum temperature occa-

sionally reaches 40°C. The daily range of tem-

perature is large during dry months and small

during monsoon months. The coldest months

are December and January. The monthly mean

minimum temperature reaches as low as 12°C.

The daily minimum temperature recorded so

far is 9°C.

The temperature and humidity fluctuations

inside the forest are lesser than that of open

areas. The litter remains almost saturated with

moisture from June to March. From April to

May the humidity usually falls during

day and reaches saturation during most of the

nights. The temperature in the litter varies

from 17.5°C to 25 °C.

The KFD area has a number of diverse

biotopes such as forest, cultivated valleys and

grasslands. Each biotope is distinguished into

a number of associations. These associations

are interspersed to form a mosaic. The forest

biotope which provides the necessary physical

and biotic environment forms the main habitat

of the tick fauna. The forest biotope is divi-

sible into three types, which are: semiever-

green. semideciduous and deciduous. These

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550

BIOLOGY OF HAEMAPHYSALIS SPINIGERA NEUMANN, 1897

three types are found adjacent to each other

forming a mosaic. Delineation of the types is

not clear cut, because they merge with each

other and produce a transitional strip of eco-

tones. Along the border between the forests

and the grasslands there is usually an ecotone

! of scrub or thickets. The grassland is usually

dotted with small patches of vegetation, some-

times forming impenetrable clumps.

The forest floor is covered by a thick mantle

of forest litter under which the ticks spend their

period of development, matamorphosis and

dormancy. The litter consists of leaves and

sticks in various stages of decay. The main

bulk of the litter is built up in the postmon-

soon and cold weather months. Leaf-fall in

1 various plants starts in the beginning of post-

monsoon months and continues till the end of

March. The litter attains its maximum thick-

ness just before the onset of monsoon and the

main bulk of the litter is reduced into humus

in monsoon and post-monsoon months.

A large number of wild mammals and birds

inhabit the forest. These with the large number

of domestic cattle and buffaloes form the host

fauna for the ticks.

Observations

Engorged females :

Seventyeight adults were released in 13 lots,

each consisting of 4 to 13 individuals at diffe-

rent points in the forest habitat between 26

September and 10 October, 1963. These ticks,

the eggs laid by them and the larval progeny

were observed till 23rd March, 1964 (Table

1). Of these 54 ticks released without nylon

threads 32 laid eggs and rest could not be

traced. Of the 24 ticks released with nylon

threads 18 laid eggs and died subsequently.

Remaining 6 ticks could not be traced.

Fortyfive ticks were released in 9 lots, each

consisting of 5 ticks, between 4 June 1964 and

8 June 1965 (Table 2). Before releasing, they

were thoroughly washed to remove blood

stains to keep away the predator ants, as the

blood stain was found to attract the ants. All

the ticks laid eggs and died subsequently. The

sequence of various events were followed till

the larval progeny disappeared, the last one

in February 1966.

The engorged females, as soon as released

on the ground cover, began to seek their way

downwards, crawling slowly and moving their

forelegs. They dragged themselves under the

litter out of sight within 5 to 10 minutes. Pro-

gression ceased as soon as they came in con-

tact with underlying hard soil or humus. Ticks

released on the grazing ground also moved

horizontally till they reached dark places under

the grass cover. Ticks released during mon-

soon months came to rest just below the litter

and laid eggs on the surface of humus. Those

released during dry months from October to

June showed a marked burrowing behaviour.

After reaching the humus they dug up small

pits with their hypostome and forelegs and

burrowed themselves leaving only the posterior

end exposed. The egg« were laid inside these

pits.

The lateral and downward progression, in-

cluding burrowing, was confined to the first

one or two days unless the resting tick was

disturbed. The direction of the movement was

zig-zag and at random.

The distance travelled between the release

point and egg laying site was measured for

23 ticks. Two ticks were found ovipositing at

a distance of 27.5 cm. 2 at 25 cm, 3 at 22.5

cm. 1 at 20 cm. 4 at 17 cm, 2 at 16 cm, 1 at

15 cm. 1 at 13.5 cm. 1 at 12.5 cm. 5 at 10

cm, and 1 at 7.5 cm. All the other ticks were

found laying eggs within a distance of 30 cm

from the place of release.

551

Table 1

spinigera, various events from engorged female through larvae in KFD area — 1963

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

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552

BIOLOGY OF HAEMAPHYSALIS SPINIGERA NEUMANN, 1897

The bluish-black colour of freshly fed ticks

changed to black on the second day and was

maintained until oviposition commenced. Pre-

oviposition phase varied from 5 to 11 days

(Tables 1 and 2). During dry months, when

the temperature under the litter was low

(17 dr 1°C) preoviposition phase varied from

8 to 11 days. In open areas they began to lay

eggs on 5th day. During rainy season when

the humus temperature was slightly higher

(21 dr 1°C) it varied from 5 to 8 days. No

locomotion was observed during oviposition

and each female laid all eggs in a single mass.

Oviposition continued for 10 to 17 days. As

oviposition progressed ticks underwent a size

reduction and change in colour. At the end of

oviposition the colour was rusty brown. Among

ticks missing before oviposition, 4 were seen

being dragged by ants. All the dead spent

ticks were attacked by ants.

Eggs:

Duration of incubation period varied from

30 to 52 days during dry months and 25 to

40 days during wet months. On the grazing

field development was observed only from

October to December. During monsoon months

females and their broods were washed away

by rain water and from January to May the

eggs shrivelled up under the hot sun.

Larvae :

Three broods consisting of 1 to 1 1 day old

eggs deposited under the litter on 23 July 1963

hatched between 18 and 28 August. Larvae

crawled up and clung in a compact mass to

the undersurface of a dry leaf of the litter,

just above the egg ghosts. The cluster remain-

ed stationary for about a month, except for

gradual shifting over to a contiguous leaf, but

the movement was confined within 2 to 4 cm.

On 23 September all 3 broods had begun to

dissociate into small clusters distributed within

a radius of 7 to 10 cm. During this process a

few larvae crawled over to neighbouring

leaves. On the morning of 24 September the

larvae of each brood had reformed into 2 to

3 larger clusters and during warm day hours

they again began to dissociate. By evening

each cluster had further split into 2 to 3 smaller

clusters and the area covered had widened.

The process continued through 26th, and on

27th morning larvae had moved on the surface

and had formed numerous smaller clusters of

10 to 300 larvae on the tips of leaves and on

the stems of surface vegetation. The brood

had covered a radius of 30 cm. The activity

coincided with a week’s interruption in rain-

fall and the drying of the litter. On 28 morn-

ing, following heavy shower the previous even-

ing, most of the larval clusters that settled on

the vegetation v/ere not to be found. But on

29 morning many larvae returned to the

leaf-tips, and formed numerous small clusters

of 10 to 25 larvae dispersed in a radius of

about 45 cm.

During the following days larvae on stems

and sticks kept on crawling until they reached

undersurfaces of horizontal leaves and grass

blades where they finally settled. During this

movement the area occupied by the brood

increased until nearly all larvae settled under

leaves. Clusters settled on leaf-tips withdrew

to the lower surface on rainy days and re-

occupied the tips as soon as the environment

dried. Larvae from these broods survived till

10 December 1963.

A brood of eggs laid between 1 and 14

September 1963 was introduced under the

litter on 15 September. Hatching began on 5

October. As hatching progressed, larvae form-

ed 3 clusters and clung to the undersurface

of a leaf immediately overlying the egg ghosts.

Hatching was completed after 10 days and the

3 larval clusters combined into a single large

553

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

mass, which went on rolling and shifting posi-

tion within a radius of 5 cm. On 16 October

the brood segregated and on the following days

dispersed and and settled on the vegetation in

small clusters. This population gradually taper-

ed and disappeared on 13 January 1964.

Three 7 to 17 day old broods were deposit-

ed under the litter on 20 December 1963. On

third day all the broods were found shrivelled

up.

A 10 to 20 day old brood was placed under

the litter on 10 June 1964. Frequent showers

kept the litter constantly wet. Hatching began

on 16 July and the larvae settled under the

litter in a compact mass with a thin film of

water. On 24 August this broke into three

clusters resting under three different leaves

close by and stayed as such till 6 October.

On 6 October part of the brood appeared on

the vegetation. Rest of the larvae followed and

settled on the plants until 14 November.

Nine laboratory-hatched broods were depo-

sited under litter between June 1964 and March

1965 (Table 3). Seven broods released during

rainy season stayed under litter in compact

clusters held in thin films of water. They be-

came active in the third week of October and

dispersed and settled on vegetation. The last

2 broods released on 12 November 1964 and

10 March 1965, immediately commenced their

activity and settled on the vegetation. During

November and December 1964, 8 more larval

broods were released. They dispersed and

settled on plants without undergoing dormancy.

Larval progeny from engorged females in-

troduced in 1963. 1964, and 1965 were also

studied (Tables 1 and 2). Larval broods from

groups 1 to 6 emerged from the litter and

appeared on vegetation 16 to 18 days after

commencement of hatching and those of

groups 7 to 13 after 7 to 10 days after hatching.

Larvae from groups 1 to 3 of ticks released

in 1964 stayed under the litter in dormant

condition throughout the rainy season (Table

2). They became active in the 2nd and 3rd

week of October and settled on plants during

the following weeks. Larvae from groups 4 to

8 hatched at the end of the monsoon, soon

dispersed and settled on the vegetation. Larvae

from group 9 released on 8 June 1965, began

to hatch on 12 July and stayed under litter

for 47 days under dormancy before dispersing.

Table 3

H. spinigera, various events in larval broods released in KFD areas

554

BIOLOGY OF HAEMAPHYSALIS SPINIGERA NEUMANN. 1897

Tiny clusters appeared on plants on 28 August,

when there was a week’s interruption in the

rain, but these larvae were washed down dur-

ing the subsequent rains. All the above broods

started their activity suddenly at the end of

September, dispersed and settled on the plants.

Survival of larvae :

Clusters from broods hatched during June

and July stayed longer than those hatched

during later months (Tables 1 and 2). Larvae

hatched in October and November disappeared

from vegetation by the end of March. The

persistence was for 80 to 130 days. Larvae

that hatched in rainy season and stayed dor-

mant for a considerable period survived for

150 to 230 days. Irrespective of the time of

hatching, all the broods settled on the vege-

tation after the monsoon disappeared before

the end of March.

Engorged larvae :

Twenty one groups of freshly engorged

larvae, each v/ith 200 or 300 specimens, were

released in different microhabitats in different

seasons from December 1963 to June 1965

(Table 4).

Immediately after release, they crawled in

all directions at random. On forest litter they

crawled along the upper surface of the super-

Table 4

H. spinigera, various events from engorged larvae through questing nymphs in KFD area

* No ticks were recovered after this time and those recovered were subsequently released for longevity study.

555

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

ficial leaves. After reaching the edges some

dropped to lower layers and some crawled

along the lower surface. Subsequently all of

them penetrated the litter and settled in the

humus after 4 to 6 hrs. They remained sensi-

tive for 5 to 8 days and could be induced to

move by slight disturbance. Later they became

inactive and passed on to the moulting phase.

Moulting larvae were traced under deep layers

of litter and loose humus, and were seen hidden

inside crevices and cavities of mud lumps.

They could penetrate as deep as 2 cm into

the loose humus. Centripetal search in small

sectors revealed that larvae had moved only

20 to 30 cm away in search of shelter.

Larvae released in the forest during mon-

soon months settled on the superficial layers

of litter. Larvae released on grazing ground

during dry months settled under grass and in

earth crevices, of which only a small propor-

tion was recovered as nymphs. Larvae re-

leased on grazing ground during rainy seasons

were washed away and there was no recovery

of nymphs. On the forest edge, where the

ground was covered with a thin layer of litter

mixed with grass, a small proportion of

nymphs was recovered (Table 4).

Larva! moulting :

Larvae moulted into nymphs 22 to 29 days

after the release (Table 4). Freshly emerged

nymphs appeared on vegetation soon after

moulting. Larvae released on more exposed

areas moulted earlier than those on less expos-

ed areas. Larvae released during monsoon

months moulted earlier than those released at

other months.

Nymphs :

Nymphs appeared on vegetation and on the

litter soon after moulting irrespective of season.

Freshly moulted nymphs containing traces of

55*

larval blood meal emerged on the surface.

Emerging nymphs from some groups were

recovered periodically to estimate the propor-

tion of larvae moulted into nymphs. They

were re-released in other places to study their

longevity. The recovery of nymphs inside the

forest was 24 to 78 per cent. The grazing field

was most unfavourable niche for larval moult-

ing and only up to 4 per cent recovery could be

made, except in one group which yielded 25.5

per cent nymphs (Table 4).

Survival of nymphs :

Nymphs survived on litter and on vegeta-

tion for a maximum span of 6 months (Table

4). Though nymphs emerged early in the rainy

months, they could survive for 3 to 6 months.

The mortality rate was higher due to heavy

rain.

Engorged nymphs :

A total of 10.725 freshly fed nymphs was

introduced into different microhabitats of the

forest biotope in 36 groups each having 50 to

2,000 individuals between December 1963 and

June 1965. Thirty two groups were released

during dry season from October to May, the

period of nymphal activity and four were

released during rainy season (Table 5).

When released, engorged nymphs crawled at

random in all directions seeking a way into

the deeper layers of litter. Underneath the litter

they settled at different depths in litter and

humus. They could be traced as deep as 2.5

cm in the humus. The activity ceased 24 to

48 hours after the release. When disturbed by

lifting the litter cover and exposing to light,

they resumed their activity which ceased when

again they found a shelter. The activity totally

ceased when they entered the moulting phase

after 7 to 10 days.

During dry months the nymphs settled in the

spinigera, various events from engorged nymphs through questing adults in KFD area

BIOLOGY OF HAEMAPHYSALIS SPINIGERA NEUMANN, 1897

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557

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

deeper layers of litter or humus. They were

seen in the crevices, cavities in the lumps of

mud, and between decomposing leaves. During

rainy season they were traced in the super-

ficial layers of the litter. On grazing land they

settled in the crevices, but were either desiccat-

ed during dry months or were washed away

during monsoon months. The dispersal was

as far as 30 cm from the point of release. A

large number of nymphs were predated by

forest ants, particularly from group nos. 5,

7 and 10.

Nymphal moulting :

Nymphs moulted into adults 24 to 35 days

after release (Table 5). Each batch took 2 to

5 days to complete the moulting.

Dormancy in adult ticks :

Adults moulted between December 1963 and

May 1964 remained dormant during the entire

dry season under the litter (Table 5). Clusters

of 2 to 10 individuals were observed under

individual leaves in the litter. However light

activity was observed during summer showers

ticks resting under deeper layers of litter

and humus crawled up to the superficial layers.

No significant lateral dispersal or emergence

from the litter was observed. Similarly adults

from nymphs released from November 1964

to March 1965 spend the entire dry period in

a state of dormancy under the litter. However

2 to 5 individuals from each batch emerged

from the litter and climbed the plants after a

heavy premonsoon shower (Table 5). Adults

that moulted from June to mid-November in-

variably dispersed and climbed on the plants

immediately after moulting.

Dormant ticks spent the dry months in a

state of repose with the legs folded and cling-

ing to the undersurface of the litter leaves.

When the leaves were turned upside down and

exposed to light they became active within 1

to 3 minutes, crawled toward the undersurface

and again came to rest. Under direct sunlight

activation was immediate and the ticks imme-

diately rushed towards darker places.

Onset of activity of dormant adults :

invariably the dormant ticks became active

after the first few monsoon rains. Ticks lying

under thick forest canopy became active a few

days earlier than those lying under thin canopy

or under direct sunlight. Gradually they emerg-

ed from the litter and settled on the under-

growth vegetation. Total displacement was

observed 10 to 40 days after the onset of

activity. Initially ticks were found on plants

of all heights upto 150 cm, but later the ticks

settled on smaller plants (2 to 15 cm) descen-

ded, spread out and settled on larger plants.

The dormant adults of group nos. 2 and 27

were sprayed with water. From group No. 2,

seven ticks emerged to the surface of litter

after spraying twice a day for 3 days. The

spraying was continued for 3 more days but

none of the ticks climbed on plants. When

the spraying was stopped ticks withdrew into

litter. The group no. 27 was sprayed twice a

day from 10 to 15 March 1965. On 11 March

several ticks emerged on the litter surface and

the same evening 4 ticks were recovered from

plants. On 13 March, 7 more were collected

from plants. On the same evening the atmos-

pheric humidity of the niche was increased by

enclosing the plants with wet absorbent lint

flags suspended on wooden frame. As a result

27 ticks were collected from plants on 15

March. The operation was concluded on 15th

and the active ticks on the litter withdrew

to the litter. They resumed their dispersal

activity only after a few heavy rains in June.

Recovery of adults :

The largest number of ticks recovered from

each group is presented in table 5, which

558

BIOLOGY OF HAEMAPHYSALIS SP1NIGERA NEUMANN, 1897

varied from batch to batch depending upon

the ecological conditions of the place of release.

Survival of adults :

Ticks from nymphal groups 4, 6, 8, 18 and

19, which emerged from the litter in June

1964, reached their maximum number in the

middle of July and gradually decreased after-

wards until January 1965. The last tick of

the group 4 disappeared during the last week

of December 1964. The last ticks of groups

6, 8, 18 and 19 disappeared during the last

week of January, last week of March, first

week of February and the last week of Janu-

ary 1964, respectively.

Discussion

General remarks :

Behaviour during the three stages of the

tick H. spinigera in its natural habitats is of

special importance for understanding the epi-

demiology of KFD. The disease is now known

to have a complex natural history and is known

to directly involve two species of monkeys-

Rresbytis enlellus and Macaca radiata, several

species of small mammals, particularly two

species of rats — Rattus rattus wroughtoni and

Rattus blunfordi, one species of shrew —

Suncus murinus, and about 15 species of ticks.

Several species of birds and a few species of

bats are suspected to be involved. Several other

species of mammal are indirectly involved as

they act as hosts to the ticks and influence the

magnitude of tick population. It is now known

that the principae vector is H. spinigera

(Boshell 1969).

Much of the information available so far

was gathered indirectly as a result of collec-

tions made for various purposes. It will be

useful to review briefly the available know-

ledge on the life history of the species.

H. spinigera is a three-host tick with a long

free living phase and a brief parasitic phase in

each stage of its life cycle. In each stage, the

behaviour of unfed and fed individuals differs

fundamentally. Unfed individuals are active

and their movements are directed tov/ards

finding a suitable host. Fed individuals are

less active and their movements are directed

toward a shelter for moulting or egg laying as

the case may be. Orientation mechanisms and

behaviour patterns have evolved according to

the appropriate needs.

The adults are abundant in the forests of

study area during the rainy seasons from June

to September. A few individuals survive

through dry months. The first broods of larvae

appear on vegetation a few days after the

cessation of the monsoon and their population

predominates during October and November,

but some larvae persist throughout the dry

weather. Nymphs appear on vegetation in

November, but in greatest number in January

and February and decline gradually afterwards.

A few nymphs persist throughout the monsoon.

The present study reveals some aspects of the

intimate life habits and behaviour of H.

spinigera.

Prevalence and activity :

It has become a general practice among eco-

logists and epidemiologists to determine the

season of prevalence of ticks by the numbers

collected either by flag dragging or searching

host animals for ectoparasites. The number

thus collected best reflects the number of ticks

in the questing phase. In the present study,

it has been shown that for long period of

time, ticks in different stages may be dormant

in the litter. In such cases ticks may be “pre-

valent” but not active. This consideration has

been generally ignored and the seasons of

prevalence have generally been equated with

559

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

tlie seasons of activity. The present study eluci-

dates the difference between the “prevalence”

indicating the presence of the tick stage in the

environment whether active or inactive, and

“activity” which indicates only the presence

of ticks in their questing phase.

Life cycle :

The life cycle of individual H. spinigera,

under forest environment in KFD area takes

about one year, each stage being active in a

particular season, viz. — Adult: June to Sept-

ember, Larva : September to November,

Nymph : November to June. The seasonal

limits are not necessarily precise and a few

individuals of one stage overlap with the other

stages. In temperate countries the life activities

of ticks come practically to a standstill during

winter months and in general, all stages are

active during the warm season. Hence the life

cycles of the ticks generally take two to four

years to complete. On the other hand, in

tropical conditions, as in KFD area, there is

no season that is hostile to tick activity and

the life cycle is completed in a continuous

sequence. Under field conditions, the shortest

estimated period for the completion of on life

cycle was 101 days and the longest was 935

days, although these are extremes in the range

of possible variations. The association of the

activity of each stage with each season has

provided basic problems of the ecology of H.

spinigera.

Under field conditions the temperature range

to which developing and dormant stages were

exposed was between 17.5°C and 25°C, well

within the favourable range observed in the

laboratory (Bhat 1979). The life cycle appears

to be well adapted to its rigid humidity require-

ments. .Adult activity coincides with the wet

monsoon months, which provides necessary

high humidity for delicate developing eggs and

larvae. The exodus of larvae from the litter

commences with the end of the monsoon and

their activity coincides with the humid post

monsoon months of October and November.

The period of nymphal activity is very pro-

longed extending from November to June.

Though there is a gradual reduction in atmos-

pheric humidity, the litter remains moist until

the end of March. These conditions permit

sustenance of active nymphs. Adults emerging

from nymphs undergo dormancy under the

litter and escape the dry climate of April and

May.

Seasonal activity :

Prevalence of adults on the vegetation on

the onset of monsoon is a result of activation

of cumulative adult population dormant under

the litter. Initiation of activity is followed by

a gradual dispersal along the ground, and

climbing and settling on the vegetation. About

4 weeks after their first appearance on the

vegetation the population reaches its maximum

level. From August onwards the population

decreases gradually till November. From

December to May a small number of stray

adults persist. Prevalence of questing larvae

which coincides with the cessation of rain is

also the result of the exodus of dormant larvae

accumulated during monsoon months. The

appearance of questing nymphs follows the

larval activity. A similar pattern of incidences

of larvae nymphs and adults on their avian

and mammalian hosts have been observed

(Rajagopalan 1972, Rajagopalan el al. 1968

a and b).

It is obvious that dormancy of the adults

during dry months and the larvae during mon-

soon months determine the seasonal activity

of different stages. Adult activity is inhibited

by dryness and the larval activity by moisture.

The two phases of adult and larval inactivity

560

BIOLOGY OF HAEMAPHYSALIS SPINIGERA NEUMANN, 1897

in the seasonal cycle occur under two climatic

conditions. The activation of adults after

spraying water on the litter indicates that the

humidity is the chief factor determining the

dormancy of adults.

KFD EPIDEMICS AND EPIZOOTICS IN RELATION

to bionomics of H. spinigera:

The above information may explain some of

the epidemiological problems of KFD. The

monkey mortality due to epizootics and epi-

demics occur in drier months of the year from

December to June, with a peak in February

and March (Boshell 1968). Both epizootics

and epidemics coincide with the nymphal pre-

valence and activity. Survival of the nymphs

through the rainy season suggests the carry

over of the virus by the infected nymphs

through the rainy season enabling the start

Refer

Bhat, H. R. (1974): Infestation of cattle with

Haemaphysalis spinigera Neumann, 1897 (Acarina,

Ixodidae) in Kyasanur Forest disease area, Shimoga

district, Karnataka. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 44: 750-755.

(1979): Life history of Haemaphy-

salis spinigera Neumann, 1897 (Acarina: Ixodidae).

ibid. 49: 517-522.

Boshell. M. J. (1969): Kyasanur Forest disease.

Ecological considerations. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.

18: 67-80.

, Rajagopalan P. K., Patil, A. P.

& Pavri, K. M. (1968) : Isolation of Kyasanur Forest

disease virus from ixodid ticks: 1961-1964. Indian

J. Med. Res. 56: 541-568.

Rajagopalan, P. K. (1972): Ixodid ticks (Aca-

rina: Ixodidae) parasitizing wild birds in the Kyasa-

nur Forest disease area of Shimoga District, Mysore

State, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 55-78.

, & Anderson, C. R. (1970):

Transmonsoonal persistence of Kyasanur Forest

disease virus in Haemaphysalis nymphs infected in

of a new virus cycle in the following season

(Rajagopalan and Anderson 1970).

The extremely long life span of each stage

provides greater chance for the virusTo survive

in its tick host until its next encounter with a

-4

vertebrate host. Viral persistence in ticks

(Varma et al. 1960) suggests that the virus

can be held in an inapparent state by infected

ticks, a significant aspect of their role as reser-

voir of vertebrate infection.

ACK NOWLEDGEM ENTS

I am grateful to Dr. T. Ramachandra Rao,

former Director, Virus Research Centre (now

National Institute of Virology), Pune, under

whose supervision and guidance the work has

been carried out and to Dr. Harry Hoogstraal.

Medical Zoology Department, United States

Naval Medical Research Unit Number 3, Cairo,

Egypt, for editing the manuscript.

ENCES

nature. Indian J. Med. Res. 58: 1184-1187.

(1971):

Further studies on the ticks of wild monkeys of

Kyasanur Forest disease area, Shimoga District,

ibid. 59: 847-860.

, Patil, A. P. & Boshell, M.

J. (1968a): Studies on Ixodid tick populations on

the forest floor in the Kyasanur Forest disease area:

1961-1964. ibid. 56: 479-509.

(1968b): Ixodid ticks on their mammalian hosts in

the Kyasanur Forest disease area of Mysore state,

India: 1961-1964. ibid. 56: 510-526.

Trapido, H., Goverdhan, M. K., Rajagopalan,

P. K. & Rebello, M. J. (1964): Ticks ectoparasitic

on monkeys in the Kyasanur Forest disease area of

Shimoga District, Mysore state, India. Atner. J. Trop.

Med. Hyg. 13: 363-372.

, Rajagopalan, P. K., Work, T. H.

& Varma. M. G. R. (1959): Kyasanur Forest

561

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

disease VIII. Isolation of Kyasanur Forest

disease virus from naturally infected ticks of the

genus Haemaphysalis. Indian J. Med. Res. 47 : 133-

138.

, Varma, M. G. R., Rajagopalan, P.

K., Singh, K. R. P. & Rebello, M. J. (1964): A

guide to the identification of all stages of the Haema-

physalis ticks of south India. Bull. Ent. Res. 55:

249-270.

Varma, M. G. R., Trapido, H. & Rajagopalan,

P. K. (1957): Studies on ticks as possible vectors

of Kyasanur Forest disease. Pore. 9th Pacific Sci.

Cong. 17: 88-90.

Varma, M. G. R., Webb, H. E. & Pavri, K. M.

(1960): Studies on the transmission of Kyasanur

Forest disease virus by Haemaphysalis spinigera

Neumann. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 54:

509-516.

562

FRESHWATER ALGAE OF SHILLONG, MEGHALAYA

(INDIA)1

G. R. Hegde2

(With three plates )

A total of 45 fresh water algal taxa, collected from a pond in Shillong, Meghalaya has

been reported. These include 2 from Cyanophyta, 16 from Chlorophyta, 9 from

Euglenophyta, 2 from Pyrrhophyta and 16 from Chrysophyta.

The present work is the study of a fresh-

water sample collected from a pond in

Shillong during September 1983. Shillong,

the capital city of Meghalaya is situated

between 25° 34' N latitude and 91° 53' E

longitude. The annual average rainfall is 208

cms. During winter shallow water freezes at

night but snow seldom falls and during hot-

test weather temperature rarely rises above

28°C. The sample was preserved in 4 per cent

formaldehyde solution and deposited in Algal

Laboratory, Karnatak University, Dharwad.

In the text the abbreviations used are:

L = Length; W = Width; I = Isthmus;

D = Diameter.

Cyanophyta

Chroococcus limneticus Lemm. var. elegans

G. M. Smith (PI. 1, Fig. 1).

Prescott 1951; PI. 100, fig. 11, p. 448.

L cell 24-26 jam; W cell 18-20 /a m.

Osciilatoria chalybea Mertens (PI. 1; Fig. 2).

Prescott 1951; PI. 109, figs. 8 and 9, p. 486.

L cell 4-6 jam; W cell 6-7 jam.

Chlorophyta

Spaeroeystis schroeteri Chodat (PI. 1; Fig. 6).

Prescott 1951; PI. 3; fig. 6, p. 83.

D cell 18-20 jam.

1 Accepted January 1984.

2 Algal Laboratory, P. G. Department of Botany,

Karnataka University, Dharwad-580 003.

Pediastrum tetras (Ehr.) Ralfs var. tetraodon

Corda) Rabenh. (PI. 1; Fig. 3).

Philipose 1967; fig. 45d; p. 130.

L marginal cell 11 /am; W marginal cell 10-12

pm.

Scenedesmus abundans (Kirchner) Chodat var.

brevicauda G. M. Smith (PI. 1; Fig. 4).

Philipose 1967; fig. 184d, p. 279.

L cell 13-14 /Am; W cell 5-6 /xm; L spines

4-5 /xm.

The plant resembles the type described in

shape and ornamentation of spine, but differs

in having longer spines (Type L spines 1.3-3

jam).

S. dimorphus (Turp.) Kiitz. (PI. 1; Fig. 5)

Philipose 1967; fig. 160c, p. 249.

L cell 24-26 jam; W cell 3-4 jam.

The plant differs from the type described

in having less curved terminal cell. Unlike the

type the terminal cells have the apices recurved

on the inner side.

S. dimorphus (Turp.) Kiitz. (PI. 1; Fig. 7).

Philipose 1967; fig. 160a, p. 249.

L cell 30-31 /am; W cell 6-8 jam.

Differs from the type in the shape of outer

lunate cells which have convex bulging on their

outer walls.

Some specimens in this collection exhibit a

varied shape — colony is curved with indivi-

dual cells having longer spines which are

curved on the inner side (PI. 1; Fig. 9).

563

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

S. quadricauda (Turp.) Breb. var. bicaudatus

Hansgirg (PI. 1; Fig. 8).

Philipose 1967; fig. 187, k; p. 234.

L cell 9-10 /am; W cell 5 /am; L spines 4-6 fim.

Differs from the type described in having

2-3 smaller spines at the poles of inner cells.

In this character the plant is more closer to

S. longus Meyen (Prescott 1951; pi. 63, fig. 16,

p. 278).

Netrium digitus (Ehr.) Itzigs. et Rothe (PI. 1,

Fig. 13).

Iyengar et Vimala Bai 1941; figs. 5 and 6,

p. 74.

L138 fim; W middle 33-35 yum; W pole 13-15

yarn.

Slightly smaller than the type described.

Type L 155-203 yam; W 40-44 yam; apex 18-23

yam.

N. digitus var. lamellosum (Breb.) Gronblad

(PI. 1; Fig. 14).

Scott et Prescott 1961; PI. 1, fig. 6, p. 8.

L 180-183 /am; W middle 34-36 /am; W apex

15-17 yam.

Smaller than the variety lamellosum (Breb.)

Gronblad of A/, digitus (Ehr.) Itzigs et Rothe

described by Scott et Prescott 1961 (L 336

yam; W 57 yam). However, size is similar to

formae minores of variety lamellosum (Breb.)

Gronblad described by Forster 1972; PI. 1,

figs. 5 and 6, p. 522.

Closterium dianae Ehr. var. pseudodianae

(Roy) Krieg. (PI. 1, fig. 10).

Hinode 1971; PI. 2, figs. 3 & 4, p. 103.

L 289 /am; W 23-25 yam.

C. navicula (Breb.) Liitkem. (PI. 1; Fig. 15).

Rino 1971; PI. 1, Fig. 10, p. 17.

L 106-108 /am; W middle 36-37 /am; W pole

12-13 /am.

Present plant is more broader than type.

Type W 22 yam.

Pleurotaeniuin trabecula (Ehr.) Nag. (PI. 2;

Fig. 16).

Iyengar et Vimala Bai 1941; figs. 20 and 21,

p. 79.

L 457-460 /am; W 30-32 /am; I 23-24 yam.

Cosmarium globosuni Bulnh. (PI. 1; Fig. 11).

Hinode 1971; PI. 6, fig. 8, p. 115.

L 33-35 yam; W 18-20 /am; I 17-18 yam.

C. lundellii Delp. var. eireulare (Riensch)

Krieg. (PI. 2; Fig. 17).

Scott et Prescott 1961; pi. 25, fig. 7, p. 60.

L 48-50 /am; W 41-43 yam; I 14-15 yam.

Comparatively smaller than the type describ-

ed.

Type L 71 /am; W 58 yam; I 25 yam.

C. rcgnellii Wille (PI. 1; Fig. 12).

Scott et Prescott 1961; PI. 23, Fig. 12, p. 68.

L 10-11 yum; W 8-9 /am; I 2-3 /am.

The present plant is much smaller than the

type.

Type L 22 /am; W 19 /am; I 6 /am.

Actinotaenium australe (Racib.) var. minor

Hodgetts (PI. 2; Fig. 18).

Bourrelly 1975; PI. 8, fig. 5, p. 32.

L 39-40 yam; W 21-23 /am; I 20-21 yam.

Hyalotheca dissilicns (Smith) Breb. var. hians

Wolle (PI. 2; Fig. 19).

Scott et Prescott 1961; PI. 61, fig. 2, p. 122.

L 18-19 /am; W 26-27 yam; I 25~26 yam.

Width of the plant is comparatively more

than the type.

Type W maximum 15 /am.

Eijglf.nophyta

Euglcna polymorpha Dang. (PI. 2; Fig. 21).

Prescott 1951; PI. 85, figs. 21 and 22; p. 393.

L 77-80 yam; W 20-22 yam.

Phaeus curvicauda Swir. (PI. 2; Fig. 22).

Prescott 1951; PI. 87, fig. 14. p. 399.

L 20-22 /am: W 19-20 /am.

564

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82 Plate 1

Hegde: Freshwater Algae

1. Chroococcus limneticus Lemm. var. elegans G. M. Smith; 2. Oscillatoria chalybca

Mertens; 3. Pediastrum tetras (Ehr.) Rais var. tetraodon (Corda) Rabenh.; 4. Scena-

desmus abundant (Kirchner) Chodat var. brevicauda G. M. Smith; 5, 7 & 9. S.

dimorphus (Turp.) Kiitz.; 6. Sphaerocystis schroeteri Chodat; 8. Scenedesmus quadri-

cauda (Turp.) Breb. var. bicaudatus Hansgirg; 10. Closlcrium dianac Ehr. var.

pseudodianac (Roy) Krieg.; 11. Cosmarium globosum Bulnh.; 12. C. regnellii Wille;

13. Netrium digitus (Ehr.) Itzigs et Rothe; 14. N. digitus var. lamellosum (Breb)

firnnhlaH* IS C'lnvtprium nnxtimln ^Rrph ^ T iitkpm

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82 Plate 2

Hegde: Freshwater Algae

16. Pleurotaenium trabecula (Ehr.) Nag.; 17. Cosmarium lundellii Deln. var. circularc

(Reinsch) Krieg.; 18. Actinotaenium australc (Racib) var. minor Hodgetts; 19. Hyalo-

theca dissilicns (Smith) Br6b. var. bians Wolle; 20. Dinobryon sociale Ehr.; 21. Euglena

polymorpha Dang.; 22. Phacus curvicauda Swir.; 23. P. longicauda (Ehr.) Dujardin,

24. P. pleuronectes (O.P.M.) Dujardin; 25. P. orbicularis Hubner; 26. Lepocinclis

ovum (Ehr.) Lemm.; 27. Trachclomonas dybowskii Drez.; 28. Phacus onyx Pochmann;

29. Trachelomonas volvocina Ehr. var. compressa Drez.; 30. Peridinium cinctum

(Mull.) Ehr.; 31 . P. umbonatum Stein.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82

Hegde: Freshwater Algae

Plate 3

32. Synedra ulna (Nitz.) Ehr. var. danica (Kiitz.) Grun.; 33. Eunotia tschirchiana

Mull.; 34. E. valida Hust.; 35. Frustulia rhomboides (Ehr.) De Toni var. saxonica

(Rab.) De Toni; 36. Navicula radiosa Kiitz. var. tenella (Br6b.) Grun.; 37. Pinnu-

laria brebissonii (Kiitz.) Cleve; 38. Tabellaria ftocculosa Kiitz.; 39. Amphora

coffeacformis Agardh; 40. Achnanthes exigua Grun.; 41. Gomphonema gracile Ehr.;

42. Pinnularia braunii (Grun.) Cleve var. amphicephala (Mayer) Hust.; 43. Gom-

phonema subtile Ehr. var. malayensis Hust.; 44. Cymbella tumida (Br6b) V. H.;

45. C. excisa (Kiitz.) De Toni; 46. Hantzschia amphioxys (Ehr.) Grun. var. pusilla

Dippel.

r ■

: • ' *

....

t - i

FRESHWATER ALGAE OF SHILLONG

P. longicauda (Ehr.) Dujardin (PI. 2; Fig. 23).

Prescott 1951; pi. 87, fig. 1, p. 400.

L 50-51 fx m; W 36-38 /um; L caudus 45-47 ju.m.

P. onyx Pochmann (PI. 2, Fig. 28).

Suxena 1955; figs. 51 and 52; p. 440.

L 31-32 /um; W 31-32 /um; L caudus 10-12 /um.

P. orbicularis Hubner (PI. 2, Fig. 25).

Suxena 1955; fig. 24, p. 439.

L 33-34 /um; W 30-32 /um; L caudus 9-10 /u m.

P. pleuronectes (O.F.M.) Dujardin (PI. 2; Fig.

24).

Suxena 1955; fig. 22, p. 440.

L 34-36 /um; W 28-30 /um; L caudus 9-11 /urn.

Lepocinclis ovum (Ehr.) Lemm. (PI. 2, Fig. 26).

Prescott 1951; pi. 89, figs. 5 and 6, p. 407.

L 37-39 /im; W 28-30 /um.

Bigger than the type described. Type L

28-30 /um; W 22-25 /um.

Trachelomonas dybowskii Drez. (PI. 2, Fig. 27).

Prescott 1951; pi. 83, fig. 21, p. 412.

L 15 /um; W 12-14 /um.

T. volvocina Ehr. var. compressa Drez. (PI. 2.

Fig. 29).

Prescott 1951; PI. 83, figs. 2 and 3; P. 419).

D 18-21 /um.

Pyrrhophyta

Pcridinium cinctum (Mull) Ehr. (PI. 2; Fig. 30).

Prescott 1951; pi. 91, figs. 1-4; p. 432.

L 47-49 /um; W 52-56 /um.

P. umbonatum Stein (PI. 2; Fig. 31).

Yacubson 1974; PI. 7, fig. 74, p. 122.

L. 25-26 /um; W 22-23 /um.

Chrysophyta

Dinobryon sociale Ehr. (PI. 2, Fig. 20).

Nygaard 1976; PI. 2, fig. 14, p. 23.

L 26-28 /um; W 9-10 jum.

Synedra ulna (Nitz.) Ehr. var. danica (Kiitz)

Grun. (PI. 3, fig. 32).

Gandhi 1955; fig. 6, p. 311.

L 263-273 /um; W 5-6 /um.

Eunotia tschirchiana Mull. (PI. 3, Fig. 33).

Gandhi 1960; fig. 1, p. 559.

L 27-30 /um; W 4-5 /um. Striae 12-14 in 10 /um.

E. valida Hust. (PI. 3, Fig. 34)

Hirano 1969; PI. 4, fig. 1, p. 17.

L 197-200 /um; W 6-8 /um. Striae 10-12 in

10 /um.

Differs from the type in having more length.

Type L 110-167 /um.

Achnanthes exigua Grun. (PI. 3, Fig. 40).

Gonzalves and Gandhi 1952; fig. 49a, b, p. 143.

L 13-15 /um; W 5-6 /um. Striae 20-22 in 10 /um.

Frustulia rhomboides (Ehr.) De Toni var.

saxonica (Rab.) De Toni (PI. 3, Fig. 35).

Krishnamurthy 1954; fig. 27, p. 362.

L 57-60 /um; W 16-18 /um. Striae 20-24 in

10 /um.

Navicula radiosa Kiitz. var. tenella (Breb.)

Grun. (PI. 3, Fig. 36).

Gandhi 1955; fig. 21, p. 321.

L 65 /um, W 9-10 /um. Striae 15-20 in 10 /um.

Differs from the type in having bigger size.

Type L 45-50 /um; W 8-8.7 /um.

Pinnularia braunnii (Grun.) Cleve var. amphi-

cephala (Mayer) Hust. (PI. 3; Fig. 42).

Sarode and Kamat 1983, fig. 1, p. 26.

L 50-52 /um; W middle 7-8 /um. Striae 10-14

in 10 /um.

P. brebissonii (Kiitz.) Cleve (PI. 3; Fig. 37).

Gandhi 1960; PI. 1, fig. 25; p. 89.

L 55 /um; W 12-14 /um. Striae 10-12 in 10 /um.

Tabellaria flocculosa Kiitz. (PI. 3, Fig. 38).

Nygaard 1976; PI 1, fig. 29, p. 26.

L 44 /um; W middle 7-8 /um; W pole 4-5 /um.

Striae 9-10 in 10 /um.

Amphora coffeaeformis Agardh (PI. 3; Fig. 39).

Majeed 1935; PI. 4. Fig. 9, p. 26.

L 33-35 /um; W 16-18 /um.

565

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

Symbella excisa (Kiitz.) De Toni (PI. 3, Fig.

45).

Majeed 1935; PI. 4, fig. 2, p. 28.

L 33-35 /Am; W 11-13 /Am. Striae 15-20 in

10 /Am.

C. tumida (Breb.) V. H. (PI. 3; Fig. 44).

Agarkar 1976; PI. 7, fig. 10, p. 71.

L 65-68 /tm; W 10-12 /an. Striae 10-12 in

10 /Am.

Gomphonema gracile Ehr. (PI. 3; Fig. 41)

Krishnamurthy 1954; fig. 53; P. 374.

L 50-55 /tm; W 10-12 /im. Striae 12-16 in

10 /Am.

G. subtile Ehr. var. malayensis Hust. (PI. 3;

Fig. 43).

Refei

Agarkar, D. S. (1976): Algae of Tighra lake

Reservoir Gwalior M. P.-II (Euglenophyceae, Bacil-

lariophyreae, Dinophyceae and Charophyceae) . /.

Jiwaji Univ. (Sci. Tech, and Medicine) 4(1): 65-80.

Bordoloi, R. P. M. (1983): On some abnormal

and assymmetric Desmids from Assam. Phykos,

22: 120-124.

Bourrelly, P. (1975): Quelques algues d’eau

douce de Guinee. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist, nat., Paris

3e ser., n° 276, janv. fevr. Botanique 20: 1-72.

Gandhi, H. P. (1955): A contribution to our

knowledge of the freshwater diatoms of Partapgarh,

Rajasthan. J. Indian bot. Soc., 34: 307-338.

(1956): A preliminary account

of the soil diatom flora of Kolhapur. J. Indian bot.

Soc., 35: 402-413.

(1960): On the diatom flora of

some ponds around Vasna village near Ahmedabad.

J. Indian bot. Soc. 39: 558-567.

Gonzalves, E. A. & Gandhi, H. P. (1952): A

systematic account of the diatoms of Bombay and

Salsette — Part I. J. Indian bot. Soc., 31: 117-151.

Hinode. T. (1971): A study on the desmids of

Kurozo, a sphagnum-moor in Shikoku. Hikobia, 6

(1&2): 95-130.

Hirano, M. (1969): Freshwater algae from Rang-

tang Himal. Nepal Himalaya. Contr. biol. Lab. Kyoto

Univ. 22: 1-42.

Iyengar, M. O. P. & Vimala Bat, B. (1941):

Gandhi 1960; PI. 3, fig. 82, P. 109.

L 52-55 /im; W 9-11 /tm; W pole 3.5-4 /im.

Striae 10-12 in 10 /tm.

Hantzschia amphioxys (Ehr.) Grun. var.

pusilla Dippel (PI. 3; Fig. 46).

Gandhi 1956; fig. 6, p. 406.

L 35-38 /tm; W 17-18 /tm; W pole 6-7 /tm.

Striae 14-16 in 10 /tm.

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank the Head, Department of

Botany, Kamatak University, Dharwad for the

facilities afforded and to Capt. V. S. Hegde

for the help in the collection of sample.

ENCES

Desmids from Kodaikanal, South India. J. Indian

bot. Soc. 20: 73-103.

Krishnamurthy, V. (1954): A contribution to

the diatom flora of South India. J. Indian bot. Soc.

33: 354-381.

Majeed, M. A. (1935): The fresh water algae of I

the Punjab. Part I. Bacillariophyta (Diatomeae). The

Univ. of Punjab, Lahore Publ.

Nygaard, G. (1945, 1976): Tavlerne fra ‘Dansk

Planteplonkton’. Printed in Denmark 1976. pp. 25.

Philipose, M. T. (1967): Chlorococcales. ICAR,

New Delhi, pp. 365.

Prescott, G. W. (1951): Algae of the Western

Great Lakes area (Exclusive of desmids and dia-

toms). Cranbrook Inst. Sci. Publ. pp. 946.

Rino, J. A. (1971): Contribui cao para o conhe-

cimento das algas de agua doce de mo^ambique —

II. Rev. Cienc. Biol. 4 Ser. A : 9-55.

Sarode, P. T. & Kamat, N. D. (1983): Diatoms

of Marathawada. Maharashtra-ITI. Phykos, 22: 26-

32.

Scott, A. M. & Prescott, G. W. ( 1961 ) : Indo-

nesian Desmids. Hydrobiologia, I7( 1&2) : 1-132.

Suxena, M. R. (1955): Freshwater Euglenineae

from Hyderabad, India. I. J. Indian bot. Soc., 34:

429-450.

Yacubson, S. (1974) : El fitoplancton de la laguna

de san Javier del Valle (Estado Merida), Venezuela.

Rev. algol. 11: 91-131.

566

COMMENTARY ON A PICTORIAL GUIDE TO THE

BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT1

Tom Roberts2, Richard Grimmett3 and

Craig Robson4

The publication of this field guide by the

Bombay Natural History Society, as part of

their activities to celebrate the occasion of

the Society’s Centenary, was a remarkable

achievement. Not only because a total of 1241

species have been illustrated, often with both

male and female plumages, and in some cases

flight patterns and immature or non-breeding

plumages as well, but because it is, withal, a

relatively slim portable volume and very in-

expensive by modern day standards. Its low

price reflects well one of the principal aims

of the Society, which is to enable the widest

possible cross-section of people to develop an

interest in studying and appreciating the natu-

ral history of the sub-continent. The low cost

is due largely to the generous donation of

plates by the original sponsoring authorities,

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the

Smithsonian Institution, as well as the support

and encouragement of the American Museum

of Natural History which helped the original

project by providing the specimens from which

the artist was able to paint the plates. The

comprehensive coverage of the illustrations is

largely due to the painstaking efforts of Ben

King in selecting suitable specimens, backed

1 Accepted November 1985.

2 “CAE GORS”, Rhoscefnhir, Nr. Pentraeth.

Anglesey, Gwynedd LL75 8 YU, UK.

3 International Council for Bird Preservation,

219 C Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL,

England.

4 75 Stafford St., Norwich, Norfolk, England.

up by his unrivalled knowledge of the region.

That the general proportions, attitudes and

colours of the plates are remarkably close to

appearances of these birds in the wild (with

one or two exceptions, such as the position

of outer toes in the Owls), speaks volumes for

the acute observations and great accuracy of

the artist John Henry Dick, and the authors

of this note stress that this last tribute is more

than the polite commendations of a reviewer,

based as it is, upon our own several experi-

ences in illustrating bird books.

In our view the Pictorial Guide deserves

to be the main standby for field ornithologists

in the region for many years to come. There

are, however, some notable omissions and

errors in this book, which we believe have

resulted largely from the pressure of the publi-

cations deadline, with respect to the Septem-

ber 1983 Centenary Celebrations. We feel that

it is important to draw attention to those

errors which we have noticed, with the dual

aim of enhancing the value of the book and

of enabling field workers to give due consi-

deration to potential identification problems.

Omission of Species

There are several criteria against which the

Pictorial Guide can be judged. If the complete

list of species described in the Handbook

Series (Ali and Ripley 1968-74), and the

Revised Synopsis (Ripley 1982) are consider-

ed, then over 30 full species covered by these

two publications are omitted. All but nine of

567

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

these are either vagrants or are only margi-

nally recorded in the sub-continent, and their

inclusion would not greatly enhance the very

comprehensive coverage of the Pictorial Guide.

Paradoxically, out of 1241 species illustrated,

22 are included which are extra-limital and

have not been recorded in the sub-continent

as yet, though presumably there is a possi-

bility since they do occur in adjacent regions.

As noted above, nine of the species omitted

are resident or regular visitors to the Indian

sub-continent and they are included in the

Handbook series (op. cit. 1968-74). A com-

mentary on these follows:

1) Red Breasted Merganser ( Mergus ser-

rator). A Rare but regular winter visitor along

the Karachi and Makran coast.

2) Red-necked or Eastern Little Stint

( Calidris ruficollis). Recent wader surveys

along the eastern sea-board of India have re-

sulted in a number of reliable sightings. The

first records for Pakistan were obtained recent-

ly as well, with 2 on July 20th 1984 (R.

Passburg and N. Van Zalinge), and 3 on

August 14th, and 18th. in the same year (N.

Van Zalinge). These were all birds still in

breeding dress and seen and photographed in

company with Caliclris alpina and Calidris

minuta on inland waters close to the Karachi

seacoast (to be published).

3) Saunder's Tern ( Sterna saundersi).

Treated as a separate species from Sterna

albifrons in the Revised synopsis (1982), on

the basis of its recorded sympatric breeding

in Sri Lanka, plus different wing-tip pattern,

bill and leg colour and call. It is not un-

common breeder along the Karachi coast and

in Kutch.

4) Oriental or Himalayan Cuckoo ( Cucu -

lus saturatus). Quite a common breeding bird

right across the Himalayas.

5) Brown-crowned Pigmy Woodpecker

( Dendrocopos ( Picoides ) nanus). There could

be some taxonomic confusion here. Only Den-

drocopos ( Picoides ) moluccensis is illustrated

(Plate 61) and treated as extra-limital. The

modern tendency is to treat nanus as a sub-

species of P. moluccensis (Howard and Moore

1980, Short 1982). Examination by us, of a

series of skins of P. nanus and P. moluccensis

held in the British Museum (Tring), reveal-

ed that they would be separable in the field

quite readily, with a different throat pattern

(white in moluccensis), streaked grey in

nanus) and a different prominence of mousta-

chial streak, (strongly marked in moluccensis,

rather obsolete in nanus), as well as different

nape pattern, (black in moluccensis more ex-

tensively brown in nanus). P. nanus occurs

quite extensively in Sri Lanka and in southern

and north-western India. The bird illustrated

in Plate 61 corresponds with P. nanus, and

should have been listed as P. nanus or P.

moluccensis nanus (following Short, op. cit.).

6) Hume’s Short-toed Lark ( Calandrella

acutirostris). This lark breeds widely in Balu-

chistan at medium altitudes (T.J.R.) as well

as in Ladakh (Ali & Ripley, op. cit.), and is

a summer visitor to the trans-Himalayan dis-

tricts of Nepal (Mustang and Dol Po).

7) Blyth’s Pipit ( Anthus godlewskii). This

pipit is a widespread winter visitor to north

eastern and peninsular India (Ali & Ripley

1973). It looks very similar to A. novaesee-

landiae in the field.

8) Blunt-winged Paddyfield Warbler (Acro-

cephalus concinens). A breeding species in

both Kashmir. Hazara district of Pakistan, and

Assam. It can be separated from A. agricola

by its wing formula (see Ali & Ripley, Vol.

8), and with difficulty in the field, by its slight-

ly longer bill, less prominent supercilium and

less rufous plumage compared to agricola.

9) Eastern Great Reed Warbler ( Acroce -

568

COMMENTARY ON PICTORIAL GUIDE

phalus orientalis). This is treated as a sepa-

rate species by Ali and Ripley in the hand-

book (op. cit., Vol. 8, 1973) and by Ripley in

the synopsis (1982). Most European autho-

rities treat it as a sub-species of Acroce phalus

arundinaceus (Williamson 1963, Voous 1977).

It is apparently a regular winter visitor to

north-east India and the Andaman Islands.

The treatment of Andaman and Nicobar

Islands’ birds has not been comprehensive.

Thus the Narcondam Hornbill ( Rhyticeros

( plicatus ) narcondami ) is included, whereas

the Andaman Brown Hawk Owl ( Ninox

affinis ) is not. Similarly, the treatment of

vagrants to the Indian sub-continent has not

been consistent. Thus illustrations of some

have been included where there has been one

or two, not very recent, authentic records, e.g.

Pallas’s Sandgrouse (Syrrhaptes paradoxus ),

Red-throated Diver ( Gavia stellata) and Red-

breasted Goose ( Brant a ruficollis). Others,

though included in the handbook, have not

been illustrated, e.g. Grey Phalarope ( Phala -

ropus fulicarius ), Spotted Greenshank ( Tringa

putt if er) and Snowy Owl ( Nyctea scandiaca),

also the Eurasian Great Reed Warbler (Acro-

cephalus arundinaceus). Though the inclusion

of the Eurasian Great Reed Warbler in the

handbook series (op. cit.) rests upon a single

specimen collected from Kalat, Baluchistan by

Zugmayer on October 4th 1911, its similarity

to A. stentoreus and possibility of thus being

overlooked, warrants its inclusion.

There are also several species reliably re-

corded in the Indian sub-continent in recent

years which are also not included in the

Pictorial Guide, and we comment here on two

species that have been recorded several times

in recent years .

1) Common Gull (Larus canus). F. Koning

during IWRB surveys in Pakistan in the early

1970's obtained 2 reliable sightings: one on

Rasul Barrage headpond in the Punjab and

one on Khinjir Lake in lower Sind. It has

also more recently been recorded near Delhi

and in eastern Nepal in 1979 (Redman et al.

1984). It was again seen in Pakistan on

Khinjir Lake on 4th April 1984 (by R. G. &

C. R.). This species is not listed in the hand-

book or SYNOPSIS.

2) Song Thrush ( Turdus philomelos). Not

included in the handbook or synopsis, this

thrush has been reliably sighted several times

in recent years. One in Ladakh in 1980, one

at Bharatpur, Rajasthan by S. Whitehouse and

M. J. Parr in 1981, and most recently at Las

Bela. Pakistan in early March 1984 (by T.J.R.,

R. Passburg & D. Corfield, to be published).

Omission of Sub-species

Again there are several criteria against which

the omission of sub-species might be judged.

Bearing in mind limitations of publication

costs, the Pictorial Guide has tried to include

a number of distinctive sub-species, but there

are several decisions or omissions, which we

would like to comment upon, in the light of

recent taxonomic thinking.

1) Oriental or Indian Scops Owl (Otus

sunia). In the handbook series this is treated

as a sub-species of O. scops, which is illustrat-

ed in the Pictorial Guide without any reference

to sub-species. Recent authors have treated

sunia as a separate species (Gallagher and

Woodcock 1980, Voous 1977). There is clear

ecological allopatry between sunia and O.

scops pulchellus or O. scops turanicus which

occur in the sub-continent, and also these two

owls ( sunia and scops) have very distinctive

stereotyped territorial calls (Roberts and King,

in press), and they are clearly recognisable in

certain circumstances.

2) Bright Green Leaf Warbler ( Phyllosco -

pus nitidus). Treated as a sub-species of P

569

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

trochiloides in the handbook and not illus-

trated in the Pictorial Guide though separable

with difficulty in the field and treated as a

distinct species by recent authors (Williamson

1974, Voous 1977).

3) Mountain Chiffchaff ( Phylloscopus sin-

dianus). Treated as a sub-species of P. colly-

bita in the Handbook and not illustrated though

considered a distinct species by recent authors

(Williamson 1974, Voous 1977). It is also

noteworthy that Edwin Brooks considered that

they were distinctive and separable even on

their wintering grounds (Brooks 1879).

4) White-browed Blue Flycatcher ( Musci -

capa superciliaris). In a different category,

the treatment of this species is note-

worthy. Plate 92 covering flycatchers

includes figures of 2 distinct subspecies,

viz: M. parva albicilla and M. leuco-

melanura rninuta, but only the Western Hima-

layan form of the White-browed Blue Fly-

catcher. From extreme eastern Nepal and

through Assam an eastern sub-species M.

superciliaris aestigma occurs, which entirely

lacks any white eyebrow. In view of the con-

fusing trivial name, it would have been helpful

to include an illustration of this feature.

The name Ultramarine Flycatcher applied

to the South East Asian population (see King

et al. 1975), would seem a desirable change.

Presumed Printers or Illustrator's Errors

1) Indian Plaintive Cuckoo ( Cacomantis

passerinus). Some taxonomic and geographic

confusion could arise here, as Voous (1973)

treats the Indian Plaintive Cuckoo as C. meru-

linus. However, other authors have either split

the grey-bellied form into a separate species

Cacomantis passerinus (King et al. 1975), or as

a sub-species C. merulinus passerinus (Ali &

Ripley 1969). The distribution given for C.

passerinus is incorrect, incidentally, stating that

it is absent in Pakistan, whereas it is a regular

summer visitor in the sub-Himalayan foothill

zone (T.J.R.).

2) On Plate 58, the two Stork-billed King-

fishers have been transposed, both in the plate

and accompanying captions. Thus Fig. 9 should

be Stork-billed Kingfisher, Pelargopsis capen-

sis and 12 should be the Brown-winged King-

fisher, Pelargopsis amauroptera.

3) Slaty-headed Scimitar Babbler ( Poma -

torhinus horsfieldii) . On plate 74 there appears

to be a confusing error both in distributional

range and nomenclature here. Fig. 18 with

rusty-orange flanks is the form which occurs

in the north-eastern Himalayas and north-

eastern hill states, and Fig. 19, which

should show slaty black or dark-grey flanks,

is the form which occurs in south-

ern peninsular India: the two distributional

ranges have therefore been transposed. In the

Pictorial Guide the nomenclature follows that

of the Revised synopsis (Ripley 1982) and

they are correctly, but confusingly, named P.

horsfieldii schisticeps and P. horsfieldii, the

latter representing the nominate sub-species

which was originally described from Traven-

core (South India). Unfortunately in the

handbook (Ali & Ripley, Vol. 6) these South

Indian populations were named P. schisticeps

horsfieldii and P. s. travencorensis, though

horsfieldii was described before Hodgson des-

cribed the rusty-flanked population schisticeps

from Nepal.

4) On Plate 92 two sub-species of the

Slaty-blue Flycatcher ( Musci capa leucomela-

nura) have been illustrated, but they have been

captioned the wrong way around. Fig. 17 with

a rufous throat and breast is the subspecies

rninuta found in the north-eastern Himalaya,

also resident in Burma, Laos and N.W. Tonkin.

The nominate subspecies leucomelanura with

a white breast, occurs in the Himalaya and

570

COMMENTARY ON PICTORIAL GUIDE

as far west as Pakistan and is illustrated in

Fig. 18, but with the wrong distribution and

subspecies description.

Illustrator's Errors

Again, the authors would like to stress that

the Pictorial Guide, with so many species illus-

trated in colour and with female and immature

plumages, far surpasses anything which has

hitherto been available. There are, however a

few misleading illustrations with respect to key

field characters and diagnostic features and

this commentary would be incomplete without

referring to a few of them.

Raptors

These are notoriously difficult to illustrate

adequately because of the wide plumage varia-

tion exhibited by many adult species, plus

differences in sub-adult plumages. A very brave

attempt has been made to cover this wide

variation.

On Plate 19, the two illustrations of adult

female Marsh Harrier, Circus aerugirtosus, are

very misleading. Female birds of all ages are

very dark chocolate brown on the belly and

upper-parts, with variable amounts of golden

yellow on the crown and leading edge of the

wing, and they are identical to the illustration

of the immature. Fig. 5 depicting the under-

side view of female looks more like an imma-

ture male.

On Plate 22 the Indian Sparrow-hawk or

Shikra ( Accipiter badius) depicts a female

which is quite dark brown in contrast to the

male. In the drier parts of central India and

in Pakistan, typical females are much paler

and greyer on the upperparts, often being paler

than males in the experience of all three

authors, with size difference and more con-

spicuous tail barring being the best field points

for determining sex.

On Plate 29, the female Lesser Kestrel

( Falco naumanni), appears to be an imma-

ture male and is certainly not a female, which

at all ages lacks any blue-grey on the crown,

nape and central tail feathers (all prominent

in the illustration). The female Lesser Kestrel

has a wholly rufous tail, cross-barred black,

and a rufous crown and nape and the majo-

rity of females are also strongly streaked on

the breast.

Charadriformes

This is another very difficult group to illus-

trate adequately in a field guide, because of

the differences between breeding and non-

breeding dress and the often striking patterns

only revealed in flight. The Pictorial Guide is

undoubtedly the most comprehensive attempt

to date, to illustrate the waders of the sub-

continent.

On Plate 39, the Asian Dowitcher ( Limno -

dromus semipalmatus) shown in Fig. 12 should

show a white, grey-barred rump, concolorous

with the mantle. It has been shown white in

the plate.

On Plate 44, the Oriental Pratincole

( Glareola pratincola maldivarum) illustrated

in Fig 3, is wrongly depicted as having a white

trailing edge to the wings. Furthermore the

mantle of G. pratincola maldivarum should be

darker in tone than that of the Collared Pratin-

cole ( Glareola pratincola pratincola). The

white trailing edge to the wing of the Collared

Pratincole correctly shown in Fig. 2, is an im-

portant field character separating it from the

Oriental Pratincole. Most authors treat them

as separate species, Glareola maldivarum and

Glareola pratincola (Cramp & Simmons 1983

and K. M. Voous, op. cit. 1977).

On Plate 45, the Brown-headed Gull ( Larus

brunnicephalus) depicted in Fig. 13 as an im-

mature bird, is in fact a typical adult in winter

571

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

plumage. Immature or first winter birds have a

dark brown terminal band to the tail, as well

as some brown mottling across the wing

coverts. The immature also lacks the white

spots (mirrors) to the black wing tips.

Finally several printer’s errors are noted. On

Plate 45, the words at the bottom of the plate,

‘from below’, are misleading. In the systema-

tic list on page 46 listing Pycnonotidae, No.

1128, should read ‘Red-vented’ not ‘Revented’

Refer

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. Dillon (1968-74): Hand-

book of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vols. 1-10.

Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Ali, S., Ripley, S. Dillon & Dick, J. M. (1983):

A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Sub-

continent. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Baker. E. C., Stuart, edit: (1922-30): The

Fauna of British India. Vols. 1-6. Taylor and Francis,

London.

Brooks, W. E., Ornithological Observations in

Sikkim, the Punjab and Sind. Stray Feathers Edit:

Hume (1879). Vol. 8. pp. 464-89. A. Acton. Calcutta.

Cramp, S. & Simmons, K. E. L. (1983): Birds

of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 3. Oxford University

Press, Oxford.

Gallagher, M. & Woodcock, M. (1980): Birds

of Oman. Quartet, London.

Howard, R. & Moore, A. (1984): A Complete

Checklist of the Birds of the World. Macmillan,

London.

Bulbul. On page 67, ‘Black and White Gros-

beak’ No. 1982, should read Black and Yellow

Grosbeak.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Tim Inskip for

critically reading the manuscript and for his

many helpful comments, also Nigel Redman

for noting additional species omitted.

:NCES

King, B., Woodcock, M. & Dickenson, E. C.

(1975): A Field Guide to the Birds of Southeast

Asia. William Collins & Sons, London.

Redman, N. J., Lambert, F. & Grimmett, R.

(1984) : Some Observations of Scarce Birds in Nepal.

/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81(1) : 49-53.

Ripley, S. Dillon (1982): A Synopsis of the

Birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd Edition, Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay.

Shcrt. L. L. (1982): Woodpeckers of the World.

Delaware Museum of Natural History, Delaware.

Voous, K. H. de (1977) : List of Recent Holarctic

Bird Species. British Ornithologists Union. Acade-

mic Press, Aberdeen.

Williamson, K. (1963): Identification for Rin-

gers No. 1. The Genera Cettia, Loustella, Acroce-

phalus and Hippolais. Revised Edition. B.T.O. Field

Guide No. 7, Tring.

(1974): Identification for Rin-

gers No. 2 The Genus Phylloscopus. B.T.O. Field

Guide No. 8, Tring.

572

ECOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF RATTUS MELT ADA

IN INDIA1

B. D. Rana2

{With two text-figures)

Introduction

The metad, Rattus meltada inflicts severe

losses to various standing crops and grasslands

(Rana and Prakash 1980) in India. Biology

of this field rodent has been investigated in

detail at Central Arid Zone Research Institute,

Jodhpur (Rana and Prakash 1980, 1984).

Very little is known about its ecological

evaluation in Indian sub-continent. Therefore,

to fill up this gap, this investigation was under-

taken and inter-relationships with physical and

biotic environments have been reported in this

communication.

Methods

The soft-furred field rats, Rattus meltada

were collected at one locality in each of the

eleven administrative districts during 1968 and

from January 1978 to December 1979 in south

eastern parts of Thar desert. At each habitat,

two traplines constituting 30 snap traps in each

line at an interval of 10 metres, were fixed in

a homogeneous vegetational community. These

two trap lines were 15 metres apart from each

other and installed for 72 hours. Snap traps

were baited with peanut butter. The frequency

of capture of the metad is expressed as the

percentage of total number of rodents collected

1 Accepted April 1982.

2 Senior Animal Ecologist, Central Arid Zone Re-

search Institute. Jodhpur, Rajasthan.

in a habitat. Observations on their ecological

attributes were also recorded in the field. The

following abbreviations are used in text:

R. m. p. - Rattus meltada pallidior, M. m.

= Mus musculus, M. b. = Mus booduga,

G. e. = Golunda ellioti and B.b. = Bandicota

bengalensis.

Ecological distribution

Irrigated crop field biotope

The soft-furred field rat, R. m. pallidior in-

habits wheat, groundnut and sugarcane crop

fields in Punjab, Union territory of Delhi,

Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Gujarat (Mann,

1969, Sagar and Bindra 1973, Peshwani et al.

1975 and Bhatnagar 1965) respectively (Fig.

1). The other subspecies R. m. meltada com-

monly occurs in most of the parts of southern

India (Fig. 1), representing Maharashtra

(Salunkhe et al. 1980), Andhra Pradesh (Raja-

skharan & Dharam Raju 1975), Karnataka

(Chandrahas & Krishnaswami 1974), Kerala

(Natrajan 1975) and Tamil Nadu (Ayyar

1931). R. m. meltada usually prefers Ragi,

Rice, groundnut and Jowar crops, grown fre-

quently in these States of India (Table 1).

In the western Rajasthan this rat lives in

cracks, or shallow and simple burrows in the

crop fields (Rana & Soni 1981). Out of all

the R. m. pallidior collected during 1971, 1978

and 1979 study periods, 72.7 per cent were

from irrigated crops of cotton ( Gossipium hir-

sutum), wheat ( Triticum aestivum). Brown

573

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 82

574

DISTRIBUTION OF RATTUS MELTADA IN INDIA

Table 1

Ecological distribution of R. meltada in India

Table 2

Per cent rodents in relation to various crops in south eastern Rajasthan desert

Months of the year

Cotton

Wheat

Mustard

Barley

Jo war

Maize

— — — 33.3

11.1 83.3 11.1 5.5 72.3 3.8

— — — — 20.2 —

3.8

37.4

25.0

37.4

60

40

55.5 — — — — — _

575

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

sarson ( Brassica campestris) and barley ( Hor -

deum vulgare ) during first half of the year

(Table 2). During May to August, metad in-

vaded the jowar ( Sorghum vulgare) and maize

( Zea mays) crop fields.

After the harvesting of these crops, it infest-

ed the cotton crops from September to Decem-

ber. Results tend to indicate that this rodent

migrates from one crop to another in relation

to its maturity (Table 2). It was also reported

from ruderal habitat in Thar desert (Prakash

et al. 1971). In Sri Ganganagar district of north

western Rajasthan, where agroclimatic condi-

tions are altogether changed, it infests the crops

of gram, sugarcane, cotton and wheat (Prakash

et al. 1971).

Scrub grassland biotope

In western Rajasthan, this rodent is usually

found under thickets of Dichanthiwn annula-

tum in Jhunjhunu, Nagaur and Jodhpur regions

(Prakash et al. 1971). This metad was also

collected from gravel scattered habitat, though

in low numbers. Data reported in this investi-

gation reveals that rangeland community is

distributed on sandy plains with sparse vege-

tation due to regular cultivation and irrigation

practices either through canal or dug wells in

Sri Ganganagar, Pali, Jhunjhunu, Nagaur,

Jodhpur and Sirohi districts of the Thar desert

(Fig. 2).

Sandy plains

Secondly, scrub grassland, where moderate

soil moisture is available all the year round to

the vegetation. The vegetation cover was work-

ed out at 7.3 per cent (Prakash and Rana

1972) which is quite high rate for desert region.

20 per cent of R. m. pallidior were collected

in earlier study from rocky habitat at Pali

district (Prakash et al. 1971).

Alam (1974) and Taber et al. (1967) re-

ported its occurrence in Bangladesh and Pakis-

tan respectively. This metad is also well dis-

tributed even in the foot hills of eastern parts

of Himalaya (Verma & Mahadevan 1973).

Interrelationship with physical

ENVIRONMENT

Relationship with rainfall

Table 1 reveals that R. m. pallidior is spread

over the Punjab, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Hary-

ana, Rajasthan and Gujarat localities, where

annual amount of precipitation varies from

300 to 725 mm whereas, another subspecies

R. m. meltada is distributed in relatively higher

rainfall zones of southern India such as

Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Andhra

Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The

annual rainfall in these States varies from 1000

to 3010 mm. Besides this, it is well distributed

in high rainfall zone of eastern region of Hima-

layan foothills (Verma & Mahadevan 1973)

(Fig. 1). The rainfall and the resultant humi-

dity help the rodent in burrowing which is

mostly vertical in comparison to horizontal

burrows made by other species of desert ro-

dents. The relative abundance of R. m. palli-

dior is directly in proportion to the rainfall

and is inversely proportional to the aridity

index. Similar observations were made by

Newsome (1969) in Australian desert rodents.;

Relationship with edaphic factors

When the soil texture of different states of

India in relation to the distribution of R.

meltada was considered, the following import-

ant points emerged : R. m. pallidior usually pre-

fers alluvial and duny soil represented in

Punjab 47.0 per cent, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh,

Haryana and Gujarat states of India whereas,

the R. m. meltada inhabits the black soils.;

found in southern states of India (Table 1).

576

577

Fig. 2. Ecological distribution of R. m. pallidior in Western Rajasthan.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

R. m. pallidior occurs (Prakash et al. 1971,

Prakash and Rana 1972) in red desertic soils

of Nagaur ((22.6%), Jodhpur (33.3%) and

duny soils of Jhunjhunu (41.1 per cent) dis-

tricts in Western Rajasthan desert (Prakash

& Rana 1972, Rana 1981), (Fig 2). The soils

of Pali (33.3 per cent) Jalor (25.0 per cent)

and Sirohi (61.1 per cent) districts of south

eastern desert is situated at the foothills of

Aravalli ranges are red and yellow, where

R. m. pallidior occurred in relatively greater

numbers (Fig. 2). The soils of crop fields in

Sirohi are more clayey and consolidated pre-

ferred by R. m. pallidior (72.2 per cent,

Rana 1981) for burrowing activity. Likewise,

in Ganganagar districts R. m. pallidior was

found to prefer this soil in gram (40.0 per

cent), cotton and wheat (28.5 per cent) and

sugarcane (16.6 per cent) crop fields (Prakash

et al. 1971). The R. m. pallidior were not

collected from duny soils of Bikaner and Jaisal-

mer districts (Prakash et al. 1971) in western

Rajasthan desert.

Relationship with basal cover of vegetation

It is evident that the number of R. m.

pallidior is directly correlated with the basal

cover. 61.1 per cent of the rodents trapped

were Rattus meltada pallidior where the basal

cover was highest (7.3 per cent) in Sirohi,

Southeastern Rajasthan desert (Prakash et al.

1971). The lowest number of rodents (12.1

per cent) were collected in Cyperus arenarius-

Aristida spp. (1.0 per cent). In the Pulicaria

wight iana — Sesbania aegyptiaca — Aristida

spp. community, where the basal cover was

1.3 per cent, the frequency of metads was in

median position. These observations point out

that the basal cover of vegetation and the fre-

quency of Rattus meltada bear a direct rela-

tionship. However, the basal cover does not

have direct bearing upon relative abundance

of Meriones hurrianae in Indian desert (Pra-

kash 1972).

Interrelationship with biotic environment

Relationship with other small mammals

In northern India, R. meltada is associated

with Tatera indica, Mus booduga and Mus

musculus. In southern India, which receives

relatively more rainfall Bandicota bengalensis

occurs with them along with Tatera indica.

R. m. pallidior is found in Sri Ganganagar and

Jhunjhunu districts of northern Rajasthan along

with Tatera indica and Meriones hurrianae

(Prakash et al. 1971). Jhunjhunu and

Nagaur districts along with the former

species of rodent of the Central desert Rattus

meltada was found along with the Mus platy-

thrix sadhu (Prakash and Rana 1972), Tatera

indica and Mus spp. also occurred with this

rodent (Prakash et al. 1975). But a very

recent survey conducted by Rana (1981) esta-

blished that R. meltada pallidior is usually

found along with the Suncus murinus sind-

ensis, an insectivore and Golunda ellioti in

south eastern fringes of Thar desert.

Summary

The soft-furred field rat, Rattus meltada is i

the most abundant rodent in the Indian sub-

continent. It occurs in crop fields and scrub

grassland habitats in India but it usually pre-

fers the former. It appears that it is more

commonly found in crop fields having wheat

and sugarcane as chief crop components in

northern India. In southern India, it is found

in the Ragi and Rice crop fields environment.

In western Rajasthan desert, the frequency of

R. meltada pallidior is highest in cotton crop

fields among irrigated crops. Rattus meltada

pallidior, the north Indian rodent and Rattus

578

DISTRIBUTION OF RATTUS MELTADA IN INDIA

meltada meltada, south Indian race prefer allu-

vial duny soils and black soils respectively. In

most parts of India, it is associated with Tat era

indica, Mus booduga and Bandicota bengal-

ensis. The relative abundance of R. meltada in

various states of India and its frequency in diffe-

rent vegetational communities are discussed and

it is found to be directly related with the

amount of precipitation and inversely propor-

tional to the aridity index.

Refer

Alam, M. Z. (1974): Problems of rats of Bangla-

desh. Proc. Reg. Training Sent. Field rat Contr. Res.

Manilla, 1 : 03-04.

Ayyar, K. P. N. (1931): Notes on some rats

damaging crops in south India. /. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 34: 937.

Bhatnagar, J. K. (1966): The role of rodents

in the epidemology of plague in Uttar Pradesh.

Ind. Rodent Symp. Calcutta, 204-215.

Chandrahas, R. K. & Krishnaswami, A. K.

(1974): Ecology of the soft-furred field rat, Rattus

meltada meltada (Gray) in Kolar, Mysore State.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 445-457.

Mann, G. S. (1969): Studies on the biology and

control of field mice and analysis of rodent popu-

lation around Ludhiana. M.Sc. Thesis, PAU, Ludhi-

ana (unpublished).

Natrajan, P. (1975): Magnitude of the rat pro-

blem and possible solutions with a special reference

to plantation crops. Proc. Summ. Inst. Rodentol.

279-284.

Newsome, A. E. (1969): A population study of

House mice temporarily inhabiting a south Austra-

lian wheat field. /. Animal Ecol. 38: 341-359.

Peshwani, K. M., Katiyar, R. N., Bhatia, P. G.

& Singh. N. (1975): Control of field rats, Nesolcia

indica Grey and Millardia meltada at I.A.R.I. farm.

Proc. All India Rodent Seminar, Ahmedabad, 194-

200.

Prakash, Ishwar (1974): The ecology of verte-

brates of the Indian desert Chapter XIII in Biogeo-

graphy and Ecology in India. Dr. Junk V. B. Verlag,

The Hague, 369-420.

Prakash, I., Gupta, R. K., Jain, A. P., Rana,

B. D. & Dutta, B. K. (1971): Ecological evalua-

ACK NOWLEDGEM ENTS

I am indebted to Dr. H. S. Mann, Director,

Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur

for providing facilities and to Dr. Ishwar

Prakash, Professor of Eminence for his guid-

ance during this study. Field assistance of Sar-

vashri Mala Ram and Dev Raj is also acknow-

ledged.

e n c e s

tion of rodent population in the desert biome of

Rajasthan. Mammalia, 35: 384-423.

Prakash, I. & Rana, B. D. (1972): A study of

field population of rodents in the Indian desert. II.

Rocky and Piedmont zones. Z. angew. Zool., 69:

123-139.

Prakash, I., Jain, A. P. & Rana, B. D. (1975):

A study of field population of rodents in the Indian

desert. IV. Ruderal habitat. Z. angew. ZocA., 62 ■

339-348.

Prakash, I. (1972): Eco-toxicology and control

of the Indian desert gerbil, Meriones hurrianae

(Jerdon) IX. Ecological distribution in the Rajasthan

desert. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 510-517.

Rajaskharan, M. R. & Dharam Raju, E. (1975):

Studies on field rodents in Andhra Pradesh. Proc.

All India Rodent Seminar, Ahmedabad, 47-54.

Rana, B. D. (1981): Ecological studies on Soft-

furred field rat, Rattus meltada pallidior (Rylcy,

1914) with special reference to its feeding and breed-

ing habits, population structure and inter-specific

relationship in mixed population of small mammals.

Ph.D. Thesis, Agra University, Agra.

Rana, B. D. & Soni, B. K. (1981): Burrowing

behaviour of Rattus meltada pollidior (Ryley, 1914).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78: 370-372.

Rana, B. D. & Prakash, I. (1980): The metad —

a serious rodent pest of Agriculture. Indian Farming,

29(10): 21 & 23.

Rana, B. D. & Prakash, I. (1984): Reproduction

biology of the Soft-furred field rat, Rattus meltada

pallidior (Ryley, 1914) in the Rajasthan desert.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 81(1): 59-70.

Sagar, P. & Bindra, O. S. (1973): Species com-

position and fluctuation in population of rats and

579

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

mice in sugarcane at Ludhiana. Natl. Aca. Sci., 63:

304-312.

Salunkhe, G. N., Naik, L. M., Ganchale, D. N.

& Aw ate, B. G. (1980): Rodent control campaign

of Nauagi village (Sholapur) Maharashtra. Ind.

J. Plant Protect. 7: 124-126.

Taber, R. D., Sheri, A. M. & Ahmed, M. S.

(1967): Mammals of the Lyallpur region, West

Pakistan. J. Mammal. 48: 392-407.

Verma, R. N. & Mahadevan. B. (1973) : The

bionomics and vector potential of the scrub typhus

vector, Lepto trembidium (L.) delicnse and other

tromboculid populations in eastern Himalayas, India.

Ind. J. Med. Sci. 27: 900-919.

580

ECOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON SCH1ZOTHORAX

R1 CHA RDSONII (GRAY)1

S. P. Baloni2 and Raj Tilak3

Introduction

Garhwal Himalaya possesses a large number

of rivers and streams with fishery potential.

This region of Uttar Pradesh is entirely hilly

from where a number of torrential rivers and

hill-streams originate and flow to the plains

of northern India. Agriculture is poorly deve-

loped in Garhwal Himalaya. As a viable alter-

native to agriculture, pisciculture can supple-

ment the food scarcity in the area because of

the presence of vast water resources. Schizo-

thorax richardsonii is abundant in hill-streams

and rivers of the Garhwal region, being the

most important food and game fish of the

region. It grows to a large size. No work is

available on the bio-ecology of this species in

Garhwal Himalaya, except that of Baloni

(1979) who studied breeding behaviour of this

species. With this view detailed studies on the

ecology of S. richardsonii were conducted. In

the present study the habits and habitat, food

and feeding habits, sexual dimorphism, breeding

period and behaviour, and their correlation

with physico-chemical conditions of the rivers

and streams have been covered.

Schizothorax richardsonii (Gray) is the prin-

cipal fish of the waterways in Garhwal hills.

A bottom inhabitant of streams and rivers with

rocky and stony bed, it is well adapted to the

icy cold, super-oxygenated and fast flowing

1 Accepted October 1983.

2 Biology Department, Govt. College, Rudra-

prayag, Garhwal. Present address: Lecturer in Bio-

logy, Trim Lodge, Landour Cantt., Mussoorie

247 179.

3 Zoological Survey of India, Dehra Dun.

waters of Garhwal at various altitudes. As a

measure of adaptation to the hill-stream envi-

ronment, the fish has acquired a cylindrical

tapering form of the body, broadening of the

head, reduction of the scales and horizontally

placed paired fins. The papillated hard plate

on the ventral surface of the head is not adhe-

sive in function (Tilak, unpublished). So the

fish moves against the fast current only by the

muscular efforts of the body, for which the

body musculature is well developed.

Food and feeding habits

A bottom feeder it is predominently herbi-

vorous. The gut contents include diatoms

( Amphora , Cocconeis, Cymbella, Pragilaria,

Gomphonema, Gyrosigma, Navicula, Nitzschia,

Synedra and Tabellaria), algae ( Chlorella ,

Chlamydomonas, Cladophora, Chara, Dicho-

tomosiphon, Hormidium, Hydrodictyon, Micro -

spora, Pithophora, Zygnema, Ulothrix, Spiro-

gyra, Gleotrichia, Microcystis and Rivularia )

and macrophytes ( Potamogeton and Polygo-

num). The diatoms found in abundance are

Cymbella, Gyrosigma, Navicula and Synedra.

The algae recorded in abundance in the gut

contents are Cladophora, Hydrodictyon, Pitho-

phora, Zygnema, Spirogyra and Rivularia.

Macrophytes are only occasionally found.

The intensity of feeding decreases slightly

during the spawning period (July to Septem-

ber). In the pre-spawning period (April to

June), feeding is at its peak. After spawning,

the fish again feeds voraciously up to Novem-

ber. This appears to be correlated with the

581

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

phenomenon of vitallogenesis. The amount of

food and the rate of feeding is not uniform,

depending on reproductive stages of the fish

and turbidity of the water.

The sharp horny jaws help the fish in scraping

off diatoms and algae from the surface of the

rocks and stones. The suctorial disc on the

ventral surface of the lower jaw is unable to

fix the fish on the stones while feeding on algal

layer in strong current. It rasps off algae in

small installments making a series of crescentic

impressions on the rock (Tilak 1972).

The bottom feeding habit of the fish is cor-

related with the ventral position of the mouth

and indicated by presence of sand particles

in appreciable quantity in the gut contents. The

mouth is narrow, jaws edentulous and the

buccal cavity depressed. The gill rakers are

large, hair-like, compactly arranged processes

and constitute an efficient sieve-like apparatus.

They, thus, protect the delicate gill filaments

from the harmful effect of silt. Absence of

stomach and presence of a long and convoluted

alimentary canal indicates the herbivorous feed-

ing habit of this fish.

The length of the alimentary canal in speci-

mens of 80 mm to 560 mm total length ranged

between 197 mm and 2520 mm and the relative

length of the gut between 2.213 and 5.082.

Sexual Dimorphism

The mature male and female can be distin-

guished as follows:

(1) In the male, the snout is blunt while

in the female, it is pointed.

(2) The snout is tuberculated in the mature

male and non-tuberculated, in the female.

(3) The anal fin is long and when adpres-

sed, reaches the base of the caudal fin only in

the male.

(4) Mature males are lighter in colour than

mature females and have a straight ventral

profile while the mature females are heavier

than the males and have enlarged and disten-

ded bellies. The Males are always smaller in

size than females.

Breeding Behaviour

A monsoon breeder, the breeding season

is from July to early October. As the breeding

season approaches, the fish begin to show ex-

citement. They leap out of the water at water-

falls and migrate upstream in search of shallow

spawning grounds along banks of streams. The

fish cannot lay eggs in midstream due to the

violent force of the water-current as they are

liable to be swept away. So the shallow waters

on the sides are preferred where the act of

spawning takes place. The fish spawns several

times during the breeding season on cloudy

and rainy days.

The ovaries are paired, elongated structures,

free for the large part of their length and

fused with one another at the hind end. In the

early growth phase, they are flaccid, delicate

and translucent structures of a dirty brown

colour, becoming much distended and enlarged

during the breeding period, when they take on

a yellowish colour and present a mulberry fruit

like shape, due to the presence of the large

ova inside.

In the cold winter months, ovaries are in the

resting phase. From March onwards, the cli-

matic conditions become favourable and the

final stages of maturation occur during this

period.

The diameter of mature ova ranges between

2.99 and 3.992 mm. The fecundity of the fish

in the size range 190-560 mm in total length

ranees between 1578 and 14316.

The size at the first maturity for the female

is 175 mm, and for male 140 mm.

582

ECOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON SCHIZOTHORAX RICHARDSONII (GRAY)

In the fry of Schizothorax richardsordi, a

black lateral band ending in a black spot at the

base of caudal fin is present. The fry and finger-

lings are abundant in the shallow spawning

grounds and can be collected easily for exten-

sive culture of the fish.

Discussion

S. richardsonii is a bottom feeder and a pre-

dominently herbivorous fish (Khanna & Pant

1964, Subla & Das 1970).

A true stomach is not present in this fish.

The oesophagus is followed by an intestinal

bulb. Khanna & Pant (1964) and Nath (1979)

are of the opinion that presence of intestinal

bulb compensates for the absence of stomach

in herbivorous fishes. The intestinal bulb is

wide and spacious and leads into the intestine

which is long, thin walled and highly coiled

with several loops (Chatterji et al. 1978).

In the juveniles of S. richardsordi , the rela-

tive length of the gut is less than the adults

as they feed on aquatic insects and their larvae

and nymphs. But in the adults, the relative

length of the gut is more, indicating that the

fish is totally herbivorous in the adult stage.

The scraping mechanism is absent in the jaws

of the young stages and therefore, they feed on

the available insect larvae in the same habitat.

Shrestha & Khanna (1979) studied the

gonado-somatic index and histology of the

ovary in Schizothorax richardsordi ( S . plagios-

tomus) and concluded that the fish spawns

twice a year, once from mid-September to

October and secondly in March. Bhatnagar

(1964) also recorded two spawning periods for

this fish but according to him they were July

to August and December to January. On the

contrary, Bisht & Joshi (1975) stated that 5.

richardsonii spawns in Nainital lake only once

from late October to December. In the present

study, only one breeding period has been

observed for S. richardsonii which falls between

July and October. During this period, the mean

temperature of water was 18.5-22.5°C, pH

7. 1-7.5 and rainfall 15.3 to 19.5 mm. Shrestha

& Khanna (op. cit.) also mentioned tempera-

ture of water between 20.60-21. 5°C, pH ranged

between 6. 5-7. 2 and rainfall between 32.00-

221.20 mm. But the second breeding period

mentioned by Shrestha & Khanna (op. cit.)

falls in March when temperature of water was

18.0°C, pH 7.6 and rainfall 30.0mm. During

this month, in the streams and rivers of Garh-

wal region, the water temperature was 13.4-

16.4°C, pH 7. 2-8.0, rainfall 2.0-17.9 mm and

the fish does not breed. Bisht & Joshi (1975)

studied the histology of ovary and gonado-

somatic index of S. richardsonii and found that

the fish spawns only once during a year, that

is from late October to December. Baloni

(1979) reported that this species breeds from

mid- June to September. The variation in the

breeding period of the same species in Nainital

lake and streams and rivers of Garhwal may

be due to different ecological conditions in the

lacustrine and riverine environment of the two

different areas.

In other Schizothoracids, such as Schizotho-

raichthys niger and S. esonicus, the breeding

period has been variously described by different

workers in Kashmir. According to Raina

(1976), the breeding season of Schizothorcdch-

thys esocinus collected from Dal lake, extends

from April to late June. According to Malhotra

(1965), on the basis of the morphological

conditions of the ovaries, the breeding season

of S. niger is from January to March, Malhotra

(1970) observed the breeding season of S.

niger from middle of April to middle of June

on the basis of histological studies of the oocy-

tes, the study of the diameter of oocytes and

gonado-somatic index; he pointed out that the

583

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

breeding season depends upon the optimum

extroceptive factors like food, temperature and

light, both for the parent as well as the off-

springs. Jyoti & Malhotra (1972) stated that

S. niger breeds from March to May, thus, the

breeding season of the same species ( S . niger)

is described differently by the same authors in

different publications (Malhotra 1965, 1970,

Jyoti & Malhotra 1972).

It has been observed in the present study

that survival rate of juveniles of S. richard-

sonii is highest in these rivers and streams. The

fecundity of this fish is also high. The high

concentration of population of this species in

the streams of this area is due to proper adap-

tation of the species to the environmental con-

ditions of these streams and selection of suit-

able spawning grounds.

Water temperature plays an important role

in the various vital activities of the fish. The

water temperature of snow-fed rivers ranges

between 6.0-21.8°C and spring-fed hill streams

ranges between 7.2-28. 5°C. The lowest water

temperature is recorded during January and

February and highest during May and June.

The winter low temperature is associated with

the low feeding intensity and resting phase of

gonads. During summer months this fish is

found in deep pools in the mid-stream where

water temperature ranges between 16.3-24.5°C

and atmoshpheric temperature ranges between

33.0-44. 6°C. The temperature tolerance of S.

richardsonii ranges from 6.0 to 24.5 °C. Sehgal

(1973) reported that the temperature tolerance

of S. richardsonii ( O . plagiostomus) ranged

from 8.0°C to 22.0°C in Himachal Pradesh

waters. This species breeds in the monsoon

season when temperature remains uniformly

constant between 18.5°C and 21.5°C. From

March onwards, when temperature becomes

favourable, the fish feeds actively and final

stages of maturation are attained.

The hill-streams and rivers are well-oxy-

genated, clear and pure. S. richardsonii is found

in the water where concentration of dissolved

oxygen ranges from 8.2 ppm to 24.6 ppm. Due

to well-oxygenated water of hill-streams and

rivers, the fish is found in abundance in

these waters. The high concentration of dis-

solved oxygen is associated with the rapid flow

of water, due to clarity of water, the sunrays

penetrate the water and are utilised by the

phytoplanktons in the process of photosyn-

thesis. The pH of the rivers and streams under

study here ranges between 7. 0-8. 3. No adverse

effect has been observed on the fish within

this range of pH. Neutral and alkaline pH

is usually favourable for fish. Alkaline waters

supporting a large amount of fish food in-

directly support higher fish population and is

favourable for the growth of plankton (Das &

Srivastava 1956, Das 1961, 1967, Sreenivasan,

1963). Alkaline waters are favourable in induc-

ing the carps to spawn, this range of pH is

conducive to fertilisation and further matura-

tion (Khan 1945, Joshi 1980).

The turbidity in the snow-fed rivers starts

increasing from April onwards due to melting

of snow; highest turbidity is recorded in mon-

soon months due to excessive rainfall. In the

spring-fed streams, the water becomes turbid

during monsoon months because of monsoon

rains and clears during rest of the year. The

highest (8606.4 ppm) and lowest (0.4 ppm)

turbidity ranges were associated with the mini-

ma and maxima of phytoplanktons, dissolved

oxygen respectively. The turbidity also effects

the feeding activity of fish. During monsoon

months, due to high turbidity in the waters of

hill-streams and rivers, the fish is unable to

detect its food. It also hinders photosynthesis

and growth of the phytoplanktons.

The quantity of free carbon dioxide is very

584

ECOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON SCHIZOTHORAX RICHARDSONII {GRAY)

low (0.1-5.4 ppm) in the hill-streams and rivers

under study here and has no adverse effect

on the fish.

Refer

Baloni, S. P. (1979) : Breeding behaviour of

Schizothorax richardsonii (Gray). Geobios, 6: 176-

177.

Bhatnagar, G. K. (1964): Spawning and fecun-

dity of Bhakra reservoir fishes. Indian J. Fish.,

77 ( 1): 485-502.

Bisht, J. S. & Joshi, M. L. (1975): Seasonal

histological changes in the ovary of a mountain

stream teleost, Schizothorax richardsonii (Gray and

Hard). Acta Anatomica, 95(4): 512-525.

Chatterji, A. S., Siddiqui, Q. & Khan, A. A.

(1978): Food and feeding habits of Labeo gonius

(Hamilton) from the ri\'er Kali. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 75(1): 104-109.

Das, S. M. (1961): Hydrogen-ion-Concentration,

plankton and fish in freshwater eutrophic lakes of

India. Nature London 797(4787): 511-512.

(1967): Recent advances in fish eco-

logy in India, Nat. Acad. Sci India (Monogr.) Presi-

dential address. Thirty-sixth Annual Session. Vara-

nasi.

& Srivastava V. K. (1956): Quanti-

tative studies on freshwater plankton pt. II. Corre-

lation between plankton and hydrological factors.

Proc. nat. Acad. Sci. India, 26 B(4): 243-253.

Joshi, S. N. (1980): Certain environmental para-

meters during induced breeding of Labeo gonius

(Hamilton). Geobios, 7(3): 140-141.

Jyoti. M. K. & Malhotra, Y. R. (1972): Studies

on the fecundity of Schizothorax niger Heckel from

Dal lake (Kashmir). Indian J. Exp. Bio., 70(1):

74-75.

Khan. H. (1945): Observations on the spawning

behaviour of carps in the Punjab. In the “Sympo-

sium on the factors influencing the spawning of

Indian carps. "Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India, 77:315-320.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to Director, Zoological Sur-

vey of India, Calcutta for facilities.

e n c e s

Khanna, S. S. & Pant, M. C. (1964): On the

digestive tract and the feeding habits of some tole-

ostean fishes. Agra JJniv. J. Res. (Science), 75: 15-30.

Malhotra. Y. R. (1965): Seasonal variation in

the morphology of the ovaries of a Kashmir fish

Schizothorax niger Heckel. Kashmir Sci., 2: 27-39.

(1970): Studies on the seasonal

changes in the ovary of Schizothorax niger from

Kashmir. lap. J. Ichth., 77(3): 110-116.

Nath, S. (1979): On the food, feeding habits

and alimentary tract of Crossocheilus latius diplo-

chilus (Heckel) in Kashmir Valley and adjacent

areas. Matsya, 5: 14-76.

Raina, H. S. (1976): Seasonal histological changes

in the ovary of Schizothorax esocinus Heckel. Matsya.

2: 66-71.

Sehgal, K. L. (1973): Fisheries survey of Hima-

chal Pradesh and some adjacent areas with special

reference to trout, Mahseer and allied species. 7.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 70:448-474.

Shrestha, T. K., & Khanna, S. S. (1979): Struc-

tures and histological changes in the ovary of the

Nepalese snow trout Schizothorax plagiostomus

(Heckal), Matsya, 5:23-34.

Sreenivasan, A. (1963): Limnology of tropical

impoundments. Upland impoundments of Nilgiris

(Madras), Phykos, 8: 10-16.

Subla, B. A. & Das, S. M. (1970): Studies on

the feeding habits, the food and the seasonal fluctu-

ation in feeding in nine Kashmir fishes. Kashmir

Sci., 7(1-2) : 25-44.

Tilak, R. (1972): On the fishes of River Tawi

and its tributaries (Jammu State) with notes on

ecology. Rec. Zool. Surv. India, Calcutta, 65(1-4):

183-232.

585

STUDIES ON THE INDIAN STRACHIINI

(PENTATOMIDAE: PENTATOMINAE)1

M. Nayyar Azim and S. Adam Shafee2

( With two text-figures)

The tribe Strachiini is redefined. Key to Indian genera of the tribe is given.

Additional generic characters of male and female genitalia are proposed. Bagrada

picta (Fabricius) and Eurydema pulchrum (Westwood) are illustrated; Stenozygum

parspeciosum sp. nov. is described and illustrated.

Introduction

Mulsant & Rey (1867) proposed the group

Strachiaires under Pentatomiens. Stal (1872),

Leston (1958), De la Fuente (1971) and Gross

(1976) recognised Mulsant & Rey’s (1867)

group as division Strachiaria, subfamily Stra-

chiinae, tribe Strachiini and group Strachia

respectively.

The genera Strachia Hahn and Eurydema

Laporte have many common characters and

it is desirable to place them under one group.

The group name Strachiaires Mulsant & Rey

has priority over Eurydemaria Distant. There-

fore, the latter name is dropped.

We follow De la Fuente (1971) in recognis-

ing Strachiini as tribe under the subfamily

Pentatominae.

diagnosis: Body brilliantly coloured with

metallic iridescent; head wider than long, juga

with lateral margins reflexed; rostrum slender,

4-segmented, extending to or beyond middle

coxae; antennae 5-segmented; pronotum with

anterolateral margins smooth and slightly re-

flexed, humeral angles usually obtuse, scutel-

lum gradually narrowing apically, extending

beyond middle of abdomen; metastemal scent

1 Accepted October 1981.

2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

gland ostiole, peritreme and evaporatoria in-

distinct; mesosternum with longitudinal carina

medially; fore legs with femora unarmed; ab-

dominal venter unsulcated and unarmed at

base; spermatheca with proximal part of sclero-

tised tube broad and bulbous, bulb usually

without tubular outgrowths; female genitalia

plate-like type.

The tribe is represented by four genera from

India and a key for their separation is given

below:

Key to Indian genera of the tribe Strachiini

Mulsant & Rey

1 . Pronotum with anterolateral margins straight,

humeral angles obtuse; first antennal segment

never reaching apex of head 2

— Pronotum with anterolateral margins deeply

sinuate, humeral angles much acute; first anten-

nal segment reaching beyond apex of head

(Distant, 1902: fig. 118; Ahmad et at., 1974:

fig. 73) Strachia Hahn, 1831

2. Bucculae shorter than first rostral segment;

second antennal segment longer than third (figs.

1A, 2B); spermatheca (figs. 1C, 2F) with proxi-

mal flange large 3

— Bucculae as long as first rostral segment; second

antennal segment shorter than third (fig. 2J);

spermatheca (fig. 2M) with proximal flange

small, distal part of duct moderately long and

uncoiled; female genitalia (fig. 2L) with first

gonocoxae quadrate apical angle projecting

laterally Stenozygum Fieber, 1861

586

STUDIES ON THE INDIAN STRACHIINI

3. Pronotum with anterior margin slightly concave;

last tergum (fig. ID) in female with posterior

margin deeply concave; female genitalia (fig.

IB) with first gonocoxae much broad, sperma-

theca (fig. 1C) with distal part of duct small;

male genitalia with claspers (fig. IF) comma-

shaped, subgenital plate (fig. 1 I) anteriorly with

a prolongation Bagrada Stal, 1862

— Pronotum with anterior margin deeply concave;

last tergum (fig. 2D) in female with posterior

margin convex; female genitalia (fig. 2E) with

first gonocoxae narrow, spermatheca (fig. 2F)

with distal part of duct long and coiled; male

genitalia with clasper (fig. 2G) plate-like bear-

ing long spine-like process apically, subgenital

plate (fig. 2H) anteriorly without prolongation

Eurydema Laporte, 1832

1 . Genus Strachia Hahn

Strachia Hahn, 1831: 180

Type-species: Strachia crucigera Hahn

Body brilliantly coloured; head distinctly

wider than long; juga longer than tylus and

meeting apically, lateral margins reflexed; ros-

trum extending upto hind coxae; antennae 5-

segmented, first segment reaching beyond apex

I of head; antenniferous tubercles slightly visible

from above; pronotum with anterior margin

deeply concave, anterolateral margins deeply

sinuate, humeral angles acute; scutellum well

developed; mesosternum with a longitudinal

I carina medially; metasternal scent gland ostiole,

peritreme and evaporatoria indistinct; abdo-

minal venter unsulcated and unarmed at base.

Strachia crucigera Hahn

Strachia crucigera Hahn, 1831: 184.

Strachia crucigera Hahn; Distant, 1902: 195.

Strachia crucigera Hahn; Ahmad et al., 1974:

50.

Material examined. IARI, New Delhi Collec-

tion: 1 2, Bengal, Dacca, 15.i 1906 (R-2103);

1 2, Bengal, Dacca, ll.i. 1906 (R-2104); 1 9,

Bengal, Dacca. Ill 1906 (R-2102).

2. Genus Bagrada Stal

Bagrada Stal, 1862: 105.

Type-species : Cimex picta Fabricius

The genus Bagrada was first proposed by

Stal (1862) with Cimex picta as its type. Mul-

sant & Rey (1867) proposed Nitilia as sub-

genus under Bagrada Stal. The genus has been

thoroughly revised by Horvath (1936). He

arranged 25 species under three subgenera:

Bagrada S. str., Nitilia Mulsant & Rey and

Ayeshella Horvath.

Head distinctly wider than long; juga longer

than tylus and meeting apically, lateral and

apical margins reflexed; rostrum extending upto

hind coxae, bucculae shorter than first rostral

segment; antennae 5-segmented, first segment

nearly reaching apex of head; antenniferous

tubercles slightly visible from above; pronotum

with anterolateral margins reflexed, humeral

angles obtuse; scutellum short and triangular;

mesosternum with a longitudinal carina medi-

ally; metasternal scent gland ostiole, peritreme

and evaporatoria indistinct; abdominal venter

unsulcated and unarmed at base. Some addi-

tional generic characters are suggested which

are as follows: last tergum in female (fig. ID)

with anterior margin straight, posterior margin

broadly notched medially. Female genitalia:

external plates (fig. IB), first gonocoxae much

enlarged and quadrate, 8th and 9th parater-

gites very small; spermatheca (fig. 1C), proxi-

mal part of sclerotised tube broad and bulbous,

bulb oblong without outgrowths, distal part

of duct small, proximal flange large. Male geni-

talia: claspers (fig. IF) comma-shaped, pseu-

doclaspers (fig. 1G) spatulate; subgenital plate

(fig. 1 1), anterior margin with a prolongation

medially.

Bagrada picta (Fabricius)

(Fig. 1 A-I)

Cimex picta Fabricius, 1775: 715.

587

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Bagrada picta (Fabricius); Stal, 1862: 105.

Bagrada picta (Fabricius); Distant, 1902: 193.

Bagrada picta (Fabricius); Horvath, 1936: 23,

28.

Material examined. 8 $ , 8 , INDIA: Uttar

Pradesh, Aligarh, University Botanical garden,

on Brassica compestris Linn., 27.vii.1977 (M.

Nayyar Azim); 6 2, 8 c?, 5.iv.l978, rest of

data same as above.

IARI, New Delhi Collection: 1 9, Saharan-

pur, Botanical garden, on Mustard and Cab-

bage, 30.ix.1917 (R-139); 1 2, U.P., Saharan-

pur. Botanical garden, 19. iv. 1909 (R-406); 1

2 , U.P., Saharanpur, Botanical Garden.

19. iv. 1909 (R-390); ltf, (Saran & Mackanzie

Coll., R-412); Id1, Saharanpur, Botanical gar-

den, on Mustard and Cabbage, 30. iv. 1917 (R-

148); 1 $ , Chendwora, 22.iii.1922 (C. P. Coll.,

R-503); 1$, Pusa. 18. ii. 1921 (S. C. Sarkar

Coll.. R-551).

3 . Genus Eurydema Laporte

Eurydetna Laporte, 1832 : 61.

Type-species: Cirnex oleraceum Linnaeus.

Head distinctly wider than long; juga dis-

tinctly longer than tylus and meeting apically,

lateral margins reflexed; rostrum extending

beyond middle coxae, bucculae shorter than

first rostral segment; antennae 5-segmented,

first segment not reaching apex of head; anten-

niferous tubercles slightly visible from above;

pronotum with anterior margin deeply con-

cave, anterolateral margins straight, humeral

angles obtuse; scutcllum well developed, sub-

acute apically; mesosternum with a longitu-

dinal carina medially; metastemal scent gland

ostiole, peritreme and evaporatoria indistinct;

abdominal venter unsulcated and unarmed at

base. Some additional generic characters arc

suggested which are as follows: last tergum in

female (fig. 2D) with anterior and posterior

margins convex. Female genitalia: external

plates (fig. 2E), first gonocoxae quadrate,

inner margin straight, paratergites 8th triangu-

lar. 9th oblong; spermatheca (fig. 2F), proxi-

mal part of sclerotised tube slightly broad and

bulbous, bulb semicircular and without tubular

outgrowths, distal part of duct long and coiled,

proximal flange large. Male genitalia: claspers

(fig. 2G) platelike bearing a long spine like

process apically, subgenital plate (fig. 2H),

anterior and posterior margins convex and

concave respectively.

Eurydema pulchrum (Westwood)

(Fig. 2 A-H)

Pentatoma pulchrum Westwood, 1837: 34.

Strachia pulchrum (Westwood); Dallas, 1851:

258.

Eurydema sumatrana Ellenrieder, 1862: 152.

Strachia designata Walker, 1867: 327.

Eurydema pulchrum (Westwood); Stal, 1876:

86.

Eurydema pulchrum (Westwood); Distant,

1902: 190.

Eurydema pulchrum (Westwood); Distant,

1918: 137.

Eurydema pulchrum (Westwood); Hoffmann,

1932: 553, 561, 563.

Eurydema pulchrum (Westwood); Ahmad

et al.. 1974: 47.

This species has been described in detail

by Distant (1902).

Material examined. 8 2, 8 d" , INDIA :

Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh, University Botanical

garden, on Raphanus sativus Linn., 20.vi.1976

(M. Nayyar Azim); 2 2 , on Brassica oleracea

Linn., 4.iv.l977, rest of data same as above.

IARI, New Delhi collection: 1 d*, Uttar

Pradesh. Mussoorie, on turnip leaves, 24.vi.1940

(H. S. Pruthi Coll., R-8111); 1 9, Bihar, Pusa.

on weed, 27.iii.1933 (W. K. Wesley Coll.),

Eurydema pulchrum (Westwood) det. Sucheta;

1 9, Trichinopolly, on Paddy (Baldev Coll.),

588

t\J

3

STUDIES ON THE INDIAN STRACHIINl

Fig. 1. A-I. Bagrada picta (Fabricius), 9, $ .

(A). Entire body, 9; (B). External genitalia, 9; (C). Spermatheca, 9; (D). Last

abdominal tergum, 9; (E). Pygophore, $; (F). Clasper, $ ; (G). Pseudoclasper, $ ;

(H). Aedeagus, $; (I). Subgenital plate, $.

589

10

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Eurydema pulchrum (Westwood) det. Sucheta;

1 9 , Baluchistan, May 1932 (C. K. Samuel

Coll.), Eurydema pulchrum (Westwood) det.

Sucheta; 1 cf, U.P. Mussoorie, on turnip

leaves, 24. vi. 1940 (H. S. Pruthi Coll., R-8110),

Eurydema pulchrum (Westwood) det. M. Bose.

Eurydema festivum (Linnaeus)

Cimex festivum Linnaeus, 1767: 723.

Eurydema festivum (Linnaeus); Reuter, 1884:

68.

Eurydema festivum (Linnaeus); Distant, 1902:

191.

Eurydema festivum (Linnaeus); Royer, 1923:

250.

Eurydema festivum (Linnaeus); Hoffmann,

1932: 553.

Eurydema festivum (Linnaeus); Kupka,

1944: 128.

This species has been described in detail by

Distant (1902).

Material examined. IARI, New Delhi Collec-

tion: 1 cf, Afghanistan, Doaba, on Carrot

flowers, 14.viii. 1 939 (T. Ahmad Coll., R-8128);

1 9 , Afghanistan, Kandahar, on apricot leaves,

22.vii.1939 (T. Ahmad Coll. R-8127), Eury-

dema festivum (Linn.) det. M. Bose; 1 cf,

Afghanistan, Doaba, on carrot flowers, 14.viii.

1939 (T. Ahmad Coll., R-8121), Eurydema

festivum (Linn.) det. M. Bose, 1942; 1 cf»

Afghanistan, on Iporhea doaba, 14.vii. 1 939 (T.

Ahmad Coll., R-8118), Eurydema Festivum

(Linn.) det. B. Uvarov. 1940.

Eurydema lituriferum (Walker)

Strachia lituriferum Walker, 1867: 326.

Eurydema vicarium Horvath, 1889: 32.

Eurydema lituriferum (Walker); Distant,

1902: 191.

Eurydema lituriferum (Walker); China, 1925:

454.

This species has been described in detail by

Distant (1902).

Material examined. IARI, New Delhi Collec-

tion: 1 9 , Uttar Pradesh, Mussoorie, on turnip

leaves, 24.vi.1940, (H. S. Pruthi Coll., R-8115).

4. Genus Stenozygum Fieber

Stenozygum Fieber, 1861: 345.

Type-species: Stenozygum variegatum Fieber,

1861 (= Stenozygum coloratum Fieber).

Head impunctate and distinctly wider than

long; juga dilated apically, lateral margins re-

flexed and slightly sinuate before eyes; rostrum

extending beyond middle coxae, bucculae as

long as first rostral segment; antennae 5-seg-

mented, first segment not reaching apex of

head, second shorter than third; pronotum with

anterior and anterolateral margins reflexed,

humeral angles obtuse with a distinct impressed

transverse line across humeral angles; scutellum

well developed, narrowing apically; mesoster-

num with a longitudinal carina medially; meta-

sternal scent gland ostiole, peritreme and eva-

poratoria indistinct; abdominal venter unsul-

cated and unarmed at base.

Some additional generic characters are sug-

gested which are as follows: Female genitalia:

external plates (fig. 2L), first gonocoxae quad-

rate, apical angles directed laterally, parater-

gites 8th triangular, 9th oblong; spermatheca

(fig. 2M), proximal part of sclerotised tube

broad and bulbous, bulb oblong without out-

growths, apical duct moderately long and un-

coiled, proximal flange not much prominent.

Recently, Ghauri (1972) proposed a sub-

genus Setozygum under Stenozygum for the

species Stenozygum ( Stenozygum ) pseudospeci-

osum Ghauri. He separated Setozygum from

Stenozygum on the basis of its having ampliat-

ed juga, enclosing tylus, length of second anten-

nal segment and setigerous superior process

of the pygophore.

Wc uphold Ghauri (1972) in dividing the

genus Stenozygum Fieber into two subgenera:

590

STUDIES ON THE INDIAN STRACH1INI

Fig. 2 A-H. Eurydcma pitlchrum (Westwood), 2, $.

(A). Head and thorax in dorsal view, 2; (B). Antenna, 2; (C) Hemelytra, 2

(D). Last abdominal tergum, 2; (E). External genitalia, 2; (F). Spermatheca, 2

(G). Clasper, $ \ (H). Subgenital plate, $.

Fig. 2 I-M. Stenozygum ( Stenozygum ) parspeciosum sp. nov., 2 .

(I). Head and thorax in dorsal view, 2; (J). Antenna, 2; (K). Hemelytra, 2; (L)

External genitalia, 2; (M). Spermatheca, 2.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Stenozygum S. str. and Setozygum Ghauri.

Further, we assigned the new species under

the subgenus Stenozygum S. str.

Stenozygum (Stenozygum) parspeciosum

sp. nov.

(Fig. 2 I-M)

FEMALE

Head (fig. I). Dark except inner margins of

juga, two circular spots anterior to ocelli and

one large oblong median spot ochraceous; juga

as long as tylus and separated apically; eyes

reddish brown, ocelli red; space between ocellus

and inner orbital margin about one-fourth the

inter-ocellar space. Rostrum yellowish brown

except the apical segment dark, extending upto

hind coxae; segments I, II, III and IV, 0.59,

0.79, 0.41 and 0.41 mm in length respectively.

Antennae dark; segments I, II, III, IV and V,

0.42, 0.45, 0.85, 0.91 and 0.9 mm in length

respectively.

Thorax. Pronotum dark except anterolateral

margins, broad anchor-shaped spot medially

and six small spots ochraceous, anterior mar-

gin concave, anterolateral margins straight and

reflexed, humeral angles obtuse, maximum

width about two and a half times its median

length; scutellum yellowish except two basal

and two subapical spots black. Hemelytra with

coriurn sparsely punctate, spotted with yellow

and dark patches as shown in fig. K, membrane

infuscated except apical border hyaline, extend-

ing slightly beyond apex of abdomen. Legs:

Coxae, femora with inner surfaces, tibiae with

Refer

Ahmad, I., Abbasi, Q. A. & Khan, A. A. (1974) :

Generic and supergeneric keys with reference to a

check list of Pentatomid fauna of Pakistan (Hetcr-

optera: Pentatomoidea) with notes on their distri-

bution and food plants. Ent. Soc. Karachi I: 1-103.

China, W. E. (1925): The hemiptera collected

by Prof. J. W. Gregory’s Expedition to Yunnan,

outer and inner surfaces and second tarsal

segment yellowish, remaining dark.

Abdomen. Dorsum orange yellow except

connexivum with yellow and dark bands, ven-

ter yellowish with double series of dark spots.

Female genitalia as in generic description and

as shown in figs.

Body length: 7.5 mm.

Holotype $. INDIA: Uttar Pradesh, Ali-

garh, University Botanical garden, on Brassica

compestris Linn., 20.vii. 1 977 (M. Nayyar

Azim)

Paratype. 2 , same data as holotype.

Material deposited in the Zoological Mu-

seum, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,

India.

The new species is closely related to Steno-

zygum speciosum (Dallas), but differs from it

by having rostrum reaching upto hind coxae,

head with five luteous spots; pronotum with

anchor-shaped patch medially, rostral seg-

ments I-III yellowish.

ACK N OVVLEDGE M E N TS

We are greatly indebted to Prof. Nawab

H. Khan, Head, Department of Zoology, Ali-

garh Muslim University, Aligarh, for provid-

ing research facilities. One of us (M. N. A.)

is thankful to the U.G.C., New Delhi for finan-

cial assistance. Thanks are also due to Dr.

(Miss) Swaraj Ghai, Systematic Entomologist,

for providing facilities to study the Insect

Collection at I.A.R.I. Museum, New Delhi.

e n c e s

with synonymic notes on allied species. Ann. Mag.

Nai. Hist. 16: 449-485.

Dallas, W. S. (1851): List of specimens of Hemi-

pterous insects in the collection of the British

Museum. Brit. Mus. Pub. Pt. I: 1-368.

De la Fuente, J. A. (1971) : Claves para la iden-

tification de los generos de Hemipteros Hcteropter-

592

STUDIES ON THE INDIAN STRACHIINI

ous de la region paleartica occidental. 1. Pentato-

moidea Reuter, 1910. Trabajos, Cated. Atrop. Dep.

Zool. Madrid No. 2: 1-56.

Distant, W. L. (1902): The fauna of British

India including Ceylon and Burma. Rhynchota, Vol.

I (London, Taylor & Francis).

(1918): The fauna of British

India including Ceylon and Burma. Rhynchota, Vol.

7. (London, Taylor & Francis).

Ellenrieder (1862) : Naturkundig Tijdschrift voor

Nederlandsche Indie. Batavia.

Fabricius, J. C. (1775): Systema Entomologiae

Systens Insectorum Classes. Ordines, genera, species,

adiectis synonymis, locis, descriptionibus, observati-

on ibus. Flensburgi et Lipsiae.

Fieber. F. X. (1861): Die europaischen Hemi-

ptcra Halbflunger. (Rhynchota: Heteroptera) . 113-

444.

Ghauri, M. S. K. (1972) : Notes on the Hemiptera

from Pakistan and adjoining areas. J. nat. Hist. 6:

279-288.

Gross, G. F. (1976): Plant-feeding and other

bugs (Hemiptera) of South Australia. Heteroptera

Part II: 251-501.

Hahn, C. W. (1831) : Die Wanzenartigen Insecten.

I. Nuremberg.

Hoefmann, W. E. (1932): The economic status

of the genus Eurydema with biological notes on E.

pulchrum West. (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Ling.

Sci. J. 11: 553-564.

Horvath, G. ( 1 889) : Analecta ad cognitionem

Heteropterorum Himalayansium. Termesz. Fuzetek.

12: 29:40.

(1936): Monographia Pentatomid-

aurum Generis Bagrada. Ann. Mus. Nat. Hung. 30:

22-47.

Ianisch, E. (1931): Experimented untersuchun-

gen uber die Wirkung dcr umweltfaktoren auf Insek-

ten. II. ueber die Mortalitat und die variations breite

tropischer Insekten in Ceylon mit allgemeinen Ber-

merkungen uber die Unweltabhangigkeit and das

biologische Optimum. Z. Morph. Oekol. Tiere. Ber-

lin 22: 287-348.

Kupka, P. L. B. (1944): Almarkische Heterop-

teren Eine Erganzung der Schumacherschen Nach-

prufung der Wahnschaffeschen Sammlung. Mitt,

dtsch. ent. Ges. Berlin. 13: 125-134.

Laporte, F. L. De (1832) : Essai d'une Classifica-

tion Systematique de 1’ ordre des Hemipteres (Hemip-

teres, Heteropteres, Latr.). Mag. Zool. 2: 1-88. .

Leston, D. (1958): Higher Systematics of Shield-

bugs (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Proc. X. Inter.

Congr. Ent. 1 : 325.

Linnaeus, C. (1757): Systema, Naturae. Ed.

10 Hemiptera. Imprensis Direct. (Laurentii Salvii,

Holmiae).

Mulsant, E. & Rey, C. (1867) : Histoire Naturelle

des Punaises de France (Pentatomides). Ann. Soc.

Linn. Lyon. 14: 1-288.

Reuter, O. M. (1884): Monographia Anthocori-

darum orbis terrestris. Acta. Soc. Sci. Fenn. 14:

1-204.

Royer, M. (1923): Notes Synonymiques (Hemipt.)

Bull. Soc. Ent. France Paris. 250-252.

Stal. C. (1862): Hemiptera Mexicana enumeravit

speciesque novas descripsit. Stett. Ent. Ztg. 23: 81-

118.

(1872): Genera Pentatomidarum Euro-

pae disposuit. Of vers. K. svenska. Vetensk. Akad.

Fork. 29: 31-40.

(1876): Enumeratio Hemipteroram 5.

Kongl. Svenska Vetensk. Akad. Hand!. 14: 1-162.

Walker. F. (1867): Catalogue of the specimens

of Heteropterous-Hemiptera in the collection of the

British Museum. Brit. Mus. Pub. Pt. II: 241-417.

Westwood, J. O. (1837): A catalogue of Hemip-

tera in the collection of the Rev. W. F. Hope with

short Latin description of new species. Part I. (J. C.

Bridgewater. London).

593

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA

IN SOME INDIAN BATS1

PART XI — MINIOPTERUS SCHREIBERS/1 FULIG/NOSUS (HODG-

SON) — VESPERTILIONIDAE

A. Gopalakrishna2, A. T. Varute3, V. M.

Sapkal2, A. R. Unune3 and G. C. Chari2

Miniopterus schreibersii fuliginosus has a strict reproductive periodicity at Maha-

baleshwar in Western Ghats, India. All adult females in the colony copulate in the

second and the third weeks of February and conceive immediately. All deliveries in

the colony occur between the 15th and 25th June. Gestation period is about 120 to

125 days. Ovulation as a rule takes place from the left ovary and the egg develops

in the left Fallopian tube into a morula which quickly passes through the left uterine

cornu and undergoes further development and implantation in the right cornu. The

right ovary releases the o\um in very rare exceptional cases, and the embryo implants

in the right uterus. The left uterus never carries the conceptus. There is community

suckling of the young ones. The young ones grow rapidly during the suckling period

and reach nearly the adult size by the time they are weaned. While the sex ratio is

even during juvenile life, there is a female dominant uneven sex ratio in the adult stage.

Introduction

Miniopterus, with its various species and

subspecies, has a wide distribution in the Old

World and occurs in Europe, India, Africa,

Australia and many islands in South East

Pacific. The breeding habits of Miniopterus

australis from New Hebrides (Baker & Bird

1936), New South Wales (Dwyer 1968),

Borneo (Medway 1971) and from South

Australia (Richardson 1977) and of Miniopte-

rus schreibersii from France (Courrier 1927,

Brosset 1962), New South Wales (Dwyer 1963)

and South Australia (Richardson 1977) have

been studied in some detail. A perusal of the

literature on the breeding habits of Miniopte-

1 Accepted June 1981.

2 Department of Zoology, Institute of Science,

Nagpur.

Department of Zoology, Shiva ji University,

Kolhapur.

rus schreibersii reveals that this species and its

subspecies not only exhibit some very unusual

features, but their breeding pattern varies con-

siderably in different geographical regions.

Since details concerning the reproduction of

the Indian subspecies, Miniopterus schreibersii

fuliginosus, are not known except for a casual

reference to the occurence of pregnant females

in the colony during certain months (Brosset

1962) while reporting on some aspects of the

ecology of this species, it was felt that a de-

tailed study of the reproduction of this bat

would yield very useful data.

The present work, which involved constant

examination of the colony of Miniopterus

schreibersii fuliginosus for nearly four years

and a half, was a joint effort by two groups

of workers, one from the Institute of Science,

Nagpur and the other from the Shivaji Uni-

versity, Kolhapur. The two groups have work-

ed in close collaboration and have made volu-

594

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART XI

Table 1

Summary of collection diary

595

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

minous notes on various aspects of the biology

of this species. The present report embodies

observations on the breeding habits and asso-

ciated phenomena of this bat.

Material and Methods

Although many colonies of bats of this

species were examined at frequent intervals

and specimens were collected from several

colonies, all the specimens for the present

report were collected from the Robbers’ cave

near Mahabaleshwar in Western Ghats where

a very large colony of about 200,000 specimens

is present. Specimens were collected at random

at frequent intervals between 1st June 1975

and 23rd February 1980. Adult and immature

animals of both sexes were present in the

colony throughout the year thereby indicating

that there is no seasonal or sexual segregation

of the specimens. The specimens were killed

by chloroform and their body weights were

recorded immediately. After recording the

condition of the external genitalia in each i

specimen and the character of the mammary I

glands and nipples in the females, the genital i

596

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART XI

organs and accessory reproductive structures

were dissected out and fixed either in Bouin’s

fixative or in 10% neutral formalin. Serial

sections of the tissues were cut after following

the usual procedure and examined after

staining with Ehrlich’s haematoxylin and

eosin.

Table 2

Month wise collection of specimens

A detailed collection diary was maintained.

Tables 1 and 2 give the summary of the col-

lection diary and monthwise collection of speci-

mens respectively.

Observations

1 . general remarks on Miniopterus schrei-

bersii fuliginosus

Brosset (1962) gave an excellent descrip-

tion of the Robbers’ cave with a brief account

of the ecology of Miniopterus schreibersii

fuliginosus inhabiting it. According to Brosset

(1962) this is the largest colony of Miniopte-

rus schreibersii in the world. The colony in the

Robbers’ cave is the ‘mother’ colony and there

arc several ‘subsidiary’ colonies within a radius

of about 100 km. The population of the bats

in the ‘subsidiary’ colonies varies from a few

hundreds to a few thousands during different

months of the year. It is very likely that a

small number of these bats migrate periodically

between the ‘mother’ and the ‘subsidiary’

colonies. Tt is impossible to determine the minor

seasonal variations in the population of the

specimens in the ‘mother’ colony since it is

extremely thickly populated throughout the

year. Since the present report concerns only

the specimens from the Robbers’ cave at

Mahabaleshwar, details regarding the compo-

sition of the ‘subsidiary’ colonies have not been

incorporated in the present report.

The mother carries the new born young only

for a day or two after which the sucklings in

the colony are placed in groups of about a

hundred or more in each group. There are

several such groups of sucklings in the colony

during June, July and August. Mothers in

lactation visit these groups periodically and

give suck to the young on a community basis.

During these months one can pick up 40 to

50 sucklings from these huddled groups with

ones hand. The sucklings do not leave the

groups until they are able to fly. Hence, while

grown up animals were collected while they

were in flight with the help of butterfly nets

or with a large mist net. the sucklings were

picked up at random, a few at a time, from

the groups within the niches in the walls of

the cave.

The Robbers’ cave also contained a small

number of specimens of Rousettus leschenaulti

which remain mostly near the entrance of the

cave. Miniopterus schreibersii fuliginosus oc-

cupies not only the regions near the entrance

of the cave but the deeper parts of the cave.

The deeper regions of the cave are almost ex-

clusively occupied by Miniopterus schreibersii

fuliginosus.

597

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

2. MORPHOLOGY OF THF FEMALE REPRODUC-

TIVE ORGANS

Although the general construction of the

female genitalia is similar to that of all other

microchiropteran bats (except the phyllosto-

mids) in having a bicornuate uterus, there is

a marked bilateral asymmetry of the uterine

cornua in Miniopterus schreibersii fuliginosus,

the right cornu being considerably longer and

thicker than the left. Even in the juvenile ani-

mals the right uterine cornu is distinctly larger

than the left. In the non-pregnant adult

animals the right cornu is 5.5 mrn long and

0.8 mm thick while the left cornu is 2.4 mm

long and 0.6 mm thick. The lumina of the

uterine cornua become broadly confluent at

their caudal ends and a common cervical canal

opens into the vagina at the tip of a short

cervix. The vagina is 7.8 mm long and opens

by a transverse slit-like opening.

The ovaries are enclosed in a complete

bursa, and the Fallopian tubes arise from the

postero-median aspect of the bursa, curves to-

wards the lateral side after passing along the

cranial margin of the bursa and opens into

the cranial end of the respective uterine cornu.

The mammary glands are pectoral in posi-

tion and have each a laterally directed nipple,

which becomes enlarged during the first lacta-

tion and remains at nearly the same size

throughout the rest of the life of the animal.

In the immature females the mammary nipples

arc either not recognizable or are so incon-

spicuous as to be not visible by superficial

examination since they are hidden in a mass

of fur. The size of the mammary nipples,

therefore, can be taken as a valid criterion to

determine the sexual maturity or otherwise of

the females. The females experiencing their

first pregnancy can be identified only after

dissection of the genital organs which contain

an embryo. The mammary nipples in these

animals are inconspicuous during early stages

of pregnancy, and enlarge slightly during the

second half of gestation.

3. NUMBER OF YOUNG AND THE SYMMETRY

OF THE FEMALE GENITALIA

One of the most outstanding features re-

vealed by the present study is the unique

physiological bilateral asymmetry of the female

genital organs of this bat. During each cycle

a single ovum is released as a rule from the

left ovary, and this undergoes fertilization in

the left Fallopian tube. The egg develops into

a morula while still in the Fallopian tube and,

after passing quickly through the left uterine

cornu, reaches the right cornu. The embryo

implants in the middle of the length of the

right uterine cornu and undergoes further

development. Altogether 545 pregnant females

were collected, and in every specimen, which

had post-implantation stages of development,

the conceptus was carried in the right uterine

cornu. Between 16th and 22nd June 29 speci-

mens had undergone parturition, and in each

of these cases the right uterine cornu had

carried the foetus as evidenced by the fact

that the right uterine cornu was still in the

post-partum condition. The results of the

microscopic examination of the ovaries and

the female genital tract have been already re-

ported (Gopalakrishna et al. 1981). Only per-

tinent details are mentioned briefly here. A

corpus luteum was present in the left ovary in

all but four specimens out of 285 specimens

examined microscopically. Tn the four excep-

tional cases the corpus luteum was present in

the right ovary. While many specimens had

unimplanted embryos in the left Fallopian tube

and the left uterine cornu, there was not a

single specimen with an implanted embryo in

the left uterine cornu.

598

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART XI

From the facts mentioned above it is evi-

dent that Miniopterus schreibersii fuliginosus

exhibits a very unique type of physiological

asymmetry of the female genitalia. While the

left ovary as a rule is functional in releasing

the ovum, pregnancy is invariably carried in

the right uterine cornu. Evidently the embryo

undergoes transuterine migration from the left

to the right side. Even in the exceptional cases,

in which ovulation occurs from the right ovary,

pregnancy is carried in the right uterine cornu.

4. BREEDING HABITS

The examination of Table 1 reveals that

females carrying unmistakable pregnancy as

evidenced by the presence of a swollen uterine

cornu were available in the colony from 1st

March until 22nd June. Pregnant females were

not available during the other months of the

year. Evidently, Miniopterus schreibersii fuli-

ginosus has a sharply defined annual repro-

ductive cycle. Microscopic examination of the

female genital organs of the specimens reveal-

ed the following facts. No female had under-

gone copulation until 11th February. Eight of

the 14 female specimens collected on 11th

February and 18 of the 21 specimens collected

on 15th February had spermatozoa

in the uterus and Fallopian tubes. But none

had undergone ovulation. Of the 35 specimens

collected on 17th February 24 had spermatozoa

in the uterus and Fallopian tubes and four

had ova undergoing fertilization. From this date

onwards there was progressively a greater

proportion of adult females which had under-

gone copulation and had early embryos than

those which had not received spermatozoa. All

adult females collected on 23rd February had

eggs in early cleavage or early morulae. These

facts indicate that all adult females in the

colony conceive in a sharply defined period bet-

ween 17th February and 23rd February. Adult

females were carrying progressively more ad-

vanced conceptuses after this date until 16th

June when a female carrying a young at her

breast was collected early in the morning. The

young one. which was attached to the breast of

the mother, still had a dried up umbilical cord

indicating thereby that it must have been deli-

vered not more than a day before. On the

same day later in the evening three more

specimens carrying young ones at the breast

were collected and the young ones had umbili-

cal stumps. These must have been delivered

in the morning of the 16th. More females in the

colony had delivered their young during the

following dates. Three pregnant females col-

lected on 22nd June had full term foetuses,

which, judging from their size and weight,

would have been delivered in a couple of days

more. Evidently all deliveries in the colony

occur within a short period between 15th June

and 25th June. The above data also indicates

that pregnancy lasts for about 120 to 125 days

calculating from 17th February (when ovula-

tion was first noticed) to 15th June (when first

delivery occurred) and allowing a couple of

days margin on either side.

5. GROWTH AND MATURITY

During the season of pregnancy, that is

between the middle of February to the third

week of June, there were also a few non-

pregnant females and sexually immature males

(as revealed by the size and histological nature

of the testis) in the colony (Table 1). Since

there is a single breeding cycle in the year

for this animal, and since deliveries take place

during the third week of June, it is evident

that the immature specimens obtained during

the breeding season must have been born at

least in the previous year in June. This would

599

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

mean that sexual maturity is not attained by

individuals of either sex within the year of

birth, and in the case of the females not until

they are at least 20 months of age — from the

middle of June, when they are delivered, to

the middle of February of the year after next.

Microscopic examination of the testis revealed

that vigorous spermatogenetic activity occurs

in the testes of animals collected on 13 Janu-

ary. Apparently, the males reach sexual matu-

rity at the age of about 19 months — a month

less than the time taken by the females to

attain sexual maturity.

The new born young one weighs 3 gm

(± 0.2 gms) and they grow rapidly during

the sucking period which extends to about two

months as evidenced by the fact that females in

lactation were available until the middle of

August. By the time the young are weaned they

attain nearly the adult size. Immature specimens

collected on 14th October and onwards could

not be distinguished from the other animals in

the colony on the basis of the size of the body.

However, the weight of the testis in the male

and the histological structure of the ovary and

the genital tract of the female distinguish the

animals in the colony into three distinct cate-

gories, namely the specimens born in the year,

the immature specimens born a year before

and adult specimens.

6. SEX RATIO

Among 2517 specimens collected during

about four years and a half 1502 were females

and 1015 were males giving an uneven sex

ratio of approximately 59.7% females and

40.3% males in the colony (Tables 1 and 2).

The young ones are carried by the mothers

only for a day or two, and after that the suck-

lings arc placed in groups of a hundred or two

hundred young ones in each group and they

are suckled by lactating mothers on a com-

munity basis. The attached young ones are too

few in the collection to warrant any conclusion

on the sex ratio at birth. On three occasions

the sucklings were randomly picked up from

their groups and examined for sex ratio. The

details are as given in table 3.

Table 3

Sex ratio among sucklings

These specimens have not been included in

T ables 1 and 2 since they were left behind in

the colony after noting the number of females

and males. These observations are very signi-

ficant since they reveal that there is an almost

even sex ratio during the unweaned period of

life. Evidently, the very uneven female-

dominant sex ratio in the colony is due to the

preferential mortality of the males during the

growth period.

Apart from the groups of sucklings, which

were noticed until about the end of September,

the young born in the year can be identified

until about the end of October after which

they could not be identified from the other

animals in the colony on the basis of the size

of the body. In the case of the males the

sexually immature animals can be identified

from the adult ones on the basis of the weight

and the histological structure of the testis.

Likewise the immature females can be identi-

fied from the mature ones during the non-

breeding season on the basis of the histological

structure of the ovaries and the genital organs.

600

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS — PART XI

However, such a histological examination could

not be carried out with respect to all the

animals collected. Hence, all females which

were non-pregnant have been included under

the column ‘Non-pregnant females’ in Table 1,

while sexually immature males have been

shown under the column ‘Free immature

males’ in the table. Consequently, while the

number of sexually mature males can be accu-

rately known, the number of sexually imma-

ture females could not be ascertained after

November until the commencement of the

breeding season. Hence, the sex ratio at diffe-

rent periods of growth of this animal could

Refer

Baker, J. R. & Bird, T. F. (1936): The seasons

in a tropical rain-forest (New Hebrides). Part TV.

Insectivorous bats (Vespertilionidae and Rhinolo-

phidae). J. Linn. Soc. London. 40: 143-161.

Brosset, A. (1962): The bats of Central and

Western India. Part III. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc.

59: 707-746.

Courrier, R. (1927): Etude sur le determinisme

des characteres sexuelle sccondaires chez quclques

mammiferes a activite testiculaire periodique. Arch.

Biol. Paris. 37: 173-334.

Dwyer, P. D. (1963): The breeding biology of

Miniopterus schreibersii blepotis (Temminck) (Chiro-

ptera) in North Eastern New South Wales. Aust.

J. Zool. 11: 219-240.

not be determined. However, the sex-ratio as

revealed by the examination of Tables 1 and

2 is valid for the colony as a whole.

It is interesting to note in Table 2 that the

percentage of males is smaller than that of

the females and ranges between 34 to 43 per

cent during all the months except October

when the males outnumber the females to a

small extent. It is probable that a large num-

ber of immature males were accidentally

collected on 27th October, 1976 due to which

the sex ratio in the collection appears to be

different from that during the other months of

the year.

ENCES

(1968): The biology, origin and

adaptation of Miniopterus australis (Chiroptera) in

New South Wales. Aust. Nat. Hist. 16: 49-68.

Gopalakrishna, A.. Gopal, C. Chari & Karim,

K. B. (1981): Transuterine migration of the embryo

in the bat, Miniopterus schreibersii fuliginosus

(Hodgson). Curr. Sci. 50: 152-154.

Medway, Lord (1971): Observations of social

and reproductive biology of the bent winged bat,

Miniopterus australis in northern Borneo. J. Zool.

London 165: 261-273.

Richardson, E. G. (1977): The biology and

evolution of the reproductive cycle of Miniopterus

schreibersii and M. australis (Chiroptera: Vesperti-

lionidae). J. Zool. London 183: 353-375.

601

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW CYPRINID FISH OF THE GENUS DAN 10

HAMILTON (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE) FROM ANDHRA

PRADESH, INDIA1

R. P. Barman2

( With a text -figure)

A new freshwater cyprinid fish belonging to the genus Danio Hamilton collected

from Mahbubnagar district, Andhra Pradesh, India is illustrated and described in this

paper. The new species is named Danio {Danio) menoni. The distinguishing characters

of this species from its allied species Danio

discussed. A key to the Indian species of the

Introduction

The daniids are mainly distributed through-

out the Indian subcontinent, Thailand, Malay

Peninsula, Sumatra and Yunnan in China.

These small active fishes which do not grow

more than 110 mm. (4.5 inches) are usually

found in great abundance in suitable localities

of small water courses like pools in rice-fields,

ditches in the bed of hill streams, mountain

rivulets and rivers. These freshwater fishes do

not constitute any major fishery in Indian

waters and are only of secondary value. How-

ever. taxonomically these are interesting since

the extensive use of these fishes in aquarium

trade has cast confusion in nomenclature, syste-

matics and zoogeography.

Day (1889) recorded 10 species and Jaya-

ram (1981) enumerated 17 under the genus

Danio from the Indian subcontinent. Barman

(1983, 1984a and 1984b) described three new

species belonging to the genus from India and

1 Accepted June 1985.

2 Zoological Survey of India. 27, Jawaharlal Nehru

Road. Calcutta-700 016.

{Danio) devario (Hamilton) have been

subgenus Danio is also included.

Burma. While 1 was working on the fresh-

water fish fauna of Andhra Pradesh I came

across three examples of a species referable

to the subgenus Danio. Comparison with so

far known species under the genus proved it

to be a hitherto undescribed species.

Measurements of the fish given in parenthe-

sis in species description are the range of

proportions and outside the parenthesis are the

arithmatic mean of the range of proportions

of the type specimens.

Danio (Danio) menoni sp. nov.

Material-, holotype (Fig. 1): 42 mm. SP.

Reg. No. Zoological Survey of India, Cal-

cutta, FF2282. Locality: stream near Mosam-

pet village, Mahbubnagar district, Andhra

Pradesh. India. Collector: R. P. Barman

and party. Date of collection: 15.12.1984.

paratypf.s: 2 exs., 40 mm. -43 mm. SL. Reg.

No. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,

FF2283. Locality, collector and date of

collection same as in holotype.

Etymology: For Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Emeri-

tus Scientist in recognition of his contribu-

tions to the fishes of the world.

602

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Diagnosis :

Head length 3.90-4.00 and body depth 3.07-

3.23 in standard length. Eye diameter 3.33-

3.66 in head length. Least depth of caudal

peduncle 1.33-1.75 in its length. Lateral line

complete with 33-34 scales. Dorsal fin rays

10-11 and anal fin rays 21-22. Barbels absent.

Presence of two dark spots, one at the superior

margin of the gill opening and the other one

at the base of caudal fin.

Fig. 1. Lateral view of the holotype of Danio

( Danio ) menoni sp. nov.

I Description :

Head length 3/96 (3.90-4.00) at the most

distant point on the opercular membrane, body

depth 3.12 (3.07-3.23) at the commencement

of pelvic fin, predorsal distance 1.49 (1.48-

1.50), prepelvic distance 2.15 (2.10-2.22),

preanal distance 1.50 (1.48-1.53) and length

of caudal fin 3.12 (3.07-3.23) in standard

length. Depth of head 1.36 (1.31-1.42) at

the occiput and width of head 1.86 (1 .75-2.00)

|i in head length.. Eye diameter 3.49 (3.33-

3.66) in head length, 1.55 (1.50-1.66) in

I interorbital width. Snout length 4.20 (4.00-

4.40) in head length, 1.86 (1.80-2.00) in

interorbital width. Length of the postorbital

part of head is twice or slightly less that of

1 the snout length or preorbital part of head.

I Cleft of mouth moderate, obliquely directed

I upward extending near to anterior margin of

the eye. Least depth of caudal peduncle 1.52

(1.33-1.75) in its length. Barbels absent.

Scales: Lateral line complete covering 33-34.

Lateral transverse scales at the pelvic fin

origin 10; scales between lateral line and

base of pelvic fin 2\. 18-19 predorsal and

12 circumpenduncular scales.

Fins: D.ii,8-9; A.iii,18-19; P.i.ll; V.i ,6; C.19.

Dorsal originates opposite or slightly behind

the anal origin, considerably nearer to the base

of caudal fin than to the tip of snout and ex-

tending over almost the whole length of the

Table 1

Measurements (in mm.) and meristic counts or

Danio (Danio) menoni sp. nov.

603

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

anal fin. Pelvic fin commences on a vertical

considerably anterior to the dorsal fin. Length

of the longest dorsal ray 5.20 (5.00-5.37),

length of longest anal ray 4.62 (4.44-4.77),

pectoral length 2.68 (2.66-2.70) and pelvic

length 5.44 (5.25-5.71) in standard length.

Caudal fin emarginate with equal lobes. The

most conspicuous characteristic of the fins are

the pectoral fins which extend almost upto the

tip of pelvic fin.

Measurements and counts of this species are

given in table 1.

Colour in life: Dorsal surface moderately dark

and ventral and sides pale silvery. A promi-

nent dark spot present on the superior

margin of the gill opening and a second

dark blotch at the base of caudal fin. A

lateral dark straight line extending from the

base of caudal fin to middle of opercular

end and origin of dorsal fin. All fins white.

Distribution and Habitat: Danio ( Danio )

menoni is known only from a stream near

Mosampet village, Mahbubnagar district,

Andhra Pradesh, India which lies between

approximately 16.5°-17°N latitude and 77°-

78°E longitude. The holotype and paratypes

were collected with cast net over muddy

substratum in a quiet, semiturbid pool appro-

ximately 150 x80 m. with a maximum depth

of about 1.5m.

Relationships :

Danio (Danio) menoni sp. nov. is closely

related to Danio (Danio) devario (Hamilton)

in head length, anal fin-rays count and in gene-

ral appearance of the body. The new species

can be easily separated from the latter species

by a combination of characters which include

absence of barbels, lateral line scale count 33-

34, transverse scale count 10, circumpedun-

cular scale count 12, body depth relatively

shorter, shorter eye diameter, dorsal fin rays

less (10-11), pectoral fin relatively longer and

presence of two dark spots, one on the superior

margin of gill opening and the other at the

base of caudal fin. These characteristics are

shown and compared in table 2.

Table 2

Comparison of D. menoni sp. nov. with the

RELATED SPECIES

* Hamilton (1822) described D. devario from

Indian waters without barbels and subsequent wor-

kers like Day (1889) and Hora (1934) recorded

this species with no barbels. During the course of

my revisionary studies on the cyprinid genus Danio,

out of hundreds of specimens of this species exa-

mined by me from different localities of India, not

a single specimen was found without a pair of

posterior or maxillary barbels.

Key to the Indian species of the subgenus Danio

1 . A small preorbital spinous process backwardly

directed on anterior rim of the orbit present... 2

No preorbital spinous process on anterior rim

of the orbit 6

2. One or two supraorbital forwardly directed

spine in addition to the preorbital spinous pro-

cess on the anterior rim of the orbit

D. spinosus Day

No supraorbital spine 3

604

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

3. Lateral line scales 54-56, transverse scales 15...

D. annandalei Chaudhuri

Lateral line scales not more than 53 4

4. Lateral line scales 40-41, transverse scales 10...

D. assamensis Barman

Lateral line scales 32-37 5

5. Lateral line scales 32. Dorsal fin rays 10. One

pair of posterior or maxillary barbels

D. kakhienensis Anderson

Lateral line scales 35-37. Dorsal fin rays 12-13.

Two pairs of barbels D. aequipinnatus

(McClelland)

6. Dorsal fin rays 19-20. Lateral line scales 45-52.

One pair of posterior or maxillary barbels

D. devario (Hamilton)

Dorsal fin rays less than 18. Lateral line scales

not more than 45 7

7. Barbels absent. Dorsal fin rays 10-11. Lateral line

scales 33-34 D. menoni sp. nov.

Two pairs of barbels present 8

8. Barbels well developed, both pairs of barbels

much longer than eye diameter. Lateral line

scales 36-42. Lateral dark bands breaking up

anteriorly to form a mottled pattern

D. dangila (Hamilton)

Barbels not well developed, both pairs of bar-

R EFER

Barman, R. P. (1983): A new species of the

genus Danio Hamilton from India (Pisces: Cypri-

nidae). Curr. Sci., 52(4): 177-178.

(1984a) : On a new species of the

genus Danio Hamilton from Burma (Pisces: Cypri-

nidae). Bull zool. Surv. India , 5 (2&3) : 31-34.

(1984b) : A new freshwater fish of

the genus Danio Hamilton (Pisces: Cyprinidae)

from Assam, India, ibid. 6 (1-3): 163-165.

Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India,

including Ceylon and Burma, Fishes, 1 : i-xx, 1-548.

bels much shorter than eye diameter 9

9. Lower lip hypertrophied forming a loose flap

along the lower jaw. Lateral line scales 40-41.

Anal fin rays 17-19 D. fraseri Hora

Lower lip not hypertrophied, simple. Anal fin

rays less than 17 10

10. Dorsal fin rays 12-14. Literal line scales 37-38.

D. neUgherriensis (Day)

Dorsal fin rays 10. Lateral line scales 40-42....

D. naganensis Chaudhuri

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. B. K. Tikader, Director,

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for labo-

ratory facilities. I am also thankful to Drs. K.

C. Jayaram, Joint Director and A. G. K.

Menon, Emeritus Scientist, Zoological Survey

of India for their valuable suggestions. Thanks

are also due to Drs. A. K. Ghosh, Deputy

Director and P. K. Talwar, Deputy Director,

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for their

encouragement.

N CES

Taylor & Francis, London.

Hamilton, F. (1822): An account of the fishes

found in the river Ganges and its branches. Edin-

burgh and London, viii + 405, 39 pis.

Hora, S. L. (1934): Notes on fishes in the Indian

Museum. XXII. On a collection of fish from the

S. Shan States and Pegu Yomas, Burma. Rcc. Indian

Mus., 36(1): 123-138.

Iayaram, K. C. (1981): The Freshwater Fishes

of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka.

A handbook. Govt, of India, i-xxii, 1-475, pis. XIII.

605

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

DESCRIPTIONS OF THREE NEW SPECIES OF SCHIZASP1DIA

WESTWOOD (HYMENOPTERA: EUCHARITIDAE) WITH A KEY

AND A CHECK-LIST TO THE SPECIES OF INDIAN SUBCONTINENT1

T. C. Narendran2

(With eighteen text-figures)

Three new species of Schizaspidia Westwood, viz. S. brevifuniculata, S. sitarami and

S. malabarica are described. Key to the species of Indian subcontinent is provided.

A check-list of species of Schizaspidia of this subcontinent is also given.

The study of Eucharitidae of Indian sub-

continent was perhaps started by Westwood

(1835). Since then Walker (1860), Enderlein

(1912), Aiyar (1925), Clausen (1928), Mani

(1935, 1942), Gahan (1940), Fernandow

(1957), Mani et al. (1974), Hedqvist (1978),

Husain and Agarwal (1983) and Narendran

(in press) contributed to our knowledge of

Eucharitidae of this region. During the course

of my studies on Indian chalcid wasps I came

across three distinct species of the genus

Schizaspidia from the Malabar region. These

three species neither fit to the keys of Hedqvist

(1978) nor fit to the descriptions of any of

the species known from the Indo-Australian

regions. Apart from the descriptions of these

new species I have also provided below a

revised key and a check-list of the Schizaspidia

species of Indian subcontinent.

The types of the new species described in

this paper are with the author for the time

being but eventually will be deposited in an

International Museum.

Schizaspidia brevifuniculata sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-6)

Female : Length: 2.79 mm. Head and body

blackish metallic green; antennae dark brown

1 Accepted April 1985.

2 Department of Zoology, University of Calicut,

Kerala-673 635. India.

with scape and pedicel yellowish brown; eyes

greyish; coxae concolorous with thorax, femora

and middle portions of tibiae brown; apices

of femora, bases and apices of tibiae and tarsi

pale yellow; tegulae brownish yellow; wings

hyaline without any distinct infumation.

Head width subequal to thoracic width when

measured from dorsal side. Frons smooth and

polished with very weak striations on dorsal

half as in figure 1; POL: 9; OOL: 5; tentorial

pits deep. Antenna relatively short and as in

figure 2. Thoracic notum characteristically

sculptured as in figure 3; sculpture of meso-

pleuron as in figure 4. Gasteral petiole a trifle

longer than hind coxa (distinctly less than 1.5

times hind coxa length), dorsal side almost

smooth without distinct sculptures, sides weakly

carinate; gasteral tergites smooth and shiny

without distinct sculptures.

Remarks'. This new species comes to the

couplet number 10 of the key by Hedqvist

(1978) but differs from S. fasciatipennis

(Girault) (Girault 1928) in not having a trans-

verse band on the forewing, in having diffe-

rent colour of the body (not blue-green as in

fasciatipennis) and in having differences in

the shape and size of the antennal segments.

It differs from the various species of Indian

subcontinent as mentioned in the key below.

Holotype $. India: Kerala, S. Malabar,

Chettiyarmad, 1 5 . i . 1984, T. C. Narendran.

606

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-6. Schizaspidia brevifuniculata sp. nov. $

1. Head, front view; 2. Antenna; 3. Scutellum; 4. Mesopleuron; 5. Forewing; 6. Gaster.

Figs. 7-12. Schizaspidia sitarami sp. nov. $

7. Head, front view; 8. Antenna; 9. Scutellum; 10. Mesopleuron; 11. Forewing;

12. Gaster.

Figs. 13-18. Schizaspidia malabarica sp. nov. $

13. Head, front view; 14. Antenna; 15. Scutellum; 16. Mesopleuron; 17. Forewing;

1 8. Gaster.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Schizaspidia sitarami sp. nov.

(Figs. 7-12)

Male : Length: 3.69 mm. Head and thorax

greenish black; antennae blackish brown; coxae

and gasteral petiole concolorous with thorax,

rest of legs and gaster brownish yellow. Wings

hyaline without infuscation, veins brownish.

Head width a little less than the maximum

thoracic width when measured from dorsal

side. Frons smooth and polished with some-

what strong striations on upper part; POL:

10; OOL: 8; tentorial pits deep. Antennae as

in figure 8; thoracic sculpture of scutellum as

in figure 9; mesopleura as in figure 10. Gaste-

ral petiole a little over two times the length

of hind coxa, dorsal and lateral sides distinct-

ly punctate, sides ecarinate, ventral surface with

irregular weak carinae; gasteral tergites smooth

and shiny.

Remarks : This new species comes near 5.

batuensis Hedqvist (Hedqvist 1978) but differs

from it in having much broader scutellar forks,

in having different scutellar sculptures, and in

having a number of other miner characters.

From the various species of Indian Subconti-

nent it can be easily separated by the charac-

ters mentioned in the key of this paper.

Holotype : J1. India: Kerala, Calicut Uni-

versity Campus, 1 . iv . 1 985, Narendran et al.

Schizaspidia malabarica sp. nov.

(Figs. 13-18)

Male: Length 2.27 mm. Head and body

generally blackish green; Antennae pale brown;

eyes blackish yellow; coxae blackish brown,

remaining parts of legs brownish yellow; petiole

blackish green; gaster yellowish brown, wings

hyaline without infumation anywhere, veins

pale brown.

Head from above width 35; thorax width

35 (measured from dorsal side at its maximum

width); frons smooth and polished on lower

half, upper half rugulose and very sparsely

striate; tentorial pits deep. Sculpture on the

thoracic notum as in figure 15; mesopleuron

as in figure 16; gasteral petiole a trifle longer

than twice the length of hind coxa, dorsal side

with distinct reticulate punctures, ventral side

shallowly grooved longitudinally; gasteral ter-

gites smooth and shiny.

Remarks: This new species comes to the

couplet number 11 of the key of Hedqvist

(1978) but differs from the Philippine species

S. batuensis Hedqvist in having entirely diffe-

rent type of scutellum; in having different type

of antennae, in having different coloration

of head and body and in several other features.

It differs from all the other species of Indian

subcontinent by the characters mentioned in

the key below.

Holotype c?- india: Kerala, S. Malabar,

Ramanattukara, nr. Calicut, l.v.1983, T. C.

Narendran; Paratype: cT, Kerala, S. Malabar,

Calicut University, 1 . iv . 1985, T. C. Narendran

et al.

Key to species of Schizaspidia westwood of

INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

(Males or Females of some species are unknown)

1 . Antennae with very long branches (Fig. 14) . .

2 (Males)

= Antennae without long branches (Fig. 2

9 (Females)

2. First flagellar segment without a tooth or branch 1

3

= First flagellar segment with a tooth or branch

4

3. Mesopleuron with distinct punctures and pits and

without a distinct smooth area; scutellar arms

short (similar to Fig. 15 or shorter)

S. convergens (Walker)

= Mesopleuron smooth at extreme anterodorsal

angle followed by obscure transverse striations;

scutellar arms long and prominent (Fig. 24G of -

Mani et al. 1974) S. sabariensis

(Mani & Dubey) 1

608

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

4. Flagellar segments with cylindrical branches;

head and body dark metallic green in colour

S. travancorensis (Mani)

= Flagellar segments with flattened branches....

5

5. Mesopleuron rugoso-punctate without a smooth

area 7

= Mesopleuron anteriorly with a more or less

smooth area as in figures 4 & 10 6

6. Scutellum with very large and broad forkes

(Fig. 9) S. sitarami sp. nov.

= Scutellum with smaller and narrower forks. . . .

S. andamanensis (Mani)

7. Scutellum with short & broad apical branches

(as in Fig. 24 of Hedqvist, 1978)

S. frucifera Westwood

= Scutellum not as above 8

8. Gaster subglobose (Fig. 26G of Mani et al.

1974); Petiole smooth without any striae; fore-

wing with a diffuse faint infumation

S. coromandelica (Mani & Dubey)

I = Gaster elogate as in figure 18; petiole not

smooth but distinctly ruguso-punctate; forewing

without infumation S. malabarica sp. nov.

9. Scutcllar arms very short (as in Fig. 12 of

Hedqvist 1978) with longitudinal striations;

forewing with a transverse band from stigmal

vein, extending towards posterior wing margin

S. frucifera Westwood

I = Scutellum not as above 10

10. Scutellum with longitudinal carinae connected

by transverse carinae 11

= Scutellum with large pits, umblicately punctate

(as in Fig. 25F of Mani et al. 1974); upper part

of frons with strong striations; forewing with

a distinct conspicuous infumation around the

stigmal vein .... S. sabariensis (Mani & Dubey)

\ II Scutellum with more or less longitudinal carinae

with regular transverse wrinkles (as in Fig. 15

of Hedqvist 1978); gaster green; Head & body

metallic yellowish green

S. convergcns (Walker)

>

Refer

I

I Aiyar, T. V. Ramakrishna (1925): A Checklist

. of Indo-Ceylonese chalcid flies (Chalcidoidea). Spolia

j Zeylanica 13 : 241.

J Clausen, C. P. (1928): The manner of oviposi-

i tion and the planidium of Schizaspidia manipurensis

= Scutellum with more or less irregular longi-

tudinal carinae with irregular wrinkles (Fig. 3);

gaster ferrugenous brown; head & body blackish

metallic green S. brevifuniculata sp. nov.

CHECK-LIST OF Schizaspidia SPECIES OF INDIAN

SUBCONTINENT

(Invalid names are in italics)

andamanensis (Mani, 1942) ( Kapaloides ) India:

Andaman Islands.

brevifuniculata sp. nov.; India: Kerala.

convergens (Walker, 1860) ( Eucharis ) Sri Lanka

(= Ceylon) .

— ceylonica (Enderlein, 1912) ( Psygmatocera ) Sri

Lanka (= Ceylon)

coromandelica (Mani & Dubey, 1974) ( Kapaloides )

India: Coromandel Coast, (Tamil Nadu).

frucifera Westwood, 1835, India: Bengal.

malabarica sp. nov. India: Kerala.

sabariensis (Mani & Dubey, 1974) ( Kapaloides )

India: Kerala, cardamom hills.

sitarami sp. nov. India: Kerala.

travancorensis (Mani, 1942) ( Kapaloides ) India:

Kerala, Travancore.

The species atkinsoni (Mani & Dubey, 1974),

indica (Mani, 1935), manipurensis (Clausen,

1928), mysorensis (Mani & Dubey, 1974) and

tanjorensis (Mani & Dubey, 1974) which are

all described originally under Schizaspidia West-

wood actually belong to another genus viz.

Slibula Spinola.

Acknowledgements

I thank the authorities of the University of

Calicut for providing facilities for my research

on Chalcidoidea. I also thank my doctoral re-

search students for various ways of assistance.

ENCES

n. sp. (Hymen., Eucharidae). Proc. cut. Soc. Wash-

ington 30 : 80-86.

Enderlein, G. (1912): Zur Knenntnis der Chal-

cicidae Ceylons (Hymn.). Ent. Mitt., I: 144-148.

Fernandow, W. (1957): Contributions to a know-

609

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Mani, M. S. (1935): New Indian Chalcidoidea

(Parasitic Hymenoptera) . Rec. Indian Mus. 37:

241-258.

(1942): Studies on Indian parasitic

Hymenoptera. II. Indian J. Ent. 4: 153-162.

Mani, M. S., Dubey, O. P., Kaul, B. K. &

Saraswat, G. G. (1974): Descriptions of some

new and new records of some known Chalcidoidea

(Hymenoptera) from India. Mem. School Ent. 3:

1-108.

Narendran, T. C. (in press) : Family Eucharitidae.

Or'ental Insects (Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A.).

Walker, F. (1860): List of the specimens of

hymenopterous insects in the collection of the British

Museum. Part I — Chalcidites. VII + 100 pp. Lond.

Westwood, I. O. (1835): Characters of new

genera and species of hymenopterous insects. Proc.

zool. Soc. Lond. 3 : 69-72.

ON A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS HYDRONOM1DIUS (BAGOINAE:

CURCULIONIDAE) FROM INDIA1

H. R. Pajni and P. Kamal Tewari2

(With five text-figures)

A new species Hydronomidius punjabensis under the monobasic genus Hydronomidius

has been described. The characters of the genus has been revised.

ledge of the Insects of Ceylon 5. New parasitic

Hymenoptera (Chalcidoidea). Ceylon J. Sci. (B) 25:

209-221.

Gahan, A. B. (1940) : A contribution to the

knowledge of the Eucharidae (Hymenoptera: Chal-

cidoidea). Proc. U.S. natn. Mus. 88: 425-458.

Girault, A. A. (1928): Some new Philippine

chalcid flies. Philip. J. Sci. 36: 449-453.

Hedqvist, K. J. (1978): Some Chalcidoidea col-

lected in the Philippine, Bismark and Solomon

Islands. 2. Eucharitidae with keys and check-lists to

Indo-Australian genera (Insecta, Hymenoptera).

Steenstrupia 4: 227-248.

Husain, T. & Agarwal, M. M. (1983): Indo-

serna indica gen. et sp. nov. (Hymenoptera: Eucha-

ritidae) described from India. Boll. Lab. Ent. Agraria

'Filippo Silvestri’ Portici 40: 104-107.

Introduction

During the course of a five year PL 480

project (1976-81), a large number of new

species were procured. One among these falls

under genus Hydronomidius which is being re-

ported in this communication including the

revised characters of the genus.

Genus Hydronomidius is a monobasic genus

with an Indian type species, Hydronomidius

molitor (Faust 1898). The genus Hydronomi-

dius differs from the genus Bagous, the only

other Indian genus from subfamily Bagoinae,

1 Accepted April 1985.

2 Department of Zoology, Punjab University,

Chandigarh, India-160 014.

in having anterior border of prosternum not

notched and rostral canal as well as ocular lobes

absent. The new species differs from other des-

cribed species in several respects.

Genus Hydronomidius Fst.

Faust, Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr. 1898, p. 283.

Rostrum long, more or less stout, sub-arcuate;

scrobes deep, oblique or straight. Antennae

moderately long, inserted in middle or beyond

middle or rostrum; funicle 7-segmented. segment

1 elongated, 2-7 gradually widening towards

apex, segment 7 closely approximated to club;

club oblong, sub-acuminate at apex. Eyes dorso-

lateral, rounded and prominent. Prothorax sub-

transverse. truncate at base as well as at apex;

ocular lobes absent. Scutellum distinct. Elytra

610

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

oblong with shoulders prominent, parallel sided

upto apical one-third, narrowed beyond and

rounded. Prosternum not notched at anterior

border, without any rostral canal or deep

depression. Abdomen with visible sternites 1

and 2 each two times as long as 3 and 4

united. Male genitalia with aedeagal apodemes

twice as long as aedeagus; phallobasic apo-

deme slightly shorter than aedeagal apode-

mes; parameres united throughout their length.

Female genitalia with coxites bearing tubular

styli; spiculum ventrale forked at base, dilated

and laterally produced at apex; spermatheca

with cornu long and pointed at apex, collum

and ramus undifferentiated.

Type species: Hydronomidius molitor Fst.

Hydronomidius punjabensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-5)

Head black, convex, compactly covered

with overlapping rounded scales of brown and

yellow colour; frons narrower than the base

of rostrum, covered with scales. Eyes black,

lateral, oval in shape. Rostrum black, long,

almost as long as prothorax, thick, stout, broad

and subconvex above, parallel sided upto

antennal insertion, somewhat dilated at apex;

its surface finely punctured, with a faint raised

line in the middle, closely covered with round-

ed scales and small silky hairs upto antennal

insertion, apex shining and furnished with a

few long setae; scrobes lateral, oblique, not

reaching the eyes; clothed with small, yellowish

scales. Antennae ferrugineous, inserted at api-

cal one-third of rostrum; scape long, slender,

clavate at apex, not touching the eyes; funicle

long furnished with hairs, with segment 1

broader as well as longer than 2,2 longer than

broad, 3 to 6 subequal and conical in shape,

7 longer than broad and approximate to the

base of club; club small, oblong, pubescent,

sub-acuminate at apex.

Pronotum somewhat as long as broad, with

base as well as the apex truncate, its sides

gradually diverging from base to apical one-

third where it is rounded, constricted just be-

fore the apex, slightly convex just before the

middle and impressed at base; its surface finely

punctured and covered with overlapping scales;

scales pale-yellow on the sides and brown and

pale in the middle, rarely with a faintly raised

line in the middle. Scutellum small, oval, cover-

ed with white scales. Thoracic sterna black,

finely punctured and covered with overlapping

rounded scales and a few silky setae, the scales

I

Fig. 1. Hydronomidius punjabensis sp. nov. — Male.

611

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

ADA

END

PHBA

PHB

AED

Figs. 2-5: Hydronomidius punjabensis sp. nov.

2. Male genitalia, 3. Gastral spiculum, 4. Female genitalia, 5. Spermatheca.

Abbreviations'. ADA— aedeagal apodeme; AED — aedeagus; C — collum; COR— cornu;

COX — coxite; END — endophallus; PF1B — phallobase; PHBA — phallobasic apodeme;

RA — ramus; SV — spiculum ventrale.

pale-white on the prosternum, yellowish-brown

on the meso- and meta-sternum.

Elytra black, double as long as broad, ob-

long; shoulders prominent and rounded, some-

what impressed on the inner half, with base

feebly bisinuate and apex truncate, parallel

sided upto middle and then gradually narrow-

ing to beak-like apex, slightly convex in the

middle and sloping behind; its surface com-

pactly covered with overlapping rounded scales

of brown and pale-white colours; striae narrow

covered with scales, each stria with a linear

row of small, deep punctures; intervals broad,

sub-convex, shining, finely punctured, intervals

2 and 3 with a pale-white spot approximately

in the middle and some similar spots of

irregular shape on the side intervals. Legs

black, long, covered with yellowish-brown and

pale scales; and small silky setae; femora long,

laterally compressed, thickened just before

612

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

middle; tibiae long, slender, laterally compress-

ed, with its ventral margin furnished with a

row of small denticles accompanied by long

setae and a strong uncus at apex; tarsi ferru-

gineous long, with segment 1 to 3 subequal,

longer than broad, 4 almost as long as 2 and

3 taken together; claws long, simple and free.

Abdominal sternites brownish-black, with

rounded punctures, covered with rounded

scales; with visible sternites 1 and 2 almost

equally long on the sides, line separating them

indistinct in the middle, both of them at a

level higher than 3 proceeding segments, 3 and

4 equally long, 5 truncate at apex where it is

slightly depressed, with a subapical bunch of

transparent setae on each side.

Male genitalia with aedeagus small, slender,

subconical in shape, with base broad and apex

narrow and subacuminate, well sclerotized on

lateral sides; aedeagal apodemes double as

long as aedeagus; endophallus with a sickle

shaped sclerotized structure. Phallobase mode-

rately sclerotized, with phallobasic apodeme

slightly shorter than aedeagal apodemes; para-

meres moderately long, jointed or fused

throughout from base to apex, furnished with

very minute setae. Gastral spiculum well

sclerotized, forked with its lateral arms slightly

shorter than the median arm.

Female genitalia with coxites very long, very

gradually narrowing from base to apex, more

sclerotized near apex; styli small, longer than

broad, bearing very small setae. Spiculum ven-

trale forked at base, with its median arm

dilated and laterally produced at apex, with

lateral arms short and broad; Spermatheca

with cornu long, curved and subrounded at

apex; collum and ramus fused to form a

swollen structure but their openings well

marked.

Measurements'.

Length of body

Length of rostrum

Breadth of body

Breadth of rostrum

Specimens examined :

Holotype cf, India: Punjab. Amloh, from

tube light, 10. viii . 1979.

Paratypes , 10 <3 3 , 6 $ $ , data same as

for holotype; 5 3 3, 2 $ $, India:

Chandigarh from tube light, 5 . vii . 1978.

Material deposited in the Entomology sec-

tion, Department of Zoology, Panjab

University, Chandigarh.

Acknowi.fdgements

We thank the U.S. Department of Agricul-

ture and T.C.A.R. for financing a 5 year pro-

ject on Indian Curculionidae and arranging

a trip to the European Museums for the senior

author. The research facilities provided by the

Chairman, Department of Zoology, Pan jab

University. Chandigarh are duly acknowledged.

6.00- 6.30 mm

1 .00- 1.10 mm

1.90-2.10 mm

0.45-0.50 mm

Reference

Faust, J. (1898): Beschrcibung neuer Coleoptera des Hrn. Andrews in London. Cure., Part II. Dent.

Von Vorder-und Hinterindien aus der Sammlung Ent. Zest.. 52: 283-84.

613

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS CHLORISSA STEPHENS FROM

NORTH INDIA (GEOMETRINAE: GEOMETRIDAE :

LEPIDOPTERA)1

H. S. Rose and Devinder2

( With five text-figures)

The species Chlorissa patialaensis sp nov. is congeneric with other species of the genus

Chlorissa Stephens, so far known. The species is described in detail, including the

structure of its internal as well as external reproductive organs.

Introduction

During collection surveys for Geometrid

moths from Patiala ( Punjab) and its surround-

ing areas, a sample of six specimens was col-

lected and the same is referable to the genus

Chlorissa Stephens, recently revised by Pajni and

Walia(1984). The genus Chlorissa is so far re-

presented by four Indian species namely discessa

(Walker), punctifimbria (Warren), pretiosaria

(Staudinger) and albifasciata Pajni and Walia.

The species under reference is clearly congene-

ric with Chlorissa sp. (Pajni and Walia. loc.

cit.) but the specific status of the species could

not be identified from sources at hand. Accord-

ingly, the species is described under the genus

Chlorissa as a new species.

Chlorissa patialaensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-5)

Head, thorax and abdomen smoothly scaled,

covered with small dull green scales dorsally,

white ventrally; both pairs of wings with ground

' Accepted April 1985.

2 Department of Zoology. Punjabi University.

Patiala-147 002. Punjab. India.

colour dull green, with whitish appearance on

ventral surface, without any markings; fore-

wing with discal cell about two-third the length

of the wing, vein R, free, arising from anterior

angle of cell, veins R2, R3, R., and R, with a

common stalk. briefly stalked with

Rl-+3+4+5. M:j and Cux from lower angle of

cell, termen oblique; hind wing with discal

cell very short, veins R, and M! stalked from

upper angles of cell, M2 from the middle of

discocellulars, M:i and Cu,. shortly stalked, Cu,,

from before posterior angle of cell, termen

slightly produced outwardly.

Uncus moderately long, uniformly cylindric,

produced into a fine point, completely bare

distally; a pair of symmetrical socii present,

each socii semimembranous, more or less spoon

shaped, sparsely setosed with five-setae;

gnathos missing; tegumen moderately sclero-

tized; vinculum more or less v-shaped; saccuf

rudimentary; valve long, costa well differentiat-

ed. weakly sclerotized. sacculus broadly inflat-

ed. comparatively better sclerotized. with a

small thumb like projection on its inner part

harpe present, more or less globular, its innei

edges produced into five unequal sized denti-

cles; aedcagus long, narrower in the anterioi

region and broad in the posterior region, vesica

614

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1. Main part of the male external genitalia of Chlorissa patialaensis sp. nov.

Fig. 2. Valve (detached) of C. patialaensis sp. nov.

Fig. 3. Aedeagus of C. patialaensis sp. nov.

Fig. 4. Male internal reproductive organs of C. patialaensis sp. nov.

Fig. 5. Female internal reproductive organs of C. patialaensis sp. nov.

AED: Aedeagus; AG: Accessory gland; CB: Corpus bursae; CM A: Cuticular Muscu-

lar area; CO: Common oviduct; COS: Costa; CRN: Cornutus; DB: Ductus bursae;

DED: Ductus ejaculatorious duplex; DU. ED: Ejaculatory duct; GP: Genital plate;

F1RP: Plarpe; JX: Juxta; LAR: Lateral accessory reservoir; LO: Lateral oviduct;

OVM : Ovum; OVR: Ovariole; PS: Primary segment; SC: Saccus; SCL: Sacculus;

SD: Seminal duct; SG: Spermathecal gland; SOC: Socii; SP: Spermatheca; SPD:

Spermathecal duct; SVI: Seminal veside-I; SVII: Seminalvesicle-II; T: Testes; TG:

Tegumcn; TF: Terminal filament; UN: Uncus; VD: Vasa deferentia; VIN: Vinculum.

615

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 82

well defined, beset with five small denticles

besides a group of eleven finger like spinulose

processes, representing cornuti.

Testes creamish yellow, circular 0.65 mm. in

diameter, jelly like; seminal vesicle I: 0.85 mm

long, creamish white, cylindrical, sclerotized,

seminal vesicle II: 0.7 mm. long, creamish

white, slightly curved, sclerotized, both seminal

vesicles separated by a distinct duct; vasa defe-

rentia 2.9 mm. long, white, transparent, open

one third towards the side of the ejaculatori-

ous duplex, 1.45 mm long, curved, arms as

broad as the simplex; accessory gland white,

transparent 9.4 mm long, uniformly broad

throughout; ductus cjaculatorious simplex

white, transparent, primary segment 8.5 mm

long, uniformly broad, cuticular muscular area

1 .4 mm long, comparatively broader, transpa-

rent and curved.

Ovaries yellow coloured, comparatively short,

broad, each ovariole measuring 7.9 mm long,

constricted clearly with 45-50 ova; terminal

filament white, short and tapers gradually; late-

ral oviduct 0.2 mm long; common oviduct 0.6

mm long containing two ova; spermathecal

gland white, 2.2 mm long, its tip blunt and

bifurcated: spermatheca unilobed, utiriculus

sclerotized. 0.2 mm long, slightly constricted,

spermathecal duct 0.45 mm long as broad as

the gland: accessory glands 7.4 mm long,

white in colour, its width uneven, with tip

blunt; lateral reservoir 1.7 mm long, mem-

branous, elongated; common accessory duct

0.3 mm long, membranous; corpus bursae 0.9

mm long, transparent, membranous; ductus

bursae 1 . 3 mm long, dorsovcntrally flattened.

transparent, curved; ostium bursae surrounded

by a well developed genital plate, the later

heavily sclerotized; ductus seminalis 0.25 mm

long, narrow, curved, originating from the late-

ral side of the ductus bursae; anterior and

posterior apophyses moderately sclerotized.

Ovipositor lobes normally setosed with macro

and micro setae.

Material examined :

Holotype <J, India: Patiala (Punjab)

3 . vii . 1984, light: Paratypes 3 d\ 2 $ $

collection data as for the holotype, August to

October, 1984. Material has been deposited in

the Department of Zoology, Punjabi University,

Patiala- 147 002. Punjab: India.

Remarks:

The ground colour of the species under

reference is dull green and generally resembles

other congeneric species of the genus Chlorissa

Stephens. The new species is, however, more

allied to C. albifasciata Pajni and Walia but

differs in the socii being symmetrical in the

new species and assvmmetrical in C. albifasciata.

Moreover in the structure of the aedeagus the

number and arrangement of cornuti on vesica

is quite different in both species.

Ack nowledgf.ments

We thank Prof. H. R. Pajni and Dr. V. K.

Walia of the Department of Zoology, Punjab

University, Chandigarh-160 014 for their valu-

able comments on the identity of the species.

Reference

Pajni. H. R. & Walia. V. K. (1984): Taxonomic Stephens (subfamily: Gcometrinae) . Entomon 9(1):

studies on Indian Geomctridae 1. Genus Chlorissa 39-46.

616

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

PRIMULA SUBANSIRICA — A NEW SPECIES FROM

ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA1

G. D. Pal2

{With eight text-figures )

Primula subansirica sp. nov.

Primula erythra Fletcher affinis, sed differt

pilis 4-10-cellularibus omnino tectis, scapis 13-

20 cm longis, umbellis 4-6-floris, bracteis late

lanceolatis ad oblongo-lanceolatis, 4-5 x 2. 5-3.0

mm, calycibus 3. 5-4.0 mm longis, breviter

connatis, corollis 7. 5-8.0 mm longis, campanu-

la's, purpureis.

Holotypus lectus ad locum Begi, Subansiri

District, Arunachal Pradesh, India, alt 2000 m,

die 24.4.1980, a G. D. Pal sub numero 78219

et positus in CAL; Isotypi G. D. Pal 78219

A-B positi in Arunachal Pradesh.

Primula subansirica sp. nov. is allied to

Primula erythra Fletcher but can be differen-

tiated by the presence of 4-10 celled pubescent

hairs throughout, scape 13-20 cm long, bracts

broadly lanceolate to oblong lanceolate, 4-5 x

2. 5-3.0 mm, 2-6 flowered umbel, calyx 3. 5-4.0

mm long, shortly united, corolla 7. 5-8.0 mm,

campanulate, purple.

Primula subansirica sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-8)

Perennial scapigerous herbs, 20-30 cm high,

efarinose, rusty red; rootstalks oblong to

oblong-cylindric with fibrous root, thickly

pubescent; hairs rusty red, 4-10 celled. Leaves

cauline, lamina ovate-cordate, 4. 0-6. 5 x 3.0-5. 5

cm, obtuse, crenate, base cordate, 5-6 secon-

dary nerved, subpubescent above, densely

pubescent beneath much along the nerves as

well as margin, herbaceous; petioles 7-12 cm

long, densely pubescent. Scapes 3-6, longer

1 Accepted July 1985.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Arunachal Field Sta-

tion, New Itanagar-791 111.

than leaves, occasionally equal, 13-20 cm long

cylindric, pubescent, with umbel of 2-6 flowers.

Flowers monomorphic, erect to semierect,

campanulate, purple. Bracts 2-5, broadly lan-

ceolate to oblong-lanceolate, 4-5x2. 5-3.0 mm,

acute, with 1-2 mm rusty red hairs, with pro-

minent nerves, pubescent on both surfaces.

Calyx 5 lobed, united; lobes oblong, 3. 5-4.0 x

0.8-1 mm, with prominent nerves, pubescent

beneath, both margin and apex with 1-2 mm

long hairs. Corolla campanulate, exannulate,

united portion 5 mm glabrescent; limbs 5,

obcordate, faintly emarginate, 2. 5-3.0 x 5-6

mm, nerves reddish, not much prominent.

Stamens 5, inserted at the apex of corolla tube;

filament c 2 mm long; anthers ovoid, c 2x2

mm; yellow. Ovary ellipsoid, c 2x1 mm;

style c 2 mm long, equal to the length of

limb or slightly longer; stigma capitate. Fruit

unknown.

Type : India: Arunachal Pradesh, Subansiri

district, Begi, alt. 2000 m, 24.4.1980, G. D.

Pal (CAL-Holotype) : G. D. Pal 78219 A-B

(Arunachal Pradesh-Isotype).

Forest edges, along the edge of steep hill

slopes, on rocky and humus soil in shaded

places.

The specific epithet is based on the name

of district of type locality Begi.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. M. P. Nayar, Director, Botani-

cal Survey of India for providing facilities and

encouragement; Dr. K. Thothathri, Joint Direc-

tor, Botanical Survey of India, for going through

the manuscript and Dr. N. C. Majumder, Eco-

logist, Central Botanical Laboratory, Howrah,

for rendering the latin description.

617

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Figs. 1-8. Primula subansirica sp. nov.

1. Plant; 2. Flower; 3. Celled-hair; 4. Floral bract; 5. Calyx (ventral view); 6. Part

of calyx (dorsal view); 7. Corolla with androecium; 8. Pistil.

618

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF HEDYOTIS L. (RUBIACEAE) FROM

SOUTH INDIA1

D. B. Deb and Ratna Dutta2

( With a text-figure)

In course of the study of the taxonomy

of the genus Hedyotis L. (Rubiaceae) some

specimens collected from Kerala and Tamil

Nadu were noted as misidentified as H. stylosa

R. Br. ex Wt. & Am. ( =H . leschenaultiana

DC.) or H. eualata (Bedd. ex Gamble) Henry

& Subram. On critical study these collections

represent a new species described below:

Hedyotis devicolamensis sp. nov.

Planta inter H. leschenaultiana DC. et H.

eualata (Bedd. ex Gamble) Henry et Subram.,

dilfert a H. leschenaultiana DC. paniculis umbel-

latis, pedicellis brevioribus, calycibus lobis

longissimis, corollarum tubis latioribusque a H.

eualata (Bedd. ex Gamble) Henry et Subram.

ramulis floriferis brevioribus, pedicellis brevio-

ribus, calycum tubis multo prolongatis supra

hypanthium, corollarum tubis latioribus atque

capsulis subglobosis ad oblongis.

Hedyotis devicolamensis sp. nov.

This is almost intermediate between H.

leschenaultiana DC. and H. eualata

(Bedd. ex Gamble) Henry et Subram.,

differing from H. leschenaultiana DC. in um-

bellate panicles, shorter pedicels, calyx lobes

very long and corolla tube broader, and from

H. eualata (Bedd. ex Gamble) Henry et

Subram. in shorter flowering branches, shorter

pedicels, calyx tube much produced above the

1 Accepted April 1985.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.

hypanthium, corolla tube broader and capsule

subglobose to oblong, amongst others.

Shrubs or undershrubs, 1-2 m in height,

branching above; stem quadrangular, or often

with prominent ridges, grooved, glabrous.

Leaves petiolate, 2.2-11 cm x 0.9-3. 5 cm,

ovate-lanceolate or elliptic-lanceolate, acumi-

nate at apex, attenuate at base, coriaceous,

yellowish or pale green when dry, glabrous,

rarely pubescent along the margin when young;

nerves subopposite, 5-7, on either side, oblique,

usually strong; petiole 3-10 mm long; stipules

2.4-4 mm x 7-8 mm, adnate to the petiole at

base, pectinate, with 5-9 bristles, pubescent,

glandular, black at apex. Inflorescence in ter-

minal and axillary panicles short, stout, umbel-

late cyme. Flowers pedicelled, 7-10 mm long,

heterostylous, bracteate and bracteolate; pedi-

cel 0.5-1 mm long; bracts foliaceous, lanceolate;

bracteoles small, fimbriate. Calyx 4-lobed,

glabrous; hypanthium ovoid, 1-1.2 mm long;

tube 0.8-1 mm long; lobes 2-3 mm x 1-1.5

mm, linear-lanceolate, acute, sparsely pubes-

cent along the margin; dense raphides present

all over. Corolla broadly tubular, white, or pale

violet; tube 3.5-5 mm long, 1.5-2. 5 mm broad,

often as long as the calyx lobes. Corolla lobes

2-3 mm x 1-1.5 mm, oblong, acute, incurved

and beaked at apex, puberulous outside,

minute pubescent inside, dense pubescent at

throat. Stamens 4, inserted at the sinus of

corolla lobes, included or exserted; filaments

1-1.5 mm long in short styled flower, and

0.2-0. 5 mm in long styled flower; anther 1-1.9

mm long, linear. Ovary 2 chambered, many

ovuled on median placenta; style 3-3.5 mm

619

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Fig. 1. Hedy otis devicolamensis sp. nov.

A. Habit; B. Stipule; C. Short styled flower; D. Corolla split open showing stamens,

style and stigma; E. Long styled flower; F. Corolla split open showing stamens,

stigma, style and ovary; G. Capsule; H. Septicidally dehiscing, mericarp; I.&J. Seeds.

620

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

or 4-8 mm long, glabrous; stigma bifid, 0.8-1

mm long, fleshy, papillose. Capsule subglobose

to oblong, 5-6 mm x 2.5 mm, crustaceous,

glabrous, dehiscing septicidally. Seeds 10-12,

angular or plano-convex, narrowly winged,

0.8-1 mm x 0.5-0. 6 mm; testa reticulate,

brownish in colour.

Type: Kerala state, Kottayam district, Devi-

colam, 11.9.1968, D. B. Deb 30480 (holo.

CAL) & D. B. Deb 30481 (iso. CAL); Umaiya

Malei, 2025 m, Devicolam, 17.4.1966, B. V.

Shetty 27311 (para, CAL); Rajamallai, 1950

m, 2.2.1970, B. V. Shetty 31783 (para, CAL);

Devicolam, 25.1.1964, K. M. Sebastine 18458

(para, CAL).

Other specimens: Tamil Nadu: Brahmagiri

sholas, 1380 m, C.E.C. Fischer 258 (CAL);

Coimbatore District, Akkamalai, 1575 m, J.

Joseph 13768 (MH); Akkamalai R. F. 1500

m, J. Joseph 15534 (MH); Konalar, R. Makali

65900 (CAL).

Distribution: Kerala and Tamil Nadu; com-

mon at 1500 m-2025 m in altitude.

Acknowledgement

Thanks are due to the Director, Botanical

Survey of India and Deputy Director, Central

National Herbarium, for facilities to conduct

this study.

621

REVIEWS

1 . THE FALL OF A SPARROW. By Salim Ali. pp. viii+265 (22x14.5 cm),

with 72 photographs on monochrome plates and 3 fascimiles. Delhi,

Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, 1985. Oxford University Press. Price Rs. 1 10/-.

Very few people have been blessed enough

to grow up with such an exciting century as

the 20th Century has been and continues to

be. Salim Ali has had the good fortune. Eight

decades of a revolutionary century and about

seven of them spent in the unflagging pursuit

of a subject dear to his heart, the study of

birds. In this autobiography he traces the

origin and describes the growth of his endur-

ing passion for birds. The wild and exotic

places and the people he met in his quest,

the trials and disasters, and the final triumph.

It is the triumph of a strong will considering

the odds. He was born in a family of achievers,

in an age when education leading to degree

was the road to success for the middle class,

and no deviation was permitted from the

beaten path. Anyone out of step was looked

at with dismay, and subjected to enormous

psychological and other pressures to bend the

errant person to the common will.

Salim Ali successfully withstood these subtle

and not so subtle pressures ably abetted first

by his wife and later by his sister. To them

he has abundantly acknowledged his gratitude.

His wife especially saved him from the

dreariness of attending to mundane chores

while on camp and assured that shoe-string

budgets on which he operated the various field

camps did not break under the strain.

Single minded devotion to an objective

could make a person tiresome to others, but

Salim Ali’s abiding grace is a wonderful sense

of humour and a singularly uninflated ego,

which enables him to look at himself and others

without pretensions.

What he has achieved is remarkable consi-

dering the slender resources he had operated

on over the years. As far the scientific output

by Salim Ali is concerned one would agree

with the Bombay Municipal Milk Inspector

whom Salim Ali quotes that “The pay is small

but the income is good”.

A remarkable book by a remarkable person.

J. C. DANIEL

2. (1) VRUKSHGAN. By Sharadini Dahanukar. pp. 96 (21.5x14 cm),

with twelve colours plates & many illustrations. Pune, 1984. Shrividya

Prakashan. Price Rs. 45/-.

(2) KAPASHICHI DIARY. By Kiran Purandare. pp. 96 (21.5x13.5 cm),

with many illustrations. Pune, 1984. Nisarg Prakashan. Price Rs. 35/-.

In the last few years, there has been an

increase in the interest in natural history and

conservation largely due to the efforts of orga-

nisations such as BNHS., W.W.F.— India and

from a number of books published on the

subject. A large number of newspapers and

magazines have also included ‘nature' as a

regular subject which has helped in popula-

622

REVIEWS

rising these subjects. However, a big void re-

mains, as there are very few books in regional

languages.

The publication of these two books in

Marathi is welcome and the authors deserve

credit for their efforts.

vrukshgan is veritably a poem on trees.

The book originated from a series of articles

written by the author in a Marathi daily, Maha-

rashtra Times. While describing various trees

in fluent, poetic but simple language, the author

also gives considerable scientific and other in-

teresting information. The author has simplified

scientific names giving their origin and has

also described Sanskrit & Marathi names. She

also mentions various uses and medicinal pro-

perties of the trees. The book has 12 colour

plates and many illustrations showing various

parts of trees. This useful, informative, book

is made more attractive by the beautiful print-

ing & layout and the artistic cover design by

Shri Subhash Awachat.

kapashichi diary is an account of bird

observations by an amateur. The book basi-

cally describes observations on a pair of

Blackwinged Kites and their nest, but it also

gives an account of bird observations in the

surrounding regions. In the course of the in-

troduction, the author narrates his experiences

to show how his bird watching hobby has now

turned into more scientific ornithological study.

In simple, attractive language, the author

narrates how an individual can take interest

in the hobby and experience wonderful mo-

ments in the company of nature.

The chapter on birds in mango trees illus-

trates how one can do interesting bird

observations in a small patch of trees near the

city. Detailed observations on the nest of the

Blackwinged Kite gives us some interesting

information. The notes on the nesting behaviour

of birds, protection of the nest, feeding and

protection of the chicks, first flight of the

young ones and predation of one of the chicks

(probably by spotted owlets), give us first hand

important scientific information.

One important point that comes to mind

while reading the book is the necessity for

standardisation of local names of birds. The

names already in use by local people should

preferably be used. New names should be given

in simple language, wherever necessary, but

here standardisation is essential.

Marathi literature already has some wel-

known books on nature by Smt. Durga

Bhagwat, Shri Maruti Chittampalli, Shri Vyan-

katesh Madgulkar, Shri Prakash Gole etc. The

entry of these two new authors in the field

is definitely welcome.

ULHAS RANE

3. WILDLIFE RESOURCES AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. By

S. K. Eltringham. pp. xii+325 (23x15 cm), with 16 photographs and many

illustrations. Chichester, 1984. John Wiley & Sons. Price not quoted.

With increasing demands upon wildlife re-

sources and wildlife habitats during the current

century, it is surprising that conservationists

took so long to embark upon a detailed evalua-

tion of wildlife as a worldwide economic re-

source, to counteract the other economic

demands upon wildlife habitats and the short-

sighted, destructive, exploitative practices which

have drastically impoverished wildlife as an

economic resource. It was only in the late

1960s that monographs and careful analyses

in this regard really began to appear, though

the pioneering works of Ray Dasmann and

others, and the success story of the Saiga

623

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

antelope had already proved a decade earlier

that if wisely harnessed, wildlife resources

could play a vital part in economic develop-

ment.

In this context, therefore, the book under

review is indeed a very welcome addition to

conservation literature, and is perhaps the

most comprehensive work on the subject to-

day. It deals with wildlife utilization for food

and non-edible purposes; wildlife cropping as

different from culling; wildlife ranching; wild-

life population ecology; game hunting; wildlife

tourism and possibilities of new domestication

of wild species. The scope of the work is limit-

ed to undomesticated animals; wild plants are

not included. And though a part chapter is

devoted to fishing, this very crucial wildlife

resource is dealt with but briefly in the book.

The consideration of the size of the book in

relation to the vastness of the topic of wildlife

as an economic resource in the full ambit of

the term, must in all probability account for

these curtailments.

Previous works on the subject of wildlfie

as an economic resource, amongst them the

treatises of J. Sale. A. de Vas, Asibey, Child,

Clark & Mitchell, were mainly concerned with

Africa & North America, with some attention

to Europe and Australia. South America.

Oceania and Asia were but cursorily dealt

with, and this regrettably is also the case with

the book under review. This omission is per-

haps accounted for by the fact that enough

data is not readily available for these regions,

but then this is precisely what must be in-

vestigated. because it is in these parts of the

world that wildlife is under the greatest threat.

The author deals at some length with the

various methods of estimating the maximum

sustainable yields (MSY) of wildlife popula-

tions, and comes to the sensible conclusion

that “It is as yet impossible to calculate accu-

rately the MSY of any wild population from

theoretical formulations. Harvesting must

therefore continue to be conducted on an

empirical basis and the MSY guessed, but it

is nevertheless desirable to estimate its value

by one or other of the various techniques

described.” In the hands of the uninitiated,

however, the various theories propounded to

ascertain MSY could lead to grave errors in

practice, as they have in the past, and it is

far safer to work out the optimum sustainable

yield (OSY). Even here there are many im-

ponderables, which the book unfortunately

does not deal with. Should one allow the popu-

lations to build upto the optimum carrying

capacity of the habitat before undertaking OSY

cropping ? If so, how does one calculate OSY

of that carrying capacity ?

The exposes on ivory and rhino horn trade

are detailed and well documented, based main-

ly upon the works of the IUCN TRAFFIC

group and E Bradley Martin. One would have

wished to have had a more detailed discussion

on the potential of krill as a world protein

resource.

On page 111 the name Kajiado district of

Kenya is mis-spelt twice as Kjiado, though

elsewhere the word is correctly spelt. In deal-

ing with crocodile farming, there is no mention

of the world's pioneering and to date the most

successful crocodile farm of Youngprapakorn

in Thailand. In the sub chapter dealing with

indigenous cultures dependent on wildlife, there

is no mention of the peoples of Papua New

Guinea, whose dependence on wildlife is second

to none in the world.

These, however, are but minor aberrations

in what is a work of major significance and

relevance in the humdrum, development-

oriented world of today. One only hopes that

it would form a catalyst to further studies on

the subject in developing countries.

M. K. RANJITSINH

624

REVIEWS

4. THE BIRDS OF THE WETLANDS. By James Hancock. Foreword by

Ian Prestt. pp. 152 (25x 19.5 cm), with many coloured photographs.

Bombay, 1984. Oxford University Press. Price Rs. 135/-.

The diminution of wildlife particularly of

the larger mammals and birds was noticed

everywhere after the termination of the Second

World War and attempts were made to pro-

tect them in many countries. The first effort

in most places was to ban all shooting. But

it was soon realised, (though not always ad-

mitted) that the preservation of the environ-

ment is equally (if not more) important and

the first and perhaps the most easily protected

form of habitat was found to be marshes

and other areas more or less permanently under

water, which together with their surroundings

provided refuge to a large number and variety

of birds. This led almost simultaneously to the

addition of a new term “wetlands” to the

English language.

There were such areas all over the world

which remained unmolested because they were

more difficult to reclaim to build upon or for

cultivation or owed their existence to sports-

men who wished to preserve the sport which

they had enjoyed thereon. It was soon realised

however that wetlands were also threatened as

more water was required for other purposes

and left to themselves, the marshes would soon

be drained, silted or reclaimed and this strong-

hold was also going.

The present volume deals with one or more

outstanding wetland in each continent and in

addition to being an excellent introduction to

wetlands in different parts of the world, the

Florida Everglades in North America, various

parts of South America, the Tana River, Kenya

in Africa, Bharatpur in India, and so on, we

are treated to the large number of excellent

photographs mostly of water birds.

The author has also produced the egrets

of the world and there are interesting obser-

vations on the color changes in the bill and

tarsus of the different species, again drawing

attention, if it were necessary, to the need of

such notings in India.

The chapter on Bharatpur is of particular

interest to us and as in the others, is illustrat-

ed with excellent photographs. It is stressed

that the place owes its origin to the shooting

parties of the Maharaja. It is true that at times

inordinate numbers were shot and while the

population could possibly once stand this

attack, the limits of sport were exceeded and

there was a reversion in other directions. Now

it has been made a national park and it is

hoped that it will be possible to get over the

several problems which have risen, e.g. deter-

mining if the growth of the grass and clogging

of waterways is due to the stoppage of cattle

grazing which was one of the first efforts at

conservation within the sanctuary.

The author has visited the place several

times and has a Checklist of birds but it is

not clear if all were seen by himself or by

others. However the list contains several species

for which the earlier records have not been

satisfactorily established, e.g. Accipiter genlilis,

Chlidonias niger, Pericrocotus flammeus, Cisti-

cola exilis, Acrocephalus concinens, Phyllosco-

pus affinis, juscatus and proregulus, Anthus

spinoletta. And do 2 species of iora really

occur at Bharatpur ?

Tt is strange that he makes no reference to

the BNHS Hydrobiology project which has

been working there for several years and

which he no doubt saw in action.

Bird photography is catching on in India

625

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

but it is hoped that the natural study of bird

life and the factors necessary for their survival

will also receive attention and permit their

preservation. The example set in the wetlands

must also be extended to dry land and forests

before it is too late.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

5. THE BOOK OF INDIAN REPTILES. By J. C. Daniel, pp. x + 141 25 x

17 cm), with many coloured and black-and-white plates and illustrations.

Bombay, 1983. Bombay Natural History Society. Price Rs. 75.00*

The last summary of the systematics and

biology of the Indian reptiles was by Malcolm

A. Smith. His three volume series (1931, 1935,

1943) covered a much wider area: British

India and the entire Indochina peninsula. Just

as this area has experienced much political

and cultural change, knowledge of the Indian

reptiles has also changed and grown with the

contributions of many Indian and foreign bio-

logists. Daniel’s book is a useful summary of

this new information on the natural history

of Indian reptiles: i.e., those living on the

Indian peninsula, particularly in the Republic

of India. Daniel notes in the preface that the

new data derive largely from articles published

in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History

Society, but it is clear that the author kept

abreast of the literature published elsewhere.

Systematics is not emphasized; only the cur-

rent scientific name is given for each species

and, where a consensus of usage has not been

reached, Daniel follows the older usage.

The book emphasizes the common Indian

species but includes information on many of

the more elusive and rarer species as well. The

text is organized into five major sections: in-

troduction, crocodiles, turtles and tortoises,

lizards, and snakes. The introduction provides

a thorough and concise introduction to rep-

Reprinted from Hcrpetologica 41(2): 236-237

(June 1985).

* Presently @ Rs. 85/-.

tiles. In each of the taxonomic sections, the

common species are detailed with subsections

giving local (colloquial) names; maximum size;

features for identification; coloration; habitat,

distribution and status information; general

data on habits, often noting the lack of de-

tailed information; diet and feeding habits;

reproductive data; and miscellaneous items of

special interest. The rarer species are includ-

ed in accounts of the common species to which

they are most closely related: e.g., the account

of the Indian Flap-shell Turtle contains all

of the other trionychid species, and the ac-

count of the Northern House Gecko contains

nine other gecko species. Each rarer species

is described in a short paragraph giving iden-

tification characteristics and natural history

notes. Overall, three crocodilians, 28 turtles

and tortoises, 45 lizards, and 49 snakes are

presented, about half by full accounts. The

species are illustrated in a variety of ways:

line drawings, black and white photographs,

color photographs, and reprints of classic color

plates. The mixture is esthetically pleasing as

well as providing accurate and helpful illustra-

tions for recognizing the different species. T

particularly liked the colored photographs of

geckos and the colored plates of snakes from

Wall’s series in early numbers of the Journal

The text is followed by a literature cited sec-

tion, additional readings, a glossary, and a

combined index of common and scientific

names.

626

REVIEWS

The book is well written and, although not

stated, written for a student and lay audience.

This goal has resulted in a highly readable

text and does not detract from the book’s

usefulness for herpetologists and other zoolo-

gists. The author deserves high praise for the

quality of this book from its highly readable

summary of the Indian herpetofauna, selection

of excellent illustrations, and meticulous edit-

ing and proof-reading. I strongly recommend

this book for everyone interested in Asian

zoology. It is a quality book and a real bargain

in these days of inflated book prices.

George R. Zug, Department of Vertebrate

Zoology ( Amphibians and Reptiles), National

Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian In-

stitution, Washington, DC 20560, USA.

6. THE BREEDING BIRDS OF EUROPE: A Photographic Handbook.

By Manfred Pforr and Alfred Limbrunner. Translated by Richard

Stoneman. Edited by Iain Robertson. Vol. 1, Divers to Auks. pp. 327

(21x20 cm) with many coloured plates. London, 1981*. Croom Helm.

Price £14.95. Vol. 2, Sandgrouse to Crows, pp. 394 (21x20 cm), with

many coloured plates. London, 1982*. Croom Helm. Price £17.95.

The number of books appearing about birds

is increasing and it is hardly possible to keep

in touch with everything published. Also with

the most sophisticated photographic and print-

ing equipment available, the quality of the pic-

tures is steadily improving but I would not

hesitate to say that the pictorial value of the

present pictures of the breeding birds of

Europe, often representing both sexes when

they show a difference, their seasonal changes,

their nests and eggs, accompanied by distri-

butional maps and a little text are far superior

to anything which has been published — cer-

tainly on the Indian market.

There are many odd facts which draw atten-

tion — e.g. most of the 127 species of cuckoos

in the world are said to rear their own young.

Pigeons drink by sucking, a habit only shared

with sandgrouse and button quail. In some

owls, the cars are asymmetrical which allows

very accurate pin-pointing of sounds. The outer

web of the primaries has a comb-like structure

of filament preventing the air from whistling

against a hard edge. The tongue of the wood-

peckers is long with a barbed tip and covered

with a glue-like secretion which enables them

to extract larvae from holes deep in the wood.

The incubation period of the white pelican

* Received for review in September 1985.

is 30 days. Some bitterns are polygamous. The

great flamingo chicks are fed on a glandular

secretion known as crop milk.

Many such interesting factors are brought

out and the short references together with the

photographs make fascinating reading.

The damage caused by the extent of photo-

graphing at the nest, which is becoming more

and more evident in India is stressed by the

statement in the introduction that “photographs

of endangered species included in this book

were obtained at a time when the danger was

not recognised or by taking the greatest care to

avoid disturbance which might affect the suc-

cess of the nest”.

There is also a list of 35 species in Volume

1 of which it was not possible to obtain photo-

graphs because of their rarity. Curiously they

include the blackwinged kite and the purple

coot, both so common in India.

The photographs are picked from those

taken by 42 persons mostly from West Ger-

many and is another instance of what fine

results can be obtained by collaboration.

The price is high but the pictures and text

are worth the money. We wonder when an

equivalent work will be available in Tndia.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

627

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. ON SOME ASPECTS OF REPRODUCTION AMONG THE TIGERS

C PANTHERA TIGRIS ) OF NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL

PARK (ORISSA)

The purpose of the present communication

is to present data on some aspects of repro-

duction observed among the captive tigers at

the Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa dur-

ing the period from January, 1964 to October

1979. The observations of earlier workers have

been cited.

Materials and Methods

The Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa

was opened to the public on 29th December,

1960. The first full grown tigress of the Park

was received from Alipore Zoological Gardens,

Calcutta in January, 1964 and she was paired

with a full grown tiger of the same Park in

November, 1965. The first birth of tiger cubs

in the Park was recorded in December, 1966.

So far 28 tiger cubs have been born in the

Park to four tigresses in twelve litters.

The tigers in the Park are kept in spacious

enclosures, each of which has two adjacent

retiring cells. Usually the tigers are kept in

pairs and separated about a fortnight before

the expected date of parturition till the cubs

are about 9 months old.

The tigers are fed six days in a week with

beef and on Mondays of each week no food

is given. On an average each adult tiger is

given 14 Kg of fresh raw beef with bones

daily. Vitamin supplements such as Vitablend

AD3 (Glaxo) or Becadex Multivitamin tablets

(Glaxo) are added to the beef intermittently.

The weight and size of tiger cubs at birth

was recorded within about twelve hours after

their birth.

Observations and discussion

Sexual Maturity. One tigress born in the

Park on 9.3.1975 was allowed to remain with

a sexually matured tiger from the age of about

2 years and ten months (from 5.4.1978).

Mating of this pair was first observed from

1 . 10.1978 to 5.10. 1978 and subsequently from

15.11.1978 to 23.11.1978, from 27.12.1978

to 5.1.1979, from 13.2.1979 to 18.2.1979 and

from 6.4.1979 to 12.4.1979 resulting in the

birth of the first litter on 22.7.1979. These

observations suggest that the tigress came to

her first oestrus at the age of 3 years 6 months

and 22 days or say about 3 years and 7 months

but gave birth for the first time at the age

of 4 years, 4 months and 14 days.

Chaturvedi (1970) states that the first cub-

bing of a tigress takes place at about the age

of four and a tiger is fully grown in about 5

years.

The age of sexual maturity of two tigresses

is given as about 3 years and of two tigers

is given as about 4 years and about 3 years

and 7 months respectively (Acharjyo and

Misra 1975. Acharjyo and Mishra 1980).

According to Crandall (1965) a female tiger

became sexually mature soon after passing the

age of 3^ years whereas a male tiger became

sexually mature at least 15 days before he

reached the age of 4 years. The tiger cubs

628

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

mature at an age between 3^ and 6 years

(Sankhala 1967). Prater (1971) states that the

lions and tigers take from three to five years

to become fully adult but males and females

are capable of breeding soon after, or even

before they are three years old. Little has been

published regarding the age at which tigers

reach sexual maturity (Schaller 1972). The

age of sexual maturity of this species is given

as three years (Blanford 1888-91) and as four

years (Abramov 1962, Novikov 1962). At the

Whipsnade Zoo one tigress is said to have pro-

duced a litter at 2 years of age (Pocock 1939).

Mating Season: The mating of the tigers of

the Park has been observed in all the months

of the year. From April. 1967 to October,

1979; 36 matings were recorded as follows:

Rainy Season (July to October)

— 11 (30.56%)

Winter Season (November to February)

— 15 (41.67%)

Summer Season (March to June)

— 10 (27.77%)

Many tigers in India seem to mate after

the rains (Prater, loc. cit.). The tiger breeds

all the year (Asdell 1964). According to

Schaller (loc. cit.) the peak of sexual activity

of tigers at Kanha was from November to

about February with some mating probably

occurring throughout the year. Sinha (1976)

states that majority of mating in tigers of

Palamau Tiger Reserve occurs during winter

season (mid of October to mid of February)

followed by summer (mid February to mid

June) and possibly some mating occurs during

rains also. Normally tigers mate in November-

December or May and June (Singh 1973).

Oestrus period and inter-oestrus interval:

The details of our observations during the

period from September, 1977 to October, 1979

is given in Table 1.

Table 1

629

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

The Table 1 indicates that the period of

mating (Oestrus period) in 9 cases among two

tigresses varies from 5 to 10 days with an

average of 7.33 days. The inter-oestrus inter-

val observed in 6 cases among two tigresses

varies from 33 to 53 days with an average

of 41 days.

According to Acharjyo and Mohapatra

(1979) the oestrus period observed in 19 cases

among two tigresses varies from 2 to 8 days

with an average of 5.2 days and inter-oestrus

interval observed in 15 cases among two

tigresses varies from 28 to 138 days with an

average of 65.9 days. The oestrus in one

tigress at the Basel Zoo was observed 21 times

with an average interval of 51.9 days (range

20-84 days) and in another tigress it was re-

corded 18 times with an average interval of

54.2 days (range 27-83 days) (Schaller, loc.

cit.) . Sadleir (1966) states that the interval

between the mid-points of 3 consecutive oestrus

periods in one tigress varied from 45-55 days

and the average length of receptivity during

14 oestrus periods was 7.1 days. The tigress

is polyestrous. heat recurring at intervals of

about 3 weeks (Crandall, loc cit.).

Gestation period: During the period from

September. 1977 to October. 1979 the gesta-

tion period observed twice in two tigresses was

100 days and 101 days respectively calculated

from the last day of mating to birth.

The gestation period observed on eight

occasions among three tigresses of Nandan-

kanan Biological Park from January. 1970 to

August, 1977 varied from 98 to 104 days

with an average of 101.13 days (Acharjyo

and Mohapatra 1978). The gestation period is

said to be 15 to 16 weeks (Prater, loc. cit.).

Asdcll (loc. cit.) states that the gestation period

is about 1 1 3 days. The gestation period from

the last observed mating is given as 100 to

108 days (Crandall, loc. cit.). The gestation

period is about 100 days (Chaturvedi, loc.

cit.).

Litter size and sex ratio at birth: The litter

size of twelve births recorded to four tigresses

of the Park during the period from December,

1966 to October, 1979 varied from 1 to 3 cubs

with an average of 2.33 cubs per litter. The

litter size of two births was one, of four births

was two and of six births was three. There

were 16 females and 10 males and the sex of

the two cubs could not be known as they died

and perished in the open-air enclosure. So the

sex ratio (No. of males to 100 females) is

62.5 : 100.

The litter size of 79 litters born in Zoos

varied from 1 to 5 with an average of 2.8

cubs per litter and the sex ratio of 196 cubs

at birth born to these 79 litters was 100 males

to 100 females (Schaller. loc cit.). The litter

size varies from 1 to 7 (Brander 1923). The

litter size is usually 2 to 3 but as many as

6 may be produced (Prater, loc. cit.). One

tigress of the New York Zoological Park pro-

duced thirty two cubs in 11 litters from 1948

to 1959. the division of sexes being 19 males

and 13 females and the litter size was 1 to 4

(Crandall, loc. cit.).

Distribution of births: The twelve births

were recorded as follows: March. 1; April. 3::

May. 2; June. 1: July. 2: November, 1; and

December. 2.

The cubs are born at any time in the London

Zoo but most are born from June to August

(Asdell. loc cit ). The majority of young are

born between February and May in Tndia

(Prater, loc. cit ). One tigress produced eleven

litters at the New York Zoological Park as

follows: May. 8; June. T, and November. 2;

(Crandall. loc. cit.).

Inter-parturition interval: The details of

inter-parturition intervals recorded are given

in Table 2.

630

19 days

The Table 2 indicates that inter-parturition

interval observed on three occasions among

two tigresses varies from 1 year 8 months and

14 days to 2 years, 2 months and 12 days with

an average of 1 year 1 1 months and 25 days.

Acharjyo and Misra (1975) state that the

inter-parturition interval observed in five cases

among two tigresses varies from 4 months

and 25 days to 3 years, 8 months and 9 days

with an average of 1 year. 6 months and 5

days. Most cats have one or two litters a year,

the larger species some times breed only every

two or three years (Walker et al. 1964). Tn

the wild the intervals between two successive

cubbings is about three years (Chaturvedi, loc.

cit.). In Zoos where the cubs are usually re-

moved from the mother at birth, one litter

per year is common and at London Zoo a

tigress had 8 pregnancies between 1961 and

1964 including 3 births to this female in 1962

(Schaller, loc. cit.). He further states that a

free living tigress that loses her cubs in some

mishap is able to have a new litter within about

5 months.

Weight and size at birth: The weight and

measurements of nine new born tiger cubs of

the Park born during the period from 1.7. 1972

to 31.10.1979 indicates that at birth the

weight varies from 1.100 Kg to 1.430 Kg

with an average of 1.247 Kg and measures

from 50.5 cm to 54.0 cm with an average of

52.05 cm tip to tip including tail lengths of

15 to 17 cm (average 15.67 cm).

The weight of seven tiger cubs at birth

varied from 0.920 Kg to 1.450 Kg with an

average of 1.202 Kg and the length from tip

to tip was 49 cm to 58 cm with an average

of 53.4 cm. (Acharjyo and Misra 1972). Tiger

cubs at birth weigh under three pounds (Denis

1964). At birth the three tiger cubs of New

York Zoological Park measured 20 inches from

the tip of the nose to the tip of the tail and

their weights were 2 pounds 8 ounces (male),

2 pounds 9 ounces (male) and 2 pounds 11

ounces (female) ('Crandall, loc. cit.).

Opening of eyes of cubs: The eyes of five

tiger cubs, under observation (born during the

period from 1.10.1973 to 31.10.1979) were

closed at birth and opened on 7th day (two

cubs), 9th day (two cubs) and 12th day (one

cub).

631

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

According to Chaturvedi (loc. cit.) the tiger

cubs open their eyes nine days after birth. The

tiger cubs open their eyes in 15 to 16 days

(Denis, loc. cit.). Crandall (loc. cit.) reported

that the eyes of three tiger cubs were closed

Veterinary Assistant Surgeon,

Nandankanan Biological Park,

P. O. Barang, Dist. Cuttack,

Orissa-754 005

Wild Life Conservation Officer,

Orissa,

95-Sahid Nagar,

Bhubaneswar-751 007,

June 12, 1980.

at birth and opened on 9th day (female), 11th

day (male) and 17th day (male) respectively.

The tiger cubs open their eyes in eight to

fourteen days (Acharjyo and Misra 1973).

L. N. ACHARJYO

CH. G. M1SHRA

References

Abramov, V. (1962): Cited by Schaller. George-

B. (1972).

Acharjyo, L. N. & Misra, R. (1972): Observa-

tions on weight and size at birth of some wild

mammals in captivity. Chcctal, Vol. 15(2) : 64-67.

(1973): Further

notes on opening of eyes of some wild carnivores

in captivity, ibid. 15(4) : 49-55.

(1975): Age of

sexual maturity of two species of wild carnivores in

captivity. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(1): 196-197.

(1975): A note

on inter-parturition interval of some captive wild

mammals, ibid. 72(3): 841-845.

& Mishra. Ch. Cj. (1980): Some

notes on age of sexual maturity of seven species

of Indian Wild mammals in captivity, ibid. 77(3):

504-507.

Acharjyo. L. N. & Mohapatra, S. (1978): Some

observations on periods of receptivity and gestation

in two species of Great cats in captivity. Cheetal,

Vol. 20(1): 3-8.

(1979): Some

observations on inter-oestrus interval in captive

tigresses [Panthera tigris Linnaeus]. ./. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 76(3): 495-497.

Asdell, S. A. (1964): Patterns of mammalian

reproduction. Second Edition. Cornell University

Press, Ithaca. New York. pp. 492-93.

Blanford, W. (1889-91) : Cited by Schaller, George

B. (1972). •

Brander, A. (1923): Cited by Schaller, George

B. (1972).

Chaturvedi, M. D. (1970): The Felines. National

Book Trust, India, New Delhi.

Crandall, Lee S. (1965): The Management of

Wild Mammals in Captivity. The University of

Chicago Press, Chicago and London, pp. 382-389.

Denis, Armand (1964): The Cats of the World.

Constable & Co., Ltd., London, pp. 26-62.

Novikov. G. (1962): Cited by Schaller, George

B. (1972).

Pocock, R. (1939): Cited by Schaller, George

B. (1972).

Prater, S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian Ani-

mals. Third (Revised) Edition. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay, pp. 62-66.

Sadleir. R. (1966): Cited by Schaller, George

B. (1972).

♦Sankhala, K. S. (1967): Breeding behaviour of

the Tiger in Rajasthan, hit. Zoo Yb. 7: 133-147.

Schaller. George B. (1972): The Deer and the

Tiger. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago

and London, pp. 231-236.

Singh. Arjan (1973): Cited by Sinha, J. P.

(1976).

Sinha. J. P. (1976): Mating season in Tiger in

Palamau Tiger Reserve. Cheetal. Vol. 18(\8l2):

47-55.

Walker. Ernest P. et al. (1964): Mammals of

the World. Volume II. The Johns Hopkins Press,

Baltimore, pp. 1268-1279.

632

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

2. A NOTE ON GOLDEN JACKALS (CAN IS AUREUS) AND THEIR

RELATIONSHIP WITH LANGURS ( PRESBYT1S ENTELLUS)

IN KANHA TIGER RESERVE

Field studies of golden jackals ( Canis aureus)

in East Africa and the Middle East have

demonstrated considerable variability in social

organisation (Wyman 1967, Macdonald 1979,

1983, Moehlman 1983). In the Serengeti plains,

grasslands dominated by abundant, dispersed,

ungulates, golden jackals live in small terri-

torial groups (usually pairs), packhunt and

disseminate their faeces singly (Wyman 1967,

Lamprecht 1978). In contrast, in arid scrub

bordering the Dead Sea in Israel, ungulates are

unimportant and available food is predomi-

nantly scavenge, clumped at a few refuse and

provisioning sites. Here jackals live in large

territorial groups (10-20), scavenge and depo-

sit their faeces in middens (Macdonald 1979).

Macdonald (1979) also noted similar intra-

specific variation for the striped hyena ( Hyaena

vulgaris) and suggested that group size and

food dispersion are linked; clumped food, be-

ing an economically defensible resource, per-

mits larger group size. The significance of

midden as opposed to single faeces remains

obscure.

Little is known of the biology of Asiatic

jackals despite their abundance in a wide range

of habitats. During a two year field study of

Hanuman langurs ( Presbytis entellus) in

Kanha Tiger Reserve, Mandla District, Madhya

Pradesh (1980-83) some incidental observa-

tions of golden jackal biology were collected.

These records were obtained on the central

, Kanha maiden (80° 38' E, 22° 17' N), a

| mosaic of sal ( Shorea robust a) forest, anthro-

pogenic meadow and rocky outcrops

(“chattans”) vegetated with dry deciduous

i forest (Schaller 1967, Newton 1984). The

Kanha meadows, although more wooded than

the African plains, are similar to the Serengeti,

particulary in terms of food dispersion, but

quite dissimilar to the Dead Sea. Macdonald’s

(1979) hypothesis therefore predicts that Kanha

jackals would packhunt in small groups and

deposit faeces singly. Conversely, jackals

scavenging at nearby Indian villages would be

expected to live in large groups and form

middens.

During 138 dawn to dusk follows of a langur

troop, spread evenly throughout the year (April

1981 -March 1982), golden jackals were ob-

served on 72 occasions (0.52 sightings/day).

Jackals were most frequently seen during the

early monsoon (June-August, 1.08 sightings/

day) and least frequently in the winter and

late monsoon (September-January, 0.17 sight-

ings/day). During this study an estimated 10-15

jackals inhabited the Kanha maiden, in con-

trast to the two pairs recorded by Schaller

(1967) in 1963-64. Mean jackal group size was

1 .5 ± s.d. 0.86 (range 1-6); 46 sightings were

of lone animals and 20 of pairs. The small

group size, indicating a solitary and paired

existence, is similar to the jackals of the open

plains of the Serengeti and quite dissimilar to

the situation in Israel. Whether Kanha jackals

were territorial was not determined.

Schaller (1967) concluded, from analysis of

faeces collected from Kanha, that some 80%

of jackal dietary volume was rodents, with

reptiles and fruit also important, but scaveng-

ing or predation of ungulates relatively unim-

portant. During 1980-83 the latter component

may have been more significant. In his 14

month study Schaller (1967) noted dhole

( Cuon alpinus), an important predator of un-

gulates on the open meadow, only once.

633

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

whereas during this fieldwork dhole were seen

some 70 times in two years. Dhole frequently

made kills on the meadows, which were con-

sistently scavenged by jackals. The latter

usually waited to feed until the dogs had de-

parted, but if they attempted to scavenge they

were repelled by the dhole; on one occasion

a dhole chased a jackal for some 150 m. Jackal

faeces were distributed singly on the Kanha

meadows, often on tracks or clumps of grass,

similar to the pattern in the Serengeti and

unlike the faecal middens found demarcating

territories in Israel (Macdonald 1979).

Jackals occasionally coursed chital (Axis

axis ) in small packs (maximum 4) and in

April 1981 two jackals were seen, in open

meadow, to chase and kill a blackbuck fawn

(Antilope cervicapra). The fawn was killed by

being torn into two parts, through the abdo-

men. The adult female blackbuck present

watched from nearby, but made no attempt to

intervene. Schaller (1967), Prater (1980),

Brander (1931) also noted jackal packs pur-

suing ungulates in India. Golden jackals have

also been noted packhunting gazelle fawns in

East Africa, killing with a similar technique

to that observed in Kanha (Wyman 1967, Lam-

precht 1978, Macdonald 1979, 1983). Unlike

the Indian records, attendant gazelle does were

observed to defend presumed offspring from

attack.

Although jackals are unlikely to be impor-

tant predators of adult langurs, being of similar

size (Prater 1980), juveniles may be vulnera-

ble, particularly in densely vegetated or dis-

sected terrain. Schaller (1967) noted, from

faecal analysis, the occasional consumption of

langur, but was unable to distinguish predation

from scavenging.

On 50 occasions jackals came within 50 m

of the langur troop being watched, whose res-

ponse was variable (Newton 1984). On six

occasions agonistic interactions were observed:

1) On 22 April 1981 an infant-two langur

of “M” troop approached ‘C’ troop, initiating

an encounter in open meadow. As it crossed

a nullah, a jackal ran from the bed, seized it

and carried it off between its jaws. The ‘M’

adult male pursued the jackal for some 100 m,

but did not catch up (Newton 1984).

2) A subadult female langur ran to within

1 m of a lone approaching jackal, bounced off

a fallen log and retreated.

3) An adult female langur descended from

a tree, ran towards an approaching jackal, and

chased it away with an open mouth face threat

(Dolhinow 1978).

4) A terrestrial adult female langur gave a

hand slap threat onto the ground towards a

approaching jackal 15 m distant. The jackal

departed.

5) A jackal came within 10 m of a terres-

trial adult female langur before being detected

and chased away. On reapproaching, the jackal

was chased away by the adult female and

male langur.

6) A jackal chased an adult female langur

to a tree, coming within 2 m.

Of 14.5% of jackal-langur proximities

(<50m, N=50) at least one langur climbed a

tree in apparent response to jackal approach.

In 5 . 8% of events all terrestrial langurs

ascended trees. On 15.9% of occasions one

or more terrestrial langurs moved towards the

jackal (s). Of the 69 occasions in which langurs

were heard to give vocalisations in apparent

response to jackal presence, adult male ‘hack’

alarm calls were given on 52.2% (36), female

‘chist’ alarm calls on 37.7% (26) and female

'quavering’ on 46.4% (32) (for terms see

Newton 1984, Dolhinow 1978).

These limited data therefore suggest that

jackals can be important predators of terres-

trial langurs, particulary immature ones, dur-

III

634

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ing lapses of vigilance. Close approach by

jackals does elicit langur alarm calls and

aggressive behaviour.

Jackals were occasionally seen to forage on,

or 'glean’, vegetation felled by langurs, dropp-

ed as a result of their feeding technique, by

accident or as a result of arboreal displays

(Newton in prep.). This scavenging most fre-

quently occurred after the depan ure of the

troop. However, on four occasions, when lan-

gurs were still present in the tree canopies

above, jackals fed on dropped fruits: “jamun”,

Syzygium cumini fruits thrice and “lusari”

Corclia latifolia fruits once. In the late hot

weather and early monsoon the large quantities

of langur and wind felled fruit probably made

a substantial contribution to jackal diet. Jackals

were also seen to feed on Buchanania lanzan

and Gardenia latifolia fruits in leaf litter but

never on the abundant flowers and leaves also

felled by wind and monkey.

Langurs are unlikely to be directly impor-

tant in plant dispersal because their specia-

lised dentition and digestion destroys most

seeds, with the probable exception of Ficus

species. However, jackals may be important in

i seed dispersal. During the early monsoon many

i jackal faeces containing Syzygium cumini

kernels (and one containing C. latifolia) were

i found on the Kanha maiden. The jamun faeces

: were very noticeable owing to the purple

: matrix derived from the fruit coat. This matrix

5 was washed away during the rains leaving a

! Animal Ecology Research Group,

Department of Zoology,

£

South Parks Road,

c Oxford, England,

: March 2, 1985.

i

i-

characteristic deposit of germinating kernels.

These fruits were necessarily obtained from

langur and/or wind dropped vegetation. There-

fore through jackal gleaning of langur waste,

langurs may be indirectly important in fruit

dispersal. Schaller (1967) recorded Zizyphus

seeds in jackal faeces from the Kanha meadows

and Coles (1893) noted the importance of

jackals as seed dispersers, remarking that in

south India they disseminate coffee beans

( Coffea spp.). The right to collect this ‘jackal

coffee’ was let out on lease to villagers.

These, albeit scanty, observations suggest

that the Kanha jackal social system and habi-

tat resembles more closely that found on the

Serengeti plains than that in Israel (Wyman

1967. Macdonald 1979). In Kanha small groups

packhunted and scattered their faeces singly.

This correlation, across far-flung environments,

between habitat and social organisation is com-

patable with Macdonald’s (1979) economic

defensibility hypothesis. Do jackals living

around Indian villages behave as predicted ?

I am greatly indebted to the Madhya

Pradesh Forest Department for permission to

carry out fieldwork in Kanha and for their

cooperation. Mungal and Mohan Baiga pro-

vided excellent field assistance. I thank Gill

Kerby and Dr David Macdonald for helpful

comments on this note. The observations were

made whilst in receipt of a SERC (UK)

studentship.

PAUL N. NEWTON

635

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

R

EFERENCES

W

Brander, A. A. (1931): Wild animals in Central

India. London. Arnold.

Coles, E. C. (1893): An elementary manual of

zoology designed for the use of forest officers in

India. Calcutta. Government of India.

Dolhinow, P. (1978): A behavioural repertoire

for the Indian langur monkey Prcsbytis entellus.

Primates 19(3) : 449-472.

Lamprecht, J. (1978): On diet, foraging beha-

viour and interspecific food competition of jackals

in the Serengeti National Park, East Africa. Z.

Saugertierkd. 43(4): 210-223.

Macdonald, D. W. (1979): The flexible social

system of the Golden Jackal (Canis aureus). Behav.

Ecol. Sociobiol. 5: 17-38.

(1983): The ecology of car-

nivore social behaviour. Nature (Lond.) 301 : 379-

384.

Moehlman, P. D. (1983): Socioecology of silver-

d;

backed and goldenbacked jackals (Canis mesomelas

and Canis aureus). In: Advances in the Study of

Mammalian Behaviour. Ed. Eisenberg, J. F. &

Kleiman, D. G. Special Publication No. 7; The

American Society of Mammalogists, pp. 423-453.

Newton, P. N. (1984): The ecology and social

organisation of Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus

Dufresne, 1797) in Kanha Tiger Reserve, Central

Indian Highlands. D. Phil, thesis, University of

Oxford.

(in prep.) : Ungulate-primate

associations in India: symbiosis or chance?

Prater, S. H. (1980): The book of Indian Ani-

mals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

(Reprinted).

Schaller, G. B. (1967): The deer and the tiger.

Chicago. University of Chicago Press.

Wyman, J. (1967): The jackals of the Serengeti.

Animals 10: 79-83.

If

it

a

4;

a.

Ac

Di

lm

f

k

■

3. THE INDIAN BEAR MELURSUS URSINUS URSINUS FOR THE

CONTROL OF TICKS (ACARI-IXODIDAE)

Ticks are pest and vectors of many impor-

tant diseases of animals and man and many

methods are in vogue for the control of ticks.

Of these, acaricides are extensively used for

the control of ticks all over the world. Biolo-

gical control of ticks by Chalcid flies Hunter-

allus spp. has been tried to a certain extent

but the results achieved so far are not con-

vincing. Predators like Staphylinid beetle and

ground squirrel Citellus pygmaeus are reported

to feed on ticks (Sautet 1936, Flegotova

1938). Besides, crows are known to pick ticks

from the body of animals in India.

During the course of collection of ticks from

domestic animals in villages round about

Dharwad (North Karnataka), it came to our

notice that the villagers make use of an Indian

Bear -Melursus ursinus ursinus for the control

of ticks in cattle sheds. There are certain

nomadic people who catch bear when young.

tame them for “Bear-show”, being paid in cash

or in kind. They wander from village to village

the ‘Bear-shows’ being their livelihood.

The village Marewad near Dharwad was

heavily infested with Boophilus microplus

ticks in December 1983. One heavily tick in-

fested cattle shed was selected and a deal was

made between the owner of the cattle shed

and the bear owner for the control of ticks

in exchange of 5 kg. of grains for the services

rendered by the bear.

After the cattle and buffaloes were removed

from the cattle shed, the bear was taken inside.

The bear began to smell places where large

number of larvae, nymphs and adult ticks

were collected and began to swallow

the ticks licking them up with its tongue.

Other immature and adult ticks in

crevices were sucked in and swallowed and

those ticks deep inside the ground were

iris.

it

Ills

■ij’l

.;j'.

ml

i;;,

636

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

swallowed after excavating the ground with its

claws. The entire operation took 15-20 minutes.

This is a normal practice employed by villagers

whenever a bear visits their village. A close

[examination of such treated cattle shed showed

that the tick population on the body of cattle

came down abruptly and ticks did not appear

for the next 4-6 months.

This method has been found to be useful

Agriculture College,

Dharwad-580 005,

January 7, 1985.

Refer

Flegotova, A. A. (1938) : Les scarabees du genre

Staphylin comme regulateurs de la quantile de puces

dans les terriers des spermphiles Citellus pygmaeeus

pall. Rev. Microbiol. Saratov 76(1-2): 135-152.

for the control of ticks in North Karnataka and

does not involve risks associated with acari-

cides but it has got its own limitations since

the bear population has come down heavily

in recent years and bears will not be

available whenever cattle owners require

bears for the removal of ticks from the cattle

sheds.

SARVAMANGALA HARLAPUR

L. S. HIREGOUDAR

EN CES

Sautet, J. (1936): Invasion of domiciliaure de

Rhipicepha'us sanguineus et de Teutana triangulosa.

Role exodiphage des araignees. Ann. Parasit. hum.

comp. 14(2): 126-129.

4. FOOD AND NESTING HABITS OF FUNAMBULUS TRISTR1ATUS

WATERHOUSE IN MALABAR*

This paper deals with the annual diet and nesting habits of the Western Ghats squirrel,

Funambulus tristriatus Waterhouse. Stomach content analysis revealed their omnivorous

nature with termites and male flowers of coconut as the major food items. Nests were

globular in shape and built at 2 to 29 m height on trees 4 to 30 m tall.

observations made on the annual diet and

nesting habits of the Western Ghats squirrel

are discussed.

Study area

The study was conducted in 15 ha of mixed

habitat near Vittal (12°30'N, 74°80'E), Kar-

nataka, India from November 1977 to January

1979. The area was evenly divided among 3

habitat types: paddy ( Oryza sativa L.) fields,

arecanut ( Areca catechu L.) plantations and

woodland. The latter habitat had a few ever-

green trees and shrubs. The common trees in

this area were: Aporosa lindleyana Baill.,

Careya arborea Roxb., Caryota urens L., Cin-

637

I NTRODU CTION

The Western Ghats squirrel, Funambulus

tristriatus Waterhouse is an arboreal rodent

inhabiting the forest and cultivated fields in

the west coast of south India (Moore and

Tate 1965). Bhat and Mathew (1984 a and

1984 b) studied the population dynamics and

reproductive biology of this species. Our know-

ledge on the food habits of this squirrel is

limited to the bait preferences on captive ani-

mals (Bhat 1979). In this communication the

* Part of the thesis submitted to the University of

Calicut by the first author for the award of Ph.D.

degree 1983.

13

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

namomum zeylanicuni Bl.. Eugenia jambolana

Lam., Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall., Phyl-

lanthus emblica L., Sapium insigne Benth.,

Strychnos nuxvomica L. and Terminaiia che-

bula Retz. Coconut ( Cocos nucifera L.), are-

canut, cashew ( Anacardium occidentale L.),

mango ( Mangifera indica L.), banana ( Musa

paradisiaca L.) and paddy were cultivated

here. The shrub and herb community included

Caesalpinia mimosoides Lam., Calycopteris

jloribunda Lam., Ixora coccinea L., Lantana

camara L. and Mimosa pudica L. Pandanus

leram Jones, Agave americana L. and Opuntia

sp. also were common but along the edges.

Methods

Food habits.

Squirrels were collected by snap trapping

using roasted coconut kernel as the bait. The

animals were then dissected in the laboratory

and stomachs removed. The contents of each

stomach, after removing the bait, were empti-

ed into a petridish and weighed to the nearest

0.05g using a toppan balance. A gross ana-

lysis of the total contents of each stomach was

made with a dissecting microscope (40x) to

identify the major food materials inside.

The volume of the major food materials was

determined by water displacement following

Sood and Dilber (1977) and Viljoen (1977).

Items such as the exoskeleton of insects, which

floated were immersed in water by pressing

them with a fine sieve of known volume.

Nesting habits.

As the Western Ghats squirrels are diurnal

in habit, their nests were spotted by following

individual squirrel to its nest at dusk (after

Broadbooks 1974). The inhabitant of each nest

was trapped and its sex, weight and repro-

ductive conditions were noted. The height at

which the nest was located was measured and

the nest was measured and the nest was remov-

ed for further observation. The nesting tree was i

identified and the site of location of each nest [

described.

Results and discussion

Food habits.

The Western Ghats squirrels examined by

us were harmful as well as beneficial in their

feeding activities. Among the plant food, male

flowers of the coconut palm were most fre-

quent in the stomach contents (Table 1). Only

the central rudimentary pistil and the stalk of

the stamens were consumed. Cacao, an im-

portant commercial crop in south India

(Bavappa 1977), is also attacked. Bhat et al.

(1981) reported the squirrel as one of the

important rodent pests of cacao in south India.

The grains of paddy, available only from Dec-

ember to February, were consumed mainly

during that period. Of the 17 squirrels which

took paddy, two (11.1%) had only paddy in

their stomachs. In December and January,

paddy grains formed more than 40% of the

total food contents in their stomachs.

Crops pests such as termites, caterpillars,

beetles and scales were also eaten consistently.

Termites occurred more frequently (96.8%

of stomachs) and in greater quantity (36.5%

of volume) than any other food material in

the stomachs of squirrels (Table 1). Of the 60

squirrels which took termites three (5.0%)

had consumed termites only. The northern

palm squirrel. F. pennant i also preyed upon

large quantities of termites and caterpillars

( Krishnaswami and Chowhan 1957). Insects

(unspecified) were reported to be the most

common food of the northern palm squirrel

by Sood and Dilber (1977). The latter authors

considered the northern palm squirrel to be

F

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638

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1

Summary of foods eaten by F. tristriatus, December 1977 to January 1979 (The figures in left

DENOTE PERCENTAGES BY OCCURRENCE AND THOSE WITHIN PARANTHESIS PERCENTAGES BY VOLUME) TR. TRACE

economically beneficial to crops as predators

of insect pests.

The economic effects of this squirrel feed-

ing on male flowers of coconut palm is not

clear. Yelf (In Williams 1974) noted a signi-

ficant premature nut fall in the coconut palm

due to the feeding activity of rats and flying

foxes on the male flowers. But Williams (1974)

opined that such feeding activity was unlikely

to have any adverse effect on production as

there were considerable excess of pollen in

each spadix.

Nesting habits.

In all 20 active and one incomplete nest

were studied. The nests were round with mean

diameter of 22.27±0.66 cm and thickness of

11.85± 0.54 cm (Table 2). The nests weigh-

ed 35.0-207.0 g (mean 71 .23 ±6. 42 g). Only

three of the 30 nests weighed more than 100 g.

These three nests had 8-10 unhusked dried

arecanuts, which by themselves weighed more

than 100 g. The intact nuts probably were

collected for their fibrous husks, one of the

common nesting materials in the nests of these

squirrels.

Male and female squirrels inhabited separate

nests. Male nests were used for resting and

female nests for sleeping and rearing their

young. Of the 29 active nests observed, 11

were of males and 18 females. The mean

weights of the nests of male and female squir-

rels were 58.64 ± 6.28 g and 80.17 ±9. 36 g

respectively. The difference in their weights

was not significant (P > 0.05).

All nests were constructed of fibrous mate-

rials unlike several other sciurids (Middleton

1931, Layne 1954, Everard 1968, Brown and

McGuire 1975, Raspopov and Isakov 1980)

which mostly used dried leaves and twigs for

639

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

nest construction. The Western Ghats squirrels

collected nesting materials from 15 species of

trees (Table 3). The fibres of dried leaves of

Agave, Pandanus, Musa, the crown matrix of

the coconut palm, dried fronds and nuts of

the arecanut palm and of the bark of Careya

were commonly used in constructing the nests.

The northern palm squirrel. F. pennanti is

also known to use fibrous plant parts as the

common nesting material (Purohit et al. 1960).

The nests were found on 14 species of trees

(Table 2). Mango, arecanut and Strychnine

together supported nearly 50% of the nests.

This suggested that these squirrels had some

Table 2

Observations on the nests of the western ghats squirrel

+ Minimum ++ Maximum * Built on some epiphytes at 2 m above the ground. • Measurements could not

be taken as the shape of the nest was changed while removing.

640

Abundance (expressed as percentage in each nest) and frequency (expressed as percentage of total

nests) of occurrence of nesting materials in the nests of the western ghats squirrel (N = 30)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

sort of discrimination in selecting trees for nest

construction. Selection for nest trees was earlier

noticed in certain other squirrels also (Brown

and McGuire 1975, Fancy 1980). the branches

of the wild trees of the study area were cut

and mutilated every year for firewood and

leaves for composting. The regrowth on such

branches is dense and the squirrels found con-

venient nesting spots in such branches where

the nests are concealed and protected by the

leaves.

The nests were built at heights of 2-29 m on

trees 4-30 m tall. However, on palms like

arecanut and coconut the nests were situated

on the crown irrespective of their height. This

squirrel, unlike several other species (Allen

1943, Layne 1954), was not observed to build

Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut,

Kerala 673 635,

January 21, 1985.

its nests in natural cavities of trees. The

northern palm squirrel (Agrawal 1965-’66,

Purohit et al. 1966) and the European red

squirrel, Sciurus vulgaris (Raspopov and Isa-

kov 1980) were some of the other squirrels

which built their nests on the branches of

trees.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. N. M. Nayar, former

Director, Central Plantation Crops Research

Institute, Kasaragod for providing laboratory

facilities at CPCRI, Regional Station, Vittal.

Thanks are also due to the Council of Scien-

tific and Industrial Research, New Delhi for

financial assistance in the form of fellowship

to the first author.

S. KESHA VA BHAT1

D. N. MATHEW

References

Agrawal, V. C. (1965-’66) : Observations on habits

of five-striped squirrel, Funanbulus pennanti in

Rajasthan. J. Bengal Nat. Hist. Soc. (1): 76-83.

Allen, D. L. (1943): Michigan fox squirrel

management. Game Division, Department of Conser-

vation, Lansign, Michigan. 404 pp.

Bavappa, K. V. A. (1977): Plantation crops in-

dustry. J. Plant. Crops 5: 1-10.

Bhat, S. K. (1979): Studies on the bait prefer-

ences of the Western Ghats squirrel, Funambulus

tristriatus Waterhouse in captivity; I-Grains. Indian

J. Rodent. I: 10-16.

Bhat, S. K. & Mathew, D. N. (1984a): Popu-

lation of the Western Ghats squirrel, Funambulus

tristriatus Waterhouse in south India. Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. ( An'm . Sci.) 93: 131-139.

(1984b): Breed-

ing biology of the Western Ghats squirrel, Funam-

bulus tristriatus Waterhouse. Mammalia (In press).

Bhat, S. K., Nair, C. P. R. & Mathew, D. N.

(1981) : Mammalian pest of cocoa in south India.

Trop. Pest. Mgmt. 27: 297-302.

Broadbooks, H. E. (1974): The nests of chip-

munks with comments on associated behaviour and

ecology. J. Mammal. 55 : 630-639.

Brown, L. N. & McGuire, R. J. (1975): Field

ecology of the exotic Mexican red-bellied squirrel

in Florida. J. Mammal. 56: 405-419.

Everard, C. O. R. (1968): A report on the ro-

dent and other vertebrate pests of cocoa in western

Nigeria. Research Division, Ministry of Agriculture

and Natural Resources. Moor Plantation. Ebadan,

Nigeria. 123 pp.

Fancy, S. G. (1980): Nest-tree selection by red

squirrels in a boreal forest. Can. Field-nat. 94: 198

Krishnaswami, S. & Chcwhan, N. S. (1957):

642

1 Present address: Central Plantation Crops Re-

search Institute. Kasaragod 670 124, Kerala, India.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

A note on insects consumed as food by squirrels

and birds at Kundi forest, Palamau District. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 54 : 457-459.

Layne, J. N. (1954): The biology of the red

squirrel, Tamiasciurus hudsonicus loquax (Bangs),

in central New York. Ecol. Mongr. 24-. 227-267.

Middleton, A. D. (1931): The grey squirrel.

Sidqurick and Jackson Ltd., London. 107pp.

Moore, J. C. & Tate, G. H. H. (1965) : A study of

the diurnal squirrels, sciurinae, of the Indian and

Indochinese subregions. Fieldiana Zoo!. 48: 354 pp.

Purohit, K. G., Kametkar, L. R. & Prakash, I.

(1966): Reproduction biology and post-natal deve-

lopment in the northern palm squirrel, Funambulus

pennanti Wroughton . .Mammalia 30: 538-546.

Raspopov, M. P. & Isapov, Y. A. (1980): Biology

of the squirrel. Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.,

New Delhi. 56 pp.

Sood, M. L. & Dilber, D. S. (1977): Food and

feeding habits of northern palm squirrel, Funam-

bulus pennanti Wroughton, J. Res. 14: 329-331.

Viljoen, S. (1977): Feeding habits of the bush

squirrel, Paraxerus cepapi cepapi (Rodentia: Sciuri-

dae). Zool. Afr. 12: 450-467.

Williams, J. M. (1974): Rat damage to coconuts

in Fiji, Part I: Assessment of damage. PANS. 20:

379-391.

5. REPORT ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE BROWN SPINY

MOUSE, MUS PLATYTHR1X BENNETT, 1832 (RODENTIA:

MURIDAE) IN WEST BENGAL, INDIA

During a recent mammal survey tour in

September 1984, a large-sized white-bellied

mouse with bicoloured tail and spiny hair was

trapped at Mandalpushkarini near Garhbeta

in Midnapore district. West Bengal. It turned

out to be an example of the Brown Spiny

Mouse, Mus platythrix Bennett.

This species occurs within the Indian limits

in southern India, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajas-

than. Madhya Pradesh, east to Pareshnath

Hill in Bihar and patches in Kangra (Punjab)

to Kumaon (Uttar Pradesh). Out side Indian

limits, it occurs in Pakistan. Burma. Sri Lanka

and Nepal (Blanford 1891, Ellerman 1961,

Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1966. Biswas and

Tiwari 1969. Agrawal and Chakraborty 1971

and Marshall 1977). However, the extant lite-

rature does not mention its distribution in

Orissa. West Bengal. Sikkim and the north-

eastern part of India (Assam, Meghalaya,

Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Tri-

pura and Mizoram). Hence the present mate-

rial constitutes the first authentic record of its

occurrence in West Bengal.

The details of the specimen are given below.

The external measurements were taken in the

field. All measurements are according to

Ellerman (1961) and given in millimetres.

Material : 1 adult Z.S.I. Registration Num-

ber 21265; in alcohol; Mandalpushkarini, c 5

km North of Garhbeta, Midnapore district.

West Bengal; 21 September 1984; P. K. Das

collector; deposited in the National Zoologi-

cal Collection of India, housed at the Zoolo-

gical Survey of India. Calcutta.

Measurements: External — Head and body

110; tail 75; hindfoot 18; ear 16.5. Cranial —

Occipitonasal 25.8; condylobasal 24.9; nasal

10.2; palate 14.2; bulla 4.5; molar tooth row

4.4; anterior palatal foramen 5.9; diastema

7.2.

The specimen was trapped outside the

kitchen of the Forest Rest House which is sur-

rounded by secondary sal forests. The colour

of the soil is red.

Acknowledgements

I thank the Director, Zoological Survey of

643

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

India, Calcutta, for providing facilities for this

work and Dr. V. C. Agrawal, Superintending

Zoological Survey of India,

8, Lindsay Street,

Calcutta 700 087,

January 28, 1985.

Refer

Zoologist, for going through the manuscript G

and for suggestions and encouragement. bi

AJAY KUMAR MANDAL f

C

b

Agrawal, V. C. & Chakraborty, S. (1971): Notes

on collection of small mammals from Nepal, with

the description of a new mouse hare (Lagomorpha:

Ochotonidae). Proc. zool. Soc., Calcutta, 24(1): 41-

46.

Bennett, E. T. (1832): Characters of two new

species of the Genus Mus, Linnaeus, collected by

Colonel Sykes in Dukhun. Proc. Zool. Soc., London,

2: 121-122.

Biswas, B. & Tiwari, K. K. (1969): Taxonomy

and distribution on Indian rodents. Indian Rodent

Symposium, Calcutta. India, pp. 9-33.

Blanford, W. T. (1891): The fauna of British

India, Mammalia. Taylor and Francis, London.

ti

Ellerman, J. R. (1961): The fauna of India,

Mammalia, 3 (Rodentia). Govt, of India, Delhi.

v

Ellerman, J. R. & Morrison-Scott, T. C. S. j

(1966) : A checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mam-

mals. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London.

Marshall, J. T. (1977): A synopsis of the Asian

species of Mus (Rodentia: Muridae). Bull. Am. Mus.

nat. Hist., 158: 111-220.

6. THE PHENOMENON OF BAMBOO FLOWERING AND

ASSOCIATED INCREASE IN RODENT POPULATION

IN MIZORAM

The phenomenon of outbreak of rodent

population which is synchronous with flower-

ing of bamboo was investigated in Mizoram.

In order to study the activities of rats and

their association with different types of vege-

tation, the rodent infested and bamboo flower-

ing areas were extensively surveyed. Various

species of bamboo flowering during the period

of study were identified. During the period of

flowering of Bambusa lulda (1976-79) five

major species of wild rats and mice were found

occurring in the study area. The most com-

monly occurring rat was found to be Rattus

rattus brunneusculus. The population of these

rats was apparently high in the ‘jhums’ (fields)

and caused extensive damage to paddy crop.

The migration of these rats from ‘jhums’ to

bamboo flowering areas or vice-versa was never

observed.

Introduction

A peculiar phenomenon observed in North-

eastern hilly areas of India, namely, Mizoram,

parts of Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Naga-

land and Manipur is the periodic mass-flower-

ing and seeding of certain bamboo species

which is accompanied by a tremendous in- I

crease in the population of certain rodent

species. Congregation of millions of rats at the I

time of bamboo flowering in Arunachal Pradesh

was reported by Pareek (1979). Enormous in-

crease in the population of certain rodent I

species of namely Nesokia, Mus, Rattus,

644

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Golunda, Rhizomys, genera coinciding with

bamboo flowering, was reported earlier in other

parts of India (Win 1951, Kermode 1952,

Chatterjee 1960, Santapau 1962, Nath 1968).

Occurrence of such a phenomenon has also

been reported from many parts of the world

viz. Malagasy, Burma, Japan and Brazil

(Janzen 1976).

This is a unique biological phenomenon

which results in severe famine conditions due

to damage of crops by these rodents. In order

to explore this phenomenon, detailed study

was conducted in Mizoram (Lushai hills)

during the years 1976-79, the period of flower-

ing of Bambusa tulda.

Study area

Mizoram, a Union Territory, is situated on

the eastern border of India between 22.19' to

24.19'N latitude and 92.16' to 93.16'E longi-

tude. The land is between Chin Hills (Burma)

in the east and south, and Chittagong Hill

tracts (Bangladesh and Tripura) in the west.

Mizoram has a very variegated hilly terrain.

The territory is divided into three districts,

namely, Aizawl, Lunglei and Chhimtuipui.

The climate and soil of Mizoram is suitable

for growing almost any kind of tropical crop.

Though the principal crop is paddy (Oryza

sativa ), other crops like maize (Tea mays'),

ginger ( Zingiber officinalis), sweetpotato (Ipo-

moea batatas), turmeric (Curcuma longa),

chilli ( Capsicum sp.), tobacco ( Nicotiana

tabacum), orange ( Citrus sp.) and certain

* Shifting ‘jhiim’ cultivation: A primitive slash and

burn method of cultivation on a slope of hill where

a plot of land is cleaned of all its vegetation. The

dry leaves and trees trunks are burnt and the land

is prepared for sowing. After a few years the old

field is discarded and another site on the same hill

or a new hill is selected and prepared.

vegetables are also grown. One fifth of the

area is covered with forest of tropical trees

and plants. Thick bamboo forests are in abun-

dance on the low hills and valleys. Shifting

‘jhum’* cultivation is widely practised which

results in serious destruction of forests. Terrace

and wet-land farming has recently been

started.

In this region, following the flowering of

bamboo, there is a sudden increase in the

number of rats which invade the crop fields

(specially paddy) in large hordes and cause

damage to such an extent that it results in

almost famine-like conditions. This was first

reported by Elies (1881) in his military report

on the Chin-Lushai Hill country. The famines

associated with the flowering of Melocanna

hambusoides (Mautak) and Bambusa tulda

(Rawthing) are locally known as ‘Mautam’ and

‘ThingtanT respectively. Other minor bamboo

species found to be associated with ‘Mautam’

are Dendrocalamus longispathus (Rawnal),

Melocalamus campactiflorus fSairil) and Den-

drocalamus sikkimensis (Rawmi) (Parry 1928,

1932) and with ‘Thingtam’ are Melocalamus

campactiflorus (Sairil), Dendrocalamus longi-

spalhus (Rawnal). Dendrocalamus sikkimensis

(Rawmi) Bambusa spinosa (Phar) and Pseu-

dostachyum polymorphum (Chal) (Mohan

Ram and Hari Gopal 1981). ‘Thingtam’ is a

famine of lesser magnitude as compared to

‘Mautam’ and occurs at an interval of appro-

ximately 48 years, every 18 years after the

occurrence of ‘Mautam’. Occurrence of these

famines in previous years and the expected

one are as follows: ‘Thingtam’ — 1880-81.

1927-29, 1976-78 and ‘Mautam’ — 1910-12,

1956-59, 2005 (expected).

Methods

The bamboo flowering areas and the types

of rodents and the species responsible for crop

645

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

damage in particular and their ecology were

studied by undertaking extensive field survey

and regularly collecting rat and mice species

from the crop fields (jhum and wet-land culti-

vation areas), bamboo thickets and adjoining

forests and tribal settlements in several blocks

of Aizawl and Lunglei districts. The rats and

mice were collected by extensive digging of

burrows and trapping. Collection sites were

periodically changed which provided adequate

sampling of the entire area within a given

time period.

Orslrvations and Conclusions

In the total collection of about 2500 rats

and mice, 8 different species were identified,

out of which one species of wild rat Rattus

rat (us brunneusculus (Hodgson) constituted

the major part of the collection (92.5%).

Other 7 rats /mice species viz. Rattus bower si

niackenziei (Anderson). Bandicota sp., Can-

nomys badius badius (Hodgson), Vandeleuria

oleracea dumeticola (Hodgson). Rattus rattus

(Linnaeus), Rattus nitidus and M us musculus

(Linnaeus) were found to be less significant.

The former three species were found to occur

in the cultivated areas whereas the latter were

mainly in tribal settlements and granaries.

The major species Rattus rattus brunneus-

culus, a serious pest of paddy crop, was in-

variably collected from paddy fields. It makes

simple to complex burrows which contained

stored paddy grains and vegetable matters.

After harvest, the grain stores of burrows were

slowly depleted but paddy husk, chilli, ginger,

brinjal. tomato etc. could still be seen. These

observations suggest that although the main

food of this rodent is rice but when it is not

available they start feeding on other vegetable

matters and tender shoots of plants. The rat

Rattus bowersi niackenziei makes complex.

deep burrow systems mainly in the paddy fields.

They feed on tender shoots of various crop

plants and underground vegetables. Bandicota

sp. is strongly built and fossorial in nature.

They were normally found in the low lying

areas under wet-land rice cultivation and near

marshy stretches and make very complex but

shallow burrow systems. Although the popu-

lation of these rats was found to be insignifi-

cant. the damage caused by them to paddy

crop was often quite extensive. Cannomys

badius badius was usually found to occur in

sugarcane, arabi, ginger and sweetpotato fields.

They were also found to occur in grassy areas

near bamboo thickets, bushes and trees. They

make complex burrow systems which usually

contained ginger and sugarcane pieces. At

times, nearly 5-6 kg of these materials were

collected from a single burrow. They also

feed on other plants, grasses, seeds and fruits.

Vandeleuria oleracea dumeticola occurs in

bushes, trees and bamboo thickets, and feeds

on fruits, buds, rice grains etc. Their nests

were usually found in tree cavities or between

the branches.

Large number of rats Rattus rattus brun-

neusculus were found in paddy fields. They

caused extensive damage to paddy crop by

lacerating the tillers or cutting them through

and feeding on grains. Due to deforestation in

preparation of ‘jhums’ or after harvesting of

crops these rats disperse to various other suit-

able sites but again come back to freshly culti-

vated ‘jhums’. It could be that this short dis-

tance movement from the deserted fields and

other surrounding areas to new ‘jhums’ brings

their population in sharp focus. The presence

of live burrows, paddy husks, damaged pani-

cles. cut leaves and faecal matter on their

runways were the signs of their increasing

population and activities.

The common bamboo rat Cannomys badius

646

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

badius which is believed to be the only species

causing extensive damage to paddy crop result-

ing in famine, is not found to be of much

significance. This is because their number in

these areas was much less (only 3.95% of

total collection) and was almost nil in the

paddy fields and they inhabit mainly the sugar-

cane, arabi, ginger, sweetpotato fields and

grassy areas near the bamboo thickets.

It seems possible that with the onset of

flowering of bamboo, the abundant food supply

in the form of bamboo seeds and fruits results

in increased biomass. These bamboo seeds and

fruits are not only palatable but even preferred

more than any other variety of available food

items by these rodents and other animals and

thus attracts them to flowering areas (Janzen

1976). Despite a constant vigil, no sign of rat

migration from ‘jhum’ to bamboo forest or

vice-versa was observed in Mizoram during

flowering of Bambusa tulda. They mainly in-

habited various crop fields especially paddy

and showed variation in their number in

relation to the crop cycle. Only a few

rats were noticed in the forests during this

period. This suggests that the extent of bamboo

Department of Zoology,

University of Delhi,

Delhi- 110 007,

February 1, 1985.

Refer

Chatter jee D. (1960): Bamboo fruits. I. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 451-453.

Janzen, D. H. (1976): Why bamboos wait so

long to flower. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 7: 347-391.

Kermode, C. W. D. (1952): The flowering of

Kyathaungwa (Bambusa polymorpha). Burmese For-

ester 2: 9-14.

Mohan Ram, H. Y. & Hari Gopal. B. (1981):

Some observations on the flowering of bamboos in

Mizoram, Current Science 50(16): 708-710.

Nath, G. M. (1968) : Flowering of ‘muli’ bamboos

( Melocanna bambusoides) . Indian Forester 94 : 346.

flowering and seed production during these

years may not be sufficient enough to attract

the rat population. It was observed that only

in a very few places in Mizoram, the bamboo

flowering resulted in seed formation. Most of

the flowers were destroyed by heavy rain and

high velocity wind and even the little amount

of seeds produced were highly susceptible to

various diseases and pests. Therefore, ulti-

mately the food available in the area was

negligible and insufficient to account for noma-

dic behaviour of animals and population ex-

plosions but this could be due to the effect of

seeds and fruits on reproduction rate of these

animals (a possibility which is yet to be con-

finned).

ACK NOWI.EDGE M E NTS

We sincerely thank the government of Mizo-

ram and the local people, especially the

farmers for their co-operation and for provid-

ing the necessary facilities for carrying out

this work in different areas of Mizoram. The

work was supported by a grant for a research

assignment from T.C.A.R.. New Delhi which

is gratefully acknowledged.

N. S. CHAUHAN

R. N. SAXENA

E N CE S

Pareek, A. N. (1979): The Rats are Coming.

The Times of India (March 25).

Parry. N. E. (1928): A monograph on Lushai

Customs and Ceremonies. Assam Government Press.

Shillong.

(1976): Lakhers. Firma KLM

Pvt. Ltd.. Calcutta.

Santapau. H. (1962) : Gregarious flowering of

Strobilanthcs and bamboos. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 59: 688-696.

Win, U. N. (1951): A note on Kyathaung

( Bambusa polymorpha ) flowering in Pyinmana

Forest Division. Burmese Forester 1: 52-56.

647

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

7. GANGETIC DOLPHIN, PLATANISTA GANGETICA :

OBSERVATIONS ON HABITS AND DISTRIBUTION PATTERN

IN NATIONAL CHAMBAL SANCTUARY

(With two text-figures )

Based on a preliminary survey conducted for two seasons in 1983-1985 along

570 km of River Chambal a total of about 45 dolphins are estimated to be occurring

between Batesura (305 km upstream Yamuna-Chambal confluence) and Pachhnada

(total 320 km). The observed density of one adult per about 6.5 km of inhabitated

stretch is suspected to be an under estimation because of the strict methods adopted

to avoid any possible double counts. Observations made on the feeding behaviour

indicated sweeping movement of head through a fish-shoal. Smallest dolphin were

sighted during the first week of January. During March-April the adults ‘disappeared’

from certain stretches perhaps to avoid shallow depth and participate in breeding.

On 27-4-84 two dolphins were seen side by side at Tigri Rithaura and believed to

be in a courting act. On corroboration it is believed that the gestation period is

nine months (April- January) in Chambal. The immediate danger for the resident

population of P. gangeticus in National Chambal Sanctuary is the decrease in river

depth and appearance of sand bars dividing

Annandale (1912) mentioned that the

gharial (Gavialis gangeticus, Reptilia, Croco-

dilia), the soft-shelled turtle ( Trionyx gange-

ticus) and the gangetic dolphin ( Platanista

gangetica, Mammalia, Cetacea) had the same

range of distribution. Writing of the dolphin.

Prater (1965) stated that the species was

found in the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, the

Indus, and their larger tributaries to the base

of hills, and they were also seen in the tidal

limits but not in the sea. As has been observ-

ed with the accounts on detailed distribution

of the gharial, dolphins too have not been

studied in river Chambal. a good south-western

tributary of the Ganges, almost entirely under

the management of the National Chambal San-

ctuary since 1978. The occurrence of dolphins

in Chambal have not been dealt even by Jones

(1982) in his account on the species’ present

status.

During the course of an ecological study on

the river course into smaller segments.

the gharial commenced in June 1983 dolphins

were met almost all along the northern stretch

of the river in the sanctuary. Earlier to that,

from 1978 both authors while remaining asso-

ciated with the activities of the sanctuary had

taken note of the frequent and easy dolphin

sightings. Data collected during 1983-1985

have been analysed in the following to give a

preliminary account on the distribution pattern,

breeding season, local movements and feeding

by dolphins in Chambal.

Methods

On Field-Map sheets the river is marked

every five km apart from Pali (Parbati-

Chambal confluence) upstream to Bharreh

(Chambal-Yamuna confluence). 425 km down-

stream (Fig. 1). Periods during which different

lengths of the river were surveyed are as

follows :

648

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: National Chambal Sanctuary with locations referred to in the text (1, Kesho-

raipatan; 2, Pali; 3, Rahu ka Gaon; 4, Basai Dang; 5, Pureini; 6. Bharreh; 7,

Pachhnada) and occurrence zone (dotted) for Platanista gangetica.

Zone — 1 :

Zone — 2 :

Zone — 3 :

Zone — 4 :

Zone — 5 :

Zone — 6 :

Keshoraipatan (Kota) -Pali: 142

km: Feb. /Mar. 1984.

Pali-Rahu ka gaon: 110 km (0-

110 km): Visits to different points

from road during 1983-1985 and

along the river in Feb.-June 1985.

Rahu ka gaon — Basai Dang: 60

km (110-170 km): November

1983/March 1984, February 1985.

Basai Dang-Pureini: 60 km (170-

230 km): October 1983,-June

1985.

Pureini-Bharreh: 195 km (230-

425 km) : January 84, December

84.

Bharreh-Pachhnada: (15 km):

January 84/December 84.

All survey work, except when otherwise

mentioned were conducted from boat or on foot.

Zone 1, 2, 3 and 4 are separated from each

other by rapids and shallow water for which,

in this stretch the river appears continuous

only during a high flood (above 20 m). During

rest of the period, October through July, Zones

1, 2, 3 and (4-6) are not suitable for cross-

zone movements by large deep-dwelling ani-

mals like the gharial and dolphins. Therefore,

inspite of different dates of survey any overlap

in counts between the zones 1/2, 2/3 and 3/4

is ruled out. Zone 4 was the main study area

for the original gharial work, therefore, infor-

mation from this was collected almost daily

or at very short intervals.

Dolphin sightings were recorded against the

649

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Fig. 2: Comparative data for the 1st year (A & B) and 2nd year (C&D) on the

occurrence of dolphin in National Chambal Sanctuary with respect to the gharial

nesting sites (G). A and C: sight’s for dolphins over 1 m size and B, D: smaller

dolphins. ‘Zero’ point in the scale refers to Pali (Chambal-Parbati confluence).

650

|300

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

date on Field-Map sheets. The number of

field days for any zone was from a minimum

of one during annual surveys to over fifty per

year for zone 4. Sightings are presented on

the basis of 10-km stretches in Fig. 2. When

a dolphin was suspected of having resurfaced

ahead of the boat it is shown against the

stretch where first sighted. Judged from girth

and length, those below a metre length have

been considered as young dolphin (Fig. 2, B

& D).

Observations

1. Distribution

Upstream the point 120 km neither any

dolphin was sighted nor a confirmed report

received. In downstream, except the stretches

140-150 km and beyond 420 km in all other

stretches dolphins were recorded. The river

from 170 km downstream is fairly continuous

during all seasons of the year. Although dol-

phins are known to occur downstream 425 km,

in Yamuna, extensive fishing activities may

be posing a situation of harassment for free

movement of the animals. The mean minimum

density in the river between Batesura (120 km)

and Bharreh (425 km) is one dolphin per

every 6.9 km (1st year data) and 6.4 km

(2nd year data), with an average of one

dolphin per about 6.5 km.

During the first year 7 small (less than 1 m

length) and 37 large dolphins were recorded

while in the second year 15 small and 32 large

were recorded. As the total numbers are closely

similar. 44 and 47, error may have developed

in the breakups into size groups.

2. Habit

There was no definite clue that the dolphins

were abundant near important gharial zones

(G-gharial nesting site in Fig. 2). Any long

stretch of deep water appeared to be most

favoured. Based on observations made in

Zone-4 (170-230 km), during dry season,

particularly March-June, dolphins had dis-

appeared from certain regular places. Two such

stretches were near 185 and 200 km.

On 27.4.84 at 1100 hours at 210 km two

adults were sighted performing surface-leaps

almost touching each other’s body. On no

other occasion two dolphins were sighted

moving so close to each other.

Dolphins in the smallest size groups were

sighted at 350-355 km during the first week

of January. From a distance these young ones

appeared like small fish around 50 cm in

length. During mid-March a little larger young

one was seen at 180/185 km.

On three occasions dolphins have been seen

in shallow water while making sidewise sweeps

of the head as shoals of fish appeared greatly

disturbed. These observations, considered to

be ‘feeding’ were all recorded between 900-

1200 hrs at 210 km, 213 km and 295 km

points in respect to Pali.

When we moved by boat fitted with an

outboard motor, very seldom does a dolphin

surface by the side of the boat. Once (26.1.84)

an adult was as close to the boat as 4-5 m,

near 225/230 km. During our observations we

could not be convinced that a dolphin should

surface for breathing after every minute or

so of immersion (as stated by Prater 1965).

The immersion duration may be well over five

minutes.

Discussion

Status:

1. The most recent publication on the status

of P. gangeticus is by Jones (1982) where he

estimates the total population at 4000-5000

including 500-750 in the Ganges proper and

651

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

its tributaries. Jones has further mentioned

that reliable information was available to him

only for rivers in Bangladesh, and he perhaps

may have had only a surmise that during

summer when Ganges is at its lowest, the

species enters “Yamuna as far as Delhi and

also enters for a short way all the larger afflu-

ents of the main stream”.

2. Our study indicates that River Chambal

has a resident population of about 45 dolphins

in the stretch between Batesura and Bharreh,

respectively 120 km and 425 km downstream

Chambal-Parbati confluence or upto 325 km

upstream Yamuna-Chambal confluence.

Although we confirm seasonal local migrations,

we do not have any evidence if the dolphins

sighted near Delhi (Jones 1982) are popula-

tion of Yamuna itself or migrants from the

Ganges. Yamuna at its confluence with Cham-

bal is very shallow and is reportedly shallower

at places in the upstream to hardly permit

any movement of dolphins from the Ganges

into Yamuna up to Delhi. Instead, the chances

of dolphins entering Chambal from Yamuna

are greater.

3. Gangetic dolphin is without doubt a rarer

species now than it was some years back.

LAKS, who worked along the River Mahanadi

of Orissa for several years had never sighted a

dolphin (called Susumcir in Oriya) although

definite evidences were collected that the

mammal was very common during 1950s in

the lower Mahanadi upstream of the tidal limits.

4. In all probability, the number of dolphins

recorded in the present study are underestimat-

ed figures because too much restraint seems to

have been adopted in order to avoid double

counts. In such a situation since the areas of

occurrence are clearly identified the density of

one dolphin for every 6.5 km will be im-

proved upon only if they are occurring in

groups. There is no clue to check the trend

652

in the population that exists in Chambal which

is over a thousand km upstream the tidal

limits of Bay of Bengal. Talking to fishermen

near Chambal- Yamuna confluence it was ascer-

tained that they cannot remember if a dolphin

was anytime caught in fishing net although j

restraint in movement may have been imposed i

due to netting activities. The information is

probably true dolphins are known to have •

an extra-sensory mode of locating obstacles j

through echo-location (Singh & Behura 1977). |

Net capture of dolphins in the plains and

deltas may be dependent on number and types 1

of nets, density of the dolphin population !

and other aquatic conditions that confuse ti

echo-location. As the subject warrants a de-

tailed scrutiny, it may be mentioned that \

Bilgrami (1983) states from his study along p

Patna-Farakka, a stretch of 350 km of the »

Ganges, that the dolphin “is being indiscrimi-

nately killed for extraction of oil”. Jones

(1982) on the other hand stated that the

species was in no immediate danger of exter-

mination and emphasised the need for more -

study. We feel that the shrinkage of inhabit-

able stretches of the river could be the imme-

diate danger for the species. The danger of

shallowing down of the rivers and silting of p

dams and river beds have already been realis-

ed. Therefore, expressing their cause of con-

cern, dolphin biologists should give support to

afforestation programmes in the catchment

areas, and measures for control and prevention

of chemical pollution of the rivers.

Breeding :

The ‘disappearance’ of dolphins from certain

stretches may be in order to avoid shallow k

depth and/or to move and join some other ki

dolphin or group for breeding. Prater (1965)

mentioned that “one or rarely two young are I 1

born between April and July after a period

Ike

mo

It

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of gestation of about eight to nine months”.

If our observation of side-by-side leaping of

two adults is related to courting in April and

that the young ones are born during or before

January then the gestation period for dolphins

in Chambal appear to be the same as stated

by Prater, i.e., nine months (April-January).

The disagreement over the exact months of

the birth of young could be due to a difference

in the area from where births have been re-

ported. Prater’s account seem to be on popu-

lations down in the plains just above the tidal

limits. It is also to be expected with a popu-

lation like that of Chambal, that the reproduc-

tive cycle has to be precisely seasonal because

of the limitations by the changes in the river

National Chambal Sanctuary,

Post Box 11, Morena-476 001,

Madhya Pradesh,

August 21, 1984.

conditions and perhaps a simultaneous struc-

tural change in the food resource too. These

features are less restraining in the lower limits

of a river close to tidal limits.

Acknowledgements

LAKS is with the Crocodile Research Cen-

tre of Government of India’s Wildlife Institute

of India and RKS is with the Madhya Pra-

desh component of the National Chambal

Sanctuary. The authors acknowledge the

assistance and encouragement received from

their respective organisations and the numer-

ous staff and colleagues who accompanied

them during the field trips.

L. A. K. SINGH1

R. K. SHARMA

R EFERENCES

Bilgrami, B. S. (1983): Ecology of River Ganges

— Impact of human activities and conservation of

aquatic biota (Patna to Farakka). In: proceedings

of the 2nd Annual workshop on MAB Projects.

Man and Biosphere Programme, Government of

India, Department of Environment, New Delhi.

p. 16-17.

Jones, S. (1982): The present status of the Gan-

getic susu, Platanista gangetica (Roxburgh), with

comments on the Indus susu, P. minor Owen. FAO

Fisheries Ser., No. 5, Vol. IV: 97-115.

Prater, S. H. (1965): The Book of Indian Ani-

mals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Singh, L.A.K. & Behura, B. K. (1977): Echo-

location in animals. Science Reporter, 14( 10) : 655-

657.

1 Present address: Crocodile Research Centre,

Bahadurpura Post, Hyderabad-500 264, Andhra

Pradesh.

8. YELLOW BITTERN NESTING, A NEW RECORD FOR POONA

The TELCO complex at Pimpri, Poona,

has within its premises a fair-sized lake sur-

rounded by thick reed beds and a number of

large and medium sized trees. The entire area

being protected, makes an ideal refuge for a

number of birds.

On September 2nd, 1981, Mr. Shrikant

Ingalhalikar, Mr. Avadhut Bapat and I visited

the lake and counted 34 bird species that

morning. One bird escaped our identification

and was later confirmed as the female Yellow

Bittern ( lxobrychus sinensis).

On August 18th, 1983, a cloudy overcast

morning, Mr. Ajit Kulkarni, Mr. Avadhut

Bapat and I visited the lake again and spotted

a pair of these bitterns. As we watched, the

female silently moving through the reeds, ap-

proached three chicks hidden in a well con-

cealed nest. After the female left, I cautiously

approached the nest and took some photo-

653

14

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

graphs of the chicks and the nest. The latter

was beautifully camouflaged in a tangle of

reeds about three feet from the water’s surface,

the depth of the water was a foot and a half.

The reeds had been bent down and criss-

crossed to form the base of the nest and then

a sort of a roof. One of the chicks suddenly

dropped into the water and confidently pad-

died away to the safety of some reeds.

Whilst photographing the nest, the male

silently returned. He clenched the reeds with

both feet, some distance away from the nest,

and swayed his head and neck repeatedly

from left to right, all the while uttering a low

croaking sound. The recorded call of this bird

is a “kaka-kakak” (Ali & Ripley 1983). Both

the wings were held down and open adding

perfectly to his act to draw my attention away

124/9 Erandavana,

Poona-411 004.

April 17, 1984.

from the nest. This bird shares the lake with

birds like the Chestnut Bittern, Brown Crake,

Pheasant Tailed Jacana, Spotbill Duck (nest-

ing).

The same morning, we saw a juvenile Night ,

Heron but were unable to locate any adults

or the nest. j

Apparently information about the Yellow

Bittern in Maharashtra is quite scanty and I ^

believe that this is probably the first record

of this bird and its nesting in Poona, the ^

handbook describing its distribution as ^

throughout India, from the Indus, east to

Assam and from Nepal south to Kerala.

I am grateful to Mr. M. D. Sharma, Chief

Horticulturist of the TELCO. Pimpri for his |

permission and help.

TAEJ MUNDKUR

Reference

E

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1983): Handbook of the

Birds of India and Pakistan, Compact edition, Oxford

University Press, Delhi, London, New York.

>1

9. SIGHT RECORD OF THE BLACK CRESTED BAZA

(A VICED A LEU PHOT ES) IN MADRAS

It was a hot and sultry morning on the

13th January 1983, and I was walking down

the trail running across the Guindy National

Park on the outskirts of Madras city. The time

was just past 10.00 a.m. and the air was still

with scarcely any breeze. I noticed a pair of

small black hawks circling just above the tree-

line a little ahead of me. I watched them with

my 10 x 35 binoculars and realised that they

were Black Crested Bazas. The birds wheeled

about overhead for several seconds giving me

ample opportunities to take down their de-

ol

m

b;

. , , , It

tails. The coal black underparts with the pale

markings on the underwing, along with the D

contrasting white breast band renders this B

species quite unmistakable. When the birds M

banked in the air, I was also able to get glimp-

ses of the white band on the trailing edge

of the upperwing. Eventually they started

soaring higher and higher till I lost sight of

them behind some lofty trees.

According to Ali & Ripley (1968) the

Black Crested Baza shows a curious widely n

discontinuous Indo-Malayan distribution. Two ?

654

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

far flung resident populations are said to exist,

one in the East Himalayan and South-East

Asian regions and the other in South-West

India. No mention is made about their occur-

rence on the east coast.

The present sighting is of interest consider-

ing the fact that there are few records of the

Junior Field Biologist,

BNHS Ecological Research Station,

Bharatpur 321 001 (Rajasthan),

June 21, 1984.

Refer

Al, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1968): Handbook

of birds of India & Pakistan Vol. 1. p. 218-221.

Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Sugathan, R. (1983): Some interesting aspects

hawk in the eastern seaboard (see Sugathan

1983). It is presumed that the birds which

were noted in Madras, and also those pre-

viously recorded elsewhere down the coast,

were members of the northern population on

their way from or to Sri Lanka.

R. KANNAN

ENCES

of the avifauna of Point Calimere sanctuary, Than-

javur district, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 79(3): 567-575.

10. THE BLACK EAGLE ICTINAETUS MALA YEN SIS TEMM. AND

LAUG AT SAWAI MADHOPUR (RAJASTHAN)

I was camping at Sawai Madhopur and on

December, 17th 1983 while proceeding to the

Ranthambhore National Park I saw an adult

Black Eagle gliding close to the roadside before

approaching the main park on the periphery

of the thorn forest. The bird was so close to

me that I had no difficulty identifying the bird,

having seen it frequently before but never in

this part of India. Its upturned wing tips, dark

Dilbahar,

Bhavnagar,

May 30, 1985.

blackish-grey plumage, the mottled upper tail

coverts, are distinctive characters and well seen

in Plate 56, of Indian hill birds by Salim Ali

(1949). As I could not find reference of this

eagles’ distribution to cover the area where it

was seen or in the Aravallis, the range of this

bird may be considered extended by this sight

record.

K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI

11. ON THE PARENTAL CARE OF YELLOW- WATTLED LAPWING

V ANELLUS MALABARICUS

From March 15th 1984 for more than a

week, in the morning at about 9-50, on my

way from my quarters to the Department of

Zoology, I used to see a pair (at times single)

of Yellow-wattled lapwing Vanellus malaba-

ricus, calling and moving around a nursery

school, adjacent residential quarters and the

University press buildings. For a few days, I

655

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 82

did not pay any special attention to these birds

as the Yellow-wattled lapwing is a common,

resident and nesting bird in the campus.

On 29th March 1984 at 4.30 p.m. when I

happened to walk close to the pair they ap-

peared to be extremely agitated. They were

flying in a circle very close to a termitarium,

uttering contact calls. A closer examination

of the area revealed two chicks following the

adult lapwings. The chicks were seen voraci-

ously feeding on termites exposed from earth-

ern runways covering dry vegetation scratched

open by the adult bird. It appeared that the

adults were the parents.

Whenever I approached close to the chicks,

the parent birds voiced ‘warning calls’ and

the chicks abruptly squatted on the ground.

The colour of the chicks matched the ground

to perfection. I picked up the chicks in my

hand to examine them, and both the parent

birds, one after the other agitatedly flew around

me and almost dashed at me several times.

This continued for 10 minutes. As I continued

Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut,

Calicut University P. O.,

Kerala 673 635,

June 12, 1984.

to keep the chicks in my hand, the parent

birds left the scene for more than five minutes.

I carefully placed the chicks on the ground |l

among dry leaves. Every time the nursery 1

school children moved close to the chicks, the

adults drew near the children.

It appears to me that the birds were

accustomed to human presence and preferred

to nest, to feed and care the chicks near ^

human dwellings and places of human activity.

Nesting and caring of the chicks at this un- ^

usual site must perhaps have been providing j

protection from predators such as Common ^

Mongoose, stray dogs, cats, crows, rat- snakes,

etc.

By nesting and breeding near human habi- ^

tations, are the lapwings trying to take advan-

tage of this habit of nesting for the protection

of their chicks from predatory animals which !'

keep away from human habitations? There are

many uninhabited areas on the campus where B(

lapwings do nest but as far as I know, they Hi

meet with little breeding success.

N. J. GEORGE I

12. LARGE GREY SHRIKE KILLING A SNAKE

According to Ali & Ripley (1969), the food

of the Large Grey Shrike ( Lanius excubitor)

is insects, young rodents and young or sickly

birds. On 10 December 1982 at Karera, Dis-

trict Shivpuri, Madhya Pradesh, we found a

25 cm long Saw-scaled Viper ( Echis carina-

tus ) on the food larder of a Grey Shrike on

an Acacia leucophloea bush. The bird flew

away when we went near the bush, leaving

the still-living snake hanging from a thorn.

Lorber (1982) has seen the African Boubou

Shrike ( Laniarius aethiopicus ), “catching a

small grey snake about 20 cm long and beat

it to death.”

frc

DO

'Of

lar

Mi

yel

a

hai

Di,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Horn bill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023,

May 21, 1984.

ASAD R. RAHMANI

BHARAT BHUSHAN

k

656

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

R E FE F

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1969): Handbook of

the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol 5. p. 80, Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

13. A BIRD SITTING

On the morning of 8 January 1984, we were

surveying the grasslands of the Velavadar

National Park in Gujarat. At 0915 hours, we

saw a drongo ( Dicrurus adsimilis) chasing a

short-toed eagle ( Circaetus gallicus). The

drongo was repeatedly attacking the head of

the eagle and the visibly annoyed raptor was

trying to outfly the persistent drongo. Thrice,

the drongo momentarily sat on the back of

the flying eagle. Twice the eagle looked back

when the drongo sat on it. When the drongo

sat a third time, the eagle suddenly ascended

sharply and went higher and higher while

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023,

May 21, 1984.

14. LONGTAILED MINIVET

While bird-watching a Baybacked Shrike in

front of my house in a Cassia javanica tree, I

noticed another similar sized bird perched on

top of the tree. Looking through my binocu-

lars T noticed it was a female Longtailed

Minivet ( Pericrocotus ethologus ) with the

i yellow wing bar conspicuous. It was strangely

a solitary bird and probably a vagrant as I

have never seen this species in Saurashtra but

Dil Bahar,

Bhavnagar 364 002,

Gujarat State,

January 4, 1983.

tENCES

Lorber. P. (1982): The food of the Boubou Shrike.

Honeyguide 109, p. 31.

ON A FLYING BIRD

the drongo returned to the ground.

The second author has seen a crow ( Corvus

splendens ) worrying a white backed vulture

( Gyps bengalensis) near Dahisar, Bombay in

March 1982. The Vulture was sitting on top

of a Ficus benghalensis tree when a crow

alighted on its back. The startled vulture

immediately took flight downhill chased by

the same crow. Hardly did the vulture catch

a thermal current when the crow again landed

on its back, but was at once shaken off when

the Vulture dived to get rid of it.

ASAD R. RAHMANI

CARL D’SILVA

RECORD IN SAURASHTRA

it may occur sometimes. The bird was seen on

23.12.1982 in the afternoon and flew into

the Victoria Park, across the road. The Park

owing to the recent Cyclonic rains was looking

green as it is in August with the scrub and

other trees in leaf and flower, most unusual

for this December season, with all kinds of

Warblers and Chiff-Chaffs still quite active

feeding.

K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI

657

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

15. “BLIND” OR “CLOSED” NESTS OF BAYA WEAVERBIRD

( With a plate )

Introduction

Erach K. Bharucha (1983) recently record-

ed an unusual behaviour of a female purple-

rumped sunbird ( Nectarinxa zeylanica Linn.)

which sealed off the entrance to its nest, thus

not leaving any opening for the bird to reach

the brood chamber. Bharucha considered this

behaviour of the sunbird as nest building

error. I came across two completely closed

nests of baya weaverbird (Ploceus philippinus

Linn.) which are briefly described here. One

notices considerable variation in the form and

structure of baya weaverbird nests. In many

baya weaver colonies, one comes across many

multi-storeyed nests towards the end of the

breeding season. The male baya, the sole

builder of the nests, has strong territorial con-

trol. Therefore, the individual nests of a multi-

storeyed nest are the making of the same male

builder. It usually seals off the entrance tube

of completed nests when the fledgelings vacate

them, and attaches a new nest at the terminus

of the entrance sleeve. Even though such seal-

ed nests have to be regarded as normal for

baya weaverbird, the two cases of nests being

reported here were fully closed at an early

stage, much before the nests could be selected

by the females.

Abnormal nests of baya weaverbird

The abnormal nest of purplerumped sunbird

reported by Bharucha was ‘closed all round

like a deflated balloon. There was no attempt

at a projecting porch either. The pendent

nature was basically like a normal nest, but

it was not fully expanded like a correctly de-

signed one’. One of the abnormal nests of baya

weaverbird (Plate I, 2) somewhat resembled

the closed nest of the sunbird by not possess-

ing any opening for the bird to reach the

interior chamber. The second nest (Plate I, 3)

on the other hand is solid which was sealed

off at a much earlier stage in its construction.

Although a typical nest of the baya is

retort-shaped and dangling, and woven with

strips of palm leaves and grass blades, consi-

derable variation in the form, size and in the

manner of weaving them were recorded among

others by Ambedkar (1964, 1980) and Davis

(1971). Such variation in the nest structure

are brought about by factors such as the over-

crowdedness of nests in colonies, the result of

simultaneous damage to several nests due to

wind and cyclonic conditions, and the preva- I

lence of efficient males capable of weaving

very smart nests. The incompetence and lack

of skill in some adult males as well as the lack

of knowledge in nest-building by sub-adult

males also lead to great variation in the form

and structure of baya nests. Another frequent

variation brought about among baya nests is

the multi-storeyed nests (Plate I, 1) which are

the making of some extra smart males who

could weave about ten nests during one breed-

ing season and provide female occupants for

each of them. Multi-storeyed nests are brought

about by sealing off the entrance tube of com-

pleted nest and building new ones below it.

However, such nests, though not very uncom-

mon. are different from the unique ‘closed

nests’ seen in figures 2-4. The incomplete nest

built on a Zizyphus jujuba tree (Plate T. 2)

was located near Pune (Maharashtra State).

The nest is in the ‘helmet’ stage, but it lacks

658

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Sot. 82

Davis: Ploceus philippinus

Pl.ATK I

Fig. 1. Normal complete nest of baya weaverbird (bottom left) compared with many

multi-storeyed and other unusual nests. Fig. 2. Baya nest from Pune, closed fully

at an early stage of construction. Fig. 3. A club-shaped closed nest of baya from

Karnal (Haryana State). There is neither an entrance tube nor any opening for the

bird to enter the nest. Fig. 4. Inner details of nest in Fig. 3. This nest, to begin with,

was woven the usual way providing an egg-chamber and a sleeve. Mud blobs are

also seen at two positions in the egg-chamber

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the usual two openings separated by a narrow

bridge. Also there is no dome or cavity in it.

The dome has been filled with fibre and so it

has become solid. The fibre used for weaving

this nest was of sugarcane leaf strips. The solid

nature of the nest was verified by disecting it

out. Also there was no trace of any dung or

mud blobs seen inside as is noticed in several

nests of baya (Davis 1972). Usually, the lower

margin of an incomplete nest contains many

partially woven and loosely hanging fibres.

But in this nest, the full length of the fibres

has been carefully woven and the nest made

compact and solid.

Plate I, 3 shows another closed nest of baya

weaverbird collected from near Karnal (Har-

yana State) in 1960. This nest was hanging on

a sisham tree (Dalbergia sissoo ) which could

be recognised by the presence of a dry pod

attached to the shoot. The nest looked fairly

fresh when examined in February which was

almost the end of the breeding season for baya

in and around Haryana region. From the

elegant manner the nest has been woven,

the closed nest seems to be the work of an

experienced and efficient male. The slightly

reduced size of the nest and the lack of an

entrance hole attracted my attention, and so,

the nest was collected from the unarmed sisham

and examined at close range. The fibre used

for weaving this nest was also that of sugar-

cane. But the nest in Plate I, 2 from Pune was

more elegant, even though woven with sugar-

cane leaf fibre, because this builder was able

to prepare much thinner strips and weave them

more elegantly. Baya in different regions are

found to weave the same nesting material

with different effect and so. the quailty and

appearance of the nests differ considerably.

For example, the bird in West Bengal weaves

with unstripped paddy straw resulting in crude

nests while rice leaf blades are stripped into

fine strands and woven elegantly by the male

baya nesting around Pune. Incidentally, the

birds of West Bengal rectify the deficiency

partially by cementing their nests with liberal

loads of mud blobs and/or cowdung. How

birds of different regions within India select

different trees for nesting, gather fibre from

different species of plants for building nests

and weave nests resulting in great variation in

appearance and quality have been described

(Davis 1974).

Curiosity prompted me to cut open the nest.

The inner details resembled those of a normal

nest showing a hood and a narrow bridge

which separates the mouth into two openings,

one to be completed as the brood chamber

and the other to be built as the entrance tube.

More striking is that the interior is cemented

with mud blobs at two locations on the dome

of the brood chamber (Plate I, 4). The pre-

sence of mud blobs and the nest having built

very strongly only indicate that the nest was

worthy of being used by a female for success-

ful rearing of young ones. What prompted the

builder to close the nest is not clear. Since the

nest was built almost at the very end of the

breeding season, it is presumed the male might

have waited for a few days for the arrival of

a prospective female. But as there was no

female available any more coming in search

of a mate and a nest, the male might have

deserted the nest. But instead of simply dis-

carding an incomplete nest at a stage when

two openings are still maintained, the male

baya taking the pains to seal the nest fully into

a club-shaped, blind nest is difficult to explain.

This act of sealing the nest cannot be regarded

as absent-mindedness or carelessness. Could it

be a playful exercise as the bird had no seri-

ous occupation of either enticing a female or

providing a strong nest for her.

Weaverbird watchers are aware that in very

659

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

active colonies where nesting sites are limited,

the male seals off the entrance tube of its nest

as soon as the fledgelings leave the nest. Often

a fresh nest is built below the sealed entrance

tube and made ready for occupation by another

female. Thus, the more capable males who

can weave efficient nests which are selected

more quickly by females, will have many nests

hung one beneath another. A few such multi-

storeyed nests are shown in Plate I, 1. In rare

cases when a mother nursing her chicks dies,

and another female is waiting to select a nest,

the male quickly seals off the mouth of the

nest having the chicks and build a new nest

for the waiting female. The male, therefore,

seems to have the least concern for the chicks

through his one-time mate. The ill-fated chicks

meet with starvation death. Thus, the male

baya’s instinct for building a nest, that too,

an efficient one is very powerful indeed. That

is why the male cuts down very old nests and

those that are not selected by a female for a

JBS Haldane Research Centre,

Nagercoil-629 004,

Tamil Nadu,

August 7, 1984.

long time. The bird also laboriously clips off

with its beak those nests that are tossed away

by wind and held at inconvenient angles. But

they are never known to close completely a

partially woven nest.

Summary

Two ‘closed’ or ‘blind’ nests of baya weaver-

bird are reported, one from Pune which is

over 1,500 km away from Karnal where the

second nest was located. The nests, though

incomplete, were woven very strongly and

elegantly and so, deserting them could be the

non-availability of females coming in search

of a nest. Normally nests at the end of the

breeding season or those that are not very effi-

ciently-built are simply deserted which will

continue to display two openings at the bottom.

Thus, the male baya spending some time in

sealing off these abnormal nests could be re-

garded as a sign of playful occupation.

T. A. DAVIS

References

Ambedkar, V. C. (1964): Some Indian weaver

birds. A contribution to their breeding biology. Uni-

versity of Bombay.

(1980): Abnormal nests of

the baya weaverbird ( Ploceus philippinus Linn.). J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (Supplement): 1205-

1211.

Bharucha, E. K. (1983): Nest building error by

a female purplerumped sunbird. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 80: 220.

Davis, T. A. (1971): Variation in nest-structure

of the common weaverbird, Ploceus philippinus (L.)

of India. Forma et Functio, 4: 225-239.

(1972): Mud and dung plastering

in baya nests. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 57-71.

(1974): Selection of nesting trees

and the frequency of nest visits by baya weaverbird.

In ‘A Bundle of Feathers’. Ed. S. D. Ripley: 12-21.

660

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

16. USE OF WET DUNG IN EGG CHAMBER OF HALF BUILT NEST

BY THE BLACK THROATED WEAVER BIRD

(With three text-figures)

If we examine nests of Ploceus philippinus

and other species of the same genus, we find

blobs of mud almost invariably struck inside

the ‘dome’ presumably for strengthening the

fabric but whose real purpose remains equi-

fruits on the wet deposition of dung. Such

type of ornamentation is very commonly used

by the male of the black-throated weaver. They

use the following kinds of beautifying mate-

rials. (Table 1).

Table 1

List of ornamentals

Vol. 10, p. 90).

My observations on the nests of P. benghal-

ensis showed that a large number of half built

nests (95%) had a plastering of wet dung

inside their egg chamber. Completed nests of

P. henghalensis hardly ever have dung inside

their egg chamber. The deposition of dung

may occur on the roof of the nest or on the

outer walls.

Half built nests of P. henghalensis observed

before noon had fresh yellow (sometimes pink

or orange) ornaments like the inflorescence

flower petals and pieces of rind of yellow

flowers etc. is done only by the male. It is in-

teresting that only fresh floral material plucked

from plants is used in ornamentation.

Damaged flowers, floral buds, old and decay-

ing floral materials are not used. Selection in

plucking can be seen in the case of Cucumis

melo var. momordica and Momordica dioica.

Both these plants possess separate male and

female flowers on the same plant, but only

male flowers are taken by the blackthroated

weaver for its nest. Generally in the case of

small flowers like Lantana, Cucumis melo var.

momordica , and Momordica dioica a whole

661

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

flower is used as a unit while in case of com-

paratively big flowers like Lagerstroemia sp.

a petal is used as a unit.

Male flowers are selected because they have

a long pedicel while the female flowers possess

a comparatively short pedicel due to the pre-

sence of an inferior ovary. The long pedicel

of the male flower helps the bird to hold it in

its bill easily while it is not easy in case of

female flowers. In other words the male flower

is easily plucked while due to the massive in-

ferior ovary, the female flowers are unwieldy.

The pedicel of the male flowers of M. dioica

is broken by the bird just between the calyx

and the bracteole. Many stumps of pedicels

with bracteoles can be seen on plants. Some-

times stumps can be seen in a regular sequence

on one branch, indicating that all the flowers

were taken by the same(?) male bird (see

Fig. 1).

a way that their pedicels rests in the wet dung.

This situation of pedicel is very useful for

lasting freshness because the pedicel sucks up

water from the wet dung. Many flowers are

kept upside down also. Drying dung releases

moisture hence new layers of dung are depo-

sited by birds every day, generally before noon.

Like other male weaver birds, male black-

throated weaver birds are polygamous. Every

male wants to win more and more wives.

During the ‘helmet’ stage of nests, females

visit the half built nests to prospect for suit-

able nests and all the while the builders sing,

cling to the nest and flutter to advertise them-

selves. There are three ways by which the

male attracts the female:

(1) The attractive golden yellow crown.

(2) Singing, clinging to and fluttering and

flapping on the nest.

(3) Ornamentation of nest with yellow

.f leiuer

petals

point of

plucking

bracteole

— pedicel

<? flou/er

petals

.pedicel

f louter

massive

inferior

ovary

Fig. 1. $ & 9 flowers of M. dioica.

The plucking of flowers and their implan-

tation may continue for 2 to 5 days. Generally

flowers are implanted before noon every day

( Before noon young, fresh and opened flowers

become available very easily). The owner of

each half built nest keeps the flowers in such

flowers embedded in wet dung.

The ornamentation with yellow flowers is

very important and this is impossible without

wet dung. The main functions of the dung are

as follows:

(i) It provides a suitable base. In wet con-

662

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 2

Breeding and non-breeding plumage of weavers

Encircled colour range is liked by weaver birds.

Colours which are situated outside the circle not

liked by females. We can see orange and yellow

coloured flowers of Lantana in a half built nest

but no red and white flowers of same plant

occurs in nests.

Encircled feather colours can be seen among

weaver birds. Colours out side the circle not

assumed by male birds in breeding period.

Fig. 2. Similarity between colours of flowers inside egg chamber and breeding plumage

of weaver birds.

663

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

dition it is so loose that insertion of pedicels

of flowers is very easy.

(ii) It acts as an adhesive. When flowers

are kept upside down their petals are held

firmly, and they do not fall off.

(iii) The most important purpose of the wet

dung is the supply of water through the in-

serted pedicels for lasting freshness.

(iv) Moisture, which comes from drying

dung, collects inside egg chamber which helps

in keeping flowers fresh (Due to the dung the

relative humidity remains higher in egg cham-

ber than outside the nest).

It is interesting to examine the significance

of the use of yellow coloured flowers or its

close variant colours. Before solving this pro-

blem we must examine the breeding and non-

to attract and win the female. The same is the

situation here the female weaver is attracted

towards the yellow plumage of the males. So

to increase its attractiveness the male im-

plants yellow coloured floral parts to invite

and attract the inspecting females to its half

built nest. (See fig. 2).

Once a nest is accepted by a female, the

flowers and dung are removed by the male

with its bill completely or partially. Dung, left

behind in the egg chamber is covered by new

layers of strips and the bird proceeds to com-

plete the nest for the female. In a completed

nest, the earlier deposited dung may occur

towards the roof of the egg chamber between

strips but not in the cavity of the egg chamber.

If a half built (Fig. 3) decorated nest is not

T#S. of half built nest.

Fig. 3. A half built

breeding plumage of the male of the four

Indian Species of weaver birds. (Table 2).

Table 2 clearly indicates that feathers of cer-

tain areas of the body become yellow during

the breeding season in the male but not in

the female. It is a well known fact that attrac-

tive coloration of male birds is associated

with complex sexual behaviour which helps

Forestkr,

Rajasthan Forest Training Centre,

Ai.war, (Rajasthan).

January 30, 1984.

nest and its T. S.

accepted by any female, the male leaves it as

such and proceeds to make a new nest.

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to Dr. Salim Ali for providing

necessary guidance and for going through my

notes.

SATISH KUMAR SHARMA1

1 Present address: Forest Range Officer, Moham-

mad Put P. O. Harsauli. Alwar Dist., Rajasthan.

664

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

17. PATTERNS OF DEPOSITION OF MUD INSIDE THE EGG

CHAMBER OF THE HALF BUILT NEST OF PLOCEUS

PHlLlPPimJS AND P. BENGHALENS/S

( With five text -figures)

If we examine the half built nests of Ploceus sition of Mud or/and dung inside the egg

philippinus and P. benghalensis, we find depo- chamber of the nest. Patterns of deposition

l-l-l=Inner lateral walls with two

piles of mud one on each.

2-2-2»Front wall without deposition

of mud.

Fig. 1. Patterns of deposition shown in T. S. of the nest of Ploceus philippinus.

665

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

are different in both the species. Generally two

big piles of mud are seen on both the inner

lateral walls of the half built nest of P. philip-

pinus. Some times, many small piles may occur

on both the inner lateral walls of the egg-

chamber, instead of two big piles occasionally

either one or both the inner lateral wall may

be empty. The front wall of the eggchamber

of the half built nest remains unoccupied in

the case of P. philippinus. (See fig. 1).

Deposition pattern adopted by P. benghal-

ensis is different in two ways:

( 1 ) Along with both the inner lateral walls

of the half built nest, front wall of the

nest is also used for deposition.

(2) It collects the mud in a blob and not 1

in two or more piles. c

Although male P. benghalensis may use all

the three inner walls of the eggchamber but i

sometimes it leaves one or two or all the l

three walls unused. (See fig. 2).

Now the question arises, why P. philippinus la

leaves the inner front wall of the half built

nest unused while P. benghalensis uses it?

Answer of this problem is hidden in the dimen-

sions of the nest of both the species.

If we study T. S. of the middle part of the

nest of P. philippinus, we find that it is not

circular while T. S. of the nest of P. benghal-

ensis taken from the same topography of the ,i

Ope big pile and many

amall piles.

Many small piles on both the

inner lateral walls of the

egg chamber.

One ujall empty.

Both the walls are empty.

Fig. 1. (continued).

Hn;

So

666

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

middle part of the nest, looks more or less

circular. (See fig. 3).

Dimensions of the middle part of the nest of

P. philippinus are larger than that of P. ben-

ghalensis. Circumference of the middle part of

the nest of the former species is larger than the

latter species. The radius of a circular section

is directly related to its circumference. If radius

is small, circumference will be lesser.

The middle portion of the nest of P. benghal-

ensis looks more or less circular while the

nests of P. philippinus are not so; but they are

laterally compressed and looks like a capsule.

The two radii at right angle to each other in the

1=1=1= Inner lateral walls.

2=2=2= Front u/all.

All the three walls of the egg

chamber are occupied.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Fig. 3. Diagram showing outer shape of the nest in T.S. of both the species. T.S.

are taken from the same topography of the nest of middle region.

AC — AB — AE3£ AD =

Radius of the nest

(5.9 cm)

Fig. 411. T.S. of the middle part of the nest of P.

benghalensis showing geometry of the nest.

middle part of the nest of P. benghalensis

occurs more or less equal while they remain

unequal in nests of P. philippinus. Because

two different radii in the nest of P. philippinus

are unequal so we can call them by two diffe-

rent names — the short radius and the long

radius with respect to their lengths. Such diffe-

rence does not exist in case of P. benghalensis

hence such nomenclature of the radii is not

necessary in its case. (See fig. 4I&4II).

The average length of the body of both the

species is approximately 15.0 cm. Average

half length of the body of P. benghalensis is

larger than average radius (5.9 cm) of its

own nest. When the nest builder male bird sits

on the ring (a suitable nest weaving place) it

is able to cover the whole inner wall of the

egg chamber (Bird enters entrance hall,

through entrance tube and sits on ring. In such

condition the egg chamber always remains in

front of its bill.).

The average half length of the body of P.

philippinus is larger than the short radius (5.7

cm) but smaller than long radius (8.5 cm) of

its own nest, taken from middle portion of the

nest. In the nest of P. philippinus both the

lateral walls of the egg chamber occurs at

small radius, hence they remain within reach.

The front wall of the egg chamber occurs at

long radius, which is beyond the reach of

the bird hence not used. In other words both

the lateral walls of the egg chamber occur

near the ring of the nest while the front wall

668

15

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of the eggchamber remains at longer distance

from the ring. When the bird rests on the ring

both the lateral walls remain in the close

vicinity of its bill while the front wall remains

far from it. That is why both the inner lateral

walls of the nest are plastered with wet mud

by its bill but front wall remains free.

Nest of P. benghalensis possesses the ring

more or less in its middle region which divides

the nest cavity in two equal halves. But nests

of P. philippinus possess the ring slightly shift-

ed towards entrance hall which do not divide

the nest cavity into two equal halves. Half of

the egg chamber remains larger than another

half of the entrance hall. In such condition

two walls out of three of the egg chamber

(i) A = Centre of both the circles (Big x Small). “A” is situated on the ring DAE.

(ii) LA=AK=AD=AE — short radius (5.7 cm), (iii) CA=AM — long radius (8.5 cm).

(iv) CA 4= AN, i.e. ring is slightly shifted towards entrance hall.

(v) GF and HI are parts of inner lateral wall of the egg chamber situated on small

radius hence they are such parts where bird can deposit mud very easily.

(vi) GJH — Front wall of the egg chamber situated on long radius beyond the easy

approach of bird’s bill hence remains unoccupied.

Fig. 41. T.S. of the middle part of the nest of P. philippinus showing geometry

of the nest.

669

15

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

pppp = easily contactable points of inner lateral

malls of the egg chamber.

AB = Distance of front wall from easy approach

of bird.

Diagram showing collection of mud in lateral u/alls

of the egg chamber by £. philippinus.

pppp = Contactable points.

Diagram showing deposition by £. benqhalensi s.

Fig. 5. Easily contactable points in nest cavity of P. philippinus and P. benghaJensis.

670

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

remain near to the ring and are used. The

remaining front wall is not being used at a

distance from the sitting place, i.e. the ring. In

other words when male P. benghalensis sits

on the ring of its own nest, it can touch every

point of the three inner walls by its bill while

it is difficult to P. philippinus which can touch

Forester,

I/C Mixed Plantation,

Tatar Pur (Alwar-Raj.)-301 424,

July 10, 1984.

two inner lateral walls only. That is why P.

benghalensis can use all the three inner walls

of the eggchamber of its nest while P. philip-

pinus can plaster the two inner lateral walls

only. (See fig. 5).

I am grateful to the Bombay Natural History

Society for providing necessary guidance.

SATISH KUMAR SHARMA1

1 Present address : Forest Range Officer, Moham-

mad Pur, P. O. Harsauli, Alwar Dist., Rajasthan.

18. A GHARIAL ( GAVIALIS GANGETICUS ) AT GAHIRMATHA

COAST, ORISSA, INDIA

(With a photograph and a text-figure)

Referring to Annandale’s (1915) statement

about the occurrence of gharial ( Gavialis gan-

geticus) in the Chilka lake, Singh (1978) held

the opinion that since the local fishermen

interviewed at Puri and Balugan were ignorant

of the occurrence of gharial in this brackish

water lake, gharial may be entering the lake

accidentally during the monsoon floods through

a tributary of the River Mahanadi. However,

discussing the occurrence of gharial outside

freshwater, Singh (1978) did state that inspite

of the popular belief that the species remains

away from estuaries, they are known to have

occurred in the past in the “brackish waters

near Kendrapada-Patamundai in lower Maha-

nadi, not far from the Bay of Bengal”.

Supporting the above view regarding the

possible occurrence of the gharial outside

freshwaters, we have recorded a case in the

Gahirmatha coast, Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanc-

tuary, Orissa, where a female gharial approx.

3 m in length was sighted on the sea shore.

Observations recorded are presented below

and the gharial with the sea in the background

is seen on photo (1).

During a beach patrol for olive ridley’s

nesting emergences, a gharial was spotted

basking on the beach on 30th January,

1985 at 1700 hrs. about one kilometre south-

west of the village Kanpur (Fig. 1). On 31st

January at 1600 hrs. it was again sighted at

1 km south-west of the Gahirmatha Marine

Turtle Research and Conservation Centre

located at ‘Habalikhati’; thus the shift was

about 7 km towards north in 12 hrs. On the

same night when we tried unsuccessfully to

capture the animal at 2000 hrs. it was sighted

near ‘Antamahalhana’ at 1 . 8 km further north

from ‘Habalikhati’.

On 1st February, 1985 at 0845 hrs. the

gharial was seen basking 2.4 km away from

the previous recording. It moved about

100 m within 30 min. The last sighting of the

gharial was at 1345 hrs. when it moved 2.5 km

further north. No further observations were

taken as we had to shift our camp.

Therefore, during 3 days the gharial had

moved 13.7 km north of the first sighting.

671

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Two of the movements were: 7 km in 25 hrs.

(30.1.1985) and 2.5 km in 0430 hrs (1.2.

1985). These observations recorded on the

coast augment the species’ movement records

in Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary given by Bustard

and Singh (1984).

The direction and flow of current in this

part of the Bay of Bengal is from South to

North (Bhanj Deo, Undated). Therefore, with-

out much effort in swimming the gharial was

just being taken away by the currents although

the animal may be attempting to find a suita-

ble place for basking on the beach and/or a

freshwater habitat for retreating back. Every-

time we approached close the gharial moved

towards the open sea. However, throughout

the 3 days observation period the gharial was

observed swimming only within 50 m of the

shore, raising its head frequently.

Singh and Bustard (1982a, b) stated that the

gharial is extinct in the Brahmani and Baita-

rani systems to the delta of which Gahirmatha

is close. Therefore, the present gharial is likely

to have migrated from the Mahanadi where

resident population still occur and where a

rehabilitation programme is in operation (FAO

1975, Singh et al 1984).

As regards the point of entrance into the

sea it is difficult to guess but the two possibi-

lities are: through the Mahanadi delta at

Paradip (40 km south-west of Gahirmatha)

or through the Brahmani-Baitarani systems.

This migration may be purely accidental and

perhaps had taken place or commenced dur-

ing the high flood in September last, and this

movement cannot be compared with the

seasonal movement of the Asian giant turtle

Pelochelys bikroni which leaves the freshwaters

Photo. 1. Gharial on the coast.

672

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Mouths of major rivers near Gahirmatha, Orissa where 3 m long female

gharial was sighted on the coast. 1. First sighting (30.1.1985).

2. Last sighting (2.2.1985). 1-2 distance: 13.8 km.

of Brahmani and Baitarani and shares the

same nesting beach with the olive ridley

( Lepidochelys olivacea ) and during which

season it may occasionally enter the sea.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Forest Department. Govt, of

School of Life Sciences,

Sambalpur University,

Jyotivihar-768 019,

Dist-Sambalpur,

Orissa.

Orissa for help and support on this survey of

the coast-line and the Sambalpur University

and Wildlife Institution of India, Govt, of

India, respectively for facilities and to L. A. K.

Singh for help in the preparation of the note.

CHANDRA SEKHAR KAR

National Chambal Sanctuary, R. J. RAO

P. O. Box 11,

Morena-476 001,

Madhya Pradesh,

April 26, 1985.

673

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

References

Annandale, N. (1915) : Fauna of the Chilka Lake.

Reptiles and Batrachia. Memoirs of the Indian

Museum 5: 167-174.

Bhanj Deo, S. N. (Undated) : Flood control and

allied problems of Orissa rivers. Government of

Orissa Publication.

Bustard, H. R. & Singh, L.A.K. (1984): Move-

ment of wild gharial, Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin)

in River Mahanadi, Orissa (India). British J. Her-

petol. 6.

FAO (1975): India. Gharial and crocodile con-

servation management in Orissa (based on the work

of H. R. Bustard). FAO: IND: 71: 033 December,

1975. FAO Rome.

Singh, L.A.K. (1978): Ecological studies on the

gharial, Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) Reptilia,

Crocodilia). Ph.D. thesis, Utkal University, Bhuba-

neshwar.

Singh, L.A.K. & Bustard, H. R. (1982a): Geo-

graphical distribution of the gharial Gavialis gange-

ticus (Gmelin) in Orissa, India. British J. Herpetol,

6, 259-260.

(1982b): The

extinction of the gharial Gavialis gangeticus

(Gmelin) from the Brahmani and Baitarani rivers

of Orissa. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79(2) : 424-425.

Singh, L. A. K., Kar, S. K. & Choudhury, B. C.

(1984): Indian Crocodilians: A 10-year review of

Management. Paper presented at the 7th working

meeting of the Crocodile specialist group (IUCN/

SSC) Caracas, Venezuela, S. America.

19. UNUSUAL EGG-LAYING IN A CAPTIVE SOFTSHELLED

TURTLE TRIONYX GANGETICUS (CUVIER)

Turtles have a remarkable ability to survive

under very circumscribed captive conditions

but then their normal behaviour is altered.

Excepting a few descriptions like of Trionyx

sinensis (Mitsukuri 1895) where the turtles

were maintained in semi-natural conditions,

most other data on nesting in captivity are

not reported because the behaviour is unnatu-

ral (Moll 1979). While conducting a study

on the reproductive physiology of the fresh-

water turtle Trionyx gangeticus, a turtle weigh-

ing 7 kg and 46 cm carapace length was pur-

chased from the local fish market during the

last week of September, 1981 and brought to

the laboratory where it was kept in a tank

measuring 1.5 x 0.4 x 0.3 m. The turtle ate

very little in the laboratory but remained

active. In the tank it laid 7 eggs during the

first week of October, 2 eggs on November

5 and 3 eggs on December 22, when on dis-

section three more eggs were found intact in

the left oviduct. The right oviduct was empty.

Each ovary also contained large vitellogenic

follicles 19. 3 ±1.926 mm in diameter. Only 6

fresh corpora lutea were present in the ovaries

but a number of atretic follicles were discern-

ible by gross inspection, indicating that the

6 eggs found in December may be of a new

clutch as the number corresponds with the

corpora lutea found in the ovaries. All 15

eggs were well calcified, each with a weight

of 15 g and diameter 29 mm.

A natural clutch of small T. gangeticus

(mean carapace length 45 cm) have upto 15

eggs (Rao 1982, Singh, in press) and of large

turtles with 60 cm (mean) carapace length have

upto 40 eggs (Rao 1982). In the observations

reported above, the clutches of 7 and 2 eggs

found during October and November in a

span of 4 weeks are believed to comprise a

single natural clutch that had completely deve-

loped by the time the turtle was transferred

to captivity. The eggs (3 nos.) laid on Dec-

ember 22 and those found in the oviduct (3

674

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

nos.) had developed in captivity as a single

clutch as evident from the number of corpora

lutea. Both the clutches, though developed

normally, were split to smaller clutches for

laying.

These observations confirm Moll’s (pers.

comm.) observations on the North American

Department of Zoology,

Saifia College,

Bhopal 462 001,

December 28, 1984.

turtles that turtles kept under unnatural con-

ditions may not lay normal clutches. This is

believed to be a general phenomenon with

most other reptiles. Therefore, for better suc-

cess in captive breeding the rearing facilities

should be as simulating as possible to the natu-

ral conditions.

R. J. RAO1

References

Mitsukuri, K. (1895): How many times does

the snapping turtle lay eggs in one season? Zoolo.

Mag. Tokyo. 6: 143-147.

Moll, E O. (1979): Reproductive cycles and

adaptations. In: M. Harless and H. Morlock (Eds)

Turtles: Perspectives and research, pp. 305-331. Wiley

and Sons, New York.

Rao, R. J. (1982) : Studies on the neuroanatomy,

1 Present address: National Chambal Sanctuary,

P. O. Box 11, Morena 476 001 (M.P.).

20. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE

SKINK ( LEIOLOPISMA HIM ALAY ANUM), FROM KASHMIR

cytology, and histochemistry of the reproductive

system of the freshwater turtle, Trionyx gangeticus

(Cuvier) with special reference to the seasonal cycli-

city. Ph.D. thesis, Bhopal University, Bhopal.

Singh, L.A.K. (in press) : Observations on nest-

ing season and egg of Trionyx gangeticus in River

Mahanadi. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

The breeding biology of the skink Leiolo-

pisma himalayanum and of the family Scin-

cidae in general is poorly known. This species

is very common in the W. himalayas. Smith

(1935) considered it to be viviparous, pro-

ducing 3 or 4 young at a time. Annandale

states that females examined in Kumaon in

May contained eggs, but not those examined

in September.

One of us (NJ) collected some reptiles from

Overa, near Pahalgam, Kashmir in May-June

1985. While examining two specimens of

Leiolopisma himalayanum in the society, they

were found to contain eggs. Both the speci-

mens were dissected on 21st July and 8 eggs

each were taken out. One specimen (A) was

collected on 8th May at 8500’ and the other

(B) on 25th June at 7500’. Both were col-

lected in grass, in coniferous forest and were

rather sluggish, as in the early morning cold

and also possibly as they were gravid.

Measurements:

Eggs of specimen (A):

8 eggs and 1 undeveloped. They were placed in

two rows of 4 each. The eggs were yellow in colour

and remarkably resembled corn grains but had a

much more squarish appearance.

Measurements (in mm) :

7.0 x 6.35; 6.60 x 6.45; 6.35 x 5.30; 6.95 x 5.50;

7.0 x 5.90; 6.50x5.20; 6.40x4.45; 6.75x5.90.

Average size was 6.69 x 5.64.

675

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Eggs of specimen (B) :

Eggs were situated in the same position as ‘A’. But

they were larger in size and more elongated. The

colour of the egg was pale cream, with very soft,

0.6 mm thick cover.

Measurements (in mm) :

11.35 x 6.25; 11.50 x 6.55; 11.55 x 6.35; ll.lOx

6.65; 10.85 x 6.45; 11.30 x 6.85; 10.60 x 6.40;

9.65 x 5.90.

3, Rocky Hill,

Malabar Hill,

Bombay-400 006.

Research Assistant,

Herpetology Section,

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S. B. Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023,

July 26, 1985

Average 10.98 x 6.42.

The difference in time between the collection

of the two specimens was 48 days and the

difference in the average sizes was 4.29x0.78.

An egg measuring 11.55 x 6.35 was open-

ed and found to contain embryo in very early

stage of development.

NITIN JAMDAR

A. G. SEKAR

21. TWO CASES OF “BACKWARD” SWALLOWING OF PREY BY

THE RAT SNAKE ( PTYAS MUCOSUS)

A rat snake being chased by some people,

climbed onto my motorcycle and finding its

way into the gearbox got its head stuck in the

chain cover. The heated engine must have

killed the snake as it was dead on removal.

It measured 1 . 59 m, and on dissection, the

intestine contained a grey musk shrew, Suncus

murinus 18.5 cm long and a young garden

lizard, Calotes versicolor 15.5 cm long. The

interesting part was that both the shrew and

the lizard were arranged so that their heads

pointed towards the mouth of the snake.

Snakes usually swallow prey head first, so as

to prevent ruffled scales, claws, spines, hair

etc. preventing the smooth movement of the

prey down the intestine. An additional example

is Gay’s (1978) record of a green keelback.

Macro pi st hod on plwnbicolor seizing frog deli-

berately by the head before beginning to

swallow it.

In a reply to my letter Mr. Romulus Whita-

ker, herpetologist, writes, “In the United States,

several species of watersnakes with long rear

“frog teeth” swallow prey tail first. I assumed

this was so because with a frog ballooned out

in its defence stance, the snake would have

to first puncture the abdomen to get it down to

a respectable size. In fact all the nactricines

do this. In India, I have come across a few

cases of “backwards” swallowing. It may be

a matter of personal idiosyncracy. I have seen

large rat snakes swallow rats sideways and

pythons to the same with chickens”.

676

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82 Plate

Dattatri: Chrysopelea ornata

\

Flying snake Chrysopelea ornata (Shaw).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Research Fellow, TAEJ MUNDKUR

WWF-India Research Project,

Department of Biosciences,

Saurashtra University,

Rajkot 360 005,

May 8, 1985.

Reference

Gay, Thomas (1978): Notes on the Green Keel-

back Snake ( Macropisthodon plumbicolor) . J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(3): 854-859.

22. A NOTE ON REPRODUCTION IN THE FLYING SNAKE

CHRYSOPELEA ORNATA (SHAW)

( With a plate)

A 1.25 m„ long-time captive flying snake

( Chrysopelea ornata ) at the Madras Snake

Park Trust (MSPT) laid eggs three months

after an adult male of the same species was

introduced into her enclosure. Since very little

information is available on the breeding habits

of this species a detailed account of this breed-

ing instance is presented in this note.

Background :

The following information on the reproduc-

tive habits of the flying snake was gleaned

from a review of available herpetological lite-

rature:

1. Pairing (in Bangkok) takes place in June

and from 6 to 12 very elongate eggs are

laid at a time according to Smith (1943).

2. Eggs (in West Bengal) are laid in Febru-

ary and March according to Whitaker

(1978).

3. Daniel (1983) and Whitaker (1978) give

the length of new-born young as 114 to

152 mm and 200 mm respectively.

DETAILS OF THE BREEDING AT MSPT:

Eggs: 17 eggs forming a compact aggluti-

nated mass were laid on the floor of the

female’s enclosure on 17 May, 1984. The white

eggs were variable in shape as can be seen

from the measurements given in Table 1, and

Table 1

Measurements of the 4 fertile eggs and

RESULTANT HATCHLINGS OF C. Ornata (IN MM.)

L = Length; D = Diameter

none could be described as being “very elon-

gate”.

Incubation : The following method of arti-

ficial incubation — one which has proved very

successful with snake and lizard eggs — was

adopted:

The egg mass was removed from the enclo-

sure and transferred to a polythene bag with

a substrate of moist cotton-wool. The bag was

677

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

inflated full by mouth and closed tightly with

rubber bands. It was then placed in a wooden

box having wire mesh at opposite ends and

which was situated 1 m. away from a desert

air-cooler. A near constant temperature of 29°C

and relative humidity of around 90% could

be achieved through this arrangement. The

eggs were visually inspected every day and

whenever any of them dented, water was added

to the cotton-wool substrate. Dented eggs,

especially fertile ones, usually regained their

turgidity within 24 hours of addition of mois-

ture. The polythene bag was inflated whenever

necessary and the substrate was changed if

growth of mold was noticed.

Hatching : 13 eggs (76.5%) out of the total

of 17 proved to be infertile. The four fertile

Madras Snake Park Trust,

Raj Bhavan P. O.,

Madras-600 022,

October 31, 1984.

ones hatched on 1st August, 1984 after an in-

cubation period of 76 days. The neonates,

which were all females, were very alert and

active. They exhibited identical body colours

and patterns, a description of which is given

below:

Dorsal body colour black with 69 to 72 narrow

bright yellow cross-bars, each with a central

crimson spot. Colours of head distinctly divided

horizontally. Top of head with thin transverse

yellow bars. Upper lip edged with black till

the 4th supra-labial. Ventero-lateral areas in

the neck region pale yellow. Ventrals pale

green, turning black posteriorly. Under side of

tail black with a median pale yellow line run-

ning its entire length.

SHEKAR DATTATRI

References

Daniel, J. C. (1983): The book of Indian rep-

tiles. Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay.

Smith, M. A. (1943) : The fauna of British India,

Ceylon and Burma: Reptiles and Amphibia. Vol. III.

Serpentes. Taylor and Francis, London.

Whitaker. R. (1978): Common Indian snakes —

a field guide. Macmillan, New Delhi.

23. COMMENT ON CANNIBALISTIC PROPENSITIES TN

HIMALAYAN NEWTS

While studying the ecology and behaviour

of Himalayan newts ( Tylototriton verrucosus )

in rock pools of eastern Nepal. I collected 10

live specimens of newt larvae from highland

rock pools of Chulachuli village (altitude

6000 ft.). They were miniatures of the adult

newt having well formed four limbs, lateral

tubercles and fully absorbed gills. I photo-

graphed the newt larvae individually and as

a group found them to be perfectly healthy

and alert. All 10 larvae were kept in an earthen

pot and carried downhill and included a 10

hour walk to the bus station for the night

journey. The water was changed in the earthen

pot but some larvae were motionless and some

were gasping.

They were therefore transferred to a poly-

thene container and flushed with fresh water.

I accidentally detected two of the larvae had

already lost hind limbs, and were bleeding.

When the larvae arrived in Kathmandu the

next morning I again found that another two

678

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

larvae had each one fore limb missing. I placed

the remaining 6 larvae with intact limbs in a

small aquarium of about 2000 cc capacity. For

experimental purpose, I kept the newts fast-

ing and observed the activity of the young

newts for seven days. On the 3rd and 5th day

I witnessed two dominant larvae cornering the

smaller larvae and gradually biting their hind

limbs. During the attack the victims struggled

to escape. Having been convinced fully of

existence of cannibalism, I removed the injur-

ed newt from the aquarium and reared them

individually in separate containers.

The wounds healed after two weeks and

limbs started growing. After four months the

limbs were completely regenerated. All captive

larvae were fed with fish meat. Particularly,

the pulpy flesh of a cyprinid fish locally known

as Sidhra ( Puntius ticto ) was found to be a

good nourishing food for larval newts.

To study cannibalism among adults T col-

lected 29 newts from their natural habitat in

the eastern Nepal. Among these 15 refused

food in captivity and died in the span of a

month. The remaining five were force fed

and survived. In the first week of February,

forty newts from the same habitat were col-

lected and reared in 5 aquaria. Ten wild newts

were kept in No. 1. Five surviving newt from

Department of Zoology,

Tribhuvan University,

Kirtipur Campus,

Kathmandu, Nepal,

March 19. 1985.

earlier collection in No. 2 and five newts from

the recently collected stock in No. 3. Five

juvenile newt with fully absorbed gills and five

wild newts were kept in No. 4 and in No. 5

only juvenile newts. All the newts were fed

with fish. I did not observe cannibalistic pro-

pensities in aquarium No. 1 to 4 but in aqua-

rium No. 5, I again noticed three newts losing

limbs. Biting and snapping happened only

when they were disturbed by using sticks. The

adult newts were docile and tolerated the pre-

sense of young newts in the same aquarium. No

injuries were detected. Young newts often rest-

ed on the back and head of the adult newt.

I also took samples of newts from different

rock pools, and could not detect injured or

lame specimen or specimen with regenerating

limb. The sampling result provided me indirect

evidence that cannibalism does not take place

in nature.

Cannibalism is thus not an inborn character

of newts. It takes place only in gilled stage.

This hypothesis is supported by my studies

in nature and captivity. As reported by Gyi

(1971) I also believe that most probably can-

nibalism does not take place among adult newt

in the natural habitat as there is abundance of

food and shelter.

TEJ KUMAR SHRESTHA

Reference

Gyi, M. G. (1971): The occurrence of Tylototri-

ton verrucosus. Anderson (1871), Urodela: Sala-

mandridae at Taunggi. Burma. J. Life. Sci. 2: 23-26.

679

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

24. ABERRANT COLOUR PATTERN IN THE STRIPED LOACH,

BOTIA STRIATA RAO (PISCES: COBITIDAE)

(With a plate )

Normal coloration in the adult striped loach,

Botia striata Rao, consists of a series of

narrow, obliquely vertical stripes along the

body. Although, on casual observation these

appear to be uniformly distributed, a closer

look reveals that the width of the light colour-

ed stripes between the dark stripe is not uni-

form. In between two broad light stripes are

three narrow light stripe. While the central

stripe of these three is straight, the two light

stripes on each side of this straight stripe are

sinuous.

Each composite group of such five stripes is

the result of splitting occurring with the growth

of the fish. Juveniles have five broad, wedge-

shaped bands along the body, each split into

two by a narrow white stripe. As the fish

grows, each half of these dark wedges splits,

finally giving rise to the adult colour pattern.

This normal colour pattern of juvenile and

adult has been illustrated in our earlier paper

(1980).

During the course of examination of thou-

sands of Botia striata, we have, several times,

come across specimens exhibiting aberrant

colour patterns. These usually manifest them-

E-31. Cusrow Baug,

Colara Causeway,

Bomray-400 039.

selves in the form of contorted loops and

spirals, somewhat akin to those found on finger

prints.

The cause of such aberrant colour patterns

can only be surmised. Since such patterns are

not symmetrical on both sides of the body, it

is felt that the pattern is a result of injury to

the fish, involving loss of some of the minute

scales at the site of injury. Formation of new

scales and their arrangement in a haphazard

pattern might then result in the contorted

whorls.

Incidentally, the fish described by Babu Rao

& Yazdani (1977) as Botia dayi Hora is

actually Botia striata, it being a case of wrong

identification. This can be seen in their photo-

graph, which shows the normal colour pattern.

Nor is their claim that theirs is the first record

of any Botia from the Western Ghats correct,

since they have ignored earlier records of this

genus by Kulkarni (1951) and by Kalawar &

Kelkar (1956).

The accompanying illustrations are based on

actual photographs of preserved specimens.

The specimens are deposited in the collections

of the Zoological Survey of Tndia.

B. F. CHHAPGAR

Sachetan, S. R. SANE

L/4-5. Sitaram Building,

Palton Road,

Bombay-400 001,

June 18, 1985.

680

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82

Chhapgar & Sane: Bolin striata

Plate I

Different colour pattern variations in Botia striata. At top centre is the normal colour

pattern with alternate wide and narrow stripes,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

References

Chhapgar, B. F. & Sane, S. R. (1980) : Com-

ments on the first record of Botia (Pisces: Cobitidae)

from the Western Ghats by Rao & Yazdani. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(3) : 525-528.

Kalawar, A. G. & Kelkar, C. N. (1956): Fishes

of Kolhapur, ibid. 53: 669-679.

Kulkarni, C. V. (1951): Some significant records

of fish from Kolhapur, northern section of Western

Ghats. Curr. Sci. 20: 334-335.

Rao, M. Babu & Yazdani, G. M. (1977): Occur-

rence of cobitid genus Botia Gray in the Western

Ghats of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74(2) :

367-368.

25. NEW ADDITION TO THE LIST OF HOST PLANTS OF THE CITRUS

BUTTERFLY, PAPILIO DEMOLEUS (PAPILIONIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA)

The citrus butterfly, Papilio demoleus has

been reported to be a pest of Acr onychia

laurifolia, Feronia elephantum, Glycosmis pen-

taphylla, Murraya roenigii, Psoralia corylifolia,

Ruta angustifolia, R. graveolens, Triphasia tri-

foliata, Zizyphus jujuba, lemon and orange

trees (Beeson 1961). Vasanthraj David and

Kumarswami (1978) have also reported this

insect on Aegle marmelos and Psoralea cory-

lifolia.

In October 1984, the insect was found feed-

ing on sampige, Michelia champaca and cus-

tard apple, Anona squamosa that were grown

Department of Entomology,

College of Agriculture,

Dhar wad-580 005,

December 5, 1984.

in the garden of the co-author at Banshan-

karinagar, Dharwad, Karnataka. All the three

stages i.e., egg, larva and chrysalis were found

on the plants. Greyish yellow eggs were laid

on the tender leaves and larvae were found

feeding on the foliage of the plant. The chry-

salis fastened to the plant by a gridle of fine

silken threads.

The larvae were also found to feed under

laboratory conditions on the leaves of sampige

and custard apple. The pest was controlled

by use of 36 ml of Endosulfan, 35 EC, in 18

litres of water.

R. H. PATIL

R. RAJASHEKHARGOUDA

References

Beeson, C. F. C. (1961): The ecology and con- David, B. Vasanthraj & Kumarswami, T. (1978) :

trol of the forest insects of India and the neigh- Elements of Economic Entomology. Popular book

bouring countries. Dehra Dun. p. 767. depot., Madras, p. 287.

26. FIRST RECORD OF TWO HYPERPARASITES OF LIPAPHIS

ERYSIMI (KALT.) (HOMOPTERA- APHIDIDAE) PARASITIZING

APH1DIUS RAPAE (CURTIS) (HYMENOPTERA — APHIDIINAE)

Hyperparasites are occasionally mentioned

as factors of possible importance in influencing

the number of the primary parasite, Aphidius

rapae (Hafez 1961). According to Doutt and

Debach (1964) care must be taken to prevent

the introduction of hyperparasites in the fields

and is based on the notion that the hyper-

parasites may seriously affect the efficacy of

681

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

primary parasites. Yet, the reported hyper-

parasites parasitizing the Aphidius rapae

(Curtis) are — Asaphes sp., Charips sp.,

Lygocerus sp. (Sedlag 1958); Asaphes vulgaris

Wlk., Charips minuta Htg., Pachyneuron aphi-

dis Bel. (Belanov’skii 1938); Asaphes vulgaris,

Charips ancylocera Cam., Lygocerus aphidivo-

rous K., Pachyneuron minutissimum Fo. (Hafez

1961); Charips spp. (Ullyett 1938) and Asa-

phes sp., Charips spp. (Barnes 1931). During

rearing of Aphidius rapae, a parasite of

mustard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi, two new

hyperparasites were noticed which have been

determined as Opius sp. (Braconidae — Hyme-

noptera) and Dendrocerus sp. (Megaspilidae

Department of Zoology,

M. S. College, Saharanpur 247 001,

January 28, 1985.

Ref

Barnes, H. F. (1931): Note on parasite of cab-

bage aphid, Brcvicoryne brassicae L. Ent. Month.

Mag. 67: 55-57.

Bilanovs’kii, I. D. (1938): Note on the econo-

mic importance of some parasitic insects. Trav. Mas.

Zool. Acad. Sci. Ukr. 21-22, 167-169, Rev. Appl.

Ent. 26: 302-303.

Dcutt, R. L. & Debach, P. (1964): Biological

Control of Insect Pests and Weeds. Chapman and

Hall Ltd.. London.

Hafez, M. (1961): Seasonal fluctuations on popu-

lation density of the cabbage aphid, Brcvicoryne

Hymenoptera). Both the hyperparasites,

have not yet been reported parasitizing any

aphid parasite and present report on the aphid

parasite A. rapae is a new record. Percentage

of hyperparasitization has also been studied

and it was found that for Opius sp. the per-

centage varied from 3 to 15 and for Dendro-

cerus sp. from 5 to 20. Thus, these two hyper-

parasites may contribute to reducing the effi-

ciency of the primary parasite A. rapae.

Both the, species of hyperparasites were

determined by G. E. J. Nixon of the Common-

wealth Institute of Entomology, London. We

are extremely obliged to him.

S. C. DHIMAN

VINAY KUMAR

E R E N C E S

brassicae (L.) in the Netherlands and the role of

its parasite Aphidius ( Diacrctiella ) rapae (Curtis).

T. PL-Ziekten, 67: 445-548.

Sedlag, U. (1958) : Untersuchungen uber Biono-

mie und Massenwechsel von Diacrcius rapae (Curtis)

(Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae). Trans. 1st Int. Conf.

Ins. Path. & Biol. Contr., Praha, 367-373.

Ullyett, G. C. (1938): The species of Aphidius

(Aphidiinae: Braconidae) as parasites of aphids in

South Africa. Deptt. Agric. and Forestry Sci. Bull.

178: 5-28.

27. OCCURRENCE OF CELOSTERNA SCABRATOR VAR.

SP/NATOR ON EUCALYPTUS

( With a photograph)

During January 1985, I noticed that nearly

every eucalyptus plantation of 1983-84 in

Gulbarga division was attacked by the ceram-

bycid borer, Celosterna scabrator var. spina-

tor. Eucalyptus seedlings 2-3 year old were

attacked to the extent of 20% and small heap

of frass could be noticed at the base of the

attacked seedlings.

I had observed the same species attacking

Acacia nilotica in Gulbarga during Dec. 1983.

Beeson (1961) reported Celosterna scabra-

tor as attacking Acacia arabica, A. catechu,

Cassia siamea, Casurina equisetifolia, Pithe-

colobium dulce, Prosopis juliflora, P. spicigera,

Tectona grandis and Zizyphus jujuba and has

also given details of its life-history and damage.

682

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Photo. 1. Adult Celosterna scabrator var. spinator feeding on Eucalyptus bark.

Assistant Conservator of Forests, RAVI RALPH

Gulbarga For. Divn., Gulbarga, Karnataka,

February 12, 1985.

Reference

Beeson, C.F.C. (1961): The Ecology and Con- bouring Countries Part I, Government of India

trol of the Forest Insects of India and the Neigh- Publication, pp. 116-119.

28. SCIENTIFIC VERSUS POPULAR NAMES

Dr. R. K. Varshney, the Deputy Director

of the Zoological Survey of India, has very

kindly sent me a copy of his paper “Common

names of the butterflies from India and

neighbouring countries”. In the first place, I

must congratulate him on a most meticulous

and careful piece of work.

On second thoughts, however, I cannot help

feeling certain reservations on whether the

list is really necessary. Generally speaking,

English in India is a second language and I

question whether learning such a list of names

683

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

in a foreign language is really much less diffi-

cult than learning a list of scientific names,

despite many advocates of such common

names; I cannot help feeling that it is better

to take one bite at the cherry instead of two.

It is, I think, essential that English common

names, whether used in India, Britain, the

U.S.A. or anywhere else should be the same.

No amount of logic is going to make the British

use ‘Admirable’ for ‘Admiral’ for Vanessa

atalanta, and Vanessa indica is the ‘Indian Red

Admiral’ in the Canary Islands and Madiera

(1) and Vanessa itea is the ‘Australian Admi-

ral’; again take Nymphalis antiopa — the

British call it ‘Camberwell Beauty’, now part

of Greater London, the Americans ‘Mourning

Cloak’ and Dr. Varshney in his list calls it

‘Camberwell Beauty Tortoiseshell’. Dr. Varsh-

ney calls Nymphalis polychloros and Aglais

urticae the ‘Blackleg’ and ‘Mountain Tortoise-

shell’ respectively, in Britain they are the

P. O. Box 95617,

Mombasa, Kenya,

May 14, 1984.

‘Large’ and ‘Small’ Tortoiseshell, and Nympha-

lis xanthomelas is the ‘Yellow-Legged Tortoise-

shell’ of Eastern Europe (1), a direct transla-

tion of the classical name. Dr. Varshney calls

it the ‘Large’ Tortoiseshell in his list. Would

it not have been better to have left these species

with their original names ? Again ‘Eggfly’ seems

a meaningless name for the two Indian species

of Hypolimnas, and even more so when applied

to some of the African species of the genus.

I can cite other examples of a similar nature.

In conclusion, I query the real value of Dr.

Varshney’s list. Very few Butterflies are of

economic importance, and a similar list of

common names for Moths of economic impor-

tance could probably be of much greater use.

Furthermore it is unfortunate that Dr. Varsh-

ney’s list has added considerably to the con-

fusion in the synonymy of the English Common

Names of the butterflies occurring in both

India and Europe.

D. G. SEVASTOPULO

Reference

Higgins, L. G. & Riley, N. D. A Field

Guide to the Butterflies of Britain and Europe.

29. DESCRIPTION OF AN UNKNOWN FEMALE OF PSEUDOSTENHELIA SECUNDA

WELLS, 1971 (COPEPOD A-H AR P ACTICOID A )

( With twelve text-figures)

Wells (1967) established the genus Pseud o-

stenhelia for a new species of harpacticoid

copepod, Pseudostenhelia prima in the family

Diosaccidae. He remarked on its close resem-

blances to the genera Stenhelia Boeck, 1864

and Melima Por, 1964 in body shape, mouth

parts and P.5 female. The absence of an

elongated seta on the endopod of the mandi-

ble, the two segmented endopod of P.2-P.4

and the male characters in P.2-P.3 were con-

sidered as distinguishing characters of the

genus Pseudostenhelia. Later two more species

namely P. secunda Wells, 1971 and P. wellsi

Coull and Fleeger, 1977 were added to this

genus. Males and females are known in P.

prima and P. wellsi. Wells (1971) erected his

684

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

new species P. secunda based on male speci-

mens collected from fine sediments of Vellar

estuary, east coast of India, and females were

not then known. During the survey of the

meiofauna in the Gautami Godavari estuarine

system, numerous male and female specimens

of P. secunda were collected in the intertidal

muds of a mangrove biotope.

description: Based on a ovigerous female

(650 ^m).

Body broad, metasome and urosome well

demarcated. Cephalothorax rounded anteriorly.

Rostrum broadly triangular with a trifid apex

with a sensory seta on each side. Genital

apparatus in two unconnected lateral parts

(Fig. 11). Caudal rami about twice as long

as broad. Terminally a well developed seta

flanked by two very weak setae. Inner and

outer edges with a seta distally (Fig. 12). All

ovigerous females with 2 egg sacs, each egg

sac with 4-6 eggs.

Antennule (Fig. 1): Five segmented. An

aesthete on segments three and five.

Antenna (Fig. 2) : With allobasis. Exopod

Figs. 1-12. Pseudostenhelia secunda : 1. Antennule; 2. Antenna; 3. Mandible; 4.

Maxilla; 5. Maxilliped; 6. P.l; 7. P.2; 8. P.3; 9. P.4; 10. P.5; 11. Genitalia;

12. Caudal ramus.

16

685

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

three segmented, the first and third elongate,

longer than the second. First two segments

each with one seta, the third segment with

one seta near the base of the inner edge and

two terminal setae.

Mandible (Fig. 3): Pre-coxa well develop-

ed, cutting edge complex. Coxa-basis elongate.

Exopod with five setae.

Maxillule : With massive basis. Exopod and

endopod confluent at the base, with two and

four setae respectively.

Maxilla (Fig. 4): Syncoxa with three endites.

Basis with a massive terminal claw. Endopod

one segment with three setae.

Maxilliped (Fig. 5): Not truly prehensile.

Endopod, first two distal setae, second with a

claw.

P. 1 (Fig. 6) : Exopod three segmented, the

last two very short, broader than long. Exopod

shorter than endopod. First segment with an

outer seta, second with an inner and an outer

seta, third with one inner, two terminal and

one outer seta. Endopod two segmented, not

prehensile; first segment longer and broader

than the second. First segment with an inner

seta, second with three terminal setae.

P.2-P.4: Exopod three segmented, endopod

two segmented.

P. 2 (Fig. 7); Basis with one outer seta and

a spiniform inner distal corner. First endopod

segment shorter than the second. Outer distal

corner of second segment spiniform. Second

Table 1

Setal formulae of Pseuilostenhelia secunda Wells, 1971

segment with one inner and three terminal

setae. The outermost terminal seta short and

spiniform.

P. 3 (Fig. 8) : Basis with one outer seta and

a spiniform distal corner. Exopod segments

longer than broad, the first segment longer than

the second and third, which are equal in

length. Third segment, two inner setae long

and equal in size. First endopod segment

shorter than the second. Inner distal corner of

second segment neither rounded nor with

spinulose edge (spinulose and rounded edge in

male).

P. 4 (Fig. 9): Basis with an outer seta.

Exopod, third segment with two inner, two

terminal, and two outer setae. First endopod

segment shorter than the second. Endopod not

reaching halfway along the second exopod

segment

P. .5 (Fig. 10): With rami indistinct. Inner

expansion of basendopod not well developed.

Basendopod with four setae. Exopod with six

setae

Locality. Intertidal mudflats of Gautami

Godavari estuarine system

Setal formulae of P. 1-P. 5 appendages of

Pseudostenhelia secunda are given in Table 1.

remarks: The females of Pseudostenhelia

secunda differ from the males in the structure

of antennule. setation of second endopod seg

ment of P.2 (female 4, male 3), in the modi-

fication of inner distal corner of second endo- ■

686

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

pod of P.3 (males rounded with a spinulose

edge, females not modified), in the number of

setae of P.4 exopod (female 6, male 5). P.5

setae (female 4 and 6, male fused 3) and in

the number of well developed setae on caudal

ramus (female 1, male 2). Most of the above

mentioned differences, except the modification

of the inner distal corner of second segment

of endopod P.3 and P.4 exopod setation

(Table 1), are observed between males and

females of P. prima and P. wellsi.

The female of Pseudostenhelia secunda

closely resembles that of P. prima in the struc-

ture of antennule, antenna, mandible, maxilla,

maxilliped and P.l. It also shows some re-

semblances with the female of P. wellsi in the

number of setae on P.5 (4 and 6) and general

shape of the caudal ramus. It may be men-

tioned here that the caudal ramus of P. secunda

shows resemblance in shape with P. wellsi,

but in the presence of a single well-developed

terminal seta, it resembles P. prima. However,

the female of P. secunda differs from the

Dept, of Marine Living Resources,

Andhra University,

Visakhapatnam-530 003,

March 27, 1984.

females of the other two species, P. prima

and P. wellsi, in certain structural and seta-

tion differences exhibited in P.2-P.5. Conspi-

cuously, P. secunda differs from the other two

species by having a seta on the inner edge of

the first segment of endopod of P.2 (absent

in P. prima and P. wellsi), absence of a seta

on the inner edge of second segment of exopod

of P.3 (present in the other two species), and

in the number of setae on the third exopod

segment of P.2 and P.4.

Acknowledgements

I thank Prof. S. Dutt, Head of the Depart-

ment of Marine Living Resources, for his keen

interest and constant encouragement in the

present investigation; Dr. K. V. Ramana Murty

for critically going through the manuscript and

making valuable suggestions; and Dr. (Mrs.)

A. Shameem for inking the diagrams and to

UGC for providing a Junior Research Fellow-

ship for carrying out this work.

B. KONDALARAO

References

Coull, B. C. & Fleeger, J. W. (1977): A new

species of Pseudostenhelia and morphological varia-

tions in Nannopus palustris (Copepoda-Harpacti-

coida). Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 96(3): 332-340.

Wells, J. B. J. (1967): The littoral copepoda

(crustacea) of Inhaca Island, Mozambique. Trans.

Royal Soc. Edin. 67: 189-358.

(1971): The harpacticoida

(crustacea-copepoda) of two beaches in south east

India. 1. nat. Hist. 5: 507-520.

30. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE AMPHIPOD — GAMMARUS

PULEX (LINN.) IN KASHMIR

ON THE ECOLOGY

In Kashmir Valley the amphipod — Gam-

marus pulex (Linn.) is very abundant, occur-

ring in all types of habitats, and forms an

VALLEY, WITH REMARKS

OF THE SPECIES

important item of the food of fishes, especially

the Trout, the Mahseer and the Mountain

Barbel [Oreinus plagiostomus (Heckel)]. It

687

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

abounds in the streams and rivulets in the

Valley and also in the Wular Lake, living

under stones in loose and thick moss, but is

absent from streams with “cemented” bottoms.

The moss and dead leaves provide the crusta-

cean with food as well as shelter. Huet (1942)

is of the opinion that the greater abundance

of Gammarus in small streams than in rivers

is due to the reason that the larger volume of

water in rivers tends to sweep these little ani-

mals away. Macan and Mackereth (1957)

were, however, of the opinion that if the bottom

was stable, the speed and volume of water

flowing over it could not affect the organisms

living underneath. They suggested that it might

be predation that kept the numbers of Gam-

marus low in rivers.

Macan and Mackereth (loc. cit.) found

that G. pulex was fairly evenly distributed

along the length of a small stony stream and

Professor & Head,

Department of Zoology,

Islamia College of Science &

Commerce,

Srinagar- 190 002 (Kashmir), India,

May 16, 1984.

R EFE

that its numbers did not alter much from t

month to month and from year to year. It is ]

one of the first animals to reappear in a stretch (

of stream that has been dry and tries to swim f

against the current when exposed by the lift- f

ing of a stone sheltering them. They suggest (

that Gammarus tends to work its way upstream

at all times but, when population becomes s

dense, there is mutual disturbance to such an >

extent that many may be pushed out from t

under the shelter of a stone and washed down-

stream again. |

a

Acknowledgement

I thank Dr. Roger J. Lincoln of the Depart-

ment of Zoology, Section of Crustacea, British '

Museum of Natural History, London, for con- ^

firming the identification of the specimens {

under report.

SURENDRA NATH

/

REN CES

«

)l

Si

Huet, M. (1942): Esquisse hydrobiologique des Macan, T. T. & Mackereth, J. C. (1957): Notes

eaux piscicoles de la Haute-Belgique. Trav. Sta. Peek. on Gammarus pulex in the English Lake District.

Groenendael, D. 2: 1-40. Hydrobiologie, 9: 1-12.

31. INVASION OF PURULIA, AN ARID DISTRICT OF WESTERN

WEST BENGAL, INDIA, BY ACHAT IN A FULICA

The agrihorticultural pest Achatina fulica,

introduced in Calcutta, India in 1847 is well

established in the subcontinent, thriving in the

hilly tracts of Eastern India, in the plains and

in the coastal regions of India (Raut and

Ghose 1984). In most of the areas of its dis-

tribution it is a serious pest.

In the survey on the distribution of A. fulica j

in India in 1975 Purulia was recorded as one! ,,

of the districts in West Bengal free from the 1

giant land snail (Raut 1979). During a recent (,

study on the distribution and ecology of arid

zone molluscs in August-September, 1984 A. ]

fulica was found in a centrally situated arca,|

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the Subhas Park in Purulia town. The popu-

lation is yet to reach a high level but it is

causing considerable damage to ornamental and

flowering plants of the park. The park manage-

ment is facing difficulty in proper maintenance

of the garden.

Apart from many live snails of different

size groups, quite a good number of empty

shells, 98.3 mm and near equal sizes were

recorded. To attain this shell size in West Ben-

gal, India at least 4-5 yrs time is required

(Raut and Ghose 1984) and the presence of

a number of empty shells of this size indicates

that Achatina must have reached there latest

by 1978 and the individuals presently in the

Ecology and Ethology Laboratory,

Department of Zoology,

University of Calcutta,

35, Ballygunge Circular Road,

Calcutta 700 019,

January 28, 1985.

park were born in the following years. The

findings lend support to the observations of

Raut (1979) and Raut and Ghose (1984) that

A. fulica will find a new home in Purulia, if

ever introduced there. It is a timely warning to

the administration that if proper measures are

not taken immediately, the pest will spread

to susceptible areas of the district and will

make the farmers, already the poorest in West

Bengal more poor.

We are grateful to Professor K. C. Ghose

(Retd.), Department of Zoology, University

of Calcutta for kindly going through the manu-

script and offering valuable advice.

S. K. RAUT

A. SHAHBABU

References

Raut, S. K. (1979): Distribution and population Raut, S. K. & Ghose, K. C. (1984): Pestiferous

of the land snails Achatina fulica Bowdich and land snails of India. Technical Monograph, No. 11:

Macrochlamys indica Godwin- Austen. Bull. tool. 1-151 (with 17 plates).

Surv. India, 2(1): 7-16.

32. THE FIRST REPORT OF THE ORDER SCHIZOMIDA

(ARACHNIDA) FROM SOUTHERN INDIA

Schizomids are small arachnids that are

generally found in forest litter, under stones,

logs and in crevices. Due to their small size and

secretive habits they go unnoticed and thus

remain undiscovered is many parts of the

world. So far 14 species (in two genera) have

been described from India, Burma and Sri

Lanka (Thorell 1889, Gravely 1912, Fernando

1957, Remy 1961). Of these, only three have

been described from Tndia: (1) Schizomus

lunatus Gravely, 1911 (Calcutta, West Bengal,

E. India), (2) Schizomus kharagpurensis

Gravely, 1912 (Kharagpur, West Bengal) and

(3) Schizomus sijuensis Gravely, 1925 (Siju

Cave, Assam, NE India). In addition to these.

Gravely (1912) reports the discovery of two

new species of Schizomus from Chota Nagpur

Division, Bihar Province of NE India. Schizo-

mids were unknown from Southern India until

689

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 82

the present collections from Maharashtra

State.

Three mature males and three mature

females of an undescribed species of schizomid

were collected (during July-August) from

Sinhagad Fort, 30 km. SW of Pune, Maha-

rashtra. This fort is situated at an altitude of

about 1300 MSL in Western Ghats. The speci-

mens were collected during the rainy season

from under stones on top of the fort. The

specimens are dark greenish-brown in colour

and are about 4 to 5 mm in total length. This

species is the third species of schizomid with

eyes; the other two species being from Sumatra

and Kew Botanical Gardens, London, England

(Sissom 1980). The latter species is most cer-

tainly introduced to the Gardens, but its place

of origin is unknown. The Indian species, like

Schizomus biocellatus Sissom from Sumatra,

has males which have dimorphic palps.

During my recent field survey of the eastern

part of Sangli district, Maharashtra State, in

September 1984, a single mature female schi-

zomid was collected from wet leaf litter of the

Myrtle (Jamun) Sizygium cumini (Linn.)

Skeels. This specimen was collected at Bhiv

Ghat, 40 km. SW of Atpadi, on Atpadi-

Kharsundi Road. Taluka Atpadi at an altitude

Zoological Survey of India,

Western Regional Station,

933/A. Shivajinagar,

Pune-411 016,

Maharashtra, India,

March 29. 1985.

R EFE

Fernando. E.F.W. (1957): A new species of

Schizomus ( Trithyreus ) from Ceylon. Ann. Mag.

Nat. Hist., ser. 12. 10: 13-16.

Gravely, F. H. (1911): Notes on Pedipalpi in

the collection of the Indian Museum. I. New Pedi-

palpi from Calcutta. Rec. Indian Mus., 6: 33-38.

(1912): Notes on Pedipalpi in

of about 760 MSL. The Bhiv Ghat specimen

is about 4.25 mm in total length and light

greenish in colour. Its proper assignment will

have to await the study of the genitalia and

comparison with specimens collected from

Sinhagad fort or the capture of males.

The collection of six adults from Sinhagad

Fort, Pune, and a female from Bhiv Ghat.

Sangli are the first records of the arachnid

order Schizomida. family Schizomidae, from

Southern Tndia. These records extend the

known range as the nearest other localities

of occurrence are in northern and northeastern

India and Sri Lanka.

:

Acknowledgements

I sincerely thank Mr. J. R. Redell (Austin,

Texas, US. A.) and Mr. J. C. Cokendolpher

(Lubbock, Texas) who examined my schizo-

mids and commented on the manuscript for

its improvement. I am also thankful to Dr. B.

K. Tikader, Director. Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta and Officer-in-Charge, Zoologi- ,

cal Survey of India, Western Regional Station,

Pune for providing necessary facilities to carry

out this work and Dr. R. M. Sharma for his

keen interest and help during the studies.

D. B. BASTAWADE ,

t

ii

R E N C E S

t

the collection of the Indian Museum. IV. New Orien-

tal Tartarides. ibid. 7: 107-110.

(1925): Tartarides from the Siju

Caves. Garo Hills. Assam, ibid. 26: 61-62.

Rf.my. P. A. (1961): Sur l'ecologie des Schizo- ;

rnidcs (Arachn. Uropyges) de mes rccoltes, avec

description de trois Schizomus nouveaux captures par

690

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

J. Vander Drift au Surinam (Suite). Bull. Mus. Nat.

Hist. Natur., 2eser., 33: 500-511.

Sissom, W. D. (1980) : The eyed schizomids, with

a description of a new species from Sumatra ( Schi -

zomida: Schizomidae) . J. Arachnol., 8: 187-192.

Thorell, T. (1889): Aracnidi Artogastri Birmani

raccolti da L. Fea nel 1885-1887. Ann. Mus. Civ.

Stor. Nat. Genova, Ser. 2, 7: 521-729.

33. FAMILY HIPPURIDACEAE IN THE KASHMIR HIMALAYAS

{With a text-figure)

A unigeneric family with wide geographical

distribution. The family shows extreme floral

reduction, the perianth being reduced to a

vestigial rim round the apex of ovary. The

androccium is reduced to a single stamen and

there is a single pendulous ovule in unilocular

ovary.

Hippuris L. Sp. PI. 4 (1753).

Erect or decumbent, simple or branched

herb. Leaves in whorls, simple; the aerial

stems have relatively longer internodes and

whorls of shorter rigid leaves. Flowers small,

axillary; stamens single, inserted on the ante-

rior edge of the calyx. Fruit one celled one

seeded drupe.

Hippuris vulgaris L. Sp. PI. 4 (1753); Clarke,

FI. Brit. Ind. 2; 432 (1878); Fassett. Man.

Aq. PI. 263 (1940).

The species can be easily identified in the

field in its marshy or aquatic habitat in having

the aerial portion densely covered with green

leaves. Rhizomes creeping; roots arising from

the submerged nodes. Leaves heterophillous;

submerged ones in the whorls of 7-9 on a

node, linear, acute, entire; aerial leaves 9-12

in a whorl. Flowers axillary, naked; perianth

absent; anther bilobed. each lobe with a cen-

tral raphe on one side; style filiform, bearing

receptive papillae along the whole of one side.

Fruit one seeded, globular, 1 x 1 .2 mm. with

an apical, short, blunt reddish beak. Pollen

grains 4-6 colpoidate, prolate spheroidal-sub-

oblate. 22.0x 30.0 furrows poorly defined:

exine thin; meshes of the reticulum faint, nexine

thicker at the angles. Polar field index 1: 5.1;

Polar field-small.

The species is dominant in the Hokhar Sar

lake and Anchar lake, also in shallow waters.

A. Habit; B. Node showing the arrangement of

flowers; C.&D. flowers; E. Stamen; F. Ovary; G.

Mature seed.

691

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

ponds streams, marshes. Sometimes near wet

soils. Anchar lake a. m. kak 3561; Highgam

Rakh, a. m. kak 3589; Hokhar Sar lake, a.

m. kak 3633.

Distribution : Europe, W&N Africa, Kashmir.

McCully and Dale (1961), after an intensive

study of morphological plasticity of Hippuris,

support the view of Polunin (1959) that H.

maritima, H. montana and H. tetraphylla,

which were distinguished by American bota-

nists on the basis of leaf shape and number

of the leaves per whorl, should be considered

as phenotypic variations of H. vulgaris L. How-

ever, our populations are highly plastic and

Department of Botany,

Islamia College of Science

and Commerce,

Srinagar 190 002, Kashmir (India),

September 29, 1981.

show great variations in size and vegetative

parts depending upon the habitat in which they

grow; some of the variations also appear due

to certain edaphic factors such as high and

low concentration of nutrients present in the

habitat. It therefore seems unjustified to give

taxonomic recognition to these variants as

species.

Acknowledgements

I thank Principal Sarwar Hussain and

Prof. Hussain Ahmad. Head, Botany Dept,

for providing laboratory facilities.

A. MAJEED KAK

34. BOTHRIOSPERMUM TENELLUM (HORNEM.) FISCH. ET MEY.

(BORAGINACEAE) — A NEW RECORD FOR KASHMIR HIMALAYA

(With a text-figure)

During studies on the flora of Sind Valley,

Kashmir, we came across several specimens of

Bothriospermum tenellum (Homem.) Fisch.

and Mey. growing as a common weed of cutli-

vation and the present communication records

for the first time the occurrence of this borage

from Kashmir Himalaya. The species has been

briefly described and illustrated for reference.

The voucher specimens have been deposited

in the Herbarium, Kashmir University (kash)

and Naturhistorisches Museum, Wien.

Bothriospermum tenellum (Homem.) Fisch.

& Mey. Index Sem. Hort. Petrop. 1: 23. 1855;

C. B. Clarke in Hk. f„ FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 167.

1883; Riedl in Rechinger, FI. Iran. 48: 56.

1967: Kazmi in J. Arnold Arboretum 51: 182.

1970; Stewart. Ann. Cat. Vas. PI. W. Pak. &

Kash. 583. 1972. Anchusa tenella Hornem.

Hort. Hafn. 1: 176. 1815; Cynoglossum diffu-

sum Roxb. FI. Indica ed. Wall. 1:7. 1824; C.

prostratum D. Don. FI. Nepal. 100. 1825.

Annual, prostrate, appressedly hairy herb;

stems much branched, slender. Basal leaves

spathulate; lower cauline leaves obovate-lanceo-

late, petiolate; upper lanceolate, sessile, upper

most bractlike. Flowers pedicellate, axillary,

lower distant, upper in racemes. Calyx ± 2

mm long, divided to the base, lobes linear-

lanceolate. Corolla ± 2.5 mm long, white to

bluish white, tube equalling the calyx; lobes

rounded, ± patent; throat with 5 trapeziform

scales. Nutlets ± 1 mm long, ellipsoid, granu-

692

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Bothriospermum tenelhun (Hornem.) Fisch. & Mey.

A. Habit of Plant; B. Flower; C. Corolla opened to show the scales; D. Fruit; E. Nutlet.

lar-scabrid, inverted; scar elliptic, longitudinal.

Type: “Herb, in China” in Herb. Vahl (as

Anchusa zeylanica).

Distribution : Pakistan, Afghanistan, China,

India, Manchuria, Japan, Philippines, Masca-

rene and Hawaiian Islands.

Specimens examined :

Ganderbal; 1,650 m, weed of cultivation,

20.3.1981, G. H. Dar 560; Beehama: 1,650 m,

weed in sarson crop, 12.4.1981, G. H. Dar

707-11; Shellabugh: 1,600 m, in shade of wil-

low plantation, 25.4.1981, G. H. Dar 1040;

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 82

Gandcrbal 15.5.1981. G. H. Dar 1546-51;

1.7.1981, 2142-47; Chatterhama: 1,700 m

weed in sarson crop, 5.6.1983, G. H. Dar

3597-5404; Khimber: 1.700 m, weed in pea

crop, 5.6.1983. G. H. Dar 5405-10; Hadorah:

1,650 m. 5.6.1983, G. H. Dar 5411-16 (All

placed in KASH).

Department of Botany,

University of Kashmir,

Srinagar- 190 006 (India),

June 18, 1984.

35. CYATHEA ALBOSETACEA

KNOWN ENDEMIC TREE-FERN

(With a plate &

While revising the family Cyatheaceae Kaulf.

for India, some interesting data were collect-

ed on Cyathea albosetacea (Bedd.) Copel. a

species endemic and confined to Nicobar

group of Islands in Bay of Bengal. Survey of

literature indicates that the species has not

been described in detail so far. nor is there

any illustration (cf. Beddome 1876. 1883; Kurz

1876; Holttum 1965). Recent intensive survey

of Andaman & Nicobar Islands (1975-77)

yielded several complete specimens of this

species. Holttum (l.c.) in his revision of Asian

species of Cyathea states that this species is

“only known from type collection” and “the

duplicate at K are sterile”. Even though Bed-

dome’s original description contains details of

sori. his type specimen should have been fertile

and the type is not traceable in K or in CAL.

Holttum. therefore could study only sterile

specimens and he states that “the only differ-

ence from Bcddomc’s description concerns

Acknowledgements

We thank Prof. H. Riedl, Naturhistorisches

Museum, Wien, for confirming the identity of

the species, and Prof. P. Kachroo, Head of

Deptt. of Botany, Kashmir University, for

encouragement and guidance.

G. H. DAR

A. R. NAQSH1

(BEDD.) COPEL. — A LITTLE

OF NICOBAR ISLANDS, INDIA

eight text-figures)

bullatc scales on costules”. He further states

that Beddome describes the scales as having a

hyaline setaceous point at apex which he

could not discover in the specimens available

at Kew. Holttum believes that Beddome saw a

bullatc scale overlying on as ordinary hair and

hence mistook it for a setaceous appendage ter-

minal to the bullate scale.

A study of the recent material from Nicobar

Islands under binocular dissecting microscope

clearly showed that Beddome was correct in

his observations. The bullate scales do have a

sac-like, whitish basal portion and a terminal

uniseriate, multicellular hairy tip which is easily

detachable and hence caducous. Probably

Holttum could not discover this hairy tip in

the old specimens at Kew as they must have

fallen away being caducous. Beddome was not

accurate in describing that the hairy tip was

hyaline and setaceous. They are uniseriate,

subulate, delicate and similar to the normal

694

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

hairs present on the lower surface of costule.

Probably the bullate scales are a modification

of normal hairs with an enlarged basal bulbous

portion. It was also observed that such bullate

scales are more abundant in sterile pinnules

than in fertile ones.

The species is described below:

Cyathea albosetacea (Bedd.) Copel. Philip.

Journ. Sci. ser. C (Bot.), 4: 55. 1909; Alsophila

albosetacea Bedd., Ferns Brit. India, Suppl. 2.

1876; Handb. Ferns Brit. India 16. 1883.

Trunk 5-10 m high, 15-20 cm in diam.;

fronds 2.5-5 m long; stipe stramineous to dark

brown, bearing many short spines and scatter-

ed scales. Scales setiferous, 5-10 x 1-2 mm,

dark-brown, setae small. Pinnae upto lm long;

Fig. 1. Cyathea albosetacea (Bedd.) Copel. Habit,

Bhargavan 5033 (PBL).

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JOURNAL, RUMtSAr NA1UKAL MSI. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

pinna-rachis pale to dark-brown, finally warty

to spinulose, clothed with hairs and narrow

shining scales upto 10 mm long, scales usually

smooth to sparsely setiferous. Pinnules 10-13

x 2-2.5 cm, sessile, acuminate, lower ones 1-2

basal segments almost free rest of pinnules

almost lobed to costa; costules, 5-7 mm apart,

veins 9-10 pairs usually forked, rarely more

than once forked, thin but firm in texture,

margin crenate. Sori copious, along costules

upto 2 /3rd part, scales and hairs present on

the lower surface of costae and costules, hairs

uniseriate, multicellular, whitish; bullate scales

sac-like, whitish, with a very narrow uniseriate,

multicellular, caducous hairy tip, abundant on

the lower surface of costules, particularly

more abundant on the lower surface of sterile

pinnules. Spores pale, trilete, 40-45 pm in dia-

meter, verrucoid. (Plate I; Figs. 1-8).

Ecol. : Scattered in dense tropical evergreen

rain forest along stream banks and river sides

in wet area and also in pandanus forests.

Specimens examined', (all specimens housed

in PBL & CAL) south nicobars. Great

Nicobar Island, 6 Km on East-West Road,

±75 m, 19.8.1975, Balakrishnan 2959; East-

Figs. 2-8. Cyathea albosetacea (Bedd.) Copel.

2. Rhizome scale — an outline; 3. Details of rhizome scale from the middle; 4. Small

thick-walled developing scale from costae; 5. Hair from costule! 6. Bullate scale

with hairy tip; 7. Pinnules; 8. Proximal part of the spore.

696

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82

Dixit & T ripathi : Cyathea albosetacea

Plate I

Cyathea albosetacea (Bedd.) Copel. growing in Great Nicobar Islands.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

West Road, ± 85m, 24.7.1976, Balakrishnan

3998; north nicobars, Kamorta Island, ± 15

m, 22.5.1977. N. Bhargava 5033.

Ack nowledgements

Thanks are due to Dr. M. P. Nayar, Direc-

tor, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah for

encouragement and to Dr. N. P. Balakrishnan,

Botanical Survey of India,

Central Circle,

Allahabad-211 002,

December 17, 1984.

Refer

Beddome, R. H. (1876): Supplement to the Ferns

of Southern India and British India etc. Madras.

(1883) : A Handbook to the Ferns

of British India, Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula.

36. NOTES ON FERNS

During the course of our studies on the

‘Flora of Savantwadi Taluka’ (Sindhudurg

district, Maharashtra), we collected 61 species

of ferns and fern allies. The present commu-

nication reports newly recorded distributions

of 10 species from Savantwadi and one [No. 4

— Aleuritopteris rufa (Don) Ching] from

Wada, in Maharashtra. All materials are depo-

sited in the Blatter Herbarium. They were

identified with the help of standard reference

books, and checked with authentic specimens at

Central National Herbarium, Calcutta (CAL).

Further the identity was confirmed, wherever

possible, from experts. Eleven species, namely

Selaginella ciliaris (Retz.) Spreng, Selaginella

reticulata (Hook, et Grev.) Spreng., Acrosti-

chum aureum Linn., Aleuritopteris rufa (Don)

Ching., Schizolegnia heterophylla (Dry.)

Alston., Dicranopteris linearis (Burm. f.)

Underwood, Cyclosorus gongylodes (Schkr.)

Deputy Director, Central Circle, Botanical Sur-

vey of India, Allahabad for going through

manuscript, helpful suggestions and facilities.

Thanks are due to Dr. J. L. Ellis, Regional

Botanist, Andaman and Nicobar Circle, Port

Blair, for providing the photograph of tree

fern growing in its habitat. Thanks are also

due to Mr. M. A. Siddique, Photographer for

the photograph of voucher specimen.

R. D. DIXIT

A. K. TRIPATHI

E N C E S

Thacker Spink & Co. Calcutta.

Kurz, S. (1876): On some new or imperfectly

known Indian Plants. Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 45

(2): 162.

OF MAHARASHTRA

Link., Spaerostephanos cucullatus (Blume)

comb, nov., Asplenium formosum Willd.,

Pleocnemia membranifolia Presl., and Bolbitis

kanarensis Nair et Chandra, have been record-

ed from present limits of Maharashtra for the

first time. Since these ferns are described else-

where, we give reference to their descriptions

and distribution and other relevant data here:

1. Selaginella ciliaris (Retz.) Spreng, in

Bull. Ac. Brux. 10: 231, 1843; Alston, in Proc.

Nat. Inst. Sci. India 11: 227, 1945. Lycopo-

dium ciliare Retz. Obs. 5: 32, 1789.

Found on hill slopes on wet rocky surfaces

and on embankments and sometimes on sides

of drying rice-fields.

Localities : Charatha, Majgaon, Otavane,

Vetye, Savantwadi. Spore formation : Novem-

ber-December. Exsiccata : S. M. Almeida —

3630, 4614; M. R. Almeida — 828 (BLAT).

697

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

2. Selaginella reticulata (Hook, et Grev.)

Spreng. in Bull. Ac. Brux. 10: 233, 1843;

Alston, in Proc. Nat. Inst. India 11: 228, 1945.

Lycopodium reticulatum Hook, et Grev. in

Hook. Bot. Misc. 2: 402, 1831.

Grows on and in crevices of rocks and in

hard rocky soils on hill-slopes. Plants of this

species grow together and are found in groups.

Baker (1887) has placed this species in syno-

nymy of S. proniflora (Lamk.) Baker, but

Alston (1945) has treated it as a distinct

species. Our findings agree with Alston’s view.

The two allied species can be easily distinguish-

ed by their size and colour differences in dried

specimens, but they resemble each other in all

morphological characters, when fresh.

Localities: Charatha, Aronda, Danoli, Ota-

vane, Savantwadi. Spore formation : October-

November. Exsiccata: S. M. Almeida — 311,

748, 1392, 4631.

3. Acrostichum aureum Linn. Sp. PI. 2:

1069, 1753; Beddome, Ferns South India 69,

t. 204, 1863; Clarke, in Trans. Linn. Soc.

London 2: 582, 1880; Beddome, Handb. Ferns

Brit. Tnd. 440, f. 268, 1853; Gray, in Gazett.

Bomb. Pres. 376, 1886; Blatter & d’ Almeida,

Ferns of Bombay, 191, 1922.

Collected from tidal zones from Aronda,

Satarda and Tiroda-Savantwadi.

Spore formation: Throughout the year.

Exsiccata: S. M. Almeida 2294, 3446, 4500.

4. Aleuritopteris rufa (Don) Ching, Hong

Kong Nat. 10: 200, 1941. Cheilanthes rufa

Don, Prodr. FI. Nepal. 16: 18, 1828; Clarke,

in Trans. Linn. Soc. London 2 (bot. 1): 457,

1800; Hope in Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

13(2): 247, 1890.

There is only one specimen of this species

in Blatter Herbarium (BLAT) collected by G.

M. Woodrow from ‘Wada’. There is one Wada

in Raigad (Old Colaba) district and another

Wada near Mahabaleshwar, in Satara district.

There is no clear indication from which ‘Wada’

the specimen originated.

Spore formation: October. Exsiccata: Wood-

row, s. n.

5. Schizolcgnia heterophyila (Dry.) Alston,

in Bot. Soc. Broter, Ser. 2, 30: 24, 1956; Pichi

Sermolli, in Index Fil. Suppl. 4: 271, 1965.

Litulsaea heterophyila Dry. in Trans. Linn.

Soc. 3: 41, t. 8, f. 1, 1797. Schisoloma hetero-

phylla (Dry.) J. Sm. in Journ. Bot. 3: 414,

1841; Beddome, Ferns of South India 9, t. 26,

1863 & Handb. Ferns Brit. Ind. 80, 1883;

Blatter in Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc. 18

(3): 603, 1908; Blatter & d'Almeida, Ferns of

Bombay, 55, 1922.

Quite common fern in shady places on moist

embankments and on river banks at Charatha.

Spore formation: October-April. Exsiccata:

S. M. Almeida — 131, 1308, 2580, 5155.

6. Dicranopteris linearis (Burm. f.) Under-

wood, in Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 34: 249,

1907; Holttum, FI. Malesiana Ser. 2, 68, 1954.

Polypodium linearis Burm. f. FI. Ind. 235, t.

67, f. 2, 1768. Gleichenia linearis (Burm. f.)

Clarke, in Trans. Linn. Soc. London 2 (bot.

1): 428, 1880; Beddome. Hand. Ferns of Brit.

India 4, f. 1. 1883.

Rare, at Talkhamba and Charatha (Savant-

wadi) ir. white loamy soil on margins of rice-

fields.

Spore formation : Decembcr-February. Exsic-

cata: S. M. Almeida — 1385. 4347; M. R.

Almeida — 392 (BLAT).

7. Cyclosorus gongylodes (Schkr.) Link.

Hort. Berol. 2: 128, 1833; Ching, Bull. Fan.

Mem. Inst. Biol. 8: 186, 1939. Aspidium gon-

gylodes Schkr. Krypt. Gew. 1: 193, t. 339,

1809.

Rare, but locally common and abundant

fern at Asniye, Savantwadi. This species is

included in Ferns of Brit. India by Beddome

(1883) and in Ferns of Bombay by Blatter &

698

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

d’Almeida (1922), under Nephrodium unitum

Beddome (non R. Br. 1810). It was reported

from North Kanara, Dharwar from Bombay

Presidency, and Goa.

Spore formation : February. Locality:

Asniye. Exsiccata : S. M. Almeida: 5142.

8. Spaerostephanos cucullatus (Blume)

comb. nov. Aspidium cucullatum Blume,

Enum. PI. Jav. 151, 1826. S. unitus (Linn.)

Holttum, in Journ. South Afric. Bot. 40: 165,

1974. Poly podium unitus Linn. Syst. Nat. (ed.

10) 2: 1326, 1759 (Excl. syn.).

Rare, but locally common fern on sides of

streams at Asniye, Savantwadi, along with pre-

ceding species. Several specimens of this

species from North Kanara in the Blatter Her-

barium have been identified by Professor R. E.

Holttum.

Spore formation: February-March. Locality:

Asniye. Exsiccata: S. M. Almeida — 5140.

9. Asplenium formosum Willd. Sp. PI. 5:

329, 1910; Beddome, Ferns of South India,

46, t. 136, 1863 & Handb. Ferns. Brit. India,

152, 1883.

Rare species, only found at one locality grow-

ing on rock-face in a shady place, along

Amboli Ghat. The fern remains dried and

curled throughout the year except for the period

of monsoon when the rock remains wet.

Spore formation: Septembcr-October. Exsic-

cata: S. M. Almeida — 1954; M. R. Almeida

— 274 (ALC).

10. Pleocnemia membranifolia Presl. in Rel.

Haenk. 36, t. 5, f. 3, 1836; Beddome, Handb.

Ferns of Brit. India 225. 1883.

Rare, found on embankments along sides

of a stream near Tamboli, Savantwadi. Blatter

& d’Almeida (1922) have only reported this

species from North Kanara.

Spore formation: April-May. Locality: Tam-

boli. Exsiccata: S. M. Almeida — 5156.

11. Bolbitis kanarensis Nair et Chandra,

Amer. Fern Journ. 54 (1): 9, 1964.

The distinguishing characters of this species

are tetragonal stipes and bulbiferous fertile

fronds, by which it differs from Bolbitis

subcrenata (Hook, et Grev.) Ching. These

characters are not very reliable in separation of

the species in this genus. In all the species of

Bolbitis, the stipes tend to assume angular

nature and very often they are ribbed along

their whole length. Apical bulbils are a com-

mon feature in Bolbitis subcrenata (Hook, et

Grev.) Ching.

There is one specimen in Blatter Herbarium

from Khandala, which matches with the des-

cription and the photograph of the only type

sheet in the herbarium of National Botanic

Research Institute, Lucknow (NBG).

Spore formation: April. Exsiccata: H. San-

tapau — 400.

Besides the above mentioned eleven species,

Ampelopteris prolifera (Retz.) Copel. was col-

lected from Otavane, Banda, Burdi, Bhedsi-

Savantwadi (SMA — 1795, 4318; MRA —

393), from river banks, in sandy soils, and

among rocky boulders sometimes partly sub-

merged under water. Bolbitis presliana (Fee)

Ching ex Christensen, was collected from

Danoli, Amboli and Hiranyakeshi-Savantwadi

(SMA — 4831, 5152; MRA — 870), along

the margins of stream on wet rocks. Lygodium

microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br. was collected from

Danoli, Kesri and Asniye-Savantwadi (SMA

— 1539, 5139), along streams. Baltter &

d’Almeida (1922) have mentioned all these

ferns from Konkan without any precise loca-

lities.

Nephrolepis exaltata (Linn.) Schott, was

found wild and naturalized at Tamboli-Savant-

wadi, along streams in wild state (SMA —

5142).

699

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Lycopodium hamiltonii Spreng. has been so

far known to occur at Wada near Maha-

baleshwar, but we have collected it from

Amboli plateau (MR A — 2524), epiphytic on

Eugenia and Memecylon trees.

Savantwadi is the type locality for two newly

Blatter Herbarium,

St. Xavier’s Coli.ege,

Bombay 400 001 (India),

described taxa Pteris almeidiana Bole &

Almeida and Pteris savantwadiensis Bole &

Almeida.

We are grateful to Prof. P. V. Bole for the

help rendered in preparing this paper.

S. M. ALMEIDA

Alchemic Research Centre, M. R. ALMEIDA

Thane-Belapur Road,

Thane-400 601 (India),

January 10, 1985.

37. A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ALGAE OF SAHASTRADHARA,

DEHRADUN (U.P.)

The present paper deals with the algal flora

of Sahastradhara, Dehradun (Uttar Pradesh).

Sahastradhara is 14 Kms. away from the main

city of Dehradun. It is famous as a picnic spot

for its natural beauty and cold sulpher water

springs.

Algal samples were collected in October,

1982 and preserved in 4% formaldehyde for

further observations. Algal forms were taken

from the rocks and picked up from the flowing

streams. In all 57 taxa have been recognised,

of which 23 taxa belong to Bacillariophyceae,

another 23 taxa to Cyanophyceae and the

remaining 11 taxa to Chlorophyccae.

The measurements of length, width, etc. of

the taxa are given in microns (/j.m). The fol-

lowing abbreviations are used in the text.

Length L. Width W. Isthmus

I. Striae S. Diameter D.

enumeration of taxa

Cyanophyceae

1 . Microcystis pulverea (Wood) Forti

Cells D. 2-2.5.

2. Chroococcus mi nut us (Kutz.) Nag.

Cells D. 11-14 (with sheath), 7-9 (with-

out sheath).

3. Chr. turgid us (Kutz.) Nag. var. maximus

Nygard

Cells D. 26 (with sheath), 9-10 (without

sheath).

4. Gloeocapsa at art a (Turp.) Kutz.

Cells D. 8-10 (with sheath), 3-5 (with-

out sheath).

5. Aphanocapsa hi for mis A. Br.

Cells D. 4-5.

6. Aphanothece pallida (Kutz.) Rabenh.

Cells L. 10-11; W. 5-7.

7. A. saxicola Nag.

Cells L. 5; W. 2.

8 . Synechococcus aeruginosus Nag.

Cells L. 7; W. 5.

9. Spirulina laxissima West, G. S.

Cells W. 1; spirals distant 22.

10. S. major Kutz. ex Gomont

Cells W. 2; spirals distant 4-5.

11. S. meneghiniana Zanard. ex Gomont

Cells, W. 2; spirals distant 4.

700

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

12. Oscillatoria tenuis Ag. ex Gomont

L. 4-5; W. 2-3.

13. O. amphigranulata Van Goor

L. 2.5; W. 2.

14. O. amphibia Ag. ex Gomont

L. 5; W. 3.

15. Phormidium foveolarum (Mont.) Gomont

L. 1-1.5; W. 1.5-2.

16. P. usterii Schmidle

L. 3; W. 3-4.

17. Lyngbya contorta Lemm.

L. 3.5-4; W. 2.

18. Symploca flaccida Zanardini

L. 3-4; W. 8-10 (with sheath), 2.5-3

(without sheath).

19. Nostoc linckia (Roth) Bornet ex Born,

et Flah.

Cells D. 4-5; spores D. 7-9.

20. N. piscinale Kutz. ex Born, et Flah.

Cells D. 4-6; spores D. 6.

21. N. ellipsosporum (Desm.) Rabenh. ex

Born et Flah.

Cells L. 8-9; W. 5-6; spores L. 15-16;

spores W. 6-7.

22. N. verrucosum Vaucher ex Born, et Flah.

Cells D. 2-4; spores D. 6-7; heterocyst

D. 4.

23. Anabaena laxa (Rabenh.) A. Br.

Cells L. 6; W. 4-5; spores L. 15-16; spores

W. 7-8.

Chlorophyceae

24. Mougeotia sp.

Veg. Cells L. 90-100; W. 7-9.

25. Spirogyra sp. I.

Veg. Cells L. 140-150; W. 20-25.

26. Spirogyra sp. II.

Veg. cells L. 130-135; W. 48-50.

27. Cladophora glomerata (L.)Kutzing

Veg. cells. L. 150-200; W. 16-45.

28. Tetraedron minimum (A. Braun)

Hansgirg

Cells quadrangular, W. 6-7.

29. Cosmarium moniliforme (Turp.) Ralfs.

L. 20-23; W. 12-14; I. 4-5.

30. C. subcucumis Schmidle

L. 45-50; W. 28-32; I. 8-10.

31. C. speciosum var. simplex Nordst.

L. 30-34; W. 19-22; I. 6-7.

32. C. contractual Kirchn.

L. 22-25; W. 16-18; I. 3-4.5.

33. C. subgranatum (Nordst.) Lutkem. var,

subgranatum Krieg. & Gerl.

L. 17-20; W. 13-15; I. 4-5.

34. Euastrum insulare (Wittr.) Roy

L. 10-12; W. 8-10; I. 2.

Bacillariop h yceae

35. Cocconeis placentula Ehr.

L. 26-28; W. 14-15; S. 22 in 10 /xm.

36. Cyclotella sp.

Cells D. 36-40; S. 8 in 10 /xm.

37. Cymbella symbiformis C.A. Agardh

L. 40-43; W. 9-10; S. 10-11 in 10 /xm.

38. C. mulleri Hust.

L. 100-104; W. 26-28; S. 7-8 in 10 /xm.

39. C. ventricosa Kutz.

L. 30-32; W. 9-10; S. 10-11 in 10 /xm.

40. C. tumescens A. Cl.

L. 32-33; W. 7-8; S. 10-11 in 10 /xm.

41 . C. rupicola Grun.

L. 34-36; W. 10-11; S. 12-13 in 10 ^m.

42 . Cymbella sp.

L. 45-48; W. 10-11; S. 9-10 in 10 /xm.

43. Amphora veneta (Kutz.) Hust.

L. 28-30; W. 7-8; S. 18-19 in 10 /xm.

44. Amphora sp. I.

L. 55-57; W. 10-12; S. 10-12 in 10 /xm.

45. Amphora sp. II.

L. 35-37; W. 7-8; S. 20 in 10 /xm.

46. Synedra ulna (Nitxsch.) Ehr.

L. 110-120; W. 7; S. 9 in 10 Mm.

47. S. ulna var. aequalis (Kutz.) Hust.

L. 100-105; W. 6; S. 9 in 10 /xm.

701

17

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

48 . S. rumpens Kutz. var. fragilarioides Grun.

L. 42-45; W. 3; S. 10 in 10 pm.

49. Navicula pupula Kutz.

L. 28-30; W. 8; S. 25 in 10 pm.

50. TV. pupula Kutz. var. capitata Hust.

L. 35-36; W. 7.5-8; S. 24-25 in 10 pm.

51 . TV. pupula Kutz. var. rectangularis (Greg.)

Grun.

L. 35-36; W. 8-9; S. 23-24 in 10 Aun.

52. TV. viridula Kutz.

L. 70-75; W. 17-19; S. 9-10 in 10 Mm.

53. TV. viridula Kuta. var. rostellata (Cleve)

Meister

L. 45-46; W. 8-10; S. 11-12 in 10 Mm.

54. Gomphonema aequatoriale Hust.

L. 32-34; W. 7.5-8; S. 10-11 in 10 ^m.

55. G. olivaceum (Lyngb.) Kutz. var. calca-

rea Cleve

Botanical Survey of India,

Central Circle,

Allahabad,

July 10, 1984.

L. 54-56; W. 10-12; S. 11-12 in 10 Mm.

56. Tabellaria sp.

L. 42-44; W. 13-14; S. 10-12 in 10 Mm.

57. Nitzschia sp.

L. 38-40; W. 13-15; S. 10-11 in 10 pm.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. U. C. Bhattacharya,

Deputy Director, Northern Circle, Botanical

Survey of India. Dehradun for encouragement

and to Dr. N. P. Balakrishnan, Deputy Direc-

tor, Central Circle, Botanical Survey of India,

Allahabad for providing facilities for the work.

Thanks are due to Dr. R. D. Dixit, Regional

Botanist, Central Circle, Botanical Survey of

India. Allahabad for valuable suggestions.

ANIL KUMAR TRIPATHI

702

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1983-84

Executive Committee

President

Dr Salim Ali, D.sc., f.n.a.

Vice-Presidents

Mr. D. J. Panday

Dr. C. V. Kulkami

Prof. P. V. Bole

Ex-Officio

Member

Secretary, Dept, of Science & Technology,

Government of India

Elected Members

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Mr. M. D. Agharkar

Mr. M. R. Almeida

Dr. S. R. Amladi

Mr. H. K. Divekar ( Honorary Treasurer)

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. Ashok Kothari

Mrs. Phillippa Mukherji

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati ( Honorary Secretary )

Mr. Ulhas Rane

Mr. Bittu Sahgal

Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava

Advisory Committee

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1983

CENTENARY YEAR REPORT

The Society completed the first hundred

years of its existence in 1983. For a Society

maintained largely out of revenues derived

from its membership subscriptions and from

those generated through its publications it is

indeed a creditable achievement, particularly

when it is realised that the endeavours that

brought the Society to its present level of in-

ternational recognition is mainly through the

time and effort put in by its members in an

honorary capacity.

As we had advised in our eariler reports,

the Centenary Celebrations related to the main

activities of the Society in the form of prepa-

ration and release of special publications, an

audio visual on the Society, a photographic

exhibition, an educational snake exhibition and

a scientific seminar on conservation in deve-

loping countries.

The Centenary Year commenced with an

inaugural function on the 15th September

1983. the date on which the Society was con-

stituted a hundred years ago by eight residents

of Bombay. The Prime Minister of India, Mrs.

Indira Gandhi, who is also the Patron of the

Society graced the occasion and released the

Society’s Centenary Publications, a pictorial

GUIDE TO THE BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUB-CON-

TINENT by Salim Ali & Dillon Ripley with

plates by John Henry Dick, and a century

of natural history — a selection of natural

history articles from the Society’s Journal edit-

ed by J. C. Daniel.

The stamp on the Society brought out by

the Philatelic Bureau of the Post & Telegraphs

Department was also released by the Prime

Minister.

The highlight of the inaugural function was

the grant of 33 acres of land to the Society

at Goregaon, adjoining the Sanjay Gandhi

National Park by the Government of Maha-

rashtra for an establishment for the Society’s

field research activities.

The second event of importance was the

Educational Snake Exhibition which was orga-

nised at the Cross Maidan between 12th Nov-

ember & 18th December and attracted over

2,06,000 visitors including 20,000 school

students.

The Centenary Seminar arranged at IIT

Powai from 6th to 11th December 1983 on

‘Conservation in Developing Countries — Pro-

blems and Prospects’ was inaugurated by Shri

Digvijaysinh. Deputy Minister for Environment,

Government of India. More than three hun-

dred delegates from abroad and India including

Research Staff of the Society attended. Ninety

four papers were presented on different aspects

of conservation research and several resolu-

tions covering conservation problems were

passed on the concluding day.

The Centenary Photography exhibition held

at the Jehangir Art Gallery from 21st to 26th

December 1983. was inaugurated by Air Chief

Marshal 1. H. Latif, Governor of Maha-

rashtra. More than ten thousand visitors saw

the exhibition.

Membership

Although the fact that there has been a

steady increase in membership in recent years

is of some satisfaction, there is considerable

room for further enlarging the membership and

704

A.G.M. 1983-84— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

we seek the assistance of our members in

this endeavour.

We are continuing our effort to increase the

several categories of membership particularly

the Compound Corporate membership. The

Society cannot be completely independent in

finance and activities till its membership covers

its establishment and other costs.

Details of membership for the past quin-

quennium, showing members fully paid up on

31st December of each year are given in the

statement below:

Hornbill'.

The Hornbill continued to retain its popular

appeal and to attract new members. We again

request members to remember that the Horn-

bill is largely a reflection of member talent.

If you have good material in the form of

articles and photographs, remember to share

the happiness you had in your treks and

rambles with other members through your

articles and photographs in the Hornbill. Its

continued publication is possible if members

assist the staff in securing advertisements

which can partially bear the cost of publica-

tion.

During the year the August and December

issues for 1982 Vol. 79 (2) & (3) and the

April issue for 1983 Vol. 80 (1) were publish-

ed. During the year 230 articles and notes were

received for publication in the Journal. How-

ever 80th volume of the Journal for the year

1983 was delayed from the involvement of the

staff in other Centenary Year activities of the

Society.

which has consistently retained its high quality

and makes available books on natural history

at a fraction of the cost of books published by

commercial organisations. In the Centenary

Year two more prestigious publications were

added to the Society’s list of publications name-

ly A PICTORIAL GUIDE TO THE BIRDS OF THE

INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT and A CENTURY OF

NATURAL HISTORY.

705

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

The Book of Indian Birds

The Book of Indian Animals

Some Beautiful Indian Trees

Glimpses of Nature in India Booklet

Snake Chart

Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra

(2nd edition)

Checklist of the Birds of Delhi, Agra &

Bharatpur

A Synopsis of the Birds of India & Pakistan

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers & Shrubs

Grasses of Western India

A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian

Sub-Continent

A Century of Natural History

* Received from Press 293 copies

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF BORIVLI NATIONAL

park by Humayun Abdulali published by the

Society is on sale at the Sanjay Gandhi

National Park, Borivli, Bombay. It is also

available at the Society’s office.

Books under preparation :

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDIAN NATURAL

HISTORY

Centenary Publication 1883-1983

Tt has not been possible to publish the

Encyclopedia in the Centenary Year. Work is

in progress and when published the Encyclo-

pedia will be priced at a level which would

enable it to be available as a ready reference

volume for students in schools and colleges

and to the general reader on the natural history

of the Indian region.

Sales in Balance stock

1982 1983 31-12-1983

THE BOOK OF INDIAN REPTILES

By J. C. Daniel

One in the continuing series of the Society’s

publications on Indian Natural History, the

Reptile Book describes the common reptiles

of the Indian Sub-Continent. The snake section

will be illustrated with the paintings which

originally illustrated Wall’s A popular treatise

on the common Indian Snakes.

THE BOOK OF INDIAN TREES

Arrangements are being made for the pre-

paration of this book by Prof. J. N. Sahni.

About 150 common trees in India will be

described and illustrated.

Conservation

The Society continues to be recognised by

the Central and State Governments in India

706

A.G.M. 1983-84— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

and by International Organisations abroad as

an authoritative source for information on con-

servation of wildlife and natural resources.

This recognition is expressed in the form of

association of its officials with State and Cen-

rtal Wildlife Advisory Boards and representa-

tion on the Specialist Groups of the Species

Survival Conjmission of the International

Union for the Conservation of Nature and

Natural Resources.

Members’ Activities

Bird count :

The monthly roadside count of birds at the

Borivli National Park on the third Sunday of

each month was continued. The main purpose

of the bird counts is to get members interested

in bird study and the accurate recording of

data. The information collected gave an indi-

cation of local movements of birds. Attempts

are now being made to teach the collection

of phenology and other environmental data

for correlation.

Nature walks :

Nature walks were held in various areas

of natural history interest around Bombay for

birdwatching, vegetation, butterflies study. The

programme helped in recruiting new members

and fostering interest in natural history among

members.

Research and other activities

FUNDED FROM FIELD WORK FUNDS

The field work funds avaialble at the Society

supported the following activities:

Salim Ali Nature Conservation Fund:

(1) Blacknecked Crane in Ladakh: Mr. S. A.

Hussain, Project Scientist, BNHS. Mr.

Prakash Gole of the WWF-India, and

Vice Admiral M. P. Awati, IN (Retd.),

a keen member of the Society visited

Ladakh and other areas for a status sur-

vey of Blacknecked Crane.

The Blacknecked Crane is perhaps the only

crane in the world having an exclusive

distributional breeding range between the

altitudes of 3500 m to 5500 m in the table

lands of central Asia, and also an equally

unique migratory pattern. Breeding and

passage area seem to overlap along a

crescentic tangent from Ladakh up to

lower hills of north eastern India, skirting

the northern faces of Himalayas along

the southern approaches of the Tibetan

Plateau. The present status of the cranes

is based on a series of exploratory forays

into Ladakh initiated by the Joint BNHS

— WWF expedition to Ladakh in 1976

and followed by two more and a third

to their wintering quarters in Bhutan.

The aims & objectives of the present

survey were:

(a) To determine how many pairs Black-

necked Cranes actually broad in

Ladakh

(b) The breeding success

(c) Whether it is feasible/advisable to

collect eggs for captive breading and

(d) To gather information on the breed-

ing biology and behaviour of the

Blacknecked Cranes in Ladakh.

The evidence so far gathered suggests

that the population Blacknecked Crane

in Ladakh has been constant for the past

50 years. One pair each nests in Chushul,

Hanle and Tsokar while unmated single-

tons also visit these areas. There are pos-

sibilities of cranes occurring in the southern

edge of Tso Morari but definite evidence

is not available. Tt is now obvious that

707

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Ladakh is a peripheral breeding ground

for the Blacknecked Cranes and a larger

and more suitable areas exist in the Tibe-

tan plateau.

(2) Blacknecked Crane Posters : As a part of

Conservation Action of the species pos-

ters of Blacknecked Crane were prepared

with an appeal to save these rare birds

and were distributed among the armed

forces operating in Ladakh. It is proposed

to prepare more copies of the posters for

distribution among persons living or tem-

porarily located in the habitat of the

species.

(3) Study of Birds in Plantations'. Introduc-

tion of commercially useful exotic trees

and plantations of these trees in pure

stands is a cause for concern as a possible

source of environmental degradation par-

ticularly for wildlife. Mrs. Tara Gandhi

has undertaken a study of the numbers

and diversity of the Avifauna of planta-

tions of cashew nut trees and eucalyptus

in the environs of Madras in comparison

with a plot of natural vegetation. Her

studies indicate that whereas the natural

vegetation which is a scrub jungle has an

almost constant population, the number

of birds in cashew plantation fluctuated

being maximum during the flowering

season, the eucalyptus plantation is hardly

used and is sparsely used by a limited

number of birds both in species and num-

bers. The study continues.

(4) Wild Buffalo Survey: Mr. H. K. Divekar

was given assistance for a survey of the

status of the wild buffalo in Bustar.

One of the most endangered fauna of

Tndia is the Peninsular India population

of the Wild Buffalo presently restricted

to Bastar and nearby areas of

Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. The sur-

vey by Mr Divekar was negative in

results and draws attention to the preca-

rious situation of the species.

Salim Ali-Loke Wan Tho Ornithological

Research Fund :

(1) Mrs. K. R. Lalitha submitted her thesis

on the comparative biology of drongos

(Family Dicruridae, Class Aves) with

special reference to ecological isolation,

the result of a three year study at Periyar

Sanctuary on species of drongos, the

Racket-tailed, the bronze, the grey and

the white four bellied drongos.

The study established that coexisting

species of drongos have evolved different

methods for reducing competition, such

as difference in prey size, preferred feed-

ing strata, feeding activity rhythm, speed

and distance of feeding flight, breeding

habitat, breeding territory and also by

winter or local migration. The findings

support the principle of ecological isola-

tion of closely allied species.

(2) Mr. Shahid Ali continued the study of

the Ecology of the Grey Partridge at Point

Calimere in Tamil Nadu.

The grey partridge or francolin (Franco-

linus pondicerianus ) one of five asian

francolins is the most widely distributed

in the Indian subcontinent. Tt extends east-

wards from eastern Arabia, adopting to

several very diversified habitats through

Afghanistan. Tran, West Pakistan and the

Indian peninsula in scrub, cultivation, and

edges of light forest. It superficially re-

sembles a medium-sized domestic chicken,

its drab brown plumage barred dorsally

with chestnut and wavily pencilled in black

ventrally. not conspicuous till it flies, the

robust bodv. rounded, cambered wings

and swift flight, together with its chestnut

708

A.G.M. 1983-84— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

tail is then diagnostic. A very social

species, it forms coveys when not nesting;

its various high-pitched ringing calls are

typical of the Indian countryside.

(3) Mr. Anwarul Islam from Bangladesh com-

pleted his observations on the Ecology

of the Laughing Thrushes in the Himalayas

and the Western Ghats.

About 30 species of Laughing Thrushes

occur in the Indian sub-continent mainly

in the Himalayas. However, two species

Garrulax cachinnans and Garrulax jer-

doni are endemic to the south Indian hills.

An intensive study was made of the eco-

logy of the two endemic laughing thrushes

in the Nilgiris (G. cachinnans) and Palni

Hills (G. jerdoni ) from May 1982 to mid

March 1983 and July 1983 to June 1984.

For obtaining comparative data on habi-

tat preference, food and feeding habits

and breeding ecology, four months

(March-June 1983) were spent around

Nainital in the Western Himalayas. Four

species of Laughing Thrushes, viz. Garru-

lax lineal us, G. albogularis, G. striatus

and G. leucolophus were studied in the

Himalayas. The study continues.

Pirojsha Godrej Fund :

Financial assistance was provided to:

(1) Nisarg Shikshan Yatra — As. 5000.

The Nisarg Shikshan Yatra or Nature

Education Trek was arranged from the

29th October to 7th November 1983 in

Raigad, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg districts

of Konkan region of Maharashtra as a

part of the Nature Education Scheme for

rural areas during the Centenary of the

BNHS. Twenty seven volunteers partici-

pated in the Yatra (21 members, 4 Lok

Vidnyan Sanghatana volunteers. 2 State

Bank staff).

Prior to the Yatra, letters were written

to schools and social organisations in the

region and there was good response from

most of them and accordingly arrange-

ments were made.

The volunteers were divided into three

groups. One group stayed at the base to

arrange the exhibition, demonstrations,

sale of books, nature games, slide shows

and film shows, while the other two

groups surveyed the ecological situation

of the region particularly on the hill side

and the sea shore area. This included dis-

cussions with the local people, forest

department staff, timber and coal contrac-

tors etc.

The programme at base received very

good response from the villagers. Exhibi-

tion and film shows were well attended.

Solar cooker demonstrations attracted a

large number of people and created a

certain amount of enthusiasm.

In addition, an audio visual by Marathi

Vidnyan Parishad (specially prepared for

women and a loknatya (drama) by Lok

Vidnyan Sanghatana was performed at

two places.

(2) Mumbai Vigyan Yatra — Rs 1500

This educational programme was mainly

aimed at teaching nature appreciation to

underprivileged children who normally

do not have access nor the facilities to

learn and appreciate nature. Localities

like Chembur. Govandi, Trombay and

Parel were chosen where volunteers deput-

ed from various organisations like ours

assisted the Mumbai Vidnyan Yatra in

this venture.

To make the programme enjoyable while

they learnt, information was given often

in the form of drama skits, films, slide

shows and games. For the first time the

709

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

children saw the rings of Saturn and also

the constituents of human blood. Games

like the ‘Web of Life’ were played to illus-

trate the interdependence between man and

nature. Slides were shown along with de-

monstration on live snake. The response

received was overwhelmingly encouraging.

Research funded by government

& GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES

Studies on the movement and population

structure of Indian avifauna :

The project carried out bird ringing and

related studies throughout the year in its two

major field research stations in Point Calimere

Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu and Keoladeo

National Park in Bharatpur. Rajasthan. Apart

from these seasonal ringing stations were con-

ducted in Harike Lake, Punjab, Chilka Lake,

Orissa and Kodaikanal Hills in Tamil Nadu.

At Point Calimere a multidisciplinary team

of biologists also monitors the carrying capa-

city of the estuarine ecosystem. This includes

weather data, plant phenology, insect popula-

tion trend and the estuarine/marine organisms,

which have a bearing on the bird populations

visiting the area. The field station has collect-

ed. preserved and listed the plant, insect and

other biological specimens. This will be the

basis for a comprehensive baseline data for

the area. So far over 205 species of birds,

over 300 species of plants, over 500 species

of insects belonging to 16 orders and over

100 species of marine/estuarine organisms

have so far been recovered /collected from

Point Calimere.

Over 52000 birds belonging to about over

150 species were ringed and released in the

year 1980-83. The Spoonbilled Sandpiper a

very rare species from Siberia, was the most

exciting visitor to Point Calimere. Five birds

were ringed during the season and almost

equal number was seen in the area. Another

exciting bird was a Curlew Sandpiper which

was recaptured at Point Calimere on 29-8-1980,

6300 kms later, after it was ringed at Weribee,

Australia on 20-11-1976.

At the Bharatpur ringing station a total of

39436 birds of about 200 species were ringed

and released. Ducks and Coots comprised the

largest number. Quite a number of Ducks

ringed in Bharatpur were recovered in USSR.

The most exciting recovery was that of a Reeve

which was ringed as a juvenile in Bharatpur

on 27.9.1983 and recovered in East Cape

Province. South Africa on 2.1 .1984 a distance

of 8600 kms travelled in three months not to

speak of the additional 5000 km already

travelled from its breeding ground to Bharat-

pur.

We arc also having some interesting results

from the ringing data obtained at Harike and

Chilka. The data will be processed and pre-

sented as soon as the analysis is carried out.

An Ecological Study of Bird Hazards at

l ndian A erod romes

The Bombay Natural History Society enter-

ed into the fourth year of its association with

aviation through its ecological study of bird

hazards at Indian aerodromes. The study is

funded by the Aeronautics Research & Deve-

lopment Board of the Ministry of Defence,

Government of India.

The year 1983 has been a year of much

activity and our small research team did con-

siderable work in the field and in the

laboratory.

Apart from Bombay. Delhi and Hindan.

the research team covered four more aero-

dromes namely. Gwalior (1st stage May-

August). Jodhpur (1st stage August-Septcm-

ber), Trivandrum (1st stage October) and

710

A.G.M. 1983-84— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

Bangalore (1st stage, 19th October to 20th

November).

We have had very good response from the

air force and we have been able to identify

almost all the remnants sent to us so far. We

still do not receive bird remnants from the

civil aviation but we hope this problem can

be solved once we get the pilots and others

in aviation effectively interested. The guide

booklet on identification of problem birds,

when published, is expected to help in this

direction.

We have been urging Government to take

action on recommendations in reports already

submitted. It is essential that these be im-

plemented speedily if the hazard from birds

is to be eliminated.

Ecology of Certain Endangered Species of

Wildlife and Their Habitats.

Great Indian Bustard:

Throughout the year, intensive studies were

done at Karera in Madhya Pradesh and Nanaj

Maharashtra on the Great Indian Bustard.

Data on the food and feeding habits, move-

ment, display, nesting behaviour, moult etc.

was taken and the first annual report of the

project based on the work done at Karera

and on various surveys was published in

September. The birds at Karera start breeding

from March, and after this discovery and at

our suggestion the Forest Department gave

more protection during the breeding season

as a result of which six out of nine eggs

hatched. Previously, it was thought that the

bustards at Karera breed at the onset of

monsoon so protection was not available to

the hens in summer and consequently most

of the eggs were destroyed by cattle.

1983 was a very good year for the breeding

of bustards at Nanaj, where their breeding is

highly dependent on rainfall. We got some

very interesting nesting behaviour data. Nine

chicks were added to the Nanaj population of

the bustard. Detailed observation of the court-

ship behaviour was done and some very

remarkable photographs of the displaying

male were obtained. Copulation was also

observed which was till has not seen by any

scientist.

A new population of bustards was found

in Andhra Pradesh in two places i.e. Rollapadu

and Baganpalli in Kurnool district. After

studying the habitat preference of the bustard

at Nanaj and Karera (and also in other places),

remedial measures were suggested to the Ghati-

gaon Bustard Sanctuary in Gwalior where

due to complete protection, vegetation had over

grown. Kota in Rajasthan was surveyed but

no bustard was seen. Nearly twenty places in

Maharashtra were surveyed during the mon-

soon, and we saw bustards in three spots and

obtained evidence of their presence from an-

other five places.

Elephant:

The Asian Elephant survives in five dis-

jointed populations in Tndia. Though a fairly

comprehensive picture of the status and con-

servation problems of the elephant in Tndia

is available, many more studies on the ecology

of the elephant in different biomes are neces-

sary to get an overview of the needs of the

Indian elephant. The BNHS project is geared

to this objective. Work commenced late in

1983 and was primarily confined to training

the field researchers in observation techniques,

vegetation studies, literature survey, and pre-

paration of project proposal for field studies

in different elephant habitats.

The project scientist undertook as a part

of the staff training programme a survey of

the Mundanthurai — Kalakkad Hills with

particular reference to food plants and range

711

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

of the species and conservation problems, 22

species of food plants were identified and re-

commendations prepared on elephant require-

ments.

Hydrobiological ( Ecological ) Research Station

at Keoladeo Ghana National Park, Bharatpur

The Keoladeo National Park, at Bharatpur

more familiarly known as the Ghana Bird

Sanctuary is perhaps, one of the best wetland

waterfowl habitats in the world.

The project was designed to obtain data

on the hydrobiology of the park particularly

in relation to the ecology of the waterfowl and

the factors influencing the ecosystem. Data

was collected on Meteorology, Hydrology,

Physico-chemical features of water. Primary

Productivity. Planktonology. Entomology

(Aquatic & Land). Ichthyology, Ornithology

(Census of aquatic birds, comparative ecology

of residential ducks, ecology of Sarus Crane,

comparative ecology of egrets. Heronry,

breeding population of the purple and the

Indian Moorhen, the pheasant-tailed and the

bronze-winged jacana and the white-breasted

water hen. Census of land birds). Botany

(Aquatic vegetation. Terrestrial vegetation).

Mammals, etc.

Donations

The Society is deeply grateful to the follow-

ing Institutions. Organisations and Individuals

for substantial donations towards the activities

and welfare of the Society.

1 . Government of Maharashtra

(a) Grant of 13.53 ha. area of land in

the Bombay suburbs towards the

Society’s field activities.

(b) Special grant of Rs. 1.23.000/- to-

wards repairs to Hornbill House.

(c) Seminar expenses Rs. 10,000/-.

2. Jamsetji Tata Trust

Rs 1,00,000/- towards the Centenary ex-

penses.

3 . National Council of Educational Research

& Training

Rs 90,000/- towards the Centenary Semi-

nar.

4. Dorabji Tata Trust

Rs. 50,000/- to the Salim Ali — Loke Wan

Tho Ornithological Research Fund.

5. Grindlays Bank p.l.c.

Rs 40.000/- towards the organisation of

the Photographic exhibition.

6. Department of Environment, Government

of India

Rs 25,000/- towards the Centenary Semi-

nar.

7. Dr. Salim Ali

Rs 12.000/- to the Salim Ali Nature Con-

servation Fund.

8. Navajbhai Rat an Tata Trust

Rs 10.000/- towards Centenary expendi-

ture.

The following donations were received speci-

fically for the Centenary Fund:

712

A.G.M. 1983-84— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

Nature Education Scheme

As a part of the World Forestry Day cele-

brations a paniting competition was arranged

on 19th February 1983. 300 pupils from vari-

ous schools in and around Bombay participat-

ed. The first prize for the three sections were

distributed on 15th September 1983 by Prime

Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi at Hornbill

House. Conservation stickers were made out

from the first 3 paintings of each group.

A batch of 70 pupils from 3 schools in

Thane attended the Gir nature camp.

During the year about 200 schools from

Bombay, Thane & Kalyan were contacted for

nature education activities. More than 1000

students participated in outdoor activities and

another 2500 students were shown slides and

films on wildlife.

Revenue & Accounts

The financial situation of the Society was

satisfactory. The year’s working showed a

small surplus.

Staff

The Committee wishes to record its appre-

ciation of the willing cooperation of the staff

in the activities of the Society.

713

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

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Name of the Fund/Grant Balance as Amount re - Interest Dr. Total of Spent Refunds 1 otal of Balance as

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the year (6 minus 9)

A.G.M. 1983-84— PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

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per last ceived/ap- earned balance columns during columns at 31sf

Balance propriated during 2, 3, 4 & 5 the year 7 & 8 December

Sheet during the year 1983

the year (6 minus 9)

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 82

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Bombay, 22nd November, 1984.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY WAS HELD ON THURSDAY, THE 20TH DECEMBER 1984, AT HORNBILL

HOUSE AT 6-30 P.M. WHEN THE FOLLOWING MEMBERS WERE PRESENT:

728

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S.

The President, Dr. Salim Ali, requested

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Vice President of the

Society to conduct the meeting on his behalf.

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni referred to the condo-

lence resoluiton on the death of the Society’s

Patron, Smt. Indira Gandhi which had been

passed at a Special Meeting of members and

later forwarded to Mr. Rajiv Gandhi.

1 . The Honorary Secretary hoped that

members had collected the cyclostyled copies

of the report for 1983. He drew attention to

certain salient features such as the doubling

of the membership in the last 5 years, various

publications that had been either published or

were under preparation and the recognition

of the Society by the University Grants Com-

mission for financial aid and the continued

recognition of the Society by the University

of Bombay for research under various disci-

plines of biology.

The Honorary Secretary stated that the

field projects being operated by the Society

had received particular appreciation on the

quality of the work done under the projects.

He read out a letter from the Chief of the

Air Staff, thanking the Society for its investi-

gations of Bird Hazards to aircraft and the

recommendations arising thereof. He also read

a letter from the Secretary, Department of

Ocean Development, Govt, of India, congra-

tulating the Principal Investigator and his

colleagues on the scientific contributions made

by the project on hydrobiology at Bharatpur

and read a letter from the Secretary, Forests,

Govt, of Tamil Nadu appreciating the work

done by the Society at Point Calimere area

under the Avifauna Project. He also drew

attention to the fact that the projects had been

useful in realising funds for the operation of

the Society’s activities.

The report was then discussed. Mr. N. C.

Chhaya suggested that the Annual Report of

the Society be made available to members at

least 15 days in advance of the scheduled

Annual General Meeting in the future. It was

agreed that efforts would be made to do so.

Mr. Humayun Abdulali stated that he was

not satisfied with the purchase of a computer

for the Bird Hazard Project nor with the

quality of the work turned out by the projects

and also stated that he had written a critical

report on a paper published by one of the

projects’ scientific staff and that it had been

referred to the editors by the Executive Com-

mittee for consideration several months ago.

At the instance of the Chairman, the Curator

stated in reply that the computer had been

purchased after due consideration of the re-

quisite number of quotations from various

manufacturers and the equipment had been

examined and approved by Dr. Sadanandan,

Systems Manager at the Tata Institute of Fun-

damental Research. The computer was a neces-

sary equipment for analysing the data collect-

ed by Bird Hazard Project, which in accord-

ance with instructions from the Aeronautics

Research & Development Board of Ministry

of Defence has to be considered as classified.

The Curator stated that evidence of the

quality of the work by the projects was avail-

able from the letters of appreciation received

from knowledgeable persons which had been

read out by the Honorary Secretary and that

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 82

it was not necessary for him to speak on this

matter. As regards Mr. Abdulali’s paper the

Editors were considering it for publication

and an edited version will be published after

its approval by the author.

Thereafter Dr. A. K. Joshi proposed accept-

ance of the report and the proposal was

seconded by Mr. Gaitonde and the report

accepted unanimously by the general body.

2. The Chairman then requested the Hono-

rary Treasurer to present the accounts for 1983.

Arising out of the discussion on the accounts

Mr. Humayun Abdulali drew attention to the

purchase of a computer at a cost of Rs. 1,40,000

and stated that as far as he was aware that the

expenditure had not been made with the

sanction of the Committee. The Honorary

Treasurer stated that there was a budget allot-

ment of 4 lacs for equipment and the budget

estimate for the project had been approved

by the Executive Committee when they passed

the project document. Mr. Humayun Abdulali

drew attention to the fact that the Honorary

Treasurer had often made expenditure over

the limit of Rs. 1,000 as prescribed in Rule

55 of the Rules and Regulations of the So-

ciety. The general consensus at the Executive

Committee meeting was that the prescribed

limit of expenditure which was laid down when

the rule was formulated in 1926 required to

be increased considerably because of increase

in costs and that the revision should be done

along with the revision of the other rules of

the Society. Mr. D. N. Goenka sought details

of the outstanding items in the accounts which

amounted to Rs. 14,000. The Honorary Trea-

surer explained that the majority of the out-

standing amounts related to unpaid bills of

members and others on supplies of items such

as calendars and that every effort is being

made to realise these amounts and that he was

confident of recovering most of the outstand-

ing dues. Other outstanding amounts are from

imprest accounts and are recouped from time

to time. Mr. Goenka also wished to have in-

formation on whether estimates had been

called for towards expenditure on the setting

up of the Members’ Room. Mr. Bittu Sehgal,

who had organised this activity, advised that

the architect’s original estimate was for Rs. 2

lacs and all other estimates that he had re-

ceived were in excess of a lac. The present

contract was originally for Rs. 28,000 but the

final payment was only Rs. 20,000. The Hono-

rary Secretary informed that Mr. Sahgal had

in addition incurred a personal expenditure

to the extent of Rs. 10,000 in the same con-

nection and the Society was grateful to him

for this assistance.

Mr. Goenka and other members suggested

that the amounts now invested in fixed depo-

sits be invested in debentures and other high

interest investments with the Charity Com-

missioner’s permission.

Some members drew attention of the general

body to the fact that there would not be any

objection from the Charity Commissioner to

investing 50% of such amounts in deposits

other than with banks. A suggestion was also

made to the Executive Committee to examine

the question of converting the Society’s funds

in sterling in England into another stable

currency as the value of Pound is fast dete-

riorating. Mrs. Variava explained that a

Finance Committee was being appointed to

examine such points.

The question of the return of funds to the

Defence Department was raised Mr. Goenka

and the Honorary Treasurer advised that this

return was the refund of amounts that could

not be utilised during the financial year in

which they were sanctioned and which accord-

ing to Govt, regulations should be returned

to government as unspent balance at the end

730

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S.

of the financial year. He further stated that

additional details about the accounts could

not be given as it was a defence oriented

project.

The accounts were than put up for approval.

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati proposed the accept-

ance of the accounts which was seconded by

Mr. V. Narayana Swami. The accounts were

unanimously adopted.

3. The Chairman advised that the pro-

ceedings of the Annual General Meeting held

in November 1983 had been questioned re-

garding the amendments to Rule 29 and 30.

As recorded 50 signatories would be required

for calling an Sxtraordinary General Meeting.

However opinions had been expressed that

the final agreed figure was 25 and not 50.

Mr. D. J. Panday, who had chaired the 1983

Annual General Meeting felt that at this point

of time he was regretfully unable to confirm

or revise the figures in dispute.

Many of the members present maintained

that resolutions changing the rules should not

be placed for discussion on the floor of any

Annual General Meeting without being circu-

lated to all members earlier, as an Agenda

item. As the above item had not been circulat-

ed according to Rules, the resolution was

therefore considered invalid.

It was then proposed by the Chairman and

agreed to by those present that the resolution

could be reconsidered at the revision of the

current rules of the Society which was under

consideration.

Mr. Goenka and Mr. Rane had suggested

independently several amendments to the exist-

ing rules. The Executive Committee also had

considered several amendments necessary. The

General Body, therefore, was of the opinion

that the rules and regulations of the Society

should be examined carefully and revised and

that it would be necessary to have a special

general body meeting to consider such a revi-

sion. It was agreed that the suggestions made

by Mr. D. N. Goenka and Mr. Ulhas Rane

and also opinions of other members be circu-

lated to all members of the Society well in

advance and a Special Meeting of the General

Body be called in six months time to

consider adopting the revised rules.

The meeting terminated with a vote of thanks

to the Chair.

731