.—

THE ANNALS “99

ree

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,

INCLUDING

ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY.

(BEING A CONTINUATION OF THE ‘ ANNALS’ COMBINED WITH LOUDON AND

CHARLESWORTH'S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. )

CONDUCTED BY

PRIDEAUX JOHN SELBY, Esa., F.LS.,

CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Esca., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,

J. H. BALFOUR, M.D., Prof. Bot. Edinburgh,

AND

RICHARD TAYLOR, F.L.S., F.G.S.

3074 —

——— —— eeeeEeeEeEeEeEeEeeeeaaes

VOL. XVIII.—SECOND SERIES.

~ LL — — eee

LONDON:

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS.

SOLD BY LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, AND ROBERTS; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL,

AND CO.; PIPER AND CO.,; BAILLIERE, REGENT STREET, AND PARIS:

LIZARS, AND MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH;

HODGES AND SMITH, DUBLIN: AND ASHER, BERLIN.

1856.

‘‘Omnes res create sunt divine sapientie et potentia testes, divitie felicitatis

humane :—ex harum usu bonitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini;

ex economia in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis elucet.

Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibirelictis semper estimata; a veré eruditis

et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper inimica fuit.”—

LINN2Us.

“ Quelque soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut qu’ouvrir les yeux pour voir

qu'elle est le chef-d’ceuvre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rapportent

toutes ses opérations.’,-—BRruCKNER, Théorie du Systeme Animal, Leyden, 1767.

pe. Sw oe eke 6 hol do LCP Y an nOWeXS

Obey our summons ; from their deepest dells

The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild

And odorous branches at our feet ; the Nymphs

That press with nimble step the mountain thyme

And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed,

But scatter round ten thousand forms minute

Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock

Or rifted oak or cavern deep: the Naiads too

Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face

They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush

That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles,

Where peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread,

The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne,

All, all to us unlock their secret stores

And pay their cheerful tribute.

J. TayiLor, Norwich, 1818.

FLAMMAM,.

CONTENTS OF VOL. XVIIL.

[SECOND SERIES.]

NUMBER CIII.

Page

I. Monograph of the genus Catops. By ANDREW MuRRay ......

II. On a second new species of Spherium from the Paddington

Suerte tir, J. Meaty aw BS Ree © ei io oc sece ogc some ps 25

III. On the Habits of the Orang-Utan of Borneo. By ALFRED

AMET 9 adc ev wan canecebendsncanocwpntnasatsiegsienaQvs varnesssddeveboa> == 26

IV. Polyzoa collected by Mr. M‘Andrew on the Coast of Norway

and Finmark in 1856. By Georce Busk, F.R.S.& L.S. (Witha

RT ae letieina yas denies aanlnnene sor iudnannangasauahs ¢ddpasasscagigivads ie 32

V. On the Evils of Increasing Synonyms. By S. P. Woopwarp,

F.G.S. SOS SEE EERE EERE EEE EHH EEE EEE eee 36

VI. Observations on the External Characters and Internal Ana-

tomy of a Bitentaculate Slug found at the Island of Aneiteum, New

Hebrides. By JouN DENIS Macpona.p, R.N. (With a Plate.)... 38

VII. On Vegetable Cell-formation. By Prof. ARTHUR HENFREY,

URE Sak nccin dan Mastin ssa nas aden decbtee dnaduhebdvataeddVesseouceds 42

VIII. On the Method of Paleontology. By Toomas H. Huxtey,

F.R.S., Lecturer on General Natural History at the Government

School of Mines, and Fullerian Professor of Physiology R.I. ......... 43

New Books:—The Ferns of Great Britain, illustrated by J. E. Sowerby;

the Deseriptions by C. Johnson.—The Ferns of Great Britain and

their Allies, by Anne Pratt.—The Fern-Allies, illustrated by J. E.

Sowerby ; the Descriptions by C. Johnson.—British Poisonous

RE PRs MEMANIES use pacbdonerves aces sees widorus cele ecsuncasesepane 54

Proceedings of the Zoological Society; Royal Institution of Great

Britain ; Botanical Society of Edinburgh ...............00eeeeees 56—73

Note on Edwardsia vestita (Forbes), by P. H. Gosse ; On Cyclas

lacustris, Draparnaud, by J. Gwyn Jeffreys ; Occurrence of Clau-

lV CONTENTS.

silia Mortilleti in Kent, by W. H. Benson; On the Siliceous

Sporangial Sheath of the Diatomacee, by J. W. Griffith, M.D. ;

Travels in Central America, by MM. Scherzer and Wagner ; On

the Non-existence of Polarizing Silica in the Organic King-

doms, by Prof. J. W. Bailey; Meteorological Observations and

Page

GING eeu ded dps ludvecidvldedasgceuth sudo cedste hate syvuat ee CCN . 73—80

NUMBER CIV.

IX. On the Development and Propagation of Spheroplea annulina.

By Dr, FERDINAND CON ...cecececusccccsesonncs ceuesbencsseese seen

X. New Terrestrial Shells from Ceylon, with a General List of the

Species inhabiting that Island. By W. H. Benson, Esq. .«........+..

XI. Notice of a curious Metamorphosis in a Polype-like Animal.

By C. W. Peacn, Member of the Royal Physical Society of Edin-

Burgh: (WIG D PIAL.) wiesscscecscnasnnanpenss os seseqnige here gue cae

XII. Brief Outline of the Anatomy of the genus Atlas (Lesueur).

By Joun Dents Macponatp, R.N. (With a Plate.) ............ ave

XIII. On the Development of Arenicola piscatorum ; with Remarks

upon that of other Branchiferous Annelides. By Dr. Max ScHuLrze,

Raia at P IREEY) MNCL. distaste Rebtesdatsbeesvedssesusyevcevesteeeeeene ha scuies

XIV. Notes on the Freshwater Infusoria of the Island of Bombay.

No. 1. Organization. By H. J. Carrer, Esq., Assistant-Surgeon

H.C.S., Bombay. (With three Plates.) ...... svccsescavenkbosbeesannennaeae

XV. Monograph of the genus Catops. By ANDREW MuRRay...

XVI. On a new British species of Skenea. By W. WEBsTER, Esq.

os gp Re Pe RR SRP rT ree rr om

XVII. Description of a New Species of Dolphin (Steno) from the

upper parts of the River Amazon. By J. E. Gray, Ph.D., F.R.S. &e.

New Books :—Manual of Geology, Practical and Theoretical, by John

Phillips, M.A., F.R.S. &e.—Tenby : a Sea-side Holiday, by Philip

Henry Gosse, A.L.S.—Manual of British Botany, containing the

Flowering Plants and Ferns arranged according to the Natural

Orders, by Charles Cardale Babington, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. &e.

Fourth Edition.—Trees and their Nature, or the Bud and its

105

115

133

157

Attributes, by Alex. Harvey, A.M., M.D. &. ....0.-sseseee. 159—166

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ; Botanical Society of Edin-

| i Pe emer 166—183

On the probable Origin of the Organized Beings now living in the

Azores, Madeira, and the Canaries, by M. Oswald Heer.—Note

CONTENTS.

on Clausilia plicatula and C. Mortilleti, by J. Gwyn Jeffreys,

Esq., F.R.S.; Note on Lernea branchialis, by W. P. Cocks ; On

two new species of Birds from Santa Fé di Bogota, by Philip

Lutley Sclater, M.A., F.Z.S8.; On the British Diastylide, by C.

Spence Bate, F.L.S.; Note on Helix Cantiana, Mont., by Wm.

Lonsdale, Esq., F.G.S.; Description of a Fossil Cranium of the

Musk-buffalo, from the Gravel at Maidenhead, Berks, by Prof.

Owen, F.R.S.; A last word on Scissurella, by J. Gwyn Jeffreys,

Esq., F.R.S.; New Mode of Cleaning Diatomaceous Deposits,

by Prof. J. W. Bailey ; New Method of Disintegrating masses of

Fossil Diatomacee, by Prof. J. W. Bailey ; Meteorological Obser-

Page

MAMIE ADIC ss tecaticer ete tartiaccedtececadnncariasceesucasele 183—192

NUMBER CV.

XVIII. Attempts at a Natural Arrangement of Birds. By ALFRED

RCH IML S| adeni ei daackec chiens cavvaixssnecetdodsiseisoeasteseaansears

XIX. Recent Discoveries in Vegetable Embryogeny. By ArTHUR

Henrrey, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College, London...

XX. On Edwardsia carnea, a new British Zoophyte. By PHtLip

fpaxonen, FES, ..€ With. Plate.) .2siiet ciidisctecesccekccus vecenesinenes

XXI. Notes on the Freshwater Infusoria of the Island of Bombay.

No. 1. Organization. By H. J. Carrer, Esq., Assistant Surgeon

REID V id ftyrincs cbacasven cases dsesen's cus avescascanecdeduesacnevsasayace

XXII. Descriptions of one Indian and nine new Burmese Helices ;

and Notes on two Burmese Cyclostomacea. By W. H. Benson, Esq.

XXIII. On an Abnormality in the Flowers of Salix Andersoniana.

REIN LOWE, PAG. a ccncvevoceiadenedaevesevsses ocd cherssiaegeadiechsa¥aeus

XXIV. Cardium exiguum ; —its Siphons and its Byssus. By PH1Lip

Re EM Thee: (VV TED PABLO.) vacpssieasaidonas snnusher-namaasinna banned

New Books :—An Introduction to Entomology, or Elements of the

Natural History of Insects, by William Kirby, M.A., F.R.S.,

F.L.S., and William Spence, F.R.S., F.L.S.—Ferny Combes: a

Ramble after Ferns in the Glens and Valleys of Devonshire, by

193

217

219

221

249

254

257

MO TIATMEIELE IMD ATIGETD woe occoe eae socked ive dee teeked soba ateeteeatee's 258—260

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ..........csseecsssseseseceeee 260—268

On the Vitality of the Anguillule of Mildewed Wheat, by C. Davaine ;

Notice of a new species of Nocturnal Lizard from Mexico, by

Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.; On a new genus and species of Tro-

chilide from Ecuador, by John Gould, F.R.S. &e.; Meteoro-

logical Observations and Table ............cccseseeseeeseceeeecs 268—272

vi CONTENTS.

Page

NUMBER CVI.

XXV. Monograph of the British Umbilicarie. By the Rey. W.

A. Lercuron, B.A., F.B.S.E. (With a Plate.) ......00+ uscabont eveses 240

XXVI. On the Development of the Lampreys. By AucGust

ROEM iv vecvccuccccscvecnsennssctecnonscccccacssveonecenostseoesshNeNinnnnaa 298

XXVII. Monograph of the genus Catops. By ANDREW Murray. 302

XXVIII. Contributions to the Anatomy of the Infusoria. By

I, MiTAC A ak ee avons ccc ccsucacesescahhaniempnanna 319

XXIX. New British Arthonie. By the Rev. W. A. Le1cuTon,

B.A., F.B.S.E. (With a Plate.) .........ccccscsccccsccsssevcccsocsevcnsevess 330

Proceedings of the Royal Society ; Botanical Society of Edinburgh ;

Zoological Society ...ssceeerecssceeeseccecaeeensseeseesseseeensees 333—348

Obituary Notice—William Yarrell; Amphioxus lanceolatus, by W.

P. Cocks; Description of a newly discovered Tanager of the

genus Buarremon, by Philip Lutley Sclater, M.A. &c.; Meteo-

rological Observations and Table .ssceessscceseeeeeaeeeeesneees 348—352

NUMBER CVII.

XXX. A Notice of some New Genera and Species of British Hydroid

Zoophytes. By Josuvua ALDER, Esq. (With three Plates.) ...... 353

XXXI. The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. By

Dr. ALEXANDER Brawn, Professor of Botany in the University of

Berlin, &c. Translated by Cuas. FRANCIS STONE, B.A. .ssseeeeses 363

XXXII. On the young state of Ophiocoma rosula, and on the Form

and Development of the Spines of this species. By T. H. Stewart.

(Wath a Plate.) ..0.s.scsnasecsssscsnendahonbopsuenr oaxsitydonteelar tenn 387

XXXIII. Monograph of the genus Catops. By ANpRew Murray. 391

XXXIV. Elucidation of some Plants mentioned in Dr. Francis

Hamilton’s Account of the Kingdom of Nepal. By Lieut.-Colonel

Mavpen, F.R.S.E., President of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 404

XXXV. Notice of a New Subgenus of Helicinade. By Dr. J.

BAT, FRS. nso sccnsersvesconcoasnotpospdacsanscnnesness aerieennnnn 414

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ..ssssccscssesesseeeeeeeeees 415—424

On Clausilia Rolphii and Mortilleti, by W. H. Benson, Esq. ; On the

Origin of Greensand, and its Formation in the Oceans of the

CONTENTS. Vii

Page

present Epoch, by Prof. J. W. Bailey; On the Cume, by Prof. 7

Agassiz ; Note on Callitriche hamulata, by Frederick Townsend ;

Rare British Birds, by W. P. Cocks; Descriptions of two new

species of the genus Orthotomus, by Frederick Moore, Assist.

Mus. East India Company; Meteorological Observations and

Table ....... RSE asa N ane casas «anihsaywdavaiarinincidaims dassaxbign 424—432

NUMBER CVIII.

XXXVI. New Land Shells collected by E. L. Layarp, Esq., and

eee WY We F1 Be RON Biss) soc, sasonecdpssepeteranarays'ntagecst ders 433

XXXVII. Descriptions of three new British Zoophytes. By

BEBCA ALDER, Mag. (With a Plate.) <cineccssecoscosvovencssstecciees 439

XXXVIII. Elucidation of some Plants mentioned in Dr. Francis

Hamilton’s Account of the Kingdom of Nepal. By Lieut.-Colonel

Mappen, F.R.S.E., President of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 442

XXXIX. Monograph of the genus Catops. By ANDREW MurRAy. 457

XL. On the Abnormal Operculum of Polydonta elegans of New

Pomnmcoriey Des dg, Hh Guay, FORS) becl- 2.20 aictl cones 468

XLI. Note on Reticularia immersa and Halia pretenuis. By the

ee MtTIOMARPELINCK Ss I92A2 sscsscaesnsdcsesssicessnvesiese'dscesscde abeeaeees 469

XLII. Contribution to the Conchclogy of France. By J. Gwyn

MMe PS nae ccocscodscsdunsbaagamopaeensestechancesdlb=pssz 471

New Books :—Flora Vectensis : being a Systematic Description of the

Phznogamous or Flowering Plants and Ferns indigenous to the

Isle of Wight, by the late W. A. Bromfield, M.D. &c. Edited by

Sir W. J. Hooker and T. Bell Salter, M.D.— Sylloge Flore

Europe seu plantarum vascularium Europe indigenarum enu-

meratio, adjectis synonymis gravioribus et indicata singularum

distributione geographica, auctore C. F. Nyman ............ 473—475

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ; Royal Society............ 475—491

Observations on the Structure of the Retina in certain Animals, by

Hi. Miiller; Remarks on Nika edulis, Risso, by William Thomp-

son ; Naucrates ductor, by W. P. Cocks; On Peculiar and Quasi-

spontaneous Movements of the Plasmatie Cells of certain Ani-

mals, by Prof. Kolliker; Description of a new species of Actinia

from the Devonshire Coast, by E. W. H. Holdsworth; Meteoro-

logical Observations and Table .......-.cccescsscscccscsseceses 492—499

PLATES IN VOL. XVIII.

Piate I. Polyzoa from the Coast of Norway.

II. Development of Arenicola piscatorum.

III. Anatomy of a Bitentaculate Slug from Aneiteum.

IV. Anatomy of the genus Atlas.

ae } Organization of Freshwater Infusoria.

VIII. Metamorphosis of a Polype-like Animal.—New British species

of Skenea.

IX. Edwardsia carnea.—Cardium exiguum.

X. British Umbilicarie.

XI. British Arthoniz.

XII.

XIII. } New British Hydroid Zoophytes.

XIV.

XV. Young state of Ophiocoma rosula.

XVI. New British Zoophytes.

ERRATA.

Page 405, line 13 from bottom, for Zirhut read Tirhut.

407, line 22, for eundum read eundem.

» 9, line 11 from bottom, for hot-water courses ead hill water-courses.

420, line 20, for ponds read ghauts.

Vol. xvii. page 501, last line, for June read May.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,

[SECOND SERIES. ]

SO cscussccsconessae per litora spargite muscum,

Naiades, et ciretm vitreos considite fontes :

Pollice virgineo teneros hic carpite flores :

Floribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum.

At vos, o Nymph Craterides, ite sub undas ;

Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco

Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas

Ferte, Dez pelagi, et pingui conchylia succo.”’

N. Parthenii Giannetiasti Ecl. 1.

No. 103. JULY 1856.

1.— Monograph of the genus Catops.

By Anprew Murray, Edinburgh*.

NOTWITHSTANDING Mr. Spence’s able Monograph of the

British species of this genus, and the excellent works of Erichson,

Sturm, Redtenbacher, Kraatz and others, its study is still attended

with so much difficulty, that I imagine the following attempt to

clear up the synonymy, and to make the species more easily

recognizable, will be welcome, particularly to British entomo-

logists.

When I commenced my examination of the genus, with a

view to publishing the results, I applied to my entemological

friends for their assistance both in the way of information and

communication of specimens, an application which was cordially

responded to. I have thus had the advantage of carefully ex-

amining Mr. Waterhouse’s collection, which I believe to be the

best representative of the Spencian species extant ;—the deter-

mination having been submitted to and approved by Mr. Spence

himself, with this qualification, that he (Mr. Spence) had de-

scribed some of his species from specimens belonging to others,

to whom they had been returned, so that the type specimens

* Read before the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh, Jan. 1856.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 1

2 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

were scattered, and the certainty of accuracy derivable from the

actual comparison of specimens with the types was in these

instances no longer attainable. It is on the faith of Mr. Water-

house’s collection therefore that I principally depend for the

identity of the names with the species described by Spence,

where the descriptions themselves have failed me.

From Mr. Stephens’s collection now in the British Museum

I have in like manner endeavoured to identify the species de-

scribed by him, and as his specimens of Spence’s species in a

majority of instances correspond with Mr. Waterhouse’s, they so

far confirm the authority of that gentleman. I have further

had the advantage of examining the species in the Jardin des

Plantes ;—those of M. Lucas and of M. Chevrolat (who left the

whole of his large collection of Catops for months in my hands),

and those of M. Fairmaire, M. Javet, and other French entomolo-

gists. To M. Kraatz of Berlm, whose elaborate and admirable

revision of the European species of the genus shows the atten-

tion he has bestowed upon the subject, I owe especial thanks.

Besides favouring me with his opinion upon my ideas, he has

furnished me with a nearly complete series of his species, and

entrusted those he could not spare to me for examination, so

that I have in general the advantage, when speaking of any

view entertained by him, of knowing with certainty the iden-

tity of the species under discussion. In relation to the North

American species I beg particularly to record my obligations to

Dr. Leconte of Philadelphia, Dr. Asa Fitch of Salem, and Mr.

Calverly of New York. To our British entomologists, Dr.

Power, Mr. J.T. Syme, Mr. Hislop, Rev. W. Little, Rev. Hamlet

Clark, Mr. Guyon, Mr. Bates, Dr. Lowe and others, I also owe

many thanks. They have entrusted to me the whole of their

species for as long a period as I chose to retain them, and the

whole of the gentlemen I have named have liberally placed their

duplicates at my disposal. I take this opportunity to tender to

each of them individually my best thanks for their kindness.

With this acknowledgement of my obligations and expla-

nation of the sources of my information, I shall now in the first

place cast a rapid glance at what has been done by previous

authors, first in the European species and afterwards in the

exotic ; I shall then give detailed descriptions of all the different

species which have been described or have come under my notice

(among which will be found one or two new species), and lastly

conclude by giving a short dichotomous table of the characters

of the European species of the genus.

The species which compose this genus were scattered by

ancient authors among several other genera. DeGeer placed

one species under Dermestes, and Geoffroy another under Si/pha.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 3

Fourcroy placed the only one he knew under Peltis, Panzer

under Helops, Frohlich under Luperus, Fabricius under Cistela

and Hydrophilus, Marsham under Mordella, and Linnzus (pos-

sibly) under Chrysomela. Latreille was the first who in his

‘ Précis des Caractéres Génériques des Insectes,’ established the

genus under the name of Choleva. This was in 1802, and about

two years after it was also recognized first by Paykull, and after-

wards by Knoch, who each gave it another name—Knoch that

of Ptomaphagus which was adopted by Illiger, and Paykull that

of Catops which was adopted by Fabricius, and has been retained

by most subsequent authors. By the rule of priority therefore

the name should be Choleva, but I am glad that I have a suffi-

cient apology for not disturbing the almost universally adopted

name of Catops. Latreille himself appears at first only to have

applied his name to one section of the genus. This appears from

his ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Crustacés et des Insectes,’ where in

speaking of his constituting the genus, he says, “ Its appearance,

says Geoffroy, resembles that of the Mordella, that is to say, it

has long legs with which it walks as if it limped. It is from

that character that I have taken my generic denomination :

Cholevain Greek means ‘lame.’” The long legs here referred to

apply to the first section of the genus, which was subsequently

erected into a separate genus by Stephens, and may, I think, be

properly maintained as a subgenus, to which Latreille’s name

may be restricted.

. The number of species at first described was small. Latreille

in his ‘ Hist. Nat.’ only describes three, and in his ‘Genera

Crustaceorum et Insectorum,’ published in 1807, he describes

five. He there breaks the genus into two groups, one corre-

sponding to the subgenus Choleva, of which he describes the

species agilis and angustatus, auct., and the other including the

rest of the genus.

Gyllenhal in 1808 published six species in the first volume of

his ‘ Insecta Suecica.’

It is unnecessary to enter into any examination of the syno-

aymy of the species described by these authors. Their descrip-

tions are for the most part too vague and applicable to too many

species subsequently described to allow us to rely greatly upon

them. Gyllenhal in his 4th volume, which was not published

tall 1827, acknowledges that in his 1st volume he had included

five different species under one name.

Mr. Spence was the first author who brought the genus into

something like order.

In his Monograph (published in the Linnean Society’s

Transactions in 1815) he divided the genus into three main

4 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

sections, dependent upon the antenne being filiform or clavate,

the posterior angles of the thorax obtuse or acute, and the

elytra striate or not striate; the dilatation or non-dilatation of

the first article of the middle tarsi in the males was also made

a subordinate character. Of these, the first and last are the

only ones which have been adopted as sectional characters by

subsequent authors; but the form of the hinder angles of the

thorax, although not a good sectional character by itself, will, I

think, if taken in conjunction with the base of the elytra, be

found to furnish good characters for natural subdivision. Mr.

Spence groups his species under the above sectional characters

(to each of which I shall attach the synonym now most in use)

as follows, viz. :—

* Antenne subjiliform ; posterior angles of thorax obtuse (= Sub-

gen. Choleva, Steph.).

C. oblonga=angustata, Fab., Erich.

C. agilis=agilis, Ill., Erich.

** Antenne clavate ; posterior angles of thorax acute ; elytra for

the most part striated (=Subgen. Catops, Steph.).

(Anterior thighs for the most part thickened at the apex in the

males, and first article of middle tarsi dilated.)

a. Basal margin of thorax excised near the angles.

C. nigricans = nigricans, Erich.

-C. sericea=fuscus, Panz., Erich.*

* Erichson, and after him Kraatz, give C. picipes, Fab., as the synonym

of Spence’s sericea, but I think this is a mistake. The deseription better

accords with fuscus, and I believe that picipes has not yet been found in

Britain. I recorded it in my ‘ Catalogue of Scottish Coleoptera’ as found

by myself in Scotland, but I am now satisfied that the specimen on which

I relied was only a large variety of nigricans. If Erichson formed his opi-

nion of the synonymy from not finding any other probable representative

of picipes among Spence’s species, the circumstance of its not being British

explains how this may be. If he judged from Spence’s deseription, he

may have been misled by the commencing words used by Spence, “ Body

broader and more convex than in its congeners,” which he might apply to

picipes, which is the largest species in the genus; and by Spence’s next

words, “shorter than the preceding,” viz. nigricans, he might have sup-

posed him to mean less elongate in form, which picipes is, although cer-

tainly not actually shorter—it being longer. The only other resemblance to

picipes is the black elytra; but Paykull’s description of his C. sericeus, to

which Spence refers as in all other respects identical with his, corrects this

incongruity, for Paykull states the elytra of his species to be obscure tes-

taceous. In Stephens’s collection sericea is represented by a pale variety

of chrysomeloides.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 5

C. tristis* = ——?

C. festinanst = ——? (possibly grandicollis, Erich.).

b. Thorax with the basal margin straight near the angles.

C. chrysomeloides = chrysomeloides, Panz., Lat., Sturm.

C. Leachiit =tristis, Erich.

_ C. Kirbii§=rotundicollis, Kellner.

C. Marshami\| = ? (either morio, Erich. or nigrila, Erich.)

C. dissimulator § = ——? (probably morio, Erich.)

**&* Antenne clavate ; posterior angles of thorax acute ; elytra not

striated.

(Anterior thighs alike in both sexes, the middle tarsi with the

first joint rarely dilated.)

C. villosa=sericeus, Fab. (villosa, Lat.) (Ptomaphagus trun-

catus, Steph.)

C. velox =veloz, Erich.

C. fumata** = ? (probably scitulus, Erich.)

C. Watsoni=fumatus, Erich.

C. anisotomoides = anisotomoides, Sturm.

C. Wilkiniti=precox, Erich.

C. brunneus= Colon (Mylachus) brunneus, auct.

* No species has puzzled British entomologists more to identify than

this. The prominence given by Spence and Stephens to the clavate form

of the antennz, and Spence describing it as bearing a close general resem-

blance to chrysomeloides, has had the effect of making most of them

attempt to find a representative for it out of narrow-clubbed and small

varieties of chrysomeloides—and accordingly it is generally so represented

in British collections—an error which I have seen continental entomo-

logists fall into in like manner. I cannot ascertain to my own satisfaction

what the species was which Spence had in view in describing this. Mr.

Waterhouse had adopted the usual British view, but Stephens has his

tristis wholly represented by fuscus, Erichs.

+ This species is stated by Erichson and Kraatz to be a synonym of

fuscus, but from what I have already said in the note upon sericea, it ap-

pears to me that that synonym is preoccupied. Mr. Waterhouse has not

this name represented in his collection. In Stephens’s it 1s represented by

two specimens of /ristis and one of grandicollis. Little can be made out

from Spence’s description.

t Represented wholly by ¢ristis in Mr. Waterhouse’s collection, and in

Stephens’s collection by two specimens of tristis and two of grandicollis.

__ § Represented by rotundicollis both in Waterhouse’s and Stephens’s col-

lections.

|| Mr. Waterhouse has this represented by morio; in Stephens’s col-

lection it is represented wholly by chrysomeloides.

§ Given as a synonym of morio by Erichson. Represented by tristis

in Waterhouse’s collection, and by three specimens of grandicollis and one

of nigrita in Stephens’s collection.

** This name (fumata) has been universally applied to the species com-

monly known as the fumatus of Erich. and other authors, but a comparison

6 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

The next author who went over the genus was Stephens. As

he finally left it in his Manual, it contains all Spence’s species,

besides five of his own, and three which had been deseribed by

Mr. Newman in the ‘Entomological Magazine,’ between the

commencement of the appearance of his ‘Illustrations’ and

the publication of his ‘ Manual.’

The following is the result of my examination of the species

standing named in his collection in the British Museum, viz. :—

Ptomaphagus truncatus = C. sericeus, Panz. (truncatus, Thg.)

velox =velox, Spence.

Jumatus = fumatus, Erich.

—— Watsoni=fumatus, Erich., and scttulus, Evich., mixed.

anisotomoides = anisotomoides, Spence.

Wilkinii=precox, Erich.

Catops nigricans = nigricans, Spence.

sericea=pale variety of chrysomeloides, Spence.

tristis = fusca, Erich.

festinans, represented by two specimens of grandicollis,

Erich., and two of ¢ristis, Erich.

affinis=nigrita, Erich.

chrysomeloides = chrysomeloides, Spence.

Leachii, represented by two specimens of grandicollis,

Erich., and two of tristis, Erich.

Kirbii=rotundicollis, Kellner.

of Spence’s deseription of it and his next species, Watson, shows that the

latter is what is now known as fumatus, and that the former is most pro-

bably scitulus, Erich. In his deseription of Watsoni Spence says, “ In

colour this species does not much differ from the preeeding, but is fur-

nished with other characters strikingly distinetive. The antenne are

shorter and thicker’ (which is the ease in the true fumatus). He also

gives the last joint as pale, while he says nothing of this distinctive cha-

racter in describing the preceding species. The rest of the description

also corresponds with the view I have taken. I am perhaps wrong in

using the expression “true fumatus.” The true fumatus should by the

rule of priority be what Spence had under his eye when he described it,

but I think we are getting out of all bounds in our stickling for priority.

If an author describes a species so loosely that it eannot be recognized

from his description, so that subsequent authors misapply or ignore his

name, while on their part they give a recognizable description, I cannot see

on what prineiple of justice or propriety we are to be called upon to hold

by the unreeognizable name instead of the recognizable, nor why an author

(be he living or dead, or great or small) should be allowed to supplement

his inadequate description by a reference to the typical specimens in his

cabinet from which the deseriptions were taken,—a practice now in vogue,

against which I take this opportunity to enter my protest. Notwith-

standing the claims of priority therefore, I do not propose to invert or

disturb the generally adopted names of fumatus and scitulus. I have

pointed out how the case obviously stands, and J leave to the advocates of

priority the responsibility of introducing the confusion to which I demur.

Mr. A, Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 7

Ptomaphagus Spencei=rotundicollis, Kellner.

fulvicollis=velox, Spence.

—— Marshami=chrysomeloides, Spence.

dissimulator, represented by three specimens of grandi-

collis and one of nigrita.

Choleva angustata=angustata, auct.

gomphoita= ditto.

agilis, represented by three specimens of agilis and two

of angustata.

The other species, or names of species, given in his Manual

are not represented in his collection.

I have not had an opportunity of seeing typical specimens of

Mr. Newman’s three species, frater, soror, and nubifer; but my

friend the Rev. Wm. Little has in his collection specimens which

had been named by Stephens as being the two latter, and if we

may take that as an indication, we find that soror=nigricans and

nubifer = velox.

Erichson’s ‘ Kafer der Mark Brandenburg’ followed m 1837.

His division differs from that of Spence. It is as follows, viz. :—

Characters of the first division :—

“ Mesosternum simple (without keel) ; body oblong; antenne and

legs long and thin, the former scarcely thickened at the point ;

legs slender ; tarsi of fore-feet dilated in the males, tarsi of

middle feet simple in both sexes.”

This division corresponds to Spence’s first section (Stephens’s

Choleva) ; and Erichson only records two species found in Mark

Brandenburg as belonging to it, viz. angustatus and agilis.

The characters of his second division are—

“ Mesosternum simple; tarsi slender, and anterior tarsi and first

joint of middle tarsi dilated in the males.”

These characters place the following species in this section,

viz. C. fuscus, umbrinus, picipes, nigricans, grandicollis, tristis,

nigrita, fuliginosus, morio, fumatus, and scitulus, of which gran-

dicollis, fuliginosus, and scitulus are given as new. uliginosus

is said by Kraatz to be a variety of nigricans (though, from the

description alone, I should not have supposed this), and scitulus,

as already mentioned, had been described by Spence under the

name of fumatus. Erichson does not record chrysomeloides as

found in Mark Brandenburg, but from the differences which he

points out between it and ¢ristis, 1 am not sure but some con-

fusion exists even in Erichson relating to trisfis.

His next division is characterized thus :—

“ Mesosternum simple ; body oval ; antenne somewna thickened at

8 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

the point ; tarsi slender ; anterior tarsi widened in the males ;

middle tarsi simple in both sexes.”

Velox and precoxw (Spence’s Wilkini?) ave Erichson’s only

species falling under this division.

The last division has the

“ Mesosternum keeled; tarsi strong; anterior tarsi in the males

very broad, widened in the middle in the females ; middle tarsi

of both sexes equal.”

The only species recorded by Erichs6n is sericeus (truncatus,

Illig. and Steph.).

The above list is instructive both negatively and positively,

both for what it does and for what it does not contain. Eriehson

was celebrated not only for his marvellous acumen in distin-

guishing species, but also for his success in collecting and

for the extent of his collection. Mark Brandenburg too may

be taken as fairly representing the rest of Northern Germany ;

and unless where the species are of a local character, we may

pretty safely assume that the same species which occur in Mark

Brandenburgwill be found inthe rest of Northern Germany. These

premises should teach us to use great caution in admitting any new

species from that district not described by Erichson, as they lead to

the probable conclusion, first, that such new species might have

been already found in Mark Brandenburg; secondly, that Erichson

might have seen them ; and lastly, might not have considered

them distinct. Of course I do not make any further use of the

great weight of his opinion, than to bespeak caution in deter-

mining upon such new German species as he has passed over.

Sturm next took up the group in his ‘ Deutschlands Fauna’ im

1839. He added two new species to the first group (Choleva)—

spadiceus, Dahl. in litt., and castaneus, Andersch. in hit.—both

of which have been adopted by subsequent authors, although, for

reasons which I shall afterwards give, I think the latter is only

a variety of angustatus. He also added the badius of Meg., the

brunneus of Knoch, and the anisotomoides of Spence to the list

of species found in Germany.

In 1841 Prof. Heer (in his ‘Fauna Helvetica’) described besides

most of those already known, two new species, montivagus and

ambiguus, and reproduced the alpinus, Gyll. The descriptions of

the two former are too short and vague to allow of their being

satisfactorily identified from the book, and I have not seen

authentic specimens. M. Kraatz in his revision also states, that

he has been unable to make them out, but holds that the alpinus

of Gyllenhal has been rightly revived.

Several detached descriptions of individual species also ap-

peared from time to time.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 9

In 1832 a species from the Morea was described by Brullé in

the ‘Expédition Scientifique de Morée’ under the name of C,

humeralis, which seems to belong to the subgenus Choleva.

Chaudoir (Bulletin de Moscou, 1845, i.) described two new

species as being found in the neighbourhood of Vienna, /ongi-

pennis and sericatus. M. Kraatz does not consider these to be

distinct species, but joims them respectively to nigricans and

sericeus.

Kellner in ‘ Stettin Ent. Zeit.’ 1846, No. 6, described four new

species, C. longulus, rotundicollis, coracinus, and subfuscus. As

already mentioned, rotundicollis is the Kirbit of Stephens. Kraatz.

observes that subfuscus is not distinguishable from alpinus, Gyll. ;

and from a specimen of /ongu/us submitted to me by M. Kraatz,

I am satisfied that it is only a variety of ¢rists.

Rosenhauer (Beitrage zur Insectfauna Europas) in 1847 de-

scribed C. abdominalis (considered by Kraatz to be a variety of

tristis) and C. varicornis, which, although very close to sericeus,

appears to be a good species.

Redtenbacher in his ‘ Fauna Austriaca’ (1849) gives a synopsis

of the species of the genus, but without adding any new species.

Dr. Aubé in 1850 added C. meridionalis and quadraticollis, besides

Catopsimorphus orientalis, to the list. All three appear to be

good species.

The only works remaining to be noticed are M. Kraatz’s revi-

sion of the genus published in parts in the ‘ Stettin Ent. Zeitung’

im 1852, and the ‘Faune Entomologique Francaise’ now in

course of publication by MM. Fairmaire and Laboulbéne.

Although the latter work is subsequent in date, I shall notice it

first ; partly because none of M. Kraatz’s new species are to be

found in it, and partly because M. Kraatz’s revision contains a

full summary of all the European-species hitherto described, and

is therefore well suited for closing this part of my paper.

The authors of the ‘ Faune Ent. Frang.’ adopt the name Cho-

leva, Lat., in deference to priority, instead of Catops. They do not

introduce any new species. They adopt the four subdivisions

laid down by Erichson, and in addition attempt to break up the

second subdivision into smaller sections. These subdivisions are—

1. “ Posterior angles of corselet obtuse,” in which they place _

C. picipes, grandicollis, and alpina.

2. “ Posterior angles of corselet right-angled, more or less

pointed,” containing C. fusca, morio, nigrita, quadraticollis, tristis,

chrysomeloides, rotundicoliis, and fumata.

3. “ Posterior angles of corselet pointed, a little produced behind,”

which contains umbrina, nigricans, and scitula.

These divisions appear to me to group the species in too un-

natural a manner to be of service even as an artificial mode of

10 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

arrangement in facilitating the determination of species. |For

instance, picipes in the first section has most affinity with nigri-

cans in the third, grandicollis in the first with ¢ristis in the

second (indeed I propose to show presently that they are the

same species) ; and a/pina in the first has very close affinity with

fumata in the second, and seituda in the third should join them.

Umbrina undoubtedly ought to go beside velox, which is not in

this section at all ;—Erichson’s character of the dilatation of the

first joint of the middle tarsi in the males separating them.

Their affinity otherwise however is so great, that I think that

character must be disregarded to allow these species to take their

proper place beside each other.

I now come to Kraatz’s revision, in favour of which I cannot

speak too highly. I differ from him in opinion in one or two

instances, but wherever I do so I must beg the reader to take

my opinion with caution and examine it with suspicion, as the

well-known acumen and accuracy of that gentleman stamp his

views with a primd-facie authenticity which only yery strong

evidence can overthrow.

He divides the genus into five sections, the first three and the

last of which are Hrichson’s ; the fourth is new.

In the first section he has spadiceus, a new species which he

calls intermedius, angustatus, castaneus (or cisteloides, Frohl.), and

agilis. In speaking of Sturm I have already expressed my

opinion that castaneus and angustatus were varieties of the same

species, and I cannot come to a different opinion as regards

intermedius. When I go over the species seriatim, I shall give

my reasons for this as well as for any similar views I may have

adopted regarding other species.

In the second section he includes acicularis (a new species,

which from the description seems distinct, but which I have not

seen in nature), umbrinus, fuscus, picipes, meridionalis, nigricans,

coracinus, morio, nigrita, grandicollis, chrysomeloides, longulus,

Kelln. (which, as already mentioned, I think only a variety of

tristis), tristis, rotundicollis, neylectus (a new species nearly allied

to tristis), alpinus, fumatus, brevicollis (a new species which I have

not seen, but which appears from the description to be good),

and scitulus.

The third section is confined to velox, badius, precox, brun-

neus, and anisotomotdes,

The fourth section is characterized as follows, viz. :—

“ Mesosternum feebly keeled; body oblong, smooth and shining ;

antenne strong, scarcely thickened towards the point ; differ-

ence of sexes unknown.”

This section is erected by Kraatz to receive a single species

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. ll

named by him /ucidus, and described from a single specimen

found in Dalmatia.

The fifth section has received the greatest increase. Hitherto

it had only contained the two species sericeus and varicornis, but

Kraatz has added three new species, strigosus, validus, and colo-

noides. I have not seen validus, but the others appear to me good

and distinct species.

Catopsimorphus orientalis he retams as forming a separate

genus.

The number of exotic species which have been described is

not great.

Three species from Algeria, C. marginicollis, C. celer and C.

rufipennis have been described in 1849 by M. Lucas in the ‘ Ex-

ploration de l’ Algérie.’

M. Motschoulsky described a species from Georgia, C. pusillus,

in the Bulletins of the Imperial Society of Moscow for 1840,

Kolenati described in the ‘ Meletemata Ent.’ a species, C. fun-

gicola, from the Russian Province of Elisabethopoleos.

Menetries described a species (C. pallidus) from Bakon in the

Caucasus in his ‘ Catalogue raisonné des Objets de Zoologie re-

cueillis dans un voyage au Caucase,’ &c. He also described in

the Mem. Acad. Imp. Sciences de St. Pétersbourg, 6 sér. vi. 1849,

two species, C. lateritius and C. fuscipes, found at Novaia Alex-

androyskaia.

One species, C. australis, from Van Diemen’s Land, has been

described by Erichson in Wiegmann’s ‘ Archiv fiir Naturge-

schichte,’ 1842.

The North American species hitherto Jestdibud are C. basi-

laris, C. opacus and C. simplex, described by Say in the Journal

of the Academy of Philadelphia, vols. 11. & v. ; C. Spenciana de-

scribed by Kirby in the ‘ Fauna Bor. Americ.’ ; C. cadaverinus,

C. Frankenhauseri, C. cryptophagoides, C. brunnipennis, and C.,

luridipennis described by Mannerheim in the ‘ Bull. of the Imp.

Soc. of Mose.’ in 1843, 1852 & 1853; C. terminans described

by Leconte in Agassiz’s ‘ Lake Superior,’ and C. clavicornis, C. ca-

lifornicus, C. strigosus, C. consobrinus, C. oblitus and C. parasitus,

described by the same author in the ‘ Proceedings of the Aca-

demy of Philadelphia,’ 1853.

So much for the past history of the genus. We shall now

proceed to the examination of the different species seriatim.

In doing so I shall first take the European species of each

section, and then give the descriptions of the exotic species. I

shall not attempt to intercalate the latter among the European

species, because there are a number which I have not seen. I

shall content myself with classing them according to their

geographical distribution.

12 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

Genus Cators.

Mentum square, transverse, a little narrowed in front, Ligula

of the breadth of the mentum at its base, widened and deeply

emarginate in front. The internal lobe of the maxille terminated

by a corneous nail or hook. The mazillary palpi decidedly larger

than the labial ; ¢heir third article formed like a reversed cone, the

fourth much more slender, conic and acuminated, The third article

of the labial palpi oval, a little longer than the second. Man-

dibles short, furnished with a molar tooth at their base, arched,

sharp at the end and unidentate before their summit. Labrum

short, rounded, and a little sinuated in the middle in front.

Head declining, obtuse in front. Eyes nearly rounded, moderate

in size and not prominent. Antenne at least of the length of

the thorax ; their first six articles of variable length, subcylindrie,

the last five forming a club, which is sometimes so elongated and

slender as to be scarcely observable, and sometimes very distinct ;

the eighth joint shorter than the seventh and ninth. Prothorax

of variable form. Elytra oblong or oval, arched above. Legs

long and slender, the first four joints (and more especially the

first two) of the anterior tarsi, and sometimes the first joint of

the intermediate tarsi, dilated in the males and provided with

brushes of hair below. Mesosternum sometimes keeled. Body

oblong or oval, clothed with a very fine silky pubescence*,

The first division which I shall adopt is the same as Erichson’s,

and I preserye Latreille’s name Choleva for it as a subgenus;

but I shall drop the dilatation of the anterior tarsi and the first

joint of the middle tarsi in the males as a character.

It is a detraction from any character that it requires an exa-

mination of both male and female to recognize it ; and although

the character is perfectly true in this group, it cannot be used in

contrast to the subsequent divisions which I am going to pro-

pose, as in them exceptions to such a rule occur. I think the

following short characters sufficient.

Group I. (Subgenus Cuoxeya.)

Mesosternum not keeled ; body oblong ; antenne almost filiform ;

legs long and thin, posterior trochanters more or less developed in

the males.

1. C. angustatus, Fab.

Cistela angustata, Fab. Syst. EL. ii. 20, 23.

agilis, Fab. Syst. El. ii. 20. 27.

* This description of the characters of the genus is copied with some

modifications from that given by Prof. Lacordaire in his admirable work

the ‘ Genera des Coléopteres.”

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 13

Catops elongatus, Payk. Faun. Suee. i. 345. 3; Gyll. Ins. 1. 281. 6.

Ptomaphagus rufescens, lllig. Kaf. Pr. 87.1.

Catops rufescens, Duft. Faun. Aust. ii. 72. 1?

Choleva oblonga, Lat. Gen. Crust. et Ins. ii. 27. 1; Spence, Linn. Trans.

xi. 138. 1.

Catops angustatus, Erich.’ Kaf. d. Mark Brand. 1. 233. 1; Sturm, Deutschl.

Faun. xiv. 5. |. taf. 272. M. m; Heer, Faun. Helv. i. 578.1; Redtenb.

Faun. Aust. 143.4; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Frane. i. 299.

Oblongus, fuseus vel nigro-piceus ; thorace postice non latiore ;

elytris substriatis ; antennis pedibusque ferrugineis.

Long. 23 lin.

A long thin species. The head dark, the parts of the mouth

and the antennz ferruginous ; the latter about the length of the

elytra, the eighth joint a little smaller than the ninth, the last

jomt long and acuminate. The thorax is variable in form,

sometimes widest at the middle, as in fig. 1, sometimes widest a

little before the middle, as in fig. 2, and sometimes widest at the

very front, as in fig. 3, but never widest behind; sometimes a little

Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3.

broader than long, and sometimes about equal in length and

breadth. The sides are rounded. In some examples they are

semitransparent or paler than the centre (and are then known as

the var. angustatus). In others the edges are firm and con-

colorous (the variety castaneus). The posterior angles are nearly

right-angled, more or less obtuse. The upper side is very

densely and finely punctate in the males, less so in the females,

and in both covered with a thin pubescence. The elytra are

feebly striated, finely and densely punctate, with a fine pubes-

cence, sometimes rounded, sometimes acuminate at the apex,

sometimes wholly ferruginous, sometimes dark chestnut, paler

round the borders. The under side is brown, the edges of the

abdominal segments and sometimes the apex of the abdomen

reddish. The legs ferruginous.

The trochanters and thighs of the hind legs are liable to con-

siderable variation in form in the males. The following varieties

are met with.

1. The trochanters are simple, and the thighs have a fine

tooth below. ‘

2. The thighs are simple, and the trochanters are armed with

a sharp spike.

14 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

3. The thighs are simple, and the trochanters lengthened,

formed like a gouge-chisel, convex outwards, concave inwards,

but with the edge turned inwards at the point.

4. Both thighs and trochanters simple.

It will be seen from the above that I consider this a variable

species, and that the variations I have above indicated are nothing

more than different forms of the same species. Erichson was of

the same opinion, for it was he who first observed and recorded

the variations in the form of the trochanters of the hind legs,

and in noticing them he remarks— Of the males I have the

following variations before me. These, one cannot with propriety

refer to different species, when in all other respects the perfect

examples agree.’ Other authors however have come to a dif-

ferent opinion, and have made distinct species of these different

varieties, and as these authors are of high standing and their

species have been very generally adopted, it will be right, I think,

to give a copy of their descriptions, so that the reader may have

before him the means of judging for himself.

I shall therefore quote the descriptions of them given by

Kraatz, as being both the most recent and the most ample; but,

in accordance with my own opinion, J shall rank them here only

as varieties.

Var. C. angustatus, Kraatz.

Catops angustatus, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 401.

“ Oblongus, piceus; ¢horace minus dense et subtiliter punctato, ante

medium latiore, angulis posticis obtusiusculis, marginibus et

angulis posticis dilutioribus; elytris substriatis, rufo-ferru-

gineis, versus suturam postice interdum infuscatis.

“ Long. 2} lin.

“ Mas, trochanteribus posticis plerumque scalpiformibus.

“ Fem.? elytris apice acuminatis.

“The longest and narrowest species in this group. The an-

tennz are very slender, longer than the half of the body, always

entirely of a clear ferruginous colour. First jomt somewhat

stronger and as long as the second; third nearly twice as long as

the joints on each side of it (second and fourth) ; eighth only a.

little shorter than the seventh and ninth, which are equal in

length ; the last joint longer than the preceding, long, cylindrical,

and acuminate. ‘The head is blackish brown; the parts of the.

mouth ferruginous, abundantly and finely punctate. The thorax

is a Jittle broader than long, gently rounded at the sides, broadest

before the middle, gradually narrowed towards the base, the pos-

terior angles more or less feebly obtuse-angled ; the basal mar-

gins are depressed for a moderate breadth, and somewhat bent

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 15

up, so that there is the commencement of a deepened line on each

side. The upper side is covered with a moderately dense golden-

yellow pubescence, and tolerably abundantly and finely punctured,

pitchy black, the outer edges and the posterior angles reddish brown,

with a more or less distinctly marked dorsal line, slightly im-

pressed on both sides near the base. The elytra are only very

feebly expanded, sometimes not wider than the base, pressed flat

at the suture, slightly striated, finely and densely punctate, with

a fine silken pubescence, ferrugmous. The darker individuals

are somewhat darker towards the apex near the suture. The

legs are ferruginous red.

“ Note I—A not unimportant sexual distinction in this and

the kindred species is afforded by the formation of the posterior

trochanters. I have already (Stett. Ent. Zeit. xi. p. 284 ff.) ex-

pressed my opinion upon them, but by persevering investigations

I am now able to add something to what has been already said,

by way of completion. Male examples both of C. angustatus,

Fab., and C. cistelotdes, Frohl. (castaneus, Sturm), occur with

slightly developed simple acuminate posterior trochanters, with

the difference however, that the trochanters in C. angustatus are

narrower and longer than in C. cisteloides, and their point is far

more acuminate. But there are moreover in both species males

with very different, strongly developed trochanters. Nevertheless

the principle of development is wholly different in the two spe-

cies. The highest step of the development of the trochanters

in the C. cisteloides, is that they are armed at the inner side with

a projecting tooth more or less curved, and in the angustatus,

that they are widened and lengthened into a gouge-chisel form ;

thus it is clear that a male of the angustatus can never come

before us with a tooth at the inner side of the trochanter, it

being impossible to form a transition-step to the gouge-chisel

form.

“ Note I1.—I think I have found a second interesting sexual

distinction of the females of the C. angustatus, F., in the single

sharp acuminate posterior angles of the elytra. The specimens

of Erichson (to be found in the Royal collection of this place

(Berlin)) are represented as females of C. angustatus; in the

same way a collection of females here agree perfectly with the

males, but the latter have rounded elytra. One female taken at

Cassels (alas, somewhat injured), which has been kindly sur-

rendered to me by Herr Richl, has likewise acuminate elytra. A

larger series of this generally rare species would be required to

allow us to decide without doubt whether perhaps one of the

species very similar to C. angustatus exists, of which the male

likewise may have acuminate elytra. However, I consider this

highly improbable.

16 Mr. A. Marray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

* Note 111.—From the near affinity of this species with the fol-

lowing species more minutely described by Sturm (castaneus, St.),

is it surprising that I yet refer to this species the greatest

part of those placed by Erichson under the C. angustatus,

of the authors referred to by him, without subjecting to a

more particular examination the descriptions given by them, and

knowing whether or not they had the work of Sturm on Catops

before them while engaged on their descriptions? Such an ex-

amination has been made as far as possible, and leads to the

result that those authors who entered upon a more detailed

description, such as Gyllenhal, Latreille, Spence, had mostly

both species before them, as Gyllenhal without doubt appears to

have had.” ;

Var. C. intermedius, Kraatz.

C. intermedius, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 401.

“ Oblongus, fuscus; thorace postice angustiore, ante medium

latiore, angulis posticis obtusiusculis ; elytris substriatis eon-

coloribus ; antennis pedibusque ferrugineis.

« Long. 2} ln.

“ Mas, trochanteribus posticis scalpiformibus.

“Tn form this species occupies the middle place between

C. spadiceus, Dahl., and angustatus, Fab.,—shorter and broader

than the latter, Jess robust than the former ; well distinguished

however by its breadth. It is distinguished at the first glance

from C. spadiceus, Dahl., by the thorax not being deeply and

strongly punctured, as well as by its lighter colour. From C. an-

gustatus it differs in the following pomts :—

“‘q, The whole beetle is shorter, more compressed, less equally

broad than the C. angustatus, Fab.; the elytra in the middle

somewhat bellied out.

«‘b. The antenne are likewise uniform in colour, clear ferru-

ginous red, but somewhat shorter and stronger, the eighth joint

relatively shorter than in C. angustatus.

“ec, The margin of the thorax is somewhat broader, and

more bent upwards than in the C. angustatus, Fab.; it is also

to be distinguished by the deepened lines on each side of the

thorax. The upper side is moderately finely and densely (coarsely-

shagreen) punctured, ferruginous brown, occasionally somewhat

darker in the middle.

“d. The elytra are less equally broad than in the C. angus-

tatus, Fab., in the middle somewhat bellied out, entirely of one

colour, ferruginous brown.

“T have at least half-a-dozen females, but only one male.

before me, which with greater probability belongs to this species,

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 17

It has gouge-chisel-shaped lengthened trochanters in the hinder

legs. )

“ This species has up to this time been collected in the island

of Rugen (Erichson!), KGnigsberg (Hargen !), Leipzig (v. Kiesen-

wetter !), S. Wehlen (Markel !), and Diisseldorf (Hildebrand !).

It has also been taken in Austria. For the most part it is

found under leaves. C. angustatus, Fab., is not rarely found

under stones.”

Var. C. cisteloides, Frohl.

“ Luperus cisteloides, Frohl. Naturf. 28, 25. 3. t. 2. f. 50.

* Catops castaneus, Sturm, Ins. xiv. 9. 3. t. 273. a. A; Heer, Fn. Helv. 1.

378.2; Redt. Fn. Aust. 143.4; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 284. 4.

* cisteloides, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 404; Fairm. & Laboulb.

Faun. Ent. Frang. i. 299.

“ Oblongus, nigro-piceus ; thorace nigro-piceo, ante medium vix

latiore, angulis posticis obtusiusculis ; elytris substriatis, piceis

seu castaneis.

* Long. 24 lin.

“ Mas, trochanteribus posticis acuminatis seu latere inferiore

dente magis minusve curvato extante.

“This is readily distinguished from the C. angustatus, Fab.,

by the darker colour and the form of the thorax. The antenne

are nearly as long as the body*, reddish brown, always darker

towards the point. First joint strong, third distinctly longer

than the contiguous joints, the fourth somewhat shorter than the

third ; fifth, sixth and seventh equal in length, eighth nearly half

as long as the seventh, ninth somewhat shorter than the seventh,

tenth somewhat shorter than the ninth; the last jomt almost

twice as long as the preceding, sharply acuminate. The head is

black-brown, extremely finely and closely punctate. The thorax

is formed like that of C. angustatus, Fab., but the sides both

before and behind are nearly equally strongly rounded, so that

the greatest breadth is not before the middle ; the margin is by

far less raised up, less broadly spread out, so that the line on

each side of the thorax is both shorter and less deeply marked ;

the upper side is as a rule entirely pitchy black, extremely deeply and

finely ( fine-shagreen) punctured ; the deep middle line is frequently

wanting. The elytra are moderately arched, lightly striated,

pitchy black, more rarely pitchy brown. The legs are ferruginous

brown.

“It is spread over the whole of middle and southern Europe,

and not rare. In France (according to Latreille) ; in Lombardy

* This is not correctly expressed. The antenne are longer than the half

of the body, but cannot be said to be “ nearly as long as the body.” They

are in no degree longer than the antenne of the other varieties.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvi. 2

18 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

(according to Villa); im Italy (according to Sturm) ; in Sardinia

(Géné, Berlin Mus.) ; in Sicily (Berlin Mus.).’’*

A consideration of the differences here given as characterizing

these three species will not, I think, warrant us in looking upon

them as more than varieties.

The differences consist in the form and colour of the thorax,

the punctuation of the thorax and elytra, the form and colour of

the body, the colour of the antennz, the proportions of the

joints of the antenna, and the form of the posterior trochanters.

Of these, the difference most readily recognizable is that in the

form and colour of the thorax; the form of the thorax in the

typical specimens of C, castaneus, Sturm, being that shown in

fig. 1, while C. angustatus, Fab., is that shown in fig. 2, and

C. intermedius, Kr., somewhat between them, but nearest to

fig. 2, M. Kraatz’s description might lead us to suppose that

fig. 3 would best represent C. angustatus, F., but having had

under my eyes typical examples of all three, sent to me by

M. Kraatz, | find that none of them have the thorax widened

more in front than fig. 2, which, indeed, fairly represents the

thorax of M. Kraatz’s specimens of C. angustatus, F. But I

know that there ave examples which have their thorax widened

as much in front as fig. 3. I possess one myself, and Sturm

gives that form in his figure of his C. angustatus. We must

therefore either make a fourth species to receive fig. 3, or else

admit that this subgroup is variable in the form of its thorax ;

and there need be no hesitation in adopting the latter course, as,

although I have not met with any specimen exactly filling up the

gap between fig. 2 and fig. 3, I have seen all grades of transition

between fig. 1 and fig. 2. Another point of difference, where we

constantly see a gradual passage between the one and the other, is

the colour of the thorax. In the typical C. castaneus, St., it is dark

pitchy black throughout, and the margins are not paler than the

centre, nor semitransparent. In both C. angustatus, F., and C, in-

termedius, Kr., the margins are paler, or semitransparent ; but I

have seen transition specimens where it is almost impossible to

say whether the margins are paler or not, in one view looking

paler, and in another quite dark and opake. Again, specimens

occur very slightly paler on the margins, and so on. The punc-

tuation and depressions, and the spreading out and raising up

of the margins of the thorax also vary. I admit that I have

neyer seen the normal or perfect examples of C. castaneus, St.,

with the spread-out and slightly bent-up edges of the C. angus-

tatus, F., or intermedius, Kr.; but if, as I imagine, the latter are

less mature individuals, and castaneus, St., the more mature fully-

* Kraatz in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 19

coloured and more solidified form, such a circumstance will suf-

ficiently account for the differences to which I have been alluding,

whether in punctuation, depression, or colour. Indeed, such a

supposition accounts for more; for it is not only in the thorax

that these differences exist, but also in the whole of the rest of

the body. C. castaneus, St., is darker and more deeply punc-

tate on the elytra also, and the deeper colour extends to the

antennze, which are slightly darker at the point ; and this is only

what might be expected: we always find that where a greater

infusion of colour has penetrated through an individual, it is not

confined to one part, but pervades the whole system. I also

look upon the acuminate sutural apex of the elytra (referred to

by Kraatz as being possibly a sexual distinction of C. angus-

tatus, ¥.) as another indication of immaturity. I have never

seen this in C. castaneus, St., but I have found it indifferently

both in the males and females of C. angustatus, F. As to

the differences in the form of the joints of the antenne of

C. angustatus, F., and castaneus, St., these are too slight, even

adopting absolutely M. Kraatz’s own description, to allow us to

use them as characters for a species ; but I cannot entirely adopt

his descriptions without reservation, as, notwithstanding a very

eareful examination of the specimens he sent me, I have scarcely

been able to detect the differences he alludes to. Turning back

to his description, it will be seen that the only differences given

are the following :—In C. angustatus, F., he says, the third joint

is nearly twice as long as either the second or fourth. In

C. castaneus, he says, the third is distinctly longer than either the

second or fourth. In angustatus the seventh and ninth are said

to be equal in length. In castaneus the ninth is somewhat

shorter than the seventh. In angustatus the last joint is said to

be “longer than the preceding, long cylindric and acuminate.”

In castaneus it is “ almost twice as long as the preceding, sharply

acuminate.” The differences here given are thus exceedingly

minute, so much so as to be inappreciable by an ordinary ob-

server. Now I know that in undisputed species in this genus

considerable differences are to be perceived in different indivi-

duals in the relative thickness, &c. of the joints of the antenne ;

so much so as to make the antenne appear decidedly more

clubbed in the one than the other. This minute measuring of

the joints appears to me therefore an unsafe character, not to be

adopted. There only remains the difference in the form of the

posterior trochanters in C. angustatus, ¥., and castaneus, St. On

this I shall only observe, that M. Kraatz admits that there is

great variation in the development of these parts, but seems to

think there is an impossibility in a transition taking place

between a trochanter having a projecting curved tooth at the

20 Mr, A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

inner side, and a trochanter itself of a gouge-chisel-shaped form

without a tooth on the inner side. My readers must judge for

themselyes as to this ; but L agree with Erichson in thinking that

the development of that part is variable, and I cannot agree with

M. Kraatz in putting bounds to the variation.

The differences we have been considering are almost entirely

those between C. angustatus, Fab., and intermedius, Kr., on the

one part, and C. castaneus, St., on the other. It is much

more difficult to point out those between C. angustatus, F., and

intermedius, Kr.: as to these, I shall confine myself to referring

the reader to the distinctions pointed out by M. Kraatz himself

in his description of C. intermedius above quoted, merely ob-

serving that if I am right in joining together the much more

dissimilar forms of C. angustatus, F., and castaneus, St., we can

have no hesitation in refusing to make another species on the

strength of the almost imperceptible differences relied on by

M. Kraatz, a decision which a careful examination of the speci-

mens of intermedius so kindly furnished to me by that gentleman

has given me no reason to alter. If any of the varieties are to

be exalted into separate species, castaneus, St., is obviously the

one best entitled to this.

Referring back then to my general comprehensive description

of this species above given (p. 13), I have only to add, that the

extreme examples of the foregoing varieties may be known with-

out much difficulty by the following characters. The less decided

examples form intermediate steps, and it will often be found

scarcely possible to say to which of the nearest varieties they

belong.

1. Pale ferruginous varieties.

Var. A. Thorax widest at front, as shown in fig. 3; margins

paler than centre.

Var. B. C. angustatus, Kraatz. Thorax widest not at the very

front, but a little before the middle, as in fig. 2; margins

paler than centre ; depressions on thorax not deep. Elytra

nearly parallel, darker at suture towards apex.

Var. C. C. intermedius, Kraatz. Thorax a little broader than in

var. B; margins paler than centre, with deeper depressions

on thorax. Elytra slightly widened in middle, entirely red

ferruginous.

2. Dark chestnut variety.

Var. ). C.castaneus, Sturm. Thorax widest in middle, as shown

in fig. 1, of a more solid consistence than the pale varieties ;

margins not paler than centre.

This species is found over the whole of Europe, and Gebler

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 21

mentions it as having been taken in the south-west of Siberia.

The whole of the above varieties are found in England and Scot-

land, but var. D is the commonest and var. A the rarest—(of it

I have only seen one example).

2. C. spadiceus, Sturm.

Catops spadiceus, Dahl. in lit. ; Sturm, Ins. xiv. 11. taf. 273. fiz. 6B; Redt.

Fn. Aust. 771; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 399.

Oblongus, nigro-piceus ; thorace fortius punctato, Z

postice angustiore, ante medium latiore, angulis (

posticis obtusis ; elytris castaneis, parum yen- \°\_ //

tricatis, apice obscurioribus, substriatis; an- (c 4

tennis ferrugineis, apicem versus obscurioribus. |

Long. 24-2! lin.

Mas, trochanteribus posticis scalpiformibus.

The most robust species in this group. Head, thorax and

under-side in the fully-coloured individuals pitehy black, the

elytra fine chestnut-brown. The examples not fully coloured are

dirty yellowish brown. The antenne are tolerably long, scarcely

half as long as the body, reddish brown, in the es state the

last five joints darker; the first somewhat stronger, third some-

what longer than the adjoining joints ; second, fourth and fifth of

equal length ; sixth somewhat shorter than the fifth, and as long

as the seventh and ninth; eighth somewhat shorter than the

tenth ; tenth somewhat shorter than the ninth; the last joint is

somewhat shorter than the foregoing, strongly acuminate. The

head is pitchy black, the parts of the mouth ferruginous red;

the top of the head finely and sparingly, the front more deeply

and strongly punctured. The thorax is distinctly narrower

than the elytra, a little arched, somewhat broader than long; the

sides rounded, and somewhat more so in front than behind,

so that the greatest breadth of the thorax is rather before the

middle; the posterior angles are obtuse and rounded off, the

basal margin straight-truncate ; the margin in the posterior half

is broadly expanded and a little bent up, so that a somewhat

bent and deep line arises on each side, particularly when seen

from above. The upper side is strongly and deeply punctate*, mo-

derately densely covered with a golden-yellow pubescence, with

a distinctly impressed line along the middle, about one-third of

* Sturm says, “finely and densely” punctate, but Kraatz properly cor-

reets this ; the deep coarse punctuation being one of the most characteristi

features of the species.

22 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

the thorax in length. The scutellum is triangular, punctate,

brown. The elytra are moderately arched, chestnut-brown, and

a little darker towards the apex; immediately behind the shoulders

and a Jittle further back somewhat bellied out, but not so that

the greatest breadth lies before the middle. The striz are mode-

rately shallow, but very distinct, and their punctuation is pro-

portionately strong and somewhat wrinkled. The pubescence on

the elytra is long, and not so close or adpressed as in the allied spe-

cies. The legs are ferruginous brown.

Kraatz records the male as having chisel-formed posterior tro-

chanters, but in strongly developed specimens there might easily

occur gouge-formed trochanters. Sturm only knew the female.

I have also only seen the female.’

This species is to be distinguished from the preceding by its

more robust form, deeper punctuation, more bellied elytra, and

by the longer pubescence on the elytra. For a considerable time

I was disposed to look upon it as merely another variety of

C. angustatus, F., but I am now satisfied that it may justly take

its place as a distinct species. The stronger punctuation taken

by itself might only indicate a variety, but the bellied form of the

elytra and the difference in the pubescence are more essential

characters ; the latter is particularly well seen on the edges of

the elytra.

It was first recorded by Sturm as having been found in

Austria and Hungary. Chaudoir found it at Kiew. Kraatz

records it as having been taken at Halle, Bautzen, Erlangen,

Darmstadt, &c. It has been taken by M. Chevrolat in France,

and I have one specimen taken in Scotland. Kraatz says, it is

generally found under leaves.

3. C. humeralis, Brullé.

Choleva humeralis, Br. Exped. Se. de Morée, i. p. 162. no. 255.

“ Nigricans, punctatus, rufo-villosus ; ore, antennis, elytrorum

macula humerali, abdominis segmentorum marginibus pedi-

busque ferrugineis; antennis apice fuscis; elytris profunde

punctato-striatis.

“ Long. 24 lin., lat. 14.

“Head black, finely punctate, with the whole of the mouth

and the half of the antenne ferruginous; the latter slightly

pubescent, their five last articles brown. Thorax a little less

long than broad, rounded on the sides, raised at the posterior

angles, truncate behind, finely punctate, of a blackish brown,

lighter on the lateral margins, and covered with a short reddish

pubescence. Scutellum triangular, blackish and pubescent lke

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 23

the thorax. Elytra oval, a little broader than the thorax, marked

with deep longitudinal striz formed by large deep punctures,

and tolerably strongly punctate in the intervals between the

strie ; their colour is of a deep brown, marked with a large fer-

ruginous blotch at each of the anterior angles ; they are covered

by a reddish adpressed and tolerably dense pubescence. Under

side of the body finely punctate, blackish, with the edges of the

abdominal segments ferrugmous. Legs of this latter colour ;

posterior thighs partly brown.

“Upon flowers in the month of June. Arcadia*.”

This appears to be the proper place to take in this species.

I have not seen it. Brullé did not give a figure of it in his

work, and on inquiry at Paris I find that his specimens must

have been eaten by the larvee of the Anthreni so destructive to

collections on the continent. The only trace or record of the

species, therefore, so far as I know, is his description, of which

the above is a translation, and which seems to me to show con-

siderable affinity to the preceding species (spadiceus, St.).

4. C. agilis, Illig.

Ptomaphagus agilis, Illig. Kaf. Pr. 882.

Choleva agilis, Spence, Linn. Trans. xi. 1402.

Catops fuscus, Gyll. Ins. Suec. 1. 28]. 5.

Choleva testacea, Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. xi. 28. 2.

Catops agilis, Erich. Kaf. d. Mark Brand. i. 234. 2; Sturm, Ins. xiv. 7.

2. tab. 272. n. N ; Heer, Fn. Helv. i. 379. 3; Redt. Fn. Aust. 133. 3;

Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 405 ; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Franc.

i. 300.

Oblongo-ovatus ; nigro-piceus, vel testaceo-piceus; _— Fig. 5.

thorace transverso, postice latiore ; elytris sub-

striatis, antennis pedibusque ferrugineis.

Long. 24 lin. ,

Mas, tibiis mediis curvatis ; trochanteribus posticis | “i

inferiore dente curvato acuminato armatis.

Shorter and somewhat broader than C. angustatus, Fab., not

very constant in colour, the darkest examples ferruginous brown

with lighter antennz. The antenne are scarcely half so long as

the body; the third joint almost twice as long as the second ;

the fourth, fifth and sixth are nearly equally long, the remainder

(seven to eleven) are somewhat stronger than the preceding ;

the eighth is half as long as the ninth; the ninth equal to the

tenth; the last joint is a half longer than the preceding joint,

obtusely acuminate. The head is brown, extremely fine and

tolerably sparingly punctured. The thorax is almost twice as

* Brullé in Joc. cit.

24 Mr, A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

broad as long, nearly of the breadth of the elytra, narrower in

front than behind, the broadest part being decidedly behind the mid-

dle; the posterior angles are obtuse and rounded, and the sides are

neither spread out nor bent up, so that the moderately dense and

very finely punctate upper side is entirely smooth. The colour of

the thorax is dark ferruginous brown, darker in the middle.

Individuals with the thorax entirely blackish occur rarely. The

elytra are generally ferruginous or testaceous, sometimes chestnut

and sometimes pitchy brown ; they are finely and densely punc-

tate ; at the base very feebly, towards the apex more distmetly

finely punctate striate. The legs are ferruginous brown, the

middle tibie of the males are bent strongly inwards, the posterior

trochanters are not distant at the base, and are armed on the

inner side with a short strong pointed tooth.

This species is readily distinguished by the form of the thorax,

narrowest in front and widest behind. The other particulars

which I have printed in italics are characters also easily seized.

It is spread over the most part of Europe, in Prussia, Austria,

Saxony, Switzerland, France, Sweden, and Britain, but is every-

where scarce.

The only exotic species belonging to this group which I know

of is C. lateritius, Menet. C. Frankenhaueseri, Mann., would also

fall into this group, if it is retained in the genus at all, but its

pectinate antenne seem to me to require us to create a separate

genus to receive it.

C. lateritius, Men.

Catops lateritius, Menetries, Mem. Acad. Imp. Sciences, St. Petersburg,

6 sér. vi. (1849), p. 52.

“ Oblongo-ovatus, pallide rufo-ferrugineus, breviter griseo-pubes-

cens ; antennis tenuibus longitudine dimidii corporis ; thorace

transverso subdepresso postice latiore angulis obtusis, late-

ribus subreflexis ; elytris creberrime punctulatis, substriatis,

stria suturali profunde exarata.

“Long. 2 lin., lat. 2 lin.

“ Near C. agilis, Illig., but proportionately narrower, the thorax

is much less broad and flatter, and the antennz are much longer,

“Described from two individuals taken at Novaia Alexan-

drovskaia*.””

[To be continued. |

* Menetries in loc. cit.

Dr. J. E. Gray on a new species of Spherium. 25

Il.—On a second new species of Spherium from the Paddington

Canal. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

In company with the Spherium pallidum described in the last

Number of the ‘ Annals,’ Mr. Rowse finds another species of the

genus which is very distinct from the well-known and generally

distributed Spherium corneum in being subtriangular, which

gives it much the external appearance of a species of Pisidium.

I cannot identify it with any of the species in the British

Museum collection, nor can I find any description or figure re-

presenting it in any of the works on European freshwater Mol-

lusea ; | therefore indicate it as new.

It most resembles some specimens which we have received as

Cyclas tumida of Pfeiffer, but I do not find any species under

that name in Dr. Pfeiffer’s work. The Paddington Canal spe-

cimens are more inequilatera], longer, and more triangular, having

a very distinct hinder slope.

M. Deshayes considers C. tumida as only a variety of S. cor-

neum.

SpH#R1IUM PIsIpIOIDEs.

Shell ovate, subtrigonal, mvolucres olive, pale edged, slightly

concentrically wrinkled, rather rounded in front, somewhat pro-

duced, with a broad subangular slope behind ; the umbones sub-

anterior, regularly convex. Siphons united nearly to the end,

the upper shorter, subconic ; apertures circular, simple, the lower

rather larger, about twice the length of the upper when expanded,

cylindrical; the opening circular, simple.

Hab. Paddington Canal.

The adult shells are 6 lines long, 5 high, and 4 thick. They

have much the appearance of a large swollen Piszdium, but have

the two distinct siphons of the genus Spherium.

The young shells which were deposited in the glass of water

during the night were much compressed and nearly regularly

oblong ; they varied in size, some being twice as large as the

others; the largest were about 1} line long.

When the siphons are very much extended the difference in

length between the two is not so great as above, as it is the

basal part of the siphons which appears to be the most extensile,

the apical parts keeping the same relative length to each other

that they did in the less extended state.

I am informed that some British conchologists consider Sp.

pallidum to be the C. lacustris of Draparnaud: it is very unlike

the specimens I have received from France and the rest of Europe

under that name.

26 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Habits of the Orang-Utan.

I11.—On the Habits of the Orang-Utan of Borneo.

By Arrrep R. Waviace.

Tue two species of Pithecus which it is believed have now been

proved to exist in Borneo, appear to have habits so similar that

we shall not attempt to divide them, but shall speak of the

genus in the following observations, in which we shall for brevity

use the native name “ Mias”’ as applied to both species.

There seems little reason to doubt that the Sumatran Orang

is identical with the larger Bornean species, or that possessing

the lateral cheek-ridges. All these animals confine themselves

strictly to the low, level and swampy districts which occupy

so large a portion of the surface of both these islands ; and this

circumstance sufficiently accounts for the peculiarity of their

distribution. It seems at first sight surprising, that though

they are abundant on almost all the north-west coast of Borneo,

and in the south and south-west districts as far north as Sambas,

yet in the territory of Sarawak they are quite unknown. But

when we know the habits of the animal, we see a sufficient

reason for this in the peculiar physical features of the Sarawak

district. The Mias frequents those districts only which are so

low and level as to be marshy, and are at the same time covered

with a lofty virgin forest. In the midst of these plaims are

isolated mountains, on many of which the Dyaks have settled

and planted numerous fruit-trees, which are much sought after

by the Mias, which traverses these hills in all directions, but

always retires to the swamp at night. Wherever the country

becomes slightly elevated, and therefore dry, the Mias is no

longer found. Thus, in the lower part of the Sadong River’the

Mias is abundant; but immediately above the limit of the tides,

where the country, though still flat, is just high enough to be

dry, it disappears. Now the Sarawak valley has this peculiarity,

that the lower portion, though swampy, is not covered with con-

tinuous lofty forest, but is principally occupied by the Nipa palm,

while at a short distance above the town of Sarawak the country

becomes dry and covered with low undulations, the greater

portion of which is second-growth jungle, having been at dif-

ferent times cultivated by the Malays and Dyaks. It is probably

the vast extent of unbroken and equally lofty forest which is the

principal attraction to the Mias. These forests are its open

country, the place best adapted to its mode of life, where it can

roam in every direction with as much facility as the Indian in

the prairie or the Arab in the desert. The dry grounds are

more frequented by man, more cut up by clearings and by low

second-growth jungle, in which progression is more difficult,

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Habits of the Orang-Utan. 27

where it is more exposed to danger, and where probably its

favourite food is less abundant.

It is a singular and most interesting sight to watch a Mias

making his way leisurely through the forest. He walks delibe-

rately along the branches, in the semi-erect attitude which the

great length of his arms and the shortness of his legs give him:

choosing a place where the boughs of an adjacent tree inter-

mingle, he seizes the smaller twigs, pulls them towards him,

grasps them, together with those of the tree he is on, and thus,

forming a kind of bridge, swmgs himself onward, and seizing

hold of a thick branch with his long arms, is in an instant

walking along to the opposite side of the tree. He never jumps

or springs, or even appears to hurry himself, and yet moves as

quickly as a man can run along the ground beneath. When

pursued or attacked, his object is to get to the loftiest tree

near; he then climbs rapidly to the higher branches, breaking

off quantities of the smaller boughs, apparently for the purpose

of frightening his pursuers. Temminck denies that the Orang

breaks the branches to throw down when pursued ; but I have

myself several times observed it. It is true he does not throw

them af a person, but casts them down vertically ; for it is

evident that a bough cannot be thrown to any distance from the

top of a lofty tree. In one case, a female Mias, on a durian

tree, kept up for at least ten minutes a continuous shower of

branches and of the heavy spined fruits, as large as 32-pounders,

which most effectually kept us clear of the tree she was on. She

could be seen breaking them off and throwing them down with

every appearance of rage, uttering at intervals a loud pumping

grunt, and evidently meaning mischief.

When a Mias is once up a lofty tree, there is no danger of

his gettimg away, as he will not descend to the lower branches,

which he must do to pass to another tree. As soon as he feels

himself badly wounded he makes a nest, which, if he completes,

is so secure that he will never fall from it. I lost two Miases that

way, both dying on their nest, when I could not get any one to

climb up or cut down the tree till the next day, when putrefac-

tion had commenced. They choose a horizontal forked branch,

and breaking off all the branches in its neighbourhood, lay them

across one another till a complete leafy bed is made, which quite

hides them from below, and from which they will not move

afterwards. Their tenacity of life is very great,—from six to a

dozen bullets in the body being required to kill them, or make

them fall.

Every night the Mias sleeps on a nest similar to that above

described, but smaller, and generally placed on a small tree, not

more than 50 or 60 feet from the ground. The same animal

28 Mr. A.R. Wallace on the Habits of the Orang-Utan.

appears seldom to use these nests more than once or twice, and

they are accordingly very abundant in places frequented by the

Mias. They feed all through the middle of the day, but seldom

return to the same tree two days running. They seem not mueh

alarmed at man, often staring down upon me for several minutes,

and then moving away slowly to a short distance. After seeing

one, I have often had to go a mile or more to fetch my gun, and

in almost every case have found it on my return within a hundred

yards of the place. I have never seen two adult animals together;

but both males and females are sometimes accompanied by half-

grown young ones, or two or three of the latter go in company.

They very rarely descend to the ground,—probably only in search

of water.

The.females have but one young, which clings by the long

hair of its mother’s flanks, and so little impedes her motions,

that in two cases I was not aware of its presence till both fell

together. The food of the Mias consists exclusively of fruits,

with occasionally, when these are scarce, tender shoots and

leaves. They seem to prefer them unripe, and many are in-

tensely bitter, particularly the large red fleshy arillus of one

fruit, which seems an especial favourite. In another case, they

eat only the small seed of a large fruit, of which they destroy

immense quantities. The durian (Durio zibethinus) is also a great

favourite, and the Mias destroys large quantities of this delicious

fruit, in places where it grows surrounded by lofty jungle, but

will not pass over clearings to get at them. It seems wonderful

how the animal can tear open this fruit, the outer covering of

which is so thick and tough, and densely covered with strong

conical spines. It probably bites a few of these off first, and

then, making a small hole, tears the fruit open with its powerful

fingers.

It has been said, that the huge canine teeth of the Orang are

for the purpose of defending himself against the tigers, bears,

and other carnivorous animals of the Eastern forests, Our ob-

servations and inquiries as to the habits of the animal convince

us, however, that no such explanation of this part of the animal’s

structure is at all satisfactory. In the first place, neither the

tiger nor any other of the large carnivora are found in Borneo,

where the Orang is most abundant ; though in Sumatra the tiger

and the Mias are found together. In the second place, the tiger

cannot climb trees, and is therefore quite unable to attack the

Orang, which never need descend to the ground, and very

rarely does so. The Malayan Bear (Helarctos Malayanus) 1s

the only animal which would have any chance whatever in

attacking him ; but as it is not carnivorous (or but slightly so),

it could haye no object in commencing an attack in which it

‘

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Habits of the Orang-Utan. 29

would probably be beaten. The Dyaks are unanimous in their

statements that the Mias never either attacks or is attacked by

any animal, with one exception, which is highly curious, and

would hardly be credible were it not confirmed by the testimony

of several independent parties, who have been eye-witnesses of

the circumstance. The only animal the Mias measures his

strength with is the Crocodile of these regions (Crocodilus bypor-

catus?). The account of the natives is as follows :—“ When

there is little fruit in the jungle, the Mias goes to the river-side to

~ eat the fruits that grow there, and also the young shoots of some

palm-trees which are found at the water’s edge. The crocodile

then sometimes tries to seize him, but he gets on the reptile’s

back, beats it with his hands and feet on the head and neck, and

pulls open its jaws till he rips up the throat. The Mias always

kills the crocodile, for he is very strong. There is no animal in

the jungle so strong as he.”

Now it is very important to observe, that in this, the only

case in which the Mias has to defend himself against a formidable

attack, he never uses his teeth at all! He depends solely upon

the immense strength of his arms. But even if we suppose that

in Sumatra he is sometimes exposed to the attacks of the tiger,

does any one imagine for a moment that his teeth would be of

the slightest use to him? The tiger always attacks unawares,

and almost always from behind. Let us imagine, then, a tiger

springing upon the back of an Orang who was walking upon the

ground ; what could the animal possibly do, with those fearful

claws deep in his back and shoulders, and those tremendous

teeth firmly fastened in his neck? The vertebra would probably

be broken, and the Mias would fall dead on the spot, as almost

every animal does under such an attack; more especially as the

tiger, knowing the strength of its prey, would be sure to strike

at a mortal part, or obtain such a hold as could not be shaken

off. But there is yet another consideration, which shows that

the canines of the Orang can hardly have been given it for the

purpose of enabling it to defend itself against its enemies. The

females have very small canines, and comparatively weak Jaws ;

and as they, when suckling young ones, require defence far more

than the males, who are so much more powerful, the same

weapons would hardly have been denied them. It may be

objected, that they would be guarded by the males; but this

cannot be the case, because the females with young are always

found alone, and the adult males also by themselves, as is the

ease with many other animals.

Here then we have an animal which lives solely and exclusively

on fruits or other soft vegetable food, and yet has huge canine

teeth. It never attacks other animals, and is rarely attacked

30 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Habits of the Orang-Utan.

itself; but when it is, it uses, not these powerful teeth, but its

arms and legs to defend itself. And, lastly, the female, which

is weaker, which is encumbered by its young, and which would

therefore afford a much easier prey, and a more tempting object

of attack, is quite unprovided with these supposed means of

defence. Do you mean to assert, then, some of my readers will

indignantly ask, that this animal, or any animal, is provided with

organs which are of no use to it? Yes, we reply, we do mean

to assert that many animals are provided with organs and ap-

pendages which serve no material or physical purpose. The

extraordinary excrescences of many insects, the fantastic and

many-coloured plumes which adorn certain birds, the excessively

developed horns in some of the antelopes, the colours and in-

finitely modified forms of many flower-petals, are all cases, for

an explanation of which we must look to some general principle

far more recondite than a simple relation to the necessities of

the individual. We conceive it to be a most erroneous, a most

contracted view of the organic world, to believe that every part

of an animal or of a plant exists solely for some material and

physical use to the individual,—to believe that all the beauty, all

the infinite combinations and changes of form and structure

should have the sole purpose and end of enabling each animal

to support its existence,—to believe, in fact, that we know the

one sole end and purpose of every modification that exists in

organic beings, and to refuse to recognize the possibility of there

being any other. Naturalists are too apt to imagine, when they

cannot discover, a use for everything in nature: they are not

even content to let “beauty” be a sufficient use, but hunt after

some purpose to which even that can be applied by the animal

itself, as if one of the noblest and most refining parts of man’s

nature, the love of beauty for its own sake, would not be per-

ceptible also in the works of a Supreme Creator*.

* The talented author of the ‘ Plurality of Worlds’ has some admirable

remarks on this subject. He says, “ In the structure of animals, especially

that large class best known to us, vertebrate animals, there is a general

plan, which, so far as we can see, goes beyond the circuit of the special

adaptation of each animal to its mode of living; and is a rule of creative

action, in addition to the rule that the parts shall be subservient to an

intelligible purpose of animal life. We have noticed several phenomena

in the animal kmgdom, where parts and features appear rudimentary and

inert, discharging no office in their ceconomy, and speaking to us not of

purpose, but of law.” Again: “ And do we not, in innumerable cases, see

beauties of colour and form, texture and lustre, which suggest to us irre-

sistibly the belief that beauty and regular form are rules of the creative

ency, even when they seem to us, looking at the creation for uses only,

idle and wanton expenditure of beauty and regularity? To what purpose

are the host of splendid circles which decorate the tail of the peacock, more

beautiful, each of them, than Saturn and his rings? To what purpose the

Mr, A. R. Wallace on the Habits of the Orang-Utan. 31

The separate species of which the organic world consists being

parts of a whole, we must suppose some dependence of each upon

all; some general design which has determined the details, quite

independently of individual necessities. We look upon the

anomalies, the eccentricities, the exaggerated or diminished de-

velopment of certain parts, as indications of a general system of

nature, by a careful study of which we may learn much that is

at present hidden from us; and we believe that the constant

practice of imputing, right or wrong, some use to the individual,

of every part of its structure, and even of inculeating the doctrine

that every modification exists solely for some such use, is an

error fatal to our complete appreciation of all the variety, the

beauty, and the harmony of the organic world.

It is a remarkable circumstance, that an animal so large, so

peculiar, and of such a high type of form as the Orang-Utan,

should yet be confined to such a limited district,—to two islands,

and those almost at the limits of the range of the higher mam-

malia ; for, eastward of Borneo and Celebes, the Quadrumana and

most of the higher mammalia almost disappear. One cannot

help speculating on a former condition of this part of the world

which should give a wider range to these strange creatures,

which at once resemble and mock the “ human form divine,’”’—

which so closely approach us in structure, and yet differ so

widely from us in many points of their external form. And

when we consider that almost all other animals have in previous

ages been represented by allied, yet distinct forms,—that the

bears and tigers, the deer, the horses, and the cattle of the

tertiary period were distinct from those which now exist, with

what intense interest, with what anxious expectation must we

look forward to the time when the progress of civilization in

those hitherto wild countries may lay open the monuments of a

former world, and enable us to ascertain approximately the

period when the present species of Orangs first made their ap-

pearance, and perhaps prove the former existence of allied species

still more gigantic in their dimensions, and more or less human

in their form and structure! Some such discoveries we may

. exquisite textures of microscopic objects, more curiously regular than any-

thing which the telescope discloses ? To what purpose the gorgeous colours

of tropical birds and insects, that live and die where human eye never

approaches to admire them? To what purpose the thousands of species

of butterflies, with the gay and varied embroidery of their microscopic

plumage, of which one in millions, if seen at all, only draws the admiration

of the wandering schoolboy? To what purpose the delicate and brilliant

markings of shells which live generation after generation in the sightless

depths of ocean? Do not all these examples, to which we might add

countless others, prove that beauty and regularity are universal features of

the work of Creation in all its parts, great and small?”

32 Mr. G. Busk on Polyzoa collected on the Coast

not unreasonably anticipate, after the wonders that geology has

already made known to us. Animals the most isolated in ex-

isting nature have been shown to be but the last of a series of

allied species which have lived and died upon the earth. mi

class and every order has furnished some examples, from whi

we may conclude, that all isolations in nature are apparent only,

and that whether we discover their remains or no, every animal

now existing has had its representatives in past geological

epochs.

I1V.—Polyzoa collected by Mr. M‘Andrew on the Coast of

Norway and Finmark in 1856. By Gzorcer Busk, F.R.S. &

L.S.*

[With a Plate. |

MOLLUSCA.

Class POLYZOA.

Order I. P. Inrunpisuata.

Suborder I. Cheilostomata.

1. Fam. Casnereapa, Busk (B. M. Cat. p. 37).

1. Caberea, Lamx. (B. M. Cat. p. 37).

1. C. Hookeri, Fleming (B. M. Cat. p. 39. pl. 38. fig. 2).

2. Fam. CeLterorapa#, Busk (B. M. Cat. p. 85).

1. Cellepora, O. Fabricius (B. M. Cat. p. 85).

1. C. cervicornis, auctor. (pars); Couch, Cornish Fauna, p. 111,

pl.19. (Pl. L. fig. 1.)

Much confusion exists with respect to this species, which I

have no doubt more properly belongs to Eschara. The form

here intended, however, which is plainly identical with Mr.

Couch’s, and therefore most probably with Borlase’s, is quite

distinct from the Eschara cervicornis of the B. M. Cat., and I

believe also from that of M.-Edwards (Sur les Eschares, p. 15. —

pl. 1. fig. 1), though perhaps not from the form represented in

his pl. 2. fig. 1. The genus Eschara requires careful revision, as

does also Cellepora.

* The list is arranged according to the artificial classification adopted in

my Catalogue of Marine Polyzoa published by the British Museum, in

which, so far as that Catalogue at present extends, the synonymy will be

found.

of Norway and Finmark. 35

3. Fam. Escuarav”, Busk (B. M. Cat. p. 88).

1, Eschara, Ray (B. M. Cat. p. 89).

1. E. teres, nob. (n. sp.). Pl. I. fig. 2.

Polyzoary composed of distant, cylindrical, terete branches.

Cells ovate, immersed, their outline being indicated by a single

row of minute punctures. Mouth arcuate above, with a simple

straight lower lip, within which is an avicularium with an orbi-

cular mandible.

2. H. Skenei (var. tridens), nob. (n. sp.). Pl. I. fig. 3.

Polyzoary composed of short, flattened, expanding branches

dilated at the ends. Cells distinct, elongated. Mouth subor-

bieular, horizontal, protected in front by a trifid process con-

sisting of a central (unarmed ?) rostrum and an elevated avicu-

larium on either side (PI. I. fig. 3 e).

3. E. saccata, nob. (n. sp.). PI. I. fig. 5.

Polyzoary composed of elongated flattened branches dilated at

the ends. Cells (in the growmg portions) furnished with a

strongly projecting avicularium, in the form of an elongated sac

or pouch which covers nearly the whole front of the cell (PI. I.

fig. 5 b). Mandible rounded.

4. E. rosacea, nob. (un. sp.). Pb. I. fig. 4.

Polyzoary composed of short, somewhat undulating or con-

torted, expanding lobes. Cells deeply immersed, broadly ovate,

surface granulated. Mouth rounded or arcuate above, with a

sinus in the middle of the lower lip. An avicularium placed

obliquely on one side close to and slightly projecting over the

margin of the mouth.

In the younger cells the avicularium is seen distinctly pro-

jecting above the surface of the cell, but in the older and thick-

ened parts of the polyzoary its extremity only is seen within the

depression leading to the mouth of the cell (Pl. I. fig. 4 c).

Young specimens (b, 4) are of a delicate rose-colour and simple

form.

2. Retepora, Imperato (B. M. Cat. p. 93).

1. R. cellulosa, Linn. (B. M. Cat. p. 95. pl. 121. figs. 3-8; pl.123.

figs. 5, 6).

A small fragment only occurs.

2. R. beaniana, King (B. M. Cat. p. 94. pl. 123. figs. 1-5).

Apparently very abundant.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvii. 3

34 Mr. G. Busk on Polyzoa collected on the Coast

Suborder Ll. Cyclostomata.

1. Fam. Ipmoneap%, Busk (English Cyclopedia, Art. Polyzoa’’).

1. Jdmonea, Lamx.

1. J. atlantica, Ed. Forbes. PI. I. fig. 6.

I. atlantica, Johnst. Brit. Zooph. 2nd edit. vol. i. p. 278. pl. 48.

I. radians, Van Beneden, Bull. de l’ Acad. de Bruxelles, t. xvi.

p- 647. pl. 1. figs. 4-6.

In external habit J, aélantica very closely approaches some

forms of the Australian J. radians, Lamk., figured and described

by M.-Edwards (Sur les Crisies, &c., p. 25. pl. 12. figs. 4, 4a

& 45), but the figure has been taken from an imperfectly

grown specimen. In all essential characters, however, the two

forms are perfectly distinct. In J. radians the mouth of the

tubes is distinctly bilabiate, in J. atlantica simple or merely

sinuated ; in J. radians the surface of the branches is perforated

like a sieve with numerous closely contiguous pores, whilst in

I. atlantica it is quite smooth and merely dotted with minute

white spots. The branches also in J. atlantica are not nearly

so much compressed as they are in J. radians, in which, as in

the apparently closely allied /. coronopus, Defrance, a fossil form

found at Grignon (M.-Ed. J. c. p. 23. pl. 12. fig. 3), the anterior

side of the branches rises in the middle into an acute ridge.

Taking also into consideration the wide difference of locality, it

would appear guite certain that J. atlantica and J. radians, not-

withstanding their striking outward resemblance under certain

conditions of growth, are perfectly distinct species.

2. Hornera, Lamx.

1. H. frondiculata, Lamx. PI. I. fig. 7 a.

H. frondiculata, Lamx. Exp. Méth. p. 41. pl. 26. fig. 1, & pl. 74.

figs. 7, 9; M.-Edwards, Sur les Crisies, p. 17. pl. 10. fig. 1 ;

Blainville, Man. d’Actin. p. 419.

Retepora frondiculata, Lamarck, Hist. d. An, s. V. 2de édit.

p- 277.

Millepora tubipora, Ellis & Soland. p. 139. pl. 26. fig. 1.

M. lichenoides, Linn.; Pallas, Elenchus, p. 245; Esper, Mill.

pl. 3. figs. 1-4.

Madrepore rameux, Marsigli, Hist. de la Mer, p. 49. pl. 33.

figs. 162-164.

Var. a. H. affinis? M.-Edwards, l. ec. pl. 10. figs. 1, la. Pl. I.

fig. 7 5.

The localities assigned to this species by Lamouroux are

Kamtschatka, the Indian and Australian Oceans, and the

of Norway and Finmark. 35

Mediterranean. But comparison of the specimens collected by

Mr. M‘Andrew, and of others in my possession collected by

Capt. Beaufort in lat. 61° 35! N., long. 90° 42! W., with nume-

rous and excellent specimens collected on the coast of Patagonia

_ by Mr. Darwin, and of Australia by Mr. M‘Gillivray, has fully

satisfied me that the northern and southern forms are perfectly

distinct. I suspect also that it will be found that the Mediter-

ranean locality belongs to a third, distinct species, should the

latter retain a place in the genus Hornera at all.

2. Fam. Discoporap#, Busk (Engl. Cyclopedia, Art.“ Polyzoa’’).

1. Diastopora (simplex), M.-Ed. (Sur les Crisies, &c.).

1. D. obelia, Johnst. Brit. Zooph. 2nd edit. vol. i. p. 276. pl. 47.

figs. 7, 8.

Tubulipora obelia, Couch, Corn. Faun. p. 108; Johnst. Brit.

Zooph. p. 269. pl. 30. figs. 7,8; Thompson, Ann. Nat. Hist.

v. 252.

I have preferred the affix of M.-Edwards’s name to the genus,

although the term Diastopora was first employed by Lamouroux.

The clear definition of the genus by the former plainly entitles

him to the preference. The Berenicea of Lamouroux, as observed

by M.- Edwards, should certainly be referred to the same genus.

2. Tubulipora, Lamarck.

1. 7. hispida, Fleming.

T. hispida, Johust. Brit. Zooph. 2nd edit. vol.1. p. 268. pl. 47.

figs. 9, 10, 11.

Discopora hispida, Fleming, Brit. Anim. 530 ; Couch, Corn. Faun,

109. pl. 19. fig. 1? (very bad).

3. Defrancia, Bronn (1825). Defranceia (1846), Reuss, Fossil.

Polypar. d. W. Tertiarb.

Pelagia, Lamx.

Lichenopora, Michelin.

Tubulipora (pars), M.-Ed.

Ceriopora (pars), auctor.

Of this genus numerous fossil forms exist in the cretaceous

and tertiary formations, and several living species appear to have

been noticed. Of the two here described, one is already known

as living, and the other only as fossil in the marl (Mergelgrund)

oP)

of Essen, and in the tertiary beds of Vienna.

a. Interstices of coste porous.

1. D. truncata, Jameson. PI. I. fig. 8.

- Polyzoary fungiform, simple; centre of upper surface of disk

36 Mr. 8. P. Woodward on the Evils of Increasing Synonyms.

cupped ; surface of stem and back of disk covered with small,

oblong, rather distant pores (fig. 8 c).

Millepora truncata, James. Wern. Mem. i. 560. ;

Tubulipora truncata, Fleming, Brit. Anim. 529; Johnst. Brit.

Zooph. 271. pl. 33. figs. 8-10.

8. Interstices of costa smooth.

2. D. stellata, Goldfuss. PI. I. fig. 9.

Polyzoary fungiform, proliferous, flattened above ; costae nu-

merous, slender ; surface of stem covered with large, hexagonal,

closely contiguous pits (fig. 9 c).

Ceriopora stellata, Goldfuss, Petrefact. i. p. 39. t. 30. fig. 12;

Philippi, Die ‘Tertidrverst. der Nordwestl. Deutschlands,

p. 36, 37.

Defranceia stellata, Reuss, Die fossil. Polyparien des Wiener

Tertiairbeckens, p. 37. pl. 6. fig. a.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Cellepora cervicornis, auctor.: a, nat. size; b, portion of surface

towards the end of a branch magnified 25 diam. ; ¢, cells mag-

nified.

Fig. 2. Eschara teres (u. sp.): a, natural size; 6, portion magnified ;

c, transverse section of a small branch magnified.

Fig. 3. Eschara Skenei (vay. tridens): a, nat. size; 6, portion magnified ;

ce, front of cell magnified.

Fig. 4. Eschara rosacea (n. sp.): a, a, a, nat. size; 6, portion magnified ;

c, portion magnified (older state of cells); d, portion magnified —

(young state of cells).

Fig. 5. Eschara saccata (n.sp.): a, nat. size; 6, portion magnified (young

state of cells); c, portion of surface in older parts magnified.

Fig. 6. Idmonea atlantica, 1. Forbes: a, nat. size ; b, front view of branch

magnified ; c, side view of branch magnified; d, front of young

branch magnified ; e, back of branch magnified.

Fig. 7. Hornera frondiculata, Lamx.: a, nat. size; 6, var. affinis? nat.

size; ¢, front view of branch magnified ; d, back view of branch

magnified.

Fig. 8. Defrancia truncata (n. sp.): a, nat. size; 5, portion of coste

magnified ; c, surface of stem magnified.

Fig. 9. Defrancia stellata?, Goldfuss: a, nat. size; 6, portion of edge of

disk magnified ; c, surface of stem magnified.

V.— On the Evils of Increasing Synonyms.

By S. P. Woopwarp, F.G.S.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

In the May Number of the ‘ Annals’ I showed that “ the type of

Mr. Jeffreys’ new genus (Schismope) was a typical Scissurella.”

Mr. 8. P. Woodward on the Evils of Increasing Synonyms. 37

This was a simple matter of fact, admitting of no reply; but

Mr. Jeffreys has thought proper to raise a number of points,

wholly irrelevant to the subject, and most unpleasant to enter

upon. The inaccuracy of his statements can only be accounted

for by great haste and a very bad memory.

He says he had the pleasure of giving me the specimens on

which my observations were made—although I had distinctly

stated, in print, that I received them from Mr. Damon. This

makes it necessary to add that when I applied to Mr. Jeffreys for

specimens, he informed me he had sent them all to Mr. Damon ;

and he may perhaps remember that when—after I had shown

him the specimens obtained from Mr. Damon—he brought out

a boxful of these tiny shells, I asked him “ how he could have

told me he had none?” He then offered me some more speci-

mens, expressing a wish (as I understood) that, in justice to

Mr. Damon, nothing should be said about them.

Further on, Mr. Jeffreys makes me say I had previously seen

no other Scissurelle, &c. Forgetting that I showed him the

finest species he had ever seen—S. angulata, Lovén ; that I told

him I had found Scissurella in sand from New Zealand ; and

that in the British Museum (to go no further) there is the

type of S. Bertheloti, D’Orb., in a collection we had both lately

been examining. Besides, the question was not about species:

the specific identity of Mr. Jeffreys’ shell with S. elegans, D’Orb.,

was known and admitted by himself, from the first.

A third statement is to the effect that he consulted D’Orbigny’s

memoir at the time 1 showed him Philippi’s and Sowerby’s ob-

servations. I can only say, that more than a month afterwards

(when the paper on “ Schismope”’ was gone to the ‘ Annals,’

though not printed) he informed me he had not seen the memoir

in question.

There are several other assertions which it is unnecessary to

follow, as they have neither personal nor scientific interest.

Perhaps Mr. Jeffreys thinks he is letting himself down easily,

and I should be sorry to dispel the illusion.

I will only add a few words of an accomplished botanist, lately

quoted by Dr. Carpenter :—“ The naturalist who has the true

interest of science at heart, not only feels that the thrusting of

an uncalled-for synonym into the nomenclature of science is

an exposure of his own ignorance and deserves censure, but that

a wider range of knowledge and a greater depth of study are

required, to prove those dissimilar forms to be identical, which

any superficial observer can separate by words and a name.”

1 am, Gentlemen, your obedient Servant,

S. P. Woopwarp.

Barnsbury, June 1856.

38 Mr. J. D. Macdonald on a Bitentaculate Slug

VI.— Observations on the External Characters and Internal

Anatomy of a Bitentaculate Slug found at the Island of

Aneiteum, New Hebrides. By Joun Denis Macpvonaxp, R.N.,

Assistant-Surgeon of H.M.S.V. “Torch,” Tender to H.M.S.

“ Herald,” Capt. Denham, K.N., F.R.S., Commanding the

Exploring Expedition in the South Seas.

[With a Plate. |

Ar the Island of Aneiteum, in the New Hebrides group, we

obtained the only naked terrestrial Gasteropod with which we

met during our late cruises amongst the South Sea Islands.

At first sight the animal appeared to be simply a moderately

large species of Limaz, but on closely examining two specimens

which Mr. Macgillivray very kindly reserved for me, I noticed

that they possessed but the two tentacula that supported the

eyes. This character made the further study of their anatomy

an object of some interest to me, and I have been induced to

draw up the following account of it with the view of determining

whether the species may be with propriety retained in, or sepa-

rated from, the genus Limaz.

The animal having the power of extending its body consi-

derably, or of drawing it up in the longitudinal direction, and

spreading it out laterally so as to assume a great variety of

shapes, it would be rather difficult to state its proportions with

any degree of certainty, but it appears to average about

2¥ inches in length, by $ths of an inch in breadth. It is of a pale

yellowish-brown colour, varying in depth in different individuals,

and often sparingly mottled with a reddish-brown or black pig-

ment over the dorsal region.

Along the middle line of the back a narrow groove extends

from the nape to the obtusely pointed extremity of the tail, and

from this primary groove, on either side, a number of smaller

channels arise, which take a parallel course obliquely outwards

and backwards to the thin margin of the foot, and communicate

with each other laterally by the transverse interspaces between

the soft mammillary elevations of the skin.

The mantle is of small superficial extent, lying on the right

side of the body somewhat in advance of the centre, and cireum-

scribed by a triangular sunken outline, with the angles gently

rounded off. The base of the figure thus formed corresponds

with the above-mentioned median groove, which is here slightly

deflected to the left, while the outer rather obtuse angle is so

deeply notched as to appear to be perforated by the respiratory

opening. From the upper and anterior angle two depressed

lines pass forwards, diverging so as to include the roots of the

tentacula, on the outer side of which they are lost.

found at Aneiteum, New Hebrides. 39

A remarkably stout scutellum with smoothly rounded extre-

mities, presenting little of the scale-like character of the same

organ in other Slugs, is enclosed between the layers of the

mantle.

The tentacula arise directly from the head, having no con-

nexion whatever with the mantle. They gradually diminish in

size towards the free extremity, which is slightly dilated and of

an oval form, containing the visual organs.

The roof of the mouth is furnished with a quadrilateral horny

tooth, having a crescentic inferior or cutting edge, and from its

intimate connexion with the buccal mass, rather than with the

upper lip, 1t would remind one more of the upper mandible of

Cephalopods than of its representative in the veritable members

of the genus Limaz.

The lingual sac and dental plates and tubercles very closely

resemble those of Limaz, Helix, and Bulimus. Thus, the sac

itself is short and moderately wide, with a rounded fundus pro-

truding a little from the buccal mass posteriorly. The lingual

plates are subquadrilateral in figure, the outer and posterior

borders being somewhat concave, and the anterior and imternal

slightly convex ; and each plate supports a simple conical dental

process inclining a little inwards, and having a small angular

projection on either side of the base. The plates of the central

series are quite rudimentary, each presenting a bifid anterior

portion and a small and pointed posterior extremity. The latter

characters, if they do not prove to be generic, may at least

serve to distinguish the species.

The generative system is remarkable for the compactness of

all its parts.

The ovarium (PI. III. fig. 6 7) and testis (4) le in contact with

each other at about the middle of the dorsal region. The former,

on the left side, gives origin to the small or primary oviduct (/),

and the latter, on the right, is wrapped up, as it were, with the

tortuous commencement of the larger oviduct or uterus (m), but

both testis and ovarium are separated from the liver by the in-

terposition of the stomach.

The vas deferens emerges from the smaller or anterior portion

of the testis (0), winds in a dextral manner round the uterus,

and having reached the union of the organs of both sexes, it

crosses over to the left side and retrogrades upon the under sur-

face of the retracted male organ so as to terminate near the in-

sertion of the short retractor muscle (p), which arises from a

point corresponding to the union of the foot with the dorsal

integument on the left side.

The spermatheca (q) is of considerable size and filled with a

purplish-brown secretion; but its duct, which arises from the

40 Mr. J. D. Macdonald on a Bitentaculate Slug

uterus, is so short, that the sac itself lies in contact with that

tube. Now, in the common Slugs of England, the duct of the

spermatheca has no immediate communication with the oviduct,

but opens externally by a distinct orifice in the generative pit.

Near the commencement of the uterus there is a much smaller

sac-like appendage (m), which may be a rudiment of the mul-

tifid vesicles; organs which, although peculiar to the genus

Helix, | have never seen in any of the numerous Helices which

I have dissected in the Southern hemispbere.

The external respiratory opening leads into a small cavity

with stout areolated walls, and a few little fenestrations im a

small cribriform space establish a communication between this

cavity and the pericardium; a condition which also most di-

stinctly exists in Nautilus Pompilius.

The heart (7) holds a central position ; a small auricle receives

the return-blood from the respiratory surface on the right side,

and the ventricle gives off its principal arterial trunk inferiorly,

a tubular process of the pericardium encircling the vessel at its

origin.

A large glandular body (s) arches over the viscera from the

left to the right side immediately behind the heart, and pours

forth its mucous secretion through the respiratory orifice. This

gland is furnished with compressor muscles from the circular

fasciculi of the integument. It is doubtless the homologue of

what might be termed the renal gland of Paludina for example,

or the renal follicles of Nautilus; and indeed the close rela-

tionship of the Gasteropoda with the Cephalopoda through the

latter genus is well illustrated in many particulars in the little

mollusk, the principal details of whose anatomy have just been

given *.

The only mollusk with which this may be confounded is the

Janella antipodarum of Dr. Gray. The primd-facie probability

of their identity was first suggested to me by Mr. Maegillivray

in the following memorandum, which expresses the state of the

question so concisely that I cannot refrain from inserting it,

with that gentleman’s permission :—

“ Lima bitentaculatus, Quoy & Gaim. Voy. Astrolabe, t. 13.

f.1,2,3. From this description Gray formed a temporary genus

under the name of Janedla, in vol. iv. of ‘ Mrs. Gray’s Mollusca.’

He has since, from receiving one in spirits, published the cha-

racters of the genus (in Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. for Dec.

* | have since ascertained that a bitentaculate Slug, answering in every

respect to that above described, is indigenous to Port Sierihens, New South

Wales. Both unquestionably belong to the same genus, but not haying

the opportunity of comparing specimens, I cannot determine if any specific

differences exist between them,

found at Aneiteum, New Hebrides. 41

1853), describing the only species known to him as ‘ J. antipo-

darum.—N. Zealand.’ Now it strikes me that the (only) two-

tentacled Slug got during last cruise, and believed by you to be

the type of a new genus, will fall into this one—and I make this

memorandum for the purpose of inducing you to peruse the

December Number of the ‘ Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ now on

the table at the reading-room of the Library, in case I should

forget to mention it to you verbally.”

I have only to add to this, that I have studied the characters

of the genus Janella given by Dr. Gray, in the Number of the

‘Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ referred to, and I find that the

three followmg items are quite sufficient in themselves to show

that Janella antipodarum can have but little affinity to the mol-

lusk above described.

Janella (Gray).

lst. Shell none, or at least

there is no appearance of any

through the skin.

Aneiteum Slug.

lst. Shell internal, elon-

gated in form, of considerable

thicknessand smoothly rounded

off at the extremities.

2ndly. The tentacles instead

of being placed on the head, as

in Philomycus and all the other

Arionide and Helicide, are

placed in the front part of the

mantle.

3rdly. Mantle covering the

whole of the back with a slightly

raised margin, leaving a rather

broad space between the edge

and the edge of the foot.

2ndly. Tentacula distinctly

arismg from the head, as in

Philomycus, &e.

3rdly. Mantle of small su-

perficial extent, lying on the

right side of the body some-

what in advance of the centre,

but not extending all over the

back.

As it is yet possible that a shell may exist in Janella, although

there is no external appearance of any, too much importance

must not be attached to its apparent absence as a distinctive cha-

racter, but the remaining items need no further comment.

The internal ceconomy of the Aneitewm Slug is similar in all

essential particulars to that of imax. There are however in the

former many peculiarities, which will be noticed, as they present

themselves, in the explanation of the figures.

Port Curtis, February 13, 1855.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE III.

Fig. \. The animal as it appeared in motion.

Fig. 2. Ditto at rest.

Fig. 3. The seutellum.

42 Mr. A. Henfrey on Vegetable Cell-formation.

Fig. 4. The horny cutting tooth: a, somewhat enlarged to show its cha-

racter more distinctly ; 4, natural size.

Fig. 5. a. Seven lingual plates taken from the middle portion of a trans-

verse series. The rudimentary and bifid central tooth presents a

remarkable contrast to the others. 4. shows the curvatures of the

transverse rows of teeth, the longitudinal series in every case

being rectilinear.

Fig. 6. A simple dissection, in which the internal organs are merely unra-

velled as it were, so as to afford a tout ensemble of the digestive

and generative systems in particular: a, the retracted tentacula ;

b, buecal mass, with the commencement of the cesophagus, and

the tortuous ducts of the salivary glands; c, a kind of crop or

roventriculus, to the exterior of which a loop of intestine is

cee down by areolar tissue; d, stomach; e, a small sacculus,

which is probably the rudiment of a pancreas. It is the homo-

logue of the sacculated and internally plaited organ of Nautilus

Pompilius, represented by a more highly developed glandular ap-

paratus in Sepia. f, the liver, which is divisible into four distinct

lobes, each giving rise to a biliary duct opening separately into

the alimentary canal near the glandular sacculus, e. The intestinal

canal, g, is rather lengthy, wmding round the liver, passing first

forwards and then backwards upon the stomach, forming a loop

upon the proventriculus as above noticed, and, finally, termina-

ting in the anus at A, near the respiratory orifice.

VII.—On Vegetable Cell-formation.

By Prof. ArtrHur Henrrey, F.R.S.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

Your Number for this month (June) contains some remarks by

Dr. Carpenter relating to my letter which appeared in the pre-

ceding Number (2nd Ser. xvii. p. 417). I am obliged to trouble

you with a few lines more on this subject, as Dr. Carpenter ap-

pears to have misconceived the purport of my communication.

With me it was no question of “ general ideas of the process of

cell-formation ;” although IT humbly submit that my ‘ general

ideas ’ form as good materials for argument as references to un-

published investigations. General and long experience in obser-

vations of the process did indeed render Mr. Wenham’s account

quite incredible in my eyes: but if Dr. Carpenter reads my letter

carefully, he will see that I founded my criticism on a repetition

of the observations, and that the main feature of my letter was

a denial of the correctness of the statements and of the accuracy

of the drawings.

I am, Gentlemen, yours obediently,

ARTHUR HENFREY.

Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology. 43

VIII.—On the Method of Paleontology. By Tuomas H. Hvux-

LEY, F.R.S., Lecturer on General Natural History at the

Government School of Mines, and Fullerian Professor of Phy-

siology R.I.

Tuere are two perfectly distinct aspects under which Living

Beings may be studied—the Physiological and the Morpholo-

gical. On the one hand, every living being exerts certain forces

and performs certain acts or functions. It is the object of the

physiologist to ascertain the precise mode in which these acts

are performed, to refer them as far as possible to the ordinary

laws of physics and chemistry, and when, as in many cases, the

functions are highly complex, to analyse them into their ele-

mentary acts, and to determine by what part of the frame, by

what special organs, these are performed. With the form of

these parts, with their connexion other than that which is in-

volved in their coadjustment towards a common effect, the pure

physiologist has no concern.

On the other hand, every living being has a definite form,

and in all the higher living beings this form is complex ; it is

made up of a greater or smaller number of lesser parts, each of

which has its own definite and appropriate figure. Now it is

with these forms, with their mutual relations, with the laws

which govern their association, that morphology is alone con-

cerned. Although in practice the two branches of biological

science are commonly more or less united, yet it would be quite

possible to write a complete system of pure physiology without

reference to morphology, and of morphology without reference

to physiology. They are as distinct as in the mineral world are

crystallography and chemistry. To put the case in another way.

The different parts of every living being are all mutually related,

they are subject to definite laws of correlation, but these laws

of correlation are of two kinds essentially independent of one

another: there are physiological correlations and there are mor-

phological correlations. Thus the teeth and the stomach are

physiologically correlated, contributing as they do to the com-

mon end of alimentation; and inasmuch as this coadaptation

towards a common end is the very essence of physiological cor-

-relation, the latter has sometimes received the name of rational

correlation ; for when the result to which a combination tends is

obvious, we commonly imagine we can see the reason for that

combination.

Since the validity of nine-tenths of the science of animal phy-

siology involves the admission, that multitudes of the parts of

animals are organs working towards a common end, I do not

Ad Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology.

suppose that it ever has entered, or ever will enter, into the

mind of any person conversant with the rudiments of that sei-

ence to question the existence of physiological correlation be-

tween the different parts of animals. But how far that corre-

lation is in any case to be called necessary ; that is, how far in

order to the due performance of a given function in any case it is

impossible that the organs performing that function should be

different from what we find them to be, is quite another question.

Thus the teeth of a lion and the stomach of the animal are in

such relation that the one is fitted to digest the food which the

others can tear ; they are physiologically correlated, but we have

no reason for affirming this to be a necessary physiological corre-

lation, in the sense that no other could equally fit its possessor

for living on recent flesh. The number and form of the teeth

might have been quite different from that which we know it to

be, and the construction of the stomach might have been greatly

altered, and yet the function of these organs might have been

equally well performed. Nothing can be more uniform than the

physiological ends which have to be attained by living beings ;

nothing more various than the modes in which they are attained ;

and it would, I think, in the face of these well-known facts, be

the height of presumption to affirm that the function which we

see in any case performed in a particular way could not possibly

have been performed in any other mode.

If physiological correlations are however not necessary ; if, so far

as physiology is concerned, we have no right to say with Cuvier,

that “‘ Every organized being constitutes a whole, a single, and

complete system, whose parts s mutually correspond and concur by

their reciprocal reaction to the same definite end. None of these

parts can be changed without affecting the others, and conse-

quently each taken separately indicates and gives all the rest ;”—

then a very important consequence follows, viz. that it is quite

impossible to reason conclusively on physiological grounds alone

from any part of a living being to the whole.

I by no means assert that Cuvier, in enunciating the propo-

sition quoted above, meant to exclude all but physiological con-

siderations so completely as the words appear to indicate. On

the contrary, his practice, no less than other passages of the re-

markable essay from which that citation is taken, shows clearly

that no man more fully understood the value of morphology.

Nevertheless the words of the proposition are distinct enough to

justify those who, guided more by authority than by right reason,

have denominated it Cuvier’s law of correlation, and, ambiguously

supported by Cuvier’s phraseology elsewhere, have imagined the

principle which it involves to have been his guide in paleonto-

logical research.

Mr. T, H,. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology. 45

A simple illustration or two, however, will show that the laws

of physiological correlation alone are wholly incompetent to fur-

nish such guidance. Suppose I find the jaw of a vertebrate ani-

mal with sharp cutting teeth imbedded in it, how far will phy-

siology help me to determine the precise nature of the animal to

which it belonged? The sharpness of the teeth may lead me to

guess that they were used for cutting some soft substance. The

shape of the articular condyle and that of the processes for mus-

cular attachment may equally render probable the direction and

force of its ordinary movements ; but as to the rest of the or-

ganism, whether the teeth were for cutting up fish, flesh, fowl,

or carrion, whether the creature itself was piscine or reptilian or

mammalian,—on all these points no amount of mere physiological

reasoning will help me. Nay, how do I know it is a vertebrate

jaw at all? that it is vertebrate bone and tooth substance? For

anything physiology teaches me to the contrary, Invertebrate

animals might develope osseous and dentinal tissue, and might

possess appendages having the form of vertebrate jaws. ,

Every naturalist knows that Invertebrate animals do not thus

mimic the Vertebrata, and he believes that they never have and

never will do so; but his confidence is based, not on any physiolo-

gical reasoning as to the impossibility of such a proceeding, but

on his simple experience that it never does occur. He rests not on

a deduction from the laws of physiological correlation, but on the

morphological law that no Invertebrate animal ever possesses an

organ having the form and structure displayed by the jaw in

question. And this law is an empirical one ; no further reason

for it can be given than for the law of gravitation. The

whole object of morphology is to ascertain what structural pecu-

liarities variably coexist with one another: why these struc-

tural peculiarities coexist is a question with which it does not

necessarily concern itself, and so far as the mere restorations of

the palzontologist are concerned, it is a wholly irrelevant question.

The empirical laws of morphology supply all that the paleon-

tologist requires for this object.

Let us imagine that all existing animals had perished, but that

their dead forms were gathered together and submitted to the

investigation of some intelligent being from whom the know-

ledge that they had ever lived was concealed. He would of

course remain entirely ignorant of physiology and all its laws.

Life, if he were acquainted before only with physical and chemical

phznomena, would be an inconceivability, and the conception of

adaptation to purpose, of physiological correlation, would fail to

suggest itself where nothing was known of actions or functions.

Nevertheless, by the careful comparison of one form with

another, he would see that in one set of specimens certain struc-

46 Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology.

tural peculiarities were invariably associated, in another set

others, and he would thus arrive at precisely the same laws

of morphological correlation*, and at the same classification of

these dead forms as that which we have reached from our

study of the living ones. He would not term Lions and Tigers

and Wolves “ Carnivora,” for he would not even know that they

eat anything, but he would assuredly form a group with pretty

nearly the same limits as the Carnivora, simply because all these

animals resemble one another, and differ from the rest in certain

peculiarities of dentition, &e. So again, he would group Oxen

and Sheep and Deer together, because they present correspond-

ing coexistences of structure, though, knowing nothing of their

digestive processes, he would not call them “ Rumimantia.”

And now, after our imaginary being had made himself ac-

quainted with the whole series of forms before him, and had

established his great laws of morphological correlation and his

classification, suppose that a mass of fragments of other crea-

tures, more or less similar to those which he had first familiarized

himself with, were placed before him, and he were desired to put

these fragments together, and to reconstruct these dismembered

forms, how would he proceed? Suppose the first bone which

came to hand yery closely resembled the jaw of a Deer, would he

not naturally conclude—could he logically escape the conclusion

—that in all probability the skull and limbs which belonged

to this jaw were like those of a Deer also? And finally, sup-

posing that, guided by this strong probability, he had selected a

complete deer skeleton from the mass, all of whose parts were in

such proportion to one another and to the jaw first discovered,

~ as to accord perfectly with his already ascertained laws of corre-

lation of form in the Deer species, could the validity of his resto-

ration be questioned, because he knew nothing about the pur-

poses of all these parts or their physiological correlation ?

What additional certainty would he gain by now learning

that the Deer had once lived—that it was herbivorous—that its

teeth and internal organs were all exquisitely adjusted to its

mode of life? He would say, That is all very beautiful, and [

am very glad to know it; but such considerations did not in

the least help me to pick out the bones which belonged to the

jaw, nor do they add a grain of certainty to that which I already

feel as to the justice of my restoration. Indeed, my method

tells me a great deal that yours is quite silent about. I knew

empirically that the kind of tooth and jaw placed before me was

* Except so far as he would be deprived of the advantage of the study

of development. This, however, obviously by no means interferes with the

validity of the general argument.

Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology. 47

always associated with horns, with slender limbs, and with cleft

hooves; but I could never have divined these things from

knowing that the jaw and tooth were specially adapted to a

herbivorous diet.

Surely all this is so obvious as to need no great amount of

demonstration, and no less clear is its application to the ques-

tion, What is the method of paleontology? How is it that we

are able to restore an extinct animal from some fragments of its

skeleton? It is by deduction from those empirical laws of

morphology which express the invariable coexistences of structure,

so far as observation has yet made them known to us, and it is

by this method only. When once the general nature of an

extinct animal has been ascertained, the laws of physiology may

help us to very useful hints and guesses; but the fundamental

steps towards the determination of the nature of any unknown

fragment, whether recent or fossil, are purely morphological,

and, so far as they are concerned, physiology might be non-

existent.

The truth of what has just been asserted must long have been

familiar to every thinking botanical paleontologist ; and I have

never met with any indication, either in their works or in con-

versation, that the botanists imagined they were guided in their

determinations of extinct plants by any reference to physiological

correlation, or by any other method than deduction from purely

empirical morphological laws. Nor does the paleontologist, who

concerns himself with invertebrate forms, often seek for help from

physiology. In fact, the total absence of any acquaintance with

physiology which many excellent palzontologists manifest, is a

curious illustration of the justice of my line of argument, as it

nowise interferes with the soundness of their work,—so long as

they confine themselves to such purely morphological questions

as are involved in the restoration of extinct forms.

Nor ean I find that in practice those paleontologists who

have studied the Vertebrata trouble themselyes much about phy-

siological correlations or adaptations to purpose. The reader of

Cuvier’s ‘ Ossemens fossiles” might begin at the tenth volume

and read on to the second, and while he would be astounded at the

enormous knowledge of the laws of morphology—of the observed

coexistence of parts which it displays—he would find himself

very rarely troubled with any remarks upon physiological corre-

lations or adaptations; and any which might offer themselves

would be entirely subordinate to the great “object of the work,

which is, to apply the purely empirical laws of morphological

correlation, which have been ascertained to obtain among living

beings, to the elucidation of fossil remains.

48 Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology.

It is with no httle surprise, therefore, that in the first volunte

he finds, or seems to find, the principle of physiological correla-

tion brought prominently forward, in the celebrated * Discours

sw’ les Révolutions,’ as the guide in paleontology, as the

especial means by which the determination of mammalian fos-

sils, at any rate, is effected. I say, seems to find; for, after all,

if the master’s words be studied. car efully, it will ‘be discovered

that his followers are more Cuvierian than Cuvier.

In fact, as | have already particularly pointed out, ina Lectoiae

which I recently delivered before the members of the Royal

Institution, Cuvier gives up the principle of physiological eor-

relation, both explicitly in words and implicitly im _ practice,

as an exclusive guide in paleontological research ; and he ex-

pressly admits the necessity of a reference to the laws of ‘more

phological correlation.

But while admitting the importance of both methods, the

physiological and the morphological, he gives to the former by

his words a prominence which it by no means has in his practice ;

or perhaps I may more justly say, that his phraseology is am-

bignous, from his having confounded the two methods together;

under the one term of “ principe de la corrélation des formes

dans les étres organisés.” Those who will read carefully from

p. 178 to p. 189 (ed. 4, 1834) of the ‘ Discours,’ will find that

this confusion exists throughout. Thus, if we take one of the

opening passages already cited (p. 178) :—

“Every organized being constitutes a whole, a single, and

complete system, whose parts mutually correspond and concur

by their reciprocal reaction to the same definitive end. None

of these parts can be changed without affecting the others ; and,

consequently, each taken separately mdicates and gives all the

rest.”

The first paragraph here embodies the principles of both

physiological and morphological correlation. The second para-

graph, however, regards physiological correlation only, and the

statement which it contaims is not true. We have no evidence

to justify us in asserting that no one part can be changed with-

out affecting all the others. On the contrary, we have abundant

evidence to show that allied species, for instance, differ in only

a single character ; which would be an impossibility if a change

in one part sensibly affected all the rest.

Cuvier then goes on to show, in a very beautiful manner, the

physiological correlation which exists between the parts of a

Carnivore, concluding with the well-known phrase, “ in the

same way the claw, the scapula, the condyle, the femur, and alk

the other bones taken separately, will give the tooth, or one

Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology. 49

another; and by commencing with any one, he who had a

rational conception of the laws of the organic economy could

reconstruct the whole animal.”

If Cuvier means by “the laws of the organie ceconomy,” (and

the context would indicate that he does,) its physiological laws

merely, then I must venture to say, that I believe this assertion

to beincorrect. I do not believe that the problem — given a tooth

or a bone, the mode of life of an animal, and the laws of physi-

ology, to find the structure of other parts of the body of that

animal,—is a soluble one.

In fact, Cuvier himself, in the very next paragraph (p. 182),

almost gives up his own principle. 1 give his own words :—

“Ce principe est assez évident en lui-méme dans cette accep-

tation générale pour n’avoir pas besoin d’une plus ample démon-

stration ; mais quand il s’agit de V appliquer, il est un grand nombre

de cas ou notre connaissance théorique des rapports des formes ne

suffirait point si elle w était appuyée sur Pobservation.”

And again, in coneluding, at p. 187 Cuvier says :—

“ Et, en adoptant ainsi /a méthode de Pobservation comme un

moyen supplémentaire quand la théorie nous abandonne, on arrive

ades détails faits pour étonner. La moindre facette d’os, la

moindre apophyse, ont un caractére déterminé relatif a la classe,

& Pordre, au genre et A l’espéce auxqueis elles appartiennent, au

point que toutes les fois que l’on a seulement une extrémité d’os

bien conservée on peut avec de V’application, et en s’aidant avee

un peu d’adresse de Vanalogie et de la comparaison effective,

determiner toutes ces choses aussi stirement que si Von possé-

dait Panimal entier.”

Finally, at p. 184, after speaking of those invariably coexist-

ent peculiarities of organization among the Ruminants, which

have no apparent physiological connexion, Cuvier says :—

“Cependant puisque ces rapports sont constans il faut bien

quwils aient une cause suffisante; mais comme nous ne Ja con-

naissons pas, nous devons supplier au détaut de la théorie par le

moyen de |’observation ; elle nous sert a établir des lois empi-

riques qui deviennent presque aussi certaines que les lois ratio-

nelles, quand elles reposent sur des observations assez répetées :

en sorte qu’aujourdhui quelqwun qui voit seulement la piste d’un

pied fourchu, peut en conclure que l’animal qui a laissé cette

empreinte ruminait, et cette conclusion est tout aussi certaine

qu’aucune autre en physique ou en morale.”

I confess that, considering the Pig has a cloven foot, and does

not ruminate, the last assertion appears to me to be a little

strong. But my object is not to criticise Cuvier, but simply to

show that nothing could be more marked than his appreciation

of the value of the merely empirical laws of morphology, as

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii.

50 Mr, T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology.

applied to paleontology, nothing more erroneous than the

popular notion, too mueh favoured by his own language, that his

method essentially consisted in reasoning from supposed physio-

logical necessities. In the lecture above referred to, I not only

maintained this view, but I further asserted, and endeavoured

to prove, that not only are popular and other writers thus

mistaken in interpreting Cuvier, but that Cuvier himself was

in error in ascribing to the laws of physiological correlation

that primary importance in paleontology which he undoubtedly

does give them. I brought forward, in fact, the doctrine which

I have argued at greater length in the preceding pages, yiz. that

paleontology, so far as it consists in the restoration of extinct

forms, is entirely based upon deductions from the empirical laws

of morphology ; that its conclusions, so far, would be as valid if

the whole science of physiology were non-extant, and if we knew

nothing of final causes or adaptations to purposes.

The publication of the abstract of the lecture has elicited a

brusque attack from Dr. Falconer, which, coming as it did from

the pen of a palontologist of high repute, caused me at first, I

must confess, no slight alarm; the more so as Dr. Falconer, in

his laudable desire at once to extinguish heresy, had, I found,

taken the somewhat unusual course of widely circulating his

little pamphlet. ts

The perusal of Dr. Falconer’s essay, however, soon relieved

me from my only real source of uneasiness, by demonstrating

very clearly that Dr. Falconer had been far too much in a hurry

either to master the real question in dispute, to read what I had

written with attention, or to quote me with common accuracy

and fairness. In fact, I have not the good fortune to be among

the “ ¢antis viris” de quibus “modeste tamen et cireum-

specto judicio pronuntiandum est,” and it is clearly in Dr.

Falconer’s opinion not worth while to use much cireumspection

in dealing with the opinions of mere ordinary “ viri.””

The first evidence of Dr. Falconer’s entire misconception of

the point at issue meets one in the title-page—“ On Prof.

Huxley’s attempted refutation of Cuvier’s Laws of Correlation

in the reconstruction of extinct Vertebrate Forms.” It is

repeated at page 477. “ Nearly three-fourths of Mr. Huxley’s

abstract are devoted to the first head, viz. Natural History, re-

garded as knowledge, the leading feature of which is an attempt

to refute the principle propounded by Cuvier, that the laws of

correlation which preside over the organization of animals, guided

him in his reconstruction of extinct Forms.” Nothing can be

more entirely incorrect than the assertion contained in the latter

part of this paragraph. I did not attempt to refute any one of

Cuyier’s laws of correlation. There is not a passage in my

Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology. 51

lecture which can be justly so interpreted. I merely endeavoured

to prove, and [ can find nothing in Dr. Falconer’s essay to

show that I did not prove, first, that the physiological laws of

correlation which Cuvier laid down are not as universally and

necessarily applicable as he seems to have imagined; secondly,

that his physiological laws of correlation are of wholly subordi-

nate importance in paleontology, if not absolutely unimportant,

the really important laws by which he worked being those mor-

phological laws, those empirical laws of coexistence which, as I

have said, no man lays down more clearly, but to which he

nevertheless ascribes in words, though not m practice, a subor-

dinate place. This entire misunderstanding of the real point

under discussion vitiates the whole of Dr. Falconer’s paper. It

is again repeated at p. 481, just after Dr. Falconer has gravely

warned us how necessary are “precision of thought and expres-

sion in disquisitions of this kind.”

So again, at p. 487, Dr. Falconer says :—

“The argument drawn by Mr. Huxley from instances of em-

pirical relation in the vegetable kingdom against there being

necessary or reciprocal relation in the high classes of the animal

kingdom is exactly of this character.”

I assert that no one who carefully reads my abstract will find

the slightest ground for the assertion that I have ever made use

of any such argument as that imputed to me by Dr. Falconer.

What I say in regard to plants is :—

“ And if we turn to the botanist and inquire how he restores

fossil plants from their fragments, he will say at once that he

knows nothing of physiological necessities and correlations.”

To any unprejudiced reader of ordinary intelligence it will be

quite obvious that the question of the existence of physiological

correlation between the parts of plants is here utterly untouched.

The question is whether the physiological or the morphological

laws of correlation guide the botanical paleontologist. I affirm

the latter, and I am supported by every botanist with whom I

have spoken on the subject.

Dr. Falconer writes at p. 487 :—

“Nature has formed living beings upon certain types which

constitute the basis of methodical nomenclature, and the corre-

lation of part to part and organ to organ is adjusted in subor-

dination to these types.”

Now what is this but an admission of all that I have contended

for, namely, that the physiological correlation of organs is wholly

subordinate to their morphological or, in other words, typical

correlation? What is it that Dr. Falconer attacks, after all?

And this question becomes all the more bewildering, when we

- find at p. 480 :—

“ Our first remark is, where and by whom has the principle of

52 Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Paleontology.

the ‘utilitarian adaptation to purpose’ been used as an instru-

ment of research ? Mr. Huxley avers that its value as such has

been enormously overrated. If so, by whom has it been ever

used? From the prevalence of adaptations and mechanisms

in nature suited to the production of certain ends we reason up

to the agency of an all-wise, powerful and benevolent Designer.

But the inference is a product not an instrument of the research,

and to call it the latter is simply a misuse of terms.”

Surely Dr. Falconer can understand that adaptation to pur-

pose is adaptation to use, and that therefore adaptation to

purpose may well be said to be ‘ utilitarian,

In answer to the next part of his inquiry, I must refer him to

Dr. Whewell* ; and with regard to the last part, the misuse of

words is Dr. Falconer’s. I am not speaking of any inference

from the principle, but of the principle itself.

But the most curious proof that Dr. Falconer has not taken

the trouble to read with attention or think over carefully the

statements contained in my abstract is yielded by the passage at

p- 480, beginning, “ Mr. Huxley contrasts the two as opposite

dogmas.” Dr. Falconer here takes two parts of the same argu-

ment, thrusts them into opposition, and is then excessively

puzzled to discover that he can find no “opposition or incom-

patibility” between them. However glad I may be to have Dr.

Falconer’s testimony to the connexion of the two parts of my

argument, even malgré lui, I think he would have done well to

have read the passage twice before entangling himself in it.

Dr. Falconer writes at p. 490 :—

“ This invariable coincidence may be, as has been shown above,

either empirical or necessary. Cuvier, like a true interpreter of

nature, employed both indifferently in his restorations, accord-

ingly as they were presented to him, and professed it. This

important fact is nowhere recognized by Mr. Huxley, who argues

the case throughout as if Cuvier had excluded the empirical and

admitted only of necessary correlations.”

This is in the teeth of the passage of my abstract, which Dr.

Falconer himself quotes at p. 487: “ Andif it were necessary to

appeal to any authority save facts and reason, our first witness

would be Cuvier himself, who in a very remarkable passage, two

or three pages further on (Discours, pp. 184, 185), implicitly

surrenders his own principle.” Surely this amount of careless

incorrectness is hardly venial. Surely I may quote to Dr. Fal-

coner his own courteous words, “rarely in the history of science

has confident assertion been put forward in so grave a case upon

a more erroneous and unsubstantial foundation.”

* Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, vol. ii. pp. 87, 88; and again,

p.78:—* This idea of a final cause is an essential condition in order to the

pursuing our researches respecting organized bodies,”

Mr. T. H. Huxley on the Method of Palaeontology. 53

Just after reproaching me at p. 482, as I conceive unjustifiably,

with affirming a case to be one of Cuvier’s selection, which is

not so, Dr. Falconer falls into the precise error which he wrong-

fully attributes to me.

* Let us now take the case as put by Mr. Huxley, and suppose

that the Brown and White Bears were only met with in the fossil

state ; but with the proviso of the other living species being

known to us as at present.”

What I say is, “If Bears were only known to us in the fossil

state.” Dr. Falconer’s proviso, in fact, is the precise nullifi-

cation of my argument, and yet he still ventures to quote it as

mine. So again at p. 483, after discussing the Bear question, Dr.

Falconer states, “ Mr. Huxley next takes in hand the opposite

ease of the Ungulate Herbivora, as put by Cuvier.” Dr. Falconer’s

assertion is inaccurate; I do no¢ next take in hand the Ungulate

Herbivora; any one who will read my abstract may see that the

discussion as to the Bears, comes at the end of the argument

about the Ungulata, forming not a separate question or opposite

case, but part of the same.

But here as elsewhere, Dr. Falconer seems to forget the im-

portant distinction between a question of detail and one of prin-

ciple. If physiological arguments are good at all in the way

Cuvier put them, they must be universal in their application, in

which case any exception is fatal ; on the other hand if they be of

limited application, before we can apply them in palzontology,

we must first have ascertained to what group the subject of our

studies belongs by other means, and these can only be the appli-

eation of morphological laws.

I trust I have now brought forward sufficient evidence to

justify my accusation of misrepresentation and misconception

on Dr. Falconer’s part, and I would most willingly leave the

subject, were it not necessary in defence of myself and others to

advert to one or two other points in Dr. Falconer’s attack. In two

of these, accuracy as to matters of fact isinvolved. The first relates

to the Stonesfield Mammal, a title which has been applied as

much to the Phascolotherium as to the Amphitherium. Dr.

Falconer asserts, that I have been unhappy in my citation of this

case, because the Amphitherium is an Lnsectivore, and because

the Phascolotherium has fewer teeth than the Amphitherium.

Candour might have led Dr. Falcqner to quote a little more of

Prof. Owen’s opinion as to the latter animal than he does*. If he

had combined careful thought with candour, he would have

* See British Fossil Mammals, pp. 55 and 56. Professor Owen espe

cially warns us against concluding “too absolutely” that the Amphitherium

“may not have combined the more essential points of the Marsupial orga-

nization” with the slighter inflection of the angle of the jaw.

54 Bibliographical Notices.

perceived that inasmuch as the Phascolotherium possesses forty-—

eight teeth (four more than the typical number in mammals), ”

and has the strongly inflexed angular process, it precisely fulfils”

the conditions of my argument. In point of fact, however, the

number of teeth is an irrelevant consideration. The other ques-

tion of fact relates to the structure of the Sloth’s tooth: when

Cuvier speaks of the alternation of substance in the teeth of an

Ungulate animal, he obviously refers to that peculiar alternation

of vertical plates of enamel, dentine and cement, which the teeth

of the typical Ungulates present. A difference of structure m

layers parallel to the crown of the tooth, is of course possessed. by

every Carnivore, and it is this kind of arrangement which the

Sloth also presents. I venture to think, therefore, that this

objection to my argument is like most of Dr. Faleoner’s, and

to use his own words, “ more specious than valid.”

I have left untouched many points in Dr. Falconer’s essay, not

because they cannot be answered, but because I conceive they

will answer themselves. Under this category I leave such pas-

sages as those at p. 488, the singular bad taste of which will cause

Dr. Falconer, in his cooler moments, far more annoyance than

they have occasioned to any one else, except his friends. But I

cannot pass without more grave comment, the allusion, at p. 477,

to the audience which I had the honour to address. Dr. Fal-

coner’s apparent ignorance of the nature of the Friday evening

audience at the Royal Institution—one which the best men in

this country approach gravely and earnestly, knowing as they

do that, whatever be the “ mixture” of their hearers, there is

pretty sure to be among them a fair jury of their peers,—can

be his sole excuse for the tone of his remarks.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

The Ferns of Great Britain, illustrated by J.E.Sowrersy. The

Descriptions by C. Jounson. London, Sowerby, 1855. 8vo.

The Ferns of Great Britain and their Allies. By ANNE Pratt,

London, Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 8vo.

The Fern-Allies, illustrated by J. E.Sowrrsy. The Descriptions

by C.Jounson. London, Sowerby, 1856. 8vo.

British Poisonous Plants. By C. Jounson. London, Sowerby,

1856. 12mo.

Ir has seemed more convenient to uotice the above books econjointly,

for the first three of them treat upon the same subject. Our pages

(xv. 354) have already contained a recommendation of Sowerby’s

‘Ferns’ to the favourable consideration of botanists, and we should

not have thought it necessary to record the fact, that its proprietor

Bibliographical Notices. . 55

has issued an edition with uncoloured plates at a very cheap rate,

had it not come to our knowledge that this determination was caused

by the publication by the ‘ Society for Promoting Christian Know-

ledge’ of the book that stands second on the above list. It really

does seem to us that a ‘ religious’ Society goes much out of its way

when it employs the funds of its subscribers in the issue of books of

a secular character, and thus becomes a ‘ publishing house,’ in com-

petition with men who have to gain their bread by their business.

But the matter becomes far worse when the book published is such

as that before us. Here we have a work illustrated by numerous

plates, nearly all the magnified portions of which, with the entire

figures of some of the plants, are badly, but certainly copied from

the plates contained in Sowerby’s work. We have taken some

trouble in the examination of this piratical act, and find that of those

figures which Sowerby cannot claim, a considerable number are

derived from Newman’s ‘Ferns.’ There is not the slightest ac-

knowledgement on the part of the Society, nor of the artist, that such

is the origin of these plates; and we are informed that it was only

after legal proceedings had been threatened that the Society, with

some dificulty, consented to insert the following notice in future

copies of their book, and Sowerby obtained payment for the use of

his plates :—

Cory or Notice.—tThe artist also wishes it to be understood,

that he has purchased permission of Mr. J. E. Sowerby, to copy from

the work lately published by him, entitled ‘The Ferns of Great

Britain, Illustrated,’ certain details of the plates, including the figure

of the rare plant Gymnogramma leptophylla.”

This notice gives a very faint idea of the extent to which he is

indebted to Sowerby, and takes no notice of his appropriations from

Newman. We have entered rather fully into this matter, because

we believe that neither the authoress nor the leading members of the

Society have any idea of the mode in which their “‘ Committee of

General Literature” is acting towards authors and publishers. That

they should require the threat of legal proceedings to perform an act

of common honesty, is more than we can easily believe.

But enough of this. The public benefit by the issue of the cheap

edition of Sowerby’s ‘ Ferns.’

The Society’s book makes no pretensions to a scientific character,

and will probably fulfil the objects of its writer; but it is certainly

not a work that we can recommend to persons desiring to acquire

any except the most superficial knowledge of the plants.

Messrs. Sowerby and Johnson’s ‘ Fern-Allies’ contains 31 plates,

and is intended to be a companion to their ‘ Ferns.’ _ It treats of the

Equisetacee, Lycopodiacee, Marsileacee and Characee. The plates

are mostly good; but exception must be made of several of those

representing the Characee, and a few others. That of Hquisetum

limosum is not like either of the forms, or, as Fries thinks them,

species, included under that name ; it appears to be a combination

of the two, such as we have never seen in nature. No figure is

given of the typical form of 2. variegatum. ‘There is a good plate

of FE. Moorei, a plant of which the specific distinctness is doubtful.

56 Zoological Society :—

We have very slight acquaintance with it, but fancy that it will prove:

to be a form of the Z. trachyodon (A. Br.), which is the 2. Mackait:

(Newm.).

The genus Chara seems to have been added to this book unad-

visedly ; for neither the artist nor the describer appears to know

much about the plants included init. Most of the plates are copied

from those in ‘ English Botany,’ or its ‘Supplement ;’ but these are

not all therefore good, for that of C. vu/garis, taken from an early

volume of ‘ Eng. Bot.,’ is very poor.

The new plates profess to represent C. syncarpa and C. prolifera,

the other five species described in Mr. Babington’s Monograph

(A. N. H. ser. 2. vol. v. p. 81) remaining unfigured in any English’

work. The plate of C. syncarpa is tolerable, and might have passed

without notice had not a piece of some totally different plant, perhaps

C. polysperma, been added at the foot. Certainly C. synearpa never

has the many-jointed stems there represented. As we do not know

from which plant the magnified nucules were taken, their value is

greatly reduced. In all probability the two entire nucules were

derived from the wrong plant, and the highly magnified piece of

stem is similarly erroneous. We must be allowed to doubt the

correctness of Mr. Johnson’s remark, that C. syncarpa is sometimes

moncecious.

The other new plate is a fair representation of C. prolifera,

although the jointed structure of the primary branches is not shown.

We may remark, that Mr. Wilson’s C. gracilis from Llyn Idwell is

stated in the above-mentioned Monograph to be C. syncarpa, and

that authentic specimens now before us confirm that statement,’

Mr. Johnson therefore must not think that he has disproved the

permanency of the moneecious structure in C. gracilis.

The ‘ British Poisonous Plants’ deserves our approbation, being

good as far as it goes. The 28 plates are transferred from ‘ English

Botany,’ and are therefore all, or nearly all, that could be desired.

The recent cases of accidental poisoning with the root of Monkshood

is the especial cause of its publication. It would have been well if a

figure of the root of this plant, and that of the Horse-radish, for

which it was mistaken, had been given; for at the season when

such mistakes are liable to occur, neither leaves nor flowers exist,

and they can only be guarded against by making generally known

the differences between the roots. \<o

We hope that this little book will obtain an extensive circulation.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

June 12, 1855.—W. Yarrell, Esq., in the Chair.

On a New Species or THE Genus Prion.

By Joan Goucp, F.R.S.

Through the kindness of Mr. Yarrell, I have the pleasure of

bringing to the Meeting a bird which I conceive to be a new species

Mr. J. Gould on a new species of Prion. 57

of Prion, captured on the island of Madeira, or on the neighbouring

rocky islets called the Desertas. I also exhibit five other species

(forming part of my own collection), which I consider to belong to

the same beautiful group, and which were captured by myself during

my voyages to or from Australia.

The entire Series present a great similarity in the colour of their

plumage, but a great diversity in the breadth or lateral development of

their mandibles, as well as in the fringe-like pectinations of the base of

the upper mandible; this latter character being much more prominent

in the larger than in the smaller species of the group, in which.

indeed, it is almost obsolete, if not entirely absent. I consider the

members of this genus to constitute a very distinct group among the

Petrels, quite equal in point of interest and value to that of the

Thalassidrome. 1 have had many opportunities of observing the

whole of them in their oceanic haunts, and did not fail to observe that

every five or six degrees of latitude was frequented by a different and

distinct species: they all inhabit the wide ocean, and rarely visit the

land except for the purpose of incubation: they are often seen in

immense flocks, and sometimes in multitudes: they never mount

high in the air, but are altogether the most light, buoyant and fairy-

like members of the great group to which they belong: their great

stronghold is the temperate latitudes of the southern ocean, and

until the occurrence of the present new species, I have never heard

of one being found north of the equator. The species to which the

Madeiran bird is most nearly allied, is that to which I have given

the name of P. Ariel, and which I met with and shot in great

numbers in Bass’s Straits. It differs, however, in being smaller in

all its admeasurements, in having a shorter, more swollen or robust

bill, particularly with reference to the nostrils and the terminal hook

of the upper mandible. For this new species I propose the name of

PRION BREVIROSTRIS.

Upper surface delicate blue ; edge of the shoulder, the scapularies,

outer margins of the external primaries and the tips of the middle

tail-feathers black ; lores, sides of the head and all the under surface

white, stained with blue on the flanks and under tail-coverts; bill

light blue, deepening into black on the sides of the nostrils and at

the tip, and with a black line along the side of the under mandible ;

feet light blue, the interdigital membrane flesh-colour.

Total length, 103 inches; bill, +3; wing, 64; tail, 33; tarsi, 14.

DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME NEW SPECIES OF ANT-THRUSHES

(ForMICARIINZ) FROM Santa Fé v1 Bocora.

By Pariuipe Lurtey Scuater, M.A., F.Z.S.

1. GRALLARIA HYPOLEUCA.

G. supra ferruginea, loris albidis; subtus alba, lateribus magis

einerascentibus : tibiis et hypochondriis brunnescentibus.

Long. tota 6°5, alee 3:5, caude 1:8.

_ The collection of the Jardin des Plantes at. Paris contains the only

58 Zoological Society :— lM

example I have yet seen of this bird, which appears to have eseaped

the notice of the French ornithologists. It is marked as having

been received from Bogota in 1843 by M. Rieffer. Its form is typi-

eal, but in colouring it differs from all hitherto known members of

the genus, though perhaps showing some resemblance to Grallaria

brevicauda (Bodd.) (Pl. Enl. 706. fig. 1), which is, however, much

smaller. It is of a uniform ferruginous brown above and white be-

low, passing into a cinereous tinge on the sides. Some brown colour

is mixed with the feathers on the sides of the breast. The bill is

black, the tarsi plumbeous ; the thighs and the under wing-coverts

brown.

2. GRALLARIA MODESTA.

G. supra intense brunnescenti-olivacea, alis caudaque nigricanti-

brunneis olivaceo tinctis: subtus olivacea, flavescenti-albido

flammulata; ventre medio flavescenti-albido: tectricibus sub-

alaribus pallide castaneis : mandibula superiore plumbea, hujus

apice et tomiis et mandibula inferiore, nisi basi, albicantibus :

pedibus pallide brunneis.

Long. tota 6°2, alee 3°2, caudze 1°8, tarsi 1°75.

This is a rather uniformly-coloured -species, of which the British

Museum contains a single specimen. There are indications of darker

marginations to the feathers of the nape and back. The breast fea-

thers are medially yellowish-white, broadly margined with olivaceous.

3. CHAM2ZA MOLLISSIMA.

C. supra brunneo-castanea, remigibus rectricibusque intus nigri-

cantibus : capitis lateribus et corpore toto subtus nigris, albo

dense transvittatis : uropygi plumis lawis, elongatis, densis- —

simis : rostro Chamzezze marginatee simili sed minore. ,

Long. tota 5°75, alee 3°2, caude 2:5.

This peculiar Ant-thrush, of which there is one specimen in the

British Museum, has the lower back very densely feathered, the

coverts reaching to within an inch of the end of the rectrices. The

wings are shorter than is usual in Chameza—the 4th, Sth, 6th and

7th primaries being nearly equal in length, but the Sth rather the

longest ; the tail rather more lengthened ; the formation of the feet

is much the same.

Above the colouring is of a brown chestnut, rather darker towards —

the tail; the sides of the head and whole under-plumage are blackish

barred with white, every feather having three or more transverse

white bars. A slight tinge of castaneous is intermixed, particularly

on the breast.

4. FoRMICIVORA CALLINOTA.

F’. olivacea ; pileo summo et nuchanigris : loris, capitis lateribus,

et corpore subtus ad imum pectus cinereis : abdomine pallide —

flavicanti-viridi : tergo late castaneo, pennis quibusdum nigris —

supra marginato: alis nigris, carpo et tectriceum marginibus —

flavis : secundariis et rectricibus olivaceo marginatis: rostro—

Mr. P. L. Sclater on some new species of Ant-Thrushes. 59

subulato, mandibula superiore nigricante, inferiore pallide

plumbea: pedibus plumbers.

Long. tota 4°0, alee 2°0, caudee 1°7.

This is an exceedingly pretty species of Formicivora, distinguished

by the bright chestnut colouring of its lower back, above which, i in

the middle of the back, are a few black- tipped feathers, forming a

small black patch. It must be placed next to the Brazilian Formi-

eivora maculata, (Max.) (Leptorhynchus striolatus, Menetries, Mém.

de l’Ac. St. P. 1835, pl. 10. fig. 2*), with which it agrees in form and

style of plumage. A single example of it is in the British Museum.

5. DysirHAMNUS SEMICINEREUS.

& cinereus, pileo intensiore ; subtus medialiter albicantior : dorso

postico et remigum marginibus cum ventre imo olivascentibus :

tectricibus alarum tenuissime albo limbatis : rostro pedibusque

nigris.

2 olivacea, pileo rufescente: gutture medio albo, lateraliter

cinerascente: ventre flavicanti-olivaceo ; mandibula imferiore

basi albicante.

Long. tota 4°5, alae 2:4, caudee 1°6.

In this apparently new Dysithamnus, of which the British Museum

contains several specimens, the cinereous colour in the male occupies

the whole upper plumage down to the middle of the back, where it

gradually passes into olive, and the whole lower plumage down to

the middle of the belly, where a like colour supervenes. The middle

of the body beneath is much paler. The bill is rather longer than

in D. mentalis, but the form is otherwise the same. The genus to

which this bird belongs is certainly very closely connected with

Thamnophilus, but I doubt whether that form can be divided even as

a subfamily from the South American Ant-thrushes.

6. PyRIGLENA TYRANNINA.

o nigricanti-cinereus, carpo summo et alarum tectricum margini-

bus albis: plaga dorsi medi interna nivea: subtus paulo pal-

lidior, rostro et pedibus nigris.

2 pallide brunnea, rufescente tincta; abdomine toto clare rufo :

mandibula inferiore, nisi apice alba,

Long. tota 5:2, alee 2°5, caudze 2°25.

A series of specimens in the British Museum clearly connect the

somewhat dissimilar male and female of this species, which it is diffi-

cult to place satisfactorily in any of the present established genera

of this family as far as I am acquainted with them, though without

doubt a member of the group, with somewhat of a Tyrannine aspect.

The characteristic white patch underneath the feathers of the back

is well marked in both sexes.

_* M. Menetries has made this bird a second species of his genus Leptorhynchus,

but I do not think it can be satisfattorily arranged along with the peculiar form

which he has made the type of his genus; and the name Leptorhynchus being

preoccupied, I propose to change it into Psilorhamphus. Type P.guttatus, mihi.

(Leptorhynchus.guttatus, Men. pl. 10. fig. 1.)

60 Zoological Society.

June 26, 1855.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chairs (09 95

Descriptions or some New Species or Birps rrom Santa

Fe pt Bocora. By Pritie Lurvey Sciarer, M.A,”

1. NeMOSIA ALBIGULARIS. aes

N. nigra: dorso postico crissoque cum macula collari utringue et

plumis narium quibusdam aurantio-flavis :; speculo alari albo:

subtus alba pectoris et laterum plumis partim intus nigro vit-

tatis: rostro supra nigricante, subtus carneo: pedibus nigris.

Long. tota 4°2, alee 2°5, caudee 1°8.

This is a close ally of Nemosia flavicollis (Vieill.), from which,

however, it may be at once distinguished by its white throat, the

yellow colour being confined to a patch on the side of the neck. The

spot above the nostrils and orange tint of the yellow are other dif-

ferences which serve to confirm the validity of this species. | There

are examples of it in the British Museum and in Mr. Gould’s wollee-

tion and my own.

2. PyriGLENA ELLISIANA.

P. fusco-castanea unicolor: facie, mento et regione auriculari —

cum cauda nigricantibus : rostro nigro, mandibula inferiore,

nisi ipsa tomia basique, alba.

Long. tota 7°0, alee 3°3, caudee 3:1.

The “only specimen I have seen of this species was received ne

Lady Ellis in a collection of birds from Bogota, and presented b

her to the British Museum. At the request of Mr. G. R. Gray, I

have named it after the donor. The form is nearly that of P. domi-

cella, but there is no sign of a white, subinterscapular spot, as is

general in the species of this genus. The tail-coverts are very thick,

The plumage is of a nearly uniform cinnamon-brown, brighter above,

and with a greenish gloss on the breast. The front, sides of the

head, throat “and tail are black. ¥

3, ANTHUS BOGOTENSIS. TF

A. pennis corporis superi medialiter nigris pallido cervino-brunneo

late marginatis : alis intus nigris ; primariis stricte, secundariis

autem et tectricibus pallido cervino-brunneo late marginatis :

rectricibus-nigris ; una utrinque extina, nisi pogonii interioris

parte basali, tota pallide alba, hrunnescente tincta ; ceteris

extus et duabus mediis utrinque cervino-brunneo anguste lim-

batis: capitis lateribus et corpore toto subtus pallide cervino-

brunneis, ventre crissoque albescentioribus ; pectoris lateribus et

collo antico punctis paucis triangularibus nigris, quasi torquem

Sormantibus, notatis: rostro nigro, mandibula inferiore basi

flavido: pedibus validis, flavis : ungue postico valde ee

Long. tota 5:0, alee 3:2, caudze 2°3,

This is the only bird of the nearly universally distributed family. off

Pipits I have seen from Bogota, and appears distinct from any species

previously noticed. The bill is rather larger, and the feet stronger.

and thicker than in the ordinary members of the genus. bavestiial

plumage is of the usual pale brownish fawn-colour, thickly clouded:

with black, caused by the feathers being broadly margined on each!

Royal Institution. 61

side with the fawn-colour. The sides of the head and under-plumage

are uniform, except on the sides of the breast and across the neck,

where there are small black triangular spots in the centre of some

of the feathers. The under wing-coverts are pure pale buff; the

middle of the belly and crissum lighter and nearly whitish.

4. OrTocorRyYS PEREGRINA.

Otocoris chrysolaimos, Bp. Att. Se. It. 1845, p. 405 (nee Wagl.).

O. supra grisescenti-brunnea, rufo tincta; pennis nigro variegatis :

Sronte, facie gulaque flavis, loris et regione auriculari et vitta

transversa verticis cum plaga magna superpectorali nigris : ab-

domine crissoque et tectricibus alarum inferioribus albis, pectore

et lateribus rufescenti-griseo mixtis : alis nigricantibus ; pri-

marus albido, secundariis rufescenti-griseo, tectricibus majori-

bus rufo limbatis ; tectricibus summis pure rufo-brunneis, pene

castaneis : cauda nigricante ; rectrice una utringue extima late,

secunda autem versus apicem solum et angustius albo limbata ;

duabus mediis rufescenti-griseo utringue late marginatis : tec-

tricibus caude superioribus basi rufis : rostro nigro, mandibula

inferiore basi alba: pedibus intense brunneis.

Long. tota 5:5, alee 3°8, caude 2°4,

I have had an example of this bird in my possession several years,

but have always considered it the same as Wagler’s O. chrysolema,

with which it has been identified by Prince Charles Bonaparte.

Having however lately obtained specimens of the Mexican species, I

find the Bogota bird presents such differences as to render its specific

isolation necessary. It is rather smaller than the former, the taiis

shorter, the bill longer and more curved, and the back has more

black upon it. But the chief peculiarity to be remarked in my

gan (which is not quite adult) is the pure red-brown colour of

the upper wing-coverts, which in the Mexican bird are lighter, paler,

and more pinky. There are many examples of this species in the

Paris Museum, in the collection recently transmitted from Bogota by

M. Lewy, the French consul there. I have no doubt fully mature

individuals will exhibit still further differences.

ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

_ May 2, 1856.-—The Duke of Northumberland, K.G., F.R.S.,

President, in the Chair.

“On the Ruminant Quadrupeds and the Aboriginal Cattle of

Britain.” By Prof. Owen, F.R.S.

» The speaker introduced the subject of the Ruminant order of

quadrupeds, and the source of our domesticated species, by some

general remarks upon the classification of the class Mammalia, and

on the characters of the great natural group defined by Ray and

Linneus as the Ungulata, or hoofed mammalia.

’ These are divisible into two natural and parallel orders, having

respectively the Anoplotherium and Paleotherium as their types;

which genera, as far as geological researches have yet extended,

were the first, or amongst the earliest, representatives of the Ungu-

lata on this planet.

62 Royal Institution :-—

The brilliant researches of Baron Cuvier, the founder of paleeon-

tological science and the reconstructor of those primeval hoofed

animals, from fragmentary fossil remains in the gypsum quarries at

Montmartre, were alluded to.

Diagrams of the entire skeletons of the Anoplotherium and Palseo-

therium were referred to, in illustration of their dental and osteo-

logical peculiarities.

The Anoplotherium, with the typical dentition of

3—3 ]—1 4—4 3—3

, canines , premolars , molars =44;

3-3 1—1 4—4 3-3

1INCISOTS

had all its teeth of the same length, and in a continuous unbroken

series : this character is peculiar to Man in the existing creation.

The Paleotherium, with the same dental formula as the Anoplo-

therium, had the canines longer than the other teeth, and developed

into sharp-pointed weapons ; necessitating a break in the dental series

to receive their summits in closing the mouth.

The Anoplotherium had 19 vertebrae between the neck and sacrum,

viz. 13 dorsal and 6 lumbar. The Palwotherium had 16 dorsal

and 7 lumbar vertebre.

The Anoplotherium had a femur with two trochanters, and the fore-

part of the ankle-bone, called “astragalus,”’ divided into two equal fa-

cets. Its hoofs formed a symmetrical pair on each foot. Cuvier has very

justly inferred that its stomach must have been complex, and proba-

bly, in some respects, like that of the Camel or Peceari. The Palseo-

therium had a femur with three trochanters, an astragalus with its fore-

part unequally divided, and hoofs, three in number, on each foot. It

most probably had a simple stomach, like the Tapir and Rhinoceros,

which, amongst existing animals, most nearly resemble that extinct

primitive hoofed quadruped, with toes in uneven number.

Every species of ungulate mammal with an uneven number of hoofs

or toes, that has been introduced into this planet since the eocene

tertiary period, whether it have 1 hoof on each foot, as in the Horse,

3 as in the Rhinoceros, or 5 as in the Elephant, resembles the Palzeo-

therium in having more than 19 dorso-lumbar vertebrae, which ver-

tebree also differ in number in different genera ; e.g. 22 in the

Rhinoceros, 23 in the Mastodon, 27 in the Hyrax. The typical

Pachyderms, with an odd number of hoofs, have also three trochan-

ters on the femur, the fore-part of the astragalus unequally divided,

and the pattern of the grinding surface of the molar teeth unsym-

metrical, and usually crossed by oblique enamel-ridges. All the

existing odd-toed or perissodactyle mammals have a simple stomach

and a vast and complex cecum ; the horned species have either a

single horn, or two odd horns, one behind the other on the middle

line of the head, as e. g. in the one-horned and two-horned Rhino-

ceroses. a

Every species of ungulate animal with hoofs in even number,

whether 2 on each foot, as in the Giraffe and Camel, or 4 on each

foot, as in the Hippopotamus, resembles the Anoplotherium in having

19 dorso-lumbar vertebre, neither more nor less ; in haying two

Prof. Owen on the Ruminant Quadrupeds. 63

trochanters on the femur, in haying the fore-part of the astragalus

equally divided, and in haying the pattern of the grinding surface of

the molar teeth more or less symmetrical. The horned species have

the horns in one pair, or two pairs. All have the stomach more or less

complex, and the cecum small and simple. In the Hog the gastric

complexity is least displayed; but in the Peccari the stomach has three

compartments ; and in the Hippopotamus it is still more complex.

But the most complex and peculiar form of stomach is that which

enables the animal to “ chew the cud,’ or submit the aliment to a

second mastication, characteristic of the large group of even-hoofed

Ungulata, called ‘* Ruminantia.”

These timid quadrupeds have many natural enemies ; and if they

had been compelled to submit each mouthful of grass to the full

extent of mastication which its digestion requires, before it was

swallowed, the grazing ruminant would have been exposed a long

time in the open prairie or savannah, before it had filled its stomach.

Its chances of escaping a carnivorous enemy would have been in a

like degree diminished. But by the peculiar structure of the rumi-

nating stomach, the grass can be swallowed as quickly as it is cropped,

and be stowed away in a large accessory receptacle, called the “ru-

men,” or first cavity of the stomach ; and this bag being filled, the

ruminant can retreat to the covert, and lie down in a safe hiding-

place to remasticate its food at leisure.

The modifications of the dentition, cesophagus, and stomach, by

which the digestion in the Ruminantia is carried out, were described

and illustrated by diagrams.

The speaker next treated of the various kinds of horns and antlers ;

the manner of growth, shedding, renewal, and annual modifications

of the deciduous horns, the peculiarities of the persistent horns, the

mechanism of the cloyen foot, and the provision for maintaining the

hoofs in a healthy condition, were pointed out.

The following were the chief varieties of the ruminating stomach.

In the small Musk-deer (Tragulus) there are three cavities, with a

small intercommunication-canal between the second and last cavity ;

the “ psalterium,” or third cavity, in the normal ruminating stomach,

being absent. This cavity is likewise absent in the Camel-tribe, which

have the cells of the second cavity greatly enlarged, and have also

accessory groups of similar cells developed frem the rumen, or first

cavity. These cells can contain several gallons of water. The rela-

tion of this modification, and of the hump or humps on the back, to

the peculiar geographical position of the Camel-tribe, was pointed out.

The modifications of the ruminating stomach ; the discovery of ru-

dimental teeth in the embryo Ruminantia, which teeth (upper incisors

and canines) have been supposed to characterize the Pachyderms;

the occurrence of another alleged pachydermal character, viz. the

divided metacarpus and metatarsus, in the foetus or young of all rumi-

nants, and its persistence in the existing Moschus aquaticus, and in a

fossil species of Antelope ; the absence of cotyledons in the chorion of

the Camel-tribe, with the retention of some incisors as well as canines

in the upper jaw of that tribe; the ascertained amount of visceral

and osteological conformity of the supposed circumscribed order

64 oe) Royal Institution > oo)

Ruminantia, with the other artiodactyle (even-toed) Ungulatas abdve

all, the number of lost links in that interesting ehain which have

now been restored from the ruins of former habitableysurfaces ofthe

earth—all these and other similar facts have concurred imestablishing

different views of the nature and value of the: Ruminant orderdrem

_ those entertained by Cuvier, and the majority of systematic naturalists

up to 1840. Thus instead of viewing the Anoplotherium as' a y-

derm, the speaker, having regard to the small size df its! upper inci-

sors and cauines, to the retention of the individuality of itsotwovchief

metacarpal and metatarsal bones, and to the non-development ofhorns

at any period of life, would regard it rather as resembling ancover-

grown embryo-ruminant—of a ruminant in which growth»had) pro-

ceeded with arrest of development. The ordinal characters of the

Anoplotherium are those of the Artiodacty/a. On the other hand,

instead of viewivg the Horse as being next of kin to the Camel; ofeas

making the transition from the Pachyderms to the Ruminants, the

speaker had been led, by considerations of its third trochanter; sits

astragalus, its simple stomach and enormous sacculated czeeumthe

paleotherian type of the grinding surface of the molars, and the

excessive number of the dorso-lumbar vertebree, to the conviction of

the essential affinities of the Lguide with other perissodactyles (odd-

toed hoofed beasts). wraacd aieae

The primitive types of both odd-toed and even-toed Unguilates o¢cur

in the eocene tertiary deposits: the earliest forms of the rami iant

modification of the Artiodactyla appear in the miocene strata. ‘The

fossil remains of the aboriginal cattle of Britain have been found in

the newer pliocene strata, in drift-gravels, in brick-earth deposits,

and in bone-cayes, Two of these ancient cattle (Bovide) were of

gigantic size, with immense horns ; one was a true Bison (Bison pris-

cus), the other a true Ox (Bos primigenius) ; contemporaty with these

were a smaller species of short-horned Ox (Bos longifrons), and a Buf-

falo, apparently identical in species with the Arctic Musk-buffalo

(Bubalus, or Ovibos, moschatus). Mes

The small Ox (Bos longifrons) is that. which the aboriginal na

of Britain would be most likely to succeed in taming. They possessed

domesticated cattle (pecora) when Ceesar invaded Britain. The ¢,

of the mountain fastnesses to which the Celtic population retr

before the Romans, viz. the Welsh “runt” and Highland “ ky

most resemble in size and cranial characters the pleistocene Bos’

gifrons. Prof. Owen therefore regards the Bos longifrons, and not

the gigantic Bos primigenius, as the source of part of our domestic

cattle. st pee |

From the analogy of colonists of the present day he proceeded to

argue that the Romans would import their own tamed cattle to their »

colonial settlements in Britain. The domesticated cattle of the Ro-.

mans, Greeks, and Egyptians bore the nearest affinity to the Brahminy

variety of cattle in India. As the domestic cattle prayers © he

Spaniards into South America have, in many localities, reverted to a

wild state, so the speaker believed that the half-wild races of white

cattle in Chillingham Park, and a few other preserves in Britain, were

descended from introduced domesticated cattle. The size of the déw-

oW. 4 «ek

Prof. Owen on the Ruminant Quadrupeds. 65

»lap, and an occasional rudiment of the hump in these white cattle,

»vas well as the approximation to the light-grey colour characteristic of

the Brahminy race, seemed to point to their primitive oriental source.

» But the speaker could not regard the pure white colour as natural to

a primitive wild stock of oxen. It is now maintained by the careful

destruction of all piebald calves that are produced by the so-preserved

half-wild breeds.

If the blood of any of the aboriginal cattle, contemporary with the

Mammoth and hairy Rhinoceros, still flowed in the veins of any of our

domesticated races, he thought it would be that of the Bos longifrons

transmitted through the short-horned or hornless varieties of the oxen

of the mountains of Wales and Scotland.

In conclusion the speaker referred to the subjoined table of the

classification of recent and extinct hoofed quadrupeds, as indicative

of the progressive extinction of those forms of Ungulata least likely

to be of use to man, and of the substitution of the ruminant forms,

which, from the perfect digestion of their food, elaborate from it the

most sapid and nutritious kinds of flesh.

* "Aprus, par ; Saxrvdos, digitus.

+ Ilepercodaxrvdos, qui digitos habet impares numero,

t Only those genera printed in ifalics now exist.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser. 2. Vol. xviii.

UNGULATA.

Typica. dAberrantia.

—-———---* —S —_

ArRTIODACTYLA*. PEeRISSODACTYLA}. ToxopDONTIA. SIRENIA.

Anoplotherium. Paleotherium. Toxodon. Maznatus.

Chalicotherium. Paloplotherium. Nesodon. Halicore.

Dichobune. Lophiodon. Rytina.

Cainotherium. Coryphodon. Prosposcip1a. Halitherium.

Poebrotherium. Tapirust. Elephas. Prorastomus.

Xiphodon. Macrauchenia. Mastodon.

Moschus f. Hippotherium. Dinotherium.

Antelope. Equus.

Ovis. Elasmotherium.

Bos. BAyraz.

Cervus. Rhinoceros.

Camelopardalis, Acerotherium.

Camelus.

Auchenia.

Merycotherium.

Merycopotamus.

Hippopotamus.

Dichodon.

Hyracotherium.

Hyopotamus.

Anthracotherium.

Hippohyus,

Cheeropotamus.

Dicotyles.

Phacocherus.

Sus.

66 Botanical Society of Edinburgh :—

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

April 10th, 1856.—Professor Balfour, V.P., in the Chair.

The following papers were read :—

1. “ Remarks on the State of the Forests in Pegu, and other parts

of India,” by Dr. M‘Clelland.

The statements in this communication were taken from Dr. M‘Clel-

land’s Report, as given in a Madras paper. That report, taken in

connexion with Dr. Faleoner’s report on the forests of the Tenas-

serim provinces, and Dr. Cleghorn’s on the forests of Madura and

Malabar, prove—

1. That the forests of Southern India and Pegu art approaching

rapidly to exhaustion, 2. That the first step necessary to check

this process is a more effective organization of the forest department

of the government of India. Instances are recorded in the Tenas-

serim provinces of the indiscriminate felling of teak trees of all ages.

Trees with a straight bole of 100 feet, and trees with the wood not

yet hard, were all hewn down alike. In some forests the axe never

ceased for twenty years. In others, every teak tree was removed,

In Malabar the destruction had not been so extensive, and steps had

been taken to prevent the further deterioration of the forests. ;

In Pegu, it appears that the Burmese Government and the squatters

have overworked the forests in a most reckless manner. Trees of all

sizes and ages were allowed to be cut, and it was stated that upwards

of 70 per cent. of the trees cut were under-sized. In some places

the forests have been worked unceasingly for thirty years. Exelusive

of trees felled or killed, there remain in the northern forest about

520,000 teak trees, which at the utmost will allow thinning to the

extent of 25,000 trees a-vyear. This number will soon be exceeded,

and the forests will thus speedily disappear, unless measures are

taken for the renewal of the trees, which it is not the interest of the

lessees to provide for. .

The conservancy of the valuable forests in India is a matter of

great importance, and calls for the immediate attention of the Indian

Government. Steps have already been taken in some of the Pre-

sidencies, but much still remains to be done in order to secure that

the timber of these extensive forests shall be preserved and turned to

good account.

2. “Remarks on some Edible Sea-weeds,”’ by Dr. Davy.

This paper detailed some experiments on Chondrus crispus, or

Carrageen ; Rhodymenia palmata, or Dulse ; Porphyra laciniata, or

Laver; Laminaria digitata, or Tangle; and Fucus vesiculosus, or

Doughlaghman. The author showed from the chemical composition

of these sea-weeds that they were valuable articles of food, containing

oy nitrogen than is present in the ordinary articles of vegetable

ood. ,

3. “On Fibrous Substances used in India, as communicated in the

Report of the Jurors of the Madras Exhibition.”

The Jurors report that it has been shown that Southern India is

Prof. Balfour on the Flora of the Cumbrae Islands. 67

abundantly supplied with fibrous materials of every description for

textile manufactures.

Among the Endogenous plants of India yielding fibre, are noticed

species of Palms, dyave, Yucca, Sanseviera, Fourcroya, Ananassa,

Musa, Pandanus, Rushes, Grasses, and Sedges ; among Exogenous

plants are species of Calotropis, Tylophora, Cryptostegia, Damia,

Cannabis, Corchcrus, Crotalaria, Hibiscus, Abelmoschus, and Abu-

tilon ; besides the barks of species of Ficus, Bauhinia, Grewia, Dal-

bergia, Isora, Butea, and Vernonia. Among the Palms are Cocos

nucifera, the Cocoa-nut Palm; Borassus jlabelliformis, the Palmyra

Palm of Europeans; late or Phaniv sylvestris, the wild Date ;

Caryota urens, or the Indian Sago Palm ; Calamus Rotang, or ground

Rattan. Among Liliaceous plants may be recorded: dyave americana,

American Aloe, and varieties; Fourcroya gigantea, Seemay Kathalay ;

Sanseviera zeylanica, Marool; Yucca gloriosa, Adam’s Needle; YF.

aloéfolia; Ananassa sativa, Pine Apple. Of Pandanacez and

Musaceze : Pandanus odoratissimus, or Screw Pine; Musa paradi-

siaca, or Plantain, and Musa sapientum, or Banana.

Substitutes for flax and hemp are found in the following Dicotyle-

dons :—Culotropis gigantea, or Yercum; Cryptostegia grandiflora,

or Palay ; Damia extensa, or Ootrum ; Crotalaria juncea, or Sunnee

Hemp ; Corchorus olitorius, or Jute; Hibiscus cannabinus, and

other species; Abelmoschus esculentus and ficulneus; -Abutilon

tomentosum and polyandrum.

4. “Notice of the Flora of the Cumbrae Islands,’’ by Professor

Balfour.

The Cumbrae Islands are situated on the Frith of Clyde, between

the coast of Ayrshire and the Island of Bute. In their geological

structure, as well as im their flora, they present many points of

affinity with the latter island. Red sandstone, with limestone and

trap, constitute the chief rocks of the Cumbraes. The rarer plants

are found on the rocky grounds near the shores. ‘The species are in

general those which characterize the western parts of Scotland. The

climate is mild, and some species are met with which are usually

considered characteristic of more southern situations. The Great

Cumbrae is about three miles long and one and a half broad; its

surface embraces about 2500 acres, one-half of which is arable. The

land rises in the centre of the island to about 400 feet. It consists

of a mass of red sandstone traversed by trap veins, some of which

form yery conspicuous dykes. In some parts of the island, limestone

occurs,

The Little Cumbrae lies about half a mile south of the Great

Cumbrae. It is about a mile in length and half a mile in breadth:

It is composed chiefly of trap, with here and there portions of sand-

stone.

The Phanerogamous plants seen by Dr. Balfour and his party

amounted to about 420; viz.—

Dicotyledones, .. <2. s+, 5+> S14

Monocotyledones . . . . . 106

AG os ee SOU

Among the more interesting of these may be enumerated the fol-.

lowing :—

Brassica monensis (on

the sandy shores).

Sagina subulata.

Malva moschata.

Hypericum Androsze-

mum,

Geranium sanguineum.

Radiola Millegrana.

Rubus discolor.

Lythrum Salicaria.

Cotyledon Umbilicus.

Sedum Telephium.

Carum verticillatum.

Coninm maculatum.

Eryngium maritimum

{northern shores of

the Great Cumbrae).

Haloscias scoticum.

- Helosciadium inunda-

tum.

nodifiorum.

GEnanthe Lachenaln.

Dipsacus sylvestris

(naturalized).

Hieracium gothicum.

vulgatum.

The number of Ferns and their allies is—

Jasione montana.

Calluna vulgaris (var.

tomentosa).

Pyrola media.

Erythrzea littoralis.

Convolvulus Soldanella

(sandy northernshores

of the Gt. Cumbrae).

Mertensia maritima

(western shore of the

Great Cumbrae).

Solanum Dulcamara.

Hyoscyamus niger.

Linaria vulgaris.

Lamium intermedium.

Lycopus europeus.

Scutellaria galericulata.

Stachys ambigua.

Pinguicula lusitanica.

Utricularia minor.

vulgaris,

Anagallis tenella.

Samolus Valerandi.

Littorella lacustris.

Atriplex Babingtonii.

erecta.

Equisetaceze . .

Filices :

Lycopodiaceze

Total

The proportion of Ferns,

is large.

Asplenium marinum.

Botrychium Lunaria.

Hymenophyllum Wil-

soni.

Lastra Foenisecii.

Ophioglossum vulga-

tum.

Osmunda regalis.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh :—

Salicornia herbacea.

Sureda maritima.

Polygonum Raii.

Rumex viridis.

Habenaria viridis.

Listera cordata.

ovata.

Juncus maritimus.

Alisma ranuneuloides.

Zostera marina, var.

angustifolia.

Carex extensa.

paniculata.

—— vulpina.

Eleocharis uniglumis.

Schcenus nigricans.

Scirpus maritimus.

Catabrosa aquatica, var.

minor.

Festuca arundinacea.

Pseudo-Myurus.

Melica uniflora,

Phalaris arundinacea,

var. picta.

Sclerochloa maritima.

Triticum laxum.

as compared with Phanerogamous plants,

Among the more interesting of these may be noticed—

Polypodium Phegopteris.

Polystichum angulare.

Scolopendrium yulgare.

The following is a list of the Cumbrae Mosses, partly determined

by Mr. Nichol, “and partly from a list given by Mr. Levack :—

Sphagnum cymbi-

fohum.

acutifolium.

cuspidatum.

+—— squarrosum.

Plenridium subulatum.

Gymnostomum tenue.

Weissia controversa.

Dicranum. heteromal-

lum.

Dicranum yarium.

cerviculatum.

—--- Scoparium.

palustre.

Campylopus flexuosus.

Fissidens bryoides.

adiantoides.

taxifolius.

Pottia Heimnii.

truncata.

Tortula muralis.

— subulata.

—— unguiculata.

Didymodon rubellus.

Ceratodon purpureus.

Trichostomum homo-

mallum.

Orthotrichum affine.

- Grimmia pulvinata,

—— maritima.

Prof. Balfour on the Flora of the Cumbrae Islands.

Racomitrium Janugi-

nosum.

canescens.

aciculare.

Ptychomitrium _poly-

phyllum.

Physcomitrium erice-

torum,

Entosthodon Temple-

toni.

Splachnum ampulla-

ceum.

Bartramia fontana.

—— pomiformis.

Bryum capillare.

carneum.

Mnium punctatum.

undulatum.

—— hornum.

——— rostratum.

Atrichum undulatum.

Pogonatum nanum.

alpinum,

Polytrichum commune.

Fontinalis antipyretica.

Neckera complanata.

Pterygophyllum lucens.

Pylaisea polyantha,

Homalothecium seri-

ceum.

Thamnium alopecurum.

Thuidium tamariscinum.

Hylocomnium splen-

dens.

triquetrum,

-—— loreum.

—— squarrosum.

Plagiothecium undula-

tum.

Eurhynchium longi-

rostre.

Stokesu.

Brachythecium ruta-

bulum.

velutinum.

populeum,

plumosum.

Hypnum commutatum.

——— revolvens.

cuspidatum.

scorpioides.

Schreberi.

— fluitans.

purum.

cupressiforme.

Jungermannia aspleni-

oides.

tamarisci.

-—— furcata.

The following list of Lichens, collected on the Cumbraes, has been

prepared by Mr. Macmillan :—

Nephroma resupinata

(in fruit).

Parmelia caperata

(barren).

pulverulenta.

parietina.

stellaris.

Sticta scrobiculata

(barren).

Borrera tenella.

Placodium plumbeum.

Spherophoron coral-

loides (in fruit).

compressum.

Parmelia glomulifera

(barren).

—— omphalodes (in

fruit),

Parmeliaperlata(barren).

Cladonia rangiferina.

uncialis.

Roceella tinctoria.

Parmelia conspersa (in

fruit).

Peltidea canina.

horizontalis.

Seyphophorus alcicor-

nis.

Ramalina fraxinea.

fastigiata.

Parmelia saxatilis.

Lecanora tartarea.

Parmelia aquila (in

fruit).

Evernia prunastri.

Usnea florida.

Squamaria murorum.

Ramalina scopulorum.

Lecidea geographica.

sulphurea.

Lecanora atra.

Sticta pulmonaria

(barren).

Parmelia olivacea.

Variolaria velata,

Lecanora parella.

Collema lacerum.

Sticta fuliginosa (barren).

Squamaria affinis.

Parmelia perforata (bar-

ren).

Stereocaulon paschale (in

fruit),

Mr. Maemillan remarked, “ In the above list of the most conspi-

cuous Lichens of these islands, it will be observed that several species

occur which are usually found only in the depths of shady woods, in

situations far inland. The Parmelia glomulifera, Sticta scrobiculata,

Placodium plumbeum, Nephroma resupinata, and Sticta fuliginosa,

are almost peculiar to the extensive forests of mountainous regions

where there is a great deal of moisture and shade; and hence their

occurrence, not merely as stray or isolated individuals, for the Lichens

are sometimes very erratic in their choice of habitats, but im con-

siderable quantities on islands almost entirely destitute of wood and

very much exposed, is a somewhat singular cireumstance. It is also

curious to notice in the list no less than eight species, which we

‘should sceareely expect beforehand to find, insomuch as they belong

70 Botanical Society of Edinburgh :—

to a somewhat Alpine zone, which usually commences at a greater

elevation than that of the highest ground on the islands. The

region in which the Cladonia rangiferina, Lecanora tartarea, Lecidea

geographica, Spherophoron coralloides, Parmelia omphalodes, &c.,

prevail in the greatest quantity, and attain to their greatest luxuriance

and beauty, commences at about 500 feet, and terminates at a height

of 1000 feet or a little more. Of course, extensive patches of these

Lichens may sometimes be found at much lower elevations ; indeed,

I have repeatedly gathered considerable quantities of each of them,

but very diminutive and ill-developed, all along the west coast of

Scotland in immediate proximity to the sea; but it is only within the

above limits that uniformly large and perfect specimens, furnished

with fructification, can be obtained. There are two Lichens occurring

on these islands which are found on almost all our sea-coasts, and are

never found far inland, the Parmelia aquila and Ramalina scopulorum,

The former has never been found, I believe, at a greater distance from

the sea than some twenty or thirty miles, and always grows on rocks

fully exposed to the sea-breeze ; it is found in considerable abundance

on rocks so situated on Arthur’s Seat. The latter lichen is peculiarly

plentiful upon rocks along the west coast of Scotland, and attains a

greater length and thickness in proportion as we advance northward,

the Orcadian rocks being sometimes covered with individuals from

six to eight inches long, and nearly one broad. The specimens ob-

tained in the Cumbraes are among the longest and shrubbiest I have

ever seen, and present a remarkable contrast to those gathered on

the east coast, and especially along the Frith of Forth, where it is

rare to find an individual above an inch high, and with lateral

branches. The fructification is rather uncommon, and occurs, I

believe, more frequently on small and well-grown individuals, than

on those which attain the greatest length; the thallus, in the case

of the latter, commonly developing new elongated branches at the

points of the margin where apothecia ought to have been produced.

The specimens found in the Western Islands differ considerably from

those collected on the Irish coasts, in being much narrower, of a

paler colour, and destitute of the oblong pale pitted buds, which

give a rough appearance to the aged Irish plant, and also in the disk

of the apothecia being of a much lighter colour, and nearly similar

to the thallus. It is a very variable species, however, if species it

can be truly called, presenting slight differences as regards size, colour,

shape, and mode of branching, on almost every coast. I have ob-

served in Menzies’ Herbarium at the Botanic Garden, a specimen

marked ‘ R. scopulorum?’ collected on the coast of California, which

appears to me to differ very little from certain states of our native

plant, except perhaps in the thallus being a little thinner, softer, and

somewhat lacunose ; and I possess specimens collected in New Zealand

and the Antarctic regions, which, making the usual allowances for the

widely different circumstances in which they were developed, may

safely be referred to one or other of the numerous states of our own

R. scopulorum.

“ By far the most interesting rarity found in these islands, how-

Prof. Balfour on the Flora of the Cumbrae Islands. 71

ever, is the Roccella tinctoria, now for the first time ascertained to

be a native of Scotland; the most northern localities previously

known for it being the maritime rocks along the south coast of

England, and the Guernsey, Portland, and Scilly islands. The

specimens found on the Cumbraes, where I believe it occurs in pretty

considerable abundance, are somewhat slender and diminutive, but

remarkably characteristic. The west coast of Scotland, and especially

the smaller islands, have been very little visited and explored by the

botanist ; and hence it is that we have remained so long ignorant of

the existence of this very interesting addition to the Flora Scotica,

I have no hesitation in saying, that, were a sufficiently careful and

diligent search once instituted along the other smaller and less-known

islands on the same coast, we should be able to record more than one

locality in Scotland for the Roccella tinctoria, I may add, in con-

clusion, that the nomenclature of these Lichens is that of Hooker’s

English Flora, I have adopted it in preference to that of other

authors, whose works are now slowly finding their way among us—

not because it is the best, but because it can be more easily consulted.”

The following list of Marine Algze found on the coast of the Cum-

braes was prepared by Mr. R. Hennedy :—

Halidrys siliquosa.

Fuens vesiculosus and

var. balticus.

ceranoides.

—— serratus.

— nodosus.

canaliculatus.

Himanthalia lorea.

Desmarestia aculeata.

viridis.

Alaria esculenta.

Laminaria digitata.

bulbosa.

: saccharina.

—— phyllitis.

fascia.

Chorda Filum.

lomentaria.

Zonaria parvula.

Dictyota dichotoma and

var. intricata.

Stilophora rhizodes.

— Lyngbyii.

Dictyosiphon feenicu-

laceus.

Striaria attenuata,

fragilis.

Punctaria latifolia,

plantaginea.

tenuissima.

Asperococeus Turner.

echinatus.

Lefestphen pusillus.

aminariz.

Chordaria flagelliformis.

Mesogloia vermicularis.

virescens.

Leathesia tuberiformis.

Ralfsia verrucosa.

Elachistea fucicola.

stellulata.

Myrionema strangularis.

Leclancherii.

—— punctiformis.

Cladostephus verticil-

latus.

spongiosus.

Sphacelaria scoparia.

plumosa.

cirrhosa.

radians.

racemosa.

Ectocarpus siliculosus.

Hincksie.

fasciculatus (var.

tessellatus).

tomentosus.

crinitus.

distortus.

Landsburgii.

—— littoralis.

—— granulosus.

sphzrophorus.

branchiatus.

Mertensii.

Mynitrichia claveefor-

mis.

—-— filiformis.

Odonthalia dentata.

Rhodomela lycopodi-

oides.

subfusca.

Polysiphonia urceolata.

formosa.

—— fibrata.

elongella.

elongata.

— fibrillosa,

—— Brodizi.

nigrescens,

atrorubescens.

fastigiata.

parasitica.

byssoides,

Dasya coccinea,

Bonnemaisonia aspara-

goides.

Laurencia pinnatifida.

—— ceespitosa.

dasyphylla.

Chrysymenia clavellosa.

Chylocladia kaliformis.

parvula.

articulata.

Corallina officinalis.

Jania rubens.

Melobesia polymorpha.

fasciculata,

membranacea.

verrucata.

pustulata.

Hildenbrandtia rubra,

Lithocystis Allmani.

Delesseria sanguinea.

sinuosa.

—— alata.

—— Hypoglosswn.

ruscifolia.

Nitophyllum puncta-

tum.

—-— laceratum.

Plocamium coecineum.

Rhodymenia bifida.

laciniata.

—— jubata.

palmata.

Spherococcus corono-

pifolius.

Hypnea purpurascens.

Gelidium corneum.

Gigartina mammillosa.

Chondrus crispus.

Phyllophora rubens.

meibranifolius.

— Brodie.

Peyssonelia Dubyi.

Gymnogongrus plicata.

Polyides rotundus.

Furcellaria fastigiata.

Dumontia filiformis.

Iridza edulis.

Catenella Opuntia.

Dudresnaia Hudsoni.

Ptilota plumosa.

-—-— sericea.

Ceramium rubrun.

botryocarpum.

—— strictum.

Ceramium flabelligerum.

nodosum.

echionotum.

acanthonotum.

ciliatum.

Griffithsia equisetifolia.

setacea.

Wrangelia multifida.

Callithamnion plumula.

Turneri.

—— tetragonum.

— Hooker.

polyspermum,

corymbosum.

yedicellatum.

Rothii.

floridulum.

Daviesii.

Bryopsis plumosa.

Vaucheria velutina.

Cladophora rupestris.

letevirens.

albida.

-—— lanosa,

arcta.

flavescens.

fracta.

Rhizoclonium riparia.

Conferva littorea.

tortuosa.

—— implexa.

—— erea.

Youngiana.

Enteromorpha intesti-

nalis.

compressa.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

Enteromorpha ramu-_

losa.

ercursa.

Ulva tatiana

—— Lactuea.

Linza.

Porphyra laciniata.

vulgaris (var. li-

nearis).

Bangia fusco-purpurea.

ceramicola.

carnea.

Rivularia plicata.

atra. .

Schizosiphon Warrenia,

Calothrix confervicola.

luteola.

—— scopulorum.

fasciculata.

—— frannosa.

hydnoides,

Lyngbya majuscula.

Carmichaelit.

speciosa.

Microcoleus angusti-

formis.

Oscillatoria littoralis.

subuliformis.

—— insignis.

Spirulina tenuissima.

Hutchinsiz.

Monormia intricata.

Spherosyga Thwaitesii.

—- Broomei.

Spermoseira littorea.

Professor Gregory examined the Diatoms, and prepared the

following list of them :—

Epithemia gibba.

rupestris.

turgida,

Argus.

zebra.

sorex.

Cymbella maculata.

cuspidata.

—— Ehrenbergii.

turgida, W, G.?

obtusa, W.G.

Cocconeis placentula.

vediculus,

hwaitesii.

transversalis,

W.G.

Amphora ovalis.

Amphora minutissima.

Cycloteila Kiitzingiana.

Campylodiscus spiralis.

Surirella minuta.

pinnata.

biseriata.

Tryblionella apiculata,

Cymatopleura Solea.

Nitzschia sigmoidea.

amphioxys.

vivax.

minutissima.

linearis.

Navicula ovalis, Sm.

(elliptica, Kitz.)

varians, W. G.

Navicula bacillans.

gibberula.

rhomboides, var.

elegans.

amphisbeena, __

rhynchocephala.

lanceolata.

Pinnularia major.

Dactylus, Ehr.

viridis.

Tabellaria.

—— gibba.

—— peregrina.

pti

—— mesolepta.

divergens.

— nodosa, Ehr,

Miscellaneous. 73

Pinnularia biceps, W.G. Synedra minutissima. Himantidium Arcus.

linearis, W. G. acicularis, undulatum.

acuta. Cocconema lanceola- gracile.

Stauroneis Pheenicen- tum. Fragilaria eapucina.

teron. —— cymbiforme. Odontidium mutabile.

punctata. cistula. mesodon.

—— anceps. Gomphonema tenellum. Harrisoni, Sm.

acuta. olivaceum. Tabellaria.

linearis. constrictum. Denticula tenuis.

— rectangularis, coronatum. sinuata.

W.G. Fusticulus, Sm.? Tabellaria fenestrata.

—— undulata, W.G. —— geminatum. flocculosa.

—— dubia, W. G,? —— msigne, W. G, Diatoma elongatum.

Pleurosigma eattenua- Meridion circulare. Melosira varians.

tum. Achnanthes exilis. distans.

Synedra radians. Achnanthidium lanceo- Mastogloia elliptica.

lunaris. latum. Colletonema neglectum.

To the names of such species as have been recently added to the

British flora, the name of the observer is added.

It will be seen that the number and variety of species is considerable,

yet, as we have found it in all other localities in the summer or autumn

of 1355, smaller than usual. The species are, with very few exceptions,

such as belong to fresh water; for the only forms that belong to

brackish or sea water are Navicula elegans, Pinnularia peregrina,

and perhaps Synedra acicularis.

There are one or two forms, which, although I have described them

as occurring in the Glenshira sand, are yet more frequent in some of

these gatherings than I have seen them elsewhere. Such are Cocconeis

transversalis, which I have also found in other freshwater gatherings ;

and Tryblionella apiculata, figured in the paper I lately read to the

Royal Society of Edinburgh. The rest of the forms, with the ex-

ception of those marked with my name, and one or two others of

Ehrenberg’s, are such as have long been known, and are very frequent.

MISCELLANEOUS.

EDWARDSIA VESTITA (FORBES).

One of the most interesting additions to our native zoophytology

that has been made for some time is a species described by the late

Professor Edward Forbes under the above title from specimens found

by him on the island of Paros in the Mgean Sea*. It isa vermiform

Actinia some six inches in length, with a beautiful expanded disk of

spotted tentacles ; the most conspicuous phenomenon in its ceconomy

being that it inhabits a tough thick tube formed of condensed mucus,

which is secreted in great abundance and thrown off from the surface

of its body.

This curious and beautiful zoophyte has been procured in some

numbers by Mr. W. A. Lloyd from the coast of North Wales; and

* See Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. for December 1841, and for July

74 Miscellaneous.

specimens may now be scen in the tanks of the Zoological Society

in the Regent’s Park. ‘

It is a very interesting coincidence, that the remarkable Annelide

found by Mr. Forbes in the same circumstances and described in the

same communication is also at present in the same noble collection ;

for, though I have had no opportunity of closely examining the spe-

cimen, I have no doubt that the curious Serpu/a which spontaneousl

appeared some months ago in one of the central tanks, and which

has been looked upon with some interest by zoologists, is identical

with Forbes’s Grecian Annelide in question. Its most salient point is

the long but graduated pectination of the branchial filaments on their

interior face, the pectinations projecting into the infundibulum and

meeting in the centre. It will probably require to be characterized

afresh, and to form a new genus.—P. H. Gosse.

CYCLAS LACUSTRIS, DRAPARNAUD.

In Forbes and Hanley’s admirable ‘History of the British Mol-

lusea’ (vol. ii. pp. 118 & 119) is a particular and accurate descrip-

tion of specimens in my collection which I obtained from Mr. Clark, ;

marked “ Exmouth 1831 and Dr. Turton’s cabinet.” They were

referred by those authors to the above-named species. Dr. Gray -

could not have been aware of this when he described the same species

in the last Number of the ‘ Annals,’ and assigned to it the name of”

“ Spherium pallidum.” Specimens which I took last month in

company with Mr, Rouse exactly agree with those in my collection

mentioned above, as well as with the description and figure in Dra-

parnaud’s work. Cyclas caliculata (to some of the varieties of which

this approaches in form), C. rivicola, and a variety of C. cornea

occurred in the same spot ; so that the species in question cannot be a

local variety of any of the others. Its distinctive characters are the

thomboid form and nearly straight hinge-line ; yellowish- white being

the predominant colour, with a greyish tinge and darker irregular

zones in adult specimens. It is probably the Tedlina lacustris of

Miller; but Pfeiffer, Charpentier, Dupuy and some other conti-

nental writers, appear to have mistaken for it varieties of Cyclas

cornea and C. caliculata. Mr. Rouse having afterwards told me

that Dr. Gray intended to publish the discovery, I communicated to

the latter my ideas on the subject, but I presume not in time for him

to make any use of them.—-J. Gwyn JErrrReys.

1 Montagu Square, 16th June 1856.

Occurrence of Clausilia Mortilleti, Dumont, in Kent.

A shell, for which I am indebted to Mr. 8. P. Woodward, and which

is regarded by him as a small variety of Clausilia Rolphii, Leach,

proves to be a pale, clear variety of C. Mortilleti. Mr. Woodward

found it on the chalk hills at Charing in Kent, living on the ground

in the woods, at the roots of ivy. Compared with a specimen of

Miscellaneous. 75

C. Rolphii, collected by him at Charlton near Woolwich, it presents

the following differences.

In C. Rolphii the shell is more elongate and the spire more gradually

decreasing in breadth towards the apex, not ventricose, and suddenly

narrowing to the attenuated upper portion of the spire, as in C. Mor-

tilleti. It is lighter in colour, with a fulvous tint, rather than the

purplish hue which pervades the specimens of the latter ; the basal

erest is not prominent or sharply defined, and the rima is narrow,

and elongated nearly to the base; whereas in C. Mortilleti the crest

forms a strong funiculate keel, and the periomphalus is open and

semicircular. In C. Rolphii the lower lamella is cruciate; both

species are deficient in the palatal callus so conspicuous in the true

C. plicatula, Dr.

Length of C. Rolphii, 14 mill.

of C. Mortilleti from Charlton-Kings near Cheltenham,

a we THN

——— of ditto from Charing, 11 mill.

C. Rolphii has 103 whorls; C. Mortilleti only 9} in English ex-

amples, but a specimen of a more slender variety, which | got at

Chaud-fontaine in Belgium, exhibits the same number as C. Rolphii.

Thus the two distant counties of Kent and Gloucestershire produce

a shell which has so long been unaccountably overlooked on the

continent, as well as in England. There are some who still persist

in confounding C. Rolphii with plicatula of Draparnaud, notwith-

standing the differences observable, and the assurance of De Férussac,

as reported by Gray. Independently of other characters the more

remote costation of plicatula, its palatal callus, and different mode of

timation sufficiently distinguish it. In colour its ranges with C. Mor-

tilleti, the differences of which were pointed out by Adolf Schmidt

in the ‘ Annals’ for January last.

C. plicatula, omitted in Mr. Jeffreys’s notes on the Swiss Mol-

lusca (Annals for January 1855), but noticed in his collection cata-

logue, occurs at Monthey and St. Maurice in the Valais, as well as at

Glarus. In both catalogues he has omitted C. pumila, Ziegler,

var. (3, Pfr., and C. lineolata, Held. The latter shell I got in the

tract explored by him, between Chillon and Villeneuve, as well as in

the north of Switzerland.

W. H. Benson.

12th June 1856.

On the Siliceous Sporangial Sheath of the Diatomacee.

In the 16th volume (1855, p. 92) of the ‘Annals of Natural Hi-

story,’ I pointed out the occurrence of a siliceous sheath enveloping

the sporangial frustule of a Navicula (Amphirhynchus’), and stated

that ‘‘ it was composed of silex, 7. e. was indestructible by heat and

nitric acid ;”’ also, that it was ‘colourless, elongate, rounded at the

‘ends, and furnished with coarse transverse strie, or depressions,

through which the line of fracture runs when the object is crushed,”

76 Miscellaneous.

In the 2nd yolume of the ‘Synopsis of the British Diatomaceze,” the

Rey. W. Smith states, that he has never observed this siliceous sheath,

and that “ probably it may have been an appearance resulting from

the condensation and corrugation of the mucus developed around the

reproductive body.”

I need scarcely say that Mr. Smith’s conclusion is untenable, for

no kind of mucus will resist the action of a red heat and nitric acid.

Moreover, the specimen was not an isolated one, but hundreds of them

were present. It is, however, perhaps excusable that Mr. Smith

should consider me as having been misled by an appearance, having

himself mistaken the cellular appearance upon the valves of the

Diatomaceze for the expression of a cellular structure.

In regard to the “blunder” committed by Dr. Hassall in the

formation of the name Gyrosigma (which is not alliterative however),

I may remark, that this name was retained in the ‘ Micrographic

Dictionary ’ and elsewhere, because it had claims from priority, and

from its adoption by Kiitzing and Rabenhorst ; also because, although

objectionable in structure, it was less so than the name Pleurosigma,

considering that no two authors agree as to which is the side of a

Diatomacean frustule.

Again, the objection to the name Gyrosigma applies also to some

other established generic names, as Spirogyra, &c., the alteration of

which would cause great and unnecessary confusion.

J. W. Grirritu, M.D.

9 St. John’s Square, May 9, 1856.

Travels in Central America. By MM. Scuerzer and WAGNER.

(Communicated by Count Marscua.t.)

Dr. Scherzer lately communicated to the Imperial Academy of

Sciences at Vienna (March 6, 1856) a report of his travels through

the northern portion of Central America, undertaken, in company

with Dr. M. Wagner, in 1852-55. A meteorological journal was

carefully kept during the whole journey ; and the altitudes of moun-

tains, plateaux, and volcanic peaks, together with the limits of the

diffusion of the most important among the animals and the cul-

tivable vegetables, were approximately determined by the aneroid

barometer. Intercourse with the savage Indian tribes, and residence

at villages of the settled and agricultural aborigines of Honduras,

San Salvador, and Guatemala, provided the travellers with valuable

materials for their ethnographical studies. The governments through

whose territories MM. Scherzer and Wagner passed most readily

communicated a large amount of statistical and administrative infor-

mation.

An extensive entomological collection was made in Costa Rica and

Guatemala ; and MM. Scherzer and Wagner brought home about

40,000 specimens of Invertebrata; among which are nearly 300

undescribed species (according to MM. Klug and Hopffer, of Berlin)

of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera. There are also many

new and interesting forms among the land and freshwater Mollusca.

Miscellaneous. 77

The specimens of Vertebrata, chiefly Reptiles, are far less numerous

than those of the Invertebrata; and have been presented, together

with the specimens of North American rocks and fossils, by Dr.

Scherzer to the scientific establishments of the Austrian Empire, or

to persons making them objects of special study.

The collections made by these indefatigable travellers are at least

sufficient to represent the essential characters of the Central American

fauna and flora which have been hitherto scarcely known. These

researches, haying been pursued on the opposite sides of the Cor-

dilleras and along the coasts of both oceans, are highly valuable with

reference to the geographical distribution of organized beings; and

the result proves that the ridge of the Andes is an effectual barrier

to the diffusion of animals endowed with a small amount of loco-

motive power, especially the terrestrial molluscs, the insects, and the

Arachnides.

The range of the travellers, who sometimes pursued different

courses for the sake of completing the object of their journey, ex-

tends from 50° to 9° N. lat.: from the uniform and gloomy scenery

about the mouth of the St. Lawrence, in Canada, to the virgin forests

of the Andes, south of Costa Rica, luxuriant in the richest variety of

animal and vegetable life. At Belize they embarked for the West

Indies, and visited Jamaica, Hayti, St. Thomas, and Cuba. The

vegetation of these isles, although strikingly luxuriant and graceful

in some localities (as the Blue Mountains, in Jamaica, and the central

mountain-valleys of St. Domingo), is far from rivalling in grandeur

the Centro-American flora, as it wants the lofty and magnificent

trees and the variety of parasitical and climbing plants characteristic

of the forests of Central America. On the other hand, the tropical

features of the scenery of the Antilles is in beautiful contrast with

the gloomy uniformity of the North American vegetation; and a

traveller, landing at Cuba, after having left Quebec eight days before,

may well be struck by the change of scene.

As a general rule, it appears that the level of the highest deve-

lopment of vegetable life gradually rises from the ground-level from

the poles to the equator. In tropical America the most magnificent

flowers are those on the tops of high trees, and on the plants climbing

on them. In the temperate zone the shrubs are richer in blossoms

than the other vegetable forms; and from 46° lat. northwards the

great variety of flowers is concentrated in the meadows.

MM. Scherzer and Wagner, besides the observation of physical

facts and the collection of specimens, paid particular attention to the

status of the West Indian Colonies, their ceconomical relations, and

their population.

Dr. Scherzer has already published his remarks on North America

(in three yols.), and on Central America (in one vol.); he is far,

however, from regarding the object of his researches as exhausted, as

he and his companion went through the whole of their enterprise

at their own expense, and consequently with limited resources (ex-

cepting the excursion to the ruins of Guirigua, in Guatemala, which

was undertaken at the cost of the British Government).

78 Miscellaneous.

On the Non-existence of Polarizing Silica in the Organic Kingdoms.

By Prof. J. W. Batrey. :

It is now more than twenty years since Sir David Brewster an

nounced the existence of polarizing or doubly refractive silica in the

cuticle of Lquisetum, and in that of some of the grasses. In Lindley’s

‘Natural System of Botany,’ the following account of Brewster’s

experiments is given:—‘‘On subjecting a portion of the cuticle of

Equisetum hyemale to the analysis of polarized light under a high

magnifying power, Brewster detected a beautiful arrangement of the

siliceous particles, which are distributed in two lines parallel to the

axis of the stem and extending over the whole surface. * * * *

Brewster also observed the remarkable fact that each particle has a

regular axis of double refraction. In the straw and chaff of wheat,

barley, oats and rye, he noticed analogous pheenomena.” ’

Tn Quekett’s ‘Treatise on the Microscope,’ 3rd edit. p. 358, direc-

tions are given for preparing the siliceous cuticle of Lquisetum hye-

male for microscopic examination, by boiling in strong nitric acid,

and it is added that ‘‘in balsam it forms a beautiful object for polar.

ized light.’’ Similar directions are given for preparing the silica in

the chaff of wheat, oats, &c. ‘

As these statements are contained in the last editions of each of

the above-mentioned works, it is evident that no contradiction of the

error involved in them has been pointed out; yet, notwithstanding

the high authority on which they rest, the statements, so far as the

polarizing action of the silica is concerned, are wholly erroneous. If

the cuticle of the above-mentioned plants is completely deprived of

its carbonaceous tissues, it will be found wholly devoid of action on

polarized light, and any preparation of the cuticle which is found to

affect polarized light, will also be found to blacken when heated in

concentrated sulphuric acid, and if then decarbonized by throwing

into the hot acid solution a little chlorate of potassa, the residual

silica shows no signs of action under the polariscope, either alone or

with the selenite plate, although it still retains the forms of the cells,

stomata, &c.

It is clear then that the error in the above statements has been

caused by the imperfect removal of the dense carbonaceous tissues

which are deposited beneath the silica. I have examined several

species of Lquisetum and a large number of plants of the Grass tribe

which are most remarkable for their siliceous cuticles, but have

found no trace of any action upon polarized light, when the carbo-

naceous matter was removed. But it is unnecessary to resort to arti-

ficial preparations to prove the correctness of my statements. Nature

has made her own preparations, and deposited them by myriads be-

neath every peat-bog, where may be found not only the siliceous

shells of the Diatoms and the spicules of the freshwater sponges, but

also a large number of the siliceous parts of the grasses, sedges, &c,

Ehrenberg has shown*, and I can confirm his statements, that the

* Berlin Monthly Reports, May 1848,

Meteorological Observations. 79

‘silica in these Phytolitharia, as well as in the Diatomacee, Polycysti-

neze and Spongiolites, is not doubly refractive. He makes an excep-

tion in the case of the shell of Avachnoidiscus, but my own experiments

pes that when properly cleaned this shell forms no exception. As

have shown above that the silica in the cuticle of the Equisetum

and Grasses agrees with that in the lower tribes in characters, I think

the conclusion is warranted, that doubly refractive silica has no ex-

istence in the organic world.—Silliman’s American Journal for May

1856, p. 357.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR MAY 1856.

Chiswick.—May 1. Overcast: cold showers, partly hail: clear and cold. 2.

Quite clear: cloudy: frosty at night. 3. Cloudy and cold: showery. 4. Overcast:

cloudy: clear, with sharp frost at night. 5. Frosty early a.m.: cloudy and cold.

6. Fine: cloudy and cold: rain. 7. Cold rain. 8. Densely clouded: cold north

wind. 9. Heavy clouds. 10. Uniformly overcast: fine. 11. Light haze: fine:

cloudy. 12. Uniform haze: rain. 13. Rain: cloudy. 14. Heavy showers. 15.

Fine: showers, with some hail. 16. Fine. 17. Cloudy. 18. Boisterous, with

rain and hail. 19. Very fine. 20. Very fine: slight frost. 21. Fine: rain.

22. Rain. 23. Cloudy: fine. 24. Fine. 25. Cloudy: rain. 26. Fine. 27. Very

fine : heavy rain at night. 28. Cloudy: very fine. 29. Hazy: cloudy: fine. 30.

Cloudy and cold. 31. Rain.

Mean temperature of the month ......... Seaapassieetes aren anes 50°-09

Mean temperature of May 1855 —....0.....sceecacesecssceccocsees 48 *78

Mean temperature of May for the last thirty years ............ 53°55

Average amount of rain in May ...0....s.sesecosecsedovsccesesss 1852 inches.

Boston.—May 1. Cloudy: rain and sleet p.m. 2,3. Cloudy: rain and hail p.m.

4,5. Cloudy. 6. Cloudy: hailandsnow a.m. 7. Cloudy. -8. Cloudy: raina.m.

9,10. Cloudy. 11. Fine. 12,13. Cloudy. 14. Cloudy: rain with thunder p.m.

15, 16. Cloudy. 17. Cloudy: rain p.m. 18. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 19.

Cloudy. 20,21. Fine. 22. Rain a.m.andp.m. 23. Fine: rain and thunder p.m.

24. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 25, 26. Cloudy: raine.m. 27. Fine: rain p.m.

28. Cloudy: rain a.m. and e.m. 29. Cloudy: 30. Fine. 31. Cloudy: rain p.m,

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—May 1. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 2. Sleet-showers

a.M.: cloudy p.m. 3—5. Cloudy 4.m. and p.m. 6. Cloudy a.M.: clear p.M.

7. Clear A.M. and p.m. 8. Cloudy a.m.: clear p.m. 9. Clear a.M.: rain p.m.

10. Cloudy a.m.: drops P.M. 11. Drizzle a.m.: fog p.m. 12. Hazy a.m.: clear,

fine p.m. 13. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 14. Cloudy a.m.: rainp.m. 15. Cloudy a.m.

drops p.M. 16. Bright a.m.:cloudyp.m. 17. Clear, fine a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m.

18. Showers, bright a.m.: showers p.m. 19. Cloudy a.m.: showers p.M. 20.

Bright a.m.: clear p.m, 21, 22. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 23, 24. Cloudy a.m.

and vm. 25. Cleara.m.and p.m. 26, 27. Cloudy a.m.andp.m. 28. Brighta.m:

cloudy p.m. 29—31. Clear a.m. and p.m.

Mean temperature of May for previous twenty-nine years ... 47°85

Mean temperature of this month .......0....ceeeeseesneeees < AES 46 *83

Mean temperature of May 1855 —....se..secessettesscscsetererses 43 ‘81

Average quantity of rain in May for fifteen previous years .... 1°66 inches.

The great drought continues ; the rain during the last three months being

less than the average for May alone, which is our driest month, and not half the

quantity that fell in March alone last year.

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THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

No. 104. AUGUST 1856.

IX.— On the Development and Propagation of Spheroplea

annulina. By Dr. Ferpinanp Coun*,

Up to last year there were few botanists who believed in the

sexuality of the Alge. Thuret’s observations on the antheridia

of the Fucacez did indeed open a new prospect, in demonstrating

the impregnation of the reproductive spores by minute sponta-

neously-moving spermatozoids (antherozoids, Thuret); yet this

discovery, so long as it remained isolated, appeared rather to

remove the Fucacez from the class of Algz, just as the pre-

viously discovered sexuality of the Characez has altered the

position of those plants in many systems. ‘The observations of

Pringsheim+, laid before the Academy in March last, have

proved that one of our freshwater unicellular Algze also possesses

separate sexual organs. Having discovered spermatozoa in the

“horns” (previously suspected to be antheridia) of Vaucheria,

and traced their entrance into the orifice of the sporangial cell,

Pringsheim has established the fertilizing process in the most

remarkable manner, and grounded upon this the conjecture that

difference of sexes exists in all the rest of the Alge, and that the

resting-spores, the true reproductive organs of these plants, are

in all cases impregnated by spermatozoa and are not capable of

germination without this. The history of development which I

am about to sketch in the following pages affords new evidence

in favour of this proposition: as it rests upon a totally inde-

pendent series of observations, almost simultaneously performed,

and reveals most remarkable modifications of this process, it

may still lay claim perhaps to an especial interest.

* Translated from the ‘ Menatsbericht’ of the Berlin Academy, May

1855, by Arthur Henfrey, F.R.S. &e.

+ Annals of Nat. Hist. 2nd Ser. xv. p. 346.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvi. 6

82 Dr. F. Cohn on the Development and Propagation

Spheroplea annulina, Ag., is one of the rarer freshwater Algz,

which is not observed, like most of these plants, everywhere and

at all seasons, but only at long intervals and under peculiar cir-

cumstances ; it consists, like all the Conferve, of cells of variable

length, connected in a single row into long filaments, and is

characterized by a peculiar arrangement of the chlorophyll.

Ehrenberg has already remarked that it covers extensive surfaces

about Berlin with a red coating, and hence may have given rise

to traditions of “ blood-rain.’ Near Bremen, where it was dis-

covered by Treviranus, it occurs upon flooded tracts. At Breslau

I found it the first time at the end of October, last year, in

a potato-field which had been laid under water by the great

overflow of the Oder in the last week of August. The Spheroplea

covered the field, which had dried again after the retreat of the

water, as an almost uninterrupted felt, of a beautiful red-lead or

vermilion colour on the smooth upper surface, and green on the

under side, where it was disentangled into the separated filaments.

The red colour depended upon the spores with which the fila-

ments of the Spheroplea were completely filled up; only those

filaments which were exposed to light and air on the surface of

the felt fructified; the under side, resting on the ground, con-

tained only vegetative filaments of the normal green colour.

The structure of the Spharoplea-spores is very simple; they

are red globules, usually from 1-125 to 1-100" in diameter,

surrounded by two hyaline membranes, of which the inner lies

close upon the contents, while the outer is somewhat separated

and is elegantly creased. The spores of Spheroplea are usually

described as stellate; Kiitzing however states that they are

encircled by spiral bands. Both these assertions are justified to”

a certain extent: it depends upon the position of the spores

whether they look like many-rayed stars, or as longitudinally

streaked, smooth-bordered globes. The outer coat of the spore

is so folded that the folds meet at the two poles of the globe like

so many meridians. Hence if we look at the pole of a spore,

the folds are seen surrounding the globe like a frill, in a sharp-

angled zigzag; while if we look upon the equator of the spore

with the axis parallel to the object-glass, the folds may be traced

in their whole course as longitudinal lines. In many spores,

especially the large ones, the plaiting of the outer coat is very

irregular, and forms merely wart-like elevations without any

definite arrangement. Sulphuric acid causes an expansion of

this coat, but does not destroy it ; iodine and sulphuric acid colour

it bright yellow.

The contents of the spores consist of rather large starch-gra-

nules, and protoplasm which is coloured bright vermilion-red by

a peculiar colouring matter ; they contain a red oil which stands

of Sphzroplea annulina. 83

in the closest relation to chlorophyll, and is equally produced

from this and transformed into it. In normal conditions this

oil is diffused so minutely in the colourless plasma, forming a

kind of emulsion, that it appears in infinitely small, red globules

which might be confounded with the so-called protoplasm-

granules ; their oily nature may be ascertained, however, when

the spores die or are destroyed by chemical reagents, as the red

globules then become confluent into large red-lead-coloured

drops, strongly refracting light, soluble in ether, are coloured

bluish-green by iodine, and by a somewhat longer action of sul-

phuric acid acquire a blue colour; this last reaction exactly

resembles that of sulphuric acid on chlorophyll; hence it is not

improbable that the acid converts the oil into the related sub-

stance chlorophyll. If the sulphuric acid remains long in con-

tact with the spores, the latter become bleached; the action of

light produces the same effect upon the spores when dead. The

red colouring matter of the spores of Spheroplea is different

from the erythrophyll of leaves and flowers, but it occurs in the

spores of Bulbochete, as shown by Pringsheim, in Protococcus

nivalis and pluvialis, Chroolepus Ivlithus, and many other Algze,

also in Euglena sanguinea ; in every case it is changed, in the

course of development, into green chlorophyll, and vice versd.

The spores of Spheroplea present a remarkable resemblance to

the red, stellate reproductive bodies which Ehrenberg pointed

out in the genus Volvor (V. stellatus), and which, according to

my investigations, contain both red oil and starch-granules.

The course of development of Spheroplea being hitherto alto-

gether unknown, and in fact the germination of the resting-

spores of the Algz generally never having been observed, except

in the Conjugate and Vaucheria, I resolved to turn to account an

immense mass of Spheroplea-spores at my disposal, in an inves-

tigation, and accordingly, at the beginning of October 1854, I

placed a portion of the red felted mass in a vessel of water. A

putrefaction immediately took place, through which the cells of

the filaments were dissolved ; while the spores thus set free,—

which, as a microscopic examination showed, protected by their

two membranes, underwent no alteration whatever,—subsided to

the bottom of the vessel in countless numbers as a reddish mud.

Notwithstanding that the glass now stood all through the winter

in the window of a warm room, I could not detect any change

in the spores before March ; the germination showed itself first

after a few mild spring days, and it occurred simultaneously in

two separate vessels. In order to ascertain whether a six-months’

rest was actually necessary to the Spheroplea-spores, I placed a

_ fresh portion of the filamentous mass in water, at the end of

March ; in this case I observed germinating sapln five days

84 Dr. F. Cohn on the Development and Propagation

after. The germination took place still more quickly in sub-

sequent third and fourth experiments, wherein it occurred in

forty-eight hours, with spores which up to that time had been

kept in the herbarium. I am quite unable to explain the enig-

matical hastening of the germination in the spring months ; it

could scarcely have depended on the greater heat, for the room

was heated to a higher temperature during the winter. At the

same time the germination of the Spheroplea-spores occurred

relatively rarely in cultivation, so that it went on through many

weeks, and the majority of the spores still remained unchanged ;

while in the natural locality, the potato-field above mentioned,

by the middle of April, about which time the field was again

flooded, the spores had all germinated, and no trace of the red

felted mass remained, while the standing water was full of the

green filaments of Spheroplea,

The germination of the spores of Spheroplea differs from

everything formerly known of the development of the Algze and

of plants generally ; on the other hand, it agrees surprisingly

with simultaneous observations on the germination of Bulbo-

chate* already published by Pringsheim in these Reports. The

youngest germs of Spheroplea that I perceived were spindle-

shaped corpuscles from ;},; to +4, of a line in diameter, and

about =1, of a line long, running out at both ends into long

filiform points which were irregularly curved and twisted, and

increased the total length to 54, of a line and more. These ger-

minating plants resembled in shape, even indistinguishably,

that interesting species of Closterium which Ehrenberg has de-

scribed and figured as C. rostratum. The contents of the germ

displayed every intermediate stage from the red of the spore to

the green of the developed plant; the red and green were

mingled in a most elegant manner, either with the red oil-glo-

bules accumulated at one end and the green chlorophyll at the

other, with a colourless band separating them in the middle ; or

bands of red and green alternated; or the whole contents were

green sprinkled with red globules. At first sight of these germs,

I perceived that their dimensions were much smaller than those

of the spores from which they must have been produced; hence

they evidently must have originated from a part, not the whole,

of the spore. Added to this, I never found a germinating plant

sticking in the membranes of the spore, but always scattered

free in all parts of the water; so that I was necessarily driven to

the conjecture that these portions must have been discharged

from the spores as “‘swarming-cells.” I was soon enabled to

confirm my conjectures by direct observation.

* Ann. Nat. Hist. Ser. 2. xv. p. 349,

of Sphzroplea annulina. 85

When the spores of Spheroplea are about to germinate, in the

first place their contents are metamorphosed, acquiring a pecu-

liar granular organization and assuming a colour more brown-

red, a lighter circle becoming visible in the middle. The red of

the spore is frequently changed into green before germination,

the conversion advancing gradually from the borders to the

ceutre. The contents of the spore next divide, first into two, then

into four or eight portions; these portions break through their

double membrane and emerge into the water as free ‘ swarming-

cells.’ In the small number of spores which germinated daily

out of the enormous quantity present, I never succeeded in

catching the moment of the exit, and therefore I do not know

how the two coats of the spore are torn; but the empty mem-

branes are often met with, a mere remnant, at most, of uncon-

sumed contents remaining in them; I also found spores with

undischarged ‘swarm-cells’ dancing about actively in their inte-

rior. The whole process differs from what Pringsheim observed

only in so far, that in Bulbochete a long cylindrical germinal

filament escapes from the spore, and the contents of that are

formed into free ‘ swarming-cells,’ while in Spheroplea this ope-

ration is completed within the spore itself; but I often met with

spores from which the outer stellate membrane had been stripped,

and the contents had begun to divide within the inner smooth

coat.

The ‘swarming-cells’ (zoospores) which are formed in the

interior of the spores of Spheroplea have an exceedingly elegant

shape, which however, like their size and colour, is subject to

considerable variation. Ordinarily they are globular or short

cylindrical corpuscles ;4, to ;45 of a line long, of a splendid

carmine or vermilion colour, furnished at one end with a short

colourless head from which extend two long cilia. Other swarm-

ing-cells are larger and pear- or spindle-shaped ; these evidently

derive their origin either from a larger fractional part or from

larger spores: I met with globular swarming-spores even as much

a8 ;t, Of a line in diameter, not inferior in size to the ordinary

spores ; and perhaps these might have consisted of the total con-

tents of such a spore swarmed out in one mass. Many swarm-

ing-cells are of two colours; the part next the beak red, the rest

green ; ora green border surrounds a red centre ; but the colour-

less head or beak, with the cilia, is always evident. Their move-

ments last for many hours, and exhibit that vigorous, and yet

at the same time lazy character which distinguishes for example

the swarming-spores of Cdogonium, and still more those of

Chlamidomonas pluvialis, which are similar also in their colour

and the number of their cilia. The long pauses which occur

from time to time in the movements of these swarming-cells are

86 Dr. F. Cohn on the Development and Propagation

remarkable ; one might imagine sometimes that they had settled

quite to rest, but after an interval of an hour or more they sud-

denly recommence their old revolutions.

At the time when the swarming-cell breaks through the mem-

brane of the spore of Spheroplea, it possesses no cellular mem-

brane; but it produces this while still in motion, so that it

becomes distinctly surrounded by a delicate, young, and very

elastic cellulose coat. When the swarming-cell germinates, this

membrane becomes rigid and prolonged at both ends so as to

produce the spindle-shape; these ends grow out rapidly into

eapillary points, which constantly increase in length ; the middle

of the germinating cell then likewise extends itself, the ends

being pushed still further apart, and the entire cell is thus ren-

dered at once longer and thicker. The originally homogeneous,

finely-granular contents of the swarming-cell is changed in ger-

mination, the remainder of the red oil becoming rapidly con-

verted into chlorophyll, the germinating plant thus aequirmg a

uniform green colour ; but even in the earliest condition colour-

less bubbles (vacuoles) are found in the green plasma, these

vacuoles containing a fluid of less density, while the chlorophyll

between them is compressed, and thus assumes the form of green

rings standing at certain distances apart. In these streaks

large starch-globules are soon secreted, and by the time the

germinating plant is ;'; of a line long, it has already assumed

the full character of the cells of Spheroplea. It continues to

merease in length and breadth, retaining however its Closterium-

like shape. I met with colossal spindle-shaped cells half a line

and more long, prolonged into capillary points at both ends.

Spheroplea is the only Conferva known to me that never pos-

sesses a root; in all other genera one end of the germinating

filament, avoiding the light, grows downward into an organ of

attachment, while the other differently formed end grows by

apical development into the proper filament. In Spheroplea,

not only are both extremities of exactly the same shape from the

first origin, but no apicular growth occurs, at least not after the

capillary ends are completed ; the cells here grow in the middle.

Since the green rings in the cells of Spheroplea fix the relative

positions of their points, the places where the growth takes place

may be readily observed, the number of rings being constantly

multiplied, by the division of the old, previously formed ones. But

a minute investigation of this subject would carry us too far from

the object of this notice. After some time the germ-cell divides

in the nnddle, and with the enlargement of the plant the number

of cells is increased: the length of the cells is strikingly unequal,

for while in some cells they cannot be perceived, other cells are

only ; or 7 of a line. But m the longest, many-celled filaments,

of Sphzroplea annulina, 87

the fine capillary parts of the elongating ends may always be

observed,—a fact hitherto overlooked.

The contents of the full-grown cells of Spheroplea exhibit

most elegant structures, the comprehension of which is essentially

furthered by the interesting investigations of Al. Braun. The

constituents, colourless protoplasm, green chlorophyll, aqueous

fluid and starch-granules, are distributed in a peculiar manner,

the aqueous fluid forming large bubbles or vacuoles which attain

a diameter almost equal to that of the cell, and hence stand in

rows, like pearls, often in contact at their poles, and flattened

there so as to form seeming septa. In the interval between the

vacuoles is compressed the green plasma with the starch-gra-

nules ; and here further the space becomes disputed by nume-

rous smaller vacuoles which are excreted from the plasma: under

a low magnifying power the whole appears as if there was a

regular alternation of narrow green and broad colourless rings.

If the vacuoles are smaller and the chlorophyll is more abun-

dant, the cell appears uniformly green,—more intense merely in

the interval between the vacuoles. The vacuoles have an enve-

lope of condensed plasma, so that when the whole is softened in

water the vacuoles do not dissolve, but sustain themselves for a

long time, like cells; but they are not permanent structures ;

their number and size are subject to constant alteration.

In the second half of April I first observed the germinated fila-

ments of Sphzroplea beginning to reproduce spores. The regular

arrangement of the green rings disappeared in particular cells;

the vacuoles increased in number, so that the whole contents

assumed the appearance of a green froth; the starch-globules

were irregularly diffused through this. These were soon seen

to become grouped together in twos or threes, and largish

masses of the green plasma became accumulated around them ;

after a certain time the middle line of the cell was occupied by a

great number of green lumps, at regular distances, the frothy

matter being distributed between them. As the majority of the

vacuoles gradually disappeared these lumps assumed the form of

green stars, such as occur in pairs in the cells of Zygnema, re-

maining connected together by the green radiating filaments of

plasma. Between each pair of these stellate masses a large

vacuole was formed, which became flattened to level septa, so

that the whole cell appeared as if divided into chambers by a

number of parallel plates of plasma. In each of these chambers

there began an uninterrupted metamorphosis of the green mass ;

the mucilaginous filaments were gradually retracted ; the green

substance contracted itself sometimes towards the right, some-

times to the left; in a short time the colourless plasma had

become so distributed around the chlorophyll that the septa of

88 Dr. F. Cohn on the Development and Propagation

the chambers separated, and the whole contents were broken up

into a large number of free globular masses, which were sharply

defined, composed chiefly of colourless mucilage, and enclosed

im their centre an irregularly diffused, mostly laterally situated

heap of chlorophyll. These masses, the young spores, then pass

uninterruptedly through the most wonderful changes ; at first

they are in contact, and thus form by their adjacent boundaries

the plasmic septa, which are consequently double; their sub-

stance becoming somewhat contracted, the two layers of these

septa separate, the spores thereby becoming isolated; the chlo-

rophyll in their interior is constantly changing its mode of dis-

tribution ; the colourless mucilaginous envelope at one time con-

tracts strongly, so that free, regular globules are produced ; at

another it expands again, so that they are flattened against their

neighbours ; or sometimes one becomes elongated laterally, and

if a drawing is begun to be made, its shape has entirely altered

before the sketch is completed. Finally, the nascent spores

become rounded-off into smooth spheres, which however are

still far larger than in the mature condition, and are not com-

pletely filled with chlorophyll. But the latter becomes diffused

gradually more regularly in the spore-globe, while the colour-

less plasma is progressively more elaborated and excreted ;

consequently the spore is constantly becoming more condensed

and diminished in size, and finally becomes a regular sphere

composed entirely of a granular green substance, enclosing a few.

starch-granules, bounded externally by a smooth, elearly-defined

layer of plasma; there is no cellulose membrane, the green

structure is very soft, elastic, and under pressure passes away

into mucus; it 1s to be regarded as a ‘ primordial cell?

Long before the contents of the cells of Spheroplea have be-

come converted into young spores, peculiar changes have eom-

menced in the membrane of their cells ; it begims to change into

amyloid, and therefore is now coloured purple-red or violet by

iodine alone, without sulphuric acid. Evidently this is the

commencement of the chemical metamorphosis of this mem-

brane, which terminates in its total solution and sets free the ripe

spores. At particular points of the membrane small holes are

formed x45 to 345 of a line in diameter; I have counted from

two to six of these orifices in each cell; the holes are more easily

observed, as colourless spots, when the cell is coloured blue by

sulphuric acid and iodine.

This course of development, by which they are transformed

ito sporangia with numerous spores, does not occur im all the

cells of a filament of Spheroplea ; during the same epoch totally

different processes are completed in a large portion of the cells.

Here the green rings between the colourless vacuoles have gra-

of Spheroplea annulina. 89

dually assumed a peculiar colour: they have become reddish-

yellow, and the starch-granules have vanished. The orange-

coloured substance is soon seen to acquire a peculiar organiza-

tion ; in it may be detected, at first obscurely, but progressively

more distinctly, a separation into granules, then into little

_ Streaks, and finally it becomes converted into myriads of short,

confusedly crowded, little stick-shaped bodies. The colourless

vacuoles between the yellow rings take no part in this transfor-

mation. After this the rings begin to dissolve ; suddenly one of

the little stick-shaped bodies imbedded in the substance ac-

quires its liberty and begins to move about in the cavity of the

eell; more follow the example; the movement of these bodies

becomes more and more rapid; in a few minutes the entire

ring becomes decomposed into a countless number of actively

moving corpuscles ; then the stick-shaped bodies of a second and

third ring enter into movemeut ; finally the entire cell becomes

filled with these corpuscles, which shoot about and circulate in

all directions among each other. It is a wonderful sight to

see their incredibly lively motions inside the parent-cell. The

vacuoles partly persist during these processes, and they are seen

swimming in the cavity of the cell as globular bubbles enclosed

by a mucilaginous coat, often put into rapid rotation by the

movements of the stick-shaped bodies.

One or more orifices are formed very early in these cells also,

similar in shape and size to those which we have described in

the sporangial cells. The first of the stick-shaped corpuscles is

now seen to emerge through a hole into the water; it is soon

followed by another, and at length by a whole herd at once.

Their movements in the water are at first very weak; they

adhere firmly together and oscillate about in masses; but in a

short time they acquire greater energy and become scattered

like dust, with infinite rapidity, through all parts of the drop of

water. The corpuscles remaining in the mother-cell acquire a

more rapid motion the freer the space left them; but their

number gradually diminishes, and within a few hours all the

moving corpuscles have left their parent-cell. This is then quite

empty, and the orifices of exit can be perceived very distinctly ;

empty cells of this kind have been observed before, but their

peculiarities could not be explained. The orifices often become

stopped up by a vacuole, which with its mucilagimous membrane

lies against the hole ; this prevents the corpuscles from escaping,

and I have seen them dancing about in their mother-cell after a

lapse of twelve hours, then coming to repose and changed into

yellowish vesicles. It is not rare to find in the cells of Sphe-

roplea, after the exit of the stick-shaped corpuscles, other larger,

brownish globules, which often display a sluggish movement ;

90 Dr. F. Cohn on the Development and Propagation

these structures, to which Al. Braun had already directed atten-

tion, under the name of pseudo-gonidia, are remnants of the cell-

contents, unconverted into stick-shaped corpuscles, but which

have nevertheless acquired a power of independent motion:

perhaps they owe their origin to the fusion of a number of the cor-

puscles. I likewise sometimes found similar moving globes in the

sporangial cells, mingled with the spores, and they appeared to

have been formed simultaneously with the latter, out of the cell-

contents. These are distinct from other abnormal, cell-like strue-

tures in the Spheroplea-cells, some of which have a power of

motion, as also from the parasitic Infusoria (e. g. Trachelius tri-

chophorus) which make their way into the interior of the cells

through the orifices; the former are very remarkable and

varied ; but I reserve a special examination of them for another

occasion.

The corpuscles which ‘swarm’ out from the last-described

cells of the Spheroplea-filaments are elongated, bacilliform, and

mostly 54, of a line or more in length; their form reminds

one of certain slender Curculionide. The posterior extremity

is somewhat expanded, often spread out flat and of a yellow

colour; one or more granules may often be distinguished in its

interior ; the anterior extremity runs out into a long narrow

colourless beak, bearing at its end two long cilia, which are

rendered clearly visible when the corpuscles are killed with

iodine. These corpuscles differ strikingly therefore from the

spermatozoids of Vaucheria discovered by Pringsheim, and which

I have quite recently likewise had the good fortune to observe ;

as also from the spermatozoids of the Fucoidee described by

Thuret—whatever resemblance may exist in other respeets—by

the position of the two cilia; and they resemble herein many

‘ swarming-spores’ of Algze, especially those denominated micro-

gonidia, with which they are intimately connected in morpho-

logical respects.

The movement of the bacilliform corpuscles in Spheroplea is

characteristic : when the energy is weak they oscillate, as if feel-

ing about with the beaks ; when the motion is more active they

rotate on their ¢ransverse axis, like a stick fastened in the centre

and rotated around this ; their movement is distingushed by this

from that of true ‘ swarming-spores,’ which rotate on their lon-

gitudinal axis. Sometimes the corpuscles rotate upon themselves

without moving from one spot, like a cat round its tail ; but they

mostly dart off in cycloids, frequently advancing with jerks and

springs; more rarely they screw themselves straight onwards.

A tendency to seek the light is indicated by their readily col-

lecting at the side of the drop of water next to the window.

Not only did the external resemblance of these corpuscles to

of Sphzeroplea annulina. 91

the spermatozoids of the Fucaceze and Vaucherie give ground

for concluding an analogous function,—I further succeeded in

demonstrating their fecundating power, by direct observation, with

an evidence such as can only be possessed by a fact of natural

science: there can be no doubt that the active bacilliform cor-

puscles are the spermatozoids of Spheroplea, and therefore the

cells in which they are formed must be denominated the anthe-

ridial cells. x

When the discharged spermatozoids have hecome diffused

through the water, they are soon seen to assemble around those

cells of a Spheroplea-filament, the contents of which have become

metamorphosed into spores. They dance about in the vicinity

of these cells, attach themselves to the membrane, sometimes

tearing away again, soon to return. After a while a spermatozoid

approaches one of those little orifices, which we have already

noticed as perforating the wall of the sporangial cells; here it

fixes itself and pushes the slender beak into the hole. The pos-

terior extremity is often too broad to pass in uninjured ; then it

screws itself forward with evident effort, the beak constantly

working its way, compressing the elastic body; finally it suc-

ceeds in forcing its way through and entering into the cavity of

the sporangial cell. In the mean time other spermatozoids have

slipped in through various orifices; frequently three or four

crowd at once into one orifice; the more slender corpuscles

make their way, at the first attempt, in a remarkable manner

swimming in wide curves, from the water, through the hole,

without obstruction, into the cavity of the cell; after a time as

many as twenty spermatozoids circulating about in its interior

and ‘swarming’ round the young spores. These, as above de-

scribed, are smooth spheres, more or less completely filled with

chlorophyll, surrounded by colourless plasma, without cellulose

membrane. The spermatozoids rush from one spore to another,

as if electrically attracted and repulsed, so rapidly, that the eye

can scarcely follow them ; they often swarm from one end of the

sporangial cell to the other ; now and then the spores are thrown

into slow rotation by the vibratile cilia of the spermatozoids, but

this is only accidental and inessential, possibly only when the

spores are in a very free position. I have seen the spermatozoids

moving about in the sporangial cell for more than two hours ;

gradually their motion becomes more sluggish, they become

adherent to the young spores, in such a manner that one or two

spermatozoids become fixed to each spore, cleaving firmly to it

with the beak and cilia, so that their body stands perpendicularly

upon the spore. In this position they oscillate backwards and

forwards for some time longer; finally they come quite to rest

and apply themselves with their whole length against the sur-

92 Dr. F. Cohn on the Development and Propagation

face of the spores; their body is converted into a drop of muci-

lage and loses its form ; it appears as if a portion of the substance

was absorbed endosmotically by the spore : a formal penetration

of the spermatozoid into the spore certainly did not take place,

for a remnant of it, perhaps the reddish drops, can long be

seen attached upon the outside of the spore. However, Sphe-

roplea is not very well adapted for the investigation of the real

act of impregnation, on account of the want of transparency in

the green spores, notwithstanding that it offered an exceedingly

favourable object for the earlier processes.

After a short time the impregnated spore becomes enveloped

by a true cell-membrane, which at first can only be detected by

the contraction of the contents by reagents, but subsequently

can be readily seen by direct inspection, as it gradually separates .

further from the cell-contents. A second membrane is soon

produced beneath the first, the second being originally in close

contact with the contents of the spore, but subsequently folded

in the stellate manner above described ; the uppermost, earlier-

formed coat,is next thrown off, and such coats are found in the

sporangial cells as empty vesicles among the spores—a ‘ moulting’”

or ecdysis already observed by Al. Braun. Finally there is pro-

duced under the stellate coat a smooth membrane, so that the

impregnated spore of Spheroplea bears an analogy with those of

Spirogyra and Zygnema, and possesses likewise the three coats,

the outermost of which however is thrown off, not in germi-

nation, but even before the spore is ripe. The contents of the

spore are originally of a uniform green colour, in which several

starch-granules make their appearance ; subsequently they be-

come opake, and pass through olive-green and reddish-brown,

finally into a pure red. The number of the spores depends

upon the quantity of chlorophyll which was present in the spo-

rangial cell; their size is also very variable according as more or

less of the green plasma is applied to the formation of one

spore ; although they are usually from +}, to ;4, of a line in

diameter, spores also occur which have double and even 100

times that magnitude ; I observed elliptical spores which attained

qis> sip» even giz of a line in the long diameter; I once met

with a monster spore ;', of a line in the long diameter, the red

contents being enclosed in the papillose spore-coat just as usual.

The approximate or distant arrangement of the spores, in one

or several rows, is also liable to variation.

Spheroplea annulina, although it always occurs as a multi-

cellular filament, must be regarded as essentially a unicellular

plant, in Niageli’s sense, since all the cells, without exception,

even the terminal capillary-pointed cells included, take part in

the propagation, and therefore the whole filament can only be

of Spheeroplea annulina. 93

viewed as a family of cells (cell-stock). The history of develop-

ment here narrated reveals to us the fact, that, contrary to what

has been hitherto imagined in unicellular plants, the individual

is not immediately represented by each cell, but that these ap-

parently equivalent cells become sexually differenced in exactly

the same way as is the case in any of the most complicated

animal or vegetable organisms ; that consequently each individual

cell is by itself barren, and can only be rendered capable of

propagation by the cooperation of a cell of the other sex. We

must therefore distinguish in the cells of the Spheroplea-fila-

ment, male and female cells, or, for comparison with analogous

organs in another kingdom of nature, sperm-vesicles and ovaries,

which however must be more correctly conceived as inde-

pendent, sexualized, elementary organisms. The process of im-

pregnation in the Algz has been found precisely similar m the

three cases as yet known; in the Fucacee, Vaucheria, and Sphe-

roplea, the spermatozoids come into immediate contact with pri-

mordial cells destitute of (cellulose) membranes. The case of

Spheroplea is especially interesting, because there can be no

question here of an accidental contact of the seminal elements ;

for if in Fucus the spores to be fertilized emerge upon the sur-

face of the thallus—in Vaucheria the surfaces of the antheridia

and sporangia come almost into immediatecontact—in Spheroplea

the spermatozoids must often make their way through the water

to an often far-distant mature female cell, and force an entrance

through a narrow orifice. Easy as it is to observe the fact of

the entrance of the spermatozoid, the force which guides these

corpuscles through the wide surface of water and the crowd of

countless animalcules and plants, to the female cells, and often

makes them find their way through the narrow holes at the first

attempt, remains still an enigma. I may also recall the fact

that Spheroplea is as far removed from alliance with Vaucheria

as the latter from Fucus, and that since sexuality has been dis-

covered in such diverse forms of the Algz, there can scarcely be

a doubt that it must only remain to be discovered in the rest of

the Algze, and indeed in all plants; I therefore cannot hesitate

to give my adhesion to this conclusion of Pringsheim.

Whether the remarkable fact, that the spores of Spheroplea

do not always give origin, like all other spores and seeds, to one

individual, but mostly to several swarming-cells, and therefore

to several germ-plants ;—whether this is connected with the

action of one or more spermatozoids upon the nascent spore, I

must leave unaswered ; the only analogy to this fact is afforded

by the origin of several embryos in the ova of the Planariz. It

is remarkable, that, according to Pringsheim’s discovery, the fer-

tilized spores of Vaucheria grow out into a germinal tube by

94 Mr. W. H. Benson on new Terrestrial Shells from Ceylon.

direct elongation of the internal coat, like the spores of the

Zygnemacee formed through conjugation, while the spores of

Bulbochete, and perhaps the spores of the Desmidie, likewise

originating through conjugation, behave in the same way as those

of Spheroplea. This induces us to regard the latter fact as a

peculiar form of the ‘alternation of generations,’ if we deno-

minate the ‘ swarming-cells’ produced from the spores of Bulbo-

chete and Spheroplea an asexual generation, which by meta-

morphosis is converted at once into the Closterium-like germ,

then by asexual division produces the sexual cells, till the cycle

is concluded by the formation of the impregnated spores.

X.—New Terrestrial Shells from Ceylon, with a General List of

the Species inhabiting that Island. By W.H. Benson, Esq.

Cyclophorus Parma, nobis, n. s.

Testa latissime umbilicata, planato-depressa, discoidea, tenuiuscula,

confertim et arcuatim sericato-striata, saturate castanea, flammulis

nonnullis pallidis spiram versus ornata, subtus interdum pallidiori ;

spira planata, apice nullo modo prominente, sutura profunda ;

anfractibus 5 convexis, ultimo antice descendente ; apertura valde

obliqua, ampla, ovato-rotundata, superne angulata, intus livide

cerulea ; peristomate duplici, interiori continuo, albido, ad dextram

expansiusculo, exteriori breviter interrupto, expansiusculo, fusco-

corneo ; margine columellari subtus recedente, dextro prorsum ar-

cuato ; umbilico latissimo, minime profundo. Operculo tenui, cor-

neo, 54-spirato, suturis intus extusque pulchre carinatis.

Diam. major 26, minor 23, alt. 6 mill.

Hab. in regione montana Insule Ceylon. Mus. E. L. Layard.

There ave two specimens in the cabinet of Mr. Edgar Layard.

The shell is easily distinguished from the other planorbular

Cyclophori of Ceylon by its dark colour and depressed form,

which recall those of Pterocyclos hispidus, Pearson, by its very

wide and shallow umbilicus, and by the size and peculiar position

of the aperture. The whorls of the operculum, which is of a

clear horn-colour, are less closely wound than in C, Cratera.

Cyclophorus Cratera, nobis, n.s.

Testa late umbilicata, planulato-depressa, subdiscoidea, tenuiuscula,

radiatim et confertim ruguloso-striata, vix nitidula, fulvo-cornea,

raro castaneo-strigata; spira planulata, apice vix prominente, su-

tura profundiuscula; anfractibus 5 convexiusculis, ultimo longe

lenteque descendente ; apertura obliqua mediocri, subrotundata,

superne angulata, intus albida ; peristomate duplici, interiori con-

tinuo, acuto, breviter porrecto, exteriori expansiusculo, breviter

adnato, albido ; umbilico aperto, profundiusculo. Operculo tenui,

» >) eee

Mr. W. H. Benson on new Terrestrial Shells from Ceylon. 95

corneo, 7-spirato ; anfractibus valde angustis, suturis intus et extus

pulchre carinatis.

Diam. major 24 .. minor 20 .. alt. 8

> 3 22 9 18 3) 6

» 13 re i » 4

Hab. in Insula Ceylon.

There are five good specimens in the cabinet of Mr. Edgar

Layard, of which the largest only has irregular streaks on the

upper side. I find a single dead and bleached specimen among

some Cingalese shells received from Mr. Frederick Layard. The

operculum is more closely wound than in C. Parma, from which

it differs in colour, the form and position of the aperture,

sculpture, and deeper umbilicus ; this part is shallower than in

its near ally, C. annulatus, Trosch., which exhibits, moreover, a

prominent dark apex to the spire, whereas in C. Cratera the

apex is flattened and white. The variation in size is con-

siderable, as may be seen by reference to the measurements.

The smallest variety exhibits the adult character: the narrow

volutions of the operculum, and a darker corneous hue than in

C. Parma, are constant. Its double peristome and the flatness

of the apex at once distinguish it from C. Thwaitesi, Pfr. Of

three specimens of C. Bairdii, Pfr., contained in Mr. EH. Layard’s

cabinet, two specimens, well variegated with chestnut, show

no indication of a keel, while a pallid variety exhibits it di-

stinctly.

Leptopoma apicatum, nobis, n. 8.

Testa subobtecte perforata, globoso-conica, tenui, oblique striatula,

sublente spiraliter confertim striata, albida, interdum flammulis et

fascia unica infra periphzeriam angulatam ornata, sutura profunda ;

spira conica, apice saturate castaneo-nigrescente, acutiusculo ;

anfractibus 43 convexiusculis, ultimo ad periphzeriam obtuse angu-

lato ; apertura obliqua, rotundata; peristomate duplici, interiori

expansiusculo marginibus callo junctis, exteriori breviter expanso ;

margine columellari reflexo perforationem fere occultante.

Diam. major 103, min. 9, axis 9 mill.

Hab. in Insula Ceylon (ad portas Curuwitty dictas provinciz Suf-

fragam ?).

This Leptopoma may be distinguished from any of the

varieties of L. vitreum by its angular periphery, dark apex, more

convex whorls, deeper suture, double peristome and parietal

callus, as well as by the reflexion of the columellar lip over the

perforation, and of the narrow lip above it. It is deficient also

in the angular projection observable on the lower part of the

same lip in that species. The label which accompanies the

three specimens in Mr. E. Layard’s collection gives only the

general habitat as Ceylon; but Mr. Layard’s remarks on a

small Cyclostoma, 44 lines in height and diameter, and pre-

96 Mr. W. H. Benson on new Terrestrial Shells from Ceylon.

senting a closed umbilicus and black apex, contained i his

‘Rambles im the Island,’ leave little room for doubting that this

is the species found by Mr. C. P. Layard in the Curuwitty Pass,

with another scarcer species which | have not yet seen.

Bulimus fuscoventris, nobis, n. 8.

Testa anguste rimato-perforata, ovato-conica, tenui, irregulariter

puncticulata? striatula, albida, nitidula, fasciis tribus rufo-castaneis

evanescentibus, basali latissima, picta; spira conica, apice obtuso,

sutura impressa; anfractibus 5 convexiusculis, ultimo 4 teste

aequante, ventricosiusculo ; apertura obliqua, ovata; peristomate

tenui, undique breviter expanso, marginibus remotis callo tenui

rufo-castaneo junctis, columellari rimam obtegente, intus calloso

ascendente.

Long. 25, diam. 13, apert. 12 longa, 9} mill. lata.

Hab. in Insula Ceylon. Teste F. Layard.

This shell is not in good condition, and the surface and colour

may be somewhat different in perfect specimens. It has some

affinity to Bulimus Bontia, but the last whorl is less ventricose,

and the spire and aperture narrower.

Bulimus rufopictus, nobis, n. s.

Testa anguste perforata, ovato-pyramidata, oblique striatula, albida,

strigis rufis interruptis fulguratis, fasciisque tribus saturatioribus,

mediana basalique angustis, submediana latiori, picta; spira elon-

gato-conica, apice obtuso, sutura impressa; anfractibus 5 convexi-

usculis, ultimo 3 testee vix eequante, basi convexa; apertura ob-

liqua, rotundato-ovali; peristomate tenui, acuto, expansiusculo,

marginibus remotiusculis callo tenui junctis, columellari superne

latiori, perforationem obtegente, dextro valde arcuato.

Long. 20, diam. 114, apert. 9 longa, 7} mill. lata.

Hab. in Insula Ceylon. Teste F. Layard.

Achatina parabilis, nobis, n. s.

Testa oblongo-ovata, solidiuscula, nitida, rugose striata, striis minu-

tissimis obsoletis spiralibus decussata, sub epidermide luteo-cornea

albida ; spira elongato-conica, apice obtuso, sutura leviter impressa,

subcrenulata; anfractibus 6, subplanulatis, ultimo convexiusculo,

% testee vix sequante ; apertura triangulari semiovata, intus albida ;

peristomate leviter inflexo, marginibus callo tenui junctis, dextro

sinuato, obtusiusculo, columellari perareuato, oblique valde trun-

cato. .

Long. 20, diam. 10, long. apert. 9, lat. 5 mill.

Hab. in Insula Ceylon. Teste F. Layard.

Helix Galerus, nobis, n. s.

Testa umbilicata, subconoideo-depressa, lenticulari, pallide cornea,

confertissime oblique striata, striis spiralibus exiguis decussata ;

spira depresse conoidea, sutura impressa, apice obtusiusculo; an-

Mr. W.H. Benson on new Terrestrial Shells from Ceylon. 97

fractibus 5 lente accrescentibus, convexiusculis, ultimo antice ma-

jori, non descendente, periphzeria acute carinata, marginata, subtus

conyexiusculo, margine periomphali obtuse angulato; umbilico

profundo, subanguste perspectivo ; apertura subsecuriformi ; peri-

stomate acuto, marginibus distantibus, columellari brevi, superne

reflexiusculo.

Diam. major 9, minor 8, axis 4 mill.

Hab. ad Ragama, Ceylon. Coll. E. L. Layard.

5th June 1856.

CINGALESE LAND SHELLs.

Vitrina irradians, Pfr. Helix Thwaitesi, Pfr.

—— Edgariana, Bens. subopaca, Pfr.

membranacea, Bens. —— nepos, Pfr.

Succinea Ceylanica, Pfr. subconoidea, Pfr.

Helix Waltoni, Reeve. convexiuscula, Pfr.

Skinneri, Reere. carneola, Pfr.

— Juliana, Gray. Corylus, Reeve.

Gapoma, Pfr. umbrina, Reeve.

— Chenui, Pfr. Rivoli, Fer.

semidecussata, Pfr. erronea, Pfr.

— hemastoma; also in Nicobars. Charpentieri, Pfr.

— Pheenix, Pfr. Melanotragus fallaciosa, F.; also in S. India.

contains vars. of this and the last, Galerus, Bens.

and is set aside by Pfeiffer. Streptaxis Layardiana, Rens.

-—-— superba, Pfr. Cingalensis, Bens.

—— Tranquebarica, also in South Pupa muscerda, Bens.

India. mimula, Bens.

—— histrialis, Beck; also in South Ceylanica, Pfr. (Ennea).

India. Bulimus 3-fasciatus, Brug.

Ceylanicus, Pfr.

albizonatus, Reeve.

adumbratus, Pfr.

vittata, Miill. intermedius, Pfr.

Layardi, Pfr. punctatus, Anton; Bundel-

— ceraria, Bens. khund and South India.

concavospira, Pfr. Mavortius, Reeve.

-—— novella, Pfr. pullus, Gr.=insularis ; North

—— verrucula, Pfr. India.

—— hyphasma, Pfr. Panos, Bens.

— Enmiliana, Pfr. proletarius, Pfr.

—— Ceylanica, Pfr.

—— Gardneri, Pfr.

— coriaria, Pfr.

— Woodiana, Pfr. — gracilis, Hutton; and North

—— puteolus, Bens.=clathratula, India.

Pfr.? fuscoventris, Bens.

mononema, Bens. rufopictus, Bens.

— marcida, Bens. Achatina nitens, Gray.

partita, Pfr. Ceylanica, Pfr.; and Nil-

vilipensa, Bens.; apparently gherries.

also in Nilgherries. punctogallena, Pfr.

perfucata, Bens. inornata, Pfr.

— biciliata, Pfr. —— pachycheila, Bens.

—— Isabellina, Pfr. capillacea, Pfr.

— trifilosa, Pfr. veruina, Bens.

—— politissima, Pfr. —— parabilis, Bens.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xviii. 7

98 Mr. W.H. Benson on new Terrestrial Shells from Ceylon.

Cyclostomacea.

Aulopoma helicinum. ;

Hoffmeisteri, Trosch., distinct.

rande, Pfr.

Cyclophorus Ceylanicus, Sow.

Menkeanus, Ph.

— Involvulus, Miill., var.

alabastrinus, Pfr.

—— punctatus, Grat.

— Bairdi, Pfr.

—— Thwaitesi, Pfr.

annulatus, Trosch.

Cataulus Templemani, Pfr.

Layardi, Gray.

—— Eurytrema, Pfr.

—— pyramidatus, Pfr.

— Thwaitesi, Pfr.

loxostoma, Pfr. —— Austenianus, Bens.

— elgg Bens. ——- decorus, Bens.

— Parma, Bens. —— marginatus, Pfr.

Cratera, Bens. — duplicatus, Pfr.

Leptopoma halophilum, Bens. aureus, Pfr.

orophilum, Bens, Cyclostomus? gradatus, Pfr.

flammeum, Pfr. Pterocyclos rupestris, Bens., var. picta,

conulus, Pfr. Trosch.

semiclausum, Pfr. Cumingi, Pfr.

—— pecilum, Pfr. —— Cingalensis, Bens,

elatum, Pfr. — Troscheli, Bens.

apicatum, Bens. —— bifrons, Pfr.

Aulopoma Itieri, Grat. [117 Land Shells. |

Note.—Cyclophorus stenostoma, Sow. and Pterocyclos bilabiatus, Sow.,

have lately been sent to me as from Ceylon, without any definite locality.

They are both Nilgherry shells, and I consider their Cingalese habitat so

doubtful, that I have not introduced them in my list.

The Vitrine of Ceylon have an Indian aspect. A membra-

naceous species also occurs in South India. ;

The most characteristic form of Helix is that of H. Waltoni

and Skinnert.

A considerable number of Cingalese Helices are of the vitrini-

form type, well represented in the Nilgherries by small species,

and by larger forms even to a considerable height in the

Himalaya, and throughout Hindostan.

Several species are common to Hindostan (especially the Pen-

insula) and Ceylon.

The group, H. Rivolii, erronea, and Charpentieri, is repre-

sented, on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, by H. refuga,

Gould, and Achatina, Gray.

The Streptazes are nearly allied to the Nilgherry species.

Pupa Ceylanica is closely allied to the North Indian P. bicolor,

Hutton, both belonging to the type Ennea, Ad.

Some of the Bulimi are Indian in type, others approach the

Philippine forms.

The Achatine are of a type well represented in the Nilgherries,

and to which belong species from the Mahabaleshwur hills,

Bombay, Central India, Lower Bengal, Sikkim, and the Khasya

range.

Mr. C, W. Peach on the Metamorphosis of a Polype-like Animal. 99

The Cyclophori «re of Indian types. Leptopoma represents

forms of the Indian Archipelago.

Aulopoma is probably altogether, and Cataulus is nearly con-

fined to Ceylon, a species occurring in the Nicobar Isles,

Pterocyclos is an Indian type.

November 24th, 1855.

XI.—WNotice of a curious Metamorphosis in a Polype-like Animal.

By C. W. Peacu, Member of the Royal Physical Society of

Edinburgh *.

[With a Plate. |

In March of the present year, I obtained from a fisherman’s line

an old and deeply corroded valve of Psammobia ferroensis, hooked

up from deep water. On it I observed some minute jelly-like spots,

and on placing it in a shallow glass of sea-water and examining

it next day with my pocket-lens, I fancied I could make them

out to be Polype-like animals. I accordingly transferred the shell,

in a watch-glass filled with sea-water, to my microscope, and was

delighted to find my suspicions correct, for, after a little manage-

ment so as to catch the light, I could see the forms as figured at

A (Pl. VIII.), attached to the shell by short footstalks; they were a

little inflated near the upper part, and tipped with a slightly raised

and rounded centre, from which extended four long and four

short leaf-like arms, each granulated down the centre. One or

two had springing from these, delicate tentacle-like arms, as seen

at A, a—probably in a farther state of development. They were

easily disturbed, but soon again displayed themselves, and their

transparency, added to this shyness, rendered it difficult to cateh

their forms. At first I thought they were the early stage of an

Hydractinia, and probably H. brevicornis of Miller, mentioned in

Johnston’s second edition of the ‘ British Zoophytes,’ p. 35.

My next examination was on the 2nd of Apmil, after giving

them a supply of sea-water; they were still fixed ; I could how-

ever perceive a difference—the centre of the head was more raised

and conical, and the arms shorter. I examined them daily, and

on the 6th, instead of moored creatures, | had a fleet of probably

more than 100 minute free naked-eyed medusoid beauties jerking

about in all directions. Except in size they were all alike, and

perfectly transparent ; the umbrella was well rounded and pilose ;

the subumbrella large; each had four large ocellus-like bulbs,

composed of minute dark granules on the edge of the mantle,

* Communicated by the Author, having been read at the Annual Meeting

of the Royal Institution of Cornwall, Noy. 1855.

100 Mr.C. W. Peach onthe Metamorphosis of a Polype-like Animal.

at the bases of the stiffly turned-up tentacles, which were tipped

with a disk having a dark centre surrounded by a light ring,

and outside a darker edge, as seen at fig. 5. Dark but short

bars were arranged in a quincunx manner on the tentacula, as

in fig. 9.

Besides these long tentacula, there were four smaller and

shorter, also turned up, but not furnished with ocelli (as at

fig. 4, where the edge of the mantle is shown); on the lower

part of the mantle runs a canal commnnicating with the bulbs

of the larger tentacula. In this canal I observed spherical

granules passing along, and as if revolving in the bulbs and a

short way down each large tentacle; into these bulbs smaller

granules descended from the subumbrella_by the gastro-vascular

canals. The latter extended to the upper part of the stomach,

as seen at fig. 8, the stomach being attached to them, rounded

on the upper part and divided into four lobes, as at fig. 6; it

then narrows and runs out in a campanulate form to the qua-

drate mouth, which has four long lips fimbriated at the tips, as

shown at fig. 6, and by the view from the under side at fig. 7.

The animals were very active up to the 10th, when some little

change took place; I supplied small quantities of water and used

every precaution, being anxious to see all I could of them. On the

11th they became sickly, and as figured in Pl. VIII. fig. 2; the

mouth, as at fig. 2a; the upper part of the umbrella, as at fig. 2 8, -

in eight festoons, the tentacula drooping. On the 13th they were

nearly inactive, and /urned inside out, with the tentacula folded

in the upper part, as at figs. 10 & 11. I began to hope, that,

as the mouth had become elongated into a peduncle-like form,

they were about to become fixed again; they however dwindled

away, and alihough I kept the water for months, I could trace

nothing more. I have not yet seen Steenstrup’s work on the

“ Alternation of Generations,” and therefore am unable to say

whether it may be one of the interesting facts observed by him.

They differed in the fixed state from any of the zoophytes noticed

by Johnston, and when free, from all the naked-eyed Meduse

figured in Forbes’s Monograph. It may be one of the latter in

its earlier stage, and probably is, from its being pilose, as is

the case with many of the young of the Medusze which have ,

fallen under my notice: I have seen many, but this is the most

interesting of all. The most like the free state is Lizzia octo-

punctata of Forbes, pl. 12. fig. 3; it agrees in the form of the —

umbrella, in having eight tentacular bulbs and four gastro-vas-

cular canals, in the shape of the stomach, quadrate mouth and

long fimbriated lips. It differs in being pilose, and in having ©

only eight tentacula instead of twenty, viz. three at each large

bulb and two at each of the smaller ones, Even this difference

Mr. J. D. Macdonald on the Anatomy of the genus Atlas. 101

in the number of tentacula, &c. is of little consequence, for I

have seen, and have a long list of notes and numerous drawings

of the strange changes, from the young to the adult state, of

these lovely gems; at present I cannot spare the time to make

the drawings and extend the notes.

Custom House, Wick, N. B., 9th Nov. 1855.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII.

All very highly magnified.

A. A group of the animals on a piece of shell.

A, a. One with slender additional tips to the tentacles.

B. One of the animals more highly magnified.

Fig. 1. One of the Medusoids.

Fig. 2. Ditto when changing.

Fig. 2a. Stomach and lips. 2b. Upper part of umbrella.

Fig. 3. Under side, showing the arrangement of the tentacula, &c.

Fig. 4. Edge of mantle to show the canal, &c.

Fig, 5. One of the disks at the end of a tentacle.

Fig. 6. The stomach, mouth and lips.

Fig. 8. Upper part of the umbrella, showing the arrangement of the gastro-

vascular canals.

Fig. 9. A tentacle to show the markings.

Figs. 10 & 11. The Medusoid changed and turned inside out.

XII.— Brief Outline of the Anatomy of the genus Atlas (Lesueur).

By Jonn Dents Macponaxp, Assistant-Surgeon of H.M.S.V.

“Torch,” Tender to H.M.S. “ Herald,” Capt. Denham, R.N.,

F.R.S., Commanding the Exploring Expedition in the South

Seas.

. [With a Plate.]

Durrine our late cruises between Sydney and the islands of the

Pacific, different species of Lesueur’s curious genus Aflas were

taken in the towing-net, and the following short anatomical

account of them may prove interesting to the zoologist, more

especially as—like Phyllirrhoé—their position in the animal

kingdom has been so much a matter of doubt.

These little animals are of a rounded, oval, or elongated form,

according to the amount of contraction of the longitudinal and

cireular muscular fasciculi; and they are usually between 1th

and ;1,th of an inch in length.

Many of their movements resemble those of Annelida, parti-

eularly the manner in which they protrude and retract the head

and proboscis. They frequently draw up their bodies into the

form of a sphere, enabling them to resist a very considerable

102 Mr. J. D. Macdonald on the Anatomy of the genus Atlas.

pressure, or clongate themselves so as to assume a vermiform

appearance. The specimens which I selected for examination

were so continually undergoing those changes of form of which

their pliant bodies were susceptible, that it was difficult to find

them long enough in one position to portray them with much

accuracy.

The proboscis is supported on a kind of neck, which presents

a series of circular creases when partially retracted. The inte-

gument round the base of this neck forms an annular spreading

fold, bearing on its free border a dense cirelet of cilia so large as

to be distinctly visible to the naked eye. Although these are

the only organs available for swimming, the animals possess the

power of rising or sinking in the water at will, without any appa-

rent effort. The motion of the cilia is under voluntary control,

and the undulations produced by their successive action proceed

in a direction from left to right, with a precision and beauty of

effect far surpassing those of the ciliated circlets of the Rotifera.

The species of Atlas creep upon their proboscis, which much

resembles both in form and function the foot of a minute Gaste-

ropod, but the mouth is situated on the inferior or creeping sur-

face. The anterior lip especially expands so as to form a sub-

quadrilateral locomotive disk ; but behind the mouth a mode-

rately long and bifid lobe projects in a backward direction, the

hollow between the two divisions being richly ciliated.

The upper and fore part or frontal surface of the proboscis

mects the creeping disk in front at an angle of about 45°. It is

also subquadrilateral in form, presenting a number of rudi-

mentary visual organs superiorly, couched in four small patches

of black pigment-cells disposed in a transverse row, while on

either side it is bounded by a linear elevation, which, together

with the superior border, is clothed with large vibratile cilia.

The oral orifice when open is of a triangular shape, the base

corresponding with the posterior lip, but when closed it appears

like a simple transverse slit.

There are no dental organs in Atlas, but the lining membrane

of the wide pharynx and cesophagus is thrown into numerous

longitudinal folds, tinted with a deep purple pigment. The

alimentary canal having formed an elongated gastric dilatation,

takes a tortuous course towards the anus, which is situated at

the anterior part of the dorsal region, some little distance behind

the ciliated circle.

The liver is massive, minutely lobulated, and lined with secre-

ting cells containing globules of a rich golden-yellow oil. The

gland is in close relation with the intestine, and the passage of

the biliary fluid into the latter is so free, that on the slightest

pressure the stomach becomes distended with it.

ij =< “tS ei eee

Mr. J. D. Macdonald on the Anatomy of the genus Atlas. 103

The generative pit lies at the posterior extremity of the body,

and may be retracted or protruded by the action of the longitu-

dinal or circular muscular fibres of the integuments.

A large intestiniform tube commencing near the inferior part

of the base of the proboscis takes a flexuous course backwards in

close contact with the abdominal wall, and terminates in an

elongated tapering and protrusile organ at the lower part of

the generative pit.

On either side of the cesophagus a convoluted glandular tube,

with a ciliated lining, gives rise to a long and narrow duct which

passes directly backwards, and ends in a simple orifice lying

superior and a little external to the male opening (?) As I have

not been able to trace unequivocal spermatozoa or ova in any of

these tubes, I am doubtful as to the actual function of the par-

ticular organs, but enough has been said to show that Aé/as is

bisexual.

The coverings of the body are composed of an external epithe-

lium containing purple, brown, or green pigment-granules, and

a muscular tunic consisting of an external longitudinal, and an

internal circular or subspiral set of fibres. The former are dis-

posed in fasciculi with intervals often exceeding their own breadth,

but the latter form a continuous layer.

The interior of the body appears to be lined with vibratile

cilia, by the agency of which minute globules may be seen

coursing in a definite route through all the open spaces between

the viscera. This would appear to be the only representative of

a circulatory apparatus ; and that of respiration is most probably

combined with it, no heart, distinct blood-vessels or gills having

been detected.

This genus would seem to be made up of gigantic Rotifers,

in which the miniature outline, as it were, presented by the mi-

croscopic forms is filled up with a more complex internal orga-

nization in animals constructed on a much larger scale. It may

be also mentioned, that they present characters which give them

an intermediate position between the Bryozoa and Tunicata.

There is no essential difference between the ciliated circle of

Atlas and the circle of tentacula in a polype of Bowerbankia for

example. Were the former produced at regular intervals into

tentacular processes, At/as would then only differ from a Bryo-

zoon in those particulars which would naturally associate it with

the Tunicata. On the other hand, it would appear to represent

permanently the larval state of Stpunculus (see Max. Miller,

Mull. Archiv, 1850, v.) ; and in fact it may be regarded as a

common centre, connected, as it were, by radiating affinities with

a cirele of forms differing considerably amongst themselves.

Cuvier was unable to class the genus, from the ambiguity of

104 Mr.J.D. Macdonald on the Anatomy of the genus Atlas.

the account given of it; but De Blainville did not hesitate to

place it under the head of Akera, conceiving that it was closely

allied to Gasteropleron ; and after his example, this error has been

repeated in the able Monograph of the Bullide by Mr. Adams,

published in the second volume of Sowerby’s ‘ Thesaurus Con-

chyliorum,’ a work which is yet in progress. The characters

there given are as follow :—“ Head with two small tentacular

lobes. Body divided into two parts by a narrow pedicle. Foot

dilated circularly and ciliated at the margin. Shell none.” Now

all these points may be reconciled with the actual state of the

case by reference to the accompanying figures; but from what

has been stated above, I think I may hazard the assertion that

Alas has nothing whatever to do with the Gasteropoda.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.

Figs. 1-5 represent different views of a species of Atlas occurring

very plentifully off the coast of New Caledonia.

Fig. 1. Front view, showing the aperture of the mouth, the foot-like

anterior lip, the bilobed posterior lip, and the ciliated fold in a

quiescent state,

Fig. 2. Posterior view, showing the eye-specks near the upper margin of

the frontal aspect of the proboscis.

Fig. 3. A foreshortened view, with the ciliated circle in active motion : the

arrows show the path of the undulations produced by the suc-

eessive action of the cilia.

Fig. 4. A back view of the animal creeping on its labial disk, with the pro-

boscis and ciliated band retracted. The dorsal position of the

anus is also distinctly seen. 7 *

Fig. 5. A lateral view.

Fig. 6. A species of Atlas of a brilliant green colour, not so plentiful as the

last, but occurring in the same localities: a, the constricted an-

terior extremity, the proboscis and ciliated band being retracted

to the anus, b; c, the generative openings.

Fig. 7. Natural size.

Figs. 8, 9 & 10. Different stages in the eversion of the ciliated band.

Fig. 11. Diagrammatic figure of the animal, showing the relative anatomy

of its internal organs: a, the wide pharynx; J, the liver; e, the

intestine; d, the anus; e, a protrusile organ connected with the

intestiniform tube f, noticed in the text. At the opposite extre-

mity of this tube two small glandular-looking sacculi, g, are

indicated ; h, the small ducts of the lateral convoluted tubes.

Fig. 12. Natural size of the animal.

Fig. 13. Loop of one of the generative tubes (seen at 11 h) highly magnified,

showing a deposit of dark pigment on one side.

Fig. 14. A few of the hepatic lobuli also highly magnified.

Port Curtis, Feb. 13, 1855.

On the Development of Avenicola piscatorum. 105

XITT—On the Development of Arenicola piscatorum; with

Remarks upon that of other Branchiferous Annelides. By Dr.

Max Scuuurze*.

[With a Plate. |

Most of the Branchiferous Annelida, of which the earliest forms

have yet been observed, leave the egg-capsule or the embryonic

receptacle of the mother in a condition by which they are enabled

to swim about freely. They are furnished with strong bands of

cilia, or with a uniform ciliary coat, so that they can roll about in

the water at pleasure.

By fishing with a fine net in the neighbourhood of the coast

or on the high sea, a considerable number of such roving An-

nelidan larve come to the hands of the zoologist. As these,

without exception, when in their earliest stages of develop-

ment, possess a very different form from their parents, and are

destitute of any organs by which the determination of their

origin might be rendered possible, a long series of investigations

upon their further evolution is necessary to obtain certain indi-

cations of their parentage. It is. rarely that such larve can be

kept alive in the experimental glasses long enough to enable us

to follow their further metamorphoses upon one and the same

individual. Naturalists have therefore generally been compelled

to confine themselves to collecting the different young forms of

the same animal one after the other, by repeated fishings, and

uniting these to form a general picture of the development.

Frequently however it happens that, notwithstanding constant

exertions, a form once observed never again comes into the net,

or occurs so rarely, that the origin of the single larve has

remained unknown, whilst others which were taken plentifully

and at different periods continued so obstinately in a certain

early stage of development, that all endeavours to ascertain their

subsequent fate were vain. It is therefore not to be wondered

at if, amongst the great number of young Annelides which have

been fished up from the sea and described, there are but few

which we can refer to their parents. A remarkable example how,

with the greatest perseverance, the goal is often reached only

after the lapse of a long period, is furnished by the Mesotrocha

sexoculata, recently ascertained by Max Miiller to be the larva

of Chetopterus, although J. Miller and Busch were repeatedly

led to investigate it during their excursions without being able

to observe any considerable progress in its development.

The employment of artificial impregnation will be of import-

ance to the study of the metamorphoses of the Annelida. As

yet this has only been tried once by Quatrefages, who by this

* From the Abhandl. der naturforsch. Gesellsch. in Halle, vol. iv. Com-

munieated by the Author and translated by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S. &e.

106 Dr. M. Schultze on the Development

means obtained young Hermelle, and was enabled to follow their

development for a considerable time. When we possess a series

of similar observations, the forms discovered swimming freely,

whose mature state is still unknown, may be gradually deter-

mined. Thus, R. Leuckart remarks *, that the larvee represented

by Busch, ‘ Beobachtungen,’ &c. tab. 7. figs. 5, 6, which were

taken up from the open sea, remind one of the young Hermelle

jast mentioned, by their long stiff bristles. But in this case it

cannot be supposed that the former are actually the progeny of

Hermella, as the latter, according to Quatrefages, lose their cilia

before the appearance of any segmentation of the body.

Our knowledge of the development of the Annelida has also

been advanced by the circumstance, that certain branchiferous

worms bear their eggs about with them until the evolution of

the young. Thus, in Eunice sanguinea, according to Koch, the

young are brought to maturity in the cavity of the body of the

mother, where they are retained until they reach a length of

from one to two inches, and acquire from 100 to 120 segments.

No trace of cilia appears to exist in these young animals. The

progeny of Nereis diversicolor quit the cavity of the mother at a

much earlier stage of development. In female specimens of this

Annelide taken in April on the coast near Greifswald, where it

is very abundant, I observed that the oval or pyriform embryos,

which are uniformly covered with cilia, and, from their reddish-

yellow colour, remind one of the young of Medusa aurita, came

in hundreds out of small apertures on the sides of the body,

under the pedal tubercles. These embryos (PI. II. figs. 11 & 12),

which swim about rapidly, measure ;1,th to }th of a line; they

are rather opake, in consequence of the numerous fatty vitelline

granules imbedded in the body. They swim with the narrow

end forwards, and the little animal constantly turns on its axis.

Near the anterior extremity is the mouth, marked out by longer

cilia arranged in a circle, and from this a canal passes inwards,

the hinder extremity of which did not appear to be formed.

In front of the mouth there are one or two dark eye-spots,

without refractive bodies. I did not observe any further meta-

morphosis, as the larvee soon died in my glasses.

Instead of the cavity of the body, the embryos of other Annelida

are developed in peculiar sacs situated on the dorsal or ventral

surface of the mother, where they generally attain a propor-

tionably high development. This is the case in Sacconereist,

* Jahbresbericht, 1848-53, and Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1855, 1. p. 21. See

Annals, 2nd Series, xvi. p. 264.

+ Sacconereis helgolandica has recently been ascertained by Krohn

(Miiller’s Archiv, 1855, p. 489) to be the result of the division of Autolytus

prolifer, a great step m the history of the development of this interesting

of Arenicola piseatorum. 107

according to the observations of Johann and Max Miiller, and of

myself, in Cystonereis, Kolker, Exogene, Oersted and Kolliker,

and Syllis pulligera, Krohn. In Sacconereis the young appear

to issue in swarms from the ventral sacs of the mother, as they

are provided with several bands of cilia, and when the sac is

artificially destroyed, possess the power of swimming in a high

degree ; whilst the evolution of the young of Cystonereis, Exogene,

and Syllis pulligera takes place on the body of the mother until

the disappearance of the cilia (which are certainly present in the

earliest stages of EHxogene cirrata and Syllis pulligera) and the

appearance of the segments and lateral bristles.

In a considerable number of Branchiferous Annelides, again,

the eggs are deposited enclosed in a mass of jelly, and develope

themselves in this covering, without any connexion with the

mother, until the young are furnished with bristles and other

locomotive organs like those of the mature animals. These do

not enable them to swim freely for any length of time, but only

to creep along the sea bottom. Examples of this kind occur in

the Tubicolar families of the Terebellacea and Serpulacea in the

genera Terebella and Protula, with whose young Milne-Edwards

has made us acquainted. As the masses of eggs of these animals

are attached to the exterior of their tubes, no doubt can exist as

to their origi, when they are collected at the same time with

the mother; and the tracing of their further development is

extraordinarily facilitated by the fact that they require no change

of water, at least as long as they remain enclosed in the gela-

tinous masses, and therefore survive in the glasses.

An example of this mode of development is also presented by

Arenicola piscatorum, the egg-masses of which I collected near

Cuxhaven, on the 22nd March 1852, and brought with me to

Greifswald, where the further development took place. On the

island of Neuwerk, which lies a few miles to seaward of Cuxhaven,

the traces of Arenicola piscatorum occur in extraordinary numbers.

In passing, during the ebb-tide, over a surface of sand but

slightly covered with water, I saw, lying on the sand, close to

almost every one of the little heaps thrown up by the worms

gemmiparous worm; and the same is probably the case with the second

species, S. Schultzii, from the Mediterranean, described by J. Miller. I

have no doubt that the animal of this genus taken by me at Heligoland,

and mentioned by J. Miiller from my letters, is identical with that observed

by Max Miiller (Miiller’s Archiv, 1855, p. 13). I took no notes of the

number of segments in the body ; but the young animal is represented at

fig. 10 (P]. IL). It represents a further step in the development of the

young worm represented by M. Miiller, /. ¢. tab. 2. figs. 5-8, and is par-

ticularly distinguished by its four bands of cilia. Of the fine cilia which

at an earlier period covered the whole body, only those on the head are

still in existence.

108 Dr. M. Schultze on the Development

at this period, which were here scarcely six inches apart, a pyri-

form gelatinous mass about half an inch long and of a fine rose

colour. On examining them more closely, I found that each of

them was fastened into the sand by a gelatinous stem of about

two inches long, and that the red colour was caused by an

aggregation of red granules in the interior of the greenish-yel-

low jelly. These are the eggs of Arenicola, of which from 300

to 400 are enclosed in the gelatinous mucus (PI. II. fig. 1).

From microscopic examination of some of them, it appeared

that the yelks lay close together in the gelatinous mass, only

enclosed in an extremely delicate vitelline membrane, something

like those of Nemertes in their pyriform vesicles ; and as I found

no traces of the commencement of segmentation, I concluded

that the eggs were only just deposited.

Unfortunately I was unable to trace their development on the

spot, and only recommenced my observations nine days after-

wards on the egg-masses which I took with me to Greifswald.

I then found that the process of segmentation was completed in

most cases, and that the oval embryos had acquired a fringe of

extremely fine cilia, in the form of a broad band, near what I

afterwards ascertained to be the anterior extremity (fig. 2).

Other eggs, which were rather backward in their development,

although they certainly gave no satisfactory clue to the course

of the process of segmentation, showed at all events that this

was complete, and that the vitelline membrane had taken part

in it so far as to furnish envelopes for the globules of segmenta-

tion, and consequently gave off the materials for the walls of the

embryonal cells. The embryos could therefore have been enye-

loped in no other capsule, but lay quite free in the semifluid

jelly, in which they began to move about slowly after the deve-

lopment of the cilia. The animals soon became rather more

elongated (fig. 3), and with this change of form new circles of

cilia made their appearance (fig. 4), one close before and a second

close behind the first ciliary band, and a third at the hinder

extremity of the body. All three of these are very narrow, and

consist only of a few series of very fine cilia, which can only be

seen with a high magnifying power, and never exhibit the rota-

tory motion which is often so remarkable in the free-swimming

Annelidan larye. At the same time two dark-red eye-spots

made their appearance in the neighbourhood of the first circle

of cilia. This was the condition of the embryos on the twelfth

day.

The length of the animal now gradually increases, whilst the

circles of cilia undergo no change in number or form. On the

other hand, distinct annular constrictions make their appearance

in the middle of the body, the first close behind the last circle of

of Arenicola piscatorum. 109

cilia, whilst the following ones are at first rather close together

(fig. 5), but gradually become more distant with the further

growth of the animal (fig. 6). The body, which hitherto had

been quite opake, now separated into a lighter peripherie por-

tion, lying under the skin, which still contmued rather dark,

and an opake central portion. The former represents the cavity

of the body, the latter the intestine, in which a cavity may be

recognized by the granules which move about in it. The intes-

tinal canal does not, however, lie free in the general cavity, but

is attached to the inner surface of the skin by annular bands

corresponding in number with the developed segments of the

body. A mouth exists behind the eyes, on the ventral surface ;

the anal opening occupies the extreme hinder end of the body.

No traces of a nervous or vascular system are perceptible.

On the twentieth to the twenty-fourth day the bands of cilia

disappear entirely, and the young animals, which had previously

moved slowly about in the gelatinous mass, now quit it in the form

of sluggish, helpless worms. Their length is now } to 3". Their

form is cylindrical, somewhat widened towards the anterior ex-

tremity, which terminates in a point, and truncated behind

(fig. 7). The mouth lies close behind the red eye-spots, which

are destitute of a refractive medium; it leads into a muscular

cesophagus (a), and this into the intestine, which runs straight

backwards to the anus. The number of segments in the body

has increased to 10 or 12 by additions at the hinder extremity

(between the last and penultimate segments). On the most

anterior of these the first lateral bristles are perceptible, standing

in groups of from two to four; they are delicately serrated on

one edge (fig. 9), in this respect resembling the infinitely larger

bristles of the mature Arenicola.

My endeavours to keep these young worms any longer failed

entirely. I put them into a glass upon a thin stratum of sand

which [ had brought with me from the island of Neuwerk, con-

taining a variety of Infusoria and Algz which might possibly

have served them for nourishment, but they died without under-

going any further change of form. I think, however, that I

saw indications of the formation of the auditory vesicle, as I ob-

served on each side, in front of the eyes, a small vesicle with a

tolerably sharp outline, and with irregularly granular, but not

calcareous, contents, which would probably afterwards be the

otolithes.

It is to be expected that the young Arenicole, after creeping

out of their gelatinous envelope, would bore into the sand in the

neighbourhood of their parents, and then gradually acquire their

mature form. The next thing to be done, therefore, is to seek

the young in this situation at the proper season.

110 Dr. M. Sehultze on the Development

From the foregoing statements, the development of Arenicola

has the greatest similarity with that observed by Milne-Edwards

in Terebella and Protula. In these, also, the eggs are deposited

without any envelope besides the vitelline membrane in gelatinous

masses, in which the young are developed to a certain point,

They also obtain an anterior and posterior circlet of cilia, by

means of which they move about in the soft jelly, and do not

quit this until their more powerful locomotive organs, the bristles,

are developed, and the cilia have disappeared, so that a free

swimming condition does not occur. Nevertheless there is a

difference in the number of bands of cilia, as the last-mentioned

forms do not acquire the two fine circles which occur in Arenicola

before and behind the broad band. But no great stress ean be

laid upon this difference, as the increased number of ciliary circles

appears in this case to be rather a division of the original simple

anterior band, and they are all situated upon the same segment,

the head. Milne-Edwards supposes that the young animals,

after the development of the first cilia upon their surface, creep

out of the vitelline membrane, which is afterwards absorbed. It

appears to me more probable, that in Terebella and Protula, as

in Arenicola, the vitelline membrane passes into the embryo

itself, by furnishing the envelopes of the globules of segmentation,

or the future embryonal cells, and that consequently no egg-

capsule exists from which the embryos must escape. Muilne-

Edwards did not observe the process of segmentation, and was

consequently in uncertainty as to the part taken in it by the

vitelline membrane.

Remak, in his recent investigations upon the development of

the Vertebrata, has described the part played by the vitelline

membrane, which he calls the egg-cell-membrane (Hizellenmem-

bran), in the segmentation of the egg of the Frog, as consisting

in its furnishing envelopes for the segmentary divisions by the

agency of constrictions, which it acquires simultaneously with

the vitelline mass itself. I have confirmed this statement in the

eges of Petromyzon Planeri, which also undergo a total segmen-

tation*. I doubt, however, the propriety of adopting the name

of egg-cell-membrane for the membrane immediately enveloping

the yelk, as this and no other deserves the name of vitelline

membrane. I believe we must regard the vitelline membrane

as having the same signification in the eggs of Arenicola as in

these eggs.

In other Branchiferous Annclides, however, the behaviour of

the membranes of the egg appears to be different. At least in

the case of Hermella, Quatrefages asserts that during segmenta-

* See Annals, May 1856, p. 443.

of Arenicola piscatorum. 11]

tion the vitclline membrane retains its form of a simple vesicle,

but afterwards unites with the surface of the embryonal cells,

forming the skin of the embryo, and acquiring cilia on its outer

surface. And this statement acquires more force from those of

O. Schmidt with regard to the development of Amphicora (Fa-

bricia) sabella*. This little Annelide, which has been classed

amongst the Cephalobranchiate worms, although, according to

Schmidt, it bears its branchize on its tail, lays its eggs in the

tube which it inhabits, but which it then quits. Their develop-

ment resembles that of EHzogene and Cystonereis, and in the

course of it the vitelline membrane becomes converted into the

skin of the embryo, as in Hermella. New observations must

prove the reality of the occurrence of such a participation of an

egg-capsule in the formation of the embryo, which would differ

from all known modes of animal development.

If we attempt, in conclusion, to refer the numerous and vari-

ously formed Annelidan larve hitherto observed to a few typical

forms, in order to facilitate the examination of thew further

metamorphoses, and acquire an approximate knowledge of the

mode of development common to all, the nature of the ciliary

coat, and the number and arrangement of the bands of cilia

when such occur, present us with a constant character applicable

to this purpose, as has already been poimted out by others.

In this way Busch+ distinguishes two groups of Annelidan

larve,—one, for which Lovén’s larvat serves as the type,

possessing a circlet of cilia at each end of the body (the anterior

generally situated between the eyes and the mouth), between

which the segments of the worm are afterwards developed. These

have been subsequently named Telotroche by J. Miller (Archiy,

1855, p. 12); and besides Lovén’s larva, the destiny of which is

unknown, this series includes a portion of Busch’s larvee, which

also cannot be referred to their parents, the larvae of Polynoé

(Sars), Nereis (Busch, /. c. tab. 9. fig. 11), Terebella, Protula,

and Arenicola. Perhaps also the young Hermelle may be re-

ferred to this position, as Quatrefages thinks (Ann. des Sc. Nat.

3 sér. x. p. 189), although, according to the description and

figure, they are destitute of a hinder circle of cilia.

The second group established by Busch is that of the Meso-

troche, with a simple or double wheel-like organ situated in the

middle of the body. To this belong all the larvze to which the

generic name of Mesotrocha has been applied, one of which, the

M. sexoculata, as already stated, is now ascertained to be the

young state of a Chetopterus.

* Neue Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte der Wiirmer, p. 29.

+ Beobachtungen, &c., pp. 57, 62.

t Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1842, p. 302.

112 Dr. M. Schultze on the Development

All Annelidan larve, however, cannot be referred to these

divisions. For instance, the young of Sacconereis, as already

mentioned, possess several (four) bands of cilia at equal distances

on the body. The same is the case with a larva from Trieste,

described by J. Miiller (Monatsber. der Berl. Akad. 1851, p.471);

it measured ,%,'", and possessed no bristles, but was distingui

by the presence of bacillar corpuscles, like those in the skin of

the Turbellaria ; and also with the larva from Trieste with 2 strong

and 10-14 weaker circles of cilia, figured by Busch, tab. 9.

figs. 9 and 10, which was traced further by Max Miiller (Diss.

Inaug. Berol. 1852, p. 25, tab. 3. figs. 14-17), but without

arriving at its definite form. These young Annelida may be

denominated Polytroche, after J. Miiller.

Lastly, the general coating of cilia, which frequently occurs

in the earliest period of embryonic life (Chetopterus, Sacconereis,

Nereis diversicolor), but generally gives place to the isolated

circles, appears to be persistent in the same form throughout the

whole larval existence of many Annelides. For such J. Miiller

proposed the name of Afroche; he observed one of them at

Trieste, measuring 7/5", which was already furnished with de-

veloped sete (Monatsber. 1851, p. 472).

All the young Annelides referred to these four divisions agree

in their development from the egg in the form of globular or

oval, non-annulated embryos, in receiving indications of division

into segments from the circlets of cilia when these are present,

but only acquiring the form of an Annelide, with distinct body-

segments and lateral bristles, after the lapse of some time. A

considerable deviation from this plan of development is presented

by Cystonereis Edwardsii, and Exogene Oerstedii and cirrata,

described by KGlliker, as also by Exogene naidina according to

Oersted, and Amphicora sabella according to O. Schmidt. The

young of these animals acquire, whilst still in the egg, a form

similar to that of the mother, as they appear at their first forma-

tion divided into several segments, like the embryos of the Arti-

culata. In the embryos of Cystonereis Edwardsii, Kolliker

counted 8-9 segments, and 6in Hwogene cirrata. In these there

are no traces of circles of cilia, and even a general coat of cilia is

wanting; whilst, on the other hand, fine cilia occur on certain

regions of the body, as in the embryo of Eogene cirrata on the

ventral surface. In these animals, therefore, we cannot speak

of a larval state, as they pass through all those changes of form

whilst still in the egg, which gradually occur in the others during

their free-swimming period, and long after their embryonal ex-

istence. They are therefore destitute of the provisional, transitory

organs which characterize the larval condition of the others.

To this short summary of the present state of our knowledge

of Arenicola piscatornm. 113

of the development of the Branchiferous Annelides, | add a

tabular view, in families, genera and species, of all those worms

whose earlier states have hitherto been observed, whether singly

or in complete series. The systematic arrangement is that of

Grube, in his ‘ Familien der Anneliden.’ It shows how extremely

small, in comparison with the number of known species, 1s

that of the observations of their developmental forms, a number

however which would certainly be doubled, if we were acquainted

with the parentage of all the larve hitherto observed.

Tabular View of those Branchiferous Annelides of which the Young

Rapacia.

APHRODITEA..

EuNICEA

LYCORIDEA ..

PHYLLODOCEA.

SYLLIDEA...;.

ARICIEA......

States have already been observed.

Polynoé cirrata......

eh 2 re | ee

Eunice sanguinea....

Nereis diversicolor ..

Nereis, sp. dub.......

Phyliodoce, sp.......

Syllis pulligera ....

Autolytus prolifer....

(Sacconereis helgolan-

dica.

Sacconereis Schulizii.)

Cystonereis Edwardsi.

Exogene naidina ....

Exogene Oerstedit and

cirrata.

Nerine (Malacoceros)

longirostris.

Leucodore ciliata....

Sars, Wiegm. Arch. 1845, i.

bl B

M’ Miller, Arch. 1851, p.323;

Desor, Bost. Journ. vi. p. 12.

Koch, Neue Denkschr. der

schweiz. Gesellsch. viii.

Schultze, in this paper.

Milne-Edwards, Annales des

Sci. Nat. 3 sér. iii. p. 166;

Busch, Beobachtungen, &c.

p- 69. tab. 9. figs. 1], 12.

M. Miller, Arch. 1855, p. 17,

note.

Krohn, Wiegm. Arch. 1852, i.

p-2o5l.

Krohn, Wiegm. Arch. 1822, 1.

p- 66; Miller, Arch. 1855,

p- 489.

M. Miiller, Mull. Arch. 1855,

p- 13; Schultze, in this

yaper.

J. Miller, Ueber den allgem.

Plan. in der Entwickelung

der Echinodermen, p. 7, note.

Kolhiker, im Koch, Neue

Denkschr. der schweiz.

Gesellsch. vii. p. 21.

Oersted, Wiegm. Arch. 1845,

p- 20.

Kolhiker, Neue Denkschr. der

schweiz. Gesellsch. viii. pp.

15, 22;

Leuckart*, Wiegm. Arch. 1855,

i.pp. 63 & 77 ; Busch, Beob.

tab. 8. figs. 14.

Oersted, Annul. Dan. Consp.

p- 39. tab. 6. fig. 96(?) ;

Freyand Leuckart, Beitrige,

&e. p. 98. tab. 1. fig. 19 (?).

* See Annals, 2nd Series, xvi. p. 259.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 8

114 On the Development of Arenicola piscatorum, |

Limivora.

TeLetuusa .. Arenicola piscatorum. Schultze, in this paper. ih4

TeREBELLACEA. Terebella nebulosa, &c. Milne-Edwards, Ann. des ‘Sci.

Nat. 3 sér. i. p. 145.

HerMELLACEA. Hermella .......... Quatrefages, Ann. des Sci.

Nat. 3 sér. x. p. 153.

SERPULACEA.. Protula.........00. Milne-Edwards, Ann. des Sei.

Nat. 3 sér. iii. p. 161.

Fabricia (Amphicora) O. Schmidt, Neue Beitr. zur

sabella. Naturgesch. der Wiirmer,

1848, p. 27.

CumrorTerReA, Chetopterus ........ M. Miiller, Arch. 1855, p. 1.

Fig.

. 6.

Mesotrocha sexoculata, J.

Miiller, Arch. 1846, p. 101;

Busch, Mill. Arch. 1847,

p- 187; Beob. &e. 1851,

p- 59.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

Mass of eggs of Arenicola piscatorum, enclosed in a pedunculate

gelatmous envelope : natural size.

. Embryo of Arenicola after the process of segmentation has reached

the stage in which the embryo commences its movements in the

gelatinous mass by means of a broad band of cilia at the anterior

end (about 10 days old). 150 diameters.

3. The same embryo, rather more elongated (one day older).

. An embryo in which the body has become more elongated, with

the appearance of new bands of cilia (12 days old).

5. An embryo, in the interior of which the differentiation of the

central cord (the alimentary canal) has commenced, with the

appearance of the first traces of segments (13 days).

An embryo in which the intestinal canal and the segments are still

more distinctly developed; the general cavity is traversed by

transverse walls, corresponding in number with the segments,

and attaching the intestine to the inner surface of the walls of

the body: the circles of cilia are still unaltered (17 days).

. A young larva, 24 days old, which has escaped from the gelatinous

envelope. The circlets of cilia have disappeared, the number of

segments has considerably increased, and the anterior extremity of

the intestine passes into a barrel-shaped cesophagus, the wide an-

terior opening of which is close to the mouth (a). The anterior

segments of the body are furnished with seta. 80 diam.

Anterior extremity of the same embryo, seen from the side to show

the position of the mouth on the ventral surface.

Sete from the anterior segments of the body. 400 diam.

10. Young of Sacconereis, with four circles of cilia, from Heligoland.

Figs. 11 & 12. Young of Nereis diversicolor, just escaped from the cavity

of the mother; fig.11, from the ventral side, showing the mouth, a;

fig. 12, from the back.

Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. — 115

XLV.—Noles on the Freshwater Infusoria of the Island of Bombay.

No. 1. Organization. By H. J. Carter, Esq., Assistant

Surgeon H.C.S8., Bombay.

{With three Plates. ]

For some time past, when circumstances would permit, I have

paid considerable attention to the Infusoria and Freshwater Algz

of the Island of Bombay, which being the same, generally, as

those of Europe, have not occupied me much in specific descrip-

tion, while they have left me comparatively uninterrupted in

their structural and physiological observation. How much has

been gained by the latter the following summary of my “ Notes”

will show.

I shall commence with the freshwater Rhizopoda, the Astasie

and Huglene ; but before proceeding to remark on them sepa-

rately, I would premise some observations on the general organ-

ization of Infusoria, and these will be arranged under the fol-

lowing heads :—

Pellicula, or skin.

Diaphane, or transparent moving matter.

Sarcode, or abdominal mucus.

Molecule, or minute grains.

Granules, or large grains.

Digestive Globules, or spherical spaces which enclose the food.

Spherical Cells, or biliary organisms. (?)

Vesicula, or “ contracting vesicle.”

Nucleus.

Ovules, or embryonic cells.

Spermatozotds. (?)

Impregnation.

Development of Ovule.

Pellicula.—This term has been proposed by Mohl for the

consolidated surface of material which has no distinct enclosing

membrane*. Dujardin, in allusion to the tegumentary covering

of Amewba, &c., likens it to the film which occurs over “ flour-

paste or glue allowed to cool in the airt ;” and the same view

of it will be taken here. It is at first inseparable and undi-

stinguishable from the tissue which lies beneath it, yielding

in every way to the form which the latter assumes. As, how-

ever, Ameba progresses in development, and its activity begins

to diminish, the pellicula appears to thicken and harden, al-

* Mohl on the Structure of Chlorophyll. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.

vol. xv. p. 325, foot-note. May 1855.

+ Hist. Nat. des Zoophytes Infusoires, p. 29 et seq.

116 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria,

though it still retains great tenacity; and thus the expansions

of the subjacent tissue are seen to burst through it in much the

same manner that the end of a stream of lead bursts through

its pellicle. Finally, when all activity ceases, and the Amaba

becomes stationary (by fixing itself to some neighbouring object

through a pedicular prolongation of the pellicula), a new layer of

the latter is formed below the old one, and thus the capsule is

formed, and the pellicula replaced on the body of the Ama@ba,

until the latter becomes firmly encysted (PI. V. figs. 6, 8)*. To

what part of the body of the Ameba the pedicular process cor-

responds, I am ignorant; but it is interesting to see that in

Euglena, where a similar process takes place, it is the anterior

extremity which is next the pedicle (fig. 9). Many freshwater

Rhizopoda secrete a testaceous covering, which mereases in size

with the animal; but the fleshy part of the body being for the

most part free, is of course still covered with pellicula. The

pellicula forms the surface-covering of Astasia and Euglenat, as

well as that of all the holo-, poly-, diplo- and mono-ciliated flexible

animaleules and zoospores. Here too, probably, the cilia them-

selves are also”covered with it, though secreted by subjacent

organs, analogous perhaps to those which secrete the hairs on the

bodies of higher animals,— a supposition that would appear ridi-

culous did we not find such a correspondence between the vital

processes of the highest and lowest developments as to induce us

to think the latter are but a repetition of the others on a smaller

scale; that is to say, effected by similar agents, of corresponding

minuteness, conducted on the same principle. Taking the

above view of the pellicula, we must regard it as a structureless

product, which hardens after secretion. May we not infer that

there is a layer below, specially organized for its formation ?

Diaphane.—By this name I would designate the moving

substance on which the pellicula rests (figs. 1-3). dAmaba,

whose primary figure is spherical, has the power of changing

this into an almost unlimited number of secondary forms, most

of which, being attended with root-shaped prolongations, this

Infusorium is justly entitled to a place among the Rhizopoda.

* After this the numbers alone of the figures will be inserted, as they

are continuous throughout the three plates.

+ Although Astasia and Euglena are here mentioned together, it seems

that, in classification, one should be on the animal, and the other on the

vegetable side of Amba; for Astasia possesses a mouth and complicated

buceal apparatus for biting off and taking in food, while Euglena appears

to have no mouth, and to be nourished by endosmosis. The half-developed

cilium, too, in Euglena, compared with the strong prehensile organ which

occurs in Astasia, with many other points which will be mentioned here-

after, allies the former as much more to the zoospore or gonidium of the

Algz, as the reverse does the latter to the higher Infusoria,

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 117

That the diaphane is structureless and transparent, so far as our

microscopic powers extend, may be seen by the travelling of

some kinds of Ameba across the field of the microscope, in

which the coating of the diaphane, though broader all round

than the diameter of the turbid mass of contents in the centre,

only now and then, when the light is favourable, comes into

view. The radii in Actinophrys are wholly devoid of turbid

material, except towards the base; and the advancing border of

the Amebe generally is always transparent (figs.2 4,34). But

whether granules are mixed with it or not, the diaphane by

itself, that is the contracting material, in the present state of our

microscopic powers, must be characterized by transparency and

motion, without apparent structure. It has the same appearance

and polymorphic power in Diffugia, Euglypha, and Arcella, as

in Ameba; but in Astasia and Euglena, though still possessing

great latitude in this respect, it can put forth no prolongations,

and, consequently, the primary forms of these families are never

entirely lost. This latitude is still more limited in Oxytricha,

Plesconia, Paramecium, &c., though in many Infusoria of this

class it has still the power of temporarily producing considerable

alteration in shape. It might be stated that the diaphane can-

not be demonstrated in these animalcules; but the great power

of motion of their tegumentary covering, combined with trans-

parency, warrants the use of the term here just as much as in

Rhizopoda, where it is only more striking, because, for want of

cilia, the animalcule is compelled to put it forth im delicate ex-

pansions and prolongations, in progression, and for the capture

of its food ;—indeed, these are the two great modes in which all

its vital movements are effected.

Some might think, from what has been stated, that there is

no difference originally between the pellicula and diaphane, and

that the latter passes into the former when the animalcule be-

comes encysted. But neither appears to be the case ; for if we

watch Ameba or Euglena undergoing this process, the activity

and accompanying polymorphism of the diaphane are diminished

only by the thickening and consolidation of the cyst, until the

latter is fully formed, when they cease altogether. Subsequently,

however, in Euglena, when this animaleule becomes temporarily

encysted, the diaphane separates itself from the last layer of

pellicula which completes the cyst, and thus the Euglena be-

comes free within it ; after which it will force off the constricted

peduncle of attachment from the object to which the cyst may

have been fixed, and, projecting its cilium through the broken

part, swim about for some time, until (perhaps by inerease of

size) the cyst is altogether burst, and its liberation restored

118 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

(fig. 9). Yet it might still be observed, that this is no proof of

the cyst and diaphane having been originally distinet structures,

—the diaphane may have been re-formed; in which case I can

only refer to what L have suggested respecting the origin of the

pellicula, and add that what takes place generally in the higher

organisms appears to me to be applicable to the lower ones,

Certainly we do not find one structure erected by the organism

of another in the former, but the production of each structure

dependent on the presence of its proper organism ab initio;

that is, that the structure does not appear before it is aceom-

panied by the fully developed form of the cell or organism which

produces it. I do not question that, under the laws of vitality,

one organism may occasionally take on the excretory or secreting

functions of another, nor that, from a common stock, all organ-

isms, in obedience to the same laws, may be adapted to that which

is particularly required of them; but I think that when once a

being is fully developed, each organ of which it may be com-

posed has its peculiar organism, and that organism its peculiar

duties, which, except in unusual instances, are the only ones

that it is capable of performing. That the diaphane, therefore,

should pass into the pellicula, or the pellteula be secreted by the

diaphane, seems untenable.

Related to the diaphane is the transparent intercellular sub-

stance of Spongilla, which has a polymorphism equally great

with the fully developed cells. This, however, can only be

satisfactorily seen when the new sponge is growing out from the

seed-like body, at which time it spreads itself over the glass in a

transparent film, charged with contracting vesicles of different

sizes, and in various degrees of dilatation and contraction.

low this substance is produced so early it is difficult to conceive,

since it seems to come into existence independently of the de-

velopment of the sponge-ovules, which are seen imbedded in it,

and there undergoing their transformation into sponge-cells.

The spicula too are developed synchronously with the advancing

transparent border, from little glairy globules about the size of

the largest ovules, which send out a linear process on each side,

and thus gradually grow into their ultimate forms. Perhaps

the only way of accounting for the early appearance of this in-

tercellular substance is to consider that it is a development from

some remnants of the original protoplasm, and then that it has

the power of secreting a general pellicula, while at the same

time it is in part the general diaphane ; and perhaps possesses

also the power of producing new sponge-cells, as we see the

protdplasm in Vorticel/a and the roots of Chara producing new

buds, viz. independently of the cell-nucleus.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 119

Sarcode.—This name was proposed by Dujardin for the

“glutinous substance of the interior” of Infusoria*; and we

shall here understand it as applicable solely to what, in other

words, might be termed the “abdominal mucus” (figs. 1 J, 2 4,

34), The sarcode occupies the centre, while the diaphane and

pellicula form the circumferential layers of Infusoria; besides

this, it is the seat of the “granules” and other organs of the

interior, and appears to receive the food directly into its sub-

stance. From the greater latitude of the particles which are

situated towards the centre, that portion may be inferred to be

of less density than the rest; and sometimes, when the animal-

cule is rendered spherical by aqueous distension, there appears

to be an actual cavity here (fig. 2d); but as I am not certain

about the real situation of the water under these circumstances,

I shall return to this point again by-and-by. In the Rhizopoda

generally, the sarcode appears to have no external communica-

tion, and hence the food must pass into it directly through the

diaphane; but in most of the other Infusoria it communicates

with the surrounding medium by one orifice at least. The same

kind of substance occupies a good portion, if not the whole, of

the internal or abdominal cavity of Astasia and Euglena, Vorti-

cella, Paramecium, and the Infusoria of this class. When death

is about to take place, it comes forth from Vorttcella, Parame-

cium, &e. in round, transparent, structureless expansions; and

even during life in Stentor a portion may be made, by pressure,

to issue through a rupture of the pellicula without any apparent

injury to the animalcule+. O¢ostomat, also, when under press-

ure, throws off portions of its sarcode through the anal orifice,

containing a number of the “ spherical cells,” to be mentioned

hereafter, with which it is charged in this kind of infusorium.

As we shall presently find that the portions of food which are

_ received into the midst of the sarcode are circulated round the

abdominal cavity, it seems necessary to admit, also, that the

sarcode is endowed with a power of motion, in which we cannot

help seeing an analogy to that motion which exists in the ali-

mentary canal of higher animals.

In Euglena the sarcode is separated from the diaphane by a

layer of pointed, sigmoid fibres, arranged parallel to each other,

so as to form in Crumenula texta, Duj., a conical cell, which, as

soon as the ovules have become developed, and the diaphane and

other contents of the sarcode have died off, becomes transparent,

but still retains its conical form until the resiliency of the fibres,

* Op. cit. p. 35.

+ Ehrenberg, ap. Dujard. op. cit. p. 34, foot-note. It is the same with

Nassula.

t Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xvii. pl. 1x. figs. 6-8, 1856.

120) Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

now unrestrained by the diaphane and other soft parts; cause

dehiscence, and the ovules are set at liberty (PI. VI. fig. 60)... May

we not infer that the siliceous frustule of Navicula is similarly

situated to this fibrous layer, and that it also derives its power of

motion from an external coating of diaphane? That there is a gela-

tinous layer external to the frustule probably in all Diatomee, may

frequently be seen, although it may not be always endowed with

mobility. In a species of Palmellea too, like Gleocapsa granosa,

Kg.*, which I have had under observation, the transparent ex-

ternal covering (“ envelope-cell ” of Cohn) not only at one period

presents an actinophorous form, but also moves about under

this condition, bearing the green elliptical cell within (singly, or

divided into two or four, &e. as the ease may be), whose form

depends upon the presence of a more or less firm (skeleton) coat,

that corresponds in position and office to the spiral coat in

Euglena and the siliceous frustule in Navicula, viz. im supporting

the contents of the sareode and chlorophyll-bearing protoplasm,

and in sustaining their form in all these organisms respectively

(fig. 19). In Oseillatoria (princeps, Kg., mihi) again, although,

like Navicula, the presence of a layer of substance endowed with

motion round the cells cannot be seen, yet, when we observe

the whole chain of a fragment moving slowly backwards and for-

wards within its sheath, and even extending beyond it, so as to

force out the loosened cells at either end (probably for the

formation of new filaments), we can come to no other conclu-

sion, that I sec, than that cach cell, which corresponds in office

to the frustule in M avicula, &e., 1s surrounded by a transparent,

gelatinous substance, endowed with motion, and that, en masse,

they perform this act: although this substance cannot be seen

when the cells are undergoing simple elongation or filamentous

development, yet it becomes evident enough when they are

undergoing crucial division without the sheath for the multi-

plication of filaments. In none of these instances does this

envelope, if existing in Navicula, as well as the rest, present any

change on the addition of iodine but a yellow tinge, even when

assisted by sulphuric acid ; and it therefore appears to be entitled

just as much to the term of diaphane in Navicula (if present),

Glaocapsa granosa (?), and Oscillatoria, as in the Infusoria. In

Clostertum there are no signs of an organ of this kind externally,

except at the extremities, where it may be an extruded part of

the ciliated protoplasm within; for C. dunula, as Morren has

stated, can fix itself by one end, and partially rotate upon that

end; while in Spirogyra this much extrusion of the protoplasm

* Hematococcus granosus, Hassall, pl. 81, fig. 6, British Freshwater

Alga ;—but with cells scattered, not continuous.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 121

is not permitted, and the cell is here closed after the manner of

vegetable cells generally. What further strengthens the view that

there is in some Diatomeze (e.g. Navicula and Nitzschia) a layer

corresponding to diaphane on the surface, 1s, that there is some

prehensile and transporting organ here, which undoubtedly has

the power of seizing particles that come in contact with it, and

of conveying them “partially or wholly backwards and forwards

from one extremity of the frustule to the other, or of retainmg

them on any part of it stationarily.

Molecule.—We will apply this term to the minute, colourless

granules with which the sarcode is charged (fig. 3 6). They

differ in size, and are the first bodies that appear in it; but

whether they be of different kinds, have any particular office, or

undergo any further development, I am at present ignorant.

Ameba, Astasia (fig. 45), and Euglena (fig. 46), in the earlier

part of their existence, respectively seem to contain nothing else

but this molecular sarcode, the nucleus, and contracting vesicle ;

afterwards the “granules” appear, and last of all the ovules,

both of which are developed in the sarcode amongst the molecule.

By the time the ovules have become fully formed, the sarcode and

its moleculz have died off, or disappeared (figs. 26, 46, 56).

Granules.—This name is intended for certain large granules,

which make their appearance among the molecule, and are cir-

culated round the abdominal cavity in the manner of the diges-

tive globules and particles of food (figs. 4 a, 5 c, 65 a). They

are of different sizes, but chiefly characterized by beg much

larger than the molecule, few in number, of a circular, elliptical,

elongated, sub-round, or ‘irregular shape, with thick dark edges,

apparently produced by obstruction to the passage of hght,—

colourless, or of a yellowish-green tint. When large, and with

no other granular matters present but the molecule, they form

a striking feature in the interior of Ameba, Vortivella, Oxytricha,

Paramecium aurelia, &e.; but at times they are so insignificant in

size as to be undistinguishable from the molecule, even if present

at all. That they are not ovules may be satisfactorily seen when

both are together; the dark, thick, and frequently irregular

edges and colourless state of the former contrasting strongly

with the thin, circular margin and faint yellow tint of the latter

‘ (fig. 5 ec). They appear to increase in size and number with

the age of the infusorium, and, when fully developed, to remain

unaltered in s1Z¢, though apparently somewhat shrivelled in

form, until their dissolution. On one occasion, while watching

the metamorphosis of an Oxytricha (similar to, but not the

same as that described by M. Jules Haime*, and of which I

* Ann. des Sei. Nat. t. xix. p. 109, Zool. 1853,

122. Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

hope to give a detailed account hereafter), these granules, during

the formation of the globular cell within the body, which

enclosed the materials from which the Plesconia was ultimately

developed, became congregated together at the posterior ex-

tremity of the Oxytricha, and remained there in a roundish mass,

shut out from the cell, until the latter burst for the liberation

of the Plesconia, when, with the deciduous coverings, they

passed into dissolution. Of the nature of their office I am

ignorant, but they are sufticiently remarkable and constant to

demand particular notice.

In the development of the sponge-cell, a similar set of large

granules makes its appearance at a very early period, and

increase in number and size until they form as remarkable a

feature as those above noticed. At this time they are about

yodo0 Of an inch in diameter, of an elliptical shape, and of a

light amber colour by transmitted light; they are the colour-

bearing granules or cells of Spongilla, and give the colour of

chlorophyll to this organism when it becomes green.

Such granules would appear to be present also in the earliest

forms of Amba, since they may be seen in mono- and diplo-

ciliated monads, which, on losing these appendages, become

polymorphic, and assume all the characters of Ameba. Here

they not only resemble the granules of the sponge-cell, but at

the same time appear to be of the same kind as those above

described. Neither is it uncommon to see polymorphic cells,

precisely like Ameba, bearing granules coloured like those of

the sponge-cell ; but the resemblance between the two organisms

is so great, when the latter is free, that it is impossible to say

which is which : however, they are greenish-yellow and elliptical-

elongate in the foot of Difflugia proteiformis, Ehr., which cannot

be confounded with the cell of Spongilla. That these granules

are not ovules in the sponge-cell, any more than in the Infusoria,

their colour alone is sufficient to determine.

Digestive Globules.—We shall use this term for spherical

spaces of the sarcode, which are filled with water, and generally

contain more or less food (figs. 3 e, 65 b, 74 d). They are

formed in Vorticella and Paramecium in the following way, viz.

as the particles of nutritive matter are drawn into the vortex of

the buccal cavity, by the cilia which are disposed around its orifice

for this purpose, they are forced down, with a certain amount

of water, into the sarcode at the end of it, where they at first

form a pouch-like dilatation, which sooner or later becomes

constricted close to the buccal cavity, and, having been thus

separated from it, passes off in a spherical form into the midst

of the sarcode (figs. 65 c,74c¢c). The formation of one globule

is soon followed by that of another; and so on successively the

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 123

food, with a large quantity of water, is taken into the abdomen ;

sometimes the globule appears to contain nothing but water.

When in the sarcode, it is continually undergoing circulation

round the abdominal cavity, until the whole of its contents are

digested, and resolved into a fluid, or until their nutrient parts

are abstracted ; the remainder then, still in a globular form, if

there be sufficient water left to sustain this, is cast off through

the anal orifice, as it arrives opposite this point during rotation

(tig.68 6). Frequently, however, nothing but the crude ingesta

remain ; for as soon as the globule begins to be circulated, the

watery contents begin to be absorbed,—hence some particles of

food are almost always present, without any globule round them

(fig. 5d); added to which, in many instances bodies pass directly

ito the sarcode without any globule at all (fig. 74¢). I cannot,

with some others, think, that there is any intestinal canal in the

abdominal cavity, because the digestive globules and other par-

ticles of food are constantly undergoing circulation round the

whole of its interior. In Vorticella, particles of food may occa-

sionally be seen to circulate throughout, and accumulate, in

every corner of its interior, particularly those which do not happen

to be enclosed in globules (fig. 74 ee). Moreover, the intimate

resemblance which exists between the alimentary organs of higher

Infusoria, viz. Nassula, Otostoma, &c., and those of the binocular

and so-called blind Planarie,—in the distance of the mouth from

the anterior extremity, the presence of a buccal apparatus, and

a simple sac-like stomach in the latter, lined with a layer of

mucous substance (sarcode ?), charged with the “ spherical cells”

about to be described, is so great, that with such a simple gastric

organ in an animal so closely allied to these Infusoria as Planaria,

I do not see what reason we have, in descending the scale, to

expect a more complicated digestive apparatus; but, on the

contrary, one still more simple, in which there would be no

stomach at all ;—a condition which appears to me to be common

to all the Infusoria that have come under my notice.

In the Ameba, for want, apparently, of a channel of com-

munication with the exterior, the introduction of food seems to

take place directly through the diaphane; and it is only now

and then that the process by which the digestive globule is

formed can be distinctly seen. Thus, on one occasion, where

the particle about to be enclosed was a small Ameba, the latter,

after struggling for some time, got under the former, when the

large Ameba raised its diaphane in a dome-shaped cavity over

the small one, and then, closing in below, after the manner of a

sphincter, shut in the small Amaba, which, with a portion of

water, Immediately passed into the sarcode, under the form of a

124 Mr. Hi. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

spherical digestive globule*. That the food is broken down by

a digestive process in this way may be seen in the dmaba, where

it frequently appears in all degrees of solution in the same in-

dividual ; viz. from an opake, crude mass, to a blue or brownish

fluid, according to the colour which the material may assume

under its altered condition. In Astasia digestive globules also

appear; but here the food is taken in through a distinct mouth,

while in Euglena the absence of such vesicles would appear to

indicate that its support is of a different kind, if not introduced

in a different way.

Spherical Cells.—These cells, to which I have just alluded,

abound in the sarcode of Otostoma+, and apparently in many of

Ehrenberg’s Allotreta (fig. 92). In Otostoma they are of dif-

ferent sizes, because they are in all stages of development; and,

to keep up their numbers, without distending the animalcule,

they must be continually undergoing rapid decay, as well as re-

production. The most remarkable feature in them is, that the

largest, besides other granular bodies, contain several small

cells, filled with a brownish-yellow fluid, and these cells are also

found free among the general group; but what their ultimate

destination is, as they do not appear to grow larger, or to be-

come reproductive, I am ignorant. In the Planarie to which I

have alluded, as well as in Rotifera, such cells nearly fill the

stomach, and the large ones being more or less grouped together

in the former, at the same time that they chiefly contain the

yellow cells, the whole acquires a sub-acinous or glandular appear-

ance, very like the hepatic element surrounding the alimentary

canal of some of the lower worms. It is also interesting to

find here that each possesses a lash of cilia (about 50) projecting

from one part of the cell, which, for some time after they are

forced into the water through the oral orifice, or a rupture of the

body, act by their whippmg movements as imperfect locomotive

organs, while, when these cells are fixed in situ, the same whip-

ping movement must keep up a continued agitation of the gastric

contents, which, if not conducted in a similar way in the Infu-

soria, has its analogue there in the circulation of the digestive

elobules, and granular matters of the sareode (fig. 92 a, g).

Although ovules may occasionally issue together with these cells

from Otostoma, &c. as well as from the Planaria, yet the two

can hardly be confounded; as in the Planarie the peculiar

character of the ovule not only distinguishes it, but by careful

manipulation the whole generative apparatus may be exposed

outside the stomach.

* Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p. 93, 1849.

+ Idem, vol. xvii. pl. ix. fig. 6b b.

09 98 “eee a ee

Mr. Hi. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 125

That these cells in Planaria and Otostoma are homologous

organs can hardly be doubted, both from their general characters

and their correspondence in position ; but what their office may

be is at present unknown. Occurring, however, as they do, in

the stomach of Planaria and Rotifera, where there is no other

analogue of the so-called biliary follicles of the lower worms*,

and being almost identical in Otostoma and Planaria, they not

only ally these two organisms, but, at the same time, appear to

be the homologue of the biliary follicles im each.

I have never seen any cells of this kind in Ameba, unless the

“oranules” already described be their analogues. It appears

evident that these are the same both in Ameba and the sponge-

cell, and that they are the seat of the green colour in the latter.

Are the green granules of the sponge-cell analogous to the parts

or cells respectively which hold the colouring matter or endo-

chrome in the Diatomee, Closterium, Spirogyra, Cladophora, &c.,

and (through the latter) to the “green disks” or peripheral

layer of chlorophyll-bearing cellules in the internode of Nitedla,

and those which, scattered irregularly through its moving pro-

toplasm, are cireulated round the cell of Serpicula verticillata

(figs. 63 a, 64a)? Lf so, the chlorophyll-bearing parts of the

protoplasm in vegetables may be the analogue of the liver in

animals. In some Rotifera the spherical cells appear to bear

bile as green as grass or chlorophyll+, while m others it is

yellow. The same diversity of colour occasionally manifests

itself in the Diatomee; while in Spirogyra especially, the oil-

globules and amylaceous deposits, which abound in abortive

conjugation, are entirely confined to the green spiral-bands, thus

corresponding, in one identically, and in the other transitionally,

with the fat and sugar which are formed in the liver of man; the

colouring matter in all of course being, when present, a mere

indication cet. par. of the nature of the organ. How the colour-

bearing cellule of the spherical cells are produced in Otostoma

* By this I do not mean to class the Planarians with the Worms. Mr.

C. Girard, who has followed out the “ Embryonic Development of Plano-

cera elliptica,”’ would ally them to the Gasteropoda,— Researches upon

Nemerteans and Planarians,’ 4to, Philadelphia, 1854.

+ Since writing this, I have seen Diglena catellina, Ehr., discharge the

green matter from its alimentary canal, and retain nothing but the ordinarily

coloured biliary cells; also D. caudata to have the whole of the soft tissues

of its body coloured in this way, unless there be diverticulations of the

stomach to this extent; so that I now begin to think this colour, which at

first appeared persistent, to be adventitious, and gained from the Euglene,

and, perhaps, chlorophyll-bearing protoplasm on which these species chiefly

feed. Accidentally, perhaps, the bile may become green in any species of

Rotifera, as in animals generally ; and this appears to be the case with the

endochrome of Diatomee.

126 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

and Planaria, 1am ignorant ; but in some Rotifera (e. g. Bra-

chionus Pala, Ehr.) they present themselves at an early period

in a circular or discoid group, attached to the cell-wall, and thus,

with the absence of the nucleus, closely resemble a granulated

state of that organ.

Vesicula.—I would propose this name for the “ Contracting

Vesicle,” on account of the latter being a loose and inconvenient

term in description (figs.3 c, 4b), It is certainly the most

striking organ of the Infusoria, from its defined circular outline

when distended, its hyaline aspect, and above all its sudden

disappearance and gradual return at intervals, which give it a

pulsatory character, so like that of a heart, that at first we are

inclined to conclude that it must be the representative of this

organ in the Infusoria. Spallanzani considered it a respira-

tory organ* ; Ehrenberg the male organ of generation+; and

Siebold a circulatory organt. The following facts, however,

would seem to show that it is neither of these, but an excretory

organ, viz. :—

Ist. It is always seen either close to the pellicula, or close to

the buccal cavity, and always stationary. Thus, in Paramecium

aurelia, it is close to the surface, and although it of course passes

out of view as the animalcule turns on its long axis, yet it

always reappears, after contraction, in the same place (figs. 68 aa,

74 ff); while in Vorticella it is attached to the buccal cavity,

and, being centrically situated, seldom passes out of view, except

when it disappears under contraction, after which it also re-

appears in the same place.

2nd. In Actinophrys Sol§, and other Ameba, during the act

of dilatation, the vesicula projects far above the level of the

pellicula, even so much so as occasionally to form an elongated,

transparent, mammilliform eminence, which, at the moment

of contraction, subsides precisely like a blister of some soft

tenacious substance that has just been pricked with a pin

(fig. 24 a).

3rd. Lastly, when we watch the contraction of the vesicula

in a recently encysted Vorticella, we observe that at the same

moment that it contracts the buccal cavity becomes filled with

fluid; and further, that this fluid disappears from the buccal

cavity, and all trace of the latter with it, long before the vesicula

reappears ; thus proving at once, that the fluid comes from the

vesicula and does not return to it, whatever may become of it

afterwards (fig. 78).

The position of this organ, then, its manner of contracting,

* Ap. Dujardin, op. cit. pp. 103, 104. + Idem, pp. 105-108.

+ Ap. Claparéde, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xv. p. 212, 1855,

§ Idem, loc. cit, pl. vii. fig. 1.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 127

and the buccal cavity of eneysted Vorticella becoming filled with

fluid the moment it disappears (where we know it to be attached

to the buecal cavity, and not to the pellicula), are almost conclu-

sive of its excretory office. We have now to find out how this

fluid is brought to the vesicula.

It will be remembered that there is a series of fusiform sinuses

which surround each of the vesicule in Paramecium aurelia, and

some other animalcula of this class, on which Spallanzani made

the important observation, that as they become empty the vesi-

cula becomes filled*. This may be easily seen, as well as that

they do not reappear until some time after the vesicula has con-

tracted. Thus we infer, that the fluid with which the vesicula

is distended comes through the sinuses, but is not returned by

them to the body of the Paramecium.

Now in some cases, faint hyaline or transparent lines may be

seen to extend outwards+ from each of these sinuses, which lines,

Eckhard has stated, ‘traverse the body in a stellate manner.”

Hence, when we add Eckhard’s evidence (which I have been able

to confirm in a way that will be presently described) to the ob-

servation of Spallanzani, and connect this with the facts already

adduced in favour of the excretory office of the vesicula, it does

not seem unreasonable to conclude that the whole together

forms an excretory vascular system, in which the vesicula is the

chief receptacle and organ of expulsion.

While watching Paramecium aurelia, 1 on several occasions

not only observed that the vesiculz were respectively surrounded

by from seven to twelve pyriform sinuses of different sizes, and

that lines extended outwards from them in the manner described

by Eckhard; but I further observed that these lines were com-

posed of a series of pyriform or fusiform sinuses, which diminished

in size outwards; and frequently I could trace as many as three

in succession, including the one next the vesicula (fig. 66 bd).

Hence I am inclined to infer, that this vascular system through-

out is more or less composed of chains of such sinuses, and that

all haye more or less contractile power like that of the vesicula.

Just preceding death, when Paramecium aurelia is compressed,

and under other favourable circumstances, these sinuses run

into continuous hyaline lines, and may not only be seen extend-

ing in a radiated, vascular form across the animalcule, but even

branching out round the position of the vesicula, which, having

now become permanently contracted, has thus poured back the

contents which render them visible (fig. 67 b 6). They enter

* Spallanzani ap. Dujard. op. cit. p. 103; Spall. Opuse. Phys. trad.

France. t. i. p. 248.

+ Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xviii. p. 448, 1846.

128 =Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

the lower or inner part of the organ, and at this point, therefore,

are pushed inward as the vesicula becomes distended (fig..68:aa).

Under the same cireumstances, also, when the vesicula is\slowl

dilating and contracting, it may be seen to be attached to sama

papilla on the surface, about twice the diameter of those whie

surmount the trichocysts*, and through which. it) probably

empties itself (fig. 68 aa). In Ofostoma there appears to bea

similar arrangement of vessels round each vesicula, and here/also

they seemed to me to be branched,—at least such was my im-

pression after having watched this animaleule for a long time,

im order to determine the point.

In Amoeba and Actinophrys the vesicula is generally single ;

sometimes there are two, and not unfrequently in larger Amaba a

greater number. In Euglypha 1 have not been able to recognize

them, but in Arcella vulgaris and Difflugia proteiformis (figs. 79, 80)

they may be seen in great number, situated round the margin of

that part of the animalcule which is within the test; and from

their always reappearing, after contraction, in the same. places

respectively, we may perhaps infer that the situation of the

vesicula in Am@eba and Actinophrys also is fixed, though from

their incessant polymorphism it appears to be continually vary-

ing in position. In Paramecium, and Ehrenberg’s Enterodela

generally, the vesicula is either single or dual. When it exists

in great number in any of these (e. g. Chilodon ecucullulus,

Ehr.), this appears to depend on accidental dilatations of the

sinuses in connexion with it. Thus, in the animaleule just

mentioned, where the vesicula is single, and seems to be sub-

terminal and lateral in its normal position, it is not uncommon

to meet with a group in which every member presents a variable

number of contracting vesicles, variably also and irregularly. di-

spersed throughout the body, without one being in the true posi-

tion of the vesicula (figs. 82, 83). That the vesicula does make

its appearance now and then may be inferred, as it perhaps may

also be inferred that from oyer-irritability, or some such cause,

it does not remain under dilatation long enough to receive the

contents of the sinuses; and hence their accidental dilatation,

* These are narrow, fusiform cells, arranged perpendicularly, and at

some little distance from each other, under the pellicula, where they thus

form a layer all over the body, and each, according to Dr. Allman, contains

a delicate, resilient thread, coiled up in its interior, which, just after the

cells have been forcibly pressed out into the water, by crushing the. ani-

maleule, causes them to assume, for a second, a circular form, and then

burst, through which the thread is set free, and, lying rigid on the glass,

presents the form of an acicular crystal, terminated at each end by a

pointed extremity, one of which, bemg more attenuated than the other,

appears like an appendage. To these cells Dr. Allman has given the name

of “ trichocysts.”” (Quart. Journ. Microscop. Se. vol. iii. p. 177, 1855.)

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 129

and the appearance of a plurality of vesicule. That, also, the

sinuses which are in the immediate vicinity of the vesicula do

empty themselves mto it may be easily seen, when both are

present; and what takes place near, it seems not unreasonable

to infer may, through a concatenation of communication, take

place from a distance. At the same time, the sinuses of this

system in the sarcode of Amaba not only seem to burst imto

each other, and into the vesicula, but when the latter has con-

tracted, another sinus, partially dilated, and situated near the

border, may be seen to swell out and contract after the same

fashion, before the reappearance of the vesicula (fig. 81 a a).

Then there is no knowing how many vesicule there may be in

Ameba; while Actinophrys Sol, Ehy., is surrounded by a peri-

pheral layer of vesicles, which, when fully dilated, appear to be

all of the same size, to have the power of communicating with

each other, and each, individually, to contract and discharge its

contents externally as occasion may require ; though, generally,

one only appears and disappears in the same place. In Oxytricha

the vesicula is single or dual, but in Plesconia, as far as my

observation extends, always single. The vesicula is always

single in Vorticella, where it is attached to the buccal cavity

close to the anal orifice, as in Rotifera and the young of Cyclops

quadricornis (fig. 74 f, hh). In one species of Vorticella there is

a distinct pouch for these excretory orifices, about half-way up

the buccal cavity (fig. 75 a). In Colepina the vesicula occupies

the posterior extremity.

Its existence in Astasia, Anisonema, and Euglena can only be

determined by inference. They all have a transparent vesicle

situated close to the anterior extremity ; and in Astasia we know

that.it is thus situated close to the buccal cavity (fig. 45 e). In

Anisonema it seems to alter in size and shape, as it does in some

Amebe, without completely contracting ; and in Astasia also it

is at one time more defined and apparent than at another;

but this may be owimg to change of position in the entire ani-

maleule. In Polytoma Uvella it is similarly situated, but double,

and has been seen to contract by Schneider* ; and in a small

colourless animalcule, very much like a young Aséasia, as well

as in a minute species of Chlamidomonas, Ehr., I have frequently

seen this vesicle contract and dilate in the manner of the vesicula ;

so that there can be little doubt about the vesicle in the anterior

extremity of Astasia, Anisonema, and Euglena (fig. 49 b) being

the homologue of the vesicula, though in the latter the red body

be appended to it; this, however, is not the case in the Chlama-

domonas mentioned, where the red spot is nearly in the middle of

* Ann. & Mag. Nat, Hist. vol. xiv. p. 322, 1854.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvin. 9

130 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

the body, and peripheral, while the vesicula is in the anterior

extremity. ye

The apparent quiescent state of the vesicula in Astasia, Bu-

glena, &c. may be an approach to its disappearance altogether

as a distinct organ, and therefore a step nearer to the vegetable

kingdom. But Schneider, in allusion to this, quotes a passage

from Cohn, in which the latter observes, that “ internal pulsating

spaces’ have been discovered in “certain genera of Algz ;” on

which Schneider justly remarks, that if they “oceur in the

swarm-cells of Conferve, they certainly cease to be a character-

istic of animal nature* ;’—thus rendering useless another di-

stinguishing point between animals and plants at this part of the

organic kingdom, which after all, perhaps, may be found to have

its homologue in the vacuoles of the vegetable protoplasm.

That the vesicula is a distinct organ, and not merely a space

like the digestive globule, might be inferred from its always

occurring in the same place in the same species; but in addition

to this, the fact was on one occasion most satisfactorily demon-

strated to me by its remaining pendent in a globular form to the

buceal cavity of a Vorticella, when, by the decomposition of the

sarcode, and evolution of a swarm of rapidly moving monadic

particles, these two organs, with the cylindrical nucleus or gland,

though still slightly adhering to each other, were so dissected

out as to be nearly separate ; and thus yielding in position from

time to time, as they were struck by the little particles, their

forms and relative positions respectively became particularly

evident (fig. 76 a).

Although globular in shape, yet, as before stated, it is ac-

companied in Paramecium aurelia by a variable number of pyri-

form sinuses, which are arranged around it in a stellate form.

In most of the other animalcules these are globular, and, under

exhaustion of the animalcule from various causes, are frequently

so distended, and thus so approximated, as to assume the ap-

pearance of an areolar structure, immediately in contact with

the vesicula (fig. 84). Each globular sinus, however, would ap-

pear to be the proximal or largest of a concatenation of smaller

ones, which diminish in size with their distance from the vesicula

(fig. 82 d). The vesicula becomes doubled preparatory to fissi-

paration, and therefore appears dual in Vorticella, and quadruple

in Paramecium, &c. (fig. 69); and it is interesting to find that

in the metamorphosis of the former into Acineta it frequently

acquires a plurality similar to that which obtains in the Rhizo-

poda generally +.

* Loe. cit. p. 330.

+ See particularly Stein’s work on the Development of Infusoria.

Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 151

Of the use of the vesicula, and its vascular system, we are at

present ignorant, further than that its functions are excretory ;

and when we observe the quantity of water that is taken into the

sarcode with the food, and try to account for its disappearance,

it does not seem improbable that the vesicula and its vessels

should be chiefly concerned in this office. Another service,

however, which it performs, is to burst the spherical membranes

of Vorticella and Plesconie when they want to return to active

life after having become encysted: this it effects by repeated

distension, until the lacerated cyst gives way sufficiently for the

animaleule to slip out. At these times, also, the animalcule is

rendered so spherical by this distension that itis also évide tly

one way by which the Infusoria might assume this form (fig. 12).

Hence, in describing the sarcode, I have expressed a doubt

whether the water in an Ameba, when distended in this manner,

be in its centre or in the cavity of the vesieula. Cer tainly, w hen

Ameba is in the form of a sphere, I never have been able to see

the vesicula, while all the other elements of the cell have been

perfectly plain; added to which, under these circumstances, a

part of the cell-wall is generally transparent, from the absence

of the sarcode and its granules, which would be the case if the

vesicula were the cause of the distension, since in Ameda it is

attached to the pellicula, and therefore no sarcode exists imme-

diately opposite this point (fig. 13).

Should it have any other uses, they are probably similar to

those of the “ Water Vascular System” of Rotifera, which in

Brachionus Pala, one of the largest species of this class, consists

of a corrugated sac when empty (like the bladder of mammalia),

opening by a constricted neck into a heart-shaped cloaca close

to the termination of the alimentary canal ; and, when distended,

presenting (mihi) a single vessel opening into its fundus, and

then passing down through its side towards the neck, where it

divides into two, which respectively run up laterally to the an-

terior extremity of the body, bearmg m their course four mono-

ciliated (Huxley)* pyriform diverticula, and probably termi-

nating, as in Lacinulariat, partly in junction and partly in blind

tubes. The vacuolar structure attached to these vessels may be

analogous to the vacuolar structure connected with the vesicula

in the Infusoria, and it would be interesting to determine if the

vacuoles in it occasionally diminish in size or disappear, or be-

come dilated when from disease or approaching death the vesi-

eula itself is unnaturally and permanently distended. Should

the lateral vessels not terminate in Brachionus Pala, as above

mentioned, then they must, as appears to be the case m the other

* Quart. Journ. Microscop. Se. vol. 1. p. 7. t Idem.

152. Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

Rotifera open into the vesicula close to its communication with

the cloaca.

It might be asked here, if all vacuolar dilatations of the sar-

code belong to this excretory system of sinuses ; that is, excepting

those made by the buccal cavity in the manner mentioned ?

Certainly, where there is a plurality of actively contracting vesi-

cles, without the appearance of the vesicula, as in Ghilodon cueul-

lulus, we may, as before stated, attribute this to a kind of, over-

irritability or constrictive spasm of the vesicula, and, therefore,

consider that these vesicles are accidental dilatations of the sinuses

in connexion with it; as we may set down the dropsical state of

Himantophorus Charon (Ehyr.), and other animaleules of the kind,

to an opposite condition of this organ, viz. that in which it is

unable to relieve itself of its contents (fig. 84) : this I have often

seen occur under my own eyes. But there is an intense vacuolar

state of the sarcode that occasionally presents itself in Ame@ba,

which makes it look like an areolar tissue composed of vesicles

diminishing to a smallness that cannot be determined by the

microscope,—such as is seen in the advancing border of Spongilla

when issuing from the seed-like body, and in the protoplasm of

the vegetable cell: whether this still be a part of the vesicular

system or not, | am unable to decide; at the same time, the eon-

tracting vesicles in the transparent growing border of the new-

developing sponge are so numerous, and so like those which are

scen in the protoplasm of the last cell under formation of the

stem and roots of Chara when budding from the nucule, that we

cannot fail to see a most striking analogy between the two, even

if we cannot reconcile ourselves to the former being a part of the

vascular system attached to the vesicula; indeed, in the new

nucleus itself of the roots of Chara, vesicles do appear and dis-

appear. :

Lastly, from the presence of the vesicula in Spengilla, and its

being so constant in the Rhizopoda generally, and so numerous

in Arcella vulgaris, it does not seem altogether unreasonable to

infer that the streams of water which issue from the great canals

of Spongilla are produced by the continued pouring into them,

from the vesicule of the different sponge-cells, the superfluous

water which they imbibe by endosmosis, apparently, during

nutrition; for the type of Spongilla is to be surrounded with a’

general pellicula, in which there is only one excretory opening,

and through which pellicula the ends alone of the spicula pro-

ject in bundles ; nor does it seem altogether far-fetched to con-

ceive that the offices of glandular organs in higher developments

may be performed, in some instances, after this fashion.

[To be continued. }

ee ee

Mr, A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 133

XV.—Monograph of the genus Catops.

By Anprew Murray, Edinburgh.

{Continued from p. 24. ]

Group II. (Subgenus Carors (true).)

Mesosternum nut keeled ; body oblong ; antenne more or less

club-shaped or thickened towards the apex, eighth joint decidedly

smaller than seventh and ninth. The posterior trochanters not

more developed in the males.

Ist Subdivision. Base of thorax decidedly narrowed or cut in,

so that the thorax and elytra do not form a continuous outline.

Middle tarsi widened in the mates.

6. C. acicularis, Kraatz.

Catops acicularis, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xui. 406. 6.

Oblongus, ferrugineus ; antennis subfiliformibus ; thorace trans-

verso, postice latiore, angulis posticis obtusiusculis; e/ytris

substriatis transversim strigosts.

Long. 14 lin.

Of the slender form of the species in the foregoing group, but

proportionally not so elongate ; ferruginous brown ; easily distin-

guished from the remaining species of this group by its trans-

versely strigose elytra. The antennz are slender, reddish brown,

not quite so long as the elytra; first joint somewhat shorter

than the second; second equal to the third ; third equal to the

fifth ; fourth somewhat longer and stouter than the sixth ; eighth

only one-third of the length of the seventh, and somewhat nar-

rower than those on each side of it ; ninth somewhat shorter than

the seventh, almost somewhat stouter, and equal to the tenth ;

eleventh of the stoutness of the preceding, about half as long,

from the middle forward cone-shaped acuminate. The head is

densely and finely punctate, pitehy-black. The thorax is nearly

of the breadth of the elytra, wholly light, twice as broad as long,

slightly arched,the sides wholly rounded, somewhat more strongly

behind than in front, so that the greatest breadth is behind the

middle; the anterior angles are somewhat bent down, strongly

rounded, the posterior angles are obtuse-angled. The basal

margin is extremely lightly sinuated on both sides towards the

scutellum ; the upper side of the thorax is moderately densely and

finely shagreen-punctured. The elytra are uniform oblong,

gradually narrowed towards the apex, each being rounded ; they

have feeble traces of longitudinal striz, and besides are trans-

versely strigose almost parallel with the base of the thorax. The

legs are ferruginous brown and slender.

134 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

I have not seen this species in nature, and have merely copied

M. Kraatz’s deseription. It appears to be readily reeognized

among its neighbours by its transversely strigose elytra. | Lt is

found in Sicily, and appears to be rare, M. Kraatz having’ only

seen three specimens. he

7. C. fuscus, Pana.

Helops fuscus, Panz. Fn. Germ. 18. 1.

Luperus fuscus, Frohl. Naturf. 28. 24. 2. t. 1. f. 16.

Catops sericeus, Payk. Fn. Suec. i. 342. 1.

Catops rufescens, Fab. Syst. El. ii. 563, 1.

Choleva sericea, Spence, Linn. Trans. xi. 145. 6.

Catops festinans, Gyll. Ins. Suec. iv. 314. 1-2. :

Catops fuscus, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 235. 3; Sturm, Deutsehl. Pu. xiv.

13. 5. t. 274. f. a. A; Heer, Fn. Helv. i. 379.4; Redt. Fn. Austr. 164.

11; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 407. 8; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent.

Fr. 1. 101. 7.

Breviter ovatus, fuseus ; antennis subfiliformibus ; thorace trans-

verso, postice latiore, angulis posticis rectis ; elytris rufo-brun-

neis, substriatis.

Long. 2 lin.

Dark brown, short oval. Antenne ferruginous brown, very

feebly thickened towards the extremity, not quite so long as the

head and thorax ; first joint longer than the succeeding joints ;

second very little shorter than third; third and fourth very

nearly equal ; fifth and sixth equal, both a little shorter than

fourth ; seventh not much if at all longer than sixth, but a good

deal broader ; eighth shorter than those on each side of it, but not

greatly narrower ; ninth and tenth about same size, and eleventh

acuminate and nearly twice as long as the tenth. Head and

thorax black, very densely punctate, with a yellowish grizzly

adpressed pubescence ; mouth reddish ; edges of thorax ferrugi-

nous brown. Thorax rounded on the sides, broadest behind the

middle, at the base almost twice as broad as long, fig. 6,

very slightly rounded in at the posterior angles, which ;

are right-angled and have a slight tendency to pro-

ject behind. Llytra reddish brown, covered with a

bluish-grey bloom ; a little widened in the middle,

apex almost acuminate ; densely punctate, and with

striz visible towards the apex, scarcely perceptible in front.

Legs reddish brown.

This species is easily distinguished from the rest of the see-

tion by the breadth of its thorax behind, which gives its outline

at first sight, and before the junction of the thorax and elytra is

examined, very much the appearance of being a continuous oval

slightly mterrupted at the base of the elytra.

It is widely distributed, being found both in England and Seot-

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 185

land, France, Germany, and most of Europe. Kraatz says that it

is seldom or never found under leaves or fungi, but in cellars,

stables, potato-heaps, &c. Fairmaire and Laboulbéne mention

it as having been also taken in moss at the roots of trees.

Stephens gives “ carcases” as its habitat, and rightly enough

so far as regards the species he has under this name (viz. a pale

variety of chrysomeloides), but incorrectly as regards the true

fuscus. It is, however, easy to predicate of each species by a

simple inspection of its antenne whether it is a carcase-feeder

or not. Those species with filiform or slightly thickened an-

tennz are found among leaves and moss, &c. Those with heavy,

thick, clubbed antennz are found under dead birds or small

mammals. In other words, those which have to seek out pu-

trescent matter for their food, or a nidus for their eggs, are fur-

nished with largely developed antennze to enable them to smell

it out.

8. C. meridionalis, Aubé.

C, meridionalis, Aubé, Ann. Soe. Ent. Fr. viii. 326. 34. t.11. f.2; Kraatz,

Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 428. 10.

Ovatus, convexiusculus, piceus; antennis pedi-

busque ferrugineis; thoracis angulis posticis

valde productis; elytris oblongiusculis, stria-

tulis.

Long. 23 lin.

Fig. 7.

Pitchy-brown ; in general appearance occupy-

ing’the middle between fuscus, Panz., and picipes,

Fab. Head black and finely punctate. Antenne

and palpi ferruginous ; antennz of the length of

the head and thorax, only feebly thickened to-

wards the point ; first joint equal in length to the

third, and nearly twice as long as the second; fourth equal to

the fifth, also to the sixth, and somewhat shorter than the

third ; seventh equal to the second, yet somewhat stronger than

those on each side of it; eighth scarcely half so long as the

seventh, scarcely more slender, somewhat shorter than the ninth ;

tenth equal to the ninth; eleventh acuminate. The thorax is

pitchy-brown, moderately convex, transverse, of the breadth of

the elytra, once and a half as broad as long, emarginate in frout,

cut almost straight behind, where it is broadest ; the sides are

_ broadly rounded ; the anterior angles depressed and rounded,

the posterior projecting behind and somewhat acute. Scutellum

tolerably large, finely punctate and reticulate. Elytra brown,

oblong oval, nearly twice as long as broad, finely punctate and

reticulate, and marked on each side of the suture with a suffi-

ciently distinct stria, and with several others on the disk much

jess perceptible, particularly in front, Legs ferruginous.

186 Mr. A, Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops:

This species at first sight looks very like an overgrown fuscus,

Panz., but closer examination shows that it is a good species,—~

the proportions of the joints of the antennz as well as other par-

ticulars being wholly different. In a specimen which | owe’ to

the kindness of M. Kraatz, I observe that the development of

the posterior angles of the thorax is considerably exaggerated in

the outline I have given, which is copied from Aubé’s own figure.

Aubé also states it is larger than picipes, Fab., which had

hitherto been considered the largest known Catops ; but my spe-

cimen is scarcely so large as the smaller individuals of picipes,

from which I should infer that it ought perhaps rather to be

stated as being about the same size as picipes. its entirely fer-

ruginous colour and the projecting posterior angles uf the thorax

furnish a tolerably good primd-facie guide to the species.

It is found in Sicily, and is as yet scarce in collections.

9. C. picipes, Fab.

Hydrophilus picipes, Fab. Syst. El. i. 251. 10.

Plomaphagus picipes, Illig. Kaf. Pr. 893.

Catops striatus, Duft. Fn. Aust. ii. 74. 3.

blapsoides, Germ. Ins. Sp. Nov. 84. 142? ;

picipes, Eviehs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 236. 5; Sturm, Deutschl. Faun. xiv.

17. 7. t. 274. f.c.C ; Heer, Fn. Helv. i. 378. 5; Redt. Fn. Aust. 144.

10; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 428. 9; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent.

Frang. i. 300. 4.

Ovatus, convexus, niger ; antennis subfiliformibus

pedibusque piceis, apice testaceis; thorace

transverso, basi sublatiore, angulis posticis

obtusis ; elytris apice profunde striatis.

Long. 23 lin.

Fig. 8.

This is the largest species of the genus, with

the exception of the last. Oval, convex, black.

Antenne scarcely thickened at the end, reddish

brown at the base, blackish at the extremity,

excepting the last joint, which is light yellow.

Head very densely and finely punctate, mouth reddish. The

thorax is likewise very densely and finely punctate, with a fine

silky pubescence, black, strongly rounded on the sides, narrowed

both in front and behind, but most in front, posterior angles obtuse,

posterior margin yery slightly sinuated on each side, the greatest

breadth behind the middle, Elytra oval, very convex, black, with

a slight grey hoar-frost bloom upon them, very densely punc-

tate, with striz faint in front, deeper behind. Under side black,

abdomen and legs brown, tibie ferruginous brown, tarsi pale

ferruginous.

The only speeies with which there is any risk of this being

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 137

confounded is C. nigricans, Spence. Its large size removes it from

all but it and C. meridionalis, Aubé, and C. chrysomeloides, Spence.

Independent of other distinctions, its colour at once distinguishes

it from meridionalis, which is ferruginous, while this is black.

It likewise wants the projecting posterior angles of the thorax.

Its subfiliform antenne distinguish it from C. chrysomeloides,

which has the heaviest and thickest clubbed antenne in the

genus ; and there only remains C. nigricans, to which it is much

more allied. Both have subfiliform antennz, pale at the base

and apex, and the proportionate length of the joints of the

antennze is much the same; they are both black, with ferru-

ginous legs ; and I have specimens of nigricans very little infe-

rior in size.to picipes, but picipes is a broader and more robust-

looking insect. It has the elytra much more convex and bellied

out, and its thorax is differently shaped, being more contracted

in front ; and very commonly nigricans has two or three depres-

sions on the disk of the thorax, which picipes has not. The

posterior angles of the thorax in nigricans have a slight tendency

to project behind, which is not the case in picipes.

This species is found over the greater part of Europe, but is

rare. I have not yet seen a British specimen, Kraatz observes

that it is principally found in fungi. Fairmaire and Laboulbéne

say it is taken in the trunks of trees (I presume decayed).

10. C. nigricans, Spence.

Choleva nigricans, Spence, Linn. Trans. xi. 141. 3.

Catops nigricans, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 237.6; Sturm, Deutschl. Fn.

xiv. 18. 8.t.273. f.c.C; Heer, Fn. Helv. i. 380.6; Redt. Fn. Aust.

144. 11; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 429. 11; Fairm. & Laboulb.

Fn. Ent. Fr. i. 303. 16.

Catops var. minor, C. fuliginosus, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br.i. 239.10; Sturm,

Deutschl. Fn. xiv. 28. 13; Redt. Fn. Aust. 771.

C. caliginosus (Mus. Berol.).

Catops var. major, C. longipennis, Chaud. Bull. de Mosc. 1845, No.111.196.

Oblongo-ovatus, niger seu piceo-brunneus ; an- Vig. 9.

tennis longioribus, obsolete clavatis, ferru-

gineis, apice plerumque fuscescentibus ; tho-

race transyerso, postice latiore, angulis pos-

ticis acuminatis ; elytris apice substriatis.

Long. 1? lin.—2 lin.

Oblong-oval, convex. Black or piceous brown.

Antenne a little longer than the head and thorax,

very slightly thickened towards the extremity,

sometimes entirely ferruginous, more generally ferruginous at

the base and becoming fuseescent towards the point. Head

finely punctate, mouth reddish brown. Thoraz very densely and

finely punctate, finely pubescent, a Liftle narrower than the elytra,

138 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

sides rounded, the greatest width at the middle; very generally

with two or three depressions on the disk ; posterior angles with

a point, projecting a little behind, which makes the posterior

margin appear to be visibly sinuate on both sides. Elytra

blackish brown, sometimes paler, elongate-oval, somewhat con-

vex, densely and finely punctate ; faintly striate, the striae per-

ceptible towards the extremity, effaced in front. Under side

black ; legs reddish brown, thighs blackish.

Kraatz gives the following remarks on the larger and smaller

varieties which have been described under the names of C. don-

gipennis, Chaud., and C. fuliginosus, Erichs. ; viz.—

“A, Larger, for the most part female specimens, differ from

the smaller males in many particulars, so that one may easily be

led to suppose them distinct species. In the first place, the

antenne of these larger examples are somewhat more elongate

than those of the smaller specimens, and when they belong to

females are also somewhat less stout, which makes them when

taken as a whole look much longer than the antenne of the

smaller individuals. Then the elytra are more bellied out, so

that the whole animal assumes a more convex appearance ; at the

same time also the striz of the elytra are more feebly marked in

this than in the other kind. Such examples are generally found

along with the rest, but not frequently, and are not of the typical

form. If there had not been laid before me by himself one of the

original typical examples from Germar’s fine collection, it would

not have been possible for me, from the short and imperfect de-

scription which Chaudoir gives of his C. longipennis*, to perceive

in it the just-deseribed variety of C. nigricans, Spence.”

The description by M. Chaudoir to which M. Kraatz refers is

as follows, viz. :—

“ Near the umbrinus, a little larger, form more elongate : thorax

broader, more rounded on the sides: elytra less swollen out,

flatter, longer : antennz more slender, last joint of these smaller

and more pointed.

“ A male, found at Kiew in the garden of the town under dry

leaves, in the beginning of September+.”

As to Erichson’s fuliginosus, M. Kraatz goes on—

“ B. The type of C. nigricans, sp., is the one described as

C. fuliginosus by Erichson, according to two specimens left by

Dr. Meuer to the Royal Museum (of Berlin). Those specimens

which are in the Royal Museum as C. nigricans are not fully

coloured, and, when we have only a few specimens for compa-

vison, such have altogether a different appearance from the full-

coloured specimens. If we compare more minutely Erichson’s

clear descriptions of both species, we find, besides an agreement

* Kraatz in Joc. cit. + Chaudow in /oc. cif. |

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 139

on the most important points, only two differences. One is that

the antennz of C. fuliginosus are darker, which proceeds from the

perfectly full colouring of the animal. The other again is that

the sinuation of the hind margins of the thorax (which parti-

enlarly characterizes this species) is in C. nigricans distinct, in

C. fuliginosus feeble,—a mark, which in individual cases is not

always present in equal force, and which also appears to the eye

of the observer in different aspects stronger or weaker than is

really the case. There are no specimens named C. fuliginosus,

Erichs., in the Royal Museum, but instead of it are C. caliginosus,

Erichs., evidently projeeted from the description of C. fuligi-

nosus. We must suppose that Erichson had originally given his

specimens of C. fuliginosus the name of C. caliginosus, and as

such also determined them to his acquaintances, but subsequently

allowed it to remain for reasons unknown to me*,”

In dealing with a description emanating from Erichson, it will

probably be better that I quote his description of C. fuliginosus,

leaving the reader to form for himself his opinion of its value as

a species. It is in these terms :—

“ Oblongo-ovatus, niger ; antenizis obsolete clavatis, rufo-piceis,

apice nigricantibus ; thorace basi apiceque latitudine equali,

angulis posticis acuminatis ; elytris obsoletissime striatis.

* Long. 12 lin.

“Very closely allied to the foregoing (nigrita, Erichs.). The

antennz have the same form and the same proportions, but are

differently coloured ; they are brownish red, the last four or five

joints including the termmal blackish. The thorax is somewhat

shorter than im the foregoing, a little narrower than the elytra,

lightly rounded on the sides ; the posterior angles pointed ; the

posterior margin on each side between the edge and the middle

twice feebly sinuated. The elytra are oblong oval, very indi-

stinctly striated. The colour of the body is black ; the head and

thorax have a fine yellow-grey pubescence; the elytra are more

brownish black, with a grey hoar-frost rime on them. The legs

are ferruginous brown, the thighs blackish +.”

The impression the description rather leaves upon my mind is,

that Erichson’s intended fuliginosus may have been the species

subsequently described by Keilner under the name of coracinus.

The yellow pubescence on the thorax for instance, and the ash-

grey rime on the elytra, apply well to it, but not to nigricans : on

the other hand, the size, 1% lin., is too much for coracinus.

Again, it may be that the small examples of nigricans standing

under the name of caliginosus in the Berlin Museum collection,

were not published by Erichson from a doubt of their being

* Kraatz in loe. cit. + Erichson in /oc. cit.

140) Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

distinct, and that C. fuliginosus may have been described from

other specimens, although they are not now in the collection im

the Berlin Museum.

Still, in the face of M. Kraatz’s deliberate opinion, fortified as

it.is by the specimens in the collection ‘of the Berlin Royal

Museum, and also doubtless by the traditions which must re-

main of Evichson’s own views in a place which has only so

recently been deprived of him, I have not ventured to carry my

difference of opinion further than to submit the above suggestions

for the consideration of the reader.

I have only to add with reference to this species (C. nigri-

cans, Sp.), that the readiest distinction between it and such

others (except C. picipes) as are likely to be mistaken for it, is

furnished by the longish almost subfiliform ferruginous antennze.

In my observations on C. picipes I have already noticed the

primd-facie differences existing between it and this species. |

Widely distributed, being found in Scotland and England,

France, Germany, and most of Europe, but nowhere common.

ll. C. coracinus, Kellner.

Catops coracinus, Kelln. Stett. Ent. Zeit. vii. 177.3; Redt. Fn. Aust. 771;

Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 431. 12.

Ovatus, niger; antennis obsolete clavatis, rufo-

pices ; thorace transverso, basi latiore, angulis pos- Fig. 10.

ticis distincte rectis ; elytris obsoletissime striatis.

Long. 1} lin.

This has a considerable resemblance to C. nigri-

cans, Spence, in the form of the elytra and antenne,

but is smaller, and more continuous in its outline:

the hinder angles of the thorax are very slightly acuminate, so

slightly as to be scarcely observable except by minute exami-

nation : the elytra are indistinctly striated. The antennz are as

long as the head and thorax, slightly thickened towards the

point, in some individuals a little thicker than in others, reddish

brown ; the club usually blackish, but the depth of colour varies.

The head and thorax are black, densely and finely punctate,

with a fine short yellowish pubescence. The thorax is almost as

broad as the elytra, broadest in the middle, straight at the base,

the anterior angles rounded, and the posterior angles right-angled

at the very angle ; that is, when looked at superticially the angle

would appear obtuse, but when examined more carefully there

appears a very short space of right angle before the thorax takes

its curved outline: the scutellum is proportionally large, and

clothed with the same coloured pubescence as the thorax. The

elytra are oval, densely and finely punctate, black, clothed with

an ashen-grey ‘pubescence or bloom indistinctly striated : no vyel-

ee ees

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 141

low pubescence along the base of the elytra. The legs are reddish

brown.

Its small size, shorter and more thickened antenne, more

uniform and less bellied outline distinguish this species from

picipes, Fab. Its shorter and more thickened antenne, the

yellow pubescence on the thorax and scutellum, want of depres-

sions on the disk of the thorax, and the want of the produced

posterior angles of the thorax distinguish it from the smaller

specimens of nigricans, Spence. Its antenne only slightly

thickened, as well as its smaller size, distinguish it from chry-

someloides, Spence. From most of those which have a decided

yellow pubescence on the thorax it is distinguished by the want

of yellow pubescence along the base of the elytra. This separates

it from ¢ristis, Panz., including abdominalis, Rosenh., montivagus,

Heer, longulus, Kelln., grandicollis, Erichs., and rotundicollis,

Kelln., and from: neglectus, Kraatz, and nigrita, Erichs. Its

yellow pubescence also is finer, shorter and more delicate than

m any of these. The only remaining species with which it may

be confounded is morio, Erichs., but the more elongate shape

and slenderer form of morto and’the difference in the posterior

angles of the thorax distinguish it. Morio has not got the

slight acumination which coracinus has at these angles, and in

it they are gently obtuse instead of being at first right-angled.

The thorax in morvo is also flatter.

It is found in Scotland and England, and in various parts of

the Continent.

12. C. morio, Fab.

Catops morio, Fab. Syst. El. ii. 564. 4.

Choleva dissimulator, Spence, Linn. Trans. xi. 150, 11.

Catops sericeus, Gyll. Ins. Suec. iv. 313. 1-2.

morio, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 240.11; Sturm, Deutschl. Fn. xiv.

29. 14. t. 276. fig. 6. B; Heer, Faun. Helv. 382. 14; Redt. Faun.

Aust. 144.13; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii.431. 13; Fairm.& Laboulb.

Fn. Ent. Frang. i. 301. 8.

Oblongo-ovalis, niger; antennis obsolete clavatis,

articulis duobus primis ultimoque et pedibus

ferrugineis ; thorace basi apiceque latitudine

subzequali, angulis posticis obtusis ; elytris ob-

soletissime striatis.

Long. 13 lin.

The antenne are as long as the head and

thorax, imperceptibly but not greatly thickened

towards the point ; the first two joimts are ferru-

ginous yellow, the rest, with the exception of the

last, blackish, the last joint yellow: rarely the whole antennz

are ferruginous, which Erichson observes is the case with the

examples in Fabricius’s collection. The body is black; the

Fig. 11.

142. Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

head densely and distinetly punctate; the parts of the mouth

red. The ¢horaxr is rather depressed and is thickly and finely

punctured, with a fine yellowish-grey dense pubescence ; it is

half as broad again as long, lightly rounded on the sides,

somewhat narrowed in front, but behind only a very little

narrower than in the middle; the posterior angles are nearly

obtuse-angled ; the posterior margin is truncate and straight,

The scutellum has the same pubescence as the thorax. The

elytra have an ashy-grey bloom, no yellow pubescence along

their base, are densely punctate, nearly without traces of strize,

a little widened in the middle, behind obtusely acuminate. The

legs are ferruginous red, the thighs brown.

The same characters which distinguish coracinus from the

other species in this group apply also to morio, and under that

species I have already given a comparison of the differences be-

tween them. They are however closely allied.

This appears to be arare species. So far as I know, it has not

yet been taken in Scotland. It is found in England, and is

widely spread over the Continent. It is included by Gebler in

his list of insects found in South-west Siberia. M. Kraatz says

it is found under leaves and in the chinks of wood.

13. C. nigrita, Erichs.

Catops tristis, Gyll. Ins. Suec. iv. 311. 1.

morio, Payk. Fn. Suece. i. 344. 2.

nigrita, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 239. 9.

tristis, Sturm *, Deutschl. Faun. xiv. 24. 11. t. 275. fig. ec. C.

— nigrita, Heer, Fn. Helv. 381. 12; Redt. Fn. Aust. 144.13; Kraatz,

Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 432; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Frang. i. 301,

Oblongo-ovatus, niger; antennis obsolete clavatis

rufo-piceis, clava nigra, apice testacea ; thorace Fig. 12.

basi apiceque Jatitudine zquali, angulis posticis

fere rectis \eviter acuminatis ; elytris obsoletis-

sime striatis.

Long. 12 lin.

Oblong-oval. The antennz are as long as the

head and thorax, imperceptibly thickened towards

the point. The first six joints are reddish brown,

the remainder brown, the 8th joint not much

smaller than the rest, the last joint oval, acuminate, yellow.

The thorax is searecly a half broader than long, rounded on

* Both from his figures and descriptions it appears to me evident that

Sturm has transposed the names of nigrita, Erichs., and tristis, Panz, This —

has not been noticed by Kraatz or subsequent authors, but a very short

perusal will I think convince them of it. Yor instance, of tristis, Panz., he

says, “the thorax broad, short,” &e., and of nigrita, Erichs., “ the thorax

narrower than the elytra, transverse,” which is just reversing the characters

of the thorax ; and his figures speak for themselves.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 148

the sides, broadest in the middle; nevertheless only a little

narrowed in front and behind, in front rather narrower than

behind; the posterior angles sometimes a little pointed *,

the posterior margin straightly truncate, and only towards the

middle very slightly sinuated. It is covered with a yellow silken

pubescence. The elytra, as well as the whole body, are black ;

they have a brownish-blue or purplish peachy bloom, with a

yellowish pubescence more conspicuous at their base and basal

margins than on the disk. They are finely punctured, very im-

perceptibly striated, longish oval, in the middle a little widened,

behind obtusely acuminate. The legs are ferruginous red, the

posterior thighs sometimes brownish.

This is the first of a little group of species, which, with a de-

cided yellow pubescence on the thorax, has a brownish-blue or

purplish bloom on the elytra, accompanied with yellow hairs or

pubescence conspicuous along the base and basal margins of the

elytra,—a character which will limit our comparison to only two

or three species. The two species just described, C. coracinus

and C. morio, have also yellow pubescence on the thorax, but

their elytra have not a purplish bloom, but a greyish-ash bloom,

and want the yellow hairs along the base. The yellow pubes-

cence on the thorax of these two also is feeble both in colour and

consistence compared with those which follow. The form of

the thorax of this species distinguishes it from all Fig. 13.

the others. Figure 13 shows the relative form ?

of the thorax of nigrita and tristis, the plain line

being the outline of nigrita, and the dotted line

that of dristis. These two species are in other

respects extremely alike. The antennz however

also furnish characters of discrimination—the

club of ¢ristis being heavy and thick, while the antennee of nzgrita

are only obsoletely clubbed. The great breadth of the thorax of

grandicollis, Krichs., easily distinguishes it ; and the form of the

thorax of rotundicollis, Kelln., which is an exaggerated form of

that of ¢ristis as above delineated (fig. 15), will prevent nigrita

being confounded with that species, The elytra in both nigrita

and ¢ristis are elongate and give a long character to the whole

msect, while rotundicollis has the elytra short and rapidly acu-

minate.

* Erichson in his description states that the posterior angles are pointed,

but Kraatz says that he cannot agree with him in that respect :—** accord-

mg to my view,” he says, “they are right-angled, in not a few examples

passing into obtuse-angled.” I have examined a considerable series

carefully with a view to determine this point, and find that both are

right. I possess specimens which have the posterior angles pointed, and

others where there is no appearance of a point, but the line of the base of

the thorax perfectly straight. This is another proof of the variable cha-

racter of the genus. It also shows us how inadequate are Spence’s sec-

tional divisions which are founded on this very character.

144 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

This species is widely spread, and is found under leaves, and

under the carcases of birds and small mammals. ride

14. C. tristis, Panz.

Helops tristis, Panz. Fn. Germ. 8. 1.

Choleva Leachii*, Spence, Linn. Trans. xi.

Catops tristis, var., Gyll. Ins. Suec. iv. 312. 1.

tristis, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. 1. 238, 8.

nigrita, Sturm, Deutsch]. Faun. xiv. 24. 11. t. 275. f. e. C.

tristis, Heer, Fn. Helv. i. 380.8; Redt. Fn. Aust. 144.12; Kraatz,

Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 433.18; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Fr. i. 302.

Oblongo-ovatus, niger ; antennis abrupte clavatis, yi, 44

clava fusca, articulo ultimo breviori; thorace pe:

transverso basi apiceque latitudine subzequali, . 2

angulis posticis rectis ; elytris obsoletissime vail

striatis. Hyatt

Long. 1; lin. |

Of the same size and general form as the last

species (nigrita, Erichs.) ; the thorax, however,

is not so broad, particularly behind. Perhaps

the commonest impression it makes on a first

introduction is that of an insect with longish elytra and a dis-

proportionately short, narrow, somewhat square thorax. The

antenn are nearly as long as the head and thorax, strongly

thickened towards the point ; the first six jomts slender, reddish

brown, those following brown, broader than long, the eighth

not only much shorter but also narrower than the remainder of

the club, the last a little larger than the preceding, with a cone-

shaped point, generally pale at the tipt. The head and thorax

are black, densely punctate, more or less wrinkled transversely,

and thickly covered with a close yellow pubescence; the hairs

springing from the wrinkled punctuation as shown in the

magnified sketch represented im fig. 15. Fie. 15

The thorax one-half broader than long, ee

rounded on the sides, broadest in the

middle, or perhaps rather a little before

the middle, giving the primd-facie effect

of being narrowest behind ; but on com-

paring the narrowness both im front and

behind it is found nearly equal, or rather

narrower before than behind. The posterior angles are sharply

right-angled, the straight edge proceeding a little forward before

pete rer oe

* As already mentioned, I have been unable to make out satisfactorily

what the tristis of Spence is, and therefore have not added that as a syn-'

onym here. ; vt

+ Erichson says that the last joint is brown like the preceding, but this

is only the case sometimes; generally speaking it is paler.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. — 145

the outward curve commences: the posterior margin is almost

straight, only a little sinuate towards the middle. The elytra

are covered with a brownish-blue or purplish bloom, and with

some yellow pubescence most observable at the base and along the

basal margins*. Under the bloom the elytra themselves are

brownish, lightest at the base; they are densely punctate, with

feeble traces of striz, in the middle somewhat expanded, behind

oval-acuminate. Under side and thighs dark brown, tibiz fer-

ruginous brown, tarsi ferruginous yellow.

Erichson adds that in the males the extreme termination of

each elytron is produced into a single Fig. 16.

point. In the females the point is com-

monly rounded. My experience is that \

it varies indifferently. tag 1

This is a variable species, and under it,

I think, should be comprehended not only the C. abdominalis of

Rosenhauer, the longulus of Kellner, and the montivagus of Heer,

but also the grandicollis of Erichson, and probably the rotundi-

collis of Kellner. These I shall include as varieties under this

species, giving however a separate description of each, and where

I have not seen the variety in nature, quoting the words of the

author who described it.

Var. A. C. abdominalis, Rosenh. Beitr. Ins. Fn. Eur. i. p. 22.

“ Oblongo-ovatus, niger ; antennarum basi, abdominisque seg-

mentis 2 primis ferrugineis ; prothorace basi apiceque latitu-

dine zequali, angulis posticis rectis ; elytris obsoletissime stri-

atis, antennis abrupte clavatis.

“ Long. 14 lin., lat. 1 lin.

“Very similar to the C. nigricans, but smaller and not so

convex; particularly like the C. montivagus, Heer, Fn. Helv. 1.

381. I should consider it perhaps to belong to the latter, were

it not that the posterior part of the abdomen of two examples

which I possess from different districts of the Tyrol is uniformly

of a different colour from that of the rest, a character which is

not known to me in any other Catops, and which Heer must cer-

tainly have obseryed in describing his species had it existed in

it. In the new species also the colour of the base of the an-

tennze and of the feet is much darker and the thorax is broader.

* Tt is perhaps scarcely necessary to say, that in speaking of the bloom

and the pubescence on these species, I am speaking of perfectly fresh speci-

mens in good condition. When the insect gets greasy and dirty the bloom no

longer exists, and the yellow hairs get clogged together so that they look

black. The best way in such eases is to turn them about in different direc-

tions, till the eye catches the light in which the pubescence or bloom best

shows itself.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 10

146) Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

The head is not large ; black, finely and densely punctate, with a

yellowish-grey pubescence. The mouth is brownish. The an-

tennz are somewhat longer than the head and thorax, the first

six joints brownish red, slender, the remainder black, broader

than long, and thickened into a club towards the outer side ;

the eighth joint much shorter and more slender than the rest,

the last somewhat more slender and about a half longer than

the preceding, with an obtuse point. The thorax is densely

wrinkled-punctate, and thickly clothed with close-lying yellowish

hairs, transverse, about a half broader than long, rounded on

the sides, broadest in the middle, narrower in front than behind,

the anterior angles obtuse, the posterior straight, the posterior

margin scarcely sinuated. The elytra are a little broader

than the thorax, somewhat bellied out in the middle, oblong

oval, usually attenuated to a point at the apex, densely and

finely punctate and transversely wrinkled, covered with a grey

pubescence and bluish hoar-frost, the sutural striee very distinct,

and in the middle of the elytra we perceive the trace of several

strie. Under side black, the thighs dark brown, the tibiz fer-

ruginous brown, the tarsi ferruginous yellow; the first two seg-

ments of the abdomen are of a lively ferruginous red, the

remainder black, finely and densely punctate, delicately pubes-

cent.

“ Found in the Tyrol near Stemach and on the Franzenhohe,

4000-8000 feet above the level of the sea*.”

The reader will see that the above is a pretty accurate descrip-

tion of C. ¢ristis, with the exception of the colour of the first two

segments of the abdomen. Colour is at all times a character of

very doubtful value m Coleoptera, and the constant symptom

of immaturity or of not fully developed colour is the substitution

for black of a ferruginous brown or red of greater or less inten--

sity, or over a greater or less extent.

I have not seen specimens of this variety in nature, but

M. Kraatz, who had authentic specimens through his hands,

states that it is a mere variety of ¢ristis.

Var. B. C. longulus, Kellner.

Catops longulus, Kellner, Stett. Ent. Zeit. vii. 176; Redt. Fn. Aust. 771;

Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 433. 17.

Oblongus, niger ; antennis obsolete clavatis, basi apiceque testa-

ceis ; thorace basi apiceque latitudine squali, angulis posticis

rectis ; elytris obsoletissime striatis.

Long. 2} lin.

According to M. Kellner’s description this species is distin-

* Rosenhauer in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 147

guished by its long and slender form, and thereby easily sepa-

rated from the remaining varieties or species in this division.

The antennez are of the length of the head and thorax, mode-

rately strong, black in the middle, the basal joints reddish, the

terminal joint yellowish, the club a little thickened ; the head and

thorax are densely punctate, clothed with yellowish-grey hairs ;

the latter is gently rounded on the sides, narrowed in front and

behind ; the posterior margin is cut straight, and only slightly

sinuated on each side of the scutellum. The elytra are long and

uniform in their shape, densely and finely punctate, indistinctly

striated, lightly covered with yellowish-grey hairs and _ hoar-

frosted. The legs are black-brown, the feet brownish red.

M. Kellner states that he found this kind on high hills near

the mountains (of Thuringia) “ under moss and on exposed dead

birds : very rare.”

The only discrepancy which the above description shows be-

tween this variety and ¢ristis is that the club is but little thick-

ened, and that the elytra are long and uniform in their shape.

The degree of thickness of the club of the antennz varies in all

the thick-clubbed species (of course within certain bounds) ; and

the circumstance of its being found under dead birds sufficiently

shows that this is one of the thick-clubbed species. Moreover,

owing to the kindness of M. Kraatz, I have seen authentic ex-

amples of it, and am thus enabled to say that the antenne are

not of less thickness than they are in many other specimens of

C. tristis. The length of the elytra, which is in point of fact the

characteristic mark of this variety, is of no value as a character,

scarcely any two examples of tristis having the elytra of the same

proportions. In some they are more bellied out than in others,

which makes them look not so long, and others are longer in

point of fact, but they all have the same character which cannot

well be mistaken, and this supposed species is only a variety

with disproportionately elongate elytra.

I have found this variety in Scotland and England.

Var. C. C. montivagus, Heer, Faun. Col. Helv. i. 381.

“ Oblongo-ovatus, niger; antennis basi, tibiis tarsisque rufo-

testaceis, pronoto subtransverso, basi apiceque latitudine sub-

quali, angulis posticis rectis, acutis; elytris obsoletissime

striatis ; antennis abrupte clavatis, articulo ultimo penultimo

vix longiore.

“ Long. 1 hn.

“Very similar to C. tristis ; chiefly to be distinguished by its

thorax being a little longer, but narrower. The first five joints

of the antennze@re rufo-testaceous, the eighth the smallest, much

10*

148 =Mr, A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

shorter and narrower than those that follow, the last shortly ovate,

scarcely longer than the preceding ; the thorax much narrower

than the elytra, a little broader than long, with the sides lightly

rounded, behind subsinuate, very densely punctulated, clothed

with a dense yellow silky pubescence ; elytra oblong ovate, very

closely punctate, but evidently impressed with a sutural stria ;

thighs pitchy black.

“Very rare in the Alps. (At the Gemmi near the Dau-

bensee*.’’)

The above description can I think be referred to nothing but

tristis ; the greater relative length of the thorax, which M. Heer

specifies as the chief distinction, being doubtless either the result

of variation in the length of the elytra, or one of the variations to

which this species is subject. The next variety, which I refer to

the same species, shows a much greater variation in the relative

dimensions and proportions of the thorax.

Neither M. Kraatz nor myself have seen authentic examples of

the above species, but M. Rosenhauer speaks of it (supra) as if he

was familiar with it, and says that but for the colour of the last

segments of the abdomen in his abdominalis, he would have

referred that species to montivagus. M. Kraatz having ascer-

tained aliunde that abdominalis was an immature specimen of

tristis, differing only in the colour of these segments, it follows

that montivagus is what the description would lead us to suppose,

viz. a variety or synonym of ¢rvséis.

Var. D. C. grandicollis, Erichs.

C. grandicollis, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 237 ; Heer, Fn. Col. Helv. i. 380 ;

Redt. Fn. Aust. 144; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 432.15; Fairm.

& Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Frane. i. 300.

Ovatus, nigro-fuscus ; antennis obsolete clavatis Fig. 17.

pedibusque rufis, illis apice nigricantibus;

thorace transverso, coleopteris latiore, angulis

posticis obtusis ; elytris obsoletissime striatis.

Long. 13 lin.

Somewhat of the form of the C. nigrita, but

larger, and especially broader. Black-brown.

The antennz are not quite so long as the head

and thorax, gradually slightly thickened, to-

wards the point reddish brown, the last joint blackish. The

head and thorax are densely punctured and granulated exactly

as in C. tristis, clothed with close-lying yellow hairs. The latter

is considerably broader than the elytra, more than one-half

* Heer in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 149

broader than long, strongly rounded on the sides, the anterior

angles rounded, the posterior angles obtuse-angled, the posterior

margin cut straight, of the breadth of the elytra. These are

oblong oval, somewhat convex, densely and finely punctate,

indistinctly striated, brownish blue or purplish hoar-frosted,

with a yellowish pubescence along the base and basal margins.

The legs are brownish red.

This variety stands in a very different position from those

which have gone before. They are so near the type, that they

might without much harm have been described as synonyms.

The present, on the contrary, differs in some respects widely

from the type, and it is by no means surprising that it has

hitherto been considered one of the best characterized and

most distinct species.

The great breadth of the thorax is the prominent distinguishing

character ; its shape also is somewhat different, being nearer that

of C.nigrita, Erichs. The grounds on which I have deemed it a

variety of ¢ristis, are first, that all the specimens of grandicollis I

have taken have been in company with 7ristis, and they were gene-

rally without the admixture of another species except rotundicollis,

which, as J have already said, I suspect to be another variety of

tristis. The examples of grandicollis were almost invariably males*,

and those of tristis for the most part females. In my earliest cap-

tures it so happened that I found nothing but males of grandicollis

and females of tristis, and naturally came to the conclusion that

they were the two sexes of the same thing. Subsequent researches

have convinced me to the contrary, as I have now a good many

male specimens of ¢ristis, and one female of grandicollis. Stall

the great preponderance is as I have stated, and the result to

which I have come is, that grandicollis is the normal form of the

male, and ¢ristis of the female ; although, as is known sometimes

to take place in other orders of animals, the female occasionally

assumes the form of the male, or vice versd. Another ground for

assuming them to be the same species is their great general re-

semblance to each other, notwithstanding that the one has got

such a broad thorax, while in the other it is narrow. This simi-

larity is owing perhaps to the thorax in both being transverse,

and the rest of the body of the same figure. The pubescence,

colouring, wrinkling and punctuation are identical, and when two

fine fresh specimens with their pubescence and bloom untar-

nished are placed together, I think it is almost impossible to

avoid the conclusion that they belong to the same species. The

differences that exist other than the broad thorax are very trifling.

The antenne of grandicollis are perhaps a trifle thinner and not

* Erichson founded his description on a “ single male specimen.”

150) Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

so dark in the middle as in the generality of ¢ristis, and the ter-

minal joint is usually not paler than the rest of the club. But

these are all variable items in ¢éris¢is itself. I have specimens

with their antennz in every respect to the most minute parti-

cular the same in both kinds. The only other discrepancy is,

that the slight sinuation on the hind margin of the thorax of

tristis seems wauting in grandicollis. In a word, the only per-

manent difference is in the form of the thorax, which, in the face

of the circumstances I have adverted to, does not in this instance

appear to me a sufficient ground for constituting it a different

species.

Another curious confirmation of this view is, that similar

variations in the form of the thorax take place in C. chrysome-

loides. In fact, I possess specimens of the latter having exactly

the form of ¢ristis ; the sole difference being that they are larger ;

the thorax is more coarsely granulated, its pubescence darker ;

the elytra more rounded and not so acuminate at the apex, their

bloom also is ash-grey instead of purplish, their base is black

instead of brownish, and the yellow hairs at the base are wanting.

The antennz are thicker and darker and the last joint is longer.

These particulars serve to show that it is not ¢ristis; and in

addition these varieties are found mixed with large numbers of

the normal form of chrysomeloides. For instance, among about

200 specimens of ehrysomeloides which my friend Mr. Bates re-

cently sent me, all taken together at one time, I found three or

four with the form of ¢ristis ; also a specimen or two having in

like manner exactly the form of grandicollis, but with the elytra

not as in the variety of ¢ristis bearing that name, but as in chry-

someloides ; the antennz are thicker and darker, but there is no

other difference in the relative proportions, except in the last

joint, which is not long, as it is in chrysomeloides. Further, there

were a few specimens in the same lot having the shorter form

and more acuminate elytra of rotundicollis ; and lastly, there were

examples having the form of the thorax of nigrita. The result

to which I have come therefore is, that similar variations in form

exist both in C. ¢tristis and C. chrysomeloides ; that as we have a

variety of the former with a broad thorax (C. tristis var. grandi-

collis), we have also a variety of the latter of like form (C. chry-

someloides var. grandicollis). In like manner of each we have

_C. tristis var. rotundicollis and C. chrysomeloides var. rotundi-

collis, and C. tristis var. nigrita and C. chrysomeloides var. nigrita.

We have a var. of chrysomeloides like tristis (C. chrysomeloides var.

tristis), but I have not found any like resemblance to C. chryso-

meloides in tristis.

In all these varieties, however, there are certain general cha-

racters which appear to be constant, and enable us to refer each

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 151

variety to its proper species. These are the colour of the elytra

and of its bloom, and the colour of the pubescence at the base

of the elytra. There are also other characters, which, although

they vary in individual species on the one side or other, are on

the whole pretty constant. The antenne of chrysomeloides are

almost invariably considerably thicker than in ¢ristis, and the

last joint longer. The pubescence of the thorax (except in the

same variety) is browner than in ¢ristis, and, except in the var.

rotundicollis of tristis, is more coarsely granulated. The form of

the apex of the elytra, except in the same variety, is also rounder

in chrysomeloides than in tristis.

Var. E. C. rotundicollis, Kellner.

C. rotundicollis, Kellner, Stett. Ent. Zeit. viii. 176.2; Redt. Fn. Aust. 771;

Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 434.19; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent.

Fr. i. 302.

Ovatus, nigro-fuscus ; antennis obsolete clavatis ;

pedibus rufo-piceis; thorace transverso subru-

guloso, lateribus fortiter rotundatis;angulis pos-

ticis rectis ; elytris apice obsoletissime striatis.

Long. 1} lin.

Fig. 18.

The antennz are scarcely so long as the head

and thorax, thickened towards the point, reddish

brown, lighter at the base. The head and thorax

are densely punctate, or rather granulated and

densely covered with yellowish grizzly hairs ; the

latter is strongly rounded on the sides, most so towards the

front, narrowed behind, the anterior angles rounded, the pos-

terior angles almost pointed and right-angled, the posterior

margin cut straight, and slightly sinuated on both sides near

the scutellum. The elytra are oval, a little convex, densely and

finely punctate, indistinctly striated, with a bluish or purplish

bloom or hoar-frost on them, and also with yellowish hairs par-

ticularly at the base, and are narrowed to a point at the apex.

The legs are brownish red, the feet lighter.

This variety or species is found along with ¢ristis and grandi-

collis, but it is not without hesitation that I remove it from the

list of distinct species. The characters, however, which distin-

guish it being all variations in degree, and at times approaching

more or less to the type of ¢ristis, I have come to look upon it as

a variety of that species. It is well known that carcase-feeding

beetles are always more subject to variation than others, owing

to the chance of the food of the larvee becoming exhausted before

they are full fed. This species may be a starved variety. The

particulars however by which it is most readily distinguished

152 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

are its smaller size, the strongly rounded edges of the thorax

inflexed towards the base, and perhaps more than any other, the

more strongly marked punctuation or rather granulation on the

thorax ; but none of these distinctions appear to me sufficient

to justify its being kept as a distinct species. As to its size,

although it is only about half the size of grandicollis, 1 have un-

doubted specimens of ¢ristis quite as small as it; and even of

grandicollis T have seen a specimen received by M. Kraatz from

Thuringia not much larger. The general cut of the thorax is

that of | tristis, but broader in front. The elytra terminating

sharply is a character also shared by ¢ristis. The bluish or purplish

bloom on the elytra is perhaps not quite so marked a feature as

in éristis, but it is still well developed, and the yellow pubescence

on the thorax and along the base of the elytra is the same. The

distinction most appreciable is the punctuation or rather granu-

lations on the thorax. To the naked eye, or under a weak lens,

the thorax looks as if it were more coarsely punctate and of a

coarser texture than in ¢ristis. Under a higher magnifying power

it assumes the aspect shown in fig. 19, Fig. 19.

and a comparison of that with fig. 15

and fig. 20, exhibiting the marks on the

thorax of tristis and neglectus (next spe- ;

cies), will show that it Deeiepicwtle niligessilt - UN fo 2

place between them. This punctuation

i Dal dy PA )

\ VAY

in rotundicollis however is not always Dry! NAIR SA

equally coarse, showing gradations to the feebler granulations of

tristis.

It is not a rare variety, and is found under dead birds, &e.

both in England and Scotland and all over the Continent.

coded

id eh tad

15. C. neglectus, Kraatz.

Catops neglectus, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 434. 20.

Ovatus, nigro-fuscus; antennis obsolete clavatis pedibusque rufo-

piceis ; thorace “transverso, postice angustiore, variolariter

punctato ; elytris apice substriatis.

Long. 13 lin.

Shape entirely that of ¢ristis. Antenne obsoletely clavate,

reddish brown. The head is black, deeply, densely and distinctly

punctate. The thorax is in the middle almost ‘of the breadth

of the elytra, nearly half as broad as long, somewhat convex,

the sides moderately strongly rounded (exactly as in ¢ristis),

more narrowed behind than in front, so that the greatest

breadth is before the middle. The posterior angles are right-

angled, the posterior margin feebly sinuated on each side in

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 158

front of the scutellum. It is covered with a dense yellow pubes-

cence as in f¢ristis, but is not granulated like it, but covered

with shallow punctures, so that under a strong lens it looks

exactly as if pitted with the small-pox, and out of each shallow

flat pit issues a yellow hair (sometimes two, springing from the

same centre); these pits are arranged im a sort of irregular

Fig. 20.

transverse order (see fig. 20), which gives

the thorax to the naked eye the ap-

pearance of being strongly transversely

wrinkled. The elytra are densely and

finely punctate, with indistinct, very eva-

nescent traces (when highly magnified)

of similar depressions being scattered

over them, and with indistinct traces of

striz at the apex; they are clothed with a purplish brownish

bloom similar to that of ¢ristis, and with yellowish hairs princi-

pally seen at the base. The legs are brownish red, feet lighter.

Till this species was made known by M. Kraatz, it had been

always overlooked. Ona hasty glance it looks exactly like ¢ristis ;

a little better inspection, particularly of the apparent granu-

lations on the thorax, leads one to suppose it is rotundicollis, but

a careful examination brings out the much deeper and differ-

ently formed punctuation of the thorax. This is the only cha-

racter to be relied on to separate it from f¢ristis ; for although the

antennze are not so abruptly or heavily clavate as in that species,

and are entirely of a reddish brown instead of having a blackish

club, still in neither particular are they so different as to be beyond

similar variations to be found in the true ¢ristis. I therefore

felt great difficulty in making up my mind whether they were

distinct species or not. Thanks to the liberality of M. Kraatz,

who supplied me with specimens of his neglectus, I was enabled

to examine them all very carefully, which I did under high

powers of the compound microscope, and although there is in

one sense undoubtedly a transition between tristis and neglectus

through rotundicollis, inasmuch as while the sculpture of the

thorax in /ristis is slightly wrinkled, that of rotundicollis is gra-

nulated, and that of neglectus variolose, still there did appear a

greater difference between neglectus and rotundicollis than be-

tween the latter and ¢ristis. It is not easy to embody the dif-

ference in words, but I am enabled by the kind assistance of

Dr. Greville, whose qualifications as a microscopic observer and

microscopic draughtsman are unsurpassed, to submit the differ-

ences to the reader, in the woodcuts, figs. 15, 19 and 20, drawn

by him, which show the sculpture of the thorax of the three

kinds as seen under a magnifying power of 280 diameters. These

I think preve the close relationship of rotundicollis, fig. 19, with

154 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

tristis and grandicollis (both of which are exactly the same), fig. 15:

the punctures from which the hairs issue are only a little larger

and deeper in the former than in the latter, which also shows

the first faint traces of the circular depressions between these

punctures in the former. In neglectus however, although there

are deep circular depressions, these are on a totally different

arrangement from those in the other species. Here they sur-

round the puncture from which the hairs spring, while in rotun-

dicollis they are placed between the hairs. In neglectus the con-

cave curve of the depression is turned towards the hair, in rotun-

dicollis it is the convex curve which is turned to it.

Although the character is narrow, I incline to think that

this is a good species, more especially as M. Kraatz mentions

that nothing approaching to a transition between it and rotun-

dicollis has been found.

This interesting species was taken by M. Kraatz in Hessia,

but I have not yet observed it in any collection made in this

country.

16. C. quadraticollis, Aubé.

Catops quadraticollis, Aubé, Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de Fr. 1850, viii. 326.

35. t.11. f.3; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Fr. 1. 302.

Oblongo-ovalis, convexiusculus, niger; anten- Fig. 21.

narum articulis primis et ultimo, tibiisque

ferrugineis ; thorace quadrato, vix postice an-

gustiore, angulis posticis rectis.

Long. 14 lin.

Oblong-oval, convex. Brownish black, co-

vered with a sparing yellowish-grey pubescence ;

mouth and base of the antennz obscure ferru-

ginous. Antenne gradually clavate, a little

longer than the head and thorax. Thorax almost as broad

as long; sides feebly arched, almost straight, except in front,

where they are pretty strongly rounded ; posterior angles right-

angled, a little sharply pointed; very finely and densely punc-

tate. Elytra with a more marked punctuation, very dense ;

sutural stria deep, disappearing on the anterior third. With a

strong lens some traces of stri are perceptible. Thighs brown-

ish black, tibize and tarsi obscure ferruginous.

This species is almost of the size of tristis, which it comes very

near in form and colour. It is however a little more elongated

and generally deeper in colour, and the antennz are less clavate ;

but the principal difference is in the form of the thorax, which

is nearly as long as broad and rectilinear on the sides, in fact

nearly square ; the posterior angles also are straighter. Dr. Aubé

Bm. CLL ee

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 155

says that the lateral margins are a little more rounded in the

males than in the females, but always less so than in tristis.

I have seen one female example of this species, in the collee-

tion of M. Chevrolat. At first I was disposed to consider it as

a variety of ¢ristis, but on closer examination I became satisfied

that it is a distinct species ; at least, that we must hold it so

until a closer study of its affinities and alliances shall teach us

otherwise.

17. C. chrysomeloides, Panz.

Helops chrysomeloides, Panz. Fn. Ger. 57. 1.

Choleva chrysomeloides, Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. 29. 4; Spence, Linn.

Trans. xi. 146. 7.

Catops chrysomeloides, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br.1. 697.7 a; Sturm, Deutschl.

Fn. xiv. 22. 10. t. 275. f. b. B; Heer, Fn. Helv. 380.9; Redt. Fn.

Aust. 144. 10; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 432. 16; Fairm. &

Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Fr. i. 302.

Ovatus, nigro-piceus ; antennis abrupte clavatis, Pig. 22.

clava nigra nitidula, articulo ultimo oblongo ;

thorace transverso, basi latiore, angulis posticis

rectis ; elytris obsoletissime striatis.

Long. 2 lin.

Ovate, convex ; deep brown or biack, with a

pretty dense pubescence. Antenne shorter than

head and thorax, strongly and abruptly clavate,

‘the base (first six jomts or so) red, the club black or deep

brown, the fourth, fifth and sixth joints not longer than thick,

also not thicker than those preceding, those following consider-

ably thicker, the seventh, ninth and tenth somewhat thicker than

long, brown ; the eleventh oblong oval; the eighth narrower

than the other joints of the club, very short. Thorax one-half

broader than long, rounded on the sides, narrowed a little more

in front than behind; at the posterior margin a little narrower

than the base of the elytra; the posterior angles right-angled,

pointed; the posterior margin lightly sinuated on each side,

covered with a coarse yellowish grizzly pubescence. Elytra like

the thorax, very finely and densely punctate, very indistinctly

striated, with an ashy grey bloom ; no yellow pubescence. Legs

ferruginous red, often brown on the thighs.

This very distinct species is distinguished at once by the large

black club of its antenne. When seen along with other species,

its gloomy black opake appearance, combined with a larger club

of the antenne than any other species, at once point it out. The

only other large black species in this group are picipes and

nigricans, and neither of these has heavy thick-clubbed antenne.

From the other thick-clubbed species (none of which however

156 Mr. W. Webster on a new British species of Skenea.

have antennz equal to it in thickness), it may be quickly distin-

guished by its gloomy black colour, and by the dull ash-gre

bloom on the elytra. The pubescence on the thorax is dull

grizzly yellow, a good deal coarser than the strong rich russet

yellow of fristis and the other thick-clubbed species ; and the

bloom on the elytra wants the purplish tinge observable in

these species ; and there are no yellow hairs along the base or

margins of the elytra, which are not lighter in colour themselves

than the thorax. Immature specimens wholly ferruginous brown

are occasionally met with. The thickness of the club of the

antenn is also not always equally great, but always greater

than in any other species.

As I have already mentioned in speaking of the varieties of

tristis, similar varieties occur of this species, viz. :—

Var. grandicollis, with larger broad thorax.

Var. tristis, with narrow short thorax and broad elytra.

Var. rotundicollis, of the shape of rotundicollis, but larger.

Var. nigrita, of the shape of nigrita.

For the differences between these varieties and the similarly

named varieties of ¢ristis, see the remarks on page 150.

As I have already mentioned, this species used very generally

to be made to represent both ¢ristis and chrysomeloides by British

and even foreign entomologists.

It is found under small dead birds and mammals. Mr. Bates

of Leicester has taken hundreds (and supplied me largely) by a

simple trap which is very useful for taking some of our rarest

Clavicornes. He puts three or four rabbits’ feet into a soda-water

bottle, buries it in a favourable locality, so that the mouth of the

bottle is level with the ground, and in a week or ten days the

interior of the bottle is swarming with insects, among which

great rarities occasionally occur.

[To be continued. |

XVI.—On a new British species of Skenea.

By W. Wesster, Esq.

(With a Plate.]

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

Turovucu the kindness of C. Spence Bate, Esq., I am enabled to

send you a drawing (PI. VIII. figs. 12, 13) of an extremely

minute Skenea which I found in sand, taken amongst Corallina

officinalis from rock-pools at Gwyllyn Vase near Falmouth.

It is involute, like Skenea nitidissima, and equally umbilicated

Dr, J. E. Gray on a new species of Dolphin. 157

both above and below; but the whorls, which are three, instead

of two and a half, do not increase quite so rapidly in size. Its

distinctive feature consists in having three spiral ribs or carine

of a shining fulyous tint, which contrast strongly with the

whitish ground colour of the shell ; one is situated on either side

extending from the apex to the orifice, and the third, which is

not so distinctly elevated, on the centre of the body.

The entire volutions appear under a good lens strongly

wrinkled longitudinally, more especially on the inner sides, and

under a still higher power finely striated spirally. The mouth,

which is well rounded and does not turn to either side, embraces

a considerable portion of the body-whorl. The operculum I

have not been able to examine: its diameter hardly equals the

twentieth of an inch.

As yet I have only obtained four specimens, but have still

some small portion of the sand in which they were found, remain-

ing unexamined.

If the shell as described above is already known, I should feel

greatly obliged if any of your scientific ¢orrespondents wonld

favour me with the name.

I am borne out in my opinion that it is new to the British

fauna by Dr. Battersby of Torquay, who has kindly examined the

shell ; should it prove equally new to science, Skenea tricarinata

would be a very appropriate designation.

It may be interesting to some of your readers to know, that |

met with several fine specimens of the rare Crenella costulata in

rock-pools in Mount’s Bay, and also with Modiola phaseolina in

some abundance in the same locality.

Yours faithfully,

Upton Hall, near Birkenhead, W. WesstER.

June 21, 1856.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII.

Fig. 12. The shell highly magnified. Fig. 13. Natural size.

XVII.—Description of a New Species of Dolphin (Steno) from

the upper parts of the River Amazon*, By J. E. Gray, Ph.D.,

F.R.S. &e.

Mr. H. W. Bares has sent to the British Museum the skulls of

two Dolphins which he has procured from the upper parts of the

Amazon.

The first is named Bouto by the natives, and found near

Ega. It is evidently the Delphinus Geoffroyii of Desmarest,

[* A brief abstract of a notice of two species of Dolphins occurring in the

Amazon, by M. Paul Gervais, appeared in the Annals, vol. xvii. p. 521.—

Ep. Ann, Nat. Hist.]

158 Dr, J. E. Gray on a new species of Dolphin.

described from a specimen procured by the French from the

Lisbon Museum during their occupation of that town, and

which the Portuguese most probably received from the Brazils.

M. F. Cuvier, in his ‘ Cetacea,’ p. 112, described this species

under the name of Delphinus frontatus.

M. D’Orbigny discovered the same, or at any rate a nearly

allied species, in the River Moxos in Upper Peru or Bolivia,

and described and figured it under the name of Inia Boliviensis,

Voy. Amér. Mérid. t. 22,

The measurements of the Brazilian skull are as follows, in

inches and parts of inches :—

inches

eneght Of skal ooo gs. cnc une ssscevsonnes sos sapestenenes 214

OF Ded occ ccccccsecascsecceseccrursSUNsONeaaem 13

of teeth-line of upper Jaw ......seeeeeeeeees 12}

————._. ———— Off lower Jaw ......ssceseevesen 11

OF LOW er JAW pie cases: 20s thnanponader sheer 174

i of symphysis of lower jaw .....-seeeseseeees 83

Width of skull 200.4: ..60555..00scuccdnvnesebscasanenene 10

in front of orbits at notch ......sseseseeeeee 6

_ of beak at notch. 20i..0.05.6.ecnsssvssdrounenae 3

Teeth = >

It is only the hinder eight or nine teeth which have a distinct

internal heel; the succeeding ones gradually assume the usual

conical form, but all the teeth are more or less rugulose.

Mr. H. W. Bates observes: “ The animal from which the skull

was taken is very large, and wholly of a pinkish flesh-colour. I

have seen them rear themselves entirely above the surface of the

water when the sexes are sporting in shoaly bays. It goes in

pairs, rolling together..... There are black dolphins of the

larger species, but I do not know if a variety or a separate

species. They also roll in pairs, and are abundant towards the

Delta of the Amazon. I cannot say whether the flesh-coloured

species is found in the Delta; one fact only I can mention—I

have never seen a black and a pink dolphin together in pairs.

They are always both either black or pink.”—Letter, Feb. 17,

1856.

The second species is named Tucuai by the natives. Mr. H.

W. Bates has sent the skull of each sex. They are similar, but

the skull of the female is considerably smaller than that of the

male. These skulls evidently belong to a species of the genus

Steno, which has not before come under my observation. It

may be described in the Catalogues as

Steno Tucuzi. The Tucuxi.

Nose of the skull depressed at the base, convex and attenuated

at the tip, rather (;',th) longer than the length of the head,

Bibliographical Notices. 159

nearly three times as long as the width at the notch; frontal

triangle elongate, continued considerably in front of the noteh-

line. Teeth =, slender, conical. The lower jaw rather slender

and slightly bent up at the tips; symphysis rather keeled

beneath in front.

Inhabits the upper parts of the Amazon River near Santarem.

The measurements are as follows, in inches and parts of

inches :—

j Male Female

Length of skull...... Seenaonemiasia Se Pe Be conees 12

BE eH vee oes awasesp aay anes 2 FE sores paring 63

OL COOUN-UNE. i <ceb-2erccetest Gh) evitt aces sce 52

OF LOWEF JAW .osc.cc0nessess.02 DOD: es taaver 94

Of symphysis ..:.-.csceeeee, ey Wavanad dene 13

RVR Sct heck ene cctiedinseces Bip Man shasiacae se 53

of beak at notch .......,.... PLP ocr enacen 23

- of forehead over notch ...... Ae rine eidislasletst 44

Mr. H. W. Bates, in his letter of the same date, observes :—

“The Tucuai, pronounced Tucoshee, is of a darkish black or

fuscous colour. It does not roll over like the Bouto, but comes

slowly to the surface to breathe.”

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

Manual of Geology, Practical and Theoretical. By Joun Putuuirs,

M.A., F.R.S. &c. Griffin and Co., London and Glasgow, 1855.

Tue foundation of this work was laid twenty-five years ago,-—in the

‘ Encyclopzedia Metropolitana,’—and, without changing its general

character, it has been enlarged and improved by the materials col-

lected by the author and numerous fellow-labourers in the same field

during the interval. Among the most important geological researches

of late years has been the examination of the older rocks of Wales

and the Border Counties, and the newer and not less interesting de-

posits of the tertiary series of Eastern England and the adjoining

Continent. The author has devoted considerable space to these sub-

jects ; and, by a careful condensation of the evidence brought forward

by the multitude of observers conscientiously enumerated in his pre-

face, has given us a lucid and valuable résumé of paleozoie and

cainozoic facts, which, together with the revised chapters on mesozoic

history, form a really useful Manual of physical and topographical

geology. Unlike many elementary works, this is far from being a

compilation ; for the author, without neglecting the observations

of others, has observed for himself, and brings us his own enlarged

and practical experience,—the fruit of years of scientific labour, both

under official engagements and as separate undertakings. The man

who has worked for himself in the field can best recognize the edu-

cational wants of others, and thus offer them the necessary elementary

knowledge by which the inquiring mind may be led in the right di-

rection to comprehend the philosophy of the closet and the facts of

160 Bibliographical Notices.

the field. . The mode of inculeation of such facts varies too much

with books and teachers. The mere exercise of memory in learning a

table of classification is a poor substitute for the knowledge obtained

by the student from a good practical teacher. vast

After a succinct notice of the history of the science, in which :the

origin of inductive geology forms an interesting and instructive see-

tion, the author enters upon elementary views of the structure and

composition of the crust of the earth and of the preservation and dis-

tribution of organic remains.

To this succeeds a series of chapters descriptive of the primary}

hypozoic, paleeozoic, mesozoic, and cainozoic strata, in the ascending

order, In this respect we regard this plan of arrangement. as’ pre-

ferable, inasmuch as it provides the student with the true sue

cessional ordination of the various geognostical phenomena. Thus

he is better enabled to trace the origin of the suecessive and deri-

vative strata,—the varying hydrographical areas more or less defined

by these deposits,—and the gradual advance, in different directions

and under varying circumstances, of vegetable and animal organisms;

—and hence he is presented with a comprehensive view of the various

phases of the earth’s physical history.

Following the chapters on descriptive geology is a chapter devoted:

to modern causes in action,—a section which we are inclined to think’

should take its place at the commencement of the work; for the»

ordinary mind, when acquainted with existing physical agencies, not;

only better appreciates the present operations of nature, but possesses,

an index and a key to the multitude and apparent mybtery of ancient,

physical phenomena.

Inorganic phenomena, more especially those connected with the»

effects of heat, are fully treated of in the next following divisions of:

the work ;—one chapter being devoted specially to the rt Bs

Mineral veins.

In a subsequent chapter, on the state of geological theory, we

would erent recommend to notice the section on geological

chronology, in which the probable rate of accumulation of deposits

is inferred from the study. of the mechanical and chemical. origin of |

strata,—the alternations of beds of different lithological characters,

and of different natures, such as marine, freshwater, and igneous,—the

succession of races of imbedded organic beings, — and lastly, the repe-

titions of convulsions, and the metamorphism of rock-masses. . In

the same chapter we find two useful tables. illustrative of the distinet

groups of animal life which have followed one another in a settled -

order of geological time. The one, adapted from M. A, d’Orbigny,’

affords a rough estimate of the proportional number of species of all

animals in the several geological groups; the second, repeated from

the author’s work on Yorkshire, has reference to the distribution in -

time of the more prominent vertebrate types specially ohe tartare

of the great geological periods.

The appendix of tables and calculations contains also some pated

tical observations on the instruments used by the working geologist,

namely, barometers, clinometers, &e., with directions for the benefit :

‘Bibliographical Notices. 161

of those persons who are anxious to furnish satisfactory data for the

elucidation of questions connected with the general and special struc-

ture of rocks, such as dip, strike, divisional planes, faults, dykes, veins,

cleavage, &c. One page only, and that in the Appendix, is devoted

to the constituent ingredients of rocks,—a subject too little attended

to, and for which might have been found a fitter and ampler space in

the body of the work. A careful and useful glossary is added.

Without entering into any detail respecting the geological deserip-

tions in this work, as regards the mineral character, distribution, and

fossils of local deposits, we can but advert to a novel and extremely

useful feature presented by Prof. Phillips’s Manual. We allude to

the lists of genera of organic remains occurring in each group or

terrain of the geological formations. These lists are so arranged and

printed that the genera peculiar to certain strata are at once recog-

nizable, aud the numerical proportion of genera and species are seen

at a glance. In our notice of Morris’s ‘ Catalogue of British Organic

Remains’ in Annals, vol. xv. p. 54, we recommended that such tabu-

lated lists of genera and species should be made under the super-

intendence of the author of that work. Prof. Phillips, however, has

with considerable labour eliminated the materials required for such

categorical arrangement, in conformity with the geological classi-

fication adopted in that work, and has thus, with excellent judgement,

enabled the student to comprehend at one view the numerical pro-

portions, in family, generic, and specific groupings, of animal and

vegetable life during the several geological periods ; and those inter-

ested specially in the lower palzeozoic rocks will find at p. 122 a

table exhibiting the generic relations of the then existing great divi-

sions of animal life during the Cambrian and the Lower and Upper

Silurian periods.

One excellent feature of Mr. Phillips’s book consists of the many

well-executed illustrations of landscape-scenery illustrative of topogra-

phical geology. We wish that we could equally approve of the cuts

intended to portray the characteristic fossils. Generally speaking,

the imperfection of the specimens selected and the want of accuracy

in the drawing render the majority of the figures almost useless for

comparison.

This work, having features of its own both in paleontological and

geological aspects, and being well stored with modern information,

and characterized by the experience and philosophic opinions of the

author, takes a high rank among elementary works on geology. As

a text-book, embodying the real methods of geological investigation,

this edition necessarily offers more complete evidence of the unity of

the laws of nature, and of the correctness of the principles of geology

enunciated in the previous edition, —principles which amidst all the

activity of research are still unaltered, the methods of research and

the lines of reasoning remaining the same.

Much remains to be done ; the geologist has still great questions

before him waiting for solution ; his labours will be well directed and

much lightened by such manuals of the science as those provided by

Lyell, Mantell, Ansted, and Phillips.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvin. 11

162 Bibliographical Notices.

Tenby : a Sea-side Holiday. By Poitier Henry Gosse, ALLS.

London, Van Voorst, 1856. 12mo. i

Amongst the numerous caterers to the appetite for popular books

on Natural History, which is rapidly, whether for good or ill, be-

coming a more and more fashionable craving, Mr, Gosse has un-

doubtedly taken a very leading position. This is due not only. to

the numerous works of this nature which owe their existence to his

prolitic pen, for in this respect he is certainly not without rivals, but.

to the intimate practical acquaintance which he possesses with those

marine creatures with which he principally has to do, and to a second

and still rarer quality, springing perhaps to a certain extent from the

former, that of treating whatever comes under his hand in a style at

once pleasant and elegant, intermixing so much of human interest

with his descriptions of what in less skilful hands would furnish

intolerably dry reading, at least to the masses, that the dry bones

become clothed with fiesh and endowed with an astonishing amount

of life and vigour. As regards the positive effect of these works,

and the policy of consigning original zoological observations to. pages

which may almost be regarded as addressed exclusively to the un-

learned in such matters, there may be two opinions ; but there can be

no doubt, that those multitudes who at this particular period of the

year are always meditating gravely upon the necessity of passing the

next two or three months in some dreary watering-place, have good

cause to be thankful to Mr. Gosse for his delightful productions,

and to wish most heartily that there were more guides and instrue-

tors “like unto him.” Je4en

“Tenby,” Mr, Gosse’s new sea-side book, does not fall short of its

predecessors in general interest, although the amount of new matter

for the student contained in it is perhaps rather less. It opens with

an amusing account of the railway journey into Wales, and the first

acquaintance with the semi-foreign natives of the Principality ; the

energetic struggles of the Tenby coachmen to secure customers are

not forgotten, and the whole journey is described in a style which in

these days of unromantic travel is quite refreshing. The first im-

pressions of Tenby and the neighbouring scenery are also Graphically

described, — Saint Catherine’s and its caverns stand out vividly in many

pages, and the singularly rapid influx of the tide over the sands serves,

to introduce a humorous picture of the perplexity of three ladies,

whom Mr. Gosse ungallantly describes as ‘‘ middle-aged” and

“somewhat heavy im person,” who in their anxiety to view the

beauties of the place were somewhat unpleasantly reminded of the

fact that the old proverb, “Time and Tide wait for no man,” ap-

plies with equal truth to the fairer portion of humanity. This and

many other passages of a similar nature, including several excellent

descriptions of scenery and pieces of local history, must be regarded

by the scientific naturalist, however he may enjoy them, as comin

parenthetically in the midst of his severer studies ;—we shall there-.

fore refer no farther to the lighter portion of Mr. Gosse’s book.

We have already said that the number of new facts brought for-

ward in the present volume seems to be less than in Mr, Gosse’s

Bibliographical Notices. 163

“Devonshire Coast.” On the other hand, several of the chapters

(or Letters as our author calls them) contain excellent descriptions

of things, which although previously well known to zoologists, will

undoubtedly be exceedingly interesting to the general reader, in the

elegant costume iu which they are here presented to him. Amongst

these we may notice the development of the Decapod Crustacea and

Barnacles, of Clavellina and the Echinida. One chapter is devoted

to the description of the Pedicellarie, which Mr. Gosse, with the

principal authorities of the present day, regards as component parts

of the Echinoderms on whose surface they are found; our author

gives a very full description of the structure of these curious bodies,

and besides the three kinds or species described by Miller, notices

a fourth form, to which he gives the name of Pedicellaria steno-

phylla, The Actinie and their beauties naturally take up a good

deal of Mr. Gosse’s attention,—they are frequently referred to in

various parts of the work, and three new species are described m his

last letter ; whilst in an Appendix he gives some extracts from his

paper on Peachia hastata im the Linnzan Transactions, in which he

establishes the genera Sagartia and Bunodes at the expense of the

old genus dctinia, and gives his views as to the nature and affinities

of the family of the Sea Anemones.

Mr. Gosse is, however, by no means constant in his attachment to

the sea, and two of his letters are devoted exclusively to the fresh-

water Rotifera ;—in one he describes the mode of capturing these

little creatures, and in the second the way in which they are to be

observed under the microscope, and the structure of several striking

species.

Two circumstances must prevent our giving any extracts from

this charming little book,—one of these is the difficulty of selection

where so much is excellent, and the other the want of space. In

taking leave of it, however, we cannot but feel that it will do much to

open up new sources of delight to thousands who may visit not only

Tenby but other watering-places, by awakening in their minds some

little interest in the many apparently insignificant, but truly inter-

esting creatures, which they would otherwise pass contemptuously in

their objectless saunterings by the sea. We may add that the work

is illustrated with twenty-four coloured lithographic plates, executed

by the author, most of which are exceedingly good.

Manual of British Botany, containing the Flowering Plants and

Ferns arranged according to the Natural Orders. By CHar.es

Carpatre Bapinerton, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. &e. Fourth Edi-

tion, with many additions and corrections. London: Van Voorst,

1856, pp. 446.

An examination of Mr. Babington’s fourth edition suggests little

that we have not already said, still less that we might not have said,

respecting its predecessor. The countless silent rectifications of

diagnosis, which give Mr. Babington’s writings their chief value, will

hardly be appreciated except by assiduous use; but the marks of

11*

164 Bibliographical Notices,

unwearied observation of living nature and familiarity with the

published and unpublished researches of contemporary botanists up

to the latest moment are obyious to any reader. The only new

feature of this edition is an attempt to introduce all bond fide English

names, excluding those uncouth Anglo-Latin titles which sound like

fond reminiscences of pre-Linnzean nomenclature. Mr. Babington’

has advanced a little—we wish it had been more—towards distin-

guishing undoubted and little doubted natives from suspeeted in~

truders of all kinds. Some species formerly at liberty are now

bracketed ; others bracketed with numbers are now bracketed with-

out numbers; others are absolutely rejected. The notation, however,

is in this respect somewhat ambiguous and inconsistent. A few

probably new species, about which the author has not yet quite made’

up his mind, are neither excluded nor admitted to full citizenship,

but wisely introduced on a doubtful footing : Utricularia neglecta and

Potamogeton gracilis may be taken as examples. The disagreeable

but necessary work of correcting the synonyms goes on as before,

the result in some cases being the restoration of old names; thus

Myosotis suaveolens is now once more alpestris. Little can be

objected against these proceedings except their piecemeal nature.

A fearless and thorough revision of the names of our plants on de-

finite principles, whether those of the British Association or others,

is much wanted. Mr, Babington did good service in this depart-,

ment in the early part of his career: it is to be wished that he would

return to it with increased knowledge on a more methodical plan than

he has lately followed. This desultoriness is perhaps not confined

to nomenclature. Mr. Babington’s observations, extensive and minute

as they are, appear to have been too much confined to such plants as

have accidentally fallen in his way. For instance, he long ago de-

scribed, on rather slender evidence, a Potamogeton allied to P. pec-

tinatus as probably the P. zosteraceus of Fries. In his third edition,

having become better acquainted with the plant, he named it anew

as P. flabellatus, at the same time distinguishing P. pectinatus in

italics as having “leaves formed of two interrupted tubes.’ This

language might surely be too easily taken to mean that the leaves of

P. pectinatus differ essentially in structure from the upper leaves’

of P. flabellatus. Mr. Babington is of course too good a botanist.

not to have known, that in plants so closely allied the difference (if

such there be) could only be one of proportion, as the leaves of

neighbouring species are likewise formed of “interrupted tubes,”

and the peculiarity of P. pectinatus can lie only in the predominance.

of two over the rest. But though the ambiguity of 1851 may be.

excused by the want of adequate knowledge of the corresponding’

structure in P. flabellatus, it was surely incumbent on the author of a

Flora to have studied his own species a little further before 1856, and

not to leave the description as deceptive as ever, especially as Hooker

and Arnott had meanwhile challenged the distinctness of the species

on definite grounds. Many of the important changes of detail now

introduced into the ‘Manual’ are already known to our readers

through the monographs which the author has lately published

Bibliographical Notices. 165

in this Journal. A great part of them will, we are confident,

maintain their ground with, it may be, a few modifications. Others

unavoidably excite our scepticism; but, until arguments are ad-

duced on the other side, founded on something like equally cau-

tious and intelligent study, Mr. Babington has a fair right to claim

a strong provisional authority. If any one starts, as assuredly he

ought to do, at being told that Arctium majus and minus constitute

five species, we can only counsel patience and renewed observation,

A large proportion of the novelties occur in the genus Wieracium,

where the pains bestowed by Mr. Backhouse on the cultivation of

doubtful forms supply an excellent check on hasty conclusions in

either direction. We should not omit to notice the arrangement of

the Grasses, which has been greatly improved, chiefly from Fries and

Andersson.

Species introduced or separated in the Ath edition.

Ranunculus trichophyllus, Chaizx. Mieracium senescens, Backh.

R. Drouetii, F. Schultz? 1. lasiophyllum, Koch.

R. Baudotii, Godr. H. Gibsoni, Backh.

R. floribundus, Bad. Hi. argenteum, Fr.

R. peltatus, Fr. H. nitidum, Backh.

Polygala austriaca, Cr. H, aggregatum, Backh.

{Sagina densa, Jord. ] H. stelligerum, Froel.

Hypericum anglicum, Bert. Thymus Serpyllum, L.

Rubus pampinosus, Lees. {Salix acutifolia, Willd.

Epilobium rosmarinifolium, Orchis incarnata, L.

Haenke. Epipogium aphyllum, Sw.

E, anagallidifolium, Lam, Arum italicum, Mill.

Galium montanum, Vill. [Potamogeton sparganiifolius,

G. commutatum, Jord. Laest.? |

G. elongatum, Presi. {Eleocharis Watsoni, Bab. }

Arctium tomentosum, Pers. Festuea Myurus, L.

A. intermedium, Lange. Equisetum Moorii, Newm.

A. pubens, Bab. Pseudathyrium alpestre, Newm.

Hieracium holosericeum, Backh. 2 P. flexile, Newm.

H. eximiam, Backh. ? Asplenium acutum, Bory.

Hi. calendulifiorum, Backk. {Gymnogramma leptophylla, Desv. }

H. gracilentum, Backh. ? [Botrychium rutaceum, Sw.]

H. globosum, Backh. ? [Ophioglossum lusitanicum, L.]

Species omitted in the 4th edition.

Thalictrum majus. Hieracium anglicum.

Rubus calvatus. [{H. oreades. }

R. fuseus, H. dovrense.

R. Wahibergii. Salix Helix.

Hieracium atratum. S. Forbyana.

Trees and their Nature, or the Bud and its Attributes. By Avex.

Harvey, A.M., M.D. &c. London, 1856.

“This is an amusing little volume, displaying a great deal of acute-

ness, and the results of very careful reading within a limited sphere.

The object of the work is the discussion of the vexed question of

166 Zoological Society :-— Hal

individuality in plants, and the advocacy of the claim of the dud te

the dignity of the ‘vegetable individual.’ So far as inquiries of this

sort tend to direct attention to the physiological laws ruling the

growth and multiplication of plants, they are beneficial; but as re-

gards the main question it appears to us only a metaphysical puzzle,

calculated to afford much amusement to those whose taste lies that

way, but having no practical bearing. The meaning of the word

‘individual’ must always depend on foregone conclusions. It seems

to us that the author is not clear in distinguishing potentiality from

actuality. When a botanist speaks of the annual layers of wood of

the stems of Dicotyledons as ‘roots,’ the term can only be admitted

in a figurative sense. A bud may be capable of producing a distinet

tree, but if it be not detached, it becomes an individual braneh, not

an individual tree. Our author does not appear to be aware, either,

that roots as well as stems originate in definitely organized ‘buds,’

formed in the cambium region. The work is agreeably written, and

its perusal may serve as a pleasant intellectual exercise, but it must

not be accepted by any means as a full exposition of the question.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

July 10, 1855.—John Gould, Esq., F.R.S., in the Chair.

On rur GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE MAMMALIA

AND Birps or THE HIMALAYA.

By B. H. Hopeson, Esa.*

“The Himdlayan mountains extend from the great bend of the

Indus to the great bend of the Brahmapvtitra, or from Gilgit to

Brahma Kiind, between which their length is 1800 miles. Their

mean breadth is about 90 miles; the maximum about 110, and the

minimum 70 miles. The mean breadth of 90 miles may be most

conveniently divided into three equal portions, each of which will

therefore have 30 miles of extent, These transverse climatic divi-

sions must be, of course, more or less arbitrary, and a microscopic

vision would be disposed to increase them considerably beyond three,

with reference to geological, to botanical, or to zoological phenomena.

But, upon comparing Captain Herbert’s distribution of geological

phzenomena with my own of zoological, and Dr. Hooker’s of botanical,

I am satisfied that three are enough. These regions I have deno-

minated the lower, the middle, and the upper. They extend from

the external margin of the Tarai to the ghat line of the snows. The

lower region may be conveniently divided into—I. The sandstone

range, with its contained Dhans or Maris; II. The Bhaver or

Saul forest; III. The Tarai. The other two regions require no

* Extracted from a memoir by the same author, entitled, “‘On the Physical

Geography of the Ulimalaya,” and printed in the Journal As, Soc. Bengal for 1849,

by Frederic Moore. j Th

Mr. Hodgson on the Mammalia and Birds of the Himalaya. 167

subdivisions. The following appear to be those demarcations by

height which most fitly indicate the three regions :—

Name. Elevational limits.

Lower region ...... Level of the plains to 4000 feet above the sea.

Central region...... 4000 to 10,000 feet above the sea.

Upper region .....10,000 to 16,000* feet above the sea: highest

peak measured is 28,176.

“To begin with Man, the upper region is the exclusive habit of

the Bhotias, who extend along the whole line of the ghats, and

who, with the name, have retained the lingual and physical charac-

teristics of their tramontane brethren. To the central region are

eonfined—but each in their own province from east to west—the

Mishmis, the Bors and Abors, the Akas, the Daphlas, the Lhépas,

the Lepehas, the Limbtis, the Kirantis, the Mirmis, the Néwars,

the Stimwars, the Chépangs, the Girtings, the Magars, the Khas or

Khasias, the Kohlis, the Garhwalis, the Kakkas, the Bambas, the

Gakars, the Khatirs, the Awans, and the Janjihs. To the lower

region are as exclusively limited the Kécch, the Bdédd, the Dhimal,

the Kichak, the Tharti, the Dénwar, the Sallah, and the Boéksan.

Of these races, those of the central region are all of transnivean

origin, like the first named; but they are much altered in speech

and aspect by twelve to fifteen centuries of residence in a cisnivean

climate, and by mixture in some few cases (as Khas or Khasia) with

southern blood ; whilst the races of the lower region are of the

aboriginal Indian or Tamulian stock, and nearly unmixed, though

some of them have adopted the speech and customs of the Hindust.

The hill Brahmans, Rajptits and Moslems, so common to the west-

ward, so rare to the eastward, are more modern immigrants from the

plains. It is very deserving of special notice, that the people of the

upper region cannot endure the climate of the central one, nor those

of the central region the climate of the lower one; so that the distri-

bution even of the human race in the Himdalaya affords a remarkable

verification of our triple transverse division from a quarter the least

likely to afford any such argument. But to proceed to our zoological

enumerations. ‘To the upper region exclusively belong, among the

Ruminants, the Bisons (Poéphagus) and Musks, the Wild Goats

(Ibex, Hemitragus) and Wild Sheep (Pseudois, Ovis) ; among the

Rodents, the Marmots and Pikas (Lagomys) ; among Plantigrades,

the Bears proper (Ursus). In the middle region, true Bovines (Bos)

take the place of the Bisons of the upper region; Caprine Antelopes

(Nemorhedus, Kemas) replace its Musks and Wild Goats and Sheep ;

common Rats, and Mice, and Hares, and Porcupines, and Hedge-

hogs, its Marmots and Pikas; and Sun Bears (Helarctos) its true

Bears ; whilst the Deer family, unknown to the upper region, is here

* This is about the average height of the ghats and of the perpetual snow. It

is also nearly the limit of possible investigation, and of the existence of organic

phenomena.

+ For these tribes see Journ. As. Soc. Beng. for December 1847, and April and

June 1848, and May 1849.

168 Zoological Society :— boH aM

represented only* by the anomalous Stilt-horns (S¢y/ocerus).) Tn

the lower region, the Ox family is represented by Bibos and Bu-

balus (splendid wild types); the Deer family, here abundant, by

Rusas, Stags, Axises, and Stilt-horns to boot; the Antelopes by

Tetracerus, or the four-horned kind; the Rodents, by the Bambi

Rats (Rhizomys) and Spiny Hares (Caprolagus) ; and the Bear

family by the Honey Bears (Me/wrsus) ; add to all whieh, that to

this region are exclusively confined all the large Pachyderms, such

as the Elephant and Rhinoceros; and the Monkeys also (Semno-

pithecus et Macacus), though not so exclusively in their case. The

Carnivora, again, are represented in the upper region by Ounces, by

Foxes of a large sort (J’. montanus), by the Weasels proper, and by

the Ailuri or Cat Lories; in the middle region, by the Wild Dogs

(Cuon), the Marten Weasels, Leopards, Thick-tailed Leopards

(FP. Macrosceloides, Wodgs.), Wild Cats (. Murmensis, Pardo-

chrous Oygilbii), Libyan Lynxes (Iibycus), Zibets, Screw-tails

(Paradowxurus), and Prionodons ; and in the lower region by Tigers,

Leopards, Hyzenas, Wolves, Jackals+, insectivorous Foxes (Kokri),

Bear-badgers (Ursitaxrus), Urvas, Mangooses, Helictes or Oriental

Gluttons, small Civets (Viverrula), hirsute Screw-tails, and sharp-

faced Cats (Celidogaster). Zibets recur in this region but rarely,

and one small species of Mangoose is found in special spots of the

central region. The Otters in the upper region are represented by

the small golden and brown species (1. aurobrunnea) ; in the central,

by L. monticola and indigitata; in the lower, by the large Chinese

species L. Sinensis, Among the Squirrels, the great thick-tailed

and purple species (S. macruroides et purpureus) belong solely to

the lower region; the small Lokries (8. Loria et Lokroides) to the

central, and the Siberian to the upper; whilst Flying Squirrels, a

numerous group, are confined to the central region, so far as appears.

In the Bat group, the Frugivorous species, or Pteropines, all are

limited to the lower region, whilst the Horse-shoes (Rhinolophine)

specially affect the central region.

“From the class of Birds we may select as characteristic of the

three regions the following :-—

“The True Pheasants (Phasianus), the Tetraogalli, the Sanguine

Pheasants (Ithaginis), the Horned and the Crested Pheasants (Cert-

ornis, Lophophorus) of the upper region, are replaced by Fowl Phea-

sants ( Gallophasis)t in the mid-region, and by Fowls proper (Gallus)

* I am fully aware that Rusas (Samber) are found in the western hills, but 2

careful consideration of the facts in that part of the Himalaya, with due advert-

ence to the known habits of the group, satisfies me that these Deer have been

driven into the western hills by the clearance of the Tarai and Bhaver.

+ Jackals have made their way (like crows) to the most populous spots of the

central region, but they are not proper to the region, nor Indian Foxes, though

some of the latter turned out by me in 1827 in the great valley of Nepal, have

multiplied and settled their race there. Ex his disce alia.

t The influence of longitude on geographic distribution might be singularly

illustrated, did space permit, from numerous Himélayan groups, Galline and

others: thus, for example, a black-breasted Ceriornis is never seen east of the

Kali, nor a red-breasted one west of it. So of the black and white erested Gal-

lophases; whilst a black-backed one is never seen west of the Aran, nor a white

hack east of it.

Mr. Hodgson on the Mammalia and Birds of the Himalaya. 169

in the lower. In like manner, among the Partridges (Perdicine),

the Grouse Partridges (Tetraoperdix) belong exclusively to the upper

region ; the Chukdrs (Caccadis) and the Tree Partridges (Arboricola)

to the central; and the Francolines (/’rancolinus) to the lower,

though the black species of this last form are also found in the mid-

region. In the Pigeon group, the Blanched Pigeons (€. leuconota)

belong solely to the upper region ; the Vinous Pigeons (C. Hodgson‘)

to the central, and the Green, the Golden, and the Banded (Teron,

Chaleophaps, Macropygia), as entirely to the lower; the Trerons

alone partially entering the central tract from the lower.

“<The splendid Edolian Shrikes (Chibia, Chaptia, Edolius) belong

exclusively to the lower region. They are replaced in the central

tract by plain Dicrurines, and in the upper by plainer Lanians. The

Cotton Birds (Campephaga) of the south are replaced by gaudy

Ampelines (Cochoa) and Leiothricinians (Leiothriz, Pteruthius,

Cutia) m the middle region: but both groups seem excluded from

the north. Among the Fly-catchers the gaudy or remarkable

species and forms belong wholly or chiefly to the lower region, as

Tchitrea, Rhipidura, Cryptolopha, Myiagra, Hemichelidon, Chelid-

orynx ; whilst those which approach the Warblers (Niltava, Siphia,

Digenea) belong to the mid-region ; and the plainer and more Euro-

pean types are alone found in the northern.

“Among the Fissirostres, Goat-suckers and Swallows are pretty

generally distributed; but Rollers, Bee-eaters, Eurylaimi, Trogons,

and all such gaudy types, belong to the south, with only occasional

alpine representatives, as Bucia is of Merops. The 'Tenuirostral

birds belong distinctively to the lower region. Yet they have repre-

sentatives or summer visitants in all three, even among the Sun-

birds. Upon the whole, however, it may be safely said that the

Sun-birds (Nectarinia) belong to the south; the Honey-suckers

(Meliphagide) to the centre and south; and the Creepers, Nut-

hatches and Wrens*, to the north and centre. The Sylvians or

Warblers are too ubiquitarian, or too migratory for our present pur-

pose, even Boreal types being common in the lower in the cold

weather. Uorn-bills, Barbets, Parroquets (Paleornis, Psittacula)

belong to the lower region, though they have a few representatives

in the central; none in the upper. Woodpeckers abound in the

lower and central regions, but are rare in the upper. True Cuckoos

( Cueulus) are as common and numerous in the central region as Walk-

ing Cuckoos (Phenicophaus, Centropus), &e. are in the southern,

where also the Golden (Chrysococcyx) and Dicrurine Cuckoos ( Pseud-

ornis) have their sole abode, whilst what few of the group belong to the

upper region, are all allied to the European type. The Rayens, Pies,

Choughs, Nut-crackers and Conostomes of the upper region are re-

placed in the central region by Tree Pies (Cissa, Dendrocitta), Jays,

Rocket-birds (Psi/orhinus), Pie Thrushes (Garrulax), Timalias, and

* | have in this paper followed, without entirely approving, Mr. G. R. Gray’s

classification of my collections in the printed Catalogue of the British Museum.

The geographic distribution is now attempted for the first time. But I will recur

to the subject in a separate paper devoted to it.

170 Zoological Society :— ace seentiaed

Hoopoe Thrushes (Pomatorhinus) ; and in the lower region, by the

common Indian Crows (C. cu/minatus et splendens), Grackles*, Stares,

Vagabond Pies and Dirt-birds (Malacocereus). 'Thrushes proper

with Rock Thrushes, Ousels, Myophones, Zootheres, Tesias and

Hypsipetes are as abundant in the central and upper region as

Bulbuls, Orioles, Pittas, are in the central and lower.

“In the Finch family, the Haw-finches, Bull-finches, Gold-finches,

and Cross-bills (Zowia) are as strictly confined to the wpper regions

as are the corvine Conostomes, Nut-crackers, Choughs and Ravens.

The former are replaced in the central region by the Buntings,

Wood-finches (Montifringilla), and Siskins; and in the lower

region by the Weavers and Minias. The Raptorial birds are, in

general, too cosmopolitan to subserve the purposes of geographic

distribution. Still it may be remarked that the True Eagles belong,

quoad breeding at least, to the upper region; the Crested Eagles

(Circaétus), the Neopuses and Hawk Eagles (Spizaétus) to the

central; and the Pernes (Haliaétus et Pandion) and Haliasturs to

the lower. Among the Vultures the distinction is more marked:

for the Eagle Vultures (Gypaétus) belong exclusively to the upper

region; the large European Vultures ( fulvus et cinereus) to the

central ; and the Neophrons and the small Indian Vultures (Ben-

galensis et tenuirostris) to the lower. The Himdlaya abounds in

Falconide, all the occidental types and species being found there,

and many more peculiar and oriental ones; and it deserves special

remark, that whereas the former (Imperialis, Chrysaétos, Lanarius,

Perrgrinus, Palumbarius, Nisus, &c.) affect the wpper and eentral

regions, the oriental types (Hypotriorchis, Haliastur, Hieraz,

Hyptiopus, Elanus, Poliornis) are quite confined to the lower

region.

“Those perfect cosmopolitans the Waders and Swimmers, migrate

regularly in April and October, between the plains of India and Tibet,

and, in general, may be said to be wanting in the mountains, though

most abundant in the Tarai. The great Herons (nodilis et cinereus),

the great Storks (nigra et purpurea) and great Cranes (the Cyrus

and Damoiselle) of the Tarai are never seen in the mountains, where

the Egrets alone represent the first group. But the soft-billed

smaller Waders (Scolopacide) are sufficiently common in the moun-

tains, in which the Woodcock abounds, breeding in the upper region

and frequenting the central, and rarely the lower region, from

October till April. Geese, Ducks and Teals swarm in the Tarai,

where every occidental type (so to speak, for they are ubiquitous)

may be seen from October till April; and many oriental non-migra-

tory types; whereas in the mountains the Mergansers (orientalis)

and the Cormorants (sinensis et pygmaeus) only are found, and that

very scantily, with a few Rails and Gallinules and Sandpipers from

the vast host of the Waders.”

* When Darjeeling was established there was not a Crow or Pastor to be seen.

Now there are a few Crows, but no Pastors. Enormously abundant as both are in

the lower region, this sufficiently proves that they are not native to the central

tract, though common in the great valley of Nepal. r

Indian impressions regarding the Habits of certain Animals. 171

ON NATIVE IMPRESSIONS REGARDING THE Natura History

OF CERTAIN {INpDIAN] ANIMats.

By H. Torrens, Esa., B.A., V.P. As. Soc. Bencau*.

.The singular impressions current among natives even of the

highest rank, as to the habits and nature of certain animals, are not

undeserving of record. It is rarely that the credence of the nar-

rators in these things can be elicited, if even they go so far as to

mention the existence of the belief; for they dread the ridicule as

much as they anticipate the incredulity of a European: consequently

these strange stories are but imperfectly known, even to the best

informed among us in such legends. I mention one or two, with the

circumstances of my acquaintance with them.

While out tiger-shooting with a party of Musulman gentlemen, I

was asked, in a confidential way, whether I had ever seen the

Phnew: 1 spell the word with the almost undescribable nasal aspi-

rate with which it was invariably pronounced to me. With an air

of graye and serious interest, which is the best way of inspiring

confidence, I replied, that the nature of the thing or being was

unknown to me, and I requested information on the subject. On

this there was a little hesitation, when, after a time, it was explained,

that as I had seen more of Tigers than my companions, they fancied

I might have also seen or heard something of the animal that always

preceded the Tiger, called Phnew, from the ceaseless iteration of a

sound similar to its name. I required further enlightenment as to

this creature, when I found it was a “something that preceded the

Tiger by six cubits, wherever he went, making the noise ‘phnew’

without end, looking for things for it.’ The old tales of “ the

Lion and his provider” recurred to me at once, and I bethought me

of the hospitality of some cat-like sound of Felis Tigris having led,

during his nightly search for prey, to the creation of the story. I

have done all I could, but in vain, to discover whether there were

real grounds for the-belief, based on such a habit of the animal. I

killed several Tigers in company with my friends afterwards, but

though we found no Phnew with any of them, the silent faith of my

believers in the marvellous has remained unshaken as to the existence

of the mysterious animal. I subsequently learned that there is in

Bengal a like belief respecting it among the Hindus, who term the

creature Ghigt.

There are few Englishmen in India who have not perhaps heard

seme of the strange tales related by the natives regarding Serpents.

The most remarkable to me has always been the belief in the Raj

Samp, or King-snake, who is represented as belonging to a superior

order of Serpent, as exacting homage and obedience from his ophite

subjects, and sometimes, as appearing with the semblance of a crown,

the type of his authority. I was one day in company with a number

* Extracted from the Journal As. Soc. Bengal for 1849. By Frederic Moore.

f According to Babu Rajendralal Mittra, the Hindus distinguish the Ghog as a

different animal from the P’heu.—Edw. Blyth, Esq.

172 Zoological Society :—

of native gentlemen, when the conversation turned upon the nature of

antidotes in the case of Snake-bites, the belief as to the eure effected by

applying to the wound the head of the identical reptile that had in-

flicted it, the charms powerful to compel the Snake to appear, —as to

all which matters I have never been able to obtain, amid many tales,

any relator daring enough to declare himself an eye-witness of the

marvels he recounted. At last, mention being made of the King-

snake, a party present said—“ At any rate I can assure you of the

existence of Arm, for it is well known that I have seen,” and the story, to

the following effect, was then told. The narrator, being at that time,

he said, about fourteen years old, had run hastily to the terraced roof

of a ground-floor house to recover his kite, when his attention was

attracted by a large Goomna (Cobra capello) which, without perceiving

him, raised itself with dilated hood in the erect attitude common with

those Snakes, and uttered loud cry. Immediately some ten or twelve

Snakes appeared from different quarters, and assembled before their

king, when, after a short time, he pounced upon and devoured one of

the smaller ones, with which arbitrary assertion of regal power the con-

vocation terminated. Now the narrator of this tale had no interest

in attempting to mislead me; he had mentioned what he stated again

and again to the majority of persons present for years before I ever saw

him, and he is naturally of intelligence, and in no sort the man to tell a

useless falsehood. It is, I was then informed, by these sort of assem-

blages that the King-snake asserts his power, and that his subjects

are called to them for the purpose of bringing tribute, in the shape of

dainties for the royal palate; should, however, no tributary Fro

or Cat, or bird be forthcoming, or should even the offering amine

be insufficient, one of the luckless ophids pays in person the penalty

of the omission, even as had been witnessed by my informant. I

ventured with respect to his story to object, in as delicate a way as

I could, to the incident of the ery uttered by the King-snake, but

in this I was immediately over-ridden. The ery of the large Goomna

was well known in the ruinous city where we were, and in which

they abound, and it was described to me as a strident sound, the

attempted imitation of which resembled the acute staccato note of

a treble hautboy. I heard this sound myself subsequently during a

sleepless night, emitted by a large Snake which killed a Rat in my

bed-room ; as it was pitch dark, I was unable to rise and destroy the

intruder, but the sound was too peculiar not to have been that of the

ophid, according as it did with the description given me, and bein

unlike anything I ever heard before, as also contrasting distinctly

and remarkably with the cries of its victim. I have noted down

these trivial, but not incurious niatters, as an inducement to the

record of more valuable facts as to the opinions held by natives upon

the habits of animals, whence perhaps some really useful information

may be elicited.

Note by Mr. Buytu.

The Snake which I have had invariably pointed out to me as the

Raj Samp by natives of Bengal, is Bungarus annularis, which

Mr. J. Gould on some new species of Birds. 173

habitually preys upon other Snakes, and is currently said to be a

deadly enemy of the Cobra. I have taken a T'ropidonatus umbratus

about two-thirds the length of its devourer from the stomach of this

species. Another ophiophagous species with the Cobra hood is

Hamadryas hannah of Cantor, or Maia vettata of Elliot, a spe-

cimen of which, 9 feet long, I obtained in the Midnapore jungle.

Mr. Layard some time ago informed me of a popular notion

among the natives of Ceylon respecting a “horn” which is said

to grow sometimes, but very rarely, on the forehead of the Jackal ;

and this horn is regarded by them as a specific of innumerable

virtues. Strange to say, the same notion is equally current among

the natives of Bengal, who believe that it ensures the prosperity of

its possessor, and success in every undertaking.

July 24, 1855.—Professor Tennant, F.G.S., in the Chair.

On some New Species or Brrps COLLECTED BY Mr.

M‘Gituivray. By Joun Goucp, F.R.S. etc.

In exhibiting a portion of the first collection of birds which has

been sent to this country by Mr. John M‘Gillivray, the naturalist

attached to H. M. surveying ship ‘ Herald,’ Captain Denham, I have

to remark, that it comprises several species of especial interest,

particularly some obtained on the Isle of Pines, and on Lord

Howe’s Island. It also comprises a new form among the Tur-

dide or Thrushes, from that isolated spot the island of Tristan

d’Acunha, which presents a union of the characters of the genera

Turdus, Chameza and Oreocincla. This new bird I propose to

characterize under the generic and specific appellations of Nesocichla

eremita. Among the birds from Lord Howe’s Island is a singular

species of Merula or Blackbird, nearly allied in form to, but ver

different in colour from, the Merula nestor of Norfolk Island; to

this species the specific name of vinitincta is assigned. From the

same island are two distinct species of Zosterops, entirely new to

science. ‘They differ from any other species of the genus which has

come under my notice, one of them being a very large bird for a

Zosterops, and the other a much smaller species, being nearly allied

to, but distinct from, the Australian Zosterops dorsalis: to these

two species I give the names of Z. strenuus and Z. tephropleurus,

A beautiful Parrakeet from Cape York, nearly allied to Platycer-

cus palliceps, 1 propose to name Platycercus cyanogenys. Among

the birds from the Isle of Pines is a very beautiful Pigeon, apper-

taining to the genus Ptilinopus. This bird, with several others

of eyen greater interest, I propose to make the subjects of a second

paper.

Genus Nesocicu.a.

Bill strong, more powerful than in the genus Turdus; gonys

nearly straight, with a small notch near the tip in the upper man-

dible ; culmen gradually descending from the base; nostrils seated

in an oval depression at the base ofthe upper mandible ; wings short,

174 | Zoological Society :— Un

somewhat concave ; first primary very small; the third, fourth ‘and

fifth equal and the longest ; tail rather shorter than in Turdus, and

the feathers rather pointed ; tarsi very strong, toes strong and much

lengthened, particularly the hinder one; front of the tarsi sentel-.

lated ; under part entire. ;

This form differs from all others in the great family of the,

Thrushes, and appears to partake of the characters of the genera

Turdus, Chameza, and Oreocincla.

NESOCICHLA EREMITA.

Head and all the upper surface, wings and tail dark sandy-brown,

with a darker shade in the centre of each feather, but the primaries

have paler edges, and the greater coverts and secondaries are tipped

with sandy buff; lores and cheeks rufous ; feathers of the under

surface deep buff at the base, with a lengthened pear-shaped mark

of brown down the apex of each feather, these marks being so large

and thickly placed as to give the whole a mottley appearance ; on

the throat these marks somewhat resemble strize ; thighs buff; bill

black ; tarsi reddish-brown, toes darker.

Total length, 83 inches; bill, 11; wing, 3%; tail, 3; tarsi, 1}.

Hab. The island of Tristan d’Acunha.

Remark.—tThis bird is about the size of the common Song- thrush,

Turdus musicus, and similar to it in appearance ; on examination,

however, it will be found to differ very considerably in structure. |

MERULA VINITINCTA.

The male has the head and nape blackish-brown, upper surface’

and wing-coverts reddish-brown ; wings brown margined with oliva-

ceous ; tail brown ; throat dark bluish grey ; under surface vinaceous

red; bill bright gamboge-yellow; eye-lash yellow; tarsi and toes

yellow.

* Total length, 8 inches; bill, 1; wing, 42; tail, 3g; tarsi, 14.

The female is very similar, but is of a somewhat paler tint, and.

has only a trace of the black hood of the male.

Hab. Lord Howe’s Island.

Remark, Of the same form, and somewhat allied to the Merula

nestor of the Norfolk Island.

ZOSTEROPS TEPHROPLEURUS.

Head and upper surface bright olive-green, with a wash of grey

across the shoulders; wings and tail slaty brown, margined with

olive-green ; throat dull yellow; around the eyes a circle of white

feathers, below which is a mark of black; under surface pale vina-

ceous brown, becoming gradually paler on the lower part of the ab-~

domen, and passing into the pale yellow of the under tail-coverts.

Total length, 43 inches; bill, $; wing, 23; tail, 22; tarsi 2.

Hab. Lord Howe’s Island.

Remark. This species is allied to Z. dorsalis, but is of a some-.

what larger size, and is less richly coloured on the flanks.

Lieut. Burgess on the Birds of Western India. 175

ZOSTEROPS STRENUUS.

Head and upper surface bright olive-green, with a wash of dark

grey across the shoulders ; wings and tail slaty-brown, margined with

greenish olive ; eyes surrounded by the usual ring of white feathers,

beneath which is a narrow line of black ; chin and throat yellow ;

flanks pale vinaceous ; centre of the abdomen nearly white ; under

tail-coverts pale yellow ; bill and feet bluish black.

Total length, 53 inches; bill, 1; wing, 23; tail, 2}; tarsi,

Hab. Lord Howe’s Island.

This is by far the largest species of the genus yet discovered.

PLATYCERCUS CYANOGENYS.

Crown of the head pale sulphur-yellow ; cheeks ceerulean blue ;

feathers of the nape, back and scapularies black, broadly margined

with sulphur-yellow, stained with green on the lower part of the

back; rump and upper tail-coverts greenish yellow, with an ex-

tremely narrow fringe of black at the tip of the feathers ; shoulder

and greater wing-coverts deep blue; lesser coverts black, bordered

with deep blue ; primaries and secondaries blackish brown, the basal

half of their external webs deep blue, the apical half pale blue ;

tertiaries black, broadly margined with greenish yellow ; breast pale

greenish yellow, abdomen light greenish blue ; all the feathers of the

under surface slightly fringed with black ; under tail-coverts scarlet,

narrowly margined with yellow; two middle tail-feathers greenish

blue ; the next on each side blue, slightly tipped with pale blue; the

remainder blackish brown at the base of their imternal webs, and

deep blue externally ; their apical portions being beautiful pale blue.

Total length, 13 inches; wing, 6;; tail, 7; tarsi, 4.

Hab, Cape York, north-east coast of Australia.

Remark. This species offers a very close alliance to Platycercus

palliceps, but differs in having no trace of searlet on the forehead, in

the green tinge of the borderings of the feathers of the back, in the

greenish yellow of the breast, and in having the cheeks blue instead

of light yellow.

Nores on THE Nests AND Ecos or THE Birps or WESTERN

Inp1A.—Part XI. By Lieut. Burcess.

Family CoLyMBID.

Genus Popiceprs.

PopDICEPS PHILIPPENSIS.

I believe the egg sent with this paper to be that of the Grebe. It

was taken from the nest with several others in the month of August.

The nests were composed of rotten reeds and grass, fastened between

tall reeds* ; each nest contained about eight eggs, 1 inch and nearly

_ * The eggs were carefully covered over, and the heat arising from the nest was

most perceptible : the eggs appear to be hatched by the heat arising from the de-

caying vegetable matter.

76 Zoological Society :—

5 ths in length, by 1 inch in width. Some of the eggs were nearly

white, others much discoloured.

Family PELECANID2. Subfamily Larip#,

Genus STERNA.

Subgenus SrerNa.

STERNA MELANOGASTER (Temm.). BLAck-BELLIED TERN,

I found this Tern common on the river Bheena, and was fortunate

enough to obtain an egg. Ona second occasion, when walking on a

sand-bank in the midst of the river where I obtained the first egg, I

was beset by a pair of these Terns, and on looking about on the

ground, found two eggs deposited in a slight hollow scraped in the

moist sand, not far from the brink of the water. These birds, when

flying overhead, utter a cry very like the chirp of a Sparrow. One

could easily distinguish the different kinds of Terns by their varied

notes.

The Black-bellied Tern breeds during the months of March and

April, laying two eggs. The egg measures 1 inch and rather more

[ole]

than ,2,ths in length, by 1 inch in width. It is of a rich stone-colour,

spotted chiefly round the centre, and more sparingly over the large

end with grey and light brown spots.

Subgenus Ruyncuors.

RHYNCHOPS NIGRA.

This large species of Tern I found most abundant on the river

Bheena, and had ample opportunities of studying its habits. On a

large sand-bank in that river I found that a large colony had esta-

blished themselves, and found young birds able to fly, nestlings and

eggs. The appearance of these birds is attractive, their long

orange razor-like beak, long wings, and curious skimming flight,

ever and anon dipping their lower mandible under water, their odd

shuffling gait when walking on the sand, as if they scarcely knew

what to do with their beak, and apparent difficulty in arranging

their long swift-like wings, their curious chattering notes when they

assemble on some spit of sand at the water’s edge,—all these points

attract any one fond of natural history.

I first noticed these birds on a mud-bank in the river in the month

of January. On visiting the same place in April, I found them on

a sand-bank higher up, and suspecting this to be their breeding-

time, was conveyed over the water to the bank. On reaching it and

narrowly inspecting the ground, I found the remains of broken egg-

shells ; after a further search, I was rewarded by finding four or

five nests, also the nest of a Little Ringed Plover and Black-bellied

Tern. The Rhynchops lays four eggs in a hole scraped in the

damp sand and gravel. Those which I found were mostly near the

water’s edge. In some nests I found young ones, and procured one

young bird that was able to fly very fairly. Any one at all accus-

tomed to the habits of birds might have told that they were nesting

Dr. E. Crisp on the Anatomy of the Tasmanian Wolf. 177

by their restlessness, and the vicious way in which they attacked all in-

truders. I saw them buffet a large Plover that pitched on the bank,

and boldly attack those insatiable pilferers of nests, the Crows. The

very young birds, when first hatched, are covered with a whitey-

brown down, spotted with dark spots. The curious square end of

the beak is very marked. The legs and feet of a dirty greyish-brown.

The eggs are rather more than 1} inch in length, by | inch and

rather more than 5!,th in width, of a pale stone colour, spotted and

blotched with grey and two shades of brown.

. Lsubjoin. the description of a young bird that was able to fly,

probably about six weeks or two months old. The beak (after the

skin was dried) was of a dull brown tinged with orange; the under

mandible sharp, as in the old bird, but scarcely longer than the

upper. .| Feathers on the cheeks pale fawn colour, with a few dusky

spots, those on the forehead much the same, but the dusky spots

more visible; on the top of the head behind the eye, back of the

neck, the feathers are dull black, with pale ferruginous edges ; lower

part of the back of the neck whitish, with a broad brown bar, and

tipped. with pale ferruginous ; upper. tail-coverts, some dusky black,

with pale ferruginous edges, some ferruginous mottled with white ;

tail-feathers, lower portion white, upper- portion dusky, with a

marked border of pale ferruginous ; primaries: nearly black, with

pale tips ; smaller quill-feathers, lower portion dusky, upper nearly

white; secondaries much the same, the white being much clearer ;

greater coverts dusky, with whitish tips; tertials dusky, with pale

ferruginous edges; the lesser coverts the same ; chin, throat, breast

and belly, under tail-coverts white ; sides of the neck white, with a

few dusky spots; legs and feet dirty orange-brown. '

On some Points RELATING TO THE ANATOMY OF THE

TasMANIAN Wo tr (THYLACINUS) AND oF THE CAPE Hunrt-

ine Doc (Lycaon pictus). By Epwarps Crisp, M.D.

Before I proceed to the immediate object of my communication, I

may be excused, I trust, for alluding to a mode of investigation that

I have followed in all my dissections, viz. that of taking accurate

weights and measures of the body of the animal and of the viscera,

with drawings the size of life of the organs examined.

By this method, combined with the use of the microscope, I be-

lieve hereafter that much light will be thrown upon many physio-

logical subjects which are at present but imperfectly understood,

It is, however, only by comparison on a large scale that any import-

ant benefit is likely to result.

‘Tuytactnus CyNOCEPHALUS.

This animal (a male) died at the Society's Gardens, where it had

been for several years. I believe it is the only one that has been

dissected in this country. It weighed 33 lbs., and measured from

nose to root of tail 2 feet 93 inches. The tail, 15 inches. The penis

curved backwards. The cause of its death was unapparent. It was

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvii. 12

178 Zoological Society :— YT Ad

excessively fat; the fat on its abdomen and other parts weighing

probably four or five pounds. The heart, long and pointed ; weight,

4 oz. 60 grs. The trachea of moderate size; the connecting mem-

brane at the posterior part very thick. The lungs trilobed ; weight,

4 oz. 304 grs. The liver composed of five main lobes ; weight, 14 oz.

The spleen long, thin and narrow, with a lateral tongue-like process

(as in nearly all of the Marsupiata) 4 from the upper end. Length

of spleen, 103 inches; its average breadth about an. inch; it was

seated along the left side of the stomach, imbedded in fat. The

kidney of a rounded form; weight, 1 oz. 167 grs. The alimentary

canal measured only 6 feet 6 inches. The stomach of moderate size ;

its coats very thick, and capable of great distension. The rugee of

the lining membrane large and prominent; the pyloric valye strong

and muscular; the length of empty stomach 8 inches; the duode-

num at its commencement studded with numerous bead-like pro-

cesses, which emerged into a portion of mucous membrane thickly

studded with villi about 3 lines in length, as represented in fig. 1.

These were continued for nearly four feet ; they resemble much the

rumen of the sheep or rein-deer. In the small intestines of the Rhi-

noceros, fig. 2, the villi are about 6 or 8 lines in length, but far less

numerous. ;

The cecum absent. The large intestine measured 12 inches; the

coats thick and the lining membrane plicated longitudinally, The

relative weight of the viscera as compared with that of the body is

about as follows :—Liver, ;!;; spleen, 3}; ; kidney, 745; heart, 745;

lungs, 45; the blood-corpuscles about 45 of an inch in diameter.

Fig. 2.

I have examined the two skeletons of the Thylacinus at the Mu-

seum of the College of Surgeons, a description of which is given by

Professor Owen in the new Osteological Catalogue (p. 347). The

teeth, 46 in number ; incisors, 8 above and 6 below; canines, 4;

molars, 28, 14 in cach jaw =46. Vertebree: cervical, 7; dorsal, 13;

lumbar, 5; sacral, 2; caudal, 23; ribs, 13.

The time does not allow me to dwell on many points of great in-

terest respecting the anatomy of this animal, but a comparison of the

structure of the Thylacinus with the Dog I am about to describe will

not be unprofitable, ;

Care Huxtine Doe (Lycaon rvictrus. S. Africa).

This animal died at the Society’s Gardens, where it remained for

some months previous to its death, a few days before which period

Dr. E. Crisp on the Anatomy of the Cape Hunting Dog. 179

‘it had several convulsive fits. I could not examine the brain; but

Mr. Ward, who stuffed the animal, told me that a large quantity of

serum escaped from the cranium, so that probably death was occa-

sioned by inflammation of the brain and effusion of fluid.

In Cuvier’s ‘ Animal Kingdom,’ 1849, by Carpenter, p. 91, is the

following note :—** This remarkable species is dog-like, but certainly

not a Canis; its form and colouring (and, there is reason to suspect,

its internal conformation) are rather those of a hyzena, and it is

known to copulate in the manner of those animals, and not in the

_ peculiar manner of the dogs and foxes. Even its dentition is the

same as that elsewhere found (with one other exception, Proteles)

throughout the group to which we conceive the hyzenas to belong,

the dental system of which latter appears to be modified in accord-

ance with their much increased and prodigious strength of the jaw.”

This dog weighed about 50 lbs.; it measured 3 feet 1 inch from

nose to root of tail; tail, 13 inches; height to the back behind neck,

2 feet 3 inches ; fore-leg, 164 inches; ribs, 13. ‘Teeth: incisors, 6

in each jaw, 12; canines, 4; molars, 10 above and 12 below, =38.

The age of the animal about 2} years. Heart of a rounded form ;

weight 8 oz.; the parietes of the left ventricle 10 lines in thickness, of

the right 3 lines ; the aorta of large calibre, and its coats thick. Lungs,

the right four-lobed, the left three- ; weight 26 oz. Trachea very large.

Liver seven-lobed ; weight 21 0z. Bile of a dark yellow colour. Gall-

bladder of moderate size. Spleen about 500 grs. in weight; long,

lax, thin and narrow, as in all the Carnaria. It was in the usual

situation in this order of animals, viz. on the left of the stomach, to

which it was attached by « wide mesenteric fold ; the splenic artery

and vein long; no valves in the latter. Pancreas small and elon-

gated. Kidney oblong, less concave on its inner side than usual.

The stomach of moderate size, and shaped like that of the dog;

length 12 inches ; this organ with the cesophagus measured 12 feet

6 inches ; the czecum, which was in 2} spiral folds like that of the

dog, when unfolded was 5 inches in length; the colon and rectum

1 foot 10 inches ; total, 14 feet 9 inches. The czecal valve strong

and distinct. The alimentary canal was too much decomposed to

allow of my making a microscopical examination of it, but its strue-

ture appeared to resemble that of the Dog.

The ribs of the Hyzena are 15 ; those of the Lycaon 13, as in the

Dog, Wolf and Fox. The teeth of the Hyzena, judging from two

skulls in the Museum of tlie College of Surgeons, are, 4 incisors above,

6 below, 10 molars above, 12 below, canines 4, =36. In the skull of

the Striped Hyzena 10 molars in each jaw (one specimen), and in

some fossil jaws of this animal the number of molars is less than

above quoted ; but much, of course, will depend upon the age of the

animal. In the Pointer, Blood-hound, Dingo, and other dogs, I

found 12 molars above and 14 below, the canines being 4 and the

incisors 12. The same with the Wolf and Fox.

The only record I can find of the dissection of a Hyzena is one fur-

nished me by Professor Quekett, and in this animal (30 years old)

12%

180 ’ Zoological Society.

the alimentary canal measured 39 feet 54 inches. The account is

copied from Professor Quekett’s notes. I was at first inclined to

suppose that the copyist had made some mistake, the length men-

tioned being very great for a carnivorous animal. Professor Quekett

suggested ‘that the large quantity of phosphate of lime taken by

the hyzena might explain the anomaly.”’

On referring, however, to the notes of my dissections of four dogs,

in which I carefully measured the alimentary canal of all, the above

statement does not appear to be so improbable :—

Small Terrier, alimentary canal 7 feet 4 inches.

Small Terrier (young), 7 feet.

Blood-hound, 21 feet ; including large intestines, 2 feet 2 inches.

Large Mastiff (old), weighing 104 lbs., 31 feet; including large

intestines, 3 feet.

Common Fox, 10 feet 6 inches.

Young Indian Wolf (four months old), 6 feet 1 inch.

So that, looking to the ribs, teeth, caecum, length of alimentary

canal, and general form of the viscera, this animal must be classed

with the Dogs, and not with the Hyzenas.

Additional Remarks on the Lycaon pictus.

After the death of the dog, the bitch which was with him became

restless, howled frequently, refused her food, and died July 13th, ten

days after.

I examined the body a few hours after death. She was about the

same size as the dog, and of the same age. She had probably lost

10 or 15 lbs. in weight. The body weighed 314 Ibs., and the sub-

joined is the relative weight of the viscera, fractions being omitted :-—

Heart, 7 02. 7.

Lungs, 24 oz. 3.

Liver, 18 oz. 3.

Spleen, 790 grs. 345.

Pancreas, 370 grs. <5:

Kidney, 1080 grs. 34-

Alimentary canal, 13 feet 6 inches.

The uterus resembled that of the bitch (C./familiaris) ; the vagina

9 inches in length, the cornua 6 inches each.

But one of the most interesting results of this dissection was the

examination of the blood-corpuscles ; these were larger than in any

carnivorous animal that I have dissected ; they measured, the greater

part of those examined, about the 3000th of an inch in diameter,

being larger than those of Man.

I may add, that I could not discover any morbid lesion in this

animal, and that I believe her death was occasioned by the loss of

her companion.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 181

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

May 8, 1856.—Colonel Madden, President, in the Chair.

me following papers were read :—

. “On the Sexuality of the Alge,” by Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, of

After adverting to the various recent discoveries in Cryptogamic

reproduction, particularly those of Thuret and Pringsheim, the author

gave an account of the pheenomena observed by him in Spheroplea

annulina. He showed that the cells of one part of the filament be-

came male, and exhibited antheridia filled with spermatozoa, while

those of the other part became female, being transformed into sporan-

gia, developing many spores. He then described minutely the mode

in which the spermatozoa came into contact with the female cells

and fertilized the spores. He also gave an account of the mode of

fecundation in the genus @dogonium.

** Having observed,” the author remarks, ‘in the lower plants the

necessity of the material and immediate contact and union of sper-

matozoa and eggs or spores ; the want of a peculiar membrane around

the latter before impregnation; the formation of this wall and the

multiplication of the developed cell as the immediate consequence of

fecundation, we may conclude that the same course of development

may also be followed in the reproduction of other organisms,—a con-

clusion which is entirely confirmed by the most recent observations

on the fecundation of animals.”

2. “On the Preparation of Sugar and Arrack from Palms in

Ceylon,” by Alexander Smith, M.D.

Three Palms yield sugar in Ceylon: Cocos nucifera, Borassus fla-

belliformis, and Cari -yota urens. From each of these the juice of the

flowering-stalk is collected, and from it sugar is regularly prepared ;

but it is from the Borassus that almost all the palm sugar is obtained.

It is from the sugar of the Cocos that arrack is made in Ceylon.

3. “On the occurrence of Scalariform Tissue in the Devonian

Strata of the South of Ireland,’ by Robert Harkness, F.G.S., Pro-

fessor of Geology, Queen’s College, Cork.

The author, after noticing the occurrence of Cyclopteris hibernica

in the neighbourhood of Cork, remarked that in some of the higher

beds of the Devonians of the South of Ireland there had been found

great quantities of drifted vegetable matter in the form of more or

less perfect stems of trees, exhibiting in their interior a fibrous char-

coal-like substance, which when examined by the microscope presented

evident scalariform tissue, showing that the plants belonged to the

Fern alliance.

4. “Notice of some additions to the Cryptogamic Flora of Edin-

burgh,” by Mr. W. Nichol.

The author remarked that the presence of such plants as Leskia

subrufa, Trichostomum flewicaule, Ancectangium compactum, En-

calypta ciliata, Tortula tortuosa, Bryum Zierti, and Blindia acuta,

182 Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

at Habbies How, indicates an approach to an alpine flora. Habbies

How is a narrow chasm running nearly east and west, bounded on

each side by precipitous rocks, which are seldom exposed to the rays

of the sun. It lies at the base of the northern slope of the highest

of the Pentlands (here attaining an altitude of about 1800 feet), and

it is on the rocks facing the north that the plants oceur.

Professor Balfour read a letter from Mr. Macmillan, in which he

stated that he had received a number of Lichens gathered on the

Cumbraes, among which were several very rare species, for which

no locality had previously been found in Scotland, they being

eminently southern species ; such as Parmelia tiliacea and corrugata,

and Opegrapha Lyellii and dendritica.

Mr. Macmillan remarks :—‘ I found in a wood immediately above

Tnver, near Dunkeld, an immense number of juniper bushes, the stems

and branches of which were profusely covered with magnificent speci-

mens of the Podisoma juniperi-communis, avery rare Hypodermous

fungus, previously found only, as far as I am aware, in one or two

stations in England. Last year, I observed beside the monument in

the grounds of Taymouth Castle, a very old juniper bush completely

covered with it. Ina fresh state, and particularly during damp or

rainy weather, it bears considerable resemblance to some species of

Clavaria; growing in the form of a bundle of thick gelatinous stems

of an orange colour, and tapering at one extremity—aggregated

fogether on the part of the branch infested, and completely envelop-

ing it—and thus giving it an appearance not unlike a pine-apple

witcn seen from a little distance. In an old state, and in hot weather,

however, it dries up and becomes hard and shrivelled.

June 12, 1856.—Prof. Balfour, V.P., in the Chair.

The following papers were read :—

1. “Elucidation of some Plants mentioned in Dr. Francis Hamil-

ton’s Account of the Kingdom of Nepal,” by Lieut.-Colonel Madden.

An attempt to determine several of the doubtful species.

**On the Duration of the Life of Plants,’’ by Prof. Fleming.

3. “Inquiry into the signs of current Electricity in Plants,’’ by

Hf. F. Baxter, Esq.

After alluding to the researches of Becquerel, Donné, Wartmann,

and Zantedeschi, the author proceeded to detail experiments made

on plants by means of the electrodes of a galvanometer. He exa-

mined the electric currents in the leaves, roots, flowers, fruits, and

Fhe and the following are the conclusions drawn :—

lst. That when the electrodes of a galvanometer are brought into

contact, one with the surface of the leaf, and the other with the

flowing from the same leaf, an effect occurs upon the needle indicating

the surface and the sap to be in opposite electric states. These effects

cannot be referred entirely to ordinary electro-chemical actions, but

inay be referred, in part, to the organic changes which take place in

the leaf during vegetation.

Miscellaneous. 183

2nd. When the electrodes are brought into contact, one with the

external surface of the spongioles of a plant, and the other with the

sap ascending from the root, the sap and the external surface are in

opposite electric states. The effects which are here observed with

the galvanometer may, in the majority of instances, be due to ordinary

electro-chemical actions ; but in some instances the effect cannot be

referred to these actions, but may be referred to the organic changes

which oceur in the roots during vegetation.

3rd. That with the petals of flowers slight currents were obtained ;

and,

4th. In fruits and tubers powerful currents may be occasionally

obtained ; but these effects are evidently secondary results, due to the

reaction of the different vegetable juices upon each other.

4. “Notice of some Additions to the Hepaticz of the neighbour-

hood of Edinburgh,”’ by John Lowe, Esq.

d. ‘Record of Localities for Rare Plants,’ by Prof. Balfour.

6. ‘Continuation of Account of some of the Contents of the

Museum at the Botanic Garden,” by Prof. Balfour.

7. ‘List of the Fibrous Plants of India,’’*communicated by Prof,

Balfour.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the probable Origin of the Organized Beings now living in the

Azores, Madeira, and the Canaries. By M. Oswatp Herr.

In a letter to M. A. DeECANDOLLE.

In your Geography of Plants you have adopted the opinion of

Edward Forbes, that in the miocene period the European continent ex-

tended to the Azores and Canaries, and supported it by fresh proofs*.

In fact, the predominant European character of these islands, which

occurs in their insects as well as in their flora, proves that they were

anciently joined to the continent. Nevertheless we must not forget

that, as compared with Europe, these islands are very different from

those of the Mediterranean. They are distinguished in the first

place by a much greater number of peculiar species, which constitute

a third or a fifth of the plants; and in the second by some American

types, which make their appearance in all these islands. These are

not only certain American species which might have reached them

accidentally by the agency of the winds and currents, or of man, but

American genera which are represented by peculiar species. I will

instance the genera Clethra, Bystropogon, and Cedronella, as also

the unique pine of the Canaries (Pinus canariensis, Sm.), which

belongs to the American forms with acicular ternate leaves. The

relations of the Laurels is very remarkable in this respect; they form

a great part of the forests of Madeira and the Canaries, dividing into

four species and playing an important part. Two species (Oreo-

* DeCandolle, Géographie Botanique raisonnée, p. 1310.

184 Miscellaneous.

daphne fatens and Persea indica) are essentially American types ;

the third (Phebe Barbusana, Webb) belongs to a genus which oecurs

in India and America; and the fourth (Laurus canariensis, Webb)

corresponds with the European species. By the possession of these

laurel forests the islands of the Atlantic differ greatly from the African

continent, where they are entirely wanting, and approach America

rather than Africa, notwithstanding the proximity of the latter.

These facts obtain great importance by the observation that the

flora of the Atlantic islands has much resemblance to the Tertiary

flora of Europe.

In my ‘Flora Tertiaria Helvetize,’ I have proved that a considerable

number of plants of the Tertiary epoch corresponded with species

peculiar to Madeira and the Canaries, in such a manner that there

must be a relation between the two floras. On the other hand, our

Tertiary flora indicates a great resemblance to the flora of the

southern United States. Many perfectly characteristic genera, such

as Taxodium, Sequoia, Liquidambar, Sabal, &c., were distributed over

the whole of our tertiary country, and composed partly of species

very closely allied to those which now grow in America; other genera

belong equally to America and Europe (such as Quercus, Corylus,

Populus, Acer, &c.), and occur in the European Tertiary epoch, com-

posed of species corresponding with the American forms.

We find similar cases amongst the terrestrial mollusca and insects,

although this is not so positive as with regard to plants.

These remarkable circumstances are explicable, if we suppose that

during the Tertiary epoch a terrestrial formation united the continents

of Europe and America, and that this surface was extended by some

projection to the Atlantic islands. A glance at the map of the depths

of the ocean by Maury, shows that the bottom of the Atlantic forms

a longitudinal valley, of which the deepest parts are between the

twentieth and fortieth degrees of north latitude, nearly at an equal

distance from Europe and Africa, but that on the two sides of this

deep valley there is a vast maritime plateau, which includes the At-

lantic islands, as well as the whole space between the European con-

tinent, Newfoundland, and Acadia. Beyond this space another long

valley, but of less depth, takes its rise, in a direction from south to

north-east between Madeira and the Azores; it loses itself close to

the coast of Oporto.

If we may attribute any importance to these very general data, we

must admit that during the miocene period the maritime plateau

above indicated was solid ground.

This country, this ancient Atlantis, would have had the same

plants as central miocene Europe, of which the remains are found in

the mollasse of Switzerland in such astonishing profusion, that I shall

be able to give descriptions and figures of about six hundred species in

my ‘ Flora Tertiaria.” On the coast of this country the marine shells

presented a great conformity in America and Europe; and this remark-

able phaenomenon is still reproduced, that Europe has more littoral

than deep-sea species of shells and fishes in common with America ;

which proves that at one period a band of firm ground must have

Miscellaneous. 185

united these two parts of the world. The Atlantic islands had already

risen towards the south coasts of this continent at the diluvian period.

That this country was at the bottom of the sea during the miocene

epoch, is shown by the fossil shells of Porto Santo and St. Vincent

in Madeira and those of the Azores; but that it had emerged at the

diluvian period is proved by the terrestrial mollusca of Canical, and

the fossil plants of St. Jorge in Madeira*.

The islands formed at this epoch would have received their vege-

tation from the Atlantis in the diluvian period, and consequently at

an epoch when this continent had entered upon a new phase of deve-

lopment. If we suppose, that then, by a subsequent depression of

the soil, the connexion with America was destroyed, and subsequently

that which existed with Europe, we shall obtain the elements for the

explanation of the existing flora of these islands. We there find the

remains of the flora of the ancient Atlantis, and in consequence many

types of the Tertiary flora are retained there whilst they have disap-

peared in Europe. These remains, with a certain number of other

species, form the peculiar plants of these isles, corresponding in part

with the American species because they have issued from the same

centre of formation. But it is with Europe that these islands have

the most species in common, probably because their connexion with

this continent lasted longer.

At tne diluvian period the flora of central Europe was displaced by

great changes of climate (extension of glaciers, &c.) ; and as by the

depression of the Atlantis the connexion with America was destroyed,

the new European vegetation could not extend on that side, but only

towards the east. It is thus that the characters of the new vegeta-

tion would be explained, particularly that of the lower countries, whilst

the Alps and the north have undergone less change. This also is

the reason of the great analogies which occur between the north of

Europe, Asia, and America. I arrive therefore at the same conclu-

sion with yourself as regards these latter countries, namely that the

alpine vegetation is certainly the most ancient in our country, and

that subsequently when the climate became warmer, after the glacial

epoch, it rose from the low countries to the mountains and Alps.—

Bibliotheque Univ. de Geneve, April 1856, p. 327.

Note on Clausilia plicatula and C. Mortilleti.

By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, Esq.

Mr. Benson, in the last Number of the ‘Annals’ (p. 75), states

that I omitted Clausilia plicatula in my “ Notes on the Swiss Mol-

lusea,”’? as well as two other so-called species of Clausilia ; all of

which he had found in Switzerland. My reason for omitting C. pli-

catula was explained in the preface to my ‘‘ Notes,” in which I said

I was induced to think that a notice of “ some hitherto unrecorded

localities’? which occurred to me might be interesting, and that I

adopted Charpentier’s Catalogue as my text-book. By referring to

that catalogue it will be seen that Charpentier mentions C. plicatula

* See Heer, “‘ Ueber die fossilen Pflanzen von San Jorge in Madeira.”

Zurich, 1855.

186 Miscellaneous.

as “fort commune dans toute la Suisse occidentale.’ I found it at

Belmont, les Rochers Naye, Lausanne, Devens, Blonay, and Mont-

reux. For the same reason I omitted such common species as Sue-

cinea amphibia, Helix arbustorum and nemoralis, Pupa avena, Clau-

silia parvula, Cyclostoma elegans, and Ancylus fluviatilis.

C. plicatula is undoubtedly distinct from C. Rolphii ; but whether

C. Mortilleti is not a variety of C. Rolphii is another question.

Judging from a comparison of specimens of C. Mortilleti kindly sent

me by Mr. Prentice, with specimens of C. Rol/phii, deseribed and

figured by the authors of the ‘ British Mollusca,’ I am inclined to

think they ought to be united. Mr, Hanley is of the same opinion.

The differences pointed out by Mr. Benson are equally observable in

varieties of C. nigricans and C. bidens. However, Mr. Benson has had

great experience in the discrimination of species from varieties ; and

(as I remarked on a former occasion) naturalists may fairly differ on

this point.—J. Gwyn JEFFREYS.

1 Montagu Square, 11th July 1856.

LERN#A BRANCHIALIS.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Falmouth, June 28, 1856.

GENTLEMEN,—The “ Lernea branchialis,”’ Linn., was procured

this morning by Miss Vigurs from the gills of the Gadus Avglefinus,

It measured one inch and seven-eighths in length. The head was

ornamented with two transparent horns, about one-eighth of an inch

long, slightly curved and sharp at the pomts. Neck long; body

inflated, bent in the form of the letter S; filaments contracted,

annulated, very much contorted, transparent. Colour of head, neck

and body chocolate- brown.

I am, Gentlemen, yours truly,

W. P. Cocks.

On two new species of Birds from Santa Fé di Bogota.

By Puiiire Luriey Scrarer, M.A.,, F.Z.S,

HxrTEROCNEMIS MARGINATA, Sclater.

H. supra cinnamomeo-brunnea, pennis strictissime nigro mar-

ginatis: alis caudaque intus nigricantibus, externe brunnes-

centibus: subtus alba, gutturis et pectoris totius plumis stricte

brunneo marginatis, quasi squamatis; his marginibus versus

ventrem gradatim latioribus: ventre crissoque cinnamomeo-

brunneis, nigro transversim vittatis : rostro nigro, mandibula

inferiore basi alba ; pedibus pallide brunneis.

Long. tota 3°0; alee 2°2; caudee 1:2; rostri a fronte *5,

Mr. Strickland’s name JZolocnemis, proposed in 1844 for the

H. nevia (figured in Cont. to Orn. 1849, pl. 18), has been pre-

viously applied to a genus of Coleoptera by Schilling, and I there-

Miscellaneous. 187

fore propose to change it into LZeterocnemis. A second species of

the genus seems to be the bird figured in Buffon’s Pl. Enl. 73,

fig. 2, under the name of ‘Le Bambla de Cayenne.’—(Turdus

bambla, Bodd.— Heterocnemis bambla, mihi.)—The present bird is

very closely allied to the latter. In the upper plumage it is very

similar, being only of a more cinnamomeous tinge ; but it may be

distinguished by the want of the white markings on the wings, and

the throat, breast and upper belly beg white, each feather narrowly

margined with brown. In H. dambla these parts are ash-brown,

with obsolete transverse markings. Lesson’s Myrmothera troglo-

dytes (Desc. d. Mamm. et Ois. p. 301, no. 118) seems the same as

H. bambla. This form is indeed very closely connected with some

of the Wrens, and hardly to be separated from certain birds that are

usually placed in the genus Scytalopus.

ToODIROSTRUM GRACILIPES, Sclater.

T. supra olivaceum ; alis caudaque nigricantibus, olivaceo anguste

limbatis ; pileo fuscescente ; loris mentoque albidis ; subtus

flavum, lateribus olivascentibus ; gutture et pectore longitudi-

naliter nigro striatis ; tectricibus subalaribus sulphureis ; ros-

tro nigro ; pedibus carneis ; tarsis gracillimis.

Long. tota 3°8 ; alee 2:0; caudee 1°7.

This apparently new species is most nearly allied to 7. maculatum

(Desm.) and T’. striaticolle, Lafr. (in both of which the neck is also

striated), but has the whole throat yellow. The bill agrees in form

with that of the former bird, but is rather shorter and narrower.

The type specimen is in the British Museum.—Proc. Zool. Soc.

July 24, 1855.

ON THE BRITISH DIASTYLIDA,.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

8 Mulgrave Place, Plymouth, July 10, 1856.

GENTLEMEN,—It has recently been pointed out to me by Mr.

Alder that I have unfortunately made use of two generic names in

the paper on “the British Diastylide,’ lately published in the

‘Annals,’ that have been previously employed to designate other

genera of animals. It is therefore desirable that the names Malia

and Venilia should be changed, and I propose instead to use Iphinoé

and Cyrianassa respectively. The names as applied will therefore

be Iphinoé trispinosa and Cyrianassa gracilis.

Believe me, yours obediently,

C. Spence Bare.

Note on Helix Cantiana, Mont. By Wm. Lonspats, Esq., F.G.S.

* Helix Cantiana is abundant around Keynsham, Somerset. It

was first found in the spring of 1825, alive and near the entrance to

Dr. Fox’s establishment, between Keynsham and Brislington ; and

more recently in lanes close to the town.”

188 Miscellaneous.

Description of a Fossil Cranium of the Musk-buffalo (Bubalus mos-

chatus, Owen), from the Gravel at Maidenhead, Berks. By Prof.

Owen, F.G.S.

This specimen was discovered by the Rev. Mr. Kingsley and

Mr. J. Lubbock in a gravel-pit close to the engine-house at the

Maidenhead station last summer, and is the first example of the

subgenus Bubalus yet*recognized as fossil in Britain. It consists

of the cranial part of the skull, with the horn-cores, nearly perfect.

The Professor, in describing this fossil, first offered his reasons for

regarding the so-called ‘‘ Musk-ox”’ as having been unnecessarily

separated from the Buffaloes, and then gave an account of the few

fossil skulls of the Musk-buffalo yet known, viz. those figured by |

Pallas, Ozeretskowsky, and Cuvier. A comparison was then made

of the fossil remains with recent crania; and, although the skulls

somewhat differ in a few points, especially in the relative curvatures

of the horn-cores, yet the author was led to conclude that, as far as

the materials for comparison at his command would serve, the dif-

ferences between the fossil and recent Musk-buffaloes are not of

specific value; that the Bubalus moschatus of the Arctic regions,

with its now restricted range, is the slightly modified descendant of

the old companion of the Mammoth and the Tichorhine Rhinoceros,

which with them enjoyed a much wider range, both in latitude

and longitude, over lands that now form three divisions or con-

tinents of the northern hemisphere; and that the circumstances

which have brought about the probably gradual extinction of the

northern Rhinoceros and Elephant have not yet effected that of the

contemporary species of Arctic Buffalo. Proc. Geol. Soc. Dec. 19, |

1855.

A last word on Scissurella. By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, Esq., F.R.S.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—I had not intended at first to notice the commu-

nication of Mr. Woodward in your last Number, entitled ‘On the

Evils of Increasing Synonyms ;” but, lest it may be assumed that I

admit his statements, I must request you to insert these few remarks.

The real question at issue, and the only one which in any way

concerns naturalists or the cause of science, is whether Schismope is

synonymous with Seissurella, or whether they constitute distinet

genera. Now, although Mr. Woodward modestly states that he

has shown they are synonymous and that the fact admitted of no

reply, I cannot help reminding your readers that Dr. Gray (who is

undeniably a much better authority than either Mr. Woodward or

myself) has expressed a contrary opinion, and that the respective

characters of those genera were taken from species which differ from

each other in form, organization, and habit. I have now before me

130 specimens of Scissurella crispata of different ages and sizes, all

of which exhibit the open slit.

As regards myself personally, 1 must repeat my regret that Mr,

Miscellaneous. 189

Woodward has thought proper to mistake and pervert what passed

between us, as it has nothing whatever to do with the present con-

troversy.

It is true that he asked me for specimens of the Schismope, and

that I referred him to Mr. Damon, who had all my collection of

Mediterranean shells, on his repaying me (by previous agreement)

the expenses I was at in dredging. But it is not true, that when I

took him specimens (which I had a day or two before picked out of

some sand), he put such an impertinent question to me as he suggests

my remembering.

It was on this occasion that we examined together under a micro-

scope these specimens (and not the specimens given to him by Mr.

Damon), and that he noticed the peculiar structure of the closed slit.

After we had consulted Philippi, and Sowerby’s ‘Genera’ (and zot

“at that time,” as Mr. Woodward would have me say), I went to the

British Museum Library and referred to Sowerby’s translation in

the Zoological Journal of D’Orbigny’s Memoir. The result of this

reference I gave in a former paper. ;

When I took Mr. Woodward the specimens, I certainly understood

him to say that he was unacquainted with any other species of Scis-

surella than S. crispata. It was some time afterwards that he

showed me Mr. M‘Andrew’s specimen of S. angu/ata, Lovén (a true

Scissurella and closely allied to S. crispata, but of a much larger

size) ; and I certainly never saw D’Orbigny’s specimen of 8S. Berthe-

loti in company with Mr. Woodward, nor heard him-say anything

about a New Zealand Scissurella. We examined together a collec-

tion of fossi/ shells (containing Pleurotomaria and Trochotoma) in

quite another part of the Museum ; and this he seems to have mis-

taken for the D’Orbignyan collection.

This explanation, however, cannot interest your readers; and I

will not trespass any more on their patience.

I am, Gentlemen, yours obediently,

J. Gwyn JEFFREYS.

1 Montagu Square, 11th July 1856.

New Mode of Cleaning Diatomaceous Deposits.

By Prof. J. W. Battery.

Having found the following method of cleaning diatomaceous de-

posits more speedy and efficacious than any other I have tried, I

recommend it to all those who may have occasion to prepare speci-

mens of the si/iceous organisms in soundings, guano, mud, &e. Dis-

solve out the lime compounds, if present, by means of nitric or

hydrochloric acid, wash and filter. Then put the moist contents of

the filter into a porcelain capsule with enough strong sulphuric acid

to make of the whole a fluid mass. Heat the capsule over a spirit-

lamp until the organic matters are all charred, and continue the heat

until strong acid fumes areevolved. Keep the capsule hot, and add,

in minute portions at a time, finely powdered chlorate of potassa. If

the acid is hot enough to give off fumes, the chlorate will be im-

mediately decomposed without the accumulation of explosive gases,

190 Miscellaneous.

and it will exert so powerful an oxidizing action, that | in’ i

moments a carbonaceous material as black as ink will become’

fectly clean and colourless. Nothing now will remain to be’ cr

but to wash off the acid, which is best done by the addition of water

and repeated decantations. I also would advise that the materials

thus cleaned should not be dried, but should be kept in bottles with

a little aleohol, which prevents their felting together, and does not

allow the growth of the byssoid plants which often develope in water.

It is necessary to caution those not familiar with chemistry against

using the chlorate of potassa with sulphuric acid in any other way

than above directed, as violent and dangerots explosions might re-

sult. The process as above given is perfectly safe and very effective.

—NSilliman’s Journal, January 1856, p. 145.

New method of Disintegrating masses of Fossil Diatomacee.

By Prof. J. W. Batvey.

Many masses of fossil Diatomaceee are so strongly coherent, that they

cannot be diffused in water (for the purpose of mounting in balsam)

without a degree of mechanical violence which reduces to fragments

many of the most beautiful and interesting forms. This is partien-

larly the case with some specimens from the “ infusorial deposits” of

California. Some of these I endeavoured to break up, by boiling in

water and in acids, and also by repeated freezing and thawing when

moistened, but without good results in either case. At last it oe-

curred to me that the adherence might be due to a slight portion of

a siliceous cement, which the cautious use of an alkaline solution might

remove without destroying any but the most minute shells of the

Diatoms. As the case appeared a desperate one, a “‘ heroic remedy”

was applied, which was to boil small lumps of the diatomaceous mass

in a strong solution of caustic potassa or soda. ‘This proved to be

perfectly efficacious, as the masses under this treatment rapidly split

up along the planes of lamination, and then crumbled to mud, which

being immediately poured into a large quantity of water, ceased to

be acted upon by the alkali, and gave, when thoroughly washed, not

only all the large shells of the Diatoms in a state of unhoped-for

perfection, but also furnished abundance of the minute forms.

Having obtained by this method highly satisfactory results from

specimens from many localities, I can confidently recommend it as

an addition to our modes of research.

The following directions will enable any one to apply the process.

Put small lumps of the mass to be examined into a test tube, with

enough of a solution of caustic potassa or soda to cover them; then

boil over a spirit-lamp for a few seconds, or a few minutes, as the

case may require. If the solution is sufliciently strong, the masses

will rapidly crumble to mud, which must be poured at once into a

large quantity of water, which after subsidence is removed by decan-

tation. If the mass resists the action of the alkaline liquor a still

stronger solution should be tried, as while some specimens break u

instantly in a weak solution of alkali, others require that it should

be of the consistence of a dense syrup. The mud also should be

Meteorological Observations. 191

poured off as fast as it forms, so as to remain as short a time as

possible in the caustic ley.

The only specimens which I have found not to give good results

by the method above described, are those from Tampa Bay, Florida, and

the infusorial marls from Barbadoes. In the masses from Tampa

the lapidification is so complete, that the alkali destroys the shells

before the lumps break up; and in the case of the Barbadoes marls

the cementing material is calcareous, and requires a dilute acid for

its removal. In applying the above process one caution is necessary,

which is to thoroughly wash the shells with water, and not with

acids, as the latter will cause the deposit of a portion of the dissolved

silica and materially injure the beauty of the specimens. When the

washings are no longer alkaline, the specimens may be thoroughly

cleansed by acids, or by the chlorate process described above.—

—Silliman’s Journal, May 1856, p. 356.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR JUNE 1856.

Chiswick.—June 1, Hazy: cloudy. 2,3. Very fine. * 4. Very fine: cloudy :

lightning at night. 5—7. Very fine. 8. Dull and cloudy. 9,10, Very fine.

11. Cloudless. 12. Very fine: rain at night. 13. Rain. 14, Showery and

boisterous. 15. Very fine: cloudy: clear and fine. 16. Very fine. 17. Showery.

18. Very fine : clondy: rain. 19. Rain. 20. Showery. 21. Very fine : cloudy:

rain. 22. Cloudy and fine. 23. Overcast. 24. Very fine: uniformly overcast.

25. Very fine. 26. Sultry. 27. Cloudless and hot. 28. Uniformly overcast :

sultry : cold at night: range of temperature 45°. 29, 30. Clear and dry air.

Mean temperature of the month .........s.-sssecersccerserscsese 58°65

Mean temperature of June 1855 ............00ese0e pains sian soo ns 57 *98

Mean temperature of June for the last thirty years ......... 60 *31

Average amount of rain in June ....e.sees eee {id . oalnok de eee» 1880 inch.

Boston.—June 1. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 2—6. Fine. 7. Cloudy. 8—

1]. Fine. 12. Cloudy: rainr.at. 13,14. Cloudy: rain a.M.and p.m. 15. Cloudy.

16. Fine. 17. Rain am. 18. Cloudy. 19. Cloudy: rain a.m. 20. Cloudy.

21. Fine: rainp.m. 22. Cloudy: raina.m.and p.m. 23,24. Cloudy. 25. Fine.

26. Cloudy: thermometer 86° p.m. 27. Fine: thunder p.m. 28. Cloudy. 29.

Fine. 30. Rain a.m. and p.m.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—June 1. Cloudy A.m.: drizzlep.m. 2. Drizzle a.m.:

bright p.m. 3. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 4. Cloudy a.m.: drops p.m. 5. Bright

a.M.: cloudy p.m. 6. Cloudy a.M.andp.m. 7. Rain a.m.: bright p.m. 8. Clear

A.M, and p.M. 9. Cloudy a.m.: drops, clear p.m. 10, Clear a.m.: showers P.M.

1]. Rain a.m. and p.m. 12,13. Bright a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 14. Cloudy a.m. :

sleet-showers p.M. 15. Clear a.m.: cloudy p.m. 16. Showers a.m.: cloudy p.m.

17. Showers a.m. and p.m. 18. Bright A.m.: showers p.m. 19. Rain a.m.:

bright p.a»r. 20. Cloudy a.m.: bright p.m. 21. Rain a.m.: bright p.m. 22.

Bright a.m. and p.m. 23. Clear A.m.: cloudy p.m. 24. Fog a.m.: drizzle p.m.

25. Hazy a.m.: damp p.m. 26. Drops a.m.: rain,cleare.M. 27. Bright a.m. :

damp p.M. 28. Daiup a.M.: showers p.M. 29, 30. Clear a,m.: cloudy p.m.

Mean temperature of June for previous twenty-nine years ... 52°76

Mean temperature of this month ......ceseneceseeeseees Pitot 51°47

Mean temperature of June 1855 — .....s.cscseceeccseceeseseeseenes 52 °23

Average quantity of rain in June for preyious sixteen years... 2°24 inches.

’

——— i

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wes

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

{SECOND SERIES. ]

No. 105. SEPTEMBER 1856.

XVIII.— Attempts at a Natural Arrangement of Birds.

By Atrrep R. WaLvace.

Ir we examine the varied form and structure of Birds with a

view to their natural arrangement, we see as it were intuitively,

that certain well-marked groups exist, which can be distinctly

separated from the class, can be easily defined, and will contain

species which are more nearly related to each other than to any

other birds. Such are the Swimmers and Waders, which together

may be called Water Birds, and of the propriety of the separation

of which from the whole of the Land birds there has never been

a difference of opinion among naturalists. Again, among land

birds the Accipitres or Raptores of naturalists, containing the

Hawks, Vultures, and Owls, form a well-marked group, all the

members of which are undeniably related among themselves,

but are separated as it were by a chasm from all other birds;

for we consider the supposed affinity of the Owls with the Goat-

suckers to be quite incorrect ; those birds resembling each other

only in a few unimportant particulars, while in all essential

points of structure they widely differ. A third group which can

also be readily distinguished and separated from the rest, is that

of the Rasores or Gallinacee. The Pigeons are generally i in-

cluded in this order; but in that case a definition of Gallinaceze

becomes impossible, as so many of their most marked pecu-

liarities do not exist in the Columbe. It is however extra-

ordinary, that though the Pigeons possess more characters which

connect them with Perching birds than with Rasores, yet it is

more easy to conceive their connexion by intermediate links with

the latter than with the former ; for it has never yet been pointed

out what particular family or genus of Perching birds makes the

least approach to a Pigeon. We therefore conceive that the

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvin. 13

——— Fy

194 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

Columbe should form a distinct order, and should be considered

as an abnormal and passerine development of Rasores, repre-

senting the Perchers, but having no direct affinity with them.

Having thus eliminated a considerable number of generally

large-sized birds, we have still remaining by far the larger por-

tion, forming the Passeres, Insessores, or Perching birds. Out

of about 7000 known birds, upwards of 5000 are Perchers. It

is to this great group, or rather to a limited portion of it, that

we intend to devote the present paper.

The Passerine order comprises at once the most perfect, the

most beautiful, and the most familiar of birds. The feathered

inhabitants of our fields, gardens, hedge-rows and houses belong

to it. They cheer us with their song, and delight us with their

varied colours. Their activity and elegant motions are constant

sources of pleasure to every lover of nature. They are the birds

with which from our infancy and boyhood we are most familiar,

and we therefore involuntarily derive from them that ideal or

typical form of animal life with which we connect the general

term, Bird. And thus doing, who can doubt but that we are

correct? The lightness, activity, elegant forms, brilliant colour

and harmonious voice by which birds as a whole are peculiarly

distinguished from all other animals, find in this group their

fullest expression and most complete development. Here too

the greatest variety of forms and habits is found, which are all

connected together by such insensible gradations, that to dis-

cover in eyery case their true affinities has ever been and still

remains one of the most difficult, and at the same time most

interesting problems the naturalist has to solve.

_ The writer of this paper has enjoyed the great privilege of

observing the habits of many tropical birds in a state of nature

in S. America, and is at present doing so in the Indian Islands.

Every naturalist knows how important this is towards a proper

appreciation of the affinities of Birds, to which their habits are

generally a sure guide, or at all events of much value in con-

junction with other structural characters. Without pretending

to any great knowledge of anatomy, he believes that no intel-

ligent person can be in the constant habit of skinning birds

without obtaining much information on very important parts of

their internal structure. Even mere external characters, such

as the texture and arrangement of the feathers, the form and

structure of the tarsi, the form of the nostrils and of the tongue,

can be examined far better in a recently killed bird than in:a

dried or mounted specimen. In the process of skinning we

also ascertain the thickness and tenacity of the skin, the solidity

of the bones, the form and strength of the skull, and the

texture and contents of the stomach, which characters are

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 195

perhaps, for the determination of affinities, of as much import-

ance as any which can be pointed out. Observations of this

nature have been applied by him to an arrangement of the

Passeres ; not as a perfect scheme, but as a starting-point to guide

future inquiries. One portion of this arrangement, with the

families included in which he is best acquainted, he now wishes

to submit to the judgment of ornithologists.

The method illustrated at the commencement of this paper, of

marking off certain groups from the general mass, has been

satisfactory, because the portions so severed have been not only

capable of definition, but have contained only species which have

agreed in all essential points of thei structure and ceconomy.

They have therefore met with general acceptance, and in all the

different systems of ornithologists these groups have scarcely

suffered any variation. But in attempting to carry out this

system in a further division of the Passeres, no such satis-

factory and generally accepted results have been produced. No

syste matist has been satisfied with the arrangements of his

predecessors, and, after an endless variety of divisions and sub-

divisions, we are as far off from any generally accepted system of

arrangement as ever.

The reason of this we conceive to be, that we have to deal

with a mass of species in which the series is so nearly complete,

that there are no more of those great chasms separating consi-

derable portions from each other, and that the affinities are so

intricate and minutely varied, and so cut up as it were by minor

gaps between genera and families, that any attempt to form

great and well-marked subdivisions must fail, for the simple

reason that such are not marked out by nature. In such a case

an arrangement may be possible, but a classification may not be

so. We must therefore give up altogether the principle of divi-

sion, and employ that of agglutination or juxtaposition. We

shall best explain our meaning by pointing out the errors we

conceive to have been produced by the former method in most

modern classifications.

The system of Cuvier, as modified by Vigors, Swainson, and

G. R. Gray, may be fairly taken as that most generally in use, at

least in this country. The tribes of the Conirostres, Dentirostres,

Fissirostres, Tenuirostres, and Scansores, are said to be the na-

tural divisions of the Passeres, the main difference of opinion

being as towhether the Scansores shouldor should notform a sepa-

rate order, a question we believe to be of no importance what-

ever. ‘These divisions being accepted, every bird is forced into

one of them, and the result has been the most incongruous and

unnatural combinations. For instance, in the Tenuirostres are

combined the Humming Birds and the Sun Birds (Nectarinia),

families which in a natural arrangement would have, in our opi-

13*

196 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

nion, the mass of the other Passeres intervening between them.

In the case of these two families, a mere outward resemblance

appears to have been universally mistaken for an affinity. A

similarity in size, in the prevalence of metallic colours, and in

the slenderness of a very variable bill, has been taken to over-

balance the most important structural differences. The universal

characteristics of the Hummers are, excessively long wings and

as excessively small feet, with more or less united toes. They

take their food exclusively on the wing. Every motion is made

upon the wing. The feet are solely used as means of support,

never for locomotion. The Sun Birds and their allies, the Care-

bide of America, have on the other hand long legs and toes,

the hinder toe especially being very long and powerful ; they are

therefore as capable of hopping and perching as any of the most

highly developed Passeres. Their wings, too, are short and round,

quite incapable of any powerful flight, and their tail almost in-

variably short and even. Much stress has been laid upon the

similar form and structure of the tongue. But the extensile

tubular tongue only exists in some genera (Anthreptes, Arachno-

thera), while in others it is short, flat, and not extensible (Diceum,

Cinnyris, Carebide). There is therefore no general agreement

of structure to unite these groups, except the solitary and

trivial one of an elongate and slender bill.

On similar principles, we believe the Conirostres and Denti-

rostres to be equally untenable and unnatural. They are pro-

fessedly founded on one character only, and not on general

structure ; and it is therefore not to be wondered at, that in their

attempts to pay some little regard to natural affinities, while

forcing the genera and families into these divisions, no two natu-

ralists should be able to arrive at the same results, The asso-

ciation of the Hornbills with the Crows, the separation of the

Larks from the Wagtails, and the necessity for putting Denti-

rostral birds (Tanagers and Jays) in the Conirostral tribe, are

some of the inconsistent results of the system.

The remaining groups, the Scansores and the Fissirostres, we

believe to be much more natural, and in fact to be the only ones

which can be distinctly separated from the Passeres, of which

they form an abnormal development. It is to the arrangement

of these two groups that we more particularly address our-

selves.

The Fissirostres are those passerine birds whose feet are

adapted solely for a state of rest,—all motion being performed

by the wings. With very rare exceptions, they never move the

shortest distance by means of their feet,—a character which di-

stinguishes them at once from all other Passeres, which either

hop, climb, or walk almost incessantly. Such a peculiar ceconomy

must evidently depend upon corresponding peculiarities of or-

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 197

ganization ; and it is a remarkable proof of how little importance

is the form of the bill alone as an index of affinity, that in this

highly natural group we find every form of bill,—conical,

toothed, hooked, serrated, spear-shaped, curved, and flat. The

external characters which distinguish these birds are, very short

and weak legs, long, or at all events powerful wings, and a wide

gape. Their characteristic habit is to sit motionless, watching

for their prey, to dart after it and seize it on the wing, and to

return to their original position to swallow it. The groups which

possess these peculiarities in the greatest perfection are the

Trogons and the Kingfishers, with which we shall commence

our inquiry into the extent of the tribe. We must observe at

starting, that many continental ornithologists still place the

Trogons among the Climbers, because they have their toes

placed two and two, whereas those of the Kingfishers are

arranged as in the majority of birds. But this is a point of

detail which does not in the least affect the habits, for the toes

are in both cases connected together at their basis so as to form

a broad sole, giving a firm support to the bird without grasping.

In both the leg is equally short and weak, and in both all the

habits dependent on the feet are precisely similar. Of how very

little importance this change in the position of the toes is, unac-

companied by a change in their form, motion, or mode of con-

nexion with each other, we may judge from the fact of there

being species of Kingfishers and of Woodpeckers with only

three toes, and which yet have no perceptible difference of habits

from the rest of the family. It would be as reasonable (and as

unnatural) to withdraw these birds from their respective families

and form of them a new three-toed family, as to separate the

Kingfishers from the Trogons for the reasons assigned. As an

instance how totally unable the Trogons are to use their feet for

anything like climbing, we may mention that the Trogons of

South America feed principally on fruit, which one would think

they would get by climbing or walking after if they could. But

no; they take their station on a bare branch, about the middle

of the tree, and having fixed their attention on some particular

tempting fruit, they dart at it, seize it dexterously on the wing,

and return to their original seat. Often, while waiting under a

fruit-tree for Chatterers or Pigeons, have we received the first inti-

mation of the presence of a Trogon by the whir-r-r of its wings

asit darted after a fruit. It is curious that this habit seems con-

fined to the Trogons of America. In the East I have never yet

observed it, and in the numerous specimens I have opened

nothing has been found but insects. The African Trogons also

appear to be wholly insectivorous.

Somewhat intermediate between the Trogons and Kingfishers

are the Bee-eaters (Meropide) and the Jacamars (Galbulide),

198 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

The last possess the metallic plumage of the American Tro-

gons, and habits almost identical, while the bill is an approach

to that of a Kingfisher. The Motmots (Prionitide) are also

closely related to the Trogons, and may be considered as an off-

shoot of them, or of the Bee-eaters, parallel to the Jacamars. The

habits of all these birds, and of the small Eastern Kingfishers of

the genus Ceyz, are almost identical, and we think there can be no

reasonable doubt of the very close affinity of these five families.

The Rollers (Coraciade) are the next group whose affinities we have

to consider. These birds have for along time been strangely mis-

placed among the strong-legged Crows and Grackles, whereas the

short legs (with the toes united in some genera), wide gape,

insect food captured on the wing, the nest in holes of trees or in

the earth, and the colour and form of the eggs, all bring them

close to the Bee-eaters, Motmots, and Kingfishers, the two former

of which appear to be thei most direct affinities. The struc-

ture of the skeleton, according to the best observers, confirms

this result, which may therefore be considered as well established.

We now arrive at the Capitonide, or Puff Birds of §. America,

which, like the Trogons, have been often placed among the

climbing birds, from having their toes placed two and two.

They are, however, true sedentary birds, with habits exactly

analogous to those of the Jacamars, Bee-eaters, and Trogons.

Some, like the Tamatias, frequent the gloomiest and thickest

parts of the forest, where they sit motionless on some low branch,

and thence take short flights after insects. Others, like Monasa

aud Chelidoptera, frequent more open situations, sitting on bare

branches often of dead trees, and take longer flights, which in

Chelidoptera almost vie with those of Swallows for ease and

rapidity. The last-mentioned genera make their nests in holes

in sloping ground on the banks of streams,—a habit exceedingly

general among Fissirostral birds, but we believe quite unknown

among the Scansores. Their nearest affinities seem to be with

the Meropide and Trogonide, though their large heads and heavy

bodies would show some approximation to the Kingfishers.

We now arrive at some birds which have always been asso-

ciated with the present group, of which, in fact, they appear to be

the highest development, but which are nevertheless widely sepa-

rated from the families we have hitherto been considering.

They are the Swallows and Goatsuckers. In these the power

of capturing insects on the wing has reached its maximum.

The gape is enormously wide, the feet generally very short,

and the wings long and powerful. Even between the two there

is, however, a considerable hiatus; but no one has ever doubted

that they are more nearly allied to each other than to any

other birds. The question then remains, to which family of the

Fissirostres are either of them allied? Where is the link that

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 199

connects them? ‘The Swallows appear to us to be farthest

removed from any of the birds hitherto placed in the tribe.

Their small size, powerful flight, and compact plumage, added

to their strongly grasping feet, seem to shut out any direct

affinity with them. It is, then, in the Caprimulgide that we

must look to discover the affinity we are in search of; and we

believe that the only group to which we can approach them is

the Trogonide. The average size, the excessively thin skin, the

mass of downy plumage, the general form, the nature of the

food, and, in many species, the mode of capture, all point to an

affinity in this direction. The different structure of the feet is

the most important character on the opposite side of the question ;

but as this equally exists in such an undeniably closely allied

family as the Prionitide, it need not be considered an insur-

mountable obstacle. There is, no doubt, still a very wide chasm

to be passed over; but it will be still wider if we compare them

with any other family of the Fissirostres, with which their ana-

tomical structure, as well as the general considérations before

alluded to, compel us to place them. We consider, then, the

Swallows and Goatsuckers to exhibit the greatest development

of the Fissirostral form; or, if the term is preferred, to be the

typical groups. And, as a consequence of this position, they

can neither of them serve as the connecting links or transition

to any other tribe or order of birds; for if the Fissirostral

character is what serves to distinguish this tribe from all others,

it must certainly follow that those birds which have this cha-

racter in its highest development must be most distinctly sepa-

rated from all the species of any other group. We have here

another reason for believing that the resemblance of the Goat-

suckers to the Owls is one of externals, and not of essentials,—

of analogy, but not of affinity.

We have now briefly passed in review all the families which

possess the characters of Fissirostral birds in a plain and obvious

degree, and which, without the greatest violation of their natural

affinities, cannot be placed elsewhere in the system ; but there

are several others which have been associated with these by many

naturalists, some of them we believe erroneously. And, first,

the Eurylaimide, or Broadbills of the Eastern Archipelago, have

been, and still are, generally placed among the Fissirostres.

They have, however, in our opinion, no right whatever to this

situation, being true Passeres, allied to the Codingas and Querulas

of S. America. The Eurylaimus Javanicus and the Cymbirhynchus

macrorhynchus feed in the same manner as ordinary perching

birds, hopping about the branches of trees, and picking off the

fruit, which forms their principal subsistence. Their legs are of a

moderate length, their toes strong, and the hind toe large and

powerful, which is never the case in true Fissirostres. It is this

200 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

peculiar conformation of the feet which affects the whole character

and habits of these birds, which is not the case with the trivial

circumstance of the toes being partially united. They have,

moreover, none of the Fissirostral habits, nor any modification of

them, as they do not capture insects on the wing, those which

we have found in their stomachs being always ants and small

Coleoptera, picked off the bark and leaves of the trees. To what

erroneous results a dependence on such isolated characters as

more or less united toes will lead, is seen by the Manakins and

Rupicole of 8S. America being also often considered as Fissi-

rostres on the same grounds as : the Eurylaimi. Those birds are,

however, purely frugivorous, are excessively active on their feet,

have strong skins, firmly-set plumage (as have also the Eury-

laimi), and, in Sack, not one single natural character which can

remoye them from the great mass of Perching birds. The beau-

tiful Calyptomena viridis has also all the habits of the Chatterers,

and cannot be separated from them without a great violation of

natural affinities.

The little Todies of the W. Indies have also been usually

classed as Fissirostres; but their moderately long and slender

legs, short rounded wings, and their excessive activity on their

feet, are so totally opposed to the characters of every other

member of that group, that we think them far more naturally

associated with such Flycatchers as Todirostrum and Megalophus.

From the description of Mr. Gosse, in his ‘ Birds of Jamaica,’ it

appears that they are most active little birds, hopping, perching,

and flying after insects in every possible place and position :

how totally opposed is this to the general character of the Fissi-

rostres, which are sedentaryand motionless, except when upon the

wing! We cannot allow the one character of their nidification

in holes on the banks of streams to counterbalance such a total

diversity in structure and habits. It is, besides, impossible to

point out any one group of Fissirostres to which they can be

said to make any approach, whereas they have the greatest

possible resemblance to the genera of Flycatchers above men-

tioned. We must therefore unhesitatingly decide, that the

Todies are not to enter among the Fissirostres.

In place, however, of these two families which we reject, we

introduce two others which have not generally found a place

here. From an examination of the structure of the feet and

toes, and from a consideration of their habits, we are led to con-

clude that the Hornbills are Fissirostral birds, though of a very

abnormal form, Their very short legs, and united toes with a

broad flat sole, are exactly similar to those of the Kingfishers.

They have powerful wings, but their heavy bodies oblige them

to use much exertion in flight, which is not therefore very rapid,

though often extended to considerable distances. They are (in

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 201

the Indian Archipelago at least) entirely frugivorous; and it is

curious to observe how their structure modifies their mode of

feeding. They are far too heavy to dart after the fruit in the

manner of the Trogons; they cannot even fly quickly from

branch to branch, picking a fruit here and a fruit there; neither

have they strength or agility enough to venture on the more

slender branches with the Pigeons and Barbets, but they alight

heavily on a branch of considerable thickness, and then, looking

cautiously round them, pick off any fruits that may be within

their reach, and jerk them down their throat by a motion similar

to that used by the Toucans, and which has been erroneously

described as throwing the fruit up in the air before swallowing

it. When they have gathered all within their reach, they move

sideways along the branch by short jumps, or rather a kind of

shuffle, and the smaller species even hop across to other branches,

when they again gather what is within their reach. When in

this way they have progressed as far as the bough will safely

carry them, they take a flight to another part of the tree, where

they pursue the same course. It thus happens that they soon

exhaust all the fruit within their reach ; and long after they have

left a tree, the Barbets and Hurylaimi find abundance of food

on the slender branches and extreme twigs. We sce, therefore,

that their very short legs and syndactyle feet remove them com-

pletely from the vicinity of the Toucans, in which the legs

are actively employed in moving about after their food. Their

wings, too, are as powerful as those of the Toucans are weak,

and it is only the great weight of their bodies that prevents them

from being capable of rapid and extensive flight. As it is, their

strength of wing is shown by the great force with which they

beat the air, producing a sound, in the larger species, which can

be distinctly heard a mile off, and is even louder than that made

by the flight of the great Muscovy Duck. They are still farther

removed from the Crows, with which they have also been very

generally associated, solely because they are Conirostres, or conic-

beaked !—another instance of the extremely erroneous results

which are arrived at by a dependence on a single character, and

especially on one which so little influences the habits of a bird

as the external form of its bill.

The preceding deductions from the habits of these birds had

been made before I became aware that Mr. Eyton had arrived at

similar results from anatomical considerations alone; and I had

great pleasure in finding that there was such solid support for

the opinion which I had formed, entirely from my own observa-

tions. The only question that remains then is, to what family

of the Fissirostres do they most nearly approach? A careful

consideration leads us to fix upon the Kingfishers. They are

among the largest birds in the group, they have the largest bills,

202 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

and, in the structure of the feet, the two are almost identical.

The Hornbills of Africa are said to feed principally on reptiles,

as do the King-Hunters (Dace/o) of Australia. We look upon

Hornbills, therefore, as one of the abnormal developments of

Fissirostral birds, of which they are the largest, the least elegant,

and the least gifted with facilities for locomotion and for obtain-

ing their food ; and that their nearest affinities lie im the direec-

tion of the Kingfishers.

The remaining family, which, according to our views, belongs

to the Fissirostral tribe, is that of the Trochilide, or Humming

Birds, hitherto always placed in the Tenuirostres, which we have

before adduced some reasons for believing to be an altogether

artificial group. In this innovation we are not aware of having

any support; yet we think it possible to show good reasons for

it. What is it that characterizes the Fissirostral group but

minimized feet and maximized wings, always connected with

some modification of structure, adapted to give facilities for

seizing the food with the mouth? and all these the Hummers:

possess in a remarkable degree. In the ease and flexibility of

their motions on the wing they surpass even the Swallows. Their

little feet exactly resemble those of some of the Swifts (Dendro-

chelidon), and the long, variously-curved bill and extensile tongue

give them the same facilities for obtaiming their food as do

the short bill and wide gape in the other. They are, too (we

believe), like the Swallows, purely insectivorous ; for im every

specimen we have examined the stomach was full of insects,

principally minute flower-frequenting Coleoptera. No doubt

they do partake occasionally of the nectar, or the pollen of the

flowers they frequent, but as a delicacy rather than as solid food.

The firmness and solidity of their muscle, the thickness of their

skin, and the immense muscular exertion which they constantly

make, can doubtless be supported only by animal food, which the

very small space occupied by their stomach and intestines also

shows to be the case. But a stronger proof of this assertion is,

that there are many species which never frequent flowers! All

the species of the genus Phaéthornis which we met with on the

Amazon were found only in the lower parts of the forest, among

the shrubs and palms which rise only a few feet from the ground.

Here we have often seen them searching the leaves for insects,

supporting themselves almost motionless in the air, their body

erect and their bill pointed upwards, and passing rapidly over

the under surface of each leaf in succession. They would often

dart suddenly out into an open space, and remain motionless a

few feet from my face, and then fly off again to repeat their

search for their favourite food. At the various trees in flower

about which I have observed and shot Hummers, I have never seen

a species of Phaéthornis, whereas I used daily to meet with them

a ee

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 203

in the gloomy jungle, where not a flower exists; and yet, from

never being able to see them at a greater distance than three or

four yards, they were the most difficult of all to obtain, without

blowing them to pieces. Many species also hunt for insects in

the air, exactly like true Fissirostral birds. I have often observed

them in the evening, on the banks of streams, coming out of the

jungle just as the Goatsuckers were beginning to appear, and

darting about after the mosquitos and other minute insects,

returning after each short circuit to the edge of the forest, where

they remained balanced in the air for a moment and then darted

off again. At other times they will sit on the topmost twig of

a dead tree, and making short circuits in the air, return to it,

exactly in the same manner as do the Jacamars and Puff Birds.

There is also another interesting fact to be mentioned. I had

brought me a nest containing two little Hummers, apparently

very recently hatched. I tried to feed them, and gave them,

first, according to established rule, syrup made of.honey and

water, and also of molasses; but the poor little creatures did

not at all like it, though they opened their mouths as if raven-

ously hungry. They were nearly choked by the liquid, and tried

all they could to spit it out, which they generally succeeded

in doing. Finding all my efforts to suit their taste in vain, I

resolved to try if they liked insects better, and caught some

minute flies which were very abundant. On dropping one of

these into their mouths, they immediately closed their beak and

by a great muscular effort of the throat swallowed it, and opened

their mouths again for another. In this way they would each

take fifteen or twenty little flies one after the other before they

were satisfied. I thus kept them alive three or four days, and

could I have bestowed sufficient time and constant attention

upon them, there is no doubt they would have lived much

longer. At all events the experiment satisfied me that the young

Hummers are fed by their parents with insects, and not with

honey.

I also observed that the beak of these little birds was very

short, triangular, and very broad at the base,—in fact exactly the

beak of a Swallow slightly lengthened. We see therefore in the

Humming Birds an extreme and peculiar development of the

Hirundine form of the Fissirostres. The wings of the Swallow,

already among the longest in the whole class of Birds, are still

further lengthened. The feet, already so short, are still further

reduced. The plumage, which in the Swallow has become more

compact and appressed than in any other of the Fissirostres, has

these qualities still further developed. The skin, which in the

tribe generally is thin and tender, is in the Swallows compara-

tively thick and strong, and in the Hummers is perhaps stronger

in proportion to their size than in any other birds. The bill is

204 Mr. A.R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

that of a Swallow lengthened out to contain the long and exten-

sile tongue; and the vital force and energy which enables the

Swallows to enjoy such long-continued and rapid motion, seems

here to have reached a point beyond which further development

is scarcely possible. How then can we refuse them a place

among those birds of which they possess the distinctive cha-

racters in the most eminent degree, while at the same time we

keep together birds as different from each other as the King-

fisher from the Swallow, because they possess those characters ?

But it will be objected that the structure of the tongue is so

different and peculiar, and agrees so well with that of the Sun

Birds. But we have already mentioned, and again repeat, that

in closely allied genera of Sun Birds the tongue is totally dif-

ferent, and that therefore it is not a character to outweigh the

whole structure and habits of a group of birds: moreover, in

other groups the same difference in the tongue is not held to be

sufficient to separate birds otherwise allied. The Cuckoos and

the Toucans have ever been placed near each other, yet how dif-

ferent their tongues! while the Woodpeckers, still farther differ-

ing from them, are notwithstanding placed in the same tribe of

Climbing birds. We might also expect, that when the structure

of a bird had become so peculiarly modified as to bring it to seek

the same food in the same places as another bird of quite a dif-

ferent type of structure, we should find each of them gifted with

the same peculiarly modified organ adapted to such habits ; and

we therefore find that the Sun Birds and the Hummers, though

with a widely different general structure, yet have a similarly

constructed tongue which they both use in extracting minute

insects from flowers and leaves. An exactly analogous instance

exists in the Picide and Dendrocolaptida, two families as different

in general structure as the Trochilide and Nectarinide, but which

yet have one striking similarity in the rigid tail, which enables

them both to rest vertically against a tree while extracting insects

from the bark. We contend that these cases are strictly ana-

logous, and that there is no more real affinity in the one case

than in the other. The character which is most opposed to this

view of their affinities is their nidification ; but we think this is

not only not an insuperable obstacle to their being thus placed,

but one that we might to some degree have anticipated. In

some of the Swallows we have already seen one deviation from

the general character of the tribe in the carefully constructed

nest of clay. In the Goatsuckers we have another, the Podargus

of Australia forming a nest of sticks and grass on the branches

of a tree. We should therefore expect that birds so peculiarly

and highly organized as the Hummers, so aérial in their habits,

and so intimately associated with flowers and foliage, would have

a modified and characteristic form of nidification.

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 205

We have now completed a very brief and imperfect review of

those families which we conceive can be separated from the mass

of Passeres to form the tribe of the Fissirostres, and in the

accompanying diagram we have endeavoured to represent at one

glance their various affinities.

Diagram of the Affinities of the Fissirostres.

TROCHILIDE,

(Hummers. )

HIRUNDINIDE.

(Swallows. )

CAPRIMULGID4.

(Goatsuckers. )

TROGONIDZ. PRIONITIDE.

(Trogons.) (Motmots.)

GALBULIDZ, —.- MEROPIDZ, —.»«CORACIADZ,

(Jacamars. ) (Bee-eaters.) (Rollers.)

CAPITONID4.

(Puff Birds.) ALCEDINIDE.

(Kingfishers. )

BUCEROTIDA.

(Hornbills. )

206 Mr, A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

It is intended that the distances between the several names

shdtld show to some extent the relative amount. of affinity ex-

isting between them; and the connecting lines show in what

direction the affinities are supposed to lie. By referring to the

diagram it will be seen that there are seven families placed

close together, forming a central mass. Beyond the Trogons at

some distance come the Goatsuckers and Swallows, while at the

greatest possible distance from each other are the Hornbills and

the Hummers, the former having a distant affinity to the King-

fishers, the latter to the Swallows.

We may here mention that it is an article of our zoological

faith, that all gaps between species, genera, or larger groups are

the result of the extinction of species during former epochs of

the world’s history, and we believe this view will enable us more

justly to appreciate the correctness of our arrangement. For in-

stance, let us suppose that the gaps shown in this diagram have

been all filled up by genera and families forming a natural trans-

ition from one of our groups to the other, and we shall be able

to judge whether our arrangement will agree with such a sup-

position. Thus, if the space between the Kingfishers and Horn-

bills has been filled up by a natural succession of families, we

can see that the change must have been to heavier, larger, and

larger-billed birds, and we see such a change begun already from

the Jacamars to the Kingfishers. So from the Goatsuckers to

the Swallows the change is to smaller, stronger-winged, thicker-

skinned, and brighter-coloured birds,—exactly the kind of change

which continued on will lead us to the Hummers. On the same

principles we may conclude, that as the change from the Jacamars

to the Rollers is to stronger-legged birds which do not feed

solely on the wing but also on the ground, so the same change

continued on would lead us to true Passeres in which the pecu-

liar Fissirostral characters altogether disappear. The Coraciada,

therefore, are either an extreme Passerine form of the tribe, or

else form a transition by direct affinity to the Passeres.

The method of representing affinities here adopted we believe

to be of the highest value. It is founded on the method sug-

gested by the late Mr. Strickland, and which we believe Dr.

Lindley has been the first naturalist to adopt, namely that of

placing to the right and left of every family or other group the

names of those to which it is most nearly allied. But this alone

conveys no idea to the mind, especially in an extensive group,

till represented by a diagram, the most convenient way to con-

struct which we have found to be as follows. Suppose you have

a family of a dozen genera which you wish to arrange ; first write

down the names of the genera in any order, and right and left of

them those to which you believe them to be allied most closely.

;

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 207

Then take a dozen pieces of paper or card cut out with a gun-

wadding punch, and on each write a name of a genus. Place them

on a table and arrange them according to your list. This will

not always be so easy a matter as it appears at first sight, for

you will most likely find that you have set down some conflicting

_ affinities, or that you have mistaken some mere analogies for

affinities. When you have them in tolerable order, the next

thing is to get the distances between them to bear some propor-

tion to the closeness or remoteness of the affinities, and lastly,

bring the whole into symmetry by placing what appears to be

the main line of affinities in a straight line, and bringing the

others into branches right or left from it. When this is done,

the positions can be copied on a sheet of paper and kept for

reference as a trial-arrangement, which is to be tested by every

new fact that is procured, and by any additional knowledge that

may be gained on the structure or habits of any of the species.

The advantage claimed for this particular form of diagram is

that it can be printed with ordinary type, whereas any circles or

figures to represent the groups require woodcuts or lithographs.

It is much to be wished that in every systematic work each tribe

and family should be illustrated by some such diagram, without

which it is often impossible to tell whether two families follow

each other because the author thinks them allied, or merely be-

cause the exigencies of a consecutive series compel him so to

place them. Thus, Bonaparte places in his ‘ Conspectus,’ the

Trochilide between the Cypselide and the Phytotomide. By

making them follow the Swifts he would seem to take the same

view of their affinities as is here done, but by placing imme-

diately after them the Phytotomide, one is at a loss to understand

by what principles he has been guided. An explanatory dia-

gram, or even the plan of denoting the affinities as adopted by

Dr. Lindley, would remove such doubts, and render a work of

such great labour and research as the one referred to less likely

to be misunderstood.

On the Affinities and Limits of the Scansorial Birds.

However much systematists have differed as to what families

should enter into or be excluded from the Scansores or Climbers,

considered as a natural group of Birds, there are four families

which have formed part of it in every system. These are the

Woodpeckers (Picide), the Parrots (Psittacide), the Cuckoos

(Cuculide), and the Toucans (Rhamphastide). We way there-

fore take these as a basis, to inquire in what respects the Scan-

sores differ from the true Passeres and from the Fissirostres, and

to deduce their natural characters. Having done this, we may

208 Mr. A.R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

inquire further if any and what other groups can be naturally

associated with them. |

The first thing that strikes us on comparing these birds with

each other is, that we could hardly pick four families from the

whole class which should have more diversified forms of bill.

The resemblance and affinity between them must therefore exist

in other parts of their body, and we find it in their wings and

feet. The former are generally short, rounded, and very weak,

quite incapable of rapid or long-continued flight, while the latter

are remarkably large, powerful, and peculiarly formed. They

may be said therefore to be the very reverse of the Fissirostres,

whose grand features are large wings and small feet, while in

the Scansores the small wings and large feet are equally cha-

racteristic. But it is the peculiar structure quite as much as the

size of the feet to which we must pay attention. The toes are

always exceedingly long, and the outer toe is either turned com-

pletely backwards or nearly at night angles to the others. This

toe is often the longest of all, while the true hind toe is always

small, and sometimes altogether wanting. It is this peculiar

structure that altogether separates this group from all the short-

winged and strong-footed Passeres, whether they are walkers,

perchers, or climbers.

The habits that result from this form of foot and wing are, as

might be expected, to a great extent characteristic, and will serve

us as a valuable guide in those cases of anomalous form and

structure where the position of a genus or family might be other-

wise doubtful. These birds then are truly arboreal, rarely de-

scending voluntarily to the ground. They use their wings only

for passing from tree to tree, and, whether frugivorous or imsecti-

vorous, they obtain their food in or upon trees. Their motions

along the trunk or branches, or among the thick foliage, are

either true climbing, or a succession of rapid hops producing an

appearance of climbing. ‘The Woodpecker runs up the vertical

trunk, and assisted by a peculiarly modified tail and a powerful

wedge-shaped bill, seeks his food beneath the bark. The Parrot

climbs, assisted by his hooked bill, after the fruit, which alone

he feeds on. The insect food of the Cuckoos is sought for upon

the leaves and smaller branches, and they progress among these

so rapidly, that they have been constantly mistaken by us for

squirrels or other small arboreal animals. The Toucans again

hop actively about the tops of lofty trees, devouring an immense

quantity of fruit.

Now, though these four families have evidently more connexion

with each other than with any other birds, yet they present so

many important points of difference, as to show that they are in

reality very distant from each other, and that an immense variety

—

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 209

of forms must have intervened to have filled up the chasms, and

formed a complete series presenting a gradual transition from

one to the other. The differences in the form of the bill have

already been alluded to, but those of the tongue are perbaps still

more extraordinary ; the fleshy tongue of the Parrot, the barbed

extensile spear of the Woodpecker, the short horny tongue of

the Cuckoo, and the long and slender feathered tongue of the

Toucan, would seem rather to belong to birds most remote from

each other, than to those for whom we can find no nearer allies.

We should be inclined to consider therefore that they form

widely distant portions of a vast group, ence perhaps as exten-

sive and varied as the whole of the existing Passeres.

Notwithstanding the difference of their food, it is evident that

the Cuckoos and the Toucans approach more closely to each

other than to the others. Their legs are longer, and they con-

sequently hop, which the other two. never do. Their bills are

similar in form, their plumage is in both much more Joose than

either in the Parrots or the Woodpeckers, which again, in these

peculiarities in which they agree, to some extent approach each

other. We would place therefore the Parrots and the Wood-

peckers at one extreme of the group, and also considerably re-

moved from each other, while the Toucans and Cuckoos, rather

nearer together, should be placed at the other extreme.

The Barbets (Bucconide of Lesson and Bonaparte, Capitonine

of G. Rh. Gray) have also been always included amongst the

Climbers, but their place has been so often varied and their affini-

ties so much misunderstood that they require a separate con-

sideration, especially as in the systems of Swainson and Gray

they have been considered as a subfamily of Picidz, and have

therefore not appeared among the famikes of the Scansores. The

only ground for placing them with the Woodpeckers appears to

have been that some African species do cling against and peck

at trees something in the manner of those birds. Their whole

structure however is totally opposed to their being thus placed.

In their feet, wings, and the form of the whole body they much

more nearly resemble the Toucans. ‘I'he texture of their

feathers, their broad, angular and weak skulls also resemble

them, and are strikingly dissimilar to those of the Woodpeckers.

From my own observations too, | can assert that, in the habits

both of the South American and of the Kastern species, they

resemble the Toucans more closely than any other birds; and

Le Vaillant makes the same observation with regard to the African

species. Besides, the grand characteristic of the Woodpeckers,

the barbed and extensile tongue, which exists equally in the Yunz

and Picumnus, is totally absent in the Barbets, while their bill is

of quite a different type of form, much more nearly approxi-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 14

210 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

mating to that of the Cuckoos. In their habits too they are

equally distinct; they hop and cling, but never climb, and they

live almost exclusively on soft fruits. We must therefore con-

sider them as a distinet family, and place them in the vicinity of

the Toucans and Cuckoos.

We will now proceed to the consideration of those groups,

about the propriety of including which im the Scansorial tribe

considerable difference of opinion has existed. These are the

Turacos (Musophagide), the isolated genus Opisthocomus, and

the Certhiade including the Dendrocolaptide. These last have,

we believe, only been so placed by Messrs. Vigors and Swainson,

but as their classification claims to be pre-eminently “The Natural

System,” and as it has still some advocates, it deserves to be

carefully examined. What are the characters then by which the

Dendrocolaptide are supposed to be united to the Picide? They

appear to be these: both are true Climbers, both have a rigid

tail which assists them in maintaining an erect position, and

both feed on insects which they obtain upon the trunks and

branches of trees. On the other hand, they present many and

important differences. The long, slender, curved bill and short,

horny, non-extensile tongue of the Creepers are very far removed

from the strong straight bill and extensile barbed tongue of the

Woodpeckers. But this, it may be said, is of no importance, as a

similar difference exists in the other families admitted into the

Scansores. ‘This is true; but then those birds agree in having

the same form of feet, which is of far more importance in this

case than it may at first sight appear, for we shall be able to

show not only that the Creeper’s foot is very different from the

Climber’s, but that 7¢ is further removed from it than is that of

any other of the Passeres.

The characteristic form of foot in the Certhiade and Dendro-

colaptide is to have the toes placed normally, three forward and

one backward, and to have the forward toes all connected to-

gether at their bases, particularly the outer toe, which is gene-

rally longer than the 4 inner, and often connected to the middle

toe as far as the second joint. The result of this conformation

is, that the forward toes do not spread much laterally, but form

one line of support opposed to the hind toe. This hind toe also

is remarkably long and powerful, and armed with an equally

powerful claw. This peculiar structure has been gradually ar-

rived at, through the most nearly allied families of Passeres.

Passing ‘from the Wagtails and Larks through the Anabatide to

the Certhiade, Sittide, and Dendrocolaptide, we find the outer

toe gradually more and more united to the middle one, and the

hind toe becoming gradually larger and more developed; so

that we are justified in asserting that we see here that peculiar

a ir

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 211

modification of the normal (}-toed) foot which is adapted for

climbing. In the Woodpeckers, however, we find the outer toe

always turned completely backwards, and therefore quite free

from the middle toe. The true hind toe is also invariably small

and weak, and of so little importance that in several species of

Woodpeckers it is altogether wanting, without at all diminishing

the bird’s powers of climbing. If we compare this foot with

that of the other Scansores, we shall find that it is an extreme

modification of the Scansorial form, adapted for true climbing.

The toes are all more powerful, the claws much stronger, the

outer toe longer, and the hind toe smaller. If therefore the

structure of foot in the Cuckoos and Turacos, where the outer

toe can be placed either forward or backward and the hind toe

remains moderately develuped, is (as is universally allowed) the

link between the $-tved and +-toed form, then it follows that of

all =-toed feet the Woodpecker’s is most removed from the ~-toed,

and of all +-toed feet the Creeper’s is the furthest removed from

the =-toed ;—and thence as a further deduction it follows, that

the feet of the Creepers and Woodpeckers are the furthest pos-

sible removed from each other. When, in addition to this re-

markable result, we consider that the structure of the climbing

tail is totally dissimilar in the two cases, we shall see that there

exist no grounds whatever for establishing an affinity between

the two families, and that the Creepers must not only be sepa-

rated from the Scansores, but in a natural arrangement will be

placed at a very considerable distance from them.

The Musophagide, contaiming the Turacos and Plantain-

eaters, have been placed among the Scansores by the conti-

nental ornithologists (Temminck and Vieillot), while in England

they have been considered to be Conirostres by Swainson and

Gray. We believe the former are correct ; for these birds have

the short, rounded and weak wings of the Cuckoos and Toucans,

and consequently very imperfect flight, while their legs are very

strong, the outer toe long and versatile, but rather less so than

in the Cuckoos, and the hind toe, as in all Scansores, short.

Their habits are described as being almost exactly those of the

Toucans and Barbets, their plumage is of a similar texture, while

the short crest at the back of the head is similar to that of the

Woodpeckers. Some species are said to be able to cling to ver-

tical trunks. Their internal structure and the form of the ster-

num appear to correspond exactly to this view of their affinities,

which is still further confirmed by thei nidification, like that of

all other Scansores, im hollow trees, so that they may be well

placed in the wide interval between the Cuckoos and Toucans

bios

212) Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

on the one side, and the Woodpeckers and Parrots on the other,

but rather nearer to the former than the latter. If, on the other

hand, we place this group among the Conirostres, we can give

no such satisfactory account of its structural affinities. Swainson

places it between the Fringillide and the Buceride. The former

have all well-formed Passerine feet, the hind toe always well

developed, and the outer toe never so long as the middle one;

they have generally powerful wings, and are of such a uniformly

small size as not even to give them an appearance of affinity

with the Turacos and Musophagide. The Hornbills are if pos-

sible still further removed, as our previous account of their

habits and the structure of their feet will at once show. We

cannot believe that so very acute and observant a naturalist as

Mr. Swainson could have been led to propound these as natural

affinities, had he not been blinded by his belief in the universal

existence in nature of a numerical and circular arrangement,

which, without disproving it: in any particular cases, we believe

can be shown to be absolutely untenable on two general grounds.

Ist. Geological investigations prove that the animals now exist-

ing on the earth are probably not one-tenth, perhaps not one-

hundredth, of those which have existed; for all before the Tertiary

epoch were of different species and mostly of different genera,

and thousands of other genera, families, and whole orders must

have existed of which we are absolutely in ignorance. I there-

fore this regular system were true of the whole, it must be quite

imperceptible in the mere fragment we have an acquaintance

with. Instead of complete circles being the rule, they should

scarcely ever exist ; in fact, the gaps left in the system by its

authors do not leave room enough for all the forms that must

have become extinct. 2ndly. This system absolutely places limits

to the variety and extent of creation; for it is said that every

group can only contain five subgroups, and the number of gra-

dations of groups is fixed. For instance, in a family there can

be only five subfamilies, in each of which there can be only five

true genera, and again in each genus five subgenera. In the

Psittacide therefore there ean be but twenty-five generic forms,

and when those are all known, not only is it declared to be im-

possible to discover a new one, but it is also asserted that no

others can possibly ever have existed and become extinct. This

is the logical deduction from any system of definite numbers in |

natural history, and it is one that should convince every a

of the false basis on which all such systems rest.

Having determined the position of the Turacos, we shall next

have to consider that remarkable bird, the Opisthocomus cristatus.

This has been and still is placed among the Gallinaceze by most

continental authors. Mr. G. R. Gray, however, places it near the

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. 213

Twracos, and Mr. Swainson in the family of the Cuckoos. We

believe it should be placed between the two, or rather as a lateral

branch from the Turacos. This bird is very abundant on the

banks of the Amazon, where we have often observed and shot

it. It frequents low bushes on the river’s edge, where it feeds

on leaves, principally those of a gigantic Arum. It never goes

on the ground. This circumstance, combined with the fact of

its having no gizzard, would at once decide that it is not Galli-

naceous. Our own impression at the time, from its gencral ap-

pearance, flight, and habits, was, that it was a gigantic Cuckoo.

Its long crest remarkably resembles that of the genus Diplo-

pterus, several species of which occur in the same district, and

they both have the habit of throwing it- up when alarmed in

exactly the same manner. In its bill and general form:it ap-

proaches the Turacos more nearly than any other bird. The

only difficulty is in the feet, which, though similar in form, have

not the versatile outer toe of those birds. This however seems

of less importance, because a genus of Musophagide (Schizorhis)

has also all the toes directed forwards. The short wings, weak

heavy flight, strong legs, long toes, and the character of the

plumage, added to the resemblances already pointed out, cer-

tainly justify us in believing this to be the true position for this

singular bird, while its peculiar food and internal structure show

that it is to some extent isolated, and cannot be referred to any

known family.

We have now only one more group to introduce into our

Scansores, but it is one of extreme interest, as tending in some

degree to fill up the wide chasm which separates the Psittacide

from all other birds. This we believe is done by the Coliide, a

small group of birds peculiar to Africa, and which have been

generally classed as Finches, from their small size and thick

beaks. The particulars which Le Vaillant gives of their habits

are however exceedingly curious, and show a resemblance to the

Parrots which no other birds exhibit. They live entirely on

fruits, never touching either seeds or insects, They never perch

or jump. They walk with the whole tarsus applied to the ground,

creeping as it were upon their belly. They are very fleshy, and

weigh twice as much as another bird of apparently the same size,

for their feathers are so short and so close-laid upon their body,

that they are really much larger than they appear. They have

also very weak wings, and can fly a very short distance. They

climb up to the top of a tree or bush to fly to another, and in

doing so, lose elevation so as generally to arrive at the foot of it.

They climb one foot after the other, and help themselves on with

their beaks.

Now, almost the whole of this description will apply to some

214 Mr. A.R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

of the Parrot tribe and to no other birds. Their bill is an ap-

proach to that of the Parrot ; the upper mandible being thick,

much curved, and acutely pointed, while the lower is much

smaller and nearly straight,—a form quite different from that of

the Finches. The feet are very peculiar, the hind toe being

small and capable of being turned forward. The tongue is de-

scribed as cartilaginous and flat,—one step from the ordinary

horny-tipped tongue to the fleshy one of the Psittacide. We

consider therefore the Coliide to be more nearly allied to the

Parrots than any other birds, and to be an isolated link serving

to connect them with the other Seansores in the direction of the

Musophagide.

In the accompanying diagram we have endeavoured to lay

down the families of Seansorial birds, so as to represent their

respective affinities; but the very imperfect and fragmentary

state in which according to our views the group exists, prevents

our arriving at a very satisfactory result.

We may here remark, that we can never hope to arrive at the

true direction and amount of the affinities of the several families

of birds, owing to our complete ignorance of the extinct forms.

It is probable that in very few cases is there a direct affinity be-

tween two groups, each being more or less distantly related to

some common extinct group, so that we should represent their

connexion more accurately by making our central line a blank,

fer the extinct portion of the group, and placing our families

right and left, at different distances from it. We should thus

see the reason why we so rarely find one family or genus exactly

intermediate between two others. For instance, though the

Cuckoos are by their feet intermediate between the Turacos and

Toucans, yet their different plumage and their insect food show

that they are more properly a lateral branch from some common

central group now extinct.

Having thus determined the extent of the two groups which

can be separated from the Passerine birds, there remains an ex-

tensive series of species which we believe constitute one great

group of equal value with those we have already defined. This

group may be called the normal or typical Passeres, and consists

of about thirty-five families, containing between three and four

thousand species, or at least half of the known birds. These we

believe are too intimately connected with each other to allow of

their being separated into a few great divisions without violating

many of their natural relations. They have all normal or +-toed

fect, which are never so short or weak as to be unadapted for

progression. The bill is always moderate in size and form, and

in the few cases where it is peculiarly modified, as in some spe-

cies of Dendrucolaptes, other species in the same family possess the

”

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds. “215

normal form. ‘There is also a remarkable moderation in size;

for though the species are so numerous, there are none either so

large or so small as are to be found in the two abnormal groups.

There is also a much greater uniformity in texture of plumage

Diagram of the Affinities of the Scansores.

BUCCONIDZ.

(Megalaima. )

RHAMPHASTIDE&.

(Toucans.)

CUCULIDZ.

(Cuckoos.)

OpistOCOWUS . cae

MUSOPHAGIDE.

(Turaco.)

ees F {lt} z.

( Woodpeckers. )

COLIIDE.

PSITTACIDE.

(Parrots.)

and in form, as well as in habits, which binds the whole into one

compact and natural group. It is also a most important point

216 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural Arrangement of Birds.

to consider that there are no isolated families,;—none but have

numerous points of connexion and transition with others ; and to

such an extent is this the case, that there is scarcely an extehaive

family group about the limits of which ornithologists can agree.

The Thrushes, Warblers, Flycatchers, Chatterers, Tanagers;

Finches, Shrikes, Bush-Shrikes, and many others are im this

condition, and offer a striking contrast to the families of the

Fissirostres and Scansores, about the limits of every one of which

there is scarcely any doubt or disagreement whatever. Here

then we have three groups, one of which, though very much

more extensive than the others, offers less variation in the form

and size of the species, and in the modifications of thew prin-

cipal organs. Correct principles of classification would surely

oblige us to consider the three groups of only equal rank.

But all the families which compose this group are so iti-

mately connected with each other, that the limits of a great

many of them cannot be determined, and there is no family of

any extent which does not gradually blend into others. How

then can we hope to form two or three primary divisions which

shall be sufficiently well marked out tocommand general accept-

ance? without some probability of which, the mere : multiplication

of systems of classification is a nuisance.

We conceive therefore that the efforts of ornithologists should

be directed to the study of the different families individually, in

order to determine their extent and to point out their true affi- _

nities with other families. When this has been done for all, we

may be able to arrange the whole group so as to present to the

eye a view of the relations of the several parts, and then, and

then only, shall we be able to determine whether any and what

subdivisions can be established.

There is one other point on which it is necessary to. say a few

words before concluding this paper. It is on the connexion of

the three groups we have here endeavoured to establish with

each other. The subject is a most difficult one, and we have

been able to come to no satisfactory conclusion upon it. Weare

inclined however to imagine, that the Puff Birds and Barbets, as.

exhibiting the least development of the peculiar characters of

their respective tribes, may show the line of connexion between

the Fissirostres and Scansores, while the Rollers may connect

the former with the normal Passeres somewhere near the 2

laimide. But a minute and careful examination of the families

in question is requisite to decide so nice a point, on which too

the greatest light may be thrown by anatomical observations.

It is to be hoped that some ornithologist will be found to inves-

tigate it fully.

—

Mr. A. Henfrey on Vegetable Embryogeny. 217

XIX.—Recent Discoveries in Vegetable Embryogeny. By AnruuR

Henrrey, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College,

London.

Tue subject of the development of the embryo of flowering

plants being one of those upon which I have constituted myself

a reporter, from time to time, for the pages of the ‘ Annals,’ I

find it necessary again to demand a small space, for the purpose

of making known some important events which have lately

oceurred in the history of the question, and at the same time of

putting in a distinct claim to priority in the publication of one

of the most important of the latest discoveries.

It is well known to all readers of this Journal who are inter-

ested m the present subject, that I have always been an advocate

for, and defender of, the opinion first put forth by Amici, that

the embryo originates as a distinct cell in the embryo-sac, and

is merely fertilized by the pollen-tube. Several physiologists

(whose papers will be found referred to in my ‘ Report’ pub-

lished in the ‘ Annals’ in 1852*) have argued on the same side ;

one of them however, Tulasne, declaring his inability to find the

germinal vesicle in the embryo-sac before fertilization, although

he distinctly asserts that it originates quite independently of the

end of the pollen-tube. On the other hand, Schleiden has con-

tinued to defend his original views, and has been ardently sup-

ported by his pupil Schacht, and more lately by Deecke.

The events of the last few months have quite changed the

aspect of the discussion; not only has Schleiden given “his ad-

herence to the opinion that the germinal vesicle pre-exists in the

embryo-sac, but Schacht also now states that he was in error,

and that the embryo is a product of a body originating in the

embryo-sac, and is merely fertilized by the pollen-tube.

The merit of convincing Schleiden is due to another of his

own pupils, Dr. Radlkofer, of Munich, who published at the

beginning of this year some excellent observations on Euphrasia

Odontites, and certain other plants+; and was empowered to

make known therein Schleiden’s acknowledgement of the accu-

racy of his representations. The memoir of Dr. Radlkofer did

not add any new fact of importance to our knowledge, but

was of much value, not only from its bearmg the approval of

Schleiden, but from its setting in their true light the phenomena

which Schacht and Deecke had recently urged as subversive of

Amici’s views. Dr. Radlkofer’s observations were made during

* Ann. Nat. Hist. Ser. 2. vol. ix. p. 441, &c.

+ Die Befruchtung der Phanerogamen, von L. Radikofer, M. & Ph.D.

Leipzig, 1856.

218 Mr. A. Henfrey on Vegetable Embryogeny.

last year, but did not reach me until late in the spring of this

year, and were therefore overlooked in the brief summary of late

researches contained in my last publication. This publication, a

paper read before the Linnzan Society of London, March 4th,

1856, and reported in the ‘ Annals’ of May following, con-

tained the facts supporting, and the more definite assertion of,

the opinion which I had propounded in the article ‘‘ Ovule”

(page 482) in the ‘ Micrographie Dictionary,’ in the autumn of

1855, that the germinal vesicles (or corpuscles) exist in the

embryo-sac before fecundation, not as complete cells, but as cor-

puscles of protoplasm which acquire their cellulose coat after the

fertilization by the agency of the pollen-tube.

Entertaining this view, it was with no little satisfaction that

I last week received a new paper, by Schacht (published in

the Reports of the Berlin Academy for May 22nd of this

year), on the “ Process of Fertilization in Gladiolus segetum,”

in which he completely abandons the opinion so long and so

warmly urged by him, of the origin of the embryo from the

end of the pollen-tube, and not only admits the pre-existence

of the embryonal corpuscles, but, in ignorance of my recently

promulgated statements, describes the phenomena nearly in

the same manner as I have done in Santalum, more parti-

cularly as regards the formation of the cellulose coat around

the protoplasmic embryonal corpuscle, as a consequence of the

fertilization. This corroboration of my views may be given in

his own words: “In the unfertilized embryo-sae of Gladiolus

segetum lie two germ-corpuscles, closely adherent to the micro-

pyle-canal, the upper part of the corpuscles consisting of a

bundle of delicate filaments, the lower of a mass of proto-

plasm. At the epoch of flowering these corpuscles are not sur-

rounded by a firm membrane ; their points project freely out of

the embryo-sac. On the third or fourth day after the appli-

cation of the pollen, the pollen-tube arrives at the germ-cor-

puscles and becomes intimately connected with them, and a firm

membrane is developed around the latter as the first product of

this conjunction. The end of the pollen-tube swells, becomes

thickened, and loses its granular contents. Both corpuscles are

ordinarily fertilized by one pollen-tube, but only one of them

becomes further developed, a nucleus appearing in its plasma-

mass, and soon after this a horizontal septum. ‘The first cell

of the rudimentary germ produced in this way grows gradually

up into the embryo, while the upper half of the origmal ger-

minal corpuscle becomes the suspensor, which appears firmly

connected with the wall of the embryo-sac. Not uncommonly

two or three pollen-tubes descend, without producing any essen-

tial alterations; the pollen-tube sometimes branches in the

li Ieee

Mr. P. H. Gosse on a new British Zoophyte. 219

micropyle, and, though very rarely indeed, the fertilized germ-

eorpuscle may also branch in the embryo-sac. Hence the

pollen-tube exerts a fertilizing influence, and does not, as I

formerly assumed, directly produce the germ, for the first cell of

the germ does not origmate in its interior; on the contrary, its

influence causes a granular protoplasmic mass existing in the

embryo-sac before fertilization to produce that cell from which

both the embryo and its suspensor proceed. Those filaments

( fertiization-filaments), of which the apices of the germinal cor-

puscles consist, and which [always found destitute of any power

of motion, are quite essential to the act of fertilization, but they

do not appear to take any direct part in the formation of the

first cell of the germ.” (Pp. 11, 12.)

As to these ‘filaments’ I cannot say anything at present ;

they occur in the situation of the ‘coagula’ which I have de-

scribed and figured in my memoir, and Schacht’s drawings are

not very unlike what I have seen, except that I did not detect

any filamentous structure ; and moreover, I do not think they

project freely from the embryo-sac, although I have described

them as occupying the absolute summit and exhibiting a kind

of notch between them.

I must not conclude this brief notice without offermg my

testimony to the value of Tulasne’s recent researches on this

subject*. Although he has missed the most essential point,

his observations are of exceeding value as contributions to our

knowledge of the history of the embryo-sac and the earlier stages

of growth of embryos.

London, July 30th, 1856.

XX.—On Edwardsia carnea, a new British Zoophyte.

By Puiuie H. Goss, F.R.S.

[With a Plate.]

Sp. Char. Mouth conical; tentacles above twenty-four, in

three rows ; epidermis subpolygonal, coriaceous, rough, brown ;

anterior column and posterior bulb pellucid, carneous, marked

with white.

Description —Length #ths of an inch, of which the anterior

column is pth of an inch; diameter of body ;.th; expanse of

tentacles ;4,th of an inch.

Body enclosed in a tubular epidermis, from which the anterior

and posterior extremities protrude at will (PI. 1X. fig. 1). This

* Ann. des Sc. Nat., Botanique, 4™¢ Séy, iv. p. 65.

220 Mr. P. H. Gosse on a new British Zoophyte. —

epidermis is thick and coriaceous, roughened externally, the pro-

jections having a slight tendency to longitudinal arrangement,

imparting a subpolygonal form to the body, which however is

very indistinct: its colour is yellowish-brown, tinged im parts

with rufous, and slightly translucent, so that the scarlet hue of

the stomach shines through it, when the animal is contracted.

Anterior column cylindrical or slightly barrel-shaped ; fluted ;

pellucid, almost colourless; each fluting defined by a slender

white line, and marked with an oblong-linear spot of opake

cream-white near its base: stomach visible through the inte-

guments like a thick scarlet axis.

Oral disk small ; a star of cream-white rays on a translucent

ground, surrounded by twenty-eight short, subfusiform, pointed,

pellucid, carneous tentacles: mouth scarlet, on a low conical

papilla. Tentacles slightly ringed with alternate bands of sub-

opake and pellucid carnation; they are arranged in three indi-

stinet circles, those of the innermost circle thickest, graduating

outwards.

Posterior extremity, when extruded, a somewhat inflated

bladder, membranous, delicately pellucid, carneous, with the

pale septa distinctly visible. The extremity is imperforate; it

does not form a defined sucking-disk, but its surface is capable

of adhering with considerable force to extraneous bodies (as a

plate of glass for example), on pressure, thus forming a tem-

porary disk. When this bulb is extruded, the epidermis is

forced upward, and lies in great tucks or folds around the body,

like a loose stocking (see fig. 4). At other times it is quite

covered by the epidermis, which then appears continuous and

imperforate (see fig. 3).

In the specimen described, the anterior column was attached

to the epidermis, not at the extremity of the latter, but a little

within its periphery, which, when the column was protruded, rose

in irregular, overlapping, and somewhat everted points around

its base (see figs. 2&3). In the process of contraction, the

retiring column carried with it the epidermis, causing this to

invert itself to a considerable extent. After a time, however (a

week or more), I observed that the column, in retreating, ceased

to invert the epidermis, simply descending into it as into a

tube, the everted points of which remained exactly as they were

when the animal was protruded. Hence I presume that there is

no organic connexion between what is called the epidermis and

the animal, but that the former is a cutaneous secretion thrown

off, and inhabited as a tube; like the investiture of Edwardsia

vestita. un this case the attachment of the mouth of the tube

to the column observed before, was probably a voluntary and

temporary adhesion produced by the suctorial property of the

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria, 221

general surface ; a property which we have seen to exist in all

parts of the posterior bulb.

This pretty and interesting, though minute, Actinoid was found

at Torquay in July by Miss Pinchard, an accomplished student

of our marine natural history. This lady kindly forwarded it to

me in its own native nidus,—an old Savicava’s burrow in the

limestone rock, out of which its fore-parts projected (see fig. 2).

Though removed from its burrow for the purpose of examination,

it has lived several weeks in one of my small aquaria, expanding

at intervals (somewhat charily), and frequently adhering to the

glass by its posterior bulb.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX.

Fig. 1. Edwardsia carnea: natural size.

Fig. 2. Ibid. (magnified), in the act of protruding.

Fig. 3. Ibid. (magnified) ; the anterior column protruded and expanded.

‘ig. 4. Ibid. (magnified); the posterior bulb protruded.

XXI.—WNotes on the Freshwater Infusoria of the Island of Bombay.

No. 1. Organization. By H. J. Carter, Esq., Assistant

Surgeon H.C.S8., Bombay.

[Concluded from p. 132.]

Nucleus.—By this term we shall understand, for the most

part, an organ situated in the outer portion of the sarcode, which,

when well marked, presents under the microscope the appear-

ance of a full moon (to use a familiar simile), with similar slight

cloudinesses (figs. 1 d, 2.e, 3d). It is discoid in shape, of a faint

yellow colour, and fixed to one side of a transparent capsule,

which, being generally more or less large than the nucleus itself,

causes the latter to appear as if surrounded by a narrow pellueid

ring. In this state it is invariably present in Amoeba, Actino-

phrys, Spongilla, Astasia (fig. 45 b), and Euglena (figs. 46 a, &e.),

though difficult at first to recognise ; particularly in the two

latter families, where the pellucid space or capsule, at the bottom

of which it is situated, is often the only visible sign of its pre-

sence. In Difflugia proteiformis it cannot of course be seen, from

the thickly incrusted state of the test ; but m asmaller and less

incrusted species, which might be called D. tricuspis (from the

trefoil-form of the opening of the test) (fig. 80), as well as in

Euglypha, its position is posterior, and evident, from the large-

ness of the capsule, though the nucleus itself is so faint that

even in Huglypha it can only occasionally be distinguished ;

while in Arcella vulgaris (Khr.) it is constantly double and

opposite (fig. 79). In dmeba Gleichenti the nucleus itself oe-

easionally presents a pellucid spot or punctum in its centre, |

In Vorticella there is a long cylindrical organ, which appears

analogous to, if not homologous with, the nucleus, and this, in

a large Hpistylis common here, and some other species of Vorti-

cella, is wrapped once round the upper part of the buccal cavity, in

the same manner as the ovary is wrapped round the visceral organs

of Salpa among the Tunicata (fig. 74g). Stein states that after

Vorticella microstoma has become encysted, this organ divides

up into embryos, which, when the parent integument bursts,

come forth like “ Monas ‘colpoda or Monas scintillans” ; and he

‘assumes ” that these monads, after having become fixed and

sands pass into young Vorticelle* ;—an assumption which can

hardly be doubted, though it may be some time before chance

favours its demonstration.

In Otostoma, and many forms of Ehrenberg’s Enterodelous

class of animalcules, there is a similar organ, either of a cir-

cular, nosy nate? or fusiform, elongated shape (Annals, vol. xvii.

pl. 9. fig. 6). In Oxytricha also there is something of the kind,

and in Himantophorus (Charon, Ehr., mihi) it extends nearly all

round the body, commencing from the posterior extremity, and

terminating on “the right side close to the vesicula.

The cylindrical organ in Vorticella not unfrequently presents

a granular appearance, and the granules, which are minute, but

uniform in size, appear to occupy the periphery ; but whether

they are inside or outside the wall of the cylinder, or in the sub-

stance of the wall itself, I have not been able to determine.

Stein places them inside, in the form of a granular cylinder, and

within this “ nucleoli +,’—nucleated, discoid bodies, into which

the nucleus becomes divided.

In the Rhizopodous cell which inhabits the protoplasm of the

Characee}, it is at first uniformly clear and transparent, then

semi-opake and subgranular, afterwards two or more distinct

granules make their appearance, and finally it becomes wholly

granular and much enlarged; or undergoes fissiparation and

thus gives origin to more cells, like the cytoblast of the vege-

table kingdom.

Use.—It is impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, »

to specify the uses of the nucleus. One point, however, is evi-

dent, that it appears very early in the development of the fresh-

water Rhizopoda, sponge-cell, &c.; and another, that it bears a

close analogy to a similar organ in the vegetable cell, viz. the

222 Mr. H.J, Carter on the Organization of Infusoria,

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. ix. p.474 & 477

+ Die Infusionsthiere, &e. Taf. 4. fig. 24. 4to, Leipzig, 1854.

t Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xvii. p. 101, 1856.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 223

eytoblast, which also is the primary organ of this cell ; and there-

fore, perhaps, we might term it the presiding organ, or consider

that such are its primary offices over the development and life of

these cells respectively. If we trace it from the Rhizopoda into

the vegetable kingdom, we shall find it occupying the very same

position relatively in Ameba that it does in the cell of Serpicula

verticillata*. Thus, im some Amcebous cells which settled down

from their spherical into the plane reptant forms, the following

sequence from without inwards was distinctly seen: viz. Ist, the

pellicula and diaphane ; 2ndly, the molecular sareode bearing the

nucleus, and a layer of greenish granules externally ; 3rdly, the

aqueous fluid of the centre (figs. 1, 2) ;—and in the spine-cell of

the leaf of Serpicu/a—l\st, the cellulose cell-wall; 2ndly, the

molecular protoplasm, im which are imbedded the green granules

(viz. cells or organisms in which part of the protoplasm bears

chlorophyll) and the cytoblast ; 3rdly, the aqueous fluid of the

centre (figs. 63, 64). The difference between cellulose and pel-

licula, and the absence of the vesicula, &c. are pomts which have

so little to do with the analogy in question when the latter is

followed up through Astasia, Euglena, Navicula, Closterium, &e.

into Gdogonium, and Nitella to Serpicula, that very little doubt

will, I think, then remain, of the offices of the nucleus in Ameba

being similar to those of the nucleus of the plant-cell, whatever

these may hereafter prove to be.—Here, again, I would return

for a moment to the cause of sphericity in Ameba, and submit

whether the cavity contaiming the distending fluid is that of the

vesicula or the centre of the sarcode ; since the aqueous cavity of

the vegetable cell may then be analogous to the vesicula ; for, as

before stated, I have never been able to succeed in detecting the

vesicula in Amoeba when under a spherical form ; although, the

moment it becomes plane and polymorphic, this organ reappears,

of its usual size, and endowed with its usual activity.

Much, however, as the nucleus may at first appear to be a

presiding organ, there can be no doubt, from what will presently

be stated, that its ultimate destination, in some organisms at

least, is to pass into granules which become new beings.

Ovules.—This term will be applied to a number of discoid, or

globular, nucleated cells, which appear together in the sarcode of

some of the Infusoria. At an early stage in Spongilla, Ameba, Eu-

glypha, Astasia, and Euglena, these bodies consist of a transparent

capsule, lined with a faint yellow film of semi-transparent matter,

which, subsequently becoming more opake and yellowish, also

* This aquatic plant is selected for comparison because the circulatory

movement is well marked in the cells which oecupy the body of the leaf,

and the eytoblast and protoplasm in the spine-cells of the margin.

224 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

becomes more marginated or distinct, and assumes a nucleolar

form. In Spongilla there is also a delicate, pellicular layer, which

is endowed with a low power of movement (figs. 89 2, 40a).

I first noticed these ovules in the seed-like bodies of Spongilla,

where they are enclosed in transparent globular sacs*, each sac

holding a greater or less number of ovules, which are discoid in

form, of different sizes, and accompanied by a great number of

active molecular granules (figs. 37, 38); and during the past year

I have frequently seen such in Amaba Gleichenii, where they have

been equally numerous, have borne the same characters, and have

been accompanied by anumber of active molecular granules, as

in the transparent globular cells of the capsules of Spongilla(fig. 5.)

They occur also in Euglypha alveolatat, congregated round the

hyaline capsule of the nucleus, from four to fifty in number, and

mostly of the same size, but always globular, and accompanied

also, as in Spongilla, by molecular granules (fig. 26). Such

ovules may also be seen similarly situated m Déifflugia tricuspis

(H. J.C.) and in Arcellina dentata (Khr.) ; enclosed in the latter

in an ovoid capsule, which nearly fills the test. In Actinophrys,

also, they appear to have been seen by M. Nicolet, as will be

mentioned hereafter.

Astasia and Euglena constantly become filled with discoid

cells of a similar kind, but in those of the former I have seldom

been able to distinguish the capsule from the internal contents,

on account of their smallness and the imcessant motion of the

animalcule (fig. 46). In Huglena, however, they are very evident,

and it is worthy of remark that each partakes of the form of

the Huglena to which it belongs (figs. 50, 58). Thus in Z. acus it

is long and cylindrical ; in LZ. viridis oblong, compressed (fig. 59);

in Crumenula texta and Phacus circular, compressed, &c.

In Spongilla and Ameba these ovules follow the motions of

the sarcode, in which they appear to be loosely imbedded ; they

also undergo partial transposition in Astasia and Euglena, but

in Buglypha aud Difflugia are chiefly located round the globular

hyaline capsule of the nucleus, at the posterior part of the

body (fig. 28),—a position which it is well to remember; for

although apparently unconnected in all, with the nucleus and

its capsule, and diffused generally throughout the sarcode in

Spongilla, Amaba, Astasia, and Kuglena, yet in Euglypha and

Difflugia, which we shall hereafter find the best for typical

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p. 87, 1849. Of the formation of

the seed-like body, I need not say more here, than that it consists of a

capsuled aggregation of ovule-bearing sponge-cells ; while Ameba presents

the same appearance, when preguaut with ovules, as one of these cells, and

becomes capsuled singly.

+ Dujardin, Hist. Nat. des Zoophytes, Atlas, tab. 2. fig. 9.

Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 225

reference, they are undoubtedly developed in the neighbourhood

of the nucleus, and therefore confined at first to a particular

part of the body.

In many of Ehrenberg’s enterodelous Infusoria it is not un-

common to see a number of defined globular bodies, of nearly

equal size, and of a faint, opake, yellow colour, which closely

resemble ovules,—ex. gr. Amphileptus fasciola (Ehr.), Himanto-

phorus Charon (Bhr.), Sc. ; nor is it improbable that many of his

Trachelina, which come near Planaria, possess ovules similar to

those which are found in the latter; but, from being so much mixed

up with the spherical cells, pass equally unnoticed while in, as well

as when out of the body, under such circumstances. M.J. Haime,

however, has distinctly seen instances in which these bodies have

been ejected from Infusoria, and have passed into locomotive ani-

maleules under his eye. Thus he states that in Plesconia they

form a group of from forty to fifty in the middle of the body, are

round, issue one by one, remain tranquil some time, then deve-

lope two filaments, one in front, the other behind, and move

about rapidly. In an “undescribed” species of Dileptus they

are whitish, and form a wreath, extending almost throughout

the whole length of the body, become yellow towards the anal

extremity, where they pass out with the remains of the food,

soon develope two opposite filaments, and move about rapidly.

In Paramecium aurelia, M. Haime states that an ovary appears

some hours before death, about the middle of the body, which

becomes filled with about sixty little nuclei; these increase in

size, burst the ovisac, and thus pass into the body of the parent,

from which they finally escape by an opening in the tegumentary

covering, formed by the diffluence of the latter, and the ovisae

follows them *.

Spermatozoids.—This term is provisionally applied to granules

which are originally developed from the nucleus in Ameba,

Euglypha, and Spongilla(?). In Ameba the process appears to

commence by an increase of size in the capsule of the nucleus,

which becomes more or less globular; at the same time the nu-

cleus itself becomes uniformly granular ; the latter then increases

in size, so as to occupy a third of the interior of the animalcule,

and then undergoes, apparently, duplicative subdivision, for the

mass is sometimes seen to present a single groove, which passes

through the centre, and ultimately becomes divided up into

several segments. These segments assume a circular com-

pressed or globular form, and continue entire until the granules

or spermatozoids of which they are composed become fully deve-

loped, when the latter acquire the power of locomotion, and

* Ann. des Se. Nat. Zool. t. xix. p. 131, foot-note, 1853.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 15

226 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

thus separate from each other ; meanwhile the original capsule

of the nucleus for the most part disappears (figs. 10-15). In

this way, some individuals out of a group of Ameba radiosa,

bearing such granules, were seen moving about, even when so

reduced that hardly anything but their cell-wall, and the one or

two spherical segments of the granulated nucleus that remained

in its interior, were left; upon being delivered of which it may

be presumed that they became effete or died (fig. 14). Some-

times these segments are evidently held together by a soft

mucous cell, which, being polymorphic, assumes the form of

Actinophrys, and thus exhibits a locomotive power (fig. 16);

while at others the cell becomes firm, transparent, and spherical,

and the granules do not leave it until they become endowed with

locomotion (fig. 15). When the latter is the case, the sperma-

tozoids may be seen, if fully developed, to be bounding about

their respective capsules, w hile the capsules themselves are still

rolled on in the sarcode of the Ameba under progression. At

other times the whole mass of spermatozoids, all separated,

and having left their capsules, may be seen to fill the body of

the Ameba, whilst still under active polymorphism and loco-

motion. Lastly, the parent sometimes dies in this state, and

then the mass of spermatozoids may be seen to undergo gradual

disintegration, as the granules, by twos and threes, or more, dis-

entangle themselves from the sarcode, and bound off into their

new element. These grannies or spermatozoids in Huglypha

average about +7455 to zadqq Of an inch in diameter; about

four of them would make the diameter of the largest. ovules,

which are, again, somewhat less than human blood-globules.

In Euglypha alveolata a similar development takes place round

the anterior part of the capsule of the nucleus (fig. 29); but

from the concealed position of the latter, 1 have not been able

to see it distinctly originate in the nucleus, as nm Ameba. .The

segments here have always been compressed, probably from the

soft polymorphic state of the mucous cell which encloses them

admitting of their assuming a plane or reptant actinophorous

form (fig. 31); and in this way they are carried out of the Eu-

glypha, which, like Ameba, perishing on their development, and

passing into decomposition, thus allows them to quit the parent

cavity ; at other times they separate close to the hyaline capsule

of the nucleus, and finally swarm about in the test generally

(fig. 29). Although this development, as well as that of the

ovules, takes place more profusely in different individuals than in

the same one, yet it is by no means uncommon to see, in a group

of ovule-bearing Euglyphe alveolata, individuals with both deve-

lopments in them at once (fig. 30); and with no gradation in

the size of the ovules to indicate that they originated in the

of aS |) |

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 227

granules, or vice versd,—the two developments thus appearing

distinct : and this seems to be confirmed by what takes place in

alarger variety of this species of Huglypha, where there is a test

something like that of the parent developed in the interior, and

within this a spherical capsule, provided with a straight tube,

which extends to the pointed end of the test m which it is

immediately enclosed (fig. 32). At this time the animal has

entirely disappeared, and the contents of the spherical capsule,

having undergone segmentation, assume the form of circular

masses of granules, like those developed from the nucleus in

FE. alveolata; after which the granules separate, and pass out of

the straight tube, which is slightly patulous at its free extremity

(fig. 33). Other tests of the same variety may be seen more or

less filled with ovules, as before described.

Lastly, in Spongilla, there are always many cells to be found

in that part of the mass where the seed-like bodies are being de-

veloped, partly filled with similar granules, loose or in’a cireum-

scribed group; but I have not yet been able to determine

whether this development is nucleolar, or ovular at an early

stage. It is certainly most like the granular development of the

nucleus in Luglypha and Ameba.

In Astasia, irregular globular botryoidal masses, dividing up

into spherical cells, colourless and translucent, or of a faint,

opake, yellow tint, present themselves so frequently (and gene-

rally inversely developed with the ovules, as in the Rhizopoda),

that I cannot help thinking that they are also developments

from the nucleus (figs. 47, 48) ; but from not having seen them

present that evident granular aspect which characterizes this de-

velopment in the Rhizopoda, I have not been able to determine

satisfactorily whether they are parts of the latter, or that kind of

division of the sarcode into green spherical cells which some-

times takes place in Euglena.

In Euglena, also, I have described a development of the nu-

cleus, partly under the idea that it might be a parasitic rhizo-

podous development ; but now it appears to me to be a simple

enlargement, granulation and segmental development of this

body into polymorphic, reptant, mucous cells, filled with sper-

matozoid granules, as in the Rhizopoda*.

Finally; from what organs, in the freshwater Rhizopoda,

Astasia and Euglena, ave the ovules and the spermatozoid

granules developed ?

Of the origin of the latter from the nucleus there appears to

me to be no doubt; for independently of the changes taking

place in it which have been mentioned, I have never been able

* Ann. & Mag. Nat, Hist. vol. xvii. p. 115, 1856.

15*

228 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

to see the nucleus and its capsule in their original form when the

spermatozoid mass has been present, though I have occasionally,

in Ameba, and almost always in Euglypha, seen the empty glo-

bular capsule in connexion with the latter. In Ameba, before

the spheroidal divisions of the nucleus have separated from each

other, they frequently appear in the form of a botryoidal mass,

projecting from one part of the capsule.

But, as regards the ovules, although they are also unquestion-

ably developed around the globular capsule of the nucleus in

Euglypha, yet the fact of their being developed throughout the

greater part of the sarcode which lines the cell of Huglena, and

the same in Astasia, which is closely allied to Ameba, while in

the latter they appear also to be developed from the sarcode

generally, seems to indicate that they are developments of some

part or parts of. the sarcode—perhaps of some of the molecule.

That the two developments, viz. that of the ovules and sperma-

tozoid granules, present themselves together in Huglypha, has

already been stated, and the fact of the ovules in Euglena first

becoming developed outside the capsule of the nucleus, and the

granular development of this body following it, shows that the

ovules are not developed from the nucleus. The capsule, there-

fore, in Euglypha, under these circumstances, as well as when

there are ovules alone present, is often seen minus the nucleus ;

and the same in Amaba Gleichenii, where it may be observed

rolling about with the ovules when the latter have, for the most

part, reached their largest size (fig.5). In these instances, too,

the granules of the nucleus, if the latter has undergone this

transformation, may be dispersed among the general mass, as

the nucleus on such occasions has, if not absent, appeared faintly

marked, probably from having become effete or atrophied,—the

ovules and spermatozoids appearing to be inversely developed ;

and in Astasia and Euglena, the former to be destroyed on the

development of the latter.

Nicolet has stated that in Actinophrys the generative organs

consist of a central spherical membrane, enclosing little globules,

which are the rudiments of “eggs,” surrounded by a “ gela-

tinous granular layer,” the granules of which appear to be the

reproductive organs*. But this simple statement, though bear-

ing the semblance of fact, is too meagre, without illustrations, to

be of any use. If his “ spherical membrane ” be the same as

our capsule of the nucleus, after the latter has become globular,

then certainly the ovules are not contained in it in Luglypha.

Stein also figures the nucleus of his Actinophrys oculata in

accordance with Nicolet’s observations, viz. with a granulated

* Comptes Rendus, vol. xvi. p. 115, 1848.

Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 229

nucleus, fixed in a spherical capsule, surrounded by a zone of

granular plasma (?) (fig. 95)*. This, as will be seen hereafter,

is very like the state of the nucleus in the rhizopodous cell of

the protoplasm of the Characez, when the former is undergoing

reproduction.

With reference to the organs of generation in the other Infu-

soria, I can state no more than that although there is a fusiform

nucleus in Ofostoma,I have also constantly seen a bunch of string-

like filaments floating about its interior, which appeared to be

attached near the buccal cavity ; and although I could make out

nothing more, I could at the same time only liken these to the

generative apparatus in the Planaria mentioned, which floats

round the buccal cavity and upper part of the membranous

stomach in a similar manner.

Impregnation.—In Ameba and in Actinophrys a union of

two individuals is not uncommon, and many have noticed this

in the latter. It has occurred to me, also, to see it in a species

of Ameba, which, from its circular form, and the prolongations

only taking place from one point of the circumference, appeared

thus to present an anterior extremity, by which several pairs

of the group were united (Plate V. fig. 17) ; and on one occasion

two separated under my eye, when an attenuated prolongation

of one seemed to be drawn out through a thick prolonged por-

tion of the other (fig. 18). More convincingly and frequently,

however, this union was observed in a group of Huglypha, where

the anterior extremity of the body is distinct (figs. 34, 36). Here

the protruded parts, after having been united for some time,

began to separate by constriction at the poimt of contact, which,

soon diminishing to a mere mucous thread, became smaller and

smaller, and more elongated, as the two individuals, retreating

from each other, withdrew themselves into the bottom of their

test respectively, from which they appear on such occasions never

again to emerge. Lastly, in a group of Euglena deses, several

couples appeared united by the tails, not only to one another,

but fixed to the watch-glass at this point, where they continued

until each sank down, close to the other or separate, into cap-

suled forms filled with ovules,—a state which appeared so much

the more to be the result of impregnation, from the number of

couples thus united presenting every stage of ovigerous develop-

ment in their interior, from mere molecular sarcode to repletion

with full-formed ovules (figs. 49, 52). It is not an uncommon

thing to see, among a group of Euglene agiles (H. J. C.), indi-

viduals chasing each other, becoming united head to head, head

and tail, or tail to tail, and then separating with difficulty by a

* Op. cit. tab. 5. figs. 25-28.

230 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Tnfusoria.

whirling motion, as if the bond of union were a mucous thread,

which could be only twisted off in this manner. Two Euglene

virides may also sometimes be seen united by the intertwisting:

of their filaments only, just like the congress of two snails.

All these wnions appear very much like so many acts of con-

jugation ; but when we find Kuglypha as well as Arcella united,

not only in pairs, but triply and quadruply, in this way, and the

same with Huglena viridis, the connexion of these phenomena

with reproduction, as Claparéde has stated *, becomes “ exceed-

ingly doubtful ;” particularly as we have seen the spermatozoid

sranules developed from the nucleus and among the ovules ; and

this granular spermatozoid development, if it be one, does not

take place until after conjugation. At the same time, in one

group of Euglyphe, nothing but spermatozoids were developed,

while in another hardly anything but ovules appeared ; and it

was only here and there that both were found together; again,

in the larger variety of Euglypha, the granules were developed in

a distinct : apparatus, and the ovules in the same manner as in

LE, alveolata, viz. mm the posterior part of the body, outside the

capsule of the nucleus.

Lastly, we come to the question whether or not these granules

are spermatozoids ? That the ovules m Spongilla pass into poly-

morphie cells, I proved by experiment some years since+; and

lately, I have repeated similar experiments, with the same results:

Moreover, I have seen the ovule of Huglypha in every stage, from

its first appearance in the test to the time when it has acquired

the power of putting forth rhizopodous prolongations (fig. 31),

after which the tests of very small Huglyphe presented them-

selves in the same basin, which did not appear before the parents

had died off and left their ovules to shift for themselves. Henee

this is one mode of propagation among the Rhizopoda, whatever

the granules which we have provisionally called spermatozoids

may be. Then, also, it has often occurred to me to see circular

groups of spermatozoids undergoing disintegration or dehiscence

in the test of Huglypha, while ovules were present, and granules

like the former swarming round the latter at the same time; as

well as granules of the same kind in Ameba Gleichenii, where

the ovules have been far advanced in development. In Spon-

gilla also similar granules abound in the transparent globular

sacs of the capsules which contain the ovules (figs. 37, 38); and

when the latter are set free by forcibly bursting the former,

these little granules crowd round the large ovules so markedl

that I made this observation several years smcet, when I little

* Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xv. p, 286, 1856.

+ Idem, Joc. cit. + Idem, Joe cit.

> vas

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 281

thought that there was any reason for thinking them organs of

impregnation. Lately, however, I have observed, that full half

the larger ovules of the seed-like body, under this condition,

have one of these granules in different degrees of connexion with

them, from simple approximation to almost undistinguishable

incorporation (fig. 39 a'-e) ; also that when the internal contents

granulate on the third or fourth day after they have been set

free, the prominence caused by the appended granule does not

disappear until the whole ovule has passed into a polymorphic

cell (A, /) ; that is, that after this, no capsule or anything else re-

mains behind, to indicate that the granule and its capsule, with

this prominence, have not wholly become transformed into the

new sponge-cell. This granule, however, is not entirely confined

to the larger ovules, where it is for the most part affixed to the

margin, but is also presented here and there by many of the

small ones. In the larger ovules it bears, in size, the proportion

of about one to eight, and the largest ovules average about 3,,5th

of an inch in diameter. About twelve hours after the ovules and

granules have been set free in the manner mentioned, into di-

stilled water, in a watch-glass, they, as well as the granules, ex-

hibit a great deal of motion, which lasts up to the end of the first

day, when they become quiet again; and this motion, though

least in the largest ovules and most in the smallest granules, is

generally from one side to the other in all, like that of a zoospore

which is attached to the glass by one of its cilia, or of a monad,

which possesses a polymorphic coat attached to some body, and

a moving single cilium, Some of the granules, however, every

now and then appear to break away from this attachment, and

then present a single (?) ciliary appendage, which ceases to be

visible again the moment they become fixed. All the ovules,

both those with which a granule is connected, and those without,

appear to undergo a like granulation of their ternal contents,

and pass into new sponge-cells (2, 4, /), which for a day or two

remain polymorphic and reptant, and then assume a spherical

actinophorous form ; while there is also a development of single (?)

ciliated monads, closely resembling those which are found in the

fully-developed sponge (m). In their reptant state, also, the

former present the vesicula and frequently a single cilium,

Under what circumstances we are to view the incorporation of

this granule with the sponge-ovule, I am ignorant*. Certain it

* Tt is just possible that these granules may be buds like those which

appear on the so-called “ferment-cells”’ (fig.44), but the latter grow intonew

cells as large as the old ones before they are detached, if even this takes

place then, which is not the case with the granule attached to the sponge-

ovule. Again, the ferment-cells are chiefly seen in pairs, from the bud in

many haying increased to nearly the size of the parent, while the sjfonge-

232 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

is, that one of these granules, which at first hardly appears to’

differ from the oyule itself, except in size and the addition,

perhaps, of a single cilium, may frequently be seen to exhibit

movements about a large ovule indicative of a desire to become

incorporated with it ; and frequently, also, it seems to succeed

in fixing itself permanently to its circumference, before the eye ;

while occasionally a monociliated granule may be seen to be ap-

pended to one of the sponge-cells thus newly developed, im the

same manner that the “ zoosperm ” attaches itself to similar cells

in the old sponge (fig. 43).

In the absence, then, of direct evidence respecting the ulti-

mate destination of these bodies, we must infer that they are

germs, which grow into new individuals (perhaps like micro-

gonidia*), or that they are impregnating agents, which enter

into the ovules, and thus render them capable of further deve-

lopment, or both. Analogy, im connexion with the faets men-

tioned, seems to favour the latter view ; for when we observe the

development of the ovules, and these spheroidal or discoid seg-

ments of the granulated nucleus, which are of about the same dia-

meter as the ovules, occurring together in the same Euglypha ;

and one cell, viz. that of the ovule, remaining entire, while the

contents of the other, viz. the spheroidal segment of the nucleus,

has apparently divided up into a number of locomotive granules,

—the process so far accords with what takes place in higher or-

ganic developments during the process of true generation that

we become much induced to extend the analogy still further;

and consider that the contents of some of the spermatozoid gra-

nules or smaller cells go into this larger one to complete it, in

the families of Rhizopoda, &c. mentioned. The monociliated cells

(“zoosperms” +) of Spongilla might, perhaps, by some be con-

sidered young sponge-cells, which lose thei cilium on further

development ; for such is the course with the monads which are

produced from the rhizopodous cells of the protoplasm of the

ovules do not appear in this state. It is only when the buds of the fer-

ment-cells are very small, that there is any direet resemblance between

them and the sponge-ovules presenting a similar condition. If the granule

in connexion with the sponge-ovule be a bud, it must be detached from the

parent when very young, for there are no intermediate stages as in the fer-

ment-cell to show that it is in reality one.

Again, the oscillation of the granule round the sponge-ovule may be a

physical attraction ; this oscillation, however, does not present itself among

the ferment-cells, while in the sponge-oyule it appears to end frequently in

a permanent attachment of the granule to the ovule,—a condition that may

be aided by the “ external layer” or diaphane envelope of the latter.

* See Braun on the reproduction of Hydrodictyon. Ray Soc. Pub. Bot.

and Phys. Mems. pp. 89 & 261. t

+ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xiv. p. 334.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 233

Characeze before they pass into dmaebe; while the number of

the former being as great in the first portion of sponge which

issues from the capsule as in the older mass, if not more so,

seems not only to support this view, but also that they do not

all form part of the surface-layer of the canals in which cilia

have been detected by Mr. Bowerbank, for at this period there

are no canals present. The facts above mentioned, however, are

opposed to this view ; for there is a marked difference. between

the reptant sponge-cells produced from the ovules in the watch-

glass, and the monociliated ones developed from the granules,

both in size and appearance (/, m) ; and although the cilium sub-

sequently seen in the former may have pre-existed in the ovule,

still, both bemg polymorphic, rhizopodous cells, and, therefore,

when united undistinguishable individually, the ciium might

belong to either, 7. e. to the sponge-cell or to the incorporated

granule,—the latter of which may frequently be verified when

examining a piece of Spongilla torn to pieces, under the micro-

scope (fig. 43). Whether or not, however, both possess a cilium~

at first, the sponge-cell loses it afterwards, whatever may happen

to that of the supposed zoosperm, which may not become incor-

porated with one; and this may be the case with the monads

which are produced from the rhizopodous cell of the Characeze,—

there may be two kinds.

Should it be hereafter proved that the granules of the nucleus

thus become impregnating agents, then this mode of generation

may perhaps be extended through Huglena to Navicula, Closte-

rium, Spirogyra, Cidogonium, and Cladophora; for in none of

these Algze has anything approaching to a process of generation

been detected beyond conjugation and the formation of the

spore ; while, indeed, in Spirogyra mirabile (Hass.), Gidogonium,

and Cladophora, the spore is formed without conjugation.—

Might not the granulation of the nucleus, &c. go on in the

spore ?

In Cladophora the gonimic substance consists of nucleated

cells, each containing a portion of green chlorophyll-bearing

protoplasm, and these are arranged in the way of a pavement on

the mner side of the cell ; hence we must consider Cladophora a

composite Alga, which would then form the first step to the cell

of Nitella, in which the green chlorophyll-bearing cells would

correspond to the same kind of organisms in the cell of Clado-

phora; but as the form of Nitella is more complicated, so it re-

quires distinct organs of reproduction for its general develop-

ment. ‘That the conjectured mode of generation mentioned in

the freshwater Rhizopoda may be the same as in the lower Algze,

and that the addition of other and distinct organs for this pur-

pose in the higher developments is a necessary sequence of their

234 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

complication, are observations merely put forth for what they

may prove worth. At the same time, it appears evident that

each organ must have its proper cell, and this cell its proper

mode of impregnative reproduction, just as much as the most

complicated beings of which it forms a part; while-the granu-

lating of the nucleus of a cell to furnish fertilizing germs for the*

process of generation, when a simple division of it only is re-

quired for common reproduction, is perhaps not the least un-

tenable view that may be held on the subject.

In Physactis saccata, Kg., the spherical, terminal cell of the

snake-like filaments is filled or lined with a homogeneous, trans-

lucent substance, in one part of the circumference of which is a’

nucleus, and this part is invariably next the last granuliferous

cell of the filament (fig. 70), which with the four or five fol-

lowing ones unite together to form the elongated club-shaped

sporangium (fig. 7 71). When the sporangium: is completed, the

spherical cell is seen to be united to it by a kind of neck, but

the nucleus and its homogeneous contents have disappeared,

that is, have passed into the sporangium (fig. 71a). While

here and there may be seen spherical cells unattached to (pro-

bably separated from) their filaments, some of which have a gra-

nular substance growing out in a linear form from the nucleus

(figs. 72, 73). Hence then, as we have the nucleus of the sphe-

rical cell applied to the terminal cell of the granuliferous chain,

a tubular prolongation connecting it with the sporangium, the

disappearance of the nucleus and other contents of the spherical

cell after the formation of the sporangium, together with a gra-

nular growth from the nucleus of this cell when the sporangium

is in process of formation, I think it may fairly be inferred, that

the chief part which the spherical cell adds to the sporangium is

this granular growth from its nucleus.

Development of the Ovule.—In Spongilla and Euglypha, this

appears to take place by the passing of the transparent, faint-

yellow film, which lines the interior of the capsule, into an opake,

yellowish, granuliferous membrane ; synchronously with which

it becomes more marginated towards the capsule, and presents,

in the centre, a pellucid area, in the middle of which, again, is

a minute granule or body, which appears to be the rudiment of

the nucleus (fig. 59). Frequently, also, another layer, as before

stated, is seen in the ovules of Spongilla external to the capsular

one, and this appears to be endowed with locomotive power, as

it generally presents a parabolical shape, extended out from one

side of the ovule (fig. 40 a); after which the ovule in each be-

comes transformed, apparently wholly, into a polymorphic, rep-

tant Rhizopod (fig. 397, k). The same process, modified, appears

to take place in the ovules of Huglena. Thus in E. viridis, where

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 235

they are of an oblong shape (and therefore unmistakeable, if

nothing but a legion of this species pregnant with ovules be pre-

sent), they are found like the ovules of Spongilla, viz. scattered

over the sides of the vessel, and evidently have, in like manner,

the power of locomotion in addition to that which both also pos-

sess of turning upon their long axis when otherwise stationary.

This, perhaps, may be partly effected by the external membrane

just mentioned. The pellucid central area in the oblong ovules

of E. viridis corresponds with the oblong shape of the capsule

(fig. 59) ; but beyond this, and the central granule, I have not

been able to follow their development out of the parent ; though,

from the number of young E. virides which present themselves

under the circumstances mentioned, it may reasonably be inferred

that they come from the ovules. The young Euglene, however,

being so rapid in their movements when once the cilium is

formed, it can hardly be expected that, except under a state of

incarceration, their development can be followed so satisfactorily

as that of the slow-moving Khizopod. Instances do occur, how-

ever, where the ovules gain the cilium within the cell, and there

bound about, when fully developed, lke the zoospores of Algze

within their spore-capsules, In this way I have seen them

moving rapidly within the effete transparent capsuled body of

E. viridis and in Crumenula texta, where the spiral fibre layer is

so strongly developed as to retain the form of the Euglena for a

long time after all the soft parts have perished. On these occa-

sions the embryos are perfectly colourless, with the exception of

a central point, which reflects a red tint ; and on one occasion,

while watching a litter in rapid motion within the capsuled body

of E. viridis, the capsule gave way, and they came out one after

another just as zoospores escape from the spore-capsule ; but

from their incessant and vigorous movenient I was unable to fol-

low them long enough to make out anything more about them.

K6lliker also noticed in Euglena “four to six embryos in one

individual, and entirely filling it, which at. last, furnished with

their red points and cilia, broke through their parent, leaving it

an empty case*.” The same kind of development of the ovule

probably takes place in all the Rhizopoda as in Spongilla, and in

Astasia as in Euglena. I have seen young Astasie in the

effete body of an old one, but could not say that the latter was

the parent.

To Stein’s original and valuable observations on the develop-

ment of embryos, arising from the division of the nucleus in

Vorticelle, 1 have already alluded ; and also to M. Jules Haime’s

statements regarding the ovules which he saw in the bodies of

* Quart. Journ. Microscop. Se. vol. i. p. 54, 1853,

236 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

Plesconia, Dileptus, and Paramecium aurelia. Neither, however,

appears to have seen ovules in either of these Infusoria suffi-

ciently distinct to describe their composition in detail.

Lastly, I would advert here to the rhizopodous forms which

Vorticella occasionally appears to assume when under gemmi-

parous reproduction. Stein has described it in Acineta, and I

have since observed it in a Rhizopod undistinguishable from

Ameba Gleichenii; 1 have also seen Vorticelle developed singly

from Acineta; and am now compelled to return to the conclusion

which I doubted formerly, viz. that the rhizopodous development

which takes place in Euglena is a similar passage of the nucleus,

and perhaps certain other contents of this Infusorium, into a

rhizopodous form*. It appears to be as general in the family of

Euglena as in that of Vorticella ; and although these two organ-

isms at first look very different, yet not only is their metamor-

phosis into rhizopodous forms similar, but the sudden contractile

movement at intervals of a species of Glenodinium (Khr., very

nearly the same as G. tabulatum) is so like that of Vorticella, and

Glenodinium is so closely allied to Euglena, that we cannot help

seeing in this act alone a feature which links together Huglena

and Vorticella,—if not also, with other points of resemblance,

the biphorous Tunicata or Salpide.

Hence then, as Vorticella may pass into Acineta or Ameba,

and Huglena also into a rhizopodous cell, and the former may in

its metamorphosis produce young Vorticelle, so perhaps Euglene

may produce young Huglene after a similar manner.

How, then, are we to regard this granulating development of

the nucleus? We have seen that it occurs in Euglypha, where also

there is a distinct development of ovules. Are we to regard it

as the flowering of a dicecious male plant, or as the budding of a

moneecious or bisexual flowering one,—as the impregnating ele-

ment; or as a reproductive gemmiparous one? We can hardly

consider it budding or gemmiparous, because it is a development

of the nucleus itself, which allies it more to fissiparous or dupli-

cative subdivision ; and if this cannot be determined, perhaps it

* This was the original view I took of it. I then conceived it to be a

foreign development, like the rhizopodous cell of the Characez, for it took

place in several Crumenule, which had respectively been enwrapped for a

short time in rhizopodous cells, when I thought the germs of the new de-

velopment might have been introduced into them. Still I wavered in my

opinion, as may be seen in the latter part of my description of this (Ann.

and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xvii. p. 115), and since then I have returned to

the old view, which is that above expressed; for independently of other

evidence in favour of it, Euglena would be an exception to what now seems

to be a general occurrence m organisms closely allied to it, that is, if we

considered this granular metamorphosis of the nucleus into polymorphic,

rhizopodous bodies, a foreign development.

— st"

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 237

had better be called “ granulation.”” Gemmez grow out from the

surface, and do not appear to contain any portion of the nucleus

(ex. gr. Vorticelle)* ; neither could I discover an elongated nu-

cleus, as Stein has figured, in the Amebe and Acinete which I

saw developing young Vor ticelle, the former in plurality (one to

three), and the latter singly ; if present in the amcebous form, it

was circular, and if in the Acinete, undistinguishable from the

general “ granulation.”

Again,—Where are these transformations to end? Into what

kind of rhizopods do the sheathed Vorticelle pass? How many

of the freshwater Rhizopoda are alternating forms of Vorticelle ?

How many actinophorous Rhizopods those of Euglene? Wow

many more Infusoria pass into amcebous forms? &e. are questions

originating in Stein’s important discovery, which not only indi-

cate the necessity of further investigation, but a considerable

approaching change in the classification of Infusoria.

It is desirable, also, that I should add here what little more

I have been able to collect respecting the development of the

Monads in the rhizopodous cell, which dwells and multiplies in

the protoplasm of the Characee +. This, it will be remembered,

I conjectured to be by segmentation of parts of the diaphane and

sarcode ; but before making any further observations on the sub-

ject here, I will again premise a brief description of this cell. It

is distinctly a Rhizopod, like Ameba, or the sponge-cell, but of

greater tenuity, and without, so far as my observation extends,

a vesicula ; that is, I have not been able to recognize this organ

in it, though on dying it presents vacuoles. The nucleus, as

before stated, is clear at first, then becomes cloudy, and presents

one or more defined granules, afterwards semi-granular and

opake, and then uniformly g granular throughout, when it appears

to multiply by fissiparation in the parent cell, ‘and thus to give

rise to several daughter-cells, after the manner of a vegetable

cytoblast ; or to grow into an elongated granular body, of whose

ultimate development, while within the living internode of the

Characez, I am ignorant (fig. 93). But when the internode of

Nitella (ex. gr.) is about to die, and this rhizopod seizes upon

the green disks of the periphery and other nutritious matters

of the interior, now deprived of the vitality which kept them

together and thus exposed to the rapacity of the ascendant para-

site, the nucleus undergoes various changes, which arrests of

development at different stages, among the myriads which are

* A similar process takes place in the roots of Chara, where the new

nuclei for the new buds come into existence in the protoplasm surrounding

the old nucleus, but at some little distance from it, after which the old

nucleus perishes.

+ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vols. xvi. p. 10, & xvii. p. 115.

238 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

presented to view, seem to elucidate. Thus the nucleus with its

capsule, now surrounded by the nutritive contents enclosed withm

the sarcode, enlarges and passes from its discoid form (elliptical

in the large Ni¢ed/a) into a globular one* : meanwhile the former

becomes distinctly and uniformly granular; the granules en-

large and become refractive ; they assume, en masse, a spheroidal

form enclosed within a cell of their own, and thus become di-

stinct from the capsule; at the same time one or more refractive

(oil ?) globules, or a nucleus, may sometimes be seen in the latter.

While this is going on, a zone of colourless plasma (?) forms all

round the capsule of the nucleus, which thus becomes separated

from contact with the now hardened cell-wall- or pellicula, as

well as from the diaphane and sarcode (fig. 94). The next stage

is the bursting of the proper cell, and passage of the granules

of the nucleus into its capsule, and from thence into the soft

plasmic zone which surrounds it. After this, the plasma assumes

a mulberry shape, and divides up into monads, which feed upon

the enclosed nutritive matters, and are at length seen im the

position of the sarcode and diaphane, now circumscribed by a

transparent delicate membrane, the second pellicular eystt. That

the refractive granules of the nucleus, and portions of the en-

closed nutritive contents, which are coloured brown by the dead

chlorophyll, get into the bodies of the monads, cannot be doubted,

as such matters are seen in them, and could come from no other

source. Frequently, however, cells may be seen, apparently

under an arrest of development, in which the plasmic zone has

assumed a subtuberculated or mulberry form, and the granules

of the nucleus are still in their globular cell within the capsule ;

hence it may be inferred that the segmentation of the plasma

commences before the granules of the nucleus get into it (fig. 96).

Again, in a more advanced but still arrested stage, the capsule

of the nucleus is seen to be empty, and its bright granules, in

the little pouches or mulberry-shaped excrescences of the plasma,

now reduced to a mere membrane by arrest of development

(figs. 97, 98). From which it may also be inferred that each

pouch, which represents a monad, receives one or more of the

granules of the nucleus. Does the tuberculated or mulberry

* I must infer this, because the nuclei in the large species of Nitella, as

well as in Chara verticillata, are all elliptical.

+ Is this degenerated pellicula and diaphane, or a new cyst, composed of

the former only? I am now inclined to the latter theory, here as well as in

Otostoma (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. xvi. p. 108 & xvii. p. 118 respec-

tively), and that in Ofostoma the ciliated coat is divided up’for the new litter,

while in the rhizopodous cell of the Characez the diaphane and secreting

organ of the pellicular cysts become effete and pass into dissolution. (See

the discussion on this point ante, pp. 117, 118.)

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 239

surface of the plasmie zone, thus under an arrest of develop-

ment, indicate that it has taken this shape from consisting ori-

ginally of a number of ovules enclosed within a globular mem-

brane ; and if so, is the passage of the granules of the nucleus

into them to be considered an act of impregnation? If they

were ovules, then one would think that there would be no oc-

easion to lay up extraneous nutrition for them, more than in

ELuglypha, Spongilla, &e., the ovules of which, after the parent

perishes, remain for a certain time in the effete body, and

ultimately undergo a kind of incubation generally after they

have left the cavity in which they were developed. Again,

though very much like the granulating of the nucleus in Eugly-

pha and Ameba, where the bodies which are thus evolved singly

or in groups generally become endowed with active locomotive

power before they leave the parent; yet in these instances no

plasmic zone around the nucleus preparatory to this has been

observed*. In the present stage of our knowledge, therefore,

we are not able to say whether this be a gemmiparous or a

generative process; whether monads developed in this way are

merely multiplied zoosperms of this organism, or the mixed pro-

duct of a genuine generative process; whether there be, in ad-

dition, an ovular development, as in Luglypha, &ec.; or whether

the monads thus developed soon perish, or become new cells.

Certainly in Spongilla there are two kinds of developments, viz.

the so-called zoospores or monads, and the transformation of the

ovules directly into the sponge-cell: both are polymorphic, and

at first have each (?) a single cilium ; but one being much smaller

than the other, they may perhaps be regarded respectively as

macrogonidia and microgonidia, as Braun has suggested*for the

zoospores of Hydrodictyont. From whence, then, come the so-

called zoospores in the latter—from the granules or the nucleus ?

Lastly, there are two organs in those Huglene (mihi, which

for no just reason Dujardin has separated from this family), viz.

Phacus (Ehr.) and Crumenula teata (Duj.), that I should notice

here, though I am perfectly ignorant of their use. These are

the so-called “red spot,” which in Crumenula teata, where it is

comparatively very large, rests in the form of a small obtuse

cone upon the vesicula; and the glairy capsuled body, which

always exists im the centre of Phacus, and in the long lip of

Crumenula texta, &c.;—in some Huglene there is an undefined

yellowish body here.

~ Of what use the “red spot” or body may be, I am igno-

rant; but it is very common to see matter like that of which

* Actinophrys oculata (Stein), however, presents a nucleus and plasmic

zone of this kind. (See p. 228.) i

+ Ray Soe. Pub. Bot. and Phys. Mems. Joc. cit.

240 Mr, H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

it is composed multiplied throughout the body of Euglena, both

in an amorphous and molecular form, or, when nothing but

the ovules remain in the colourless, transparent, fibrous cells of

the two species mentioned, to sce little granules of it moving

with a more than Brownonian motion among the ovules. Ehren-

berg regarded it as the rudiment of a visual organ; and perhaps

he is right, for there seems to be very little difference between

the pigment of the skin of a Negro and the pigment of the

choroid membrane of his eye, while the latter is confined to

the eye alone in white-skinned people. Again, in some of the

Rotifera, it is not uncommon to see the material of which the

red pigment of the eye is composed, more or less dispersed in a

molecular form, though it is generally confronted by a bluish

refractive matter, corresponding perhaps to the vitreous humour

and lens. Also, in the so-called blind Planaria, there are organs

like eyes with flat corneze, but no pigment ; and when the animal

is about to divide into two across the stomach, the first indi-

cation appears to be an inversion of the integument which is to

form the future eye, and at the same time a covering of it with

cuticle, which thus supplies the cornea. Finally, then, as we

find in the Albino eyes capable of seeing without the presence

of pigment ; the eye formed by an induplication of the skin; the

pigment dispersed over the body, as well as in the eye, in the

Negro, while it is confined to the eye in the white races,—we are

led to the conclusion that the red body in the family of Huglena,

though not necessarily indicating sight, may nevertheless mark

the point where something of this nature exists in this, as well

as in other Infusoria of the kind, although, as in Aséasia, it is

not similarly marked, any more than in many animals wherein

a visual organ is present without this accompaniment.

In a small species of Huglena, which dwells in the brackish

water of the main-drain of Bombay, and which, after having

been placed in fresh water, assumes the still, Protococeus form,

multiplying itself by fissiparation and internal segmentation of

the sarcode, after the manner of vegetable cells, and occasionally

in linear arrangement, like the filamentous Algze,—the red body

is as often omitted as repeated in each cell; while in the active

state, previous to longitudinal deduplication, the red body always

becomes dual, one on each side the vesicula. But in transverse

fission it is frequently absent in the lower half, and only remains

in the longitudinal divisions of the anterior one (fig. 62 a-d). It

is interesting, too, to observe that this body is present in the

gonidia of Ulothrix zonata, one of the filamentous Algz, and that

it also is confined to the first cell in fissiparation, which so far

corresponds with Euglena, that when the latter assumes a fixed

or algoid form, by capsulation, the peduncle of the pellicula is

extended from the anterior, ciliated extremity. This also is the

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 241

part which developes the root-like prolongations in Gdogonium ;

and probably the gonidia of Ulothrix grow after the same man-

ner; in which case the red body would remain in the inferior

half, and not be repeated, as in Euglena, when the latter fissi-

parates, in the still form, transversely.

With reference to the single, glairy, capsuled body which exists

in the centre of Phacus, and in the large lip of Crumenula texta,

also dually in Huglena geniculata (Duj., spirogyra, Ehr.), one on

each side the nucleus (figs. 53 a, 87 a, 88 a), I can state nothing

further than that in the two first it consists of a discoid trans-

parent capsule, which at an early stage appears to be filled with

a refractive, oily-looking matter; that it is fixed in a particular

position, and remains there apparently unaltered, with the ex-

ception of becoming nucleated, until every part of the animalcule

has perished, and nothing is left but the spiral-fibre coat, and

perhaps a few ovules. In Euglena geniculata it 1s bacilliform,

and contains a correspondingly-shaped nucleus ; and although I

can state nothing respecting its uses, [ cannot fail to see that it

has an interesting analogy, particularly in the latter instance, with

two similar organs, which are commonly seen in the Navicule,

and which in N. fulva, ex. gr. are situated in a variable position,

between the nucleus and the extremities on either side (fig. 89.

In this species they make their appearance as little specks,

generally previous to the development of the oil-globules, &c.,

and, enlarging rapidly, assume a globular form, consisting of a

transparent capsule, enclosing a glairy, refractive, oily-looking

fluid. As the starch and oil-globules are developed and subside,

these glairy globules become distinctly nucleated, sometimes

irregular in form, or pedicled to the endochrome-bearing proto-

plasm, and, like their apparent analogues in Crumenula, &c., re-

main in the frustule when everything else has become decom-

posed, or has passed into minute brown-red granules (sporules ?),

when they present a central, glairy, circular nucleus, surrounded

by a double globular capsule, neither of which, hke the globule

in Crumenula, takes any colouring from a solution of iodine. I

need not here go further into the description of this organ in

Navicula : suffice it to say, that it also appears constantly in a large

species of Amphiphora common in the brackish water of the

main-drain of Bombay, where it assumes the form, when fully

developed, of an elliptical body, terminated at each end by a

compressed, truncated, or obtuse elongation, like a barrel, and

is always attached to the circumference of a vesicle (fig. 90 a, a).

I should not have written so much about this organ here, but

as it is not (as, I think, is generally supposed) a common oil-

globule, and we know so little of the organology of the Dvato-

mee, while its oceurrence in Navicula seems to add to the other

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 16

242 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

points of alliance which exist between the Diatomee and Eu-

glene, its mention may not prove useless or uninteresting to

those who are engaged in these studies. Perhaps for the present

we had better call it the “ glair-cell.”

Here I should not omit to add, that the resting-spore or

macrogonidium (Braun) of G2dogonium developes a number of

capsules like the ovules of Euglene ; and that though they occa-

sionally exhibit, under the action of iodine, a blue tint, indicative

of their amylaceous nature, yet when fresh and newly formed,

they only take the brown-yellow one invariably presented by

the ovules of Huglena under the same circumstances. Similar

colourless capsules may also be seen moving about cells of Gido-

gonium whose contents have left their walls, and appear to have

partially progressed towards that of the spore, without having

had strength to assume the globular form ; and these very much

resemble the ovules of Crumenula when moving by the aid of a

cilium within the effete transparent cell. All must allow, from .

what I have stated respecting the cell-contents of Gidogonium

flavescens (Kg.), viz. that under favourable conditions, when the

cell is broken, they can leave it bodily, form into a spore, and

swim about by aid of their cilia, and that the germs of Gidogo-

nium can pierce the sheath of Oscillatoria princeps (Kg.), and ger-

minate between its cells, that these are pheenomena of a kind much

more common in the animal than in the vegetable kingdom.

In conclusion, I have only to remark, that the reader is re-

quested to view all speculative suggestions in this summary of

my “ Notes” as mere cursory observations, introduced for the

purpose of calling attention to subjects which are deemed worthy ©

of consideration ; the study of this part of organic creation being

so much in its infancy, and so intricate, that hardly anything

but that which has received ocular demonstration should be

taken for fact.

P.S.—The following is a good illustration of what I have just

stated. Since writing the above, I have seen numbers of “ pores ”

in the investing membrane of Spongilla, open, remain so, and

close ; admit currents of water, as proved by the presence of par-

ticles of carmine ; which particles were found to have been taken

into the bodies of the sponge-cells and so-called “ zoosperms,”

and afterwards thrown off again as the refuse of food by Ameba.

This last fact establishes the animality of Spongilla. The “ pores,”

at times, appear to be generally closed ; hence the error of my

haying supposed this with a single vent to be the typical form

of the investing membrane of Spongilla, and the consequent in-

ference, that it was thus supported by endosmosis. I shall have

to recur to these facts more particularly hereafter.

Bombay, 10th June 1856.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Oryanizacion of Infusoria. 248

EXPLANATION OF PLATES V., VI., VII.

PLATE V.

Fig. 1. Amcebous cell under spherical distension, about to become plani-

form, from the brackish water in the marshes of the island of

Bombay ; 1-400th of an inch in diameter: (a). pellicula and dia-

phane ; (4) sarcode and granules; (¢) space unoccupied by sar-

code ; (d) nucleus in its capsule.

Fig. 2. Section of ditto through the nucleus, showing the same parts

marked with the same letters: (¢) nucleus ; (d) central cavity now

distended by water.

Fig. 3. Ameba quadrilineata, H. J.C. (n. sp.?), under reptation : (a) dia-

phane ; (b) molecule of sareode; (c) vesicula; (d) nucleus and

capsule ; (e) digestive globule containing a fragment of Oscil-

latoria.

Fig. 4. Ameba Roeselii(?), Duj.: (a) “granules ;” (b) vesicula; (¢) nu-

cleus.

Fig. 5. Ameba Gleichenii (?), Duj.: (a) discoid ovules of different sizes,

the largest 1-2800th of an inch in diameter ; (4) one more mag-

nified showmg the capsule; (c¢) “granules ;” (d) portions of

food; (e) capsule of nucleus empty; (f) vesicula. Animal

about 1-400th of an inch in diameter when spherical.

Figs. 6-8. Ditto, becoming capsuled. 6. First stage, all extraneous matter

thrown off, peduncle formed, but pellicula still admitting of (b)

expansions; (@) ovules and granules. 7. Capsule too much

hardened to admit of expansions of the diaphane. 8. Capsule

formed, rough, yellow, about 1-5UV0th of an inch in long diameter.

Fig. 9. Euglena (viridis, mihi), Ehr., encapsuled, capsule rough, of a yel-

lowish-brown colour : (a) red-body next the peduncle.

Figs. 10-16. Ameba radiosa (?), Duj., showing nucleus in different stages

of “ granulation.” 10. (a) nucleus enlarged, granular. 1]. Nu-

cleus still more enlarged, (12) presenting first suleus of dupli-

cative (?) subdivision. 13. Same process ending in the production

of a mass of spherical, delicate, transparent, granuliferous cells.

14. Parent nearly effete with only two of the spherical cells re-

maining, the granules of which have become large, free, separated

from each other and endowed with rapid locomotive power.

15. One of these cells more magnified. 16. Plane or actino-

phorous form of ditto previous to hardening of the pellicula and

development of the granules.

Fig. \7. Ditto in conjunction.

Fig. 18. Ditto, another pair, just after separation.

Fig. 19. Actinophorous form of a species of Palmellea(?), Kg, like

Gleocapsa granosa, Kg., but with cells, separate and solitary.

Fig. 20. Nucleus of Ameba under “ granulation,” presenting the second

sulcus of duplicative subdivision.

Figs. 21-23. Different forms of botryoidal granuliferous cell-development

of the nucleus in Amebe.

Fig. 24. Ameba Roeselii (?), Duj., presenting a nucleus undergoing botry-

oidal development : (a) mammilliform projection of vesicula pre-

paratory to discharging its contents.

(5) nucleus and capsule (the former very seldom visible except in

16*

Fig.

ie ag.

Fig.

244

— Fig. 26.

— Fig. 27

. 30.

.3l.

32.

33.

34.

37.

Mr. H.J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

young individuals); (c) particles of food; (d) supernumerary

scales; (d') form of seale. Average length of full-grown test

1-400th of an inch.

Ditto, with body transformed into an ovisac filled with ovules.

Ovule about 1-4000th of an inch in diameter.

. Ditto, presenting a development of delicate granuliferous cells like

those of Ameba radiosa. Cells about 1-4000th of an inch in

diameter: (a) capsule of nucleus which generally remains entire.

. Ditto, showing that the ovules are developed outside the capsule

of the nucleus: (a) opercular closure of the test accompanying

these developments.

. Ditto, showing a separation and development of the granules into

moveable bodies (spermatozids?) within the test: (a) group of

cells entire on their passage outwards. This and the last figure

also show the development of the ovules and granuliferous cells

in the neighbourhood of the nucleus and its capsule, and the

latter apparently growing out of the nucleus.

Ditto, showing ovules and granuliferous cells developed in the

same test, and together: (a) supernumerary scales.

Ovule of Euglypha alveolata more magnified : (a) showing capsule

and nuclear portion; (4) ditto with pellucid area and central gra-

nule; (c) bearing granules. Do these granules indicate an ap-

proaching development of the sarcode, or are they adventitious ?

They do not appear in the early state of the ovule, but generally

before it has left the test, wherein granules like those developed

from the granuliferous cells are frequently seen oscillating round

them. (d) development of external layer or diaphane, now giving

the ovule a rhizopodous form. 31’. Granuliferous cell more mag-

nified ; in this state it progresses under a plane, actinophorous

form, or the granules become large, separate, and exhibit much

activity within the test.

Euglypha alveolata (large variety?), 1-500th of an inch in length,

showing a special apparatus for the development of the granu-

liferous cells: (a) animal (?) transformed into a secondary test ;

(4) cyst containing granuliferous cells; (c) tube for their libe-

ration when they have become locomotive. The same is seen in

the common or smaller variety.

Ditto, ditto, with the granules separated and endowed with active

locomotive power : by shows the structure of the test of E. al-

veolata.

Euglypha alveolata in conjunction ; the granules of each passing

freely backwards and forwards into each other’s tests, as if the

two bodies had been two drops of water thus united. The union

however is only apparent, as we see in the separation of Arcella

vulgaris, which also exhibits a similar conjunction both still and

under reptation.

. Ditto, ditto, separating: (a) the bond of union reduced to a mere

36.

thread.

Ditto, separation of the fleshy substance completed, tests still

united : (a) nucleus in its capsule.

PuaTE VI.

Globular sac of seed-like body of Spongilla, partly filled with

ovules and granules, of different sizes.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 245

Fig. 38. Portion of contents of ditto more magnified : (a) largest ovule of

the group presenting the type of the whole, viz. that of a nearly

colourless cell within a transparent capsule ; (4) granules ; (c) ditto

in connexion with ovules; (d) ovules without a granule. Largest

ovules 1-3000th to 1-2000th of an inch in diameter.

Fig. 39. Series of ovules of Spongilla to show the different degrees of ap-

proximation of the granule. 39 a'—c. Where the granule is ad-

herent to the margin; (f/f) marginal view of ditto; (d) when

adherent to the flat surface of the disk; (g) marginal view of

ditto; (e) two granules in connexion with one ovule; (4) deve-

lopment of the ovule in connexion with a granule which appears

to open into the cavity of the capsule, within which the granular

sarcode is making its appearance ; (7) next stage of development,

im which the ovule has become slowly polymorphic and presents

a vesicula ; (k) when the polymorphism is more active ; (/) ditto,

presenting a cilium; (m) granule (?) transformed into a monad

precisely like the “‘zoosperm.” All these developments take place

in three to five days after the ovules have been pressed out of the

seed-like body into distilled water in a watch-glass.

Fig. 40. Ovule of Spongilla in progress of development to show the pre-

sence of the external layer or diaphane extending from it in a

parabolic form. (It may here be asked, “‘ what becomes of the

‘capsule ’ which is originally so well defined?” This line of de-

marcation between the diaphane and sarcode disappears as soon

as the ovule becomes polymorphic.)

Fig. 41. Ovi-bearing sponge-cell, still polymorphic, from the seed-like

body at an early period, viz. before the capsule is formed. Sphe-

rical form 1-700th of an inch in diameter.

Fig. 42. Form of a sponge-cell which exists in a layer around the young

uncapsuled seed-like body, and probably constructs the capsule.

Fig. 43. Small sponge-cell with so-called “ zoosperm ” attached, from an

old piece of Spongilla.

Fig. 44. Group of so-called “ferment-cells ” from the juice (vulg. “‘toddy ”’)

of Cocos nucifera, under fermentation; to contrast with the ap-

parent budding development of the ovule of Spongilla: (a) va-

cuoles which abound in all these cells. Largest, circular cells

1-2000th of an inch in diameter.

Fig. 45. Astasia limpida, Duj., previous to the formation of ovules:

(a) molecular sarcode ; (6) nucleus; (¢) vesicula ; (d) buccal tube

or proboscis ; (¢) position of anal orifice (?). Length about 1-438th

of an inch. ‘

Fig. 46. Ditto, filled with discoid ovules, of which few are ever found so

large as the largest of Spongilla; they are generally about

1-6000th of an inch in diameter: (a) more magnified view of

ovule showing its capsuled character.

Fig. 47. Ditto, containmg spherical granuliferous cells like those of Ameba

and Euglypha. Ovules atrophied as in Crumenula texta under

similar (?) cireumstances (see Annals, vol. xvii. pl. 9. figs. 11-13) :

(a) granuliferous cell more magnified.

Fig. 48. Ditto, with a botryoidal development (of the nucleus?) of similar

cells: (a) bunch more magnified.

Fig. 49. Euglena viridis in conjunction previous to the formation of

ovules: (a) position of nucleus and capsule; (4) vesicula;

(e) red body; (d) molecular sarcode. Length of largest indi-

viduals 1-200th of an inch.

Fig. 5:

Fig.

Fig . 6

Fig.

56.

60.

61.

62.

65.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

. Euglena viridis, after the formation of ovules ; individuals still

adhering to each other and to the watch-glass in which this was

observed.

. Ditto, subsiding into spherical encystment.

2. Ditto, eneysted. (Although one of each of these pairs is left

blank, both individuals were alike in nature.)

. Crumenula texta, Duj., showing sarcode and its granules, nucleus,

vesicula, red body, and (a) glair-cell; (4) glair-cell more -

nified to show its nucleated character. Length of animalcule

about 1-560th of an inch. (For a figure of the same filled with

ovules or ** embryonic cells,” see /oc. cit.) Ovules about 1-2300th

of an inch in diameter.

Ditto, effete, containing ovules endowed with locomotive power ;

probably from the development of a cilium, which in this instance I

could not see for want of a microscope of higher power. (0, 6) red

ee of material like that of thered body; (¢,d,e)

different phases of the ovule of this specimen more magnified.

. Euglena viridis (large specimen) encysted and filled with ovules.

. Internal, transparent, tough sac holding the ovules (probably a

transformation of the parent): (a) portion of the contents of the

sac to show that they consist of ovules of different sizes, and

granules.

. Ovule more magnified to show its oblong or quadrilateral form in

Euglena viridis: (a) capsule; (4) film of homogeneous matter

lining its interior; (c) pellucid area with central granule. (This

ovule has somewhat progressed in development.)

Effete cell of Crumenula texta, showing that it possesses a ske-

leton cell composed of sigmoid fibres arranged spirally, so as to

assume a conical form: (a) end view; (b,c) form of fibres;

(d) portion of a broken cell. Is not this analogous to the spiral-

fibre of the vegetable cell?

Longitudinal deduplication of Euglena viridis during active life.

Euglena agilis, UH. J. C. (n. sp.?), from the brackish water of the

marshes of Bombay: (a,b,c) Protococcus or still-form after

having been kept in a watch-glass and supplied with fresh water ;

(a) transverse division showing that the red body is not deve-

loped in the lower half; (¢) ditto quadruple, longitudinal divi-

sion showing that the red body is equally multiphed; (d) linear

development (probably by longitudinal division, as the red body

is present in each cell). Animal 1-600th of an inch in length.

. Serpicula verticillata, Roxb. Spine-cell of leaf showing the proto-

plasmic cell or primordial utricle of Mohl. (a) nucleus; (4) green

granules in the reticulate molecular protoplasm (the former cor-

responding to the “granules,” and the latter to the molecular

sareode of the amcebous cell, figs. 1, 2) (?).

. Ditto, cell of body of leaf showing protoplasmic cell in rotatory

motion, carrying round with it chlorophyll-bearing cellules (pro-

bably only an enlarged form of the green granules of the spine-

cell, fig. 64), imbedded in the protoplasm promisecuously. These

two figures are for comparison with the amoebous cell, figs. 1 & 2.

Paramecium aurelia, Ehr.: (a) granules; (b) digestive globules

containing food; (c) buceal cavity drawing in particles of food

for the formation of the new digestive globule at its lower extre-

mity. Length about 1-170th of an inch.

. Ditto; diagrammatic view under compression, showing (a, a) vesi-

Fig.

ig.

Fig.

67.

. 68.

» f2.

74.

80.

. Vorticella

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria. 247

cule and the papille respectively through which their contents

appear to be discharged ; (6, 6) radiating lines or vessels consisting

of a concatenation of pyriform and fusiform sinuses. This state

can be only partially seen, viz. when the vesicule are just re-

ceiving the contents of the sinuses; at this moment both may be

observed to be slightly dilated together, but never to the extent

represented in the diagram.

Paramecium aurelia, Ehr.; sketch of, under compression, just

preceding diffluence and death; showing the dilatation of the

proximal sinuses only, and the passage of the rest imto each

other, so as to form continuous vascular channels.

Ditto, not compressed ; showing a lateral view of the vesicule in

situ: (a, a) dilatation of the vesicule pressing wards the prox-

imal sinuses, which are thus shown to open into the inner part of

the vesiculz ; (4) discharge of digestive globule through the anal

aperture ; (c) granules.

. Ditto, in transverse fissiparation, to show the quadrupling of the

vesicule.

. Filament of Physactis saccata, Kg., with terminal spherical cell

previous to the formation of the sporangium ; (a) homogeneous

contents of spherical cell ; (4) nucleus of ditto.

. Ditto, after the formation of the sporangium: (a) spherical cell

now empty and connected with the sporangium by a tubular pro-

longation.

Spherical cell of P. saccata separated from the filament.

Ditto, with a granular development extending from the nucleus.

Puare VII.

Epistylis Galea (?), Ehr., showing (@) entrance of buccal cavity ;

(6, b, b) bueeal cavity with constriction armed with cilia (?);

(ec, ¢) digestive globules in process of formation; (d, d) ditto

formed and containing food ; (e, e) small green zoospores taken

in as food, and showing by their circulating throughout every part

of the body that they are not confined to an intestinal canal;

(f.f ) vesicula opening into the buccal cavity just above the con-

striction; (4) arrow marking the position of the anal aperture;

(gy) cylindrical form of nucleus wrapped round the vesicula and

buccal cavity like the ovary im Salpa; (7) closed individual.

?, presenting a pouch-like extensionof the buccal

cavity in the position of the anal aperture and discharging orifice

of the vesicula: (a2) pouch; (&) vesicula; (e) another individual

passing into the Acineta form.

. V. microstoma, showing the separation of the different organs

under decomposition: (a) vesicula; (b) buccal cavity; (c¢) nu-

cleus; (d) diffluent operculum.

. V. convallaria (?), Ehr., to show (a) granules, (0) nucleus.

. V. microstoma, to show the invisible state of the buccal cavity

during the dilatation of the vesicula, and vice versd: (a) with

vesicula ; (ce) dilated; (4) disappearance of vesicula and reap-

pearance of (d) buccal cavity; (e) nucleus.

. Arcellina vulgaris,: Ebr., showing (a, a) duality of nucleus;

(b, b, b) plurality of vesicula; (¢) granules; (d) filiform attach-

ments of animal to the test. Animal 1-200th of an ich in

diameter.

Difflugia tricuspis, H. J.C. (n. sp.?), showing (@) nucleusy (b) ve-

248 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Organization of Infusoria.

sicula in plurality ; (c) podal prolongations with enish elon-

gate “ granules ;”’ (d) tricuspid form of opening of tent 3; (e) fili-

form attachments of animal to the test. Animal 1-320th of an

mch long.

Fig. 81. Ameba quadrilineata, H. J. C., showing two lateral vesiculz (a, a)

about to discharge themselves independently of the large, appa-

rently normal one (4). Animal about 1-350th of an inch in Jength.

Figs. 82,83. Chilodon cucullulus, Ehy., two individuals to show linear con-

tinuation of circular sinuses in one (82), and the vesicula in its

normal position: (a) nucleus; (4) dental apparatus; (c) vesi-

cula; (d) lines of sinuses. 83. To show apparent absence of

vesicula and irregular distribution of contracting sinuses. Animal:

largest size seen 1-320th of an inch in length.

Fig. 84. Spirostoma virens (?), Ehr. Posterior extremity to show dropsical

state of proximal sinuses and vesicula ; the former thus presenting

the appearance of an areolar structure round the latter.

Fig. 85. Bursaria leucas (?), Ehr.: (a) nucleus; (0) vesicula surrounded

by six globular sinuses.

Fig. 86. Himantophorus Charon, Ehr. ; vesicula of, surrounded by dilated

proximal sinuses.

Fig. 87. Euglena spirogyra, Ehr., showing (a) posterior glair-cell with its

broad surface upwards, and cylindrical nuclens; (a’) anterior

glair-cell with its margin upwards ; (0) “nueleus.”” Animal about

1-133rd of an inch in length.

Fig. 88. Phaeus pleuronectes, Duj.: (a) glair-cell and its nucleus ; (d) sup-

posed position of “nucleus.” Animal 1-500th of an inch long.

Fig. 89. Navicula fulva, Ehr., showing the form of its endochrome or

organ bearing this colour: (a, a) glair-cells; (6) nucleus sus-

pended by threads to the endochrome, like those of Spirogyra.

Frustule 1-183rd of an inch long.

Fig. 90. Amphiphora oblonga, H. J. C. (n. sp.?), primary surface showing

form of endochrome after division: (a, a) glair-cells; (a’) one

more magnified. Largestspecimen seen 1-75th of an inch in length.

Fig. 91. Ditto, lateral view ; the margin is of course angular.

Fig. 92. Spherical cells or “ biliary organisms:” (a) one from Otostoma,

H. J. C., containing five or more cellule filled with a bile-coloured

fluid; (a’) one from a binocular Planaria, showing (0) oil-glo-

bule, (c) bile-cellula, (d) lash of cilia; (e) another cell from the

same Planaria, containing four daughter-cells, each of which is

provided with a single bile-cellule; (f) ditto with a single

large bile-cellule in the centre, and several small oil-globules ;

(g) spherical cell from Brachionus Pala, Ehr., presenting one

large bile-cell filled with granules, also a lash of cilia; this bile-

eell has much the appearance of a granulating nucleus.

Figs. 93-93. Rhizopodous cell inhabiting the protoplasm of the Characez,

under different phases to show the early stages of the develop-

ment of the monads. 93. The cell with single nucleus as it exists

im the living protoplasm : (a) pellicula and diaphane ; (4) nucleus

im the capsule; (¢) sarcode containing molecule and greenish

** granules.”

Fig. 94. Ditto after having taken in food (the green cellules of the imter-

node at its death), which is represented by the dark shade:

(a) old pellicula or external cell; (a’) secondary pellicular layer

or internal cell; () food in the midst of the sareode, which, with

the diaphane, now perishes; (c) development of plasmic (?) zone

round the capsule of the nucleus now become globular; (d) nu-

Mr. W. H. Benson on new species of Burmese Helices. 249

cleus subdivided into spherical granules of refractive matter, still

circumscribed by their proper membrane within the capsule ;

(e) nucleolus within this proper capsule which sometimes appears

as a disk of protoplasm, at others as an oil-globule, and at others

in a state of minute granulation.

Fig. 95. Nucleus of Actinophrys oculata after Stein (tab. 5. figs. 25-28.

: op. cit.), to compare with the nucleus and plasmic zone just de-

scribed : (a) *‘ Marksubstanz ;” (6) “ nucleus.”

Fig. 96. Rhizopodous cell of Characez under arrest (?) of generative deve-

lopment: (a) plasmic zone reduced to a membranous (?) state

and presenting a number of pouches on its surface; (5) granules

still within the capsule of the nucleus.

Fig. 97. Ditto, with capsule of the nucleus empty, and its refractive gra-

nules in the pouches of the mulberry-shaped plasmic membrane.

Fig. 98. The mulberry-shaped plasmic membrane, &c. of the foregoing

figure isolated.

XXII.—Descriptions of one Indian and nine new Burmese

Helices; and Notes on two Burmese Cyclostomacea. By

W. H. Benson, Esq.

1. Helix pylaica, n. s., nobis.

Testa obtecte perforata vel imperforata, depresso-conoidea, solidi-

uscula, nitente, superne radiato-costulata, subtus leviori, costulis

evanescentibus, cornea, spira depressa, apice obtuso, sutura im-

pressa ; anfractibus 63 lente accrescentibus, angustis, ultimo antice

vix descendente, subtus convexo, ad periomphalum excavato ;

apertura transversa, angusta, lunato-lineari dente unica elongata

parietali, lamelliformi, alba, coarctata ; peristomate incrassato, ob-

tuso, edentulo, albo, intus strictiusculo, margine externo infra an-

gulum peripheerii sinuato.

Diam. major 9, minor 8, axis 5 mill.

Hab. ad Maulmain. Teste W. Theobald.

This and the following shells were collected by Mr. W. Theo-

bald, jun. It presents a singular resemblance to the North

American H. hirsuta, Say, in the form of the aperture and the

structure of the parietal plait; but there is no disposition to

form teeth on the basal callus as in that shell. It must be in-

cluded in the division Tridopsis of Beck, of which H. hirsuta

and the Burmese H. infrendens, Gould, form a part. A still

nearer approach to the latter species will be found below in

H. capessens.

2. Helix artificiosa, n. s., nobis.

Testa anguste umbilicata, orbiculata, discoidea, nitidiuscula, superne

liris confertis sulcisque profundis spiralibus, costulisque confertis

obliquis decussata, subtus liris remotioribus striisque radiatis ornata,

pallide cornea, spira planulata, interdum omnino planata, apice vix

250 Mr. W. H. Benson on new species of Burmese Helices.

elevato, obtuso, sutura profunda ; anfractibus 6} angustis, lente

acerescentibus, ultimo superne subangulato, subtus convexiusculo ;

apertura sub-anguste lunata, obliqua; peristomate acuto, leviter

sinuato, margine columellari brevissimo, basalique expansiuseulo,

dextro crenulato.

Diam. major 14, minor 12, axis 5 mill.

Hab. ad Phie Than vallis Tenasserim. Teste W. Theobald.

The sculpture of this discoid species is very elaborate, and

strongly pronounced in proportion to the size of the shell, pre-

senting a very beautiful appearance under the lens. The ends

of the spiral lire give a scalloped edge to the outer lip.

3. Helix capessens, un. 8., nobis.

Testa imperforata, depresso-conoidea, superne radiatim costulato-

striata, subtus leeviori, rufo-cornea; spira subconoidea, apice ob-

tusiusculo, sutura impressa; anfractibus 6} convexiusculis, lente

accrescentibus, ultimo acute carinato, antice leviter depresso, subtus

convexiusculo, ad periomphalum excavato; apertura transversa,

angusta, dentibus 3 basalibus zequalibus coarctata, margine recto,

obtuso, vix sinuato.

Diam. major 9, minor 8, axis 4 mill.

Hab. ad Maulmain. Teste W. Theobald.

Nearly related to H. infrendens, Gould, which was found by

Mr. Theobald at the Kangoon Caves on the Salween River, but

easily distinguished by its more depressed form, keeled periphery,

and the more regular dentition of the basal margin. The profile

of the spire is less convex, and the last whorl is depressed in

front below the level of the keel of the penultimate whorl,

whereas in H. infrendens it ascends at the same part. H. capes-

sens forms, with H. pylaica, a notable addition to the restricted

section Tridopsis.

4. Helix convallata, n. s., nobis.

Testa vix perforata, convexo-depressa, tenui, nitidissima, radiato-

striata, translucente, olivaceo-cornea ; spira convexiuscula, apice

prominulo obtuso, sutura profunde canaliculata; anfractibus 6

conyexis, lente accrescentibus, prope suturam acute angulatis, ul-

timo rotundato, non descendente, subtus convexiusculo ; apertura

vix obliqua, lunata; peristomate acuto, superne prope suturam

angulato, antrorsum leviter arcuato, margine columellari oblique

descendente, expansiusculo.

Diam. major 14, minor 114, axis vix 7 mill. Apert. lata 7, alt. 5 mill.

Hab. ad collem Therabuin vallis Tenasserim. Detexit W. Theobald.

Singular among the allies of Helix vitrinvides on account of

the excavated canaliculate suture with a carinate margin.

ee ee

Mr. W. H. Benson on new species of Burmese Helices. 251

5. Helix Hariola, n. s., nobis.

Testa perforata, subturbinata, tenui, Batis striatula, striis minu-

tissimis confertissimis spiralibus sub lente ornata, non nitente,

diaphana, purpureo-cornea, strigis opacis, albis, laciniatis, fascias

duas latas efformantibus, picta ; spira conoidea, apice obtuso,

sutura impressa; anfractibus 43 convexiusculis, ultimo ad_peri-

pheriam obtuse angulato ; apertura obliqua, late lunata;_peri-

stomate tenui, albido, margine dextro, basalique expanso, colu-

mellari laminam triangularem dilatatam, umbilicum subtegentem

efformante.

Diam. major 15, minor 13, axis 103 mill. Apert. 63 mill. longa,

8 lata.

Hab. ad Thyet Myo, prope ripas Irawadi fluvii. Detexit W. Theobald.

The interspace between the opake bands forms a dark girdle

below the angle, and the periomphalus is similarly coloured.

The shell is more depressed in form and destitute of a keel, but

singularly like the rare H. Capitium, Bens., in colouring. Since

the discovery of the latter species by Capt. Boys, at the foot of

the Rajmahal Range near Sikrigali, it has not been met with by

any naturalist in that quarter ; “put all imperfect specimen of a

very rare Helix met with by Mr. Theobald in the hills above

Cuttack, 400 miles to the southward of its original habitat,

proves to be a young H. Capitium.

6. Helix bifoveata, nu. s., nobis.

Testa umbilicata, oblato-globosa, utrinque concava, oblique striata,

minutissime granulata, luteo-fusca, translucente; spira profunde

excavata, perspective umbiliciformi ; anfractibus 4} angustis, con-

vexis, recedentibus, ultimo prominente, superne compresso, glo-

boso, czeteros occultante, subtus circa umbilicum mediocrem per-

spectivum compresse angulato ; apertura verticali longissima utrin-

que testam superante, angustissime lunata, superne et infra suban-

gulata; peristomate simplici, acuto, expansiusculo, marginibus

remotis convergentibus, columellari brevi subverticali, leviter

expanso.

Diam. major 10, minor 9, axis 6 mill. Long. apert. 7, lat. vix 2 mill.

Hab. ad collem Therabuin vallis Tenasserim raro. Detexit W. Theo-

bald.

This is the most singular among the planorbular Helices

which exhibit a concavity, and, as it were, an umbilicus on the

spiral, as well as the basal face of the shell. The parietes of the

true or basal umbilicus are more vertical than those of the

spiral depression, and the excavation is deeper. The sculpture

is peculiar, consisting of lines of granules crossing each other

obliquely.

The published species most nearly related to H. bifoveata are

H. Omicron, Pfr., H. Shuttleworthi, and H. Calculus.

252 Mr. W. 11. Benson on new species of Burmese Helices.

7. Helix pansa, n. s., nobis.

Testa perforata, conoideo-depressa, confertim oblique striata, subtus

nitida, radiatim striatula, translucente, fusco-cornea ; spira convexo-

conoidea, apice prominulo, glabro, nitido, sutura leviter impressa ;

aufractibus 6 lente accrescentibus, convexiusculis, ultimo’ ad peri-

pheeriam subearinato, subtus convexiusculo ; apertura obliqua, late

lunata; peristomate recto acuto, margine columellari oblique de-

scendente, superne breviter reflexo.

Diam. major 14, minor 13, axis 6} mill. Apert. 5 longa, 7 lata.

pon oR Akaouktoung prope ripas Jrawadi fluminis. Detexit W.Theo-

ald.

Allied to the Sikkim form, Helix tugurium, nobis.

8. Helix Bolus, m. s., nobis.

Testa subaperte perforata, globosa, tenui, oblique striatula, striis

minutissimis confertissimis spiralibus, sub lente, sculpta, nitidula,

trauslucente, pallide cornea, interdum fascia unica rufa supra peri-

pheeriam ornata ; spira conoidea, apice obtusiusculo, sutura leviter

impressa ; anfractibus 5 convexiusculis, ultimo inflato; apertura

vix obliqua, rotundato-lunari; peristomate tenui, expansiusculo,

albido, margine columellari latiori, superne perforationem subte-

gente.

Diam. major 14, minor 12, axis 103 mill.

” ” 153, ” 14, ” 114 ”

Apert. majoris 9 mill. longa, 8 lata.

Hab. ad Prome. Detexit W. Theobald.

This shell varies in being more or less globose in the last

whorl, some specimens presenting a subturbinate appearance.

The band is indifferently present or absent in each variety.

9. Helix textrina, un. s., nobis.

Testa perforata, depressa, superne lineis radiatis et spiralibus rugose

decussata, pallide rufescente, subtus leeviori, lactea ; spira planius-

cula, apice obtuso, sutura leviter compressa ; anfractibus 53 sub-

planulatis, sensim accrescentibus, ultimo supra peripheeriam angu-

lato ; apertura late lunari; peristomate acuto, vix expansiusculo,

margine columellari oblique descendente, superne brevissime re-

flexo.

Diam. major 29, minor 25, axis vix 13 mill. Apert. 15 mill. lata,

10 alta.

Hab. ad Thyet Myo. Detexit W. Theobald.

Allied to H. labiata, Pfeiffer, a Western Himalayan shell, but

differing in its more depressed form, peculiar sculpture, like that

of the upper part of H. ligulata, by its more widely lunate aper-

ture, and by the absence of any true labiation. The colour may

be more pronounced in fresher specimens.

Mr. W. H. Benson on new species of Burmese Helices. 253

The spire is more depressed and the apex less prominent than

in H. Theodori, Phil.; the shell also is more solid, the aperture

wider, and the columellar lip descends more horizontally.

10. Helix Laidlayana, n. s., nobis.

Testa constricte perforata, sinistrorsa, turbinato-depressa, tenui, ob-

lique striata, striis confertissimis spiralibus decussata, nitidiuscula,

translucente, albida, fascia 1 supera angusta, rufo-castanea, peri-

phzeriam tangente, interdum | supera lata, et altera infera remo-

tiuscula ornata ; periomphalo et pariete aperturali castaneis ; spira

depresse conoidea, apice obtusiusculo, sutura leviter impressa ;

anfractibus 5 sensim accrescentibus, ultimo ad peripheeriam angu-

lato, antice breviter descendente, subtus convexo ; apertura valde

obliqua, subquadrato-lunata ; peristomate recto, acuto, margine co-

lumellari subrecte descendente, anguste reflexo, perforationem con-

strictam subtegente. :

Diam. major 27, minor 23, axis 15 mill. Apert. 15 mill. lata, 13}

alta.

Hab. in Provincia Bengalensi Bheerbhoom, ubi exemplum unicum

junius detexit J. W. Laidlay ; nuperrime in Provincia Orisse,

non procul ab urbe Cuttack, exempla majora non raro invenit

W. Theobald.

Named after a former Secretary of the Asiatic Society of

Calcutta, to whom I am indebted for a specimen found by him

many years ago in the region of the late Santhal insurrection.

The rediscovery of the shell in about 20° N. lat., as well as the

detection of H. Capitium in the same quarter, shows that these

species range through nearly 5 degrees of latitude. The colour-

ing of H. Laidlayana has much resemblance to that of H. quesita,

Fér., but the shell has nearer relations to H. interrupta, nobis,

and H. trifasciata, Mull. It differs from H. interrupta in colour,

depressed form, greater number of whorls, contracted perfo-

ration, descent of the last whorl above the aperture, and in the

‘disposition of the bands. When a single broad dark band is

present in interrupta, it touches the angulate periphery. From

H. 3-fasciata it differs in lustre, less depressed form, want of

solidity, contracted perforation, more vertical columellar lip, and

in the disposition of the bands, that which is above the periphery

in 3-fasciata never touching the angle. The colour of the peri-

omphalus and parietes of the aperture is also peculiar.

Among the known Burmese Helices, H. Achatina, Gray (an-

guina, Gould), var. 8B, Pfr., was taken by Mr. Theobald at Maul-

main, and at the Kangoon Caves on the Salween River. A

small variety of H. refuga, Gould, occurred at Kwadouk, near

Thyet Myo, on the Northern Frontier, and an interesting dex-

54. Mr. J. Lowe on Salix Andersoniana.

trorse variety at Phie Than in the Tenasserim Valley. A fragment

of H. Saturnia, Gould, was also sent from that valley, where

H. retrorsa and anceps, Gould, were found abundantly, and H.

Theodori, Phil., very sparingly. A shell, apparently referable as

a variety to the Darjiling H. Castra, nobis, was once met with

at Pya, between Maulmain and Tavoy. Hela Merguiensis, Ph.,

H. gabata, Gould, a small var. of H. delibrata, nobis ( procumbens,

Gould), and H. honesta, Gould, occurred both at Maulmain and

in the valley of the Tenasserim River, where H. resplendens, Ph.,

was not rare. The widely spread H. stmilaris, Fér., is noted from

Thyet Myo and Prome, on the river frawadi, and a sharply-

keeled variety of H. rotatoria, V. d. Busch, hitherto supposed to

be peculiar to Java, inhabits the banks of the same river, lower

down, at Akaouktoung. None of the Helices, described by Gould

or others from the former dominions of the Burmese Empire,

appear to have escaped the researches of Mr. Theobald, who has

added largely to the list, several other species of Hela remain-

ing to be described.

Rhaphaulus (Anaulus and Megalomastoma) Chrysalis, Pfr.,

from Maulmain, in a more perfect condition than the type spe-

cimen, shows a much longer tube running up the penultimate

whorl than either bombycinus or Lorraini, Pfr., and its colour is

a rich chestnut. A dead specimen of Megalomastoma sectilabre,

Gould, from Yanglaw on the Tenasserim River, confirms an opi-

nion communicated last year to Pfeiffer, and derived from Gould’s

and Mason’s observations, and from a view of Pfeiffer’s supposed

specimen of sectilabre from Borneo, that, although allied to, it

was quite distinct from my Bornean M. Anostoma, with which

Pfeiffer had believed it to be identical. The channel in M. Ano-

stoma (Annals, 1852, vol. x. p. 269-270) is on the inner lip, as

in M. altum, Sow. In sectilabre it appears on the right lip, near

the top of the aperture. The latter is a more solid shell, with

the spire more slender and longer in proportion ; the suture is

distinctly marginate ; the peristome is white (not coloured, as in

M. Anostoma), and presents a contrast with the orange-chestnut

interior of the aperture ; the apex also is not pale or white, as in

the Bornean species.

Cheltenham, 30th July 1856.

XXIII.—On an Abnormality in the Flowers of Salix Ander-

soniana. By Joun Lowe, Esq.*

In the year 1841, the Rev. J. E. Leefe communicated to this

Society a paper, entitled ‘ Remarks on some curious Metamor-

* Read to the Edinburgh Botanical Society, July 10th, 1856.

i a ie a ain i

Mr. J. Lowe on Salix Andersoniana. 255

phoses of the Pistil of Saliz Caprea.’ A short time since, I ob-

served a corresponding set of changes occurring in the male

flowers of Salix Andersoniana. These, as forming, with those

of Mr. Leefe, a complete series of morphological changes, may

not be unworthy the Society’s notice. The changes observed by

Mr. Leefe in Sali Caprea consist of a gradual conversion of the

pistilline into staminal organs, each step in the process being

clearly explained by the plate which is given with his paper m

the 1st volume of the Society’s ‘ Transactions.’

In the present specimens we have just the opposite, viz. the

stamens becoming converted into ovaries, and this by every con-

ceivable gradation.

The plant from which these were taken grows about half a

mile below Cramond Bridge near Edinburgh; it is to all appear-

ance strong and healthy, and in the majority of its flowers there

was no observable alteration. ;

Fig. 1. is a floret whose filaments are partially united at the

base; in other respects it is perfectly normal. The scales and

glands in this as in the other florets present nothing unusual.

Fig. 2. The stamens still further united, giving the filament

a forked appearance.

Fig. 3. represents one of the stamens of the last figure con-

verted into an ovary which bears a pollen-mass on its inner

edge; the other stamen is unaltered.

Fig. 4. A still more advanced condition. The ovary has no

vestige of pollen-cells, but at the base is the remaining anther,

sessile.

Fig. 5. shows each stamen converted into a carpel and bear-

ing an antherine mass. The styles have each but one stigma.

Fig. 6. The two ovaries are here nearly united, but have a

fissure superiorly in which are the remains of the anthers. The

styles are distinct and monostigmatous.

Fig. 7. The fissure seen in last figure has disappeared by the

256 Mr. J. Lowe on Salix Andersoniana.

union of the styles; a pollen-mass still remains on the side of

the united ovaries.

Fig. 8. A complete and well-formed ovary.

I ought to remark here that these figures are not intended to

represent the progressive development of the ovary as shown by

any individual floret, but simply the different stages which may

be traced in a number of florets and which may be reasonably

regarded as successive.

We may now consider the cause of these phenomena and the

laws which govern formations of this nature,

The generally received opinion regarding the production of

dicecious flowers is that each flower is rendered unisexual by the

suppression of the other sexual whorl, and though this maybe

mainly true of many dicecious plants, it does not appear to ex-

press the whole truth with respect to dicecious Amentiferz.

Dr. Braun in his ‘ Rejuvenescence of Nature,’ states that both

kinds of sexual organs are derived from the same leaf, or as he

expresses it, “the same leaves appear in the male as stamens and

in the female as carpels.” In other words, the leaf which fails

to produce a male will give rise to a female organ, and vice versd.

Hence, though it is perfeetly correct to say, that there is an

arrest of development when stamens are alone produced, it is

otherwise with respect to female organs, since there is here not

an arrest but an exaltation of development.

These specimens illustrate also the parts of the leaf which

give origin to the different parts of the essential organs ; thus, the

anther gradually merging into the carpel shows that it is derived

from the lamina of the leaf (the fact of the carpel being formed

by the lamina of the leaf beimg ascertained by morphological

changes in other plants). The pollen observed on the edge of

the ovary in fig. 5, would encourage the idea that pollen is

merely a gemmiferous condition of the lamina of the leaf. And,

lastly, we may allude to the gland, which, although not pre-

senting any peculiarity in the present specimens, | have never-

theless found in others assuming a very interesting form. I am

not aware that the question has been mooted as to what is its

real morphological value. It might be assumed to represent an

abortive stamen, but that we find it present in those Salices

which may be regarded as having their staminal whorl complete,

Salia pentandra for instance. Moreover it is found to be placed

opposite the interval in flowers which have only two stamens,

thus having an alternate arrangement. I have little doubt,

especially since meeting with the specimen shown in fig. 9, where

there are two glands alternating with the stamens, that they re-

present the corolla. Regarding the scale as the calyx, we have

thus the various whorls of the flower complete.

Mr. P. H. Gosse on Cardium exiguum. 257

XXIV.—Cardium exiguum :—i/s Siphons and its Byssus.

By Purxie H. Gossr, F.R.S.

{With a Plate. ]

A minute Cockle (Cardium eaxiguum), about one-fourth of an

inch in diameter, and of a pure white hue, was dredged by me in

Weymouth Bay, May 13th, 1855, and was deposited i in one of

my aquaria. For some time after I had domiciled it I saw no

more of it, and supposed it was lost; but one day my attention

was arrested while looking with my lens through the glass side,

along the edge of the bottom-rubbish, by an object which I

knew not what to make of. From the midst of the floccose

matter a very minute bladder was projected, the motions of

which were so vivacious as to cause me no little surprise and spe-

culation as to what manner of thing it might be. After vainly |

trying to decipher it by mere gazing, I ventured carefully to

clear away some of the rubbish on each side with a pin-point

fastened to a stick ; when I discovered my tiny friend, the Cockle.

No trace, it is true, was now to be seen of the bladder, but after

a few minutes I saw it again, and understood the mystery; not

indeed all at once, but by degrees, and by repeated examinations.

The facts I thus learned I will now record.

In the great spinous Cockles (C. aculeatum, &c.) the ejecting

or anal siphon is formed closely like the receiving or oral one,—

a simple orifice, surrounded by filiform tentacles. But in this

pigmy species the anal orifice is crowned by a semi-elliptical sac,

which at the instant of opening the valves for the renewing of

respiration is projected with a jerk. This sac is composed of

membrane of the most extreme delicacy, and of such transpa-

rency that it would be utterly invisible but for rows of minute

opake-white dots that run down it longitudinally. It terminates

in a cireular aperture, whose width is about half that of the

greatest diameter of the sac; but from the sensitiveness and

contractility of the membrane, the form and dimensions of the

orifice slightly vary. Its edges are not in the least thickened,

and they are with the greatest difficulty detected, except by the

termination of the macular lines just mentioned. In some cir-

cumstances it is protruded to a much greater extent than in

others, forming a very elongated ellipse, and extending to the

length of 4th of an inch, or little less than the transverse dia-

meter of the valves. I for a time thought it was projected by

the evolution of its walls; but on more careful examination, I

saw that the sides collapsed into a wrinkled thread when the

jet ceased, and were instantly distended, with force, when it was

renewed.

The movements of this organ, though not extensive, are

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 17

258 Bibliographical Notices.

indicative of great sensibility. It is continually contracting and

dilating both laterally and longitudinally ; bends quickly from

side to side; twitches spasmodically ; and occasionally contracts

or constricts one part without altering the rest. The ejection of

the effete water from it is continuous while the organ is pro-

truded, and sufficiently forcible to make the current visible at the

distance of upwards of an inch from the orifice. The receiving

current however is intermittent. The siphon through which

this latter passes is a short truncate column, the edge of

which is set with about fifteen short incurved tentacles, separated

from each other at their bases by more than their own diameters.

This column, when withdrawn, first becomes oval, and then col-

lapses ; the sides coming into contact as the valves close over it.

I am not aware that any one has included the Cockles among

the byssus-spinners. This little species however exercises the

faculty freely. It crawls up the glass sides of my aquarium, or

up a phial, six inches or more in a few hours, moving itself by

seyeral diverging threads of varying length; and frequently,

when disturbed, hanging by one alone, after the others have

been cast off. I watched the process of spinning, which did not

differ from what I have observed in other byssiferous Conchifera.

The tiny white foot was protruded, and pressed against the

glass for a few seconds; during which a slit, with mobile fleshy

lips, was opened in its upper edge, not reaching to the tip, but

terminating at about two-thirds of its length from the base.

When the foot was withdrawn, two threads were found attached

to the glass by minute sucking buttons. All the time of the

process I perceived that the terminal, ungrooved portion of the

foot, which was pellucid, seemed to be permeated by a central

eanal through which a fluid was percolating. Such at least was

the appearance.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX.

Fig. 5. represents Cardium exiguum, with the siphons extended; magnified

5 diameters.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

An Introduction to Entomology, or Elements of the Natural Histor

of Insects, By Wiu1t1am Kirsy, M.A., F.R.S, F.L.S., =

WixtiiaM Spence, F.R.S., F.L.S. Seventh Edition. Sm. 8vo.

London, Longmans, 1856.

Arrer the long period during which this work has occupied a high

place in our entomological literature, almost all that remains for us

to do is to announce to our readers the appearance of this ‘‘ new and

cheaper” edition of the ‘ Introduction to Entomology.’ It comprises

only the first two volumes of the original edition, containing what may

be termed the popular portion of the book, and is in fact a reprint of

ta tn

_———s

Bibliographical Notices. 259

the sixth edition of these two volumes, which were published sepa-

rately some years since.

Considering the exceedingly low price at which this volume of

upwards of six hundred pages is offered to the public, it is certainly

very well got up, although we are sorry to see a good many misprints

in its pages, which one would think might easily have been avoided

ina work which has been so often printed. The entomologist perhaps

may find these but trifling difficulties, but many of them will prove sad

stumbling-blocks in the way of the ordinary reader. We should

have been glad also to have seen a few alterations in the notes in some

parts of the work, as for instance at page 155, where the reader is

referred to Mr. Westwood’s ‘ Introduction’ for an “ account of the

facts hitherto recorded respecting’ the Strepsiptera, although Mr.

Westwood’s book, having been published before the history of these

singular insects was cleared up by the researches of Von Siebold and

others, must necessarily give a very erroneous view of the present

state of our knowledge of their mode of life. ;

An interesting appendix is formed by the addition to the volume of

the account furnished by Mr. Spence to Mr. Freeman’s Life of the

Rey. W. Kirby, of the origin and progress of the ‘Introduction to

Entomology,’ with particulars of the portions which are principally

due to each author.

Ferny Combes: a Ramble after Ferns in the Glens and Valleys of

Devonshire. By Cuartotre Cuanter. London, Reeve, 1856.

This is a pleasant little volume, written in a simple style, and com-

mending itself alike to the tourist and valetudinarian, whom it would

fain lead through some of the beauties of the ‘ far west,’—and whom

it would seek to inoculate with that love of natural history which

unfolds a new volume of hidden stores to the temporary sojourner

*midst Arcadian scenes, converting the barren moor, and bleak upland

waste, into a paradise. Although its main object is, as indeed its

title would imply, to point out localities for those species of our ferns

which the authoress has detected in the fairy Combes of Devon, yet

she distinctly disclaims any intention of entering the realms of science :

«[ write,” says she, “for the votaries of health and pleasure, not for

votaries of science. I write for those of less cultivated intellect, who,

with an innate taste and love for all that is beautiful and divine in

nature, too often wander in darkness where even a little knowledge

would open to them worlds of light in the animal and vegetable king-

doms,—provided not only for use, but for endless interest and research

into the works of their Creator.” Her delineations of the country

through which she conducts us are truthful and good,—clearly ema-

nating from the pen of an observer, and bearing no evidence (as is

too frequently the case in similar publications) that she has merely

compiled from the works of others. The description (p. 17) of the

inconveniences of a ‘ Devonshire lane’ is marvellously correct ; and

to us, who have wandered, over and over again, through these ‘arva

beata,’ prying into every nook and crevice between the limits of

Lynton and Lundy, and have marked (to our cost) the sudden

17*

260 Zoological Society :—

change which comes over the ‘ face of the deep’ when the bold pro-

montory of Hartland affords us no longer its friendly shelter on our

passage to the ‘isle of rats,’ her remarks are painfully suggestive of

the past: ‘ Ah! how the coast and sea alter as you pass Hartland

‘Point ! No gentle wavelets ripple over the sand, but sturdy Atlantic

billows, rolling in from the far west, come bounding over the stony

strand, and leap high into the air as they strike against the project-

ing masses of rock.” (p. 26.)

Her picture, too, of Clovelly is manifestly ‘drawn from the life ;’ as

is also that of the entrance into it, by the well-known ‘‘ Hobby-drive,” _

—‘‘a road terraced along the cliff, winding in and out through deep

wooded glens and over trickling streams ; whilst, below, the blue sea

shines between the branches, and the waves make gentle moan upon

a beach you cannot see” (p. 28). Clovelly is indeed a wonderful

spot, and “any one,”’ says our authoress, ‘‘ who would venture down

its street must leave his dignity behind him, and get down as best he

can,—fortunate if he have not a hard tumble or two by the way.”

Another writer has aptly deseribed it as “a small fishing-village built

on the steep slope of a cliff, and looking almost as if the whole place

had been wrecked from some large ship, and had cleverly contrived

to scramble on shore, and clamber up the rocks just beyond high-

water mark, but had never been able to reach the summit *.”’

In the concluding portion of her volume, Mrs. Chanter pilots us

through the ‘ pixied haunts’ of Dartmoor, and leads us into many a

wild and unvisited retreat. From the top of Lustleigh Cleve she

surveys, amidst craggy Tors, the teeming valleys beneath,—and

taking up her harp, in all the warmth of a poetic imagination,

exclaims: ‘‘It is a place in which one longs to linger and drink im

all its charms. It is a place from which one cannot turn without a

sigh of regret ; a place that comes back in pleasant dreams of happy

hours ; a place one seems to have known somewhere, somehow,—

long, long ago.” (p. 67.)

The last chapter of this little book contains some directions on

the cultivation of ferns, and the three or four preceding ones de-

scriptions of the species of these plants, referred to in other parts of

the work. These descriptions appear to be copied for the most part

from Mr. Moore’s works, and they are illustrated by some pretty

good coloured figures.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

November 13, 1855.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

CHARACTERS OF SOME APPARENTLY New Species or Bucco-

nip. By Puirie Lurtey Scrarer, M.A., F.L.S.

1]. Bucco HYPERRHYNCHUS.

Tamatia hyperrhynchus, Bp. MS. et Consp. Vol. Zygodact. p. 13.

B. supra fulgenti-niger ; fronte lata et superciliis anticis albis :

* June: a Book for the Country in Summer-time. By H. T. Stainton

(London, 1856), p. 64.

i i

Mr. P. L. Sclater on some new species of Bucconide. 261

subtus albus, nigro late torquatus ; lateribus nigro radiatis :

rostro maximo.

Long. tota 10°5; ale 4°5; caudz 3°5; rostria rictu 2:1.

Hab. In regionibus fl. Amazonum superioris (ZZawawell). Mus.

Paris. et P. L.S.

When I drew up the characters of Bucco macrorhynchus, as given

in the ‘ Annals of Nat. Hist.’ for May 1854, p. 357, I had not in my

possession specimens of the true macrorhynchus from Cayenne, and

consequently confounded with it the present bird. But the much

larger size of the bill and whole body, the greater extension of the

white colour on the front, the narrower black band and the total

absence of any fawn-coloured tinge on the belly and vent are quite

sufficient to distinguish this Bucco from its Cayenne representative.

I have lately ascertained, through the kindness of Prince Bona-

parte, that this is the species included under the name Tumatia

hyperrhynchus in his Conspectus Volucrum Zygodactylorum, pub-

lished in the ‘ Ateneo Italiano’ of May last, and I have therefore

adopted his specific designation. But no descriptions have yet

appeared of the many new species of which the names only are inserted

in that and other similar recent publications of the Prince.

The type specimens of the present bird are in the French National

collection.

2. Bucco pysoni.

Tamatia gigas, Bp. Consp. Vol. Zygodact. p. 13 ?

Bucco dysoni, G. R. Gray in Mus. Brit.

B. supra fulgenti-niger ; fronte usque ad oculos et collari postico

albis : subtus albus ; vitta pectorali lata nigra ; lateribus nigro

variis ; rostro pedibusque nigris.

Long. tota 9°7; ale 4:5; caude 3°4; rostri a rictu 1°8.

Hab. In America Centrali, Honduras (Dyson). Mus. Brit.

Obs. Species a Buccone macrorhyncho fronte latius albo, rostro

majore, et ventre pure albo, a Buccone hyperrhyncho rostro minore

et fronte minus albo diversa, et inter has duas media locanda.

A single specimen of this bird in the British Museum was procured

by Mr. Dyson in Honduras. In my Synopsis of this family I have

confounded it with its near affines, from which I now think, as

might have been expected from the locality, it will bear separation.

It is very probable that Prince Bonaparte’s name, gigas (which was

applied to a bird brought by Delattre from Nicaragua), was intended

for this same species, but as the type has disappeared, and no

specific characters have been published for the name, it is difficult

to be certain on that point.

3. Bucco PULMENTUM.

Tamatia (Nyctactes) pulmentum, Bp. et Verr. MS.

B. supra fusco-brunneus; fronte et superciliis rufescentibus ;

torque angusto nuchali inconspicuo albido ; dorsi medii alarum

uropygiique plumis partim fulvo terminatis: subtus albus ;

gutture inferiore pallide rufescente ; plaga utrinque gutturak

262 Zoological Society :— a

magna cum maculis crebris pectus totum et ventrem (precipue

ud latera) occupantibus atris: rostro nigro.

Long. tota 5-0; ale 3:1; caudz 2°5.

Hab. In Peruvia Orientali et regionibus fl. Amazonum superioris :

Pebas (Cast. et Dev.): Chamicurros (Hawzrwell). Mus. Paris.,

Joh. Gould et P.L.S.

Obs. Sp. Bucconi tamatie affinissima, sed gula pallidiore et

maculis ventris majoribus et intensioribus differt.

This appears to be a western representative of the B. tamatia of

Cayenne, from which, however, I think it may be fairly separated.

MM. Verreaux of Paris have lately received a considerable number

of specimens of it from the Upper Amazon, They all present the

same distinctive characters as are above noticed.

“4. MonaSA PERUANA.

Monasa peruana, Bp. et Verr. MS.

M. plumbescenti-nigra, capite et gutture intensioribus ; fronte et

menti summa parte albis : rostro ruberrimo.

Long. tota 11°0; ale 5:0; caude 4°5.

Hab. 1a Peruvia Orientali in regionibus fl. Amazonum superioris :

Chamicurros (Hawawell). Mus. Joh. Gould et P.L.S.

Obs. Simillima M. personate sed rostro clarius rubro, mento ad

ipsam apicem solum albo haud nisi dubie disjungenda.

My specimen of this bird was obtained from the MM. Verreaux,

and carries the MS. name above quoted, which I have thought it as

well to adopt. The characters which separate it from its well-known

Brazilian representative are certainly very slight, but appear to be

constant in at least a dozen examples I have examined from the

same locality.

5. Bucco PIcATUs.

B. supra niger ; plaga in summis scapularibus utrinque magna et

maculis in pileo rotundis cum loris albis: subtus albus; vitta

lata pectorali nigra: cauda nigra, rectricibus tribus utrinque

extimis in medio et harum omnium apicibus albo maculatis :

rostro pedibusque nigris.

Long. tota 6°7 ; ale 3°2; caude 2°3.

Hab. In reg. fl. Amazonum superioris ; Chamicurros (Hawawell).

Mus. Joh. Gould.

Obs. Species Bucconi tecto forsan nimium affinis, et ob crassitiem

majorem, torquem pectoris latiorem et caudam minus albo maculatam

non sine dubio constituenda.

Mr. Gould’s collection contains two examples of this bird, which

he has entrusted to me for comparison with its Cayenne representa-

tive. It is not, however, without hesitation that I have determined

to separate them from it. Besides their larger size and broader

breast-band, the white medial square spot extends in the present

species only through the three lateral rectrices, with a slight trace of

it in the fourth. .

In the Cayenne bird the outer five pairs are all strongly marked

thus. The whole plumage of the bird is also generally more intensely

black.

st 3} ee =

os ge

Dr. J. E. Gray on new species of Freshwater Tortoises. 263

6, MaLAcoPriLa NIGRIFUSCA.

Malacoptila fusca, ex Bogota, Sclater, P. Z.S. 1855, p. 136.

M. nigricanti-brunnea, plumarum scapis pallide fulvis ; loris et

plumis mystacalibus cum plaga triangulari super-pectorali

albis : ventre medio crissoque fere unicoloribus, albicantioribus ;

rostrt basi lete aurantia, apice nigro; pedibus nigricanti-

brunneis.

Long. tota 6°5; alee 3°5; caudz 2°5.

Hab. In Nova Granada, Santa Fé de Bogota. Mus. Brit. et Joh.

Gould.

Obs. Sp. Malacoptile fusce affinissima sed statura minore et

coloribus nigricantioribus: rostri basi leetius aurantia.

This New Grenadian bird, which in my Synopsis of this family and

List of Bogota birds I united with the true fusca of Cayenne, cer-

tainly presents considerable claims for specific distinction. The

body is generally smaller, the bill in particular is shorter and not so

strong, and at the base is of a deep orange colour instead of pale

yellow, the black not extending so far towards the base of the upper

mandibles ; the markings on the head, throat and breast also, are

much blacker, and I have therefore named the bird nigrifusca.

There are specimens of it in the British Museum and in Mr. Gould’s

collection.

The East Peruvian or High-Amazon examples on the other hand

(which are held distinct by some naturalists under Du Bus’ title

inornata) resemble the Cayenne bird much more nearly. After

remarking that the white lore-spot is nearly obsolete, and the skins

are rather finer and larger, it is in truth difficult (at least with my

present examples) to see further differences, and I therefore regard

M. inornata as a very doubtful species.

Rio Napo specimens are still more like the true fusca.

On some New Species or FResHwaTer TortToises FROM

Nortu America, CEYLON AND AusTRALIA. By Dr. J. E.

Gray, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. etc.

Fam. 1. Emypip#.

The freshwater Tortoises which have been referred to the genus

Emys, as it is at present constituted, may be divided into two very

distinct genera ; and this is the more advisable as it is extremely

difficult to distinguish the American species of which it is composed,

and the separation of any of them by organic characters must facili-

tate the process. The genera may be thus named and defined :—

1. Emys.

The lower jaw rounded beneath, and covered with the hinder part

of the horny beak; the toes strong, covered with broad band-like

scales.

This genus includes E£. ornata, E. seripta, EL. Holbrookii, and

many other species, both Asiatic and American.

2. Pseupemys.

The lower jaw flattened beneath and covered with a soft skin. The

264 Zoological Society :—

toes weak, slender, covered with small scales above, and very broadly

webbed.

1. Pseudemys concinna.

2. P. serrata.

The genera Batagur and Malaclemys have nearly similar feet, and

they appear, like Pseudemys, to be the most aquatic animals of the

family.

The species which have hitherto been referred to the genus Cistupo

differ considerably in their habits, some being nearly terrestrial and

others almost exclusively aquatic. The examination of the animal

shows that there are good external characters by which they may be

divided into natural groups agreeing with their habits and their

geographic distribution.

I. The more terrestrial have the front of their legs covered with

thick, imbricate, triangular scales, the toes only slightly webbed,

and the sternum broad, hiding the legs when withdrawn, as—

1. Cistupo.

The head rhombic, the forehead flat, and eyes lateral: confined

to N. America; as

C. Carolinensis, with four, and C. Mevicana, with only three toes

on the hind feet.

2. LUTREMYS.

The head oblong, depressed, with the eyes on the upper part of the

cheek. Found in Europe, as L. Europea.

II. The more aquatic kinds have the front of the legs covered

with small scales and some broad, transverse, lunate plates ; the toes

webbed. They are confined to Asia; as

5. Cuora.

The head rhombic, the eyes lateral, the sternal lobes broad, hiding

the legs when contracted, as C. Amboinensis and C. trifasciata,

4. CYCLEMYS.

The head depressed, eyes subsuperior, the sternal lobes rather

narrow, not hiding the legs when contracted, as C. dentata and

C. platynota. The latter species was referred to the genus Testudo

by F. Miller, and when I first described it I considered it as an

Emys, but the examination of a series of specimens of different ages

shows that it is a species of Box Tortoise nearly allied to C. dentata.

It has been hitherto believed that there was only a single species

of the genus KinosTeERNON, as now restricted, found in the United

States ; and all the adult specimens I have received from that country

are, 1 must own, exceedingly alike, so much so that I cannot under-

take to say that we have adult specimens of more than a single species.

On examining the young specimens of this genus from the United

States, in the Museum Collection, it is evident that there are at least

three most distinct species found in that country, which probably in

Dr. J. E. Gray on new species of Freshwater Tortoises. 265

their eroded and discoloured adult state are so alike as to be mistaken

for one another.

They may be thus described :—

1. KrnosTERNON PENSYLVANICUM.

Head brown-dotted ; temples with two parallel distant streaks of

white spots, from the upper and lower edge of the orbit, and a third

streak across the lower jaw ; neck white-dotted ; back deep brown ;

lower side of marginal shields, the axillary and inguinal plates and

each of the sternal plates with a large yellow spot; sternum broad,

rounded before and behind.

Hab. North America, Florida, EL. Doubleday, Esq.

2. KrnosTERNON Hippocrepis.

Head brown, with a broad white streak on each side, from the end

of nose over the eyebrows to the sides of the nape; back pale and

sternum brown; dorsal shield with a single apical and some scattered

black spots ; under side of each marginal and sternal plate rather-

paler in the middle; sternum rather broad, rounded in front and

slightly truncated behind.

K. Pensylvanicum, Holbrook, N. Amer. Herp. t. 21.

Hab. North America, New Orleans, £. Doubleday, Esq.

3. KINOSTERNON PUNCTATUM.

Head brown, minutely white-dotted, without any streaks ; the back

brown, discal shield with a very distinct apical, and some scattered

black spots; margin with a very narrow white line ; under side whitish,

with minute scattered black dots and line; sternum narrow, con-

tracted at each end, and with straight sides behind, rather truncated

in front and more distinctly and broadly so behind.

Hab. North America.

There are several specimens of the first species of different ages

from various parts of the States, in the British Museum; I have

therefore retained for it the more general name; and two young

specimens and a half-grown one of the second species, and only a

single young specimen of the third species ; the latter is so distinct,

by the narrow form of its sternum, from the other two, that it might

be referred to the genus Aromochelys if the pectoral plates were not

triangular; it may be considered as the species passing towards

that genus, and I should think that the adult animal must differ

considerably from the common form of K, Pensylvanicum.

AROMOCHELYS.

The Musk Tortoise, or, as it is more commonly called, theStinkpot of

North America, is easily distinguished from the other Kinosterna by

the narrowness of the sternum and the humeral plates being square,

like the pectoral one, instead of triangular, as they are in K. scor-

poides and K. Pensylvanicum. Yor this reason I have proposed to

divide them into a distinct group under the name of Aromochelys.

Iam the more inclined to do so, as there are two most distinct

species in the British Museum Collection, which have either been

266 Zoological Society :— L.1

confounded together by the American naturalists, or haye been most

unaccountably overlooked. They may be thus defined :—

1. AROMOCHELYS ODORATA.

Head moderate, with two streaks from the nose, one above and

the other under the eyes, to the side of the neck; the back oblong-

convex, the vertebral line rather flattened; the gular plate small,

triangular, the humeral plate rather oblique, shield brown, purple-

brown spotted.

Holbrook, N. Amer. Herpet. t. 22.

Hab. United States and Louisiana.

2. AROMOCHELYS CARINATA.

We have four specimens of this species in the Museum Collection.

Cat. Tortoises B.M. t. 20 a.

Head very large, black-dotted, without any lateral streaks; back,

oblong, very high, the vertebral line high and acutely keeled the

whole length, shields grey-brown, spotted and lined with purple-

brown; the gular plate very small, linear, transverse marginal, the

humeral plate square, transverse, parallel to the pectoral plates.

Hab. North America, Louisiana.

There are two species of North American Tortoises which are re-

ferred to the genus CueLypra, which are so differently organized

that they are evidently the types of two very distinct genera, which

may be thus characterized :—

1, CHELYDRA.

Head moderate, rather depressed, covered with a soft skin, chin

bearded, neck granular; back with two slight keels; marginal plates

in a single series.

Chelydra serpentina.

2. MAcROCHELYS.

Head large, angular, contracted in front, covered with symmetrical

horny plates, neck with several series of spinose warts; back with

three sharp continued tubercular keels; the lateral marginal plates

in a double series.

M. Temminckii.

Fam. II. CueLypip2.

When Australia was first visited by Sir Joseph Banks, he brought

home with him from New Holland a freshwater Tortoise, which Dr.

Shaw described under the name of T'estudo longicollis. This has

been made the type of the genusCureLopina. Recent travellers in

Australia have shown that the genus is distributed over the country;

each part appears to have a species peculiar to itself. In Capt.,

now Sir George Grey’s Travels, I described and figured a species from

Western Australia under the name of Chelodina oblonga. In a col-

lection which we have lately received from Haslar Hospital, there

are two very large specimens of the genus sent from Swan Riyer

by the late Mr, Collie, which, though similar in several respects to

Dr. J. E. Gray on new species of Freshwater Tortoises. 267

Chelodina oblonga, may be considered as a distinct species, which

I shall proceed to shortly characterize.

The species of the genus hitherto described have the thorax

covered with very thin smooth shields, so transparent that a peculiar

black reticulated appearance, which exists between the shields and

the bones of the thorax, can be distinctly seen through them. This

character is common to C. longicollis of New Holland, C. oblonga, and

Mr. Collie’s species from Swan River, which I propose to call, in

honour of my late friend and excellent collector—

1. CHELODINA COLLIEI.

The shield oblong, elongate, contracted and revolute on the sides ;

under side uniform pale yellow.

Hab. Swan River, Alexander Collie, Esq.

This species agrees with C. oblonga in the uniform colour of the

back and sternum, which is only varied by the dark lines of the netted

appearance before referred to; but it is easily known from that species

by its larger size, the much narrower shape, and the lateral margin

becoming strongly revolute, and the edge over the hinder limb raised

up and rather expanded.

The British Museum have lately received, with some other speci-

mens, from the Australian continent—but unfortunately the special

habitat was not indicated—the shell of a Tortoise which has all the

characters of the genus as at present defined, except that, instead of

the shields on the thorax being thin, submembranous and semitrans-

parent, they are thick, horny and concentrically grooved like the

shields of many other genera. It is not accompanied by the head or

limbs of the animal, so we have not the means of determining if

they offer any characters which, with the peculiar structure of the

shell, might render it desirable to form it into a separate genus.

It may be defined and thus named :—

2. CHELODINA SULCATA.

Shell depressed, roundish ovate, brown; shield horny, thick,

distinctly concentrically grooved.

Hab. Australia.

Fam. III. Trionycip2.

The species of this family, which have the hind legs covered with

moveable flaps affixed to the sides of the hinder lobe of the sternum,

named Cryptopus by MM. Dumeril and Bibron, may be divided

into two very distinct geographic genera.

1. Emypa, Gray.

The margins of the upper shield strengthened with bones; the

sternum with three pairs of callosities and a small odd one behind

the anterior pair. Asia.

2. CycLanosteus, Peters.

The margin of the upper shield flexible, without any bones; the

sternum with four pairs of callosities and an odd one behind the two

anterior pairs; the pair on the hinder lobes small, far apart. Africa.

268 Miscellaneous.

It has been usually stated that the only known species of the

genus Emypa was generally distributed over India; we have in the

British Museum specimens only from the Valley of the Ganges. The

young specimens all agree in the head and shell being variegated.

We have lately received a specimen of this genus from Ceylon,

collected by Mr. Thwaites, which differs in both the above particu-

lars ; and in the Museum of the Society there is the shell of an adult

animal, sent home from Ceylon by Dr. Kelaart, which shows that it

is a most distinct species. They may be thus characterized :—

1. EmyDA PUNCTATA.

Back and upper part of the head pale spotted; the odd anterior

callosity small, roundish triangular; the hinder callosity of adult

oyate, inner edge semicircular; of young triangular, far apart.

Hab. India, Ganges.

2. EmMyDA CEYLONENSIS.

Back and upper part of the head (in spirits) dull pale olive ; lips,

chin and lower part of the body whitish. The odd anterior sternal

tubercle large, oblong, transverse; the hinder pair of callosities

large, close, in adult nearly united, with straight parallel inner edges.

Emyda punctata, Kelaart, Prod. Faun. Ceylon. 179.

fab. Ceylon.

Dr. Kelaart, in his work on the Ceylon animals, was not aware of

the distinctness of this animal from the continental species ; he ob-

serves that the head is black-lined when alive.

The new species described in this paper are figured in the

Illustrated Catalogue of Tortoises in the Collection ef the British

Museum.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Vitality of the Anguillule of Mildewed Wheat.

By C. Davarne.

Tur Anguillule of wheat in the larva state are endowed with the

power of remaining dry and apparently dead for several years, and

recovering their powers of moyement when moistened. This is net

the case with these animals after they have acquired sexual organs.

In the larva state also they exhibit a remarkable resistance to the

action of violent poisons, provided these are not of a nature to act

upon their tissues. The author has found by experiment, that opium,

the salts of morphine, belladonna, atropine, strychnine, and its com-

pounds, &c., have no action upon these animals. In a concentrated

solution or paste of these substances, they continued to live and

move for a fortnight. Nicotine, on the contrary, soon destroys their

movements, but not their vitality, for after remaining several days in

coutact with this substance, they become as lively as ever when freed

from it by washing.

Organic matters, and especially animal matters in a state of decom-

fat |

_—

Miscellaneous. 269

position, have the same action as nicotine upon the Anguillule. A

little piece of meat, cheese, some paste, &c., put into the water con-

taining them, will render the whole of them straight and stiff in the

course of a few hours in hot weather. By drying and again moist-

ening them, or by washing them constantly with pure water, they

soon begin to move again, and the author has repeated this resusci-

tation frequently with the same individuals. So great is the influence

of decomposing animal matters upon the Anguillule, that if a few of

them be crushed in opening a mildewed grain, this will be sufficient

to prevent the others from moving when placed in a small quantity

of water.

Substances which act chemically upon the tissues, and especially

acids, destroy these animals more or less quickly; sulphuric acid,

diluted with 200 volumes of water, kills them in a few hours, and

may be employed to destroy them in seed corn. This action, which

is common to all acids, is the more singular, as other Anguillule live

and breed in vinegar.

These animals also support an intense cold. The author has

exposed them to a temperature of —4° F. for several hours without

killing them. Heat on the contrary is fatal to them, and they perish

at about 148° F., whilst the Rotifera and Tardigrada support a heat

of 212° F. The author remarks, that as wheat loses its germinative

power at about 148° F., it was unnecessary that these animals should

be enabled to bear a higher temperature.

The adult Anguillule exhibit far less tenacity of life m all these

respects. The larvee live two months or more in water ; the adults

on an average a day and a half. The extreme limit was five

days. The larve live at least two hours in sulphuric acid diluted

with 200 volumes of water; the adults less than one hour. In a

mixture of 3 parts of water and 1 of alcohol, the larvee live for six

hours or more, the adults only two hours. The larvee kept for more

than a month in glycerine are soon revived when put into pure

water; the adults could not be resuscitated after lying in this sub-

stance for two hours. Five hours’ exposure to a temperature of —4°F,

does not injure the vitality of the larvae, whilst exposure for the same

period to a temperature of + 3° to + 4° F. always kills the adults.

The larvee may be kept dry for several years and revived by placing

them in pure water; whilst the adults after a desiccation of a few

hours have entirely lost their vitality.

The author has also made some experiments with the view of

determining whether these singular little animals would undergo any

metamorphosis if placed in conditions different from those in which

they usually occur, and found that changes of habitat produced no

modifications in their characters, which would approximate them to

the other Nematoid worms. He placed the larvee in vegetable mould,

in vinegar and flour paste, and administered them to animals. In

no ease did the Anguillule acquire the appearance of the Nematoid

worms which live naturally in such situations, and when administered

to cold-blooded animals they were evacuated in a motionless state, but

still alive.— Comptes Rendus, July 21, 1856, p. 148.

270 Miscellaneous.

Notice of a new species of Nocturnal Lizard from Mexico.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

Among the animals collected at Cordova in Mexico by M. Sallé,

lately added to the Zoological Collection of the British Museum, is a

fine specimen of nocturnal Lizard, belonging to the genus Cudina,

which appears to have hitherto escaped the notice of zoologists.

CUBINA GRANDIS.

Blackish, brown beneath, crown black spotted; nape with an

elongated oblique spot on each side, forming an imperfect crescent ;

back with five narrow, the tail with eight broad white cross rings,

the one on back of the neck just in front of the shoulders crescent-

shaped, the rest transverse.

The back and legs covered with close, rounded, smooth tubercles ;

the tail with regular rings of small, less raised tubercular seales; the

crown of the head with smooth scales ; the temple with conical acute

tubercles ; the belly covered with smooth, rather elongated, square,

four-sided shields ; the under side of the tail with smaller, narrow,

more elongated similar shields; the chin and throat with small gra-

nular seales; labial shields moderate, four-sided, with three rows of

larger six-sided shields on the edge of the jaw, below the lower

labial plates, the hinder one of the series being rather smaller and

slightly keeled ; the toes elongate, narrow, black above, with a white

ring over each joint.

Body and head, 5 ; tail, 5 inches.

Hab. Mexico, near Cordova (M. Sallé).

On a new genus and species of Trochilidee from Ecuador.

By Joun Govuxp, F.R.S. &c.

This fine species of Humming Bird is remarkable for its size,

deeply forked tail, and the harmonious hues of its plumage, which,

although less glittering and metallic than in many other species, is

nevertheless strikingly beautiful. I consider this bird to be new to

science, both generically and specifically, and as the name of Victoria

regia has been given to one of the finest flowers of the same part of

South America, I am desirous of dedicating this new Humming Bird

to the Empress of the French, and I accordingly propose to name it

Eugenia imperatriz. Its native habitat is the vast Andean forests in

the neighbourhood of Quito in Ecuador, where it procures its insect

food from the bell-shaped flowers of the Dature.

Genus EvGenia.

Gen. Char. Bill rather lengthened, straight and strong; wings

long and pointed ; tail lengthened and very much forked, the feathers

narrow and rigid; tarsi clothed with feathers nearly to the toes ;

feet small.

EUGENIA IMPERATRIX.

Male. Face and fore part of the neck brilliant grass-green ; crown

of the head, back, neck, chest and upper part of the flanks very

te tie

Meteorological Observations. 271

deep green ; on the centre of the throat a gorget of reddish-violet ;

abdomen and under tail-coverts shining, greenish-yellow; wings

purplish-brown ; tail deeply forked, the feathers black, narrow and

rigid ; some tufts of white downy feathers across the lower part of

the abdomen ; thighs brown in front, white behind.

Total length 6} inches; bill 14: wing 33; tail 3.

Female. Upper surface green ; throat, chest and abdomen greyish-

white spangled with green, the spangles being very minute on the

throat and gradually increasing in size downward to the flanks ; tail

blackish-brown ; tarsi white.

Total length 53 inches; bill 13; wing 23; tail 23.

Hab. Ecuador.—Proc. Zool. Soc., Nov. 13, 1855.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR JULY 1856.

Chiswick.—July 1. Cloudless, with very dry air. 2. Dry haze: very fine.

3. Clear and very fine. 4. Fine: overcast: slight rain. 5. Fine: overcast: very +

fine. 6. Very fine: lightning, with rain at night. 7. Densely clouded: rain.

8. Very heavy rain, cold and boisterous. 9. Fine. 10. Very fine. 11. Cloudy:

slight drizzle: fine. 12. Overcast. 13. Very fine: overcast: cloudy. 14. Very

fine: overcast. 15. Cloudy and fine: lightning, with rain at night. 16. Rain:

heavy clouds and showers: very fine. 17. Very fine. 18. Overcast: drizzly: very

fine. 19. Fine: overcast. 20. Slight drizzle: overcast: rain. 21. Very fine.

22. Sultry. 23. Slight fog: very hot: cloudy: lightning. 24. Shower: very hot.

25, 26. Exceedingly fine. 27. Overcast: rain. 28. Cloudy: very fine: hazy.

29. Slight fog: very fine. 30. Uniform haze: very fine. 31. Slight fog: very

sultry: clear and fine.

Mean temperature of the month .......sssesseeveescoveseeeces ess 61°20

Mean temperature of July 1855... Soeseeacaeees Sa ecieseseeds 62 -99

Mean temperature of July for the last thirty years ......... 63 ‘11

Average amount of rain in July —...sceceessseeeeeeeeneeeees see.e. 2°008 inches,

Boston.—July 1—4. Fine. 5. Cloudy. 6. Cloudy: rainp.m. 7. Cloudy: rain

A.M. and p.M. 8. Fine: rain a.M.andp.m. 9. Fine: rainp.m. 10. Fine. 11.

Cloudy. 12. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 13. Cloudy. 14. Fine. 15. Cloudy.

16. Cloudy: rain A.M.andr.m. 17. Fine. 18. Rain a.m.and p.m. 19. Fine.

20. Clondy. 21, 22. Fine. 23,24. Cloudy. 25. Fine: rainp.m. 26, Cloudy.

27. Cloudy: rain a.m. 28—31. Fine.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—July 1. Bright a.m.: clear p.m. 2. Clear a.m.

andp.m. 3. Clear a.M.: showers P.M. 4. Drizzle a.m.and p.m. 5. Cloudy A.M. :

drizzle, showers p.m. 6. Showers a.m.: drizzle, showers p.m. 7. Rain A.M. :

bright p.m. 8. Drizzle, showers a.m. and p.m. 9. Drizzle, showers a.M.:

cloudy p.m. 10. Cloudy a.m.andp.m. 11. Cloudy a.m.:rainp.m. 12. Bright

A.M.: bright, fine, thunder p.m. 13. Bright a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m. 14. Clear,

fine A.M.: cloudy, rain p.m. 15. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 16. Drizzle a.m.:

rainp.M. 17. Cleara.M.andp.m. 18. Rain a.m.: showers p.m. 19,20. Drizzle

A.M.: damp p.M. 21. Bright, fine a.m. and p.m. 22. Clear, fine a.m.: cloudy,

fine p.m. 23. Rain a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m. 24, 25. Bright a.m. : bright, fine p.m.

26. Clear a.m.: showersp.M. 27. Bright A.M.: showers P.M. 28. Showers a.M. :

cloudy, fine p.m. 29. Clear, fine A.M.: rainp.M. 30. Bright a.m.: hazy p.m.

3]. Cloudy, fine A.M.: rain P.M.

Mean temperature of July for previous twenty-nine years... 55°°22

Mean temperature of this MONth ......ccceccscsercscsscscssessves OLAS

Mean temperature of July 1855 — .....-.scccesereoes ceconccsscees 59 +19

Average quantity of rain in July for previous sixteen years ... 2°45 inches.

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ajay

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

{SECOND SERIES.]

No. 106. OCTOBER 1856.

XXV.— Monograph of the British Umbilicarize.

By the Rev. W. A. Leicuron, B.A., F.B.S.E.

[With a Plate. ]

Tae Umbilicarie constitute a distinct and well-marked group

of Lichens. Their thallus bears a general external resemblance

to that of some species of Endocarpon (e. g. End. miniatum), but

the different internal structure shows these genera to have no

real connexion. Their apothecia approximate in external form

to those both of Lecidea and Opegrapha. But this resemblance

is limited to external character alone, for dissection demonstrates

that there is no affinity in structure between the plants. The

apothecia of the Umbilicaria are entirely destitute of that black

carbonaceous excipulum which is so conspicuous a feature of

the Lecidee. Their structure greatly assimilates, and indeed is

almost identical with, that of the apothecia of the plant generally

known as Lecidea vesicularis, Ach. With the Opegraphe the

resemblance is altogether external, the gyrations or redupli-

cations to which the apothecia are subject alone constituting the

similarity ; iterna! structure being here also entirely different.

The structure of the thallus appears to be alike in all the

plants included in the genus, however dissimilar their external

aspect may appear. The only differences apparently arise from

one portion or layer being more or less developed in growth,

probably from local circumstances, than another. This has

been admirably investigated, described and figured by M. L. R.

Tulasne, in his ‘‘ Mémoure des Lichens,” published in the ‘ An-

nales des Sciences Naturelles,’ 3 série, tom. xvii. The thallus

of U. pustulata, he says, presents a double cortical layer. The

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 18

274 Rey, W.A, Leighton on the British Umbilicarie.

superior cortex is formed of small polygonal cells intimately

united, and its superficial brown colour is veiled by a sort, of

furfuraceous powder, whose cellular elements, very irregular, are

unequally distributed and variously associated. The cortical

layer of the inferior face of the thallus is about double the

thickness of the preceding, and forms with it nearly a fourth

part of the entire thickness of the lichen. This part of the

plant is greyish, of a horny consistence, and very hygrometrie,

It is constituted, as nearly all the tissues of this sort, by glo-

bular utricules, with extremely thick walls, and so united to

each other, that the external contours of each of them are in-

distinct. This horny layer bears on its free face an infinity of

minute papillze of a conical or pyramidal form, and which are

continuous with it, that is to say, formed of a tissue entirely

similar, but of a very deep brown colour. The fibrous medulla

which occupies the middle of the thallus, is, as in most foli-

aceous lichens, a loose tissue filled with air, above which, the

spherical gonidia form a slight continuous layer. The structure

of the other species scarcely differs in any material point of view.

In our plate (Pl. X. fig. 1) we have copied M. Tulasne’s exquisite

illustrative section.

The apothecia arise from the medullary layer, and their deve-

lopment appears to take place somewhat in the following manner.

In the spot where an apothecium is about to appear, the cortical

layer is, by the uplifting of the medullary layer, formed into a

small wart or tubercle, This tubercle opens in the middle, the

hymenium appears exposed to view, the cortical layer is on either

side thrown back or reflected upon itself so as to constitute a

kind of excipulum to the hymenium, which is gradually and

progressively protruded upwards by the medullary layer, until

a fully expanded apothecium is formed, sessile or closely ap-

pressed on the surface of the thallus. The apothecia are of a

deep black or brown colour, but a vertical section shows this

tint to be confined exclusively to the surface of the disk and of

the excipulum. The base of the hymenium is not subtended by

any carbonaceous mass, as in the Lecidee, the medullary layer be-

coming in that part of a brown colour more or less deepened in

tint. ‘The apothecia are either simple, forming a single patellula,

or compound, consisting of numerous gyrations having much the

general appearance of the lirellie in the Opegraphe. The internal

structure is the same in both cases; and dissection shows that

the compound apothecia result, not from a division of the disk of

a single patellula, but from a great number of apothecia spring-

ing from the same spot, forced, by excessive compression against

each other and growth within a limited circular space, to assume

a gyrate direction, and to exhibit the singular appearances for

Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 275

which the apothecia of the genus are so conspicuous and re-

markable.

So far as my opportunities of research extend, the first writer

who mentions these plants is Tournefort, in his Institutiones

Rei Herbariz, 1710, who describes, in the concise manner usual

with earlier writers when treating of Lichens, two species, U. pus-

tulata and grisea. Vaillant, followmg his great master, in his

Botanicon Parisiense, 1727, describes and figures the same two

species, with that characteristic accuracy and fidelity for which

his plates are so valuable. Micheli, in his Nova Genera Plan-

tarum, 1729, makes U. pustulata the sole type and constituent

of his 18th Ordo of Lichens, in which the seeds are disposed

in comosa arbuscula” over the whole surface of the plant.

These seeds, which are now ascertained to be pulverulent ex-

erescences of the thallus, he figures with much accuracy, and

also the apothecia, of which however he takes no notice in his °

description, possibly supposing them to be only the incipients of

the fructification which would be ultimately developed into the

“eomosa arbuscula.” His tab. 47 represents characteristically

a very large specimen in that torn or deeply divided state fre-

quently observable when the plants attain considerable magni-

tude, and apparently resulting from this excess of growth. He

complains that Vaillant’s figure is taken from too small a spe-

cimen, but identifies it with his own, having received an authentie

specimen from Vaillant himself. Dillenius, in his Historia Mus-

ecorum, 1741, describes at length and figures U. proboscidea,

Turn. and Borr., grisea, Ach., erosa, Hoffm., arctica, Ach., poly-

phylla, T. and B., pellita, Ach., and pustulata, Ach.

Linneus, in Species Plantarum, 1763, under his section

Lichenes Umbilicati includes six species, velleus, pustulatus, pro-

boscideus, deustus, polyphyllus, and polyrrhizos. The same ar-

rangement is followed by Pollich (Flor. Palat. 1777), Lightfoot

(Fl. Scot. 1777), Weber (Spicil. Gotting. 1778), Hudson (FI.

Angl. 1778), Hagen (Tent. Pruss. 1782), Humboldt (FI. Frib.

1793), Retz (Fl. Scand.1795), Withering (Arrang. 1795), Afze-

lius (Act. Upsal. 1788), Westring (Act. Se. Stockh. 1793), and

Acharius (Act. Sc. Stockh. 1794), varying indeed in the number

of species described according to the cireumstances of their

respective localities. Hoffmann, in his Plante Lichenosz in

1788 (according to the date on his tab. 2) first uses the generic

name Umbilicaria. He figures with inimitable beauty and accu-

racy eleven species. This name Umbilicaria was immediately

adopted by Baumgarten (Flor. Lips. 1790), Schrader (Spicil.

1794), and Acharius (Prodr. 1798). In this latter work it

should be mentioned that Acharius refers murinus to the genus

Endocarpon. The generic name Umbilicaria is very aptly taken

18*

276 ~— Rey. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie.

from the umbilicate thallus; but Acharius, in his Meth. Lich.

1803, changed it to Gyrophora from the external appearance of

the fructification, because he thought it most probable that

future observation would show that Lecidea Oederi, silacea, prt-

vigna, and other species also, ought to be meluded in the same

genus, because their apothecia became deformed or gyriform

like those of Umbilicaria, in which case the former name Umbi-

licaria would not be applicable to the genus thus compre-

hensively considered. Dissection and the microscope have shown

that these conjectures of Acharius were groundless, and that

there was no real necessity for a change of the generic name.

He deseribes in this work fifteen species, all of which are true

Umbilicarie, but refers pustulatus to Lecidea. Ventenat again

changes the generic name to Capnia. DeCandolle, in Flor.

Frang. 1805, adopts the genus Umbilicaria of Hoffmann and

Acharius, and enumerates thirteen species, several of which are

now considered as varieties or states of the same plants. Acha-

rius retains his name Gyrophora in his Lich. Univ. 1810, de-

scribing eighteen species, including murinus and pustulatus:

Flérke has some remarks on the genus in the Berlin Magazine

for 1810, but which I have not seen. Wahblenberg (FI. Lapp.

1812) changes the name of the genus to Gyromium, but without

assigning any reason for so domg, which name he continues

in his Flor. Carpath. (1814), Flor. Upsal. (1820), and Flor.

Suec. (1824-26). In this latter work he explains the eause of

the change to be, from the similarity of the fructification to im-

testinal convolutions. Turner and Borrer in the Lichenographia

Britannica (i813) retain the name Gyrophora, as all the generic

distinctions in that work had been taken from the fructification.

They describe ten species as found in Britain, with an elaborate

care and minute fidelity and accuracy which cannot be praised

too highly. Another valuable feature of this work was the de-

termination of the plants of Linnzus and Dillenius from their

respective herbaria. Acharius (Syn. 1814) extends the number

of species to nineteen; one of them, G. Clementei, growing on

wood, is now referred to Thelephora quercina, Pers., all the rest

being saxicolar plants. Scherer, in Meisner’s Naturw. Anz.

1817, has a paper on the Gyrophore, and another on the “ Umbi-

licaria Helvetice” in Scringe’s Musée Helvétique d’ Hist. Nat.

1821. These he arranges under six species, which he deseribes

at length, adding full synonyms from Vaillant downwards, and

illustrates them with five plates filled with beautifully coloured

figures of all the species and varieties. In his Spicilegium he

refers U. pustulata to Lecidea, and places all the rest under four

species, viz. U. depressa, U. polymorpha, U. enea, and U. erosa;

whilst in his Enumeratio (1859) he-again includes pustulata, and

Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 277

rearranges the various forms into eight species. British authors,

as Purton, Midl. Fl. (1817), Hooker, Fl. Scot. (1821), and

Greville, Fl. Edin. (1824), adopt Gyr ophora as the genus. Fries

imall-his works resolutely maintains the original name, Umbzli-

caria, of Hoffmann. Eschweiler, Syst. Lich. "1824, places Gyro-

phora im company with Solor ina, Ach., Dermatocarpon, Eschw.,

Endocarpon, Hedw., Capitularia, Eschw:; and Peltidea, Ach., in

his Cohors V. Dermatocar pee. Wallroth, Crypt. Germ, (1831),

makes Umbilicaria a section of his genus Graphis, considering

the affinity in structure of the apothecia with those of the Gra-

phidee, hinted at by Bernhardi, Flérke and DeCandolle, to be cor-

rect and well founded. Hooker in Brit. Flor. (1833) follows the

arrangemcut of Fée (Cryptog. Ecorces, 1824) into Gyrophora and

Umbilicaria, from the different external aspect of the apothecia.

His distribution of the species differs somewhat from that of the

‘Lichenographia Britannica” Dr, Taylor in Flora Hibernica

(1836) again unites the two genera. Merat in Flor. env. Paris

(1836) puts U. pustulata into a new genus called Zasallia. Che-

vallier (Flor. Paris, 1836) and Flotow (Lichenes Flor. Siles., 1850)

separate Umbilicaria and Gyrophora. Tuckerman, Syn. Lich.

Amer. (1848), retains the entire genus Umbilicaria, Hoifm., with

a modified generic character.

Massalongo (Licheni Crostosi, 1852) retains Umbilicaria,

Hoffm., for the generality of the species, but refers U. pustulata

to a new genus, Macrodictya, his distinctions being taken from

the dissimilarity of the sporidia. In his Memorie Lichenog.

(1853) he rejects his new genus Macrodictya and adopts Merat’s

Lasallia. In his Systema Lichenum Germaniz (1854) Koerber

separates Umbilicaria (pustulata) from Gyrophora. Nylander in

his ‘€ Nouvelle Classification des Lichens ” in Mém. Soe. des Se.

Nat. de Cherbourg (1854 & 1855), retains the original and com-

prehensive genus ‘of Hoffmann, Umbilicaria, as the type of his

tribe Gyr ophoree.

From the preceding summary it is seen, that whilst the plants

have retained their relative position as members of a closely con-

nected group, considerable difference of opinion has existed as

to the name which should be assigned to it, and whether Umbr-

ficaria pustulata should be included in the same genus, or form

a. distinct genus by itself. From the identity of structure both

of thallus and apothecium, i incline to think that it ought, with

the other plants, to constitute one and the same genus, and that

the original name of Hoffmann, Umbilicaria, which appears to

have been changed from no really substantial scientific reasons,

should be restored to it.

The learned authors of the ‘ Lichenographia Britannica’ com-

plain, and with justice, that the genus has been divided into too

278 = Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicaria.

many species. In my opinion our British Umbilicarie appear to

resolve themselves into two species only, U. pus/ulata, which has

peculiar sporidia, and U. varia, which may include all the rest,

the sporidia being alike in all ; and this latter species comprises

two series distinguished by the copper or grey colour of the

thallus.

1. Umbilicaria varia. Thallus coppery or ashy-grey, simple

or compound, naked or fringed at the margins; upper surface

smooth, efflorescent, granulate, pustulate, areolate, corrugate or

reticulated ; lower surface smooth,. pitted, granulate, papillose,

fibrous or reticulated; sporidia in asci, cight, minute, oblong,

pale.

* Thallus dark copper-coloured when dry.

a. polyphylla, Schrad. Thallus thin, unequally lobed, naked

and smooth on both sides; upper side greenish copper-colour,

under black.

Lichenoides tenue pullum, foliis utrinque glabris, Dill. 225. t. 30, f. 129.

A. B. C (1741).

Lichen &c. undique glaber, Linn. Fl. Lapp. no. 452 (exel. syn.).

Lichen polyphyllus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1618 (ed. 2. 1763); Huds. Fl. Brit. 551;

Lightf. Fl. Scot. 2.863; Robson, Br. Fl. 300; Web. Spicil. 258 ; Humb.

Fl. Frieb. 29; Retz. Seand. 288; With. Arr. 4. 65; Sm. E. Bot.

t. 1282.

Lichen glaber, “ Ach, in Act. Stockh. xv. 95. t. 2. f. 5” (1794) (fide Ach.

et T. & B.); Ach. Prodr. 144.

Umbilicaria polyphylla, Schrad. Spicil. 102 (1794); Hoffm. Fl. Germ. 2.

109; PL. Lieh. 3. 14. t. 59. f. 2; @, Tuckerm. Syn. 71.

Gyrophora glabra, Ach. Meth. 101 (1803); a, Syn. 63. excl. syn. var. an-

thracina; «. & 8, Mook. Fl. Seot. 2.41; Heppe, Fl. Wurzburg. 69 ;

Chev. Fl. Paris, ed. 2. 1. 643.

Umbilicaria glabra «, DC. Fl. Frang. ed. 3. 3. 412 (1805).

Gyrophora heteroidea a. & 8, Ach. L. Univ, 218 (1810); Moug. & Nestt.

342!

Gyromium polyphyllum, Wahl. Fl. Lapp. 481 (1812); FI. Carpath. 394 ;

Fl. Upsal. 424; Fl. Suee. 48).

Gyrophora polyphylla, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 214 (1813); Hook. Br,

Fl. 2. 217; Koerber, Lich. Germ. 95.

Umbilicaria enea, #. glabra, Scher. Spicil. 90, 364 (1826-33) ; Exs. 149!

Umbilicaria polyphylla, Fries, L. Ref. 352, excl. b. & ce. (1831); 8. V.§S.

117; Leight. Lich. Brit. xs. 65!

Umbilicaria polyphylla, «. glabra, Scher. Enum. 28 (1850).

Graphis enea, 8. discolor, Wallr. Crypt. Germ. 1. 341 (1831).

a. monophylla. Thalius of a single peltate leaf—Turn. &

Borr. /. ¢.

Snowdon, Dillenius. Cheshire and Cornwall, Lich. Brit.

Clova! Craig Raynoch ! Mr. W. Gardner in herb. Borrer. York-

shire! Mr. G. Dizon. Scotland! Mr. G. Lawson. Ingleby and

Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 279

Howden Gill, Cleveland, Yorkshire, Mr. W. Mudd! Barmouth,

Rev. T. Salwey! Wrekin and Arcoll Hills, Shropshire !

“ Thallus peltate, flattish, consisting of a single leaf, adhering

to the stone by a small thickish callous disk, mostly orbicular,

but sometimes mclining to elliptical, from half an inch to an inch

and a half in diameter; the edges slightly cleft mto numerous,

irregular, rounded lobes, and minutely, but unequally, crenate :

upper surface of a greenish copper-colour when moist ; when dry,

black, or of a very dark brown closely approaching to it, smooth,

or rarely very slightly wrinkled, and naked, occasionally marked

with minute black dots: under surface for the most part perfectly

black, whether wet or dry, and usually covered with a fine sooty

efflorescence, scarcely perceptible without a microscope, which

does not stain the fingers; when this is wanting, the surface is

generally most minutely granulated, and in some instances

blotched with a colour similar to that of the upper side: sub-~-

stance coriaceous, but so thin as to be almost membranous,

pliant and soft when moist, rigid and extremely brittle when

dry. Trice very rarely produced, scattered, when present, all

over the thallus, sessile, but fixed only by their centre, of an

irregularly angular figure ; their margin thin, notched, enclosing

a more or less convex disk, the gyri of which are not arranged

concentrically, but compose, for the most part, several separate

groups.”— Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit.*

Specimens from Upsal, Fries fil., in my herbarium are iden-

tical with this form.

b. congregata, T. & B. Thalli small, clustered, much curled,

edges erect or reflexed.

Maze Beck, Westmoreland ! Mr. W. Robertson in herb, Borrer.

Mynydd-y-Myfyr near Oswestry, Shropshire! Rev. T. Salwey.

Seotland! Mr. G. Lawson. Wrekin and Arcoll Hills, Shrop-

shire! Ingleby, Yorkshire, Mr. W. Mudd!

Specimens! from Acharius in herb. Borrer, labelled by him-

self ‘ Gyrophora anomea var. variegata,” are minute specimens

of this state of the plant.

The states monophylla and congregata grow together in some

abundance on the Wrekin and adjoining hills, and may be seen

passing into each other by every degree of gradation.

ce. suleata, T. & B. Thallus marked on the upper side with

superficial cracks.

On Ben Ferg, a mountain in Inverness-shire, by the head of

Loch Ericht! Mr. Borrer. Clova! Mr. G. Lawson.

* We have adopted the deseriptions from this privately printed work,

as little or nothing can be added to their fidelity and acturacy.

280 = Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarre.

* Thallus somewhat thicker than in ‘a,’ simple or more or

less compound ; upper surface marked with a few superficial,

undulating, indented lines, the edges of which occasionally sepa-

rate so as to leave a smooth black interstice ; under surfuce as in

‘a, but more commonly blotched with the paler colour of the

upper side.”—Lich. Brit.

This state seems apparently a transition to hyperborea.

d. lacera. Thallus very deeply divided, divisions lacero-lobate.

Craig Raynoch! Mr. 1V. Gardner in herb. Borrer, Scotland !

Mr. G. Lawson.

The mode of division of the margins of this state is different

from that of the preceding ones, and assimilates to that observable

in anthracina.

A specimen in my herbarium, collected by M. Philippe at

Tourmalet, Pyrenees, agrees with ‘this state.

Mr. Borrer’s herbarium contains specimens ! of G. anthracina

from Acharius in Scherer, with which I have not noticed any-

thing identical among British plants. Their general appearance

is different from polyphylla, but the sporidia are similar, (See

Pl. X. fig. 3.)

Piate X. fig. 2.

8. flocculosa, Hoffm. Thallus thin, unequally lobed; upper

side of a greenish copper-colour, dotted, and rough with sooty

granulations ; under, black, naked, pitted.

Lichen flocculosus, Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. 3. 99. t. 1. £. 2 (1789), fide Turn.

& Borr.

Lichen deustus, Schrank, Fl. Salish. 234 (1792); Westring in Aet. Stockh.

1793 (fide Ach.); Ach. Prodr. 145 (exel. Linn. syn.).

Umbilicaria flocculosa, Hoffm. F1. Germ. 2. 110(1795); Pl. Lich. 3. fase. 4.

3. t. 68. figs. 1-4; Massal. Ricereh. 61 ee syn.).

Gyrophora deusta, Ach. Meth. 102 (1803); L. Univ. 255; Syn. 66 (excl.

Linn. syn. in all); Sm, E. Bot. t. 2483.

Gyrophora flocculosa, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 217 (1813); Koerber, L.

Germ. 95.

Gyromium deustum, Wahl. Fl. Carpath. 394 (1814); Fl. Upsal. 423; FI.

Suec. 856 (excl. Linn. syn.).

Umbilicaria polyphylla, ec. deusta, Aig L. Reform. 352, exel. Linn. syn.

(1831); Nyl. Nouv. Classif. 172

Graphis enea, «. concolor, Wallr. cry pt. Germ. 1. 341 (1831).

Gyrophora deusta, Hook. Fl. Seot. 42 (1821); Brit. Fl. 2. 218 (exel. Linn.

syn.); Grey. Fl. Edin. 328.

Umbilicaria enea, y. flocculosa, Scher. Spicil. 91. 364 (1823-36); Exs.

152!

—— polyphylla, 8. deusta, Tuckerm. Syn. 71 (1848).

polyphylla, 8. floceulosa, Scher. Enum. 28 (1850).

— varia, var. flocculosa, Leight. Brit. Lich. Exsice. 219 !

Highlands of Scotland, Mr. Dickson. Corstorphine and Craig-

Rey. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 281

lockhart Hills, Maughan, Dr. Greville. North of England! Rev.

John Harriman in herb. Borrer. By the lake by the ascent of Ben

Nevis! northern ridge of Ben Cruachan! Mr. Borrer., Caer

Caradoc, Shropshire! states a. b. & c. growing together.

a. monophylla. Thallus of a single peltate leaf.

“ Thallus consisting generally of a single peltate leaf from

1 to 2 inches in diameter, attached to the rock by a central cal-

lous disk, orbicular, flattish, but curled and reflexed at the edges,

which are irregularly lacerated or divided into a few unequal

shallow lobes: the upper surface dark greenish-brown when

moist ; when dry, of a rusty-brown approaching to black, mi-

nutely dotted and sprinkled with a coarse sooty efflorescence,

very copious in some specimens, but in others rare, sometimes a

little wrinkled about the centre, and occasionally bearing nume-

rous small leafy scales: the under surface dark brown or black,

naked, quite smooth in general, though now and then most

minutely granulated and pitted, more copiously in some speci-

mens than in others, with small depressions, which are often so

numerous as to give it an absolutely reticulated appearance :

. substance coriaceous, very thin, so as to be almost membranous ;

flexible when moist, but rigid and brittle when dry. Trice rare,

seattered about the thallus, sessile, but attached only by the

centre, orbicular, their margin slightly elevated and entire, their

disk convex ; the gyri most frequently concentric, sometimes, but

rarely, forming irregular groups.”—Lich. Brit.

Specimens from Upsal, Sweden! Fries fil., and from the

Pyrenees! M. Philippe, in my own herbarium, agree with our

British plants.

b. polyphylla, T. & B. Thalli small, clustered, curled.

Whitwick Rocks, Leicestershire! Rev. A. Bloxam.

Thallus composed of numerous small remarkably curled leaves

arising from a common central disk and growing in an irregu-

larly orbicular group, the diameter of which is not greater than

that of the simple leaf of monophy/la.

c. squamigera. Thallus rough with small scale-like leaves.

d. erosa. Thallus with ragged and perforated edges.

The trice are figured in ‘ K. Bot.’ from foreign specimens

received from Dr. Swartz. None of the British specimens in

Mr. Borrer’s herbarium bore any fructification, nor those in

Scheerer’s Lichenes Exsiccati.

Closely allied to «. polyphylla, and apparently approximating

to e. erosa by the state d. erosa.

Puare X. fig. 4. Sporidia.

282 ~=Rev. W. A. Leighton oa the British Umbilicarie.

y. hyperborea, Hotfm. Thallus thin, jagged, and somewhat

lobed, a little perforated, naked on both sides ; upper side green-

ish-brown, pustulate ; under side blackish-brown, nearly smooth,

slightly pitted.

“ Liehen superficie subtus lacunata, Linn. F|. Lapp. n. 453” (fide Wahl.),

pullus, “ Wulf. in Jacq. Mise. 2. 83. t.9. f.3” (1781) (fide Dicks.) ;

Dicks. Crypt. 2. 23 (secund. specim. in herb. Borrer !).

—— erosus, Westr. in Act. Stockh. 1793 (fide Ach.).

hyperboreus, Ach. in Act. Stockh, xv. 89. t. 2. f. 2(1794); Prodr. 146.

Umbilicaria hyperborea, Hottm. Fl. Germ. 2. 110 (1795); Pl. Lich. 3.

fase. 4. t. 71; Stenh. in Sched. Crit. fase. 5 & 6. no. 126; Fries, L.

Ref. 353; S. V.S.117; L. 8S. 126 (fide Nyl.); Tuckerm. Syn. 73;

Massal. Ricerch. 63. fig. 117; Nyl. N. Class. 175!

Lichen Jacquini, With. Arr. 4. 62? (1796).

Umbilicaria papillosa, DC. Fl. Frang. 3rd ed. 3. 411 (1805).

Gyrophora hyperborea, Ach. Meth. 104 (1803); L. Univ. 225; Syn. 66;

Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 227 ; Heppe, Fl. Wurzb. 70; Moug. & Nest.

Stirp. Crypt. Vosges. 1047!; Koerber, Lich. Germ, 95.

Gyromium hyperboreum, Wahl. Fl. Lapp. 482 (1812); Fl. Ups. 424; Fl.

Suee. 856. :

Umbilicaria enea, 8. hyperborea, Scheer. Spicil. 91. 364 (1823-36); Exs.

150! 151!

Graphis enea, y. papulosa, Wallr. Crypt. Germ. 341 (1831).

Umbilicaria polyphylla, y. hyperborea, Scher. Enum. 29 (1850).

By the Truim, near Dalwhinnie, Inverness-shire? James Brodie

of Brodie, Esq.

“ Thallus peltate, composed of a single leaf, attached to the

stone by a thick, callous, central base, irregularly orbicular,

2 inches or more in diameter, flattish, folded in a most uncertain

manner, erose and laciniated at the edges, so as to be torn into

many shapeless lobes of variable size, and perforated here and

there with equal irregularity : upper surface dusky greenish-

brown when moist, much darker and losing the tinge of green,

or sometimes almost black, when dry; always naked, and all

over rugged, with irregular pustular elevations of the cuticle,

which has the appearance of having burst, leaving smooth black

interstices, varying much in width and figure between the ele-

vations: under surface deep blackish-brown, smooth and naked,

irregularly pitted all over, and thence appearing obsoletely reti-

culated ; sometimes, in very old specimens, slightly granulated,

and pierced here and there with perforations of the inferior coat

of the thallus: substance coriaceous, thin, flexible when moist,

and somewhat so, though brittle, even when dry. Trice sessile,

attached by the centre, irregularly orbicular, elliptical, or va-

riously distorted and angular, flat, or more generally more or

less convex ; their margin nearly entire ; gyri of the disk often

parallel and straight, but most frequently variously twisted and

disposed in several groups, aud in this case the common margin

Rey. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 283

of the tric is often wanting. In old specimens the thallus is

sometimes found partially separated into two coats, but much

less frequently and remarkably, as in e. erosa. The edges of the

blisters of the cuticle become also now and then detached, and

somewhat elevated, so as to give the thallus the appearance of

being covered with leafy scales.”—Lich. Brit.

Mr. Borrer states that he has sought for the plant in vain in

the particular station specified by Mr. Brodie.

In my own herbarium is a specimen received from Mr. George

Dixon, of Great Ayton, Yorkshire, given to him by a friend who

collected it somewhere in Scotland ; but I could not ascertain

the exact locality by subsequent correspondence. Specimens

from Upsal, Sweden, from Fries fil. and Dr. Nylander are iden-

tical.

Puate X. fig. 5 & fig. 5a. (1. Section of thallus and apothecia. 2. Spo-

ridia.) :

6. arctica, Ach. Thallus thickish, crenate, slightly lobed,

naked on both sides ; upper side greenish-brown, rugged with

pustules; under, blackish-brown, nearly smooth.

Lichenoides atrum corii Persici instar exasperatum, Dill. 110. t. 30. f.119,

fide herb. Dilleniani cl. Borrero teste (1741).

Gyrophora arctica, Ach. Meth. 106. t. 2. f. 6 (1803); L. Univ. 221; Sm.

E. Bot. t. 2485; Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 225; Sommerf. Suppl. FI.

Lapp. 177.

Gyromium proboscideum, 8. arcticum, Wahl. Fl. Lapp. 483 (1812), fide spe-

Seer a Wahlenbergio seipso recepti teste cl. Smithio in E. Bot.

t. :

Susephess proboscidea, 8. arctica, Ach. Syn. 65 (1814); Hook. Br, FI. 2.

Umbilicaria polymorpha, yy. arctica, Scher. Spicil. 88 F. 363 (1823-36) ;

Exs. 556!; Enum. 27; Tuckerm. Syn. 71.

Rocks in the county of Durham ?! Mr. Robson in herb. Borrer.

Devonshire ? Mr. Hudson.

“ Thallus peltate, flattish, consisting of a single leaf, affixed to

the rocks by a thick, callous, central disk, orbicular, from an inch

to two inches or more in diameter ; its edges irregularly crenate,

divided into a few shallow rounded lobes, and somewhat reflexed :

upper surface of a dull greenish-brown when moist, changed by

drying to a pale pruinose grey in the centre, whence it gradually

darkens towards the edges, where it is blackish ; or sometimes it

is dark brown all over ; naked, everywhere very rugged, with irre-

gular pustular elevations of the cuticle, which here and there

towards the edges of the thallus has the appearance of having

burst, as if from being overstretched, leaving depressed, smooth,

undulating interstices : under surface of a paler brown and sub-

pruinose, black (in our specimens) about the centre, quite smooth

284 Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie,

or very minutely papillose: substance coriaceous, thickish, flex-

ible when moist; rigid, almost horny, but tough, when dry.

Trice slightly elevated, othiculat, varying to angular and subre-

niform, somewhat convex ; their margin entire, scarcely elevated ;

gyri of the disk sometimes concentric, but more frequently dise

posed in several irregular groups, usually, not constantly, leaving

a minute cavity in the centre.

The fragment of a specimen from Mr. Robson in herb. Borrer

has all the appearance of belonging to y. hyperborea. It seems

searcely sufficient to enable us to form a decisive opinion on this

plant.

Pate X. fig. 6.

e. erosa, Hoffm. Thallus thickish, splitting when old into two

or three lamine, jagged and somewhat lobed, perforated ; upper

side greenish-brown, naked, divided by flexuose anastomosing

lines into convex arcolz ; under side paler, papillose, separately

pierced, fibrous,

Lichenoides rugosum durum pullum, peltis atris verrucosis, Dill. 220. t. 30.

f. 118 (1741) (fide herbarii Dilleniani cl. Lightfootio teste, 1. c. infra).

Lichen polyrrhizos, Huds. Fl. Ang. 550 (exel. syn. Linn.) (1778),

torrefactus, Lightf. Fl. Scot. 2. 862 (1777) (see. specim. a Lightfootio

seipso recepta cl. Borrero teste in Lich. Brit. cit. infra) ; With. Arr. 4.

62 (excl. syn. preter Dill.).

erosus, Web. Spicil. 259 (1778); Swartz in Act. Ups. iv. 250 (fide

Ach. & Scher.); Ach. in Act. Stockh. xv. 87. t. 2. f. 1; Prodr. 145.

reticularis, Westr. in Act. Stockh. xiv. 45 (fide Ach.) (1793).

Umbilicaria torrefacta, Schrad. Spicil. 104 (1794).

Lichen Cribellum, Retz. Fl. Seand. 287 (1795).

Umbilicaria erosa, Hott. Fl. Germ. 2. 111 (1795); Pl. Lich. 3. fase. 4. 7.

t. 70; DC. Fi. Franc. ed. 3. 2. 411.

Toaleiiccrsa erosa ec, Scheer. Spicil. 93. 364; Exs. 153!; Enum. 29; Stenh.

in Sched. Crit. fase. 5 & 6. no. 127; Fries, bP Reforn 354 ; ‘Siitante

Veg. Seand. 117; Tuckerm.! Syn. 73; Massal. Ricerch. 62. fig. 116;

Nyl. N. Class. 175!

Gyrophora erosa, Ach. Meth. 103 (1803); L. Uniy. 224; Syn. 65; Sm.

E. Bot. t. 2066; Moug. & Nestl. Crypt. Vosges. 250!; Turn. & Borr. !

Lich. Brit. 229; Hook. Fl. Seot. 2.42; Brit. FI. 2. 218; Tayl. Fl.

Hib. pt. 2. 155; Koerber, Syst. Lich. Germ. 96.

Gyromium erosum, Wahl. FI. Lapp. 482 (1812); Fl. Suec. 856.

Graphis enea, 6. dispansa & e. cribrosa, Wallr. Crypt. Germ. 342 (1831),

Highlands of Scotland, Lightfoot. St. Vincent’s Rock near

Bristol, Hudson. Llanberris, Rev. Hugh Davies. On the vitri-

fied forts in the Highlands of Scotland; Durham; Yorkshire ;

North Wales, Sir J. “E. Smith. Mangerton and other mountains

in Ireland, Dr. Tas ylor. Corry Leese, Ben Nevis! Mr. Borrer.

Ben Beck | Craig Koynoch! Mr. W. Gardner intherb. Borrer.

Clova! Mr. G. Lawson, Capel Cerig, North Wales! Mr. H.

Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 285

Piggot. Birkdale, Westmoreland! Mr. W. Robertson in herb,

Borrer. Dartmoor! Mr. Borrer. Swinhope Fell, Durham! Mr.

W. Mudd. Barmouth, N. Wales! Rev. 7. Salwey.

“ Thallus peltate, consisting of a single leaf, attached by a

thick, callous, central base, suborbicular or oblong, an inch or

two in diameter, flattish, but elevated towards the centre, so as

to have an irregularly convex appearance, undulated, and not

unfrequently erect or reflexed at the edges, ragged all over, and

torn, without any order, mto various rounded lobes of most un-

certain size, which are most usually shallow, but occasionally

reach almost to the root, and slightly imbricated : it is also per-

forated, chiefly towards the edges, with numerous cavities of no

definite size or figure, giving to some specimens the appearance

of being fringed with beautiful lacework ; in other specimens the

perforations are found all over the thallus, and again in others

they are almost, if not altogether, wanting : upper surface dusky-

greenish-brown when moist, when dry deep brown, and fre-

quently almost black, always naked, in a young state even, and

marked with various undulating black indented lines, which, as

the plant becomes older, grow more numerous, and, frequently

anastomosing, divide the cuticle into irregular areolz, which

swell into pustular elevations: under surface, when wet, semi-

transparent, generally light greyish-brown, but sometimes of the

same colour as the upper one, turning darker, often blackish,

from drying; minutely granulated, so as to look like shagreen

when magnified, entire in young specimens, in old ones ragged

with irregular holes, which have elevated thickened lips, and do

not extend to the upper coat of the thallus ; besides which, there

also grow out of the under surface, in all stages of its existence,

fibres of the same colour and substance as itself, aptly compared

in ‘ English Botany’ to shavings, performing, according to Dil-

lenius and Schrader, the office of roots: substance coriaceous,

variable in thickness, flexible when moist, rigid and brittle when

dry. rice numerous, scattered all over the thallus, affixed by

their centres, sessile or slightly elevated, flat or variously convex,

varying in shape from linear through every gradation to orbi-

cular ; sometimes surrounded by a nearly entire slightly elevated

margin, but more frequently wanting it, and consisting merely

of irregular clusters of twisted gyri*.”—Lich. Brit,

The sporidia were not seen in the specimens of U, Muhlen-

bergii from Mrs. Merry in herb. Borrer ; but in specimens of

U. Muhlenbergit and its variety alpina in the same herbarium,

received from America from Mr. Edward Tuckerman, jun., they

were identical with those of erosa (see Pl. X. figs. 9 & 10).

* For the spermagonia of this form see Tulasne, /. c.

286 Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicariz.

Specimens of erosa from Upsal, Sweden, Fries fil. ; Stockholm,

Dr. Nylander, and Saibten, M. Philippe, in my own herbarium;

are identical with our British plant.

PLare X. fig. 7. Sporidia. Fig. 8. Section of thallus and apothecia.

£. pellita, DC. Thallus thin, unequally lobed and erenate ;

upper side ‘ereenish copper- colour, smooth; under side black,

papillose, reticulated and densely ‘fibrous ; trice immarginate,

growing ont into tufts of fibres.

Lichenoides pullum superne et glabrum, inferne nigrum et cirrosum, Dill.

226. t. 30. f. 130 (1741).

Lichen polyrhizos, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1618? ; Lightf. Fl. Scot. 2. 864; apr

Br. Fi. 301; With. Arr. 4. 64 (excl. syn. 2d0 Dill.).

velleus #, Huds. Fl. Angl. 550 (1778) (exel. var. 8).

Umbilicaria vellea, Hoffm. PI. “Lich. 2. 9. t. 26. f. 3 (exel. Linn. syn. (1791),

admirable ; Schrad. Spicil. 105 (exel. syn. Lightf.).

Lichen hirsutus, Westr. in Act. Stockh. 1793 (fide Ach.).

pellitus, Ach. in Act. Stockh. xv. 99. t. 3. f.2 (1794); Prod. 149; Sm:

Ki. Bot. t. 931.

Gyrophora pellita, Ach. Meth. 108 (1803); L. Univ. 228. t. 2. f.10; Syn.

67; Turn. & Borr.! Lich. Brit. 238; Hook. Fl. Scot. ¥. 42; Brit.

Fl. 2. 219; Tayl. Fl. Hib. pt. 2. 155; Chev. Fl. Paris. 1. 644.

Umbilicaria pellita, DC. Fi. Franc. 3rd ed. 2. geile eee

depressa, 8. spadochroa ¥, Scheer. Spicil. 84. 362 (1823-36).

Gyromium polyrrluzon, Wahl. Fl. Suec. 858 (1824-26).

Umbilicaria polyrrhizos, Fries, L. Reform. 358 (1851); Summa Veg. Seand,

117; Scher. Enum. 29; Nyl. N. Class. 175.

On the rocks called Llyn Liydaw, Snowdon ; and about Llyn

Cwm y Ffynnon tas; also on the summit of the mountains at

Cwm Brwynog towards Ardhu near Llanberris, Dillenius. High-

lands and Lowlands of Scotland, Lightfoot. Clark’s Park and

Paradise near Moneymusk, Aberdeenshire, Withering. Carnedd

Llewellin, near the summit. On Moel Shabéd near Capel Cerrig,

Caer marvonshire, Mr. Griffith. Yorkshire, Mr. W. Brunton, -

Durham, Rev. ds Harriman. Cheshire, Turner and Borrer. On

rocks on Tonlagee, Co. Wicklow, Dr. Taylor. Scotland! Mr,

G. Donn in herb. Borrer, without locality (fructu) ! Mr. Sowerby

in herb. Borrer. Cronkley (fructu)! Mr. W. Robertson in herb.

Borrer. Loch Phadrick ! Craig Koynoch! Clava! Mr. W. Gard-

ner in herb. Borrer. Ben Ferrag! Llyn Canvay! Mr. Borrer,

Near Lake Tumanel, Cumberland (fructu) ! Mrs. Joshua Stanger,

Barmouth, N. Wales! Rev. 7. Salwey. Clova! Mr. G. Lawson,

“ Thallus peltate, sometimes simple, but generally consisting

of many leaves, spreading from a common central disk, by which

they are affixed to the stone, in a roundish cluster varying from

1 to 3 or4 inches in diameter ; ; many such clusters often forming:

together irregular patches of considerable extent : the leaves vary

much in size, in proportion as the thallus is more or less com-

Rey. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 287

pound: when it consists of a single leaf, this is sometimes

2 inches in diameter, of an irregularly ovisictilan outline, with a

few, rounded, shallow, crenate lobes, and nearly flat ; m the

more common and complicated state, each leaf is seldom an inch

in diameter, usually much smaller, much and variously crumpled,

suborbicular, very uncertain im the number and shape of its

lobes, which are usually, however, few and shallow, their edges

waved. and. crenate: upper sur face of a greenish copper- -colour

when wet ; copper-brown, sometimes blackish, when dry ; very

smooth and even, excepting a few scattered minute black dots,

sometimes impressed, at other times slightly elevated : wader sur-

face invariably quite black, clothed for the most part with innu-

merable entangled black fibres, which most frequently are pro-

truded beyond the edges, so as to give them the appearance of

being fringed (which sometimes also they are im fact), less fre-

quently naked here and there, or nearly all over, and then-

rough with minute shagreen- like granulations, and irregularly

retienlated (which is most remarkably the case towards the

centre), with elevated veins or threads, which are often detached,

except at their extremities, so as to form a coarse Jacework :

substance coriaceous, but thin, flexible when wet, very rigid and

brittle when dry. Trice rare, orbicular or elegantly lobed, flat,

appressed to the thallus, to which they are affixed by the w hole

under side, always destitute of a mar ‘gin, and composed entirely

of numerous narrow gyri, which are much and variously subdi-

vided and contorted, but seem to spread from a common centre,

and frequently unfold, or grow out into elevated irregular clusters

of much-branched minute black fibres, and these clusters are of

more frequent occurrence than the trice themselves.”—Lich,

Brit.

Our British plant coincides with specimens of U. polyrhizos

(Linn.) in my herbarium received from Fries fil., collected at

Upsal, Sweden.

Puate X. fig. 11.

In Mr. Borrer’s herbarium are authentic specimens! from

Acharius of G. hirsuta and G. vellea* which appear to be iden-

tical. In the former the sporidia were not seen, but those of the

latter were double the size of those of pellita (see PT efits PZ

and 13), consequently showing them to be distinct species.

Scherer’s Exs. 137! and 188! were also identical with the

Acharian specimens.

No British specimens have occurred to our notice ; though

Robson in his British Flora, p. 800, gives as a habitat for the

* For the spermagonia see Tulasne, /. c.

288 Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie.

plant of Dillenius, 545. t. 82. f. 5, “on rocks near Settle in York-

shire.”

** Thallus ashy-grey when dry.

n. grisea, Hoff. Thallus thin, crenate, somewhat lobed,

papillose on both sides; upper side pale ash-coloured, naked ;

under mostly naked, blackish.

Lichen pulmonarius savatilis, e cinereo-fuscus, minimus, Tourn. Instit. 549

(1719); Vaill. Paris. 116. t. 21. f. 14.

Lichenoides savatile, foliis minus divisis, cinereo-fuscum, Dill. in Raii Syn.

73 (1724).

coriaceum cinereum, peltis a'ris compressis, Dill. 219.

Lichen deustus, Robs. Br. Fl. 300 (1777) t. 30. f. 117 (1741) (fide herbarii

Dilleniani cl. Borrero teste).

griseus, Swartz in N. Act. Stockh. v. p.91.t. 2. f.3 (fide Ach.) ; Westr.

in Act. Stockh. 1793 (fide Ach.); Retz. Seand. 286.

Umbilicaria grisea, Wottm. Fl. Germ. 2. 111 (1795).

Lichen Dillenii, With. Arr. 4. 63 (1796).

murinus, Ach. Prodr. 143 (1798).

Umbilicaria murina, DC. Fl. Frang. 3rd ed. 3. 412 (1805); Nyl. N. Class.

175.

Gyrophora hirsuta, y. murina, Flérke in Berlin Mag. 1810, p. 67 (fide

Scherer).

Gyrophora murina, Ach. Meth. 110 (1803); L. Univ. 231; Syn. 69; Sm.

E. Bot. t. 2486; Stenh. in Sched. Crit. fasc. 5 & 6. no. 132 (1825) ;

Hook. Brit. Fl. 2. 218; Chev. Paris. 1. 643. t. 14. f. lle.

grisea, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 236 (1813).

Umbilicaria depressa, 8. spadochroa A, Scher. Spicil. 82. 362 (1823-36).

Gyromium velleum, 5. murinum, Wahi. Fl. Suec. 857 (1824-26),

Graphis vellea, 8. alutacea, Wallr. Crypt. Germ. 344 (1831).

Umbilicaria vellea, y. hirsuta, * murina, Fries, L. Reform. 358 (1861) ;

Summa Veg. Scand. 117.

vellea, y. spadochroa, a. grisea, Scher. Enum. 24 (1850).

Found on St. Vincent’s Rocks near Bristol by Mr. Dare, Dil-

lenius.

“ Thallus peltate, consisting generally of a single, orbicular,

crumpled, concave leaf, from an inch to an inch and a half in dia-

meter ; sometimes of two or three smaller leaves ; attached to the

stone on which it grows by a callous central disk, divided at the

edges into a few, shallow, rounded lobes, and irregularly notched

or crenate: upper surface of an ash-colour, with a slight tinge

of brownish-green when wet ; white ash-colour and subpruinose,

but still brownish towards the edges, when dry; granulated, as

if minutely cracked all over, but smooth to the touch, and

scarcely appearing rough to the naked eye: under surface,

whether wet or dry, dark brown, varying to almost black,

covered with a minute shagrcen-like roughness, naked, or very

rarely producing a few scattered branched fibres : substance thin,

flexible when wet, and still somewhat flexible, but brittle, when

-_—S

Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 289

dry. Trice, except in their very youngest state, when they

appear as round black dots, depressed, and almost immersed in

the thallus, orbicular and reniform, surrounded when young by

a margin, which afterwards disappears. Disk at first flat, very

convex in a more advanced stage; its gyri arranged concen-

trically.”—Lich. Brit.

Doubtful if of British growth, but imserted on the authority

of Dillenius, whose herbarium contains only two specimens

(foreign ?), marked as having been received from Celsius. :

Distinct from U. hirsuta by the different sporidia (see Pl. X.

fig. 12).

Puiate X. fig. 14.

@. deusta, Linn. Thallus thin, crenate, slightly lobed, naked

on both sides; upper side greenish-brown, rugged and reticu-

lated ; under, ash-coloured, smooth. ;

Lichen deustus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1618 (excl. syn. Vaill. & Dill.) (1763), fide

herb. Linn. cl. Borrero teste); Huds. Fl. Angl. 550 (rev. Daviesio

teste); Lightf. Fl. Scot. 2. 861.

proboscideus, Afzel. in Act. Stockh. 1788 (fide Ach.); Ach. Prodr. 147

(in part).

Umbilicaria mesenterica, Schrad. Spicil. 103 (1794).

Gyrophora proboscidea «. (in part), Ach. ! Meth. 105 (1803) ; L. Uniy. 220 ;

Syn. 64; Sm. E. Bot. t. 2484; Turn. & Borr.! Lich. Brit. 222; Hook.

Fl. Scot. 2.41; «, Brit. Fl. 217; Heppe, Fl. Wurzb. 69; Johnst. FI.

Berw. 2.99; Chev. Fl. Paris. 1. 644; Koerber, Syst. Lich. Germ. 96.

Gyromium proboscideum, Wahl. Fl. Lapp. 483 (1812); Fl. Carpath. 394 ;

Fl. Suec. 857.

Umbilicaria polymorpha, 8. deusta, Scheer. Spicil. 88. 363 (1823-36); Exs.

148!; Enum. (in part) 26.

Graphis corrugata «, Wallr. Crypt. Germ. 338 (1831).

Umbilicaria proboscidea x. (in part), Fries, L. Reform. 354 (1831) ; Summa

V. Scand. 117; L. S. 128 (fide Nyl.); Nyl. N. Class. 157!

St. Vincent’s Rocks near Bristol and about Llanberris, Hudson.

Highland rocks of Scotland, Lightfoot. North of England and

Wales, Sir J. E. Smith. Rocks near the summit of Hedgehope,

Northumberland, Dr. G. Joinston. Ben Lawers, Scotland !

Mr. Borrer.

“ Thallus peltate, flattish, but umbonated in the centre, and

rather elevated and undulated at the edges, consisting generally

of a single leaf, affixed to the rock by a thick callous central

disk, which scarcely ever forms any stalk, or sometimes, though

rarely, of many leaves growing together and diverging from a

common centre: leaf orbicular, from an inch to an inch and a

half in diameter, irregularly crenate at the edges, and often here

and there divided into a few shallow rounded lobes: upper sur-

face a dull greenish-brown when moist, when dry changing to a

Ann. &§ Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii.

290 Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie.

pale pruinose grey in the centre, whence it gradually darkens

towards the edges, where it is nearly black ; in some specimens

all over blackish ; always marked, especially abont the centre,

with elevated reticulated veins, which are very conspicuous in

most individuals, though occasionally almost wanting: under

surface quite smooth, except now and then a few granulations

towards the central part, naked, of a smoky-brown, varying in

depth, somewhat palest when wet, and always lightest near the

middle: substance thin, between coriaceous and membranous,

flexible when moist, and often scarcely rigid, though very brittle,

when dry. Trice numerous, scattered all over the thallus, quite

sessile, though affixed only by their centre, depressed, usually

orbicular, but varying to angular and reniform, surrounded by

an entire elevated margin. Disk nearly flat ; its gyri either con-

centric or arranged in several parcels, lying together without any

regular order, and often leaving in the middle a subtriangular

eavity.”—Lich. Brit.*

Swedish specimens from Stenhammer and Nylander, labelled

Umbilicaria proboscidea (L.) Fries, are identical.

b. fimbriata, Turn. & Borr. Thallus edged with a few black,

branched, tooth-like fibres.

Gyrophora deusta, 8. fimbriata, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 222.

proboscidea, Moug. & Nest. Stirpes Vosges. 249!

Similar in substance, colour, and every other respect with ‘a,’

except in having the edges of the thallus here and there toothed

and fringed with a few scattered black branching fibres; evi-

dencing an approach to proboscidea. There are also occasionally

a few fibres sprinkled over the underside.

Highlands of Scotland! Mr. Borrer. Between Glen Callater

and Lochnagar, Scotland! Mr. J. Tatham. Clova! and about

Loch Phadrich! Mr. W. Gardner in herb. Borrer. Swinhope

Fell, Durham! Mr. W. Mudd. Glenmalure, co. Wicklow, Mr.

Isaac Carroll.

Specimens in my herbarium collected at Tourmalet, Pyrenees,

by M. Philippe and Mr. Spruce, coincide with this state.

ce. corrugata, Turn. & Borr. Thallus thin, rough with ele-

vated reticulations.

Umbilicaria corrugata, Hoffm. Pl. Lich. 2. 65. t. 43. f. 4-7 (1794), admi-

rable; Massal. Ricerch. 61. fig. 113.

Lichen proboscideus (im part), Ach. Prodr. 147 (1798).

Gyrophora proboscidea, 8. exasperata, Ach.! Meth. 105 (1803).

* For the spermagonia see Tulasne, J. c.

Rey. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. = 291

Umbilicaria proboscidea y, DC. Fl. Franc. ed. 3. 3. 410 (1805).

Gyrophora proboscidea y, Ach. L. Univ. 221 (1810).

proboscidea «. (in part), Ach. Syn. 64 (1814).

deusta, y. corrugata, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 222 (1813).

Umbilicaria proboscidea «. (in part), Fries, L. Reform. 354 (1831).

Gyrophora proboscidea (in part), Chev. FI. Paris. 1. 644 (1836).

Umbilicaria polymorpha, 8. deusta (in part), Scher. Enum. 26 (1850).

Highlands of Scotland! Mr. Borrer.

Similar in all respects to ‘a,’ except in its upper surface

having extremely prominent reticulations, rising to nearly a line

in height, and looking like a series of erect curled squame.

_d. mesenteriformis, Turn. & Borr. Thallus thickish, the upper

side rough with elevated reticulations, and somewhat papillose.

Lichen mesenteriformis, Wulf. in Jacq. Mise. 2. 85. t. 9. f. 5 (fide Turn. &

Borr.) (1781). i

Gyrophora deusta, 8. mesenteriformis, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 222 (1813).

Highlands of Scotland! Mr. Borrer.

Upper surface of the thallus singularly rugose, almost papil-

lose. The reticulations nearly as prominent as in ‘c,’ and some-

times growing out into new leaves: substance considerably

thicker than in the other states.

I must refer here a specimen ! amongst Mr. Spruce’s Lichenes

Pyrenzi collected at Lac Lehon.

Piate X. fig. 15.

t. proboscidea, DC. Thallus thickish, unequally lobed, fringed

at the edges, naked on both sides; upper side greenish-brown,

rugged; under, ash-coloured, smooth.

Lichenoides corneum, marginibus eleganter fimbriatis, Dill. 218. t. 29.

f. 116 A (1741); Fl. Dan. t. 471. f. 1, 2 (fide Turn. & Borr.).

Lichen proboscideus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1617 (excl. syn. Amcen. Acad. & Dill.)

(1763) (fide herb. Linn. cl. Borrero teste); Huds. Fl. Angl. 551;

Wulf. in Jacq. Mise. 2. 80. t. 9. f. 2 (fide Turn. & Borr.); Hedw.

Crypt. 2. 5. t. 1 A (fide Turn. & Borr.); Retz. Scand. 288; With.

Arr. 4. 65; Sm. E. Bot. t. 522, two upper figures.

polyrrhizos, Weis. Crypt. 81 (1770) ; Web. Spicil. 265.

— crinitus, Lightf. Fl. Scot. 860 (1777).

cylindricus, Afzel. in Act. Stockh. 1788 (fide Ach.) ; Ach. Prodr. 148.

foliaceus umbilicatus, peltis turbinatis truncatis perforatis, Linn. FI.

Lapp. 359 (Sm. 2nd ed. 1792).

Umbilicaria crinita, Hotfm. Pl. Lich, 2. 67. t. 44. f. 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 8 (1794) ;

Massal. Ricerch. 61. fig. 111.

Gyrophora cylindrica «, Ach. Meth. 107 (1803); L. Univ. 223; Syn. 65;

Hook. FI. Scot. 2.42; Brit. Fl. 2.218; Johnst. Berw. 2.99; Wallr.

Crypt. Germ. 339; Tayl. Fl. Hib. pt. 2. 155; Koerber, Syst. Lich.

Germ. 97.

Umbilicaria proboseidea «, DC. Fl. Frang. 3rd ed. 3. 410 (1805).

19%

292 Rev. W.A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie.

Umbilicaria proboscidea, B. cylindrica, Fries! L. Reform. 356 (1831);

Summa V. Scand. 117.

Gyromium cylindricum, Wahl. Fl. Lapp. 483 (1812); Fl. Suee. 857.

Gyrophora proboscidea «, Turn. & Borr.! Lich. Brit. 219 (1813).

Umbilicaria polymorpha, «. cylindrica A. & D, Scheer. Spic. 86 (1823-36) ;

a. monophylla, Exs. 143!; b. polyphylla, Exs. 146!; a. crinita, &

d. fimbriata, Enum. 26.

Gyrophora crinita, Chev. F|. Paris. 1. 644 (1836).

Umbilicaria cylindrica, Tuckerm. Syn. 71 (1848); Nyl. N. Class. 175.

varia, var. proboscidea, Leight. Brit. Lich. Exs. 95!

On Snowdon on the rocks called Llyn Llydaw, and near Llyn

Cwm y Ffynnon tas; also on the summit of the mountains

from Cwm Brwynog towards Ardhu near Llanberris. On lofty

rocks of the Berwyn Mountain, Dillenius. Rocks on the High-

land mountains, as on Goatfield in the Isle of Arran, on the

mountains of Breadalbane, Ben Nevis in Lochaber, Lightfoot.

On rocks in the mountainous parts of Dartmoor, Devonshire,

Mr. Newberry. Summit of Carnedd Llewellin, Mr. Griffith.

Scotland, Wales, and North of England, Sir J. E. Smith. On

Cheviot, Mr. Winch. Near the summit of Hedgehope, North-

umberland, Dr. G. Johnston. On rocks at Connavalla, Ireland,

Dr. Whitley Stokes. On Mangerton, Ireland, Dr. Taylor. Rocks

about Loch Phadrick ! rocks Stroine-dhu ! summit of Carlowrie !

Mr. W. Gardner in herb. Borrer. Birkdale, Westmoreland !

Mr. W. Robertson in herb. Borrer. Clova! Mr. G. Lawson.

Scawfell! Mrs. Joshua Stanger. Yorkshire! Mr. G. Dizon.

Summit of Arran Mowddy! Mr. Borrer. Falcon Clints, Tees-

dale, co. Durham! Mr. W. Mudd.

“ Thallus peltate, ascending, composed usually of numerous

imbricated curled leaves, attached to the rock by a thick central

callous disk, which is sometimes drawn up into a sort of stalk,

whence they spread in nearly a circular form, making patches

of 1 or 2 inches in diameter : the leaves, taken individually, vary

in shape from orbicular through every intermediate degree to

cuneiform, and are divided very irregularly, some down to the

centre, others slightly, into rounded lobes, the edges of which

are crenate or dentate, and everywhere fringed with black

branched compressed fibres, a line or two long, composed of the

substance of the thallus itself, so that they may perhaps most

properly be regarded as elongated teeth, though they have en-

tirely the appearance of cilia of a different substance : these, from

the remarkably undulated mode of growth of the edges of the

thallus, often look at first sight as if they were disposed in two

or three rows: the upper surface is of a dull greenish-brown

when moist ; and of a smoky-grey, with a pruinose appearance,

and sometimes speckled with white, when dry ; always roughish

with minute elevated reticulations of the cuticle, very visible in

Rey. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 293

some specimens, but in others scarcely to be detected : the under

surface is quite smooth and naked, except occasionally a few

scattered fibres, which are either branched or simple, shorter and

usually much paler than those which fringe the edges of the

thallus: it is of a pale ash-colour near the centre, but gradually

darker towards the edges, where it is brown, with a greenish

tinge when moistened : substance coriaceous, flexible when moist,

extremely rigid and almost horny when dry, but still tough.

Trice plentifully produced all over the thallus, and often

clustered, turbinate in their first state, afterwards becoming

supported upon extremely short peduncles, mostly orbicular, but

not unfrequently reniform, surrounded by a nearly entire undu-

lated margin, nearly of the same height as the disk, so that the

whole surface is flat; the gyri are mostly concentric, leaving in

the centre a subtriangular cavity, but are not rarely disposed in

various parcels, lying together without any regular order.”— .

Lich. Brit.

Specimens in my own herbarium collected “ in alpibus Jemt-

landie ”! by Fries fil.; “ad rupes in Pyrenzis orientalibus”’ !

by Dr. Cam. Montagne and M. Philippe, are identical.

b. denticulata, Turn. & Borr. Edges of the thallus coarsely

fringed and toothed.

Lichenoides corneum &c., Dill. 218. t. 29. f. 116 B.

Lichen proboscideus, Sm. E. Bot. t. 522, two lower figures.

Gyrophora cylindrica, 8. denticulata, Ach. Meth. 107.

cylindrica «. (in part), Ach. L. Univ. 223.

proboscidea, 8. denticulata, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 219.

Umbilicaria polymorpha, «. cylindrica B, Scher. Spic. 87 ; Exs. 144!

polymorpha, «. cylindrica, b. denticulata, Scher. Enum. 26.

Rocks about Loch Phadrick ! rocks, Ben-na-Bourd! Mr. W.

Gardner in herb. Borrer. Clova! Mr.G. Lawson. Summit of

Arran Mowddy! Mr. Borrer. Galtymore, co. Tipperary! Mr.

I. Carroll.

In all respects similar to ‘a,’ except that the marginal fibres

are coarser and larger, and more evidently a prolongation of the

thallus.

A “forma minor in alpibus maritimis Liguriz occidue,”’ re-

ceived by me from Prof. De Notaris, seems referable here.

c. denudata, Turn. & Borr. Edges of the thallus almost

naked.

Umbilicaria crinita, Hoffm. Pl. Lich. 2. 67. t. 44. f. 7.

Gyrophora proboscidea, y. denudata, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 219.

Umbilicaria polymorpha, «. cylindrica C, Scheer. Spicil. 88 ; Exs. 145! (not

294 Rey. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie.

characteristic, at least in my copy; but specimen ! in herb. Borrer re-

ceived from Scherer good). ‘ ;

Umbilicaria polymorpha, «. cylindrica, ec. nudiuscula, Scher. Enum. 26.

Highlands of Scotland, Turner and Borrer. Summit of Gly-

der! Falcon Clints! Westmoreland Mountains! Mr. Borrer.

d. exasperata, Turn. & Borr. Thallus polyphyllous, ragged,

rough on the upper side.

Gyrophora proboscidea, 8. exasperata, Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 219.

County of Durham, Mr. Robson.

Remarkably curled and undulated, and divided into numerous

small irregular lacinie : upper surface remarkably rough.

I have seen no specimens, but this and denudata appear to be

connecting links with @. deusta.

Pate X. fig. 16. Section of thallus and apothecium. Fig. 17. Ascus.

Fig. 18. Sporidia.

2. Umbilicaria pustulata, Hoffm. Thallus thin, torn, and

lobed, papillose and naked on both sides ; upper side pale olive-

green, blistered and sprinkled with fibrous glomeruli; under side

brownish, deeply pitted: sporidia in asci, one or two, very large,

oblong, pale, wrinkled or reticulated on the surface, 3-septate ?

Lichen cruste modo saxis adnascens, verrucosus, cinereus, et veluti deustus,

Tourn. Instit. 549. (1719) (fide Turn. & Borr.); Vaill. Paris. 116.

tO FS:

Lichen pulmonarius sazatilis, inferne reticulatus, et lacunatus, superne

cinereus, ac verrucosus ; receplaculis florum et seminibus nigricantibus,

et veluti deustus, Micheli, 89. t. 47 (1729).

Lichenoides pustulatum cinereum et veluti ambustum, Dill. 226. t. 30. f. 131

A. & B (1741); Fl. Dan. t. 597. f. 2 (fide Turn. & Borr.).

Lichen pustulatus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 2nd ed. 1617 (1763); Fl. Lapp. 359;

Lightf. Fl. Seot. 2. 858; Robson, British Fl. 300; Huds. i Angl.

549; Pottich, Palat. 3. 250; Web. Spicil. 261; Leers, Fl. Herborn,

265; Humb. FI. Frib. 28; Retz. Scand. 287 ; With. Arr. 4. 64; Ach.

Anas cite Sm. E. Bot. t. 1283; Westr. 161, cum icone (fide Turn.

¢ Borr.). 2

Umbilicaria pustulata, Hoffm. Pl. Lich. 2. 13. t. 28. f. 1, 2, & t. 29. f. 4

(1791); Sehrad. Spicil. 102; DC. Fl. Frang. 3rd ed. 3. 411; Hook.

Fl. Scot. pt. 2. 42; Brit. Fl. 2. 219; Stenh. in Sched. Crit. fase. 5 & 6.

mo: 125; Fries, L. Reform. 350; S. V. S. 117; Chev. FI. Paris. 1.

42.

——- pustulata «, Tuckerm. Syn. 70; Bohler, Lich. Brit. 125!; Scher.

Enum. 25; Leight. Brit. Lich. Exs. 166; Koerber, Lich. Germ. 93;

Nyl. Nouv. Class. in Cherb. Mém. 3. 175.

sais 7 pustulata, Ach. Meth. 85 (1803); Scher. Spicil. 106. 190; Exs.

56!

Gyrophora pustulata, Ach. 1. Univ. 226 (1810); Syn. 66 ; Moug. & Nest.

Stirp. Vosges. 60!; Turn. & Borr. Lich. Brit. 232; Purton, Midl. Fl.

2.598; Heppe, Fl. Wurzb. 71; Tayl. Fl. Hib. pt. 2. 155; Spruce’s

Lich. Pyren. !

Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 295

Gyromium pustulatum, Wahl. F1. Upsal. 424 (1820); FL Suee. 858.

Graphis pustulata, Wallr. Crypt. Germ. 345 (1831).

Lasallia pustulata, Merat, Paris. 202 (183 ); Massal. Mem. 118.

Maerodictya pustulata, Massal. Ricerch. 59. fig. 109 (1852).

On rocks and stones in mountainous districts. By the road

from Pemnorvay to Dolbelmen, and under Keven Lees Castle,

Dillenius. Malvern Hills, Stokes. Old wall, about half way

between Caernarvon and Beddgelart, Rev. H. Davies. Near

Biddiston Lighthouse, Cheshire, Mr. Bradbury. Near Halifax,

Mr. Bolton. Nant Hevynant Vale, near Snowdon, Turner and

Borrer. Near Bantry, Ireland (fruit), Miss Hutchins. Ireland,

Dr. Taylor. Highland mountains of Scotland, Lightfoot. Dart-

moor! Devonshire (fruit), Six W. J. Hooker. Hey Tor! Moel

Hebog! Loch Sligachan, Mr. Borrer. North Wales, Rev. T.

Salwey. Nesscliffe ! Caer Caradoc! Shropshire.

“ Thallus a single leaf, attached to the rock by a thick, cal- ,

lous, central disk, orbicular in its youngest state, but afterwards

varying from orbicular to elliptical, or sometimes quite irregular

in its form, from 1 to 8 or 10 inches in diameter ; flat, except

at the edges, where it is elevated, cleft at first into a few, shallow,

rounded lobes, which, as the plant grows older, deepen and _be-

come torn, so as to be entirely shapeless : upper surface pale dull

olive-green when moist ; whitish ash-colour, with more or less

of a brownish or sometimes of a glaucous tinge, when dry, and,

then particularly, palest at the centre ; uneven in every part,

except sometimes for a very small space round the centre, with

pustular elevations of the whole substance of the thallus, of

an elliptical figure, and varying in size from that of hemp-

seed to that of turnip-seed, large and small being mixed

together without any order, though they generally decrease in

size towards the edges of the thallus ; the whole surface, as well

of the pustules as of the interstices, is rough with minute gra-

nulations (bearing no slight resemblance, in miniature, to those

on the surface of Lycoperdon Proteus), which are most evident

at the centre, and scarcely observable in any other part by the

naked eye, and produces also scattered clusters of black branch-

ing fibres, most numerous towards the border, where they often

become confluent; similar fibres generally lining the edges of

any cavities in the thallus, and sometimes that of the whole

thallus itself (as represented in the upper fig. in EK, Bot.), with a

beautiful black continuous fringe : under surface brownish olive-

green when wet; when dry, varying from dark brown to ash-

colour, and generally slightly pruinose, naked, minutely granu-

lated and full of cavities, exactly corresponding with the pustules

of the upper surface, which in some specimens are so numerous,

that the under surface has at first sight the appearance of a

296 = Rev. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicariv.

coarse network; the interior of the cavities black, and rather

more minutely granulated than the other parts: substance cori-

aceous, thin, very flexible when wet, but exceedingly brittle when

dry. Trice of extremely rare occurrence, scattered among the

tufts of flocculi, principally towards the edges of the thallus;

patelliform, sessile, yet slightly elevated, urceolate when young,

afterwards subturbinate, orbicular, their largest size about equal

to that of rape-seed ; their margin at first raised, thick, often

very rugged and even flocculose, sometimes entire or only waved,

gradually becoming narrower, and at length obliterated, as the

disk, which in the young fruit is concave, becomes flat, and at

last slightly convex. This part is, in all its stages, opake, and

of an uneven appearance, when observed with a glass; in old

convex tricee it is occasionally rugged with irregular warts,

usually depressed at the centre, and approaching more or less

nearly to the appearance of imperfect gyri. These warts in our

specimens do not assume a concentric arrangement, but are

either scattered singly or clustered into little groups.”—Lich.

Brit. Sporidia one or two in each ascus, of a very large size,

oblong, pale, and wrinkled with network, without apparent septa,

though not unfrequently three darker lines may be seen like

horizontal septa *.

It would seem that the external darker portion of the cor-

tical layer of the apothecium frequeatly developes into minute,

branched, thick, fleshy fibres, which increase into the tufts or

flocculi above mentioned.

Specimens in my own herbarium from Upsal, collected by

Fries fil. and Dr. Nylander ; from Italy, Prof. De Notaris ; from

Aste, M. Philippe; from S. de Amoreira, Estremadura, §, de

Cintra, and S. de Gerez, Nos. 21, 32 & 107 of Dr. Fr. Wel-

witsch’s ‘ Cryptotheca Lusitana,’ are in all respects identical with

our British plant.

Mr. Menzies’ specimen from the Cape of Good Hope! in

herb. Borrer, mentioned in Lich. Brit. 234, is smoother and

less granulated on both surfaces, tinged of an ochrey-red; the

apothecia very numerous, much more sessile, their margins

entire or irregularly waved and undulated, but not at all fibrous.

Sporidia similar to those of British specimens. A specimen in

my own herbarium received from Prof. De Notaris, collected by .

Zeyher at the Cape of Good Hope, and labelled “ Lasallia (Gyro-

phora, Eschw.) porphyrea, De Not.,” appears identical with

Mr. Menzies’ in structure and sporidia. The thallus when wetted

becomes of a vivid scarlet hue.

Of the two specimens of G. Pennsylvanica in herb. Borrer !

* For the spermagonia see Tulasne, /. c.

Rey. W. A. Leighton on the British Umbilicarie. 297

mentioned in the note, Lich. Brit. 235, as received from Mrs.

Merry, the under surface of one was very finely and less con-

spicuously granulated, whilst that of the other was very coarsely

granulated, but not more so than is observable in Devonshire

specimens ! of U. pustulata in the same herbarium. The upper

surface was smoother and browner, though still with the pale

yellow tinge; the pustules less numerous and rounder, but still

variable. The apothecia were sessile, either simple or gyrate

from compression and aggregation. The sporidia in both are

identical with those of our U. pustulata, of which we cannot but

regard them as varieties or states.

Specimens of U. Pennsylvanica! and of U. pustulata B. papu-

losa! from North America, from Mr. Tuckerman, in herb. Borrer,

had sporidia identical with our U. pustulata.

Fée describes the sporidia of U. pustulata as elliptical, 4-celled.

PuiaTe X. fig. 19. Section of thallus and apothecium, younger state. °

Fig. 20. Section of ditto, older state. Fig. 21. Sporidium.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE X.

Fig. 1. Section of thallus and apothecium of Umbilicaria pustulata, Hoffm.,

from Tulasne.

2. Umbilicaria polyphylla, Schrad.: sporidia.

Fig. 3. Umbilicaria anthracina, Ach. & Scher. Exs. 154: a, ascus and

paraphyses ; 6, sporidia.

4. Sporidia of Umbilicaria flocculosa, Hoffm.

5. Sporidia of Umbilicaria enea, 8. hyperborea, Scheer. Exs. 150.

Fig. 5a. 1. Section of thallus and apotheefa of Umbilicaria enea, 8. hyper-

borea, Scher. Exs. 151. 2. Sporidia.

Fig. 6. Sporidia of U. arctica, Ach. Specimen from Mr. Robson.

Fig. 7. Sporidia of U. erosa, Hoffm.

Fig. 8. Section of thallus and apothecium of U. erosa, Hoffm.

Fig. 9. Sporidia of U. Muhlenbergii, var. alpina, from Mr. Tuckerman.

Fig. 10. Sporidia of U. erosa, from Mr. Tuckerman.

‘ig. 11. Sporidia of U. pellita, DC.

Fig. 12. Sporidia of U. vellea, Ach., from himself, in herb. Borr.

Fig. 13. Sporidia of U. depressa, var. hirsuta, Scher. Exs. 137.

Fig. 14. Sporidia of U. grisea, Hoffm.

Fig. 15. Sporidia of U. deusta, Linn. and Turn. & Borr.

Fig. 16. Section of thallus and apothecium of U. proboscidea, DC.

Fig. 17. Ascus of U. proboscidea, DC.

Fig. 18. Sporidia of U. proboscidea, DC.

Fig. 19. Section of thallus and apothecium of U. pustulata, Hoffm., in a

young state.

Fig. 20. Section of same in a mature state.

Fig. 21. Sporidium of U. pustulata, Hoffm.

The sporidia are all equally magnified, and therefore in relative pro-

portion.

298 M.A. Miiller on the Development of the Lampreys.

XXVI.—On the Development of the Lampreys.

By Aveust Mixier*.

M. Aveust Mitxier has observed some interesting facts in

the history of the small Lamprey, which occurs abundantly in

the fresh waters near Berlin. The animals appear suddenly at

the spawning season in clear brooks, where they glide about

amongst the stones, or, attaching themselves to these by the

mouth, float in the stream. After spawning they disappear

entirely; and, during the period of their occurrence, none but

full-grown individuals are to be seen.

At the spawning time they are seen in small groups of ten

or more individuals, and the spawning is effected in the fol-

lowing manner :—The male fastens with his mouth upon the

neck of the female behind the eyes, and then twists his body

half round towards her belly, when the emission of the ova and

seminal fluid takes place.

The recently emitted ova are less than half a line in diameter,

white, slightly yellowish, and enclosed in a thin gelatinous

capsule, which is difficult of detection even after swelling in

water. The segmentation is complete, as already stated by

Schultze+, and commences about ten hours after fecundation., ~

The process is described much in the same terms as by Schultze;

the yelk is divided into a smaller upper, and a large lower por-

tion, from the former of which the embryo is developed; the

upper portion is composed of small, and the lower of large

masses, and the centre is occupied by a cavity, which afterwards

becomes smaller, and gradually draws towards the head of the

embryo.

The hinder end of the egg becomes flattened, and on the

upper part of this flat space the anal opening makes its appear-

ance, surrounded in front and on the sides by a horse-shoe-shaped

ridge, and from this a narrow canal is soon traceable half across

the egg, beneath the region of the dorsal cord. ‘The brain and

spinal cord then become more strongly developed; they are

divided by a longitudinal furrow, which soon closes again. The

dorsal cord never advances further than between the labyrinths

of the ears. Its contents appear striated towards the period of

exclusion, as is also the case in the embryos of some bony

fishes; but in the Lamprey the striz consist of series of cells.

The head grows out, and exhibits two lateral swellings, separated

by a cleft in the middle. Above these is the cavity of the

mouth, and subsequently the nasal opening makes its appear-

ance, and gradually moves from the ventral to the dorsal surface.

* From Miiller’s Archiv 1856, No. iv. p. 323. Communicated by

W. S. Dallas, F.L.S.

+ See Annals, vol. xvii. p. 443.

M. A. Miller on the Development of the Lampreys. 299

The hinder portion of the body is thick, and contains the

vesicular intestine, which is still filled with cells of segmenta-

tion. A yelk-sac is never present. The long neck begins

to move, and at its base the heart is seen, without a pulsating

bulb.

About the eighteenth day the young animal escapes from the

egg, when it is white and opake; but its substance gradually

becomes clear, until the movement of the blood can be recog-

nized, when it begins to develope pigment. The brain and

spinal cord resemble a constricted thread, thickened anteriorly.

The eyes appear as dark points on the sides of the bram. The

neck exhibits eight clefts, of which the anterior soon closes,andthe

cavity of the mouth is united with the branchial cavity by a small

opening. The intestine consists of a very fine membrane, covered

with a very long bacillar epithelium. Along the back of the

intestine runs a fold which receives a vessel, and the ureters rise.

on the dorsal side of the intestine, and form but few ramifica-

tions, in which ciliary movement is seen. The dorsal wall of

the mouth has at first two, but afterwards several papillar

elevations. In front of the heart is a longish oval organ, like

a vesicle, and divided down the middle ; this becomes the mus-

cular portion of the sucking apparatus of the Lamprey.

A muscular veil is now developed in the mouth, which pre-

vents the exit of water; and the papillee of the upper surface of

the mouth increase in number and form branches, constituting a

sort of net which prevents the entrance of foreign bodies. At

this period the author was surprised by the great similarity of

his young fishes with those of the genus Ammocetes, which

occur in the same waters with the Lampreys, and for some time

he endeavoured in vain to find any difference between them.

After keeping them for two years they died, without exhibiting

any tendency to take on the form of their parents ; and during

the whole of this period they appeared to be genuine Ammocetes.

The author was therefore led to imagine, that the supposed

genus Ammocetes was in reality founded upon the young of

Petromyzon.

To ascertain the correctness of this supposition he sought for

Ammocetes in course of metamorphosis, and found them in a

condition which distinctly showed their intermediate state. The

silvery lustre of the skin which distinguishes the Lampreys was

already perceptible, and the dorsal fin was elongated. The eye

was distinct, but in some individuals was still dull, whilst in

others it was perfectly clear. The mouth was narrower than in

the true Ammocetes; in the latter it measures 3} millimeters,

during the metamorphosis 3, and in the fully developed animal

in spring 53. The distance of the nasal opening from the

300 M.A. Miiller on the Development of the Lampreys.

anterior margin of the mouth increases in a regular ratio; thus,

in the Ammocetes it is 4}, in the metamorphosis 6-7, and in

the developed Petromyzon 9 millimeters. The cleft which

separates the upper from the lower lip in the Ammocetes was

still distinctly present in some animals, but had completely dis-

appeared in others.

The papillae of the mouth were reduced, but bore no horny

armature, and the veil of the mouth still existed in some indi-

viduals, especially those which exhibited the cleft between the

upper and lower lips most distinctly. When the opening of the

mouth was completely rounded, the veil was reduced to a small

remnant. The branchial apertures had lost the external valves

which in Ammocetes prevent the ingress of water; and, in the

most developed individuals, these apertures were furnished with

a border. The inner branchial apertures were narrowed, but

wider than in the Lamprey. In the structure of the cesophagus

and other particulars of their anatomy, the animals also exhi-

bited the same intermediate condition. The ova in the ovaries

had already become white and opake; those present in the

ordinary Ammocetes being transparent. They exhibited the

germinal vesicle distinctly, and the testes had developed cells

for the formation of spermatozoa.

The metamorphosis goes on rapidly from this point. In

sixteen days the yellow teeth made their appearance in many

animals, and the sucking apparatus was in action; but it had

not acquired its ordinary energy in four weeks in animals kept

in confinement.

With this change of form comes a corresponding change in

the mode of life. The Ammocetes shun the light, and bury

themselves in the sand at the bottom of the water. Their

respiratory organs are protected by the network in the mouth ;

they live upon the substances which are collected by it in their

mouths, and their cesophagus exhibits ciliary epithelium. The

author found the shells of Bacillarie in all the Ammoceetes which

he examined. The Petromyzon, on the contrary, being well

furnished with eyes, seeks the light, and swims about in the

clearest water, or fixes itself by suction, when respiration is

effected by the ingress and egress of the water through the

external branchial apertures.

There is therefore no doubt that the Ammocetes are the larve

of Petromyzon, just as the Tadpoles are the larve of the Frog.

As however only one European species of Ammocetes has been

described, although we have several species of Lampreys, the

author thought it worth while to examine the Ammocetes of the

River Lamprey. He found this to be exactly similar to that of

the small Lamprey above described ; both possess a gall-bladder

M. A. Miiller on the Development of the Lampreys. 301

and otolithes, although these only persist in the small Lamprey.

With regard to the Sea Lamprey he could ascertain nothing.

It appears from his observations that the duration of the

larval existence must be three years. The spawning takes place

in the spring, and only once in the year. In May he took six

Ammocetes ; three small ones, measuring on an average about

22 inches, and weighing on an average 94 grains, and the other

three measuring about 6 inches, and weighing on an average 87

grains. The three first must have been those of the preceding

year, the larger ones must have been two years old; and as they

showed no trace of: metamorphosis, they could not have pro-

duced perfect Lampreys until the third year. Large individuals

of Ammocetes also occur after the time of the metamorphosis,

and these probably do not undergo their change until the fourth

year. In the perfect state, the Lampreys live a very short time.

Immediately atter the spawning season they disappear entirely, -

and their dead bodies may be seen floating in the water, the

ovaries of the females being quite empty. This long duration

of the larval state is remarkable, as in the only other Vertebrata

which undergo a metamorphosis (the Batrachia) this usually

takes place at an early period, and the animal continues to grow

long after it has acquired its mature form. The metamorphosis

of the Lampreys, therefore, resembles that of the Insects, in

which the larval period is the most important portion of the

animal’s existence,—its principal business in the perfect state

consisting in providing for the continuance of the species.

In conclusion, the author refers to the doubts which these

observations may induce as to the systematic position of the

Lampreys. In the occurrence of the metamorphosis, and the

complete segmentation of the yelk, they resemble the Batrachia ;

and they also differ from the Fishes in the occurrence of a pair

of elastic swellings in the bulbus arteriosus, one above cach semi-

lunar valve, whilst the inner wall of the bulb is destitute of the

trabecular system which is generally present in Fishes. The

structure of the brain also is different from that prevailing

amongst the Fishes ; but, according to the author’s views, the

nature of the dorsal chord and its appendages is decidedly piscine.

The result of his examination of comparative characters is, in

fact, to leave the Lampreys exactly in their former position.

He promises a longer memoir on this subject, illustrated with

figures.

302 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

XXVII.— Monograph of the genus Catops.

By Anprew Murray, Edinburgh.

[Continued from p. 156.]

Exotic Species.

18. C. celer, Lucas.

Catops celer, Lucas, Explor. de l’Algérie, Anim. Art. ii. p. 225.

Oblongo-ovatus, fulvo-pubescens ; capite subtilissime granario ;

antennis ferrugineis, ultimis articulis fuscis ; thorace granario,

angulis posticis acuminatis; elytris granariis ; corpore infra

granario ; pedibus ferrugineis femoribusque nigricantibus.

Long. 1} lin., lat. lin.

Very closely allied to the C. nigrita; black, covered with a

yellow, silky, very dense pubescence. The head is very finely

shagreened and scarcely pubescent. The labial as well as the

maxillary palpi are of a clear ferruginous colour. The antenne

are ferruginous, with the four last joints of a deep brown. The

thorax is very finely shagreened, much more pubescent than the

head ; it is very slightly convex, rounded on the sides, with the

posterior angles projecting and pretty strongly acuminate. The

scutellum is very finely granulated and scarcely pubescent. The

elytra are a little more strongly granulated than the head and

thorax, and are very pubescent. All the body below is granulated,

scarcely pubescent, and of the same colour as above. The legs

are ferruginous, very lightly pubescent, with the thighs blackish.

Found by M. Lucas in Algeria under stones in the month

of June. He mentions Oran and the Bondjaréa as localities

where he took it, and he observes that it is very agile.

The above description is reproduced from that of M. Lucas.

I have seen specimens in his possession, but not having had

an opportunity of comparing them with the specimens in my

own cabinet, I am not able to pronounce positively upon them.

The same remark applies to the other two species from Algeria

described by him (marginicollis and rufipennis).

19. C. fuscipes, Menetr.

Catops fuscipes, Menetries, Mém. Acad. Imp. Sciences St. Pétersb. 6 sér. vi.

(1849) p. 53.

“ Oblongo-ovatus, convexus, posterius valde angustatus pallide

rufo-ferrugineus ; capite, thoracis dorso, pectore abdomineque

nigro-fuscis ; antennis tenuibus longitudine dimidii corporis ;

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 303

thorace antrorsum angustato, lateribus deflexo, angulis posticis

productis acutis ; elytris stria tantum suturali exarata*,”

Long. 1# hin., lat. ¢ lin.

Menetries says that this species somewhat resembles his

C. lateritius (already described (No. 5) in the first group), but

that it is much more conyex and narrower behind, with the pos-

terior angles of the thorax pointed and prolonged backwards ; he

adds that moreover it has no perceptible striz on the elytra, ex-

cept one along the suture, but that it is particularly the colour

which distinguishes it at the first glance.

I have not seen this species, but the above description, parti-

cularly the portion which I have printed in italics, would seem

to indicate an affinity to C. nigricans, and the pale colour has

probably arisen from immaturity. I have therefore, in the absence

of any more precise information, placed it in this group.

Menetries does not mention its locality, but as it comes im- ~

mediately after C. lateritius, and he institutes comparisons be-

tween them, it is probable that they were found not far from

each other. In that case the locality of this species would be

Novaia Alexandroyskaia.

20. C. vestitus, mihi.

Oblongo-ovatus, fuscus, dense griseo-pubescens; Fig, 23.

antennis clavatis, nigris, basi ferrugimeis ; thorace

transverso, granulato, angulis pésticis abtusin'; ae

elytris stria saturali. pinky

Long. 2 lin. |

}

Oblong-oval, blackish-brown ; mouth and legs

ferruginous ; clothed with a thick, coarse, griseous

pubescence, of a more lively fulvous colour on the

thorax. The antennz are clavate, black, except at

the base, which is ferruginous ; they are not so slender at the

base as is usually the case, making the club look less thickened

than it is in reality. The first joint is large, the second shorter

and narrower ; the rest are nearly all of equal length, with the

exception of the seventh and ninth, which are a little longer,

and the eighth, which is shorter. They gradually increase in

thickness up to the seventh, which is the broadest and largest

of them all; the eighth joint is smaller and thinner than the

seventh and ninth, but not very minute; the terminal joint is

suddenly acuminate at the tip, looking as if truncate at the end,

with a short spike projecting from the centre. The thorax is

transverse, broadest a little behind the middle. The posterior

* Menetries in Joc. cit.

304 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

angles are obtuse, except at the very angle, where there is an

exceedingly minute rectangular starting-point. The surface is

coarsely granular. The scutellum is small. The elytra are gra-

nulated and have a distinct sutural stria, but apparently no

others—at least the traces, if any, are exceedingly indistinct.

The anterior tarsi and first joint of the middle tarsi are dilated

in the male.

This species has some resemblance to C. chrysomeloides, but it

is smaller, the thorax is narrower and more transverse, the an-

tenne are not so heavily clubbed, and the joints are differently

proportioned. It has also some resemblance to C. tristis, but

the form of the thorax as well as a difference in the pubescence

distinguish it. The pubescence is coarser and more dense than

in most other species.

From the East Indies (Boys’ collection). The above descrip-

tion is taken from a unique (male) example kindly presented to

me by my friend Mr. Westwood.

21. C. Spencianus, Kirby.

Choleva Spenciana, Kirby, Fn. Bor. Amer. p. 108 (1837).

Catops cadaverinus, (Esch.) Mannerh. Beitr. zur Kaf. Faun. der Aleu-

tischen Inseln, Sitka, und Calif., aus d. Bull. Naturforsch. Moscow,

xvi. (1843) p. 82. no. 173.

fuscus, Hoff. var. Dej. Cat. 3rd ed. 133.

“ Oblongo-ovatus, fusco-piceus, tenue-pubescens; anten-

nis mediocribus, clavatis, basi ferrugineis; thorace brevi

transverso, basi parum latiore, angulis posticis obtusis ;

elytris rufescentibus punctatis, stria suturali impressa ;

pedibus ferrugineis piceis ; femoribus infuscatis.

“ Long. 1} lin., lat. 1 lin.* ”

Body black, covered with decumbent pale hairs. Head

minutely punctured ; antenne shorter than the prothorax, the

two first joints ferruginous, the eighth shorter and smaller than

the rest ; mouth and palpi ferruginous ; prothorax not visibly

punctured, with all the angles rounded ; base with a slight sinus

on each side ; elytra acute, very minutely punctured, with a hair

emerging from each puncture, without furrows, except a single

one parallel with the suture, ferruginous, black at the tip ; ab-

domen piceous, rufous at the base; legs ferruginous.

Found in the Sitka Islands by Eschscholtz and Kuprianoff.

A comparison of the authentic unique specimen of Kirby’s

Choleva Spenciana preserved in the British Museum, with speci-

mens of Mannerheim’s Catops cadaverinus, shows that they are

the same species.

Fig. 24.

* Mannerheim in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 305

Mr. Kirby remarks regarding it, that “This species appears

to present the type of a new family of Choleva, not noticed in

Mr. Spence’s ‘ Synopsis Sectionum ’ in his admirable Monograph

of that genus. From his first section (Choleva, Steph.) it bor-

rows the rounded posterior angles of the prothorax; from his

second (Catops, Steph.) its clavated antenne ; and from his

third (Ptomaphagus, Steph.) its unfurrowed elytra: it seems

properly included in the second, with which it most agrees in

habit*.”

Var. b. Mann. Bull. de la Soc. Mose. 1843, pp. 173, 254.

Ferrugineo-testacea ; capite fusco; thoracis disco antennisque

infuscatis ; elytris pallide livido-testaceis, postice nonnihil

obscurioribus.

As Count Mannerheim observes, this species is somewhat allied

to C. morio, Erichs. (fuscus, Gyll.), but distinguished from it by °

the thorax being smaller and narrower and the elytra longer.

The colour both of the pubescence and body is paler.

Tu carcases in the island of Afognak; taken sparmgly in

the month of August by M. Holmberg, who also took it in Cali-

fornia. It was Tikewise brought by M. Frankenhauser from

the interior of the Peninsula of Kenai.

For the figure of this and the other American species I am

indebted to my friend Dr. Leconte of Philadelphia, who has kindly

furnished me with drawings of them made expressly for my use

in this paper. They are in half outline, and all his figures are

four times enlarged. The head is brought up simply to show

proportions.

22. C. brunnipennis, Mann.

Catops brunnipennis, Mann. Nachtrag zur Kiafer-Fauna der Nord-Amerikan-

ischen Lander der Russischen Reiches, Mosc. 1853, p. 14.

*“ Oblongo-ovatus, convexus, crebre subtilissime reticu- Fig.25.

lato-strigulosus, nigro-piceus, griseo-pubescens ; an-

tennis thorace vix brevioribus, ferrugineo-testaceis,

clava parum incrassata fusca, articulo octavo minutis-

simo; thorace longitudine sesqui latiore lateribus

modice rotundatis, antice latitudine basis haud angus-

tiore, angulis omnibus subrotundatis; elytris obscure

castaneis, apice subacuminatis, stria suturali leviter !

exarata; pedibus piceo-testaceis.

“ Long. 13 lin., lat. 3 lin.

“ Longer than C. cadaverinus, Esch., more narrowed behind,

* Kirby in loc. cit.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 20

306 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

besides differing from it in having the antenne more slender, the

thorax much broader, shorter, and not narrowed in front.

“Found tolerably frequently near the river Tschunuktnu in

the Peninsula of Kenai, in carcases at the end of June, M. Fran-

kenhiauser*.”

The reader owes the figure of this species to Dr. Leconte.

23. C. luridipennis, Mann.

Catops luridipennis, Mann. dritten Nachtrag zur Kafer-Fauna der Nord-

Amerikanischen Linder des Russischen Reiches, Mose. 1853, p. 84.

“ Ovatus, convexus, crebre subtilissime reticulato-strigu- Fig. 26.

losus, nigro-piceus, griseo-pubescens ; antennis thorace

nonnihil longioribus, crassiusculis nigris, articulo oc-

tavo minuto; thorace longitudine fere duplo latiore,

lateribus rotundato, antice latitudine basis hand angus-

tiore, angulis omnibus rotundatis ; elytris obscure cas-

taneis, apice obtusis rotundatis, stria suturali leviter

exarata ; tarsis rufis.

“ Long. 14 lin., lat. 3 lin.”

Mannerheim says that this species is allied to his C. brunni-

pennis, but is shorter, and is besides distinguished by having

the antenne thicker, the thorax shorter, its sides more rounded,

and the elytra rounded at the apex.

Collected in carcases in the months of July and August by

M. Frankenhauser on the banks of the Tschunuktnu in the

Peninsula of Kenai: not frequent.

24. €. simplex, Say? Lec.

Catops simplex, Say? Journ. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. v. 184; Leconte, Syn-

opsis of the Silphales of America in Proceedings of Acad. Philad.

1853, 281.

Fig. 27.

“ Piceus, fulvo-sericeus, dense punctulatus; thorace an-

trorsum subangustato, lateribus rotundatis, basi late

rotundato ; elytris obsoletissime striatis, stria suturali

profundiore ; antennis basi testaceis ; tibus calearibus

mediocribus armatis.

“ Long. 1 lin.

“The anterior tarsi and first jomt of the middle tarsi of the

male are moderately dilated ; the antenne are as long as the

head and thorax, moderately thickened ; the seventh joint is a

little larger than the sixth, and equal to the ninth ; the eighth

is about one-half smaller {.”

* Mannerheim in loc. cit. + Ibid. + Leconte in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 307

The above is Dr. Leconte’s description ; the following is Say’s :

“ Pale brownish, sericeous ; terminal and five basal joints of

the antenne rufous. Inhabits Arkansas. Head dark ferru-

ginous; antenne dark ferruginous, the five basal joints and

terminal joint rufous; palpi and mandibles ferruginous ; thorax

rather paler than the head, quadrate, a little transverse, sides

regularly arcuated; posterior margin not wider than the ante-

rior ; posterior edge rectilinear ; angles rounded; elytra paler

than the thorax, light brownish, with obsolete striz, more ob-

vious towards the tip; very numerous minute punctures fur-

nishing minute hairs ; beneath piceous; feet rufous ; thighs yel-

Jowish beneath. Length nearly ,3,ths of an inch. This species

occurred on dung*.”

Dr. Leconte in speaking of his species remarks, that he is not

positively certain that it is Say’s species, which was found in

Arkansas, while his was from New York. He adds, ‘ The thorax °

is more narrowed in front than described by him; although the

legs are in reality black, the lustre of the fulvous hair is such,

that one might readily be tempted to describe them as testaceous

at base.”

25. C. clavicornis, Lec.

Catops clavicornis, Lec. Synopsis of Silphales of America in Proceed. Acad.

Philad. 1853, 281. 7

fig. 28.

“Oblongo-ovatus, ater, subtiliter pubescens, dense punct-

ulatus ; thorace antrorsum valde angustato, lateri-

bus rotundatis, basi late rotundato; elytris versus

apicem obsolete striatis, stria suturali profunda ; an-

tennis thorace brevioribus, magis clavatis.

“ Long. 14 lin.

“One female: New York. This species is readily distin-

guished from the preceding (C. simplex) by the shorter, more

clavate antennz, which are only indistinctly testaceous at the

base ; the seventh joint is about twice as large as the sixth ; the

eighth is smaller than the sixth, and appears only about one-

third as large as its neighbours. The spines of the tibiz are

somewhat smaller than in the preceding species (stmplex)+.”

2nd Subdivision. Thorax forming a continuous or nearly con-

tinuous line with the elytra; middle tarsi of the males widened in

some species, in others not.

In the last subdivision our arrangement led us gradually from

* Say in loc. cit. + Leconte in Joe. cit.

20*

308 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

the species with slender antenne to those with the heaviest and

thickest-clubbed antenne. The affinity to these leads us now to —

reverse this order, and to commence this subdivision with those

having similar thick antenne.

A. Antenne heavily clubbed and middle tarsi widened in the

males.

26. C. fumatus, Erichs.

Choleva Watsoni, Spence, Linn. Trans. xi. 156.

Catops agilis, Fab. Syst. Eleuth. ii. 565. 6; Gyll. Ins. Suee. i. 277. 2;

Panz. Faun. Germ. 95. 10; Duft. Fn. Aust. iii. 75. 4.

Catops fumatus, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 240. 12; Sturm, Deut. Fn. xiv.

31. 15. t. 176. f. c. C; Heer, Fn. Helv. 1. 382. 15; Redt. Fn. Aust.

144.7; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 436. 22; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn.

Ent. Fr. i. 303. 14.

Oblongo-ovalis, fusco-piceus ; antennis brevibus, cla- Fig. 29.

vatis, basi apiceque ferrugineis; thorace brevi,

basi latiore, angulis posticis rectis ; elytris pedi-

busque testaceis.

Long. 1} lin.

One of the smaller species. Oblong oval. Deep

brown, Antennz short and thick, a little longer

than the thorax, brown ; last joint broader than

long, both it and the three first joints ferruginous.

Head black, densely punctate. Thorax with reddish transparent

margins, slightly arched ; densely and finely punctate, almost

twice as broad as long, as broad at the base as the elytra, or

very nearly so, narrowed in front ; posterior angles right-angled,

pointed ; posterior margin almost straight. Elytra oval, acu-

minate, densely punctate, without traces of striz, except the

sutural ; reddish-brown, often brownish at the extremity. Under

side blackish-brown. Legs ferruginous.

Distinguished from the other European species of this sub-

division, except alpinus and scitulus, by its short, thick, heavily-

clubbed antennz.

The alpinus is clearer in colour, is longer, and has the thorax

usually narrower than the elytra. Scitu/us differs from fumatus

in having the antenne longer, the elytra broader, the posterior

angles of the thorax projecting, and the colour somewhat dif-

ferent, the elytra being brown, without the reddish tint which

is characteristic of fumatus, particularly at the base of the elytra,

and having a marked sericeous lustre.

One of the commonest species. It is found in Scotland and

England, and all over Europe, under detritus, in decaying fungi

and under leaves.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 309

27. C. alpinus, Gyll.

Catops alpinus, Gyll. Ins. iv. 3121.2; Heer, Fn. Helv. 1. 318. 11; Kraatz,

Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 435, 21.

Catops subfuscus, Kellner, Stett. Ent. Zeit. viii. 177.4; Redt. Fn. Aust. 771.

Oblongo-ovalis, fusco-piceus; antennis abrupte clavatis, Fig. 30.*

basi ferrugineis ; thorace brevi, angulis posticis ob-

tusiusculis ; elytris pedibusque rufo-brunneis.

Long. 14-13 ln.

Very like C. fumatus, but usually somewhat larger,

with a narrower thorax, the posterior angles of which

are obtuse, and the basal margin not so broad as

the elytra. The antennz are as long as the head

and thorax, with the basal joints reddish and thick ;

club blackish; the last jomt is usually black, but sometimes

yellowish at the tip. The head is black, densely and finely .

punctate, with a yellowish pubescence. The thorax is blackish-

brown, densely punctate, densely clothed with yellow hairs, at

the basal margin not so broad as the elytra, cut straight, and

slightly simuate on both sides of the scutellum, the anterior

angles obtuse and the posterior angles slightly rounded. The

elytra are oval, densely punctate, lightly clothed with yellow

pubescence, clear reddish-brown, generally blackish at the tip

and towards the suture. The legs are brownish-red.

The normal specimens are readily distinguished from fumatus

by their larger size and more elongate form, and by the thorax

being narrower than the elytra; but these characters are some-

times wanting, and in form the smaller specimens do not differ

from C. fumatus ; the clearer colour, the particularly strong dark

club of the antenne with its eighth joint proportionately smaller,

then serve to distinguish it ; but on the whole I am very doubtful

of its being more than a variety of fumatus, and it is with hesi-

tation I have placed it as a distinct species.

Generally distributed over the north of Europe; but I have

not yet seen British specimens.

28. C. brevicollis, Kraatz.

Catops brevicollis, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 436, 23.

“‘ Qvatus, fusco-piceus ; antennis ferruginets obsoletissime clavatis,

articulo ultimo duobus precedentibus longitudine equali, acumi-

nato ; thorace fusco, transverso, basi latiore, angulis posticis

rotundatis ; elytris substriatis pedibusque rufo-testaceis.

“ Long. 1} lin.”

I have not seen this species. The following is M. Kraatz’s

description :—

* The comparative breadth of the elytra is rather exaggerated in this

figure.

310 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

“Nearly in the middle between C. fumatus and C. scitulus.

Easily distinguished from both by the wholly different thorax

and form of the antenne. Pitchy-brown; elytra and legs

brownish-yellow. The antennz are somewhat longer than the

head and thorax, reddish-brown throughout ; the club scarcely

perceptibly thickened ; the five last joints are only a little stouter

than those preceding, and are of equal breadth ; the first joint is

somewhat longer and a little stouter than the second; the third

somewhat shorter than the second, distinctly larger than the

fourth, almost equal to the sixth ; fifth scarcely larger than those

on each side of it; seventh half as long again and somewhat

stouter than the sixth, equal to the ninth; eighth scarcely

slenderer, and half as long as those on each side of it; tenth a

little shorter than ninth ; eleventh as long as ninth and tenth

together, from the middle outwards sharply acuminate. The

head is pitchy-black, very finely moderately densely punctate ;

the mouth brownish-yellow. The thorax of the breadth of the

elytra, broadest at the base, more than twice as broad as long,

tolerably strongly and symmetrically narrowed from the base

towards the front. The anterior angles are rounded, somewhat

depressed ; the obtusely rounded hinder angles project a little

beyond the anterior margin of the elytra; the posterior margin

is very feebly sinuated on both sides near the middle ; the upper

side is moderately, densely, finely shagreen-punctate, pitchy-

black ; the sides and posterior margin brownish, tolerably closely

covered with a long yellowish-grey pubescence. The elytra are

uniform, only slightly narrowed behind, densely and finely punc-

tate, with a slight bloom or hoar-frost on them, sparingly and

finely pubescent, brownish-yellow. The under side of the body

is pitchy-black. The legs are reddish-yellow*.”

M. Kraatz has established this species upon one example from

Sicily, communicated by Zeller to the Royal Museum of Berlin.

29. C. scitulus, Erichs.

Choleva fumata, Spence, Linn. Trans. xl. 155. 4. .

Catops scitulus, Erichs, Kaf. d. M. Brand. i. 241. 13; Sturm, Deutschl.

Faun. xiv. 33. 16; Redt. Faun. Aust. 772; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit.

xill. 437. 24; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Fr. i. 304. 17.

Ovatus, fuscus; antennis leviter clavatis, ferru- _—_‘Fig. 31.;

gineis ; thorace postice latiore, angulis posticis

productis, rectis; elytris pedibusque obscure

fusco-testaceis.

Long. 1} lin.

Oval, brown. Antenne as long as head and

thorax, ferruginous, a little deeper before the

* Kraatz in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 311

extremity. Head brownish-black, densely punctate. Thorax

large, deep brown, densely punctate, only one-third broader than

long, as broad at the base as the elytra, narrowed in front from

the middle, rounded on the sides; posterior angles pointed, a

little projecting behind, which makes the posterior margin

visibly sinuated on each side. Elytra oval, slightly acuminate,

densely punctate, without vestiges of striz, except the sutural ;

testaceous-brown, extremity blackish. Legs ferruginous.

Resembles C. fumatus, but differs by having the antennz

longer, the elytra broader, and the posterior angles of the thorax

projecting a little behind, and its colour darker and con-

colorous ; and covered with a fine silky pubescence, so that when

looked at from behind, a paler sericeous band appears to stretch

across the elytra.

Not common. Has been taken near Berlin, in Thuringia,

Erlangen, Switzerland, near Paris, near London, and in the.

south of England. I have not seen any examples taken in

Scotland.

B. Antenne not heavily clubbed; middle tarsi of males rarely

widened.

30. C. depressus, mihi.

Breviter ovatus, postice attenuatus, ferrugineus; an- Fig. 32.*

tennis subfiliformibus ; thorace transverso, sub-

depresso, postice latiore, lateribus postice leviter

infleais ; angulis posticis fere acutis ; elytris pal-

lidioribus, substriatis.

Long. 1% lin.

Entirely of a pale ferruginous colour; the elytra

paler, and the legs testaceous. The antennz are

slender, pale ferruginous ; first joint stouter and

longer than the second; third joint nearly twice as long as the

second ; fourth nearly as long as the third ; fifth and sixth joints

nearly equal in length—if there is any difference, the fifth

is longer than the sixth, but this is scarcely perceptible ; they

are also all of the same breadth, and each is shorter than the

third ; the seventh is a little longer than the sixth, and broader ;

the eighth is only half as long as the seventh, but scarcely

narrower; the ninth and tenth are nearly equal in length,

rather broader than the seventh; the eleventh is nearly round,

but with a slight obtuse point at the tip. Head brown, pretty

* The sinuations of the thorax and prominence of the shoulders are

rather exaggerated in this figure.

312. Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. —

closely and distinctly punctate, most deeply in front, and with

a shallow frontal depression; clothed with a yellowish pubes-

cence. ‘Thorax transverse, subdepressed, narrowest in front ;

the posterior angles meeting, and as broad (or nearly so) as the

base of the elytra, the lateral margins with a slight appearance

of inflexion just before the posterior angles; the anterior angles

rounded ; the posterior angles somewhat acute ; posterior margin

broadly sinuate towards the sides; shagreen-punctured, clothed

with a yellowish pubescence. LElytra 2} times as long as the

thorax, ferruginous-red; shoulders prominent, and tapering

from them towards the apex ; turned rapidly in at the apex, so

as to make it appear almost slightly truncate; a depression

surrounds the scutellum (which is large and triangular) and

extends along on each side of the suture for more than half

the length of the elytra, the back of each elytron rising in a

somewhat humped manner from the depression; there is a

deep sutural line running up the middle of this depression ; it

touches the suture at the apex, expands as it goes along, and

contracts almost to the suture again when it reaches the scu-

tellum ; the elytra are tolerably distinctly striated, the striz

deepest at the apex; shagreen-punctured, and clothed with a

close testaceous yellow pubescence. Legs and under side of same

colour as upper side, but rather paler, clothed with a similar

pubescence.

At first sight this species is very like fuscus, many specimens

of which have the same depression on the back of the elytra;

but it is distinguished at once by the different form of the

posterior part of the thorax, which in fuscus turns in to meet

the base of the elytra, while in this species it does not. The

joints of the antennz are also somewhat different in their pro-

portions, and the elytra taper more rapidly to the apex, and

the apex itself at its extremity has a tendency to become semi-

truncate for a short space, while in fuscus the apex is rounded

off to the suture. There is, however, no doubt that this is

very much akin to fuscus, and, in a strictly natural arrange-

ment, should come next to it; but no arrangement will provide

for all the aberrant forms which occur, and an occasional sepa-

ration of nearly allied species must be submitted to, for the

sake of the greater facility of determination afforded by artificial

divisions.

The above description is taken from a single female spe-

cimen which I found in M. Chevrolat’s collection, and which,

although unique, he has kindly ceded to me. It stood among

his European species, but the exact locality was not men-

tioned.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 313

31. C. umbrinus, Erichs.

Catops umbrinus, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Brand. i. 235.4; Redt. Fn. Aust. 771 ;

Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 407. 7; Fairm. & Laboulb. i. 303. 15.

Ovatus, brunneus; antennis subfiliformibus; tho- Fig. 33.

race transverso, postice latiore, angulis posticis

elongatis, acutis ; elytris substriatis.

Long. 12 lin.

Short oval, brown. Antenne scarcely thickened

at the extremity, ferruginous, lighter at the base,

clear yellow at the apex. Head almost black ;

mouth reddish. Thorax densely and finely punc-

tate, broadest behind, posterior margin sinuate, and the pos-

terior angles pointed, projecting, embracing the base of the

elytra. Elytra very shghtly widened in the middle, obtusely

rounded at the apex, finely and densely punctate with indistinct

strize, scarcely more visible behind. Legs reddish. Middle’

tarsi of males widened.

The completely oval shape of this species, the outline of the

thorax fitting exactly to the elytra, distinguishes it from all but a

few. Its slender antennz distinguish it from those in the pre-

ceding section of this subdivision. It is the largest species of

this section, and comes nearest to C. velox. Its larger size,

darker colour, the posterior angles of the thorax more projected

behind, and the middle tarsi widened in the males, distinguish

it from that species.

Widely distributed over the Continent, but I am not aware

of its having been taken in Britain*. It has been taken near

Stettin, Berlin, in Austria, near Kiew, Paris, Fontainebleau,

&e., on trees and under leaves.

32. C. velox, Spence.

Choleva velox, Spence, Linn. Trans. xi. 154. 13.

Catops velox, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Brand. i. 241. 14; Sturm, Deutsch]. Faun.

xiv. 3. 5. 17. t. 277. f. b. B; Heer, Fn. Helv. i. 383. 17; Redt. Fn.

Aust. 144. 15; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 437. 25; Fairm. &

Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Fr. i. 504. 18.

Ovatus, ferrugineus ; capite fusco ; antennis lon- Fig. 34.

gioribus, obsolete clavatis, ferrugineis; thorace 3

transverso, basi latiore, margine postica leviter

sinuato, angulis posticis rectis; elytris obso-

letissime striatis, subtilissime transversim ru-

gulosis.

Oval, ferruginous-red; head brown, reddish

* T recorded this in my ‘ Catalogue of Scottish Coleoptera’ as having

been taken by Mr. Morris Young near Paisley, but I am now satisfied that

this was a mistake.

314 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

in front, extremely finely punctate. Antenne as long as the

head and thorax, slender, very feebly thickened towards the

extremity, ferruginous, the last joint not more slender than the

preceding, excised at the extremity. Thorax densely and finely

punctate, as broad behind as the elytra, one half broader than

long, rounded on the sides, narrowed in front ; posterior angles

right-angled, pointed a little inwards ; posterior margin lightly

but visibly sinuate on each side; ferruginous, with the disk

darker, and the margins semi-transparent. Elytra scarcely

widened in the middle, obtusely rounded at the extremity, with

very indistinct striz ; surface densely punctate, finely wrinkled

across. Anterior legs slightly widened at the extremity ; middle

tarsi not widened in the males.

Distinguished from C. scitulus, to which it has considerable

outward resemblance, by its more slender antenne, its paler

colour, the margins of the thorax lighter-coloured than the disk,

its transversely wrinkled elytra, and its middle tarsi not widened

in the males.

Differs from C. umbrinus by its smaller size, its lighter colour,

the posterior angles of the thorax not produced behind, the

elytra transversely wrinkled, and the middle tarsi not widened

in the males.

Found throughout Britain and over the Continent not un-

frequently. It has also been taken by Chaudoir at Kiew, and

by Wollaston at Madeira, where, however, it appears to be ex-

cessively rare.

33. C. badius, Dahl., Sturm.

Catops badius, Meg. Dahl. Col. et Lepid. 30; Sturm, Deutschl. Fn. xiv. 40.

20. t. 278. 6. B; Heer, Faun. Hely.i. 383. 19; Redt. Fn. Aust. 145.

15; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii, 437. 26.

Ovatus, piceo-brunneus ; antennis longioribus, Fig. 35.

obsolete clavatis, ferrugineis; thorace trans-

verso, basi latiore, margine postico recto,angulis

posticis rectis, prominulis ; elytris obsoletissime

striatis.

Long. 1-13 lin.

Perfectly egg-shaped, the sharper end behind,

gently convex, clear pitchy-brown, the whole

upper side clothed with a fine, adpressed, yellow-

ish-grey pubescence. The antenne are a little longer than the

head and thorax, ferruginous-yellow, somewhat thickened to-

wards the point; the seventh joint longish, the eighth shorter,

but as broad as the last, the terminal joint obtuse roundish.

The head is very finely punctate, the eyes black. The thorax

is finely and densely punctate, short, behind exactly as broad as

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 315

the base of the elytra, strongly narrowed in front, the anterior

and posterior margins not sinuate, the sides lightly rounded,

the posterior angles right-angled, somewhat projecting over

the shoulders of the elytra. The scutellum large, triangular,

finely punctate. The elytra are oblong-oval, widest in the

middle, behind acuminate-oval, finely shagreened, with a deeply

impressed sutural stria, but without traces of other strie. The

under side of the body and the legs are of the same colour as

the upper, only somewhat lighter.

Distinguished from C. velox by its decidedly more slender

form, by its colour always pitchy-brown and not reddish-brown,

and by the posterior angles of the thorax somewhat projecting

over the margins of the elytra.

Differs from C. precow by its thorax not being wider than

the elytra, and from C. brunneus by its larger size, and the

posterior angles of the thorax not being obtuse. :

This species seems rare. Sturm simply says it is found in

Austria. Kraatz says he has only seen two specimens, which

came from Vienna. I have not seen it.

34. C. precox, Erichs.

Choleva Wilkinii, Spence, Linn. Trans. x1. 157.

Catops precox, Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 242.15; Sturm, Deutschl. Fn. xiv.

37. 18. t. 277. f. ec. C; Heer, Fn. Helv. i. 318. 18; Redt. Fn. Aust.

145.116; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 438. 27; Fairm. & Laboulb.

Fn. Ent. Fr. i. 304. 19.

Oblongo-ovatus,ferrugineus; antennislongioribus, _ Fig. 36.

obsolete clavatis, ferrugineis ; thorace brevi, basi <

latiore, margine postico recto, angulis posticis

obtusis ; elytris obsoletissime striatis, paulo

angustioribus quam thorace.

One of the smallest species, of a peculiar shape,

oblong-oval, gradually narrowed behind, with the

apex somewhat truncate, brownish ferrugimous, clothed with a

very fine and thin yellowish pubescence. The antenne are

ferruginous-red, almost longer than the head and _ thorax;

only the three last joimts are perceptibly thicker than those

preceding, and the eighth joint decidedly shorter, but not more

slender than the seventh. The head is frequently brownish or

blackish on the front. The thorax is large, transverse, very

slightly, but still perceptibly, broader than the elytra; the sides

are rounded, more narrowed in front than behind ; the posterior

angles obtuse; the posterior margin straight, very finely and

densely punctate. The scutellum is of the form of an equilateral

triangle. The elytra are oblong, straight, perceptibly narrowed

behind, with the apex truncate, somewhat flat, more distinctly

316 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

punctate than the thorax, and very feebly and indistinctly

striated, with the exception of the sutural stria, which is deeply

impressed. The anterior tibie are slightly widened towards the

extremity.

Where the characteristic breadth of the thorax is well deve-

loped, this species can be recognized by the base of the thorax

being a little wider than the base of the elytra, and by the elytra

narrowing backwards and becoming truncate: where this is less

conspicuous, the smaller size, narrower shape, the straight mar-

gins of the elytra, and their narrowing behind, distinguish it from

C. velox. From C. badius, its smaller size, much lighter colour,

straight posterior margin of thorax not projecting backwards at

the posterior angles, separate it; and it is readily distinguished

from the following species (C. brunneus) by the finer punctuation

of the elytra.

Spread over all Europe, including Scotland and England, but

everywhere scarce.

35. C. transverso-striatus, De}. Cat.

Catops transverso-striatus, De}. Cat. 3rd ed. p.

Angustatus, elongatus ; antennis longioribus quam capite et

thorace ; elytris postice attenuatis, striatis et fortiter elongatis,

transversim strigosis.

Mas, elytris longissimis. Long. 14 lin.

Fem., elytris minus elongatis. Lat. 1 Jin.

This species bears considerable resemblance to C. precoz, is

of the same colour, but is larger, and in the male especially has

the elytra much more elongate. It has also the elytra very

deeply transversely strigose, and has seven distinctly impressed

irregular striz, besides a deep sutural stria.

Male. Pubescent, of a yellowish testaceous or pale brown

colour. The antennz are testaceous, slender, longer than the

head and thorax. The first and second joints are long, the first

a little shorter and thicker than the second ; the second, third

and fourth are about equal in length ; the fifth, sixth and seventh

are all nearly of the same breadth and thickness, but each a

little shorter than the one preceding it; the eighth is slightly

shorter than those on each side of it. The last three are thick-

ened; the last is short and a little acuminate. The head is a

little darker than the rest of the body, and the mouth somewhat

lighter. The thorax is pubescent, smooth, not punctate, but

feebly granulose, broader than long, rounded on the sides,

broadest a little behind the middle, bisinuate at the base, with

the posterior angles projecting slightly backwards. The scu-

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 317

tellum is large and acutely triangular. The elytra are very long,

being five times the length of the thorax, and taper towards the

apex in a wedge-shape. They are very deeply transversely

wrinkled, with a profound sutural stria, and seven other striz

less deeply impressed but still quite distinct. The apex of each

elytron is somewhat rounded. The margins of the elytra are

broadly inflexed, leaving a prominent lateral ridge.

Female. The above description will apply also to the female,

with the following alterations :—She is much shorter and com-

paratively broader, and the elytra are not so disproportioned

in their length. The antenne are shorter and thicker, the base

and apex much paler than the middle. The impressed strize on

the elytra are much less evident, but the transverse strigations

are equally distinct.

No species that I have seen has the transverse strigations so

strongly marked. It may at first sight be mistaken for a very -

large precox, but these strigations and the almost dispro-

portionate length and wedge-shape of the elytra in the male

distinguish it readily.

I found three males and one female under this name, marked

as coming from Portugal, in the collection of the Count Dejean ;

the kindness of M. le Marquis de Laferté Senectére having

placed that collection in my hands for examination.

36. C. brunneus, Dahl., Sturm.

Catops brunneus, Knoch, Dahl. Col. et Lepid. 30; Sturm, Deutschl. Fn.

xiv. 38. 19. t. 278. f. a. A; Redt. Fn. Aust. 145. 16; Kraatz, Stett.

Ent. Zeit. xiii. 439. 28.

Ovatus, piceo-brunneus, fumatus ; capite fusco; an- —_—Fig. 37.

tennis longioribus, obsolete clavatis, ferrugineis ;

thorace transverso, basi latiore, margine postico

recto, angulis posticis obtusis ; elytris brunneis.

Long. 1 lin.

As large as the preceding species (C. precoz),

but of a wholly different shape. It is broad-oval, \

moderately flat, behind broadly truncate, ferru-

ginous-brown and shining. The antennz are as

long as the head and thorax, thin, gradually some-

what thickened towards the apex, the terminal joint roundish,

pubescent, the eighth joint short. The head broad, pitchy-

black, finely punctate; the parts of the mouth ferruginous-red.

The thorax is large, broad, as broad at the base as the elytra,

only slightly narrowed in front; the sides lightly rounded; the

posterior angles obtuse; the basal margin straight ; it is more-

over slightly convex, somewhat darker on the back, very finely

and densely punctate, and thinly clothed with a fine yellowish-

318 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

grey pubescence. The scutellum is obtusely triangular, densely

punctate. The elytra are of a short and broad oval form, broadly

truncate at the apex, finely shagreen-punctured, thinly clothed

with a yellowish-grey pubescence, deeply impressed with a

sutural stria, and without any traces of other strie. The abdo-

men is pitchy-black ; the legs are ferruginous-yellow.

The salient points in which it differs from the preceding have

been already noticed. It is larger, more densely pubescent,

more thickly punctate and less shining than the following spe-

cies (C. anisotomoides).

The above description is reproduced from Sturm, as I have

not seen the species. It has been taken in Hungary and

Austria.

37. C. anisotomoides, Spence.

Choleva anisotomoides, Spence, Linn. Trans. xi. 156. 16.

Catops anisotomoides, Sturm, Deutschl. Fn. xiv. 42. 21. t. 278. fc, C;

Heer, Fn. Helv. i. 384. 20; Redt. Fn. Aust. 145. 16; Kraatz, Stett.

Ent. Zeit. xiii. 439. 29; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Fr. i. 304. 20.

Ovatus, piceus, nitidulus; antennis longioribus,ob- Fig. 38.

solete clavatis; thorace transverso, basi latiore,

margine postico recto, angulis posticis obtusis ;

elytris piceis seu rufo-piceis.

Long. 3 lin.

Oval, very convex. Pale ferruginous-brown,

somewhat shining, variable in depth of colour,

deeper on the disk of the thorax and of the elytra,

with a fine brown pubescence. Antennz tolerably long, scarcely

thickened at the extremity. Thorax transverse, as broad at the

base as the base of the elytra, narrowed a little in front, very

densely but finely punctate ; posterior margin straight, posterior

angles obtuse. Elytra elongate-oval, scarcely widening behind

the base, then gradually becoming narrower; densely punctate,

but not so finely as the thorax; suture raised; sutural stria

deep, almost reaching the scutellum; no traces of other striz

to be seen. Legs and antenne of the same colour as the body.

The smallness of its size, and its short and more convex form,

distinguish it from C. velox. It is nearer in point of size to

C. precoz, but the more elongate form of the latter and its dif-

ferently shaped thorax distinguish it; and a tendency which it

has to curl itself up like an Agathidium will suggest what it is.

Distributed over all Europe, and generally common. In

Scotland and England it is scarcer; but in France and Germany

it is very common. Fairmaire says it is found almost all the

year round in vegetable detritus, principally on the banks of

lakes and marshes.

[To be continued. }

M.N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria. 319

XXVIII.—Contributions to the Anatomy of the Infusoria*.

By N. Lizserkvuugn.

Tue essential characters, discernible by direct observation, as-

signed by Ehrenberg to the genus Ophryoglena, are, that the

mouth and the anal point do not lie at the same end of the

body; that the body bears cilia over the whole surface, and that

a forehead-eye exists; and, more particularly, “the mouth is a

pit below the forehead, and the anal point is observed on the

back at the base of the tail.”

Of the three species, Ophryoglena atra, acuminata and flavicans,

the latter is thus described :—O. corpore flavicante, ovato, turgido,

postico fine attenuato obtuso, ocellorubro frontali. Size #,th of

aline. It is added of O. flavicans,—“ It resembles a Bursaria,

and I only distinguish it from this by the eye-spot, hitherto

unknown in the family, the physiological importance of which I .

established. The cilia of the mouth are longer than in the

preceding species. The mouth, passing away from the forehead,

forms a deep pouch, and near this there always exists a light,

but not so distinct, spot as in the preceding species.” It was

made to take in indigo.

During last winter and spring, I frequently found in the

water of the Spree, where Spongillee were present, an Infusorium

which shares the essential peculiarities of Ophryoglena flavicans,

and manifests, in addition, some hitherto unknown. Its yellowish

body is entirely covered with cilia; the cilia are placed in lon-

gitudinal rows; it is ovate, attenuated towards the posterior

extremity, without becoming prolonged into a point. At the

part called by Ehrenberg the forehead (Stirn), it bore a pigment-

spot varying from brown-red to dark brown, situated close

by the mouth, which formed a deep pouch. According to

Ehrenberg, the spot is not always so distinct as in the other

species, and the animalcule in question likewise exhibits this

irregularity: the pigment-spot of Ophryoglena atra, which I

found frequently in the stagnant water near Pichelsberg, is

ordinarily more distinct. The inconstancy of the colour of the

eye-spot of our Infusorium affords no essential distinction, if

we entertain Perty’s statement, that the pigment-spot of Ophryo-

glena griseovirens is reddish in young specimens and blackish in

old ones (Perty, zur Kenntniss kleinster Lebensformen in der

Schweiz, p. 142).

The animalcule I observed differs in size, which amounted to

ith of a line, and also in the constant presence of two contractile

vesicles ; for Ehrenberg ordinarily saw only one, rarely two,

* Translated from Miiller’s Archiv, January 1856.

3820 M.N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria.

which he regarded as indicative of the commencement of

division.

The animaleule took up abundance of indigo. I did not see

any excretion of substances, and hence I cannot state anything

about an anal point; no special orifice was visible.

The presence of an eye-spot, the position of the mouth, the

complete investment of the body with cilia, require the assign-

ment of the animalcule to the Ophryoglene ; and the described

form of its body, its colour, the peculiar pouch-like form of the

mouth, the variability of the distinctness of the pigment-spot,—

all these make it appear warrantable to name the animalcule

Ophryoglena flavicans, until more certain distinctive characters

have been discovered. The following notices regarding it relate

more particularly to the existence of a hitherto unobserved

watch-glass-like organ near the pigment-spot, and to the vascular

system.

The Eye-spot and the watch-glass-like Organ,

In order to describe accurately the position of these organs,

it is necessary previously to give a more particular account of

the mouth of the animalcule. The mouth forms a narrow slit

in the form of a semicircular line, and lies in a small depression.

In a large specimen, measuring ;°,ths of a millimetre in length

and ;';4,ths of a millimetre in breadth, the distance of the upper

point of the mouth from the end of the head was 75th of a

millimetre, of the lower from the upper point of the mouth

zSépths of a millimetre. The oral cilia, placed all round the

margin of the slit, are far longer than the cilia of the rest of the

body, although these are also remarkable for length; the cilia

of the mouth are seen to project far beyond the others when

the animalcule lies so that the mouth is on the outline of its

figure. The oral slit leads directly into a sac-like space, which

may be traced for a short distance into the cavity of the body,

whenever the latter is not filled up with the strongly refractive

granules; we may also then detect a membrane constantly

vibrating backwards and forwards in the interior of the sac.

But this part ordinarily only becomes distinctly visible when

the oral portion, with the pouch, has been isolated by the com-

pression of the animalcule; the mouth is the entry into the

pouch ; at the opposite side is an orifice, through which sub-

stances which have been taken in by the mouth are conducted

further. Near to this is attached the vibrating membrane, and

it is fixed by one angle to the internal wall of the sac, while the

other parts project freely into the cavity of the latter. That it

is not merely an apparently undulating membrane, as Stein

correctly asserted of the ciliary wreath of the Trichodine, is at

M.N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria. 321

once ascertained by compressing the isolated oral structure while

the membrane still vibrates.

Close by the oral slit, on its concave side, lies the pigment-spot.

Its form is extremely irregular, sometimes globular, sometimes

ellipsoidal, in many cases toothed. Ordinarily it is so distinct

as to be at once perceived; sometimes, however, it is so small

that it can only be detected by close examination. In animalcules

filled with strongly refracting substances alone, it is always

difficult to discover it. The pigment-spot of Ophryoglena atra

has, on the whole, more uniformity of form and magnitude. If

we squeeze down an Ophryoglena flavicans between the covering

glass and the slider, we find that the pigment-spot is composed

of a heap of minute, scarcely measurable granules, strongly re-

fracting light. I never could discover a lens in the pigment.

All the specimens examined by me possessed but a single

pigment-spot. Beside this lies always a hitherto unobserved

structure, the form of which is perfectly described when we call

it a watch-glass on a small scale. This watch-glass-like organ is

transparent and colourless, and shows no trace of fibrous or any

other structure. The circular base has a diameter of about

rhath of a millimetre; its depth amounts to about a third part

of this diameter ; the convexity is very considerable. The watch-

glass-shaped organ usually turns its convex side towards the

pigment-spot ; its concave side is directed towards the point of

the head ; it does not seem to be moveable by the animalcule.

When isolated, it withstands the action of water for a longer

time than is usually the case with the other parts of the body of

this Infusorium. After lying some time in water, it swells up

in some degree, and frequently becomes perforated by a hole in

the middle. The presence of the watch-glass-shaped organ is

not dependent on the presence of a pigment-spot ; for Ophryoglena

atra possesses a pigment-spot, but no watch-glass-shaped organ,

while Bursaria flava has a watch-glass-shaped organ, but no

pigment-spot. In other Infusoria with eye-spots, as in the

Euglene and Peridinia, I have sought in vain for this organ. |

have not met with any facts throwing light on its function.

The Nucleolus.

This structure, first described by Von Siebold in Lowodes

Bursaria, and subsequently observed by Stein in Prorodon, is

properly the only part, except the eye-point, which distinguishes

the Ophryoglena in question from Bursaria flava,—at least in

all the specimens which I have hitherto observed. These two

animalcules stand, on the whole, much nearer together than

Bursaria leucas and Ophryoglena atra, which resemble each

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 21

322 M.N.Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria.

other very much in form and in the structure of the mouth ;

Ehrenberg himself, too, has said, that he only distinguished

Ophryoglena flavicans from a Bursaria by its eye-spot. Bursaria

flava, which I found in great numbers, in spring and summer,

in stagnant water in the Berlin Thiergarten, has the same

structure of the mouth, the same throat-like prolongation, and

the same undulating membrane as Ophryoglena flavicans ; the

watch-glass-shaped organ also stands in the same place, near

the concave side of the mouth, and likewise regularly has its

convexity directed towards the point of the head; the only

difference is a slightly larger size, the diameter of the base

amounting to ;33,ths of a millimetre, when the animalcule did

not exceed 4 of a millimetre in length. In the interior of the

body frequently occur long, yellow-ochre-coloured globular gra-

nules, about ~4,th of a millimetre in diameter, rendering the ani-

malcule opake ; among these were isolated colourless spheroidal

cavities, like those which Ehrenberg describes in Bursaria flava.

I could not find an anal orifice ; but sometimes there was at the

posterior extremity of the body a light spot and a depression,

which Ehrenberg refers to the anal orifice. I found the form of

the body to agree exactly with that of Bursaria flava as figured

by Ehrenberg, as did also the position of the contractile vesicle ;

so that Ehrenberg’s description exactly applied: ‘ Bursaria

corpore ovato-oblongo, flavo, seepe postica parte paullo tenuiore,

subacuto, ore corporis aliqua parte superato.”

Let us now return to the description of the nucleolus in

Ophryoglena flavicans. As this animalcule usually contains in its

interior extremely few, and at the same time minute granules

of strong refractive power (in rare cases I found them like those

which occur in Bursaria flava), the mternal structures are

generally readily perceived. The nucleolus is shaped lke a

grain of barley, and is marked at each end with a few sharply

defined streaks or furrows ; its length is somewhat more than

y2,ths of a millimetre, its thickness in the middle about ;}5th

of a millimetre. Its substance has a stronger refractive power

than that of the rest of the body, but far less than the fat-like

globules. Under the highest magnifying power, no structure

could be distinguished; and it withstands for a considerable

time the action of water. The nucleolus is situated on the

middle of the testis, as Ehrenberg called this organ, or the

nucleus, as it is termed by Von Siebold. The nucleus is about

one-fifth of the entire length of the animalcule, and its breadth

in the middle is about one-third of its length. Its longitudinal

axis ordinarily coincides nearly, like that of the nucleolus, with

the long axis of the animalcule. It is of ovate form; its sub-

stance displays no recognizable structure.

M.N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria. 323

The nucleolus has very different characters in all the specimens

of Bursaria flava I have hitherto observed. It was always so

small that it was difficult to find it, and never became visible

until the Infusorium was compressed, while in Ophryoglena flavi-

cans it may usually be seen through the integuments. Its form

is globular, and it presents no structure. It generally adheres

firmly to the surface of the ovate nucleus.

The nucleus is not any larger in the rather larger specimens

of Bursaria flava which possess two contractile vesicles. I

met with some of them occasionally in company with the one-

vesicled. They did not differ from the rest at all in shape, in

the condition of the ciliary clothing, or in the formation of the

mouth, so that I held them to be identical until I observed the

second contractile vesicle, or the somewhat differently formed

and smaller watch-glass-shaped organ; which last, in the

specimens I have hitherto examined in respect to this point, had’

not a circular, but an elliptical base,—so far at least as a Judg-

ment can be formed from the mere aspect. Measurements

made on one specimen gave—length of the animalcule, ;4,ths of

a millimetre ; greatest thickness, ;2,ths of a mill.; diameter of

the globular nucleus, +45ths of a mill. ; of the nucleolus, +7,,5ths

of a mill.; distance of the mouth from the head-point, 12 ths

of a mill.; distance of the contractile vesicles apart, th of a

mill. ; of the hinder one from the tail-point, -Z5ths of a mill. ;

greatest diameter of the base of the watch-glass-shaped organ,

toooths—smallest, ~;';5ths of a millimetre.

The Vascular System.

This consists of two contractile vesicles, and a system of canals

which open into them. The best subjects for the examination

of these objects are usually found in those specimens of Bursaria

flava which contain in their interior only the smallest forms of

the strongly refractive granules. I frequently found such among

the others in the pools of the Berlin Thiergarten. The con-

tractile vesicles lie in the immediate vicinity of the mouth, a

little behind it: if we conceive the animalcule to le upon

its back, with the mouth upwards and the end of the head

turned away from the observer, the contractile vesicle will

be placed to the left of the mouth, on its convex side, distant

from it about a quarter of a circumference; when there are

two vesicles, the anterior contractile vesicle lies exactly in the

same spot, and the posterior is cut by a straight line drawn from

the anterior vesicle to the tail-point. The position is just the

same in the Ophryoglene above described. If we examine a

Bursaria of this kind with a power of about 300 diameters, we

21%

324 M.N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria.

perceive near the surface a quantity of light streaks, which

run together towards the contractile vesicle from the anterior

and posterior parts of the body, in more or less considerable

curves. In each streak we detect an extremely delicate but

perfectly distinct canal, terminating ultimately in the contractile

vesicle ; its walls and its contents are readily distinguished by

their different refractive power. When one of these canals is

traced backwards from its orifice, we may often perceive, after

it has run a short distance, a ramification; this may frequently

be traced to one of the extremities of the body, and sometimes

it gives off another branch ; ultimately the canals become so

excessively fine, that they are invisible. Their opening into the

vesicle and their course in running from it are seen very di-

stinetly when the contractile vesicle is turned directly upwards ;

we may then recognize how the canals run between the con-

tractile reservoirs, which lie very close to the surface of the body,

and between the surfaces of the body inside the cortical sub-

stance; and the orifices may likewise be seen. Another re-

markable position is when the nucleus is turned next the observer

at the surface of the body; the canals are then seen remarkably

clearly on its bright background. <A few canals always run

over directly, with a slight curvature, towards the posterior part

of the mouth. When the animalcule lies so that the contractile

vesicle appears at the margin of the body, there is sometimes an

appearance as if one or more of the canals opened externally at

this point ; but close examination shows that they curve round

and run towards other parts of the body.

The number of vessels opening into the contractile vesicle in

Bursaria flava is about thirty; this number, or a few more or

less, existed in all the specimens which I examined in reference

to this pot. They are apparently uniformly distributed over

the whole surface. .

The specimens of Bursaria flava with two contractile vesicles

have the system of canals double, each system grouped inde-

pendently around its reservoir. The canals of the posterior

reservoir stretch into the district of the anterior; but I have

never been able to detect any communication between the two.

In the Ophryoglene from the Spree, very little could be detected

of the canals, even when the interior of the body contained only

slightly refractive substances. When a suitable specimen is

somewhat compressed between the glasses, so that it cannot

‘move about, the vessels are especially seen when they have the

nucleus for a background, and when they end in the contractile

vesicle.

I have never been able to trace any vessels into the interior of

the body ; for instance, towards the nucleus. I am also ignorant

M. N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria. 325

at present whether that part of the contractile vesicle which is

turned toward the centre of the body of the animalcule receives

any vessels.

Both Bursaria flava and Ophryoglena flavicans belong to those

Infusoria in which the contractile reservoirs may assume the

well-known stellate form. Von Siebold describes this pheeno-

menon, in Paramecium, in the following words :—‘ These pul-

sating spaces have a very striking shape; they consist of two

central round cavities, around which stand from five to seven

smaller pear-shaped reservoirs, with points directed outwards,

in the shape of a star. In the pulsation of these strange star-

shaped reservoirs sometimes the stars disappear entirely, some-

times only the central round spaces, and sometimes only the

rays.” The opake Bursarie exhibit this phenomenon just in

the same way as it is described by Von Siebold; and those

specimens in which the vascular system can be detected, offer

the explanation of it. The small pear-shaped spaces are really

the commencements of the vessels, which expand with the

accumulated fluid, and the rays are the further prolongations of

the same, which may be traced to the ends of the body.

At the moment when the contractile vesicle has attaimed the

greatest expansion, that is, when the diastole is terminated, it

appears in the form of a globe filled with colourless fluid, from

which the vessels run out on all sides in the cortical substance

as canals, apparently of equal diameter ; they have at this time

the smallest diameter they can assume at their embouchure into

the reservoir. In opake specimens, this is the moment when

the opened contractile vesicle is observed. A little before we

observe the commencement of the systole, the vessels begin to

expand slowly, at points distant about one diameter of the con-

tractile vesicle from the surface of the latter, to many times their

original size. The more the systole progresses, the wider and

longer become the swollen places, and they approach gradually

to the contractile vesicle. If we make an observation at the

moment when the diameter of the contractile vesicle is diminished

to about one-fourth of its original size, the shape of the apparatus

agrees im all essential points with the well-known stellate figure,

represented by Dujardin in Paramecium Aurelia, with the single

exception that the embouchures of the rays are distinctly visible,

and their peripheral prolongations run out widely in the form

of canals over the entire animalcule. Opake specimens of the

Bursaria display the phenomenon only in such a degree that the

rays terminate in delicate attenuated points, at a distance of

about one diameter of the reservoir from the latter. When the

contractile vesicle has closed completely, the fusiformly expanded

vessels only are seen, as they run together with their apices to

326 M.N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria.

one point. This completes the systole. The diastole then re-

commences. If we examine the animal at the moment when the

reservoir has again attained half its greatest diameter, we find a

totally different appearance from that at the corresponding epoch

of the systole. The vessels are not expanded now in the form

of a spindle, but of a funnel, with the base of the funnel in

the contractile vesicle, and the point prolonged out imto the

vessel. This is the form which Ehrenberg has figured in Para-

mecium Aurelia, only omitting the further prolongations of the

vessels ; Von Siebold rejects Ehrenberg’s figure, and recognizes

Dujardin’s; but both are really correct, only representing

different instants; Dujardin gives a stage of the systole, Ehren-

berg of the diastole.

The more the contractile vesicle now expands, the more is

the depth of the funnel decreased, and its diameter proportion-

ately increased ; or, in other words, the vessel expands only at

its embouchure, and the depth of the expanded part decreases in

proportion with the advance of the diastole. In opake Bursaria,

we see at this time only the contractile vesicle produced out in

various directions into short funnel-shaped processes. By

degrees these processes entirely disappear, the contractile vesicle

having expanded to its original volume. We now see again

how, from the fully expanded contractile vesicle, the whole of

the vessels run out in the cortical layer, in all directions, as

slender streaks; in opake specimens, only the contractile reser-

voir is visible. é

The processes above described are those usually observed when

a suitable specimen is placed so that it cannot move, or only

move very little, upon the slider. If, however, a Bursaria is

compressed somewhat more with the covering-glass, or if the

water on the slider is almost all evaporated, some other peculiar

phenomena present themselves, not only in the contractile

vesicle, but in the vessels. The last diastole coming perfectly

to rest, and nothing unusual being observed, except that the

reservoir is more elongated, with the systole appear suddenly

two contractile vesicles instead of one ; that is, a portion of the

surrounding substance makes its way across the middle of the

contractile vesicle while it is contracting, and thus divides it

into two parts. Each of these two new reservoirs has its own

systole and diastole. In most cases their contractions do not

occur at the same moment. Each is in connexion with those

vessels which opened into it before the separation. The vessels

exhibit the same play as if there were but one uninjured con-

tractile vesicle. Sometimes the two reservoirs reunite into a

single one. I saw this happen during a diastole which oc-

curred exactly simultaneously in both: they advanced near

M. N. lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria. 327

together, projected out poimts toward each other, which came in

contact and formed a dumb-bell-shaped reservoir, and this was

rapidly converted into a globular vesicle, which contracted and

expanded as at the origin.

Von Siebold has already observed in Phialina vermicularis,

Bursaria cordiformis, &c., “ that in strong contractions of the

whole body, a largish round pulsating space was drawn out

longitudinally, constricted in the middle, and at length was

separated into two smaller round spaces,—exactly as occurs

when a drop of oil is separated into two portions.” During the

above-described alterations in the contractile vesicles, alterations

ordinarily take place in the vessels also. Thus expansions appear

in them at points lying very distant from the contractile reser-

voirs. These enlargements are not however subject to rhythmical

disappearance and reappearance, but are permanent; they are

filled with the same colourless fluid as the contractile vesicles;

and are mostly globular or ellipsoidal. If such enlargements

of the vessels are seen in specimens which, from unfavourable

optical conditions, do not display the vessels themselves, they

may be taken for vacuoles (in Dujardin’s sense). Their con-

nexion with the vessels, and their mode of origin, which is

readily accessible to observation, prove that they are totally

distinct from the vacuoles in the interior of the body, part of

which contain nutrient substance, while part do not.

I have not succeeded in any case in isolating a membrane of

the contractile reservoir or of the vessels. I find no trace of

cilia in the interior of the vascular system. This alone suffices

to distinguish essentially those Infusoria furnished with vessels,

from the Distoma-embryo in which G. R. Wagener has discovered

ciliated vessels.

Different hypotheses have been put forth in explanation of the

function of the contractile vesicles. There is a detailed account

of these in Claparéde’s paper on Actinophrys*. Claparéde

rightly explains the contractile vesicles as organs of the circula-

tion. As to the direction in which the fluid flows in the vessels,

nothing can be directly observed in most cases, since we cannot

perceive in the fluid any solid corpuscles at all similar to the

blood-corpuscles of other animals. Is it a perfect circulation ?

or does the fluid flow back again in the same vessel in which it

has been propelled forward by the contractile vesicle? or are

the contents of the contractile vesicles constantly expelled ex-

ternally ? The last view has been set up by Oscar Schmidt.

He states that he has seen the place of exit im the genera

Bursaria and Paramecium. Claparéde is opposed to this, since,

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 2, xv. p. 211.

328 M.N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria.

in the most minute examination, he was unable to discover that

the contents of the contractile vesicle were expelled externally in

the systole. Actinophrys is better suited to the settlement of

this question than a ciliated Infusoriam. I have many times

sought for currents in the fluid surrounding Actinophrys Sol and

A. Eichhornii, when the fluid contained masses of fine globules

immediately in front of the projection of the contractile reservoir;

but I have never seen, any more than Claparéde, any correspond-

ing displacement when the vesicle contracted. In Bursaria

leucas, B. Vorticella, Paramecium Aurelia and P. Chrysalis, 1

obtained the following results :—The contraction takes place

exactly in the manner described by Schmidt ; the vesicle contracts

from the interior of the animalcule towards a point lying near

the surface, and it expands on the entrance of the fluid in such

a manner, that it increases in diameter gradually from the

surface of the animalcule inwards toward the centre. But does

this teach us what Schmidt concludes from it, that the reservoir

expels its contents outwardly every time when it contracts

toward the outside, and becomes filled from without when it

expands toward the interior? If the contractile reservoir is

attached by that part turned toward the surface of the animal-

cule, to the internal surface of the cortical substance, while the

portion projecting into the interior of the body is free in the

soft medullary mass,—will not the contraction take place from

within outwardly, and the expansion from without inward,

whether the fluid flow inwards or outwards? In Actinophrys,

sometimes in Arcella vulgaris, and in Urostyla grandis, a totally

different import must be attributed to the contractile reservoir, if

Schmidt’s criterion be valid; for here the reservoir does not

contract toward the surface, but toward the interior of the

body, and forms an elevation on the surface when it becomes

filled, as described minutely in Actinophrys by both Von Siebold

and Claparéde. But it is not on this alone that Schmidt rests

his opinion: he asserts that he has observed also an actual

external orifice of the contractile vesicle. I must admit that

Bursaria Vorticella has a distinct orifice at the hinder part of the

body, and this exactly at the place to which the contractile vesicle

contracts until it vanishes. But regarding this orifice which I

saw, only so much is established, that it is the anal orifice which

Ehrenberg has already described. I have seen the emergence of

remains of devoured substances, of lorice of Bacillariz, of fine

undeterminable granules, &c., from this very hole, so frequently,

that there can be no doubt on this point ; and it is even not rare

for a corpuscle to slip out from the anal orifice during the

diastole,—that is to say, at the very time when, according

to Schmidt, the fluid should flow in from the outside. I

M.N. Lieberkuhn on the Anatomy of the Infusoria. 329

found the Bursaria just named during sprmg and summer in

standing water near Tempelhof; it agrees in the main with

Ehrenberg’s Bursaria Vorticella. The buccal orifice is situated as

in Bursaria truncatella, in which however I did n ot observe any

contractile vesicle at the posterior end of the body. The «speci-

mens of B. truncatella | observed were all about 4rd of a line or

more long, those of B. Vorticella at most ith of a line. The

latter is im any case not a Leucophrys; therefore, in case Ehren-

berg considers his Bursaria Vorticella a Leucophrys, it is a dif-

ferent animaicule from the latter. I was equally unable to

satisfy myself of the correctness of Schmidt’s view in the Para-

mecia. When a specimen of Paramecium Aurelia lies so that

the contractile vesicle, either the anterior or posterior, is seen at

the margin, it appears, under certain circumstances, as though

a short canal ran directly out through the integument of the_

animaleule ; but in reality it only runs into the integument, and

turns round toward the side of the body directed away from

the eye. I found the same in Paramecium Chrysalis also ; it was

always one of the rays of the contractile vesicle which presented

to Schmidt the appearance of an external orifice. The same is

the case in Bursaria flava, where I could always trace the cur-

vature of the vessel toward the opposite side of the body most

distinctly. F. Stein strongly questions the external opening of

the contractile vesicle in the Vorticelle. Hence it is clear, that

the explanation of the contractile vesicles as part of a water-

vascular system is unproven.

Is it however established, on the other hand, that the con-

tractile reservoirs pour back their contents again into the paren-

chyma whence they receive it, as Von Siebold says? And if this

is the case, how does it happen? Everything indicates most

strongly that the contractile vesicles are filled out of the vessels

during the diastole. We see how, during this process, the

swollen part of the vessels near their embouchure gradually or

suddenly return to their smallest diameter, as the stellate figure

vanishes. And I have observed a part of a vessel inflated with

the fluid, originating at the extreme end of the animalcule,

traverse the whole distance up to the contractile vesicle during

a single diastole. This phenomenon may be supposed to show

that the absorbed fluid which had inflated the vessel into a

globule, flowed during the said period into the contractile

reservoir,

But if there is a fair presumption that the contractile vesicles

are filled out of the vessels, the above observations teach us

nothing whatever on the question as to where the fluid flows

during the systole.

I have hitherto only become acquainted with one fact relating

330 Rey. W. A. Leighton on new British Arthonie.

to this point. In Bursaria Vorticella we may detect the following

fact: as soon as the contractile vesicle which lies at the pos-

terior end of the body has contracted, we may observe at the

margins of the animalcule, in its usual position of swimming,

that two long narrow cavities originate, filled with transparent

colourless fluid, and these stretch from opposite the mouth

as far as the region of the contractile vesicle. They both gra-

dually enlarge, and thus approach near to the anal point; here

they meet, lose their often very irregular form, and change into

the globular: the remaining contents of the body are displaced

upwards by this; and then these globular reservoirs contract

until they vanish, without it being perceptible where the fluid

has been driven to; after some time the narrow light streaks

reappear, and the process is repeated in the way above-described.

The afferent canals, therefore, are not filled at the commencement

of the systole. But must this not be so much the more expected,

if the fluid flowed back in the same path as it came in, the

vanishing of the contractile vesicle taking place much more

rapidly than its production ?

I have never yet found in any Infusorium special canals in

which the fluid is seen to flow back into the body during the

systole, and which would give the means of a perfect circulation.

The facts stated in this paper were first made public at the

meeting of the Berlin ‘“ Naturforschende Freunde,” June 19,

1855.

XXIX.—New British Arthoniz.

By the Rev. W. A. Lerenton, B.A., F.B.S.E.

[With a Plate. ]

Since the publication of my Monograph of British Graphidee,

the following species of Arthonia, new to our flora, have occurred

to my notice.

1. Arthonia glaucomaria, Nyl. Thallus none; ardelle hy-

menicolar, sessile, round; disk black, flattened, more or less

convex, dull ; sporidia in asci, eight, oblong, 1- 2- 3-septate.

Arthonia glaucomaria, Nyl. Nouv. Class. Lich. (2 Mém.) in Mém. Soe. Se.

Nat. Cherbourg, 3. 189 (1855); Syn. Arthoniarum in Mém. Soc. Se.

Nat. Cherbourg, 4. 98; Leight. Lich. Brit. Exsic. 247!

Parasitic on the apothecia of Lecanora glaucoma, Ach.

Haughmond Hill! Caer Caradoc! and Long Mynd! Shrop-

shire. Barmouth! N. Wales. Cliffrigg, Cleveland, Yorkshire !

Thallus undistinguishable from that of the matrix. Ardelle

Rey. W. A. Leighton on new British Arthoniz. 331

round, very variable in size, either single, or several arising as

elevated rounded spots on different portions of the surface of

the hymenium of Lec. glaucoma, ultimately becoming confluent,

and entirely covering it, thus rendering it abortive, and giving

it the general appearance of a black disk with a white irregular

wavy thalloid margin. Disk roughish, somewhat flattened or

more or less convex, without any margin, of an opake brownish-

black. A vertical section shows the parasite occupying the

upper portion of the hymenium, obliterating all traces of the

paraphyses and asci of L. glaucoma, and leaving its pale yellow

hypothecium alone free. Hymenium of a pale brown colour,

with numerous obovate or pyriform asci imbedded in a compact

mass without any appearance of paraphyses. Iodine turns the

Arthonia of a deeper brown, but the hypothecium of L. g/au-

coma of a blue eolour. Sporidia in asci, eight, oblong, normally

with three septa, frequently with two only, and sometimes with

only one; the cells either empty or filled with minute rounded

granules, colourless or pale yellow.

Our specimens were identified by Dr. Nylander*.

Puate XI. tig. 1. Thallus of L. glaucoma with the Arthonia on the apo-

thecia: nat. size. Fig. 2. The same, magnified. Fig. 3. Vertical

section of apothecium of L. glaucoma, showing Arthonia glauco-

maria parasitic in the upper portion of hymenium. Fig. 4. Ascus

and sporidia of A. g/aucomaria, magnified. Fig. 5. Sporidia, more

highly magnified.

2. Arthonia vinosa, Leight. Thallus thin, membranous,

smooth, pale brown, subdeterminate ; ardellz sessile, irregularly

roundish ; disk deep vinous red, convex, dull; sporidia in asci,

eight, large, obovate, uniseptate.

Arthonia vinosa, Leight. Lich. Brit. Exsic. 224! (1856).

On oaks: Newton Wood! Stagdale ! and Oggeray Gill! Cleve-

land, Yorkshire, Mr. W. Mudd. Nesscliffe Hill, Shropshire !

Thallus forming irregular patches of greater or less extent,

and of various form, of a cheerful pale brownish hue varying in

intensity, on the bark of oaks. Ardelle minute, variable in size,

roundish, oblong and irregular in form, single or confluent,

more or less raised or convex, especially on older barks, whilst

on younger barks they are scarcely raised and almost flat. On

* Dr. Nylander in his Syn. Arthoniarum quoted above, says of his

A. parasemoides, which he states to occur on the apothecia of Lecidea para-

sema, Ach., and also on Lecanora glaucoma, Ach., “ex Anglia eandem

misit rey. Leighton.” I know not to what plant he refers. He cliarac-

terizes A. parasemoides thus: “ Thallus nullus, apothecia parasitica hyme-

nicola atra convexiuscula, intus albida vel nigricantia; sporse 6-8"® ovoidese

1-3-septate, gelatina hym. iodo sordide rubescens.”

332 Rev. W. A. Leighton on new British Arthonie.

older barks the ardellz have a watery stain or shading off around

them of a pale brown colour, especially conspicuous on spe-

cimens with a paler tinted thallus, and on those which are

whitened over with (? Lepraria alba). Disk of a rich deep brown

or vinous red colour, in old age becoming blackish, without

margin. A vertical section showed the obovate asci imbedded

in a dense and compact almost fleshy brown mass in which no

paraphyses were conspicuous. Sporidia in asci, eight, obovate,

colourless or of a pale yellow, margined, with a single septum,

the upper cell rather larger and broader than the lower one,

either empty or filled with comparatively large round granules.

Differs from A. lurida, Ach. (Leight. Brit. Graph. p. 57. fig. 38,

and Leight. Lich. Brit. Exsic. 17!), to which its general aspect

has some resemblance, in the sporidia being double the size of

those of that species.

PLATE XI. fig. 6. Thallus and ardelle of nat. size. Fig. 7. Whitened

thallus and ardelle with surrounding watery stain, nat. size.

Fig. 8. Thallus and ardelle, magnified. Fig. 9. Vertical section

of ardella. Fig. 10. Sporidia, magnified.

3. Arthonia aspersa, Leight. Thallus thin, membranous,

smooth, indeterminate, greyish-green ; ardelle minute, sessile,

various in form; disk black, flattened, more or less convex,

dull ; sporidia in asci, eight, small, obovate, 3-septate, upper cell

largest.

Arthonia aspersa, Leight. Lich. Brit, Exsic. 248 ! (1856).

On holly: Hobhole, Baysdale, Cleveland, Yorkshire! Mr. W.

Mudd.

Thallus very thin, spreading indeterminately, of a pale opake

greyish-green. Ardelle minute, very numerous and crowded

as if copiously sprinkled, distinct or confluent, very variable in

size and form, sometimes mere specks, roundish, oblong, ovate,

angular or of irregular wavy outline. Disk more or less raised,

convex or flattened, without any margin, opake black, smoothish,

A vertical section shows the hymenium to consist of a dark brown

compact mass destitute of any distinct paraphyses, with numerous

round or very broadly obovate asci imbedded in it. Sporidia in

asci, eight, obovate, pale yellow, margined, 3-septate, the upper

cell considerably the larger, occupying nearly one-half of the

sporidium, the septa being confined to the lower portion.

Differs from A. Swartziana, Ach. (Leight. Brit. Graph. p. 54.

fig. 33; Leight. Lich. Brit. Exsic. 70!), in the sporidia being

only half the size of those of that species and in the different

arrangement of the septa.

For the two last plants I am indebted to Mr. W. Mudd of

Royal Society. 333

Cleveland Lodge, Yorkshire, whose indefatigable researches in

his neighbourhood have supplied me with many Lichens hitherto

unknown to our flora.

Puate XI. fig. 11. Thallus and ardelle, nat. size. Fig. 12. The same,

magnified. Fig. 13. Vertical section of ardella. Fig. 14. Ascus

and sporidia. Fig. 15. Sporidia, highly magnified. Fig. 16. Scale

of +255 of an inch, magnified equally with the sporidia in figs. 5,

10 & 15, to show their real size.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

April 3, 1856.—Sir Philip de Malpas Grey Egerton, Bart., V.P.,

in the Chair.

“On the Dicecious Character of the Rotifera.”’ By Philip H.

Gosse.

Professor Ehrenberg, in his descriptions of this class of animals,

assumed them to be in every case hermaphrodite. His conclusions

remained unchallenged till 1848, when Mr. Brightwell discovered

the separate sexes of Asplanchna Brightwellii. The author of this

memoir soon afterwards discovered a second species of the same

genus (4. priodonta) with a like dicecious character ; and more

recently Dr. Leydig has added a third (4. Sieboldii), which does not

differ in this respect from its congeners.

Dr. Leydig plausibly conjectures that Enteroplea of Ehrenberg is

the male sex of Hydatina, that Notommata granularis is the male

of N. Brachionus, and that Diglena granularis of Weisse is the male

of D. Catellina.

The author of the present memoir has ascertained from his own

observations that the sexes are separate also in Brachionus Pala,

B. rubens, B. amphiceros, B. angularis, B. Bakeri, B. Dorcas,

B. Miilleri, Syncheta tremula, Polyarthra platyptera, Sacculus

viridis, and Melicerta ringens. ‘The males of these species, which are

here described in detail, differ so greatly from the females in form,

size, and structure, that they could not have been supposed to

belong to the same genera, or even families, if their parentage had

not been distinctly determined.

One of the most remarkable characters of male Rotifera is the

absolute and universal atrophy of the digestive system. No mastax,

jaws, cesophagus, stomach, or intestines occur in any example of

any species. Another peculiarity is the great disparity between the

sexes. In every observed case the male is inferior in size and in

organization to the female.

The muscular system is well developed in the males of Hydatina,

Asplanchna, and Brach. Miilleri. The frontal cilia are in general

greatly developed in this sex, the result of which is seen in the

energy and rapidity of its locomotion. In most instances the great

occipital ganglion is distinct, with a red eye seated on it; and the

latter is almost always present, even where the ganglion cannot

334 Royal Society :—

be defined. The lateral convoluted threads appear in Hydatina,

Asplanchna, and Brach. Dorcas ; and in Aspl. Brightwellii they are

accompanied by tremulous tags, and by a contractile bladder.

Irregular masses of opake substance are almost constantly present

in male Rotifera. This substance Dr. Leydig considers a urinary

concretion.

In all cases the abdominal cavity is oceupied by a capacious sperm-

sac, from which spermatozoa are forced out by pressure. The out-

let of the sperm-sac is by a thick, protrusile, and retractile penis.

In those species which possess a foot, the intromittent organ is

soldered to its dorsal side, and is often so greatly developed that the

foot itself appears as an appendage. The penis is protruded by

eversion ; and is then seen to be a thick column with the extremity

truncate and ciliated. The sexual coitus has been witnessed by the

author in several instances.

For a parallel to the curious facts thus established, the author

considers we must look to the Crustacea. The Hectocotylus of

certain Mollusea is scarcely an analogous case; nor are those

Entozoa in which the males are organically united to the females.

In the Crustacea, however, many examples occur of a sexual

difference which may be compared with that of the subjects of this

memoir. In the genera Bopyrus, Phryvus, and Ione, the males are

notably smaller than the females, very diverse in form, and in some

respects inferior in structure. In the Siphonostoma, “the males are

extremely small, and do not iz the least resemble the females”

(Baird) ; though those of different genera bear a strong resemblance

inter se, even where the females are very dissimilar. So low is their

grade of organization, that Burmeister has attempted to prove the

minute males to be embryonic forms. Finally, in the Cirripedia,

Mr. Darwin has proved the existence of males in the genera Ié/a and

Scalpellum, which are very minute as compared with their females,

excessively abnormal in form, and in some respects in an embryonic

condition, though unquestionably mature, as shown by their sperma-

tozoa. And, what is still more interesting, there is, in these male

Cirripedia, “no vestige of a mouth, or masticatory organs, or

stomach.’’ The same observer describes the internal structure as

“a pulpy mass with numerous oil-globules ;” and the sperm-vesicle

as ‘‘a pear-shaped bag at the very bottom of the sack-formed animal

containing either pulpy matter, or a great mass of spermatozoa,”’—

terms which might have been employed in describing some of the

male Brachioni.

In all these analogies, the author finds additional reasons for

assigning to the Rotifera a zoological rank among the Articulata.

June 19, 1856.—The Lord Wrottesley, President, in the Chair.

** Researches on the Toraminifera.’”’—Part I]. By William B.

Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

In the pursuance of his plan of minutely examining certain typical

forms of Foraminifera, for the purpose of elucidating their history as

living beings, and of determining the value of the characters they

Dr. W. B. Carpenter’s Researches on the Foraminifera. 835

present to the systematist, the author in this memoir details the

results of his investigations on the genera Orbiculina, Alveolina,

Cycloclypeus, and Heterostegina. .

The genus Ordiculina has long been known, through its preva-

lence in the West Indian seas, which causes its shells to abound in

the shore-sands of many of the islands of that region. These shells

present great varieties of form, and have been ranked under three

distinct species; but M. d’Orbigny has correctly inferred, from a

comparison of a large number of specimens, that their diversities of

form are partly attributable to differences in the stage of growth,

and partly to individual variation, so that all the Orbiculine of

Cuba, the Antilles, &c., are referable to but one specific type. Of

the essential features of its structure, however, he would seem to be

quite ignorant; since he ranges Orbiculina in a distinct order from

Orbitolites, to which it is very closely allied. This alliance was

first pointed out by Prof. Williamson, whose account of the structure

of Orbiculina, though defective and erroneous in certain puvints, is -

nevertheless correct in the main.

The author has had the opportunity of examining not merely a

considerable number of West Indian specimens, but also a set ot

specimens peculiarly remarkable for their high development, which

form part of Mr. Cuming’s Philippine collection. Many of these

present the form of flattened disks, marked with concentric circles,

and having one or more rows of pores at their edges, not distin-

guishable, save by their prominent central nuclei, from certain forms

of Orbitolites formerly described. The similarity is equally great

in their internal structure; so that, if a marginal fragment only

were submitted to examination, it would not be possible to say with

certainty whether it belonged to an Orditolites or an Orbiculina,

The distinguishing character of the latter is derived from its early

mode of growth, which is uniformly spiral; and from the circum-

stance that each of the first three or four turns of the spire not

merely surrounds, but invests its predecessor, thereby producing an

excess in the thickness of the earlier over that of the later-formed

portion, which gives rise to the central protuberance already men-

tioned. The transition from the spiral to the cyclical mode of in-

crease is effected (just as it is in those individuals of Orbitolites

which begin life upon the spiral type) by the opening-out of the

mouth of the spire, which extends itself on either side around the

previously-formed body, until its two divisions meet on the opposite

side, where they coalesce so as to constitute a complete annulus.

This transition may take place at any period of growth after the

completion of the first four or five turns of the spire; so that we

sometimes meet with small specimens which have already become

discoidal and taken-on the cyclical plan of growth, whilst we occa-

sionally meet with full-grown specimens which retain the spira.

form, and show no tendency whatever towards the assumption of the

cyclical plan of growth. These facts obviously point to the very

subordinate value of plan of growth as a distinctive character.

The author next proceeds to a like investigation of the genus

336 Royal Society.

Alveolina, which he shows to bear a very marked resemblance to

Orbitolites and Orbiculina, in the simple coneretionary texture of the

shell, in the freedom of communication everywhere existing among

the chambers, in the mutual relations of these to each other, and

in their mode of communication with the exterior; whilst its plan

of growth is very different, the axis round which the spiral turns

being greatly elongated, and every additional whorl of the spire pro-

ducing a much greater augmentation of its length than of its diameter.

There is obviously a close physiological relationship between this

genus and the preceding, since the condition of each individual seg-

ment of the sarcode-body must be essentially the same in each ; and

it is merely in the mode in which these segments are multiplied,—a

character which we have seen not to be constant in different parts

even of the same specimens of Orbitolites and Orbiculina,—that it

differs from them.

A marked contrast to Orbitolites and Orbiculina in all their phy-

siological characters, coexisting with an agreement in their respective

plans of growth, is presented by the genera Cycloclypeus and Hete-

rostegina; the former of which, like Orbitolites, is cyclical from the

beginning, its chambers being formed in successive annuli round a

central cell; whilst the latter, like Orbiculina, is spiral in the first

instance, but tends, as age advances, to assume the discoidal shape

and cyclical plan of growth. The genus Cycloclypeus is a new one,

founded by the author upon specimens dredged-up by Sir E. Belcher

off the coast of Borneo. These are the largest Foraminifera at pre-

sent known to exist; the diameter of some of them being not less

than 24 inches. The genus Heterostegina was formed by M. d’Or-

bigny ; but he seems only to have been acquainted with young spe-

cimens, and has altogether misapprehended its true characters and

relations. A fragment of the flattened spire of Heterostegina could

scarcely be distinguished from a marginal portion of the disk of Cy-

cloclypeus ; so close is the conformity between the two, as regards

the form and relations of the chambers, their mode of communica-

tion, and the structure of their shelly envelope. Each chamber, as

in Nummulites, has its own proper wall, so that the partition be-

tween the adjacent chambers, whether of the same row or of different

rows, is double; and between its two lamelle there is interposed an

additional stratum of shell that belongs to neither. This additional

stratum is thin, in the septa dividing adjacent chambers of the same

row; but it is much thicker, and forms a much more complete

separation, in the septa intervening between different rows. It is

traversed by a canal-system, analogous to that existing in Nummu-

lites ; which the author believes to be occupied in the living state by

threads of sarcode, and to be specially destined for the nutrition of

the ‘intermediate skeleton’ formed by the aggregate of these inter-

posed lamelle. The chamber is covered-in above and below by

successive layers of a minutely-tubular and peculiarly-compact shell-

substance, resembling dentine in its general aspect ; certain parts of

this, however, are non-tubular, and form cones, of which the bases

appear on the surface as minute rounded tubercles. The adjacent

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 337

chambers of the same row do not seem to communicate with each

other; but each chamber communicates with two chambers of the

previously- formed row, and, in like manner, with two of the subse-

quently-formed row, by narrow passages, the number and position of

which are by no means constant. These passages seem to afford the

principal means whereby the segments of the sarcode-body occupy-

ing the inner chambers, can be Zoasshed from the exterior; but it

is by no means impossible that. the tubuli of the shelly laminze that

invest the chambers above and below, may also be subservient to this

purpose, since, however numerous may be the laminz, the tubuli

are continued through them all from the cavity of the chamber to

the external surface.

The almost entire separation of the segments of the sarcode-body

in these two genera, the investment of each of them with its own

proper envelope of shell, the minutely-tubular structure and firm

consistence of the shell-substance, and the interposition of. the inter-

mediate skeleton with its canal-system, are features that place them ~

in such marked contrast with Orbitolites and Orbiculina, that, not-

withstanding their conformity to those two genera in their respective

plans of growth, it is scarcely possible for them to be more widely

removed in everything that relates to their respective physiological

conditions.

From a comparison of the five genera whose structure has been

thus elucidated, the author deduces the conclusion that, im this

class, external form, which depends exclusively on plan of growth,

affords no clue whatever to internal structure ; and that the latter

alone, as the exponent of the physiological condition of the animal,

can afford the basis of a natural classification.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

July 10th, 1856.—Professor Balfour, President, in the Chair.

In taking the Chair, Professor Balfour stated that the painful

duty devolved upon him of recording the “death of the President,

Colonel Madden, which took place suddenly and unexpectedly from

rupture of the aorta soon after last meeting of the Society. ‘“ We

all, I am sure (he said), deeply deplore the loss of one who took a

warm interest in our proceedings. His amiable deportment and

gentlemanly manner endeared him to all of us, and we rejoiced to

see one who had spent a large portion of his life in the active service

of the East India Company devoting his time and leisure to the pro-

secution of science. During his residence in India he was a careful

observer, and made many interesting remarks on the flora of the

country. He sent home the seeds of many valuable plants, which

have flowered in Glasnevin and in other gardens. When he came to

settle in Edinburgh, he joined the Royal and Botanical Societies, of

both of which he became a very active member. He was elected a

councillor of the Royal Society, and took a marked interest in its

proceedings. He particularly took charge of the scientific additions

Ann. & Mag. N, Hist. Serv. 2. Vol. xvi. 22

338 Botanical Society of Edinburgh :—

which it was agreed to make to its library. To the Transactions of

the Botanical Society he contributed an excellent paper on the

occurrence of Palms and Bamboos high on the Himalaya, and it is

to be hoped that the paper which was read from him at our last

meeting will be in such a state as to allow of its publication.

“T have also to report the death of Mr. William Gourlie of Glas-

gow, who was connected with our Society from its commencement,

and aided it much by his exertions. He was a zealous naturalist,

and had made a large and valuable collection of plants, which it is

hoped will not be lost to science. From his mercantile position

in Glasgow, he was able to render important service to this Society

and to botanists on many occasions, and he was always ready and

willing to do everything in his power for the promotion of science.

He set an example of zeal to the mercantile men of the western

metropolis, and his labours promised to be instrumental in infusing

a taste for science among the community of Glasgow. When the

Meeting of the British Association took place in Glasgow in “y*

tember 1855, he acted as local Secretary. The labour which he

underwent, not merely during the Meeting, but for months before,

was extraordinary. He spared no pains to render the Meetin

creditable to Glasgow, and the arrangements which he made calle

forth commendation from all. About the time of the Meeting,

symptoms of disease of the bones in the face appeared. He endured

at first great suffering, which he bore with much fortitude and re-

signation ; and, after a protracted illness, he sunk in the course of last -

week. He has been taken away in the midst of his usefulness, and

at the very time when he seemed to be gaining the highest eminence

in his native city. The place which he occupied will not be easily »

supplied. Let us hope that his enthusiastic love of science, and his

noble exertions in the cause of botany, will be the means of stimulating

his townsmen to follow his steps ; and that, while they are prosecuting

their commercial speculations, they will not think it beneath their

notice to devote some of their time to science, which was to him in

his season of recreation a source of high enjoyment, and which secured

for him many friends in all parts of the world. Though dead, may

he yet speak to them!”

Professor Balfour read a note from Mr. Babington in reference to

Mr. Cock’s statement made at a recent meeting, that Hypericum

anglicum does not grow at Falmouth. Mr. Babington has seen spe-

cimens at Falmouth, collected by Mr. Polwhele, and H. hircinum

grows there also.

The following paper was read :—

1. “A brief Account of the General Botanical Features of a Hill

District in Western India, with the results of a Series of Observations

in connection with Vegetable Climatology,” by John Kenneth Wil-

son, Esq.

The hill, or rather mountainous district, upon which I am about

to make a few observations, is situated upon an immense moun- -

tain-chain which lies parallel with the coast of Western India, and

which extends from the Province of Candeish in the north, to Cape

Mr. J. K. Wilson on Vegetable Climatology. 339

Comorin in the south. This mountain-chain is designated the

Western Ghauts. It is situated between isothermal lines which de-

viate little from their parallels of latitude, and the points of inter-

section which they form with the meridian. The Ghauts extend

over an immense area, included between the parallels of 21° of north

and 8° of south latitude.

The particular portion of this district to which I am about to call

attention is denominated the Mahabaleshwar Hill district. In this

district is situated the source of the river Krishna. Near the head

of this river is placed a small Brahmin village named Mahabaleshwar,

and a large number of bungalows occupied by European residents.

The site of the European bungalows is] 7°56! north latitude, and 73° 30!

east longitude. The Mahabaleshwar district has been long and de-

servedly a favourite resort of invalids ; the climate being cold, bracing,

and elastic, and the scenery around magnificent. The hills of the

district rise abruptly by means of terraced trappean steps on their

western side from the Province of the Concan, and on their eastern

side from the Province of the Deccan. Their general elevation above

the level of the sea is 4500 feet, and their highest attainment 4700 feet.

Their elevation is much more abrupt and precipitous on their western

aspect than on their eastern; the suddenness of their elevation on

the western side freely exposing them to the influence of the sea

breeze. The hills from top to bottom are trappean and highly

quartzose. They are extremely eccentric in their formation, being cha-

racterized by great diversity of outline; precipices, ravines, chasms,

scarps, woods, and waterfalls abounding on their surface. They are

well supplied with water which permeates their surface from stream-

lets which traverse them in all directions.

In some of the districts at the foot of the hills, I observed the soil

inereasing from the disintegration of the trap rock, and the native

agriculturists selecting for their cereal crops those localities where

the greatest amount of disintegration was going on. On the summit

of the table-lands, the soil consists of red clay formed by the disin-

tegration of the laterite, a species of cellular ferruginous claystone,

which overlies the secondary trap formation, and which constitutes

the surface-rock. The soil is very abundant on the lower levels,

where it forms a highly productive brown mould, owing to its inter-

mixture with decayed vegetable matter and the debris of the trap

rocks ; but upon the higher levels the soil is much more scanty and

of a redder colour ; the rock below it generally existing in the form

of superficial or detached masses, hardened and blackened by oxida-

tion from exposure to the air.

On the plains at the base of the hills rest those plants which re-

quire the hottest climate, such as the Palms, Banyans, and oleaginous

shrubs; the vegetation in this locality being tropical, and similar to

that which characterizes the plains of India generally ; but upon

proceeding from the plains to a more elevated position, a vegetation

of a different nature presents itself. The withered grass and scanty

stripes of Cocoa-nut trees, and groves of Palms, that afford very

inadequate shelter from the scorching rays of a tropical sun, are ex-

changed for a vegetation of surpassing beauty, richness, and variety,

2a*

el ue

340 Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

standing out in marked and vivid relief upon the fantastic terraces

and mural cliffs of the surrounding rocks ; and consisting of a certain

intermixture of temperate with tropical genera, the predominating

genera being tropical.

The vegetation is not distributed in equal parallel lines as regards

altitude, except when regarded ex masse, as I frequently found spe-

cies of genera whose proper habitat was on the hill portions of the

district, spreading, extending, and flourishing in the plains during

the cold season—the plains being at this season cooled down to a

temperature in which they could exist ; while again, during the hot

season I observed plants whose proper habitat was in the plains,

spreading, and diverging into the hill districts. It is probable also

that species of tropical hill genera reach not only a much higher

altitude, but likewise a much higher latitude, than their represen-

tatives on the plains, owing to the less extensive range of the ther-

mometer, greater amount of moisture, and less free radiation, which

they possess in their more elevated position.

At the base of the hills, as at that of almost all the other moun-

tains in India, the ground is covered with jungle, at first thin and

open, and then becoming marginal, and well-nigh impervious, con-

sisting of shrubs, trees, and high grasses, intermixed with an immense

quantity of miscellaneous underwood. The amount of carbonic acid

exhaled in the jungle during darkness is enormous ; this amount is

fostered by the rank and luxuriant vegetation, and by the older vege-

tation in progress of decay; but fevers are not so prevalent amon

the inhabitants in this as in other jungle districts, and the approac

to the hills is at all times safe, owing to the jungle being cleared in the

neighbourhood of the roads. In some parts, at a distance from the

roads, it grows, however, so thick, and so thoroughly interwoven with

enormous creepers and thorny parasites, as to be rendered perfectly

impenetrable. Among the jungle trees, I observed as typical of this

district the occurrence of Grewia Asiatica, Combretum ovalifolium,

Nauclea Cadamba, Carissa Carandas, Grislea tomentosa, and also of

several species of Celastrus, Zizyphus, Cordia, and Sterculia.

When mentioning the occurrence of the Sterculiacea, I may state

that in the Province of the Concan I had an opportunity of examining

that rare tree, the Adansonia digitata, with its immense stem, large

flower, and enormous fruit. There is every reason to believe, as

Roxburgh has shown, that this tree, although indigenous in Africa,

is yet an exotic an India. It is one of the largest trees in the world,

and is supposed to exceed any other in longevity. In several specimens

which I examined, I never could find the occurrence of any such

annular rings as would be necessary to prove the very great longevity

generally attributed to this tree. Professor Lindley has in a most

excellent manner shown the true value of calculations regarding the

age of this tree. The natives use the pulp of the fruit, which affords

a pleasant acid, as a medicine, and as the basis of a sort of sherbet,

very grateful to patients suffering from febrile complaints. The young

leaves are eaten as food, and the fibres of the wood are put to a

variety of useful purposes.

The humid vapoury atmosphere which pervades the jungle shades,

Zoological Society. 341

under the massive bowers of foliage so gigantic, is most favourable to

the growth and spread of Fungi, Lichens, and other Cellulares ; ac-

cordingly, in this locality they abound everywhere.

In some portions of land cleared of jungle by the native agricul-

turists, I observed many fruit-trees flourishing in cultivation, such as

the Mango (Mangifera Indica), Custard Apple (Anona squamosa),

Plantain (Musa paradisiaca), Pomegranate (Punica granatum), &e.

In several small plots of cultivated ground, likewise recovered from

the jungle, I observed Rice, Sugar Cane, Bamboo, and other useful

plants, growing and flourishing in apparent abundance, and asso-

ciated with cereal grains, such as Holeus Sorghum (joaree) and {Iol-

cus spicatus (bajree).

On ascending the mountain slopes, and after emerging from the

jungle, the vegetation again becomes changed. At first the change

is slow, but at length it becomes well marked and decided. The

underwood becomes less abundant, and the trees stand forth in more ,

solitary grandeur and in greater relief, the varied colouring of our

autumnal foliage being absent among them, but this absence being

more than compensated for by the richness of their verdure, the con-

trast of their forms, and the gracefulness of their proportions. Mosses

of various descriptions and beautiful Lichens clothe the rocks, while

Grasses of great variety and fantastic appearance are met with in

abundance. Arums and Euphorbias now become prevalent. In ad-

dition to the rarer trees and shrubs already enumerated as occurring

in the jungle, I observed as typical of this district—which district

may be designated that of the slopes—the presence of the Bridelia

montana, Pentaptera paniculata, and P. tomentosa.

In continuing in an altitudinal direction, the aseent of the hills

becomes suddenly very abrupt, the trap rock being now thrown up

in most places into immense terraces, crowned by table-lands, and

flanked by high and precipitous cliffs. On these table-lands forest

trees are generally absent ; but forest trees occur here and there.

The whole surface of the table-lands is, however, strewn over with

large tree shrubs and plants of great variety. The Calyptranthes

caryophyllifolia or Jambool tree is very characteristic of this district.

The Olea dioica, Terminalia Chebula, Symplocos racemosa, Meme-

cylon ramiflorum, and the Water-tree or Oomber (Iicus glomerata)

occur very frequently. Urtica pulcherrima, Rubus rugosus, a species

of Saliz (the tetrasperma of Roxburgh), Lriolena Hookeriana, and

Pygeum acuminatum occur here and there.

[To be continued. |

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

November 27th, 1855.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

Nore on Toe Genus LeGriocincius, Lesson, AND ITs SYNO-

nyms. By Paruipe Lurvey Scuater, M.A. erc.

In his last published work on natural history, entitled ‘ Description

des Mammiféres et Oiseaux,’ which is part of the series known as

342 Zoological Society :—

‘Complément aux ceuvres de Buffon,’ M. Lesson has elevated to

generic rank by the name of Legriocinclus, a bird previously deseribed

in the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles’ (ix. p. 168, anno 1838) as

Petrodroma mexicana. While lately in Paris I was favoured by

Prince Charles Bonaparte with a sight of several volumes of ve

beautiful coloured drawings of birds and other animals of whic

M. Lesson in his lifetime had published descriptions only. M.Lesson’s

descriptions, as is well known, are so short and often so inaccurate as

to render identification of the originals almost impossible ; and these

drawings are therefore very valuable, and, as they are to be disposed

of, will, it is to be hoped, pass into the possession of some public

institution, where access to them may always be had. Among them

is a plate of the so-called Legriocinclus, which, there is no difficulty

in perceiving at a glance, is a member of Lafresnaye’s genus Ram-

phocinclus, and so closely resembling the R. brachyurus, the type of

that genus, as to leave little doubt that the two generic names are co-

equal. But if Lesson’s locality is correct (Vera Cruz), which, how-

ever, I am hardly inclined to believe, the Legriocinclus mexicanus may

possibly be a new species of this peculiar form—hitherto considered

as confined to the Antilles, but thus extended geographically to the

mainland.

Three species of Ramphocinclus only are given by Lafresnaye

in his article in the ‘Revue Zoologique’ (1843, p. 67). Of the

first of these—the type of the genus—R. brachyurus (Turdus

brachyurus, Vieill. Nouv. Dict. xx. 255, et Ene. Méth. p. 655),

the Paris Museum contains several fine examples from the islands

of St. Lucia and Guadaloupe. Vieillot says his bird was from

Martinique, which is very probable, as that island is situate between

the other two.

Upon reading attentively Lafresnaye’s description of his second

species of the genus, R. tremulus, 1 think there can be little doubt

that, if not absolutely identical with, it is at all events a very

close ally of the bird which Mr. Gould described as long ago as

1835, under the name of Stenorhynchus ruficauda. There are two

specimens of this bird in the British Museum, from the island of

Nevis.

Stenorhynchus, having been previously employed in Zoology, was

changed by Mr. G. R. Gray in 1840 to Cinclocerthia.

Prince Bonaparte, in his ‘ Conspectus’ (p. 223), has somehow or

other confounded the third species of this same genus along with

Campylorhynchus scolopaceus of Spix, which is quite a different form

and is the type of the wren-like genus Campylorhynchus, and Thryo-

thorus longirostris of Vieillot, which he likewise quotes as synony-

mous, is, I believe, a true Thryothorus. Again, Zoothera cinclops

of the same work (p. 253), since generified into Cinclops (Cinclops

melanoleucus of Mr. G. R. Gray’s lately published List of Genera),

seems to be nothing more than a bird of this genus—probably

R. brachyi rus, though it is dangerous to draw positive conclusions

from so meagre a description.

Under these circumstances I propose to reduce into one group, or

at all events to place in close juxtaposition, the following six generic

Mr. F. Moore on some new species of Birds. 343

terms, some of which have hitherto been arranged in widely different

families :—

1. Srenoruyncuvus, Gould (1835), P. Z. S. p. 186.

2. CrncLocerraia, G. R. Gray (1840), List of Gen. p. 22.

3. Rampnocincivs, Lafr. (1843), Rev. Zool. p. 66.

4, Herminiervs, Lesson, (ubi?)

5. Bh et Lesson (1847), Descr. d. Mamm. et Ois.

p- 278.

6. Crncrops, Bp. (1854), Notes Ornithologiques, p. 25.

Of these, Mr. G. R. Gray’s name Cinelocerthia is the oldest that

can be adopted.

Note.—-Since writing the above, I have carefully examined the

two specimens of Cinclocerthia ruficauda in the British Museum.

They seem to agree in every respect with Lafresnaye’s description of .

Ramphocinclus tremulus, and, as the islands of Nevis and Guadaloupe

are so near, I think we may reasonably conclude that these two

birds are not specifically distinct. The rectrices are twelve in num-

ber, and not ten, as Mr. Gould supposed (P. Z. S. 1835, p. 186)

might be the case.

The three species of this group ought therefore apparently to stand

as follows:—1. CrncLOCERTHIA RUFICAUDA (Stenorhynchus rufi-

caudus, Gould; C. ruficauda, G. R. Gray; Ramphocinclus tremulus,

Lafr.). 2. CINcLocERTHIA GuTTURALIS (Ramphocinclus gutturalis,

Lafr.); and, 3. CincLocerTHIA BRACHYURA (Turdus brachyurus,

Vieill. ; Ramphocinelus brachyurus, Lafr.; Zoothera cinclops et

Cinclops melanoleucus, Bp.).

Noricre OF SOME NEW SPECIES OF Birps. By FREDERIC

Moores, Assist. Mus. East Inp1A Company.

Genus Orocoris, Bonaparte.

Orocoris LonGirostrRis, Gould, MSS.

Allied in colour to O. penicillata, and in the markings of the head

and breast, but differs in its larger size, considerably more lengthened

bill, wings and tail, and thicker toes ; and in the feathers of the back

being broadly centred with brown.

Length 7% inches; of wing 5 inches; tail 3$ths ; bill to frontal

plumes ;8,ths; to gape 3ths; tarsus 19ths; middle toe and claw

zszths ; hind ditto ;’;ths of an inch.

Hab. Neighbourhood of Agra. In Mr. Gould’s Collection.

Genus Emreeriza, Linn.

EMBERIZA sTRACHEYI, Moore.

Affined to HZ. Cia, but differs in having the markings about the

head more broadly developed, and of a deeper black colour, forming

three well-defined black bars, as seen laterally ; the throat and sides

S44 Zoological Society :—

of neck being whiter, and ashy on the front of the neck only, the

breast and the rest of the under-parts being uniform bright rufous-

brown, which colour is also prominent on the back, and especially

on the scapulars, rump and upper tail-coverts.

Length 6 inches; of wing 32ths; tail 3; tarsus $ths of an inch,

Hab. Kumaon. In Mus. East India Company.

EMBERIZA CASTANEICEPs, Gould, MSS.

Also affined to 2. Cia. Crown and ear-coyerts deep chestnut-

brown ; superciliary streak, base of upper mandible, throat, front

and sides of neck ashy white; behind the ears and nape ashy; a

spot before the eye and streak from base of lower mandible down the

sides of the throat black; back, scapulars and rump rufous-brown,

the two former having blackish centres to the feathers ; wings dusky

black, the feathers margined with rufous-brown ; tail dusky black,

the two centre feathers broadly margined with rufous-brown, the two

outer tipped obliquely with white for nearly the whole length ; breast

and flanks rufous-brown, and paling towards the centre of the belly ;

upper mandible dark-horn, lower paler.

Length 5} inches; wing 2{ths; tail 23ths; tarsus 3 of an inch.

Hab. Kintang in China. In Mus. East India Comp., J. Gould,

Esq.

Genus Propasser, Hodgson, Gray’s Zool. Mise. p. 84 (1844);

P. Z. S. 1845, p. 36.

Puenicospiza, Blyth, J. A. 8. Beng. xxiii. p. 213 (1854).

PROPASSER THURA.

Carpodacus Thura, Bonaparte et Schlegel, Monogr, des Loxiens,

t. 23. Bonap. Consp. Gen. Ay. p. 531 (male).

Propasser rhodopeplus, part. Hodgson.

Hab. Nepal. In Mus. East India Comp. Brit. Mus., J. Gould,

Esq.

This species may be distinguished from the true P. rhodopeplus, by

its rather smaller and a trifle more pyrrhuline bill; the colour of

the male above being hair-brown, the feathers centred with blackish,

and the lesser range of wing-coverts only being crimson-tipped ; the

under-parts, rump and upper tail-coverts, cheeks, forehead, and

superciliary streak are pale silvery-crimson, the end of the latter and

the centre of the belly being pure white ; the crimson feathers of the

head and throat being centred also with white, and the crimson

colour being deepest at the base of the bill ; whereas, in P. rhodopeplus

the male above is dark crimson-brown, and has both ranges of

wing-coverts and the tertiaries pale crimson-tipped. The female of

P. Thura (which is now for the first time described) may be distin-

guished from the same sex of P. rhodopeplus by being paler above and

having paler centres to the feathers; the colour of the under-parts

being considerably more uniform; having also but faint centres to

the feathers. P. rhodopeplus is a trifle larger than P. Thura.

The Prince Charles Lucien Bonaparte has compared thesespecimens,

and his Highness also verifies their distinctness.

Dr. J. E. Gray on a new genus of Fish-scaled Lizards. 345

PROPASSER PULCHERRIMUS, Hodgson.

Propasser pulcherrimus, Hodgson, Gray’s Zool. Mise. (1844),

p. 85.

. Hab. Himalaya. In Mus. East India Comp., Brit. Mus., J. Gould,

uSq.

The male differs from P. rhodochrous in having the forehead,

superciliary streak, cheeks, throat, and under-parts, with the rump,

of a paler or more silvery-crimson colour, being in some lights very

silvery ; the upper parts, with the crown, are dusky-brown with pale

crimson-tinged edges to each feather. The female differs from the

same sex of P. rhodochrous in having the under-parts dusky white,

instead of rufescent, and the colours above are also less rufescent.

The size is the same as that of P. rhodochrous, excepting that in

P. pulcherrimus the wing is longer in both sexes.

Remarks.—Both sexes of this species and P. rhodochrous were

sent from Nepal by B. H. Hodgson, Esq., under the name of pul-

cherrimus, which name, upon examining his original drawings in -

the British Museum, we find refers to the true rhodochrous and not to

the present species; but, as that indefatigable naturalist applied the

name to both birds, we deem it but correct to retain it for the present

bird.

Genus Linora, Bonaparte.

CANNABINA, Brehm.

Lrinora BREvIROsTRIS, Gould.

Linota brevirostris, Gould, Bonap. Geogr. et Comp. List of B.

p. 34 (1838).

? Fringilla bella, Hempr. et Ehrenberg, Mus. Berol.

Hab. Erzeroum and Afghanistan. In Mus. East India Comp. et

J. Gould, Esq.

Allied to L. montium, but distinguished from that species by its

lighter colour, and the male having the pik colour on the rump

paler; the axillaries aud the basal edge of the inner web of the

primaries and secondaries pure white ; the tail being margined on the

whole outer and broadly on the inner web also with pure white ; the

primaries and secondaries above are also broadly margined exteriorly

with white. The female is also paler and broadly edged as in the

male with white.

Length 5 inches ; of wing 3iths; of tail 23ths; centre feathers

4 inch less; bill to frontal plumes ;3,ths; to gape } an inch; tarsus’

7oths ; centre toe aud claw 3ths; and hind ditto $ an inch.

Remark.—Cabanis in Catal. Birds Mus. Heine, p. 161, states

that ‘the bill of #’. della, of Hempr. and Ehrenb., is a trifle larger

than in L. eannabina, Linn., but in colour almost agrees with ZL.

Sringillirostris, Bonap, et Schlegel, Monog. Loxiens, t. 49. p. 45.

New Genus or Fisu-scatep Lizarps (Scissosar2), FROM

New Guinea. By J. E. Gray, Ph.D. F.R.S., erc. erc.

The Lizard which I have the pleasure of bringing before the

Society this evening, was presented to the British Museum, with

346 Zoological Society :—

other most interesting and novel specimens, by Mr. John MacGillivray,

who accompanied H.M.S. Herald as naturalist during her voyage in

the Australasian seas.

Corvcta.

Head broad, flat-topped ; nostrils ovate, oblique, simple, not 9

longed behind, on the middle of the lower part of the nasal shields ;

supranasal shields none; rostral square; internasal one, large, 8-sided,

broader behind; frontal-nasal two, moderate, band-like, transverse ;

lateral-frontal one, small, subtrigonal, nearly equal-sided ; frontal-

parietals two, rhombic, contiguous at the angle; interparietal one,

rhombic, elongate ; eyebrows covered with band-like shields; lower

eyelid with a series of larger opake scales ; temple covered with large

shields ; ears large, simple, edged in front.

Body fusiform, compressed ; scales, 6-sided, smooth, with 3, 5 or

7 grooves, seen through the skin, of chin and underside of the body

thinner, smooth.

Legs strong ; toes five, cylindrical, elongate, unequal, with a series

of band-like shields beneath ; claws strong, curved.

Tail elongate, tapering, rather compressed, scales of upper surface

like those of the back, but rather larger, with a central series of

broad hexangular shields beneath.

Hab. Australasia.

This genus belongs to the same section in the Museum Catalogue

as Ateuchoglossus, characterized by the simple nostril and scaled

opake lower eyelids. It differs from that genus in the smoothness

of the scales, the shielded underside of the tail and several other cha-

racters.

CorRUCIA ZEBRATA.

Pale yellowish-white (in spirits); back with irregular blackish-

brown cross-bands ; upper part of limbs and tail blackish, varied ;

head dark-brown.

Hab. New Guinea, the Island of San Christoval, John Mac-

Gillivray, Esq., two adult and young specimens.

Length of adult nearly 2 feet.

December 11, 1855.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

Description oF Two New Species or ACTINIA, FROM THE

Soutu Coast or Devon. By E. W. H. Hoitpsworrs.

Among various species of Actinia collected by me in July last, on

the south coast of Devon, two appear to be undescribed, and although

of small size, are of some interest as being additions to the fast

increasing list of our native zoophytes.

They were found on the rocks near the entrance to Dartmouth

harbour, a part of our western coast, which, from its steep rugged

character and its luxuriant growth of sea-weeds, presents a fruitful

hunting-ground for those in search of marine productions.

The first that I have to notice may be thus characterized :—

Body smooth and cylindrical when fully extended, from half to

three-quarters of an inch in height, but very much flattened when

Mr. EK. W. H. Holdsworth on two new species of Actinia. 347

contracted ; tentacula in four rows, moderately long, slender, and

slightly tapering towards the tips, their length regularly diminishing

from those of the inner circle outwards. The entire animal has a

pale transparent appearance, and the only trace of decided colour

about it is found in a narrow dark blue line surrounding the base of

each tentaculum, and extending a little in the direction of the mouth,

but soon becoming indistinct. Very delicate white lines are at times

visible on the surface of the body, but these are probably only the

edges of the membranous septa seen through the transparent skin.

When this animal is at all roughly handled, the long seminal fila-

ments are thrown out from the mouth in great profusion. This

little Anemone approaches very closely in many respects the Act. ean-

dida of Mr. Gosse, and I am indebted to that gentleman for his ready

assistance in determining the differences between them. Act. candida

may be distinguished by its possessing fewer tentacles, by the colour

of the body being of a more opake white, and especially by the narrow

- lines surrounding each tentaculum being of a reddish-purple tint, and.

enlarging into a conspicuous spot on each side of its base. In their.

habits and general appearance they are very much alike, and had I

obtained only one example of the pale species, I should hardly have

ventured to consider it more than a variety. Ten specimens, how-

ever, were taken from different places, and did not vary except in

size; they were found on the exposed surface of perpendicular rocks

at about half-tide mark, and when out of the water and contracted,

were very difficult to distinguish, owing to their great transparency.

I propose for this species the name of pallida.

It has been my custom, after any expeditions in search of Actinia,

to bring home one or two plants of Laminaria digitata, in order to

examine at my leisure the various forms of animal life commonly met

with among their tangled roots; and it was on one of these plants I

found, in company with minute Ophiocome, green Nereides and

numerous other animals, the beautifully marked Anemone that I have

now to describe.

It has the following characters :-—

Body elongate, cylindrical, about three-quarters of an inch in length

when extended, the upper half covered with numerous pale perforated

warts, increasing in number as they approach the top, and from

which the white filaments are protruded when the animal is irritated.

Tentacula in five rows. Colour of the body a dark orange, becoming

paler towards the base. This species is chiefly remarkable for the

beauty of its oral disk, which for colouring and elegance of marking

will bear comparison with that of any of the larger kinds. The external

half of the disk is of a rich purplish-brown, changing into a light

orange tint towards the mouth, the pink tumid lips of which are

frequently conspicuous ; from near the centre diverge ten or twelve

pairs of yellow bands slightly separating as they proceed outwards,

and at their extremities partially surrounding the bases of the tenta-

cula, according to the following arrangement. Taking a small seg-

ment of the disk, the first tentacle may be said to arise from the

space between two pairs of bands, the second being situated within

848 Miscellaneous.

the pair; the band bifureates near its extremity, and encloses the

third tentacle; these branches again divide and form a similar enclo-

sure for the arms of the fourth row: beyond these is a set of very

short tentacula; these, as far as I have been able to examine them,

are not connected with the yellow bands, but their small size and the

difficulty of seeing their entire length when the animal is expanded,

render it almost impossible to describe their exact appearance. On

the surface of the disk a cream-coloured spot is situated near the

base of each tentacle of the first and second rows, those connected

with the inner series being farther removed from them than those of

the second; the alternation of light and shade produced by this

arrangement gives a battlemented appearance to the disk, and adds

considerably to the general effect. The tentacula rapidly diminish

in size from those of the inner row outwards; they are dark brown

at the bases, becoming paler towards the tips, and are encircled by

three well-defined white rings, of which the basal ones are very

distinct. Several examples of this species were obtained at extreme

low water-mark, from a large mass of detached rocks known as the

Mewstone, near the entrance to Dartmouth harbour. They were met

with on two or three occasions, but were always found nestling among

the roots of Laminaria digitata.

A few weeks since, part of a plant of Laminaria was sent to me

from Devon, and among the roots I found six specimens of an

Actinia that closely resembled the one just described, excepting that

the brown on the tentacula and certain parts of the disk was replaced

by various shades of red. These animals differ so little, except in

the general colour of the disk and appendages, that until I have an

opportunity of examining some more specimens, I must consider the

red one as only a variety of the other, and as such I would pro-

visionally describe it. This uncertainty obliges me to depart from

the old-established rule of giving the specific name from some marked

character in the animal, and I must therefore propose the more

general title of ornata for the brown species, and suggest that of

rubida for the red one, should it on future examination prove to be

distinct, which I am inclined to think is probable.

MISCELLANEOUS.

OBITUARY NOTICE.—WILLIAM YARRELL.

Tue list of British zoologists has just lost one of its best and

brightest ornaments in the person of William Yarrell, who died sud-

denly at Yarmouth on Monday the 1st of September. Mr. Yarrell

was born in June 1784, in Duke Street, St. James’s, where his father

carried on the business of a newspaper agent : this business was after-

wards continued by the son in Ryder Street until nearly the time of

his decease.

On the 3rd of August last, as he was returning from church, he

was seized by a giddiness and unsteadiness of foot, which proved to

Miscellaneous. 349

be caused by incipient paralysis. From this he had pretty nearly

recovered, ouly complaining of a slight ‘ woolliness”’ in his brain,

when on the Saturday before his death he went to Yarmouth with

an invalid friend. On Sunday night he was attacked by a difficulty

of breathing, which continually increased until about half-past

twelve, when he tranquilly departed from this world.

Early in life Mr. Yarrell was celebrated as a keen and successful

sportsman, but during this sporting phase of his existence neither

neglected the management of his business, nor, what is of more im-

portance to us, the cultivation of his innate taste for natural history,

for he was busily engaged in forming collections illustrative of the

natural history of this country, especially of its Birds and Fishes,

and in making notes of their habits, which stood him in good stead

when at the mature age of forty he began to write upon his favourite

science. His first paper, containing ‘‘ Notices of the occurrence of

some rare British Birds observed during the years 1823, 1824 and

1825,” was published in the ‘ Zoological Journal’ in the latter year.

From this time he seems gradually to have relinquished the gun and

the rod for the pen, and his communications subsequently appeared

pretty frequently in the periodical above mentioned, in ‘Loudon’s Ma-

gazine of Natural History,’ and in this Journal. He also contributed

valuable papers to the Transactions of the Royal, Linnzean, and Zoolo-

gical Societies ; but the works upon which his fame chiefly rests,

and those with which the English student at all events will princi-

pally connect the name of Yarrell, are the admirable Histories of

British Birds and Fishes, published in a style of such unrivalled ex-

cellence by Mr. Van Voorst. In these works we find accuracy of

scientific research, combined with a plain but agreeable mode of

communicating information on the details of the natural history of

particular species, such as has rarely been equalled; and these

Histories of British Birds and Fishes will always remain of the

highest value to the investigator of the natural history of these islands,

Mr. Yarrell was elected a Fellow of the Linnzan Society in 1825,

and for some years before his death he was a Vice-President and the

Treasurer of that Society. He was also one of the founders of the

Zoological Society, and a constant attendant at its meetings; and for

many years he was the Treasurer of the Entomological Society.

Whilst thus distinguished in the scientific world, Mr. Yarrell’s

social qualities endeared him highly to his acquaintances. His more

intimate friends always spoke of him in terms of affectionate regard,

and even those who knew him superficially could never be insensible

to the kindliness of his nature. To quote the words of a writer in

the ‘ Athenzeum,’ who evidently knew him well, ‘‘ His judgment was

elear and sound, his appreciation of the value of facts and of evidence

most accurate, his advice always practical and thoughtful. His

truthfulness and simple-heartedness were even childlike, his temper

gentle, his heart loving and affectionate, and he was liberal and

charitable almost to the verge of imprudence. A kindlier spirit

never lived.”

850 Miscellaneous.

AMPHIOXUS LANCEOLATUS,

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Falmouth, September 23, 1856.

GEeNTLEMEN,—The “ Amphiovus lanceolatus,” Yarrell, was found

in dredger’s refuse from Gwyllyn Vase Bay on Friday last, by Mr.

Henry Bastian of this town. Length one inch and one-sixteenth ;

breadth in the middle one-eighth of an inch; of a lanceolate form,

tapering to each extremity, riband-like, transparent as crystal ; mouth

circular, produced, armed with long slender cirrhi, crenated laterally ;

when these are reflexed, the passage to the oral aperture is consider-

ably increased in length and diameter, and the water, with its crus-

tacea, &c., has ready ingress, assisted by the ciliary current. The

animal closes the aperture by contracting and crossing the free

extremities of the cirrhi. It swims rapidly with a wriggling or snake-

like motion for a few seconds, and then suddenly settles down at the

bottom of the vessel, where it remains motionless, lying flat on its

side, with the mouth open to its fullest extent (to all appearance

dead), for thirty or forty minutes, or longer if not disturbed. Two

days after its capture, I put into the vessel (of water) a quantity of

shell-sand, which at first appeared to excite it very much, for it

swam with increased velocity for a second or two, and then suddenly

disappeared under the bed of sand formed at the bottom of the

lass.

= Fifty minutes after this occurrence, I was pleased to see one-third

of the body projecting in a vertical direction from the surface of the

sand, its mouth open, and the cirrhi slightly reflected at their extre-

mities ; but on agitating the water with a piece of straw, the body

was partially drawn in, and on repeating the annoyance it disappeared

altogether.

This morning the body was completely covered (over) with the

sand, but the open mouth could be seen just above the surface of it—

awaiting its prey (?). I consider it a scarce fish in our neighbourhood,

not arare one. Its rarity arises from the naturalist being ignorant

of its habitats, and selecting ground for his dredging operations

incompatible with the movements of the fish. Dr. Vigurs’s fish

(1851) carried ova. Mr. Bastian’s is a young one.

I am, Gentlemen, your obedient Servant,

W. P. Cocks.

Description of a newly discovered Tanager of the genus Buarremon.

By Puruipe Luttey Scuarer, M.A. &e. !

Through the kindness of Sir William Jardine I am enabled to

describe a specimen of a very distinct species of Buarremon, which

Professor Jameson of Quito has lately transmitted to this country.

It was obtained by him during a recent expedition into the eastern

Cordillera of the Andes near Quito at an elevation of 6000 feet above

the sea-level. In form and size it is similar to B. pallidinuchus, but

the style of coloration is different and more nearly resembles that

Meteorological Observations. 351

of B. schistaceus. Sir William Jardine has named it Jeucopterus,

from the conspicuous white spot on the wing. The area of the

genus Buarremon appears to extend along the Andean range from

Bolivia into Southern Mexico, the vicinity of Bogota being perhaps

the principal sedes or focus, where no less than seven or eight species

occur. The present bird may be characterized as follows :—.

BUARREMON LEUCOPTERUS.

B. schistacescenti-niger, alis caudaque obscurioribus ; pileo ochra-

ceo-rufo ; macula utringue anteoculari et speculo alari con-

spicuo cum toto corpore subtus albis ; lateribus in cinereum tra-

hentibus ; capitis lateribus nigris; tectricibus alarum inferi-

oribus albis ; rostro pedibusque nigris.

Long. tota 6°2; ale 2°8; caudze 2°7.

Hab. in rep. Equatoriana (Jameson ).—Proc. Zool. Soc. Nov. 27,

1855.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR AUG. 1856.

Chiswick.— August 1, 2. Slight haze: very hot. 3. Hot and sultry. 4. Over-

cast: very hot. 5. Cloudless and hot. 6. Cloudy: slight haze: very fine. 7.

Clear: hot and sultry. 8. Cloudy: overeast: very fine: rain. 9. Slight rain.

10. Cloudy and fine. 11. Very fine: cloudy: rain. 12. Cloudy: very fine. 13.

Very hot : heavy rain at night. 14. Cloudy and fine: rain. 15. Cloudy and fine.

16. Very fine: thunder, lightning and rain at night. 17. Slight rain at half-past

eight a.M.: excessively heavy rain commenced, nearly an inch fell in one hour:

cloudy at night. 18. Cloudy. 19. Overcast: rain. 20. Foggy: overcast : heavy

rain at night. 21. Densely clouded : boisterous, with heavy clouds and showers.

22. Partially overcast : cloudy: very fine. 23. Fine. 24, Cloudy and fine. 25.

Slight showers. 26. Very fine. 27. Uniformly overcast: very fine. 28. Cloudy

and fine: rain. 29. Very fine. 30. Slight fog: very fine. 31. Very fine: rain

at night.

Mean temperature of the month .............eceeescevereceseeces 63°40

Mean temperature of Aug..1855. ..,...cesecccsessaicetecsssecvecs 00 -00

Mean temperature of Aug. for the last thirty years ......... 61 °97

Average amount of rain in AUg. ..-ceeceessseceeeececeueeees bce 2-413 inches.

Boston.— Aug. 1—3. Fine. 4. Cloudy. 5, 6. Fine. 7. Fine: thunder, light-

ning andrain A.M. and p.m. 8. Fine. 9. Cloudy: rain a.M.and p.m. 10. Cloudy.

11,12. Fines 13. Cloudy. 14. Cloudy: raina.m. 15,16. Fine. 17. Rain

A.M. and p.m. 18. Cloudy: rain A.M. andr.m. 19. Cloudy. 20. Cloudy: rain

A.M. and p.m. 21. Raina.m.andp.m. 22. Cloudy: rain a.m. 23. Cloudy.

24. Rain. 25. Cloudy. 26. Cloudy: raine.m. 27. Cloudy: raina.m. 28.

Cloudy: rain a.M. and p.m. 29—31. Cloudy.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Aug.1. Drizzle a.m.: fog p.m. 2. Clear, fine a.m.:

clear p.m. 3. Bright a.m.:clondy r.m. 4. Bright a.m.: clear, fine, aurora p.m.

5,6. Bright a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 7. Bright a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m. 8. Cloudy

A.M. and P.M. 9. Cloudy a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m. 10. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m.

11. Drops a.M.: drizzlep.m. 12. Bright a.m.: thunder-showers p.m. 13. Clear

A.M.: bright p.m. 14. Bright a.m.: vapour, fine p.m. 15. Damp a.m. : drizzle p.m.

16. Damp 4.m.: clear p.m. 17—22. Cloudy a.m. andp.m. 23, Cloudy a.M.:

cloudy, drops p.M. 24. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 25. Rain A.m.: showers P.M.

26. Showers a.m.: drizzle, showers p.m. 27. Cloudy a.M.andp.m. 28. Rain

A.M.: drops P.M. 29. Showers a.M.: drops p.m. 30. Clear a.m.: cloudy p.m,

31. Rain a.m. : clear, aurora P.M.

Mean temperature of Aug. for previous twenty-nine years ... 55°03

Mean temperature of this month ......... Sagteattersacscses ses Bo 22

Mean temperature of Aug. 1855 — ...cseseeeeeeee eee Lonsapaherere 56°10

Average quantity of rain in Aug. for previous sixteen years... 3°01 inches.

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THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

No. 107. NOVEMBER 1856.

XXX.—A Notice of some New Genera and Species of British’

Hydroid Zoophytes*. By Josnua AxpER, Esq.

{With three Plates. ]

Havine had occasion lately to examine the zoophytes of the

coasts of Northumberland and Durham for the purpose of draw-

ing up a local Catalogue for the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club,

I have been so fortunate as to meet with several undescribed

species, some of which have not been before observed, and others

have been misunderstood or passed over as varieties. The

species here described belong to the Anthozoa Hydroida of

Johnston.

Family Corynide.

VoRTICLAVA, noy. gen.

Polype linear-cylindrical or clavate, soft, naked, affixed at the

base, solitary ? Head terminal ; tentacles in two rows, stout,

dissimilar, the upper row capitate.

Vorticlava humilis, n. sp. Pl. XII. figs. 1-4.

Body white, semitransparent, nearly of equal thickness through-

out; upper tentacles five, short and stout; lower tentacles

ten, about three times the length of the upper.

Length of body 5%, inch.

On Corallina officinalis, in a rock-pool between tide-marks,

Cullercoats.

* Read at the late Meeting of the British Association for the Advance-

ment of Science at Cheltenham. Four new species of Polyzoa, forming a

al of the communication then read, have been published in the 17th Num-

er of the Journal of Microscopical Science.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviu. 23

354 Mr. J. Alder on some new genera and species

Only one specimen has yet occurred to me of this very inter-

esting little zoophyte, which may readily escape observation on

account of its diminutive size. It was observed on a branch of

Corallina officinalis that had remained for a while in a glass of sea-

water, in the autumn of 1853. The pools where it was obtained

have been searched several times since for additional specimens,

but without success. Iam happy, however, to find that the spe-

cies was also found by Mr. Busk, in the same year, at Felixstowe in

Suffolk. The Cullercoats specimen, which lived with me several

days, showed little animation, holding itself always in a curved

position as represented in fig. 2. The mouth is tubular and

prominent. The upper tentacles, which surround the mouth,

are short and generally curved inwards; their enlarged heads

showing, when highly magnified, a congeries of little tubercles,

which probably contain thread cells. The lower tentacles form

a radiating circle near the base of the head.

Mr. Peach has described, in the ‘ Annals of Natural History ”

for August last, the change of a zoophyte somewhat similar

to this into a naked-eyed Medusa. That gentleman’s obser-

vations led him to conclude that the change was a complete

metamorphosis, and not a reproduction by gemmation as is

usually the case, though the exact point of transition does not

appear to have been observed.

Names given to genera in this family must be considered pro-

visional and subject to revision, should the Zoophytes afterwards

prove to be the transition-state of something already known.

At present this genus has as good a claim to recognition as

Clava and some of its nearest allies.

Family Tubulariade.

Eudendrium confertum, n. sp. Pl. XII. figs. 5-8.

Polype white or pale flesh-coloured, with a longish ovate head,

surrounded by a single row of tentacles. Po/ypary consisting

of short crowded stems rising from a common base ; they are

tubular, yellowish horn-coloured, strongly wrinkled across but

not annulated, slightly branched, and expanding a little

towards the apertures: base a densely reticulated and closely

adhering crust, the interstices filled up by a membrane.

Height { to 3 inch.

On old shells of Buccinum undatum and Fusus antiquus from

deep water, Cullercoats.

This little zoophyte appears to have been first noticed by

Dr. Johnston, though he had subsequently overlooked or for-

gotten it, as when I sent him a description of a specimen got at

of British Hydroid Zoophytes. 005

Cullercoats in 1854, he wrote me that it was not anything he

was acquainted with. I have since, however, found in his Cata-

logue of the Zoophytes of North Durham, published in the

“Transactions of the Newcastle Natural History Society,’ mention

made of a zoophyte, which is undoubtedly the same as this, and

the description is so characteristic that I cannot do better than

adopt it. “I have observed,” he says, “a small Tubularia which

invests old specimens of Murex antiquus with a dense beard-like

coat, and may, possibly, be a species distinct from the above

(71. ramosa). It is only the quarter of an inch in height, slender,

horny, wrinkled, slightly and irregularly branched, the branches

without rings at the origins: polypes white, furnished with a

single series of obtuse tentacula, that do not seem to exceed

ten in number. In this respect it agrees with 7. ramosa as

characterized by Dr. Fleming, but differs from the specimens

which I have seen, and also from Ellis’s figure of it, in which -

the tentacula are much more numerous.” ‘The incrusting base,

which Dr. Johnston does not appear to have examined, forbids

our considering it to be the young of Hudendrium ramosum.

The basal ramifications are corneous and more solid than the

ascending stems, rather broad, flat and undulating in outline,

forming a dense network, the spaces between the larger reti-

culations being nearly filled up with smaller ones, and the

whole, in old specimens, appear to be united by a membrane.

The number of tentacles is not very constant, varying with age,

and occasionally reaching sixteen, but ten is the more usual

number. The mouth is conical when at rest, but varies much

in form, sometimes expanding to a flat disk, with a wide aper-

ture, similar to what is occasionally seen in Hydractinia echinata,

to the polype of which this bears a strong resemblance.

I have lately met with specimens, apparently of this species,

more branched than the form above described, and showing at

the top of the tube, a cup-like expansion, similar to what is repre-

sented by Van Beneden in his E. ramosum: the cup, though

continuous with the tube, is more membranous and soon falls

off. The species may therefore possibly be the same with that

so well described by Van Beneden, but is not the 7. ramosa of

Linneus, of which Ellis’s figures must be taken to represent the

type.

Eudendrium capillare,n.sp. Pl. XII. figs. 9-12.

Polypary minute, very slender, thread-like, a little branched,

transparent, pale horn-coloured, smooth, excepting two or

three faint rings near the origin of each branch. Podypes ter-

minal on the upper branches, vase- or pear-shaped, with a

single row of eighteen or twenty long, slender tentacles : re-

23%

356 Mr. J. Alder on some new genera and species

productive capsules on separate short branches near the lower

part of the stem on clustered or verticillate pedicles, two or

three capsules in linear series on each pedicle.

Height } inch.

Parasitical on Antennularia ramosa, from Embleton Bay,

Northumberland, R. Embleton, Esq.

The peculiarity of this elegant and graceful little zoophyte is

that the reproductive capsules are on separate branches from the

polypes ; the latter always terminating the upper branches, while

the former are on branches near the lower part of the stem. The

moniliform mode of arrangement of the capsules on the pedicles

is similar to what is seen in LZ. ramosum, where, however, they

are in union with the polypes, arranged round the base of the

tentacles. A more near approach to the mode of arrangement

in E. capillare may be found in Cavyolini’s Sertolara racemosa

(Eudendrium racemosum), which has two kinds of reproductive

capsules, one set of which are arranged in moniliform series on

umbels very closely resembling those of our species. According

to Krohn (as quoted by Professor Owen), these capsules, in the

Mediterranean species, are found to contain spermatozoa, and

this may possibly be the case in the present instance.

For a knowledge of this new species I am indebted to Mr.

Embleton, who kindly sent it to me along with some other very

interesting species collected in Embleton Bay. It was fortu-

nately preserved in spirits, so that the characters of the animal

could be distinctly made out ; otherwise it might readily be taken

for a Coryne.

Family Sertulariade.

Sertularia tricuspidata, nu. sp. Pl. XIII. figs. 1,2.

Stem slender, alternately branched, twisted at intervals, and

jointed above each cell: cells alternate, rather distant, smooth,

exactly cylindrical, a little bent outwards, with a three-toothed

rim ; ovicapsules strongly ribbed across, with a narrow funnel-

shaped aperture.

Height 1 to 2 inches.

On zoophytes from deep water on the Northumberland coast.

Without a careful examination of its characters, this species

might be passed over as a small variety of S. polyzonias, from

which it differs in the slenderness of its proportions, in the shape

of the cells, and especially in their three-toothed apertures.

Mr. Busk has pointed out to me that there is a species very

nearly resembling this found in the South Seas—the S. Johnstont

of Gray, of which he has kindly sent me a specimen from New

of British Hydroid Zoophytes. 357

Zealand. Like our species it is tridentate; but on a careful

comparison of the two, I find that the southern form differs from

ours in the following particulars. It is of smaller size and more

compact mode of growth ; the cells are more closely set, smaller,

shorter, broader at the base, and attached for a greater part of

their length, besides having some rib-like thickenings of the

walls, which are not to be found in the northern species. There

are likewise occasionally two or three cells together without a

joint. The ovicapsules are very similar, but the aperture is not

so much produced, and is conical, not funnel-shaped. Upon the

whole I think there can be little doubt that the two species are

distinct. The form is at least new to the British seas.

The cells of this species do not bulge out below as in S. poly-

zonias, and the capsules are narrower and much more strongly

and regularly ribbed across, with a funnel-shaped aperture, having

a smooth, everted rim. j

Sertularia tenella, nu. sp. Pl. XIII. figs. 3-6.

Sertularia rugosa, var., Johnst. Brit. Zooph. 62. f. 8c.

Minute, creeping, throwing up short unbranched or slightly

branched stems, which are slender, zigzagged, and jointed

above each cell: cells alternate, rather distant, elongate,

barrel-shaped, finely wrinkled across; the aperture erect,

patent, squared and four-toothed.

Length } to 1 inch.

Parasitical on Plumularia falcata and other zoophytes, but not

common.

This pretty little species is smaller and more delicate in all its

proportions than S. rugosa, with which it has hitherto been con-

founded. The cells are more erect, narrower, and more closely

and regularly ribbed or wrinkled across; the wrinkles generally

rising a little opposite each angle; they are six or seven in this

species—in S. rugosa three or four. The aperture is erect,

patent, and conspicuously squared and four-toothed: in S. ru-

gosa the aperture is much less prominent, and is always bent

outwards. The stem of S. ¢enella is slender, seldom exceeding

half an inch in length, and most frequently unbranched : it is

waved or zigzag, bearing a cell at each angle: opposite each cell

there is a joimt, above which the cell is much constricted and

slightly ringed er twisted. The cells are more distant than in

S. rugosa, in this respect resembling S. polyzonicas, but are more

slender and elongated than in either species; they are thin,

delicately wrinkled transversely and produced a good deal at the

top. The aperture is closed by a quadripartite operculum, open-

358 Mr. J. Alder on some new genera and species

ing in segments as in Campanularia syringa, but here the seg-

ments are fewer, corresponding with the angles of the mouth.

S. rugosa has a similar operculum. The ovicapsules, for a know-

ledge of which I am indebted to the Rev. T. Hincks, scarcely

differ from those of S. polyzonias and S. rugosa, but are perhaps

a little more produced at the top. The polypes appear to be

yellow or orange-coloured. Specimens of S. ¢ene//la occur in

which the creeping fibre throws up only single cells on short

foot-stalks throughout its course. In this form it might be

taken for a Campanularia.

Family Campanulariade.

Campanularia volubilis. Pl. XIII. fig. 7.

Sertularia volubilis, Linn. Syst. Nat. 12th ed. 1311 ; Ellis, Brit. Corall. 24.

t. 14. f. a A.

Stem creeping, sometimes giving off shoots in a free state, gene-

rally spirally twisted ; pedicles rather longish, spirally twisted,

and not ringed at the base; a single spherical ring below

each cell; cells generally rather narrow and deep, with about

ten shallow blunt denticles round the margin: ovicapsules

rising on short pedicles from the creeping stem, oblong flask-

shaped, smooth, with a long narrow neck.

Height about ath inch.

On Plumularia falcata, Sertularia fallax, and other zoophytes :

frequent.

Three or four species have hitherto been confounded under

the name of Camp. volubilis. It therefore becomes necessary to

redescribe and discriminate them, and to ascertain, if possible,

to which the Linnzan appellation properly belongs. Unfortu-

nately the description of that author is very imperfect, but as he

quotes the excellent figures of Ellis, with which his description,

as far as it goes, corresponds, these may be fairly taken as

representing the true C. volubilis. The distinguishing character

of the species there represented is the spirally twisted stem ; and

Ellis remarks in his description, that “ at the bottom of each

[cup], where they join the stalk, the microscope discovers to us a

very minute spherule or little ball, as in some drinking glasses.”

With these characters the species here described perfectly agrees.

I have for some time been satisfied that this was distinct from

the C. volubilis of Johnston and other modern British authors,

but it was not until lately that I was so fortunate as to meet

with its ovicapsules, the peculiar form of which will, I think,

remove all doubt on the subject. This species is almost equally

common on our coast with that described by Dr. Johnston (which

= d™ yee

of British Hydroid Zoophytes. 359

I propose calling C. Johnstoni), but on account of its usually

inhabiting deeper water, it is not so generally met with. They

may, however, be occasionally found mixed together on the same

zoophyte, particularly on the stem of Plumularia falcata; but

when their peculiar characters are known, they can readily be

distinguished from each other. C. volubilis, as here distin-

guished, is scarcely more than half the size of C. Johnstoni, and

has the cells usually narrower and more cylindrical, with the

crenations of the margins blunter and shallower. But the best

distinguishing character is in the pedicle, which in this species

is always spirally twisted throughout, though becoming less

marked towards the top, where a single spherule supports the

cup. The creeping stem is generally, but not always, twisted

when attached ; but when, as is often the case, it becomes free,

its spirally twisted character is beautifully displayed, and it has

the appearance of a minute transparent cord, with a club-shaped”

termination. The pedicles and cells arising from the free part

of the stem are always shorter than where it is attached, and

more nearly resemble Ellis’s figure. The ovicapsules are oblong

flask-shaped, smooth, compressed laterally and produced into a

very long and narrow neck ; they arise from the creeping stem

by a short pedicle of two whorls.

Campanularia Johnstoni. Pl. XIII. fig. 8.

Camp. volubilis, Johust. Brit. Zooph. 107, woodeut 18; Couch, Cornish

Fauna, 40. t. 2. f. 1; Gosse, Ramb. Dev. Coast, 296. t. 18.

Stem creeping, plain; pedicles long, with numerous close-set

rings at the base, and more or less ringed at the top; the

middle part usually plain; cells deep and rather large, with

ten or twelve strong denticles round the rim: ovicapsules

nearly sessile on the creeping stem, ovate oblong, strongly

plicated transversely and truncated at top.

Height 12 tenth.

On sea-weeds, zoophytes, and shells, from between tide-marks

to deep water: common.

This species is of more robust growth than the last, with the

cells larger and more strongly denticulated ; they are also wider,

but this character is rather variable in both species. The pedicles

are longer and stouter, and have always numerous close-set rings

at the base, and also several rings at the top: the middle part is

variable, sometimes partially or even wholly ringed, but more

frequently plain*. The creeping fibre is always plain, and

: It is important in this genus to distinguish between rings and spiral

ridges.

360 Mr. J. Alder on some new genera and species

seldom if ever detached. The ovicapsules are large, ovate or

subcylindrical, more or less elongated, with a truncated top, and

very strongly plicated transversely ; they rise from the creeping

stem by scarcely perceptible pedicles. (Mr. Gosse has repre-

sented a spur at the bottom which I have not observed.) It may

be a question for future solution, whether this species is ever

branched. I have found branched specimens from deep water

very much resembling this, with a ringed base and strongly

denticulated cup, which I believe to be the young of Laomedea

dichotoma 8, Johust. (Sert. longissima, Pallas), having once found

an example a little more advanced, with the ovicapsules of that

species. In Ellis and Solander’s ‘ Zoophytes,’ however, a figure

is given of a branched specimen under the name of Sertularta

volubilis, with vesicles resembling C. Johnstoni.

Campanularia Hincksit. Pl. XIII. fig. 9.

Camp. volubilis, var., Hincks in Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd ser. vol. xi. p. 180.

Stem creeping, plain ; pedicles long, nearly smooth, with two or

three slight spiral twists at the base, and two or three sphe-

rical rings at the ‘op, one of which is within the cup: cells

rather long, with parallel sides, wrinkled or lineated longitu-

dinally ; marginal denticles ten, of a squared or castellated

form, a little indented at top.

Height 13 to 2 tenths.

On shells and zoophytes from deep water: rather rare.

This species differs from the two former in the castellated .

form of the rim, and also in the shape of the cup, which is

broad at the base and lineated longitudinally ; the spherical ring

within the cup is also a distinguishing character. The pedicle

is long and quite smooth, with the exception of one or two rings

at its junction with the cell, and a slight spiral twisting at the

base. In this respect it differs from the C. volubilis of Van

Beneden, the cells of which, though differing in shape, have a

somewhat similar castellated rim, but the pedicle is short and

strougly annulated throughout. This latter will probably

constitute a fourth species. The C. Hincksii was first noticed

by Mr. Hincks, who described it in the ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.’ for

March 1853, as a curious variety of C. volubilis, from specimens

sent him by Mr. Templar from the West of England. I have

since met with it sparingly from deep water on the Northum-

berland coast. Mr. Hincks informs me that in his specimen the

ovicapsules were apparently smooth, but from their imperfect

state of preservation, this character was not satisfactorily made

out. My specimens are without capsules.

of British Hydroid Zoophytes. 361

Campanularia gracillima, nu. sp. Pl. XIV. figs. 5, 6

Stem erect, compound, subunilaterally branched; cells very

slender, long, tubular, thin, set on loosely twisted pedicles of

about two whorls: aperture entire.

Height 1 inch.

On shells and zoophytes from deep water, Northumberland

coast: occasionally.

This is a critical species, greatly resembling C. dumosa, from

which it can only be distinguished by comparative characters,

though its general appearance and habit at once strike the eye

as something distinct. It is much smaller than C. dumosa,

thinner in texture and more flexuose when fresh, with narrower

cells, set on longer pedicles. The stem is erect, and generally

compounded ae two or three tubes, diminishing to one at the

ends of the branches. It is a good deal branched, the branches .

often rising more from one side of the stem than the other.

The cells are long, very slender, thin and transparent, with a

smooth rim; they are set on pedicles, about one-fourth the

length of the cells, loosely twisted and making about two turns ;

they generally rise at a less angle from the stem than in

C. dumosa, and are more fragile, being very apt to fall off when

dry. The cells of C. dumosa, on the contrary, are more persistent

than in any other species of the genus. C. gracillima appears

usually to assume the erect form; only in one instance have I

observed it creeping over the surface of a shell near the base of

the ascending stem.

A Campanularia from Bass’s Straits, of which Mr. Busk has

sent me a drawing, is very similar to this, if not identical.

Genus GramMaria, Stimpson.

“ Polypidom rectilinear, elongated, cylindrical, composed of

aggregated tubes, generally without branches, which, when they

occur, are of the same character as that from which they spring.

Cells arranged on all sides in more or less regular and equi-

distant longitudinal rows, giving the section of the stem a star-

like appearance.” —Stimpson*.

G. ramosa, n. sp. Pl. XIV. figs. 1-4.

Polypary stout, horn-coloured, irregularly branched, the

branches rising from a constricted base: cells cylindrical,

bending outwar rds to a distance near ly equalling the width of

the stem, with an even margin, behind which they are fre-

quently annulated with one or two lines of growth ; they are

* Synopsis of the Marine Invertebrata of Grand Manan, p. 9. t. 1. f. 3.

362 On new genera and species of British Hydroid Zoophytes.

set in about four longitudinal rows, the adjoining cells alter-

nating, and the opposite cells nearly on a line with each

other.

Height 1 to 2 inches.

From the deep-water fishing-boats, on the coasts of North-

umberland and Durham: rather rare.

This species comes very close to the Grammaria robusta of

Stimpson, of which it may possibly be a variety, the principal

difference being that the British form is constantly branched,

while the American species is linear and straight. The genus is

new to Europe, and does not appear to differ much from the

Salacia of Lamouroux founded on an Australian species.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XII., XIII., XIV.

PLATE XII.

Figs. 1, 2. Vorticlava humilis, natural size and magnified.

Fig. 3. A tentacle of the lower row much enlarged.

Fig. 4. Ditto of the upper row ditto.

Figs. 5, 6. Eudendrium confertum, natural size and magnified.

Fig. 7. A polypary of the same, magnified.

Fig. 8. A tentacle contracted and very highly magnified.

Figs. 9, 10. Eudendrium capillare, natural size and magnified.

Fig. 11. A polype of the same, more highly magnified.

Fig. 12. Reproductive capsule (sperm-capsule?), more highly magnified.

PLATE XIII.

Figs. 1, 2. Sertularia tricuspidata, natural size and magnified.

Figs. 3, 4. tenella, natural size and magnified.

Fig. 5. Ovicapsule of the same.

Fig. 6. A polype-cell showing the operculum.

Fig. 7. Campanularia volubilis, highly magnified.

ig. Johnstoni, ditto.

Fig. 9. —— Hincksii, ditto.

WOnNIAS

PLATE XIV.

Fig.

. Grammaria ramosa, natural size.

. Another specimen magnified.

A portion of the same more highly magnified.

. A section of the stem of the same.

. Campanularia gracillima, nat. size.

. A portion of the same, magnified.

Os Ot OO DO

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 363

XXXI.—The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. By

Dr. ALeExanDER Braun, Professor of Botany in the Univer-

sity of Berlin, &c.* Translated by Cuas. Francis Srong, B.A.

[Concluded from vol. xvi. p. 354.]

Waite thus, on the one hand, all the facts seem to unite in

establishing the individual nature of the shoot, on comparing

shoots in their qualitative relations, phenomena are brought to

view which seem to contradict such a view of its individuality.

The higher departments of the animal kingdom usually present

as individuals, representatives of the specific type agreeing in all

essential respects, though, perhaps, not perfectly identical. The

fact of the separation of the sexes was all that modified this

view; and here, indeed, the essence of the species does seem

to be divided between two different individuals. Attempts have -

not been wanting to obviate this contradiction by the Platonic

doctrine of the original unity of the sexes, by the assertion of

Paracelsust ; that, in fact, the two together must be regarded as

the one real individual—and such like.

This contradiction to the usual view of what constitutes the

individual is shown in a far higher degree by qualitative compa-

risons of vegetable shoots, not merely of the same species, but

also of the same stock. Thus we see, e. g. in Equisetum arvense

(Field Horsetail), shoots totally different in aspect proceeding

from the same root-stock ; in early spring they are pale, disco-

loured, unbranched, terminating with a strobilaceous-like fruc-

tification ; later, green and foliaceous ones appear, verticillately

ramified. Investigations into subterranean vegetation show even

other varieties of shoot-for mation, viz. offsets dwindling down to

a point, and club-shaped buds which, at a later per iod, drop off

of themselves. The Colt’s-foot (Tussilag yo Farfara) presents

similar phenomena, in early spring putting forth leafless shoots,

with asparagus-like scales terminating with yellow capitula,

which in summer are followed by others bearing leaves. The

flowers in the little capitula of the first present a third variety

of shoots in their lateral branchlets. Even in common life we

distinguish leaf-buds from flower-buds, on many trees. Let us

consider this relation in the Cherry-tree, for example. On the

same branch we find, on the one hand, buds which develope into

branches bearing leaves, without producing flowers ; on the other

hand, some bearing only little squamate leaves on the shortened

* Reprinted from Silliman’s American Journal for January 1856.

+ “For this ye must know: man without woman is not a whole; only

with woman is he a whole. That is as much as to say: both together make

man, and neither alone.”

364 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

axis, from whose axils the flowers rise and form a third kind of

shoot.

On examining closer into the real origin of these differences,

we find their ground to be a partition of the different steps of

the metamorphosis (of the formations) among different shoots.

True, there are many plants which go through the whole series

of formations, from the inferior* and the foliaceous formations

up to flower and fruit ; but the cases are very numerous in which

this does not take place, and in which the single shoot is not

able to produce all the formations. Thus there are shoots which

are only able to realize the lower steps, and never attain to flowers

and fruit ; while others overleap all the inferior degrees and com-

mence immediately with the formation of flowers. Hence, on

the one hand, we see the metamorphosis interrupted, a stoppage

taking place at a determinate step; on the other, the metamor-

phosis attained by passing over the intermediate steps. Still

more remarkable are the cases in which the retardation is not

merely an mterruption at a determinate step, but appears as a

real retrogression in the metamorphosis, whereby an alternate

rise and fall—an oscillation—usually takes place, which may at

last pass over in victorious progress to the formation of flower

and fruit; though in most instances it prevents the shoot in

question from ever attaining itsend. Helleborus niger is an ex-

ample of the first case; for after many years of inferior- and

foliaceous-leaf formation, at last it attaims superior leaves and

fruit by overleaping the formation of foliaceous-leaves which

until then had prevented its further progresst. Many of our

trees with true foliage present examples of the second case.

Their branches commence with bud-scales (inferior-leaves), the

succeeding foliaceous branch ends with a terminal bud (thus

falling back to inferior-leaf formation), and in the next period of

vegetation they rise again to foliaceous-leaf formation {,—as in

* On the terminology of the leaf-formations, see Wydler, Bot. Zeit.

1844, S6tes Stiick, and A. Braun, Verjiingung, p. 66. (Henfrey’s Transl.

Ray Soc. 1853, p. 62.)

+ Analogous cases occur in the branches in Zsculus and many Maples

which attain to flowers. Among herbaceous plants Anemone nemorosa and

Asarum Europeum also belong here, and especially remarkable is the Tulip,

the plants of which, not yet ripe for flowering, annually develope one single

foliaceous leaf, followed by a central bud hidden in the middle of the bulb

and composed of several inferior-leaves. ‘This bud preserves this position

in bulbs deep in the ground, but in those nearer the surface it is, as it were,

led out of the centre of the bulb, and sinks deeper into the earth, causing

an indentation of the surrounding base of the preceding leaf in form like a

spur, boring through the old bulb and penetrating vertically into the

ground, and at the same time sinking itself into a deeper stratum with the

spur ;—an arrangement explained, but not with sufficient clearness, by

Henry in Nov. Act. Nat. Cur. vol. xxi. p. 275. t. 16 & 17.

+ In such librations, of course, the formation of the flower can only be

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 365

the Oak, Beech and Poplar. A similar oscillation between infe-

rior-leaf formation and foliaceous-leaf formation, keeping pace

with the change of season, is seen in the creeping main-shoot of

Adoxa, and in the stock of Hepatica nobilis, creeping close to the

soil, with its short internodes, and which in so far deserves its

French name (a fille avant la mére) as its flowers, which unfold

before the foliage, do not belong to the same individual as the

foliage, but are produced laterally as a “ daughter generation ”’

from the axils of the inferior-leaves of the maternal stem *. A

similar phenomenon, only in a higher degree (a rising and fall-

ing between foliaceous- and superior-leaf formation), is presented

by those plants whose inflorescence ends in a foliaceous coma, as

is remarkably the case in the Pine-Apple, and also in the New

Holland species of Melaleuca and Callistemon, whose crowded,

brush-like inflorescence (7. e. the region covered with superior-

leaves and bearing the flowers in the axils of these) returns and ,

forms foliaceous-leaves, and in the following year again attains

an inflorescence.

While every leaf-formation may bring the progress of the

metamorphosis on a single shoot to a consummation, it is con-

ceivable that one shoot may be allowed to each step for itself

alone. Thus, there are shoots which represent inferior-leaf

formation alone; e.g. the root-stock of Paris quadrifolia, the

tuberiferous branches of the rhizoma of the Potato+; and there

attained by particular branches, deviating in character from the rest,—the

catkins which pass over leaf-formation advancing from the inferior-leaves

immediately to the superior-leaves out of whose axils the flowers are

emitted.

* The same obtains in Galanthus nivalis, in which every annual gene-

ration consists of one inferior-leaf, one foliaceous-leaf with a vagina, and

one without a vagina, which follow each other in simple alternation, in a

distichous arrangement. The flower, as a branch, is emitted from the axil

of the second foliaceous-leaf, while the direct continuation of the shoot re-

turns again to inferior-leaf formation. In striking contrast to the extremely

simple relations of this plant we find Ovalis tetraphylla and other species

of that genus, in which the subterraneous main-stem also presents an alter-

nation of inferior-leaf formation and foliaceous-leaf formation, advancing

with the change of season, but conjomed with a rare abundance of leaves

and a complicated phyllotaxis. The number of the inferior-leaves amounts

to several hundreds; and transverse sections of the bulbs, which last

through the winter and are formed by the close approximation of these

leaves, form some of the prettiest specimens of phyllotaxis, showing 21-15

arrangement through easily computable 8-, 13- and 21-ranked oblique

spirals. The number of the foliaceous-leaves is not so large ; they develope

in the summer, and form an 8- to 13-leaved rosette, out of which the axil-

lary inflorescences issue, with their long peduncles.

+ In case (as sometimes occurs) the tuber does not pass through this

formation and advance to foliaceous-leaf formation. The tuber is the

thickened apex of the inferior-leaf shoot. Cf. the figure by Turpin, Mém.

du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. t. 19. pl. 2.

366 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

are some which are endowed with the foliaceous-leaf formation

only, as the primary axis of many species of Veronica, the sterile

leafy branches of several Euphorbia, as well as the leafy branches

of those woody growths which have no bud-scales and no terminal

inflorescence (e. g. Rhamnus Frangula). Cases of pure superior-

leaved shoots may be seen in the peduncles of Veronica Cha-

medrys, officinalis, &e., in the (always lateral) spike-bearing

scapes of Plantago, and the racemes of Convallaria majalis, which

shoot out of the axil of the highest lower-leaf as branches. Even

the leaf-formation belonging to the flower can be divided among

different shoots, and thus the flowers may be produced piece-

meal, so to say; as is the case in all dicecious plants, where

the two most essential formations of the flower (the stamens and

pistils) are found, not in the same flower, but in two separate

ones. Even the less essential parts of the flower, the sepals and

the petals, may occur separated from the other particular shoot-

lets; as may be seen in the neutral flowers in the coma of the

spike of Muscari comosum and in the ray-flowers of the cyme of

Viburnum Opulus. The destitution of the shoot may be carried

so far as to cause it to produce but one single leaf, or one single

formation (whether from the sphere of the plant-stock, or from

that of the leaves) ; in which case the individual represents only

one single organ; as, for instance, in the branches which form

the axis of the inflorescence in Vicia monantha and other Legu-

minosz with racemes reduced to one flower, bearing one single

superior-leaf, from whose axil the flower proceeds. The male

flower of Euphorbia is a peduncle whose flower consists of one

single stamen*. Must we, now, still regard as individuals, these

* The genuine cases will be of rare occurrence if we look at the cases

which belong here rigorously, that is, if we take into account the dwarfed

foliaceous formations which may possibly exist, suppressed or scarcely dis-

cernible. The male flower of Euphorbia itself properly belongs here only

in appearance, as two small scales (inferior-leaves) occur, more or less de-

veloped, at the base of the peduncle. The small involucre of the male

flower proceeds to develope itself out of one of these scales. (Cf. Wydler,

Linnea, ]843, p. 409.) Another example of a one-leaved shoot (though a

spurious one) is presented in the Californian Pinus monophyllos (Fremont),

whose lateral branchlets bear a fascicle of needle-shaped leaves reduced to

one single needle: but this, as well as the pair of such leaves of our ordi-

nary Pines, is preceded by a vagina composed of several bud-scales.

Perhaps another deception is played upon us in this ease, for the perfectly

round form of this needle excites the suspicion that it may be composed of

two which have grown together through their whole length. The seed-

bearing fruit-scales of the cone of Abietine, which are placed in the axils

of the scales, also appear to be one-leaved shoots; but the series of changes

which these scales present in cones of Pinus Larix which have completed

their growth, proves that these fruit-scales are composed of two concrete

leaves. The spurious axis of the Grape is a concatenation of alternating

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 367

shoots, so partially endowed, and the last-named so destitute ?

Certainly. For if the individual can fall short, though ever so

little, of the perfect realization of the specific idea, then there

are no limits to its imperfection and destitution ; for, after all,

the realization of this vegetable Idea by the different members

of the vegetable kingdom is precisely similar to the realization

of the species by its single individuals. To be sure, our idea of

a plant implies that it shall manifest its life in a series of suc-

cessive formations, that it shall put forth its leaves, flowers and

fruit by successive steps ; and yet there are plants which produce

no leaves and no fruit (the Cryptogamia) ; again, there are others

which hasten on to form flower and fruit with various inter-

missions of the regular steps, as is especially the case with the

ugly parasites destitute of that green foliage which elsewhere is

so characteristic a product of the vegetable world*. One of

these (the Hydnorat, which preys upon the root of the South

African Euphorbie) seems entirely devoid of all the foliage which

is usually formed before the flower. Hence, therefore, in gene-

ral we cannot necessarily regard individuals as perfect repre-

sentatives of the specific idea, and hence, too, we cannot regard

them as representations invariably identical in their realizations.

Individuals appear rather as living attempts, by which the Idea

is more or less attained, and is thus realized with various modi-

fications. From this point of view even the differences in indi-

one- and two-leaved leaf-shoots, if we do not count the one or two little

dwarfed superior-leaves, which im most cases are perceptible on the apex of

the single shoot which finally forms a cirrhus. Ophioglossum presents a

genuine case of a one-leaved shoot. The spike of this plant is a single

fertile leaf, standing in the axil of the sterile one, and hence belonging to

a lateral axis, of which however nothing is perceptible but this leaf. (Cf.

Schnitzlein, Icon. fam. nat. Heft 11. t. 32.) The utriculus of Carex is the

solitary leaf of an axis which in its normal condition developes no farther,

and out of which, as the axillary formation of the utriculus, the female

flower is emitted. And the so-called neutral flower of Panicum, and the

allied Grasses, is a shootlet which developes nothing but one leaf (the

bract of the flower).

* Orobanche, Lathrea, Monotropa, Cynomorium, all of which agree in

the inferior-leaf formation passing immediately into superior-leaf formation,

and thus the formation of foliaceous-leaves is omitted. In the celebrated

Rafflesia the immense flower is preceded by bud-scales only, which must

be considered as the inferior-leaf formation. The same occurs in Frostia,

which preys upon the branches of arborescent Leguminose, and which re-

sembles a mere flower so much, that one might doubt whether it is merely

a monstrous papilionaceous flower or a real parasite. (Cf. Endlicher, Gen.

Plant. p. 76; and Guillemin, Nouv. Ann. des Se. Nat. ii. t. 1; and as to

parasites in general, Unger, Annalen d. Wiener Museums, part 2.)

+ E. Meyer, Nov. Act. Acad. L. C. Nat. Cur. xvi. 2. p. 771. t. 58 & 59,

and R. Brown, On the female flower and fruit of Raffesia and Hydnora,

1844, pl. 6-9.

368 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

viduals, as pointed out by the doctrine of shoots, within the

limits of vegetable species, will no longer surprise us; on the

contrary, it will open to us a deeper insight into that independ-

ence presented to us even in the life of nature, in the realization

of the internal problems of the creation.

But here, too, as is so variously the case in nature, the regu-

lative law is admirably united to the free configuration ; for what

gives a peculiar interest to the differences among shoots in the

same species is the regular reciprocal relation among the shoots,

as they reciprocally complete each other by their very one-sided-

ness, and thus form a higher whole. In this respect the quali-

tative difference of shoots bears a certain relation to their origin,

that is, to the order of ramification to which they belong. And

as the formation of shoots, as was shown, is a process of propa-

gation, we see here, in the history of the development of the

species, propagation taking the place of individual development.

A second individual takes up the thread of reproduction which

the preceding one was unable to carry any farther. Thus, what

we are accustomed to see elsewhere attained in the individual, is

here reached by the generation in a more or less strictly deter-

mined cycle ;—in other words, where the single shoot is inca-

pable, a determinate succession of shoot-series arises to bring the

internal problem of its existence to a consummation,—to com-

plete the metamorphosis into flower and fruit. This remarkable

phznomenon,—which is a very frequent one in the vegetable

kingdom, and is one of the essential characteristics of many of

the most important families of plants, e. g. the Grasses, Synan-

theree, Labiatifloree, Cruciferea, Leguminosae, &c.,—is the same

as that which in the animal kingdom (in whose lower orders it

reappears) was, we cannot say discovered, but brought to a

clearer comprehension not long since by the Norwegian natu-

ralist Sars*, completed and confirmed by Von Siebold’s inyesti-

gations into the history of the development of Medusa auritat,

and soon after substantiated in its universality by the Dane,

Steenstrup, under the name of “ aiternation of generation,” or

propagation and development by alternate series of generations f.

Single cases of alternation of generation had been already care-

fully observed §; but they were too much in opposition to the

* In Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1844, where the observations published in the

author’s earlier works, on the adolescent states of Medusa, are completed

and concluded.

+ Beitrage zur Naturgesch. der wirbellosen Thiere. ee 1839.

+t Ueber d. Generationswechsel, iibersetzt von Lorenzen, Copenhagen,

1842.

§ Bonnet’s industrious observations, the first that were made, of the

alternating mode of reproduction of Aphis, published in his ‘ Traité de

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 369

usual mode of reproduction to be understood in their true mean-

ing. It was attempted to reconcile them with the customary

mode by an unnatural interpretation, which regarded them as

subversive exceptions to the general rule; while on the contrary

almost all later works* bring to light a multitude of unexpected

facts which take their places naturally under the law of alter-

nation of generation as now known, and substantiate the perti-

nent words of Goethe with which Steenstrup opens his Memoir:

“ Nature keeps on her course, and what seems an exception is in

rule.” It was Sars, however, who first gave the answer to the

riddle, the key to the newly opened domain, when he said of the

course of development of Medusa, that here “it was not the in-

dividual, but the generation, which underwent the metamor-

phosis+.” This was the true point of view; for Steenstrup

dwelt too exclusively on the physiological side, the functional

relations, of the alternating generations. Steenstrup, in fact,

V’Insectologie’ in 1745, though made in 1740, belong here. Also Cha-

misso’s correct observations of alternation of generation m Salpa, described

in his Memoir, De Animalibus quibusdam e classe Vermium Linnzana,

Fasc. 1, 1819. Fragments in regard to the alternation of generation of

Trematoda were known (but as such they did seem very enigmatical) by

Bojanus’s Beschreibung d. kénigsgelben Wiirmer (the “nurses” of Tre-

matoda according to Steenstrup) aus welchen Cercarien (the larvee of the

final generation) herauskommen (Isis, 1818), and by von Bauer’s important

work on Cercari@ and the related Bucephalus (Beitrage zur Kenntniss d.

niederen Thiere, Act. Nat. Cur. vol. xin. 1827).

* Of the later works, by which the field of alternation of generation has

been extended, I will adduee in particular: Sars, Fauna litoralis Norvegie,

1846, in which the sections especially important in relation to alternation

of generation are those on Syncoryna, Podocoryna, Perigonimus, Cytais,

as well as on Agalmopsis, Diphyes, and Salpa.— Van Beneden, Recherches

sur l’Embryogénie des Tubulaires (1814); Mém. sur les Campanulaires de

la céte d’Ostende (1845, in the Mém. de l’Acad. Roy. de Bruxelles, t. xvii.) ;

Recherches sur ’Anat., la Physiol. et le Dével. des Bryozoaires (Mém. de

YAcad. Roy. de Br. t. xvui.).— Dujardin, Sur le Dével. des Méduses et des

Polypes hydraires (Ann. des Se. Nat. Nov. 1845).—Krohn, Bemerkungen

uber die Geschlechtsverhiltnisse d. Sertularinen (in Miiller’s Archiv, 1843,

R 174); Ueber d. Fortpfl. u. Entw. der Biphoren (Froriep’s neue Notizen,

No. 868, 1846).—Busch, Beob. itiber Anat. u. Entw. d. Infusorien (Arch.

f. Naturgesch. xv. p. 92). How great an importance must be attributed to

the discovery of alternation of generation in dispelling the darkness which

until then settled on the history of the life and development of Hntozoa,

may be seen in particular in Siebold’s pregnant communications in R.

Wagner’s Handworterbuch d. Physiologie, p. 640 (Article: Parasiten).

+ Sars, /.c. p.29. This assertion, of course, must not be understood as

if the particular generation did not come in for its part of a metamorphosis.

Sars’ view is most beautifully corroborated by a comparison with plants ;

as in plants the metamorphosis of the individual itself is connected with

the formation which leads to the completion of new parts, which in their

turn have their own subordinate metamorphosis.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 24

370 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

considered that the significance of alternation of generation con-

sisted in its being an organic nursing of the brood connected

with particular generations, for which reason he termed the in-

dividuals of ¢hese generations “nurses ;’—a mode of viewing

the subject, which, with all Steenstrup’s pregnant elaboration of

his idea, and with all the analogies he pointed out between it

and the well-known phenomena of nursing the brood by parti-

ticular individuals among bees, wasps, ants and termites, does

not seize the essential point of the phenomenon of alternation

of generations*. R. Leuckart+ conceives alternation of gene-

ration from a more comprehensive physiological point of view,

in connexion with the totality of all the other phenomena of

the formation of different individuals, whether it occurs in a dif-

ferent or in the same generation; regarding all these pheno-

mena from the point of view of a division, not merely of the

generic task, but of the vital task in general, among certain in-

dividuals ; considering it as a polymorphism determined by a

division of labour. But even this view must lead to the mor-

phological one ; for the division of labour is determined by the

organic development, while this itself obtains its peculiar cha-

racter from the determinate step of the metamorphosis at which

the development ceases ;—and this is just what is so unmis-

takable in the phenomena of alternation of generation in plants.

Hence as a typical phenomenon of development, as a metamor-

phosis of generation, alternation of generation (as well as the

metamorphosis of the individual) presents analogies with the

graduated series in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and

the organic scale of the creation, in general ;—a point to which

* Steenstrup’s explanation is most correct in regard to the history of the

development of Distoma, whose nurses and grand-nurses are at last utricles

entirely filled with the brood, and forming mere receptacles of the brood,

Its application is less happy to those cases where the transition from the

preparatory generations to the final generation takes place through external

shoot- or bud-formation, as in Sertularie, Campanularia, and Coryne,

whose nurses forming the polype-stem can continue to live even after the

concluding generations, comparable to the flower in plants, separate or

wither off. Hence the vital activity of the preparatory generations is not

exhausted in the production of the brood. Steenstrup’s view, accordingly,

would only be correct if non-sexual brood-production (by internal or ex-

ternal shoot-formation or by division) and alternation of generation were

correlative conditions of each other. But this is not the ease, as repro-

duction by shoots takes place without any alternation of generation in a

great number of animals (Ascidia, Bryozoa, Madrepora), and by division

as well (Astrea, Annulata, Infusoria). These cases aré comparable to the

occurrence of unessential branches in plants ; while alternation of generation

represents the succession of essential shoots.

+ Ueber d. Polymorphismus d. Indiv. od. d. Ersch. der Arbeitstheilung

in d. Natur. Ein Beitrag z. Lehre y. Generationsw. (1851).

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 371

Carus* called attention, and Reichert, his predecessor, as

well.

The difficulties which the qualitative differences of shoots of

one and the same species seem to present to our conception of

shoots as individuals, will be entirely obviated if we can demon-

strate that a partial outfit and equipment of individuals, perfectly

analogous to those found among plants, are likewise found in

the animal kingdom, where in most cases there is less doubt as

to what is an individual,—if we can show that in both kingdoms,

and in a similar manner, a polymorphism of individuals occurs

which depends upon a division of the steps of development and

of the vital problem of the species among individual members,

whether of the same generation (divisions of generation), or of

different generations cyclically succeeding each other (alternation

of generation).

Let us first compare the phenomena of alternation of gene- -

ration (or, as it should be called, cyclical succession of gene-

rations) in both kingdoms}. As is the case in the alternation

* Zur naheren Kenntniss. d. Generationsw. (1849); and, Einige Worte

ib. Metam. u. Generationsw. (von Siebold u. Kolliker, Zeitschr. f. wiss.

Zool. ii. 1851, p. 359).

+ These remarks on alternation of generation in plants, do not depend,

as one might perhaps be disposed to think, upon a zoological doctrine

fancifully applied to plants. But I recognized the phenomenon as the

same, and I treated of it in my papers, if not under the same name, still in

the same meaning, before my attention was called to the occurrence of this

phznomenon in the animal kingdom by Steenstiup’s work. As soon as

the doctrine of the shoot as the vegetable individual was assumed in all its

consequences, a determinate succession of generations emitted one from

the other necessarily appeared to be the ground of the flower’s first making

its appearance in many plants im a determinate degree of ramification, and

of the occurrence of a determinate succession of steps in the series of axes

up to this goal, caused by a peculiar partition of the leaf-formations.

Hereby the essential shoot-succession. which is the one which represents

alternation of generation, was accurately distinguished from the unessential

one. Twenty years ago, or more, C. Schimper distinguished between

essential and unessential shoots, denominating the first (in a wider sense of

the word) “ Ableger”’ [ off-sets], the latter “ Ausleger”’ [out-sets]. In the

‘Versammlune d. Naturforscher in Mayence in the autumn of 1842, I made

a communication on this subject, and at the same time in particular I

ealled attention to the frequent importance of the characteristics involved

in these relations when applied to improving the differentiation and group-

ing of species. Of this communication a report appeared in the ‘ Flora’ for

1842, p. 962, though, indeed, somewhat distorted by maccuracies. Wydler

treated the same subject in the ‘ Bot. Zeit.’ 1844, St. 37, under the heading

* Achsenzahl der Gewichse,” and gives a compendium of examples, in

which, however, much appears which needs qualification. As Wydler in-

forms us, Aug. de St. Hilaire is said to have turned his attention to ascer-

taining the number of essential axes in plants ; however, I find nothing in

the place referred to in the ‘ Lecons de Botanique ’ but the distinction be-

tween determinate and indeterminate growth, which has been known since

24+

372 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

of generation of animals, a twofold reproduction appears in

plants: sexual and non-sexual. Disregarding for the present

the various relations of alternation of generation among the

Cryptogamia, we find sexual reproduction (in animals by ferti-

lized ova,—in plants by fertilized seeds) always vested in the

generation which concludes the cycle of generations. That the

consideration of this generation as the concluding one is not

arbitrary, is shown by comparing it with the usual course of

the metamorphosis ; for the concluding generation is invested

with the concluding formations of the metamorphosis (flower

and fruit), in the same way in fact as in the animal the complete

development of the organs of generation occurs at the summit

of the individual metamorphosis. The preceding (preparatory)

generations, which Steenstrup calls “nurses,” on the contrary

invariably produce their brood by non-sexual reproduction; im

the animal kingdom this takes place, now through germ-granules

which develope in the interior of the body (as the nurses of

Distoma), now by a process of division in the posterior part of

the body (the nurse of the Medusa, the Tape-worm), or finally

by external, persistent or deciduous, shoot-formations (Coryne,

Campanularia, Sertularie, &e.). Among Phanerogamia the last

is the only kind occurring subservient to alternations of gene-

ration. , ;

In animals, as in plants, the number of the generations in

which the cycle of alternation of generation is completed, is for

the most part a determinate one. Medusa, Salpe, Coryne, and

Tubularie conclude this cycle in the second generation : according

to Steenstrup’s showing, Distoma pacificum has a trimembral

alternation of generation, and the family stock of Pennatula

seems also to be formed by a trimembral succession of shoots.

Campanularia has a quadrimembral cycle, in which however the

two first generations are of the same character. Among Sertu-

larie, cycles of still more numerous members appear to occur:

eight to ten generations form the annual cycle of generation of

Joachim Jung’s time, and was brought forward especially by Roeper and

applied by him to classifying inflorescences. It is exemplified, in that place,

by creeping stems, upright root-stocks, and by bulbs; and the section on

indeterminate stems is unluckily exemplified by wrong cases, viz. Scirpus

palustris, Primula officinalis, and Menyanthes, to which indeterminate

main-shoots are falsely ascribed.—Steenstrup also lays down an alter-

nation of generation in plants, in the coneluding remarks in his work

quoted above, as well as in his later book, ‘ Ueber das Vorkommen des

Hermaphroditismus in der Natur’ (On the Phenomenon of Hermaphro-

ditism in Nature), though in an entirely different manner from mine as

here given; for he compares the single leaves of the plant with the indi-

vidual in animals,—a mode of viewing the subject in regard to which I

have already expressed my opinion in the Introduction.

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 373

Aphides, though, excepting the last one, they are all similar and

not even determinate as to number.

To these examples from the animal kingdom much more nu-

merous ones from the vegetable kingdom might be added, though

I will only adduce a few of them here. Most Labdiatiflore,

Synantheree, Grasses, Polygalee, Primulacee, the Dictamnus,

Tris, Galanthus nivalis, &c., have a bimembral alternation of

generation in different ways, according to the partition of the

formations. In Paris, for example, the first generation takes

the lowest grade: it presents a subterranean inferior-leaf shoot

(rhizoma), which never leaves the darkness of the earth, only

reaching the world of light, towards which all plants strive, in

its posterity, viz. in the quadrifoliate and unifloral lateral shoots

which it sends up. The first generation of Viola odorata and

allied species forms foliage proper ; still, the main axis tarries

close to the earth, and the second generations (the lateral flowers)

scarcely rise above the foliage. In Lysimachia nummularia the

main-shoot, a rooting leaf-stem, creeps along the surface of the

ground, growing indefinitely, and terminating only in the (essen-

tial) lateral branches by its golden-yellow flowers. The main-

shoot rises perpendicularly, forms foliage proper, and passes

on to superior-leaf formation in many species of Veronica, e. g.

V. acinifolia, producing its flowers as a second generation out of

the axils of the leaves. The same holds good in regard to Oro-

banche ramosa, which fixes itself and preys upon the root of

Hemp, though its main-shoot has no green leaves. A very re-

markable bimembral alternation of generation is shown by Adoza,

now so famous, its name to the contrary notwithstanding*. The

main-shoot creeps along the ground, oscillating with the seasons

between leaf and inferior-leaf formation,—at every return of the

latter stretching out like a runner and boring into the earth.

Flowers and fruit, frustrated by the invariable retrogression of

the main-shoot, are produced by the aspiring perpendicular

branches, after a pair of small leaves on the scape, and several

insignificant superior leaves, out of whose axils the lateral flowers

are emitted as unessential shoots of the third degree. Hepatica

presents a similar division of the formations among the two ge-

nerations of shoots ; but the main-shoot, rejuvenated from year

to year and alternating between inferior-leaf and leaf formation,

is short and upright. The branches with their single flowers,

forming the second generation, arise in the axils of the scale-like

inferior-leaves. A bimembral succession of shoots occurs in

Convallaria Polygonatum, the genus Aloe, all species of Plantago,

* E. g. Adoxa moschatellina, which derives its name from dd£a (fame).

The relations of growth in this plant have been correctly described by

Wydler, Bot. Zeit. 1844, p. 657.

874 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

Veronica officinalis, Chamedrys, &c., Viola sylvatica, Lysimachia

thyrsifolia, Alyssum sazatile, and some other Crucifere, Eeheveria

coccinea, all the species of Melilotus, Medicago, Galega, in Pisum,

and many other leguminous plants, and in Succisa pratensis,

Anacye lus, Pyr et a, Polygonum, Bistorta, &e. A familiar ex-

ample oceurs in Secale : its spiciferous culm forms the shoot of

the first degree, the lateral spikelets which compose the spike

itself are those of the second*, and the florets in the axils of the

superior leaves (pale) of these spikelets are the shoots of the

third degree, 7. e. the third generation of the cycle. A quadri-

membral succession of shoots occurs in Trifolium montanum,

Hedysarum coronarium, and in several of the New Holland phyl-

lodineous Acacia. Several species of Carex, e. g. C. maxima and

leptostachys, ave a trimembral succession of shoots up to the

male flower and a five-membral one up to the female.

If we were to reckon the similar generations which are reared

one above the other until the tree gains strength enough to per-

fect its flowers, in many trees without terminal buds, as in the

Willow, or the Lime+, we might find a number of generations

equal or even much superior to that presented by Aphis.

Besides the generation essential to itself, and by which it gives

existence to the next grade in the cycle, every generation may

have still another unessential reproduction, which only extends

the same grade. As above we distinguished between essential

and unessential shoots, so here accordingly we must distinguish

an essential succession of generations,—the true alternation of

generation,—and an unessential one. Very often both occur in

the same species of plants. A fine example of this is shown in

Lysimachia nummularia, from whose creeping and rooting leaf-

axis are emitted not only peduncles, but here and there a new

creeping leaf-axis exactly repeating the original one (except as to

the two early-lost cotyledons) : and from the undetermined leaf-

bearing main-axis of Tropeolum minus are emitted in regular

alternation three lateral flowers at a time, and then again one

(unessential) leaf-shoot. Im Cardamine amara the first genera-

tion (the stem bearing foliaceous and superior leaves) is repeated

in a twofold manner, by lateral branches from the cauline leaves,

and by creepers from axils of the root-leaves. Similar relations

obtain in Mentha and a large number of other plants. This

same phzenomenon is repeated in the animal kingdom. The

polype-like nurses of the Medusa increase as such (according to

Sars and Von Siebold) by lateral buds and runners. Syncoryne

* Secale, in fact, has no terminal spicule ; neither has Triticum mono-

coccum, while the other cultivated species of Triticum have.

+ Ihave described the Grape in reference to this subject in another

place (Verjiingung, p. 49) [Henfrey’s Transl. op. cit. p. 46}.

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 375

are spadix-polypi, which represent trees by their formation of

unessential branches, emitting finally from every branch and

from the middle stock a whorl of individuals of the second (and

last) degree. Campanularie and Sertularie put forth runners

from the bases of the main-individual, which again shoot up

and become new main-stems, or new stems emerge out of

them; and perhaps the ramifications of Bucephalus (which

according to Steenstrup’s supposition is the larva of Aspido-

gaster conchila), as represented by Baer in Nov. Act. Acad. Nat.

Cur. xiii. 2, belong here.

In our qualitative comparison of shoots, it was shown how

the shoot may be limited to a few leaves, or even to a single

one ; in like manner the animal individual, in the division of

réle which occurs in alternation of generation, may become the

representative of one single organ, of one single function.

Thus the females of Coryne squamata are hardly anything more -

than egg-stocks, and the males than sperm-stocks*. The mem-

bers of the Tape-worm, which are so many individuals of the final

generation, hardly represent anything more than hermaphrodite

sexual apparatus. As an analogous example in the vegetable

kingdom perhaps the Willow+ may be compared to the Coryne ;

here too the shoots of the last degree are nothing but naked

unisexual apparatus of reproduction. In Potamogetont, on the

contrary, they are hermaphrodite, as in the Tape-worm. The

construction of many of the lower animals, which when con-

sidered as individual animals seem to be the strangest monsters,

becomes more intelligible as soon as they are regarded from this

point of view,—as soon as we make up our minds to regard the

supposed individuals as a family stock, and its parts (formerly

held to be mere organs, and which, physiologically considered,

are really nothing more) as individuals. In particular this is

true of Physophora, Stephanomia and Agalmopsis.

In many cases we find alternation of generation connected

with division of generation, that is, the appearance of hetero-

geneous individuals in one and the same generation. Just as is

the case in animal and vegetable forms without alternation of

generation, so, where it is connected with alternation of gene-

ration, division of generation relates principally to the sexual

functions ; and a glance at the animal kingdom shows us rela-

tions of alternation of generation complicated by division per-

* Hence Rathke regards the male individuals as mere testicles. Cf.

Wiegm. Archiv, 1844, p. 155, and Steenstrup, Hermaphr. tab. 1. f. 17-20.

+t The two stamens in the Willow, and the floriferous bud as well, are

Ee by only two very small bracts, which grow together and form a

e scale.

{ The flowers of Potamogeton are branches which bear only stamens

and carpels.

376 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

fectly similar to those which occur in the vegetable kingdom.

In animals which go through an alternation of generation, the

individuals of the preparatory generations are non-sexual ; still

they may nevertheless have a determinate importance in relation

to the completion of the race which is to form their posterity.

When in fact the final generation does not consist of hermaphro-

dite individuals, as obtains, for instance, in the Tape-worm,

various alternations are conceivable: the final individuals of both

sexes can be nourished by the same nurse, and hence the sexual

division will first take place in the second, or generally speaking,

in the last generation; or, different nurses may nourish the

two sexes, so that a division of generation will occur even at

the degree of nurse-formation. If im the last case the nurses

are not single ones, but even then form per se a family stock,

then on the same stock we may either have male-bearing and

female-bearing nurses together, or these two kinds of nurses

may be divided among different stocks, according as the division

of generation occurs in a determinate later generation, or is

present already im the first. Although as yet the observations

of these relations by no means form an unbroken chain*, still

this much is certain, that in animals, in the same way as in

plants, both moncecious and dicecious forms occur; and hence

there are families partly bisexual, partly unisexual. Coryne,

Tubularie, Campanularie, and probably all Sertularie (hence,

doubtless, the greater part of Hydroids), also Veretillum, Cyno-

morium, according to Steenstrup, Krohn, and other observers,

are dicecious, whether they form small simple stocks, as Coryne

squamata, or small ramified trees, as Syncoryne, Campanulariet,

&e. On the other hand, the Siphonophora, according to Milne-

Edwards’s description of Stephanomiat (and judging from Sars’

description of Agalmopsis), are monoecious family stocks ; Hydre

are also moncecious§. ‘To enter any further into these relations

as they occur in the lower animals would lead us too far from

our subject ; but it may be in place to give some details as to

* Thus, e. g., as far as I know, it remains to be shown whether the

single nurses of Meduse produce Meduse of both sexes, or, as is most

probable, only those of the same sex. In Aphis also this point still needs

to be more accurately determined.

+ Steenstrup, Hermaphr. pp. 66, 67, 72.

+ Ann. des Se. Nat. 1841, p. 217. pl. 7-10.

§ The later investigations into the Siphonophora by Huxley, Edin. Phil.

Journ. 1852, Kolliker, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. 1852, and Leuckart, Zool.

Untersuch. Heft 1, 1853, corroborate the moncecious relations of these won-

derful creatures as regards most of their genera, e.g. Agalma, Agalmopsis,

Stephanomia (Apolemia), Physophora, and the other closely related genera.

Busch’s researches into the group of Diphyide have proved them to be

dicecious, and the same obtaims in the related genus Epibulia. (Later

note.)

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 377

the manifold relations under which sexual division of generation

occurs in plants.

Dicecious relations may occur without alternation of genera-

tion when, in fact, the flower has a terminal inflorescence and

no branches, or only unessential ones,—when, therefore, as it

is usually expressed, it is “umiaxial,” as e. g. in Rubus Cha-

memorus, Lychnis, and Visewn. Much more frequently, how-

ever, division of the sexes occurs in plants which at the same

time have a cyclical succession of shoots (alternation of genera-

tion),--a succession which each of the two heterogeneous stocks

passes through independently, and not always pari passu. This

is a circumstance which must not be neglected in considering

the differences of habitus nm male and female flowers. Thus, in

Mercurialis the female plant bears flowers even on the second

axis; in the male plant, however,—if I do not misunderstand

the inflorescence (a spike composed of small glomerules),—this.

first occurs on the third. In Carex dioica, vice versd, the male

plant flowers im the second line and the female in the third*.

In other dicecious plants, on the other hand, the male and female

flowers appear in the corresponding generation: e.g. in the

second, Stratiotes, Empetrum, and Taxus; in the third, Sala,

Populus, Myrica, Cannabis; im the fourth, Phaniz. In Hemp,

the extremely heterogeneous appearance of the inflorescence of

the male and female plants does not depend upon a division of

the flowers of the two sexes among different axes, but upon the

production of numerous unessential peduncles in the male inflo-

rescence}. ,

Moneecism necessarily presupposes a succession of shoots

(alternation of generation) ; in the simplest case at least for one

of the two sexes, as both cannot be united in the same terminal

flower ; but, vice versd, both may easily appear in determinate

(equal or unequal) degrees of ramification. The most important

circumstance to be considered in moneecious relations, consists

in both the sexes (7.e. the shoots which bear them) occurring

either subordinately or coordinately {, for one either arises out of

* The second axis, which is a complete dwarf or a mere bristly spine,

bears the so-called ‘ urceolus,’ in the axil of which the female flower is

placed, as the third member of the succession of generations.

+ The female flowers are placed at the sides of the primary branches

as branches of the second degree. In the same place where one single

flower occurs in the female plant, a furcately ramified inflorescence is found

in the male, produced by branching out of the two bracts of the original

flower.

+t Both these cases doubtless occur in the animal kingdom; the first

probably in Alcyonella, where the stock is said to be composed partly of

males and partly of females. As the stock is here formed by individuals

continually shooting out of each other, one sex must shoot out of the

378 Dr. A. Brann on the Vegetable Individual,

the other, or they both spring from a common mother-stem.

In the first case, the female flower usually belongs to the earlier,

the male to the later (subordinate) generation ; the male flower-

shoot springing from the female*, as e.g. in Euphorbia, Ricmus

and Poferium, in which the female flower terminates the main

axis, and the male occurs as a lateral shoot+. In Buaus the

female flower occurs as the second, the male as the third axis;

in many species of Phyllanthus (e. g. Ph. niruri), the female as

the third, the male as the fourth; in Xylophylla, the female (on

the margins of the spurious leaves) as the fourth, the male

arising from the bracts of the female flower (as in Phyllanthus)

as the fifth. In Momordica, Ecbalium, Cephalanthera, and some

other Cucurbitacee, the female flower, placed in the axils of the

foliaceous leaves of the main-stem, belongs to the third axis, and

the male to the fourth; for the third axis, which here arises

from the base of the peduncle of the female flower as main axis

of the racemose male inflorescence, is a superior leaf-shoot. In

the other cases,—in which the succession of shoots, in order to

arrive at the two kinds of flowers, separates into two coordinate

lines,—-both kinds of flowers may appear either immediately in

the first generation after this separation, or, since here again

preparatory generations are intercalated, in a later one. Further,

the number of the generations (axes) in the two lines arising

from the division, may be either equal or unequal. A few ex-

amples may serve to explain the manifold cases which thus

occur. In Musa, Myriophyllum and Sagittaria, the coordinate

male and female flowers appear in the first generation after the

separation, and in the whole as a second system of axes. Here

the female flowers stand in the lower, the male in the upper

part of the spicate or racemose inflorescence. The contrary

holds true of Cucurbita and the moneecious Bryoniet ; for here

other. The second case occurs in Agalmopsis (according to Sars), where

partly female (seminal vesicles) and partly male individuals grow out of

the same main-stem.

* The opposite case seems to occur very rarely or not at all. A mon-

strosity, which for some reasons might be adduced here, is found in Laria

Europea and Picea alba, in which transitions of the amentaceous male

flowers into female cones occur, where the fruit-scales are emitted from the

axils of stamens which are often only slightly abnormal.

+ As in all the examples adduced, the unessential aggrandizement of

the inflorescence must be disregarded, which occurs in Ricinus and Pote-

rium in the form of lateral female flowers emitted beneath the terminal

female flower.

+ Bryonia has apparently axillary racemes; but a more careful investi-

gation shows that they do not spring immediately out of the axil of the

foliaceous leaf, but (as secondary branches) out of the peduncle of a single

flower standing directly in the axil of the leaf which exactly corresponds to

_the flower in Cucurbita.

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 879

the earlier flowers, which appear in the axils of the foliaceous

leaves, are male; while the later ones, which appear on the

further continuations of the stems, are female. Arum* has

below female, in the middle male, and above again female flowers,

though these last are dwarfed and sterile. Likewise in the first

generation after the separation, but in the whole as the third

system of axes, we find both kinds of flowers in Pachysandra

and Acalypha, and here again, as is usually the case in inde-

terminate spicate inflorescences of mixed sexes, the female flower

is in the lower, the male in the upper part of the inflorescence.

The same obtains in moncecious Palms with axillary spadices;

though here the flowers appear in ramified spikes from the

fourth system of axes. When the flowers make their appearance

m the second generation after the division, they cannot easil

be united in the same inflorescence, and special male and female

inflorescences will arise. Thus, e. g., in Platanus, Liquidambar ,

and Sparganium, in which the female inflorescences occur on the

lower part of the main-shoot, and the male in the upper; like-

wise in Quercus and Fagus, though here, vice versd, the male in-

florescences are the lower, and the female the upper. Finally,

if the division of the succession of shoots is an unequal one in

the separated lines of generation leading to the two kinds of

flowers, 7. e. if the number of essential axes is unequal, it is

greater sometimes for one sex and sometimes for the other. In

the Walnut (Juglans) it is the male flower which attains the

higher degree of ramification ; in Xanthium, and the species of

Carex with separated male and female spikes, it is, on the con-

trary, the female flower+.

Other dimorphisms or even polymorphisms of the flowers,

more or less independent of sex, occur when the sexes appear

in the two different lines of generation ; for even among flowers

of the same sex, whether hermaphrodite, male, or female, differ-

ences often reveal themselves of a very striking character, which

are generally coordinate according to fixed laws of division of

generation. ‘Thus, in all Primule, and in several Labiate, two

kinds of hermaphrodite flowers occur, in a state of dicecious

* The inflorescence in Arum is terminal, as well as that in Calla.

+ In species of Carex with terminal male and lateral female spikes, the

male flower belongs to the first generation after the division, and the female

to the third. In most of the species where the shootlet which bears the

inflorescences is a continuation of the main axis of the plant, the male

flowers represent in general the second generation and the female the

fourth ; in those species, on the other hand, which have a shortened main

axis, which forms a mere rosette of leaves whence the shootlets bearing

the inflorescences proceed as branches, the male flower is the third system

of axes, and the female the fifth; as 4g. in C. maxima, leptostachys and

pilosa.

380 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

separation ; one with a large corolla and strongly developed

stamens (forma brevistyla), the other with a small corolla and

strongly developed pistils (forma longistyla). According to C.

Schimper’s observations* both forms occur at times in Labiate

even on the same stock and in the same inflorescence, e. g. in

Dracocephalum Moldavicum. Many species of Viola also produce

two kinds of hermaphrodite flowers on the same stock; early

ones of the usual form, and late ones without petals. In Viola

mirabilis the first arise directly out of the main-stem (as branches

of the first degree) and are mostly sterile, while the latter spring

from the foliaceous branches (as branches of the second degree)

and are fertile. In Impatiens, sterile flowers with perfect corollas

and apetalous fertile ones occur in the same raceme. The cases

in which normally formed above-ground and abnormally formed

under-ground flowers appear, belong here ; the latter have their

corolla developed slightly or not at all, and are merely female,

and, par excellence, fertile. If both kinds of flowers are fertile,

the subterranean fruit differs from that borne above the soil ;

such cases are found especially in the family of Leguminose, e.g.

in several species of Lathyrus and Vicia, in Amphicarpea, and

Arachis+ ; and also in the very remarkable Abyssinian Convol-

vulaceous plant, Hygrocharis Abyssinicat. Among the most

striking cases of dimorphous flower-formation are those described

by Jussieu § in Gaudichaudia, Camarea, and other Malpighiacee.

Here, besides the flowers conjoined in racemes or in corymbs,

and formed according to the common type of the family, other

apetalous flowers occur, standing alone and hidden in the axils of

the leaves. Besides the normally formed glandulose corolla,

they have only one stamen and two carpels. In several cases

the dimorphism of the flowers is confined to the formation of

the fruit alone, as e.g. in some species of A’thionema (espe-

cially 42. heterocarpum, Gay), which in the same raceme bear

partly dehiscent silicles with two cells and several seeds, and

partly one-celled and one-seeded indehiscent silicles. Cerato-

capnos\|, a North African genus of Fumariacee, bears in the

lower part of the spike oval, ribbed, one-seeded nutlets, and in

* Communicated in the Versamml. d. Natur. zu Wiesb. in Sept. 1852.

+ For details, vide Treviranus, Bot. Zeit. 1853, p. 393.

t Hochstetter, in Schimp. Iter Abyss. Nos. 572 & 1701. The same plant

is called Nephrophyllum Abyssinicum by Richard, Tent. Flor. Abyss. and

figured in pl. 76. The two kinds of flowers are emitted from the axils of

the foliaceous leaves of the same creeping stem; those provided with

corolla, stamens and pistil stand upright ; the others without corolla and

stamens bend down to the ground on their long peduncles.

§ Adr. de Jussieu, Monographie des Malpighiacées (1843).

|| Durieu, Explor. scient. de l’Algérie, pl. 78. Endlicher, Gen. Plant.,

Suppl. iv. p. 32.

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 381

the upper part, lanceolate two-valved and two-seeded siliques.

Polymorphism of flowers and fruit occurs in the most hetero-

geneous manner in the family of Composite; I will only refer

to Zinnia, Dimorphotheca, Heterotheca, Thrincia, Geropogon,

Crupina; and especially to Calendula, where the hermaphrodite

blossoms of the ray produce three different forms of fruit, so

that, including the male flowers of the disk, the capitulum

presents four different forms of flower-shoots (belonging to the

same generation). As somewhat similar cases in the animal

kingdom, the instances of dimorphal insects, of which there are

several, might be adduced*.

A separation of the series of generations into several distinct

lines occurs in fact not only as regards the flower, but also,

though less frequently, even among the inferior formations of the

plant ; this is especially the case where a particular lateral line

is allotted to the leaf as well as to the flower. The true Pines

afford the best known example of this. Their fascicles of needle- ~

shaped leaves are nothing but foliaceous branches of circum-

scribed growth +, which lie outside of the lime which leads to the

two kinds of flowers, while they are essential, as the leaf-forma-

tion appears on them alone{. Here the generation splits up

into three kinds of essential and coordinate shoots: Ist, the

small leaf-shoots, which, after some few inferior-leaves forming

the vagina, bear two, three, or five foliaceous leaves; 2nd, the

male flowers, or small shoots, which are provided with stamens

only ; 3rd, female inflorescence, shoots with superior-leaves (the

integumentary scales of the strobile) in whose axils the fruit-

scales of the cone are formed, belonging to a further system of

axes. In the animal kingdom cases analogous to these occur

in moneecious Siphonophora, especially in Stephanomia and

Agalmopsis, where even more than three kinds of coordinate

individuals are emitted from the main axis: in particular motory

individuals (the so-called Swimming-bells), nurses, the proboscis-

like formations or imbibing tubes, and as already mentioned,

two kinds of sexual individuals.

The differences of shoots thus far considered depend princi-

* The first in several species of Dyticus (D. marginalis, cireumcinctus,

Lapponicus, Reselii, according to Erichson, Gen. Dyticeorum, 1832, p. 31);

the last in Aphis Quercus, according to Bonnet.

+ That the fascicles of leaves in Pinus are branches, is proved by the

phenomenon of pererescence, which is not unfrequent, especially in young

Pines.

+ The main-stem, as well as all the elongated branches essentially

resembling the stem, bear only leaf-seales, which may be best compared to

bud-scales, and ascribed to the inferior-leaf formation. It is only in early

youth (in the first and second years) that the main-stem itself bears needle-

shaped leaves. :

382 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

pally upon this: one portion represents exclusively the vegeta-

tive formation, or a certain part thereof; the others represent

the degrees of formation which belong exclusively or principally

to the sphere of fructification. Hence, in regard to the division

of functions, to one portion the functions of nutrition are allotted,

to the others those of generation. For this reason the different

kinds of shoots of such a partial character must unite in a deter-

minate succession, and complete each other; and even those

which we have designated as unessential are of importance in

enriching, preserving, and increasing the plant-stock. Finally,

we have still to consider those shoot-formations which properly

do not belong either to the essential or the unessential succession

of shoots, but rather to an aberrant formation ; as they neither

conduce to the perfection of any of the common steps of the

metamorphosis, nor perform any essential physiological function

in the plant, but at the best are only of some service as organs

of defence, support, or adherence. These are the shoots which

take the form of thorns, bristles, hooks and tendrils, which for

the most part owe their peculiar abnormal character to an entire

suppression of the leaf-formation, and a final induration of the

point of vegetation: these seem to be the last, terminal or lateral

members of the generation, abortive in every respect. Not un-

frequently they form the last ramification of paniculate and

dichotomous inflorescences, like terminal flowerless peduncles,

as e.g. in Teloxys (Chenopodium aristatum, L.), Acroglochin,

and in a very peculiar form, branching and complicated by

aculeate or setiform leaf-formations, in Pupalia, Desmocheta,

Digera and Cometes*; also in Seleropus, where they take the

form of short, thick, cartilaginous stalks, with two converging

leaf-apicules. Among the Grasses they are known under the

form of bristles in Setaria. In many Rhamnaceous and Sapin-

daceous plants (Helinus, Cardiospermum) they appear as small

cirrhi; not as the last sterile ramifications of the inflorescence,

but on the contrary as the first, followed by other fertile

peduncles. They often occur in the axils of foliaceous leaves ;

and wherever they make their appearance they naturally arrest

the further succession of shoots, when they have neither of the

two leaves at their origin, out of whose axil an additional shoot

may be developed. This is the case in Passiflora, whose flower

* The plumose tails which form the “envelope” of Cometes are the

last branches of the dichotomous inflorescence, accompanied by similar

accessory (secondary and tertiary) branchlets. All these numerous sterile

branchlets are elongated and beset with setiform leaflets arranged in spiral

order (2), commencing with two similar anterior leaves. The direction

of the phyllotaxis in all these branchlets follows the law of fureate inflo-

rescence.

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 383

arises from the axil of a leaf situated at the side of the base of

the tendril. The thorns of Ononis, Hleagnus and Maclura*

present the same phenomenon. In other cases the succession

of generation thus arrested by the aculeate shoot is restored by

secondary formations; when, with the thorn, a second shoot

follows out of the axil, which in some cases may form a leaf-

shoot, and in others a flower-shoot. This happens in Gleditschia,

in several Acacie (e.g. A. pulchella), in Prinsepia utilist, the

Lemon, the Egyptian Balanites, Duranta, Bougainvillea and

Randia, in which the secondary shoot arises close under the

spine; while in Celastrus pyracanthust and Europeus, as well

as Pisonia aculeata$, the secondary shoot occurs above the

thorn. In Uncaria pilosa\| and Strychnos spinosa, pairs of

leaves with axillary thorns alternate with pairs which have

peduncles in their axils.

Have even these phenomena of extreme alienation of the

individual (as they occur in the thorns and hardened shoots of

plants) analogous forms in the animal kmgdom? Yes, I believe

they have! I believe I may assert that in the animal kingdom

itself there are individuals which occur as mere fixed claws,

pincers, scourges, tactile and predial filaments, &c.—individuals

which perform neither functions of nutrition nor of reproduction

in the society to which they belong, but which probably merely

assist in seizing the food, or lend a helping hand in defending

the community. The cases which I have here in mind are of

frequent occurrence among Bryozoa, and especially im the group

of Cellaria. Individuals in the form of horns (which usually

conclude the series of complete cell-inhabiting individuals)

occur, e.g. in Eucratea cornuta YJ and Cordierii** ; in another

form (reminding us of Je/oxys), as forked terminal spines, in

Vesicularia spinosat+. Moveable individuals, representing mere

weapons, in form like a bird’s beak, a crab’s claw, or a pincers,

appear in Acamarchis avicularia tt and flustroides§§, Retepora

cellulosa, Scrupocellaria scruposa\||| and many others. In the last-

* Here belongs also the curious hook of Uneinia, which is also visible,

though less developed, in many species of Carex. The utriculus is a leaf

at the base of this spine.

t+ Royle, [lustr. of the Bot. of Himal. pl. 38. fig. 1.

t Boissier, Voy. bot. en Espagne, t. 38.

§ Rheede, Hort. Malab. vii. t. 17.

|| Wallich, Plant. As. Rar. t. 170.

{{ Ellis, op. cit. pl. 21. f. 10 (Cellaria cornuta); M.-Edw., Ann. d. Se.

Nat. (1838) t. 8. f. 2 (Crisidia cornuta).

** Descrip. de 1 Egypte, Polypes, t. 13. f. 3.

+t Van Beneden, Rech. sur les Bryozoaires, t. 4. f. ¢.

tt Van Beneden, /.c. t. 6. f.1-8(Cellularia avicularia, Pall. Crisia avicu-

laria, Lamx.). §§ Ellis, op. cit. pl. 38. f. 7.

\||| Wan Beneden, J. c. t. 5. f. 8-16 (Cellaria scruposa, Auct.).

384 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

named Cellarie, besides the claw-individuals, there are also

scourge-individuals, which Van Beneden himself compared to

the cirrhi in plants, and which even Leuckart * acknowledges

to be individuals. Besides the ‘ Swimming-bells’ evidently re-

sembling Meduse, the peculiar retractile predial filaments of the

Stphonophora doubtless belong here also; they are remarkable

for a purplish-red swelling on or under the apex, and they shoot

out singly as branches from the stalk of the nutritive individual

(imbibing-tubes), and themselves bear a series of similarly

formed filaments as secondary branches. They are found with

unimportant departures from this form, especially in Physo-

phorat, Diphyest, and Aga/mopsis. In the last-named genus,

according to Sars§, they have even three modifications: the

spadiciferous terminal piece ends in a long simple filament, or

in a short two-parted one, or without any filament at all. In

Stephanomia\| numerous filaments, called tentacles, arise out of

the stalk of the nutritive animals (the so-called proboscis-formed

organs) without such coloured swellings, which in the same

manner may also be regarded merely as individuals with a very

incomplete outfit of organs4.

After having in the foregoing review regarded all lateral shoots

which spring from the main axis of the plant as real individuals,

however unimportant a fraction of the total specific character

they may realize, it will hardly be deemed surprising if we finally

apply this mode of view to the branches of the root and to ad-

ventitious shoots. It is only possible for the main-shoot to

develope freely both the points of vegetation of the axis; yet

* Polymorphism. p. 17.

+ Philippi, Miiller’s Archiv, 1843, taf. 5.

t Sars, Fauna lit. Norv. tab. 7. § Ib. tab. 5.

|| Milne-Edwards, Ann. d. Se. Nat. 1841, pl. 7-10.

€| Since Sars observed the separation of the Medusa-like sexual indi-

viduals in Agalmopsis, the view that Siphonophora are composite animal

stocks has gained ground more and more among zoologists. But this

mode of viewing the subject was for the first time carried out (after a

fashion) consistently in Leuckart’s latest work on strange animal forms

(Zool. Unters., erstes Heft, Siphonophoren, i853); and this idea had

forced itself upon me as early as 1847, when I compared the deserip-

tion of Diphyes with Agalmopsis, in Sars’ Fauna lit. Norv. In the above-

named work, Leuckart extends the view which allows individual import-

ance tothe parts of the stock of Siphonophora, not only to the tentacles

and predial filaments, but also to the covercles, which in most of the

genera are placed close above the nutritive individual as protective enve-

lopes ; these formations, like all the other appendages of individual import-

ance, being emitted from the stem as shootlets, and in the first stages of

their formation, resembling the tentacles in particular. Accordingly the

Siphonophora have not less than eight different forms under which the indi-

vidual may appear on the whole stock. (Later note.) [I have omitted the

enumeration of these forms.—TR. |

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 885

even here the lower point remains undeveloped. On the con-

trary, the lateral shoots, thus far considered, have no lower

point of vegetation; for their base is united to the maternal

shoot, and hence they are mere developments of the upper point

of vegetation. Opposed to these, there are, however, other

shoots by which the lower point of vegetation is represented,

and which on the other hand have no upper point of vegetation.

Among these may be reckoned not only the root-branches which

take their rise from the main root, but also all adventitious roots

which spring from the stem at determinate or indeterminate

places. I must, however, content myself with this general hint,

as any attempt to particularize these relations could after all

only show the deficiency of the investigations into this subject,

and how desirable a more comprehensive work is on root-forma-

tion in the vegetable kingdom.

The few points which I have selected out of the inexhaustible

field of shoot-formation in the vegetable kingdom may in the

mean time suffice to show that the comparison of the vegetable

shoot with the animal individual is not far-fetched or arbitrary,

but is presented to us by Nature herself. The solution of the

difficulties which this mode of conceiving the vegetable indi-

vidual encounters in the lowest grades of the vegetable kingdom,

I must defer to a later day. These difficulties are founded upon

the less complete organization of the inferior plants, and at all

events cannot invalidate the results gained in considering the

higher organizations. We may therefore consider it settled,

that although the individual has not exactly the same importance

in the vegetable kingdom as in the animal, plants still realize

their vital cycle in sections which are not only comparable to

the animal individual, but are in fact its complete analogues.

What distinguishes plants is the formation of family-stocks (a

formation manifested in the highest vegetable representations,

and here in the richest fullness),—as ancestral trees organically

connected, variously disposed in their ramifications, and com-

prising numerous generations, rendered reciprocally complete

through individuals variously endowed. And this leads us back

again to the tree from which we set out; in which even our

natural perceptions seemed to discern something more than one

common individual, and whose high import scientific research

must confirm. Just what at the outset appeared to be an

obstacle to our allowing the single shoots of the tree their true

significance,—now that we have compared them with alternation

of generation in animals, at length proves to be the most con-

clusive demonstration of the correctness of our first conception.

The conception of these so heterogeneous shoots as individuals

of one and the same species has led us, in fact, to a more pro-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 25

386 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

found and more pregnant conception of individuality, which will

no longer seem paradoxical when we perceive it 1s confirmed

even in the highest realms of life—in the sphere of the mental

development of the individual. Or are the differences of human

individuals in mental endowment and development less important

than those which we have seen in the morphological and phy-

siological endowment and development of shoots? Do we not

meet with a similar reciprocal completion, a similar division of

labour among the individuals of the family, of the state, and of

nations, and cannot even the human individual become likewise

a mere organ? Do we not see the development of the human

race itself bound up with a succession, in which the later gene-

rations continue the edifice their predecessors began, like branches

depending upon the earlier stocks and nourished by them ;—in

which generation is added to generation, and cycles to cycles ;

so that thus, by the ever-renewed labour of the individual, the

problem of human life may be ceaselessly aspired to, and at last

reach its final accomplishment ?*

* The preceding pages were almost all printed when I was fortunately

enabled to read Reichert’s memoir (Die monogene Fortpflanzung, Dorpat,

1852), upon a subject closely allied to the one here discussed. His work

is full of new views of the subject, elaborated with great acuteness. The

vegetable individual itself is considered in detail, and the author is thus led

to a mode of viewing this subject similar to the Schultz-Schultzenstein-ian

doctrine of anaphyta—regarding not only the shoot, but even its single

parts, the internodes, with their leaves, as series of individuals shooting out

of each other, or intimately connectcal by continuable bud-formation.

Since, however, it is implied m the idea of an individual, that it shall some-

how be limited by, and distinguishable from (notwithstanding it is connected

with), others, it seems to me that even from this point of view Reichert’s

idea can by no means be carried out. I will not deny that there are still

other considerations in the nature of the shoot which it is difficult to re-

concile with the idea of the simple individual, and I can only find the

ground of this phenomenon in the fact, that the individual appears in its

full import in the higher steps of the series of created beings, while in

the lower it loses more and more its reality, if I may so say. I must

reserve farther remarks on this subject until I treat of the individuality of

the lower plants.

[We cannot but think, after all, that this view of Reichert’s, &ec., which

our author rejects, is the legitimate conclusion, to which the very line of

argument so completely and ably presented in the preceding pages, when

fully carried out, naturally leads. It is merely a question of degree of

individuality. As yet, perhaps, no sure middle ground has been secured

between the two extreme views,—one of which regards all the vegetative

offspring of a seed, however numerously multiplied, as philosophically the

individual; while the other views the phyton, or in the simplest lower

plants, the cell, as philosophically representing the individual,—real indi-

viduality being incompletely realized (and with various grades of incom-

pleteness) in all vegetables, and in many animals. The mind is reluctant

to accept either of these conclusions, and seeks—thus far in vain—for some

stable intermediate view. Of the two extreme views, if forced to the choice,

we should ineline to prefer the latter.—Asa Gray. ]

Mr. T. H. Stewart on the young state of Ophiocoma rosula. 387

XXXII.—On the young state of Ophiocoma rosula, and on the

Form and Development of the Spines of this Species. By

T. H. Srewart.

[With a Plate.]

On looking over a maundful of trawl-refuse lately, which was

obtained by the fishermen from off the Plymouth coast, and

principally from near the Eddystone lighthouse, I found fine

specimens of Salicornaria farciminoides, around the lower por-

tions of many of which a parasitic sponge* was attached. On

tearing apart this sponge to look for the form of the spicula, a

number of exceedingly small starfishes were found on it. When

I first saw them, I fancied that they were young Ophivcome

rosule, and subsequent investigation has proved this to be the

case ; although on looking at them afterwards with a low power

(100 diam.) under the microscope, I was, from the very peculiar -

form of the spines, led to think them a new species of Ophiocoma.

It is an interesting and curious fact, that not only have these

young starfishes been found in deep water, as at the Eddystone,

which is about 50 fathoms, but also in pools left by the receding

tide in limestone rocks under the “ Hoe,” Plymouth, and in this

case also crawling on a soft sponge; and I have not hitherto

observed them in contact with any harder material.

The fact of their having been found in two such different

localities proves that this Ophiocoma spawns both in deep and

shallow water. It is also remarkable that they should in each

case have been found on sponge, and that those from the deep-

water locality were never seen to crawl on the Zoophyte, but

were found exclusively on the sponge at the base.

They were not stalked, as the late lamented Prof. Edward

Forbes fancied the young of the Ophiocome might be (however,

they may have passed this period), but could crawl about at

pleasure, though they did not seem te be very active, and seldom

moved unless intentionally disturbed, and were crowded chiefly

in the corners of the sponge.

None of them, however, when roughly handled, showed any

tendency to break off their arms.

The largest of them did not exceed one-eighth of an inch in

diameter, including both the rays and disk.

Their appearance when alive, under the low power of a micro-

scope, was a most interesting sight; and by employing the

polarizing apparatus, the colours that the various parts, more

especially the spines, exhibited, made them tenfold more beautiful.

* On submitting this sponge to Mr. Bowerbank, whose judgement on

such subjects is always appreciated, he not only kindly examined it, but

also pronounced it to be a new sponge.

25*

388 Mr. T. H. Stewart on the young state of Ophiocoma rosula.

The disk in this young state is more pentagonal than in the

adult animal. It is of a deep yellowish-brown or purple colour,

and it was this part that rendered the starfish evident on the

sponges.

The entire starfish was very transparent, so that the move-

ments of the stomach and parts within could be distinctly seen

under an inch power (100 diam.).

The disk was spimous, but had the spines more irregularly

arranged than in the full-grown starfish. The forms of the spines

are those depicted in Pl. XV. fig. 4. They were most distinctly

seen on the borders of the disk, between the rays, and all of

them had a like typical form, though some differed from others

on the same starfish in slight particulars, as the length of the

stalk bearig three spinules or secondary spines.

The base of these spines is a flattened disk, and somewhat

circular in form; immediately above the base is a contraction,

and it then shows a perforated structure; the holes producing

these perforations are regular and arranged in the central line.

The length of the stalk is rather /ess than half the length of the

whole spine. The spine then separates into three prongs or

spinules, which are rather more than half the length of the

whole spine.

These spinules in some spread out wider apart than in others,

and in one they approached each other again at the tip. All the

spines of the disk are of this form, and they retain the same in

the adult O. rosula, but as a general rule they are rather longer

in the stalk.

If the animal be turned on its back, and examined with a

power of 100 diameters by transmitted light, the outline of the

stomach is seen to be of a pentagonal form, and has five lateral

attachments to the inner surface of the body, which are situate

between the rays. The outline of the stomach is dark and well

defined, and appears like lines passing from one point of attach-

ment to the other; it might be taken at first sight for the

nervous system, were it not for the fact, that the meeting of the

lines where the nervous threads to the rays would be given off,

takes place between the rays, and not at their base, as would be

the case if it were the nervous system.

The contractions of the stomach were very evident ; sometimes

the orifice was completely closed, and was then central, and the

radiating muscular fibres could be detected. At other times it

was dilated quite to the lines indicating the outline of the stomach

before mentioned, and at another time much to one side.

The dilating muscle possesses a great deal more power than

the contracting one, as the motion of the former was considerably

quicker effected.

Mr. T. H. Stewart on the young state of Ophiocoma rosula. 389

Within the stomach were seen ten attached club-shaped bodies’

similar to the membranous tentacula of the arms, which were in

constant motion ; two were attached between each dark bundle

of spines, or oral cluster, which are situated at the mouth of the

disk. They seemed to be contractile, and to draw back to the

sides of the stomach, assuming a somewhat globular form.

But what I desire more especially to direct attention to are the

spines on the rays; these may be said to be of three kinds :-—

Ist, those which may be termed palmate or basal spines of the

ray, or the first set at the part where the ray SE aS from the

disk (fig. 4); 2ndly, the reticulated spines (fig. 5); Srdly, the

hooked spines (fig. 6).

The first set are shaped somewhat like a hand with the fingers

spread out, only minus a thumb: as the greater number have

only four spinules, or secondary spines, these are longer and

more widely separated from each other than in the second set,

and consequently the whole spine is broader. It has a broad,

thick, and rounded base, and immediately above the base the

spe is narrowed, and then becomes wider again so as to form

a constriction at this part; and in fact the spine may be divided

into three parts,—the base, the body constricted at the lower

part, and the spinous extremities.

The palmate portion of the spine is pierced with irregular

holes. The entire spine is covered with a delicate membrane,

and this connects the spinules, forming a web, thus giving the

spine a strong resemblance to the foot of afrog. In other parts

of the spine this membrane is closely attached to it; and where

the webbing occurs, the two parts covering the upper and lower

portions of the spine come in contact, and thus as it were en-

close it in a membranous sac. This membrane is destroyed by

boiling in caustic potash.

The spines of the second set may be said to occupy rather

more than the lower two-thirds of the ray on the under side, and

almost the whole of the upper. They are more irregular in their

form than the last, especially as regards the number, form, and

arrangement of the spinules. Their base is not so rounded and

the constriction not so well marked as in the first set. In fact,

the spine altogether is not so symmetrical and constant in its

shape as either of the others, and is evidently in a transition

state, for no two of these spines were alike in form, whilst the

first or palmate, and the third or hooked, never varied to any

marked extent. In the adult animal, the hooked spines still

preserve the form that they had in their young condition, though

of course they are proportionately larger.

As the second set of spines grow, they become more regular

im form, and the spinules, or w hat are then the rough serrations,

390 Mr. T. H. Stewart on the young state of Ophiocoma rosula.

are placed at regular distances, and the spine becomes symme-

trical, and assumes that beautiful form depicted in fig. 8;

and figured by Prof. E. Forbes, who says, “the lightness and

beauty of which might serve as a model for the spire of a

cathedral.”

The most interesting of all these spines are the ¢hird set, or

hooked ones, which oceupy the tip and a portion of the under

surface of the extremities of the rays. They are not unlike

reaping-hooks, only they have a secondary hook below, just at

the point of the junction of the handle and blade. They

also have a tubercle below this on the handle, but this is never

formed into a decided hook like the other two above. It

was the existence of these hooked spines that led me to fancy

the young O. rosula a new Ophiocoma. But in order to be quite

sure on the subject, and not to make new species without careful

investigation, I boiled some older O. rosule in caustic potash ;

and on examining the result, I found the same hooked spines to

be present.

By examining and comparing the spines of these young with

those of an adult O. rosula, it will be noticed that the hooked

ones do not grow in the same proportion as the rest; for in the

adult, though they still keep the same form, they are very small

in comparison to the other spines, whereas in the young they

are of the same size and serve an important office, viz. enabling

these young and feeble starfish to gain a firmer hold of the sub-

stance on which they crawl, so that they are not drifted off by

every slight force to which they are exposed; and indeed I found

that while they were alive it required a considerable effort to

separate them from their attachment.

It would appear therefore that these hooks are specially pro-

vided for the young condition of the starfish, and is another

beautiful instance how Nature modifies parts of the body to

meet the special requirements of animals under varying cireum-

stances. These hooked spines have the same rounded base and

constriction as the others, and they then form the sickle-like

termination.

Parallel with this terminal hook in about the middle of the

spine another is formed, which is not so long or large as the

terminal one; and at an equal distance below this second hook

is a little tubercle, which is not developed into a hook, but is

perforated with small holes, as also is the base, giving it when

only slightly magnified a granular appearance.

I have never found more than two hooks on a single spine,

except in one adult animal, where on one of the spies there

were three; but the lowest near the base was very rudimentary.

All the spines are covered with the animal membrane before

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 391

described, and all the spinules are more or less connected toge-

ther or webbed by it.

Royal College of Surgeons, October 14, 1856.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XV.

Fig. 1. The perfect young O. rosula, magnified 100 diameters.

Fig. 2. The under surface of disk as seen when alive, magnified 100 diam.

Fig. 3. The spines of young O. rosu/a from the disk.

Fig. 4. Palmate or basal spmes of the ray.

Fig. 5. The reticulate spines.

Fig. 6. The hooked spines from the extremity, and a portion of the under

surface of the ray.

Fig. 7. The spines of young O. rosula, showing animal membrane.

Fig. 8. Perfect spine of adult O. rosula, magnified 100 diam.

XXXIII.— Monograph of the genus Catops.

By Anprew Murray, Edinburgh.

[Continued from p. 318.]

Exotic species.

38. C, marginicollis, Lucas.

Catops marginicollis, Lucas, Expl. de Algérie, Anim. Art. u. p. 224.

pl. 21. fig. 4.

“Capite nigro, granario ; thorace subgranario, nigro, Fig. 39.

ferrugineo marginato, angulis posticis subacu- =,

minatis ; elytris nigris striatis subtilissimis con-

fertissime punctulatis ; corpore infra nigro, sub-

tiliter granario; pedibus antennisque ferrugineis.

“Long. 2} lin., lat. 13 lin.

“The head is black, granulated, and scarcely pu-

bescent. The maxillary and labial palpi, as wellasthe “~~

antennz, are entirely ferruginous. The thorax pubescent, very

lightly granulated, black, with the lateral margins ferruginous ;

it is very gently convex, rounded on the lateral parts, with the

angles on each side of the base less projecting, and a little less

acuminate than in C. celer, Luc. The scutellum is black, gra-

nulated, The elytra, of the same colour as the scutellum,

pubescent, have a very fine and very dense punctuation; they

are striated, and the striz are sufficiently well marked. All

the body below is of a deep brown, and is very finely granulated.

The legs are entirely ferruginous*.”

This species was taken by M. Lucas at Oran, in the west of

Algeria, under stones, in the end of February.

* Lucas in loc. cit.

392 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

39. C. rufipennis, Lucas.

Catops rufipennis, Luc. Exp). d’Algérie, Anim. Art. ii. p. 224. pl. 21. fig. 3.

“Capite nigro, granario; thorace subtilissimegranario, Fig. 40.

nigro, ad latera posticeque rufescente marginato ;

elytris granariis rufis, ad suturam utrinque uni-

striatis ; corpore infra nigro; pedibus rufis tibiis-

que fusco-maculatis.

“Long. 24 lin., lat. 1 lin.

“This is smaller than C. celer, from the same

country (Algeria), and cannot be confounded with it,

on account of the colour of its elytra, which are entirely ferru-

ginous. The head is black, granulated. The maxillary palpi,

as well as the labial palpi, are reddish. The antennz are ferru-

ginous, with the last joints a little brownish. The thorax

slightly pubescent, very finely granulated, and tolerably convex ;

black, margimed with ferruginous on the sides and behind ;

the sides are rounded, as are also the angles on each side of the

base. The scutellum is black, pubescent, and very finely granu-

lated. The elytra very pubescent, ferruginous; they are finely

granulated, striated, and a sutural stria appears pretty deeply

impressed on each side of the suture. The whole body below is

black. The legs are of the same colour as the elytra, with the

thighs marked with brown, and the tibiz finely denticulated*.”

Met with by M. Lucas on a single occasion, under stones, in

the month of January, in the ravines of Djebel Santon, in the

neighbourhood of Oran.

40. C. fungicola, Kolen.

Catops fungicola, Kolenati, Meletemata Ent. fase. v. 51.

“ Castaneus, nitidus, pubescens, punctulatus; capite brunneo,

antennis pedibusque testaceis.

“ Long. 0:0025, lat. 0°00133.

“ Head blackish-brown, shining, scarcely punctulated; tho-

rax testaceous or chestnut, pubescent, very finely punctulate ;

elytra convex, chestnut, shining, narrowed behind, rounded,

punctulate. Scutellum brown, punctulate.

“ Lives in fungi in the woods of Mount Ssarijal, in the pro-

vince of Elisabethopolis+.”

This species is unknown to me, and I place it in this group

merely from the colour, none of the characters on which I

* Lucas in loc. cit. + Kolenati in loc. cit.

—

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 3938

have rested my subdivisions of the genus being mentioned by

M. Kolenati.

41. C. pusillus, Motsch.

Catops pusillus, Victor Motschoulsky, Bull. Soc. Imp. Mose. 1840, p. 175.

** Ovalis, cinnamomeus, sericeo-pubescens; thorace Fig. 41.

transverso, angulis posticis subproductis, lateribus

rotundatis; antennis pedibusque dilutioribus pu-

bescentibus.

“ Long. 3} lin., lat. 4 lin.

“One of the smallest species of Catops, and covered r

with a close golden pubescence. The antennz are a little pilose,

of the length of the head and thorax together, the eighth joint

much smaller and shorter than the seventh. The thorax is trans-

verse, rounded on the sides, and when looked at from in front,

it appears even a little broader than the elytra; it is cut

straight at the base, and has the posterior angles a little project-

ing backwards. The scutellum is triangular. The elytra are

oval, obliquely emarginate at the extremity towards the suture,

with the exterior angle projecting in a point. On each side of the

suture there is an impressed line which reaches a little beyond

the half of the elytra. The anterior tibie are a very little

dilated*.”

The emargination of the elytra at the apex of the suture fur-

nishes an easy character for distinguishing this species.

M. Motschoulsky mentions that he took it in spring at Ana-

nur, on the great military route of Georgia, and in the month

of August, near Davial, on the same route. It was found under

stones, and in the earth, among roots, in obscure places. The

specimens which have been recently excluded are often of a tes-

taceous colour.

42. C. pallidus, Menetries.

C. pallidus, Menetr. Cat. rais. des Obj. de Zool. rec. dans un Voyage au

Caucase, &c., p. 169.

“ Oblongo-ovatus, subdepressus, ferrugineus, breviter griseo-

pubescens ; elytris obsolete punctulatis, apice subacuminatis.

“ Long. 2 lin., lat. 1} lin.

Found at Bakont+.”

The above meagre description is all that we know of this

* Motschoulsky in loc. cit. + Menetries in Joc, cit.

894 Mr.A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

species; it would, however, rather appear to belong to this

group.

43. C. Dauricus, Motsch.

Catops Dauricus, Motsch. Remarques sur la Collection de Col. Russ. de

’. de Motschoulsky in Bulletin de Moscou, vol. xviii. 1845.

“ Testaceo-ferrugineus ; thorax angustior quam elytra.

“ A species remarkable on account of its thorax being much

narrower than the elytra, which are of a tolerably broad oval,

and acuminate at the extremity. The facies approaches nearly

the genus Pteroloma, but the body wholly removes it. It is of

a ferruginous-yellow colour, and is found on the summits of the

alps of Hamar-Daban in Mongolia*.”

I have not seen this species in nature, and the above descrip-

tion is too short to enable us to form an accurate idea of its

form or affinities.

44. C. basilaris, Say.

Catops basilaris, Say, Journ. Acad. Philadelphia, iti. 194.

“ Niger, brevissima flavescente pubescentia vestitus ; elytris

brunneis, pallidioribus ad basin.

“ Long. 13 lin,

“ Body black, covered with numerous short yellowish hairs ;

eyes fuscous; antenne blackish, two basal joints yellowish-

white ; eighth joint very small, transverse, shortest ; the seventh

and three terminal joints lar eest, the latter somewhat piceous ;

thorax transverse, quadrate, convex, rather narrower before ;

lateral edge regularly arcuated, basal and anterior edge sub-

rectilinear ; angles rounded; scutellum triangular; elytra

brownish, paler at base; a distinct subsutural impressed line ;

labrum and palpi pale piceous, beneath blackish piceous; feet

dark piceous.

“ Found under wood at Engineer Cantonment, on the Mis-

sourit.”

I believe it is not known what species Say had in view in

describing this. Dr. Leconte, whose knowledge of American

entomology is perhaps greater than that possessed by any other

naturalist, includes it, in his ‘Synopsis of the Silphales of

America, among those which were unknown to him. Say’s

description, I think, seems to point either to an affinity with

C. tristis or C. fumatus, and I place it in this group with doubt.

* Motschoulsky in Joc. cit. t Say in Joc. cit,

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 395

45. C. opacus, Say.

Catops opacus, Say, Journ. Acad. Nat. Se. Philad. y. 184; Leconte, Syn.

Silph. Amer. in Proceedings of Acad. Philad. (1853) 280.

“ Ater, punctulatus, subtiliter pubescens ; thorace semi- Fig. 42.

elliptico, basi late rotundato ; elytris obsolete striatis ;

tibus calcaribus magnis armatis,

“Long. 2 lin.

“ New York and Ohio: rare,

“The male has three joints of the anterior tarsi

strongly dilated; the middle tarsi are not dilated. The

sutural stria of the elytra is deeper than the others*,”

46. C. terminans, Leconte.

Catops terminans, Lec., Agassiz, Lake Superior, 218 ; Lec. Synops. Silph.

N. Amer. Proc. Acad. Philad. vi. 1853, 282.

“ Oblongo-ovalis minus convexus, nigro-piceus, subtiliter Fig. 43.

pubescens ; elytris distinctius rugose punctulatis, stria

suturali profunda; thorace breviore, antrorsum valde

angustato, angulis posticis vix productis; pedibus

fuscis ; antennis apice flavis, basi testaceis.

“ Long. 1 lin.

“ Very abundant at the mouth of the Pic river, on the north

side of Lake Superior, under dried animal matter. This species

is broader and less convex than C. consobrinus, and is easily

known by the more distinct punctuation, and by the absence of

the transverse lines. The thorax is densely and finely punctulate ;

it is about twice as wide as its length, strongly narrowed in

front, rounded on the sides, especially anteriorly, slightly emar-

ginate at apex, truncate at base, and very slightly sinuate at the

posterior angles, which are scarcely perceptibly acute. The

anterior tarsi of the male, and the first jot of the middle tarsi,

are dilated +.”

47. C. monilis, mihi.

Oblongo-ovalis, fuscus ; antennis capite et thorace Fig. 44.

longioribus, articulo octavo minutissimo, articulis

ante seatum non gradatim crescentibus magnitudine,

fuscis, articulo ultimo et articulis ad basin ferru-

gineis ; thorace leviter, elytris fortiter transverso-

strigosis, his stria suturali impressis; pedibus

spinosis.

Long. 1} lin., lat. 3 lin.

Oblong-oval, nearly of the same size and form as C. alpinus,

* Leconte in Joc. cit. + Leconte in loc. cit.

396 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

brown, a little darker behind and on the middle of the thorax.

The antennz are longer than the head and thorax; the basal

joints (first, second, third, fourth and fifth) and the last joint are

ferruginous-yellow ; the seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth joints

blackish-brown ; first jot large, and longer than second ; second

thin and slender, a little longer than third ; third, fourth and fifth

thin and slender and very short, nearly all of equal length ; sixth

shorter than these, but rather broader; seventh largest and

broadest of the whole; eighth excessively minute; ninth and

tenth of equal length and thickness, rather narrower than the

seventh, their sides more parallel than is the case in other spe-

cies ; eleventh of the same breadth as the two preceding. Head

broad, rugosely punctate; mouth broad, concolorous. Thorax

pale on the margins, lightly transversely strigose. Elytra more

decidedly transversely strigose, with the suture and a sutural

stria somewhat depressed, and indistinct traces of striz towards

the apex. Scutellum equilaterally triangular, somewhat de-

pressed, clothed all over with a concolorous fuscous pubescence ;

beneath the pubescence the surface is somewhat shining ; under

side and legs fuscous-brown, paler than above; tibiz slightly

and delicately spinous, middle tibiz slightly bent.

This species has very much the appearance of alpinus, but the

structure of the antennz is different. They are longer than in

that species. The club also does not gradually increase in thick-

ness from the first joint onwards till it reaches its greatest

breadth at the seventh, and then taper away again, as in

alpinus ; the club from the eighth joint to the middle of the last

joint is of equal thickness, giving a somewhat moniliform ap-

pearance to the club, from which character I have given its

name. In alpinus the third joint is thicker and longer than the

second, while here it is smaller and slenderer. In alpinus the

fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh joints go on increasing in thick-

ness, while here the third, fourth and fifth form a narrow slender

peduncle, all being of nearly equal size ; the sixth and eighth joints

here are much smaller than in alpinus. The pubescence in this

species is also darker and duller and more sparing than in alpinus.

It was found at Caraccas by M. Sallé, and presented to me by

his relative M. Chevrolat.

48. C. spinipes, mihi.

Elongato-ovalis, fuscus; antennis capite et thorace vix Fig. 45.

longioribus, articulis ante sextum gradatim ecrescentibus

magnitudine, fuscis, articulis ultimis et primis pallidi-

oribus ; thorace leviter et elytris fortiter transverso-

strigosis, his stria suturali impressis ; pedibus spinosis.

Long. 1 lin., lat. } lin.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 397

A good deal smaller than the preceding (C. monilis), to which

it has considerable resemblance, but is more elongate in form.

The antennz are not quite so thick; the joints do not continue

thin, short and slender from the second to the sixth, but go on

increasing in breadth from the second to the seventh; the

second and third are nearly of equal length ; the fourth and fifth

are each shorter than the third, and gradually but slightly

increase in breadth; they are all of nearly the same length ;

the sixth is shorter than the fifth, but not very minute ; the

seventh is the largest joint in the antenna; the eighth is minute,

but not nearly so much so as in monilis ; the ninth is as broad but

shorter than the seventh ; the tenth is a little narrower than the

ninth, and the eleventh a little narrower than the tenth, otherwise

they are nearly of the same size. The antenne are brown, with

the exception of the two first jomts which are clear ferruginous,

and the three last which become gradually paler to the tip. The

head and mouth are broad ; the former is rugosely punctate and

darker than the rest of the body. The thorax is short, darkest

in the middle, transversely rugose. The elytra are very distinctly

transversely strigose ; there is a sutural stria impressed on them.

The scutellum is small, elongate triangular, depressed, and darker

than the elytra. The whole body is covered with a dense fuscous

pubescence of the same colour throughout, but throwing a

reflexion like a lighter band across the elytra towards the apex

when viewed in certain lights. The under side is of the same

colour as the upper. The legs are paler; they are very distinctly

spinose, a character which is found in other species, but which,

from being very marked here, I have taken to furnish a suitable

name to the species. The middle tibiz are alittle bent. In the

males the anterior tarsi are widened, but the middle tarsi are

not.

Found at Caraccas by M. Sallé, and presented to me by

M. Cheyrolat.

Group III.

Mesosternum keeled ; middle tarsi alike in both sezes.

Ist Subdivision. Body polished and shining; the elytra not

transversely strigose.

49. C. lucidus, Kraatz.

C. lucidus, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xin. 439. 30.

“ Oblongo-ovatus, nigro-piceus, nitidus ; antennis pedibusque fer-

rugineis ; thorace transverso, basi latiore levi ad angulos ob-

tusos utrinque distincte sinuato ; elytris flavo-testaceis, apice

piceis, passim minus profunde punctatis.

“Long. 13 lin.”

398 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

Not haying seen this species, | can only reproduce M. Kraatz’s

description, which is as follows :—

“ A new species differing so much from all the species of

Catops known to me, by its shining glittering upper side and

clear yellow elytra, that I cannot class it under any one of

Erichson’s groups: not only so, but I was not wholly averse to

have based a new genus upon it, if in spite of the many differ-

ences there was not a form of transition to that of the perfect

Catops in a species which I possess (the only one hitherto

accessible), and a species from Mesopotamia in the Royal Mu-

seum (of Berlin) (though in other respects differing little from

the C. lucidus of this country). The antennz are nearly of

the length of the elytra, entirely of a lively reddish-brown,

stout ; first joint distinctly longer than the second, and as well

as it a little more slender than the remaining joints; third a

little stouter than the fourth, nearly as long as the first ; fourth,

fifth and sixth are reverse cone-shaped, the following joint always

somewhat shorter than the preceding; the seventh is equal to

the ninth and to the tenth in length, which is the same as the

length of the fourth joint, but somewhat stouter; the eighth is

somewhat shorter but scarcely more slender than the joints

which encompass it; the eleventh is almost of the length of

both the preceding, from its base to its last third growing gra-

dually broader, from thence cone-shaped acuminate. The head

is black, shining, not punctate; the mouth yellowish-red. The

thorax at the base is more than double as broad as long, gra-

dually narrowed from the base towards the front, so that the

greatest breadth is before the middle*, gently rounded on the

sides ; the anterior angles are obtuse, somewhat sloping down-

wards, the posterior angles likewise obtuse and rounded off ; the

posterior margin is distinctly sinuate and depressed over the

moderately densely finely punctate scutellum, and on each side

towards the posterior angles, so that the posterior angles project

slightly and are a little reflexed; the upper side is dark pitchy-

brown, clearer on the sides and posterior angles, flatly arched,

bright shining. The elytra are symmetrical oblong, only feebly

narrowed behind, shining pale yellow, brownish towards the

scutellum, dark pitchy-brown at the apex, disappearing at some

distance, with punctures irregularly arranged in rows and clothed

with solitary yellowish hairs; the under side is shining black,

not punctured, the last abdominal segment yellow. The legs are

lively reddish-brown.

* Sic in orig., viz. “ von der Basis an nach vorn allmalig verengt, wodurch

die grésste Breite vor der Mitte.” It should probably have been, “ greatest

breadth behind the middle.”

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 399

One example from Kubr, probably found in Dalmatia*.”

I am unable to give any description of the species from Meso-

potamia above referred to by M. Kraatz.

50. C. eryptophagoides, Mannerheim.

Catops cryptophagoides, Mann. Bull. Soc. Imp. Mose. 1852, pt. 2. p. 333.

“ Oblongo-ovatus, convexus, rufo-ferrugineus, nitidus, glaber-

rimus ; antennis extrorsum valde incrassatis pilosis, articulo

octavo precedente multo minore ; thorace levi, antrorsum ro-

tundato, angulis posticis supra elytra rotundato-productis ;

elytris disperse punctatis, subrugulosis.

“ Long. 2 lin., lat. ¢ lin.?”

I have not seen this species. M. Pippingskold collected it

in the island of Sitka under a stone.

Mannerheim states that in form it comes very near the genus

Colon, but he rather referred it to Catops from the structure of

the antennz, although at the same time differing from both by

the polished smoothness of its body. From this indication it

should probably rank beside /ucidus, Kraatz, and I have accord-

ingly placed it in this subdivision.

2nd Subdivision. Body not polished and shining ; elytra trans-

versely strigose.

51. C. strigosus, Kraatz.

Catops strigosus, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. p. 441. 31. Fig. 46.

Ovatus, rufo-ferrugineus ; antennis longioribus,

obsolete clavatis, ferrugineis; thorace trans-

verso, angulis posticis fere acuminatis ; elytris

substriatis, evidenter transversim strigosis, apice

acuminatis.

Long. 13 lin.

The antennz are slender, entirely reddish-brown ; first, second

and third equal in length; fifth scarcely longer than those on

each side of it, half as large as the first jot ; seventh somewhat

longer and stouter than the foregomg, equal to the ninth and

tenth ; eighth scarcely half as long and a little thinner than the

seventh ; eleventh somewhat longer than the tenth, moderately

sharply acuminate. The head is red-brown, densely and finely

punctate. The thorax is nearly 25 times as long as broad; at

the base it is of the same breadth as the elytra; it is gradually

narrowed towards the front, gently rounded on the sides; the

* Kraatz in loc. cit. + Mannerheim in Joc. cit.

400 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

upper side is moderately densely clothed with golden-yellow

pubescence, coarsely granulated ; the anterior angles are obtuse,

sloping downwards ; the almost pointed posterior angles pro-

ject pretty. strongly backwards embracing the elytra, so that the

posterior margin appears to be strongly sinuated on both sides

near the elytra. The elytra are oval, strongly narrowed from

the middle towards the apex, each tolerably sharply acuminated,

moderately densely and finely pubescent, and deeply transversely

strigose, with distinct traces of longitudinal striae. Under side

and legs reddish-brown.

Kraatz says it is of a reddish colour, but the only specimen I

have seen was black.

Of the form of the C. velox, Spence, approaching most to it,

but a little smaller, more acuminate behind, and easily recog-

nizable by its keeled mesosternum ; distinguished from the fol-

lowing species by its different form and longer antenne; and

from C. acicularis, Kraatz, the only other species of the pre-

ceding groups which has transversely wrinkled elytra, by its

smaller size and shorter and broader form.

Found in Austria: extremely rare.

52. C. validus, Kraatz.

Catops validus, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xiii. 441. 32.

“Oblongo-ovatus, niger, fusco-sericeus ; antennis rufo-piceis, cla-

vatis ; thorace, elytrisque transversim strigosis, apice truncatis.

“ Long. 23 lin.

“This distinct species comes near the following in the form

of the body, and only deviates from them by its greater size and

the different structure of the antenne. I confine myself there-

fore to describing the latter more strictly.

“ Antenne reddish-brown ; first joint at least twice as long

and half as strong again as the second, somewhat more slender

at the base; second very small, at the end nearly as broad as

long, somewhat more slender at the base; third at least three

times as long as second, for the last third part becoming gradually

somewhat broader; fourth equal in length to second, but some-

what broader ; fifth equal to fourth ; siath somewhat shorter and

broader than the eighth; seventh somewhat shorter, but just as

broad as the ninth; eleventh distinctly more slender and half as

long again as tenth; from the base to the apex conical acumi-

nate, somewhat paler at the tip. Agreeing in other respects

with the following species.

“Two examples from Stentz in Hungary are in the Royal

Museum, under the name of C. validus*.”

* Kraatz in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 401

Not having seen this species in nature, I have merely copied

the description of Kraatz. In size it is a third larger than the

following species ; but although that of itself would not be sufli-

cient to constitute it a distinct species, the differences in the

structure and proportion of the joints of the antenne are too

great to allow us to hesitate in according it a place as such.

The principal differences in these proportions have been printed

in italics in the respective descriptions of the antennz of these

species.

53. C. sericeus, Fabr.

Catops sericeus, Fabr. Syst. El. ii. 564. 2; Erichs. Kaf. d. M. Br. i. 243. 16 ;

Sturm, Deutschl. Fn. xiv. 43. 22. t. 278. f. d. D; Heer, Fn. Helv. 1.

384. 21; Redt. Fn. Aust. 145.1; Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 442.

34; Fairm. & Laboulb. Fn. Ent. Fr. i. 305. 21.

Helops sericeus, Panz. Fn. Germ. 73. 10.

Ptomaphagus truncatus, Ulig. Mag. i. 42. 4.

Catops truncatus, Gyll. Ins. Suec. 1. 279. 3. ’

Sola Latr. Gen. Crust. et Ins. it. 29. 5; Spence, Linn. Trans. x1.

Mycetophagus picipes, Kug. Schneid. Mag. 558. 9.

Mordella silphoides, Marsh. Ent. Brit. i. 493. 19.

Var. minor. Catops sericatus, Chaud. Bull. de Mose. 1845, no. 3. 199.

Oblongo-ovatus, niger, fusco-sericeus ; antennis

brevioribus, nigro-piceis, ad basin ferrugineis ;

thorace elytrisque transversim strigosis, his

apice truncatis.

Long. 1-1} lin.

Oval, a little depressed above, of a deep

blackish-brown, very silky. Antennz about as

long as the thorax, perceptibly thickened towards

the extremity; first joint twice as long as the second; second

and third nearly equal in length and thickness; fourth and fifth

nearly equal in length, each shorter than second or third; sixth

about the same length as fifth, but decidedly broader, twice as

long as eighth, and not so broad ; seventh a very little longer and

much broader than sixth ; ezghth less than half as long as seventh,

and scarcely less broad ; ninth and tenth each about the same length

as seventh, but broader ; eleventh more slender and half as long

again as tenth, and only commencing to be acuminate past its

middle; the apex obtuse, reddish-brown, lighter at the base,

deeper at the apex. Head black, large, finely punctate. Thorax

shining black, finely transversely wrinkled, a little broader than

long, somewhat narrowed in front ; posterior angles pointed, pro-

jecting backwards, which makes the posterior margin broadly

arched. Elytra of a brown, more or less dark, finely transversely

strigose, becoming narrower from the base to the extremity,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 26

402. Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

which is obliquely truncate. Legs brown ; thighs often blackish.

Size very variable.

Distinguished at first sight from all the allied species, except

varicornis and validus, by its truncate elytra. From C. varicornis

it is distinguished by the apex of the antenne not being light-

coloured, and from C. validus by its smaller size and by the dif-

ferent proportions of the joints of the antenna.

Common in Britain, and generally distributed all over Europe.

54. C. varicornis, Rosenhauer.

Catops varicornis, Rosenh. Beitr. zur Ins. Fn. Eur. i. 23; Kraatz, Stett. Ent.

Zeit. xii. 442. 33.

Oblongo-ovatus, niger, fusco-sericeus ; antennis brevioribus, basi

apiceque ferrugineis ; thorace elytrisque transversim strigosis,

his apice truncatis.

Long. 1} lin.

Closely allied to C. sericeus, and principally distinguished by

the form and colour of the antennz, which are shorter and

ferruginous both at the base and the apex, and the beetle is usually

somewhat darker. The head is broad, finely punctate, shining

black with a grey pubescence ; the mouth ferruginous-red. The

antenne scarcely reach beyond the half of the thorax, and are

thickened on the outer side so as to be distinctly club-shaped.

The individual joints are as in the C. sericeus, but form a rounder

oblong and thicker club. The first five joints are ferruginous-

red, those following brownish ; the eighth shorter but not more

slender than the remainder ; the last transverse, short, and very

obtuse, much shorter than in the C. sericeus, and reddish-yellow.

The thorax is large, black, shining, clothed with a silky pubes-

cence, almost square, a little broader than long, of the breadth

of the elytra, somewhat narrowed in front, gently rounded on

the sides ; the posterior angles pointed, projecting slightly back-

wards, the posterior margin rounded. ‘The scutellum is large,

triangular, transversely strigose. The elytra are dark brown,

finely transversely strigose, a little arched, somewhat rounded on

the sides, moderately narrowed towards the extremity, not so

strongly truncate at the apex as in C. sericeus, and more rounded,

with a fine brownish pubescence. The under side is black ; the

legs are brown, the tarsi paler.

The pale terminal joint of the antennz, combined with the

general appearance of C. sericeus, at once indicates this species.

It is also a deeper insect than sericeus, and the sides more nearly

approach the perpendicular.

Described by Rosenhauer from three specimens found at

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 403

Stettin. It has since been found in other parts of Germany, and

no doubt is scattered all over the continent. I have not found it

in Scotland, but it has been taken by Mr. Guyon near Richmond,

and by Dr. Power near London.

Chaudoir’s C. sericatus is said by Kraatz to be only a small

variety of this species. I have not seen it, but I have no doubt

he is correct. Chaudoir’s description contains no character suf-

ficient in my view to support the establishment of a new species.

His description is as follows :—“ C. sericatus, hitherto confounded

with C. sericeus. It is constantly three times smaller, more

narrowed behind; the elytra narrower ; the wrinkles above less

marked; the antennz less enlarged towards the extremity, the

last joints more elongate, the eighth a little narrower, the last

less obtuse, and of the colour of the preceding. The breast is

less convex ; the colour of the elytra is lighter towards the extre-

mity, which is almost ferruginous.

“Found at Kiew in spring, under dry leaves at the foot of

trees *,”

55. C. colonoides, Kraatz.

Catops colonoides, Kraatz, Stett. Ent. Zeit. xii. 169. 35.

Oblongo-ovatus, fusco-sericeus ; antennis obsolete cla- Fig. 48.

vatis, ferrugineis ; thorace elytrisque transversim stri- = _-—

gosis, his non truncatis.

Long. { lin.

The antennz are about the length of the head and

thorax, imperceptibly thickened towards the point, fer-

ruginous-red; the seventh joint scarcely broader, but at least

twice as long as the preceding, always darker-coloured than the

remaining joints; the eighth joint somewhat smaller than the

sixth; the ninth, tenth, and the acuminate eleventh tolerably

equal in size. The head is blackish-brown, finely punctate, with

a grey pubescence. The thorax is blackish-brown, somewhat

lighter on the extreme posterior margin, extremely densely and

finely granulated, about a fourth broader than long, narrowed

in front, moderately rounded on the sides ; the posterior angles

are sharp, projecting backwards. The elytra are dark brownish,

towards the apex lighter, finely transversely strigose, covered

with a fine silky brown down, gradually narrowed towards the

apex. The under side is blackish-brown, the margins of the

individual abdominal segments lighter ; the legs are ferruginous-

brown. Nearly constant in size.

A very distinct species, similar to C. sericeus, and, like it,

* Chaudoir in Joc. cit.

26*

404 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

with transversely wrinkled elytra, but smaller than the smallest

individuals of that species, and easily distinguished by the wholly

different form of the antenne, by the gradually narrowed and

not truncate elytra, and the stronger more distant transverse

wrinkling. The club of the antenne is as a rule somewhat

darker, the last joint somewhat larger than the preceding, cone-

shaped, acuminate.

Kraatz says that it is taken near Berlin in loose sand at the

foot of old oak-trees, and that it is frequent in moors.

[To be continued. ]

XXXIV.— Elucidation of some Plants mentioned in Dr. Francis

Hamilton’s Account of the Kingdom of Nepal. By Lieut.-Col.

Manppen, F.R.S.E., President of the Botanical Society of

Edinburgh*.

Tue possession by the University of Edinburgh of the duplicate

herbarium (unfortunately incomplete) and the valuable MS.

Catalogue of the Plants collected in Nepal and other parts of

India by the late Dr. Francis Hamilton (formerly Buchanan),

has recently afforded me the opportunity of comparing them

with some which he has introduced into his ‘Account of Nepal,’

only, or chiefly, by their vernacular designations, which are of

no assistance to the English reader. Of the result of this

examination I purpose to submit a short statement to the Bo-

tanical Society, to the members of which it may prove the more

interesting from the fact that, in several cases, the scientific

names have not hitherto been given in any, even the latest,

works on Indian Botany which have fallen under my notice,

although the plants are well known and of general utility

in India. Nor will it be considered inconsistent with the

object of our meetings, to dedicate a brief space to an in-

quiry into the botany of a district which engaged the in-

terest and employed the time of this accomplished naturalist,

* Read to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, June 12, 1856. The

death of the author having occurred since this paper was read before

the Botanical Society, it has been printed without the benefit of his cor-

rections.

+ The genus Hamiltonia, of the order Cinchonacez, was devoted by

Roxburgh to the memory of this “ illustrious peregrinator,”’ as he is ealled

by D. Don. H. suaveolens is a shrub of the Réjmahal and other hills of

Behar; and a very beautiful azure-blue variety abounds all along the base

of the Himalaya, the H. azurea of Wallich, scabra of D. Don, propinqua

of Jacquemont. The flowers are sweetly fragrant till bruised, when they

exhale a most foetid odour, from which the plant derives its Kuméon name

from the Kingdom of Nepdl. 405

whose late residence, Leny, near Callander, must be familiar to

many of our explorers of the romantic scenery of the Trosachs.

Dr. Hamilton was, I believe, the first to investigate the botany

of Nepal and the adjacent countries, in which he has been

zealously succeeded by Wallich, Griffith, and Hooker. I have

not myself had the good fortune to visit these regions, and poli-

tical jealousy has almost sealed Nepal, especially its alpine tracts,

to us; but I have traversed its western frontier, and was for

several years associated with its military tribes in the service of

the East India Company, and have thus been enabled to acquire

the popular names of several of the plants in question. I shall

not altogether limit myself to those occurring in the ‘ Account of

Nepal,’ but shall extend my remarks also to a few of those enu-

merated in the Catalogue, with respect to which there is reason

to think any additional information will be acceptable, or any

errors remain to be rectified. Many points must continue un-

determined, and will furnish a field of inquiry to future botanists.

Dr. Royle has been the most successful investigator of the

various sources of the many articles of the Indian Materia Me-

dica, in his valuable ‘Illustrations of the Botany of the Hima-

layan Mountains’; but the origin of many of those contained

in his list, published in the ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of

Bengal’ for October 1832, is still to be made out. With refer-

ence to the object before us, the most advantageous plan, per-

haps, will be to quote the several passages from Dr. Hamilton’s

work as they occur, with some regard to the natural sequence

of the orders as understood by Dr. Lindley ; appending such

notices as may be supplied by the Catalogue, and concluding

with my own comments.

As Dr. Hamilton always makes use in his Catalogue of the

classical names for the various provinces, it may be well to pre-

mise that

Magadha is the modern Behar.

Mithila PF Zirhut.

Cosala Gs Oude and Gorakhpur.

Camroop Be Rangpur and Assam.

Angga iy North-western Bengal.

Banga 4, Western and Southern Bengal.

Matsya 5 the district of Dinajpur.

of Padéra. Dr. Hamilton himself remarks thus on the specific name at

No. 694 of the Catalogue :—

* Hamiltonia suaveolens. Habitat in sylvis Angge et Mithile.

“Nomen specificum haud aptum, cum flores, licet aliquando suaveo-

lentes, seepius, ut in Pederia et Serissa affinibus, odorem stercoraceum

gravissimum spirant, quod in ceteris ejusdem generis speciebus quoque

evenit.”

4.06 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

“ Phaphar, said by some to be a species of Amaranthus, called

Amardana in the low country; but others say that this is a

mistake.

“ Uya, which I presume is rye, the natives saying that it is

neither barley nor wheat, but has a resemblance to both.”

The chief grains of Kullu, a hill province north of the Sutlej

river, now a British possession, were reported to Dr. Hamilton

to be Phaphar, Chuyé, and Uya: “The Chuya, from the de- |

scription given, would seem to be the Holeus Sorghum, although

the coldness of the situation renders this doubtful” (pp. 274,

275, 315).

The Uy4 is the Hordeum celeste, well known to the residents

of Simla as the Ua jao, or Ua barley, being in high estimation

in the preparation of cakes.

Phaphar or Phaphra is the Fagopyrum rotundatum, Bab.

(emarginatum, No. 1688, Wall.), near F. tataricum; it is known

as Bitter Buckwheat, and is very generally cultivated in the higher

and colder sites of the Himalaya; Fagopyrum vulgare (or escu-

lentum), No. 1687, Wallich, beimg common lower down, and

known as Ogal or Ogla, and Kotu (not Kultu); distinguished

from the last as Sweet Buckwheat*. Chuyé and Anardana are

one and the same: Amaranthus anardana, No. 2028 of the Cata-

logue (exclude synonym Amaranthus frumentaceus, Hort. Beng.

677). “Andrdéné Hindice. Colitur in arvis Cosale et Ne-

pale ;” and at Bhagalpur on the Ganges, according to Moquin

in DeCandolle. Andrdéna implies the supposed resemblance of

the grains to the carpels of the Pomegranate. I never met any

one who used the name, and incline to think Amardan4, as

Dr. Hamilton once writes it, may be the true one, meaning ‘im-

mortal grain,’ and therefore nearly identical with Amaranthus :

nothing can better answer to the appellation than this species,

which is grown all over the Himalaya, and is also known as

Marsa and Bathu. It rises six to eight feet high, and is either

of a brilliant crimson or a rich yellow. The effect of a mountain-

side, terrace above terrace, covered with distinct fields of these

colours, and glowing under the rays of the afternoon sun, is

gorgeous indeed; but as an article of food, it must be confessed

the reality falls far below the promise of the eye. Amaranthus

caudatus is occasionally cultivated for the same purpose, and is,

in Garhwal, called Rémdané4, ‘the grain of God.’

Cynosurus corocanus : Maruya of Nepal: now Eleusine coro-

* There is considerable discrepancy in the description of the Himalayan

Buckwheats given by Don (Prod. Fl. Nep. pp. 73, 74. Nos. 21, 22, 23),

Babington (Linn. Trans. xviii. 93 seq.), and Meisner (PI. As. Rar. vol. iii.).

Iam only acquainted with two cultivated species, the Ogal and the Pha-

phar, as noticed in the text.

from the Kingdom of Nepal. 407

cana, everywhere cultivated in the British Himdlaya as Man-

dua or Marua. Z£. stricta is also grown in Garhwal.

Holeus Sorghum. Kaunguni, Mucceai, or Muruli,—the first

being the Newar name (i. e. of the aboriginal Mongolian popula-

tion), the last two those of their Parbatiya or Hindoo conquerors,

also a mountain race. Generally, however, Kangani is Pani-

cum italicum, and Muccai (Makkai) Zea Mays: it is probably

a term of Indian origin, but the Mohammedans suppose it to

be so termed because Maize came to them from Mecca; of this

fact it is but a very slender corroboration that the French call

the same corn ‘Blé de Turquie” Sorghum vulgare is little

cultivated in the mountains, but Sorghum saccharatum is occa-

sionally seen about Almorah.

Panicum colonum. Tangni, Tangri, or Kakun, p. 231.

Sabe, referred to Ischemum, a grass of the Nepal Tarai,

growing in great quantities, and exported to the British terri-

tories for the manufacture of ropes (p. 64).

No. 2324. Ischemum Sabe.~ Sabe, Hindice. Habitat in

Mithilz campis ubi legitur ad ligamina foliis nectanda. (Speci-

men from Nathpur.)

No. 2325. Ischemum sparteum. Sabe, Hindice. Habitat in

Magadhe montosis. Ad usum eundum cum precedente inservit.

(Specimen from Ghoramara.) These two plants are identical ;

Spodiopogon laniger, No. 8845 B. of Wallich’s Catalogue, Nepal,

1821, being there referred to a new genus, “ Hriantho affine.”

In 1850 I found it stacked in large quantities on the bank of

the Ganges at Bhojpur and Monger in Behar, where the owners

ealled it Saba, SAma, and Sabar, and informed me that it was

brought down from the Rajmahal Hills, south, and from those

of Tirhut, north—the localities specified by Dr. Hamilton.

Dr. Royle (Illustrations, p. 416) states that Spodiopogon laniger

is “one of the grasses found in the northern as in the southern

parts of India.” In Kumaon it occurs as far in the mountains

as Almorah, and up to an elevation of 5000 feet, flowering in

April. Mr. Edgeworth informs me that it is abundant in the

rdos or hot-water courses of the Sewalik and lower ranges of the

Himalaya in the Pinjor Dun, below Simla, up to 3000 feet ;

there, as throughout Northern India, it is termed Ban (a word

which in Shakespeare’s Hindustani Dictionary is erroneously

identified with Munj), and is well known as a common material

for making rope, which is much used, especially for the bottoms

of beds and similar purposes. Dr. Royle adds that Eragrostis

(Poa) cynosuroides is employed for rope-making: under the

names Darbh (Dabh) and Kusa, it plays an important part in

the religious ceremonies of the Brahmans, and, when young, it is

a favourite food of cattle; but any other destination has not

408 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

fallen under my observation. Eriophorum (Trichophorum) co-

mosum, Wall., cannabinum, Royle, called Babar and Baib, and

Saccharum (Erianthus) Munja, also yield excellent material for

cordage (the latter requiring the preliminary process of being

pounded) ; but we are indebted to Dr. Hamilton for having in-

dicated the importance of Spodiopogon laniger as supplying one

of the textile articles of Indian produce.

Kshir Kangkri, or Titi Pirald ; a Lilium or Pancratium (p. 86).

No. 855. Pancratium sylvestre. Titi Piralu montanorum,

Hindice. Habitat in sylvis Nepale inferioris. (Marked in the

margin Allium cumaria.) From Chatera, April 1810. There

is no specimen in the Herbarium, but Wallich believed it to be

his No. 8974, P. verecundum. Dr. Hooker met “a very sweet-

scented Crinum” in the Sikkim Tarai, perhaps identical with this.

Dr. Royle (Illustr. p. 374) has a Crinum (C. Himalense)

from Mansar, in the interior of the Himalaya; and the late Dr.

M‘Gregor assured me that he had found one wild in the valleys

near Sabathu.

Dr. Hamilton, however, states that the true Titipiralu (which

signifies the bitter bulb or Colocasia) consisted of the dried

scales of a tuberous root, having every appearance of being a

species of Lilium. Of this genus, as well as of Fritillaria, many

species inhabit Nepal, and among them L. japonicum, sometimes

called L. Wallichianum, known in Kuméon as Findora, a corrup-

tion of Pindalu. ‘The bulb-scales of Lilium japonicum dried

are said to be employed in China, like salep, im pectoral com-

plaints.” (Royle, Illustr. 388. Figured, Wight’s Icones, t. 2035.)

According to some of his informants, the Kshir Kangkri is

one of the Cucurbitacee; this is borne out by the signification

‘juice of the cucumber ; perhaps C. Hardwickii, which is called

Air-alu in Kumaon, and Pahari Indrayan, Hill Colocynth, in

Garhwal, from its bitterness. Royle, t. 47. f. 3.

Amomum: Desi Elachi, large Nepal Cardamom, with mem-

branous angles (pp. 74, 75).

No. 13. Amomum? aromaticum, Hort. Beng. 1; Roxb. Fl.

Ind. i. 44. Alaichi montanorum in Nepala. Colitur inter

montes Nepal. (To this is added at a subsequent date),—To

this probably belonged the specimen received from Surat, which

Linneus considered as the true Cardamomum. (Linn. Trans. x.

252.)

There is no specimen in the Herbarium. In Dr. Christison’s

valuable collection of Materia Medica, this species is named

“Java Cardamom, Pereira, ed. iii. p. 1135. From Amomum

maximum, Roxb, Java and Bengal.” I observed it exposed for

sale in considerable quantities at Barmdée, a mart on the western

frontier of Nepal, where it was said to come from Doti, a pro-

from the Kingdom of Nepal. 4.09

vince bordering Kumaon to the east. Roxburgh (/. ¢.) describes

Amomum aromaticum, Morang Elachi, as a native of the valleys

on the eastern frontier of Bengal, with an ovate capsule, the

size of a large nutmeg; those of Doti are much smaller.

“ Singgiya Bikh or Bish (of the lower mountains and hills,

p- 98), much celebrated among the mountaimeers. The plant

was brought to me in flower, but was entirely male; nor did I

see the fruit, which is said to be a berry. So far as I can judge

from these circumstances, I suppose that it is a species of Smilax

with ternate leaves. To pass over several of its qualities that

are marvellous, the root, which resembles a yam, is said to be a

violent poison. The berries also are said to be deleterious, but

when applied externally are considered as a cure for the goitre,”

p- 87.

No. 2219. Smilax? virosa. Singgiya Bish vel Bikh monta-

norum, Hindice. Habitat in Nepale montibus. Identified by

Wallich with No. 5099 of his Catalogue, Dioscorea virosa, which

Dr. Royle informs us occurs also in Garhwal and Sirmur under

the name of Ramberee (the divine Zizyphus). It is remarkable

in this genus from having its stems furnished with aculei; and

Dr. Royle calls our attention to the fact that this species, with

D. triphylla, pentaphylla, and demona, all with compound leaves,

are distinguished by the acridity of their tubers*. Singgiya a

Bikh, signifying ‘horned poison,’ alludes to their curved form

in D. virosat.

No. 220. Smilax? narcotica. Bharbang montanorum, Hin-

dice. Habitat in Nepala inferiore ad montium radices.

This is identified by Wallich with the preceding.

* Roxburgh (iii. 806) and Graham (Cat. of Bombay Plants, p. 218) agree

that the tubers of D. pentaphylla are wholesome, and used as an esculent.

Graham tells us that the root of D. triphylla, ‘‘imtoxicating and intensely

bitter,”’ is often sliced and infused in toddy to render it more potent. It

occurs in Kumaéon as high as 6000 feet; D. demona, with equally nauseous

tubers, only reaches to 3000.

The root Charmaghas, so often mentioned in the Sanscrit dictionaries,

has not been identified. I found it sold at Barmdee by the Nepalese

traders; but my specimens were destroyed by the ‘ Fish insect,’ Lepisma

saccharina, the scourge of our Indian libraries and herbaria. It may be the

Sham, or root of Cherophyllum esculentum, mentioned in Royle’s ‘ Ilus-

trations,’ which is probably the Chamaas, “‘a wild edible root used as a

relish” by the people of Rol, near the Shatul Pass, Basehar (Lloyd and

Gerard, i. 293). The S. ndlika implies a plant with a tubular stem: sap-

tala, having seven leaves.

+ The vernacular Sing, ‘a horn,’ softened from the Sanscrit Sringa, gives

the origin of the Arabic and Persian word for ginger, Zinjabil, from which _

the Greek Zingiberis is derived. The common source of all is the Sanserit

Sringavéram, signifying ‘antler-shaped;’ and it is remarkable that this

classical name, as well as that (Naiada) from which the ancients formed

their term (Nardos) for spikenard, is no longer used in the Indian dialects,

being superseded by some of the many synonyms,

410 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

Pinus Picea,W. Common Spruce Fir. Hingwal Ka Ch’hota

Saral, 7. e. Small Alpine Pine, pp. 83-96.

No. 2064. Pinus striata: Pinus Picea, Hamilton’s Nepal, 83,

96. Hingwal Ka Ch’hota Saral (Alpium parva Pinus), Hindice.

Habitat in Nepal alpibus. On the label, “ leaves very odorous.”

This is Pieea Webbiana, and is identified by Wallich, No, 5058

(for 6058), Pinus Webbiana: P. striata, Ham.

Neither Wallich nor Hamilton has the Himalayan Spruce

(Abies Smithiana, or Morinda) from Nepal; it is also absent

from Kumaon, but is common both east and west of these pro-

vinces.

P. excelsa is figured by Wall. Pl. As. Rar. iti. t. 201; but

t. 246, P. Smithiana, errs nm exhibiting the cones erect.

Catalogue, No. 2063. Pinus Strobus. Gobiya Saral monta-

norum, Hindice. Habitat in Nepali alpibus. (The native name

belongs to the Jast.) Weymouth Pine, p. 83. Pius excelsa,

which is very near to P. Strobus. In Lambert’s ‘Deseription of

the genus Pinus, it is characterized as follows :— This species

approaches so near in habit and in the figure of its cones to

P. Strobus, that were it not for the simple round membranous

crest of the anthers, it would be almost impossible to distin-

guish their limits as distinct species. The leaves of this species

are considerably longer than those of P. Strobus, and the cones

larger.” P. Strobus has “ antherarum crista omnium minima é

setis duabus erectis brevissimis.” Mr. D. Moore of Glasnevin

informed me that it is, in Ireland, less hardy than P. excelsa.

A variety of this in our Horticultural Society’s Garden, with

short leaves, removes one of the differences on which Lambert

relies. Colonel Markham (Shooting in the Himalaya, 213, 214)

says that, in Kunwar, “torches are made from the Cheel Pine,

which, being full of turpentine, burns beautifully, and gives a

capital light. la ipsa rk The gum of the Cheel is held in great

estimation for its healing qualities throughout the hills.” So

Hooker, Journals, ii. 45.

The Salla of Dr. Hamilton is Pinus longifolia, also called

Chir, a species occasionally introduced into our Pineta, but

quite unfitted to endure the severity of our winters, being a

semi-tropical plant.

It is observable that Dr. Hamilton nowhere mentions the

Deodar, which he could scarcely have failed to procure had it

been indigenous to Nepal. When in India, with very scanty

materials for an opinion, I came to the conclusion that we have

no evidence of its existence till we come to Garhwal, though it

is usually quoted as a native of Nepal: a reference to Dr. Wal-

lich’s Catalogue establishes the correctness of this conclusion,

for under his No. 5060 (for 6050?) we have “Pinus Deodara,

from the Kingdom of Nepdl. 41]

Roxb. a Kamaon, R. B. (Robert Blnkworth). ? 8. ex horto

quodam ad Patan in Nepalia, 1821.” But even in Kumaon,

where fine groves occur, the tree is clearly introduced.

Juniperus: Dhupi. Alpine Nepal. No. 2280. Juniperus

sguamosa. Dhupi montanorum, Hindice. Hamilton’s Nepal,

96. Habitat ad Emodi nives: labelled, “Thibet Hills.” So

Wallich, No. 6043. J. squamosa, Ham. Gosainthén, Chur.

The common species of the Himalaya, with considerable diver-

sity as found in the dry or the rainy districts. The description

of the Dhupi in the ‘ Account of Nepal,’ p. 96, can, however,

only agree with Juniperus excelsa: “A very large tree.” “ Its

wood has a beautiful grain, a fine mahogany colour, and a re-

markably pleasant scent, a good deal resembling that of the

pencil Cedar, but stronger, and I think more agreeable. Planks

of this are sent to Thibet, from whence they are probably carried

to China.” Dhup signifies ‘ incense.’

Juniperus: alow bush; Thumuriya Dhupi. “ Branches and

leaves have an agreeable smell, and are used in fumigations,”

; 6:

' No. 2279. Juniperus? incurva. Thumuriya Dhupi monta-

norum, Hindice. Hamilton’s Nepal, 96. Habitat ad Emodi

nives. No. 6042, Wallich. Juniperus recurva, Ham., identified

with his J. recurva. Gosainthan. Dr. Hamilton’s specimen

quite resembles some of the north-western forms of J. sqguamosa,

and has neither the hue nor the pendulous branchlets of the J.

recurva of our collections, which is certainly not a native of the

British Himalaya. Dr. Hooker (Journals, 11. 28, 45) calls it

the weeping Blue Juniper, and figures it as a tree 30 feet high,

in Upper Sikkim, but comparatively scarce.

Catalogue, No. 2067. Cupressus sempervirens. Bhairopati,

Hamilton’s Nepal, 97. Habitat in Nepal alpibus. Labelled,

“ Brought from the alps of Thibet: said-to be a shrub.” (“Its

dried leaves have a disagreeable sulphureous smell,” p. 97.) The

name is here given, ‘ Bhaingropati;’? and in p. 97, Bhairopati

(i. e. Siva’s leaf) is said to be a Rhododendron. Wallich

(No. 6041) identifies Dr. Hamilton’s specimen with Juniperus

excelsa; and has Cupressus torulosa (No. 6046) only from Niti

in Garhwal. I have stated elsewhere, on the authority of the

late Mr. J. E. Winterbottom, that he had obtained it from

Gosainthan in Nepal; but he subsequently discovered that his

specimens were those of a Juniper. Dr. Hamilton’s plant has

the branches four-sided, agreeing with Don’s “ quadrifariam

imbricatis” of C. torulosa (Prod. Fl. Nep. 55) and with my own

observation. Lambert says, “ramulis teretibus,” perhaps from

a young state of the plant.

Hingwal Ka bara Saral: the Yew, according to Dr. Hamilton,

amt. Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Planis

confirmed by his specimen No, 2281. YVaxus baccata falcata.

Yew-tree, Anglorum. Hingwal Ka bara Saral montanorum,

Hind. Hamilton’s Nepal, 83, 96, 117. Habitat in Nepale

alpibus. The name signifies ‘great Alpine Pine,’ and is cer-

tainly misapplied, probably by the carelessness of the collectors ;

as ‘small Alpine Pine’ cannot belong to Picea Webbiana. They

have most likely been interchanged.

Zuccarini* constitutes a distinct species (Taxus Wallichiana)

for the Himalayan Yew ; but though the leaves are more curved,

and the berries smaller than in our European tree, the difference

is 80 trifling, that, with our knowledge of such a marked variety

as the Irish Yew generally reproducing the common form, a new

species seems uncalled for. Dr. Hooker (Journals, ii. 25) holds

that the Himalayan, the North American, and several connect-

ing links, all belong to Taxus baccata; he tells us (i. 186) that

the red bark is used as a dye, and for staining the foreheads of

the Brahmans in Nepal. The timber found by Layard in the

palaces of Nineveh, and pronounced by him to be Cedar, is in

reality Yew.

Dr. Wallich (No. 6054, and Tent. Flor. Nep. t. 44. p. 57)

identifies Taxus baccata falcata of Nepal with Taxus nucifera of

Kaempfer from Japan, an oversight which has been set night by

Zuccarini, as well as by the fact that no one has hitherto de-

tected that plant or other Taxus in any part of the Himalaya.

Dr. Wallich has indeed, in “ No. 6056, Taxus? Lambertiana,

Wall. Pini spec. Wall. Herb. 1824. Himalaya, Webb, Govan,

Kamroop.” No specimen exists in the collection here; but

from Lambert’s genus Pinus iii. t. 67, we know it to be Pinus

(Picea) Pindrow. “ Dr. Wallich, who had seen neither flowers

nor fruit, supposing it to be a Taxus, has doubtfully referred it

to that genus under the name of Taxus Lambertiana, in the

Catalogue of his Herbarium. It does not appear to have been

found in Nepal, but is frequent in the countries to the west-

ward, having been observed in Kumaon by Captain W. 8. Webb,

and in Sirmore and Garhwal by Drs. Govan and Royle.” Dr.

Thomson (Western Himalaya and Tibet, p. 86) considers it

one species with Picea Webbiana : “The long green-leaved state

is that of the moist Himalaya; in the driest regions the very

short glaucous-leaved form occurs.” The Himdlayan chain

from Kumaon to Baséhar on the Indian face is annually

drenched with rain; and still more the various detached out-

liers, Dudutoli, Chur, &c., rising above 11,000 feet. Every-

where in this tract, so far as my observation extends, the Pin-

* Morphology of the Conifers, 52, 53, in Reports and Papers on Botany,

printed for the Ray Society, London, 1846.

from the Kingdom of Nepal. 413

drow alone will be found up to about that elevation, when in a

few hundred feet it yields to P. Webbiana. Owing to this lofty

habitat, P. Webbiana is stimulated into premature growth by

our early springs, and often cut down by subsequent frosts ;

the Pindrow, though from a lower zone, is not liable to this

accident.

The preparation of a kind of tea from the Yew-tree is, I think,

peculiar to the Himalaya, and it is remarkable that so dangerous

a plant should have been selected. Col. Markham (Shooting

in the Himalaya, p. 115) thus describes its use in Kashmir:

“There is a capital substitute for tea, in the inner bark of the

Yew-tree, dried and prepared like tea. The colour is perfect ;

but I never could find much taste in the infusion, although one

of my friends once said that he liked it better than tea.” It is

for this reason that, in Kunawar, Taxus baccata is called Sang-

cha= Sang fea, perhaps connected with the name of the moun-

tain Sung-lo in Kiangnan, “ famous in China as being the place

where the green tea shrub was first discovered, and where green

tea was first manufactured*.”

Of the popular idea of the great age attained by this tree, I

met with a curious illustration im 1851, when an Irish gardener

repeated the following as being an ancient composition taught

him by old people. Three years being the age assigned to the

unit, the total comes to 2187 :—

Tri saoghail muic, saoghal con ;

Tri saoghail con, —_—saoghal eich ;

Tri saoghail eich, — saoghal aufhir ;

Tri saoghail aufhir, saoghal seade ;

Tri saoghail seade, saoghal iolair ;

Tri saoghail iolair, saoghal au iur.

In English.

Three lives of a pig = life of a dog;

Three lives of adog = life of a horse ;

Three lives of a horse = life of a man;

Three lives of aman = life of a path (or furrow) ;

Three lives of a path = life of an eagle ;

Three lives of an eagle = life of a yew.

[To be continued. |

* Fortune’s Tea Countries of China, 86.

414 = Dr. J. E. Gray on a new Subgenus of Helicinade.

XXXV.—Notice of a New Subgenus of Helicinade.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S.

THERE is an inclination, in several groups of Marine Univalve

Mollusca, for the animal to form a more or less deep notch or

fissure on the hinder part of the outer lip, as in the genera

Pleurotoma, Amphibola, Pleurotomaria, and Siliquaria; this

notch appears to be formed to facilitate the entrance and exit of

the water from the respiratory chamber. Sometimes the slit, or

a series of holes which may be considered as an interrupted slit,

is placed more in front, as in Haliotis ; or when the shell is sym-

metrical, as in Hmarginula, it is in the centre of the front edge.

Some shells which are normally destitute of this notch are liable

to a malformation exhibiting it, as is the case in the common

Littorina littorea.

I had never observed any indication of such a conformation

in any terrestrial mollusk until Mr. Damon of Weymouth kindly

showed to me some specimens of a species of Helicina he had

received from Cuba, under the name of Trochatella regina, which

have this notch most_perfectly developed, and as it indicates a

peculiar structure in the animal, I propose to separate it from

the group hitherto recognized in the family Helicinada, as a

distinct subgenus. Dr. Pfeiffer has considered it as forming a

peculiar section of the genus Trochatella, but none of the other

species of that genus show any inclination to this peculiarity.

I may here remark, that some species of this family have a

notch or very narrow slit in the front of the outer lip near the

axis, but this slit appears to have no relation to the notches or

slit referred to in the other genera, being merely formed by a

process in the front of the outer edge of the operculum, a pecu-

liarity I have not observed in any other family of Mollusks,

HAPATA.

Shell conical, subglobose ; spire conical, acute, whorls striated ;

aperture semiovate; outer lip expanded, with a deep sinus in

front and a deep wide notch in the hinder part of the outer edge.

Pillar-lip callous, straight in front, without any anterior slit.

Operculum half-ovate, annular, thin, horny; nucleus in the

middle of the inner straight edge; covered internally with a

thick, smooth, shelly, callous coat.

Hapata regina = Trochatella regina, Pfeiffer, Pneum. Mon.328;

Cat. Phanerop. Brit. Mus. 236.

Hab. Cuba.

Zoological Society. 415

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

November 27, 1855.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

On Panopxa ALpROVANDI, Lam.

By S. P. Woopwarp, F.G.S.

The specimen of Panopea Aldrovandi, preserved in spirits, and now

exhibited to the Zoological Society, was presented by Capt. Guise to

the Gloucester Museum, and was lent me for examination through

the kindness of J. W. Wilton, Esq., of Gloucester.

Panop2&A ALDROVANDI, Lam.

(Chama glycimeris, Aldr.)

One-fourth natural size.

a, a’, Adductor muscles.

Pp, p', Pedal muscles.

r, Position of renal organ.

t, Labial tentacles, or palpi.

6, Body.

JF, Muscular foot.

m, Pallial muscle, or retractor of

the mantle.

8, Siphonal muscle.

The arrows indicate the inhalant,

or branchial siphon, and the exhalant

or anal siphon, communicating with

the channels above the gills.

This species is found at Sicily, and on the south coasts of Spain

and Portugal; but not, so far as we are aware, at Mogador or the

Canaries.

416 Zoological Society :—

On the coast of Sicily, according to M. Philippi, it is rare, and

only found between La Trezza and Aci Castello. M. H. Crosse,

who purposely visited this locality, found a rocky beach in which it

could not possibly live, and the only spot where the fishermen were

acquainted with it was the village of Giardini, near the sandy bay of

Taormina; even there only odd valves were procured, and he says it

would be exceedingly difficult to obtain the animal on account of the

absence of tides*.

Capt. Guise has favoured me with the following note :—

“The Panopea was collected, together with many of the rarest

forms of Mediterranean Mollusca, by the Rev. L. Larking, on the

coast of Sicily ; the animal, when alive in a vessel of sea-water, was

a most lively mollusk—slashing its siphons about, and discharging

the water with the force of a piston.”

There appears to be no description of the animal published.

Philippi had not seen it, nor Valenciennes, at the time he wrote the

monograph of the genus for Chenu’s ‘ Conchological Illustrations.’

Being the type of the genus Panopea, I was the more desirous of

examining it, especially as British naturalists have taken their notion

of Panopea from the British shell called “‘ Panopea Norvegica”’—

which it now appears does not belong to the genus, or even to the

same family, but must be referred to Saxicava amongst the Gastro-

chenide.

In P. Aldrovandi all the visible portion of the mantle and the

long united siphons are clothed with thick, brown epidermis, striped

with black, and very much wrinkled by the contraction of the animal

in aleohol: it was impossible, without dissection, to see whether the

orifices of the siphons were fringed as in Mya, The anterior gape of

the shell exhibits an oval space, perforated in the centre by a small

pedal orifice, scarcely large enough to admit the little finger.

By lifting up one valve and removing the portion of the mantle

within the pallial line, the internal organs were seen and sketched.

The body is large and oval, suspended by four muscles whose

attachments are close to those of the adductors; it is truncated in

front, where it supports a small finger-like muscular foot ; behind it

is produced into a blunt point.

The oral palpi are triangular and pointed, but were probably larger

and broader during life; they are deeply plaited inside, with a plain

posterior border.

The gills are two on each side; the inner gills extend from the

base of the respiratory siphon to the palpi, between which they are

received ; they are deeply plaited, the plaits being in pairs, and the

lower edge of the gill is grooved. The inner dorsal margins are not

united to the body, so that the dorsal channels are only closed by

the apposition of the parts.

The outer gills are simpler in structure, being formed of a single

series of vascular loops placed one behind another ; the free edge is

not grooved, and the gill terminates in front some way behind the

* Journ. Conch. vol. ii. 1851.

Mr. 8S. P. Woodward on Panopzea Aldrovandi. 417

inner gill. The dorsal margin of the outer lamina is expanded be-

ond the line of suspension, and is fixed.

The gills of the opposite sides are united to each other behind the

body and to the branchial septum.

The whole structure is closely like that of Mya arenaria, the

chief differences being the shortness of the palpi, and the inequality

of the gills.

There are nine other reputed recent species of Panopea.

1. P. apspreviaTa, Val.; discovered by M. d’Orbigny on the

coast of Patagonia between the R. Negro and 8. Blas. This shell

appears to have been again met with by the U. 8. Exploring Expe-

dition, under Commander Wilkes, and is described by Dr. Gould as

P. antarctica.

2. P. zELANDICcA, Quoy ; of which an odd valve only was picked

up on the beach.

3. P. soranpri, Gray; probably the same as the last.

4. P. ausrrauis, G. Sby. (Genera of Shells, pl. 40. f. 2), one of

G. Humphrey’s shells from New South Wales; of which there is a

series in the British Museum, from Tasmania.

5. P. ausrrauis, Val. (not Sowerby’s).

This species is as large as P. Aldrovandi, and very like it. Being

quite distinct from the P. australis of Sowerby, it is proposed to call

it P. natalensis.

It was discovered in the sandy bays of Port Natal, by Capt. Cecile

and the officers of the French frigate ‘Heroine,’ who observed the

tubes of the shell-fish projecting through the sand at low water.

*‘The sailors endeavoured to draw the creature out of its habita-

tion by the tube, but in vain; for the siphons, after offering con-

siderable resistance, in every instance gave way, and often were with-

drawn entire, in spite of the grasp of its persecutor. Curious to

know the nature of the being which thus escaped them, they dug for

it with spades, and at length uncovered the Panopea buried several

feet below the surface of the sand, and gregarious*.”

6. Panorama saponica, A. Adams, Zool. Proc. for 1849, p. 170.

pl. 6. f.5. This species, of which the original and unique example

is in the Leyden Museum, is much like the fossil P. intermedia of

the London clay.

7. PANOPHA GENEROSA, Gould; Puget Sound, Oregon. (U.S.

Expl. Exped.)

8. Panorp#a Norvecica, Spengler, is found throughout the

Arctic seas, from Behring’s Straits to Newfoundland, the North Sea

and Russian Lapland.

I was so convinced of the affinity of this shell to the Savicava, that

(in my Manual) I placed the latter genus next to Panopea ; it now

appears that I should have left it in its former place with Gastro-

chena and have removed the Panopea norvegica to it. The shell

differs from Panopea in having the pallial line broken up or divided

* Forbes, i. p. 174, from Valenciennes’ Archives du Muséum, t. i. 1839.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 27

418 Zoological Society :—

into a number of separate spots, and the animal has very long taper-

ing gills, prolonged far into the branchial siphon.

9. PANop&®A MIDDENDORFFII, A. Adams, Zool. Proc. for 1854,

p- 137. Arctic Seas. (Haslar Museum.) Appears to be a variety

of P. norvegica.

The Geographical Distribution of the genus Panopea affords an

illustration of the rule, or “law,” so earnestly investigated by the

late Prof. E. Forbes,—that the range of genera, as well as of species,

depends in great measure on their geological antiquity; and that

when the members of a group are scattered over the greater part of

the world, we may expect to find evidence of their existence in the

intervening spaces during a former age. M. d’Orbigny describes

139 extinct species of Panopea, commencing in the Permian age,

and occurring in every part of the world where secondary or tertiary

strata have been found.

December 11, 1855.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

Cuaracters or Two New SrecigEs oF TANAGERS.

By Puruie Lutvey Scuater, M.A.

1. DuBUSIA AURICRISSA.

Dubusia eyanocephala? Sclater, P. Z. S. 1855, p. 157.

D. supra flavescenti-olivaceo-viridis : capite nuchaque ceruleis :

loris nigris : subtus cerulescenti-cinerea: tectricibus subalari-

bus et ventre imo crissaque cum tibiis vivide aureo-lavis.

Long. tota 6°5, alee 3°6, caudze 5:0.

Hab. in Nova Grenada, Bogota.

Obs. Species D. cyanocephale simillima, sed rostro minore, colore

dorsi flavescentiore olivaceo, capitis ceeruleo magis extenso, yentre

ceerulescenti- neque albescenti-cinereo, et tectricibus subalaribus nec-

non ventre imo crissoque cum tibiis vivide aureo-flavis.

Since compiling the list of Bogota birds, in which I have included

this species under the name Dubusia cyanocephala’, 1 have examined

D’Orbigny’s types of that bird in the Paris Museum, and find them

so different from the present as to lead me to conclude that they are

specifically distinct. :

The present bird—which must be considered as the representative

of D. cyanocephala in the mountain ranges of New Grenada—is com-

mon in collections from Bogota. The British Museum contains ex-

amples of both the species. Those of D. cyanocephala were procured

by Mr. Bridges in Bolivia.

2. In1DORNIS PORPHYROCEPHALA.

Tanagra analis, Tschudi in Mus. Berolinensi.

I, supra purpurea, dorso imo et marginibus alarum et caude virides-

centibus : fronte, loris, mento summo et regione auriculari nigris :

gutture late et lete aureo-flavo: pectore summo purpurascente:

ventre viridescente, medialiter rufescenti-ochraceo : ano intense -

Dr. J. E. Gray on the genus Assiminia. 419

Serruginescenti-castaneo : tectricibus alarum inferioribus virides-

centibus : rostro superiore nigro, inferiore albo.

Long. tota 5:6, alee 3°0, caudee 2°2.

Hab. in Nova Grenada et rep. Equatoriana.

Obs. Affinis Iridornithi anali, sed capite dorsoque summo purpu-

reis, pectore purpurascente et ventre viridescente facile distinguenda.

When at Berlin in 1854 I first noticed a specimen of this Tanager,

which is in the Museum there under the name “ Tanagra analis,

Tschudi.” But having just before that had the opportunity of ex-

amining type specimens of the latter bird in the collections of

Brussels and Bremen, I saw at once that the present was to all

appearance a distinct although closely allied species, and accord-

ingly assigned to it a new name in my MS. At Neufchatel I

again saw T'schudi’s analis (the types described in the Fauna Peruana

being contained in the Museum at that place), and I was also so

‘fortunate as to obtain by exchange, through the courtesy of M. Cou-

lon, the Directeur of the Museum there, a duplicate example of

that species. Upon comparing this with a skin lately received by

Mr. Gould along with other birds from the neighbourhood of Quito,

I find the same differences as I had previously noted in the Berlin

Museum specimen; and, fortified by a second example, no longer

hesitate to introduce the bird as new to science under the title of

Iridornis porphyrocephala.

February 12, 1856.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

On THE Genus AssimIniA (Leac#).

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., P.B.S. etc.

In a list of some species of British shells at the end of an arrange-

ment of Mollusca in the ‘London Medical Repository’ for 1821 (vol. xv.

p- 239), I noticed a new mollusk under the name of “ Nerita (Syncera)

hepatica, u.s. The animal of this shell differs from all others of this

order by the eyes appearing to be at the end of the tentacula, but I

believe that they are placed on a peduncle as long as the tentacula,

and the peduncle and tentacula are soldered together.”’

Dr. Leach, when he examined the animal of this shell, formed it

into a genus under the name of Assiminia, and named the species

after myself as 4. Grayana, described under this name at the end of

the genus Limnea, in Fleming’s ‘ British Animals,’ p. 275 (1828),

who observes, ‘‘ Dr. Leach sent me several years ago a shell from

_ Greenwich marshes, constituting a new freshwater genus, under the

titie Assiminia Grayana. ‘The lip is thickened on the pillar and re-

flected over the cavity, but is destitute of the oblique fold, and the

lip does not extend over the body whorl. The colour is brown ;

whorls six in number, conical, regularly increasing in size, glossy,

with minute lines of growth. Length about ,%,ths of an inch.”

~ In my paper “On the Difficulty of distinguishing certain genera of

Testaceous Mollusca by their Shells alone, and on the Anomalies in

regard to Habitation observed in certain species,” published in the

_* Philosophical Transactions’ for 1835, p. 301, I observe: ‘‘ About

27*

420 Zoological Society :—

fifteen years since I first observed in the marshes near the bank of

the Thames, between Greenwich and Woolwich, in company with

species of Valvata, Bithynia and Pisidium, a small univalve shell,

agreeing with the smaller species of the littoral genus Littorina in

every character both of shell and operculum. Yet this very pecu-

liar and, apparently, local species has an animal which at once distin-

guishes it from the animal of that genus and from all Ctenobranchous

Mollusea. Its tentacula are very short and thick, and have the eyes

placed at their tips, while the Littorine, and all the other animals

of the order to which they belong, have their eyes placed on small

tubercles on the outer side of the base of the tentacles, which are

generally more or less elongated. The shell in question and its

animal were described and figured by Dr. Leach in his hitherto un-

published work on British Mollusca, under the name of Assiminia

Grayana, and as this name has been referred to by Mr. Jeffreys and

other conchologists, it may be regarded as established, and that of

Syncera hepatica, proposed by myself in the ‘ Medical Repository,’

vol. x. p. 239, will take rank as a synonym. A second species of

this genus has lately been made known by Mr. Benson, by whom it

was found on the ponds in India. Its shell is banded like that of

Littorina 4-fasciata and several other smaller Littorine, and has

been figured in the Supplement to ‘ Wood’s Conchology,’ t. 6, f. 28,

under the name of Turbo Francesie.”

In my edition of ‘Turton’s Manual,’ 1840, p. 88, I characterize

the genus thus :—Assiminia: Shell ovate, conical, solid; mouth

ovate; tentacles very short, scarcely longer than the tubercles on

which the eyes are placed, and united to their side, p. 78, f. 4, 5, 6,

observing, ‘‘the animal differs from Littorina in the apparent posi-

tion of the eyes, which is an anomaly among the water and Cteno-

branchous Mollusca ;” and after quoting Mr. Berkeley’s description

of the tentacula I observe,—‘‘ I am inclined to retain my former

theory, for if the pedicel of the eye of this genus is minutely exa-

mined, it will appear to be formed of two parts united by a suture.’

In 1852, having obtained permission of the family, I printed

Dr. Leach’s ‘ Molluscorum Britannize Synopsis’ above referred to,

and he there described the genus—‘‘AssimintA. Testa conica,

spira mediocris. Animal tentaculis duobus brevibus, apice paulo

angustioribus obtusis, ad apicem oculigeris, instructum ; oculi parvi,

rotundi; operculum tenue.”

“From the form of the shell this genus might be considered as

belonging to the second stirps (testa conica, spira brevis), but the

animal proves that it is more nearly allied to Sabanea than to any

other of the British genera.” (p. 155. t. 9. f. 4, 5.)

Lately some doubt has been attempted to be thrown on the

distinctness of the genus, which it has been proposed should be

united to the genus 7runcatella of Risso.

Considering the very great similarity which often exists in the

general appearance of the animals of very distinct genera of Mollusca,

—a similarity so great, that if a person was to place before me, without

the shell or operculum, the animal of the genera Murew, Triton, Pur-

Dr. J. E. Gray on the genus Assiminia. 421

pura, Fasciolaria, Columbella, &c., I should not be able to distinguish

one from the other without the examination of the teeth or the lin-

gual membrane, and that would only enable me to separate Triton,

Cassis and Fasciolaria from each other and from Murex, Purpura and

Columbellia, and not the three latter genera from each other; and it is

the same with the animals of several other orders and families ;—

Fig, 2.

'é

1. Truncatella truncatula B. 2. Assiminia Grayana.

a. With foot extended, in the act of a. Under side of animal and shell.

drawing up the shell. b. Side view.

6. Side view. ec. Front of foot, showing how the

e. Seen beneath as crawling up a lower lamina of the foot pro-

glass, when the muzzle is ex- jects beyond the upper.

serted.

yet the animals of the two genera Assiminia and Truncatella (see

figs. 1 and 2) proposed to be united, are so unlike in general ap-

pearance, minute structure and habit, that it is extraordinary that

any person should have made the proposal.

I think the best way to show the distinction of these two genera

will be to copy, in addition to the extract already given, the figures

(see figs. 1 and 2) and descriptions of the animals given in different

authors, commencing with Mr. Lowe, who has figured and described

the animal of Truncatella in the fifth volume of the ‘ Zoological

Journal,’ and Mr. Berkeley’s description and figure of the animal of

Assiminia ; then the description of the animal of the Indian species

of the latter genus, both printed in the volume above referred to;

and, lastly, some extracts of additional peculiarity of the genus

Truncatella, observed by Mr. Clark, and published in his work on

British Mollusca.

“1, TruncaTeLuA. R.T. Lowe, Zool. Journ. v. 299. t.19. f. 4.

**Tentacula (2 contractilia) cylindrico-conica, brevia, obtusa, basi

distincta, proboscide sepurata; oculis sessilibus paullo supra basis

angulum externum positis. Caput proboscidiforme exsertum. Os

ad extremitalem proboscidis cylindrice, inter tentacula exserte,

disciformem, supra emarginatam (sc. bilobam, ob buccas labiales in

proboscidem ipsam coadunatas vel commutatas). Pallium collare

siphone nullo; orificio ad dextrum corporis ut in Helice, Melam-

pode, Pedipede, Sc. Pes rotundatus vel ovalis, brevis, minimus,

posticus. Operculum corneum simplex, i.e. non spirale, ovale,

aperturam teste omnino claudens. Testa turrita; adulta cylin-

422 Zoological Society :—

drica, decollata vel truncato-obtusa ; anfractibus distinctis, vel

levibus vel transverse costatis. Apertura ovalis, brevis ; peri-

tremate continuo. Labrum simplex. Epidermis nulla.

Animal littorale, amphibium, sed revera marinum et branchiis

spirans. Ingredienti, discus terminalis proboscidis pro pedis parte

antica servit; itaque modo fere larvarum Phalenidarum Geome-

trarum gradibus alternis incedit. Testa junior, tereti-acuminata,

e pluribus anfractibus quam adulta constat; prioribus in plerisque

demum (ut in Hel. Bulimo decollato) defractis, truncata evadit.

“It is now nearly three years (1829) since the acquisition of a single

live specimen of Cyclostoma truncatulum, Drap., and a long and

continued observation of its animal, convinced me that it was entitled

to rank as a distinct genus from any which were then constituted.

I had accordingly designated it in my MSS. by the generic name of

Herpetometra ; derived from its peculiar manner of crawling. This

appellation I had since purposed changing into Truncatella, the very

name by which I find the self-same species designated by Risso in

his ‘Histoire Nat. &c. de Europe Méridionale.’ In this work,

however, the genus rests, like very many others of the same writer,

on most unsubstantial ground, the animal being entirely neglected.”

« Assrminta. Berkeley, Zool. Journ. v. 429. t. 19. f. 4.

“ Voluta denticulata, Mont. (Carychium Myosotis, Michaud,

Compl. de histoire de Drapard.), and Assiminia Grayana, Leach,

abound under stones in the salt marshes by the Thames at Gravesend,

Having an opportunity of examining both in a living state in the

summer of 1832, I was surprised to find manifest indications that

both were pulmoniferous, which were confirmed on a minute inspec-

tion of the internal structure, as far as perhaps could be expected in

such small animals. I was enabled in the former to trace distinetl

the course of the vessels, and was decidedly of opinion that the lungs

were constructed for the breathing of air unmixed with water. In

the other case I was not so successful, though the utmost pains were

taken; but as the animal is only half the size, the difficulty was much

increased. I am enabled, however, to assert, that I could detect

nothing like branchize ; and what is more to the point, that the vault -

of the cavity of respiration was traversed by a multitude of minute

vessels all tending one way towards a large vessel ramming down in

the direction of the heart, which is exactly the structure in pulmo-

niferous Mollusca. This, perhaps, will be esteemed as decisive when

the external characters of the animal are taken into consideration.”

** ASSIMINIA GRAYANA.

“ Foot broadly obovate, obtuse, composed evidently of two distinct

laminze, the lower projecting beyond the upper, and separated from

it by an accurately defined line; above fuseous, beneath olivaceous,

shaded with cinereous. Tentacula very short and obtuse, fuscous ;

eyes at the tips. Muzzle porrected, not truly proboscidiform, deeply

notched in front, fuscous, strongly annulated; the edge of the lip

paler ; on each side is a groove running backwards from the base of

Dr. J. E. Gray on the genus Assiminia. 423

the tentacula, Mantle open behind. Feces elliptical (as in Cyelo-

stoma). Operculum corneous, ovate, spirally striated. The most

remarkable circumstance in this animal is the position of the eyes,

at the tips of the tentacula, as in Helix and its allies, and not at

the base. It would appear as if there were in reality no tentacula,

and only the tubercle common to many Mollusca at the base of the

tentacula a little more developed than usual. The shell is so like

that of some species of Rissoa, that it is quite surprising that in

Dr. Fleming’s ‘ British Animals,’ and in Mr. Jeffreys’ paper in the

‘Linnean Transactions,’ it should be placed in, or close to, the

genus Limnea. Dr. Leach seems to have formed his conclusions from

an actual inspection of the animal, and consequently made a distinct

genus for its reception. In many points the animal resembles very

much that of Cyclostoma, and is perhaps a step nearer than that and

Helicina, which have the mantle open behind, to the Pectinifera.

Its nearest ally, however, amongst the pectiniferous Mollusca I

should conceive not to be Rissoa.

The animal and shell are figured in Forbes and Hanley’s ‘ British

Mollusca,’ iii. 70, t. 71. f. 3, 4, and t. H.H. f. 6,

* Mr. Benson, at page 463 of the same volume of the Zool. Journ.,

has given the following description of the animal of Assiminia fas-

ciata (Turbo Francesii, Gray, in Wood’s Supplement, t. 6. f. 28):

—‘Animal: Head with only two short, thick, subcylindrical ten-

tacula, with the percipient points placed at their summits. Snout,

like that of Paludina, transversely corrugated and bilobed, or rather

emarginate at the centre of the extremity, the lobes rounded. Mantle

free, and branchial cavity open. Foot witha spiral horny operculum,

angular at the upper part.”

I may add to these descriptions that Mr. Clark has lately stated that

the tentacula of Truncatella Montagui are “short, flat, broad, triangu-

lar, and diverge greatly, scarcely forming an angle of 25°. The eyes

are large and black, and have white prominent pupils, which visibly

dilate and contract. I have never observed such in any mollusk,

though similar ones may have escaped notice; they are placed a

little nearer to the base than the middle of their lower half, not on

pedicles, but quite flat on the centre of semicircular expansions of

the outer side of the tentacles, with an external tendency. The

branchial plume is single, of an elongated, kidney-shaped figure, and

has the usual constriction or sinus at the end nearest to the heart ; it

can be detected with high powers in sunlight, through the body

volution of pale, clear, thin shells.”

The eyes of T'runcatella littorea “are precisely those of 7. Mon-

tagui, and a similar white pupil is a singular coincidence.”’

In conclusion, I may observe, that I regard the general form and

organization of the animal and shell of Truncatella as so peculiar, that

I have long considered it the type of a peculiar family, characterized

by the form of the lips and feet, the mode of walking, the short,

broad, diverging tentacles, the position of the eye and its peculiar

form, and the truncation of the shell.

424 Miscellaneous.

On the other hand, the general form of the animal, the manner of

walking, and habitation of the genus Assiminia are so like those of

some of the smaller species of Littorina (which Dr. Leach named Sa-

banea), that if it was not for the peculiar position of the eye on its

long pedicel I should have been inclined to have considered it as a

subdivision of that genus, with very short tentacles and elongated

eye-peduncles. But Mr. Berkeley’s observations have set that at

rest, as well as the distinction between it and T’runcatella; for he

shows that Assiminia has lungs like Cyclostoma, or rather Helicina,

while the Littorine and Truncatelle have well-developed gills for

respiration, like the greater part of the marine genera; but the gills

of Littorina and Truncatella are very unlike one another, the gills

of the former being broad, short, laminar, and of the latter, single,

ovate, and pectinate.

P.S.—Messrs. H. and A. Adams, in the number of their work

issued since this paper was read, are so impressed with the pecu-

liarity of the combination of characters that the animal presents, viz.

a pulmonary respiration, spiral operculum, and terminal eyes, that

they have formed for the genus a suborder named Prosophthalma, and

a particular family, Assiminiade: see Genera of Mollusca, 313.

MISCELLANEOUS.

ON CLAUSILIA ROLPHII AND MORTILLETI,

I nave lately received the first part of Adolf Schmidt’s ‘ Kritischen

Gruppen der Europiischen Clausilien,’ containing the groups allied,

severally, to Cl. ventricosa, Dr., plicatula, Dr., rugosa, Dr., and to

the true gracilis, Rossm., and placing Cl. ventricosa, Rolphii, Leach,

and tumida, Ziegl., in the first group, while lineolata, Held, plicatula,

&c. are assigned to the second.

I am also indebted to Mr. Woodward for a further supply of Clau-

silie found by Mr. Sharman at Charlton in Kent. These all prove

to be of the form found by Mr. Prentice at Charlton Kings near

Cheltenham, and assigned by A. Schmidt to C/. Mortilleti, Dumont.

Early in June I called M. Schmidt’s attention to the fact of his

having altogether ignored C/. Rolphii, as a substantive species, in the

Prodromus published in the ‘ Malak. Blatter’ of the present year.

It now appears that, after some doubt whether Gray’s description

did not apply to Cl. lineolata, he had finally arrived at the con-

clusion that the plate presented a better outline of the form of the

shell to which he had referred- under the name of Mortilleti, and

which he had received from Mr. Prentice, through his brother, from

England, where Cl. lineolata had not been detected. Clausilia

Rolphii therefore appears as a substantive species, with C7. Mortilleti

as a synonym.

On a review of the single large specimen first received from

Mr. Woodward, and which I regarded as the type of Cl. Rolphi

(Annals for July 1856, page 75), and on further examination of

A. Schmidt’s amended characters, remarks and figure, I am disposed

Miscellaneous. 425

to consider the two Woolwich forms as being variations of Rolphii ; the

peculiar form of the subcolumellar plica, and other characters, not

admitting of the union of either with any other allied species. The

specimen formerly in question must for the present be considered as

a large and unusual variety, or accidental deviation from the general

type of Cl. Rolphii. This deviation is particularly observable in the

form of the spire, in the less-developed basal crest, and in the more

narrowly rimate and contracted periomphalus. There is also no trace

of the slight palatal callus, vanishing towards the base, which is

observable in the ordinary form found in other English localities and

on the continent.—W. H. Benson.

On the Origin of Greensand, and its Formation in the Oceans of

the present Epoch. By Prof. J. W. Bainey.

As an introduction to the subject of this paper, it is proper to

refer to various observations which have been made of facts inti-

mately related to those which I wish to present. That the calca-

reous shells of the Polythalamia are sometimes replaced by silica,

appears to have been first noticed by Ehrenberg, who, in a note

translated by Mr. Weaver, and published in the Philosophical

Magazine for 1841 (vol. xviii. p. 397), says :—

“J may here remark that my continued researches on the Poly-

thalamia of the Chalk have convinced me that very frequently in the

earthy coating of flints, which is partly calcareous and partly sili-

ceous, the original calcareous-shelled animal forms have exchanged

their lime for silex without undergoing any alteration in figure, so

that while some are readily dissolved by an acid, others remain insolu-

ble; but in chalk itself, all similar forms are immediately dissolved.”

The first notice of casts of the cells and soft parts of the Poly-

thalamia was published by myself in the ‘American Journal of

Science’ for 1845, vol. xlvii., where I stated as follows :—

«The specimens from Fort Washington presented me with what

I believe have never been before noticed, viz. distinct casts of Poly-

thalamia. That these minute and perishable shells should, when

destroyed by chemical changes, ever leave behind them indestructible

memorials of their existence, was scarcely to be expected, yet these

casts of Polythalamia are abundant and easily to be recognized in

some of the Eocene marls from Fort Washington.” This notice

was accompanied by figures of well-defined casts of Polythalamia

(Z. c. pl. 4. fig. 30, 31).

Dr. Mantell also noticed the occurrence of casts of Polythalamia

and their soft perts preserved in flint and chalk, and communicated

an account of them to the Royal Society of London, in May 1846.

In this paper he speaks of the chambers of Polythalamia as being

frequently filled with chalk, flint, and silicate of tron (Phil. Trans.

1846, p. 466). To Ehrenberg, however, appears to be due the credit

of first distinctly announcing the connexion between the Polytha-

lamia and the formation of greensand, thus throwing the first light

upon the origin of a substance which has long been a puzzle to

426 Miscellaneous.

geologists. In a notice given by this distinguished Obscene EGF

the nature of the matrix of the bones of the Zeuglodon from

bama (see Berlin Monatsbericht, February 1855), he says :—

“That greensand, in all the numerous relations in which I have

as yet examined it, has been recognized as due to the filling-up of

organic cells, as a formation of stony casts (Steinkernbildung) mostly

of Polythalamia, was stated in July of the preceding year.” He

then refers to the Nummulite limestone of Traunstein in Bavaria,

as rich in green opal-like casts (Opalsteinkernen) of well-preserved

Polythalamian forms, and mentions them as also occurring, but

more rarely, in the Glauconite limestones of France. He then

proceeds to give an account of his detection of similar casts in the

limestone adhering to the bones of the Zeuglodon from Alabama,

and states that this limestone abounds in well-preserved brown,

green, and whitish stony casts of recognizable Polythalamia. This

limestone is yellowish, and under a lens appears spotted with argen

These green spots are the greensand casts of Polythalamia, and they

often form as much as one-third of the mass. By solution in dilute

hydrochloric acid, the greensand grains are left, mixed with quartz-

ose sand, and with a light yellowish mud. The latter is easily

removed by washing and decantation. The casts thus obtained are

so perfect, that not only the genus, but often the species of the

Polythalamia can be recognized. Mingled with these are frequently

found spiral or corkscrew-like bodies, which Ehrenberg considers as

casts of the shells of young mollusks.

With reference to the perfection of these casts of the Polythalamia,

and the light they throw upon the structure of these minute animals,

Ehrenberg remarks :—

“The formation of the greensand consists in a gradual filling-up

of the interior space of the minute bodies with a green-coloured, opal-

like mass, which forms therein as a cast. It is a peculiar species of

natural injection, and is often so perfect, that not only the large and

coarse cells, but also the very finest canals of the cell-walls, and all

their connecting tubes, are thus petrified and separately exhibited.

By no artificial method can such fine and perfect injections be ob-

tained.”

Having repeated the experiments of Ehrenberg upon the Zeuglodon

limestone, I can confirm his statements in every particular, and would

only add, that besides the casts of Polythalamia and small spiral

mollusks, there is also a considerable number of green, red, and

whitish casts of minute anastomosing tubuli, resembling casts of the

holes made by burrowing sponges (Cliona) and worms.

In the Berlin Monatsbericht for July 1855, Ehrenberg gives an

account of very perfect casts of Nummulites, from Bavaria and

from France, showing not only chambers connected by a spiral

siphuncle, but also a complicated system of branching vessels. He

also gave at the same time an account of a method he had applied

for the purpose of colouring certain glass-like casts of Polythalamia,

which he had found in white tertiary limestone from Java. This

method consists in heating them in a solution of nitrate of iron, by

Miscellaneous. 427

means of which they can be made to assume different shades of

yellow and brownish-red, still retaining sufficient transparency when

mounted in balsam to show the connexion of the different parts.

The interesting observations of Ehrenberg, which are alluded to

above, have led me to examine a number of the cretaceous and

tertiary rocks of North America in search of greensand and other

casts of Polythalamia, &c. The following results were obtained :—

Ist. The yellowish limestone of the cretaceous deposits of New

Jersey, occurring with Teredo tibialis, &c., at Mullica Hill, and near

Mount Holley, is very rich in greensand casts of Polythalamia and

of the tubuliform bodies above alluded to.

2nd. Cretaceous rocks from Western Texas, for which I am in-

debted to Major W. H. Emory, of the Mexican Boundary Com-

mission, yielded a considerable number of fine greensand and other

easts of Polythalamia and tubuli.

3rd. Limestone from Selma, Alabama, gave similar results.

4th. Eocene limestone from Drayton Hall, near Charleston, South

Carolina, gave abundance of similar casts.

5th. A few good greensand casts of Polythalamia were found in

the residue left on dissolving a specimen of marl from the Artesian

well at Charleston, S.C. ; depth 140 feet.

6th. Abundance of organic casts, in greensand, &c., of Polytha-

lamia, tubuli, and of the cavities of Corals, were found in the

specimen of yellowish limestone adhering to a specimen of Scutella

Lyelli from the Eocene of North Carolina.

7th. Similar casts of Polythalamia, tubuli, and of the cavities of

Corals, and spines of Echini, were found abundantly in a whitish

limestone adhering to a specimen of Ostrea selleformis from the

Eocene of South Carolina.

The last two specimens scarcely gave any indications of the presence

of greensand before they were treated with dilute acid, but left an

abundant deposit of it when the calcareous portions were dissolved

out. All the above-mentioned specimens contained well-preserved

and perfect shells of Polythalamia. It appears from the above, that

the occurrence of well-defined organic casts, composed of greensand,

is by no means rare in the fossil state.

I come now to the main object of this paper, which is to announce

that the formation of precisely similar greensand and other casts of

Polythalamia, mollusks, and tubuli, is now going on in the deposits

of the present ocean. In an interesting Report by Count F. Pourtales,

upon some specimens of soundings obtained by the U.S. Coast Survey

in the exploration of the Gulf Stream (see Report of U.S. Coast

Survey for 1853, Appendix, p. 83), the sounding, from lat. 31° 32',

long. 79° 35', depth 150 fathoms, is mentioned as “a mixture in

about equal proportions of Globigerina and black sand, probably

greensand, as it makes a green mark when crushed on paper.” Having

examined the specimen alluded to by Count Pourtales, besides many

others from the Gulf Stream and Gulf of Mexico, for which I am

indebted to Prof. A. D. Bache, the Superintendent of the Coast

Survey, I have found that not only is greensand present at the

428 Miscellaneous.

above locality, but at many others, both in the Gulf Stream and

Gulf of Mexico, and that this greensand is often in the form of

well-defined casts of Polythalamia, minute mollusks, and branching

tubuli, and that the same variety of the petrifying material is

found as in the fossil casts, some being well-defined greensand,

others reddish, brownish, or almost white. In some cases I have

noticed a single cell, of a spiral Polythalamian cast, to be composed

of greensand, while all the others were red or white, or vice versd.

The species of Polythalamia whose casts are thus preserved, are

easily recognizable as identical with those whose perfectly preserved

shells form the chief part of the soundings. ‘That these are of

recent species is proved by the facts that some of them still retain

their brilliant red colouring, and that they leave distinct remains of

their soft parts when treated with dilute acids. It is not to be

supposed, therefore, that these casts are of extinct species washed

out of ancient submarine deposits. They are now forming in the

muds as they are deposited, and we have thus now going on in the

present seas, a formation of greensand by processes precisely ana-

logous to those which produced deposits of the same material as long

ago as the Silurian epoch. In this connexion, it is important to

observe that Ehrenberg’s observations and my own, establish the

fact that other organic bodies than Polythalamia produce casts of

greensand ; and it should also be stated that many of the grains of

greensand accompanying the well-defined casts are of wholly un-

recognizable forms, having merely a rounded, cracked, lobed, or even

coprolitic appearance. Certainly many of these masses, which often

compose whole strata, were not formed either in the cavities of Poly-

thalamia or mollusks. The fact, however, being established beyond a

doubt, that greensand does form casts in the cavities of various organic

bodies, there is a great probability that all the masses of this substance,

however irregular, were formed in connexion with organic bodies, and

that the chemical changes accompanying the decay of the organic

matter have been essentially connected with the deposits in the

cavities, of green and red silicates of iron, and of nearly pure silica.

It is a curious fact in this connexion, that the siliceous organisms,

such as the Diatomacez, Polycistinez, and Spongiolites which accom-

pany the Polythalamia in the Gulf Stream, do not appear to have

any influence in the formation of casts.

The discovery of Prof. Ehrenberg, of the connexion between

organic bodies and the formation of greensand, is of very great

interest, and is one of the many instances which he has given to

prove the extensive agency of the minutest beings in producing geo-

logical changes.—Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. vol. v. p. 364.

On THE Cumz. By Pror. AGassiz.

In a recent number of the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural His-

tory,’ Mr. Bate describes some Crustacea related to Cume, which

had young, aud therefore were adults. This is not in conflict with

the statement of Prof. Agassiz in this Journal, vol. xiii. p. 426,

Miscellaneous. 429

where he says, ‘‘ In regard to the Crustacea called Cume, I cannot

say positively that the group must as a whole be suppressed. But

I can state with confidence, that all the species of that genus which

I have had an opportunity to examine alive—and I have watched

three—are young of Palemon, Crangon and Hippolyte.”’ Prof.

Agassiz, in a recent letter (to J. D. Dana, dated Nahant, July 18th)

respecting these observations of Mr. Bate, writes that ‘they only show

how extensive a field of observation remains untrodden among these

little forms. Had Mr. Bate looked more fully into the embryology

of Crustacea, he would have been better prepared to appreciate the

close correspondence there is between the young of certain families and

the adults of others, and would have known that these facts are not

limited to the Macroura, as I have shown in my Lectures on Embryo-

logy, p. 62-69: he would know that the eyes of even the highest

Crustacea are sessile in the young, &c., and that such characters ob-

served upon young Crustacea do not therefore prove them to be peculiar

types, unless at the same time their reproduction be satisfactorily

traced. Acknowledging Mr. Bate’s interesting observation as proving

that his Diastylis Rathkii is an adult animal, the question has made

a real progress through his researches ; but it remains as certain as

before, that there are Cume which are larve of Macroura.’—Silli-

mans American Journal, Sept. 1856.

NOTE ON CALLITRICHE HAMULATA.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

October 13, 1856.

GENTLEMEN,— While lately in Scotland I had the satisfaction of

finding the Callitriche hamulata (Kiitz.) growing in a ditch commu-

nicating with the river Annan, close to Jardine Hall.

The specific character of the C. pedunculata, as given in Babington’s

Manual (ed. 4. p. 293), applies accurately to the C. hamulata, with

the exception of the supposed want of bracts in the former plant.

On mentioning the subject to Mr. Babington, he informed me that

he had detected bracts on cultivated plants of his C. pedunculata,

fi. sessilis, and convinced himself that that plant is C. hamulata. He

considers C. hamulata (Kiitz.) as the type of the species, and the

C. pedunculata (DC.) to be a variety of it.

My discovery does not therefore increase the number of our spe-

cies, but only corrects the nomenclature by identifying a doubtful

plant with a known continental species. This is a highly satisfactory

result.

I may add that Mr. Babington mentioned that the bracts are

usually very deciduous in this plant ; such I found to be the case in

the Scottish specimens.

I am, Gentlemen, yours obediently,

FREDERICK TOWNSEND.

4380 Miscellaneous.

RARE BRITISH BIRDS.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Plymouth, October 16, 1856.

GENTLEMEN,—During the late gales we have been visited by

rather an unusual number of the Sterna arctica and S. hirundo.

Specimens of each species have been shot in the neighbourhood.

The Thalassidroma pelagica was captured alive on the 2nd of this

month, in the passage of a house, Woodlane Terrace, by H. O. Bull-

more, Esq. ‘The bird was in excellent condition, fat and fleshy, but

right wing was broken.

I am, Gentlemen, yours truly,

W. P. Cocks.

Descriptions of two New Species of the Genus Orthotomus. By -

Freperic Moors, Assist. Mus. East India Company.

At a Meeting held in the early part of the present year, I laid

before the Zoological Society a monograph of this interesting genus,

and since that time I have been favoured by my brother with a search

through the birds contained in the Derby Museum, which has resulted

in the discovery of two additional undescribed species. These I now

proceed to characterize.

OrTHOTOMUS DERBIANUS, Moore.

Forehead, crown and occiput dark ferruginous ; back, rump and

sides of neck ash-colour ; ear-coverts, throat and breast pale ash,

with the centre of the feathers whitish ; flanks ashy-white ; belly

and vent dull white; wings brown, broadly margined throughout

with yellowish-green; edge of shoulder pale brown; under wing-

coverts rufescent-white ; tail much graduated, ferruginous-brown

above, dusky at base, paler beneath, and without discernible terminal

spots or band; thighs ferruginous; upper mandible horn-colour,

lower mandible and legs pale.

Length, 5} inches; of wing 2 inches; tail 2} inches; bill from

frontal plumes Sths inch, to gape }$ths inch, and tarsus ;8ths of

an inch.

Hab. Philippines ? (HI. Cuming). In Derby Museum, Liverpool.

Remark.—May be distinguished from all the previously known

species by its greater size, and in having the ear-coverts, throat and

breast ash-colour, with the centres of the feathers whitish.

ORTHOTOMUS MACULICOLLIS, Moore.

Forehead ferruginous, becoming dull ou crown; feathers of the

occiput greenish-brown, faintly edged with black; wares, behind

the eyes, a line under, with the ear-coverts and sides of neck ferru-

ginous-white, each feather being edged with black ; back and rump

greenish ; throat white; breast, belly and vent ferruginous-white ;

sides of breast black, and flanks light greenish ; wings brown, edged

Meteorological Observations. 431

exteriorly with greenish-ferruginous-brown; edge of shoulder and

under wing-coverts pale rufescent-white ; tail brown above on the inner

webs, and yellowish on the outer, beneath pale ashy-brown, having

indistinct dusky spots towards the end, and pale at the tips and inner

margins of the feathers ; thighs pale ferruginous. Bill, darkish horn

above, paler beneath ; legs yellowish,

Length, 4,3; inches ; of wing 1,5; in. ; tail 1,85 in. ; bill to gape 4,

and tarsus 58, of an inch.

Hab. Malacca. In Derby Museum, Liverpool.

Remark.—Allied to, but distinguished from O. longicauda by

having the sides of the head and neck ferruginous-white, each feather

being edged with black.—Proc. Zool. Soc. Dec. 12, 1854.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR SEPT, 1856.

Chiswick.—September 1. Very fine: thunder and lightning at night, but without

rain. 2. Shower: very fine: clear. 3, 4. Heavy dew in the mornings: very fine.

5. Slight fog: cloudy and fine. 6. Slight fog: rain at night. 7. Very fine. 8.

Foggy: very fine. 9. Dense fog: very fine: cloudy. 10. Slight haze: very fine.

11. Overcast. 12. Cloudy: very fine: rain. 13. Cloudy. 14, Clear and fine.

15. Fine: overcast. 16. Clear: fine. 17. Overcast: rain. 18. Rain: very fine.

19. Clear, quite cloudless: very fine. 20. Very clear: cloudy and cold: slight

frost at night. 21. Fine: rain. 22. Clear: showery: fine. 23. Clear: cloudy:

bright sun at intervals. 24. Clear: heavy showers. 25. Clear: dense clouds:

fine. 26. Fine: rain at night. 27. Heavy rain. 28. Rain: heavy showers.

29. Cloudy and fine. 30. Very fine: cloudy: fine at night.

Mean temperature of the month ............sesesessceeeseenes ae 54°41

Mean temperature of Sept. 1855 ............cssssescessevecerees 56 “11

Mean temperature of Sept. for the last thirty years ......... 56°95

Average amount of rain in Sept. ..-.e..es.ssceeseesseeenens eee... 2°455 inches.

Boston.—Sept. 1—4. Fine. 5. Cloudy. 6. Fine. 7. Fine: rain a.m. 8,9. Fine.

10. Cloudy. 11. Cloudy: rain a.m. 12, Cloudy. 13. Cloudy: rain a.m. and

p.m. 14. Fine. 15. Cloudy. 16. Fine. 17. Cloudy: rain p.m. 18,19. Fine.

20. Cloudy. 21, 22. Fine: rainr.m, 23. Cloudy. 24—26. Fine. 27—29.

Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 30. Cloudy.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Sept. 1. Clear a.m, : clear, aurora P.M. 2. Bright

A.M.: clear p.m. 3. Clear a.M.: cloudy p.m. 4,5. Clear a.m. and p.m. 6.

Bright a.M. : cloudy p.m. 7. Drizzle A.M.: damp p.m. 8. Damp a.M.: fog P.M.

9. Fog a.m. andp.m. 10. Fog a.m.: showerse.M. 11,12. Bright a.m.: showers

p.m. 13, Showers, bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 14, Drizzle, bright a.m.: showers

p.m. 15. Showers a.M. and p.m. 16, Showers a.m.: rain, lightning p.m. 17,

Showers A.M.: clear p.m. 18. Sleet showers A.M.: showers p.m, 19. Cloudy

A.M.: showers P.M. 20. Showers a.m.: cloudy p.m. 21. Bright a.m.: showers

p.m. 22. Rain A.M.: showers P.M. 23. Bright A.m.: showers p.m. 24. Rain a.m.:

showers P.M. 25. Showers A.M. and p.m. 26. Clear a.m.: clear, aurora p.m.

27. Hoar-frost A.M.: showers, aurora P.M. 28. Damp a.M.: cloudy p.m. 29.

Showers A.M. and p.m. 30, Showers a.M.: clear P.M.

Mean temperature of Sept. for previous twenty-nine years ... 52°28

Mean temperature of this MONth ...sessseceeeseseeescsscnceererees 50°83

Mean temperature of Sept. 1855 — ...secssessescnceasseseneeecenes 52°74

Average quantity of rain in Sept. for previous sixteen years ... 2°82 inches,

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THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES. ]

No. 108. DECEMBER 1856.

XXXVI.—New Land Shells collected by KB. L. Layarp, Esq.,

and described by W. H. Benson, Esq.

Tue following shells were collected by Mr. E. L. Layard at the

Cape of Good Hope, and on his route to that colony, at St.

Vincents, in the Cape de Verde Islands, and St. Helena. His

researches have added new localities for several species already

known, and he has furnished some interesting facts respecting

their habits.

Bulimus arenicola, nobis, n.s.

Testa vix perforata, trochiformi, irregulariter subplicato-striata,

nitidula, albida, rufo-castaneo fasciata; spira attenuato-conica,

sutura leviter impressa, apice acuto, castaneo; anfractibus 63

subplanulatis, ultimo magno, dimidium teste efformante, acute

carinato, subtus convexiusculo, fasciis duabus, altera suturali,

altera ad carinam, ornato; apertura magua, subquadrato-rotun-

data; peristomate simplici, acuto, margine externo infra ad peri-

pheeriam angulato, columellari verticali areuato, expansiusculo,

superne breviter appresso-reflexo, perforationem fere claudente,

basali valde arcuato.

Long. 17, diam. 15; long. apert. 10, lat. 83 mill. ; diam. anfr. supra

aperturam ad carinam 11 mill.

Hab. ad colles arenosas prope sinum “ Waterloo”’ dictum Caffrariz.

Were it not for the evident affinity of this shell to the Natal

species, Bulimus spadiceus, Menke, 1 should have been inclined

to refer it to the genus Heliz, Mr. Layard states that there is

a brown, bandless variety. It may be at once distinguished from

B. spadiceus by its higher and more slender spire, by the acute

carination of the last whorl, and by its imperfect perforation ;

the umbilicus in B. spadiceus being pervious, although narrow,

and merely hidden by the free dilatation of the columellar lip.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvii. 28

434 Mr. W. H. Benson on some new Land Shells.

Bulimus Gemmula, nobis, n. s.

Testa rimato-perforata, ovato-conica, striatula, nitida, cornea; spira

conica, sutura impressa, apice obtusiusculo; anfractibus 5, ultimo

ad basin cireum umbilicum subangulato-compresso ; apertura ro-

tundato-ovali, tuberculo vix conspicuo parietali subangulari munita ;

peristomate undique expansiusculo, tenui, acuto, margine dextro

arcuato.

Long. 23, diam. 1} mill.

Hab. ad insulam Sancti Vincentii Promontorii Viridis, sub lapidibus.

Found by Mr. Layard on the west side of the island, under

the Duke’s Head Mountain ; not uncommon. This little shell

belongs to the group which contains Bulimus nitidulus, Pfr.,

B. putillus, Shuttl., cenopictus, Hutton, tutulus, nobis, and mar-

ginatus ( fallar), Say, which have been indifferently assigned to

Bulimus and Pupa, and all of which are characterized by the

tubercle at the right angle of the parietal border.

Bulimus compressilabris, nobis, n. s.

Testa vix perforata, subuliformi, confertim flexuose costulato-striata,

cerea, albida, sutura subimpressa, marginata, apice obtusiusculo ;

anfractibus vix 7, ultimo # longitudinis eequante ; apertura trun-

cato-ovali, basi rotundata; peristomate tenui simplici, margine

dextro superne antrorsum arcuatim producto, subcompresso, colu-

mellari verticali, breviter reflexo, subtus nullo modo truneato nee

emarginato.

Long. 61, diam. 2 mill.

Hab. ad insulam Sanctee Helene in horto publico non infrequens.

This is a form of the widely spread type to which Bulimus

Goodalli, Octona, &c. belong. Mr. Layard found it in a little

artificial watercourse in the public gardens at the entrance of

Jamestown.

Achatina Spiculum, nobis, n. s.

Testa imperforata, subulato-cylindracea, gracillima, hyaleea, politis-

sima; spira elongata, apice obtuso, sutura impressa, marginata ;

anfractibus sub 6, convexiusculis, ultimo 4 teste equante; aper-

tura verticali, attenuate-pyriformi, basi rotundata ; labro obtusius-

culo, leviter arcuato; columella ad basin oblique valde truncata et

pariete callosis.

Long. 4, lat. 1 mill.; long. apert. 14 mill.

Hab. ad insulam S" Vincentii sub lapide.

A single specimen was found by Mr. Layard on the west side

of the island, under the Duke’s Head Mountain. This is a very

distinct species of the Acicula type. An uncertain species, Ach.

vitrea, W. B., from Teneriffe, is contained in D’Orbigny’s collec-

tion in the British Museum. Dr. Pfeiffer has, on examination,

transferred it to the genus Bulimus, in which he places it as

—SE————

Mr. W. H. Benson on some new Land Shells. 435

577 a. Suppl. He has favoured me with a copy of his diagnosis,

from which I am enabled to state that it has no close relation-

ship with the present species.

Achatina Veru, nobis, n.s.

J ~)

Testa imperforata, subulato-cylindracea, gracili, levigata, cerea, ni-

tidula, translucente ; spira elongata, apice obtuso, sutura impressa,

marginata ; anfractibus 5 convexiusculis, ultimo 4 teste eequante ;

apertura verticali, pyriformi, basi latiuscula rotundata ; peristo-

mate acuto; labro tenui, leviter arcuato; columella subcallosa, ad

basin leviter oblique truncata.

Long. 43, diam. 1 mill. ; long. apert. 15 mill.

Hab. in insula Sanctze Helene.

A single specimen was found by Mr. Layard with Bulimus

compressilabris. It belongs to the aciculoid type, and is de-

ficient in the lucid transparency and peculiar slenderness of

Ach. Spiculum. The proportions of these two shells differ from

those of their allies, 4. Acicula and Hohenwarti, neither of which

can compete with the new species in slenderness.

Pupa Acarus, nobis, n.s.

Testa rimato-perforata, cylindrico-ovali, minutissima, cornea, pellu-

cida, sutura impressa, apice obtusiusculo ; anfractibus sub quinque,

convexis ; apertura rotundato-ovata 6-plicata, plica 1 valida lamel-

liformi irregulari mediana parietali, 2 columellaribus, quarum su-

periori minuta, inferiori valida transversali, dentibus 3 palatalibus

brevibus parum profundis, quarum | basali et proxima majori ;

peristomate tenui, corneo, undique breviter angulatim expanso,

intus leviter marginato.

Long. 132, diam. 3 mill.

Hab. ad insulam S* Vincenti sub lapidibus.

There is some indication of a fourth tooth above, on the palate,

in the only specimen received, but it cannot be made out di-

stinctly. The shell occurred in company with Achatina Spiculum.

Pupa Layardi, nobis, n. s.

Testa arcuato-rimata, elongato-conica, oblique striatula, albida ; spira

elongato-conica, apice ?, sutura impressa; anfractibus 6-7

superstitibus, subplanulatis, ultimo antice ascendente, pone aper-

turam angustiori, subscrobiculato, basi compresso-eristata; apertura

triangulari-obovata, verticali, breviter soluta, sex-plicata ; peristo-

mate undique expanso, marginibus tenuibus acutis, dextro plicis

tribus, columellari plica unica majori decurrente, parietali | angu-

lari, secunda remotiuseula, omnibus profunde intrantibus, munitis.

Long. sp. imperfecti 7, diam. 4 mill.

Hab. ad Promontorii Bone Spei extremitatem ‘Cape Point”’ dictam,

Three specimens of this singular Pupa were found dead under

a rock by Mr. Layard. The specimen sent to me is much

28*

436 Mr. W. H. Benson on some new Land Shells.

weathered, is deficient in the upper whorls, and is slightly

damaged on the columellar lip; but the characters of the aper-

ture and of the last whorl are too peculiar to allow of its being

confounded with any other species. The superior parietal plait

and the upper palatal one run almost contiguously parallel for

some distance into the aperture, forming an imperfect tube which

opens at the top of the aperture.

The rather variable sinistrorse shell (perhaps including P. ca-

pensis, Kr.) which I found on the shores of Simon’s and Hout Bays,

and which I referred in a former paper to Pupa pottebergensis,

Krauss, was found abundantly on the same Point by Mr. Layard,

together with Heliw Menkeana, Pfr., and the true Helix Lucana of

Miller. A small variety of the latter shell, from Caledon, I was

at first inclined to describe as a new species. It differs in having

the umbilicus almost rimate, and shows a passage towards a small

variety of Helix Alexandri, Gray, found, in Namaqua Land, with

several varieties of H. globulus. The same modification of the

umbilicus, in the species dwelling more to the eastward, is ob-

servable in a specimen of Helix Menkeana sent to me by Prof.

Albers, from Elim, as compared with Mr. Layard’s specimen,

and with the larger inflated variety which I found on the sand-

hills in Hout Bay. Pupa Kurri, Krauss, noted by its describer

as a Zwellendam species, has also been forwarded from the

George District.

Helix Charybdis, nobis, n. s.

Testa subaperte umbilicata, discoidea, utrinque concaya, confertim

radiato-costulata, costulis alternis acutis salientibus, cornea; an-

fractibus 44 convexis, ultimo angusto, ceeteros dominante, superne

subangulato, subtus convexo; apertura anguste lunari, altiori quam

lata, utrinque testam superante ; peristomate tenui, acuto, margine

columellari expansiusculo, umbilico profunde perspectivo.

Diam. major 53, minor 45, axis 2} mill. Long. apert. 3, lat. 2 mill.

Hab. ad Promontorium Bone Spei.

Mr. Layard found this species rarely, in company with H. per-

plicata, nobis, at the Waterfall, near the highest blockhouse, on

the Table Mountain towards Rondebosch. Only three specimens

were taken. The specimen described is in bad order, especially

about the aperture, the characters of which may be open to cor-

rection on the receipt of a better specimen.

Helix Tollini, Albers.

Testa obtecte subperforata, globoso-depressa, tenuiter striata, sub lente

striis exilissimis spiralibus utrinque decussata, nitidula, sericea,

fusco-cornea, translucente ; spira vix elevata, apice prominulo, ob-

tusiusculo, sutura impressa, submarginata; anfractibus 5 con-

vexiusculis, ultimo rotundato, subinflato; apertura verticali, rotun-

dato-lunata ; peristomate recto, tenui; margine columellari subito

Mr. W. H. Benson on some new Land Shells. 437

valde reflexo, superne expanso, calloso, appresso, perforationem

obsoletam tegente, tum oblique descendente.

Diam. major 12-14, minor 11-123, axis 7-9 mill.

Previously to the receipt of Mr. Layard’s specimens, Dr. Pfeiffer,

who had obtained the shell from Dr. Albers, sent it to me for

inspection ; and I subsequently received examples from Dr. Albers

himself, with the name above adopted, Mr. Tollin having trans-

mitted to him the first specimens seen in Europe.

Mr. Layard has found it on all sides of Table Mountain at the

Cape of Good Hope, on the Devil’s Peak, and in the ravine behind

the Admiralty at Simonstown, always in damp shady places, under

stones. The caudal portion of the animal is very long and narrow,

and carinate above. The inferior tentacula are short and white,

the superior very long and attenuated, generally wavy, and black,

with white tips, slightly clubbed, in which the small black eyes

are set. The animal creeps fast, with a serpentine motion,

carrying the shell horizontally on the back, and, when recently

taken, has a curious habit of retracting the head into the shell,

while the long tail portion remains extruded; it then throws

itself about, as Mr. Layard reports, doubling, twisting, and often

springing away several inches, with the little button-like shell

adhering to the anterior extremity of the part exposed. In con-

nexion with this fact [ may mention that Mr. Theobald has lately

met, in the Khasya Hills, with a little Vitrina which springs

3 or 4 inches from the ground.

Several Helices, which I met with round the foot of Table

Mountain, have been observed by Mr. Layard at various ele-

vations, as instanced already in H. perplicata, which inhabits

succulent plants, as well as the under sides of stones. 4H. vor-

ticialis, Bens., occurred on the Devil’s Peak, the Lion’s Head

and Tail, and on Table Mountain, under stones, wood, leaves,

and sacking; H. bisculpta, B., on the Devil’s Peak, under

stones. Helix dumeticola, B., was met with near the shore at

Camp’s Bay, parasitic on Helix capensis, and feeding on that

species under ground at the roots of geraniums. Three living

specimens were taken with their heads buried in their half-

eaten victims, and lived for some time feeding on the small

specimens which were introduced into their box. The animal is

about half an inch in length, and the upper part of the body is

dark grey, with two light stripes running close together down

the back, which is minutely mottled. The under side and tail

are light brown.

H. sabuletorum, B., lives under stones at Simon’s Bay, in the

Round Battery, and in the Admiralty Garden. Mr. Layard

states that it has two tentacula, with the eyes at the summits.

The lower pair may perhaps be inconspicuous, or abortive, as im

438 Mr. W. H. Benson on some new Land Shells.

Vertigo. We reports also that he had found, on the Devil’s

Peak, a unique minute conical Helix with acute radiating

ribs, together with a small Vitrina, which was crushed in the act

of capture. Another new Helix, from a ravine at Simon’s Bay,

is in a condition too imperfect for description, and an imperfect

shell from the ravine which runs between the Devil’s Peak and

Table Mountain may be another subglobose translucent var. of

H. Menkeana.

At St. Helena Mr. Layard found a shell, answering to Quoy’s

description of Succinea St. Helene, on the leaves of a Sagittaria,

and of an arborescent Fern, in the watercourse of a ravine at

Brown’s Hill. The animal was whitish below, and, in old speci-

mens, reddish mottled with brown above, and with a dark line

running from each of the superior tentacles down the back. At

the same spot whence he procured Bulimus compressilabris, B.,

he got a single specimen of the widely-spread Helia pulchella

(which I had detected at the more remote locality of the Cape),

and of a decayed shell which could not be distinguished from

the North American H. minuscula, Say. These shells may have

been imported into the garden with plants. Under stones, in

damp places about Napoleon’s Tomb, he found the smaller

variety of Pupa anconostoma, Lowe, abundant. This is evi-

dently the shell which I got in 1832 between Plantation House

and Stitch’s Ridge (Annals, 2nd Series, vol. vii. p. 263), and

which I lost before I could observe its characters sufficiently.

It is found in the Canarics, as well as in Madeira, and by some

writers its separation from P. umbilicata, Drap., is contested.

Helix remota, Bens., occurred to Mr. Layard under stones

on the upper side of the road leading from Jamestown to

Longwood.

Cyclophorus convexiusculus, Pfr., var. minor.

I had described this shell as new with reference to the de-

scription in the Zoological Proceedings for 1855 of C. convemi-

usculus, Pfr., brought from the Cape by Mr. Macgillivray, Dr.

Pfeiffer having omitted to notice the obtuse angularity of the

periphery of the last whorl. Wishing however to obviate the

possibility of error, I applied to Mr. Cuming, who obligingly

forwarded the type specimen, which proves to be the same

species, only larger by half the diameter, and with a more

obtuse apex, the vertex in Mr. Layard’s shell being a little more

prominent, and the whorls only four in number. The epidermis

is also darker, and more strongly plicate in the smaller variety.

The aperture is milky-white internally. Diam. major 4, minor 3,

axis 2 mill. This is the only Cyclophorus certainly known to

inhabit the African continent.

Mr. J. Alder on new British Zoophytes. 439

Mr. Layard discovered it in damp mould, amongst a pile of

loose rocks, in a steep ravine, on the side of Table Mountain

overlooking Camp’s Bay, and in company with the next species.

Hydrocena Noticola, nobis, n. s.

Testa subobtecte perforata, globoso-conica, levigata, nitidula, sue-

cinea, pellucida ; spira conica, apice obtusiusculo, rubello, sutura

valde impressa; anfractibus 4, convexis, ultimo ventricoso ;

apertura vix obliqua, ovato-acuta; peristomate tenui acuto, callo

parietali, columellarique, appresso-reflexo, umbilicum fere tegente.

Operculo normali, corneo, pellucido, paucispirato.

Long. 2, diam. 13 mill.

Hah. cum precedente.

This is the first species of the genus which has been observed

on the African continent. In its smoothness it presents a

marked contrast to the Citra-gangetic species from the Khasya

Hills and Burma.

A Lymnea, a Planorbis, and a Unio (probably the shell found

by Rang in the Berg River, and nearly allied to the European

U. pictorum), have been found by Mr. Layard, and will, with

some fluviatile shells taken by myself in the vicinity of Cape

Town, form the subject of a separate paper. P

Cheltenbam, November 7th, 1856.

XXXVII.—Descriptions of three new British Zoophytes.

By Josuva Aver, Esq.

[With a Plate. |

In addition to the new zoophytes described in my former com-

munication to the ‘ Annals of Natural History,’ I now beg to

offer an account of three others, extracted from a Catalogue of

the Zoophytes of Northumberland and Durham, about to appear

in the ‘ Transactions of the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club.’

Family Tubulariade.

Tubularia implexa, n. sp.

Tubes small, very slender, generally more or less contorted

below; smooth, wrinkled, or regularly annulated beneath a

smooth transparent epidermis; slightly and subunilaterally

branched, the branches going off nearly at right angles to

the stem, and a little constricted at their bases. Gregarious,

forming a densely tangled mass of } to } of an inch in height.

Discovered by Mr. R. Howse on an old anchor brought in by the

fishermen from forty fathoms water, thirty miles off Holy Island.

440 Mr. J. Alder on new British Zoophytes.

As the polype of this species has not been observed, its claim

to a place in this genus cannot be fixed very decidedly. Its

mode of branching is similar to that of the other Tubularia, but it

is much smaller than any species hitherto described. The divi-

sion of the tube into two coats is curious. This takes place

sometimes near the base, but more frequently in the young

branches, where the thin, smooth epidermis shows a strongly

ringed tube within. The epidermis in dried specimens shrinks

to the form of the inner tube, so as not to be distinguished

from it.

Family Campanulariade.

Laomedea neglecta, n. sp. Pl. XVI. figs. 1, 2.

Polypary minute ; stem filiform, subflexuose, with two or three

alternate simple branches, each bearing a cell; the stem is

annulated with from four to seven rings above the origin of

each branch, and sometimes slightly ringed below it; the

branches are ringed throughout: cells narrow and deep, with

alternately shallow and deep crenations, forming about eight

bimucronated denticles round the margin. Polype with fifteen

or sixteen slender tentacles.

Height 5%, in.

On the under side of stones between tide-marks, Cullercoats

and Tynemouth : frequent.

This delicate little Laomedea, though apparently not rare, has

hitherto escaped observation ; or, if observed, it has been passed

over as the young of Johnston’s small variety of L. gelatinosa

(L. flecuosa, Hincks, MS.), with which it is sometimes associated

on the same stone. It is, however, not very readily seen unless_

the stone is examined with a magnifier. It differs from the

species above named in being of much humbler growth, more

slender, and in having smaller, narrower, and deeper cells, cre-

nulated on the margin. The margin of the other is plain. The

crenulations are very difficult to detect, on account of the extreme

tenuity of the edges. They resemble those of the true Sertu-

laria gelatinosa of Pallas (Laomedea gelatinosa, var. 8, Johust.),

though the shape of the cell is different, as may be seen by a

reference to fig. 3, where a cell of that species is figured for

comparison. I have also added two cells of L. longissima, Pallas

(L. dichotoma, 8, Johust.), fig. 4, the only other British denti-

culated Laomedea with a campanulated cell. These two species

were supposed to have plain margins by Dr. Johnston, who had

not seen them in a perfect state.

Mr. J. Alder on new British Zoophytes. 44.1

Laomedea acuminata, n. sp. Pl. XVI. figs. 5, 6, 7, 8.

Polypary minute, scarcely branched ; with a slender, annulated

stem ; cells thin, membranous, finely striated longitudinally,

elongate-ovate or pod-shaped, squared below, and tapering to

a fine point above; margin slightly crenulated. Polype reach-

ing, when extended, to two or three times the length of the

cell, with about twenty muricated tentacles, united by a web

at the base.

Height ;, in.

On an old shell of Fusus antiquus from deep water, Cullercoats.

This is an extremely curious and interesting species, which

one would scarcely think of referring to the genus Laomedea,

were it not for its near alliance to the L. /acerata. The stem

rises from a creeping fibre, and is generally more or less annu-

lated throughout, the annulations becoming fainter, or entirely

disappearing towards the cell. In most of the specimens ob-

served, the stem bore only a single polype, but in two or three

instances a branch, bearing a second polype, was seen proceed-

ing from it. The cells are extremely elastic and membranous,

changing form with the polype, and scarcely to be distinguished

from it when alive, excepting at the apex when the animal is

withdrawn. The polype, when extended, stretches far beyond

the cell, the latter adhering closely to it and becoming cylin-

drical. The whole animal is very extensile, and frequently

changes its form. The tentacles sometimes appear short and

stout, and at other times they are extended into long and slender

threads, as in the freshwater Hydra, to which the animal then

bears considerable resemblance. The tentacles are united by a

web for about one-sixth of their length; a circumstance I have

not observed in any other species. The margin of the cell

appears to be crenulated, and not divided into deep segments, as

in L. lacerata. This character, however, is difficult to ascertain.

I have watched the opening of the cell several times when the

polype was emerging from it, without being able to detect the

exact form of the margin, which is extremely thin and mem-

branous.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI.

Figs. 1, 2. Laomedea neglecta, natural size and magnified.

Fig. 3. A cell of Laomedea gelatinosa, Pallas.

Fig. 4. Two cells of Laomedea longissima, Pallas.

Fig. 5. Laomedea acuminata, natural size.

Figs. 6, 7. The same highly magnified, with the polype in different states

of expansion.

Fig. 8. The same with the polype withdrawn.

2 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

XXXVIII.— Elucidation of some Plants mentioned in Dr. Francis

Hamilton’s Account of the Kingdom of Nepal. By Lieut.-Col.

Mappen, F.R.S.E., President of the Botanical Society of

Edinburgh.

[Concluded from p. 413.)

Bhurya patra, or Bhurjapatra, p. 97. Betula bhojpatra,

Wall. “This bark (of a fine chestnut colour) is imported into

the low country in considerable quantity, and is used both in

the religious ceremonies of the Hindus, and for constructing

the flexible tubes with which the natives (and Huropeans also)

smoke tobacco.” Both in India and in Persia this bark was

anciently substituted for paper (called Tus in Persia); hence a

Sanscrit name of the Birch, Vidhadal, ‘leaf of knowledge.’

The blocks used in Thibet for stereotype printing are formed of

its wood. The Sanscrit Bhurjja, ‘firm or hardy in the earth,’

seems the origin of our term Birch, Russian Beréza, &e. The

Bharangi bark from Almorah (Royle, J. A. 8. B. for October

1832, No. 110) is explained to be Betula bhojpatra,—Iustrated

Cat. of Great Exhib. of 1851, vol. u.

Kaephal (not Karphal), p. 85. MJyrica sapida. Kayaphal,

from the Sanscrit Katphal, signifies both acid and stony fruit.

It is scarcely worth eating; but the bark is sent down to the

plains in large quantities, and is used, I think, in dyeing.

Lalchandan, “a timber tree, the foliage and appearance of

which have some resemblance to the Laurels” (p. 85). No

specimen or reference seems to exist in the Catalogue; but the

plant is probably Goughia Himalensis, Bentham (a new genus of

Euphorbiacez, near to Sarcococca), which is not uncommon in

moist valleys in outer Kumaon and other provinces of the

Himalaya as far N.W. as Dharmsdla near Kotkangra, at 5000-

7000 feet. The Kumdon name, Rakt Chandan, is of the same

import as that given by Dr. Hamilton, and signifies ‘ Red San-

~ dal-wood ;’ the heart-wood being used for the sectarial mark

which the Hindus daub on their foreheads.

The genus Goughia is described and figured in Wight’s Icones,

v. 22. t. 1878-79.

Catalogue, specimen No. 1486. Sinapis Gorrea. Ghor rayi,

Hindice. Colitur rarius in Indie Gangetic arvis ob semina

acria. In fr. Surjaghorri, 27 March, 1811. Identified by

Wallich (No. 4790) with Sinapis erysimvoides, Roxburgh, Fl. Ind.

ili. 123, from Wynaad, a district of Malabar.

Ten years since, I noticed this plant under cultivation at Al-

morah, with the names Makara rai, Asl rai, Tarantula and True

rom the Kingdom of Nepdl. 443

Mustard. I referred it doubtfully to S. erysimoides or nigra.

On a voyage down the Ganges in 1850, I found the plant com-

monly grown from Mirzapur as far down as Bar in Behar, but

in the greatest abundance about Benares, being cultivated (like

the rest of the genus) in the cold season, on the rich clay banks

of the river. The leaves are used as cress, the seed for the

same purposes as with us; as well as in horse and camel medi-

cines: hence the name Ghor-rai, Horse Mustard. On arriving

in Europe that year, it was at once recognized as Sinapis nigra.

The cultivation of Sinapis niyra in India does not appear in

our works on its agricultural resources. Dr. Royle enters Sinapis

nigra? (No. 219) among the Indian articles of Materia Medica

(Journal As. Soc. Bengal, Oct. 1832); and in the Liverpool

Collection of Imports, Class 29. No. 270. of the Exhibition of

1851, is “ Mustard Seed, Brown: Sinapis nigra, from Bombay.

Import, 1100 quarters in 1850.” In the Illustrated Catalogue,

ii. 879, is a similar entry,—‘‘ Annaloo Noone (Sznapis nigra)

from Tanjore ;” and “ Khardal rai, Sinapis nigra.” (871.)

It appears from Ainslie’s ‘ Materia Indica,’ 1. 231, that the

plant was cultivated long since in the Calcutta Botanic Garden

from seeds “brought from Engiand by Colonel Garstin.”

Malayagiri, p. 84, “a pale yellow wood, with a very agree-

able scent.”

1262. Micheha Zila. Wam. Nepal, 217. Zila champa.

Habitat in sylvis Nepale. This is apparently M. Kisopa. Mi-

chelia Doltsopa is described by Don (Prod. Flor. Nep. 226) as

“arbor vasta ligno odorato gaudens, ad <edes eedificandas om-

nium arborum Nepaliz optima.” Magnolia (Michela) excelsa,

Wall. (Tentamen Fl. Nep.), yields a valuable timber, of a fine

texture, at first greenish, but soon changing into pale yellow.

This is probably the champa of Darjiling, described as “an ex-

cellent yellow timber.” One of these I suppose to be the

Malayagiri, a term implying ‘ mountain Sandal-wood” Dr.

Hooker mentions the Cupressus funebris, Chandan, as “ valued

only for the odour of its wood” (/. c. 1.45), which is probably

yellow. Ligustrum nepalense, Buaus Himalensis, Symplocos cra-

tegoides, have all yellow wood, but without odour. Camphora

glandulifera, the Nepal Camphor-tree, however, has pale yellow

wood, while fresh smelling strongly of camphor, and may be the

Malayagiri.

“Bish, Bikh, and Kodoya Bish or Bikh; nor am I certain

whether the Mitha ought to be referred to it, or to the foregoing

kind,” Bishma.

“1 have only seen the flower and fruit of one. This is called

Bishma or Bikhma, and seems to me to differ little in botanical

characters from the Ca/tha of Europe,” p. 99.

444 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

Catalogue, No. 1247. Caltha? Bismia. Bishma vel Bikhma,

Hamilton’s Nepal, 99. Habitat inter nives Emodi.

1248. Caltha? Nirbisia. Nirbishi vel Nirbikhi. Ham. Ne-

pal, 99. Habitat cum precedente. Montanorum unus hane

pro radice indica toxicaria ostendebat, alter autem sequentem

afferebat. Flores non vidi.

1249. Caltha? Codoa. (No specimen.) Kodoya Bish vel Bikh, -

Hamilton’s Nepal, 99. Habitat cum duabus_ precedentibus.

Credo hane esse reveram Toxicariam Indorum radicem. Flores

non vidi. *

In Brewster’s Edinburgh Journal of Science, i. 249-251,

“On the Herba Toxicaria,”’ Dr. Hamilton informs us that

his specimens were collected in July 1810, near the sources of

the Kosi River, and therefore necessarily quite immature ; still

it is surprising that he should have referred them, even doubt-

fully, to Caltha, to which they bear no resemblance. In the

very short account in the Journal last mentioned, founded pro-

bably on the specimens before us, he says of Caltha Bisma,

“The Bikhma is used in medicine, and is a strong bitter, very

powerful in the cure of fevers*.” Caltha Nirbisia “ has no dele-

terious qualities,” while Caltha Codoa includes Bish and Kodoya

Bish. Dr. Wallich+ showed that all these specimens belong to

Aconitum: his 4723, A. palmatum, being Caltha? Bishma, H.

Ham.; and 4721, A. ferox, including Caltha? Nirbisia and

C.? Codoa, H. Ham.

It would be impossible to unravel this complication without

a visit to Nepal; but perhaps some additional light may be

thrown on the subject by eliminating the known from the un-

known, and rejecting the specimens as misnamed. Dr. Hamil-

ton (p. 98) expressly says there are “four different plants.”

We know that the Bish{ proper is Aconitum ferow. Kodoya

* So in the Account of Nepal, p. 99.

+ He left occasion for additional criticism. The description of A. ferox

in the ‘ Pl. As. Rar.’ is full and interesting, pp. 35-39; but the plate (t. 41)

and specimen 4721 A. belong to A. dissectum, Don’s Prod.197. A. ferox

flourishes at from 11,000 to 13,000 feet; it has beautiful deep-blue flowers

in August and September, and is described and figured by Dr. Balfour and

Mr. M‘Nab in the Ed. New Phil. Journal, October 1849, plate 5, from

plants which first flowered that autumn in our Horticultural Garden. A.

multifidum is abundant at from 12,000 to 14,500 feet ; A. palmatum grows

at Nagkhanda near Simla in forests at 8500 to 9500 feet, and flowers from

May to July; A. heterophyllum at from 8500 to 13,000 feet.

{ The term vish, Sanscrit, denotes ‘poison’ simply, and is from the

same root as vishnu, ‘ penetrating, pervading.’ In the mountains and the

north-west provinces it is pronounced Bikh; in Behar and Bengal, Bish;

but there is no difference in the original word. Narbishi means ‘ not poi-

sonous,’ a term from which Don (General System of Gardening, i. 63)

forms his genus Nirbisia to include two deadly Aconites and an innocent

Delphinium,—as uncalled-for therefore in botany as it is false in etymology.

from the Kingdom of Nepal. 445

Bikh may be A. palmatum, or Dr. Hooker’s new species from

Upper Sikkim, A. luridum, reported to be as virulent as A. ferox

(Journals, 1. 168; 11.108). A. ferox is found all over the alpine

Himalaya; on the Shatil Pass, in Basehar, it is well known as

Bikh; also Maur, Madr, and Méhur, of the same import. Vat-

sanaba, ‘ calf-destroyer,’ is the original of the Bachnag*, men-

tioned by Dr. Royle from the Makhzanul Adwiyyah. In order

to ascertain whether it were justly called Mitha, ‘sweet,’ I

masticated a very small slice, and found it was so; but this was

soon succeeded by the most distressing burning all over the

mouth and fauces, though nothing was swallowed.

Plants of other genera are also known as Bikh and Mahtr :

the root of Meconopsis Wallichii is reported in Sikkim to be very

poisonous (H. and Th. Flor. Indica, 254); and the root of a

Convallaria with verticillated leaves is considered a very virulent

poison (Hooker’s Journals, i. 168)7. Dr. Royle (Illustr. 382)

says that “ Polygonatum verticillatum, L., called Mitha-dudhya

in Sirmore, and Smilacina pallida, called Didhya-mohura, are

both accounted poisonous in the Himalayas.” On Mahasu,

near Simla, I observed people gathering the young shoots of P.

verticillatum or cirrhifolium, to induce intoxication; and the

poisonous root Mahura was useful, they said, in cases of ring-

worm.

Nirbishi denotes some plant, “not Aconitum ferox,”’ but re-

sembling it. Dr. Royle observes that he was struck with the

resemblance of some Delphinium roots from the Himalayas to

those sold as Narbisi; and both at Pindri in Kumaon and

Bhojgara, on the south side of the Kowari Pass in Garhwal, at

11,090 to 14,000 feet above the sea, I found the beautiful Delphi-

nium Kashmerianum, Royle, p. 55. t. 12 (Jacquemontianum, Cam-

bassedes, Voyage aux Indes, vii. t. 7), with cylindrical tuberous

roots, absolutely identical in form with the ordinary Nirbisi,

and, I doubt not, its true source. No one, however, could pre-

viously supply me with the least information as to the province

which produced it: the Nepalese said it came from the west ;

the Tibetans told Major H. Strachey it came from the east.

* Bachnag, according to Graham’s ‘ Bombay Plants,’ is Gloriosa superba;

its root is a virulent poison.

+ In the Journ. As. Soc. of Bengal for May 1849, page 438, Dr. Hooker

states that “‘ another far more powerful Bikh is yielded by a plant of the

order Composite, which I have gathered abundantly at 10,000 and 9000

feet; and it requires care to distinguish its root from that of the Aconites ;

when mixed, the Bhotiyds could not separate them.’ Dr. Hooker informs

me that the plant in question is a Cacalia, allied to C. aconitifolia; and

that the reputed qualities having never been confirmed in any shape, he

does not doubt that they are altogether due to the similarity of its foliage

to the Aconite.

446 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

Dr. Royle (J. A. S. B. October 1832) got the root (No. 49) from

Amritsir. Its properties seem to be unknown; he describes it

as having a pure bitter taste*, )

The Bishma of Dr. Hamilton is expressly stated to be a bitter,

which precludes the idea of its being Aconitum ferox, of which

the taste is sweet ; and Colonel Kirkpatrick, in his ‘ Account of

Nepal,’ p. 182, note, long since supposed it might be a kind of

Gentian. Dr. Royle conjectures that it nay be Aconitum hetero-

phyllum (excellently figured, ‘ Illustr.’ t. 13), the root of which,

called Atis, Patis, and Mahaushadham, ‘the great drug,’ 1s in

much estimation for its medicinal qualities. Atis is a vernacular

corruption of the Sanscrit Ativisha, ‘overcoming pvison,—

antidote,’ (erroneously reudered summum venenum by Wallich,)

with the synonyms Upavish, ‘ reverse of poison,’ and Prativisha,

‘against poison, an antidote’+; the last is the origin of the

vernacular Patis. This plant, however, is not quoted as indige~

nous to the east of Kumdon; and we may therefore substitute

Gentiana Kurroo, Royle, which is much used in the N.W.

mountains, or Aconitum multifidum, a very abundant species in

the alpine Himalaya, “ planta 4A. Anthore affinis,” Royle ; of this

or A. dissectum, Colonel Munro states (Hooker and Thomson’s

Fl. Indica, p. 58) that “the roots ave eaten in Kunawar as a

pleasant tonic.” Dr. Royle’s A. multifidum is from that district.

A. Lycoctonum (leve, Royle) is as common in the Himalaya as in

Alpine Europe; and its roots, which are, I believe, harmless,

may also be so employedf.

* Dr. Royle distinguishes this Amritsir and Basehar drug from the

common sort: according to him it is fusiform, externally black, somewhat

flattened and wrinkled, and in some respects resembling the Bikh itself,

with a slight degree of bitterness and acrimony (Illustr. p. 49). This would

agree well with the roots of Wallich’s fig. of Aconitum ferox (A. dissectum),

and with Colonel Munro’s fact of a Kunawar species being used as a tonic.

It appears, on the authority of Linnzus, that in certain cold climates the

root of A. Napellus is eaten with impunity.

+ It is the Jadwar or Zedoary of the Arabs and Persians. “ Ideoque

dixit Avicenna nihil esse ea priestantius ad ebibitum Napellum” (Royle,

Illustr. 50). Jn all probability this is purely an imaginary virtue.

+ Griffith (Journals of Travels, ix. 37, 57) says, ‘1 hope before my re-

turn to have seen Coptis Teeta in flower, and to have proved that the Beese

is different from that of Nepal.”” The Coptis, called Mishimi Tita, or

Bitter, from being indigenous to the Mishimi Mountains, a branch of the

Himalaya, bounding Assam to the east, is, like the best Chiretta, of a

yellow colour, “a pure intense bitter of some permanence, but without

aroma.” He calls it a “valuable drug.” It may be one of the Bikhmas.

In Hindustani, Bikhman is explained by Shakespeare, “name of a medi-

cine or poison,” perhaps from the Sanscr. vishama, uneven. Bee or Bih is

merely the Assamese form of Bish: thus we have Koni-bih (Croton Tiglium),

Naga-bih (Gordonia integrifolia). Mr. Griffith (J. A. Soc. Beng. 1837,

331-335) mentions “ the celebrated poison, Bee,” of the Ranunculacee (and

from the Kingdom of Nepal. 447

Jumne-mundroo, p. 85. Berberis (Mahonia) nepalensis ;

properly Jaémani mandru.

Chootraphul, 7. e. fruit of the Chotra, a Barberry. Catalogue,

No. 841. Berberis asiatica, Hort. Beng. 25; DC.i.107. Ha-

bitat in dumetis Nepale. The specimen is wanting, and Chotra,

Chutro, is the proper name of B. aristata; but Wallich has,

No. 44, B. asiatica, Roxb., from Nepal and Kumaon.

Catalogue, No. 1082. Rhododendron puniceum. Potasar : Go-

rangs: montanorum Hind. The common R. arboreum.

“Sanpati: a small Rhododendron, like Myrica Gale ; the leaves

are very odorous, and even when dried retain their fragrance.

It is used in fumigations, and sent to the low countries,” p. 97.

Catalogue, No. 1083. Rhododendron. Son Pati. Hamilton’s

Nepal, p.97. The specimen is imperfect, but seems to belong to

Rhododendron anthopogon or pendulum; the leaves of the first

are very aromatic, and are burned as incense.

Bhairopati. Rhododendron. “Its qualities are similar to

those of the former, but it is less fragrant,” p. 97.

Catalogue, No. 1084. Rhododendron Bhairopatium. Bhairo-

pati v. Bhaingropati. This specimen is also without flowers or

fruit, but belongs to R. lepidotum, or one of the varieties or

allied species discovered by Dr. Hooker.

Catalogue, No. 1062. Melia Azederach.

a. Enc. Method. i. 341; Willd. Sp. Pl. 1. 558. Colitur ad

urbes Indiz rarius, habitat in Nepdla. In flower, Caleutta Botanic

Garden, 4th January 1814.

No. 1063. M. Azederach.

6. Ene. Method. i. 341. Melia sempervirens, Willd. Sp. Pl.

ii. 559. Habitat ad Indie pagos. In flower, Jolpigorry, 31st

March 1809.

Wallich’s Cat. 1251. M. sempervirens.

Nepal and Kumaon.

Ibid. 1250. M. Azederach, L. H. B.C.

Dr. Hamilton’s first No. has oval-lanceolate leaflets ; in 1062

they are somewhat broader and less arcuate; the difference,

however, is certainly not more than is usual in specimens from

the same tree ; and hence Dr. Hamilton finds M@. Azederach in

Nepal, where Dr. Wallich finds M. sempervirens ; and M. sem-

pervirens in the Indian villages, which Dr. Wallich has only from

says it is “in very great request ’’) as one of the three staple articles of the

Mishims. Masters (J. Agri. and Hort. Soe. Cale. iv. ZU) tells us that ‘ the

juice of this fruit (Dillenia speciosa) is mixed with the Mishimi Bih to

prepare the poison for arrows.”” And Wilcox (As. Res. xvii. 456) mentions

two kinds of poison from the mountains north of Assam,—the Bor Bis

(great poison) and Sengumuri Bis; all no doubt to be included in the

above-mentioned species of Aconitum.

448 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

the Caleutta Botanic Garden. I am satisfied that the Himalayan

plant is identical with that of the Gangetic plains; in the hills

it is called Dek or Jek and Betain; in the plains, Bakéyan,

a name which is applied to M. sempervirens, As. Res, xi. 170.

No specific name could be more inappropriate, since it is com-

pletely leafless during the winter months; and this appears to

be true also, to a somewhat less extent, of the West Indian

M. sempervirens, Swartz, which is said to vary from a small bush

to a tree. Seemann (Kew Journal of Botany, October 1851)

informs us that this is a native of Panama, and known as ‘Ja-

sinto.’ DeCandolle (i. 621) mentions Jamaica as its habitat,

and says, “‘priore minor, florens jam biennis, folia tardius au-

tumno deponens, et tepidarium per hyemem in nostris hortis

requirens.” Roxburgh (ii. 895) adds to the difficulty: he says

M. sempervirens is “a native of Persia, now common throughout

India...... It blossoms the greater part of the year in our gar-

dens, and is perfectly distinct from Azedarak, which is a robust,

deciduous timber tree, and this is a small delicate evergreen, of

short duration compared with the other.” He gives Bakarja as

the Hindustani name,—evidently the Bengali name, Bakarjan,

of M. Azederach. This last he calls a native of China. Graham

(Cat. of Bombay Plants, p. 30) says it is common “about vil-

lages” in the Concan and Deccan, 8. India. Jaequemont

(Voyage dans l’Inde, ui. 147) finds it under the same circum-

stances in the Punjab, but scarcely indigenous, nor has it the

least claim to be so considered anywhere in Northern India. Its

Sanscrit names, Mahatikta, ‘the great Bitter,’ and Mahanimb,

therefore, go for nothing, and are not in the Amera Kosha.

The Persian Azad-i-darakht, ‘the spreading tree,’ which gives

it the specific name, with its popular one, ‘ Indian or Persian

Lilac,’ is compatible with its importation from America by the

Portuguese, who, like other Roman Catholic people, use the

berries in rosaries (Bead-tree) ; once introduced, its “very great

beauty,” and flowers like the Lilac, sweetly fragrant (Roxburgh),

would speedily cause its general diffusion. Wight and Arnott

(Prodromus, p. 117) found Roxburgh’s own specimens of M.

Azedarach and sempervirens so much ake as to appear as if cut

from the same tree; and the figure of the latter in the Botanical

and forced in a stove. In Dr. Royle’s List, No. 191, Bakain

is entered as M. sempervirens ; and in February 1850 I saw this

last in the Calcutta Botanic Garden in full flower, a tree 30 feet

high, called Moha nim by the Bengali gardeners, and quite the

same with the Bakayan of Northern India.

Timmue (for Timmur) or Taigbul: a mountain shrub; and

an arboreous species on the lower hills (p. 84). The first, well

from the Kingdom of Nepal. 449

known for its aromatic capsules, and for the thick prickly clubs

used by fakirs (mendicants), is the Xanthoxylon hastile of Royle

(X. alatum of Roxb. ii. 768, and X. acanthopodium, DC.), called

Timur and Zejbal, the last expressive of its strong pungency.

It seems to be the Jwarantika, ‘fever-ender,’ of the Sanscrit.

It is (perhaps erroneously) referred to X. aromaticum, a West

Indian species, in the Illustrated Catalogue of the Great Exhibi-

tion of 1851, 1. 895. There is a new species flourishing in

shadier and loftier sites in Kumaéon, which Mr. Edgeworth pro-

poses to call X. tomentosum; of this the native name is Simur ;

it has similar properties. The arboreous species mentioned

by Dr. Hamilton may be X. Budrunga of Roxburgh, of which

the capsules are of a warm spicy nature, with the fragrance of

lemon-peel. Yoddalia floribunda, Wall., and another species of

Xanthoxylon are natives of Nepal; and Tetrodium cymosum and

frazinifolium (Royle, 157) may be from Lower Nepal.

Padam chhal ‘is a plant with a thick cylindrical root that is

used in medicine, and brought to the low country for that pur-

pose. The specimen that I procured had one large heart-shaped

rough leaf, and had somewhat the appearance of an Anemone”

(p. 100). The name signifies ‘bark of the Lotus,’ and, accord-

ing to my Nepalese authority, belongs to some species of Rheum,

probably R. Emodi, or Webbianum, or both, the roots of which

have “‘a spongy texture” (Royle) resembling the Lotus.

Sied burrooa: Daphne papyrifera, Ham. pp. 85, 232; pro-

perly written Seta-baruwa, 7. e. White Baruwa. The shrub

abounds in the temperate districts of the Himalaya; and the

paper made from its bark, though coarse, is not touched by in-

sects. The bark is exceedingly strong and pliable, and seems

to be the same with certain tape-like bandages employed by the

Chinese in tymg many of their parcels.”

Sinkauri, Silkauli: the leaves, Tejpat. ‘ Both its bark and

leaves havea fine aromatic smell and taste, and this quality in

the leaves is strengthened by drying” (p. 84). Cinnamomum

albiflorum ; Laurus Soncaurium, Hamn., Linn. Trans. xii. 557 ;

C. Cassida, Don, Prod. 67. Another Sinkauri is distinguished by

its aromatic quality residing in the bark of the roots. Dr. Hamil-

ton received it from the mountains of Morang, the tract between

the rivers Kosi and Tista. In the Trans. Linn. Soc. xiii. 558,

he describes this plant as Laurus Sailyana: “vis aromatica tota

in radicis cortice posita. Hic autem cortex levis, colore lateri-

tius, odoratissimus, sapore grato aromaticus. Cortex ramorum

et folia insipida, inodora.” Nees von Esenbeck (in Wall. Pl. As.

Rar. 11. 73-75) identifies it as Cinnamomum albiflorum B, very

near C. Tamdla, ‘Taj’ Bengalensium, cultivated in the gardens

of Camrup.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvii. 29

450 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

Machilus odoratissimus (Laurus Champa et bombycina, Herb.

Ham.), a fine tree of all the warmer valleys of the Himalaya, is

known in Kumaon as the Kaula, which term enters into Hamil-

ton’s Nepalese names. Dr. Hooker found Cinnamomum in Sik-

kim, up to 8500 feet (i. 162).

“The Seta and Cala Bhot mas of the Parbatiyas (Hindoo

mountaineers) are called Musa and Gya by the Newars (the

Mongolian aborigines of Nepal). They are two varieties of the

Dolichos Soja, the one of which has yellow flowers and white

seeds, and the other has black seeds and purplish flowers. The

former is ripe about the lst of November, the latter about the

Ist of September ” (p. 228).

Catalogue, 1778. Dolichos Soja. Soja hispida, DC. Garo

Kolai, Bengalensium. Bhot mas, Montanorum Hindice. Coli-

tur in Camrupz orientalis et Nepal montosis.

Thence abundantly up to Kumaon, where the Soy Bean plants

are called Bhat. “Bhut. Soja hispida, Kumaon.” Illustrated

Cat. of G. E. of 1851, 11. 87]. No mention of it, however, in

this respect occurs in our botanical or agricultural works on

India. Soy pulse is reckoned rather unwholesome, and much

of the sickness which assailed the divisions operating against

Nepal in 1813-14 was popularly attributed to its use.

Catalogue, 1690. Hedysarum Alhagi. Habitat in ripis Gangis

et Jomanis arenosis. Labelled, “ Monger, 17th June, 1811.”

This is the common Jawésé or Camel Thorn of the plains of

Northern India, and is here introduced as an example of the

way in which species are unnecessarily formed, on the supposi-

tion that a new locality (though erroneous) requires a new

species. The plant extends from the extreme north of India

down to Behar, where [ have seen it in the neighbourhood of

Monger, near the well-known hot spring of Sitdkund. It is

Dr. Wallich’s No. 5760. Alhagi Maurorum, Hedysarum Alhagi,

H. Ham. e Monger; and neither of these botanists gives any

intimation of the genus being found in Nepal, nor is there any

known Sitaékund in that country. Yet, on the supposition that

it is from that country, A/hagi Nepaulensium forthwith appears

in our books:—Don, System of Gardening, 11. 310, “ Native

of Nepaul, near Sitaucund.”” DeCandolle, Prod. 11. 352. Syn.

Genista Juasi, Ham. Hedysarum Hamiltonii, Sprengel, Syst.

iii. 316; and Manna Nepaulensis, D. Don, Prod. Fl. Nep. 247.

Habitat in Nepalia, prope Sitaucund, Ham., in which DC.

follows.

In the same manner D. Don has (Prod. 101) Heliotropium

obovatum. Hab. versus ripas fluminis (Bhagirathi) infra Mor-

shidabad, Ham. (it is H. europeum, L.), to which DC. prefixes,

“ In Nepalia versus,” &c., the locality being Bengal. A Me-

from the Kingdom of Nepdl. 451

Jianthus Himalayanus is constituted (Linn. Trans. xx. 417) from

a garden specimen of M. major grown at Hawalbagh, near Al-

morah, the only individual of the genus in Kumaon. In short,

if we take as criteria the genera Viburnum, Lonicera*, Cirsium,

and others in DeCandolle’s Prodromus, one-fourth of his Hima-

layan species have no reality independent of the different names

imposed by different botanists, and adopted as species without

examination.

Alhagi Maurorum is interesting as the shrub which yields

the ‘Manna’ of N. Persia, Bokhara, and Samarkand, called

Tarangabin or Taranjabin ; the plant itself being Khar-i-Shutar

and Ushtar-Khar, 7. e. Camel Thorn. The Manna of Mount

Sinai, a product of Tamariz gallica, is also formed in Louristan

and Irak, where it is called Gazdéngabin or Gazdnjabin. The

names are all Persian.

Sazifraga ligulata, Wall.

S. Pacumbis, Ham. MSS. in Don, Prod. 209. Dr. Hamil-

ton’s specific name, I doubt not, is a misprint for Pashan-bhéd,

its Sanscrit designation (pronounced Pakhan-bhédin in the

mountains), still preserved as Paékhan-bhéd in Nepal and Gar-

hwal: so Royle, J. A. 8. B. Oct. 1832, No. 12]. H.H. Wilson

erroneously explains the Sanserit term by Plectranthus scutella-

rioides. It signifies ‘ Rock-splitter’; and it is the more inter-

esting that the name should in this remote district be applied

to a species of our genus Sazifraga, since Pliny (H. N. xxi. 30)

refers Sazifragum to Asplenium Trichomanes, or Adiantum Ca-

pillus-Veneris: “calculos e corpore mire pellit frangitque, uti-

que nigrum. Qua de caussa potius, quam quod in saxis nasce-

retur, a nostris saxifragum adpellatum crediderim.”

Catalogue, 771. Calotropis procera. Uabitat in arenosis

Mithile, Magadhz, et Cosale.

The distribution of this plant (C. Hamilton, Wight, Contrib.

53) is ill understood. Abundant in the south of Syria (Beid-el-

osshar), Northern Africa, and all the warmer regions of Asia, I

traced it down the Ganges to Nadiya in Bengal, where it appa-

rently ceases. It appears to have escaped the observation of

Roxburgh, and is not mentioned in his ‘ Flora Indica” The

allied species, C. gigantea, is unknown in Northern India, ex-

cept at the base of the Himalaya below Naini Tal in Kumaon,

where for some miles it occurs in profusion: thence southward

I met with it wild till ten or fifteen miles below Rajmahal,

from which to Nadiya both species are intermingled, C. gigantea

* Lonicera quinquelocularis of Hardwick and Roxburgh (DC. iv. 358.

no. 50) is L. diversifolia, Wall. (no. 24, 334), as I ascertained on the spot

where the General discovered it. Exclude “ ramis volubilibus.”

29*

452 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

reaching Calcutta. The name Madér* applies to both: the

term Ak, also often applied, is from Sans. Arka, ‘the sun,’ to

which the flowers always turn; hence, where the two occur,

C. gigantea is called Baré dkand ; C. procera, Chhota akand ;

great and small Calotropis.

Griffith (Itimerary Notes, p. 207) has nearly the same distri-

bution as above : “ Calotropis Hamiltonii ; very common through-

out the sandy plains of India, on the N. side of the Rajmahal

hills, to the complete exclusion of C. gigantea. In appearance

there is scarcely any difference, and, as far as foliage goes, per-

haps none; the flowers are smaller, and invariably the leaflets

much smaller and bilobed at the apex.” Dr. Hamilton (Linn.

Trans. xiv. 246-248) explains the differences excellently. Dr.

Hooker (Notes of a Tour in the Plains of India, P. 1. p. 78)

notices nearly the same distribution as Griffith: “The species

look very different, but when gathered, there is extreme diffi-

culty in recognizing them.” He adds, that “there is considerable

discrepancy of opinion as to their comparative efficacy, the votes

being in favour of C. gigantea.”

Catalogue, No. 781. Swertia Chirata. Bara Chirata.

No. 782. Gentiana Cherayti. Chhota Chirata.

Dr. Hamilton informs us (p. 85) that of these two species the

smaller (782) is the one most in request. It is the Agathotes

Cherayta of D. Don (Linn. Trans. xvi. 522); Gentiana flori-

bunda (Prod. 127); G. Chirata, Wall. (P. A. R. i. 34. t. 252,

where the flowers are of far too intense a yellow). Dr. Hamilton

truly describes it as a perennial; it has yellow roots, hence the

Arabic Kasb-al-zarirach, ‘ yellow stem or twig’ (Royle, 278) ; it

brings twice the price of the other kinds: “sapore intense

amaro,” Wall., who also notes its “radix perennis.” It flou-

rishes in woods and shady places, with Plantago-like leaves, and

is the largest plant of the whole, reaching 4} feet high ; so that

the native appellation, given by Dr. Hamilton, does not apply.

No. 781 is probably Ophelia angustifolia, from which much

of the Chirayita of commerce is obtained+; but several other

* Madarine, the active principle of C. gigantea, “ possesses the pro-

perty of coagulating by heat, and becoming again fluid on exposure to

cold.”

+ D. Don (Linn. Trans. /. ¢. 524) says it is “‘ more bitter than the last,”

the Agathotes. Wallich, on the contrary (PI. As. Rar. iii. 2), says that it

and paniculata ‘ possess only a slight degree of bitter taste.” Don is here

most correct, according to my experience.

The large and handsome Swertias of the Alpine Himalaya do not appear

to be imported to the plains.

Chiréyita derives its name from the Kiratas, a people of Eastern Nepal,

the Cirrhade of Arrian: hence the Sanscrit Kirata-tikta; but the moun-

taineers call it simply Kanda Tita, ‘ bitter stem.’

from the Kingdom of Nepdl. 453

species, alata, cordata, fasciculata, purpurascens, are equally

esteemed or collected. These are annuals, and abound in open

sites, at various zones from 4000 to 12,000 feet above the sea.

Ophelia angustifolia and paniculata are figured in Wallich’s

Pl. As. Rar. iii. t. 204-5.

“The Kutki is another officinal plant, with a woody root,

and a stem containing many alternate leaves, toothed on the

edges and shaped like a spathula. It has much the appearance

of a Saxifrage. The roots are brought for sale” (p. 100).

Picrorliza Kurrooa, Royle, Llustr. t. 71. f. 2, a bitter for which

he tells us that Gentiana Kurroo is. frequently substituted.

Nima quassioides, occurring in the valleys of Basehar and Upper

Garhwal at 5500 to 8000 feet, is also called Karwi, from its

exceedingly bitter bark and wood.

Picrorliza Kurrooa is abundant in the Alpine Himalaya, on

the open downs above the limit of forest, 12,000 to 14,000 feet.

There is a second species in Kumaon, discovered by Major R.

Strachey, at similar heights.

Jatamangsi, p. 97: the Nard or Spikenard of the ancients ;

Hebrew Neredde, from the Sans. Nalada, 7.e. ‘ giving fragrance.’

Nardostachys Jatdémdnsi, Royle, Illustr. t. 54. f. 2. Patrinia

Jatamasi, Don, Prod. 159, 160. The Indian women consider

the smell very agreeable, and most of them that can afford it

use oil impregnated with this root for perfumimg their hair.

“ All I can say is,” adds Dr. Hamilton, “that if this root was

the Spikenard of the Roman ladies, their lovers must have had

a very different taste from the youth of modern Europe.” Cant.

i. 12. There is, however, a larger species, N. grandiflora (DC.

Prod. iv. 624), in Kumaon, flourishing at similar elevations

(13,000 to 14,000 feet) to N. Jatémdnsi*, and with a similar

root; “but it is much larger, and its smell is more agreeable”

(Wall. P. A. R. iii. 40) ; and Lambert (Genus Cinchona, 1821,

p-. 179) says, it “may be considered as possessing the most

agreeable odour of any” of the Valerians. His figure (p. 180)

evidently represents this species, not NV. Jatdmdnsi; and the

description, anticipated from Don’s Prodromus, proves that the

latter also, unless made from Nepal specimens, belongs to it.

The perfume and properties of the genus are, in fact, very nearly

those of Valeriana Celtica and Phu; and it is curious enough

that the radical leaves of the last two species (the roots of which

are substituted in Western Asia for the Spikenard) are simple,

and bear a considerable resemblance to those of Nardostachys.

* It is strange that DeCandolle (iv. 624) should assign Mandu and

Chitor in Central India as stations for this plant, which cannot live at

Almorah, 5500 feet, beyond a few months.

454 Lieut.-Col. Madden on some Plants

The name Jatéménsi signifies ‘locks of hair,’ sometimes simpl

Masi; and the vernacular Balchhar denotes ‘hairy staff, all

with reference to the root, which has been compared to the tail

of an ermine, “on account of its withered stalks and ribs of

leaves, cohering in a bundle of yellowish-brown capillary fibres.”

Pliny’s description accords (N. H. xii. 26): ‘Cacumina in

aristas se spargunt: ideo gemina dote nardi spicas ac folia cele-

brant.” Spica is a translation of the Arabic Sumbul, Hindi

Bal, ‘an ear of corn.’ Sir W. Jones, in As. Res. ii. 405-10,

iv. LO9, where the figure (copied, except the root, by Roxburgh,

ib. iv. 435) with cordate radical leaves, is, as Lambert truly ob-

serves (/. c. p. 179), that of Valeriana Hardwickii (Pl. As. Rar.

iii. t. 263). The roots of this very common species have the

same smell as those of V. officinalis, are also used medicinally,

and were substituted by Sir William Jones’s collectors without

any very glaring imposture. In Pliny’s time also, adulteration

took place by Pseudo-nard, “crassiore atque Jatiore folio.”

They are called Shameo in Nepal and Kumaon, the Sanscrit

Shami, from Sham, ‘to calm’; proving how widespread is the

antispasmodic energy attributed to them.

The aromatic-rooted Grass, Andropogon Jwardncusa (i. e. the

‘fever-goad,’ also Jwarandsaka, ‘ fever-destroyer’), at first taken

for the Spikenard*, is abundant all along the base of the Hima-

laya, and in the valleys of Kumaon up to 4000 feet. At a lower

level in the valley of the Alakananda in GarhwéAl, the still more

fragrant species, A. Calamus-aromaticus, Royle, t. 97, nardoides,

Nees, from which the celebrated Rusa, or Grass-oil of Nimméar,

is distilled, is not uncommon. Dr. Royle only traces it north

to Delhi.

“The Manjit, or Indian Madder, seems to be of two kinds:

the Rubia cordata of Willdenow, and a species of Rubia not

described in the common systems of Botany. Both seem to be

equally fit for the purpose, and grow in the same manner, It

is cultivated exactly as cotton is among the hills” (p. 74).

Catalogue, No. 554. Rubia cordifolia.

Catalogue, No. 355. Rubia Chaya. From Bhotan.

The first is Rubia Manjistha, Roxb. 1. 374, the R. cordata of

Thunberg, from Japan; differing by its pentandrous flowers

from R. cordifolia, L., from Siberia. But this test is not satis-

factory, as remarked by Wight and Arnott, whose statement is

perfectly correct, that the flowers of R. Manjisthd are frequently

tetrandrous. DeCandolle (iv. 588) describes them as all pen-

tandrous, and those of R. cordifolia both tetrandrous and pen-

* “The root of Andropogon muricatum”’ is given as a secondary mean-

ing of Nalada, Spikenard.

Jrom the Kingdom of Nepal. 455

tandrous, agreeing with R. Javana (R. cordifolia, Blume), which

he considers a medial form. Wight and Arnott (Prod. 442),

Wight (Icones, i. t. 187; Illustr. ii. t. 128 dis), and Don (Prod.

133) all identify them. R. Manjistha is very abundant in the

Himalaya, from 4000 to 9500 feet, with black fruit, and deep

red flowers, not yellow, as represented in Archer’s Popular Eco-

nomic Botany, P. xv. f. 78.

The second species, which Dr. Hamilton considers new, is by

Dr. Wallich (No. 6069) identified with R. cordifolia, L. Our

Edinburgh specimen, however, though imperfect, seems to be

an undescribed species, which I found in the glen of the Sarju

River in Eastern Kumaon, in two localities, Ramesar and Gan-

goli, at 3000 to 4000 feet elevation above the sea. Mr. Edge-

worth proposes to name it R. nervosa. Griffith (Itinerary Notes)

probably found it in Bhotan; his No. 11 is Rubia Manjistha,

Dewangiri, in woods. No. 116. Rubia cordifolia; alt. 2800

ped. in sylvis. No. 367. Rubia cordifolia. Khegumpa. Yields

Manjistha (Madder). No.1021. Rubia sp. Scandens, hirsuta,

certe distincta a R. cordifolia; towards Panga, in woods, 6500

to 7500 feet. In the Journals of Travels, p. 203, he writes at

Dewangiri, elevated 2000 feet : “I find that large quantities of

Manjistha or Madder are sent to the plains from this, where

the plant is very common.” At p. 292 we have Rubia hispida,

at 8700 feet; and at p. 296, Rubia hirsuta, at 5500 feet. At

p- 209 he says, “ Madder is furnished by both Rubia Manjistha

and R. cordifolia; these species are quite distinct, the latter

affecting greater elevations than the former, scarcely descending

below 4000 feet.” The plant becomes shorter and stouter at

high elevations; and in a matured Report, published in the

Journ. As. Soc. Bengal for April 1839, p. 281, he modifies this

view, and identifies these two supposed species, adding that

“ Bhotan has fwo species. The two species used in Bhotan are

very distinet, and very general constituents of other mountainous

floras ; one of them has leaves without stalks.” This is perhaps

Dr. Hamilton’s plant from Bhotan. His specific name Chaya

appears to vindicate a practice condemned by Mr. Archer (/. c.

212): “ Munjeet is often called Chay-root ; but this is a mis-

take, the latter being the produce of a totally different plant,”

Hedyotis umbellata, in Tamul Saya. In Bengal, Chaya is rua

lanata. Wallich (Roxb. Fl. Ind. i. 384) has Rubia alata, from

Nepal, which Don reduces to R. cordifolia; and Major Strachey

has a Rubia from Niti in Garhwdl, with greenish flowers, which

he considers to be R. Manjisthd of Roxburgh. Rubia purpurea,

figured and described by Decaisne in Jacquemont’s ‘ Voyage

aux Indes, is merely R. cordifolia, one of the many instances in

456 On some Plants from the Kingdom of Nepdl.

that valuable work of needless synonyms, owing to the want of:

ordinary precaution as to what previous botanists had already

named.

“ Umbelliferous plant with root resembling Athamanta Meum,

and when fresh, an uncommonly fragrant smell” (p. 98). Very

probably the well-known Chora, Angelica glauca of Mr. Edge-

worth, abundant at 9000 to 10,000 feet (and which I take to be

the aromatic Gertheon or Certheana of Assam, a compound of

Valeriana and Pastinaca, Griffith, Journals, 37, 57; and J. A.

Soc. Beng. 1837, 331,335). Two thousand feet higher flourishes

the Hushial, also very aromatic, which I believe to be Hymeno-

lena angelicoides, DC. Prod. iv. 245; as well as Hymenidium

Brunonis, Nesir or Lesir* of the mountaineers, a very fragrant

plant.

Bhutkes: Bhutkesar, pp. 86, 98. “A thick woody root, on

the top of which were many stiff bristles, and from among these

the young leaves were shooting.” These Dr. Hamilton thought

belonged to Thalictrum, and Dr. Royle (Illustr. p, 69) refers

Bhutkes to Corydalis Govaniana; but it is actually the root of

Oreocome filicifulia and elata of Mr. Edgeworth (Linn. Trans.

1845), especially the former. This is probably identical with

Selinum Candollii (Peucedanum Wallichianum, DC. Prod. iv.

181; Selinum tenuifolium, Wall.) and Pleurospermum cicutarium,

Royle, Illustr. Don’s three species of Athamanta, Prod. 184-5,

described in accordance with the signification of Bhutkes, seem

to belong to Oreocome. Both the above plants, and one or two

species of Cortia, growing at great elevations (14,000 to 15,000

feet), are well known all over the Himalaya by Dr. Hamilton’s

names, which signify ‘hair of the spectre,’ against which they

are worn as charms. ‘They are often called simply Kés, ‘hair,’

for the same reason as the Jatémansi. With the medicmal root

Bhutkes, Dr. Hamilton mentions another, called Jainti, which

he refers to an Orchid growing among moss on large stones, on

the higher mountains. Calogyne precoz is so described on his

authority in Don’s Prodromus, p. 37. “ Brim” (p. 100) is another

* Dr. Hoffmeister has pointed out the resemblance of this name and

plant to the Laserpitium (Lesir-pati) of the Romans, the Silphium of the

Greeks, which the historians of Alexander inform us that his army found

in Afghanistan. The Greeks of Cyrenaica represented the plant (Thapsia

Silphium of Viviani, Flor. Lib., or Thapsia garganica, Desfontaines) on

their coins still extant; and Pliny (N. H. xix. 15; xxii. 49) paints in high

colours the virtues of its gum-resin, Laser Cyrenaicum, as a medicine and

pertume. The celebrated drug, Asa dulcis of Cyrene, recalls the Assa-

feetida of Persia, as well as a kind of incense from the Himalaya, called

Asé puri (i. e. ‘the fulfiller of hope’), of which the Nepalese told me won-

derful virtues. '

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 457

orchideous root used in medicine; but neither of this nor of the

Bariyalbhera seeds (p. 285) from Chhinachhin in Yumila, a

province east of Kumaon, have I any identification to bring

forward.

XXXIX.—Monograph of the genus Catops.

By Anprew Murray, Edinburgh.

[Concluded from p. 404. ]

Exotic Species.

56. C. suturalis (mihi).

Affinis C. sericeo, sed elongatior, lateribus minus rec-

tis, et thorace forma breviore ; elytris longioribus.

Long. 1} lin.

Fuscous; head and thorax with fulvous sericeous

pubescence ; elytra ferrugimous-brown, with the ante-

rior half of the sutural margin and the margins of

the elytra darker; inflexed margins of elytra and

margins of under side of thorax clear ferruginous,

remainder of under side pitchy-black; legs ferru-

ginous. Antenne with base ferruginous, club and apex dark ;

first joint large and long; second not so long ; third and fourth

of nearly the same length; fifth shorter than fourth ; sixth

shorter than seventh; seventh large and broad; eighth very

small ; three last nearly of the same size. Thorax faintly trans-

versely strigose, posterior angles obtuse. Elytra deeply trans-

versely strigose. Scutellum elongate. Sutural stria shortened,

joing the suture at about one-third from the apex. Elytra

truncate at the apex; pubescence on elytra darker than on

thorax.

This species has a great resemblance to C. sericeus, but differs

from it in the following particulars. In general outline it is

searcely broader in front than behind, while sericeus is usually

markedly so. The thorax begins to round-in towards the head

almost immediately from the base forward, while in sericeus it

does not begin to turn inwards till about the middle of the

thorax. Scutellum more elongate than in sericeus. The length

of the elytra is 2} times that of the thorax, while in sericeus

it is not so much as twice that length. The elytra also are not

so broadly truncate at the apex.

Described from a specimen in M. Chevrolat’s collection re-

ceived under this name from M. Motschoulsky. Locality not

mentioned ; supposed to be from Mongolia.

458 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops:

57. C. californicus, Leconte.

Catops californicus, Lec. Synopsis of Silphales of N. America, Proe, Acad,

Philadelphia, vol. vi. 1853, p. 281.

Oblongus, subovalis, piceus, sericeus, subtilissime Fig. 50.

punctulatus et transversim strigosus; antennarum / —

basi, pedibus, elytrisque pallidioribus, his stria sutu-

rali profunda; thorace antrorsum valde angustato,

angulis posticis paulo productis subacutis.

Long. 1 lin.

The antennz are slightly clavate and as long as the head and

thorax ; the thorax is strongly narrowed in front, truncate at base,

and slightly sinuate near the posterior angles, which are subacute ;

the sides are broadly rounded; the disk is sometimes blackish,

and the sides dark rufous. The punctures of the upper surface

in this species are very indistinct, and the transverse striz very

fine ; the pubescence is sericeous, but not dense ; the anterior

tarsi of the male are strongly dilated, the intermediate pair

simple, the posterior pair longer than the tibiz.

Dr. Leconte mentions that it is abundant at San Jose and San

Diego, California. He also observes that one female specimen

which he had from San Diego appeared more elongated than the

others and much more narrowed posteriorly. He could not,

however, find any other difference.

58. C. consobrinus, Leconte.

Catops oparohrteet Lec. Syn. Silph. N. Amer. Proc. Acad. Philad. vi. 1853,

p- 281.

“ Oblongo-ovalis, subelongatus, ater, subsericeus, vix Fig. 51.

punctulatus, subtiliter transversim strigosus ; antennis

basi rufo-piceis ; elytris stria suturali profunda ; tho-

race antrorsum modice angustato, angulis posticis

leviter productis.

“ Tong. 1 lin.

“Georgia. This species resembles the two preceding, but is a

little more elongated and more oval; it is entirely black, except-

ing the base of the antennz and the tarsi, which are rufo-piceous.

The thorax is more than one-half wider than long, moderately

narrowed in front, broadly truncate at apex, very slightly

rounded on the sides, truncate at base, and faintly sinuate at

the posterior angles, which are slightly acute. The punctures

are very indistinct. The transverse scratches are as fine as in

C. californicus*.”

* Leconte in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 459

59. C. Lecontet, mihi.

Catops strigosus, Lec. Syn. Silph. N. America, Proc. Acad. Philad. vol. vi.

1853, p. 281.

“ Oblongo-ovalis, subelongatus, piceo-rufus, sericeus, Fig. 52.

distinctius strigosus ; thorace latitudine sesqui brevi- |

ore, antrorsum modice angustato, angulis posticis vix

productis, subacutis ; elytris stria suturali profunda ;

antennis magis incrassatis, piceis, basi testaceis.

“ Long. | lin.

* One female, South Carolina, Dr. Zimmerman. This species

resembles the preceding, but the thorax is less narrowed in front

and less rounded on the sides ; the transverse lines on the thorax

and elytra are more distinct ; the punctures are very indistinct ;

the first four or five joints of the antennz are testaceous, the rest

are piceous ; the apex is indistinctly paler*.”

The “ Synopsis of the Silphales of America north of Mexico,”

in which this species was described by Dr. Leconte under the

name of strigosus, was published in February 1853, while

M. Kraatz’s description of the European species so named by

him was published in the ‘ Stettin Ent. Zeitung’ in 1852. By

the rule of priority therefore, the name strigosus must be retained

for Kraatz’s species, and another name given to this. It appears

to me that it is an appropriate homage to name it after the

eminent naturalist who first described it.

60. C. oblitus, Leconte.

Catops oblitus, Lec. Syn. Silph. N. Amer. Proc. Acad. Philad. vi. 1853, 282.

“ Subellipticus minus convexus, rufo-fuscus, pubescens ; Fig. 53.

thorace punctulato antrorsum subangustato basi trun-

cato, angulis posticis fere obtusis; elytris transversim

minus dense strigosis, stria suturali distincta ; antennis

flavis, art. 4-10 fuscis.

“ Long. 1} lin.

“ Three specimens, Georgia. Easily distinguished by its sub-

elliptical and less convex form. I cannot discover any punc-

tures on the elytra; if they exist they are concealed by the dense

pubescence, which is however scarcely sericeous. The male has

three joints of the anterior tarsi dilated; the middle tarsi are

simple in both sexes+.”

The mesosternal keel is less elevated in this and the next than

in the other species.

* Leconte in loc. cit. + Leconte in loc, cit.

460 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

61. C. parasitus, Leconte.

Catops parasitus, Lec. Syn. Silph. N. Amer. Proc. Acad. Philad. vi. 1853,

p. 282.

“ Breviter ovatus, piceo-rufus, sericeus ; thorace disco Fig. 54.

obscuriore, brevi, antrorsum valde angustato, angulis

posticis non productis ; elytris transversim strigosis,

stria suturali profunda ; antennis basi apiceque flavis.

“ Long. } lin.

“ New York, in ants’ nests, with Heterius brunnipennis, March

and April. This species is much broader and more suddenly

narrowed posteriorly than the others. The thorax is fully twice

as wide as its length, punctulate, not strigose, strongly narrowed

in front, broadly rounded on the sides, truncate at base, with

the posterior angles simply rectangular and not produced. The

elytra are punctulate and distinctly striate transversely. The

antenne are as long as the head and thorax, very slightly ineras-

sated, rufo-piceous, with the first four joints and the apical one

yellowish ; the seventh joint is more than twice the length of

the sixth ; the eighth joint is much shorter, but scarcely thinner

than the following ones. The anterior tarsi of the male are

broadly dilated ; the first joint of the middle tarsi is less dilated

than in C. terminans*.”’

The mesosternal keel is finer and less raised in this and

C. oblitus than in the other species.

62. C. ascutellaris, mihi.

Oblongo-ovatus, fusco-sericeus ; antenmis vix ad apicem Fig. 55,

incrassatis, fuscis, basi apiceque ferrugineis ; thorace

elytrisque leviter transversim strigosis, his stria

suturali impressis ; scutello inviso.

Long. § lin.

Fuscous-brown. ‘The antennz are scarcely so long

as the head and thorax, so slightly clavate as to be almost

filiform, fuscous, the basal joints ferruginous, the two apical

joints pale ; first and second joints long and slender, those follow-

ing short, gradually though very slightly increasing in breadth

up to the seventh ; the seventh is rather shorter than the ninth,

and of about the same thickness ; the eighth is not narrower than

those on each side of it, but shorter, being about half the length

of the ninth ; the ninth and tenth are equal in length and thick-

ness; the eleventh is larger than the tenth, and becomes acu-

minate towards the point. The head is darker than the rest of

* Leconte in loc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 461

the body. The thorax forms a continuous or nearly continuous

line with the elytra; its posterior angles do not project behind ;

both thorax and elytra are seen under a powerful lens to be very

finely though distinctly transversely strigose. The elytra are not

truncate, although they are rounded rather rapidly at the apex.

The scutellum is not visible. The sutural stria is distinct at the

base, but it draws closer to the suture as it proceeds to the apex,

and is lost before it reaches it. Under side and legs ferruginous-

brown.

From Caraccas. I received this species from M. Deyrolle,

under the manuscript name of equinoctialis ; but the advantage

of having a name bearing reference to some particular character,

when that can be had, is so obvious, that I am sure that that ex-

cellent entomologist will excuse my not adopting the name he

had destined for it.

63. C. australis, Erichs.

Catops australis, Erichson, Wiegm. Arch. (1842) p. 243.

Mesosterno carinato, niger, nigro-pubescens ; thorace Fig. 56.

elytrisque transversim strigosis.

Long. 13 lin.

Oval, lightly convex, black, with black pubescence. Y,

Antenne of the length of the head and thorax, the

apex slightly thickened, the eighth joint narrower

than those next it, black, piceous at the base. Thorax

about the same breadth as the elytra, with the sides

lightly rounded, the posterior angles slightly projecting obliquely

behind, nearly right-angled ; the base subsinuate on each side,

finely transversely strigose. Elytra transversely feebly strigose,

the strigations rather widely separated, impressed with a sutural

stria, rounded at the apex. Legs concolorous, tarsi piceous, the

anterior lightly dilated at the base in the males. Mesosternum

slightly keeled.

This species seems to come between strigosus, Kraatz, and

sericeus.

It is found in Tasmania, and is the only species yet recorded

from the southern part of the hemisphere.

Genus CatToprricuus, mihi.

Antenne of eleven joints, the last eight of which are strongly

serrated in the males, somewhat less so in the females ; the three

first are slender; the eighth joint is very slightly, if at all, nar-

rower or shorter than those on each side of it. In other respects

the characters do not differ from those of Catops.

462 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

l. C. Frankenheuseri, Mann.

Catops Frankenheuseri, Mann. Bull. Soc. Imp. Mose. 1852, pt. 2. p. 332.

Elongatus, fusco-piceus, griseo-pubes- Fig. 57.

cens ; antennis pectinatis, basi ferru-

gineis, articulo ultimo pyriformi apice

acuminato ; thorace quadrato, angulis

rotundatis, obsolete canaliculato, pos-

tice in medio impresso; elytris ob-

longo-ellipticis, subtilissime punctu-

latis, tenue striatis, stria suturali pro-

fundiore, rufo-testaceis, cinereo-holo-

sericeis, pilis longis fuscis presertim

in margine obsitis; pedibus ferru-

gineo-piceis. 7

Long. 24-3 lin., lat. 14-1} lin.

Elongate, having a good deal the form of the first group

(subg. Choleva) of the genus Catops: fuscous, clothed with a

griseous pubescence. Antenne pectinated, black, ferruginous at

the base ; the first three joints slender ; third longer than second ;

fourth to tenth each of nearly equal length, globose, with a long

spine proceeding outwards. Thorax quadrate, angles rounded,

obsoletely canaliculated, impressed behind in the middle. Elytra

oblong-elliptic, very finely punctulated, feebly striated, the sutu-

ral stria deeper, rufo-testaceous, with a cimereous bloom and

clothed with long brown hairs, especially on the margin; legs

dark ferruginous.

Inhabits the island of Sitka. Several specimens were taken

by M. Frankenhzuser in a human body lying in a wood, and in

putrid fungi.

I owe the above figure to Dr. Leconte.

Genus Catoprsimorpuus, Aubé.

Catopsimorphus, Aubé, Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 2 sér. val. viii. p. 324.

“ Antenne with eleven joints, very much flattened ; the eighth

not narrower and scarcely shorter than the seventh and ninth.

Epistome cut almost straight. Labrum broadly and deeply

emarginate, and provided in front with a small very slender

membrane, strongly emarginate in the middle and ciliated in the

emargination. Mandibles denticulated at the extremity and fur-

nished within with a ciliated membrane. Maxille with the

internal lobe terminated by a small hook; the external lobe

obtuse and hairy at the extremity. Maxillary palpi with four

joints, the first very small, the second slightly clavate, the third

obconic, the last conical, a half smaller than the third. Labium

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 463

membranous, pretty deeply emarginate. Labial palpi with three

cylindrical joints, the last smallest. Tarsi with five joints, the

anterior and middle probably dilated in the male. The facies of

this genus is completely analogous to that of Catops. It differs

from it principally in the form of the antenne. We know

nothing of its mode of life*.”

1. C. orientalis, Aubé.

Catopsimorphus orientalis, Aubé, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 2 sér. viii. 325.

“Ovalis, convexiusculus, niger, griseo-pubescens ;

: ; : aS Fig. 58.

antennis, ore, elytris pedibusque ferrugineis ;

thorace antice angustato, angulis omnibus ro- )

tundatis.—3} mill. % y;

“Head black, somewhat brilliant, tolerably 2

broad, very finely punctate and slightly pubescent. /

Labrum, palpi and antennz testaceous ; the latter /

with the first joint longish, cylindrical ; the second;

almost globular; the remainder transverse, flat- | parry

tened and gradually increasing in size to the last, | || |

which terminates in a point; the eighth scarcely \ | /

shorter than the seventh and ninth. Thorax “| /”

black, pubescent and finely punctate and reticu-

lated, more than one and a half times broader than long, much

narrower in front than behind, cut almost straight at the apex

and the base, very broadly rounded at the sides; the anterior

and posterior angles obtuse and rounded. Elytra as broad as

the thorax at the base, about one and a half times longer than

broad ; broadly rounded behind ; ferruginous, less finely punctate

and reticulated than the thorax ; pubescent and marked with

a deeply impressed stria on each side of the suture. Under side

of body black, with the extremity of the abdomen somewhat

ferruginous. Legs ferruginous ; thighs slightly brownt.”

Dr. Aubé mentions that he had two individuals of this species,

both taken in the neighbourhood of Constantinople. He sup-

poses them to be both females from their having all their tarsi

simple.

Since the first part of this paper was in print, I have had an

opportunity of carefully examining the specimens in the collec-

tion of the Count Dejean, now belonging to the Marquis de

Laferté Senectére, who kindly placed them in my hands for

that purpose; and it may be desirable that I should state the

* Aubé in loc. cit. + Aubé in Joc. cit.

464 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

result of my examination in reference to the names used by

Count Dejean and published in his Catalogue. The specimens

are for the most part in good order and preservation. A few,

however, were in a less satisfactory state, and of course I give

my opinion of these with doubt. As might be expected in such

a difficult genus, there were sometimes more than one species

placed under the same name, so that it is a matter of opinion

which was the typical species he intended to designate.

The names in the collection correspond with those published

in the 3rd edition of his Catalogue, 1837. His

Catops rufescens=C. angustatus, Evichs.

oblongus = cisteloides, Froeh\. (castaneus, Sturm).

— ovatus, De}. =agilis, Erichs.

—— major, De}.=prcipes Erichs.

—— Americanus was in too bad a state to determine.

—— morio=nigrita, Erichs.

Under this name were found specimens of nigrita, fuscus,

and umbrinus, but the preponderance in poimt of number

was decidedly in favour of nigrita.

Catops tibialis, De}.=coracinus ?, Kelln.

This species and a portion of those standing under the

next name, fuscus, but which were the same, were marked

as coming from Portugal. I thought they came nearer to

coracinus than any other, but am not satisfied that they

were not perhaps an undescribed species.

Catops fuscus=tristis, Erichs.

I have no doubt that Dejean meant tristis to be the type

of his fuseus. He had a number of ¢ristis, and one of

grandicollis under it, and none of these under any other

name. At the same time he had among them several of

the above Portuguese species, and some of alpinus, Gyll., as

well as Spencianus, Kirby (cadaverinus, Mann.).

Catops chrysomeloides=chrysomeloides, Sp.

australis = australis, Erichs.

agilis=fumatus, Erichs.

Some of C. alpinus, Gyll., were mixed with fumatus under

this name, but the great majority were the latter.

Catops truncatus=sericeus, Erichs.

A single fumatus and a single velox have found their way

into the mass of sericeus, but this is obviously by inad-

vertence.

Catops transverso-striatus =a new species described by me under

this name in the foregoing pages.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 465

Catops pallidus=veloz, Spence. Represented by a single bad

specimen.

luridus =scitulus, Erichs.

The first specimens are scitulus, then follow some of veloz,

and lastly what may be brunneus, Sturm.

flavescens=precox, Erichs.

—— minutus = anisotomoides, Spence.

The remainder of his species are different species of Colon,

and do not fall within this Monograph.

On looking over the preceding parts of this paper, I am not

satisfied with the figure given of C. nigrita (fig. 12), and would

beg the reader instead of it to adopt the figure I now give, as a

more accurate representation of the species.

A figure of transverso-striatus § was omitted to be given with

the text. It is now supplied.

C. nigrita. C. transverso-striatus.

I have only now to add the Dichotomous Table of the European

species which I promised at the commencement of this paper.

It is not to be understood as a substitute for the descriptions,

but merely as a slight aid in turning to the quarter where the

species are likely to be found.

Dichotomous Table of Characters of European Species of Carvors.

EE AGMOCEHAINE RUTIDIC §, 0. 00.002nnnen>osepainees nnesdeeas ]

PECMOSLEPHOID MOTION | Kc apcea<c,scuesssacsovesnvnesys>a¢ 30

Antenne nearly filiform and decidedly longer than

1 DEER stot tas evactcusddsunccccccbocns dansspecedapubuse

*| Antennz more or less clavate, and not longer or

very slightly longer than thorax cesecsesesesereeee 5

9 sei broader towards base than in front ......... agilis.

‘| Thorax not broader towards base than in front ... 3

Punctuation coarse, pubescence long and sparse,

3 Bait Clyite Dellied Ot s..ca,ssenadassanencanseonnetannn spadiceus.

* | Punctuation fine, pubescence dense and short, and

elytra elongate and narrow ..........secseececseeeeees

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 30

466 Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops.

{Mate of thorax paler than middle _ ............... angustatus.

Margins of thorax not paler than middle ... do. var. cisteloides.

Base of thorax cut in, so as not to form a ction

5 Outline with elytra .....0:.ccsosscscseesecenss Bee

*| Base of thorax forming a continuous outline with

elytra or nearly SO ...64. eeeeees seneeseeseseenesens ws 19

Colour of pubescence grey and brown or dull yellow

on thorax, yellowish hairs on base and margins

of elytra wanting or scarcely perceptible, and

6. either no bloom or grey bloom on elytra ......... 7

Colour of pubescence clear yellow on thorax, a

brownish-blue or purplish bloom on the elytra,

Land yellowish hairs on base and sides of elytra... 14

Antenne longish and subfiliform, not heavily

7 : Glabbed | «2. ckateds ie. seve evansudec suck sstacpereeeeseeee 8

Antenne shorter and more clavate ....... vi ccape ont ene

Elytra transversely strigose ...esesse0 essereesseesees acicularis.

Elytra not transversely strigose ......-0ssseeesesrsevee 9

Antenne with apex pale —......++..s00 scccvcccsecsens UCIpes.

Antenne with apex not paler than rest ........ ee 10

10 { Posterior angles of thorax acuminate behind ...... 11

Posterior angles of thorax not acuminate behind... fuscus*.

Posterior angles much produced, antennz wholly

1 FEFFUGINOUS 2....cccoecsvcererees bibcboeckniwanineceeeeel meridionalis.

Posterior angles only slightly produced, antennz

more dusky towards apeX ...csessseeesesseeeeeeeees . nigricans.

12 fers very heavily clavate .......sscscssscseseeses .«. chrysomeloides.

Antenne only moderately clavate .........sseseeeeveee 13

13 { Inseet thin and narrOw! <ssecsis.cissisendedeacs - morio.

Insect shorter and more compact ......ceescseseeees +. coracinus.

14, { Antenne comparatively long and subclavate ...... nigrita.

Antenne heavily clavate ......... pee Soe sorsascepeueue IL

Thorax deeply punctured ......ssccssececsstereneceeees neglectus.

15 | Thor more or less transversely granulose or

WEMMKIEA Ss Miesoccukrenssdeasvepsevaten cel eye

Thorax nearly parallel on the sides ......... devoousen uadraticollis.

16 yi ; q

Thorax not parallel on the sides ........seseeeseeees 1

V7 te faintly transversely wrinkled _....... Be 18

Thorex oragulons .ci.-<<csnesnsvesanasecssvsunss tristis, var. rotundicollis.

Thorax short, transverse, and not broad; elytra

18 usually very long —«--...+s+00s sinelaa Sa ince gages we-+. tristis (type

Thorax broad, elytra moderate in length ... tristis, var. gran senile

19. ea: tarsi widened. in males ...s0sscsscesso+v-debeus 20

fiddle tarsi not widened in males ......... capveteul 25

* Fuscus is one of those species, which, from their transitional charae-

ters, nearly put dichotomy at defiance. It might almost be placed under

No. 19 instead of No. 6, as the base of the thorax has only a slight inter-

ruption in its continuity ; and again, its brown or purplish elytra are not

unlikely to induce one to place it under No. 14 instead of No. 7.

Mr. A. Murray’s Monograph of the genus Catops. 467

20, { Antennze heavily clavate ......-s.seeeeeeeeeereeeeseees 21

Deemmectie WabClavate 12). isessctsccscesccasesecessaccses D2

2] eae not narrower at base than elytra ............ fumatus.

"| Thorax slightly narrower at base than elytra ...... alpinus.

22 { Thorax with posterior angles rounded .....-......46- brevicollis*.

“ | Thorax with posterior angles not rounded ......... 23

23 { Thorax with lateral margins reflexly sinuated ...... depressust.

‘| Thorax with lateral margins rounded — ...........0645 24

{ Thorax with posterior angles projecting strongly

backwards, forming an acute angle; elytra not

distinguished by sericeous pubescence ........+... umbrinus.

24. d Thorax with posterior angles projecting slightly

1 backwards, the angle not acute but right-angled ;

| elytra distinguished by a silky pubescence which

in different lights shows like a light band across

[ i) ESR See peer Pera hier oe eee scitulus.

25 { Thorax not wider at base than elytra .........44. was 20

* | Thorax slightly wider at base than elytra ............ precoz.

Elytra more than three times the length of thorax transverso-striatus.

26.4 Elytra not more than three times the length of

THOLANAEC Ret eee. cc scces eat Pee speeen ee 27

27 A Faeai margin of thorax sinuated ....00....s.seesseres velox.

* | Basal margin of thorax straight ............sceeeeeeeeee 28

28 { Posterior angles of thorax right-angled ..........+- badius *.

‘| Posterior angles of thorax obtuse ......... St AS 29

MARI ooo senna wane sacvsasan a1 ane nexvesnua seees Anisotomoides.

“(Insect more elongate ...... pies cee esa raean ol Satan ean caste brunneus f.

30. Body polished and shining ....-.......+++++ see SEBS lucidus.

POGY HOE POUSNE. «2. 10. 6... cccnwsaveecoccedeeecsssenene 31

31. { Flytra not truncate 9 ..........-.00000. safeties Aart re? 32

RMEICALON, 2 oeco ac crvetnss~cnqcvaslsehontnecesteeners 33

32 as REMLIMIAECS 4 eo san sac -Ceceseaaneone Asan apne seer strigosus.

* | Elytra not acuminate ............. Poe Wee 8 Muddvettaneee Colon.

33 pam with apical joint pale ............eeceeseeeees varicornis.

"| Antenne with apical jot not pale .........seeeeeees 34

Antenne heavily clubbed, with base not paler than

34 RE MNE Mr aati gantigsiclssy axens biseasbadsdadarpasneb acura aaavss validus.

| Antenne moderately clubbed, and base paler than

CUE sueaeaxxovans mipadapdate cnanvgub<aiecgacee inns eaas wee SETICCUS.

* Not having seen this species, I only place it under No. 19 provisionally,

the description given by M. Kraatz being scarcely sufficient to satisfy me

as to its place.

+ Not haying seen the male of this species, it is only from supposition

that I have placed it under No. 20.

t Not having seen badius nor brunneus, their place is marked provi-

sionally and with hesitation.

30*

468 Dr. Gray on the Abnormal Operculum of Polydonta elegans.

XL.—On the Abnormal Operculum of Polydonta elegans of New

Zealand. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

In the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ for May 1854,

N.S. vol. xiii. p. 419, I described the reproduced operculum of

a Fusus, fig. 1, and the restored operculum of Pleurotoma baby-

lonica, showing that the restored operculum and the mended part

of one only partially destroyed differed from the normal form of

the operculum of the species.

At that time I had not observed the same fact in opercula of a

spiral form. In an interesting collection of shells and other

animals made in New Zealand by Dr. Andrew Sinclair, the late

Colonial Secretary of that colony, I found a specimen of Poly-

donta elegans with a very abnormal operculum; arising, I have

little doubt, from the operculum having been entirely destroyed

by some external violence and reproduced by the animal.

The reproduced operculum is circular,

of the size of the mouth of the shell, but

instead of being formed of numerous

narrow, very gradually enlarged whorls,

it has a rather large central circular

part or nucleus, which extends into

a broad, rather rapidly enlarging whorl

and a half, somewhat like the oper- we

cular or the more circular-mouthed Reproduced operculum of

Littorinide. Polydonta elegans.

I may observe, that though I have examined all the opercula of

shells that have come under my notice for years, I have never

seen any example of reproduction of the operculum in the Tro-

chide before ; but according to the following paragraph, extracted

from Mr. Clark’s ‘ Marine Mollusca,’ p. 309, it is not uncommon

in Trochus lineatus :— A singular character is attached to this

species, which I have not observed in any other Trochus. The

animal either casts the operculum, or is deprived of it by the

attacks of enemies, perhaps from its own pulli, white masses of

which, in the genial season, I have seen deposited on the foot,

and they may possibly feed on and destroy it ; however this may

be, numerous examples are found with the opercula in various

stages of development and renewal, but never resembling the

original : this is a curious fact, which I can at present scarcely

account for on rational grounds. The renewals and reparations

form irregular spiral, oblique and elliptical curves, or, instead of

the sixteen normal volutions, often only show two grossly spiral

ones, as in the Littorina littorea. I have many such in my

collection. I may observe, that, however the sculpture of the

Rev. T. Hincks on Reticularia immersa and Halia pretenuis. 459

area may be varied, the operculum always retains the circular

form.”

I think the irregularity may be easily explained, when we

consider that the animal has to reproduce the operculum in the

most rapid manner to replace the lost part, and therefore com-

mencing from the centre, it forms only one or one and a half

broad whorl, instead of the large number which it gradually

deposited. As it has to adapt the operculum to the increased size

of the mouth of the shell and of the foot on which it is formed,

and the end of the foot of the animal and the circular mouth of

the shell not being altered by the abstraction of the operculum,

the reproduced operculum is naturally of the form of the pre-

vious normally formed one.

XLI.— Note on Reticularia immersa and Halia pretenuis.

By the Rey. Taomas Hincxs, B.A.

In the ‘ Annals’ for February 1855 I described a supposed

Polyzvon under the name of Halia pretenuis. I had never met

with the species living, and merely inferred from the character

of the cell, &c. that it must be ranked as a Polyzoon, and not as

a Hydroid. Mr. Alder, having recently made a careful exami-

nation of the common parasite of Sertularia abietina and other

zoophytes, which passes as the Reticularia immersa of Professor

Wyville Thomson, has informed me that he can detect no dif-

ference between this species and the Halia, and that he believes

them to be identical. I have now no doubt that his opinion

is correct, and that the genus Halia was founded on speci-

mens of the zoophyte which Prof. Thomson has described as

Reticularia immersa. In characterizing this species, however, he

has fallen into a mistake as to the form of the cell, and his

figure (vide Annals, Ser. 2. vol. xi. pl. 16) is not an accurate

representation of the reality. Deriving my knowledge of Reti-

cularia, as I did, from his description and figure, there was

nothing to lead me to suspect its identity with the form which I

had obtained on mnssel-shells from the Dogger Bank, and

which I published as Halia pretenuis. I could have no doubt that

the zoophyte of his paper was not the species which I had before

me when I constituted the new genus.

The cause of this mistake on the part of so able a naturalist

may perhaps be found in the difficulty which attaches to the

examination of Reticularia in its ordinary state,—the cells being

densely packed together and forming a confused mass, amidst

which it is no easy matter to trace the form. When the species

creeps over shell (as was the case in my specimens) the character

470 Rey. T. Hineks on Reticularia immersa and Halia preetenuis.

is greatly altered,—the cells are sparingly distributed along

the fibre, and the difficulty vanishes. Both Prof. Thomson and

myself overlooked the fact, that the production, which we re-

spectively designated as Reticularia and Hala, had been pre-

viously described by Mr. Hassall in the Transactions of the

Microscopical Society (vol. iii. p. 163) under the name of Cam-

panularia serpens. Mr, Hassall’s description may not perhaps

be as full and precise as might be desired, but it is sufficient for

the identification of the species. There is no doubt that it has

no claim to a place in the genus Campanularia, and that Prof.

Thomson was right in constituting a new genus for its recep-

tion. The name Reticularia, therefore, must be retained, but

Mr. Hassall’s specific designation is entitled to precedence.

The characterization may be revised as follows :—

Order Hyproipa.

Fam. ———*.

Genus RericvuLaRia.

Polypidom “a parasitical, investing network of horny tubes,

immersed in a horny crust ;” cells decumbent, adherent, irre-

gularly disposed along the fibre, to which they are attached at

the base. “ Polype of a greenish colour, with numerous smooth,

solid tentacula ; very minute.”

Reticularia serpens.

Campanularia serpens, Hassall, Microscop. Transact. vol. for 1852.

Reticularia immersa, W. Thomson, Annals, vol. xi. for 1853.

Halia pretenuis, Hincks, Annals for Febr. 1855.

Capsularia serpens, Gray, List of Brit. Radiated Animals, p. 151.

Yells elongate, with upturned, terminal, and more or less

tubular orifices, moperculate, and with even rim.

The polypidom is a creeping fibre of great delicacy, which

forms an irregular network, corneous and closely adherent ; it is

invested by a kind of crust, which, when the zoophyte i is in a

recent state, gives it a soft and spongy appearance, but is not

apparent when it is dried; the cells, which occur sometimes in

pairs, one on each side of the fibre, sometimes singly, sometimes

in companies, are elongate, attached by the base to the poly-

pidom, adherent, except at the anterior extremity, which bends

* I do not associate Reticularia with any of the existing families of

Hydroida, fully agreeing with Prof. W. Thomson in the opinion that the

section of the genus Campanularia which embraces C. syringa, dumosa,

parvula (and to these may now be added the C. gracillima (Alder)),

together with the genera Coppinia and Reficularia, should form a distinet

group “intermediate between the Sertularians and the Campanularians.”

Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Conchology of France. 471

upwards, and terminates in a circular aperture ; they are com-

monly laid alongside the fibre, and often appressed to it, but

occasionally stand out from it.

There are two very distinct states of this zoophyte. In old

specimens, spreading over the stems of Sertularia, &c., the cells

are massed confusedly together, and the form is with difficulty

distinguishable. On shells it presents a much simpler appear-

ance: the cells are sparingly distributed and distinct, and in

such specimens I have never been able to detect any trace of a

crust.

Hab. Exceedingly common on our coasts, both north and

south, on Sertularia abietina and other zoophytes; also on

mussel-shells from the Dogger Bank, &c.

XLIU.— Contribution to the Conchology of France.

By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, Esq., F.R.S.

Havine spent part of this autumn on the coast of Normandy,

with my family, I have been requested by some of my scientific

friends to publish the result of my researches; but I fear my

story will not be much longer than that of the weary knife-

grinder. In fact the whole of my work in the North of France

was fruitless, as regards the discovery of new or rare species ;

although perhaps a list of some species taken by me, and which

have not been noticed by writers on French Conchology, may

be of some use in contributing towards the elucidation of the

important problem of geographical distribution.

Etretat (where I was located) is a small sea-bathing place,

containing about 1800 inhabitants, and is distant seventeen

miles from Havre on the road to Dieppe. It is a delightful

retreat, and has hitherto escaped invasion by our countrymen,

who, if they knew of the clear sea and atmosphere, the picturesque

rock scenery, the fontaine, subterranean river, and oyster park,

and above all the facility of access from Kngland, would soon

crowd and spoil the place. This may be a selfish, but I believe

it is a common, sentiment.

The fauna of this coast was, 1 understand, investigated many

years ago by the late Abbé Dicquemare, whose MSS. are now to

be seen in the public library of Rouen ; and Cuvier is said to

have made Fécamp (which lies about ten miles to the north of

Etretat) his retreat during the storm of the Great Revolution,

and to have commenced there his studies on the Mollusca,

M. Bouchard-Chantereaux has published a list of the marine

Testacea found in the Pas de Calais; M. Collard des Cherres

has also published a list of those found in the Department of

472 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Conchology of France.

Finisterre; and M, Petit de la Saussaye has given in his ‘ Journal

de Conchiliologie’ a résumé of French marine Conchology, in

an article entitled “ Catalogue des Mollusques marins qui vivent

sur les Cétes de France.” This Catalogue was published in 1851;

but it is too meagre to offer a satisfactory comparison between the

French and our own Conchology, especially as regards the minute

species. M. Moquin-Tandon’s admirable work, which has lately

been published, on the Land and Freshwater Mollusca of France,

may be safely consulted for that branch of the subject.

My dredging at Etretat was a complete failure, as the sea-

bottom for many leagues seemed to be composed of nothing but

flint pebbles ; and the shore was nearly as unproductive. The

only uncommon species I obtained was Otina otis; and of this

only a single specimen occurred to me.

I will now enumerate the marine Testacea I found, and which

are not included in M. Petit’s Catalogue, as well as the localities

for a few land shells, which are not given by M. Moquin-Tandon.

1. Montacuta bidentata, Forbes and Hanley’s Brit. Moll.

. Trochus Montagui, Brit. Moll.

umbilicatus, Brit. Moll.

. Lacuna puteolus, and variety, Brit. Moll.

vincta, Brit. Moll.

. Rissoa semistriata, Brit. Moll.

. Skenea planorbis, Brit. Moll.

. Odostomia plicata, Brit. Moll.

obliqua, Brit. Moll.

Rissoides, Brit. Moll.

11. Otina otis, Brit. Moll.

12. Cerithiopsis tuberculare, Brit. Moll.

13. Nassa varicosa, Brit. Moll. M. Petit refers to this as a synonym

of N. incrassata, which is also common on the French coast.

14. Zonites glaber, Moquin-Tandon; Etretat, Lillebonne, and Hon-

fleur. I do not agree with M. L. Pfeiffer, that the Z. alliarius

of British authors ought to be united with this species.

15. striatulus, M.-7. (Z. radiatulus, Brit. Moll.) ; St. Clair

near Etretat.

16. Helix aspersa, M.-7'.; Etretat and Honfleur. I mention this (to

us common) species, because M. Moquin-Tandon gives its habitat

as “ Principalement la France méridionale.”

iF. fusca, M.-T. (H. revelata, Bouchard) ; Etretat.

limbata, M.-7.; Honfleur and Lillebonne.

19. Clausilia nigricans, M.-7'.; Etretat.

Rolphii, M.-T. ; Honfleur, Le Héve near Havre, and Lille-

bonne. I observe that Mr. Benson has modified his opinion

as to the Cl. Mortilleti of Dumont being a distinct species.

M. Mogquin-Tandon gives it as a synonym of C/. Rolphii.

Montagu Square, London, Oct. 31st, 1856.

Bibliographical Notices. 473

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

Flora Vectensis: being a Systematic Description of the Pheno-

gamous or Flowering Plants and Ferns indigenous to the Isle of

Wight. By the late W. A. Bromriextp, M.D. &c. Edited by

Sir W. J. Hooker and T. Bexu Satrer, M.D. London, 1856.

8vo, pp. 678, xxxv. Portrait of the Author. Map.

WE have recently received a copy of this valuable and long-ex-

pected posthumous work, and have the pleasure of expressing, upon

the whole, our high approbation of it. The editors have wisely

avoided adding more than was absolutely necessary to the manu-

script of our lamented friend ; but, owing to his decease before the

completion of his original plan, it was necessary to add the technical

characters of many genera and sections of them, and of not a few

species, in which the manuscript was deficient. In doing this they

have usually adopted the words of Messrs. Hooker and Arnott from

their ‘ British Flora,’ but in some cases where it was perfectly mani-

fest that the author was adopting the arrangement of Mr. Babington,

they have taken the definitions from that gentleman’s ‘Manual.’ In

this we think that they have exercised a sound judgement, although

we fancy that they have not always correctly appreciated Dr. Brom-

field’s views. But this is a matter of very little consequence, for the

value of the work is not at all affected by it. It is very unfortunate

that the author did not leave behind him a more complete account

of his own views on these matters, for his opinions upon the best

characters to be employed in defining the genera and species would

have been highly acceptable, from the attention which he is known

to have paid to the value of characters in the different natural

_orders. The great peculiarity and value of the book, as it is now

presented to us, consists in the elaborate descriptions of the great

majority of the species drawn from the examination of very many

specimens of each plant. They are by far the most complete and

accurate descriptions of British plants which we possess, and strongly

remind us of the elaborate and voluminous ‘ Flora Italica’ of Berto-

loni, but even surpass those of that eminent botanist. From its

proximity to the mainland, the Isle of Wight possesses a more

extensive flora than is usually to be found in small islands, and

therefore this work contains Dr. Bromfield’s descriptions of a very

large portion of the common plants of England. From the situation

of the Isle, it of course does not include the plants peculiar to the

more distant parts of Britain. There are many species of which the

full descriptions were not prepared by the author, and in such cases

the editors have inserted a specific character derived from one or the

other of the above-mentioned British Floras, together with such notes

as were to be found in the author’s manuscripts. For some months

preceding his final departure from England, Dr. Bromfield had been

inserting in successive numbers of the third volume of the Botanical

Journal called the ‘ Phytologist,’ a very complete account of Isle of

Wight plants, in which he communicated to the public a large quantity

474 Bibliographical Notices.

of most valuable critical and other remarks. As much of this informa-

tion was acquired, and many of the views there adopted were formed, at

a later period than that at which the parts of this work which treat

concerning the same plants, were written, we think that the editors

might advantageously have added, as notes to the Flora, many ex-

tracts from these papers. It is plain that they have thought

differently, for the ‘ Phytologist’ is rarely quoted by them.

The author’s preface contains some remarks upon the rules to be

observed in deciding upon the claims of plants to be considered as

indigenous or introduced, which well deserve the consideration of

the writers of local and even national floras. He very properly

protests against the scepticism of those botanists who “reject as

aliens a large proportion of species that have been long recognized

and admitted by common consent into our indigenous catalogues,”

acknowledging at the same time that “they at least err on the safe

side.” He adopts the view expressed by Fries in the following

words: ‘Eas dico plantas indigenas, quee per longam annorum

seriem sine omni cultura inter provinciam copiose et definito loco

propellarunt et quotannis sunt multiplicate.’’ He is of opinion that

“the safest criterion for resolving doubtful claims to enrolment is to

be sought for by reference to the geographical distribution of the

species under consideration. The more extended study of this im-

portant branch of botanical science would. . . . go far in removing

many of those scruples that are raised against the admission of no

small number of our vegetable productions into the aboriginal lists.”

Accordingly great attention is paid to the continental distribution

of all plants upon which much doubt has been cast. Botanists have

cause to thank him for this care ; for we are quite convinced that it

is the true mode of attaining correct views on this contested subject.

It often happens that plants which are now only found in rather

doubtful stations in our fully cultivated country are really old natives

which have been reduced in quantity or driven from their original

sites by improvements in agriculture. When this has happened the

plants may now continue to exist in a very few restricted spots, or be

found seattered thinly over a large district, maintaining themselves

with difficulty in hedgerows or on bits of waste ground. In such

_cases, it is much the fashion to state boldly that they are not indi-

genous, without inquiring if their continental distribution is or is not

favourable to their claims to admission amongst British plants.

It does not seem desirable to extend this notice by entering upon

discussion concerning any of the species, although there are many

things stated by the author, or introduced by the editors, which do

not accord with our views. In some of these cases we feel quite sure

that the remarks would have been omitted or modified had the author

been permitted to prepare his work for the press; but the editors

have done wisely in printing the manuscript as they found it. It

must be remembered that the work has not, alas! had the benefit of

the author’s revision since the spring of 1850, and that much advance

has been made in our knowledge of British plants during the last six

years. These facts do not, however, detract from the value of the

Zoological Society. 475

‘Flora Vectensis,’ the essential peculiarity of which lies, as we have

already stated, in its valuable original and elaborate descriptions of the

species noticed by its author.

Cautioning botanists to bear im mind that the real date of the book

is not that of its publication—and that it is posthumous ; and recom-

mending those who may use it to distinguish carefully between the

work of the author and the additions (clearly marked with inverted

commas) of the editors,—we most strongly recommend the work to

our readers.

Sylloge Flore Europee seu plantarum vascularium Europe indige-

narum enumeratio, adjectis synonymis gravioribus et indicata

singularum distributione geographica. Auctore C. F. Nyman.

Oerebroz, 1854-55. Royal 8vo, pp. 442. xxiv.

This is a work which was wanted as affording a mode of easily

ascertaining the extent to which any species of plant is known, upon

published authority, to be distributed throughout Europe. It cannot

fail of being much employed for that purpose, having been drawn up

with great care. A list of the works used in its compilation is ap-

pended, by means of which the author’s accuracy may be tested in

doubtful cases. Of course a work of this nature must have occupied

a considerable time in its preparation, and therefore we cannot hope to

find that it is quite up to the present state of our knowledge. Judging

from a somewhat careful examination, it is far more complete in that

respect than we expected.

The chief objection to it is found in the system upon which it is

arranged. Being the work of a Swede, probably a pupil of Fries, it

is not wonderful that he should think the system proposed by that

eminent man the proper one to adopt. As that classification is not

in common use, some little inconvenience results. This is met by the

addition of a copious index to the genera and subgenera.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

February 12, 1856.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

DescRIPTIONS OF SOME COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS IN THE CoL-

LECTION OF THE British MuseuM, HITHERTO APPARENTLY

UNNOTICED. By ApamM WuiTte.

The number of “new species” of Coleopterous Insects in the

Museum collection is in relative proportion to the great richness of

the other branches. In this paper, some species belonging to the

families Prionida, Lamiade, and Cetoniade will be given, as there is

every likelihood, from the way in which these great groups have been

investigated by Messrs. Serville, Burmeister, Schaum, Gory, and

other entomologists, that the species are as yet unrecorded in scientific

476 | Zoological Society :-—

works ; it is to the kindness of Dr. Gray, the keeper of the depart-

ment, that I am indebted for permission in laying these descriptions

before the Society.

Tribe Loneicornia.

Family Prionip&.

The Prionide consist of several marked subfamilies, in one of

which we would place Tricrrenoroma, G. R. Gray, one of the most

interesting of the genera of Beetles. This form, which appears to

me to be altogether Longicorn, is chiefly remarkable for its hetero-

merous tarsi, and for the ninth and tenth joints of its antennee being

serrated or produced at the end, almost as in the Lucanide. It is

one of those ‘‘aberrant’’ forms which naturalists call “ annectent,”’

and which appear to partake of the characters of several groups,—

for instance, with the depressed form and velvety pilosity of many

Elateride, it has five joints to the two first pairs of legs, and four only

to the hind pair. Its head, jaws, and legs are essentially Longicorn,

the number of joints of the tarsi being not a necessary character of the

group; the tarsi of Parandra are pentamerous, and Dorx pentamera,

an Australian insect described by Mr. Newman, has likewise five

joints to all the tarsi. The sternum of Trictenotoma is also peculiar,

that of the prothorax being received into a notch of the mesothorax,

while the sternum of the metathorax is capable of being firmly fixed by

** dovetailing,”’ as it were, into the hinder notch of the mesothorax; in

fact, this structure must enable the insect, if placed on its fiat back,

to “right”’ itself, like those Beetles called “‘ Skip-jacks”’ (Elateride).

In some species, such as 7’. Childrenii (G. R. Gray), 7’. Templetoni

(Westw.), and 7’. Grayii (F. Smith), the sternum of the metathorax

bulges; in 7’. enea (Parry) that part is flattened, and the thorax is

curiously serrated on the lateral margin in front, and has a very pro-

jecting point on the side beyond the middle, and notched between

that point and the posterior angle, instead of being nearly straight

and simply angled as in the other three species. Of these Tricteno-

tome, all the species described are in the Museum Collection ; the

T. Childrenii beg the type female specimen from the Tenasserim

coast, described by Mr. G. R. Gray in one of the two insect volumes

of Griffith’s edition of ‘Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom’ (pl. 5 and 5*).

The T. Templetonii of Westwood (Oriental Ent. tab. 23, f. 3) is a

native of Ceylon; like the former, it has a yellowish-grey pile; the

T. Grayii described by Mr. F. Smith in 1851 (Cat. Coleopt. Brit.

Mus. Cucujide, p. 18) is from Borneo, and has a purplish base beneath

the more tawny pile of the upper parts; in the Museum there are two

females, one from the collection of Mr. Alfred Wallace, who obtained

it at Sarawak. The 7. @nea, the giant of the genus, is of a brassy

green, slightly pilose above. The Museum has lately obtained a

specimen from India; the specimen was found by a soldier at

Dhargeeling.

To the same family, and not very remote from the subfamily con-

taining Spondylis and its allies, belongs, in the opinion of Dr. Bur-

meister, Mr. Westwood, and Mr. Leconte, the very anomalous Hypo-

Mr. A. White on some Coleopterous Insects. 477

cephalus, of which a fine figure, with some striking remarks, has been

published by Mr. Curtis in the ‘ Transactions of the Linnzean Society ;’

of this species, three specimens known to me, exist in this country,

one in Mr. Melly’s great cabinet at Liverpool, a second drawn by

Mr. Westwood in the ‘ Arcana Entomologica,’ from a specimen in his

own very curious collection, and a third exhibited at the Linnzean So-

ciety in 1854, from the rare cabinet of Mr. Aspinall Turner of Man-

chester. This remarkable Prionidous insect, like the Mole-cricket,

has been altogether constructed for a subterraneous life ; its marvel-

lously developed thorax, fossorial and burrowing legs, curiously de-

fended head, abbreviated antennz, and other characters well shown

by Mr. Westwood, and particularly by Mr. Curtis, all mark this;

just as Dorysthenes of the East, a burrowing insect, is shown by

M. Guerin- Meneville to have Walrus-like jaws, as Lethrus has incurved

mandibles and other features useful in supporting the creature in the

holes of the ground whence it comes. As aberrant Prionide may be

mentioned, the very curious genera Torneutes, Reich., described in

the Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. (ii. 9, t. 2. f. 7), of which three species

are now known, one from Patagonia, described by M. Guerin, and

the singularly interesting Hrichsonia of Mexico, named by Mr.

Westwood, in memory of that most laborious and scientific of all the

German entomologists, Dr. Erichson. The genus Thaumasus,

Reich. (Ann. Soe. Ent. Fr. 1853, p. 419), founded on what Olivier

described as a gigantic species of Ips (Ips gigas, Journ. d’ Hist. Nat.

1792, i. 267, pl. 14. f.6; Thaumasus g., Reich. 1. c. p. 422, pl. 13,

f. 4), may be particularized as another aberrant form. In fact, the

family Prionide, like many other great families, is more negative

than positive, and will be found at its extremities, or at many points

of its circumference, to lead off to other families, and even tribes:

so that the naturalist, who wishes to simplify arrangement, however

much he may split up genera, ought to avoid dividing families.

It may interest the general reader to quote a short passage from a

privately circulated paper, written by my friend Mr. Empson of Bath,

a distinguished natural-history traveller in South America. The insect

alluded to is the noble Psalidognathus Friendii (G. R. Gray), which

is named by the natives of Columbia ‘Alaja,’ that is, ‘ the jewel.” Mr.

Empson remarks, ‘‘The first of these splendid insects which I ever saw,

was at a feast given by the Cabildo, at Mariquita; upon that occasion

Don Domingo Conde had placed one of them as a button to loop up,

after the Spanish fashion, the broad brim of his Panama hat ; to this

brilliant ornament a loop of living Fireflies was attached, in a mode

common in South America, and which does not injure those dazzling

insect gems ; thus decorated, the sombrero of the cavalero was more

conspicuous in the bail-room than the jewelled tiaras of his more

wealthy neighbours, although sparkling with the choice emeralds

from the mines of Muzo.

“ After many a weary search,” adds Mr. Empson, ‘ with Don

Domingo for my guide, in the primeeval forests on the eastern slopes

of the Andes, we captured three of those Alajas.’’ One of those, he

remarks, “ was resting on the perishing trunk of a palm-tree ; in our

478 Zoological Society :—

eagerness to secure it, my hand was so much lacerated that I was

obliged to relinquish my prize, and we saw its gorgeous colours

flashing beneath the full blaze of a tropical sun; it settled on the

stem of a cedar, and was then more cautiously transferred into my

possession.”

With these few remarks, which might be much amplified, a curious

genus of Prionide, allied to Psalidognathus, G. R. Gray, and to

Prionacalus, figured in a previous part of the Proceedings, may be

here briefly described. It is strictly pseudo-tetramerous, and has

much of the character of Mr. George Gray’s fine Columbian genus.

This genus, for which I would propose the name Psalidocoptus*, is

from Tana, in the New Hebrides, and is one of those fine insects for

which science is indebted to the researches of Mr. John Macgillivray,

the late able Naturalist of H.M. surveying ship ‘Herald.’ The

sternum does not notably differ from that of Psalidognathus, but it

differs in having very short palpi, much shorter antennee, the third joint

the longest, the eight following about equal in length. Head, exelu-

sive of the jaws, rather longer than wide, behind the eyes somewhat

narrowed and without projection. Eyes prominent, transversely

kidney-shaped, very slightly notched in front. Thorax wider than

long, but much longer than in Psalidognathus and Prionacalus, with

three broadish spine-like projections on each side, one in front, one

about the middle, and one before the hinder angle. Scutellum small

and wide, covering the abdomen; in the male, considerably sur-

passing it. Wingless; elytra united on the suture, contracted some-

what at the base, where there is a short spine, gradually dilated

about the middle, and as gradually tapering toward the end, where

they terminate in two spine-like points, the outer the longest, the

inner almost a continuation of the notch, between which would be the

suture ; the two points curiously rotundate-emarginate. Legs very

long and strong, particularly the femora, which are compressed.

Tarsi with small pulvillus on end of three first joints ; tarsi of female

broader and shorter than those of the male.

PsaLIDOCOPTUS SCABER, Nl. S.

Head between the eyes with a deep line, divided into two in front.

Thorax surface curiously undulated, and with the head scarcely

rough, although with small scattered warts; the elytra scabrous,

with numerous small warts; each elytron with two parallel ridges

united behind the middle and a sutural ridge; margin of elytra

between warty and serrated. Jaws strong, punctured at the base,

incurved, sides parallel, inner side short and obliquely cut between,

the cutting edge sharp; a curious tuft of ferruginous hair on tro- -

chanter; legs serrated below on femora and tibia, more or less

scabrous. The whole insect is of a blackish-brown, with ferruginous

hairs bordering the inside of the tibiee of the first and second pairs of

legs ; thorax beneath, and other parts, liable to be chafed by motion

* Wahis, scissors, and cér7w, from a fanciful idea of the waved outline being

as it were cut with that instrument.

Mr. A. White on some Coleupterous Insects. 479

of joints ciliated with ferruginous hairs. Abdomen somewhat squa-

moso-verrucose beneath, a pit behind each scale-like wart, with a

short hair proceeding from it.

Note. The figures were drawn on wood by Miss E. Wing, and are

of the size of nature.

Family Lamrap2&.

Among the Lamioid Longicorns there is a genus contaming many

finely coloured African species. The genus 7'ragocephala, Dupont

(Dej. Cat. p. 638), was first briefly characterized by Laporte in his

‘ Animaux articulées,’ tome il. p. 472.

TRAGOCEPHALA NoBILIsS. Lamia nobilis, Fabr. S. El. ii. 297;

Oliv. t. 11. f. 76; also described by Fabricius as Saperda leta,

l.c. p. 318. Sierra Leone. (Coll. Brit. Mus.)

TrRaGocerHaLA FoRMOSA. Cerambyx formosus, Oliv. t. 20:

480 Zoological Society :—

f. 153, is another well-marked species from S. Africa, abundant in

collections. (Coll. Brit. Mus.)

TRAGOCEPHALA PULCHELLA, Westw. Arc. Ent. ii. t. 69. f. 4, is

another species from Sierra Leone. (Coll. Brit. Mus.)

TRAGOCEPHALA VARIEGATA, Bertolom., Ann. Se. Nat. 1845,

p- 423. 8S. Africa (Inhambere).

TraGcocerHaLa GALatuea, Chevr., Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1855,

p- 184, was procured by the Scottish missionaries at Benin, Old

Calabar.

The TrRaGocerHALA ANGOLATOR and T. Lucta, described by

Olivier and Newman, belong likewise to this genus, but are aberrant

forms, as is the TRAGOCEPHALA TRIFASCIELLA, described and figured

in the illustrated Proceedings for 1850. The latter differs somewhat

from Tragocephala proper, while Lamia angolator, from its short

wide thorax, &c., may hereafter constitute the type of a distinct

section: all three are in the Museum Collection.

In the Museum Collection are some undescribed species, which

may be characterized as

TRAGOCEPHALA COMITESSA.

T. elongata, nigra; fronte aurantiaca ; thoracis lateribus auran-

tiacis, post tuberculum nigris; elytris fasciis duabus sulphureis,

lateribus aurantiacis ; prima continua, secunda angustiore, an-

tice et postice sinuata; elytris singulis punctis tribus albis ;

sutura apice albo-punctata, ante apicem macula aurantiaca

margine pallidiore ; metathorace maculis duabus aurantiacis,

aliquando obsoletis; abdominis segmentis tribus basalibus

lateribus subtus aurantiacis.

Long. lin. 9-11.

Hab. Africa Austr. (Port Natal). Coll. Brit. Mus. (Gueinzius et

Krauss).

T. formose affinis sed distincta.

TRAGOCEPHALA CHEVROLATII, 0. S.

T. nigra, capite aurantiaco, mandibulis basi aurantiacis, fascia

in genis, fascia inter antennas et vertice nigris; thoracis lateri-

bus flavis, tuberculo apice et postice nigro ; dorso nigro, macula

parva pallida posticali alteraque antica sepe obsoletis ; elytris

singulis nigris ; fascia mediana aurantiaca subobliqua, ramum

antice ferente ; maculis duabus aurantiacis sepe obsoletis, ma-

cula magna aurantiaca ante apicem, punctoque parvo ad apicem;

abdominis lateribus aurantiaco maculatis; pedibus cinereo-

griseis, femoribus flavo maculatis.

Long. lin. 83-11.

Hab. Africa Austr. (Port Natal). In Mus. Brit., &e.

In honorem L. A. Augusti Chevrolat, Parisiensis, Coleopterophili

valde egregii.

TRAGOCEPHALA DUCALIS, 0. 8.

T. capite aurantiaco, fascia oculari, alteraque verticali nigris;

antennis crassiusculis, nigris; thorace supra medio nigro, lateri-

Mr. A. White on some Coleopterous Insects. 481

bus aurantiaco late marginatis, pube subvermiculata ; elytris

nigris fasciis duabus aurantiacis suturam haud attingentibus,

lateribus latioribus, marginibus pallidis, apice aurantiaco, ma-

eulis tribus parvis inter apicem et fasciam secundam, exteriore

majore ; corpore subtus aurantiaco, abdominis segmentis, medio

et lateribus nigris; pedibus ochraceo-griseis, femoribus extus et

intus aurantiaco maculatis. ;

Long. lin. 8-9}.

Hab. Africa Austr. (Port Natal). Coll. Brit. Mus. (Saunders, &c. )

TRAGOCEPHALA GEMMARIA, I. S.

T. nigra; lateribus frontis maculaque genarum et macula inter

antennas pallide ceruleis; thorace supra maculis novem ceruleis,

quatuor in margine antica, tribus in postica ; elytris singulis

maculis 12-13 pallide ceruleis; thorace subtus et abdominis

lateribus maculis ceruleis majoribus; pedibus posticis, femoribus

extus, tibiis basi supra ceruleo-notatis ; antennis articulo se-

cundo compresso.

Long. lin. 63.

Hab. Africa Occid. (Sierra Leone) (Rev. D. F. Morgan). Coll.

Brit. Mus.

TRAGOCEPHALA GUERINII.

T. nigra, capitis thoracisque lateribus fascia flava continua, ely-

tris fascia lata guttaque ante-apicali ferrugineo-ochraceis, meso-

thorace ferrugineo-ochraceo, medio nigro-lineato abdominis late-

ribus subtus fascia flava extus dentata.

Long. lin. 10.

Hab. Congo.

In honorem Guerin-Meneville, entomologi et carcinologi Parisi-

ensis celeberrimi, naturzeque delineatoris exquisitissimi.

TRAGOCEPHALA BUQUETIANA.

T. nigra, fronte macula elongata aurantiaca sub oculis ramum

haud emittente ; elytris singulis basi fascia aurantiaca obliqua,

humero et spatio circa scutellum nigris; fascia mediana et

macula sub-apicali aurantiacis.

Long. lin. 8.

Hab. Sierra Leone (Rev. D. F. Morgan).

In honorem M. Buquet, Parisiensis, in Coleopteris exoticis ditis-

simi et peritissimi.

We have also in the Museum the elegant, slim, little graceful

T. Tenvicornis, Chevr., from Port Natal, the T. scentca of Dej.,

from W. Africa, and the T. picror, Klug, a common S. Neon

species.

Tribe LAMELLICORNIA.

Family Cetrontap&.

Note.—Mr. Turner of Manchester, the possessor of a very fine

collection of the larger and more showy Coleoptera of West Africa,

and of many of the Beetles of other lands, showed me a specimen we

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii. 31

482 Zoological Society :—

the (so-called) Goliathus giganteus, of which I once saw the example

in the Hunterian Museum at Glasgow, and which served to show that

the sharp and discriminating eye of the able and judicious Dr. Schaum,

who, with Dr. Burmeister, is one of the best authorities on the subject

of Cetoniade, was probably right in regarding G. giganteus and

G. Drurii as mere local varieties of one species, to which the name

Go.iaTuus Arricanus, Lamarck, may be given.

TriGonopuorvs HooKeERrt, n. s.

T. lete viridis, metallico valde refulgens, pedibus gracilibus, femo-

ribus viridibus flavescenti-rubro lineatis seu lavatis, tibiis rubris,

posticis intus ciliatis, tarsis fuscescenti-nigris ; thorace antice

angustato, supra dense punctulato, margine postica solum levis-

sima; scutello fere toto levi; antennis subrufis, capite maris

in fronte rufo.

Hab. In India alpina.

Named after Dr. Joseph Hooker, F.R.S., &c. &c., author of many

noble botanical works, and of the ‘ Himalayan Journal.’ During

his travels in India he found this and many other fine species of

insects now in the Museum Collection. We have now all the species

of this interesting group except 7’. Delessertii, Guerin-Meneyille.

STETHODESMA SERVILLEI.

S. fusco-subpurpurea, sericea, thorace flavo cingulato, elytris singu-

lis maculis decem parvis albo-argenteis, uropygio albo-maculato,

subtus rufo-brunnea, plagis albis lateribus singulis in serie

duplici ordinatis.

Hab. In Africa meridionali (Port Natal) (Dr. Krauss).

The red of the thorax extends on its under side. Mesothorax

with scattered scales. Head cut in front, and side lobes produced

shortly and somewhat rounded. Legs uniform in colour.

Huic insecto nomen Servilleanum, synonymon Entomologie, in

honorem dudinet-Serville amici dilectissimi, proposuit descriptor.

CLINTERIA DUCALIS.

This insect, of which the name only appears in the Museum List

of Cetoniada, p. 15, published in 1847, is regarded by Dr. Schaum

as a variety of the very variable Clinteria atra. The present variety

is of a dull olive-green, and has a patch of golden-yellow about the

middle of each elytron. The under side is purplish-brown, and the

sides have two rows of small white spots. The head and legs are

purplish.

It is a native of Silhet, and notwithstanding the great authority of

Dr. Schaum, I cannot help, even now, regarding it as distinct from

C. atra, Wied., of which C. funeraria and C. biguttata of Gory and

_ Percheron are varieties.

CLINTERIA HOFFMEISTERI.

This very beautiful and distinct species was described in the

‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,’ vol. xx. p. 341.

Mr. A. White on some Coleopterous Insects. 483

. Scurzorwrna Basstr.

Described in the ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. History’ (vol. xx.

p- 264). The genus Bassia was not named after Mr. G. Bass.

Scurzoruina (Hemipuaris?) Emini.

S. (1.2) nitida, subgracilis, subparallela, eneo-viridis, thoracis

linea laterali, maculisque duabus postice aurantiacis (aliquando

subobsoletis), elytrisque singulis lineatim punctatis, aurantiaco

maculatis aut plagiatis.

Animaleulum hoe pulchrum, Febr. 2ndo, a.p. 1856, die nat. de-

seriptum, Emilize Jalland, filize fratris mei, dicatum est.

Head rather closely punctured, very slightly notched in front,

above distinctly punctured. Thorax indistinctly punctured, except

before the hind angles, shaped much as in /Z. insulavis, of a highly

polished but obscure brassy green, thickened margin of thorax in

front yellow, the yellow continuous (beyond the middle of the edge)

on the inner side; thorax on each side with a narrow irregularly-

edged yellow line, almost parallel with the edge, and truncated and °

somewhat dilated behind ; before the posterior thoracic lobe are two

small triangular yellow spots. Scutellum yellow; margins, especially

at the apex, green; each elytron is irregularly margined with yellow

on the sides at the base, and there are six to eight irregular yellow

marks, one before the apex somewhat transverse ; sides of meso- and

metathorax yellow; sides of abdomen with three yellow spots ;

pygidium with two yellow marks nearly covering it, and divided by a

pear-shaped green spot, or green extended so as to leave only four

small yellow spots ; tibize and tarsi tinted with purplish; base of

anterior femora and coxe rufous. This species quite connects the

subgenera Hemipharis and Diaphonia, and shows the accuracy of the

views of that learned entomologist Dr. Schaum. The two specimens

are females, and have short lamellz to the antennee.

Hab. New Hebrides (Aneiteum). Collected by Mr. John Mac-

gillivray, the able naturalist to H.M.S. ‘ Herald.’

Scu1zoruHina (Hemrpuarts) Ip.

S. (H.) grandis, fusculo-nigra, capitis vertice, thorace supra, elytris

a basi usque ultra medium, pygidio, mesothoracis lateribus, meta-

thorace femoribus posticis infra flavescenti-brunneis.

S. (H.) Brownii valde affinis et forsan varietas geographica. Di-

eatur Ide Pfeiffer, viatricis celeberrimee que in Ceram speciem hance

pulchram invenit.

Creronta (PROT2TIA) PROCERA, 0D. S.

C.(P.) supra viridi-subsericea, poroso-punctata, albido paululum

submaculata in elytris presertim, elytris apice spinoso-pro-

ductis; subtus lete metallico-viridis, abdomine plagis 16 albo-

pilosis, in quatuor ordinibus dispositis.

In size between P. ferruginea and P. regalis; above, including

upper side of legs, it is of a fine dull, dark velvety green, which,

when rubbed, displays beneath a metallic base, as in many of the

31*

ASL Zoological Society :—

Cetoniade, such as Goliathus torquatus ; the edges of the nasus are

metallic. The head and thorax above are thickly and distinetly

poroso-punctate ; there is an indication of a yellowish-white dot near

each front angle of the thorax (which dot may vary in size in other

specimens) ; the elytra have four dots passing into short transverse

streaks on each side, and a small spot near the suture, about the

middle, and a short white streak midway between the middle and the.

spine; three dots between that and the spine, which is longer and

much more distinct than on the sides of elytra, transversely pitted in

many shallow short waves; general surface punctured, the punctures

chiefly in strize. Head small, slightly ridged on sides in front of eyes,

slightly narrower in front, and rather deeply grooved behind front

margin. Under side and legs metallic green ; femora and mesothorax

acuducted, the latter with two or three patches of isabella pile ; abdo-

men irregularly punctured, smooth, with eight transverse patches of

isabella pile on each side in double columns. Hairs on tibize rufous ;

fore edge of front tibize and tarsi of all the legs metallic green.

Hab. Philippine Islands. (Coll. Cuming.)

This is alluded to in Dr. Schaum’s second list of Cefoniade, and

is quoted under the above name.

Crronia (Prorzti1a) ScHAuMIt.

Supra obscure viridis, subtus lete metallico-viridis, capite fluvo

trilineato, linea media latiore, thoracis marginibus anticis late-

ralibusque flavis, plaga transversa subheraldice postica flava,

scutello flavo apice excepto viridi; elytris flavo irregulariter

transverse trifasciatis, elytris singulis medio longitudinaliter

sub-bicarinatis, et 9—11-punctato-lineatis, pedibus flavis, extus

et apice articulorum subviridibus, tarsis obscure viridi-fuscis,

abdominis lateribus subtus punctatis, segmentis quatuor late-

ribus flavo-marginatis ; uropygio favo triangulariter biplagiato

elytris apice suturali acuminato, sterno antice flavo producto.

Hab. Celebes (Madame Ida Pfeiffer).

Head semicircularly cut in front, the margins trending inwards.

Seems really to connect Pachnoda with Protetia.

Named in compliment to Dr. Schaum, whose name and abilities

require only to be mentioned when Coleoptera are described.

On a New Species or PIGEon.

By G. R. Gray, F.L.S. & Z.S., etc.

As I believe the members of the Society take some interest in

those birds which have passed a portion of their existence in the

Gardens, I am induced to place before them a Pigeon, which I have

every reason to suppose has remained hitherto undescribed. It be-

longs to the same division as the Garnet-winged Pigeon of Latham

(Columba erythroptera, Gm.), which has been placed in Dr. Reich-

enbach’s subgenus Phleyenas by H. H. Prince Bonaparte; but I

think that, considering the numerous divisions that have been

Mr. G. R. Gray on a new species of Pigeon. 485

sei in this class of birds, it might with equal propriety be divided

om it.

I am led to consider that there exists some slight confusion in the

description of the Columba erythroptera, which 1s stated by Latham

(in his History, viii. p. 71) to come from the Isle of Eimeo, which

he describes as having the “ belly and vent black ;”” but I think that

this is a mistake, as I find amongst Ellis’s drawings, made during

the voyage of the great circumnavigator Cook in the year 1777-79,

a representation of a Garnet-winged Pigeon that was found on ‘‘ York

Isle or Eimao,” having those parts pure white, and that it even

extends to the end of the under tail-coverts and on the thighs.

Latham has further noticed two varieties; viz. that which forms

his var. A. is from Otaheite, and the description was taken from the

drawing of Forster, who also accompanied the same celebrated

voyager during the years 1772-74, which exhibits the belly and

vent as “dusky.”” Forster had applied the name of C. /eucophrys to

this bird, under which name the description will be found in his

‘ Descriptiones Animalium, &c.,’ edited by Professor Lichtenstein, at °

p- 168 ; while the variety B. is stated to be from the island of Tanna,

and is recorded as having a “reddish black”’ belly (the same colour

as the back).

From these notices, there appear to be at least two, if not three

species of Garnet-winged Pigeons; and may not they, like the Péi-

lonopi, be peculiar to the different groups of islands of the South

Pacific Ocean? This, however, cannot be at present satisfactorily

determined, from want of specimens from the different localities, but

I have ventured to draw attention to these differences, that it may lead

to a further elucidation when an opportunity offers.

I may add, however, that M. Temminck, in his work on Pigeons

(t.55), figures one that may probably come near to variety B. of

Latham, but he describes the belly black with purple reflexions.

The British Museum contains two specimens from Bow Island,

which approach in some measure to the variety A. of Latham, but

the belly is of a dusky greyish black.

The one now exhibited is quite different from those referred to;

it may be described in the following terms, with the name of

CaLa@nas (PHLEG@NAS) Stari.

Glossy brown, with coppery reflexions in some lights; top of head

and back of neck dark slate, glossy with green; front, side of neck

and breast pale vinaceous brown ; throat and a gorget round the

breast white, which latter is margined outerly with dark garnet

colour ; abdomen vinaceous brown, dusky on the sides ; quills dusky

black, slightly margined with rufous ; tail brown, with a broad band

of black at the end. Bill black and feet pale.

The specimen is marked as a male, and I suppose was brought

from the Samoan or Navigators’ Islands, as the British Museum

was previously in possession of a skin given by the Rev. J. Stair as

from that locality, with other interesting birds.

486 Royal Society :—

On a New Species or Leprporrerovus Insect.

By G. R. Gray, F.L.S. & Z.S., etc. ‘

Among the various novelties sent home during the voyages of

H.M.SS. ‘ Rattlesnake’ and ‘Herald’ by Mr. Macgillivray, is the

splendid Butterfly now laid before the Society. It belongs to the

great genus Papilio and to the subdivision Ornithoptera, and like

the other known species of that group, its flight is very elevated; so

much so, that it became necessary to employ powder and shot to

secure the specimen; many shots have perforated the wings, and

have rather damaged the specimen, but still not so as to entirely

destroy the beauty of this remarkable butterfly. No lepidopterous

insect of its magnitude has hitherto been known from the locality of

this species; which, from the other insects contained in the same

box, is supposed (as no memorandum was sent with it) to be either

Solomon Islands, Aneiteum, New Hebrides, or the Fiji group,—at any

rate from one of the islands in the South Pacific Ocean.

The general colour is glossy bronze-black, with the two outer rows

of irregular-sized spots of pure white, while those at the base of the

fore wings are rich king-yellow, but partly pure white outerly ; the

anterior margin of the secondary wings narrowly bordered with king-

yellow.

' The under surface like the upper; but the anterior margin of the

secondary wings broadly bordered, and some of the spots tinged,

with rich king-yellow. The head and thorax pure black; the body

ochraceous yellow above, and black along the middle beneath.

It is a female. The male remains at present unknown, but one

may suppose, by the usual brilliancy of the males of this group to

which it belongs, that it is likely to prove a most beautiful insect,

exhibiting some gorgeous combination of colour.

The name I propose for this splendid insect is Papilio (Ornitho-

ptera) Victoria.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

Dec. 13, 1855.—Colonel Sabine, R.A., Treas. and V.P., in the Chair.

“«On the Structure and Development of the Cysticercus cellulose,

as found in the Pig.” By George Rainey, Esq.

The Cysticercus cellulose, in its mature state, consists of two

parts: one a small oval cyst, composed of a very thin membrane,

rendered uneven on its external surface by minute rounded projec-

tions, and containing in its interior, granular matter, particles of

oil, and a colourless fluid. This may be called its ventral portion.

The other is folded inwards, occupying the centre of the cyst just

described, but by pressure it may be made to protrude. This part

is sometimes called the neck. Its length varies very much in dif-

ferent Cysticerci, depending upon their age. It is hollow, having

strong membranous parietes, wrinkled transversely, and composed

both of circular and longitudinal fibres. The cavity has no visible

communication with that of the ventral portion. It contains a

Mr. Rainey on the Structure of the Cysticercus cellulose. 487

multitude of small oval laminated calcareous bodies, which, when

acted upon by acids, effervesce briskly, and become partially dis-

solved, leaving only a small residue of animal matter. When the

neck is protruded, the extremity farthest from the cyst is seen to

present an enlargement, sometimes called the head, on the free

surface of which there is a quadrangular area, occupied by

four circular disks and a ring of hooklets. Each angle contains a

disk, and the hooklets are placed in a circle around the centre of

this space. The suctorial disks are traversed each by a passage

taking rather a spiral course, and terminating in the cavity of the

neck. The membrane composing a disk presents two orders of

fibres, circular and radiating. The hooklets are generally twenty-

six in number, thirteen long and as many short, arranged alter-

nately a long and a short one. Each consists of a curved portion

like a bird’s claw, and a straight portion or handle; and at the

junction of these two parts there are tubercles, two in the short

hooklets, and only one in the long ones. The hooklets are crossed

by two zones of circular fibres. They are also connected by

radiating fibres, which occupy the spaces between each adjacent”

pair, like the interosseous muscles situated between the metacarpal

bones and phalanges. The hooklets are disposed like radii, with

their points turned outwards and the extremities of their handles

inwards, which, not meeting, circumscribe a circular space whose

centre corresponds to that of the quadrangular area before men-

tioned. At this part there is no perforation answering to an oral

orifice, but here the membrane is simply depressed so as to present

a conical hollow. By pressure upon the neck, this membrane can

be made to protrude in the form of a tongue-like process, to which

the handles of all the hooklets are connected, so that when this

part in the living animal is made to move, the handles of the hook-

lets will be drawn in with it, and their points carried from the

entozoon, and thus made to penetrate the part to which it attaches

itself. These entozoa are chiefly found in the cellular intervals

between the muscular fibres, contained in an adventitious cyst

formed by the condensation of the surrounding tissues. No more

than one entozoon is ever met with in one cyst.

Development of the Cysticercus cellulose.

The earliest appearance of the incipient stage of the Cysticercus

cellulose is a fusiform collection of small cells and molecules in the

substance of a primary muscular fasciculus, or immediately beneath

its sarcolemma. ‘These cells, in this condition of the entozoon,

have only an imperfect or partial covering; however, they soon

become completely enclosed in a well-defined membrane which is

at first homogeneous, but which afterwards sends out short,

slender, projecting fibres, resembling short hairs or cilia. ‘These

hair-like fibres, though resembling in some respects cilia, differ

from them in being much less sharply defined and less pointed ;

however, for convenience sake, I shall speak of them as cilia.

Their direction is remarkable. At either extremity of the fusiform

488 Royal Society :—

animal they are reflected backwards at a very acute angle, like the

barbs of a feather, their direction being of course opposite at the

two ends. ‘They become less and less inclined as they approach the

middle of the body, where they stand out at right angles to the sur-

face. ‘The apparatus of cilia-like processes above described is evi-

dently designed to give to the entozoon, whilst in this stage of its

existence, the power of penetrating between the ultimate muscular

fibrille, and thus to enable it to force its way from the interior of a

primary fasciculus into the spaces between the muscular fibres, This

will be the effect of the friction of the fibrille against the cilia, which

will allow of motion in one direction only. And as its two ends

must move in opposite directions, the cilia will also serve to aid the

entozoon in its development longitudinally. That such is their

office will be apparent on examining a sufficient number of speci-

mens; in some of which the primary fasciculi will be seen to have

been completely split up by these animals, But the correctness of

this inference is more strikingly proved by the influence which the

size and arrangement of the primary bundles of muscular fibres

have upon the form and dimensions of the entozoa. ‘Thus in the

muscular parietes of the heart, where the primary fasciculi are smaller,

and, from their frequent interlacing, shorter than in other parts, the

Cysticerci are, in this stage of their development, also very short and

of a different form to those found in other muscles, composed of

striped fibre, although in other respects perfectly similar; and, when

completely formed, those taken from the heart cannot be distinguished

from those formed in other muscles. The cells which have been

alluded to as forming the principal part of the Cysticercus thus far

developed, and contained in the investment first described, are all of

the same character, differing only in their form and size, according to

their age and situation. ‘Those situated about the centre, and form-

ing the chief part of its bulk, are collected together into rounded

masses, giving to many of the animalcules an obscurely annulose

appearance. ‘They are of an elliptical, or rather reniform figure.

‘This form, however, is not essential to these cells, but merely re-

sults from the circular shape of the masses into which they enter,

the convexity of each cell being a part of the outline of its

respective mass. ‘These cells contain minute granules, or rather

molecules, which are variously disposed in different cells, so as to.

present a variety of appearances, such as circular spaces, which

might be mistaken for nuclei, but which seem rather to be pro-

duced by a deficiency of the cell’s contents at these parts, than by

any distinct nucleus. The mode of formation of these cells must be

examined in the growing parts of the animal, and for this purpose its

extreme ends are best adapted. When one of these ends is about

to have an addition made to its length, the investing membrane

at this part becomes at first very thin, and then disappears. A

clear space is next seen, having in some specimens the form of the

part which is about to be added to the extremity of the entozoon ;

in others it has no defined limit. This space contains, in some

cases, nothing but extremely minute molecules, of different

Mr. Rainey on the Structure of the Cysticercus cellulose. 489

shapes; in others, these molecules are mixed with granules of

various sizes, which have every appearance of having been pro-

duced by the coalescence of the molecules; and lastly, with these

molecules and granules, there are in other examples very distinct

globular cells, of a bright aspect, looking more like nuclei than

perfect cells; these soon become flattened oval, and ultimately take

the elliptical form before described. All the time these changes are

taking place in the molecules and cells, the membrane has been in

progress of formation, so that when the molecules have disappeared,

and their place has become occupied by perfect cells, the end of the

animal is completed. The cilia are soon afterwards added. The

lateral growth of these animals takes place in the same manner: the

first indication is a separation of the cilia, which, it must be observed,

are larger at the sides of an entozoon than at the extreme ends;

and then a thinning of the membrane supporting them ; and, lastly,

the formation of globular cells, as before noticed. After the animals

have become of a considerable size, and forced their way from the

interior of the primary fasciculi into the cellular spaces between -

the larger muscular fibres, they still continue to grow, especially

in breadth; but they lose their cilia, and gradually acquire those

parts which have been described as belonging to the neck. The

first evidence of this addition is the appearance of inversion of the

middle part of the cyst, forming a small hollow, the sides of which

look as if thrown into folds containing granular matter, and the

bottom presents a circular space in which are granular particles of

various forms and sizes, but those in the centre are darker than the

rest. It is from these particles that the suctorial disks, the hook-

lets, and the first of the laminated bodies are about to be formed,

but as yet none of these parts are recognizable. At a stage a little

more advanced, this apparent inversion of the cyst has increased,

the neck has become longer, and the appearance of disks, hook-

lets, and laminated bodies is sufficiently distinct to be perfectly

recognizable. The process of development is particularly apparent in

the hooklets, and perhaps there is no other instance of the growth of

an animal tissue which presents such facilities for the examination

of the manner in which it is effected. First, because the part of

the entozoon on which these organs are formed, is sufficiently trans-

parent to admit of examination by the highest magnifying powers

without any previous dissection. Secondly, because the material

of which they are composed is so characteristic, and so dissimilar

to the surrounding parts, that it can be detected in the minutest

possible quantities. And, thirdly, as only a few of these hooklets

are in progress of development at one time, and as these are in all

stages of formation, every step in the progress of their growth can

be traced from the merest molecule to a perfect hooklet. This is

important in reference to the general theory of development, as it

furnishes an example of the formation of a complete set of organs,

on a plan more simple, and at variance with the cell-theory of

Schwann and others. Before one of these hooklets takes on a

recognizable form, it exists as a group of exceedingly refractive

490 Royal Society :—

particles, all apparently of the same composition, and of a more or

less globular form, but of very different sizes, some being so minute

as scarcely to be visible by one-eighth of an inch lens, others

being almost as large as the handle of a perfect hooklet, while

the rest are of all dimensions between these extremes. The next

condition of a hooklet is the apparent fusion or coalescence of

some of these particles into the hocked part of the organ. Then

the handle and tubercles are added, these having been previously

formed by the fusion of the smaller particles, and these latter by

the coalescence of the minutest and the minuter ones. Before

the several parts are perfectly consolidated, their points of junction

can be distinguished, and in other groups the fragments corre-

sponding to those recently united can be recognized. Directly a

hooklet is found, it is of its full dimension; and some of its parts

are even larger and more clumsy-looking than in older hooklets.

The substance of the particles entering into these organs, after

they are once formed, undergoes no change in its microscopical

characters, but is the same after as before their union. It is im-

possible to single out any one particle from the rest, which can be

taken for the nucleus of a cell, or for what physiologists would call

a nucleated cell; and thus there is nothing which indicates that

these organs have been formed by transformation of previously ex-

isting cells, but, on the contrary, there is every appearance that

their formation is due to the simple coalescence of homogeneous

molecules.

Up to the present point, the facts which I have stated are so

obvious, that their accuracy will, I think, not be questioned; also

the interpretation of them is not only that which appears to

me the most natural, but is almost self-evident. ‘There remain,

however, some considerations of a more theoretical kind, though

not of less importance. It will be asked, how the entozoon, in its

earliest condition, such as I have described it, finds access to the

interior of a primary fasciculus. Before attempting to answer this

question, I must observe that my description commences from a

condition of this entuzoon so complete, that no one, on examining

it in this state with the microscope, will deny its perfect similarity

to those of the higher form. But there are other links in the chain

which I must now consider, and which so far have been omitted

only because I wished to keep that which is certain distinct from

that which is probable. Before the cells and molecules already

described accumulate in sufficient quantity to present the undoubted

character above mentioned, they are found aggregated in smaller

groups, and even occurring individually in all the primary fasciculi

of the diseased muscle; their quantity, and the size and form of

these groups, present the greatest possible irregularity in the dif-

ferent fasciculi. In some the molecular deposit looks like an early

stage of fatty degeneration, but it has characters very different ;

one is the shape of the molecules, which resemble in all respects

those in the growing ends of an entozoon; and another is, their

situation, which seems to be between the primary fibrille, tending

Mr. Rainey on the Structure of the Cysticercus cellulose. 491

to separate them longitudinally; however that may be, it is an

abnormal condition, and always coexistent with the higher forms of

the Cysticercus ; and as the entozoon, as I have first described it,

could not possibly have taken on that form all at once, these groups

of molecules must therefore be looked upon as its antecedent stage,

or as portions of Cysticerci in progress of development. But I also

find in the specimens of muscle infested with these entozoa, many

of the capillaries and smaller blood-vessels filled with organic mole-

cules, which, so far as I am able to judge from the comparison of

such extremely minute bodies, seem to resemble those molecules

which are found in the primary fasciculi. ‘The vessels filled with

these molecules have their coats so thin as to be inappreciable, and

some of the capillaries appear to be partially destroyed, and their

molecular contents diffused among the sarcous elements. As this

is an abnormal condition of the contents of these vessels, as well as

of their coats, and, so far as my experience goes, is not found ex-

cepting in conjunction with the earliest stages of the Cysticerci, I

am inclined to believe that the molecules in question are the same

as those in the primary fasciculi, and that it is by their coalescence

in these fasciculi that the formation-cells of the Cysticerci are

formed.

Addendum, Dec. 6.—After an entozoon has left the interior of a

primary fasciculus, and arrived at the space between the muscular

fibres, it loses its ciliated investment, and increases in breadth. Its

margin now seems to be formed entirely by the convexities of

the globular masses of cells of which its body appears to be made

up, causing it to present a crenate form similar to that of the ven-

tral portion of the perfect animalcule, with this difference only,

that these cells are compressed. ‘The next change which is visible

is the formation of folds, which become more perceptible as the

animal increases in breadth, and which remain in the perfect

entozoon so long as it is confined to a small space, but dis-

appear when it gets to the space between the surface of a muscle

and the fascia covering it. The unfolding in this last situation

seems to be produced by the imbibition of fluid, and the consequent

distension of the ventral part. These more advanced stages of the

worm-form are best found in those specimens of diseased muscle

in which the perfectly developed Cysticerci abound. Their number

in proportion to that of the perfect animalcules varies considerably

in different specimens.

I have always succeeded in finding some of those of the worm-

form along with the perfectly developed ones; and in some cases

there are as many of one kind as the other. After they have

acquired a certain breadth—about one-twelfth, or the one-eighth of

an inch,—the central part of the cyst appears to be drawn inwards,

forming a hollow; at the bottom of which, the granular material

is deposited from which the suckers, hooklets, and calcareous

granules are formed, as above described.

492 Miscellaneous.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Observations on the Structure of the Retina in certain Animals.

By H. Miurer.

I wave shown in my work upon the Retina, that this part furnishes

microscopic characters which may be employed in the systematic

distribution of vertebrated animals, to such an extent, that it is often

possible to determine the class, the order, and even ‘the irre, of an

animal from a small fragment of its retina.

In general the more marked the systematic characters are in the

different divisions of a class of Vertebrata, the more do we observe

variations in the microscopic characters of the retina. The retina of

the Sturgeon presents one of the most remarkable examples of this.

In a recent examination I found that the layer of batons in this fish

is constituted in accordance with a type foreign to the other Fishes, a

type which occurs moreover in the class of Birds. There are two

elements, the cones and the batons. The latter are truncated ex-

ternally, whilst the internal part passes into a conical point. The

fatty drops, which have been mentioned by other observers, do not

belong to the batons but to the cones, which I had formerly suspected,

aud as may be seen in my work above referred to. The cones are com-

posed of an internal thicker, and an external thinner part, as in Birds.

At the extremity of the former part is the fatty drop, which, except

in its less brilliant colour, exactly resembles those which are found in

the cones of Birds. We do not at present know any other Fish, of

which the retina exhibits this arrangement of cones and batons,

exactly similar to that of Birds. But on the one hand it is very re-

markable that this type of the retina, proper to Birds, also occurs in

certain Reptiles, namely the Tortoises, which, themselves, in this

respect differ widely from the other sections of the Reptiles. On the

other hand, I may remark, that, amongst Fishes, it is exactly in the

orders which also possess the most peculiar characters, that we find the

most distinct variations in the elements of the retina. In the Sturgeons

the layer of cones and batons is constituted in accordance with the

type of Birds; in the Cyclostoma, as appears from my previous re-

searches, there are only simple cones, without batons; in the Pla-

giostoma, on the contrary, I have only found batons and no cones.

In the class of Reptiles, we also find very important differences between

the Batrachia, the Sauria, and the Tortoises, whilst in the Birds and

Mammalia there is a greater uniformity in the general type of the

elements referred to, and only slighter modifications.

Another remarkable point is the presence of nervous fibres with

double outlines in the retina in certain animals. It is well known

that in the eye of the Rabbit there is a beautiful white radiation

especially on the two sides of the entrance of the optic nerve, and

many observers have remarked, that fibres are sometimes found else-

where which contain a kind of medulla. But, besides the Rabbits,

there are many animals in which the optic fibres present a medulla

with dark outlines, in a very marked degree.

I have found that in the Sturgeon, the optic fibres which extend

Miscellaneous. 493

in a very elegant manner in the form of a double comb, possess very

strong outlines in a great part of the retina. The retina of the

Plagiostoma also, both Sharks and Rays, contains fibres of a breadth

of as much as 0°01 mill., which exhibit all the characters of the

varicose fibres with double outlines which occur in the nervous centres.

Lastly, I have observed that in the eyes of many Dogs, the optic

nerve is still white at its entrance into the eye, and that it is only in

the retina that the nervous fibres become pale and transparent. But

the change takes place very soon after the entrance of the optic nerve,

whilst in the fishes just mentioned, the fibres with double outlines

extend over a great part of the retina, and only pass by degrees

to the aspect of the pale fibres. In a physiological point of

view it is remarkable that in the Fishes of which I am speaking,

notwithstanding the double outlines of the nervous fibres, the retina

appears to be tolerably transparent during life, whilst in the Rabbits

and Dogs it is opaque and white, in the whole extent of the fibres

with double outlines. In the former case the influence upon the

sight does not appear to be important, but in the latter the perception

of light must be hindered or disturbed as far as this peculiarity of*

the fibres extends ; and the ophthalmoscopic effect of the bottom of

the eye, and especially of the entrance of the optic nerve, must present

remarkable modifications in all the animals in which a state similar

to that which has long been known in the Rabbit exists.— Comptes

Rendus, Oct. 20, 1856, p. 743.

Remarks on Nika edulis, Risso. By Wriit~t1am THompson.

The possession of a healthy specimen of Nika edulis has enabled

me to offer the following remarks, which, I trust, may add some-

thing new to what is already known of this species.

The first specimen I obtained by dredging on the 2nd July, 1853.

I find by my notes, which were made at the time, that it was a

female, and in spawn; the ova were darkish green, the animal itself

was of a cream colour, and spotted with red dots; the spots were

of different sizes, perfectly round, and rather thickly and regularly

placed. This specimen was dead before I examined it, and this will

account for the difference of colour as contrasted with the specimen,

the more immediate subject of the present paper. I had previously

obtained one specimen, and a third specimen, also in spawn, was

brought to me on the 20th July, 1855; the ova were bright green,

and the animal of a cream colour, ‘This specimen was dead when

examined.

The subject of the present paper was brought to me alive by my

dredger on the 21st February in this year, and lived three weeks.

It was dredged in Weymouth Bay, near the mouth of the harbour.

The colour in this living specimen was very different from that of

the dead specimens I had previously obtained. When first brought to

me, the whole animal was a light greenish-drab, irregularly and thinly

sprinkled with pure white stars; the carapace and covering of the

abdomen were alike transparent, and the intestines could be easily

494 Miscellaneous.

seen beneath. I could also detect the breathing apparatus placed on’

each side at the back of the mouth; the movement was similar to

that of a long rope when gently waved at oneend. After a few days’

confinement it changed colour : five or six broadish bands of a lovely

rose colour appeared, the bands of colour being restricted to the back

portion of each segment of the body; the tail also changed to the

same rosy hue, but in the course of two or three days the animal again

assumed its original colour. I have noticed this change of colour in

many of the Palemonide and Crangonida, and I believe it to arise

from the transparency of the cuticle enabling any change in the body

itself to be seen through it, and that the change of colouring of the

body is occasioned by fear or some instinct. In all the specimens of

Nika I have obtained the shell is soft as in a new-moulted Prawn, and

in piercing them with a fine pin for preserving, the shell bends before

it. Is this of any value as a generic character? M. Milne-Edwards

says they reseinble Athanas ‘in possessing but a small rostrum ;”

they also resemble them in their mode of locomotion, as they then

carry the external pedipalps and first pair of feet extended before

them in a line with their body; their movements are also slow and

deliberate, and they appear to progress by walking and not by

swimming ; when alarmed they shoot backwards by striking forward

with their tail, as is the habit of all the long-tailed Crustaceans.

I now proceed to lay before you the information I have obtained

as to its habits.

I may assert that Nika is essentially a burrowing genus. I was

not prepared to find it so, as I considered its slender limbs and its

prominent eyes but ill-adapted for the purpose ; however, we live

and learn, and I have learned that practice is far better than theory ;

had I relied on the latter I should have insisted that Nika edulis was

not a burrower.

In accordance with a plan which I have formed of attempting to

study the habits of any of our rarer marine animals I may have the

good fortune to meet with, I placed my prisoner in a vase with a

few weeds and some pebbles, that being the nature of the ground on

which it was dredged; I left it in this vessel for two days, and found

out it was not at home, and, in fact, that a pebbly bottom was not

its choice. I therefore removed it to a large earthenware pan in

which I had previously placed a few weeds, having filled it also to

the depth of three inches with coarse gravel; I then left it for an

hour, and on examining the vessel I could not find my friend; I

searched on the table, thinking it might have thrown itself out, but

it was without success ; I turned over the stones and weeds, and with

the like result. I then commenced turning over the gravel, and at

last found that Nika edulis was a burrowing Crustacean. I accord-

ingly transferred it for facility of observation to a vase, and placing

in it the same material, namely, the coarse gravel and weeds, in this

gravel it buried itself three several times. Burrowing in this loose

material was evidently a difficult matter; it required great patience

and perseverance to overcome the difficulty occasioned by the loose

gravel constantly falling in on the excavator: it took the animal ten

Miscellaneous. 495

minutes to burrow to about the depth of three parts of its length.

I afterwards transferred it to a vase with sand to the depth of three

or four inches at the bottom; in this it quickly disappeared, three

minutes sufficing to completely cover itself. In this vase it was that

I made the following observations on it.

Its mode of mining is extraordinary: lying at the bottom of the

vase, it commenced proceedings by probing the sand around with its

third pair of feet, and inserting them to some depth in it; when it

found a spot suited for the purpose, that is, free from any large

stones, it at once commenced excavating. These operations were

earried out by the external pedipalps, which are very long and

strong, and also by the first, third and fourth pairs of legs; the

second pair of legs, as may be supposed, are for this purpose per-

fectly useless: they are as much as possible placed out of the way,

being bent up snugly with the hand turned backwards: the only

motion I could detect was a nervous action in the moveable finger,

constantly attempting to clutch objects, but not seizing anything.

The fifth pair of feet have a simple though useful office assigned

them: it is to support the body im the proper position until the

burrowing has progressed sufficiently to enable the burrower to do

without their support ; they are then immediately called into more

active employment, and assist in the work of excavation. The spot

for burrowing having been selected, the little animal steadies its

body by means of its fifth pair of legs, and this allows the greatest

freedom of action to the body. The pedipalps perform a prominent

part in the burrowing; the nail on the last joint is curved slightly

forward, and the advantage of this is clearly seen, as in digging, the

pedipalps are forced into the sand or shingle, and are thus forced

forward and outwards, and they prevent the side of the burrow from

falling in ; the third and fourth pairs of feet are in constant motion,

probing the sand and loosening it, thus lightening the labour for the

pedipalps ; all these movements take place very regularly and at the

same time. A small hollow having been made, the animal raises its

body by means of its fifth pair of legs to nearly a right angle with

the bottom; its eyes, which are very large and carried at right angles

with the body, are thus suddenly thrown forward with a spring in a

line with the rostrum, and the hollow is surveyed; should it not be

of a sufficient depth the body is again lowered and the burrowing

continues, the eyes resuming their original position ; when the hole

is sufficiently deepened, the eyes are again brought forward, the

antennze are thrown back in a line with the body, and the animal

forces its head in the hole it has made; this is facilitated by the

body being gradually raised by means of the fifth pair of legs ; the

head being inserted, the burrowing continues with increased energy,

and the animal assumes the position as in photograph No. 2; this

view shows the sand which has been thrown up accumulated in a

heap under the body.

I have occasionally found it continue in this position, but gene-

rally it burrows perpendicularly, until only the tips of the antennz

are visible.

496 Miscellaneous.

I placed my captive in a glass vase, and his having selected the side

of the glass for burrowing (probably from the glass forming one firm

side to the work), enabled me to watch every movement; the sand

appeared to be passed to the mouth of the hole by the legs and false

legs, when it filled round the body and filled in as the animal passed

downwards. The antennz are delicately sensitive. I believe this

sensitiveness depends on the sense of touch: the slightest contact

with them sets the animal in motion (and this when it is buried

some depth), using every exertion to burrow deeper. It is evidently-

a night-feeding genus, as it remained buried and inactive during the

day, but the state of the sand in the tank in the morning proved

that it had not been idle during the night.

From these facts I am justified in stating that Nika edulis is a

burrowing species (if not of a burrowing genus), and that its bur-

rowing is only by day to hide itself from its enemies, and not to

procure food.

The description I have given of the colouring of this species will

be found to be different from that given by Risso, as stated by Mr.

Milne-Edwards. I should have great diffidence in differing from

these eminent naturalists had I not imagined that their descriptions

might have been taken from cabinet specimens. Had I waited to

describe my specimen until after its death, I must have described it

as it now is, namely, flesh-red; I find all the thinner-shelled Crus-

tacea change more or less of a flesh-red, with the exception of the

Crangonide.—Proc. Zool. Soc., April 22, 1856.

NAUCRATES DUCTOR.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Falmouth, November 1, 1856.

GENTLEMEN,—A shoal of the Naucrates ductor, Cuy., made its

appearance in shallow water, Custom House Pier, on Friday afternoon,

Oct. 31, 1856, and more than three dozen of them were caught in

nets, baskets, &c., by persons on the beach. I have procured species

of this interesting fish every year during my residence in this neigh-

bourhood.

I am, Gentlemen, yours truly,

W. P. Cocks.

On Peculiar and Quasi-spontaneous Movements of the Plasmatic

Cells of certain Animals. By Prof. KOLuikER,

I have just observed at Nice, upon a fine animal of the family of

the compound Ascidians, which according to M. Milne-Edwards has

not yet been described, a very peculiar tact, namely, movements of

the cells which occur in great number in the gelatinous substance

common to the whole bunch and formed of cellulose. These cells,

which are round or stellate and of very various forms, have, in the

living animal, a slow, but easily perceptible movement, consisting in

a constant change of form, so that the same cell, which was at one

time round, becomes stellate or fusiform in different degrees, by the

Miscellaneous. 497

formation of two or several prolongations, often very long and even

branched, returning subsequently to the round form which it had at

the commencement. This movement, which is constantly observed

in all these cells, although slow, is nevertheless pretty strong, and I

have even several times observed cells which changed their position

by the formation of processes, the whole presenting a considerable

resemblance to the movement of an Actinophrys or Ameba. As in

these animals, the contents of the cells also took part in the move-

ment, and it was easy to see that these granulations passed sometimes

into the processes, returning afterwards into the body of the cells, so

that the change of form of the cells is accompanied by a movement

of all the parts of which they consist, which may probably be inti-

mately connected with the chemical and vital phenomena which are

accomplished in these cells as well as in all the others.

Having observed these movements, it occurred to me that it was

possible that many stellate cells exhibited similar movements, espe-

cially as something of the same kind has already been seen in the

pigmentary cells of the Frog, and I set myself to examine the plasmatic¢

cells or corpuscles of the conjunctive tissue. As these observations

were made during the last days of my stay at-Nice, I cannot give

them the extent which I desired; however, I was fortunate enough

to see that the plasmatic cells of the gelatinous conjunctive tissue of

the head of the Torpedo, and the stellate cells of the gelatinous sub-

stance of the body of Cassiopeia borbonica, also exhibit movements

similar to those which I have just described, and I do not doubt that

it will be found that this phenomenon has a considerable extent,

and even some physiological importance.—Comptes Rendus, Oct. 27,

1856, p. 794.

Description of a New Species of Actinia from the Devonshire Coast.

By E. W. H. Hotpsworrs.

When contracted, the body forms a rounded button abont ¢ of an

inch in diameter, but in full expansion it is generally elongated to

the extent of 24 inches, and terminates in a somewhat cup-shaped

disk about 12 inch wide, and having its extended edges frequently

thrown into irregular festoons. The tentacula, about 150 in number,

are arranged in four or five series, as in most of the group to which

this species belongs; the first row contains twenty-five arms, about

half the length of the diameter of the disk, and moderately stout ;

the others gradually diminish in size as they proceed outwards, their

numbers at the same time increasing ; but the irregular manner in

which they are placed renders it difficult to enumerate the contents,

or to determine the limits of any oue of the series. The disk is of a

uniform olive-brown without any superficial markings,—the appear-

ance of radiating lines, sometimes visible, being only the upper edges

of the internal septa showing through the transparent skin ; the

mouth opens transversely, and displays a regular crenation of its

pink lining membrane. ‘The tentacula are of a reddish purple, and

entirely destitute of rings or other marking ; they present a remark-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xviii.

498 Meteorological Observations.

able contrast to the body of the animal, which at its upper part is of

a dark orange colour, gradually assuming a paler tint towards the

base ; numerous white sucking-pores are disposed over the upper

surface, and afford points of attachment to surrounding substances,

when required to conceal the body; they also give exit to the con-

voluted filaments, which are abundantly thrown out from them and

the mouth, when the animal is irritated. Its natural haunts appear

to be narrow crevices of rocks, into which it can retire when alarmed,

and I was prevented obtaining many specimens by their having

chosen such inaccessible hollows for their residence. Four or five

examples were, however, procured at extreme low-water mark, from

the very productive rocks outside Dartmouth harbour, and, excepting

in size, presented no points of difference. I propose for this species

the name of vinosa.—Proc. Zool. Soc., June 10, 1856.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR oct. 1856.

Chiswick.—October 1. Exceedingly fine. 2. Cloudy. 3. Cloudy and fine: rain.

4. Rain: cloudy: rain. 5. Rain: cloudy: fine: lightning at night. 6. Foggy:

rain: cloudy. 7. Hazy and drizzly: rain at night. 8. Heavy rain: densely over-

cast. 9. Overcast. 10. Hazy: fine. 11. Heavy rain: uniform haze: slight rain

at night. 12. Foggy: uniform haze. 13. Dense fog: very fine: cloudy. 14.

Foggy : overcast : fine. 15. Rain. 16. Overcast: showery. 17. Fine: overcast:

hazy. 18. Very fine. 19. Dense fog: very fine. 20. Foggy: very fine. 21.

Foggy: exceedingly fine. 22. Very dense fog: exceedingly fine. 23. Foggy:

very fine. 24. Fine. 25. Foggy: heavy clouds: fine. 26. Hoar-frost: hazy:

very fine. 27. Frosty: haze: fine. 28, 29. Very dense fog. 30. Hazy clouds:

overcast : fine. 31. Uniform haze: rain: cloudy.

Mean temperature of the month ..........sssesecssssseveencceece 51°28

Mean temperature of Oct. 1855 —.......0..00se0sscdeasusscenten 50 +28

Mean temperature of Oct. for the last thirty years PEPE TE 50 -00

Average amount of rain)in Oct, + ..-s0ns00+..00:cvamsnuvesvpenseey 2°802 inches.

Boston.—Oct. 1,2. Fine. 3. Fine: rainr.m. 4. Raina.M.andp.m. 5. Cloudy.

6. Fine. 7,8. Rain a.M.andp.m. 9—12. Cloudy: rain a.M.andp.m. 13.

Cloudy. 14. Fine. 15. Fine: rain A.M. and p.m. 16. Cloudy: rainp.m. 17.

Fine. 18. Cloudy. 19. Fine. 20,21. Cloudy. 22, 23. Foggy. 24. Fine.

25—28. Cloudy. 29. Foggy. 30,31. Cloudy: rain a.m.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Oct. 1. Bright, fine a.m.: cloudy, fine p.m. 2.

Bright, fine a.m.: drops p.m. 3. Hazy a.m.: drops p.m. 4. Hazy a.m.: drops,

showers p.M. 5. Showers a.m.: clear, aurorap.M. 6. Clear, fine, hoar-frost a.m. :

clear, aurora p.M. 7. Clear, fine, hoar-frost a.m.: cloudy p.m. 8. Bright a.m.:

cloudy p.m. 9. Cloudy, fine a.m.: clear p.m. 10. Cloudy, fine a.m. and p.m.

11. Bright, hazy a.m.: cloudy p.m ‘12. Clear, fine a.m. and p.m. 13. Bright,

fine a.m.: cloudy p.m. 14. Damp a.m.: clearp.m. 15. Damp a.M.: cloudy P.M.

16. Showers a.m. : drizzlep.m. 17. Cloudy a.m. : rain, clear p.m. 18. Brig ht A.M. :

drizzle p.m. 19. Bright, fine a.m.: drizzle p.m. 20. Bright, fine A.M.: clear,

aurora P.M. 21. Fog a.m.: cloudy p.m. 22. Cloudy, fine A.M.: showers P.M.

23. Clear, fine a.m.: clear, aurorap.M. 24. Clear, frost, fine a.M.: clear, aurora

P.M. 25. Dampa.M.:rainr.M. 26. Drizzle a.m.: dampp.M. 27. Drizzle a.m.

and p.m. 28. Damp a.m.: cloudy p.m. 29. Hazy, fine a.m.: clear p.m. 30.

Cloudy, fine a.m.: cloudy p.m. 31. Cloudy, fine a.m.: clear, fine p.m.

Mean temperature of Oct. for previous twenty-nine years ... 47757

Mean temperature of this month ......... seed yeas ssebtte aon 48 ‘84

Mean temperature of Oct.,1855° :% 5 J.46-3.sc8 Uns apy dassiabooana 45 ‘72

Average quantity of rain in Oct. for previous sixteen years ... 5°09 inches.

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“UIBY “PUTA, *‘aJOMIOMIOY,T, “a OMLOIV ET

INDEX to VOL. XVIII.

AcHatTina, new species of, 96,434. Benson, W. H., on Clausilia Mortil-

Actinia, new British species of, 346,

497.

Agassiz, Prof., on the Cumz, 428.

Alder, J., on some new genera and

species of British hydroid Zoo-

phytes, 353, 439.

Algz, on the sexuality of the, 81, 181.

Alternation of generations, on the,

368.

Ammocetes, on the development of,

298.

Amphioxus lanceolatus, on the habits

of, 350.

Anguillulz of mildewed wheat, on the

vitality of the, 268.

Animals, on peculiar movements of

the plasmatic cells in certain, 496.

Annelides, on the development of the

branchiferous, 105.

Anthus, new species of, 60.

Arenicola piscatorum, on the develop-

ment of, 105.

Aromochelys, new species of, 266.

Arthoniz, descriptions of new British,

330.

Assiminia, observations on the genus,

419.

Atlas, on the anatomy of the genus,

101.

Babington’s, C.C., Manual of British

Botany, reviewed, 163.

Bailey, Prof. J. W., on the non-ex-

istence of polarizing silica in the

organic kingdoms, 78; on a new

mode of cleaning diatomaceous de-

posits, 189, 190; on the origin of

nsand, and its formation in

the oceans of the present epoch,

425.

Balfour, Prof., on the flora of the

Cumbrae Islands, 67.

Bate, C.S., on the British Diastylide,

187.

leti, 74, 424; on new terrestrial

shells from Ceylon, with a general

list of the species inhabiting that

island, 94; on new Indian and

Burmese Helices and Cyclosto-

macea, 249; on some new land-

shells from the Cape, 433.

Birds, new, 56, 57, 60, 173, 186,

260, 270, 343, 350, 418, 430, 485 ;

of the Himalaya, on the

phical distribution of the, 166;

attempts at a natural arrangement

of, 193 ; on the affinities and limits

of the scansorial, 207 ; rare British,

430.

Books, new :—Sowerby’s Ferns of

Great Britain and Fern-Allies, 54;

Johnson’s British Poisonous Plants,

ib.; Phillips’s Manual of Geology,

159; Gosse’s Tenby, 161; Babing-

ton’s Manual of British Botany,

163; Harvey’s Trees and their

Nature, 165; Kirby and Spence’s

Introduction | to Entomology, 258 ;

Chanter’s Ferny Combes, ” 959;

Bromfield’s Flora Vectensis, 473;

Nyman’s Sylloge Flore Europee,

475

Botanical Society of Edi

ceedings of the, 66, 181, 337.

Braun, Prof. A., on the vi in-

dividual in its relation to species

363.

Buarremon, new species of, 350.

Bucco, new species of, 260.

Bulimus, new species ‘of, 96, 433.

Burgess, Lieut., on the nests and

of the birds of Western

175.

Busk, G.,on Polyzoa collected on tk

coast of Norway and Finmar)

32.

Callitriche hamulata, note on, 429.

INDEX.

Calcenas, new species of, 484.

Campanularia, new British species of,

358.

Cardium exiguum, on the siphons

and byssus of, 257.

Carpenter, Dr., on the Foraminifera,

334

Carter, H. J., on the freshwater Infu-

soria of the Island of Bombay, 115,

221.

Catops, monograph of the genus, I,

133, 302, 391, 457.

Catopsimorphus, description of the

- *new genus, 462.

Catoptrichus, description of the new

genus, 461.

Caitle, aboriginal, of Britain, on the,

Cellepora, on some species of, 32.

Cell-formation, on vegetable. 42.

Cetoniade, descriptions of new, 481.

Ceylonese shells, list of, 94.

Chameza, new species of, 58.

Chelodina, new species of, 267.

Choleva, on the species of, 1.

Clausilia Mortilleti, observations on,

74, 185, 424.

Clinteria, new species of, 482.

Cocks, W. P., on Lernza branchialis,

186; on Amphioxus lanceolatus,

350; on the occurrence of some

rare British birds, 480; on the oc-

eurrence of Naucrates ductor, 496.

Cohn, Dr. F., on the development

and propagation of Sphzroplea an-

nulina, 81; on the sexuality of the

Alge, 181

Coleoptera, descriptions of new, 1,

133, 302, 457, 475.

Conchology of France, contributions

to the, 471.

Corucia, characters of the new genus,

346.

Crisp, Dr. E., on some points relating

to the anatomy of Thylacinus and

Lycaon, 177.

‘Cubina, new species of, 270.

Cume, observations on the, 428.

Cyclas lacustris, note on, 74.

Cyclophorus, new species of, 94.

Cysticercus cellulose, on the strue-

ture and development of, 486.

Davaine, M., on the vitality of the

~ Anguillule of mildewed wheat, 268.

Defrancia, on some species of, 35.

Diastylide, on the British, 187.

501

Diatomacew, on the siliceous spo-

rangial sheath of the, 75.

Diatomaceous deposits, new mode of

cleaning, 189.

Dolphin, on a new species of, 157.

Dubusia, new species of, 418.

Dysithamnus, new species of, 59.

Edwardsia, new British species of, 219.

Edwardsia vestita, note on, 73.

Emberiza, new species of, 343.

Emyda, new species of, 268.

Eschara, new species of, 33.

Eudendrium, new British species of,

354.

Eugenia, description of the genus,

=-{V.

Fibrous substances of India, on the,

66.

Flora of the Cumbrae Islands, on the,

67; of the Atlantic Islands, on the,

183.

Foraminifera, researches on the, 334.

Forests of Pegu, on the state of the,

66.

Formicivora, new species of, 58.

Gosse, P. H., on the Edwardsia ves-

tita of Forbes, 73 ; on a new British

species of Edwardsia, 219; on the

siphons and byssus of Cardium

exiguum, 257; on the dicecious cha-

racter of the Rotifera, 333 ; Tenby,

reviewed, 162. f

Gould, J., on a new species of Prion,

56; on new species of birds, 173 ;

on a new genus of Trochilide, 270.

Grallaria, new species of, 57.

Grammaria, new British species of,

361.

Gray, Dr. J. E., on a new British

species of Spherium, 25; on a new

species of Dolphin, 157; on some

new species of freshwater Tortoises,

263; ona new species of nocturnal

Lizard, 270; on a new genus of

Lizards, 345; on a new subgenus of

Helicinade, 414; on the genus

Assiminia, 419; on the abnormal

operculum of Polydonta elegans,

468.

Gray, G. R., on a new species of

Pigeon, 484; on a new species of

Lepidopterous insect, 486.

Greensand, on the origin of, 425,

Griffith, Dr. J. W., on the siliceous

sporangial sheath of the Diato-

mace, 75.

502

Halia preetenuis, observations on, 469.

Hamilton’s, Dr. F., Account of the

Kingdom of Nepal, on the plants

mentioned in, 404, 442.

Hapata, description of the subgenus,

414.

Harvey’s, Dr. A., Trees and their

Nature, reviewed, 165.

Heer, O., on the probable origin of

the organized beings now living in

the Azores, Madeira, and the Ca-

naries, 183.

Helicinade, on a new subgenus of,

414.

Helix, new species of, 96, 249, 436.

Helix Cantiana, note on, 187.

Henfrey, Prof., on vegetable cell-

formation, 42; on recent disco-

veries in vegetable embryogeny,

217.

Heterocnemis, new species of, 186.

Hincks, Rev. T., on Reticularia im-

mersa and Halia preetenuis, 469.

Hodgson, B. H., on the geographical

distribution of the mammalia and

birds of the Himalaya, 166.

Holdsworth, E. W. H., on new species

of Actinia, 346, 497.

Hornera, on some species of, 34.

Huxley, T. H., on the method of pa-

leontology, 43.

Hydrocena, new species of, 439.

Hypocephalus, observations on the

genus, 477.

Idmonea, on some species of, 34.

Infusoria, on the organization of, 115,

221 ; contributions to the anatomy

of the, 319.

Insects, descriptions of new, 1, 133,

302, 457, 475.

Janella, observations on the genus, 41.

Jeffreys, J. G., on Cyclas lacustris, 74;

on Clausilia plicatula and C. Mor-

tilleti, 185; on Scissurella, 188;

on rare shells from the coast of

France, 471.

Johnson’s, C., British

Plants, noticed, 54.

Kinosternon, new species of, 265.

Kolliker, Prof., on peculiar move-

ments of the plasmatic cells of

certain animals, 496.

Lamiadz, descriptions of new, 479.

Lampreys, on the development of the,

298.

Laomedea, new species of, 440.

Poisonous

INDEX.

Legriocinelus, note on the genus, 341.

Leighton, Rey. W. A., on the British

mbilicaria, 273; on new British

Arthoniz, 330.

Leptopoma, new species of, 95.

Lerna branchialis, note on, 186.

Lichens, new habitats for rare British,

182; descriptions of British, 273,

330.

Lieberkuhn, N., on the anatomy of

the Infusoria, 319.

Linota, new species of, 345.

Lonsdale, W., on Helix Cantiana, 187.

Lowe, J., on an abnormality in the

flowers of Salix Andersoniana, 254.

Lycaon pictus, on some points relating

to the anatomy of, 177.

M‘Clelland, Dr., on the forests of

Pegu, 66.

Macdonald, J. D., on a bitentaculate

slug found at Aneiteum, 38; on

the anatomy of the genus Atlas,

101.

Madden, Lieut.-Col., on Nepalese

plants, 404, 442.

Malacoptila, new species of, 263.

Mammalia of the Himalaya, on the

geographical distribution of the,

166.

Merula, new species of, 174.

Meteorological observations, 79, 191,

271, 351, 431, 498.

Monasa, new species of, 262.

Moore, F., on some new species of

birds, 343 ; on two new species of

Orthotomus, 430.

Miiller, A., on the development of

the Lampreys, 298.

Miller, H., on the structure of the

retina in certain animals, 492.

Murray, A., on the genus Catops, 1,

133, 302, 391, 457.

Naucrates ductor, note on the occur-

rence of, 496.

Nemosia, new species of, 60.

Nepalese plants, notes on, 404, 442.

Nesocichla, new species of, 174.

Nika edulis, remarks on, 493,

Operculum, observations on an ab-

normal form of, 468.

Ophiocoma rosula, on the young state

of, 387.

Ophryoglena, on the anatomy of, 319.

Orang-utan, on the habits of the, 26.

Orthotomus, new species of, 430,

Otocorys, new species of, 61, 343.

INDEX.

en, Prof., on the ruminant qua-

drupeds and the aboriginal cattle

of Britain, 61 ; ona fossil cranium

of the Musk-buffalo from the gravel

at Maidenhead, 188.

alzeontology, on the method of, 43.

-Panopza Aldrovandi, observations on,

BS 415:

Papilio, new species of, 426.

Peach, C. W., on a curious metamor-

phosis in a polype-like animal, 99.

Petromyzon, on the development of,

298.

hillips’s, J., Manual of Geology, re-

viewed, 159.

lants from Nepal, on some, 404,

442.

latycercus, new species of, 175.

Polydonta elegans, on an abnormal

operculum of, 468.

Polythalamia, observations on, 426.

Polyzoa, descriptions of new, 32.

Prion, new species of, 56.

rionidz, descriptions of new, 476.

Propasser, new species of, 344.

salidocoptus, new species of, 479.

Psalidognathus, remarks on the ge-

nus, 477.

Pupa, new species of, 435.

Pyriglena, new species of, 59, 60.

Quadrupeds, rumimant, on the, 61.

Rainey, G., on the structure and de-

velopment of Cysticercus cellulose,

486.

Reticularia immersa, observations on,

469.

etina, on the structure of, in certain

animals, 492.

otifera, on the dicecious character of

the, 333.

Royal Institution, proceedings of the,

61.

oyal Society, proceedings of the,

333, 486.

Salix Andersoniana, on an abnor-

mality in the flowers of, 254.

Scherzer and Wagner, MM., on the

vegetation of Central America, 76.

Schismope, on the new genus, 36, 188.

Schizorrhina, new species of, 483.

Schultze, Dr. M., on the development

of Arenicola piscatorum, 105.

Scissurella, on the genus, 36, 188.

Sclater, P. L., on new species of Ant-

Thrushes, 57; on new species of

birds from Santa Fé di Bogota, 60 ;

503

on new species of birds, 186, 260,

418; onthe genus Legriocinclus,

341; on a new species of Buarre-

mon, 350.

Sertularia, new British species of, 356.

Shells, new, 25, 94, 156, 249, 433.

Silica, on the non-existence of polar-.

izing, in the organic kingdoms, 78.

Skenea, on a new British species of,

156.

Slug, on the external characters and

internal anatomy of a bitentaculate,

found at Aneiteum, 38.

Sowerby’s Ferns of Great Britain and

Fern- Allies, reviewed, 54.

Spherium, new British species of, 25.

Spheeroplea, on the development and

propagation of, 81.

Steno, new species of, 157.

Stethodesma, new species of, 482.

Stewart, T. H., on the young state of

Ophiocoma rosula, 387.

Thomson, W.,on the burrowing habits

of Nika edulis, 493.

Thylacinus cynocephalus, on some

points relating totheanatomy of,177.

Todirostrum, new species of, 187.

Torrens, H., on native impressions

regarding the natural history of

certain Indian animals, 171.

Tortoises, new species of freshwater,

263.

Townsend, F., on Callitriche hamu-

lata, 429.

Tragocephala, new species of, 480.

Trictenotoma, description of the ge-

nus, 476.

Tridornis, new species of, 418.

Trigonophorus, new species of, 482.

Trochilide, description of a new

genus of, 270.

Tubularia, new species of, 439.

Umbilicariz, monograph of the Bri-

tish, 273.

Vegetable embryogeny, on recent dis-

coveries in, 217.

climatology, observations on,

338.

individual, on the, 363.

Vorticlava, new British species of,

Joa:

Wagner, M., on the vegetation of

Central America, 76.

Wallace, A. R., on the habits of the

Orang-utan, 26; on the natural

arrangement of birds, 193.

504

Webster, W., on anew British species

of Skenea, 156.

White, A., on some coleopterous in-

sects, 475.

Wilson, J. K., on vegetable climato-

logy, 338.

Woodward, 8. P., on the evils of

increasing synonyms, 36 ; on Pano-

pea Aldrovandi, 415.

INDEX.

Yarrell, William, notice of the late,

348.

Zoological Society, proceedings of the

or ei66, 260, 341,415,478.

Zoophytes, on some new genera and

species of British, 219, 353, 439,

469.

Zosterops, new species of, 174.

END OF THE EIGHTEENTH VOLUME.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,

RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

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