‘“Omnes res create sunt divine sapientie et potentiz testes, divitie felicitatis

humanz :—ex harum usu bonitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini;

ex ceconomia in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis elucet.

Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibirelictis semper estimata; 4 veré eruditis

et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper inimica fuit.”—

LINNZUs.

“ Quelque soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut qu’ouvrir les yeux pour voir

qu’elle est le chef-d’ceuvre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rapportent

toutes ses opérations.” BRUCKNER, Théorie du Systéme Animal, Leyden, 1767.

etetas fa - .. . . The sylvan powers

Obey our summons ; from their deepest dells

The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild

And odorous branches at our feet ; the Nymphs

That press with nimble step the mountain thyme

And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed,

But scatter round ten thousand forms minute

Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock

Or rifted oak or cavern deep: the Naiads too

Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face

They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush

That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles,

Where peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread,

The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne,

All, all to us unlock their secret stores

And pay their cheerful tribute.

J. Taytor, Norwich, 1818.

CONTENTS OF VOL. XxX.

[SECOND SERIES.]

NUMBER CXvV.

I. Contributions to the Knowledge of the Terrestrial Planarie,

from communications from Dr. Fritz Miiller of Brazil, and personal

mvestigations. By Dr. MAX SCHULTZE ...ccc.sscscsscssecsscesccesers

II. Description of a new species of Earth-worm (Lumbricus core-

thrurus). By Dir. F. Minar 2.0.00. 2c. cccesecseccecccesersvecnceseccorowses

III. Remarks on MM. Koren and Danielssen’s Researches on the

Development of Purpura lapillus. By WM. B. CARPENTER, M.D.,

URS ee Ge sear Ly: SSal acanuaaaccdactacvewasesesseacossss ses Sacvesetes pestaee ts

IV. On the Ultimate Structure of Spongilla, and Additional Notes

on Freshwater Infusoria. By H.J. Carrer, Esq., Assistant Surgeon

eae oye areisy wa) ( Witte d Plates) eta, stso.2<2 eve cccaaansssveaasanaaea¥eance

V. Notice of the Animal of Turbo Sarmaticus and other Mollusca

from the Cape. By ArrHur ADAMS, F.L.S. &€......0.cceecsscasecerees

VI. List of the Echinodermata dredged between Drontheim and

the North Cape. By R. M‘ANDREWw, Esq,, F.R.S., and L. BARRETT,

Meee aac v cvs opitehn san nde aude podck < annals sig vosn cet seuscteeoes aa eee eae

VII. Descriptions of four new species of Echinodermata. By

Rucis bAnHOPY., .GS. “(With a& Plates) <ess...ccs..c--csesencecarencs

New Books :—On a True Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees; a Con-

tribution to the History of Reproduction in Animals, by C. T. E.

Von Siebold. Translated by W. S. Dallas.—Eenige Vergelijkend-

Ontleedkundige Aanteekeningen over den Ofolicnus Peli. Eene

Academische Proeve, door P. Hoekema Kingma.—TIntroduction

to Cryptogamic Botany, by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, M.A., F.L.S.

Page

—Synopsis Plantarum Glumacearum; auctore E. G. Steudel 48—57

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ; Royal Institution of Great

LDU ae Hire as rl 0 ot te Fa aed a8 oO eo eee et 5 — 7a

iv CONTENTS.

On the Saliva of Dolium galea, by Prof. Troschel; Note on the Oc-

currence of the Harvest Mouse in Cornwall, by C. W. Peach;

A Notice of the Baradla Cavern, near Agtelek, in Hungary, by

Dr. Schmid]; On the Australian Dugong (Halicore australis), by

Page

Mr. Fairholme ............ aecesee Bee arate ao tica ace oaccnascoes 75—80

NUMBER CXVI.

VIII. Hectocotylus-formation in Argonauta and Tremoctopus ex-

plained by Observations on similar Formations in the Cephalopoda in

general. By Professor JapeTus STEENSTRUP. (With two Plates.) 81

IX. On the Occurrence of the genus Cryptoceras in Silurian Rocks.

By E. J. Chapman, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology in University

Salle ress POLONGO war. oavab one semsnandeananenoaian SEARS Dawes sence saeco 114

X. List of Coleoptera received from Old Calabar, on the West

Coast of Africa. By ANDREW Murray, Edinburgh ..............008 117

XI. Notes on the Indian species of Lycium. By T. ANDERSON,

Bixg-, MeD:, Oude Contingené. jsssesec toast -secos snc oes-0tenacqseceasanseeeee 126

XII. On the Development of Purpura. By WM. B. CarPENTER,

ED) RCS, 5 BGs, B90 tnese any eee onaca/eeptenpaen an seed 127

XIII. Observations on the Larvee of the Trematode Worms. By

Dr. PR. Dr PEErPeP ys 2.210 se dgackacgyaqacscccecasnaacvssavwasdnatuaklysiydetedeee 129

XIV. Observations on the Development of the Star-fishes. By

J. KorEN and D. C. DANIELSSEN.......00+-s00000 atloedavevecksaeeeaaneee 132

New Books :—System der Ornithologie West Afrika’s von Dr.G. Hart-

laub.—Popular History of the Aquarium of Marine and Freshwater

Animals and Plants, by George Brettingham Sowerby, F.L.S.—

A Popular History of British Crustacea; comprising a Familiar

Account of their Classification and Habits; by Adam White,

Assistant, Zoological Department, British Museum ......... 136—141

Proceedings of the Royal Society; Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 141—154

On the Causes of the Opening and Closing of Stomates, by Hugo von

Mohl; Descriptions of new Norwegian Amnelides, by M. Sars;

On Gladiolus imbricatus, Linn.; Notes on some new and rare

Diatomacez from the Stomachs of Ascidiw, by Mr. George Nor-

man; On the Vascular System of Anodonta, by Prof. Langer. 154—160

NUMBER CXVII.

XV. Researches on the mode in which Gum-Tragacanth is formed.

By Hugo von Monu

eee Pee eee ee eee eee eee eee eee ee ee ee eee ee ee

CONTENTS. v

Page

XVI. On the Sands intermediate the Inferior Oolite and Lias of

the Cotteswold Hills, compared with a similar deposit upon the Coast

of Yorkshire. By JOHN. LYCETT, Esq.is.iecsescesasecscvcccesessccecceveus 170

XVII. Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. By JoHn Nievt-

MNES COMORIAN cap che scetes soos eucestacutenntebenns obtusa chrweceseus3 V7

XVIII. Remarks on the Lias of Barrow in Leicestershire, compared

with the lower part of that Formation in Gloucestershire, Worcester-

shire and Warwickshire. By the Rey. P. B. Bropin, M.A., F.G.S.,

Vice-President of the Warwickshire Naturalists’ Field Club............ 190

XIX. Observations on the Microscopic Examination of Foraminifera

obtained in Deep-sea Bottoms at the Feejee Islands. By Jonn Denis

MacponaLbD, Assistant Surgeon H.M.S. Herald. (With two Plates.) 193

XX. On the Development of Neritina fluviatilis. By E.CLAPAREDE. 196

XXI. Observations on Trachelius ovum, Ehrenberg. By Professor

CARL GEGENBAUR ..e-e0.scees FF ENCE ABAL COTA TEES EERO PSOE CO SEE 201

XXII. On true Parthenogenesis in Plants. By Dr. L. RADLKoFER. 204

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ; Geological Society...... 211—236

On the Nervous System of Dentalium entalis, by M.T. de Lacaze

Duthiers; Descriptions of some new Norwegian Polypes, by M.

Sars; On the Natural History of the Conway Reef, by J. D.

Macdonald, Assistant-Surgeon H.M.S. Herald; Description of

Siphonactinia, a new genus of Actinie from Norway, by D.C.

Danielssen and J. Koren; On the Occurrence of Urocerus gigas

in Cornwall, by Dr. E. Moore................-.00 Daal ane nina 236—240

NUMBER CXVIII.

XXIII. The Process of Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom, and

its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. By Dr. L. Rapikorer. 241

XXIV. On Rissoa pulcherrima. By WiiLiaM Cxiark, Esq....... 262

XXV. Further Observations on Deep Soundings obtained by H.M.S.

* Herald,’ Capt. Denham, R.N., F.R.S., employed on Surveying Ser-

vice in the South-western Pacific; with an Account of the Exa-

mination of the Alimentary Matter of the Salpe as bearing on the

nature of the Materials composing the Sea-bottom. By Joun Denis

Macpona bp, Assistant Surgeon R.N. (With a Plate.) ............... 264

XXVI. On the Distribution of the Mollusca in Depth on the

Coasts of Nordland and Finmark. By R. M‘Anprew, F.R.S., and

BPRS ROGET NOR aS ISST ab coon drcs Oe cals alec Wa cones 2ha% nip h Gapacnes vaheh MeamenduRe 267

XXVIT. Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera. By Jonn Nrer-

pra, Colombo,: Ceylon .2...6. 5.25 .scesaastecceess Se err tins en ees

vi CONTENTS.

Page

XXVIII. Descriptions of the Male of Lycosa tarentuloides Made-

riana, Walck., and of three newly discovered species of the genus

Lycosa...._ By JOHN. BLACK WALL, FUL:S. \.isee.ss0sc.c0.s0ces-sessecsaaees 282

XXIX. On Hydatina senta. By Dr. F. Leypic. (With a Plate.) 288

Proceedings of the Royal Society ; Botanical Society of Edinburgh ;

Zoological Society .«......+++-. Beasensce Adan SSeS eS CHAPS aREBSSERE 297—317

On_the Vitality of Seeds transported by Marine Currents, by M. C.

Martins; Description of a new Norwegian Star-fish, by M. Sars;

Description of a new Tanager, by P. L. Sclater; Description of

a new genus of Star-fish, by P. C. Asbjornsen ............008 317—320

NUMBER CXIX.

XXX. On some new Paleozoic Star-fishes. By J. W. SALTER, Esq.,

F.G.S., Geol. Survey of Great Britain. (With a Plate.) ..........2.00- 321

XXXI. Observations on the Habits of various Marine Animals.

By Madaine JEANNETTE POWER <.cccccecessvorsacesd odes inavencesey ope 334

XXXII. On the discovery of Cnicus tuberosus at Avebury, Wilts.

By Prof. BuckMAN, F.L-S., E.G:S:, EiA‘S. Sic...- cin. ccssennsvaserseee 337

XXXIII. On the Amphioxus lanceolatus. By ALEXANDER

Br SAY, MOV. 5. ok sce cctavekos cds euseaaeus cagtocnrencssuasecss cassettes ane 339

XXXIV. On the Production of Varieties and Monstrous Flowers

by Pruning. By B. Ciarkeg, F.LS. &e. ...... Sees vas ccccdsteeoenettees 341

XXXYV. The Process of Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom, and

its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. By Dr. L. RapLKorErR. 344

XXXVI. On the Presence of Motile Organs, and the Power of

Locomotion, in Foraminifera. By P. H. Gosse, F.R.S. ............00 365

XXXVII. Note on the Presence of the Fossil genus Isodonta, Buy.,

in the English Jurassic Rocks. By JoHn Lycert, Esq..........02000 367

XXXVIII. Descriptions of New Ceylon Coleoptera. By JoHn

Wren, Colombo; (Ceylon. ssc scic5 eek etcnees Soeaen sonra eee eee oolits)

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ..........:.:sceesseseceeenee 376—396

Note on Elephant Remains from the Gravel near Ballingdon Hill,

Essex, and on Bovine Remains lately found at Clacton, Essex, by

John Brown, F.G.S., of Stanway; Description of a new species of

Pachyrhamphus, by P. L. Sclater; On Placodus Andriani, by

Prof. Owen; A few Remarks on the Midge Fly which infests the

Wheat, by Jonathan Couch, F.L.S.; Description of Actinopsis,

a new genus of Actinie from Norway, by D. C. Danielssen and

PO MSTEN cebin yep cces vals sind.xp kt ann elsiacot deena asses eae eee 396—400

CONTENTS. vil

NUMBER CXxX.

Page

XXXIX. Description of eight new species of Entomostraca found

at Weymouth. By Joun Lussock, F.G.S. (With two Plates.)... 401

XL. On the great Bird of Paradise (Paradisea apoda, Linn.);

*Burong mati’ (Dead Bird) of the Malays; ‘ Fanéhan’ of the natives

of Aran) By ALFRED AR. WALDAGK, css. cncce.pdindasmnenes <¥asens pecans nk 411

XLI. Observations on the Habits of the common Marten (Martes

foina). By Madame JEANNETTE POWERo........00cccccccsecccscnssscees 416

XLII. On the Unity of the genera Pleuracanthus, Diplodus, and

Xenacanthus, and on the Specific Distinction of the Permian Fossil

Xenacanthus Decheni (Beyrich). By Sir Pointe pe MaLpas Grey

EGERTON barbies eis caancactde doceserseawcseetecnstesn sic cdldack’s Gmseeus 423

XLII. Remarks on the species of Whales which have been observed

on the Coasts of Cornwall. By JonarHan Coucu, Esq., F.L.S. &e. 424

XLIV. The Process of Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom, and

its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. By Dr. L. RapiKorer. 439

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ........:esessssesseceeeereees 460—467

On Circulation in Plants, by A. Trécul; On a new genus of Birds

from Mexico, by P. L. Sclater, Esq.; Discovery of Footsteps of

Quadrupeds in the New Red Sandstone of Saint-Valbert near

Luxeuil (Haute-Sadne), by M. Daubrée ; On two new species of

Birds from Bogota, by P. L. Sclater, Esq............. AOS SAE 467—472

NUMBER CXXI. SUPPLEMENT.

XLV. On the Natural History of the Aru Islands. By ALFRED

PRR VVIAT TA CR: 5. cds caeces ocantenRewecdess seceusoas ceceshics Soceaeeeme Mea does wonuee 473

XLVI. Thoughts on Species. By James D. DANA......... cc cess eee 485

XLVII. Supplement to a Catalogue of British Spiders, including

remarks on their Structure, Functions, Giconomy, and Systematic

Arrangement. By JoHN BLACKWALL, F.L.S. ..........cccesseesceees 497

XLVIII. On certain Coleopterous Insects from the Cape de Verde

Islands. By T. VeERNoN Wo.LuastTon, M.A., F.L.S. ........ccsccesees 503

XLIX. Remarks on the Columbine, with a description of a new

Indian Pigeon, akin to the ‘Stock Dove’ of Europe. By Epwarp

Eas MUM EM eee aie tek teeict oat ose vacoei te ondatawcedsinae cess ve daawecccbssacocacacac'ec 506

L. Description of two new Cryptogams. By Mr. H. O. StepHens,

SUMTER isthCs) Mi atente aca 32 nt tecatnaten ccc nctsesisecdeussestaSevciaccadacstaseuse a 514

New Books :—A Manual Flora of Madeira and the adjacent Islands of

Porto Santo and the Dezertas, by R.T. Lowe, M.A. Part I.

vill CONTENTS.

Page

Thalamiflore.—The Grasses of Great Britain: illustrated by

J. E. Sowerby; described by C. Johnson.—The Insect Hunters ;

Gt, EMtOMMOIOMY HH VEESC <p... canas--cscesseciereniceaepsteascassee 516—518

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ....+..:.ssecseeeceeeeeereeees 519—524

On the British Edriophthalma, by C.Spence Bate, Esq. ; On Circulation

in Plants, by A. Trécul; On Sepia officinalis, by Mr. R. Damon;

On the Spherobolus stellatus, by the Rev. H. H. Higgins, M.A. ;

On the Grape Disease, by Mr. J. W. Slater ; On the Cause of the

Rhythmic Motion of the Heart, by J. Paget, Esq., F.R.S....524—530

PLATES IN VOL. XX.

PuaTE I. Structure of Spongilla.

It: | Heetocotylus-formation in Argonauta and Tremoctopus.

ITV. New Species of Echinodermata.

“on oraminifera from the Feejee Islands.

VII. Diatomacex and Desmidiez from the Feejee Islands.

VIII. Anatomy of Hydatina senta.

IX. New species of Paleozoic Star-fishes.

XI.

XII. New species of Cryptogams.

bNew species of British Entomostraca.

THE: ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

SO jacdusécavecsveeses per litora spargite muscum,

Naiades, et circdm vitreos considite fontes :

Police virgineo teneros hic carpite flores :

Floribus et pictum, diva, replete canistrum.

At vos, o Nymph2 Craterides, ite sub undas ;

Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco

Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas

Ferte, Dez pelagi, et pingui conchylia succo,”’

N. Parthenii Giannettasti Ecl.1.

NaJlieJ DULY 1857.

I.—Contributions to the Knowledge of the Terrestrial Planarie,

from communications from Dr. Fritz Miiller of Brazil and

personal investigations. By Dr. Max Scuurrze*.

THE travels of the English naturalist, Charles Darwin+, have

made us acquainted with a rich fauna of terrestrial Planarie in

the humid regions of primeval forest in South America, which

merits the attention of zoologists in a high degree. If it was

impossible to help being astonished, in the first place, at the

remarkable circumstance that worms belonging to the order of

the Turbellaria—which we are accustomed to find only in water

in Europe, and which, in consequence of their extremely soft,

delicate parenchyma, destitute of all supports, appear destined

to live exclusively in that medium,—should occur on land, our

interest would be no less attracted by the statements of the

large size of these animals, the variegated colours with which

they were adorned, and their Nemertoid form combined with

the internal structure of the Planarie of our fresh waters. The

* Translated by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., from a copy of the paper in the

‘ Abhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Halle,’ vol. iv. 1857,

kindly communicated by the author.

+ Naturwissenschaftliche Reisen, deutsch von E. Dieffenbach, 1844,

p. 28; Annals and Magazine of Natural History, first series, vol. xiv.

p- 241, 1844.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 1

2 Dr. M. Schultze on the Terrestrial Planarie.

demand for new and more detailed information upon the natural

history of these inhabitants of the primeval forests has unfortu-

nately been very sparingly satisfied since the date of the state-

ments of the meritorious traveller. It therefore gave me peculiar

pleasure to obtain such information from an approved observer,

Dr. Fritz Miller, who has been settled for some years in the

colony of Blumenau in the south of Brazil, and now in Desterro,

on the island of Santa Catharina. Although his statements have

been thrown off under unfavourable external circumstances, and

without those optical aids which would have been desirable, I do

not hesitate to publish them, as forming valuable additions to

our previous knowledge. I at the same time take the opportunity

to bring together what we know of these animals from Darwin

and some others, and, lastly, add the results of some microscopie

investigations into the intimate structure of these animals, which

I made upon a specimen, well preserved in spirits, brought

home by Dr. Burmeister, and handed over to me to be used as

I pleased.

It is well known that O. F. Miiller, the founder of our know-

ledge of the Turbellaria, discovered a species living upon the

land, under stones in moist earth, to which he gave the name of

Planaria terrestris (Vermium Terr. et Fluy. Hist. 1. p. 68).

According to the short description of this animal given by the

celebrated Danish zoologist, it possesses a nearly cylindrical

hody, only somewhat flattened on the ventral surface, 8 lines in

length, and 2rds of a line in breadth; it is blackish-grey above

and white beneath, and exhibits two small black eye-spots at the

anterior extremity. Dugés saw the same species in Franee

(Ann. des Sci. Nat. 1 sér. xxi. p.82) ; and adds to Miiller’s state-

ments, that the position of the buccal orifice, the form of the mus-

cular cesophagus, the arborescent ramifications of the intestinal

canal, the male copulative organ, and the seminal vessels, agree

with the same parts in our freshwater species.

As far as I am aware, my friend Fritz Miller is the only

person who has since this period met with the animal, which is

certainly a rarity. It was in the neighbourhood of Grimmen,

near Greifswald, that several specimens were discovered under

stones; they were unfortunately only examined with the lens,

but exhibited all the parts described by Duges.

In the following, I have brought together F. Miller’s state-

ments regarding the Terrestrial Planarie of Brazil, which have

reached me in various letters :—

“Points of agreement with the Planarie of fresh water are,

the position of the buccal orifice towards the hinder third of the

lower surface of the body, and also the dendroccelar nature of

the intestine ; in the latter, there are the ordinary three branches,

Dr. M. Schultze on the Terrestrial Planarix. 3

‘an anterior and two posterior, the ramifications of which are

usually repeatedly divided. The proboscis, as it glimmers through

the skin, appears as a long cylinder, in the middle of which the

buccal orifice is visible as a transverse cleft. On a closer ex-

amination of the proboscis after removal, however, it is found

that it may be dilated into a considerable flat cup or disk, which

is sometimes elliptic, sometimes roundish, with its circumference

sometimes nearly entire, sometimes more or less deeply lobed,

and exhibits in its base, a little before the middle, a rather nar-

row cesophageal orifice, a structure which occurs in many of the

larger marine Planarie, but not in our freshwater species. In

repose, the lateral margins are rolled in, and the whole organ

folded together in such a way that it represents a cylinder with

an anterior, undulated, longitudinal fissure.

“ Points of difference from the genus Planaria are, the elon-

gated form of the body, the slight depression, and the acute

anterior extremity. The habit is thus often more that of a

Nemertoid than of a Planaria. The eyes also, as far as they are

known, are different ; they are present in unusual number, not,

as in Planaria nigra, "forming a simple series, running regularly

on the anterior margin, but compressed into dense streaks or

spots near the anterior margin, and extending from thence in

an irregular row, which constantly becomes less dense posteriorly

along the lateral mar gis to the hinder extremity.

«These peculiarities, in conjunction with their dwelling-place,

certainly justify their generic separation from the aquatic Pla-

narie. In accordance with the analogy of Typhloplana and

Leptoplana, the name Geoplana might be formed for them.

They like moderately moist places, unde? wood, bark, and stones,

and between leaves of the Bromeliacese (but not in the water

there accumulated). They appear to rest by day, and to crawl

about during the night. Eggs somewhat larger than those of

Planaria Dine: and rotnrdisl which could hardly belong to any

other animal, were once found under wood.

“ An important question is, whether the Geoplana, like their

aquatic allies, bear cilia upon ‘the surface of their bodies. Not

possessing a microscope, and remembering: an experiment in

J. Miiller’s physiological course, I sprinkled a large specimen of

Geoplana rufiventris with a little arrowroot, when I saw it move

constantly forwards and sometimes a little outwards on the back,

and backwards on the ventral surface, by which the existence of

cilia seems to be placed beyond a doubt.

“The species hitherto observed are :—

“1. Geoplana tristriata, pale yellowish-green, with three nar-

row, dark, longitudinal ines on the back ; belly paler. Greatest

breadth about the second third part of ‘the length, where the

4. Dr. M. Schultze on the Terrestrial Planarie.

mouth is situated. It likes to bend the head upwards. At the

point of curvature on each side there is a closely packed group

of eye-spots, which are continued in an irregular series to the

posterior extremity. The anterior margin of the head appears to

26 destitute of eyes. Length 13 inch; breadth 1} line. Abun-

ant.

“2. Geoplana octostriata. Habit and eyes as in the preceding

species ; colour pale yellow; belly whitish; on each side of the

back four dark brown, approximated, longitudinal streaks, far

broader than the longitudinal lines of the preceding. Not

rare.

“3. Geoplana elegans. Habit similar, but a little less attenu-

ated in front. Length 2} in., with a breadth of 1 line. Eye-

spots very small, forming a rather broad dense band anteriorly,

becoming narrower and less dense posteriorly, and passing into

asimple row. Colour yellow; belly paler ; on the middle of the

back a broad, deep black, longitudinal stripe, and between this

and the lateral margin on each side a narrow, deep orange-

coloured longitudinal stripe. Only found once.

“ 4. Geoplana pallida. Of a similar form to the preceding.

Colour yellowish-white, with a single narrow, blackish, longitu-

dinal stripe on the back. Several specimens between boards.

“5. Geoplana atra. Deep black, beneath grey ; nearly cylin-

drical, but little attenuated before and behind. The eyes difii-

cult of detection, although present. Proboscis more cylindrical

than in the freshwater Planarie, but always much wider at the

buccal than at the cesophageal extremity. Length 9 lines;

breadth } aline. Found once under the bark of a rotten Figueira

(Ficus doliaria?).

“6. Geoplana marginata. Back and belly deep blackish-brown,

shining, with narrow, golden-yellow, longitudinal bands on the

middle of the back, and broader dull yellow bands along the

lateral margins; in the latter the eye-spots are very distinctly

visible, closely approximated in front, posteriorly in a simple

loose series. The animal, which was 3-4 inches in length, and

some lines broad, much attenuated before and behind, was

creeping in the house.

“ 7. Geoplana rufiventris. Back dark brown; belly tile-red ;

moderately attenuated before and behind. ‘The eyes closely

grouped in several rows, distinct on the margins of the anterior

part of the body, not detected posteriorly. The animal, which

was a few lines in breadth, and several inches long, was found

on wood.

“8. Geoplana olivacea. Belly yellowish-grey ; back greenish-

brown with dark brown longitudinal bands margined with paler

colour, darker towards the margins, paler towards the head.

Dr. M. Schultze on the Terrestrial Planarie. 5

Eyes along the entire margin of the body, closer in front, very

much scattered behind. Not rare.

“9. Geoplana Nephelis. Resembling the preceding in form,

but somewhat less elongated; in form and colour it reminds

one of a Nephelis. Back uniform brown; belly paler. Not rare.

“10. Geoplana Mazximiliani. Almost like the preceding ; the

back with a paler, yellowish, longitudinal band. This species,

however, is further distinguished from the preceding one by its

mouth and genital orifice being placed far more posteriorly, and

its penis being almost globular, whilst in G. Nephelis this organ

is long and cylindrical. In the latter, also, the orifice of the pro-

boscis appeared to have entire margins, whilst in G. Maaximiliant

(when examined in a spirit specimen) it appeared deeply five-

lobed.

“11. Geoplana marmorata. Length 4 inches, breadth 4 lines.

The eye-spots present nothing remarkable. The dorsal surface

is pale reddish-grey, with small black spots arranged in irregular,

repeatedly-anastomosing, longitudinal rows ; the ventral surface

is pale grey. The proboscis is dilatable into a flat cup with an

undulated margin (in a spirit specimen).

“12. Geoplanapulchella. The anterior third of the body above

brownish tile-red, with oval whitish spots ; beneath grey, with a

whitish band in the middle. Eye-spots considerably approxi-

mated near the anterior margin; their series uninterrupted on

the anterior margin, missing on the posterior two-thirds of the

body. About an inch long, by fully 1 line in breadth, not very

much attenuated anteriorly. Only once observed.

“13. Geoplana subterranea. This, even from its abode, is pecu-

harly interesting, as it again enlarges the circle of vital condi-

tions under which this animal form is enabled to exist. After

finding Flat-worms in the clear spring-water of the mountains,

as well as in the lakes and fens of the plains, under the stones

of the sea-coast, as on the floating sea-weeds in the midst of the

ocean ; after obtaining the prospect of a rich fauna of terrestrial

Planaria which conceal themselves in damp moss, under stones

and bark, and rise to the summits of the primeval forest, where,

between the spinous leaves of the Bromelia, they find a per-

petually humid asylum,—Earth-Planarie now make their ap-

pearance, companions of the Earth-worms and grubs. In cha-

racteristic opposition to its coloured congeners, so abundantly

supplied with eyes, which live above the surface of the earth,

this Geoplana, dwelling in darkness, is without both the adorn-

ment and the sense of colour,—milk-white and destitute of eyes.

Tn its habit, this species is more removed than any other from

the typical form of Planaria. Its uniformly narrow, very long

body, rounded off at the extremities, which, with a length of

6 Dr. M. Schultze on the Terrestrial Planarie.

2-3 or even more than 4 inches, scarcely attains a thickness of

3ths of a line, gives it exactly the appearance of a Nemertina.

When the intestine is full, its contents, shining through the

skin, give the milk-white colour a more or less vivid tinge of

flesh-colour or rosy-red. The buccal orifice is removed un-

usually far backwards ; the genital orifice is situated quite in the

vicinity of the posterior extremity ; the proboscis is bell-shaped ;

the intestine of the ordinary form, with its lateral branches

simple or forked, placed close together.

“The animal lives especially in loose and sandy, but also in

heavy and tenacious clay soils, in company with Lumbricus core-

thrurus*. It may seem strange that so soft an animal, which

scarcely bears to be gently touched, should be able to exist and

make its way through this medium. This difficulty is got over

by the Earth-worms, which burrow through the soil in such a

way, that it is penetrated in all directions, like a sponge, by

smooth passages of various widths. As a reward for this, the

Earth-worms are devoured, or rather sucked, by the Flat-worm.

That this was the mode of nourishment, was easy to see, from

the colour of the contents of the intestine. But I have also

met with Geoplane which were holding a young Lumbricus with

their protruded proboscis, and whose intestines were beginning

to be filled with fresh blood.

“ For the microscopic investigation of the internal structure,

this species would be better adapted than any other, not only

on account of its transparency, but also because, with a little

patience, it may be dug out of the ground in any quantity. All

the other Geoplane occur but rarely, as is certainly the case

with the European Planaria terrestris of O. F. Miiller.”

So far the communications of my friend Fritz Miller.

I may be allowed to add to these specific descriptions, those

which have been made known by others, which occur scattered in

various Journals, and have never yet been brought together. As

regards the generic name Geoplana, this appears to be so well

chosen, that zoologists will certainly acquiesce in it. The neces-

sity of the generic separation of the terrestrial Planarie from

the others was felt even: by Darwin, who says: “ The terrestrial

Planarié belong to the genus Planaria, Dugés, Polycelis, Ehrbg.;

they may, however, form a distinct section of this genus, charac-

terized by their more roundish narrow body, and the usual pre-

sence of longitudinal stripes of very brilliant colours.” Never-

theless Darwin established no new name for them. Besides the

English traveller, Blanchard and Leidy have described terres-

* The description of this new species of Earth-worm will follow this

paper.

Dr. M. Schultze on the Terrestrial Planarie. 7

trial Planarie. The former* received specimens preserved in

spirits of a species observed in Chili by Claude Gay; these he

made use of for anatomical investigations which will be here-

after referred to. Blanchard named the species Polycladus Gayi.

The generic name cannot be extended to all terrestrial Planarie,

and remains attached provisionally only to this species. The

same is the case with the name Rhynchodemus, given by Leidy +

to a North American terrestrial Planaria.

Darwin’s terrestrial Planarie are as follow ¢ :—

14. Geoplana vaginuloides. 19, Geoplana pallida.

15. G. elegans. * 20. G. elongata.

16. G. pulla. 21. G. semilineata.

17. G. bilinearis. 22. G. maculata.

18. G. nigrofusca. 23. G. Tasmaniana.

Of these species described by Darwin, some, most probably,

agree with those observed by F. Muller. Thus the G. elegans

of the latter may sink in the G. vaginuloides, Darwin, and the

G. pulla, Darwin, may be identical with G. olwacea or Mazxi-

miliant, Miller. A final decision could only be furnished by

figures, which, however, are not given by Darwin, nor as yet

by F. Miller. If the two first-mentioned species should prove

to be distinct, Miiller’s G. e/egans must receive another name,

as this has already been given by Darwin to another species,

referred to above under No. 15. In any case, however, Miiller’s

name pallida must be changed, as Darwin’s species of the same

name has the right of priority. From its pure white colour

the latter might remind us of the G. subterranea, if the strongly-

marked absence of the eyes did not sufficiently show the right of

the form living under ground to rank as a distinct species.

The two above-mentioned species, described by Blanchard and

Leidy as coming in addition to the 23 already referred to, are:

24. Geoplana (Polycladus) Gayi, Blanchard. Blackish-green

on the back, with a white median line; the margin with a broad

orange border, which is bounded by two narrow black lines ;

ventral surface orange.

Length 85-90 millimetres ; breadth about 30 millimetres.

Hab. Chili, in moist places on the ground.

* Historia de Chile p. Claude Gay, Vers, pl. 1. fig. 2 (which I have been

unable to consult); Ann. des Sci. Nat. 3 sér. vin. p. 140.

+ Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,

vol. v. 1850-1851, pp. 241 & 289.

{ [The author has translated all Darwin’s descriptions, which, however,

we have omitted, as they were originally published in this Journal, loc. cit.

supra. He has substituted Dr. Miiller’s generic name, Geoplana, for that

of Planaria, under which Mr. Darwin described his species.—Eb. |

8 Dr. M. Schultze on the Terrestrial Planariz.

25. Geoplana (Rhynchodemus) sylvatica, Leidy. Body elongate,

fusiform, attenuated in front, pointed behind ; the ventral sur-

face somewhat flattened. Colour on the back grey, with two

brown stripes along the median line, and a transverse brown

spot at or close behind the middle ; belly whitish ; head brown,

bent upwards, exhibiting two black, lateral eyes. Length, 2-5

lines ; breadth in the foe fourth, 3th line; in the posterior,

ith line.

Lives between stones, flower-pots, &c., in the gardens of

Philadelphia; and also under wood and fragments of bark in

the woods of the neighbourhood.

As a twenty-sixth and last species this is followed by the

Geoplana (Planaria) terrestris, O. F. Muller, the only species

hitherto observed in Europe. This has been already referred to.

What Darwin and Leidy tell us with regard to the anatomy

of the terrestrial Planarie, refers solely to the parts recogni-

zable with the naked eye, or with a low magnifying power, such

as the alimentary apparatus, the efferent parts of the sexual

apparatus, and the eyes; they are fully confirmed by the state-

ments of F. Miller, communicated above. The form cf the

ramified intestine is the same in all as in our well-known fresh-

water species; this is also the case with the position of the

buccal orifice. Only the form of the cesophageal tube differs

essentially, as F. Miiller particularly points out, in several

species, by the cylindrical form becoming converted more into

a trumpet-shape, with repeatedly folded margins to the outer

orifice. The genital orifice is situated throughout behind the

mouth, and is Salw ays simple, by which the terrestrial Planarie

are removed from the large marine forms, for a knowledge of

which we are especially indebted to Quatrefages *, and some of

which I have myself been able to examine+. The penis and

seminal ducts have been detected in several species. Where

eyes are present there are either ¢wu, as in G. terrestris and

sylvatica, or many, and these are then always distributed on the

margin of the animal in groups, at pretty uniform distances

apart, or more singly. Darwin and Leidy state that they con-

tain a refractive body.

The above statements regarding the position of the buccal

and genital apertures do not agree with what Blanchard says

of his genus Polycladus. In this the buccal orifice is said to

be in the anterior, instead of the posterior third of the body,

the genital orifice still farther forward. From the further

description of the animal, however, it appears clearly that these

* Ann. des Sci. Nat. 3 sér. iv. p. 129.

+ Verhandl. der phys. med. Gesellsch. in Wiuzburg, iv. 1854, p. 222.

Dr. M. Schultze on the Terrestrial Planariz. 9

statements are founded merely upon a confusion between the

anterior and posterior extremities, which may be excusable, as

Blanchard did not see the animal living *. With such a notion,

however, Blanchard’s statements upon the central nervous system

in Polycladus Gayi of course lose all value. This is said to

consist of two cerebral ganglia, situated over the seminal vesicle,

and two cords running backwards (forwards) which are again

interrupted by several (up to 14) small ganglia. What organ

has been confounded here with the nervous system, it is hard

to say; at any rate no cerebral ganglia can be situated above

the seminal vesicle, but they must be sought at the opposite

end of the body.

In this certamly imperfect state of our knowledge of the struc-

ture of the terrestrial Planarie, I very opportunely obtained a

specimen of such an animal. It was found by Dr. Burmeister,

near Rio Janeiro, and put, whilst living, into spirits, in which it

had been very well preserved, with the exception of an accidental

injury in the middle of the body. The tissues, indeed, were

only partially applicable to microscopic examination. Never-

theless, by the aid of glycerime, which is often exceedingly

serviceable in the clearmg up of spirit preparations for the

microscope, | succeeded in obtaining an insight into the finer

structure of several systems of organs. Unfortunately, the

development of the generative organs was so backward in the

animal, that nothing could be ascertained with regard to the

sexual glands.

My specimen belongs to none of the 26 species above cha-

racterized, and I therefore introduce it into the system under

the name of Geoplana Burmeisteri. Its length is 2} inches;

its greatest breadth behind the middle of the body } an inch ;

its thickness 1 line. The body is pointed before and behind ;

attenuated more rapidly posteriorly, and anteriorly very gra-

dually and drawn out into a long point. The colour of the

back is sepia-brown, blackish- brown at the anterior extremity ;

a pale brown streak runs along the middle of the back from the

anterior to the posterior extremity, very distinctly and sharply

bounded by nearly black margims in the anterior quarter

of the animal, then obsolete, and only distinct again in the

vicinity of the hinder extremity. On the back also a quan-

* I may, however, mention in passing, that this is not the first error of

the kind into which this observer has fallen. He has slipped into the

same mistake with the Caryophylleus, which is so common in the intestine

of Cyprinus Brama (Ann. des Sci. Nat. 3 sér. x. p. 323, pl. 12. figs. 1, 2).

Here also the extremity furnished with the organs of generation is marked

as the anterior, whilst it is really the posterior, as was rightly perceived

by all the older observers.

10 Dr. M. Schultze on the Terrestrial Planarie.

tity of small, circular, whitish points are scattered; these

can just be perceived with the naked eye, are smaller and

closer together in the anterior half, and finally disappear en-

tirely at the head. The lower surface is uniformly greyish-

yellow, and exhibits close behind the middle the buccal oritice,

from which, in my specimen, the repeatedly folded, funnel-

shaped buccal extremity of the cesophagus projects, and 5

lines further back, the very small genital orifice. Eyes were

discovered by the microscopic examination of the margin of the

anterior half of the body; they form blackish-brown pigment-

spots, usually of a crescent-shape, lying pretty close behind one

another in a single row, in the concavity of which, directed

outwards, there is a round transparent body, which does not

refract light very strongly, and in this respect exactly resembles

the similarly placed body, which must be regarded as a lens, of

the eye of our freshwater Planarie.

The microscopic examination of the skin im the first place

confirmed the supposition expressed by F. Miiller, that in this,

as in the other Turbellaria, a ciliated epithelium exists, although,

from his observation recorded above, this hardly required mi-

croscopic proof. Although the ciliary coat in general had

suffered greatly by preservation in spirits, the epithelial cells

with their crown of cilia could, nevertheless, be unmistakeably

recognized in particular places. Whether this coat of cilia be

general, or, as in many Mollusca, only present on particular

parts of the body, could not be decided. Nevertheless, from

analogy with the other Turbellaria, we are scarcely justitied in

doubting that this coat is uniformly diffused. The ciliary cells

are colourless, and usually of a wedge-shape. In many of them

the thickening of the anterior cilium-bearing cell-membrane

was unmistakeable, and this appears to occur as universally in

these epithelial structures as im the cylindrical cells of the

intestine, according to the observations of Funke and Kolliker.

Below them there is a layer of irregularly hexagonal pigment-cells,

which are the seat of the true principal colour. Bacillar bodies,

which, as is well known, occur so universally in marine and

freshwater Planarie, were entirely wanting in the skin of my

Geoplana. These, as I have repeatedly observed, may be very

well preserved in spirits, so that their absence could hardly be

due to the mode of preservation.

As in the other Turbellaria, a cutaneous muscular network

follows beneath the cells of the skin, and im the first place,

indeed, a simple layer of closely approximated longitudinal

fibres. Below these is a closer layer of transversely placed

muscular elements. The former readily separate in connexion

with the cells of the epidermis, in the form of a thin membrane,

Dr. M. Schultze on the Terrestrial Planariz. 1]

from the annular muscles, which on their part enter into an

intimate union with the viscera, and especially with the finer

terminal ramifications of the intestine, so that they cannot be

removed without adherent portions of the latter. The condition

of maceration of my Geoplana, caused by its preservation for

several years in spirits, facilitated the separation of the above-

mentioned layers, which could hardly have been effected in the

fresh state.

The elements of these muscular layers are long fibres of

0:0006-0:002 line in breadth, homogeneous throughout, with-

out any distinct envelope and contents, and without traces

of transverse striz, exactly resembling those which I have de-

scribed and figured in the Rhabdocela amongst the Turbel-

laria (Beitr. zur Naturgesch. der Turbellarien, 1850), and like

those which occur in the larger aquatic Dendrocela. Narrow

and broad fibres are intermixed, the narrower ones greatly pre-

dominating in number; the broader fibres divide more fre-

quently, and in certain cases penicillate radiations are seen

upon them.

The space surrounded by the annular muscles was found to

be entirely filled by the intestinal canal, whilst, as has already

been stated, nothing could be detected, in my specimen, of the

secreting portions of the generative organs, which in sexually

mature animals will certainly push itself to a greater or less

extent between the ramifications of the intestine. In the

immediate vicinity of the genital orifice alone, the globular

copulative organ occupied a comparatively considerable space.

The commencement of the intestine was indicated by the ex-

ternally projecting, folded, buccal orifice of the cesophagus,

which was of a white colour, and formed of densely interlaced

narrow muscular fibres. The cesophagus is continued forwards,

concealed beneath the skin, and occupying nearly the whole

thickness of the animal, in the form of a cylinder about 1 line

in thickness, and 4 lines long. From it, at the extremity

opposite to the buccal orifice, originate three branches of the

intestine, one running forward in the direction of the cesophagus,

gradually becoming attenuated, as it gives off numerous branches

at right angles, and reaching nearly to the anterior extremity ;

and two passing backwards, which being bent upwards run

along and above the cesophagus to the posterior extremity, and

emit numerous branches outwards. These principal branches,

and the larger secondary branches of the alimentary tube possess

strongly muscular walls, and an internal epithelial coat of small

cells. As the division of the lateral branches of the alimentary

canal gradually becomes finer, the muscular layer grows propor-

tionately thinner, whilst the epithelial cells become larger and

12 Dr. M. Schultze on the Terrestrial Planarie.

more darkly granular, until the racemose extremities of the

intestinal ramifications, which are attached to the inside of the

annular cutaneous muscles, are formed exclusively of the epithe-

hal cells, only surrounded by a delicate structureless membrane.

These largely cellular extremities of the ramified alimentary tube

may be compared to a liver in their function.

The muscular fibres of the alimentary canal are for the most

part similar to those of the skin above described. Besides these,

however, there are other muscular elements in the entire extent

of this system of canals, and these are not dissimilar in form to

the organic fibre-cells of the higher animals. They are usually

fusiform, flattened bodies, with rounded or irregularly torn ends,

of a similar size and form with the broad, short fibre-cells of

arterial membranes, which I have figured in my Inaugural Dis-

sertation “ De arteriarum notione, structura,” &c., 1849, tab. 3,

figs. 2 & 4. They are transparent, pale, colourless, and not

granular, but, on the other hand, are provided with an indica-

tion of longitudinal striation ; they are homogeneous or exhibit

a granular central streak, which either runs through the whole

length of the fibre-cell-like body, or is only perceptible for a

short space in the centre. This streak always possesses a swelling

in the middle and is pointed at the ends; it has, however, no

similarity to a sharply defined nucleus, but rather resembles the

granular axial cords of the muscular filaments of the Mollusca

which C. Semper has recently described (Siebold and Kolliker’s

Zeitschr. vill. p. 345. tab. 7. fig. 10). The form of the bodies

described varies in many ways. Although the spindle-shape is

the most usual, a few clayate bodies occur, which are drawn out

at one extremity into a long filament; others resemble fragments

of fibres, and others again represent actual long fibres, but at

the same time, in their refractive power and the indication of the

longitudinal striation, perfectly resemble the fusiform bodies,

although their breadth is less, so that a transition of the one

form into the other cannot be mistaken. All these elements

occur in the walls of the alimentary tube mixed with narrow

muscular fibres, such as I have described as situated in the skin,

and to these again they exhibit distinct transitions, so that, for

this reason especially, I do not hesitate to draw a conclusion as

to the muscular nature of the fusiform bodies. It appears,

therefore, as though the broadest of the muscular bands in the

body of my Geoplana were composed of single elements similar

to the fibre-cells of the higher animals, which after maceration

may be easily isolated, or readily break away where they were

previously firmly united, whilst the narrower ones form long,

continuous filaments in which a coalescence of several cells is no

longer to be perceived, or has never existed.

Dr. F. Miiller on Lumbricus corethrurus. 13

Enclosed in the cesophagus of the animal I found a morsel of

food, consisting of the grinding-plate and jaws of a snail with

adherent muscular parts. This observation, like the statements

of F. Miiller as to the war of destruction waged by Geoplana

subterranea against the Earth-worms, is opposed to Darwin’s

supposition that the terrestrial Planarie only feed upon vege-

table food, and indeed upon rotten wood, on which they are

principally found. Darwin certainly kept some specimens in con-

finement for 21 days, without giving them any other nourish-

ment than rotten wood, and during this period the animals grew

considerably. Nevertheless this observation could not be decisive,

as the contents of the intestine were not examined. The in-

testine of my specimen did not contain a single vegetable cell.

Of the nervous system nothing could be ascertained by pre-

paration ; and of the sexual organs I have only to mention the

seminal vesicle, and the penis, which may be easily isolated at

the genital orifice in the form of a globular body of 3 a line in

diameter. The seminal vesicle contained no spermatozoids.

The true form of these contractile organs, which are composed

of very fine muscular fibres, can only be ascertained by the exa-

mination of fresh specimens. The same applies to the sexual

glands, the water-vascular system, &c. But for the purpose of

subsequent histological investigation, a solution of 1-2 grains

of bichromate of potash in the ounce of water will always be far

preferable to spirits for the preservation of these extremely

delicate animals, and I warmly recommend this solution to all

collectors.

I1.— Description of a new species of Earth-worm (Lumbricus

corethrurus). By Dr. F. MULiEr *.

Lumbricus corethrurus, Brush-tail, the commonest of the

Earth-worms of this country (Brazil), and which may be found

in almost every clod of arable land, is rather slender, soft, and

readily torn; the skin is nearly colourless, translucent, so that

the colour of the body is principally caused by the intestine and

blood-vessels, and therefore it appears more reddish towards the

anterior extremity, grey in the middle, and pale reddish-white

posteriorly. The measurement of nine animals all bearing clitelli

(and killed in spirit of wine, because the length is constantly

varying during life) gave on the average 28” in length, of which

the clitellus measured 3!", and the space in front of it 4’. The

body is cylindrical, attenuated anteriorly from the clitellus, and of

* This description is given by Schultze, and is referred to in the pre-

ceding paper, at p. 6.

14 Dr. F. Miller on Lumbricus corethrurus.

a tolerably uniform thickness posteriorly. The number of seg-

ments is about 200-250, of which 13 are in front of the clitellus ;

the latter, which is often wanting, includes 8 segments. The

foremost segment is grooved longitudinally, like thet three anterior

segments in Geoscolot maximus, Leuck. When the animal, feel-

ing about, extends the head, one or two similar segments, together

with a clavate-head-lobe with a long pedunele, make their ap-

pearance from the first segment. On the foremost segments the

bristles exhibit the usual position, the four bristles of each side

being approximated in pairs; the upper pair is continued as far

as the chitellus, whilst the two bristles of the lower pair gradually

become more distant ; from the clitellus backwards we see on each

side only two rows of separate bristles: these are the first and

third rows counting from below upwards; the latter runs about

the middle, between the belly and the back; the insertion of

the second and fourth bristles varies in height on each segment,

but without any definite law being perceptible; sometimes, for

example, they are placed alternately higher and lower, so that

those of the Ist, 3rd and 5th, and again those of the 2nd, 4th

and 6th segments lie in the same longitudinal line; sometimes

three are elevated and two again depressed, so that those on the

lst and 5th segments stand at an equal height, those on the 2nd

and 4th higher, and those on the 8rd still higher; sometimes also

they maintain the same height on several consecutive segments,

&e. After a greater or less number of segments (e.g. 20-30),

the two rows of bristles still existing also cease their regularity :

first the lower row, and then the upper one which runs along

the middle of the side ; these bristles also then vary in the height

of their insertion from segment to segment. This apparently

perfectly chaotic arrangement of the bristles becomes regular

again in the vicimity of the hinder margin, by each segment

bearing 8 bristles standing nearly at an equal distance apart,

which alternate with those of the contiguous segments, by which

16 longitudinal rows (or also 3 spiral limes) of bristles are pro-

duced. It is remarkable that this smgular arrangement of the

bristles does not occur in young animals; these have two rows

of pairs of bristles at the anterior extremity, which further back

separate into four rows of isolated bristles.

The bristles on the anterior part of the body are more delicate,

and appear to be slightly hooked; those on the hindermost part

are very strong, straight and amber-coloured, stand upon distinct

tubercles, and appear to be incapable of being entirely retracted.

From these 16 rows of strong bristles, the whole tail acquires

a brush-like appearance. The stomach is strongly muscular.

The egg-capsules are almost globular, colourless and opalescent ;

I never found more than one embryo in them.

Dr. F. Maller on Lumbricus corethrurus. 15

This short description will suffice to give a pretty good idea

of ow Earth-worm, and at least allow it to be easily distinguished

from the other species hitherto described. Although the ar-

rangement and form of the bristles are usually regarded as essen-

tial generic characters of the Earth-worms, and the present worm,

which is so peculiar in this respect, appears imperiously to demand

the formation of a new genus, I have been unable, especially

on account of the regularly bristled young, to determine upon

taking this course, the rather as there is no material anatomical

or physiological peculiarity to justify this separation, as is the

case for example in Euazxes and Criodulus, the latter of which is

so deserving of a minute investigation. Perhaps some such

point may appear to exist on the further investigation of a pecu-

liarity, which has induced me to bring this insignificant animal

before the zoological public. In almost all the larger specimens,

one is struck immediately by a small spot about the end of the

third quarter of the body, which appears of a more vivid red and

as if inflamed; on the dorsal surface at this point the delicate

skin often appears to be inflated, and as it were to form a small

sac (Bruchsack). In specimens killed in spirits this spot looks

like a second but much smaller clitellus, as it is sharply sepa-

rated and rises a little above the segments before and behind it,

probably because in the contraction of the body the weaker skin

and muscular layer present less resistance here. If this spot,

which I have not missed on any of the very numerous adult

animals which I have examined for it, be examined with the lens,

it is found to be composed of from 5 to 10, more or less distinctly

separated, narrow segments, without bristles, and according to

all appearance newly formed.

My first thought on seeing this new formation, was of the

commencement of a transverse division; but, then, specimens

produced by such a transverse division should have occurred, and

these would have been destitute either of a proper anterior ex-

tremity or of the brush-like tail ; for these, however, I have sought

in vain. On counting the segments in nine specimens there

proved to be nearly the same number of segments (namely 110)

between the clitellus and this spot ; the inconsiderable differences

may be due to mistakes in counting. On the other hand, the

number of segments behind the spot varied from 60 to nearly

double that number. This spot might therefore possibly be a

place for the formation of new caudal segments. Observations

continued through all seasons may perhaps give us certainty

even without a microscope.

Itajahy, June, 1856.

16 Dr. W. B. Carpenter on the Development of Purpura lapillus.

I11.—Remarks on MM. Koren and Danielssen’s Researches on the

Development of Purpura lapillus. By Wm. B. Carpenter,

M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S.

A.tuoucH I have for some time had in my possession the

Second Part of the ‘ Fauna littoralis Norvegiz,’ contaiming the

second memoir of MM. Koren and Danielssen on the develop-

ment of Purpura lapillus, yet it was not my intention to take

any notice of their criticisms upon my observations, until I

should have had the opportunity of again working through the

subject. As the views of those gentlemen, however, have

recently been brought prominently before the readers of the

‘Annals’ (see vol. xix. p. 433), and as my own have not been

presented in its pages, I take the liberty of drawing attention to

the following concise summary of them ; referring such as desire

a more detailed statement to the or iginal memoir in the ‘Trans-

actions of the Microscopical Society,’ new series, vol. ui.

It will be remembered that, according to MM. Koren and

Danielssen, all the 500 or 600 egg-like bodies contained in any

one capsule are of similar character: all undergoing coalescence

into a conglomerate mass; and this mass subdividing itself into

ovoidal bodies of larger or smaller size, each of which becomes

converted into an embryo.

My view of the case is very different. Of these 500 or 600

egg-like bodies, I regard a small number only—usually from

12 to 30—as true ova, the remainder being only yolk-spherules,

which are destined to serve for the nutrition of the embryos.

The distinction between them manifests itself at a very early

period, even in the first segmentation ; for while the yolk-sphe-

rules divide into two equal hemispheres (fig. 1, B), the real ova

divide into a larger and a

smaller segment (p); in the

cleft between these are seen

the minute ‘directive vesicles,’

which appear to be always

doubleoreventriple, although,

from being seen ‘end-on,’

only one may be visible;

and near these is generally to

be seen a clear space in each

segment. The difference is

still more strongly marked in

the subsequent divisions ; for

whilst the cleavage of the pE#ty tages of embryonic development of

yolk-spherules goes on lrre- =F, G, successive stages of segmentation of

Chie yolk-spherules ; D, H, I, J, K, successive stages

ularly, so as to divide each © of development of early embryos.

Fig. 1.

Dr. W. B. Carpenter on the Development of Purpura lapillus. 17

into from 14 to 20 segments having no definiteness of arrange-

ment (Cc, E, F, G), that of the ova takes place in such a manner as

to mark out the distinction, first noticed by Vogt (in his memoir

on the development of Acteon), between the cephalic and the vis-

ceral portions of the mass (H); and the evolution of the former

into distinct organs very speedily commences. In the first in-

stance, a narrow transparent border is seen around the whole em-

bryonic mass, which is broader at the cephalic portion (1) ; next,

this border is fringed with short cilia, and the cephalic extension

into two lobes begins to show itself; and then between the lobes

a large mouth is formed, opening through a short, wide cesopha-

gus, the interior of which is ciliated, into the visceral cavity, oc-

cupied as yet only by the yolk-segments originally belonging to

the ovum (k).—Whilst these developmental changes are taking

place in the embryo, the whole aggregate of segments formed by

the subdivision of the yolk-spherules coalesces into one mass, as

shown at A, fig.2 ; and the embryos are often, in the first instance,

Fig. 2.

pie

CRY eed

ss ager ence ;

Later stages of embryonic development of Purpura lapillus: A, conglomerate mass of

vitelline segments, to which were attached the embryos, a, b,c, d,e; B, full-sized

embryo, in more advanced stage of development.

so completely buried within this, as only to be discoverable by

tearing its portions asunder ; but some of them may generally be

found upon its exterior ; and those contained in one capsule very

commonly exhibit the different stages of development represented

in fig. 1, H—x. After a short time, however, it becomes apparent

that the most advanced embryos are beginning to swallow the

yolk-segments of the conglomerate mass; and capsules will not

unfrequently be met with, im which embryos of various sizes, as

a, b, c, d, e (fig. 2, A), are projecting from its surface, their dif-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 2

18 Dr. W.B. Carpenter on the Development of Purpura lapillus.

ference of size not being accompanied by advance in develop:

ment, but merely depending upon the amount of this ‘sup-

plemental? yolk which the individuals have respectively gulped

down. For during the time in which they are engaged in

appropriating this additional supply of nutriment, although they

imcrease in size, yet they scarcely exhibit any other change ; 3 so

that the large embryo, fig. 2 e, is not apparently more advanced

as regards the formation of its organs, than the small embryo,

fig.1,x. So soon as this operation has been completed, how-

ever, and the embryo has attained its full bulk, the evolution of

its organs takes place very rapidly ; the ciliated lobes are much

more highly developed, being extended in a long sinuous margin,

so as almost to remind the observer of the ‘ wheels’ of Rotifera,

and furnished with very long cilia (fig. 2, B); the auditory vesicles,

the tentacula, the eyes, and the foot, successively make their ap-

pearance ; a curious rhythmically-contractile vesicle is seen just

beneath the edge of the shell in the region of the neck ; a little

later, the heart may be seen pulsating beneath the dorsal part of the

shell ; and the mass of yolk-segments of which the body is made

up gradually shapes itself into the various or gans of digestion,

respiration, &c., during the evolution of which (and while they

are as yet far from complete) the capsule thins away at its sum-

mit, and the embryos make their escape from it. It happens

not unfrequently that one of the embryos which a capsule con-

tains, does not acquire its supplemental yolk in the manner now

described, and can only proceed in its development as far as its

original yolk will afford it material; and thus, at the time when

the other embryos have attained their full size and maturity, a

strange-looking creature, consisting of two large ciliated lobes

with scarcely the rudiment of a body, may be seen in active mo-

tion among them. ‘This may happen, indeed, not only to one

but to several embryos within the same capsule, especially if

their number should be considerable; for it sometimes appears

as if there were not food enough for all, so that whilst some

attain their full dimensions and complete development, others

remain of unusually small size, without being deficient in any of

their organs, and others again are more or less completely abor-

tive,—the supply of supplemental yolk which they have obtained

having been too small for the development of their viscera,

although it may have afforded what was needed for that of the

ciliated lobes, eyes, tentacles, auditory vesicles, and even the

foot,—or, on the other hand, no additional supply whatever

having been acquired by them, so that their development has

been arrested at a still earlier stage.

Now, in defence of the foregoing explanation of the process,

and in reply to the criticisms of MM. Koren and Danielssen, I

Dr. W. B, Carpenter on the Development of Purpura lapillus. 19

beg to make the following remarks ; premising that I speak not

only for myself, but for Mr. G. Busk, whose independent obser-

vations (made for the purpose of testing the value of mine) led

him to the complete adoption of the same view of the case.

1. The absence of any definite membranous envelope around

the egg-like bodies, was, both to Mr, Busk and myself, a matter

of certainty.

2. The existence, in certain of these bodies, of the ‘ directive

vesicles,’ which MM. Koren and Danielssen now concur with me

in affirming, was most pointedly denied by them in their former

memoir. They bring no new observations to invalidate my state-

ment, that in the cases in which these bodies present themselves,

the segmentation follows a regular plan, tending to the pro-

duction of an embryo according to the ordinary Gasteropod type ;

but content themselves with affirming that the distinction which

I have drawn between the segmentation of the true ova and that

of the vitelline spheres is nugatory.

3. Although MM. Koren and Danielssen spoke in their first

memoir of having only occasionally met with one of the embryos

developed from a single ovum, they now admit that several such

embryos are usually to be found in the capsule before the act

of conglomeration has commenced; thus again confirming my

statement as to a fact of fundamental importance. They do not

offer any explanation of the ordinary presence of these small

embryos, which is altogether meaningless, if (as affirmed by

them) they speedily perish, but which is fully explained (on my

view of the case) by their subsequent expansion imto large em-

bryos through the ingestion of the supplemental yolk. I have

nowhere said, as is imputed to me, that all the bodies enclosed

in the capsules are “ anatomically and physiologically alike ;” on

the contrary, I contend that although there is originally no

perceptible structural difference between the true ova and the

vitelline spheres, a definite physiological difference manifests

itself from the very commencement of the process of seg-

mentation.

4. MM. Koren and Danielssen impute to me that I have

(under the influence, as they assume, of a preconceived hypo-

thesis) affirmed the existence of a mouth and a ciliated cesophagus

in the small embryos, and have given delineations of these

organs, without any other foundation than my own imagination,

having mistaken for the cesophagus the foot im an incipient

stage of development. It is not a little strange that if J have

been deceived in this matter, so accurate and cautious an ob-

server as Mr. Busk should have not only followed me in this

error, but should have actually made the very drawings whose

truthfulness is challenged. That my eyes should have deceived

20 Dr. W. B. Carpenter on the Development of Purpura lapillus.

me, when I saw, during the prolonged observation of the same

individuals, yolk-segments actually pass down this esophagus,

and their bodies augment in bulk, does not strike me as very

probable.

5. It is not a little significant that, putting aside the fore-

going difference, the figures given by MM. Koren and Danielssen

to illustrate their second memoir bear far more resemblance to

mine, than they do to those by which their first memoir was

illustrated. This fact, of which any one who compares the

three sets of figures may readily satisfy himself, cannot but throw

some doubt over the trustworthiness of the figures and descrip-

tions originally given by those authors.

6. The contractile vesicle which was described and figured by

MM. Koren and Danielssen in their first memoir as the heart,

and which is distinguished by its projection from beneath the

mantle during the middle period of development, I again affirm

(and this without the slightest hesitation) not to be the

heart. With the aid of the achromatic condenser, I was able to

recognize what the presence of a distinct auricle and ventricle

showed to be unmistakeably the heart, much deeper in the cavity

of the mantle; and that these observers should not have recog-

nized it, may be due to their not having transmitted a sufficiently

strong light through the semi-opake body of the embryo. Al-

though the reference they make in their second memoir to some

other contractile vesicle (kidney ?) would seem to imply that they

had recognized (as I have done) two distinct contractile organs,

they have given no evidence of having done so.

I will not take upon myself to affirm that I have made no

errors in my description of the process. Those who may take

the trouble to consult my original memoir, will find that there

are certain parts which I do not consider myself to have fully

made out. But I cannot at present entertain any doubt as to

the general facts of the case; and I submit that the admissions

now made by MM. Koren and Danielssen go to strengthen my

view of it. It is obvious that the main point to be decided by

further observation is, whether I am right in affirming that in

embryos developed from single ova, a ciliated mouth and ceso-

phagus exist, down which yolk- spher ules can pass; or whether,

as MM. Koren and Danielssen assert, I have mistaken for the

cesophagus the incipient foot. I would suggest to any observers

who, during the present season, may have the opportunity of

studying the development of Purpura (at Tenby the egg-capsules

are so abundant that they may be gathered by the handful),

that they give their special attention to this point, and that they

endeavour so to place the embryos under the microscope, as to

be able to look at the mouth from the front, as well as from the

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Ultimate Structure of Spongilla. 21

side, and thus to see down into the short wide cesophagus.

Such a view was obtained both by Mr. Busk and myself, and is

represented in fig. 9b of my memoir; but MM. Koren and

Danielssen seem only to have examined these parts from the

side.—I shall of course take the first opportunity of again

applying myself to the investigation; and if I find that I

have been in error, I shall lose no time in making public my

retractation.

P.S. Since writing the above, I have been informed by

Dr. Dyster of Tenby, that he has repeatedly verified the most

important parts of my observations; viz. the development of

embryos, possessing a mouth and ciliated cesophagus, from

single ova, which are distinguished as such from the very com-

mencement, by the mode of segmentation and the presence of

the directive vesicles.

IV.—On the Ultimate Structure of Spongilla, and Additional

Notes on Freshwater Infusoria. By H. J. Carter, Esq.,

Assistant Surgeon H. C.S., Bombay.

{With a Plate.]

In the “ Postscript” to my notes on the organization of Infu-

soria, dated 10th June last*, it is stated that apertures exist in

the investing membrane of Spongilla, and that the particles of

carmine taken in through them pass into the substance of the

sponge-cells. This was added chiefly to correct an assertion

made in the body of the paper, that Spongilla lived by endos-

mosis. I also stated that I should recur to these facts more

particularly hereafter; but since then, up to within the last

month, | have not had an opportunity of again pursuing the

subject. I have, however, during this time, succeeded in ascer-

taining the ultimate structure of Spongilla, by following its de-

velopment from the seed-like body, and this I will now relate.

Those who are acquainted with Spongilla are aware, that it is

charged towards the base with a number of seed-like bodies of

a globular shape, each of which consists of a coriaceous mem-

brane enclosing a number of delicate, transparent, spherical cells,

more or less filled with ovules and granular matter, while an

incrustation of gelatinous matter, charged with small spicules

peculiar to the species, surrounds the exterior of the coriaceous

membrane. It has also been shown that at an early period

* Annals, vol. xviii. p. 242.

22 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Ultimate Structure of Spongilla.

of development the spherical, which we shall henceforth call

“ovi-bearing,” cells are polymorphic—identical, but for the

ovules, with the ordinary sponge-cell,—and surrounded by a

layer of peculiar cells equally polymorphic, which I have conjec-

tured to be the chief agents engaged in constructing the cap-

sule*, It is desirable also to remember that there are these two

kinds of cells in the composition of the seed-like body, because

we shall find by and bye that they appear in corresponding parts

of the newly developed Spongilla. Lastly, the seed-like body

presents a hole, which we shall call the “ hilum.”

Having thus briefly alluded to the constituent parts of the

seed-like body, let us now pursue the development of Spongilla

from it. This takes place in the following order: viz. 1st. The

contents issue through the hilum under the form of a gelatinous

mass, in which the ovi-bearing cells and their contents appear

to be imbedded entire. 2ndly. The spicules begin to be deve-

loped, and with them is formed a delicate pellicle, which not

only encloses the new Spongilla, but also the seed-like body:

to this pellicle we shall give the name of “ investing membrane ;”

this becomes separated by an interval (which we shall designate

the “cavity” of the investing membrane) from the gelatinous

mass containing the ovi-bearing cells, which we shall term the

“parenchyma.” Srdly. Apertures are developed in the investing

membrane, and a system of afferent and efferent canals in the

parenchyma; the afferent canals commencing in many large

apertures and afterwards communicating with each other, and

the efferent canals commencing in ramusculi which end in a

single tubular vent. In this period also the spicular structure

is formed and arranged. 4thly. The ovi-bearing cells are deve-

loped into spherical ampullaceous sacs, communicating with the

afferent canals; and the afferent and efferent currents are esta-

blished. We will now follow this more in detail.

First Periop.—Three or four days after the seed-like body

(which has never been allowed to get dry+) has been placed in

clear water, a white substance like cotton is seen to have issued

from the lower part of it. This, when examined, is found to

present a flat, transparent border, so abounding in (indolently

contracting) vesicles of different sizes, that it looks like an areolar

structure. I wish particularly to call attention to this point,

* Annals, vol. xvui. pl. 6. figs. 41, 42.

t For this purpose it is best to place a piece of Spongilla, charged with

the seed-like bodies, in a basin of water, where it will soon get putrid; but

this does not matter: the seed-like bodies still retain their vitality, and will

throw out the young Spongilla much more quickly than if taken fresh

from the living mass. Those which I have used for these experiments

belong to Spongilla alba, H.J.C., which was taken from the tank a year

since.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Ultimate Structure of Spongilla. 23

because it resembles the vacuolar state of the protoplasm in the

early development of the cell of the Characez, and probably of

vegetable structures generally. The margin of this border is

more or less irregular and digitated, from the polymorphic sub-

stance of which it is composed ; while further in may be seen

the ovi-bearing cells in the denser gelatinous matter, with their

ovules already somewhat diminished in size. The spicules have

also begun to appear.

Srconp Prerrop.—We may commence with the formation of

the spicules, which is so rapid, that they come into view almost

simultaneously with the issue of the substance of the seed-like

body.

Spicules.—These appear to be formed in sponge-cells of a

peculiar kind, one of which is confined to the parenchyma, viz.

that which forms the large smooth spicule, and the other to the

seed-like bodies and the investing membrane, viz. that which

forms the small spiniferous spicule characteristic of the species.

Of the former I can state nothing, except that it appears to be

‘filled with ovules like the ovi-bearing cell, while the latter is

characterized by the absence of ovules, a uniform granular com-

position, and the presence of a nucleus (PI. I. fig. 7).

At the earliest period that a spicule becomes visible it appears

under a hair-like form of immeasurable thinness, and enclosed

in a sponge-cell of a spindle-shape, which has assumed this

figure to accommodate it. The nucleus of the cell is now seen

in its centre, and the spicule, about ;1,th of an inch in length,

lying across it (fig. 8a’). After a few hours the spicule becomes

much larger and longer, and the sponge-cell still more extended

to retain it within its substance; it also presents a glairy, ovate

globule in its centre, through which its shaft passes, not in the

line of the longitudinal axis, but on one side of it, so that the

globule looks as if it were appended to it (fig. 8 a, 4, c). When,

however, the spicule is arrested at this stage of its development

and denuded of the sponge-substance, that part which in the

sponge-cell appeared to be a glairy, refractive globule, is found

to be merely an inflation of the outer wall of the spicule, for the

shaft of the spicule, slightly diminished in size, may then plainly

be seen to pass through it in the manner before mentioned, and

to present the longitudinal canal in its inside. In this state

neither undiluted nitric acid nor a saturated solution of caustic

potash produces any change in it, so that it may fairly be as-

sumed to be of the same composition as the rest of the spicule.

By degrees, as the spicule is enlarged, the inflation is also

proportionally increased in size, and disappears only when the

spicule is fully formed (fig. 8 d). The normal state of the in-

flation appears to be single and in the centre of the spicule, but

24 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Ultimate Structure of Spongilla.

it may be situated on any part of the shaft, or present in variable

plurality (e, f, 9).

n my notes on the organization of the Infusoria I have

stated* that the spicule grows from a hair-like extension pro-

jecting from either side of a glairy globule, which now is found

to be nothing but an inflation, probably filled with refractive

fluid. However, as we see that the spicule grows by layers de-

posited on the original one, which, therefore, forms the longitu-

dinal canal, and that, when it is fully formed, the inflation is no

longer visible, at the same time that the inflated portion is con-

tinuous with the outermost layer of the spicule while the latter

is growing, it does not seem improbable that the first layer does

arise from the linear extension of a globule, and that every suc-

ceeding layer is formed in the same way; (hence, as there will

be more layers in the centre than at the circumference, the spi-

cule assumes a pointed form at each extremity) ; the inflation

subsiding with the extension of each layer, until the final one

leaves no inflation at all, and the spicule assumes its ultimate

form. The original form of the spicule, therefore, appears to

determine its ultimate one, and the spiniferous character of this

will therefore depend on the greater or less tendency in all the

layers to assume this figure, whatever it may be (fig. 8 4). Whe-

ther the spicule is developed throughout by the same sponge-

cell, or whether, after it very much exceeds in area any of the

sponge-cells, which is always the case with the large spicule, a

plurality are engaged in its ultimate development, or whether it

continues to grow in the intercellular substance until it has

reached its largest size, I am ignorant; but I have ascertained,

by a series of observations and measurements, that it does not

grow after having become denuded of the sponge-substance.

Again, I am not certain that the inflation, though extremely

common, is always concomitant, or even necessary in the forma-

tion of the spicule, for many present no trace of it in any stage

of their development, from the time they are first visible to that

in which they have attained their largest size.

Long before the spicules are formed, however, they are trans-

ported from place to place by the sponge-cells individually, and

when too large for this, are twisted and turned and grouped

together by the general mass, to meet the requirements of the

case, with as much instinct as that which characterizes the

arrangement of the bits of stick in an ant-hill; while they ap-

pear never to become finally fixed until the substance in which

they may be imbedded has altogether lost its vitality.

Investing Membrane.—As the sponge-substance accumulates

vertically, the flat transparent border seems to disappear by

* Annals, vol. xvii. p. 118.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Ultimate Structure of Spongilla. 25

being raised with the pellicular covering of the Spongilla ge-

nerally, until it presents a considerable angle of elevation at the

circumference ; while the parenchyma, either by contraction

within, or by forcing outwards bundles of its large smooth spi-

cules, here and there separates itself from the pellicular cover-

ing, and thus both the investing membrane and its cavity are

formed (Pl. I. fig. 1 6, 6, 6). The investing membrane, now

supported in its position by these bundles of spicules (d, d, d),

and kept on the stretch by the small spiniferous spicules which

are scattered through its substance, presents two objects well

worthy of description, viz. the peculiar cell to which I have

before alluded, and a number of apertures (/f, f).

The cells of the investing membrane are characterized by

their uniformly granular composition and colourless appearance.

They are nucleated, possess the contracting vesicle singly or in

plurality, and are spread over the membrane in such numbers,

that it seems to be almost entirely composed of them; while

they are of such extreme thinness, and drawn out into such long

digitated forms, that they present a foliated arrangement not

unlike a compressed layer of multifidous leaves, ever moving

and changing their shapes (figs.6d & 7). This is, as I have

before stated, the same kind of cell as that which forms the

cortical layer of the seed-like body at a very early period; and,

as will be seen hereafter, is farther characterized by not enclosing

any carmine when the other cells become charged with it.

The apertures, on the other hand, are circular or elliptical

holes in the investing membrane among (in ?) these cells. They

seldom exceed -15th of an inch in diameter, have a clean, thin

margin, which in one part presents a slight tubercular enlarge-

ment, and are generally surrounded by some minute colourless

granules ; while they have the remarkable property of closing or

dilating like the pupil of the eye, but generally with extreme

tardiness instead of the velocity observed in the latter (fig. 6 a).

The tubercle looks very like the nucleus of a sponge-cell, and,

when the aperture is contracted, the granules may be seen to

be enclosed in a circumscribed form, which, together with the

presence of one or more contracting vesicles, gives the whole

very much the appearance of one of the sponge-cells peculiar to

the investing membrane. Through the apertures the particles

of food and other substances suspended in the surrounding water

are admitted into the cavity of the investing membrane, pre-

paratory to passing into the parenchyma, in the manner which

will be presently mentioned*.

_* These are the apertures to which I alluded in the postscript men-

tioned. Mr. Bowerbank also discovered them about the same time in

26 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Ultimate Structure of Spongilla.

Independently of all these structures, together with an innu-

merable number of minute contracting vesicles, the investing

membrane is so transparent, that every part of its cavity can be

seen as clearly as if there were no membrane at all.

ParencuyMa.—This consists of a mass of gelatinous sub-

stance (Pl. I. fig. 1c, c), in which are imbedded the smooth spi-

cules and oyi-bearing cells, and through which pass the afferent

and efferent canals.

Ovi-bearing cells—The ovi-bearing cells do not burst and

allow their contents to become indiscriminately scattered through

the gelatinous mass in which they are imbedded, but each be-

comes developed separately and entire in the following way, viz.

the ovules and granules of the ovi-bearing cell subside into a

granular mass by the former losing their defined shape and

passing into small monociliated and unciliated sponge-cells ;

this mass then becomes spread over the interior surface of the

ovi-bearing cell, leaving a cavity in the centre, into which the

cilia of the monociliated sponge-cells dip and keep up an undu-

lating motion; meanwhile an aperture becomes developed in

one part of the cell which communicates with the adjoining

afferent canal, and thus the ovi-bearmg cell passes into an am-

pullaceous, spherical sac. The cilia may be now seen undulating

in the interior; and if the Spongilla is fed with carmine, this

colouring matter will not only be observed to be entirely con-

fined to the ampullaceous sacs, but when the Spongilla is torn

to pieces and placed under a microscope, particles of the car-

mine will be found in the interior of the monociliated as well

as in that of the unciliated sponge-cells (figs. 2, 3, 4, 5) ; proving

that of such cells the ampullaceous sac is partly composed.

This sac then must be regarded as the animal of Spongilla, as

much as the Polype-cell is regarded as the animal of the Polype,

and the whole mass of Spongilla as analogous to a Polypidom.

Sometimes an isolated ovi-bearing sponge-cell which has

escaped from the general mass, may be seen to have undergone

the same development by itself in the watch-glass; but in this

case there appears to be no aperture, for particles of carmine

brought into contact with it indicate no currents about its ex-

terior, while, within, the cilia may be undulating as actively and

as evidently as if it were in situ. Another proof also of the

absence of an aperture is, that under this condition the ampul-

laceous sac encloses the particles of carmine which are in contact

with its exterior, after the manner of Ameba.

England, and mentioned the fact at the British Association (Athenzum,

30th August, 1856). His paper in the Quart. Journ. Microseop. Science

I have not yet seen.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Ultimate Structure of Spongilla. 27

I have stated that the contents of the ovi-bearing cell during

development become spread over its inner surface, but at the

same time I think it questionable whether this cell becomes

revivified, or whether it is not ultimately cast off after a new

one has been formed.

In proportion as the ampullaceous sac experiences a want of

nourishment after it has been fully developed in the watch-glass,

so it gets thin, and, becoming more translucent, not only allows

its aperture to be better seen, but presents an indistinct meri-

dional lineation, which, radiating from around the aperture,

meets at the opposite pole of the sac, thus giving the former an

appearance not unlike the pupil of the eye (fic. 3 ahs but though

at one time it is larger and at another smaller, and not unfre-

quently of an irregular circular form, yet its changes are so

gradual, that I have seldom, except rhe carmine has been

added and taken into this sac, been able to see any alteration in

its size or form for an hour together. When the aperture is in

focus, the opposite point of the sac is invisible.

Afferent Canals.—The afferent canals consist of a number

of channels which open by large apertures into the paren-

chyma from the cavity of the imvesting membrane, and then,

freely anastomosing, form an areolated cavernous structure,

throughout which ‘the particles admitted into the cavity of

the investing membrane subsequently circulate, and are finally

received into the ampullaceous sacs which open into them

(fig. 1 e, e).

Efferent Canals.—The efferent canals, on the other hand,

begin by radicles in the interstices of the cavernous structure,

among the ampullaceous sponge-cells (with the cavities of which,

however, they do not communicate, nor with the afferent canals,

as will be seen hereafter), and, growing into large branches, at

length terminate in a single tube. This tube extends beyond

the periphery of the Spongilla, and ends in a mammilliform

point, im the centre of which is a single contracted aperture

(Pl. I. fig. lg).

Thus we have the structure and composition of the portion of

Spongilla developed from the seed-like body. Let us now direct

our attention to its functions, which are easily elicited by placing

a little carmine in the water, ‘and watching the particles as they

pass through its substance.

No sooner has the carmine reached the exterior of the invest-

ing membrane, than its particles are rapidly drawn in through its

apertures, not vortically but directly, and, traversing its cavity,

or the interval which exists between the investing membrane

and parenchyma, in different directions, are thence drawn in

through the apertures of the latter, and finally into the ampul-

28 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Ultimate Structure of Spongilla.

laceous sacs, where they remain a quarter of an hour or more,

until they are thrown off and find their exit through the efferent

system of canals.

During their course we observe, that on arriving near the

ampullaceous sacs, they are rapidly drawn aside, and for the most

part pass into their cavities; and by seeking for those favour-

ably situated for such observations, that is, at the circumference

of the parenchyma, we not only see that this takes place at one

point only, but also, frequently, that at this part of the sac there

is the circular aperture mentioned, and that they pass in through

this aperture ; further, after a certain time, we observe, that the

particles of carmine which have accumulated round the inner

surface of the sac, are gradually thrown off from its circum-

ference, and, falling into the efferent system of canals, are thus

carried away and finally ejected.

It would have been satisfactory to have seen the particles pass

in through the aperture while the latter was uppermost or under-

most, and in the focus of the microscope (PI. I. fig. 3 a)*, but

this I could never do, perhaps from the rapidity with which they

are whirled into the interior; but when the aperture happens to

be on one side of the sac, the particles may be seen to pass

through it into the interior, and generally to adhere to the first

part with which they come into contact, when they are instantly

enclosed by the sponge-cell on which they impinge. Again, the

aperture would not appear to be the only part of the exterior of

the ampullaceous sac which is in communication with the afferent

canal, but a much larger portion is bathed by the afferent fluid,

for particles of carmine may be seen to adhere to the external

surface of this sac as well as to be carried into it; and the latter

seems to be more the case as the sac becomes altered from want

of nourishment, after having reached its maximum of develop-

ment under the circumstances mentioned.

If now we clear the watch-glass of all superfluous carmine by

dipping it in clean water, and again place it under the micro-

scope, the facts to which I have before alluded will become per-

fectly evident, viz. that the colouring matter is wholly confined

to the ampullaceous sacs, and that the sponge-cells of the in-

vesting membrane do not contain a single particle; while, by

tearing the Spongilla to pieces, it will be found as much in ‘the

bodies of the monociliated as in those of the unciliated sponge-

cells. Thus the component parts of the ampullaceous sac are

easily demonstrated. One point, however, remains to be proved,

* This aperture corresponds in every respect, except the presence of the

tubercle, with the aperture of the investing membrane; but I never could

entirely satisfy myself that the latter was not a contracting vesicle, — I

saw the particles of carmine pass in through it.

Mr. H.J. Carter on the Ultimate Structure of Spongilla. 29

namely, that there is no direct communication between the afferent

canals, or the ampullaceous sacs, and the efferent canals. This

is easily effected by placing a little carmine in the water, and

observing the moment of its entry through the apertures of the

investing membrane and that of its exit through the efferent

tube, when the interval will be found to vary; but as it is sel-

dom less than a quarter of an hour, this is quite sufficient to

show that there is no direct communication between these cavi-

ties ; while the mode of enclosing the particles by the small

sponge-cells being known to be like that of the Amwba, their

having been seen to throw them off at the circumference of the

ampullaceous sac, when they are immediately carried away by a

current passing through the canal into which they are thrown,

is still further corroborative of the fact ; but, indeed, it requires

no corroboration, for when the sacs are only one layer deep, it

can be seen.

We have now to consider by what power the particles are

drawn into the ampullaceous sacs, and how a constant current

through the Spongil/la is maintained—questions which we can

only hope to answer by a study of the organs of Spongilla indi-

vidually ; and fortunately, as far as the first inquiry goes, this

is much aided by the change which takes place in the new

Spongilla a few days after it has been developed.

The same difficulty which exists in maintaiing life in the

Infusoria, viz. the want of proper nourishment, is experienced

with respect to the young Spongilla, and hence, sooner or later,

it becomes starved ; but frequently, just before this takes place,

the whole community of sponge-cells, more or less, separate,

dissolve partnership, so to speak, leave their habitation, and

issue forth into the watch-glass to seek mdependent existences

respectively for themselves. At this time the ampullaceous sac

may be seen entire, but reduced to an actinophorous form (PI.I.

fig. 9), and presenting a single nucleus, while in other instances

the community of this sac have separated, and its monociliated

and unciliated sponge-cells are also seen spread about the watch-

glass; also groups of much smaller monociliated cells hke those

called Uvella by Khrenberg ; and lastly, the characteristic sponge-

cell of the investing membrane.

The one, however, which interests us most here, is the mono-

ciliated sponge-cell of the ampullaceous sac (that which I once

supposed to be the androspore), and this may be seen attached

by a pedicular elongation of its substance to the watch-glass on

one side, and with its single cilium undulating on the other

(fig. 10). We have it now, then, exactly in the position for

ascertaining the direction of the currents of the latter, and these,

when a little carmine is added, are found to be towards the body

30 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Ultimate Structure of Spongilla.

on either side of the cilium, by which the particles may be seen

to be thrown almost point-blank on its surface, and at the same

time caught up (by apparently adhermg to it, or by a process

thrown out by it as in Actinophrys Sol (b) ) and rapidly passed

into the interior. Hence we may easily conceive the united effort

of all the ciliated sponge-cells in the ampullaceous sae being

sufficient to produce a considerable current into its interior, and

thus to catch the particles which are passing through the afferent

canals.

The other question, viz. that of the afferent and efferent cur-

rents, is not so easily solved, but still the monociliated sponge-

cell supplies data for at least speculation on that point. I have

already shown, in my notes on the organization of the Infusoria,

that the vesicula or contracting vesicle is an excretory organ,

and that it discharges itself from the surface in many Infusoria,

especially in the naked Rhizopoda, to which the sponge-cell is

most intimately allied ; and it so happens, that not only do these

monociliated sponge-cells present the contracting vesicle in

great activity, but also in variable plurality, so that with those

of the other sponge-cells lining the cavity of the ampullaceous

sac, a continual and rapid discharge of water must be kept up;

which, when we remember that it is the character of this organ

to discharge itself from the surface, and find that when the am-

pullaceous sac leaves the parenchyma it becomes nothing more

than a large sponge-cell, gives us, I think, pretty good reason to

infer that these organs discharge their watery contents into the

efferent system of canals; and, when we consider the powerful

organ which the contracting vesicles of all the ampullaceous cells

together must form for effecting this function, it does not seem

unreasonable, in connexion with the following facts, to conclude

that the currents, both afferent and efferent, of the sponge may

be produced in this way.

It might be supposed, from what has been stated respecting

the course of the particles of carmine through Spongilla, that

the afferent and efferent currents never cease as long as it is

alive; but such is not the case under some circumstances, for

although no difference is appreciable when only a small quan-

tity cf carmine has been taken in, yet when there is an abun-

dance in the water, and the ampullaceous sacs become apparently

filled with it, not only do these sacs one after another seem to

close their apertures and refuse admittance to any more, but the

whole investing membrane becomes drawn towards the paren-

chyma, its apertures all become closed, and the tubular vent of

the efferent system retracted, and its aperture also closed, so

that there is a total cessation of all active motion in the Spon-

gilla; and this may continue for more than an hour, when the

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Ultimate Structure of Spongilla, 31

vent is seen to project itself as gradually as it became contracted,

the investing membrane to resume its original position, and the

apertures in both to open and admit and emit their currents

respectively as before; but now, the latter brings away the re-

fuse of the carmine which has been and is still being thrown off

into the efferent canals. In fact, the Spongil//a, having been fed

to satiety, appears thus to shut itself up for a time for the pur-

pose of digestion, and then to open to throw off the refuse.

Again, it sometimes happens that one of the large branches of

the efferent system bursts and gives rise to an efferent current

before the tubular vent resumes its original dimensions and

opens its aperture, by which two efferent currents are subse-

quently established, for the abnormal one does not close when

the normal one becomes opened. Hence we have a further in-

dication of pressure on the contents of this system, which will

hardly derive explanation from anything but a force exerted by

the contracting vesicles in the way mentioned ; the conditions of

the fluid in the afferent and efferent canals hardly holding out a

sufficient difference in composition or density to account for this

by endosmosis.

Thus we find Spongilla (for I have ascertained that the same

structure exists in the large masses as in the small ones) com-

posed of a number of stomachal sacs imbedded in a gelatinous

substance permeated with spicules for its support, and an ap-

paratus for bringing them food, as well as one for conveying

away the refuse, while the nutriment which is abstracted by the

process of digestion common to Rhizopodous cells (e. g. Ameba)

no doubt passes through the intercellular gelatinous substance

into the general development of the mass; and if right in com-

paring the ampullaceous sacs to the stomachal cavities of the

simplest Polypes, are we not further justified in drawing a resem-

blance also between the ciliated sponge-cells and those which

line the stomach of Cordylophora*, of Otostomat, and many of

Ehrenberg’s Allotreta together with those in the stomach of

the Rotatoria and Planarie {, which are evidently biliary organs,

also having cilia floating in the cavity which receives the food ?

Lastly, it is perfectly evident that each monociliated sponge-

cell possesses a large granule (PI. I. fig. 10), which is of a

greenish colour, and that the assemblage of these cells in the

interior of the ampullaceous sac produces the assemblage of

granules which are seen in it; also that these granules, when

the ampullaceous sac becomes individualized and assumes an

actinophorous form, represent the “granules’” which I have de-

scribed as a part of the internal contents of the Rhizopoda (fig. 9).

* See Prof. Allman in Phil. Trans. 1853, p. 370.

+ Annals, vol. xvii. p. 117. } Idem, vol. xvii. pl. 7. fig. 92.

32 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Ultimate Structure of Spongilla.

May we not infer from this that these indicate the presence of

similar cells in the interior of Ame@ba, &c.? If this should be

the case, and that they are homologous with the liver-cells of the

Planaria, then I shall have been right m my original conjecture

that the “granules” are the homologues of the “spherical

cells*.”

It is proper to notice here, also, the affinities which Spongilla

has to the vegetable kingdom. I have already alluded to the

resemblance between it and the cell of the Characez at an early

period, when both are filled with vacuoles; nor is the plurality

of the contracting vesicle in the Rhizopoda generally, when ma-

tured, a less striking instance of the transition of the vesicula or

contracting vesicle in the more animal Infusoria, into the passive

vacuoles of the vegetable protoplasm. The nucleus of the Rhi-

zopoda is typical of that which exists m the vegetable cell.

Similar “ granules” are also seen in motion at the extremity of

the root-cell of Chara, in the “ fixed protoplasm+;” and at pre-

sent no difference can be shown between the molecular proto-

plasm in each; while as regards the production of starch, that

is sO common in every specimen of Spongilla that is met with,

more particularly at the end of the season, that its presence is

no novelty whatever. The mode of taking nourishment is dif-

ferent, but I have already stated that when the protoplasm

leaves the cell of Spirogyra, and even before its exit, it encloses

nutrient matter after the manner of Ameba. For the last

year, some plants of Chara, which I reared from the nucules,

and have grown in a glass jar, have only been kept vigorous by

dead grasshoppers, which every now and then, when the Chara

begins to grow lighter in colour and meagre in appearance, have,

by being thrown into the water, restored it to its former condi-

tion§. So that the same elements, under different cireum-

stances, are thus made subservient to the same purposes. Hence

the sponge-cell appears to be but a naked condition of the

vegetable cell, and thus to become the first, or among the first,

of animal organisms.

I would here also recur to the forms which the substance of

Spongilla assumes when, under the dread of starvation, it leaves

* Annals, vol. xvii. p. 125. + Idem, vol. xix. pl. 3. fig. 2/f.

t Idem, vol. xix. p. 259.

§ In this instance I have noticed, that the moment the plants become

robust, they cease to bear fruit; while, when they become impoverished,

they throw forth nucules,—the physiology of which appears to be evident :

viz. so long as there is plenty of nourishment to build up more structure

for ultimately making more propagative germs, this alone occupies the

instinct of the plant; but the moment the nourishment ceases, the mstinct-

ive fear of failmg in the propagative department causes the plant to turn

its attention to preserve itself by forming seeds.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Ultimate Structure of Spongilla. 338

its habitation; not more to particularize these forms than to

show how closely they resemble those of the protoplasm of Spi-

rogyra, when under similar circumstances it also leaves its na-

tural habitation or cell-wall and seeks for food elsewhere. The

smallest is that which resembles Uvella, Ehr. This consists of

a number of minute, monociliated, flask-shaped cells, which

adhere by their pointed extremities respectively to a common

centre point, whence the whole assumes a globular form (PI. I.

fig. 1la,b). They are about ~,',.rd of an inch in diameter,

polymorphic, and present the granule and contracting vesicles

like the monociliated sponge-cell of the ampullaceous sac; they

also enclose particles of food, and on separating from each other,

attach themselves by a prolongation of the body to the watch-

glass (b), so that they are but a miniature type of the ciliated

sponge-cell. The latter, again, which I have already described,

loses its cilium a day or two after it has come out into the watch-

glass, and assumes an actinophorous form, becoming at last

encapsuled ; previous, however, to losing the cilium, it progresses

with the latter in front, and not behind, as when it is set free

by tearing up a piece of the Spongilla. The ampullaceous sac,

whilst remaining entire, also assumes an actinophorous form,

loses all appearance of cilia internally, and encloses food after

the manner of Amada. All these figures are so like those

assumed by the protoplasm of Spzrogyra* when it breaks up

and undergoes the changes to which I have alluded, that no

doubt can be entertained of both organisms being Rhizopoda at

this period.

Of the sense of feeling in Spongilla, | have had no manifesta-

tions beyond the instinctive acts to which I have alluded, and

that wonderful power of opening an aperture through itself,

which the sponge-cell of the investing membrane apparently

possesses ; but in Am@ba Princeps, which is a closely allied

organism, I once saw the surface contract and become puckered

several times successively, on being pinched by a rotatory ani-

maleule (Dig/ena), an experiment which this animalcule performed

for me so satisfactorily, that I have no longer any doubt about

the matter.

The “swarm-spore” described by M. N. Lieberkuhn+, which

appears to me to be a ciliated form of the seed-like body, and

the same as the “ gemmule” described by Dr. Grant, I have not

yet been able to see; nor have I been able to see his “ sperma-

tozoa-like bodies,” unless the Uvella-form just mentioned be

them.

The formation of the seed-like body, however, now that we

* Annals, vol. xix. p. 259. + Idem, vol. xvii. p. 407, 1856.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 3

34 Mr. H.J.Carter on the Freshwater Infusoria of Bombay.

know the structure of the ampullaceous sacs, seems very intelli-

sible; for we have only to conceive an enlargement of the small

sponge-cells lining its imterior, with the addition of ovules to

them respectively, and the spicule-bearing sponge-cells of the

cortical substance supplying the spicular crust to the exterior,

to have a globular capsule thus composed, with a hilum precisely

like the seed-like body; a conjecture which seems to derive

support from the fact, that in some instances, when Spongilla is

begining to experience the want of nourishment, these sacs,

small as they are, assume a defined, rigid, spherical form, from

their pellicle becoming hardened and encrusted with extremely

minute spicules.

Additional Notes on the Freshwater Infusoria in the Island of

Bombay.

As there are some parts of my “ Notes” on the organization

of the Infusoria* which require correction, alteration, and further

explanation respectively, I take this opportunity of commu-

nicating the observations necessary for this purpose, and at

the same time of supplying additional matter, which will render

them more complete.

Vesicula.—At p. 129 it was stated that the existence of the

vesicula “in Astasia, Anisonema (Duj.), and Euglena can only

be determined by inference.” Since then I have seen the hya-

line vesicle, supposed to be the vesicula, empty itself in all three

of these organisms, but more particularly in Euglena viridis,

and a description of the process, which is peculiar, in this species

will serve for all the rest. (PI. I. fig. 14.) It has been already

stated, that in Anisonema the vesicula seemed to alter in size

and shape without completely contracting, which is more or less

the case with all this class of animalcules, and appears to arise

from the presence of a single sinus in connexion with the vesicula,

as will be seen by the following description of the mode in which

this function is performed.

In Euglena viridis the single sinus, which is attached to the

side of the vesicula, after having become filled, pours its contents

into the latter; the vesicula, thus distended, is now pressed

upon by the gradual refilling of the sinus, and thus its contents

also become evacuated. Hence we never witness that sudden

contraction of the vesicula which is so common in other Infu-

soria, at the same time that it often appears double in Astasia

and Anisonema (where it is more evident than in Euglena, owing

to the absence of colouring matter), from both sinus and yesicula

being more or less distended together (fig. 15).

* Annals, vol. xvii. p. 115, 1856.

Mr. H.J. Carter on the Freshwater Infusoria of Bombay. 35

The only way in which this process can be well seen is, by

getting specimens of Euglena viridis which are turning red,

filled with ovules and about to become capsuled, or which have

been just burst from their capsules. These, which at this time are

spherical, if placed in water under a light piece of glass, and the

water partly abstracted by bibulous paper, will, by the pressure

of the glass, assume a compressed circular form, in the centre

of which the vesicula and its sinus may be observed in full

operation, and be deliberately watched for some time, or until

the infusorium dies (fig. 14).

Besides Polytoma Uvella, and Chlamidomonas, as before men-

tioned (loc. cit.), the vesicula has been seen and described by

Mr. G. Busk in Volwox Globator*, and having myself also seen

it in the Thecamonads, besides several species of Huglene, while

it would appear that Cohn has observed it in the swarm-cells of

Conferve, its existence throughout this class of Infusoria seems

thus to be established.

At p. 128 it is stated respecting the vesicula—“ in Euglypha

I have not been able to recognize it;” but since then I have

seen it frequently ; it is situated in plurality just in front of the

nucleus, as in Huglypha pleurostoma, H. J.C. (fig. 19 ¢).

Ovules.— At p. 224 T have stated, respecting the “ ovules” of

Infusoria, that “they occur in Euglypha alveolata, Duj., con-

gregated round the hyaline capsule of the nucleus, from forty to

fifty in number,” &c. I have also observed this in another spe-

cies, viz. the one just mentioned, for which I propose the name

“ K. pleurostoma”; and the same kind of development described in

the “larger variety” of E. alveolata, p. 227, figs. 32, 33, as well

(fig. 19, e,2). EH. pleurostoma is very like Ehrenberg’s Difflugia

Enchelys and Dujardin’s Trinema acinus, but not being identical

with the figure given of the former, and though often presenting

three radiated prolongations of the diaphane like the latter,

but by no means constantly, it becomes necessary to give it a

name. It is just possible hereafter that all three may be found

to be the same, but even then it would be well to retain the

term ‘ Huglypha,’ because E. pleurostoma is essentially of this

genus; the only differences between it and E. alveolata being the

lateral position of the mouth and the circular figure of the scales

in the former.

At p. 231, figs. 39, &c., under the head of “ Impregnation,”

it is stated that many of the ovules of Spongil/a, when pressed

out from the seed-like body, have a small granule or cell “in

different degrees of connexion with them, from simple approxi-

mation to almost undistinguishable incorporation ;” the same is

the case with the ovules of Huglena viridis (fig. 16).

* Quart. Journal Microscop. Science, vol. 1. p. 35.

386 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Freshwater Infusoria of Bombay.

At p. 234, under the head of “ Development of the ovules,”

it is stated that the same process as that which takes place in

the development of the ovule of Spongilla “ appears to take place

in the ovules of Euglena,” and this, to a certain extent, may be

really the case; but as the ultimate forms of the two organisms

are different, so there must be a point at which their develop-

mental appearances begin to differ. This, in the ovule of Eu-

glena viridis, consists in the evolution of a spiral structure, which,

when fully formed, appears to spring out in opposite directions,

and thus, with the diaphane, afford that means of vermicular

progression which Huglena always presents when void of, or with

only an injured or imperfect cilium (fig. 17 a, 4, c).

I infer this from the following circumstances : first, that in a

watch-glass, where a number of the ovules of Euglena viridis

had been placed for observation, about a hundred small Euglene

virides, closely corresponding in size with the largest ovules,

made their appearance, elongating and contracting themselves

incessantly for several days, without moving far from the place

in which they appeared to have been developed (on account of

the imperfect state of their cilium), and, being without chloro-

phyll, presenting exactly the same appearances as fully-developed

individuals in the same condition (fig. 18). Secondly, from

the ovules which remained on the sides of the basin from which

those in the watch-glass were taken, presenting, after a while, a

spiral line on both the flat sides of the compressed ovule, which

apparently, from its resiliency, caused these sides to become

prominent and obtusely conical ; thus indicating an advance of

development in these also as well as in most of those in the

watch-glass, which was arrested, probably, from want of proper

nourishment (fig. 17).

Now when we consider that the cells of Huglene, which we

have called ovules, do not present any signs of an amyloid com-

position when treated with iodine, that the existence of the spiral

line proves them not to be mere oil-globules, while the cell of

Fiuglena ultimately developes a spiral structure in its substance,

as I have particularly pomted out in Crumenula texta, Duj.*,

and a number of minute Euglene virides made their appearance

among a group of ovules of this organism, carefully set apart in

a vessel for development ; there can, I think, be very little doubt

that these cells, which are common in all the family, are in

reality their ovules.

In the same page it is stated, that “ imstances however do

occur where the ovules gain a cilium within the cell,” &c. I

doubt now if these are developments of the ovules, but rather

products of the other development which I have shown to take

* Annals, vol. xvii. pl. 6. fig. 60 a, b,c.

Mr. H.J. Carter on the Freshwater Infusoria of Bombay. 37

place in Euglena*, and consider analogous to, if not the same

as, that described in the Characeze and in Spirogyra (loc. cit.).

It should be remembered that in obtaining the ovules of Hu-

glena viridis for development, they should not be forced out of

the organism, but swept off the sides of the vessel an hour or

two after the Euglene, together with some of the water in which

they have been living, have been collected and set aside for set-

tlement.

I have also met with another species of Amweba undergoing

ovular development, viz. A. verrucosa, Ehr. (fig. 12), precisely

like that which I have already described ; the Ameba perishing

as the ovules are developed, and ending in becoming a mere

ovisac (fig. 13).

When first formed, the ovules, which are spherical, consist of

a hyaline capsule enclosing a sphere of glairy, refractive fluid,

like that of the ovules of Spongilla and Euglena (fig. 13 a) ; but

as they begin to develope, this glairy matter becomes trans-

formed into a granuliferous mucus which is spread over the

inner surface of the capsule (fig. 13 4) ; and finally the granules

present motion, whether of themselves or by aid of the mucus

in which they are imbedded, I am ignorant, for thus far only

have I seen the development; but I am inclined to think the

next stage consists in the whole ovule becoming polymorphic,

like the ovule of Spongilla. This Ameba appears to me—for I

have watched the development of a group for many months to-

gether—to be the adult of my A. quadrilineata, and therefore the

latter is not a new species. The formation and development of

the ovules took place in April, and the organism appears to

require at least nine months to come to maturity.

At p. 236 I have stated that I had observed “ Vorticelle de-

veloped singly from Acineta.’ This was from inference. I have

since been able to follow the gemmules thrown off from the

Acineta-form of Vorticelle through their subsequent develop-

ment, and in no case have seen them take on any other form

than that of Acineta. The young gemmule at the moment of

its exit is, as Stein has stated, exactly like the bud on Vorticella,

but when pursued to its resting-place, I have always found it

end in becoming an Acineta; so that this is not a true instance

of alternation of generation. Others, viz. Drs. Lachmann+ and

Cienkowski{, have arrived at the same facts; and these gentle-

men also doubt the transformation of Vorticella to Acineta.

Time will prove whether they or Professor Stein are right in this

also; in the meanwhile I incline to side with the latter.

* Annals, vol. xvii. pl. 9. figs. L1-ld. = = Idem, vol. xix. p. 235, 1857.

~ Quart. Journal Microscop. Science, No. 18. p. 96, 1857.

38 Mr.H.J. Carter on the Freshwater Infusoria of Bombay.

In the same page it is also stated, that the sudden contractile

movement ‘of Glenodinum unites Euglene indirectly to Vorti-

celle”’ I now find that this is not the case, as the “ movement”

is not one of the whole body, or of the body at all, but of the

cilium, which, floating posteriorly, like that of Anisonema sulcata

and Heteromita ovata (Duj.), &c., every now and then fixes itself

by its sucker-like extremity, and thus suddenly checks the pro-

gression of the organism. Whether the long cilium is also used

for progression, or whether this is performed by the aid of the

“minute vibratile cilia” noticed and figured by Dr. Allman*, I

am ignorant; but there does not appear to be a second large

cilium for this purpose, as in the animalcules just mentioned.

Chara.— At p. 237, pl. 7. figs. 93-98, in the additional mat-

ter which I have given respecting the development of monads

from the cell-contents of the Characez, it is stated that they are

derived from the nuclei which are found free in the protoplasm

and in the rhizopodous or polymorphic cells which exist in it

(fig. 93a); the nuclei becoming granular (94 d, 96 5), and the

granules finally passing into monads; and this may still take

place; but for the most part it now appears to me that it is the

old protoplasm which becomes divided up into monads, after

having first abstracted the starch from the dead chlorophyll and

converted it into oil, the oil then appearing in a granular form

enclosed within the monads ; hence the origin of the “granules”

(94 d, 96 b, 98a) mentioned at p. 288.

In the same page I have alluded to the “ mulberry-shape of

the plasma,” which we must now consider as the protoplasm

(96 a, 97 a, 986). This derives explanation, I think, from the

tendency of the protoplasm to assume an actinophorous form,

and the radii at the time the pellicula covermg them is about

to become hardened, not being entirely retracted, but remaining

in the pouch-like form which produces the mammillated or mul-

berry-surface mentioned. That this does take place is frequently

evidenced by the whole surface remaining actinophorous ; and

indeed it is only an instance of the way in which the peculiar

forms of many structures are produced, viz. by the hardening of

the pellicula upon the shape assumed by the protoplasm. It is

therefore not difficult to conceive, when the protoplasm and oil

are subdivided into monads inside this mulberry-shaped capsule,

how the “ granules,” which are in fact oil-globules surrounded

by protoplasm, should get into these pouches (98 a).

As regards, therefore, impregnation or ovular development

being connected with this process, we now see that both are out

of the question ; but still we have to account for the disappear-

* Quart. Journal Microscop Science, vol. ii. p. 24. pl. 3. fig. 9, &e.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Freshwater Infusoria of Bombay. 39

ance of the “nuclei.” These, however, might also secrete a

pellicula round themselves, and undergo the same kind of divi-

sion as the protoplasm, for they are endowed with a considerable

degree of contractile power, though not so active as that of the

protoplasm. Certain it is, that cells containing no nucleus, as

well as a cell containing one or more, will each produce a litter

of monads.

These additional observations on the development of monads

from the cell-contents of the Characez will be better understood

after perusing the abstract of my paper entitled “ Transforma-

tion of the Vegetable Protoplasm into Actinophrys,” to which I

have already alluded*.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Spongilla alba, growing from the seed-like body: a, seed-like

body; 4, 5, 6, 6, investing membrane charged with small spini-

ferous spicules; c, c, parenchyma, consisting chiefly of globular,

ampullaceous sacs (8 to 10-56UV0ths of an inch in diameter), and

large, smooth spicules; d, d, d, bundles of smooth spicules sup-

porting the investing membrane; e, e, openings of the afferent

canals ; f, f, dark pomts representing the apertures of the invest-

ing membrane; g, tubular vent of the efferent system of canals.

N.B.—All the parts of this figure have been drawn upon the same

scale, in order that their relative proportions might be preserved

as much as possible.

Fig. 2. Fundus of ampullaceous sac, representing the arrangement of the

sponge-cells in its substance ; the white or transparent lines indi-

cating the intercellular substance; the central circle, which can-

not be seen in the same focus, pointing out the position of the

aperture on the opposite side. Sac sg>th of an inch in dia-

meter; aperture or mouth ;;,5th of an inch in diameter. This

figure is too elaborate : the sponge-cells should have been a little

fewer and larger.

Fig. 3. Aperture or mouth of ampullaceous sac, showing the faint radiating

lines which appear when the sac is beginning to waste from want

of nourishment.

Fig. 4. Sponge-cells of the ampullaceous sac, as seen after the Spongilla

has been torn to pieces: a, unciliated, 6, monociliated forms

(active or secondary); a’, 6’, passive, spherical or primary, forms

of ditto. Unciliated cell from 2 to 3-5600ths of an inch ; mono-

ciliated cell from 1 to 2-5600ths of an inch in diameter.

Fig. 5. Ideal section of an ampullaceous sac: a, diaphane, or cortical layer

(the existence of which is inferred, partly from the isolated sac,

fig. 9, presenting something of the kind); 6, monociliated sponge-

cells with their cilia projecting into the interior; c, aperture. In

this state this sac may sometimes be seen isolated, but with the

aperture closed, though the cilia are still undulating interiorly.

Fig. 6. Portion of investing membrane illustrative of its apertures: a, aper-

ture fully dilated, showing the tubercle in its margin (nucleus of

* Annals, vol. xix. p. 259, 1857.

Fig.

Mr. H. J. Carter on the Freshwater Infusoria of Bombay.

the cell in which the aperture is situated?); 6, aperture half-

closed; ¢, wholly closed; d, characteristic sponge-cell of invest-

ing membrane ; 3; e, portion of a spiniferous spicule.

7. Group of sponge-cells of the investing membrane illustrating their

arrangement in situ.

8. Figures illustrative of the dev Elopmert of the spicule: a, nucleated

sponge-cell bearing a spicule z35th of an inch in length, and of

extreme thinness; a!, sponge- eal bearing a still younger spicule,

sasoth of an inch in length, on which is seen the inflation ;

6, ditto, with the spicule more advanced; c, spicule still more

advanced, showing the passage of the shaft through the inflation,

thus proving that the latter is the outer layer of the spieule, and

that the spicule is formed of layers deposited from within out-

wards; d, fully-developed smooth spicule; e,f,g, varieties in the

position and number of the inflations, and in the development of

the shaft, which are endless; 4, central portion of a spiniferous

spicule, showimg two spines projecting from the inflation.

Fig. 9. Isolated ampullaceous sae (;35th of an inch in diameter), which,

Fig.

having left the parent mass of Spongilla, has become ameebous

and actinophorous, presenting a cortical transparent portion (the

diaphane) externally, and the sarcode charged with granules in-

ternally.

10. Monociliated sponge-cell, after the constituent cells of the mass

of Spongilla have separated to seek an independent existence for

themselves: a, a, dotted limes showmg the movement of the

surrounding particles of carmine im the direction of the arrows ;

b, a particle caught up and enclosed by a projection of the cell,

as in Actinophrys Sol; c, ‘granule ;” d, eontraeting vesicles ;

é, pedicle of attachment, which can be withdrawn at will. Cell

from 2 to 4-5600ths of an inch in diameter.

11. Section of a spherical group ‘of the Uvella-form of sponge-eells

seen under similar circumstances (group +35th of an inch in dia-

meter): a, isolated group of three polymorphic cells; 4, fixed iso-

lated on eproducing the same kind of currents with its cilium, &e.,

as fig. 10 (5;55rd of an inch in diameter).

12. Ameba verrucosa, Ehr., ;4zth of an inch in diameter: a, vesicula;

é nucleus. This Rhizopod generally contains a large portion of

scillatoria or a rotiferous animaleule for food, which has been

left out here for clearness. One of its characteristic features is

the elliptieal form of the capsule of the nucleus or “ nuclear

utriele,” while the nucleus (“ nucleolus’) 1s spherical, and fre-

quently presents vacuoles.

13. The same, transformed imto an ovisac partly filled with spherical

ovules in the granuliferous stage of development. Ovisac or

effete animal ;3,th of an inch mm length; ovule ;34,5th of an

inch in diameter: a, early or nucleated form of the ovule; 6, in

granuliferous stage of development.

14. Euglena viridis, filled with ovules; compressed vertically ; pre-

senting the granular, capsuled nucleus, and the vesicula with its

sinus.

15. Three figures to show how the fluid is expelled from the vesicula :

a, undistended state of sinus after it has just filled 4, the vesi-

cula; a’, sinus again becoming distended, and pressing out the

contents of 6’, the vesicula; a”, fully- distended state of the sinus

which has thus nearly emptied b", the vesicula, preparatory to

again discharging its contents into the latter.

Mr. A. Adams on the Animal of Turbo Sarmaticus. 4)

Fig. 16. Ovules of Euglena viridis (2 to 2-5-5600ths of an inch long), pre-

senting the “‘ granule’’ on their circumference, like those of Spon-

gilla. (See ‘ Annals,’ vol. xvii. pl. 6. fig. 39, &c.)

Fig. 17. Ditto in supposed process of development, presenting a spiral

line: a, view of flat surface; 5, half-view of ditto; c, marginal

view, showing the projection of the ovule in the direction of the

axis of the spire. ‘

Fig. 18. Young’ colourless specimens of Euglena (2 to 3-5600ths of an inch

in diameter, which made their appearance in the watch-glass

wherein the ovules of E. viridis had been placed for development.

Fig. 19. Euglypha pleurostoma, H. J.C. (nov. sp.?), sdoth of an inch long :

a', mouth with projection of tentaculiform prolongations of the

body; 8', body; c', vesicule or contracting vesicles; d', nucleus.

a, lateral view of ditto; 0, ditto partly filled with ovules; ce, early

state of ovule, 3;55th*inch in diameter ; d, subsequent or granu-

liferous stage of development of ditto; e, development similar to

that described and figured in Euglypha alveolata, in which there

appears to be a secondary test developed round a capsule con-

tainmg granules (see Annals, vol. xvi. pl. 5. figs. 32, 33) ;

f, empty test contaming supernumerary scales ; g, ditto, covered

with scales in situ (scale s5}5th ch m diameter); h, form and

arrangement of the scales; 7, lateral view of figure e, but with

secondary test more elliptical.

V.—WNotice of the Animal of Turbo Sarmaticus and other Mollusca

from the Cape. By Arruur Apams, F.L.S. &c.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

; és Cape of Good Hope, April 11, 1857.

GENTLEMEN, na

Dr. Gray haying formed a genus out of the Turbo Sarma-

ticus, on account chiefly of its singular operculum, I was parti-

cularly anxious to observe the animal. Making a little excursion

therefore to Millar’s Point, a wild and rocky spot, I succeeded,

after long search, in discovering the haunts of the animal. At

low-water, and in’fissures in the far-out rocks abounding with

green sea-weed, and adhering to the sides of the granite masses

where the sea breaks, the Turbo Sarmaticus may be found. It

is timid, slow-moving, and difficult to observe. The colour is

green, spotted and marbled with white, and finely reticulate with

dark green. The margin of the mantle is thickened, and just

within the edge a dark-green band reposes on the dark-coloured

zone on the inside of the outer lip. The rachis of the lingual

membrane (a specimen of which I have submitted to the ex-

amination of Dr. Gray) has a series of five nearly equal, square

teeth, outside of which is a quadridentate, lateral tooth flanked

by numerous slender uncini. The upper jaw, composed of two

long, cartilaginous pieces, is protected at the tip by a horny

42 Mr. A. Adams on Mollusca from the Cape.

lamina. The head-lobes are very large and rounded, with the

front edge crenulate; the eye-pedicel is large, thick, and tri-

angular, with a small, simple eye placed on the outer side near

(but not on) the tip; the neck-lappet is very large, occupying

two-thirds of the length of the lateral membrane, the free

edge deeply divided and pectinate, some of the divisions

again divided at the end, or compound, as seen in Livona pica,

the others smaller and simple. The edge of the lateral mem-

brane is pectinate, and there is a single, long, stout, white,

tentacular filament at the extreme hinder part. The opercular

mantle, as in this instance it may appropriately be called, is

furnished with three very short conical processes on each side,

while the front edge is capable of being extended backwards

over the entire rough outer surface of the operculum, with the

exception of a small portion posteriorly, which is free from the

foot below.

The animals of three species of Oxystele which I have observed

here, namely O. tigrina, O. merula, and O. tabularis, do not

differ from each other in any essential respect. They are

black, with the head transversely lineated with white ; the head-

lobes are simple and triangular ; the long filiform tentacles are

barred with white; the neck-lappets are moderate; the lateral

membrane is finely crenulated, and is furnished with three equal

filaments on each side, marked, like the tentacles, with white and

black, and the sides of the foot are speckled with white.

In my excursions among the rocks I was much struck with

the rich variety of Patellae, and seized the opportunity of ex-

amining the animal of Helcion pectinatus, which has the gills

arranged round the groove between the mantle and foot exactly

as in Patella, the animal of which it resembles in every respect.

Helcion will therefore form a section of Patella, as Dr. Gray

suggests, and not a genus of Tecturide, as supposed by my

brother and myself in our ‘Genera of Recent Mollusca,’ p. 460.

The animal of the Cape Nacella does not differ from that of the

British N. cerulea. The smooth, thin shell is only found on

smooth, rounded stones. The Patella cochlearis has the head and

neck very elongated, and resting in the gutter of the narrow

fore part of the shell; the mantle is also produced in front over

the head. This species forms the subgenus Olana, H.& A. Adams.

The stellate forms of Patella forming the subgenus Scutellastra,

H.& A. Adams, have the margin of the mantle extended into

the radiating processes of the shell. The Patella compressa is

also found here, but I have not succeeded in taking it alive.

I remain, Gentlemen,

Yours very truly,

ARTHUR ADAMS.

Messrs. Barrett and M‘Andrew on Echinodermata. 43

VI.—List of the Echinodermata dredged between Drontheim and

the North Cape. By R. M‘Anprew, HEsq., F.R.S., and

L. Barrett, F.G.S.

Echinodermata.

Holothuriade.—In Duben and Koren’s list of the Norwegian

Echinodermata, thirteen species of this order are described. In

our own researches we only procured six species, of which one

is new; it belongs to the genus Hupyrgus; this same genus is

represented on the coast of Greenland by another small species

(E. scaber). The Holothuriade are not common Radiata on the

Norwegian coast, only one species (Cucumaria frondosa) being

dredged abundantly.

Echinide.—The species of this order procured by dredging

are few, but this deficiency is quite made up by the abundance

of individuals. The Eehinus miliaris is common among the

Laminaria. Hchinus esculentus is seen in great abundance at

low-water in the south ; in the north its place is taken by Lehi-

nus neglectus. The three species above mentioned being found

in great plenty, form a very characteristic feature of the Lami-

narian zone. chinus neglectus is a very variable species : spe-

cimens differ principally m the length of the spines, some being

covered with short ones of equal length, others with long purple

spines, or long primary and short secondary ones ; possibly these

may be two species. Hchinocyamus angulosus, of Leske, was

very common in the south among Nullipora and sand. Schiz-

aster fragilis was met with several times on a muddy bottom,

generally in deep water. In Drontheim Fiord we dredged some

specimens in thirty fathoms, but in the north it lives in much

deeper water, being brought up from 100 to 150 fathoms.

Spatangus purpureus occurred but sparingly, in shallow water,

as far north as Hammerfest, but it was very small: on one

occasion Montacuta was found attached to its spines. The two

species of Amphidetus were taken : Amphidetus cordatus is com-

mon in the south, and A. roseus in the north.

Asteriade.—Eighteen species of Asteriade are included in

Duben and Koren’s list of the Scandinavian Echinodermata ;

only ten of these were dredged by us on the northern coast.

Some of the species included in the above-mentioned list were

procured from the southern part of the western coast; but as

our researches were confined to the shore between Drontheim

and the North Cape, it could not be expected that we should

‘collect as many species. One species of Astropecten was often

44, Messrs. Barrett and M‘Andrew on Echinodermata.

dredged in deep water between Omnoede and Hammerfest,

which has not been described ; and in deep water off the coast of

Finmark we procured two new species of Astrogonium. A single

specimen of the only species of this genus previously known

to live on the coast was dredged in 100 fathoms near Hammer-

fest. Ctenodiscus crispatus was not rare on a muddy bottom in

20 to 50 fathoms: Ctenodiscus pygmeus is probably the young

of this species: several small specimens were procured. The

two species of So/aster occurred only very young, 2 of an inch

in diameter; great numbers of these small star-fish were found

among Nullipora in shallow water. Uvaster rubens and Uraster

glacialis were found in great numbers at low-water; the former

species attains a large size in the south. Twice it was found

feeding on the Periwinkle: it clasps the shell with its five rays,

and protrudes its stomach into the shell, even as far as the apex :

the operculum is not eaten. It also feeds on Chitons.

Ophiuride.—Only seven species of this order were collected

during our cruise, all of which are included in a MS. list of the

Norwegian Echinodermata furnished us by M. Lutken of the

University Zoological Museum, Copenhagen. Three species

only occurred abundantly. Op/iolepis filiformis is very common

in the south, on a muddy bottom. 0. bellis, Forbes, is very

common, from Drontheim to the North Cape, on stony and

rocky ground, from low-water to about 30 fathoms; this spe-

cies, like O. rosula, varies much in colour; scarcely two speci-

mens can be found'alike. O. texturata, though not so common

as the last two*species, was generally distributed along thé whole

coast, and, like most-species having a wide geographical range,

had a great range in depth, from 20 to 200 fathoms.

Crinoidea.—The two small species of Crinoidea living on the

coast were not seen; they are quite distinct from the two spe-

cies found in Scotland, the largest of which was named Comatula

Woodwardii, in the Annals for January 1857. We had over-

looked the little Comatula of that name from the Crag, de-

scribed by ‘Prof. E. Forbes; and as there are now two spe-

cies called C. Woodwardii, we must change the specific name

of the species last described. We propose to call it Comatula

celtica.

Echinodermata.

Note.—The figures in the following table indicate the greatest and least

depths at which each species was dredged alive. In the third column the

kind of sea-bottom is named; in the fourth, the letters express the degree

of frequency of occurrence :—a, abundant, generally distributed and plen-

tiful; f, frequent; 7, local, more or less plentiful in a few localities ; r, rare ;

and v.7. very rare, when but few examples occurred. In the fifth column

Messrs. Barrett and M‘Andrew on Echinodermata.

the Northern Scandinavian distribution is given, the coast being divided

into three ungqual provinces: North Drontheim (Dront.); Nordland

(Nord.); and Finmark (Fin.).

Species.

Cucumaria, Blainv.

-—— pentactes, Miller ..

—— frondosa, Gunner .

Thyonidium, D. & K.

—— commune, Forbes,sp.

Eupyrgus, Lutken.

hispidus, n. sp.*....

Psolus, Oken.

phantopus, Linn. ..

—— squamatus, Miiller. .

Echinide.

Amphidetus, Agass.

— cordatus, Penn.....

ovatus, Leske......

Spatangus, K/ezn.

purpureus, Miiller. .

Schizaster, Agass.

fragilis, D. & K.

Echinocyamus, Van Phels.

angulosus, Leske .

Echinus, ZL.

esculentus, L.

—— miliaris, Leske ...

—— neglectus, Forbes ..

Asteriade.

Uraster, Agass.

rubens, Linn. sp. ..

glacialis, Linn. sp...

Cribella, Agass.

oculata, Penn. sp..

Solaster, Forbes.

papposa, Linn. sp...

endeca, Linn. sp. .

Astropecten, Link.

arcticus, Sars ..

—— Mulleri, M.§ T. ..

—— Lutkeni, n. sp. .

Astrogonium, M. 5 T.

granulare, Miller .

aculeatum, n. sp. ..

boreale, n. sp.

Pteraster, M. 3; T.

militaris, M. § T.

Holothuriade.

Found

living. St

20 gravel

lit.-25 | rock, weed

15-30 mud

70 mud

20-40 gravel

15 sand

20-40 mud

20-30. | sand, mud

30-150 mud

15-25 | nullipora

lit.-15 |roek, lamin.

8 laminaria

ht.—30 |rock, gravel

lit.—20

lit.-40

rock

hit.—130 |sand, gravel

4-8 nullipora.

20-70 gravel

150 sand

10-50 sand

20-100 sand

100 gravel

150 gravel

..| 100-350 gravel, sand| r.

Freq. Norwegian Distribution.

r. (Nordland.

e. |Dront., Nord., Fin.

r. Nordland.

Dront., Nord.

Nord., Fin.

l. Dront., Nord.

a. Dront., Nord., YeH

r. Dront., Nord., Fin.

a. Dront., Nord., Fin.

a. Dront., Nord.

a, |Drontheim.

a. Nord., Fin.

a. Dront., Nord., Fin.

e. Dront., Nord., Fin.

yr. |Nord., Fin.

Yr,

v.r. Nordland.

ce. |Nordland.

e. |Nord., Fin.

v.r. |Finmark.

v.r. Fimmark.

y.r. Finmark.

(Finmark.

* The new species are described in the following article:

46 Mr. L. Barrett on new species of Echinodermata.

Species. popes Ground. | Freq. Norwegian Distribution.

iving.

Ophiuride. |

Ophiolepis, M. & T. | |

—— filiformis, Miiller, sp.| 20-40 mud | a. Drontheim.

—— texturata, Forbes ..| 20-150 ‘gravel, sand) ce. Dront., Nord., Fin.

—— carnea, Lutken ....| 50-200 sand | ¢. Finmark.

—— squamosa, Lutken..| 4-8 nullipora r. Nordland.

bellis, Forbes...... lit.-30 rock, nullip. a. Dront., Nord., Fin.

Ophiacantha, M. & T.

spinulosa, M. & T...| 50-70 sand r. Nordland.

Ophioscolex, M. § T. | |

glacialis, M. § T...| 130-150) sand _1. sp. Finmark.

VII.— Descriptions of four new species of Echmodermata.

By Lucas Barrert, F.G.S.

[With a Plate.]

Eupyrgus hispidus, nob. Pl. IV. fig. 1 a, b.

Specific character.—Body covered with perforated, ovate plates,

each of which bears a single spine; extremities more or less

produced, ascidiform. Suckers alternating, placed in three

double distinct rows on the under surface, reaching from mouth

to anus. Spines attached to the extremities of the plates by

four roots.

This little species resembles in shape E. scaber, Lutken, from

the west coast of Greenland, which is of about the same size, but

differs in the shape of the plates bearing the spines; for while

those in E. scaber are cruciform, the plates in the species now

described are ovate or irregular. (Fig. 2.)

The genus Eupyrgus, which was made for the reception of

these two species, resembles Psolus in being covered with cal-

careous plates, and in having only three rows of suckers, but

differs in the absence of a naked disk, on which the suckers are

placed in that genus.

Astropecten Lutkeni. Pl. IV. fig. 3a, b,c.

Specific character.— Disk pentagonal; rays produced, pointed;

each side formed of two rows of plates, about forty in each row;

those in the upper row are nearly as long as broad. The plates

forming the lower row are oblong. The apex of the ray is

formed of a single excavated plate. The marginal plates are

covered with numerous spines, and the whole of the upper sur-

face between the lateral plates is covered with tubercles crowned

by groups of minute spines smaller than those which cover the

Mr. L. Barrett on new species of Echinodermata. 47

plates. The ambulacral grooves are partly concealed by two rows

of small bundles of long spines. The triangular spaces between

the ambulacra and the margin are covered by numerous oblong

tubercles, which bear numerous spines, similar to those which

cover the marginal plates. We have dedicated this species to

M. Lutken of Copenhagen, who has described many of the

northern Echinodermata.

‘Common in deep water off the coasts of Nordland and Fin-

mark.

Astrogonium aculeatum. PI. IV. fig. 44, 5.

Specific character.—Disk pentagonal; rays somewhat pro-

duced; each side made up of two rows of eight intermediate

lateral plates, which are largest at the junction of two rays ; the

upper surface of these plates is naked, but on the sides and

under surface they bear numerous unequal granules; those on

the sides are largest at the apex of the ray, and form two rows ;

those on the under surface are small, and are placed in a single

row around the margins of the plates. The upper surface be-

tween the lateral plates is formed of numerous nearly circular

plates, each of which is surrounded by a circle of globular gra-

nules. Ambulacra protected by two rows of long and two rows

of short spines. The other part of the under surface is com-

posed of rows of oblong plates, each of which bears about six

globular granules.

Only one specimen was dredged in 100 fathoms water off the

coast of Finmark.

Astrogonium boreale. PI. IV. fig. 5 a, b.

Specific character.—Disk pentagonal, bordered by two rows

of large marginal plates; each side is made up of two rows of

eight intermediate lateral plates. Apex of the ray formed of a

single triangular plate; the exterior edges of lateral plates

covered with compressed granules. The upper surface of the

disk composed of numerous hexagonal plates covered by com-

pressed granules, except those near the centre, which bear gra-

nules only on their margins ; near the middle of the disk are five

smooth plates arranged in a circle round the centre. The mar-

ginal plates, on their under surface, have a single row of small

granules round their margins. The ambulacral groove is bor-

dered by two rows of long and four rows of short spines; the

other part of the under surface is covered with numerous plates

bearing granules.

One specimen occurred off the coast of Finmark in 150 fms.

water.

48 Bibliographical Notices.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.

Fig. 1. Eupyrgus hispidus: a, natural size; b, x 66.

Fig. 2. Eupyrgus scaber, Lutken: a & b, Xx 66.

Fig. 3. Astropecten Lutkeni: a, twice the natural size; b & c, magnified

portions of the upper and lower surface of a ray.

Fig. 4. Astrogonium aculeatum: a, upper, and 6, lower side, twice the

natural size.

Fig. 5. Astrogonium boreale: a, upper, and 6, lower side, magnified twice.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES,

On a True Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees; a Contribution to

the History of Reproduction in Animals. By C.T. E. Von

SirspoLtp. Translated by W. S. Datias. 8vo. London: Van

Voorst, 1857.

In this remarkable little work, the learned Professor. of Zoology

at Munich has called the attention of physiologists to a series of

phzenomena which threaten to produce a considerable disturbance,

at all events for a time, in the generally received opinions regarding

the laws of generation. It is usually supposed that in order to the

production of fertile eggs the concourse of male and female elements

is necessary, but it appears from the observations of Von Siebold,

as here recorded, that in some cases the eggs of virgin female insects

are capable of giving birth to a progeny which, passes through all its

stages of development in the same way as if it had been produced

from fecundated eggs. To this phenomenon, occurring in some

species as a regular condition of specific existence, in others under

exceptional and at present inexplicable circumstances, our author

gives the name of Parthenogenesis, originally made use of by Pro-

fessor Owen to indicate the alternation of generations.

Although numerous instances of a lucina sine concubitu in insects

and spiders had already been described by different authors, and some

curious questions were started by the constant occurrence of females

only in certain Crustacea, all these cases were looked upon by phy-

siologists in general as of a very doubtful nature, and no one certainly

anticipated that such apparently exceptional pheenomena would have

led to the development of a theory of the constitution of the so-

cieties of social insects, such as is given by Von Siebold in the work

before us. In fact, most of the recorded cases of the production of

fertile eggs by virgin moths are so destitute of all those elements of

exactitude which alone could render them conclusive, that our author,

after a careful critical examination, rejects them all as untenable, at

all events on the evidence furnished by their describers. The views

put forward by Von Siebold himself are, however, so heterodox,

according to the present physiological faith, that we have. no doubt

they will be received with considerable incredulity by many, and al-

though we must confess that we cannot see any flaw in the evidence,

one distinguished authority at least has already stated that he con-

Bibliographical Notices. 49

siders the case ‘not proven,” although without giving any reasons

whatever for such an opinion, and indeed leaving some of the most

important elements in the argument out of the question altogether.

One of these important points consists in the occurrence of Par-

thenogenesis, in Siebold’s sense, amongst the Lepidoptera, not only

as an exceptional case in the Silk-worm moth, but also regularly in

some small moths belonging to the genera Psyche and Solenobia, in

which the larva lives in a case or sac, and the female is quite desti-

tute of wings. It will be unnecessary to enter at length into the

history of these moths—suffice it to say that they have been

bred year after year without a single male making its appearance,

although large numbers of individuals were repeatedly reared. The

females in both these genera, although very imperfect in external

appearance, possess regularly-developed sexual organs; those of

Psyche fill their pupa-case with eggs before quitting the sac which

served as their habitation in the larva state, whilst those of Solenobia

emerge from their cases, and, clinging to the outside, stuff the in-

terior with eggs.

Very wisely has the author placed this incontestable case of the

regular occurrence of Parthenogenesis as the introduction to that

which is undoubtedly the great object of his publication, namely the

establishment of a theory to account for the phenomena of sex in

the bee-hive, which will of course be applicable to the other social

Hymenoptera. The theory here put forward does not, however,

originate with Von Siebold, but with a Silesian clergyman named

Dzierzon, who also appears to have rendered great service to the

apiarians by the invention of a new form of hive with sliding supports

for the combs, a description of which will be found in the work now

under consideration. According to this theory of Dzierzon, which

has been further elaborated by Von Siebold, and most enthusiastically

supported by a great bee-keeper, the Baron von Berlepsch, the

queen-bee, which, like all other female insects, receives the seminal

fluid of the male in a peculiar receptacle, there to be retained until it

comes in contact with the egg during its passage through the oviduct,

possesses the power of permitting or preventing this contact, so that the

eggs may be deposited in the cells, either fecundated or unfecundated,

at the pleasure of the mother. The theory goes on to say, that from

the fecundated eggs female larvee are produced, which become de-

veloped either into queens or workers, whilst the unfecundated eggs

furnish the larvee of the drones or males. The queen is supposed

to be incited to the fecundation or non-fecundation of the eggs by

the size of the cells in which she is about to deposit them, the worker

cells being considerably smaller than those destined to be the cradles

of drones, whilst the nature of the royal cells is so peculiar, that we

may easily believe it to have some influence on the egg-laying female.

Without dwelling upon the many interesting facts in bee-life which

are treated of in the pages of this important work, we may briefly

refer to a few of the principal points of evidence adduced in support

of this remarkable theory. It is now generally admitted, even by

bee-keepers, that the queen only copulates once, and that the supply

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 4

50 Bibliographical Notices.

of seminal fluid received at this time, and stored up in the semmal

receptacle, serves for the fecundation of the immense number of eggs

which she deposits during the period of her fertility, extending over

several years. Sometimes, however, the stock of spermatozoids ap-

pears to be exhausted before the life of the queen comes to a close,

and when this is the case she lays nothing but drone-eggs, intro-

ducing confusion into the wonderfully harmonious arrangements of

the hive. This was found to be the case also with a queen which

had been exposed to severe cold, with the view of destroying the

vitality of the spermatozoids ; of three queens thus treated, only one

survived, and this afterwards laid nothing but drone-eggs. Another

queen, whose abdomen had been injured so as probably to displace

the seminal receptacle, also produced drone-eggs exclusively. Added

to this, certain workers, which, as is well known, are merely abortive

females, destitute of copulative organs and of the seminal receptacle,

and therefore incapable of fecundation, are found to possess imper-

fectly developed ovaries, which produce a very small number of eggs,

and these, when deposited in the cells, are said always to produce

drones. For most of these facts Von Siebold appears to have been

indebted to the apiarians Dzierzon and Von Berlepsch ; but perhaps

the most remarkable observations are those made by himself, in the

microscopic examination of a considerable number of newly-deposited

eggs. In the majority of the eggs deposited in worker-cells examined

by him, he found spermatozoids; sometimes as many as four. In

some instances these singular filaments still retaimed the power of

motion. On examining twenty-seven drone-eggs laid by the same

queen which had furnished a portion of the female eggs, Von Siebold

did not discover a single spermatozoid.

Such is the outline of the results at which the distinguished author

has arrived ; and although many will perhaps be disinclined to give an

unhesitating adhesion to his views, there can be no doubt that his

work is one of the most important that has appeared for a long time,

one well worthy of being carefully studied by all physiologists, and

one that must in the end greatly advance the cause of science, if only

by calling the attention of observers to this singular and much-

neglected subject.

Eenige Vergelijkend-Ontleedkundige Aanteekeningen over den Oto-

licnus Peli. Eene Academische Proeve, door P. HorKkema

Kinema. Leyden, 1855.

Some Observations on the Comparative Anatomy of the Otolicnus

Peli. An Academical Essay. By P. Ho—eKema Kinema. Ley-

den, 1855. Pp. 55 and 2 Plates.

Dr. Kingma tells us, in a short preface, that at the time when it

became necessary for him to select a subject for his Academical Dis-

sertation for the Degree of Medicine at Leyden, he found some diffi-

culty in making his choice. He says he would gladly have taken

one having a direct relation to medicine, if his experience in that

science had been more ample and satisfactory. He considered him-

Bibliographical Notices. 5]

self more fortunate, when, desiring to take up some theme of com-

parative anatomy not previously much treated upon, the distinguished

Professor J. V. d. Hoeven offered him a specimen of a quadrumanous

mammal for dissection and description. We believe the course

adopted by the author is unusual, and not likely to be extensively

followed. Those who are only able to appeal to a few years’ personal

observation will continue, and be expected to continue, to treat in

their theses upon diseases which, after the amplest and most devoted

attention, still remain imperfectly known and obscure.

The genus Ofolicnus is one of the five into which succeeding

naturalists have divided Linnzeus’s quadrumanous genus Lemur, and

was so named by Llliger, It corresponds with Geoffroy’s genus

Galago. All the known species belonged to Africa, until Temminck

obtained another from New Guinea, which he named Peli in com-

memoration of Pel, an investigator of nature who visited the coast of

that large island*. It is this rare animal of which Dr. Kingma ob-

tained a specimen for dissection, the first which has been submitted

to that precess. From having been preserved in spirits for some

time, it was not in all respects perfectly adapted for the purpose, but

the author’s researches afford a very complete view of the structure

of almost every organic system. In these he was further assisted by

receiving another example from the hands of Temminck himself,

which likewise was not uninjured, and was also of the male sex.

Dr. Kingma’s observations embrace careful and somewhat minute

descriptions of the animal externally (including a microscopical ex-

amination of the hairs of its body and measurements of the skeleton),

of the muscular system, of the intestinal canal, of the vascular sy-

stem, of the respiratory organs, of the sexual and urinary organs, of

the brain, and of the organs of the senses. The work is illustrated

by a delicate and carefully-executed lithograph, containing eleven

figures of the more remarkable organs and structures met with in

the dissection. For this beautiful plate, and the duplicate in outline,

the author acknowledges himself indebted to M. J. V. d. Hoeven,

Candidatus Medicine.

This specimen, measuring from the tip of the nose to the end of

the long bushy tail, was very nearly 14 English inches in length, the

tail itself occupying more than half of this space, or 72 inches. The

Galago (Otolicnus) Moholi, figured and described by Dr. Andrew

Smith in his fine work illustrative of the zoology of Southern Africa,

was 16 inches long.

The teeth greatly resemble those of the Insectivora. In the upper

jaw there are on each side two small incisors, a canine, two premolars

and four molars. In the lower, three long incisors, a canine, two

premolars, the first of which is furnished with an acute cusp, and

three molars (by an error of the press stated to be four (vier), p. 17).

The animal has soft, woolly hair, thickest on the back, of a grey

colour in the most exposed parts, passing into brown on the neck

* “Galago de Pel.’’ Esquisses Zoologiques sur la Cote de Guinée, par

C.J.Temminck. Vol. i. Les Mammiféres. Leyden, 1853.

52 Bibliographical Notices.

and belly, and in some parts into orange. A narrow white stripe

ascends from the tip of the nose to between the eyebrows. The

black ears described by M. Temminck are not alluded to by our

author. There are two large, thick, tactile hairs (geroelsharen),

above the internal angles of the eyes, and two others at some distance

above the outer angles, besides some at the sides of the nose and on

the lower lip. At first view these hairs appear to differ in structure

from those of the pelt, yet they are possessed of the same elements.

The following is Dr. Kingma’s account of the microscopical ex-

amination of the hair. By a glass of moderate power, the hair is

seen to be clear and transparent at the root. At some distance,

transverse striz are seen, following one another regularly. At

a greater distance from the root, these transverse striations are

more perceptible, and give the hair a jointed appearance, like that of

a tape-worm. ‘These joints are so formed that the upper part of

each is somewhat broader than the lower part of the ensuing one.

By this regular succession of broader and narrower portions, the

edges of the hair acquire an undulated appearance. The wavings are

the strongest in the lowest third of the hair; further towards the

point, they become merely perceptible. In each joint is a cavity,

shorter than the joint itself. The lowest portion of this cavity is

hollow and clearly diaphanous, whilst the upper part, defined by a

right line, is filled with a black pigment. These pigment-spots are

about 0°01 (0°001 ?) of a millimétre broad, and 0:005 mm. long, The

cavities are completely separated from one another. In the first

third of the hair, like the joints themselves, they are more developed

lengthwise, and the pigment is much darker; further on, they ap-

pear more compressed from above downwards, and fit closer to one

another. At some distance from the tip of the hair, the cavities dis-

appear altogether, yet the articulations remain clearly perceptible

nearly to the point.

The four hands are entirely devoid of hairs on their palmar surfaces.

The head is of an oval form, with a promineut snout, the lower jaw

receding behind this part at an oblique angle. Its most remarkable

appearance, however, arises fromthe spacious orbits; they nearly

join each other above the nose, and by a slender projection of the

outer angle of the frontal bone, corresponding with a similar

construction of the malar bone, bulge out at the sides, so as to

render this part of the skull, when seen from below, wider than

any other. This is best seen in Dr. A. Smith’s figure of the cranium

of the Galago Moholi, which he has given of double the natural

size. Near the large eyes rise up the still larger, thin, elongated,

external ears of the animal. In the hollow of the auricle there are

three or four grooves, divided by corresponding folds. ‘The hind

limbs are longest and most developed. The palmar surface of the

hands is furnished with a number of callosities, that form elastic

cushions, upon which the animal alights in its noiseless bounds.

All these peculiarities of organization have a strict and intimate

bearing upon the functions and habits of the animal—upon its noc-

turnal and insectivorous characters.

Bibliographical Notices.

The small lachrymal canal is situated without the orbit, just below

its inner angle. This latter cavity communicates by a large opening

with the temporal fossa. The outer margin of the orbit forms a perfect

ring. The humerus has an opening in a prolongation on the inside

of its lower extremity (foramen supra-condyloideum), for the passage

of the median nerve and radial artery. The thumb of the fore-hand

is small. The muscular system presents many peculiarities in origins

and insertions. A plantar muscle was not met with. The palate is

furnished with six transverse folds. Below the tongue is a small

tendinous plate, with its anterior extremity free, and the other strongly

attached to the muscular tissue of the tongue*. The length of the

intestinal canal from the mouth downwards is 24:3 English inches.

Its proportionate length to that of the body is as 4:9: 1. The con-

tents of the canal were for the most part the remains of insects.

The cecum was filled with intestinal worms, most probably, Dr.

Kingma considers, belonging to a species of Oxyuris.

The arterial system presents some peculiarities deserving of notice.

At the arch of the aorta two branches are given off, the innominata

and the left subclavian. The former gives off in succession the left

and right carotids, and is continued into the right subclavian. The

brachial artery divides in the middle of the arm into two branches,

one of which is a continuation of the trunk, and passes, with the

median nerve, through the foramen supra-condyloideum, to become

the radial artery ; the other branch goes to the superficial muscles

of the fore-arm. Both these branches of the brachial artery consist

of a plexus of small vessels, six to eight in number, which are of

equal diameter. The first branch continues in the divided state

through the foramen, and could not be traced further; the other, as

we have said, loses itself in the muscles.

After the abdominal aorta has given off the two internal spermatic

arteries, it is suddenly greatly dilated, so that its Zwmen acquires

more than double its previous area. The dilatation is not limited

to the aorta, but is perceptible in its branches, the crural having a

greater circumference than the aorta itself before it gives off the

renal artery. The arteria sacralis media is large, and arises from

the aorta just above its division into the two iliacs. It proceeds at

first undivided towards the posterior part of the pelvie cavity, and

then separates into from 6 to 8 small branches of equal size running

near each other, whilst a larger undivided branch is continued as the

main vessel. The first branch of the common iliac forms the crural

artery. This very soon gives off a plexus of about 8 branches of

equal magnitude, besides some muscular branches, whilst the main

trunk pursues its course. This plexus of vessels proceeds to the

popliteal space, and is again united into one trunk. This disintegra-

tion and redintegration, if we may so term it, of the crural artery

is beautifully exhibited in one of M. J. V. d. Hoeven’s delicate

lithographic figures (fig. 8). In the femoral and sacral plexuses,

therefore, there remains a continuation of the primary trunk ; but in

* This peculiar organ is described in Mr. Baird’s interesting history of

his specimen of the Lemur tardigradus, Loudon’s Mag. Nat. Hist. i. 208.

4 Bibliographical Notices.

the brachial our author has not perceived this disposition. Such

an arrangement of the arteries is observed in the Bradypus, an

animal of strictly arboreal habits. When the muscles of the ex-

tremities are engaged in climbing and in supporting the weight of

the body, by strong and continuous contractions, thus requiring a

large supply of blood, under circumstances, as to gravity and com-

pression of the vessels, highly unfavourable to its transmission, this

admirable plexiform disposition of the arteries overcomes every im-

pediment. In agreement with this structure, Dr. Andrew Smith,

and other observers of different species of Galago in their natural

state, speak of them as active denizens of the trees. Dr. A. Smith

says he first met with the Moholi near the Limpopo river, seated

upon trees. ‘‘They were very active, springing from branch to

branch and from tree to tree with extraordinary facility, and always

seized the branch on which they intended to rest. In their man-

ners they considerably resembled the monkeys, particularly in their

grimaces and gesticulations.”’

Dr. Kingma tells us the prostate is of moderate size. It is situ-

ated behind against the neck of the bladder. Posteriorly and infe-

riorly it bears two papillary appendages, which are 8 mm. long and

3 to4 mm. thick. Apparently they do not appertain to the tissue

of the prostate, yet they are very closely connected with it. In

M. J. V. d. Hoeven’s plate these appendages are, we conclude, some-

what more accurately exhibited as situated at a little distance in

front of the prostate, in fact separated from it by the prostatic por-

tion of the urethra. It seems that these appendages are hollow, and

are internally furnished with folds, so that the internal superficies

has a reticulate appearance. Both cavities stand in connexion with

each other by means of a duct, which joins its fellow anteriorly. On

the opening of these appendages, a turbid fluid came to light. In

this the microscope revealed vesicles of a spherical or oval form,

composed of a capsule filled with transparent fluid.

The surface of the hemispheres of the brain exhibits no conyolu-

tions whatever, in this respect presenting a dissimilarity to the higher

quadrumanous animals. All the organs of the senses exhibit struc-

tures of high development, which we must not further dwell upon.

The pupil is round. The large eyes render it apparent that the

Otolicnus Peli seeks its prey by night, and hides itself by day,—

facts which we have alluded to before.

We have now given a sufficient account of some of the peculiarities

of structure brought to light by our author, so carefully described

by him, and many of them so accurately delineated by the pencil of

his friend and coadjutor. This brings us to remark, that the prefa-

tory portions of Dr. Kingma’s ‘Specimen Inaugurale”’ present a

most pleasing indication of its author’s right feeling. To whom

could he so properly dedicate this first result of his researches as to

his father, and in what simpler and more touching words than these,

« Aan mijn’ Vader’? He pours out his grateful thanks to the ex-

cellent Professor J. Van der Hoeven in affectionate language, which

we know is as Just as it is cordial,—to the learned Halbertsma, Pro-

Bibliographical Notices. 55

fessor of Anatomy, and mentions his vivid recollection of the pleasant

and instructive hours passed in the hospitable residence of this gen-

tleman,—to Temminck, Director of the Rijks Museum of Natural

History,—and to the other Professors of the Medical Faculty at

Leyden.

The author makes frequent references to the writings of naturalists

and comparative anatomists who have preceded him; to Fischer,

Meckel, Burdach, W. Vrolik, Burmeister, Lattke, J. V. d. Hoeven,

Temminck, Duvernoy, Schroeder V. d. Kolk, and others, and evinces

that he has not come unprepared to his task. The elaborate dis-

section of the Moholi by Dr. A. Smith appears not to be known to

him.

In conclusion, we may remark that we have read Dr. Hoekema

Kingma’s dissertation with care, and can unhesitatingly announce it as

a valuable contribution to comparative anatomy, elaborated with much

pains and knowledge, creditable alike to the skill and attainments of

its author. In expressing a parting wish for his success, to what-

ever department of science he may devote himself, we may add,

that we are greatly mistaken if this be his last contribution to its

progress.

Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany. By the Rev. M.J. Berke ey,

M.A., F.L.S. With 127 [lustrations on wood, drawn by the

author. London, Baillitre, 1857.

Prior to the appearance of the present work, there was nothing in

the English language which could be recommended as a satisfactory

introduction to the study of the lower tribes of plants. No special

treatise since the translation of Sprengel’s ‘ Introduction to the study

of Cryptogamic Plants,’ the last edition of which came out in 1819,

has to our knowledge been published in Great Britain. It was there-

fore high time that a summary introduction should be written by a

native botanist, embodying the very numerous additions which have

been made to our knowledge by various Cryptogamists at home and

abroad. Such an introduction now lies before us; upon which an

immense amount of care and trouble has been expended by the most

eminent of all our Cryptogamists. Mr. Berkeley has consulted

pamphlets, transactions, published collections of specimens, and

papers innumerable scattered in English and continental Annals and

Magazines, as well as most of the more important treatises on the

different branches of his large subject. Although we think we could

point out here and there works which he has passed over in silence,

which it would have been well to have mentioned, even if he was

unacquainted with them (for example, the works of Nylander and

Massalongo on Lichens are not so much as alluded to), yet certainly,

on the whole, a want of learning wil] not be laid to Mr. Berkeley’s

account. But after all, the greater value of the book consists, not in

the useful and laborious epitome of other men’s labours, but in the

eare and accuracy with which his own observations are put together,

and accompanied with original figures. By far the greater part of

56 Bibliographical Notices.

the plates are made from his own dissections: some few are from

Thuret, Harvey, and others; but in every case the authority for the

figure is added to it. In so large a field as Cryptogamic Botany, it

was hardly to be expected that even Mr. Berkeley’s learning should

suffice for all points. Accordingly he has consulted various friends

(named in the introduction and in several parts of the body of the

work) on those subjects which they have specially studied. At the

end is added a very useful catalogue, but (as we have intimated

already) not quite so perfect as could be wished, of the principal

works on Cryptogamic plants, both generally and specially.

We have now the less pleasing task of poimtmg out a somewhat

serious, though very remediable defect in the book. It is entirely

destitute of anything like a synopsis of its contents; it consists of one

long chapter without any summary prefixed ; and it is broken into

645 articles, without any marginal or other indication of the contents

ofeach. The running title, ‘‘ Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany,”

occurs 579 times without variation at the top of the pages. The

reader consequently, especially the inexperienced reader, finds him-

self, on opening the book, in the midst of an intricate wood without

star or compass. It is only by putting together the indications given

at pp. 69, 81, and 424, that any person, unacquainted with the sub-

ject, can gain a faint knowledge of the subjects discussed.

We have drawn out, partly for our own profit, partly for that of

the reader, a kind of syllabus of the arrangement. It will also show

what proportions of the work are occupied by particular tribes. A

general introduction is prefixed to the whole work, and there is a

special introduction (systematic, physiological, and geographical) to

each alliance.

Cuass I. Thallogens.

Alliance I. Algales, pp. 84-234.

The Algz are divided into three groups. See p. 108.

Alliance II. Mycetales, pp. 235-420.

a. Fungales, pp. 235-372.

For the divisions of the Fungi, see p. 269.

6. Lichenales, pp. 372-420.

For the divisions of the Lichens, see p. 389.

Cuass II. Acrogens.

Alliance III. Characez, pp. 425-430.

Alliance IV. Muscales, pp. 430-507.

Includes Ricciaceze, Marchantiacee, Jungermanniacez, as well as

Musci. For the divisions of the last, see p. 469.

Alliance V. Filicales, pp. 507-564.

Includes Ophioglosseze, Equisetacez, Marsileaceze, and Lycopo-

liaceze, as well as Ferns proper. For the divisions of the last, see

a pro}

p. 022.

We have said that the defect is remediable ; and even with respect

to the present edition (for we trust that such a book as this will go

Zoological Society. 57

through more than one edition), nothing would be more easy than to

prefix a table of contents, giving the substance of each of the 645

articles.

In conclusion, we earnestly recommend the work to all our scien-

tific friends : it is suitable to every botanical reader, besides being

quite indispensable to the Cryptogamic student. Nay more, the

zoologist and geologist will find not a little to interest them on the

subject of their special studies.

Synopsis Plantarum Glumacearum. Auctore E. G. STEvDEL.

Royal 8vo. Stutgard, 1855.

This book will be of considerable use to botanists, from its con-

taining full generic and specific characters of the plants known to its

author, which are included in the orders Graminez, Cyperacez,

Restiacez, Eriocaulaceze, Xyridacez, Desvauxiaceze, and Juncacez.

Although Dr. Steudel has apparently done his best to accumulate

all that is known concerning the plants of these orders, he has not

been altogether successful; for much which has been written in

England and also in France seems unknown to him.

It is greatly to be feared that the number of species is multiplied

to far greater extent than nature will acknowledge; but in such a

work as that before us, this does not seem an unpardonable fault, for

each reader is furnished with the means of judging for himself.

Previously to the issue of this book, we were obliged to content

ourselves with the very imperfect account of the Graminez afforded

by Kunth in his ‘ Enumeratio,’ and have therefore much cause for

thanking Dr. Steudel for this Synopsis.

Work in the Press.

Mr. P. H. Gosse has in the press a work on Geology, in which

he endeavours to set aside the conclusions of geologists as to the

antiquity of the earth, by the application of a principle wholly scien-

tific, which, though hitherto apparently quite overlooked, he believes

to be impregnable.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

January 27, 1857.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

ON THE TRUE NAUTILUS UMBILICATUS OF LISTER.

By Avueustus A. Goutp, M.D.

In looking over the shells of a dealer in Boston (U. S. A.), I ob-

served three specimens of an umbilicated Nautilus, which struck me

58 Zoological Society :—

as differing essentially from the shell commonly known as Nautilus

umbilicatus. A more careful examination satisfied me that they

were quite distinct ; and I made out a comparative description of

them, intending to designate the newly observed one by the name

texturatus, on account of its finely reticulated surface. But on re-

ferring to the several figures of N. wmbilicatus, I found that the

figure of Lister, which represents the shell originally named umbili-

catus, presented all the characteristics of the reticulated shell, while

all other figures represented the smooth, shining shell ordinarily

bearing that name. From both the figures and descriptions of

authors, [ am led to believe that the shell originally observed by

Lister has not been recognized by conchologists since his day. Every

writer except Favanne expressly speaks of his shell as smooth (leevis,

glatte), and his figure clearly refers to the common shell. On the

supposition, then, that these are two distinct species, it is proper to

restrict the term applied by Lister to the shell represented by him,

and to substitute another for the shell ordinarily named wmbilicatus.

The term scrobiculatus indicated in manuscript by Solander, and

adopted by Dillwyn, and which has been placed by others as-a syn-

onym, may be appropriately restored to this species.

The principal differences between the two shells are as follow.

Taking the common shell, so well represented in Sowerby’s ‘ The-

saurus,’ as a standard, the other shell, which we take to be the

genuine umbilicatus of Lister, is more ventricose, the sides being

nearly parallel, and the periphery broadly rounded ; the aperture is

nearly quadrate rather than oval, the posterior angles being nearly

right angles ; the umbilicus is rather larger, its walls nearly perpen-

dicular, im no degree cup-shaped ; its marginal angle very slightly

rounded, the edges of each whurl broadly spreading over the prece-

ding whorl, and it is in all cases clearly pervious ; the surface, instead

of appearing smooth and shining, with only some distinct traces of

revolving strize near the aperture, has a dead, unpolished aspect, and

is everywhere conspicuously reticulated with numerous, crowded,

well-impressed, revolving lines ; the colouring, instead of a lively

ochreous, has a dusky smoky hue, and the chestnut-coloured flam-

mules are numerous and delicate, numbering as many as five to the

inch in place of three in the scrobiculatus. In all the specimens of

the latter which have come under my observation, the sides are con-

spicuously undulated by a series of distinct waves, in the direction

of the lines of growth, which are wholly wanting in uwmbilicatus.

The most obvious distinctive marks then are, in the former, the shi-

ning surface and waved sides ; and in the latter, the numerous small

flammules, dead surface, and well-marked revolving striz. These

revolving striz are plainly indicated on the figure of Lister; and

that they are not merely a style of the engraver’s art, but are in-

tended to indicate something in nature, may be inferred by comparing

the figure with that of N. Pompilius, in immediate proximity, the

surface of which is really like that of serodiculatus. The best of the

three specimens examined by me, is now in the possession of Hugh

Cuming, Esq., and an inspection of it will fully confirm the above views.

Prof. Owen on the Anaiomy of Myrmecophaga jubata. 59

The synonymy of the two species will then be as follows :—

N. umaiuicatus. Testa suborbicularis, ventricosa, striis confertis

volventibus insculpta, utringue late umbilicata ; marginibus

umbilicorum viv rotundatis ; umbilico pervio, infundibuliformi,

nigro, margine externo viv rotundato ; rufescens, postice radiatim

Serrugineo strigata, strigis angustis, confertis.

N. umbilicatus, Lister, Conch. t. 552. f. 4.

N. scropicunatus. Testa suborbicularis, subdepressa, levis, ni-

tida, lateribus radiatim fluctuatis, utrinque late umbilicata, um-

bilico crateriformi, margine externo rotundato, late flavescens,

postice radiatim ferrugineo strigata, strigis latis, remotis.

N. serobiculatus, Soland. MS. Portland Catal. 169. no. 3653 ;

Dillwyn, Catal. i. 339.

N. Pompilius, var. 3., Gmelin, no. 3369.

N. crassus umbilicatus, Chemn. Conch. x. t. 137. f. 1274, 1275.

Le grand Nautile ombiliqué, Favanne, Conch. i. 726. t. 7. f. B3,

tog. t. 1) 2.

N. umbilicatus, Knorr, Vergn. iv. pl. 22. f. 4; Lamarck, Anim.

s. Vert. xi. 322; Blainville, Malac. pl. 8. f. 2 ; Crouch, Conch. pl. 20.

f. 16; Sowerby, Thes. Conch. pl. 98. f. 7.

February 10, 1857.—J. Gould, Esq., F.R.S., V.P., in the Chair.

On THE ANATOMY OF THE GREAT ANTEATER (MyRMECOPHAGA

suBATA, Linn.). ParrIl. By Proressor Owen, F.R.S.,

P.Z.8.,.e7¢.*

In my former communication on the Anatomy of the Great Ant-

eater, the position of the stomach and its relations to adjoining vis-

cera were briefly pointed out. In the present paper I propose to de-

scribe the form and structure of this very remarkable organ in the

Myrmecophaga jubata.

Moderately distended the stomach presents a subglobular form, of

about 8 inches diameter, with a smaller subglobular appendage, as

it seems, of ahout 3 inches diameter, intervening between the main

cavity and the intestine.

The cesophagus terminates near the middle of the upper surface

of the main portion, of which about 4 inches extends to the left of

the cardiac orifice to form what Haller called the ‘saccus czecus.’

On the middle of both the anterior and posterior surfaces of the

stomach is a sheet of tendon, of an irregular triangular form, 6 inches

in longest diameter, which is in the direction of the length of the

stomach, and in which the tendon extends from the large to the

small division of the organ, and acquires upon the latter its greatest

thickness and whitest colour.

* This paper will be reprinted in the Transactions, and there illustrated with

4to plates.

60 Zoological Society :—

Upon bisecting the stomach lengthwise, the part described as

the main cavity is seen to correspond with the cardiac division, and

the seeming appendage, with the pyloric division, of the stomach

in Rodentia: but they are much more distinct in structure and

functions in the Myrmecophaga than in any other mammal with a

stomach similarly divided externally. The cardiac cavity has a vas-

cular secreting surface, the lining membrane being disposed in very

numerous small rug ; at the parts where the parietes have yielded

most to the distending force, these rugze are nearly effaced: other

larger and more permanent folds are nearly straight, are confined to

the vicinity of the communication with the pyloric cavity, and con-

verge towards the aperture.

The cardiac orifice, in the inverted stomach, presents the form of

a narrow, slightly bent crescentic slit. It is situated about 33 inches

from the similarly shaped aperture of communication between the

cardiac and the pyloric cavities : but the margin of this latter aper-

ture is indented as it were by the ends of the converging folds of the

lining membrane, about ten in number, which are continued into the

pyloric cavity. The length of the cardiac slit is 1 inch ; that of the

intercommunicating aperture is 1 inch 3 lines.

The pyloric division of the Anteater’s stomach is remarkable for

the thickness of its muscular tunic and the density of its epithelial

lining, which convert it into a veritable gizzard.

The muscular coat varies from one inch to half an inch in thick-

ness; at the middle of the cavity it is separated from the lining

membrane by an unusual accumulation of the elastic submucous cel-

lular tissue, which is most accumulated in the upper wall of the

cavity. A very small proportion, only, of food can enter at one

time into this cavity, to be subjected to the triturating force of its

parietes, operating with the aid of swallowed particles of sand in the

comminution of the unmasticated or imperfectly masticated termites.

The area of the pyloric cavity, as exposed by a vertical longitu-

dinal section, appears a mere linear, slightly sinuous tract, with a

dilatation near the pylorus, due to a kind of valvular protuberance

of the upper wall projecting towards that aperture. But, when the

pyloric cavity is bisected transversely, its area then presents a cres-

centic figure, owing to the protuberance formed by the thicker mus-

cular tunic and the more abundant submucous elastic tissue in the

upper parietes. The lower longitudinal plicee, which commenced on

the cardiac side of the intercommunicating aperture, give a longitu-

dinally ridged character to the inner surface of the cavity.

This character is changed, near the pylorus, for a reticular rugo-

sity: the pylorus, when viewed from the duodenal side, presents a

crescentic form, with the horns of the crescent directed upwards.

The lining membrane of the duodenum soon becomes smooth.

Mr. Gould communicated the following letter, lately received by

him from M. Elsey, Esq., the Surgeon and Naturalist attached to

the Expedition under the command of A. C. Gregory, Esq., now

engaged in exploring the north-western and northern portions of

Mr. M. Elsey on the Birds of Northern Australia. 61

Australia. Mr. Gould considered this communication to be of great

value, inasmuch, as, besides mentioning that the writer had acquired

an extensive collection of birds, it contains numerous very interesting

observations respecting the various species which had been met with

in the neignbourhood of the Victoria River Depot, N.W. Australia,

lat. south 17° 34! 30"; their interest being much enhanced by the

circumstance of many of them referring to several forms not pre-

viously known to occur in that part of the country.

Victoria River Depéot, N.W. Australia,

S. Lat. 17° 34’ 30”.

June 1856.

My pear Sir,

I am sorry I cannot send you any account of large collec-

tions or extensive ornithological notes. Circumstances over which

I could have no control have kept me a close prisoner at this camp

since last October. My collection of birds comprises up to the pre-

sent time 103 species, some of which are, I think, new. Of Hawks

I have five kinds, including two species of Milvus. The latter feed

entirely on grasshoppers, are most cowardly birds, and utter a pecu-

liar shrill wailing cry. The first I procured was of a very uniform

dark, dirty brown colour. It was common on our first arrival here,

but disappeared about December, and was soon replaced by Milvus

affinis, which has latterly become very numerous, and now perches

in hundreds on the trees around the camp. These birds are excellent

eating, and certainly exceed any other game we have here in flavour

and tenderness. There are also three Eagles, neither of which I have

been able to get, for though knocked down with our largest shot,

they have got away; one has a dark-slate upper surface and wings,

and white breast and belly. It frequents Sandy Island, the Stony

Spit, and other parts of the river where sandbanks afford good fish-

ing ground. The second is smaller, and of a pure white. I have

only seen it once, when passing some dangerous rapids in the boat.

The third is brown, with a very light-coloured and small head and

neck, while the wings have an immense expanse. I should mention

that one of our men found the black and white Eagle nesting in

April. The nest was of immense size, and contained a single purely

white egg of an almost globular form.

I have three Owls. The Barking Owl of these parts is a fine

bird, the upper surface of which is beautifully mottled with dark-

red and cinnamon-browns; while the under surface is white, with a

central streak of brown in the feathers of the breast. It builds in

the hollows of the huge Gouty-stem tree (Adansonia) of this coast,

and incubates in March and April. Another is a large dirty slate-

brown bird, with rough, dull yellow beak and legs. I procured one

specimen only early in November, most likely a stray bird. The

third was an dAthene, rather smaller, of a mottled brown. The

stomachs of all the specimens of the dthene were crammed with Or-

thoptera.

There is one true Caprimulgus here, of a beautiful warm mottled

62 Zoological Society :

brown and black, and with white on the wings. It lays a dull white

or greyish egg, marked with dirty green, at the foot of a tree, on the

bare uneven ground. I have two species of 4gotheles, both of

which I flushed from the holes of trees; and I have seen a large

Podargus, with huge cellular mandibles, which was shot by the mate

of the schooner, and spoilt by insects when I saw it.

About the middle of December a large flight of Swallows arrived

from the south, high in the air and out of shot. They remained

about us one afternoon, wheeling in the air, but did not pitch, and

were gone next morning. A little Martin common here just now

(May and June), is equally shy, and I cannot find its place of resort.

Two Dacelos are frequently seen: one entirely coloured with shades

of blue and grey, and with a crest of lengthened feathers on the

back of the head; the other blue and warm red-brown, with finer

and stronger tints than the other, and without a crest. A dull-

coloured Halcyon (?) sanctus is common; and I have shot a single

pair of the beautiful 4leyone pulchra, which I have only seen once.

My men, some of whom take great interest in my collection, men-

tion another, which I have not seen. According to their account, it

is a lovely bird, the under surface fine purple, &c. Of Artamus I

have several species, but have no means of determining them.

They usually frequent stumps and dead logs in open flats, in twos

and threes, and are very active. One species only, a dusky little

fellow, lives on the tops of the ranges. I have seen a number of

this species sitting round the top of a lofty Palm (Levistona), whose

head had been struck off by storm or whirlwind ; it was more than

80 feet high, and swayed in the breeze, and the circle of birds, with

their heads directed inwards and their tails turned outwards, had an

absurd effect. Of Shrikes I have two or three, including Graucalus

melanops. 1 do not know Grallina Australis, nor have I heard its

ery, so often alluded to by Leichardt, unless indeed a black and

white bird with whitish very long tarsi, and white, rather blunt and

soft beak, which builds a mud nest in the branches of trees near the

water, be it. It has a peculiar shrill cry as it rises from the water,

and is called the “ Water Magpie” by cour stockmen.

Of Fly-catchers and Robins, so called, I have seven or eight species.

One robin has a slate-grey back, black head and wings, and chestnut

flanks, with a white stripe over the eye; it lives in the mangroves,

and may be recognized at all times by its pretty little piping note.

I found it nesting in November and again in February and March ;

the nest is an open, shallow, slightly constructed one; the eggs two

in number, dull greenish-grey, speckled with brown mostly at the

larger end.

There are three or four Wrens ; one a brilliant glossy black, with

scarlet back and rump; this is the male bird, which does not attain

this plumage till the second moulting. The young birds are uni-

form dull wren colour. After the first moulting they have a darker

tint, and a few feathers between the shoulders tipped with red, and

perhaps a single black feather in the tail. At the second moulting

they acquire all their gloss, and may then be seen surrounded by a

Mr. M. Elsey on the Birds of Northern Australia. 63

group of newly fledged birds. The female is dull wren-brown, with

a lighter under surface. There is another beautiful Wren much

larger and longer in the body ; it has a beautiful purple top to the

head, with oval spot of glossy black in the centre, and black zone

outside it ; the body is ereyish- brown ; the tail is long, of a blue

tint, and having a sort of water-mark, if I may so call it, on the sur-

face, which gives various shades to the colour. There is also another

Wren of the same size and form and with a similar tail, but with a

plain grey head and a chestnut spot over the ear-coverts. This is a

female, the other a male; of each I have only a single specimen.

All these build a dome-shaped nest of grass, in a low bush or tuft

of grass, and lay about February and March four white eggs, quite

translucent: the yolk shining through gives them a rose tint. I

have shot lately (May) a bir d allied to Cinclorhamphus, but to what

genus it belongs I do not exactly know. Of two specimens one had

in its stomach large green seeds, the other bark, bugs and various

insects.

The Finches are very numerous and very beautiful. I have ten or

twelve species, including Estrelda annulosa and Poéphila personata,

of which there are two or three varieties, similar in size, habits and

body colour, but differimg in the glossy black of the face and chin,

and in the colour of the beak and legs. The beautiful Poéphila

Gouldie is tolerably numerous ; of this also there are two varieties

or species : one with a black face, surrounded by a line of bright blue ;

the other has the anterior half of the face scarlet, the rest black,

edged with blue. Of both the breast is bright purplish-lilac ; the

belly canary-yellow; the back a mixture of bright green and dark

brown, with light blue mixed over the rump.

There are two Donacolas: flaviprymna, and a crimson and brown

one, of which there are one or two varieties. The Donacolas build

in some parts in low tea-trees overhanging water, making a large

spouted nest with a small cavity, of dry bark of tea-trees, and Pan-

danus. The Poéphile generally have large nests of grass on the

ground or in low tufts of grass; one species builds im the small

bushes of Calliotriz and Melaleuca, and composes its nest of minute

dry twigs, often so slenderly that it appears to have a double opening.

The Belden build smaller and stouter nests in young Eucalypti

and small trees, from 15 to 20 feet high. They all lay six “white eges.

Ihave met with two or three nests of the bower- bird, Chlamy-

dera nuchalis, but no one of my party has seen the birds.

The Crow of this part of the country is a large bird, generally

solitary, with a small eye and hazel-brown iris ; it is very wary, and

with difficulty shot.

The Meliphagide are not numerous, at least the more common

species ; the Tropidorhynchus is feathered all over the head, and does

not merit its vulgar name. There is another somewhat resembling it

here, but without its singular voice, and with a stouter beak. It is

much like Anthochera. A true Merops is also met with.

I have been unable to learn anything of the habits or nidification

of the Meliphagide at present.

64 Zoological Society :——

I have not observed any true Cuckoo here, and have failed to dis-

cover the Cuculus dumetorum of this coast; but I have seen two

Cuckoo Pheasants (Centropus), one much lighter-coloured than the

Moreton Bay species; the other with an almost black under surface,

and the general plumage of a dark tint.

A Climacteris of dusty-brown plumage, with a brownish-yellow

spot on the wings, looks very handsome when sailing with outspread

wings and tail from tree to tree, or when hopping round the trunk

and branches of the gum-trees, where it feeds much on the pupz

contained in the small tough cylindrical cocoons suspended in hun-

dreds in the cracks of the bark. It loses all its beauty when pre-

pared as a museum specimen.

Of Cockatoos : Cacatua galerita, sanguinea, and Eos, are abundant

here, the two latter especially. Leadbeater’s Cockatoo, with the fine

red crest, was also seen on the southern slope of the dividing range

south of lat. 18° S., and extending to the margin of the desert in

lat. 20° S. It is common in the northern districts of West Australia,

north of the Murchison. I have been hitherto most unfortunate in

my attempts to get a Black Cockatoo. Several, however, have been

shot and their tail-feathers, &c. brought in. I met with Aprosmictus

erythropterus for the first time in January ; on dissection, I found the

os furcatorium very small, and buried in the substance of the pectorals.

I have not found a single Platycercus or Euphema, and only two

Honey Parrots, Trichoglossus versicolor and 7. rubritorquis ; Nym-

phicus Nove-Hollandie appeared suddenly in the beginning of

April, and was followed in about a fortnight by Melopsittacus undu-

latus ; both became very numerous, feeding about the burnt patches

of ground ; they are now (June) becoming scarce.

Pigeons are not very numerous. I found Ptilonopus Swainsoni

at Quail Island on the coast near Port Paterson, and the fine Car-

pophaga leucomela at Point Pearce, near a swamp at which we were

-encamped in October ; I was unable to preserve it, and have not seen

1f again.

Phaps histrionica, or a pigeon very similar to it, has been found

lately in May, and another Bronze-wing smaller, and of a uniform

greyish brown with white tip to the tail, red cere, and silver-grey

iris, has been common during our stay. I have been disappointed

in not getting Geophaps plumifera. It was often seen on the route

from Point Pearce, and was very numerous, with another and larger-

crested Pigeon at the second depot, established on a branch of the

Upper Victoria in lat. 17° 3! S.

The Petrophassa albipennis is common among the sandstone cliffs

of the ranges. Of two Geopelie, one is speckled, and has a silver-

grey iris; the other has a beautiful lavender-coloured breast, and

pink iris, with broad bright red orbits. Both are elegant, timid

birds, and their liquid voices can be heard during the heat of the

day, when all else is still. Neither of these Pigeons has the peculiar

vocal powers noticed in Geop. tranquilla by Captain Sturt. The

speckled one makes a very slight flattish nest of sticks on the hori-

zontal fork of a branch, in which it deposits two white eggs.

Mr. M. Elsey on the Birds of Northern Australia. 65

One Megapodius was shot at Point Pearce, where in the hurry

and confusion I could not preserve it ; it was of compact form, of a

uniform olive-brown plumage, with a stout beak, red iris, and strong

tarsi and toes, the hinder especially. No mounds were seen during

our short stay there.

A small Quail is common among the grass, but I have not yet

obtained it.

Both Dromaius and Otis are of the same size, and in every way

similar to those of the south ; we have nowhere confirmed the ob-

servations of Leichardt and his black fellow as to their smaller size.

Indeed Mr. Gregory believes, and I think most justly, that the Emu

may cross the entire continent from east to west, or north to south,

its habits being strictly wandering. It has no regular feeding

ground or drinking place; its tracks are everywhere, and it is for

ever on the move.

Of Waders I have a considerable number, but am unable to deter-

mine many of the species, as I am entirely without books of refer-

ence. I have found the beautiful Lodivanellus lobatus common

during March and April on the sand-banks of the fresh water ; it

was usually associated with a small white Himantopus, with black

wings and head. A long and pointed winged bird resembling Gle-

reola is also frequent; it feeds on the wing, on grasshoppers, &c.

about the Polygonum and other bushes fringing the banks.

I have seen Falcinellus, but could not get it. Ihave also one

white Platalea, the Jabiru or Mycteria, and two or three Herons,

The Night Heron, Nycticorax, is common, frequenting the dense

mangroves, where it remains during the day, but flies at the most

distant noise. I have also single specimens of Triéonyx and Fulica.

I have not had much opportunity of procuring Natatores. The

Whistling Duck is very common, and was frequently shot on lagoons

in the interior, but is very wary on the river. Large V-shaped

flights of them passed over our camp durig March from S8.E. to

N.W., in which direction they appear to have a favourite resort. I

have also another Duck, similar to it, but smaller, with a soft dull-

brown plumage.

IT have seen Nettapus pulchellus, but could not get it. Indeed

my opportunities of examining the river have been so much more

limited than those Captain Stokes enjoyed, that many of his birds I

have not even seen. And owing to our small number I have gene-

rally on these excursions been obliged to take an oar myself, and

could not therefore keep a very bright look-out.

The Plotus is common here, and excellent eating. During Fe-

bruary and March it was incubating. It chooses large trees that

hang over the water above or through the mangroves, and in these

a number of them build a colony of large coarse fiattish nests of

dead sticks and twigs, which appear, from the quantity of dirt about

them and their stained appearance, to be used year after year. Each

season they place in the centre a few fresh green leaves, and on these

lay three or four white eggs, with a very earthy opaque, but brittle

shell ; the lining membrane is of a blue-grey colour ; they are rather

Ann, & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xx. 5

66 Zoological Society :—

smaller and more elongated than a hen’s egg. We have enjoyed

many fine meals of these eggs, sometimes getting from forty to fifty

in a single tree. Both birds sit. The male is of a glossy greenish-

black, with a little brownish-grey on the wings and wing-coverts.

The female has a white under surface, but is otherwise similar.

The Pelican is white, with black wings, and a very fine blue and

purple margin round the pouch. It is, I presume, Pelecanus con-

spicillatus. Its breeding season is March and April.

I have thus endeavoured to give you a rough abstract of my col-

lections hitherto ; I am now about to begin work really, as I start

with the party in a few days for the Albert River, and from thence, -

if all ’s well, to Moreton Bay. I shall have much pleasure in writing

to you from the Gulf of Carpentaria, should I have anything of in-

terest to communicate.

I remain,

My dear Sir,

Your obedient Servant,

John Gould, Esq. M. Etsey.

February 24, 1857.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

ON THE SKULL OF A MANATUS FROM WESTERN AFRICA.

By Dr. Batrour Barkiz, F.R.GeoG.S.

Until very recently but two species of the somewhat scarce genus

Manatus have been acknowledged by naturalists, viz. M. australis

(the M. Americanus of some writers) ‘and M. Senegalensis. Of these

the former inhabits chiefly the mouths of the great rivers of the

north-eastern coast of South America, and the West Indies, while

the latter is confined to the tropical portions of the western coast of

Africa. Some writers, as Hernandes, mention a species found along

the coasts of Peru, but, if so, little or nothing is known of it or its

habits. Wyman has described as M. xasutus what is probably a

variety of M. Senegalensis, and Harlan as M. Jatirostris another

Manatee from the Gulf of Mexico, which, however, seems to be a

good species.

Individual specimens of Manati have rarely been met with along

our own shores, as that recorded by Prof. Fleming* as having occurred

in the Shetland Islands in 1823 ; and I am in possession of tolerable

evidence, which I intend shortly to publish, that a similar animal

has made its appearance from time to time in Orkney, where it is

not unknown to fishermen. These are most probably stray mem-

bers of M. australis which have crossed the Atlantic, which belief

is, to some extent, supported by the fact that in Orkney they have

always been seen on the western or Atlantic side of the islands.

The M. Senegalensis has been found in the Senegal, the Gambia,

and some rivers of Western Africa ; and Manati: have also been

known to occur in various rivers opening into the Bight of Biafra,

* Vide Fleming in Edin. New Phil. Journal, and Baikie and Heddle’s ‘ Historia

Naturalis Orcadensis.

Dr. Baikie on the Skull of an African Manatus. 67

which have hitherto been referred to the same species, partly because

no specimens had hitherto been critically examined, and partly because

it seemed unlikely that two species of a genus so unprolific, even in

individuals, should exist in localities so very near to each other. All

probability from previous knowledge, or in the absence of more pre-

cise or more extended information, merely justified a belief in the

existence of two species, one inhabiting the New World, the other

peculiar to some tropical portions of the Old World.

The differences between M. australis and M. Senegalensis are

quite evident. The former seems to grow to a greater size, and the

shape of the skull at once distinguishes it, being altogether larger,

with a more lengthened nasal opening, and more elongated inter-

maxillary bones, giving it a large mouth. The lower jaw, also, is

less massive and angular, and its inferior margin less curved. It

would seem to approach more to the fragmentary extinct forms de-

scribed by Cuvier in his ‘Ossemens Fossiles.. In MM. Senegalensis

again the skull is more compact, the snout shorter, the lower jaw

more angular with its lower border more curved, and the zygomatic

process of the temporal is less elevated.

In 1851, while Dr. Barth was journeying towards the country of

Adamawa in Central Africa, he heard from the natives, accounts of

an animal said to frequent the rivers and marshes, named by them

Ayu (erroneously written Ajih). He heard of the same animal,

under the same name, also up the river Kwora or Niger below Tim-

buiktu, and he believes that it also exists in the river Shari, which

runs into the marshy Lake Tsad. Dr. Barth not having been able

to satisfy himself about this creature, directed Dr. Vogel’s attention

to it, and the latter gentleman fortunately met with a specimen in

September 1855 in the upper part of the Binué or Tsddda. An ac-

count of this Ayti having been sent by him to England, and read at

the British Association Meeting at Cheltenham, Prof. Owen thought

that it presented sufficient peculiarities to distinguish it as a species,

which he indicated as M. Vogelii; but his remarks partly applied to

a Manatus skull, which was exhibited at the time, and which by

some misconception persons present had been led to consider as be-

longing to the very individual described by Vogel.

During the months of September and October 1854 I ascended

the same river ; but though this was the period when they ought to

have been most abundant, yet I neither saw nor heard of any such

animal ; and though I always carefully examined the hunting relics in

the various villages, yet I never met with its remains. From this I

am led to confirm Dr. Vogel’s statement, that it is a rare and scarce

creature. But on the 13th July previous, just after I had entered

the mouth of the Kwéra and Niger from the sea, I had spent the

day in examining some of the interminable dreary creeks, which are

there so apt to perplex the voyager. While returning in the after-

noon I saw under some palms and mangroves a collection of miserable

huts, hardly entitled to the appellation of a village, towards which I

pulled and presently landed. The inhabitants in great alarm all fled

into the bush, and could not be induced to come out, so I walked

68 Zoological Society :—

through their habitations, looking around me, but finding nothing

but heaps of nuts of the oil-palm. But just before embarking, my

eye caught a heap of dry bones, placed evidently by the negroes as

their dju-dju, or sacred heap, remains of their hunting achievements,

and now dedicated to their deity. I eagerly examined the mass,

but found to my grief that it was composed mostly of fragments,

among which were portions of skulls of goats, of a bullock, and of a

peoeodde: but on turning these over I saw a more complete relic,

one which struck me as being peculiar, and as something I had not

previously seen. This I carried off, and it turned out to be the

nearly complete skull of a Manatus, which was the skull exhibited

at Cheltenham. Having had time lately to examine it, I found it

to exhibit the peculiarities remarked by Prof. Owen, and the result

is as follows :—

General Measurements.

inches

Wixtreme denegh | i9)s-cj.5 <tayeis/-dpec ee! ona ele 2510 3 teh ee

rrcacest Gepth o>... . >. Raiocecy-ayee ob Roves aed eee 8

Length of nasal orifice 41

Breadth’ of nasal orice 2...) o3- sone he eee es see 2

From edge of orbit to extremity of snout ..... 35

From anterior molar socket to ‘extremity of snout 32

From anterior edge of infraorbital foramen to ditto . 31

From maxillary and intermaxillary suture to ditto .... 13

Greatest depth of zygomatic arch .. ation 2

The proportions of the skull are more elongate than those of M.

Senegalensis, but less so than those of M. australis. Top of skull ob-

long, bounded by two almost completely parallel ridges on the frontal

and parietal bones. Frontal suture remaining, parietal bones united.

Breadth of orbits nearly one-half of their ‘ength ; orbits directed

outwards, nearly in a plane with the snout at an “angle of about 40° ;

lower edge of orbits circular, smooth, and not tuberculated. Inter-

maxillaries more lengthened than in Cuvier’s figure of M. Senegalen-

sis, but much less deep, and not nearly so elevated along the anterior

angle of the nasal cavity. Cavities for nme upper molars, the anterior

being but a single socket, the others adapted for three dental fangs,

one internal, and two external and lateral. Fangs flattened and

slightly expanded at extremity ; the two external directed immediately

upwards; the internal one, rather the longest, directed upwards and

inwards, especially the more anterior ones. Two posterior molars

still undeveloped. Molars multicuspid, with two transverse irregu-

larly tri-tubercular ridges, the posterior one being generally partially

divided into two by a small groove. The ridges on the remaining

anterior molars (third and fourth) much rubbed down and worn, ex-

posing the dentine. Remains of one incisive socket at extremity of

each intermaxillary near the suture. Incisive foramen pyriform,

the base anteriorly.

Lower jaw less massive than in M, Senegalensis, with posterior

Dr. Baikie on the Skull of an African Manatus. 69

angle less marked, and lower border much less curved ; opposite

sides completely anchylosed, a deep hollow under upper and inner

edge. Cavities existing for eight molars, the socket of the anterior

one being simple; two posterior molars but partially developed.

Lower molars more distinctly three-ridged than the upper ones, but

the ridges less evidently tri-tubercular. Molars with two fangs, an-

terior and posterior, resembling the two external fangs of the upper

molags, directed downwards, flattened and expanding, especially the

posterior one. Molars deciduous from before backwards, seemingly

forced out by the gradual advance forwards of the posterior ones.

The temporal bones being both wanting, I am unable ‘to speak of

the zygomatic processes, which differ in shape in the two previously

known species.

Dr. Vogel’s measurements being from an entire head, while mine

are from the dried skull, the size of the respective animals will nearly

approach each other, mine being rather the smaller. In the distance

between the orbit and the snout, on which Prof. Owen lays stress,

they will be found so fairly to agree that they may be presumed to

belong to the same species. Let us now therefore see whether the

other measurements and proportions of the one we have been con-

sidering differ sufficiently from others to favour the presumption of

its being a species. In M. Senegalensis, the contour, looking at the

skull from above downwards, is nearly that of an isosceles triangle,

closely approaching an equilateral triangle, while that of M. australis

more resembles the outline of a violoncello. In the Niger specimen

again, the form, though more nearly resembling the former, is cer-

tainly of an intermediate character, the base of the triangle being

shorter in proportion. The profile view of M. australis shows a

lengthened, rather narrow beak, while M. Senegalensis has one

shorter and remarkably deep; and here again we have an interme-

diate form, the shape im this case certainly more resembling M. au-

stralis. The inferior border of the lower jaw of M. australis is long

and straightened, while that of M. Senegalensis is short and curved,

its posterior angle, also, being more massive and decided, and ap-

proximating to that of the Dugong. Here again the Niger Manatee

intervenes, the angle being more obtuse, and the curve less than in

the Senegal species. The proportion of the length of the nasal open-

ing in M. australis is to the breadth as 3 to 1, in M. Senegalensis

as 1 to 3, but in my specimen as 2 to 1. The coronal suture, sharply

angular in the South American and almost semicircular in the Sene-

gal species, is in the Niger one acutely arched. The temporal ridges

irregularly converge posteriorly in M. australis, in M. Senegalensis

they gently diverge, while here they run antero-posteriorly almost

entirely parallel. The temporal bones being, as I have remarked,

absent, I cannot speak of the temporal zygomatic apophyses; but

the malar portions which remain would seem to indicate a continu-

ance of the same intermediate character.

But in a few points the Niger skull is peculiar, and differs entirely

from the others. Thus the superior and anterior angle of the parietal

bone extends much further forward thanin either of the others, reaching

70 Zoological Society.

to within less than an inch of the posterior angles of the nasal open-

ing. The anterior edge of the post-orbital apophysis and the lower

margins of the orbits are plain and smooth, not irregular. The vo-

merine sheath is not nearly so prolonged anteriorly, and does not

reach to within an inch of the anterior incisive foramen. The max-

illary and inter-maxillary do not unite by a bevelled surface, but by

a suture forming a right angle.

On one point we can draw a tabular view of the whole of the

skulls, viz. as to the comparative distance of the orbit from the end

of the beak, which, compared with the total length of the skulls, is

as follows :—

In Dr. Vogel’s entire head of the Ayti as 7 to 36, or about 1 to 5.

In the skull from the mouth of the Kwora as 27 to 100, or more

than | to 4.

In the skull of M. Senegalensis as 1 to 3 nearly.

In the skull of M. australis as 5 to 14, or less than 1 to 3.

From what I have drawn out we may, I believe, make the follow-

ing deductions: Ist, That in the Kwéora or Niger, and its tributary

the Tsddda or Binué, is found a Manatus intermediate in many of

its characters between M. australis and M. Senegalensis ; and 2ndly,

That if these differences are, as Prof. Owen suggests, too marked for

a mere variety, then there is no alternative but to allow it as a species.

I do not mean to affirm its positive existence, but merely following

up the idea thrown out by Prof. Owen, in examining the skull I

brought home, I think the prodadility of its distinctness is con-

siderably increased. Being about to revisit the river Kwora I shall

make a point of searching more closely after this animal, with a view

to settling the question. If established, the genus will stand as fol-

lows :—

Mawnatus, Rondel.

1. MANATUS AUSTRALIS, Tiles.

Hab. West Indies and north-east coast of South America.

2. Manatus SeneGALensis, Desm.

Hab. African rivers, Senegal to the Gambia.

3. Manatus Voce, Owen.

Hab. Rivers opening into the Bight of Biafra.

Whether M. nasutus of Wyman and M. /atirostris of Harlan are

species, varieties, or synonyms, I have not the means of ascertaining.

M. australis is, as 1 have mentioned, more allied to the extinct

fossil forms ; and M. Senegalensis, again, more approaches in form

of skull to the Dugong.

Royal Institution. - 71

ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

Friday, May 15, 1857.—The Lord Wensleydale, Vice-President,

in the Chair.

“On the present state of Knowledge as to the Structure and

Functions of Nerve.” By Thomas H. Huxley, F.R.S., Fullerian

Professor of Physiology, Royal Institution.

The speaker commenced by directing the attention of the audience

to an index, connected with a little apparatus upon the table, and

vibrating backwards and forwards with great regularity. The cause

of this motion was the heart of a frog (deprived of sensation, though

not of life) which had been carefully exposed by opening the peri-

cardium, and into whose apex the point of a needle connected with

the index had been thrust. Under these circumstances the heart

would go on beating, with perfect regularity and full force, for hours;

and as every pulsation caused the index to travel through a certain

arc, the effect of any influences brought to bear upon the heart could

be made perfectly obvious to every one present.

The frog’s heart is a great hollow mass of muscle, consisting of

three chambers, a ventricle and two auricles, the latter being separated

from one another by a partition or septum. By the successive con-

traction of these chambers, the blood is propelled in a certain direc-

tion; the auricles contracting, force the blood into the ventricle ;

the ventricle then contracting, drives the blood into the aortic bulb ;

and it is essential to the full efficiency of the heart as a circulatory

organ, that all the muscular fibres of the auricles should contract

together, and that all the muscular fibres of the ventricle should

contract together ; but that the latter should follow the former action

after a certain interval.

The contractions of the muscles of the heart thus occur in a defi-

nite order, and exhibit a combination towards a certain end. They

are rhythmical and purposive; and it becomes a question of extreme

interest to ascertain, where lies the regulative power which governs

their rhythm.

If we examine into the various structures of which the heart is

composed, we find that the bulk of the organ is made up of striped

muscular fibres, bound together as it were by connective tissue, and

coated internally and externally with epithelium. Now it is certain

that the regulative power is not to be found in any of these tissues.

The two latter may, for the present purpose, be regarded as unim-

portant, as they certainly take no share either in producing or

guiding the movements of the heart. The muscular tissue, on the

other hand, though the seat of the contractility of the organ, requires

some influence from without, some stimulus, in order to contract at

all, and having once contracted, it remains still until another stimulus

excites it. There is, therefore, nothing in its muscular substance

which can account for the constantly recurring rhythmical pulsations

of the heart.

Experiments have been made, however, which clearly show that

(2 Royal Institution :—

the regulative power is seated, not only in the heart itself, but in

definite regions of the organ. Remove the heart from the body,

and it still goes on beating; the source of the rhythm is therefore

to be sought in itself. If the heart be halved by a longitudinal

section, each half goes on beating; but if it be divided transversely,

between the line of junction of the auricles with the ventricle and

the apex of the latter, the detached apex pulsates no longer, while

the other segment goes on beating as before. If the section be

carried transversely through the auricles, both segments go on

beating; and if the heart be cut into three portions by two trans-

verse sections, one above the junction of the auricles and ventricle,

and one below it, then the basal and middle segments will go on

pulsating, while the apical segment is still. Clearly then, the source

of the rhythmical action, the regulative power, is to be sought some-

where about the base of the auricles, and somewhere about the

junction of the auricles and ventricles.

Now there is in the frog’s heart, besides the three tissues which

have been mentioned, a fourth, the nervous tissue. A ganglion is

placed at the base of the heart, where the great veins enter the

auricles—from this two cords can be traced traversing the auricular

septum, and entering two other ganglia placed close to the junction

of the auricles with the ventricles. From these ganglia nerves are

distributed to the muscular substance. Now we know, from evidence

afforded by other striped muscles and nerves, that the contraction of

the former is the result of the excitement of the latter; in like

manner, we know that the ganglia are centres whence that excite-

ment originates. We are therefore justified, analogically, in seeking

for the sources of the contractions of the cardiac muscles, in the

cardiac ganglia; and the experiments which have been detailed—by

showing that the rhythmical contractions continue in any part of the

heart which remains connected with these ganglia, while it ceases in

any part cut off from them—prove that they really are the seats of

the regulative power.

The speaker then exhibited another very remarkable experiment

(first devised by Weber) which leads indirectly to the same con-

clusion. An electro-magnetic apparatus was so connected with the

frog upon the table, that a series of shocks could be transmitted

through the pneumogastric nerves. When this was done, it was

seen that the index almost instantly stopped, and remained still, so

long as the shocks were continued; on breaking contact, the heart

remained at rest for a little time, then gave a feeble pulsation or

two, and then resumed its full action. This experiment could be

repeated at will, with invariably the same results; and it was most

important to observe, that during the stoppage of the heart, the

index remained at the lowest point of its arc, a circumstance which,

taken together with the distended state of the organ, showed that its

stoppage was the result, not of tetanic contraction, but of complete

relaxation.

Filaments of the pneumogastric nerve can be traced down to the

heart, and whenever these fibres are irritated, the rhythmical action

Prof. Huxley on the Structure and Functions of Nerve. 73

ceases. The pneumogastric nerves inust act either directly upon

the muscles of the heart, or indirectly through the ganglia, into

which they can be traced. If the former alternative be “adopted,

then we must conceive the action of the pneumogastric nerve upon

muscle to be the reverse of that of all other nerves—for irritation

of every other muscular nerve causes activity and not paralysis of

the muscle. Not only is this in the highest degree improbable, but

it can be demonstrated to be untrue ; for on irritating, mechanically,

the surface of the heart brought to a standstill by irritation of the

pneumogastrics, it at once contracts. The paralysing influence,

therefore, is not exerted on the muscles, and as a consequence, we

can only suppose that this ‘negative innervation,” as it might be

conveniently termed, is the result of the action of the pneumogastric

on the ganglia.

It resuits from all these experiments, first, that nerve-substance

possesses the power of exciting and coordinating muscular actions ;

and secondly, that one portion of nervous matter is capable of con-

trolling the ‘action of another portion. In the case of the heart it

is perfectly clear that consciousness and volition are entirely excluded

from any influence upon the action of the nervous matter, which

must be regarded as a substance exhibiting certain pheenomena,

whose laws are as much a branch of physical inquiry as those pre-

sented by a magnet.

Now, (still carefully excluding the phenomena of consciousness, )

we shall find on careful examination, that all the properties of

Nerve are of the same order as those exhibited by the nervous

substance of the heart. Every action is a muscular action, whose

proximate cause is the activity of a nerve, and as the muscies of the

heart are related to its ganglia, so are the muscles of the whole

body related to that great ganglionic mass which constitutes the

spinal marrow, and its continuation the medulla oblongata. This

cranio-spinal nervous centre originates and coordinates the con-

tractions of all the muscles of the body independently of conscious-

ness, and there is every reason to believe that the organ of con-

sciousness stands related to it as the pneumogastric is related to the

cardiac ganglia; that volition, whether it originates, or whether it

controls action, exerts its influence not directly on the muscles, but

indirectly upon the cranio-spinal ganglia. A volition is a conscious

conception, a desire; an act is the result of the automatic, uncon-

scious origination and coordination, by the cranio-spinal ganglia,

of the nervous imfluences required to produce certain muscular

contractions.

Whatever may be the ultimate cause of our actions then, the

proximate cause lies in nerve-substance. The nervous system is a

great piece of mechanism placed between the external world and

our consciousness ; through it objects affect us ; through it we affect

them ; and it therefore becomes a matter of the highest interest

to ascertain how far the properties and laws of action of nerve-

substance have been ascertained by the physiological philosopher.

Nerve-substance has long been known to consist of two ele-

74 Royal Institution.

ments, fibres and ganglionic corpuscles. Nerve-fibres are either

sensory or motor, and the activity of any one fibre does not influence

another. But when nerve-fibres come into relation with ganglionic

corpuscles, the excitement of a sensory nerve gives rise to that of a

motor nerve, the ganglionic corpuscles acting in some way as the

medium of communication. The “ grey matter’? which occupies

the middle of the spinal marrow has long been known to be the

locality in which the posterior roots, or sensory fibres, of the nerves

of the body, and the anterior roots, or motor fibres, come into relation

with ganglionic corpuscles; and as the channel by which, in what

are called reflex actions, the activity of the sensory nerves is con-

verted into exdtement of corresponding motor nerves. The precise

modus operandi of the grey matter has been much disputed, but

the recent researches of Wagner, Bidder, Kupfer, and Owsjannikow,

throw a great light upon, and vastly simplify the whole problem.

It would appear that all nerve-fibres are processes of ganglionic

corpuscles ; that, in the spinal cord, the great mass of the grey

matter is nothing but connective tissue, the true ganglionic corpus-

cles being comparatively few, and situated in the anterior horns of

the grey substance; finally, it would seem that no ganglionic cor-

puscle has more than five processes: one, which becomes a sensory

fibre and enters the posterior roots of the nerves; one, a motor

fibre which enters the anterior roots; one, which passes upward to

the brain; one, which crosses over to a ganglionic corpuscle in the

other half of the cord; and perhaps one establishing a connexion

with a ganglionic corpuscle on the same side.

It is impossible to overrate the value of these discoveries ; for if

they are truths, the problem of nervous action is limited to these

inquiries: (a2) What are the properties of ganglionic corpuscles?

(4) What are the properties of their two, or three, commissural pro-

cesses? For we are already pretty well acquainted with the properties

of the sensory and motor processes.

A short account was next given of the physical and physiological

phzenomena exhibited by active and inactive nerve; and the phe-

nomena exhibited by active nerve were shown to be so peculiar as

to justify the application of the title of ‘“nerve-ferce” to this form

of material energy.

It was next pointed out that this force must be regarded as of

the same order with other physical forces. The beautiful methods by

which Helmholtz has determined the velocity (not more than about

80 feet in a second in the frog) with which the nervous force is

propagated were explained. It was shown that nerve-force is not

electricity, but two important facts were cited to prove that the

nerve-force is a correlate of electricity, in the same sense as heat

and magnetism are said to be correlates of that force. These facts

were, first, the “negative deflection”? of Du Bois Raymond, which

demonstrates that the activity of nerve affects the electrical rela-

tions of its particles; and secondly, the remarkable experiments

of Eckhard (some of which the speaker had exhibited in his Ful-

Jerian course), which proved that the transmission of a constant

Miscellaneous. 75

current along a portion of a motor nerve so alters the molecular

state of that nerve as to render it incapable of exciting contraction

when irritated.

These facts, even without those equally important though less

thoroughly understood experiments of Ludwig and Bernard, which

appear to indicate a direct relation between nerve-force and

chemical change, seem sufficient to prove that nerve-force must

henceforward take its place among the other physical forces.

This then is the present state of our knowledge of the structure

and functions of nerve. We have reason to believe in the existence

of a nervous force, which is as much the property of nerve as mag-

netism is of certain ores of iron; the velocity of that force is

measured ; its laws are, to a certain extent, elucidated; the struc-

ture of the apparatus through which it works promises soon to be

unravelled ; the directions for future inquiry are limited and marked

out; thus the solution of all problems connected with it is only a

question of time.

Science may be congratulated on these results. Time was, when

the attempt to reduce vital phenomena to law and order was re-

garded as little less than blasphemous: but the mechanician has

proved that the living body obeys the mechanical laws of ordinary

matter; the chemist has demonstrated that the component atoms of

living beings are governed by. affinities, of one nature with those

which obtain in the rest of the universe; and now, the physio-

logist, aided by the physicist, has attacked the problem of nervous

action—the most especially vital of all vital phenomena—with

what result has been seen. And thus from the region of disorderly

mystery, which is the domain of ignorance, another vast province

has been added to science, the realm of orderly mystery.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Saliva of Dolium galea. By Professor TroscuHeEt.

STATEMENTS have recently been made tending to prove that the

boring Mollusca penetrate stones by a purely mechanical action.

The following observations of Professor Troschel seem to show that

in some cases the perforating action of Mollusca may be due to a

chemical cause.

In the ‘ Voyage of the Astrolabe,’ Quoy and Gaimard state that

the Dolium galea, a Ctenobranchous mollusk nearly allied to the

Buccini, possesses salivary glands of extraordinary development.

They are composed of two lobes, of which the anterior alone is

glandular ; the posterior forming a sort of pouch which attains the

size of a pigeon’s egg, and contains an aqueous liquid mixed with

bubbles of air. The efferent canal of the gland passes through the

neryous ring which surrounds the cesophagus and opens into the

buceal cavity in front of the tongue,

76 Miscellaneous.

Whilst staying at Messina in the autumn of 1853, Troschel

purchased two specimens of Dolivm from the fishermen, and on

returning to his residence he prepared to put them in spirits. For

this purpose he broke the shell of one of them in the region of the

spire, when the animal elongated itself outwards, pushing out

its proboscis as far as it could, and moving it about in all directions

with a threatening aspect. Troschel then wished to seize the ex-

tremity of this proboscis, which was dilated into a trumpet, in order

to examine it more closely, when the animal suddenly projected a

large stream of a transparent liquid, which fell upon the floor at a

distance of several feet. A moment afterwards the calcareous slabs

with which the floor was paved were covered with froth, the liquid

evidently containing an acid which produced effervescence with car-

bonate of lime. J. Miller, who was then at Messina, was a witness

of this pheenomenon.

The experiment was repeated with the second Dolium, but this

time the fluid was received in a glass. It was colourless and not

frothy, but dissolved carbonate of lime rapidly with effervescence.

Troschel afterwards collected a great number of specimens, which

enabled him to obtain the acid liquid in great abundance. A single

individual furnished as much as three ounces. ‘The pressure of the

finger upon the region corresponding with the salivary glands was

sufficient to cause the expulsion of the saliva.

In April 1854, after his return to Bonn, Troschel forwarded a

bottle of this singular saliva to Dr. Boedeker at Gottingen, for

analysis. The liquid did not present the least trace of decomposition

or fermentation, and had not given rise to any formation of mould,

although it had been collected six months before. It was as clear

as water, possessed a very acid taste, and boiling did not produce

any precipitate in it, even when the free acid had previously been

neutralized by soda. Consequently it did not contaia any albumen.

The quantity of organic substances contained in this liquid was found

to be excessively minute. No trace of urea, or of sugar, was found

in it; on the other hand, the analysis proved the existence in it of

an abundance of muriatic and sulphuric acids, and of sulphates of

magnesia, potash, and soda. It gave the following results :—

Free anhydrous muriatic acid (HCl) . 0-4

Free hy drated sulphuric acid (HO, S03) (corresponding to

2-2 per cent. of anhydrous sulphuric acid) . . 2g

Anhydrous sulphuric acid combined with bases (neutral salts). 1-4

Magnesia, potash, soda, a little ammonia, very little lime, and

Organic matters, torming an all oe. we bce.» te ols eee

BYE CII Se a Sen Pe wine ees oe ee enemas oe gs eRe ae ova = oe eee

1000

The existence of such a liquid in the body of an animal is of high

interest. The zoologist and the physiologist must inquire what can

be the object of such a secretion, if it be not a purely excretory

substance. The chemist must join the physiologist in attempting

Miscellaneous. FT

to explain how such powerful mineral acids can be secreted in a

free state in the perfectly healthy organism of a living animal.

The first of these questions is to a certain extent answered by

Troschel. He has seen the stream of liquid projected by the animal

issue from the mouth and attain a length of several feet. This is an

indication which the physiologist must not allow to pass unappreciated.

It appears rational to conclude therefrom, that at least a great part

of the salivary liquid is not employed in digestion. On the other

hand, it is very probable that the Do/iwm makes use of it as a defensive

weapon. The shell of Dolium has a very wide opening, and is destitute

of a protective operculum, so that the animal is exposed to every kind

of attack. It is probable that it defends itself against its enemies by

means of the sulphuric and muriatic acids of its saliva. We must

not forget, however, that as the animal lives in water, its saliva cannot

act at any great distance. We might suppose that the saliva is

employed for two different purposes, on the one hand for defence,

and on the other for digestion, This latter function, however,

appears to be contradicted by an observation of Troschel’s. In the

stomach of many specimens of Dolium he found the débris of Fuci

bearing small animals with calcareous shells, such as Polypes, Ser-

pule, &c. When exposed to the action of the saliva, these fragments

of calcareous shells were dissolved, with a strong effervescence, in less

than a minute. We may therefore conclude that the Fuwci had not

been in contact with the saliva either before, or during, deglutition.

The saliva, consequently, has probably no relation to digestion.

It is curious that the membranes of the animal itself which are in

contact with the acid are not attacked thereby. This liquid also has

no effect upon the shell of the Doliwm, especially upon its inner

surface, which is covered by a delicate polished varnish, unalterable

by acids.

The Dolia are not endowed with the faculty of perforating stones ;

but the mere fact of the secretion of a free acid in these Mollusca,

shows that it is not impossible that perforating animals may secrete

a substance capable of chemically acting upon calcareous rocks. It

is true that the perforating Lamellibranchiate mollusks are destitute

of salivary glands, but it is not impossible that some other part of

the body may assume the secretion of an acid liquid.—Monatsber.

der Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin, August 1854, p. 486.—From the

abstract by E. Claparéde in Bibl. Univ. de Geneve, February 1857,

p. 161.

Note on the occurrence of the Harvest Mouse in Cornwall.

By Cuarves WILLIAM PEACH.

In the ‘ Zoologist’ for the present month, at page 5592, I observe a

communication from Mr. E. H. Rodd, mentioning the occurrence of

the Mus messorius at Penzance, and of its not having been noticed in

Cornwall before. I find in Couch’s Cornish Fauna, part 1, page 7,

that it is common, and so it occurred to me, for during my residence at

Goran Haven, this beautiful little creature was well known to me,

from having seen it and its nest on the stems of corn in the fields, and

78 Miscellaneous.

in winter—at times by dozens—in the corn-stacks, where other mice

were more abundant, when the farmers were taking their corn into

the barns; for at such times, either myself or chiidreu were often

requested to attend with my old and favourite dog Hassan, who,

though a large fellow, was exceedingly quick, and very fond of catch-

ing mice and rats, and few could escape him: the red mouse (harvest

mouse) was a delicate and dainty morsel; these he immediatel

swallowed, the other mice and rats he merely killed. My children

on one occasion took home some of the harvest mice; for these I

made a small cage; they lived with us some time, drank milk freely,

fed on any sort of grain or bread, and it was interesting to watch their

gambols and see them suspend themselves by their prehensile tails

from the wires of the cage ; unfortunately, these wires were so flexible

that one by one they got out, and no doubt fell a prey to pussey.

AsI have introduced my dog, I may as well mention a trait in his

character, proving that he was as “rigidly faithful and honest,” as

the dog mentioned at page 5590 of the same publication ; he differed,

however, from this tailless one in haying a splendid black “ tail wi’

upward curl,”’ tipped with white. A butcher visited the Cove every

Friday ; the dog most certainly knew the day and was invariably on

the look-out, and immediately took possession of the shop, and, when

the butcher was absent, full charge of the meat,—was frequently shut

up with it, all lying around him, even on the low block on which it

was chopped, and woe betide the cat that attempted to steal.

He however claimed as his perquisite the small pieces that dropped

when chopping, but should a large piece fall, he did not interfere.

Hassan had not been trained to keep shop, for I had him when only

a month old, nor did I tell him to attend the butcher ; he carried his

character in his look, and so gained the situation—

** His honest, sonsie*, baws’nt face,

Aye gat him friends in ilka place,”

and greatly respected he was by all my neighbours, for his honest

and quiet good-nature. With the children he was au special favourite,

and constant attendant in their walks. A more intelligent “faithful

tyke”’ there could not be; he lived with me fifteen years; since his

death I dare not keep another—I cannot bear these partings.

I could tell very many things about him, showing a something

which throws mere instinct into the shade, but must not trouble you

farther, beyond mentioning that, however good a character he had,

his name (Hassan‘+) got one of my little sons, for a time, a bad one.

On removing to Fowey, a lady inquired of him the dog’s name; he

said, “ Hassan, madam.”’ She mistook it for ‘ask him, madam,” and

thought him impertinent; a friend to whom she mentioned it ex-

plained. From that time both dog and boy became favourites with

her—the dog soon learned to lift the latch of the door leading to

her kitchen, and many a piece he got by it.

Wick, Caithness, N.B., May 24th, 1856.

* He had, like Burns’s dog, “‘a white stripe down the face.”

+ © Camel-driver.”

Miscellaneous. 79

A Notice of the Baradla Cavern, near Agtelek, in Hungary.

By Dr. Scumrpi*.

This is the most extensive of the caverns at present known in the

Austrian empire. Its principal gallery has a length of more than

4 of an Austrian mile (about 4 English miles). The limestone-

mountains containing this natural excavation bear some resemblance

to the Karst Mountain of Illyria, and may be considered to absorb

the atmospheric waters, as their interior contains three rivulets, two

in the principal and one in a lateral cavern. These subterranean

currents come to day near Josafo, N.E. of Agtelek, with sufficient

water to work several mills. Most of the larger caverns examined

by Dr. Schmid! have before their mouth a heap of rolled fragments,

rising from the bottom of the valley. The heap, or talus, is some-

what depressed at its top; it then slopes rather steeply towards the

mouth, and continues within the interior of the cave, before the

commencement of the real cave-soil, lying somewhat beneath the

level of the external valley-bottom. The mouth itself is most fre-

quently situated on a high, steep, sometimes nearly vertical cliff. It

is generally a fissure, increasing in breadth downwards, with its lower

extremity concealed by the heap of detritus. This fissure has been

evidently obstructed by falling rocks, so as to prevent the high-water

penetrating to the interior: the rocks, corroded by the action of the

waters, broke further down, and produced the heaps of detritus ;

until, at last, the external waters found another way into the interior

of the mountains.

Like the caverns of Carniolia, the Baradla Cavern is composed of

a series of isolated chambers and narrow channels; but a greater

number of separations being broken through, its longitudinal extent

has become more considerable. The terminations of the cavern are

no more than 180 to 200 fathoms distant from the outside of the

mountain, opposite to its mouth.

The inner portions of the Agtelek Cavern are warmer than the

exterior, and the dry portions have a higher temperature than those

traversed by running water. The thermometer indicated 8°°3 R. in

the first large hall, and 10°°4 R. in the last one.

The fauna of the Baradla Cavern is rather rich, especially in insects ;

among them are genuine cavicolous forms; namely, two species of

Acarina (Hemalastor gracilipes and Eschatocephalus gracilipes,

Frauenf.). Tritons are not unfrequent. The Frogs found in the

cavern are probably but accidental tenants. A genus of Hirudinide

(Typhlobdella, Koy.) is peculiar to this cavern. A lateral cave is

called the ‘‘ Bat-cave,’’ on account of the enormous number of these

animals found inhabiting it; so much so, indeed, that experiments

have been made to use their excrement as a substitute for guano.

No Proteus has hitherto been found in the Hungarian cavern in

question. Dr. Schmidl was the first who discovered, in the soil of

one of the lateral branches of the Baradla Cave, the fossil remains of

Ursus speleus.

* From the Proceedings of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Vienna,

October 2, 1856. Communicated by Count Marschall.

80 Miscellaneous.

On the Australian Dugong (Halicore australis). By Mr. FarRHOLME.

Moreton Bay, on the east coast of Australia (lat. 27° S.), is a re-

gion of great interest to the zoologist. The southern end of it is

formed by two long islands, extending together about sixty miles,

within which the Bay is studded with a number of beautiful islets.

On the small island of St. Helena, one of those vast congregations of

flying foxes takes place, which I have endeavoured to describe in a

former paper.

The Dugong (Halicore australis) is still found there in consi-

derable numbers, though I fear it is rapidly decreasing, as the chase

of it in whale-boats manned by natives forms one of the great

attractions of the Bay.

The blacks prefer the flesh and blubber to any other food, and the

white people have found in its oil qualities similar to those of cod-

liver oil, having used it successfully in some cases of consumption

or debility. The native name for the Dugong is “ Yungan.”’ It is

about 9 or 10 feet long when full-grown, and contains from five to

eight gallons of oil. It feeds on a grass-like sea-weed growing on

the large flats of the Bay, some parts of which are exposed at low

water. As the tide recedes, the Dugongs retire into deeper water

from the feeding-grounds. The natives tell us, that before white

people came amongst them, and introduced boats and harpoons, they

used to catch ‘ yungan”’ by placing large nets across the channels

through which they knew the animals would pass from the feeding-

grounds. Since the establishment of a Pilot Station at Moreton

Bay, the blacks have acquired great dexterity in the use of the whale-

boat and harpoon, and are now constantly employed in the pursuit,

either for themselves as food, or for Europeans, who collect the oil

for sale. The chase is conducted with great caution and silence.

The harpooner stands in the bow, and directs the steersman by the

movement of the hand. As the Dugong must rise at intervals to

blow, he endeavours to calculate the exact spot of rising, and launches

the harpoon as it reaches the surface. Having only a short rope to

the harpoon, the Dugong often drags the boat with considerable ve-

locity, but is very soon exhausted.

The blacks have a grand feast over one, stripping off the whole

of the flesh and blubber in one large sheet, leaving the carcass entire.

Thus anyone wishing to procure skeletons entire could do so by

going amongst the natives with a supply of tobacco and a little flour,

as the Moreton Bay tribe has always been very friendly with the

whites.

I regret to say that some entire skeletons which were being sent

to England by a friend of mine, were placed with a large collection

of shells in a vessel which was unfortunately burnt.

I have no doubt that the Dugong abounds in the bays and straits

north of lat. 27°; but in none of these will the same facility be

offered of procuring specimens as at Moreton Bay, where the blacks

are so friendly, and are so well acquainted with the habits of this

animal.— Proc, Zool. Soc. Noy. 11, 1856.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

No. 116. AUGUST 1857.

VIli.—Hectocotylus-formation in Argonauta and Tremoctopus

explained by Observations on similar Formations in the Cepha-

lopoda in general. By Professor Japetus STEENSTRUP*,

[ With two Plates. ]

Tus memoir is to be regarded essentially only as a somewhat

detailed explanation of the figures on the two accompanying

plates.

The principal object of these figures is to induce naturalists

to examine the animals themselves for the peculiarities to which

they draw attention in a general way, rather than by their means

to give an exhaustive picture of the details; it would be better

to reserve the latter for such figures as might be taken from

living animals or freshly-caught individuals ; the present figures

are therefore for the most part in outline, and only the par-

ticular parts, of which a clearer representation was desirable,

have been executed more in detail.

The subject which they represent is an essential deviation from

the symmetrical structure, otherwise so highly characteristic of the

Cuttle-fishes, which has hitherto scarcely been observed, or, if

observed, not sufficiently noticed, as we shall find that in all male

individuals of that entire great group, one of the eight (four pairs)

arms surrounding the head, on one side of the animal, is not only

formed differently from that on the opposite side, but 1s even deve-

loped in such a peculiar manner for a longer or shorter space of its

* Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Skrifter, 5 Rakke, na-

turv. og math. Afdeling, 4 Bind. 1856. Translated from the German of

Professor Troschel, in Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1856, p. 211, by W. S. Dallas,

F.L.S.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 6

82 Prof. J. Steenstrup on Hectocotylus-formation

length on this side, that it is impossible to doubt that the arm

is thereby adapted to some particular purpose, of which we can-

not suppose that it is of subordinate importance to the animal,

because its transformation occurs in so great a number of species

of the class, and bears its peculiar characters in each natural

genus.

When the metamorphosis is traced from form to form, we

may see distinctly, in my opinion, that the arm with its peculiar

structure enters entirely or partially into the service of repro-

duction, and in the first case even becomes wholly unfitted for

the part which it otherwise has to play, namely to act as an

organ of motion (swimming or creeping) or in the prehension of

food. This metamorphosed arm consequently betrays its close

alliance with the Hectocotylus-formation in the two Octopod

genera Argonauta and Tremoctopus, Delle Chiaje, as the recent

investigations of Filippi, Verany, Vogt, and H. Miiller have

placed it beyond a doubt that the Hectocotylus or parasitic crea-

ture found so frequently upon female Argonauts and sometimes

upon female Tremoctopodes,—which was first regarded, in accord-

ance with the views of Delle Chiaje, as a parasitic animal or

Entozoon, but subsequently, im accordance with the sagacious

combinations of Kolliker, as a metamorphosed male Cephalopod

destined to lead a parasitic life upon its female,—is by no means

a complete organism, but only an arm of the male Cephalopod,

which, being filled with semen, separates from it and adheres to

the female for the purpose of fecundation. In order to under-

stand this Hectocotylus-formation, which during the last three or

four years has attracted so much of the attention of naturalists,

more correctly, and in its connexions, the observations which I

here bring forward will furnish an important key; but with the

interest which they possess in this respect, they also unite, as it

seems to me, no smal] importance in a systematic point of view.

The peculiarity here referred to furnishes an additional hint for

the comprehension of what does and what does not belong to

this class, and in many cases it gives good specific characters

for the distinction of nearly allied species, without considering

the value which it possesses as an external [sexual] character in

individuals of the same species, especially as such characters have

hitherto been missed ; and these are at the same time so readily

intelligible and so striking to the eye, that one can hardly help

wondering that they have not previously been observed and

brought into use.

After these few introductory words I pass immediately to the

description of the most essential differences of form in this me-

tamorphosis represented in the figures upon the accompanying

plates, merely remarking, prelimimarily, that in the order m

in the Cephalopoda. 83

which I state them, I have allowed myself to be guided in part

by the succession in which they have occurred to me.

This, therefore, is the original reason for my commencing

with the genus Loligo, Lamk., as I first became aware of this

peculiarity by my comparative investigations of our northern

species; the continuation of my investigations has, however,

shown me that I may naturally start from this genus.

In the restricted genus Loligo, Lamk. (and therefore without

the species upon which D’Orbigny subsequently founded the

genus Ommatostrephes), all the species which I have had the

opportunity of examining* have the extreme portion of the fourth

left arm (ventral arm) so metamorphosed, that the acetabula or

suckers, which in the opposite arm are continued quite to the

apex, constantly diminishing in size, here gradually disappear ;

whilst the peduncles on which they are seated, on the contrary,

increase in size, and become converted into long papille, giving

the extreme part of the arm a peculiar, pectinate appearance.

These papille always appear to be most strongly developed on

the external margin of the arm, whilst those belonging to the

series of acetabula on the mner+ margin of the arm retain a

trace of sucking-disks for a longer distance.

In the largest species of the genus Loligo, the so-called

Atlantic form of Loligo vulgaris, Lamk., but which is really a

distinct species, for which I have, in another memoir, proposed

the name of L. Forbesii, Stp., the fourth left arm of the male has

twenty-three pairs of acetabula regularly developed and corre-

sponding with the suckers on the same space of the right arm ;

from the twenty-third pair onwards the size of the sucking-

-disks suddenly diminishes; and even the twenty-seventh and

twenty-eighth pairs have them so small that they can only be

distinctly recognized with the aid of a lens; after this the

sucking-disks disappear entirely, whilst the muscular root of

the peduncle becomes elevated to three or four times its ordinary

height, and converted into a conical, elongated papilla. There

are about forty pairs of papille, and therefore the same number

* Besides the Cuttle-fishes in the two museums of which I have the

superintendence, or in which | am interested, namely the Zoological Mu-

seum of the University [of Copenhagen], and the Royal Museum of Natural

History, I have also been enabled, by the kindness of my colleague, Pro-

fessor Eschricht, to make unlimited use of the materials possessed by the

Zootomical Museum of the University.

7 Under the terms “inner” and “outer”? margins of the dorsal and

ventral arms, those will always be understood here which lie nearest to or

furthest from the median plane of the animal: in the two lateral pairs of

arms I employ the terms “ upper” and “lower” to indicate the two corre-

sponding margins of the arms, or the series of acetabula standing upon

them.

84 Prof. J. Steenstrup on Hectocotylus-formation

of pairs of acetabula have been metamorphosed ; they diminish in

length in both rows towards the apex, but those which are placed

along the outer margin of the arm are at the commencement more

elongated in proportion, whilst the subsequent ones, in a certain

space of the metamorphosed part of the arm, are abbreviated,

and seated on its margin like small serrations (vide Pl. II.

fig. 2*),

* The specific distinctions between Loligo vulgaris, Lamk., and Loligo

Forbesii, Stp., are best derived from the size and form of the suckers on

the tentacles : in L. vulgaris of the Mediterranean, as described and figured

by D’Orbigny and Verany, and also in a form of our coasts, which may

certainly be regarded as L. vulgaris, these are very large in the two central

rows, and very small in the lateral rows, so that a transverse section of the

latter is only one-half of that of the former, and their height only one-

third; whilst in L. Forbesii, Stp., the suckers of the central rows scarcely

exceed those of the lateral rows, either in transverse section or in height ;

and, on the whole, it appears as if the club of the tentacle had four series

of suckers of equal size. In comparison with the suckers of the arms, the

disks of the central rows of the tentacles in Loligo vulgaris are 2-3 times

as large as the largest disks on the third arm, whilst in L. Forbesii they are

scarcely one-third larger. The horny ring in the central rows of suckers

in L. vulgaris has only one-half of its circumference finely toothed, whilst

the other half is toothless, or only bears a group of 4-5 small blunt teeth

(in our northern form these are indeed the only teeth on the horny ring) :

in Loligo Forbesiit the ring bears numerous pointed teeth all round, and

these are usually larger and smaller alternately. In this species, also, the

suckers of the lateral series have the horny ring completely set with teeth

of equal size, whilst in L. vulgaris their horny ring has high pointed teeth

in the upper half, and the lower half almost toothless. In colour also,

L. Forbesvi is characterized by having the colour-sacs united into lear

spots on the anterior part of the sides, and also down the ventral surface.

These long, dark markings, and the nearly uniform size of the tentacular

suckers, consequently distinguish this species from L. vulgaris at the first

glance. Of both species I have only been able to examine the males on

our coasts; with us, L. Forbesii is the largest and most common. The

ordinary specimens are at least 2 feet long with the tentacles, 20 inches to

the tips of the arms, 15 inches to the roots of the arms, and the mantle =

1 foot.

The figures which certainly represent L. Forbesii are—

Forbes and Hanley, British Mollusca, vol. i. pl. L.L.L.

Adams (H. and A.), The Genera of Recent Mollusca, pl. 4. fig. 3:

in the former place under the name of L. vulgaris, Lamk. ; in the latter,

under that of L. magna, Rondel.

It is also this species that I have figured in a woodcut in my memoir

upon the “ Sea-monk”’ (Somunken); and, to judge from the suckers, it is

also possibly the species represented by Borlase (Natural History of Corn-

wall).

As Rondelet’s name “ Loligo magna” is no systematic denomination in

the Linnzan sense, this name, adopted by Leach, Gray, and others, cannot

be justly regarded as prior to L. vulgaris, even if it cannot be abandoned

for the reason adduced by D’Orbigny, because there are other large spe-

cies ; but least of all can this name be transferred to the new species, which,

in the opinion of the malacologists of Southern Europe, is an Atlantie spe-

tn the Cephalopoda. 85

In the male of another Danish species of Loligo, which I re-

gard as the L. vulgaris of Lamarck and the succeeding South

European authors, although in particular points it does not per-

fectly agree with the more detailed descriptions, I find an accord-

ance between the right and left arms of the fourth pair as far as

the eighteenth or nineteenth pair of suckers, where a perceptible

elongation of the peduncle commences. This then increases

more and more towards the apex of the arm, the suckers dis-

appearing gradually, and the peduncle remaining as a long

conical papilla. The papille are, on the whole, rather longer

and more powerful than in the preceding species, from which it

also differs in having the extremely small, ringless sucking-disks

visible for a somewhat longer distance, and also in that the

papille of the inner series are the smallest at the commence-

ment, but afterwards hecome the longest, especially towards the

apex, where they bend inwards towards the median line of the

arm, or, as it were, stretch over towards the series of the oppo-

site side, on which the papille have become shorter and thicker

exactly in the same proportion, and, as in the preceding species,

lie along the margin of the arm like the teeth of a saw. In this

species, also, about forty pairs of acetabula appear to be meta-

morphosed as above described.

Of Loligo Pleii, D’Orb., from the Antilles, the Museum un-

fortunately possesses only a single specimen, which has formerly

been completely dried ; but it is still easy to discern that in this

species the transformation commences with the nineteenth pair,

and becomes quite as striking as in the two preceding species.

cies, which does not occur in the Mediterranean, and could therefore hardly

have been intended by Rondelet as his L. magna. It even appears to me

on the whole very doubtful whether this was a Loligo at all, both when we

consider the figure (e.g. the long tentacles), and the statement regarding

the fins: ‘* pimnulze latiores sunt quam in Sepia, non totam alvuam ambi-

entes, et in angulum acutum in lateribus desimentes,” words which are

subsequently more exactly explained by the statement regarding the fins of

Sepiola, as to which he says: “nec figura nec situ pinnis Sepiarum et

Loliginum similis, neque enim angusta longaque totam alvuw ambit, ut in

Sepiis, neque lata et in acutum angulum termiatur, ut in Loliginibus, sed

rotunda, parva, utrinque veluti adnata modicam alvi partem occupat, neque

ad extremum usque corporis protensa” (p. 250). All this is indicative of

Ommatostrephes, to which the words “corpore in acutum desinente”’ are

also more suitable than to Loligo, even when they are employed in oppo-

sition to the body of Sepia.

To this, the largest species of our European seas, and also the species

upon which I first observed the remarkable metamorphosis of the arm in

the male, I have given the name of Loligo Forbesii, after Professor Edward

Forbes. By this J have wished to keep in remembrance not only that this

species is represented in his excellent work above mentioned, but also the

services done by this extraordinarily endowed man to natural history in

general and to the knowledge of marme animals in particular.

86 Prof. J. Steenstrup on Hectocotylus- formation

In other species of Loligo both series of acetabula at the apex

of the arm are not so uniformly subjected to this metamorphosis,

but only one series furnishes the above-mentioned papille.

Amongst the species which I have had the opportunity of

examining, this is the case especially in two from the coast of

Brazil, namely L. brasiliensis, Bl. and L. brevis, Bl., together

with a species which agrees well with D’Orbigny’s description

of his L. gahi, and which is therefore probably derived from

the Pacific Ocean.

Of the last-mentioned species the arm is represented in fig. 3.

The left arm is normally constructed as far as the fourteenth

acetabulum, after which the peduncles in the outer row of

suckers begin to be disproportionately elongated, but still bear

small sucking-disks, provided with horny rings, as far as the

twenty-second pair, at which the peduncle is quite papilliform,

as are all the other peduncles (about twenty-six) which follow

it up to the apex; under a strong magnifying power, how-

ever, we may still discern a small puncture at the tip of each

papilla,—the last indication of the sucking-disk. In the inner

row the sucking-disks are continued, with distimet horny rings,

nearly to the apex of the arm (at least they may be traced almost

to this with a lens), but they are elevated upon peduncles,

which constantly rise higher and higher, so that they completely

overtop the papille of the opposite side. It may also be re-

marked, that on the inside of each papilla a membranous comb

or lobe runs down to the median hne of the arm, and thenee

extends in an oblique direction (for it is well known that the

suckers are placed alternately in the two rows) in the form of a

similar membranous comb towards the inside of each acetabular

peduncle on the opposite side. The development of these mem-

branous lobes commences as early as the fourteenth pair*.

In Loligo brevis, Bl., things are essentially the same; the

differences appear to me to be that the sucking- disks which per-

sist as far as the apex in the inner series, are not borne upon

quite such long peduncles ; that the papillze, which are very long,

especially at their commencement, only make their appearance

at the twentieth pair; and that the membranous comb is less

developed, although always perceptible.

Loligo brasiliensis, Bl., of which the Museum possesses two

male specimens from Rio, has both series of acetabula on the

left ventral arm regularly developed as far as the fourteenth pair,

and the inner row continues essentially in the same way up to

the apex (with thirty-five pairs) ; in the outer series the acetabula

diminish rapidly in size, four still exhibiting the sucking-disk

* From their minuteness, no representation of these membranous lobes

could be given.

in the Cephalopoda. 87

distinctly, and with a slightly developed horny ring; from this

point papillae, which are very low, but tolerably thick at the

root, follow to the apex.

In the above-mentioned six species no striking difference ex-

ists between the left and right ventral arms below that part of

the arm which has entered into this remarkable metamorphosis;

but in Loligo media, Linn., which is destitute of acetabula on the

oral lobes (Mundfligene), and which has therefore been raised by

Gray to the rank of a distinct genus under the scarcely admis-

sible name of Teuthis*, this is, on the contrary, the case (fig. 1) ;

the left arm below this part, which in other respects does not

differ remarkably from that described in L. Forbesti and L. vul-

garis, being completely armed with very small suckers, whilst the

right arm bears large ones. The external sexual distinction

between males and females is consequently even greater here

than in any of the other species, and we may therefore the more

easily settle the dispute between D’Orbigny and Verany with

regard to the relation of this species to the L. Marmore esta-

blished by the last-mentioned writer. Both in his great work

on the Cephalopoda, published im conjunction with Férussae,

and in his ‘ Mollusques vivants et fossiles,’ D’Orbigny asserts

that the females of our species are the short-finned forms which

Verany has called L. Marmore, and the males, on the other

hand, the long-finned forms named L. subulata by Lamarck ;

but this assertion is proved to be quite incorrect by the above-

mentioned sexual distinctions, as males and females occur of both

these forms, and of all intermediate steps between them. Con-

sequently, I cannot give my adhesion to D’Orbigny’s opinion ;

but neither can I, with Verany, regard these two forms as di-

stinct species, as, in a series of thirteen individuals, I not only

find all the intermediate forms, but also a determinate propor-

tion between the prolongation of the abdomen and the fins and

the entire bulk of the animal; for which reason | cannot but

incline to regard these external differences of form as indications

of a more or less complete growth, and therefore the above-

mentioned species as forms differing in age.

As the seven species above mentioned represent the genus

Loligo, not only in all its essential forms, but also in all its

different ranges of distribution, I do not think that it can be

regarded as an unfounded assumption, that the fourth left arm

(ventral arm) will be found metamorphosed in a similar way,

* Gray and Adams, who adduce Aristotle as the authority for the genus

(loc. cit.), must certainly have forgotten, both that it is difficult, and one

might almost say, impossible, at this moment to decide what Aristotle

meant by his Tewthis, and also that Linnzus has long since applied the

generic name of Teuthis to a fish.

88 Prof. J. Steenstrup on Hectocotylus-formation

and furnished with papille for a part of its length, im all the

species of the genus.

The genus Sepioteuthis, Bl., stands so close to Loligo in every

respect, that, with many naturalists, it can hardly establish its

right to subsist as a distinct genus; it was therefore to be ex-

pected that it would also approach the species of Loligo in the

form of the reproductive organs. This, indeed, it appears to

do, so far as can be judged from the single species of which I

have had the opportunity of examining a great many specimens,

namely Sepioteuthis sepioidea, Bl., from the Antilles*. As shown

by fig. 4, the left ventral arm is actually metamorphosed analo-

gously to that of the Loligines, but still with its peculiar cha-

racter, the peduncles in the outer row of suckers being trans-

formed into compressed leaf-like papille, united by a mem-

branous bridge with the roots of the peduncles in the opposite

row, which are transformed into blunt elevations. The meta-

morphosis commences at about the thirtieth sucker, and embraces

about twenty-eight pairs of acetabula. It must also be indi-

cated that the right ventral arm of the male Sepioteuthis dif-

fers remarkably from that of the female, as its extreme third

is covered with acetabula so small as to be scareciy visible, and

it is therefore to be supposed that in the genus Sepioteuthis the

right arm assists the left in the part which it has to play.

With the genera Loliyo and Sepioteuthis, which, according to

D’Orbigny, form a group by themselves, I associate another

genus, established upon two small Cephalopoda, which so strongly

resemble certain small Loligines (e. g. L. brevipinna, Les.) in

form, that I should not be surprised if they were nearly allied

forms which have been described under this name. They never-

theless form a very characteristic small genus, which, in my

opinion, must be placed close to Loligo, although it is destitute

of one of the characters hitherto regarded as essential to the

Loligo-group, namely muscular cords on the funnel ; and in this

respect the species approach the group of Sepiola and Rossia,

as also in the structure of the acetabula, as these have not the

small elevated band all round the horny ring, which always

occurs in Loligo and Sepioteuthis. But in all other respects they

appear to me to be true Loligines. To keep this near relation-

ship in mind, I have formerly named this genus Loliolus; this

name being a diminutive of “ Lolius,”’ from which, according to

Gaza, Loligo is derived. In both the species of Loliolus, the

* Of the other species of the genus, which are all derived from the Indian

Ocean and its large gulfs, I have been unable to examine any males. I

may take this opportunity to remark, that I have not yet made use of any

of the material obtained by the expedition of the ‘ Galathea’ in this inves-

tigation.

in the Cephalopoda. 89

males of which are represented in figs. 5 & 6, and which are

easily distinguished from each other by the different size of the

acetabula on the second and third arms, the left ventral arm is

also metamorphosed, but in a far higher degree than in the two

preceding genera, as throughout its whole length it has not the

‘ least trace of a sucker, the surface on which the suckers should

be situated being even converted into a compressed, obtusely-

toothed edge; we find that all the teeth of this edge are pro-

duced from the fused bases of the peduncles of the inner series

of acetabula, whilst of those of the other row scarcely the smallest

trace is left. Fig. 5! represents the left ventral arm of Loliolus

typus, Stp., seen from the outer side, and somewhat enlarged ;

the small projecting points are the only traces of the suckers

and peduncles of the outer series. Fig. 6! represents the same

arm of Loliolus affinis, Stp., also magnified ; on this I have been

quite unable to find any such points, but cannot assert that they

are entirely wanting, as the specimen is unfortunately rather

flabby. The number of metamorphosed suckers may have been

about twenty-six in the former and twenty in the latter, to

judge from the number of the teeth*.

With D’Orbigny, as is well known, the genus Sepia belongs

to quite a different group from the preceding genera; but still,

in this genus, it is the same pair of arms which presents the want

of symmetry in the male individuals, and the arm of the same

side which is metamorphosed, but instead of the apex or apical

half of the arm being the seat of the transformation, it is here

the basal part or the lower half.

Thus, if we compare the right and left ventral arms in a male

Sepia officinalis, Linn., we shall see at once, that the lowest

fourth part of the left arm (as shown in fig. 7) has a peculiar

appearance. Whilst the right arm has large and perfect aceta-

bula, which follow each other in four complete rows, and increase

in size from the apex of the arm imwards towards its base, the

above-mentioned part of the left arm has only the two or three

lowermost suckers in each row normally developed, whilst the

seven or eight following suckers in each row have either become

* For the more exact determination of the species, I may also state that

both have a broad, free, internal gladius, which has the greatest resemblance

in form to those of Loligo brevis and L. brevipinna, figured by D’Orbigny,

tab. 13. fig. 6. and tab. 15. fig. 3. In the species of Loliolus, however,

the lamina is perhaps rather broader in proportion to the shaft; the shaft

has a sharp keel in L. typus, whilst both males and females of L. afjinis

have the shaft rather broader, and with a more rounded back. I have no

indication of locality for my Loliolus typus; Loliolus affinis occurred in a

glass marked “‘ Captured by Governor Christensen on the voyage from the

Cape to Tranquebar,” so that it is an inbabitaut of the Indian Ocean.

There were two specimens, male and female.

90 Prof. J. Steenstrup on Hectocotylus-formation

very small or almost entirely evanescent. The former is the

case with the two innermost rows, in which the acetabula are

extremely low, being scarcely one-sixth of the usual height of

the suckers, whilst they are still about a third of their diameter,

so that they sit like small depressed saucers fixed on a short thin

stalk of the inner surface of the arm; the latter, on the con-

trary, occurs in the two upper rows placed towards the back of

the animal, the suckers of which are so small that they may be

easily overlooked, when we have not large individuals to examine.

On a Cuttle-fish of 11 inches in length they are scarcely more

than 0-5 millim. in diameter, and their height is far less. The

transformation of the arm, however, does not consist only in the

retrogression of these acetabula; this, in reality, only becomes

very striking by the coincidence of two other modifications.

Thus the arm becomes much broader at the above-mentioned

part, not only by the space between the three upper series of

acetabula becoming larger, by which these, so extremely small

in themselves, being removed to a greater distance apart, must

appear even still more inconsiderable, but also by the membra-

nous border, which runs along the outer row of acetabula, and

which is rather narrow on the rest of the arm, being considerably

developed here, and becoming nearly as broad as the surface of

the arm. Then the muscular parts, which, as it were, constitute

the roots of the peduncles of the suckers, or from which these

peduncles, as it were, originate, have been developed in a pecu-

liar way, becoming elevated, lying like oblique beams across the

arm, and partially crossing amongst themselves, by which means

a quantity of pits are produced, which are particularly deep to-

wards the upper margin. Lastly, in these pits and on the par-

titions which separate them, the skin has everywhere folded

itself into elevated, thin, membranous lamin, which run to-

gether into a reticulated form, and give the whole surface of this

part of the arm a certain resemblance to the inside of a calf’s

stomach. ‘This pitted and reticulated structure of the surface,

which particularly assists the suckers in escaping from the eye,

does not confine itself entirely to the true upper surface of the

arm, where it is strongest between the two outer rows of suckers,

but also extends itself over the corresponding portion of the lateral

margin of the arm. It can hardly be doubted that this peculiar

structure has for its object a considerable secretion of mucus;

but the elucidation of the particular way in which the trans-

ference of the seminal mass to the female can thereby be assisted,

must be left for future investigations. The tenth or eleventh

sucker in each of the four rows makes its appearance suddenly,

with its proper size and shape, and from thence to the apex

there is no perceptible difference between this arm and that

in the Cephalopoda. 91

of the opposite side, or between the arms of the male and

female.

In Sepia inermis, Van Hasselt, from the Indian Ocean, of

which the Museum only possesses one male specimen, and this

a small one, of hardly 4 inches in length, I find this peculiarity

still more remarkably developed. The lower half of the arm

(see Pl. II. fig. 8) possesses no suckers at all, but its whole

breadth is metamorphosed in the same way as the outer side of

the corresponding portion of the arm in Sepza officinalis, a nuim-

ber of pits being arranged distinctly enough in rows by more

prominent folds of skin, which pass transversely across the arm.

The strongest transverse folds appear to indicate the position of

the muscular parts, to which the peduncles of the acetabula are

attached; and from thew number, we may suppose that about

twenty transverse rows of suckers have disappeared. Both niar-

gins of the arm have a tendency to fold together, and thus, as

it were, to form a very long sucking or grasping plate. The

specimen referred to, from which fig. 8 is drawn, was untor-

tunately somewhat flabby, and not very well preserved ; a better-

preserved specimen may perhaps exhibit a trace of the suckers,

the existence of which I have thought myself compelled to deny.

At any rate, this structure, in an Indian species of Sepza, renders

it probable that the peculiarities above described in Sepia offici-

nalis do not occur in this species alone, but that we have im

this case to do with a phenomenon occurring in the whole genus

Sepia.

Of three other species of this genus I only possess female

specimens ; and in these, as in the females of the two preceding

species, the four series of suckers pass up to the base of the arm,

constantly increasing in size.

With the genus Sepia, D’Orbigny groups the two principal

genera of the small shore Cuttle-tish,—Sepzo/a, Leach, and

Rossia, Owen; but, as regards the peculiarities of the arms,

which we are investigating here, they are widely separated from

each other, as the following will show at once.

In a male Sepiola Rondeletit, D’Orb., I found the following

peculiarities. Of the first, or dorsal pair of arms, that of the

right side bore very small suckers in two rows up to the apex ;

and these, which became smaller quite regularly upwards, did

not attain one-fourth of the size of the large globular acetabula

which are found on the second and fourth pairs of arms, espe-

cially on their middle portion; in this they agreed with the

suckers of the third pair. In this unequal development of the

acetabula this male Sepzola of mine also agrees with fig. 5 of the

first plate of Sepiola in the great work of Férussac and D’Or-

bigny. The arm on the left side, however, differed not only

92 Prof. J. Steenstrup on Hectocotylus-formation

from that opposite to it, but also from all the other arms of the

animal, as it was, so to speak, inflated in a peculiar way through

its whole length, as shown in my fig. 9. On a closer examina-

tion, it appeared that the cause of this inflated state was, that

the otherwise spherical peduncles of the suckers had become

much elongated and cylindrical, and amalgamated together ; with

the obtuse apices of these cylinders, the suckers are united by

such thin and short filaments, that they almost appear as if they

were sessile; their diameter is the same as that of their cylin-

ders, so that they nearly touch each other with their outer mar-

gins. This applies especially to the inner row of suckers, which

exceed those of the outer row in size, and project beyond them,

as is shown more distinctly by fig. 9", which represents this arm

seen from the ventral side, and fig. 9!", which exhibits two of the

suckers in both rows more strongly magnified. The first-men-

tioned figure also shows a remarkable dilatation of the skin

developed at the base of the inner surface of the arm, strongly

provided with muscles, and thus rendered capable of dilating

itself towards the sides and folding itself together, so that it

appears able to act as a prehensile apparatus or forceps. It is

here represented with the margins rolled together in the nozzle-

like form which it had in the spirit specimen. Below this

nozzle (Dille) there are seated four small suckers of the size and

form of those situated at the base of the other arms, from which

we see that this dilatation of the skin occupies the same position

on the arm as the dilatation on the arm of the Sepie; and that

this apparatus has essentially the same import as the above-

described part in the genus Sepia, I cannot doubt. I have

already mentioned that fig. 5 on the first plate in Férussae and

D’Orbigny best represents my male Sepiola as regards the general

habit and the strong spherical acetabula on the second and

fourth pairs of arms. I will now request that this figure may

be compared with mine in regard to the structure of the left

dorsal arm, and it will certainly be admitted that it is probable

that the peculiar form which this arm has received in the figure

must be founded upon such a structure as that which I have here

described. As all my females had small suckers where the male

possessed the large ones, and had the right and left dorsal arms

equally developed, so as to correspond with the other figures

which D’Orbigny has given of the species, I naturally regard

the often-mentioned fig. 5 as representing a male, and not an in-

dividual with a morbid or monstrous development, as D’Orbigny

explains this figure of his*. I also possess another male Sepiola

* At p. 237 of his continuation of Férussac’s great work on the Cephalo-

poda (Histoire naturelle et particuliere des Mollusques), D’Orbigny says

of Sepiola atlantica :—‘*‘ Cette espéce, de méme que la Sepiolu Rondelelti,

in the Cephalopoda. 93

from the Mediterranean, which belongs to the same group as

S. Rondeletii, as it has only two rows of acetabula on each arm ;

its second and fourth arms also bear large and spherical suckers,

and its left dorsal arm 1s metamorphosed in an exactly analogous

manner with that of the preceding, from which, however, it is

distinguished by the suckers being larger in proportion at the

lower part of this arm, and diminishing more suddenly towards

the end of the arm; they are at the same time rather more

pedunculate, and the basal parts of these peduncles are not so

strongly amalgamated. The peculiar prehensile part at the root

is also less developed.

In the genus Rossia, so nearly allied to Sepiola, it was to be

expected that the behaviour of the arm would be the same. I

find that this is actually the case as regards the pair to which

the metamorphosed arm belongs, but the metamorphosis itself

is very different. Unfortunately I possess no male of the true

European species, but, on the other hand, I have examined five

male individuals of the genus Rossia from the coast of Green-

land. These five individuals decidedly belong to two different

species, but they all agree with each other, and differ from the

female individuals, both of the European and Greenland species,

which I have been able to examine, in that the three lower pairs

of arms, the second, third and fourth pairs, bear considerably

larger suckers than the first pair, or the dorsal arms, whilst in

the females this pair does not bear perceptibly smaller suckers

than the rest ; and also that the same first pair, the right and left

arms, has the outer row of these suckers, for nearly two-thirds

of the length of the arm, standing upon high peduncles, the

roots of which are uncommonly strongly developed, compressed,

and, in the soft state, almost leaf-like; between these peculiar

peduncles we see folds of skin insert themselves, and other

similar folds of skin issue from the roots of the peduncles. (PIII.

fig. 1.) These remarkable folds of skin, on closer examination,

prove to be only luxuriant developments of the ridges of skin

which in the Rossie surround the base or the peduncle of the

individual acetabula like cups, as is the case also partially in

Sepiola,—cutaneous formations to which sufficient attention has

perhaps not been paid hitherto, but which possibly correspond

est assez sujette 4 une maladie qui consiste en une durcissement et une

croissance beaucoup plus grande des cupules des bras sessiles, qui devien-

nent quatre fois aussi gros que les autres, sans que leur cercle corné suive

la méme proportion. Cette affection allonge les bras, les fait gonfler, ou

les rend souvent difformes.” Of Sepiola Rondeletii, also, he says, in the

explanation of figures, p. 233, and indeed with reference to the very figures

(5 & 6) which I have mentioned above as unmistakeably resembling my

figure :—“ Fig. 5, Individu malade; ses cupules devenues plus grosses et

plus durs. Fig. 6, Portion de bras affecté de la maladie indiquée.”

94 Prof. J. Steenstrup on Hectocotylus-formation

with those which D’Orbigny has described after Tilesius in Sepiola

japonica, Til. About eleven acetabula are thus strongly elevated

on the outer side of the right and left arms, whilst the remain-

ing suckers are borne upon lower peduncles, which, however,

agree essentially with the others. As the so-called “ covering

membrane” (Deckhaut) of the acetabula, which I have called the

lateral border of the arm in the preceding, is very strong and

broad on the outer side of the arm before these eleven suckers,

and the above-mentioned folds of skin are continued upon it,

some similarity is produced between this development and that

which we met with in Sepia, just as we have here the metamor-

phosis in the lower part of the arm, or principally nit. Lastly,

it must also be observed, that in all the five individuals both

arms are so obliquely twisted inwards, that it is evident a co-

operation between the outer side of both arms is facilitated

thereby. These two species are probably amongst the largest

in the genus, as they are of equal size with R. palpebrosa, Owen,

with which one must, in my opinion, be identical*, but there is

searcely sufficient reason for supposing that the smaller species

would not exhibit peculiarities agreeing with these yt.

* The two species are easily distinguished from each other, as one has

extremely small suckers on the clubs of the tentacles, as is the case,

according to Owen’s description and figure, in Rossia palpebrosa 2 , whilst

both males and females of the other species have very large suckers on

the clubs; the middle row of these considerably exceeds the large spherical

suckers of the arms in size, by which peculiarity this species also differs

notably from all other described species. To this remarkable form I

have given the name of Rossia Molleri, Stp., after our late countryman,

H.C. Moller, who has done such service to the Molluscan fauna of Green-

land. The two dorsal arms, Pl. III. fig. 1, are drawn from the male of

this R. Mélleri.

Induced by this and several other additions to the fauna of Greenland,

which will be referred to in this memoir, I seize the opportunity of remind-

ing the reader, that both the original collection which served Moller as the

foundation for his ‘‘ Index Molluscorum Greenlandiz,”’ and also his sub-

sequent collections for a more complete elaboration of this work, have

been presented to the Zoological Museum of the University by his father,

and that an enlarged and more complete edition of Moller’s Index, with

original figures, is being prepared by M. O. Morch, principally with the

aid of the above-mentioned material.

+ I make this remark with reference to a peculiarity in the remarkable

Rossia dispar, Riipp., noticed incidentally in Verany’s work on the Cepha-

lopoda of the Mediterranean. In this small species, which was first recog-

nized by its disproportionately large suckers on the uppermost lateral arms

(see Verany, J. c. tab. 23 d, f,g, h), for which Gray also has formed a sepa-

rate genus under the name of Heteroteuthis, according to a letter to the

author from Dr. Krohn, all the individuals furnished with these large

suckers have proved to be females; whilst of another form, agreeing with

this in other respects, but destitute of the large acetabula, and for which

the name of Rossia affinis was thought of, only males have been met with,

in the Cephalopoda. 95

The genus Ommatostrephes, D’Orb., formed of those species of

the older genus Loligo, in which the eyes are uncovered by the

general integument, and the structure differs in many other re-

spects from that of the species of Loligo in the narrower sense ; the

genus Onychoteuthis, Lichtst., with its subgenus Gonatus, Gray ;

and the genus Loligopsis as it was peculiarly understood by Férus-

sac and D’Orbigny, which does not appear to stand in connexion

with the Cephalopoda upon which Lamarck originally founded

his genus Loligopsis,—do not present the same differences in the

structure of a single pair of arms in the male individuals. Never-

theless, important external differences between the males and

females are not wanting, as appears even from Verany’s descrip-

tion and figure of the two sexes of Omm. sagittatus, Lamk., and

as I can confirm from the examination of both sexes from the

Mediterranean. It is, however, not only the comparatively

much shorter body and the much longer and stronger arms

which distinguish the males from the females, but there is also

the remarkable difference, which Verany has overlooked, that in

the male both the lateral arms bear suckers several times larger

than those of the ventral and dorsal arms, whilst in the females

the suckers of the lateral arms do not greatly exceed these in

size. In these forms, therefore, I by no means doubt the exist-

ence of external sexual distinctions, but only that of a less

symmetrical development of one of the pairs of arms with refer-

ence to reproduction. In connexion with this, however, I must

expressly observe, that although I have had the opportunity of

seeing a considerable number of species,—and namely no less

than six* of the so-called “ Loligopsides,” which as a group I

Under the supposition that this observation is correct (?), it remains a

question whether these males do not exhibit the dorsal pair, in the first

place, with smaller suckers than the other three pairs of arms, and in the

second, analogous to the arms in the above-mentioned three species. It

requires a closer investigation to determine whether the two Rossie from

the Irish coast, described by Ball, R. Owenii and R. Jacobi, of which the

latter is referred to R. macrosoma by Forbes and Haniey, are not in the

relation to each other of males and females of the same species; at least

the former agrees, in the characters of the suckers, with my males, and the

latter with my females. See the figures of these two species in Forbes and

Hanley, plates N. N.N. and 8.8.58.

* As this group sti" contains so few species in the system, and as these

Cuttle-fishes are very rare in general in museums, it will hardly be super-

fluous to refer to this number. The six species above mentioned are all

Atlantic ; two of them are very small species of the genus Chiroteuthis,

D’Orbigny, with much resemblance to the Lol. zygena, Ver., described in

Verany’s work, and figured on pl. 40, and to Lol. vermicularis, Riipp. ;

two others are also small species, but belong to the genus Leachia, Les.,

one of which is the Cranchia (Owenia) megalops, described by Prosch in

the Memoirs of this Society ; and a second remarkable species, to which I

have given the name of L. Reinhardtii, and which is distinguished from all

96 Prof. J. Steenstrup on Hectocotylus-formation

would prefer naming Hyaloteuthie or Medusoteuthia; of the

Onychoteuthis group, two, and of the genus Ommatostrephes, five

species,—yet I have only had a considerable number of indi-

viduals of each sex for examination in very few species, namely

in one of each of the last-mentioned genera; so that it is not

impossible that an observer more fortunately situated in this

respect, and especially one residing on the Mediterranean, might

ascertain what I have been unable to discover. In this case,

however, the metamorphosis will certainly be confined to an

extremely small part of the arm*.

From the remarkable forms which, as we have seen, are ae-

quired by a particular arm in most of the male Cephalopoda of

the order Decapoda, this being peculiarly developed for a parti-

cular object, let us now turn to the Octopoda. If we have been

unable to repress the feeling that this remarkable development

very closely represents the Hectocotylus-formation in the genera

Argonauta and Tremoctopus among the latter, it is natural that we

should seek to discover a trace of the same formation in the other

genera of the Octopod Cephalopoda, in order, in this way, by

closer transitions, to give greater probability to this idea,

When we investigate the series of the species of the genus

Octopus itself, and at the same time compare their external

structure, we find that the arm, which is “ hectocotylized” in

the two genera above mentioned—which, as is well known, is the

the previously described species by its strong armature of cartilaginous

bands on the mantle. Besides a toothed cartilaginous band down the me-

dian line of the back, it has on each side of the body two other toothed

cartilaginous bands or ribs, which meet at an acute angle exactly at the

points where the mantle is united with the funnel on each side; the pro-

portions of the arms are 3, 2,4, 1, and they only bear two series of suckers ;

the tentacles have four rows of suckers on the outer third, which are con-

tinued in a scattered arrangement over the middle third; the fins are ter-

minal, small and roundish. Lastly, I have a large and very important

species of the same genus from North Greenland, Leachia hyperborea, Stp.,

which is distinguished from L. pavo, Les., with which it appears to be most

nearly allied, by the length of the fins, which are very narrow, follow the

sides of the body for half their length, and together form a lanceolate

figure; by the different comparative lengths of the arms, which are 3, 2,

1, 4; and by the considerable size of the acetabula and the shortness of

the tentacles, which are only twice as long as the true arms. These new

species, with several other Cuttle-fishes of the Atlantic, are destined to

form the subject of a future memoir. The sixth species is an imperfect

Histioteuthis, D’Orb.

* In my two male Ommatostrephes, Lamk., one of the ventral arms does,

indeed, exhibit a peculiar form at the apex, which might mdicate such a

metamorphosis; but as in one individual it is the left and in the other the

right arm, and as both appear to have been slightly injured at this place

during life, [ could not regard this as normal, especially as I could find

nothing similar in male Ommatostrephes of other species.

in the Cephalopoda. 97

third arm on the right (Tremoctopus) or left (Argonauta) side of

the animal,—is also formed differently to the other arms im the

genus Octopus, and in this case it is always the arm on the right

side which has become transformed. This arm is always shorter

than the left one, even to a considerable extent, as its length in

different species is only one-half to three-fourths of that of the

latter; and as, besides this, it. not only often retains the same

thickness, but is even more muscular in its outer half, it has

frequently a more powerful appearance. It bears far fewer

acetabula than the left arm, and is furnished externally at the

apex with a peculiar, usually longish plate, which is provided,

in most species, with a greater or less number of transverse

wrinkles or ribs with intervening pits. This plate is also con-

nected with the swimming-membrane at the base of the arm by

the agency of a muscular border of skin, which runs down along

the dorsal margin of the arm, and this border is very often found

with its free margin rolled up towards the inner side of the arm,

by which a more or less closed canal is formed, which is un-

doubtedly destined to conduct the spermatophora to the apical

plate of the arm. As this canal or semicanal is destitute of

chromatophora on the inside, and perfectly white in most spe-

cies, 1 conclude that in the living animal this membranous

margin will in general be bent towards the side of the arm, as

was seen in most of the spirit specimens.

This is the case at least in Octopus grenlandicus, Dewhurst

(= O. arcticus, Prosch), in five males of which I find only 41-43

acetabula on the right arm of the third pair (whilst on the cor-

responding left arm I find 74-79), a spoon-shaped prehensile

plate furnished with 13-17 transverse ribs at its apex, and a

cutaneous margin which extends from the latter to the middle

of the connecting membrane between the third and fourth arms,

where the semicanal or groove, formed by this margin, also

suddenly ceases. Fig. 2, on Pl. III., which is of the natural size,

is intended to assist the comprehension of this peculiarity : @ is

the grasping-plate, as I have called it, separated from the sucker-

bearing part of the arm by a high angular fold of skin (d) ;

5, b is the membranous border; and c¢, the place where it com-

mences or terminates at the margin of the swimming-mem-

brane*. In one specimen, a seminal capsule or spermatophore

projected from the funnel, and was probably on the way towards

this membranous border, to which it is most likely conveyed by

the upper extremity of the funnel simply laying itself against

the commencement of the fold of skin.

_* The sucking-disks on all the true arms are of about the same size;

their appearing larger on the first pair in the figure is owing to the diree-

tion in which they were seen by the artist.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 7

98 Prof. J. Steenstrup on Hectocotylus-formation

In a male specimen of Octopus macropus, Risso, or O. Cuviert,

D’Orb., collected by Professor Eschricht near Cette, and now

handed over to the Zoological Museum of the University, I find

the characters so far in agreement with those of O. Grenlandicus,

that here also the right arm of the third pair is much shorter

than the left one,—the former being not quite 10 inches, whilst

the latter is nearly 20 inches in length ; and the right arm is at

the same time dilated at the apex into a muscular plate of 13

mill. in length, but narrow, which bears no suckers, and is sepa-

rated from the sucker-bearmg part of the arm by an elevated

fold. Although the specimen was somewhat flaccid, a tendency

of the margins of the terminal plate to bend together like a

grasping apparatus was recognized ; but no transverse elevations

were to be seen, perhaps only in consequence of the above-

mentioned state of preservation. Below this grasping-plate the

arm was of the regular construction, with the exception of its

stronger muscularity and greater thickness, and the muscular

border down the side of the arm.

Another species of Octopus, also a native of the Mediterra-

nean, but which I can by no means regard as a small O. vulgaris,

exhibits essentially the same character: the arm is represented

of half the natural size, with the border unfolded, in Plate III.

fig. 3. The number of transverse ribs in the grasping-plate is 17.

Besides several species of Octopus, the determination of which

I have found impossible from the want of materials for compari-

sop, I have also examined several male individuals of O. rugosus,

Bose, from the West Indies, hkewise a great number of males

of O. vulgaris, Lamk., from the Mediterranean, and a male Oc-

topus from the coast of Chili, which, from the considerable size

of some particular pairs of suckers on the lateral arms, appears

to be the well-known O. Fontanianus, D’Orb., of that coast. In

all of these I have found that this right arm has a muscular fold

of skin along its inner or lower side, destined to form a canal or

semicanal for the passage of spermatophora, and that it is fur-

nished at the extremity with a small sucker-hke dilatation,

which, however, is so inconsiderable that it may easily escape

observation, whilst the arm itself is sufficiently distinguished

from the opposite one by the above-mentioned rolled-up fold of

skin, and by its abbreviation, although it is not thicker, as in

the other forms, but appears thinner and more pointed in its

outer half than the other arms. I must therefore assume, that

in all species of Octopus, without exception, this third arm on.

the right side is destined for the conveyance of spermatophora.

I must add, particularly, with regard to Octopus vulgaris,

Lamk., that five uncommonly large male individuals examined

by me all have the fourteenth, fifteenth, or sixteenth sucker on

in the Cephalopoda. 99

their lateral arms, of a very disproportionate size, and that the

uppermost pair of these lateral arms also usually had the suckers

in the neighbourhood of this large sucker of nearly the same

size, whilst in only one of these specimens there was a tendency

to develope two such sucking-disks on the lowest lateral pair, or

the so-called third pair of arms. At the same time the third

right arm was about a foot shorter than the left one, but also

distinctly thinner in its outer half, and it had the pointed ter-

minal surface at the extremity; the fold of skin, which is very

white on the surface turned inwards, gives the arm an appear-

ance as if the side of the arm were divided into two parts by a

longitudinal cleft*. In no female, although even here the

* The characters which I have here indicated, namely the pointed form

of the arm, the strong cutaneous fold along the dorsal part of the arm,

the distinct white colour of the inside of this fold, its rollmg towards the

side of the arm, from which it only appears to be separated by a deep crack

or furrow, and indeed from the very apex, and lastly, the above-men-

tioned large sucking-disks on the two lateral pairs of arms, and even on

the arm which assists in reproduction, enable us to understand three pas-

sages in Aristotle, which have not hitherto been perfectly intelligible to

philologists and zoologists. These passages show us, that in the common

Octopus of the Mediterranean, his Polypus, Aristotle not only knew of this

peculiar form in the one arm, but was also aware that it stood in connexion

with reproduction, although he distinctly asserted that the semen was not

conducted through the arm.

In one place, ‘Aristotle says very briefly, regarding his Polypus: Ata-

peper de 6 appnv 77s Onrelas TO TE THY keadyy € €XELY TpopNnkeaTEpay, Kal TO

kaNovumevoy Umd TaY GAtéwy aidoioy ev TH wAektavn devKov (lib. v. ec. 10. 1,

edit. Schneider, p. 196), which must be translated : “ differt mas a foemina

eo, quod habet caput (2. e. abdomen) oblongius, et genitale, quod a pisca-

toribus vocatur, in brachio album.” This expression refers, in the first

place, to that employed in another passage in the same book (lib. v. e. 6.

I. p- 188), wherein it is stated more in detail—act be Ties Kal TOY

appeva Exel aidorades Tt év pea T@Y TAEKTAVOY, ev a dvo ai peytorat Korvhn-

Soves ciaiv’ civar S€ Td ToLodToy Somep veupades PEXpL eis weony THY TAEK-

Tavnv mpoomeduxos, drav te (elaaduevac) eis Tov puxtnpa Onreias—that is

to say, “ alunt nonnulli, marem in uno brachiorum, in quo sunt duo maxima

acetabula, quoddam genitali simile habere, idem esse quasi nervosum, usque

ad medium brachium aduatum, et totum in narem (fistulam) foemine inseri.”

It also refers, as we now certainly find, to the more exact description of the

arm in the fourth book: ‘O Hey ovv toAvmous Kal os Tool Kal @s XEpat

Xpyrae Tats mAexravats” mpoodyerat 6€ rais duct rats twép Tod ordparos, 7

& €axdry TOY TAEKTAVOY, 7 éorw ogurarn Te Kal povn mapahevkos avTay Kal

e& a akpov Sixpéa (€ore dé avryn emt TH payer’ Kadetrat be paxes TO Retov, ob

mpoow ai KotuAnddves cigt’) tavty Oe TH mAeKTavyn xpyrac é€v Tais dxelas

(lib. iv. 1. 6. p. 131)—that is, “ polypus vero brachiis et ut pedibus et ut

manibus utitur, nam duobus, que supra os habet, admovet ori cibum, ex-

tremo autem brachior ‘um, quod est acutissimum et solum eorum ex parte

candidum et eui ab apice fissura (est autem hee in spina: spina vero vocatur

pars levis brachii, e cujus latere anteriore acetabula sunt)—hoc brachio in

eoitu utitur.”

That in the above words Aristotle referred to such a formation as I have

100 Prof. J. Steenstrup on Hectocotylus-formation

lateral arms were unmistakeably the largest, did I find such

large suckers.

This equipment of the males of Octopus vulgaris with isolated

suckers of remarkable size on certain arms, induces me not to

quit the genus Octopus without calling attention to the fact that

the above-mentioned O. Fontanianus, D’Orb., which, according

to D’Orbigny, is the only species hitherto observed on the coast

described above in Octopus, and especially in O. vulgaris, hardly requires

to be more exactly indicated, and it is nothing but a want of acquaintance

therewith that has led naturalists astray, when they have asserted that

Aristotle had some knowledge of the remarkable peculiarities discovered

within the last few years in Argonauta and Tremoctopus (see Von Siebold,

Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zool. 1853, p. 122-124; Roulin, Ann. Se. Nat. 1852,

xvi. p. 191; Owen, Lectures on Comp. Anat. 1855, p. 6347). _ Aristotle’s

sources of information were evidently the fishermen of the Mediterranean;

these perhaps still know the mode of reproduction of the Octopods, although

it is certainly very remarkable that the naturalists who have occupied

themselves so much with the Cuttle-fishes of the Mediterranean, espe-

cially of late years, should have learnt nothing about it. Pliny appears to

me only to have known the traditions of the celebrated Greek philosopher

and naturalist ; he calls the arms of the Cephalopoda, pediculi, cirri, crmes,

brachia, and has the following passage regarding their employment in the

service of reproduction in the Polypus or Octopus: “ Omnes brachiis, ut

pedibus ac manibus, utuntur; cauda vero, que est bisulea et acuta, in

coitu”’ (lib.ix.46); and “polypi (coeunt) crine uno foeminz naribus annexo”

(lib. x. 74).

Rondelet, with whom, as with his contemporary, Gesner, Aristotle is a

principal source of information, and with whom the interpretation of the

Greek text is an important matter, expresses himself as follows upon the

above-mentioned statements of Aristotle : “Sed hze somnia esse, anatome

certo demonstrat. Mihi sepius polypos dissecanti nunquam yisa sunt

acetabula ista majora in uno brachio quam in alio, preeterquam in primo

et maximo ora ose genere, in quo non duo in uno brachio sed quatuor

in quatuor brachiis acetabula pre ceteris omnibus maxima comperias, in

aliis generibus minima. Quod si semen hae emitteretur, necesse foret,

meatum aliquem ab internis partibus hue deductum, foeminam quoque

eodem meatu semen excipere ovaque edere, que fieri non posse, fatebuntur

omnes qui polypos viderunt, et ovorum in inferiori alvi loco situs necessario

convincit, alio quam brachii acetabulo ova edi.”’ (De Piscibus, Lugduni,

1554, lib. xvii. pp. 511,512.) Rondelet has therefore correctly observed

the four large suckers on the lateral arms of the male, but we cannot

exactly see whether he has regarded them as a sexual character; in this

respect, however, he is somewhat in advance of the more modern observers,

who have overlooked both these and the brachius copulator. In D’Orbigny

I find no observations upon this organ; Verany has regarded the large size

of the suckers as something accidental, stating, correctly enough, that

“the suckers increase imperceptibly up to the fifteenth, which is usually

the largest,” but afterwards adding, “and often very disproportionate to

was — touch it, especially on the arms of the third pair.” (J. ¢.

p- 17.

+ The author last cited states (p. 634), ‘ It would seem, also, that the

modified arm of the male in certain Octopods had not escaped the notice”’

of Aristotle; citing the passage in question.

in the Cephalopoda. 101

of Chili, and which is principally distinguished from the other

species of Octopus by the character which I have found to occur,

and indeed in a remarkable degree, in all male individuals of our

commonest species, is probably "established only upon males, and

is perhaps also a collective species, consisting of males of several

distinct species. At all events, two male Octopods from the

coast of Chili which I possess, present, together with the com-

mon character of these large suckers on a particular part of the

arm, such great differences, that they can hardly be regarded as

belonging fo a natural species: one of them, a very large speci-

men, “of the size of an ordinary O. vulgaris, has 90 pairs of

suckers on the third right arm; the other, which was brought

from Valparaiso by Professor Kroyer, is much smaller, and has

only 40 pairs of suckers on the same arm; the large one has

the terminal plate but slightly developed, whilst the hectocoty-

lized arm of the smaller specimen bears an elongated, lanceolate,

terminal plate with faint transverse wrinkles, and the angle of

the fold of skin previously mentioned is drawn out into a papil-

liform point (fig. 4); the small male also has the isolated, dis-

proportionately large suckers on the dorsal and ventral as well

as on the lateral arms, and the latter are not thicker than the

uppermost and lowest pairs, whilst the large male has these large

suckers only on the lateral arms, which preponderate consider-

ably over the other arms. Now, as I am also in possession of a

female Cephalopod which approaches the smaller male, but is

destitute of those suckers, I believe I am justified m expressing

my above-mentioned suspicion against O. Fontanianus; but I

must reserve myself for a final decision by more abundant ma-

terial. At present I must advise naturalists to be cautious about

admitting the whole group of Octopods which Gray wishes to

bring together by a character which at least partially coincides

with the most essential specific character hitherto given for O.

Fontanianus ; according to Gray, the males of Octopus vulgaris

would come in this, his third group, whilst the females would

remain in his first*.

A male individual of the genus Eledone, Leach, which is de-

rived from the Mediterranean, and which, as it has a cirrus over

the eye, would most probably be the common F. moschata, Leach,

shows that this nearly allied genus possesses a similar structure

of the arms, as is shown more exactly in Pl. III. fig. 5. As in

the genus Octopus, the third right arm is shorter and somewhat

stronger than the left one; it bears only 64 acetabula, whilst

* Gray, Catalogue of the Mollusca in the Collection of the British Mu-

seum, Part 1. London, 1849, p. 14. With regard to the O. oculatus,

D’Orb., which also stands in Gray’s third group, I ean at least certify that

only the males possess the very large sucker on the lateral arms.

102 Prof. J. Steenstrup on Hectocotylus-formation

the opposite one has 93, so that the deficiency is about one-

third. A strong cutaneous border commences in the middle of

the margin of the membrane stretched between the third and

fourth arms, and thence runs along the arm to its apex, where

there is a peculiarly developed terminal portion, destitute of

suckers, which evidently represents the spoon-shaped plate of

the Octopods, but which is furnished with several elevated lon-

gitudinal folds. The individual figured also deserves notice,

because the seven other arms are not provided with acetabula at

the extremities, but with two rows of cutaneous lamine, a pecu-

liarity which I do not find described in any E/edone, and which

therefore made me doubt for some time whether I had not a

new and undescribed species before me. As, however, two male

specimens* afterwards examined, of which one at all events was

from the Mediterranean, were also destitute of acetabula at the

apex of the arms, and bore similar laminz in their place, whilst

I could not find the least trace of anything of the kind in nu-

merous females of Eledone from the Mediterranean, I assume

that this peculiar development of the extremities of the arms

only occurs in the males, so that it is a sexual character (see

fig. 5!).

In this opinion I am the more strengthened as I find exactly

corresponding cutaneous formations at the extreme ends of the

arms in a large male Eledone from Bergen, which is certainly

E. cirrosa, Lamk., whilst several females, partly from the same

locality, and partly from other places on the Norwegian coast

and from Faeri, exhibit no trace of it. Nevertheless, in the last-

mentioned species these cutaneous lobes differ from those occur-

ring in E. moschata, in being less foliaceous or plate-like, but

more elongated and thin, almost like cirri or filaments. Fig. 6

represents a small portion of them from one of the arms, but

certainly from a specimen which was in a rather flabby state.

In opposition to the great uncertainty which prevails in this

genus in the recognition of the species in consequence of the

want of definite external characters+, these observations upon

the different development of the apices of the arms in the two

sexes and in different species, may conduct us to the nght way,

when they are extended to all described species.

* In these individuals the third right arm had respectively 62 and 65

developed acetabula.

+ A want which is so great, that the species which have been regarded

as far removed from each other, are essentially distinguished, in that some

have a cirrus over the eye, the others not (although this cirrus appears

always to be more or less distinctly present), whilst the more nearly related

species are not to be distinguished even from spirit specimens. See Verany,

Mollusques Méditerranéens, p. 15: ‘car, je Pai deja dit, apres la mort les

deux espéces sont, si je peux m’exprimer ainsi, mdéchiffrables.”

in the Cephalopoda. 103

Guided by this remarkable form and metamorphosis, in the

males of Octopus and Eledone, of exactly the same arm which,

in the male individuals of the genera Argonauta and Tremocto-

pus, becomes developed into a separable and deciduous transferer

of semen, and by the unmistakeable concordance which occurs

again between the development of the arm in Octopus and Ele-

done, and the peculiarity which I have above described in the male

Decapoda*, I no longer regard it as doubtful that all these de-

velopments belong to one category, and all have essentially the

same object, namely the transference of the spermatophora, or

of the seminal masses contained in these peculiar capsules, to

the female, or perhaps to the eggs. Nor do I doubt that, pro-

vided this supposition be correct, the peculiar transitions pre-

sented by each genus have their determinate purpose, and give

rise to many different modes of fecundation; but what the

details of these may be, must be left to be decided by observa-

tions on the animals in a state of nature. For the guidance

of subsequent investigators, I shall take leave at a future

meeting of the Society to bring forward the indications which

have been furnished to me by spirit specimens, as in these we

certainly see that the transfer of the spermatophora takes place

im very different ways, and that the actual fecundation of the

ova must be effected in many cases in an unexpected and very

remarkable fashion.

Before passing to some general remarks to which these ob-

servations lead, I shall give an exact description of a very per-

fect Hectocotylus, or of an arm which is destmed not merely

to transfer the semen, but also to become detached and to fasten

itself with the entire mass of semen upon the female; and I do

this the rather, as hitherto the formation of Hectocotyli is only

known in the larger species of Tremoctopus (7. violaceus and T.

Carene) which live in deep water, but not in the smaller oceanic

species of the genus living nearer the surface, for which we may

perhaps provisionally retain D’Orbigny’s name of Philonezis ;

and it is exactly one of these small oceanic species, namely P.

Quoyanus, D’Orb.+, of which I have had the opportunity of

examining the Hectocotylus.

In Philonexis Quoyanus the development of the Hectocotylus

differs from the well-known process in 7. Carene, in that it is

not formed in a pedunculated membranous bladder, but in a

* In one of my males of Rossia I found two soft envelopes of seminal

capsules between the cutaneous folds of the arm.

+ Should it turn out hereafter that P. semipalmatus, Owen, is not

synonymous with D’Orbigny’s species, my species will probably be nearest

to semipalmatus, according to Owen’s figures. A male was captured with

= females, by Professor Reinhardt, under 22° 4! N, Jat. and 24° 40’ W.

ong.

104 Prof. J. Steenstrup on Hectocotylus-formation

large and spacious cutaneous sac, which lies deeper than the

root of the arm, and occupies essentially the same place as the

large folds in the genera Sepia, Rossia, &c., into which the ten-

tacles may be more or less retracted and received. Figure 7,

which represents a male specimen of this species three times

the natural size, shows at once that the male has only seven

arms, which are all regularly developed, and that the absent

arm is actually the right arm of the third pair. On closer ex-

amination, however, it is seen that the place where this right

arm should be situated is as it were swelled up, and that by

this swelling both the fourth pair of arms and the funnel are

not a little displaced towards the left side. Under a lens it is

easy to perceive that the cause of this displacement is a very

long, rolled-up arm, which occupies the space between the fun-

nel, the eye, and the root of the arm, and which is covered only

by a skin so thin and transparent, that the eye may easily trace

the curves of the arm, and distinguish their finely frmged mar-

gins and the individual acetabula which are turned towards the

skin, which, however, in consequence of the mode in which the

arm is rolled up, are but very few. In the envelopmg mem-

brane I have been unable with the lens to detect either an

actual opening through which the arm might issue forth, or a

line or impression, to indicate where a division might sub-

sequently occur, as is known to be the case in T. Carene; but

perhaps this would have been more distinct on the fresh speci-

men. After opening the cutaneous sac by an incision with a

sharp knife, it was easy to draw forth the remarkable Hectoco-

tylus-arm. This is represented, when thus extracted, in fig. 8.

It was quite colourless throughout its whole extent, like the

previously observed Hectocotyli of Argonauta and Tremoctopus,

but individual chromatophora existed in the membrane covering

it. Its length 1s several times that of the corresponding arm on

the opposite side of the animal, although this is longer than the

very long first and second pairs (by which, indeed, this species

is characterized), and bears no less than 33 pairs of acetabula;

therefore a greater number than is supported by any of the

other arms. These acetabula are of nearly equal size through-

out the entire length of the arm, and the arm itself is also

nearly uniform in breadth throughout. At the apex the arm

swells into a nearly pyriform part, which is destitute of suckers ;

and along one side of this swelling there is a slight furrow and

fold of skin, of which the latter appears to be traceable down

the arm for a short distance. At the base of the swelling and

close to the extreme sucker of the arm, is the ongin of a long

lash or filament of 55 mill. in length, the basal portion of which

appears as if surrounded by a thin sheath. It is still to be re-

in the Cephalopoda. 105

marked, that along each lateral margin this Hectocotylus bears

fine cutaneous papillz in a longitudinal furrow; these papille,

which are placed close together, and stand here and there in

several close series, gave the fringed margin to the arm in its

coiled-up state, and they must also be what were regarded as

branchiz when the Hectocotylus was considered to be an inde-

pendent male organism. In this specimen I was unable to find

any trace of a dorsal cavity with an external orifice; but this

would be formed essentially by the covering membrane when

the arm was naturally and spontaneously rolled up,—a mode of

development which presents no difficulty for the species hitherto

observed, but of which it is difficult to form a clear notion here,

on account of the form and position of the enveloping sac. In

reference to this it must be mentioned, that the only known

Hectocotylus which resembles my form in the want of the dorsal

cavity and the presence of “ branchiz,” is that found and de-

scribed by Kolliker on the female of Tremoctopus violaceus, the

development of which, however, is still unknown, as the males

of this Cephalopod have not yet been discovered*.

It seems probable to me, that the vesicular or pyriform, swelled,

terminal portion of the Hectocotylus represents the apical plate

in Octopus and Eledone, which has already been repeatedly men-

tioned, and also that the long filament or “flagellum,” which

occurs in all Hectocotyli, and originates in all at the same spot,

namely where the angle of the fold of skin described in Octopus

and Hledone is situated, may be the apex of this angle which has

been more developed and elongated (see fig. 4d) ; only then it

cannot be an axial portion. It also appears probable to me,

that the muscular membranous border which forms the above-

described furrow or semicanal in the hectocotylized arm in Oc-

topus and Eledone, which, however, is only a peculiar develop-

ment of the membrane which runs for a greater or less distance

along the arms in all Cephalopoda, may be exactly the same

membrane which, in Argonauta and Tremoctopus Carene, en-

velopes the entire Hectocotylus in its rolled-up state, and which,

when the arm is subsequently stripped off, according to the ob-

servations of Verany and Vogt, at the same time forms a dorsal

cavity at the base of the arm; whilst, as regards its import,

this furrow rather corresponds with the imternal canal on the

dorsal surface of the Hectocotylus, which is destined for the re-

* The agreement between the Hectocotyli of the two species which have

the swimming-membrane between the two uppermost pairs of arms so

strongly developed, may serve provisionally as a support for a different

distribution of the species under the two generic names Tremoctopus and

Philonexis, somewhat as has been attempted by Gray, Mollusca of the

British Museum, pp. 24-27.

106 Prof. J. Steenstrup on Hectocotylus-formation

ception or transfer of the seminal mass*. But in all this we

have nothing but indications. I must content myself with

having pomted out generally all the formations and agreements

here described, and leaving it to those who possess richer mate-

rials, and especially to naturalists living on the sea-coasts, par-

ticularly that of the Mediterranean, who are fortunate enough

to observe these animals daily in a state of nature, to carry out

the comparison in all its details, I will only append to the above

series of observations the general remarks to which they appear

to lead me at the moment.

In the first place, it follows clearly, from these observations,

that the Hectocotylus-formation in Argonauta and Tremoctopus

is a far less paradoxical phenomenon than it was supposed to be

by naturalists, nor does it occur so suddenly and without trans-

itions, as appeared at first, and as has hitherto been stated.

We see rather that the peculiarity, so strange and anomalous at

the first glance, is here, as throughout Nature, prepared and

brought about by a series of transitions. It appears that it is

only a stronger expression, in particular spots, for that which is

expressed more or less distinctly in numerous other points in

the vicinity +.

In the consideration of the Hectocotylus-formation in Argo-

nauta, the modification and transformation taking place here of

an organ originally connected with motion and nutrition, into

an organ of reproduction, has frequently been compared with

the alteration in form and function which the palpi undergo in

the male Spiders, by certain parts of them becoming transformed

into spoon-shaped organs, which are employed for the reception

* T may, however, refer to the abundant and interesting literature of

the last few years upon the three known species of Heetocotylus, and

especially to—

Kolliker, Berichte von der konigl. zootomischen Anstalt zu Wiirzburg,

1849.

Verany, Mollusques Méditerranéens, 1851, P. 41. p. 126-128.

H. Miller, Zeitschr. fiir Wiss. Zool. 1853, p. 1-35, & p. 346-358. taf. 1.

(See also Verhandl. der physikalisch-medicinischen Gesellsch. zu Wiirz-

burg, 1851; Annales des Sciences Naturelles, tom. xvi. 1851, and Scien-

tific Memoirs, new series.)

Verany and Vogt, Annales des Sciences Naturelles, tom. xvii. 1852,

p- 148-185. pl. 6- 9 (and Scientific Memoirs, new series).

Leuckart, Zoologische Untersuchungen, in. 1854, p. 91-109. taf. 2.

fig. 19-22. (See H. “Miiller, Verhandl. der phys.-med. Gesellsch. zu Wiirz-

burg, 1854, p. 332.)

+ The entire developmental series in this respect in the Cuttle-fishes is

similar to that which I have indicated with regard to the breeding of the

Frogs and Toads, in which the care of the male of Alyfes obstetricans for the

eggs, evidently originates from, or is in relation with, the obstetric assist-

ance which all the species render to their females.

in the Cephalopoda. 107

of the semen and its transference to the female*. It appears to

me, however, that an analogy as close, or perhaps closer than

this, which has already been made use of by Leuckart, Owen,

Von Siebold, and others, is that which occurs in so many males

amongst the Decapod Crustacea, in which a pair of abdominal

limbs is converted into more or less complete tubes ; or in the

males of the Rays and Sharks, in which it is the ventral fins,

and therefore an active motory apparatus, that become converted

on one side into large conducting-tubes for the semen. In both

cases the organs very nearly represent the structure in Octopus

and Eiledone. If we imagine these long hollow tubes formed for

the transfer of the semen, remaining, in copulation, attached to

the female, we have the condition of the parts as in Argonauta.

That parts of the male member which are destined to the actual

insemination or introduction of the semen into the female sexual

organs, may be detached during this introduction, and remain

in the female, is perhaps not unexampled; the circumstances

described as occurring in many insects at least offer a distant

analogy herewith ; but in the males of insects, whose life is closed

with the first and only copulation, there can be no question of a

new growth or reproduction of the lost parts.

Moreover, that it is in genera of Octopods that we have an

example of a regeneration of the arm lost in copulation, is

deserving of attention, masmuch as by this we are reminded of

a difference between the Octopoda and Decapoda, which is not

unessential, but has not hitherto been rendered sufficiently pro-

minent. Thus all the Decapoda appear to be incapable of replacing

accidental injuries of the arms, or the loss of parts of them, by a

new growth, whilst the Octopoda possess this power in the highest

degree, and reproduce their arms, which are exposed to so many

enemies, with the same facility and rapidity as, for example,

the Star-fishes.

Amongst numerous Octopoda I have never seen a single one

with the arms injured or bitten off, without a reproduction

being commenced, more or less advanced, or even completed ;

and this sometimes on most of the armst. In more than a

hundred Decapoda which I have at present examined, I have,

on the contrary, never found a trace of a reproduction, although

* A still closer analogy seems to exist with some of the Myriapoda, such

as Polydesmus, in which, according to M. Fabre (see Annals, Feb. 1857,

p- 162), the semen is transferred to the female by the first pair of feet of

the seventh segment.—W. S. D. -

+ I have seen female individuals in which all the eight arms had been

lost, but in which they were more or less completely reproduced; and I

have seen a male in which the same was the case on the seven arms, whilst

the hectocotylized arm alone was uninjured: whether this was something

accidental, or whether the Octopods do not place this peculiar arm of theirs

m so much danger as the others, I must leave unanswered; but it de-

108 Prof. J. Steenstrup on Hectocotylus-formation

I now and then found both large and small portions of a single

arm lost, and the wounded surfaces healed.

From the different forms of the pair of arms metamorphosed

for the purpose of reproduction, it appears that there is an un-

mistakeable connexion between the position and extent occupied

by the metamorphosed part of the arm, and the natural group

to which the particular Cephalopod belongs. This appears with

peculiar distinctness when the above-described peculiarities are

placed in apposition with D’Orbigny’s classification of the Ce-

phalopoda.

OcropoDA*.

Argonauta left : .

Philonexide 4 (Philonexis) } third or a he een

é polyandre !).

Tremoctopus right

Octopide { orien } third right arm hectocotylized { (feminze monandrz?).

DECAPODA.

Rossia (with the right one, only in the

last left arm ) middle).

sf Bentonetylizad iP

Sepiola (alone, in its whole length).

Myopside

Sepia | (at the base).

Sepioteuthis \ fourth left arm } (at the apex).

Loligo j hectocotylized ) (at the apex).

Loliolus (in its whole length).

Ommatostrephes

Oigopside { Onychoteuthis No hectocotylized arm hitherto observed.

Loligopsis

* T have not referred here to the Sciadephorus Miilleri, Eschr. (Cirro-

teuthis), a form differing completely from the rest of the Cephalopoda. I

have certainly examined four males, and found no trace of the formation of

the arm indicated in Octopus and Eledone, but I cannot assert with cer-

tainty that it would not be found on living examples. The peculiar tex-

ture of this genus causes all its parts to alter greatly in spirits. As some-

thing very remarkable, 1 must observe, that my four male specimens had,

as it were, stripped off a portion of the small acetabula on the lower third

of the arm, thus forming small plate-hke surfaces,—an appearance which

none of my females presented. Whether this might be a sexual character,

I am unable to say. The genus appears to form a peculiar family of the

Octopoda, although it will be seen, from my present investigations, that it

approaches Eledone not only by the single series of acetabula, but also by

the cirri which I have mdicated at the apex of the arm in E/edone, and

which in Sciadephorus appear to represent the greater part of the arm.

+ Deciduous, colourless, developed in a sac.

{ Permanently attached, coloured, developed in a free state.

serves to be remarked, that whilst as a rule every Octopod has one or two

arms reproduced, none of the numerous males which I have examined

presented this arm in an injured or reproduced state.

The reproduction takes place with uiuch ease, not only in the direction

in the Cephalopoda. 109

This summary furnishes a very striking evidence that there

must be something natural in D’Orbigny’s division of the Deca-

pod Cephalopoda into the two principal groups, ‘ Myopsides”

and ‘ Oigopsides,” although no great inclination to adopt them

has hitherto been shown. The difference in the conditions of

reproduction shows especially that the genus Ommatostrephes,

D’Orb., is still more entitled to be removed far from the genus

Loligo, with which even modern malacologists, such as Verany

and Troschel, persist in placing it. D’Orbigny repeatedly points

out that his genus Philoneais or Tremoctopus is_ essentially

distinct from Octopus, under which genus its species were

formerly arranged, and closely approaches Argonauta; and the

above-mentioned conditions of reproduction also show this com-

pletely ; and in reference to this, it is very teresting to observe

that the supposed Octopus, in which Verany has described the

complete Hectocotylus-development, namely O. Carene, Ver., has

proved to be a Philonexis or Tremoctopus. HH, therefore, D’Or-

bigny’s division into great groups finds much confirmation in

the above-described peculiarities, these should also furnish many

hints for a probably more natural limitation of the particular

families, and this applies especially to the collocation of the

genus Sepia with Rossia and Sepiola, which, however, has ap-

peared less natural to many. ‘The negative characters which

united these three genera in opposition to the other Myopside,

have already lost something of their strength, as the want of the

muscular cords on the funnel has been detected in the small

of the axis of the arm; but even a single sucker or a group of suckers,

which their enemies may have bitten from the sides or the base of the arm,

is reproduced with the greatest facility.

I have already called attention to the misinterpretations of Aristotle,

where he has been understood as if, in his representations of the circum-

stances of reproduction in his Polypus, he had m his eye a Hectocotylus-

formation, such as we are now acquainted with in Argonauta and Tremoc-

topus. This appears to.me to be the place to clear up, as far as possible, an-

other misconception which stands in connexion with the preceding. Roulin

(Ann. des Se. Nat. xvii. p. 189), namely, supposes that it is the observation

of male Octopods from which the Hectocotylus had separated, and which

therefore had lost one arm, that gave rise to the story referred to by Ari-

stotle, that at certain times, especially in winter, when the Octopus retracts

itself more into its cavities, it bites off its own arms, and to Aristotle’s

view—by which he endeavours to explain the origin of the story—that it

is the voracious eels that bite off the arms of the animal. The foundation of

both the story and its explanation is of course neither more nor less than the

frequent and striking injuries and renovations in the common Octopus, and

Aristotle’s explanation is correct, as the stomachs of the Murene are found

filled with fragments of the arms. ‘“ Ego vero,” says the excellent Belon,

“eum apud Epidaurum semel Mureenas secarem, earum ventriculos cirrhis

polyporum refertos comperi.”’ (P. Bellonii de Aquatilibus, libri duo. Paris,

1553, p. 331.)

110 Prof. J. Steenstrup on Hectocotylus-formation

genus Loliolus in the Loligo-family. The justification of the

mode here adopted of employing the hectocotylized arm as a

rule for the natural collocation of the forms, lies in its import-

ance for the entire reproduction. It would be inconceivable

that the various occurrence of this metamorphosis, sometimes in

one, sometimes in the other pair of arms, sometimes on the

right and sometimes on the left side, sometimes at the apex and

sometimes at the base of the arm, &c., should not give rise to

the same number of differences in the mode of fecundation,

and in the position and manner in which the seminal mass is

placed upon the female ; inasmuch as it appears that the semen

is hardly involuntarily or mechanically emitted or poured out

upon the eggs, but that this is effected by conscious move-

ments. What is furnished us in this respect by simple re-

flection, is also confirmed by observation. The seminal mass

is actually attached to very different parts, and under very

different conditions, which 1 propose to describe shortly in an-

other memoir, of which I shall here only give the general result,

that in the genera Sepia, Sepioteuthis, and Loligo, and therefore

in all those which have the left arm metamorphosed, the seminal

mass is attached to the lips of the female (membrane buccale,

D’Orb.), which therefore appear peculiarly equipped for this

purpose, whilst I have never found the semen attached to this

spot in any other Decapod, but on various parts of the mantle

or of the viscera; for example, in Ommatostrephes, deep im

the cavity of the mantle in the median line of the back. For

comparison with what has here been stated with regard to Sepia

and the Loligines, it must be remembered that the anatomical

examination of the two male specimens of Nautilus* has shown

a great difference in the development of the peculiar labial por-

tions on the two sides of the animal, whilst nothing of the kind

occurs in female individuals.

Although the external sexual distinctions above referred to have

proved to be distinct and important, they have not hitherto been

perceived by naturalists ; most of them will at least agree with me

in regarding them as such, after reading the preceding. To show

more distinctly this deficiency in our present knowledge of the

Cephalopoda, it will hardly be superfluous, although I trust that

it may be considered quite sufficient for this purpose, to quote

two of the most modern assertions relating to this subject ;

they are dated in the last and in the present year, and will, in

my opinion, completely prove the position of science for the

time at which they were written. In the new edition of his

* Vide Van der Hoeven in Tijdschrift voor de Wis- en Natuurk. We-

tenschappen, I. Deel, 1848, p. 67-75. pl. 1. fig. 1-3, and Transactions of

the Zoological Society, 1850, p. 21-29. pl. 5-8.

in the Cephalopoda. 111

“ Lectures on Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, London,

1855,” the celebrated English anatomist, Professor Owen, has

no peculiarity in the Octopoda and Decapoda to place beside the

sexual distinctions so often referred to in Argonauta and Tremoc-

topus, except the following :—“ In the Calamary (Loligo vulgaris)

the gladius of the male is one-fourth shorter, but is broader than

that of the female. The sepium of the Cuttle (Sepia) shows a

similar, but not so much, sexual difference in its proportions,”

p- 628; so that of such characters he is only acquainted with

the greater or less breadth of the gladius, according to the sexes.

Still less has Professor Leuckart to place beside this sexual

peculiarity in Argonauta and Tremoctopus. In his “ Nachtrage

und Berichtigungen zu dem ersten Bande von J. Vander Hoeven’s

Handbuch der Zoologie, Leipzig, 1856,” which have just ap-

peared, I find that this author, so well known by his observa-

tions upon the sexes and reproduction of the sea animals, says,

im connexion with the above-mentioned two genera: “Amongst

the other Mollusca no instances of a sexual dimorphism have

yet been observed, for the difference in the formation of the

labial tentacles in the male Nautzlus, pointed out by Van der

Hoeven, and recently confirmed (according to his letters) ......

can scarcely be placed beside the remarkable peculiarities of those

Cephalopoda.”

But the more these peculiarities have been overlooked, the more

does the question arise, how can they have escaped observation ?

and, as the answer to this, [ must state that I suppose that they

must really have been frequently noticed by naturalists, but

that they must have regarded them as morbid developments or

accidental mutilations, of which the traces had not been effaced

by regeneration. I have already stated that D’Orbigny has

indicated as a disease, what in my opinion is a character of the

reproductive males in the genus Sepzo/a; and that the short,

hectocotylized arm of Octopus and Eledone has been regarded as

an injured or mutilated arm, the lost terminal portion of which

had not yet grown, appears to me to follow distinctly enough,

although indirectly, from the numerous figures of these animals

possessed by science. I have been unable to find a single one

of these with a male arm of this description ; and as it is incon-

ceivable that, especially amongst so many Octopods figured in

such different places and at such different periods, there should

not have been a single male (although these appear to me to be

at least as abundant as the females), the artists or naturalists

must, in order to complete the animal, have given it the sym-

metry which they supposed to belong toit. This applies also to

the form of the left arm in the male Loligines and Sepia, and the

more so as, according to the text and the lettering of the plates,

112 Prof. J. Steenstrup on Hectocotylus-formation

many of these figures represent males, whilst the arms are given

as symmetrical. Amongst the Decapoda, however, a case often

occurs, which may have led to an erroneous conception of the

symmetrical development, namely that considerable portions of

the suckers of the arms, and especially towards their apices,

appear as if bitten off during the powerful movements and exer-

tions of the animal when it finds itself captured or in great

danger ; and that the metamorphosed, papilliferous part of the

arm in a Loligo or a Sepioteuthis might easily be confounded

with such parts deprived of their suckers, at least on a rather

superficial examination *,

The preceding assertions must only be understood in reference

to the existence of this peculiarity, and it must be borne in mind

that it was much better known at a period of high antiquity.

That Aristotle, and perhaps Pliny, were better informed by the

fishermen of the Mediterranean, as to a peculiar arm in the

genus Octopus, I have already pointed out under that genus,

and at the same time called attention to the fact that Aristotle

knew for what purpose this arm was employed.

As the question so easily arises, how early in the life of the

animal this transfer of the arm into the service of reproduction

occurs, and how far it remains constantly in the same condition,

or perhaps undergoes changes at the season of propagation, I

must add in conclusion, that the numerous specimens which I

have examined with this view have given me no inducement to

suppose that any alteration takes place according to the season

of the year or the age of the animal. Even my smallest speci-

mens of a species exhibit the same characters as the largest, and

I find myself compelled to assume that the male young of the

different genera and species quit the egg already furnished with

the hectocotylized arm which belongs to them by virtue of their

genus or species. As an adherent of the theory that the sex is

not subsequently developed, but that it is present originally

from the first movements in the egg, I should have preferred

being able to ascertain by direct observations that the young of

the Cephalopoda quit the egg with their external sexual charac-

ters; but I have only had the opportunity of examining the

* In Loligo, as well as in Ommatostrephes and Onychoteuthis, I have

found the cavity of the mouth and the oesophagus filled with acetabula and

horny rings or hooks, evidently belonging to the same animal, and the

place of which on the arms could still be determined. From this we see

that we must be very cautious in stating that the Cephalopoda serve as the

food of these animals because single horny rings or hooks of this kind are

found in their stomachs ; but if fragments of the beak, of the gladius, and

the lenses of the eyes are found, as has often been done by me in certain

forms, no such misinterpretation can take place.

in the Cephalopoda. 113

young of one species (a Rossia) in the egg, and all these, which

belonged to one and the same brood, appeared to me to be of

the same sex, namely females.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES II. & UI.

Piate II. illustrates the position and form of the hectocotylized arm

(brachium copulator) in the Decapod Cephalopoda.

Fig. 1. Loligo media, Linn. $. Head with the two ventral arms, to show

that the fourth left arm is papilliferous, and that it has small

acetabula in comparison with the right arm. Somewhat enlarged.

. Loligo Forbesii, Stp.g. The papilliferous apex of the fourth left

arm. Natural size.

Fig. 3. Loligo gahi, D’Orb. g. The apex of the fourth left arm; the

acetabula are only metamorphosed into papilla on one side.

Double the natural size.

Fig. 4. Sepioteuthis sepicides, Blainv. ¢. The apex of the fourth left arm.

Of the natural size, to show the general

Fig.

‘ig. 5. Loliolus typus, Stp. 3 . )} appearance of this new genus, and the re-

ig. 6. Loliolus affinis, 3. markable form of the fourth left arm, on

which all the acetabula are deficient.

Fig. 5!

Fig 6. } this arm double the natural size.

Fig. 7. Sepia officinalis, Linn. ¢. Ventral arms, to show the peculiar

metamorphosis of the fourth left arm, and its difference from the

right one. Two-thirds of the natural size.

Fig. 7'. A small portion of the cutaneous pits on the metamorphosed part,

magnified three times.

Fig. 8. Sepia inermis, Van Hass. A similar portion, to show the peculiarity

of the fourth left arm here also.

Fig. 9. Sepiola Rondeletii, D’Orb. 3. The animal of the natural size, to

show this and the preponderance of the first left arm over the

rest.

Fig. 9'. This arm seen from the dorsal surface.

Fig. 9". The same arm seen from the ventral surface, showing the pecu-

liar cutaneous lobe. Magnified three times.

Fig. 9". A pair of acetabula from both series on this arm, to show their

position. Strongly magnified.

PiaTe III. illustrates the position and form of the hectocotylized arm

(brachium copulator), partly in the Decapod genus Rossia, partly in

the Octopod Cephalopoda.

Fig. 1. Rossia Molleri, Stp. . The dorsal arms, or the first pair, to show

the peculiar elongation of the peduncles of the acetabula on the

central parts of the right and left arms, and the strong expansion

of the arm-border on the same part. Natural size.

Fig. 1'. A pair of acetabula, considerably enlarged.

Fig. 2. Octopus grenlandicus, Dewh. (= O. arcticus, Prosch.) ¢. Of the

natural size, to show the position of the hectocotylized third arm

in the Octopoda. The four pairs of arms are marked’, ”, "5

the letters a, 6, c, d, in this and the following figures, always in-

dicate the same parts of the arm, namely a, the apical plate ;

6, b, the muscular cutaneous border, which is white internally,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 8

114 Prof. E. J. Chapman on the Occurrence of

and which, by being rolled up against the side of the arm, forms

a furrow or canal; c, the commencement of this furrow; d, an

angular fold of skin, which separates the acetabuliferous portion

from the apical plate.

Fig. 3. Octopus, sp. mdeterm. ¢. Third right arm, with a portion of the

fourth right arm. Half the natural size.

Fig. 4. Octopus, sp.nov. 6 . The apex of the third right arm. Natural size.

Fig. 5. Eledone moschata, Leach. . Third right arm, half the natural size.

Fig. 5’. Its apex, somewhat enlarged.

Fig. 5".The apex of one of the seven other arms of the male, slightly

enlarged.

Fig. 6. Eledone cirrosa, Lamk. $. A piece of the apex of an arm of the

male.

Fig. 7. Philonexis Quoyanus, D’Orb., ¢ , to show that only seven arms are

present, which are not hectocotylized, and that the eighth, which

1s converted into a Hectocotylus, lies concealed in a sac between

the eye and funnel. Magnified three times.

Fig. 8. Its Hectocotylus more strongly magnified : a, vesicular apical por-

tion; d, flagellum; e, portions of “ branchiz.”

IX.—On the Occurrence of the genus Cryptoceras in Silurian

Rocks. By E. J. Cuapman, Professor of Mineralogy and

Geology in University College, Toronto.

Bur one living genus of the chamber-shelled Cephalopods being

known, the classification of the numerous fossil types met with

more particularly in the Paleozoic and Secondary rocks, is of

necessity based on characters derived immediately from the shell

itself. For the purpose of classification, four characters, of more

or less value, are especially available. These comprise—(1) the

character of the aperture; (2) the form of the septa; (3) the

position and character of the siphuncle; and (4) the form and

mode of growth of the shell.

The aperture may be—(a) open; (4) contracted. The septa:

(a) simple; (2) angular or lobed. The position of the siphuncle :

(a) central or sub-central; (4) ternal or “ ventral ;” (c) external

or “dorsal.” The siphuncle itself: (a) simple; (2) complicated.

The form of the shell: (a) straight or conical; (5) arched or

“horned” in various ways; (c) discoidal, with or without con-

tiguous volutions ; and (d) spiral.

By means of these characters, all the trustworthy genera of

the chambered Cephalopods may be arranged, conveniently at

least, if not naturally, in ten sections or families*, as shown in

the following tabular view:

* Many paleontologists will, no doubt, think an extended subd.vision

of this kind very unnecessary, and prefer to group these forms in two, or

at the most, in three families; but in adopting this plan, the characters of

the yenus Cryptoeceras in Silurian Rocks. 115

1. Gomrenoceratip® :—Aperture contracted. Gomphoceras

(including Halls Orthoceras fusiforme); Phragmoceras ; Oncoceras ;

Lituites (7).

2. HererosipHonip% :—Aperture unknown, perhaps con-

tracted. Siphuncle more or less complicated, or otherwise mar-

ginal, with conical Orthoceras-likeshell. Septa simple or slightly

wavy. (See remarks below.) Lndoceras ; Cameroceras (?) ; Go-

nioceras ; Ormoceras ; Ascoceras.

3. Nautitip£ :—Aperture open. Septa simple. Siphuncle

central or sub-central. Orthoceras; Nautilus; Lituttes (7) ;

Hortolus; Aploceras (including Hall’s Cyrteceras annulatum ?) ;

Nautiloceras ; Trochoceras.

4, TRocHOLITID& :—Aperture open. Septa simple. Siphuncle

internal or “ventral.” Z7rocholites.

5. Cyrroceratip% :—Aperture open. Septa simple. Si-

phunele external or “dorsal.” Cyrtoceras ; Gyroceras ; Crypto-

ceras.

6. Crymenip#:—Aperture open. Septa lobed. Siphuncle

internal. Clymenia; Subclymenia.

7. ATurip#:—Aperture open. Septa lobed. Siphuncle

internal or nearly so, and very large. Aturia (Megasiphonia)—

a Tertiary form.

8. Gontatip% :—Aperture open. Septa with angular lobes.

Siphuncle external. Goniatites (Aganides) ; Bactr ites.

9. Ceratip®:—Aperture open. Septa with denticulated

lobes. Siphunele external. Ceratites ; Baculina.

10. AMMoniTiIp&:—Aperture open. Septa foliated. Si-

phuncle external. Ammonites; Crioceras; Scaphites ; Ancylo-

ceras ; Toxoceras?; Hamites ; Ptychoceras; Baculites; Turrilites ;

Helicoceras ; Heteroceras.

Under the name of Heterosiphonidz, we have separated from

the Nautilide, all of those more or less imperfectly known

forms (commonly classed with Orthoceras) which possess a large

complicated siphon, or in which, with other related characters,

the siphon is marginal. We are fally aware that many objections

may be urged against this view; but until a true Nautilus be

discovered with the peculiar character of siphuncle exhibited b

Ormoceras, for example, we feel justified in holding to the sepa-

the respective families hecome ill-defined, and the appreciation of trans-

ition groups much weakened ; whilst, at the same time, a necessity is occa-

sioned for the creation of sub-families or tribes. A classification which

does not show upon its face a greater distinction between Goniatites, Cera-

tites, and Ammonites, than between the last-named genus and Hamites or

Baculites, for example, assuredly has no claim to be considered a natural

grouping. In the arrangement given in the text, the second family is

ibid a roasipnal one _ rendered necessary by our still imperfect know-

116 Occurrence of the genus Cryptoceras in Silurian Rocks.

ration of this latter form, with Endoceras, &c., from the normal

Orthoceratites. The external ridges on the siphuncle of Endo-

ceras, although so distinctly pomted out by Hall, appear to be

forgotten altogether in the descriptions of many European

palzontologists. Ormoceras, notwithstanding the central posi-

tion of its siphuncle, is evidently closely related to Gonioceras,

and through that genus, though less closely, to Endoceras.

If the separation of the Gonzatites and Ceratites from the

Ammonitide be disapproved of, they may be placed in that

family as separate tribes. Our present object, however, is not

to discuss the classification of the chambered Cephalopods, but

to point out the occurrence in our Silurian rocks of a type

hitherto unannounced, below the Devonian formation.

In the fifth of the above families, that of the Cyrtoceratide,

characterized by the presence of simple septa, with external or

so-called “ dorsal” siphuncle, we have three genera: Cyrtoceras,

a simply “horned” form, exceedingly abundant; Gyroceras, a

discoidal or “rolled-up” Cyrtoceras, but without contiguous vo-

lutions ; and Cryptoceras, likewise a discoidal form, but with con-

tiguous whorls. Of the last-named genus, founded by D’Orbigny,

but two species appear to have been hitherto recognized, the C.

subtuberculatus (Nautilus subtuberculatus) from the Devonian beds

of Nassau, and the C. dorsalis (Nautilus dorsalis, Phil.) from the

carboniferous limestone of Yorkshire. Quite recently, however,

in a specimen from the Black River limestone of Lorette, in

Eastern Canada, submitted to us by Mr. Head, the son of His

Excellency the Governor-General of Canada, we have remarked

the Cryptoceras type of structure, viz. simple septa and an un-

mistakeably “dorsal” siphuncle, combined with a Nautiloidal

form of shell. Hall, in the first volume of his ‘ Paleontology of

the State of New York,’ figures and describes, under the name

of Lituites undatus, a fossil that may perhaps be identical with

the one now under review; but if so, the generic term “ Lituites”

should certainly give place to that of “ Cryptoceras.” The

siphuncle is said to be dorsal; and Professor Hall describes the

only examples known to him, as occurring in the Black River

limestone of Watertown, in Jefferson County. This same Lituites

undatus is quoted by D’Orbigny in his ‘ Prodrome,’ and also by

Pictet in the last edition of his ‘Traité de Paléontologie ;? but

these paleontologists appear to ignore completely the dorsal

position of the siphuncle as described by Hall. D’Orbigny, in-

deed, places it immediately under the following generic defini-

tion : “ Lituites, Breynius: coquille spirale, & tours contigus,

siphon central ;” and this central position of the siphuncle as an

essential characteristic of Lituites is also recognized by M‘Coy

in his recent work on the British Peleeozoic Fossils of the Cam-

Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 117

bridge Museum, as well as by all modern paleontologists. One

thing therefore is certain, that whether or not our specimen be

identical with that of Professor Hall, it has evidently no claims

to be considered a Lituites. In the present note, however, we

are unable to do more than announce the occurrence of the

genus Cryptoceras in our Canadian rocks, the characters of the

solitary specimen before us being too imperfect to warrant the

bestowal of a specific name.

Since the above was written, we have learned that several

examples of this fossil type, under the name of Lituites undatus,

have been obtained by the Geological Survey of Canada from the

Black River limestone of Lorette. It is very probable that many

of the Silurian Lituztes will prove, when more closely examined,

to belong to Cryptoceras, or to Barrande’s new genus Nothoceras,

a notice of which (Bulletin de la Société Géol. de France, t. xin.

p- 880) has only just reached us. Although stated to have been

read before the Society on the 3rd of March 1856, the Bulletin

containing the notice was not issued until March in the present

year. In Nothoceras, the bent edges of the septa (the goulot of

the French paleontologists) protecting the siphuncle, instead of

being deflected backwards as in Nautilus, Cyrtoceras, &c., are

deflected forwards or towards the opening of the shell, as in the

Ammonites.

Toronto, Canada West, July 1, 1857.

X.— List of Coleoptera received from Old Calabar, on the West

Coast of Africa. By ANDREw Murray, Edinburgh.

[Continued from vol. xix. p. 461.]

Panageide.

CrasPeporHorus, Hope.

Tsotarsus, Laferté.

1. Cr. conicus, mihi.

Niger, pilosus; thorace antice angustiore, pos-

tice latiore et ad basin truncato, punctato,

lateribus rotundatis et postice elevatis; elytris

magnis, punctato-striatis, maculis duabus fla-

vis, altera antica transversa interstitia sex

tegente, altera postica transversa interstitia

quinque tegente.

Long. 8-9} lin., lat. 4 lin.

Black, pilose. Head narrow, polished, margined, with an

118 = Myr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar.

elongate deeply-punctured fovea on each side from the eyes for-

ward, a few scattered punctures on the raised vertex between

these foveze, behind which there is a transverse series of fainter

punctures ; a deep oblique puncture or line at the anterior angles.

Labrum emarginate and pitchy-black. Palpi pitchy-black,

with the terminal joints pilose; antenne as long as half the

body, black and pilose, slightly thicker in the middle than at

either extremity; neck smooth and impunctate. Thorax nar-

rowed in front, broadest behind the middle, truncate at the

base, anterior angles meeting the neck, anterior margin be-

tween them nearly straight, very coarsely punctate, sparsely

pilose; narrowly margined, and with a raised space within the

margin, narrow in front, wider behind, on which the punctua-

tion is fainter; an elongate fovea on each side at the base, and

a minute tooth at the posterior angles, which are rounded and

obtuse; no dorsal line. Scutellum minute. Elytra rather con-

vex, broad, black, with two fulvous spots on each, one near the

base, the other near the apex, both transverse; the coloured

spaces not raised, nor of a different texture from the rest of the

elytra; deeply punctate-striate, the punctures on the striz trans-

verse ; interstices convex and punctured, pilose, the hairs black

on the black parts of the elytra, fulvous on the fulvous spots ;

the anterior of these spots commences on the 3rd interstice, and

is continued on the 4th, Sth, 6th, 7th and 8th mterstices, the

extent and form of the fulvous marking varying in different

individuals ; the posterior marking is confined to the 4th, 5th,

6th, 7th and 8th interstices; the 9th interstice and marginal

space are not encroached on by the fulvous spots; the marginal

space is marked by a series of cross-wrinkles rather than punc-

tures ; the apex is slightly emarginate, but not truncate. Under-

side black, pilose, hairs piceous ; prosternum sparsely and deeply

punctate ; inferior margin of thorax impunctate ; sides of meso-

thorax and metathorax coarsely punctate; segments of abdomen

finely and acicularly punctured, with some large, coarse punc-

tures or fovez on their sides; inflexed margin of elytra finely

punctate. Legs black and pilose.

This species should be placed near the Panageus festivus of

Dejean. At first I supposed it to be the Panageus tropicus of

Hope, and I have distributed it among my correspondents under

that name, but I am afraid I have been hasty in doing so. I

have not seen Hope’s species in nature; but Mr. Westwood’s

recent appointment to the curatorship of the Entomological

Collection at Oxford (an appointment on which all entomo-

logists must felicitate themselves) having rendered Mr. Hope’s

collection again useful to science, I have availed myself of his

kindness to ascertain (so far as can be done without actual in-

Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 119

spection of the insect itself) whether any of my species of Cras-

pedophorus correspond with Hope’s. Mr. Westwood’s report

confirms my doubt as to this species, although he observes that

it is of the same general form, and, coupled with Hope’s de-

scription, leads me to consider the two species distinct. His

description is as follows :— Long. lin. 8, lat. lin. 3}. Niger;

antennis atris, thorace semicirculari haud excavato, subdepresso et

crebrissime punctulato. Elytris sulcato-punctatis quatuor maculis

subquadratis flavis pedibusque nigris. Hab. In Sierra Leone.

This species has the two anterior spots covering six interstitial

spaces, while the posterior cover only five*.” This description,

so far as it goes, corresponds with my species, except that in

mine the thorax cannot be called semicircular, or not excavated ;

it should rather be called conical, and it certainly is excavated,

especially posteriorly. Mr. Westwood has furnished me with a

sketch of the thorax of tropicus, which shows that it 1s more

semicircular and shorter than in conicus. Hope’s species also is

somewhat smaller. The number of interstices over which the

yellow spots extend (a particular which Mr. Hope gives as a

good specific character throughout the genus) corresponds with

that in his ¢ropicus, excepting that the anterior marking some-

times covers the whole of the third interstice, at other times

scarcely impinges on it at all; thus leaving it not quite clear

whether it covers five or six interstitial spaces.

2. Cr. strangulatus, mihi.

Valde affinis precedenti, sed thorace antice fortiter

constricto; elytris punctato-striatis, maculis

duabus flavis, singulis interstitia quinque

tegentibus.

Long. 73-83 lin., lat. 32 lin.

Very closely allied to the preceding species, and the same

description will answer for both, with the following exceptions.

This species is rather smaller. Its head is somewhat narrower.

Its thorax is quite differently shaped, bemg narrow, con-

stricted in front, and rather rapidly expanded behind ; the pos-

terior angles are obtuse, and not so much rounded as in co-

nicus. The elytra are shorter, not quite so convex, and the

interstices also are less convex ; the fulvous markings are nar-

rower, particularly the posterior spot, and the colour of the

anterior spots does not encroach on the third interstice, and is

thus confined to five instead of six interstices. The punctures

* Annals of Nat. Hist. vol. x. (1842-3) p. 94.

120. Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar.

on the interstices are somewhat coarser and less numerous, and

seem to be rather more transverse.

In other respects the characters of the two species corre-

spond. Their extreme similarity, except in the form of the

thorax, suggests the idea that they may possibly be sexes of the

same species. As the tarsi in this genus furnish no indication

of the sex, I endeavoured to satisfy myself on this point by de-

taching the abdomen and dissecting out the sexual organs,

which I found, although not very decipherable, to be at least

exactly the same in both species. They would appear therefore

not to be sexes of the same species. Neither do I think they

can be varieties, the difference of form in the thorax being too

great to allow of such a supposition. I should also mention

that I have received specimens of conitcus in several consign-

ments, but strangulatus came only upon one occasion, and then

in small numbers.

3. Cr. arcuato-collis, mihi.

Niger, pilosus, depressiusculus; capite latiore ;

thorace depresso, lateribus rotundatis, ad basin

una et altera parte arcuato, profunde punctato,

lateribus posticis levioribus ; elytris punctato-

striatis, maculis duabus flavis, singulis inter-

stitia quinque tegentibus, altera antica recte

transversa, altera postica oblique transversa.

Long. 74 lin., lat. 3} lin.

Black, pilose. Head broad, polished, margined on each side

in front of the eyes, very coarsely punctured over the whole

surface of the head, except upon the clypeus, which is large,

semicircular, and straight in front; it is less closely punctate

on the neck; there are two not very deep depressions more

closely punctate on each side in front. Labrum pitchy. Palpi

ferruginous, terminal joints pilose. Antennz not so long as

half the body, filiform. Thorax somewhat quadrate, depressed,

coarsely punctured, narrowest in front, sides rounded and mar-

eined, anterior angles rounded and projecting, posterior angles

rounded-in, with a minute tooth caused by a small excision at

the angle; basal margin arched on each side towards the angles,

middle space nearly straight, projecting backwards in conse-

quence of the arch on each side; dorsal line well marked; an

inner depression a short distance within the lateral margin, fol-

lowing somewhat its line, nearest to it in front, diverging from it

behind, more deeply punctate than the rest of the surface, be-

hind joining a deep basal depression about half-way between the

middle and the exterior angle, the basal depression not separated

Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 121

from the margin by any raised space, very coarsely punctured.

Scutellum small and smooth. LElytra rather depressed, not a

great deal broader than thorax, punctate-striate ; sides somewhat

parallel and margined, black, with two rather transverse fulvous

spots, the one near the base extending transversely across the 4th,

5th, 6th, 7th and 8th interstitial spaces, the other near the apex

extending obliquely and transversely backwards over the same

interstices; the spots pretty regular, but the colour on the 5th

and 7th interstices most extended, particularly in the anterior

spot; the coloured spaces not raised, nor of a different texture

from the rest of the elytra ; the interstices finely punctate, some-

what flattened on the disk, but very convex towards the sides ; the

marginal space marked with cross-punctures. Under-side black,

pilose, hairs piceous ; prosternum and breast deeply punctured,

inferior margin of thorax impunctate; segments of abdomen

finely acicularly punctured, with one or two y deep fovez or large

punctures on the sides of the basal segments; inflexed margin

of elytra almost impunctate. Legs black and pilose.

This species is allied to the Gr. selenoderus. of Laferté, but

may be at once known by its much greater size, it being fully a

third larger.

4, Cr. Lafertet, mihi.

Niger; thorace obcordato, ad basin truncato,

angulis anticis rotundatis et projicientibus ;

elytris curtis, maculis duabus rufis, altera an-

tica fere ad humerum posita et ad marginem

attingente, interstitia quinque tegente ; al-

tera postica transversa, interstitia quatuor te-

gente.

Long. 73-8 lin., lat. 33 lin.

Black. Head rather broad, closely covered with small punc-

tures, which become confluent here and there, particularly in

two fovez on each side of the head; space in front (clypeus)

impunctate, smooth and shining, with one large puncture on

each side. Antenne piceous, darkest at base. Palpi ferruginous.

Thorax obcordate, very uniformly_covered with punctures smaller

than those in any of ‘the preceding species, which become faint

and disappear towards the margin near the posterior angles;

the margins are expanded and very slightly retlexed, and at the

anterior portion they have a narrow edging or border ; anterior

angles projecting and rounded-in to the neck, truncate at the

base ; posterior angles slightly projecting backwards, and with a

slight exterior excision at the point ; middle portion of base also

very slightly projecting backwards; the dorsal line is distinct,

except behind, and there is an elongate straight depression at

122 = Mr.A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar.

the base on each side. Scutellum triangular, with the sides

slightly sinuate, smooth and impunetate. Elytra sparingly

pilose, short, convex, and looking somewhat as if curtailed,

punctate-striate, the strize deep, particularly towards the apex,

and with the interstices convex and punctate; marginal space

with a distinct row of transverse punctures; two clear red or

ferruginous spots on each elytron, the anterior reaching to the

margin, and extending over the 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th and 9th in-

terstitial spaces; this spot runs obliquely from the shoulder in

the direction of the suture, is rounded opposite to it, and then

returns in a slightly rounded line to the margin; the posterior

spot is short and nearly transverse, and is confined to four in-

terstitial spaces, the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th, and is most prolonged

on the 7th; the spots are of the same texture as the rest of the

elytra, and are not raised above their surface ; apex emarginate.

Under-side with the prosternum and breast deeply punctured,

the prosternum more sparsely than the breast ; inferior margin

of thorax shining, and with faint traces of punctures; inflexed

margin of elytra finely punctate ; sides of segments of abdomen

coarsely punctate, less so towards the apex, middle portion

finely aciculated. Legs pitchy-black, with tibize piceous and

tarsi dark ferruginous.

I have named this species in honour of the Marquis de

Laferté Senectére, who has published an able revision of the

group on which we are at present occupied, and has been kind

enough to give me the benefit of his information as to my new

species.

5. Cr. grossus, Hope. Pl. XIII. fig. 8, in vol. xix. [June] of

Annals.

Panageus grossus, Hope, Ann. Nat. Hist. x. (1842) 94.

Panageus grandis, Imh. Verhandl. d. Nat. Gesellsch. in Basel, v. p. 166.

“ Niger; antennis atris; thorace fere hexagono, angulis anticis

rotundatis, posticis abrupte truncatis, disco subconvexo punc-

tato, lateribus parum depressis et marginatis ; elytris sulcato-

punctatis, quatuor maculis rubro-miniatis insignitis, corpore

pedibusque nigris*.”

Long. 11 Jin., lat. 43 hin.

I believe this species to be, as above stated, the grossus of

Hope. His description, as is usual with him, is more concise

than we could have wished ; and I shall therefore add a some-

what more detailed description, although the admirable figure

by M. Migneaux, which the reader will find in my last plate of

Old Calabar species, renders any additional description scarcely

necessary.

* Hope in /oc. cit.

Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 123

Black. The head is impunctate, but finely rngose between

the antenne, with an elongate fovea on each side, in which the

rugosities almost take the appearance of punctures. The an-

tenne are black and piceous towards the apex. The clypeus is

smooth and elevated in the middle. The thorax may rather be

described as truncate-cordate than as hexagonal, but as both

the anterior and posterior portions of the lateral mar gins are

somewhat straight, either expression may be used without bei ‘ing

inconsistent with the truth ; it is faintly and not very closely

punctured, sparingly pilose, the margins reflexed, the dorsal

line distinct, but reaching neither to the front nor the base; a

deep longitudinal fovea is on each side of it at the base; the

base is truncate, a broad space in the middle projecting very

slightly backwards ; the anterior angles are narrow, and pro-

ject a little, and are rounded; the posterior angles are right-

angled, and have the usual excised tooth. ‘The scutellum is small

and impunctate, and has the sides gently curved. The elytra

are convex and obovate, pilose or pubescent, deeply punctate-

striate, the punctures faint ; the interstices are convex and finely

punctate ; the spots are mad, with a tinge of vermilion ; the an-

terior occupies four interstitial spaces (the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th),

and also the marginal space ; but the raised margin itself (which

is prominent) is not coloured; the posterior spot occupies the

same strie, but not the marginal space; the spots are of the

same texture as the rest of the elytra, and are not raised. The

marginal space might be called the last interstitial space, as it is

broad and raised like the rest, but in addition to the fine punc-

tuation found in the interstitial spaces, it has a series of larger

pits of various sizes, with a raised point in their middle. The

hairs are piceous, except on the red spots, where they also are

red; they are red on the under side of the body, which is

sparsely punctured on the prosteruum, breast, and sides of the

segments of the abdomen (their middle portion being shghtly

aciculated). The tarsi are piceous.

6. Cr. Erichsoni, Hope.

Niger, rugose punctatus ; thorace fere cireulari, ad

basin truneato et in medio retro projiciente,

lateribus reflexis, rugose punctato; elytris punc-

tato-striatis, maculis duabus parvis fulvis elevatis,

singulis interstitia quatuor tegentibus.

Long. 8 lin., lat. 3} lin.

Black. Head moderate rugosely punctate, with a longitudinal

fovea on each side in front, and a smooth rounded elevation be-

tween them, margined on each side in front of the eyes. Patpi

124 Mr.A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar.

nearly smooth. Thorax small, very deeply and coarsely punctate,

on a hasty inspection appearing nearly circular, the anterior

angles being rounded-in to the anterior margin, which is almost

straight ; the sides behind the middle sloping more rapidly to

the posterior angles, which are obtuse and have a slight excision ;

base truncate at the sides, with the middle space (which is also

truncate) abruptly projecting backwards, as in Ledia; margins

broadly reflexed, more narrowly in front, the depression ending

in a deep fovea on each side behind; the reflexed margins are

punctate in the same way as the rest of the thorax, but the basal

foveze are nearly free from punctures ; dorsal line almost imper-

ceptible. Scutellum elongate triangular, impunctate. Elytra

elongate, somewhat parallel, sparingly pilose, deeply punctate-

striate; interstices convex, finely and sparsely punctate, the

punctures both on the striz and on the interstices are transverse,

becoming towards the sides and on the marginal space almost

transversely strigose ; two yellow spots on each elytron, the an-

terior transverse, and about a fourth of the length of the elytra

from the base, the posterior obliquely transverse and about a

fourth from the apex: the spots are of a different texture from

the rest of the surface, somewhat raised, glossy and lustrous,

and nearly impunctate, and are placed on the 5th, 6th, 7th and

8th interstitial spaces; on the 6th projecting most forward, on

the 7th most backward ; apex slightly emargimate. Under-side

with the prosternum and sides of breast coarsely punctate ;

inferior margins of thorax impunctate ; sides of the segments of

abdomen coarsely punctate, middle smooth, with aciculations ;

inflexed margin of elytra somewhat rugose. Coxe punctured.

Legs slender.

I learn from Mr. Westwood that this is Hope’s Erichsoni,

although, from his description, [I should not have found it out.

It is interesting from its approaching the New Holland species,

australis, Dej., to which it bears considerable resemblance.

7. Cr. Symet, mihi.

Niger vel brunneo-niger, pilosus; antennis ferrugineis ; capite

parum punctato; thorace fere hexagono, pone medium latiore,

fortiter punctato, lateribus posterioribus testaceis et translu-

centibus, foveis elongatis duabus ad basin; elytris crenato-

striatis, interstitiis leviter punctatis, maculis duabus testaceis,

altera antica interstitia sex et marginem tegente, ad humerum

ascendente, altera postica interstitia quinque tegente; pedi-

bus testaceis.

Long. 33 lin., lat. 14 lin.

Of the form and facies of Panageus crux-major, but smaller.

Mr. A. Murray on Coleoptera from Old Calabar. 125

Black, or fuscous black, pilose; the pubescence or hairs

testaceous. Antenne and palpi ferruginous. Head punctate

between the eyes; the clypeus smooth. Thorax somewhat hex-

agonal, truncate at base, the greatest breadth a little behind the

middle, uniformly coarsely punctate, the margins a little expanded

and reflexed posteriorly, and where expanded testaceous and semi-

transparent ; dorsal line faint, and on each side of it an elongate

basal fovea ; the middle of the base very slightly and abruptly

projecting backwards. Scutellum small, smooth. Elytra some-

what elongate and parallel, crenate-striate, the interstices faintly

punctate ; two testaceous spots on each elytron, the anterior co-

vering the whole interstitial spaces from the 4th to the raised and

inflexed margin inclusive, anteriorly gradually ascending from the

4th till it reaches the 7th interstice, on which and the remaining

portion of the side of the elytron the colour runs up to the base,

where it turns in again upon the 6th and 5th, and posteriorly runs

down a short space upon the 7th or 8th and the remaining

lateral space ; the posterior spot is narrower, and confined to the

4th, 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th interstices, being curved obliquely

backwards. Under-side black ; prosternum and breast coarsely

punctate, and segments of the abdomen finely punctured, with

a few coarser punctures on the sides. Legs testaceous.

I have dedicated this species to my friend Mr. John T. Syme,

Lecturer on Botany in St. George’s Hospital, Londen, a very able

and zealous entomologist.

It is not without doubt that I have placed it in the genus

Craspedophorus instead of in Panageus. It has much more the

appearance of Panageus crux-major, P. fasciatus, &c., than of

any of the Craspedophori with which I am acquainted, but none

of the three specimens which I possess have the anterior tarsi

dilated. It may be that they are all females, or it may be that

the tarsi of the males are not dilated. In the absence of proof

that they are dilated, I have kept this and the following species

in this genus (of which the non-dilatation im the males 1s the

essential character), notwithstanding that I cannot help thinking

they more properly belong to Panageus.

8. Cr. vicinus, mihi.

Valde affinis precedenti, et differt preecipue in macula antica

_ non attingente marginem elytrorum.

Long. 33 lin., lat. 11 lm.

Very closely allied to the preceding species—possibly only a

variety. It is rather larger, has the fovez at the base of the

thorax rather deeper and broader, and the testaceous or yellow

markings on the elytra differently disposed. The anterior spot

126 Dr. T. Anderson on the Indian species of Lycium.

does not reach the margin, being confined to the 4th, 5th, 6th,

7th and 8th interstitial spaces, the colour being shortest on

the 5th and longest on the three last; the posterior spot is con-

fined to the same interstices, almost disappearing on the last ; it

is more transverse and not so much curved obliquely backwards

and outwards as in Symei.

[To be continued. |

XI.— Notes on the Indian species of Lycium.

By T. Anperson, Esq., M.D., Oude Contingent*.

In October 1855, when passing through the Doab between the

Ravee and Beas, I gathered a specimen of Lycium Edgeworthii of

Dunal, a species founded on a plant sent to Dunal by Mr. Edge-

worth, from near Sirhind. The plant m my herbarium is evi-

dently the same as that which Dunal has described; but after

most careful and repeated examination of a considerable number

of specimens in my possession, I am convinced that Dunal’s

LL, Edgeworthii is only a variety of his L. mediterraneum, the

L. europeum of Linneus. In order that his species LZ. medi-

terraneum and L. Edgeworthii may be distinguished, he has

refined their specific characters so much, that they appear to be

the descriptions rather of trivial varieties than of permanent and

well-marked species. The differences between the specific cha-

racters of the species consist of a line or two in the length of the

calyx—a mark of no importance, of minute differences in the

length of the pedicels and peduncles, and of inconstant charac-

ters taken from the existence of minute hairs at the insertion of

the filaments in Lyctum Edgeworthii. In my specimens I found

several flowers entirely glabrous. In Lycium europeum the

character is “‘filamentis basi puberulis.” Characters are also

taken from the branches and spines, but the latter, in both

species, are of all shapes and sizes, from a simple thorn } of an

inch long to a spine 3 inches long, bearing leaves and flowers.

Dunal supposes the colour of the corolla of L. Edgeworthii to be

yellow ; in my specimens it is pale rose-coloured, as in L. ewro-

@um.

Dunal has proposed to change the name of the Linnzan

L. europeum to L. mediterraneum, a change by no means appli-

cable to a plant widely diffused in India. I therefore retain the

Linnean name, and propose the following specific character,

which seems applicable to both the Indian and Western plants.

L. EvRop£uM, fruticosum, cortice albido, ramis spinescentibus,

spinis teretibus, foliis 2-5 ad basin spinarum fasciculatis, obovato-

* From the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. I. 1857.

Dr. W. B. Carpenter on the Development of Purpura. 127

oblongis vel oblongo-cuneatis, pedicellis calyce longioribus, inter-

dum geminis, plerumque unifloris, calyce breviter 5-dentato glabro

vel puberulo, corolla calyce duplo longiore anguste jasniae tw

formi, staminibus inclusis.—L. europeum, Linn. et auct.; Royle,

Il. ; L. mediterraneum, Dun. in DC. Prod. xiii. 523 (eum omnibus

variet.) ; L. Edgeworthii, Dun. in DC. Prod. xiii. 525 ; L. indicum,

Wight, Icones, t. 1403.

Hab. iw India prope Delhi, Royle; Guzerat, Wight ; Sirhind, Hdge-

worth ; Panjab ad Umritsir, 7. Anderson.

Folia glabra vel punctulata 3-1 unciam longa. Spine axillares

nude vel foliosee }—] unciam longze. Flores gemini vel szepius

solitarii e fasciculis foliorum. Calyx 5 -dentatus cyathiformis 1-2

lineas longus, glaber. Corolla caly ce longior infundibuliformis

4—6 lineas longa, roseo-alba. Filamenta lanai inelusa inee-

qualia, uno czeteris breviore. Antherze parvee ovate, basi bifide.

Stylus cylindricus, staminibus longior. Stigma orbiculare, capi-

tatum. Pollen in aqua globosum. Ovarium ovatum. Bacca

globosa parva.

In India, special care is required to guard against the undue

increase of species, since in this country, besides difficulties

arising from want of books of reference, natural causes make

the determination of species more difficult than in Europe. One

of the most powerful of these is the sudden and complete change

of clmate in many parts of the Peninsula of India, arismg from

the periodical recurrence of the ramy season, which often alters

the flora from that of an arid plain to one consisting entirely of

a large number of tropical annuals. This climatic change also

temporarily affects the appearance or “habit” of the perennial

plants, causing a wonderful luxuriance of growth and alteration

of the foliage. To these changes Lycium europeum is fully ex-

posed. It is a native of dry” sandy plains, where, before the

rains, it is stunted in all its parts; but when the air and soil

become charged with moisture, an expansion of all its parts

takes place, fully accounting for the multiform characters of its

leaves, and the diversity in the length of the spines, &c.

XII.— On the Development of Purpura. By Wm. B. Carpenter,

MD.) ERS. F.GS5, ELS.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

July 20, 1857.

GENTLEMEN,

My friend Dr. Dyster of Tenby (whose competency as an

accurate and well-informed microscopist is well known to every

naturalist who has visited that place) having applied himself

128 Dr. W. B. Carpenter on the Development of Purpura.

afresh, at my request, to the question of the development of

Purpura, has just sent me the following notes, which I will

thank you to publish in your next Number :—

“1. The egg-like bodies in the recently-separated egg-cap-

sules are destitute of any investing membrane.

“2. In those possessing a ‘directive vesicle,’ an envelope

appears very quickly ; and in such as are thus distinguished, the

segmentation is regular, and never in such sort as to give them

the lump-of-different-sized-cannon-shot-look (excuse my ter-

minology) which the vitellime spheres assume. The latter seg-

mentate frequently before the true ova,—I mean before those

possessing the ‘ directive vesicles.’

“3. [have distinctly seen vitelline spheres from the agglomerated

mass pass through the esophagus, and become united to the mass

within the embryo. Ihave made several drawings of the ceso-

phagus of embryos at different periods; and I took care not to

look at yours first. They are so like as not to be worth sending

up, except that the aperture (when seen in front) appears more

nearly circular than in your figure. I could see right down

to the mass below. On subjecting a full embryo to pressure

(under the compressor) applied a ¢ergo, the vitelline mass issues

through the cesophagus.”

I venture to hope that I am now sufficiently exculpated from

the imputation thrown upon me by MM. Koren and Danielssen,

of having mistaken for an cesophagus the incipient foot. But

if further justification be necessary, I would beg to refer to the

memoir of M. Claparéde (Miiller’s Archiv, April 1857) on the

development of Neritina fluviatilis, in which all my most im-

portant statements are borne out (express reference to them

being made) by the analogy of another species, and the co-

existence of a mouth and ciliated cesophagus with the rudimentary

foot is placed beyond all question*. It is not a little remarkable

that, according to M. Claparéde, the observations of M. Lind-

strém, which have been cited by Messrs. Koren and Danielssen

as confirmatory of their views, are really coincident with his,

and therefore with mine.

I am, Gentlemen,

Your obedient Servant,

WituraM B. Carpenter.

* An abstract of M. Claparéde’s memoir will appear in the next Number

of this Journal.

Dr. P. de Filippi on the Larve of the Trematode Worms. 129

XII1.— Observations on the Larve of the Trematode Worms.

By Dr. P. pe Firreri*.

Havine this summer pursued my investigations upon the Tre-

matode worms in the larva state, I have succeeded in finding

some new forms, and in adding to the results of my previous

observations some details as to the mode of life of these crea-

tures.

The Paludina impura, of which I have captured many indivi-

duals in different localities in the vicinity of Turin, has furnished

me with three new species of these parasites :—

1. Some Redie producing Cercarie of Distomum, very di-

stinctly characterized by a tubercular body, and by the small

ventral disk situated at the posterior third of the body, but

especially by the bifurcate excretory organ, forming two large,

lateral, twisted vessels, which ascend to the sides of the anterior

sucking-disk. This species becomes encysted with the greatest

facility, even on the stage of the microscope. It has shown me

that in the formation of the cyst, after the concentric layers of

mucosity exuded by the Cercaria, the skin of the latter assists,

becoming detached, and forming the inner wall of the cyst

itself,

2. A very fine Cercaria of Monostomum, furnished with large

eyes in the form of two semi-lunar spots, with a tolerably strong

pharyngeal bulb, and with a tail provided with a membranous

crest. This species is produced from a very elongated Redia,

without lateral appendages.

5. Some very peculiar nurses, almost identical in their or-

ganization, vital properties, and the form of the Cercariz pro-

duced by them, with those found by M. Moulinié in the

Limacest. This is decidedly a third kind of nurse, very different

from the two known up to this time, and for which I have re-

served the names of Sporocystis and Redia. They present the

form of a cylindrical sheath, with pretty thick walls, of which

the narrowed anterior extremity forms a button or a head. This

sheath is contractile; the head especially moves, and elon-

gates and shortens itself, issuing from and re-entering a sort of

collar. Notwithstanding this vitality which they enjoy, these

sheaths did not present any vessels or intestines, or even a

mouth. The cavity of the body is filled with Cercariz, which,

like those described and figured by M. Moulinié, are charac-

terized by a very short tail, by a rounded excretory organ of

* Translated by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., from the Annales des Sciences

Naturelles, 4me série, tome vi. p. 83.

+ Mémoires de I’ Institut Génévois, tome il.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. i)

130 Dr. P. de Filippi on the Larve of the Trematode Worms.

considerable size, and by a very small, conical, buccal spine.

These Cercarize are contained in a sac or viscus with distinct

proper walls.

At a later period I found in a Lymneus pereger other similar

sheaths, but less lively in their movements, and with a more

granular tissue. They only contained germs ; so that I should

not mention them if they had not furnished me with an inter-

esting observation which may throw some light on the nature

of these creatures. In fact, in these sheaths, the internal sac,

full of germs of Cercariz, not only possessed very distinct walls,

but in several it presented a more or less complete constriction,

indicating a scission in course of taking place, without any parti-

cipation of the external envelope forming the sheath properly so

called. It follows from this, that these sheaths are not simple

nurses or Sporocysts, but grand-nurses (Grossammen) or Sporo-

cystophores, as the name of Sporocyst must be reserved for the

internal sac filled with Cercarie.

Although we are destitute of direct observations upon the

development of these Sporocystophores, it is reasonable to sup-

pose that in this respect also we shall find good reasons for con-

sidering them as a perfectly peculiar kind. In fact, the Sporo-

cysts are produced by the direct metamorphosis of an infusoriform

embryo; the Redie are procreated by a similar embryo, which

soon afterwards dies and becomes decomposed. Probably the

Sporocystophores correspond with the primitive embryo, which,

after having undergone a transformation, would persist along

with the Sporocyst procreated by it.

Planoriis carinatus furnished me with a second species of

Redia, originating directly from true Distoma, and nearly analo-

gous with those which I have already indicated as parasites of

Paludina impura*, but which arrive, in the Redia itself, at a

still more advanced state of development, even presenting a ru-

diment of a generative system. The excretory organ, which is

also very different, presents the form of a small contractile ve-

sicle, in which the very delicate and tortuous vessels of each

side of the body are clearly seen to terminate.

Lodged in the viscera of this Planorbis I also found an im-

mense quantity of Sporocysts producing very large, armed Cer-

cari, of a species not hitherto described, and distinguished at

the first glance by their greatly developed excretory organ, which

has a double outline, and is, as it were, trilobate. The ventral

sucking-disk is larger than the anterior one; the two lateral

* Mémoire pour servir 4 l’histoire génétique des Trématodes, figs. 29-

31, Turin, 1854; and Annales des Sciences Naturelles, tome i. p. 255

(1854).

Dr. P. de Filippi on the Larvae of the Trematode Worms. 131

ducts which terminate at the spine originate from a very pretty

bunch of secretory cells. This characteristic apparatus of the

armed Cercariz is not so well developed in any other species.

Amongst the Cercarize which [I have already made known in

my previous works, and which I have again frequently seen in

the course of this year, | shall mention particularly the Cercaria

virgula, of which I have indicated the analogy with the C. micro-

cotyla, parasitic on Paludina vivipara*. I must now add, that

in the form and dimensions of its Sporocysts, the C. virgula

presents the same differences that I have found in the other

allied species.

In some individuals of P. ampura, the Sporocysts of C. virgula

are large and elongated, and contain a considerable number of

Cercariz ; in others, on the contrary, we only find small Sporo-

cysts, usually of a rounded form, upon which we can see a sort

of more or less apparent umbilicus, and which only contain a

very small number of Cercariz (8-4). These Cercariz are ex-

actly identical, both in form and organization, with those pro-

duced by the large Sporocysts; but their dimensions are much

less, being reduced nearly to half. On examinig a great many

of these little Sporocysts, we soon see that they are the result

of a scission of other larger ones; so that what I have just

called an umbilicus really merits that name, because it corre-

sponds with the spot at which the separation has taken place.

The same difference between large and small Sporocysts exists

in the C. microcotyia of Paludina vivipara, as I have pointed

out elsewhere+, and this difference now receives its expianation.

It is not impossible that these small Sporocysts and Cercarize

belong to different species from the analogous large Sporocysts

and Cercariz.

I have been struck this summer by the frequency (although

the mdividuals were always few in number) of a Cercaria, which

was first indicated by M. de la Valette under the name of C.

eristatat, and which never occurred to me in my previous re-

searches. ‘This singular creature, which I have met with in

different species of Mollusca (Valvata piscinalis, Paludina im-

pura, Planorbis submarginatus, Lymneus stagnalis, L. palustris),

is still the subject of a problem with me. If it be really a Cer-

earia, it can only be referred to a Monostomum.

In the month of August I passed a few days on the shore of

the Mediterranean, with the view of making some investigations

* Second Mémoire pour servir 4 Vhistoire génétique des Trématodes,

p. 6. Turin, 1855.

7 Mémoire, &c., p. 9. figs. 5, 6 (1854).

~ Symbole ad Trematodum evolutionis historiam. Berlin, 1854.

132 Messrs. Koren and Danielssen on the Development

on the parasites of the marine Mollusca. The locality beaten

by the waves was by no means favourable, and I was only once

able to find in the Conus Mediterraneus a fine flask-shaped Redia

with a long, but usually retracted neck, a very large pharyngeal

bulb, a short intestine, and a well-developed vascular system.

I am compelled to confine myself to this mere indication,

because the offspring which it contained was only in the state

of germs.

XIV.— Observations on the Development of the Star-fishes.

By J. Koren and D. C. Danrerssen*,

Sars was the first to make known to us the history of the

development of the Star-fishes, in Wiegmann’s Archiv, x. p. 169.

Subsequently, in the ‘ Fauna Littoralis Norvegie,’ p. 47, he fur-

nished complete observations upon the Echinaster sanguinolentus,

Miiller, and the Asteracanthion Miilleri, Sars. Here he described

minutely the external changes passed through by the embryo

until it acquires the radiate form. Unfortunately, he did not

succeed in explaining the internal organization. The Star-fishes

observed by Sars belong to the section in which the development

takes place without any peculiar larval apparatus.

A short time afterwards, Desor+ published the history of the

development of a Star-fish, which took place nearly in the same

way as that described by Sars, except that in place of four

clavate prehensile arms, there was only one, which was always

ventral, and placed near the middle of the Star-fish. With

regard to this organ, Sars and Desor are at variance. Sars sup-

posed that the four prehensile arms left a cicatrix, which became

the madreporic plate. Desor, on the contrary, regarded the

claviform prehensile arm as a vitellary sac, which diminished in

proportion as the little Star-fish increased in size, until at last it

disappeared altogether.

Subsequently, Agassiz published his observations, which for

the most part agree with those of Desor, although he does not

say that the claviform stem becomes an appendage of the di-

gestive organs. Agassiz says that he has seen the contents of

the stem turn upon themselves. W. Busch§ observed and

* Translated from the Fauna Littoralis Norvegie, Part ii. p. 55. By

W. S. Dallas, F.L.S.

Pree Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Feb. 15, 1848; Miiller’s Archiv, 1849,

p. 79.

{ American Traveller, Dec. 22, 1848; Miiller’s Archiv, 1851, p. 122.

§ Beobachtungen iiber Anatomie und Entwickelung einiger wirbellosen

Seethiere, p. 77. Berlin, 1851.

of the Star-fishes. 133

figured larvee exactly resembling those of Sars, and according to

his observations the prehensile arms would disappear at last

upon the ventral portion. Neither Sars, Desor, nor Agassiz

speak of the mouth of the larva; Busch, however, asserted that

he had seen one, between the four prehensile arms; but this he

has given up, since Sars, who has had the opportunity of ob-

serving a multitude of larvae, did not see the mouth.

J. Miiller* has minutely observed the larvee of Echinaster

sanguinolentus ; but, unfortunately, this celebrated naturalist had

only spirit-specimens, so that with regard to this point he could

obtain no information. Having been unable to procure these

larvee, we are also compelled to pass over this question. Accord-

ing to J. Miiller’s observations, the prehensile organs are hollow,

and have no relation to the digestive organs. In the interior of

the body, at the side opposite to the prehensile organs, the sto-

mach makes its appearance as a round body with a central cavity.

It advances by degrees towards the middle of the body, in pro-

portion as the larvee acquire the radiate form. When the sto-

mach is completely formed, the mouth opens at the point where

it occurs in the adult Star- fish. After these remarks, we shall

speak of the development of Péeraster miliaris.

On the 9th of August 1852, we found this Star-fish with

young in various stages of development. We know, from the

observations of Sars, that the young of E. sanguinolentus and

A, Miillert are developed in a cavity situated in the vicinity

of the mouth, and which is formed by the Star-fish drawing

up its disk, collecting together the widest parts of its rays,

and adhering by their tips. In Pteraster militaris there is a

large hollow space between the skin, which bears the calcareous

network and the spines, and the delicate soft membrane, which

is supported and sustained by the spines, like a roof w ith nu-

merous rows of pillars. At the middle of the back, this mem-

brane has a large opening, which is pushed out like ‘the neck of

a bottle and surrounded by five small bundles of perfectly straight

bristles. At the bottom, just at the middle of this, the anus

opens. In the cavity above described the eggs are developed,

and the young remain there until they have acquired the radiate

form. It is only then that they pierce through the membrane

above mentioned.

The number of young found in the cavity varies: in some

specimens we have only found 8-10, in others 20, or even more.

Most of the young occur along the arms, and only a few at the

middle of the disk. The colour was usually yellowish, and most

* Ueber den Allgemeimen Plan in der Entwickelung der Echinodermen.

Berlin, 1853.

134 Messrs. Koren and Danielssen on the Development

of the young had already acquired the radiate form, and were

provided with eyes, which could be seen through the above-

mentioned membrane. Unfortunately, we found none in the

state of embryos, but we succeeded in finding some in the

larval state. In these the body was of an oval form, a little

waved in the middle, and at its upper part a buccal opening

was perceived, which descended towards an extremely delicate

intestinal canal. The larve being perfectly opake, we were

obliged to employ a careful pressure to show the internal organs.

By this compression we saw that the skin was furnished here

and there with calcareous particles ; m other respects, the body

was composed of a dark, granular mass. The buccal orifice

appeared in the form of a funnel; it led to a delicate and narrow

intestinal tube, of the same width throughout, except at its

upper part, which was a little widened in the form of a funnel

towards the buccal orifice.

The intestinal canal, after passing towards the posterior part

of the body, made a curve to the right, and was then lost in the

dark vitelline mass. In the interior of the body, and nearly m

the middle, a mass of dark, closely-packed granules was observed

(the commencement of the stomach of the Star-fish). This dark

spot was already surrounded by a circular aquiferous canal. A

hollow tube arose from the back of the larva (the commencement

of the sand-canal), and terminated in the interior of the circular

canal. We could not observe whether this tube had an external

openmeg.

Another larva which we examined had five rounded rays at

the margin. On the dorsal surface, towards the margin of one

ray, there was a small, projecting, buccal orifice, which led to the

delicate intestinal canal. When this larva was compressed, the

buceal orifice and the intestinal canal appeared more distinetly,

and although the latter was extremely delicate, it could never-

theless be traced to its opposite extremity, where it described a

curve to the right, and opened upon the back of one of the rays.

In the middle of the Star-fish a dark, round body (the stomach)

was distinctly seen, with the aquiferous canal and the sand-

canal which opened into it. No trace of ambulacra could be

discovered, but, on the other hand, several irregular calcareous

pieces were seen in the mass of the body.

The third young animal was much larger, and had five obtuse

rays distinctly developed. At the middle of the extremity of each

ray there was an eye, composed of three pigmentary agglomera-

tions, formed by dull orange-coloured pigment-granules. The

larval mouth, which was slightly prominent, was situated to the

left between two rays. The intestinal canal and the anal orifice

could still be seen. distinctly. Calcareous spines had been

of the Star-fishes. 135

formed in the skin. At the middle of the back there was an

opening, just at the spot where the prominent orifice, in the form

of the neck of a bottle, occurs in the adult animal. In the

middle of the ventral plane the buccal orifice was observed, sur-

rounded by five calcareous pieces, and closed by a pretty strong

membrane. The stomach was distinctly formed, and surround-

ing it the aquiferous canal already mentioned was obser ved,

from which five canals passed to the five rays. From each canal

lateral canals issued, which terminated in the pedal vesicles. In

this specimen there were three pairs of ambulacra.

On the 12th of August we again examined some specimens.

The larval mouth still existed, but a portion of the intestinal

canal of the larva had already begun to disappear. On the back,

which was tolerably convex, the ‘madreporic plate was found in

an interradial space. Four pairs of ambulacra were formed.

The skeleton was then pretty well developed. The membrane

which closed the buccal aperture still existed; it does not dis-

appear until afterwards, so that the true mouth is only formed

after the young animal has quitted its mother.

If we glance at the observations which we have made upon

the development of Pteraster militaris, we shall see that the

embryo passes through three stages,—the embryonic state, that

of the larva, and that of the Echinoderm, all of which are passed

through whilst the embryo is enclosed in the maternal cavity.

On comparing this, in the first place, with the Star-fishes whose

larvee are furnished with claviform prehensile organs, but never-

theless, as regards the development of the other internal organs,

are still in the embryonic state, and then with those which have

special larval organs which subsequently disappear, we shall find

that the development ef Pteraster militaris differs in several

points from that of those larve. In Péeraster, the form of the

larva is oval, without prehensile arms, and it is furnished with a

buccal orifice, and with a long and narrow intestinal canal, which

terminates by an anal orifice. Both the mouth and the re-

mainder of the intestinal canal disappear by absorption, but only

some time after the true Echimoderm has made its appearance.

Even in the larva the rudiment of the stomach of the future

Star-fish is perceived ; this, however, does not arrive at its per-

fect development until the radiate form has made its appearance.

For some time the larval mouth aud the intestinal canal and

anal opening are still observed; for it is only at a later period

of development that all these attributes disappear, after the

formation of a mouth in the centre of the ventral surface and an

anal orifice on the back.

In Bipinnaria asterigera the cesophagus of the larva enters

into the back of the Star-fish excentrically and interradially.

136 Bibliographical Notices.

Near to it, and a little to the left, the anal tube is situated, at a

considerable distance from the centre of the Star-fish.

In Pteraster militaris the larval mouth only presents itself

upon the back near the margin of two arms, in the most ad-

vanced larval state; and the anal orifice is situated here, as in

Bipinnaria asterigera, excentrically. In Bipinnaria asterigera, in

which the Star-fish only communicates with the larva by the

cesophagus and the skin which passes from the larva to the

Star-fish, the larva detaches itself from the latter by the ceso-

phagus becoming constricted with strong contractions, whilst

the detached larva dies in six or eight days. We have also

observed that the whole intestinal canal disappears, and that

a new anal orifice is formed; it is only the stomach that

remains of the larva. This takes place somewhat differently

in Pteraster militaris, for the entire larva passes into the Star-

fish, although the latter receives a new mouth, intestinal canal,

and anus. J. Miiller has indicated that Bipinnaria asterigera is

perhaps a stage in the development of Solaster furcifer. It is

now some years since we expressed the same opinion on this

subject to MM. Sars and Bockdaleck.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

System der Ornithologie West Afrika’s von Dr. G. Hartuaus.

Bremen, 1857, 1 vol. Svo.

Untix the local faune of the different parts of the earth’s surface

have been worked out to a much greater extent than has as yet been

accomplished, it is almost hopeless to attempt with any certainty to

enunciate general laws on the geographical distribution of animal

life, one of the most interesting and by no means one of the least

important subjects of natural science. It is with great pleasure,

therefore, that we welcome every successive attempt to form an ac-

curate account of the whole or any part of the animated nature of

particular countries. Africa is a zoological kingdom to which the

naturalists of Germany have of late years devoted no small degree of

attention. Since Dr. Riippell completed his great contributions to-

wards our knowledge of the zoology of North-eastern Africa, Vier-

thaler, A. Brehm, Von Miiller, and Prince Paul of Wurtemburg, have

made further explorations into more remote portions of the same

country, and have reaped a rich harvest of results; and Dr. Peters,

returned from the little-known region of the Mozambique, has com-

menced the publication of his numerous discoveries in every branch

of zoology. To the ornithology of Africa, Dr. G. Hartlaub of Bre-

men has for several years devoted much of his attention ; many papers

in the Transactions of the Natural History Society of Hamburg, and

in Cabanis’ ‘ Journal fiir Ornithologie,’ bearing witness to his untiring

Bibliographical Notices. 137

application to this subject. In Dr. Hartlaub’s most recent publi-

cation, the ‘System der Ornithologie West-Afrika’s,’ we have in a

connected form a complete summary of all that is known concerning

West African ornithology up to the latest date, and this given ina

manner that may well serve as a model for naturalists who are desirous

of writing similar essays upon any branch of natural history.

A very interesting and copious introduction (in which a complete

review of African ornithology generally is given, together with many

remarkable facts concerning the geographic extension of the different

forms, and a summary of all that is known about the nidification and

propagation of the species) leads us to the main part of the volume,

which consists of an enumeration of all the birds which are known to

occur in Western Africa. Concise specific characters in Latin are

assigned to every species ; the more important synonyms and nume-

rous references to the works in which each has been noticed by former

writers are given, and, what is also important, as being a point much

too generally neglected by naturalists, the exact localities in which

each species has been found, together with the authority for such lo-

cality. The amount of labour which it must have cost to accomplish

this result cannot be easily estimated. It is no light task to draw up

specific characters for seven or eight hundred animals when they are

all ready before one’s eyes; but, when many of the types are scat-

tered about in the different museums of Leyden, Paris, Basle, London,

and Philadelphia, all of which must be formally visited, or seen by

the eyes of correspondents (who have to be kept up to their work

of replying to numerous interrogatories by thrice the corresponding

number of applications), it is no small praise to say, that the whole

has been finished in a manner which must be highly satisfactory to

every one who takes an interest in the progress of natural history.

The portion of the African continent which Dr. Hartlaub has

embraced in his present treatise consists of the whole country lying

along the coast from Senegal southwards to Benguela, a distance of

nearly 30 degrees of latitude. But invery few points within this region

have explorers penetrated far into the mainland, and the number of

species, therefore (758), included in Dr. Hartlaub’s catalogue, indi-

eates an Avifauna of no ordinary richness. The discoveries also

which have lately been made by P. B. Du Chaillu and other col-

lectors in Gabon (who have made some advances towards the unex-

plored interior), give promise of many interesting accessions to the

list as time progresses.

Western Africa, as Dr. Hartlaub observes, in its general zoological

aspect, shows a rich originality. The productiveness and peculiarity

of the African fauna are here continua!ly discovering new and unex-

pected treasures to the investigator. This is the realm of the giant

Gorilla,—here are the haunts of the most colossal of all serpents,—

this is the country whence marvellous Goliathi delight the vision of

the entomologist,—and where amongst the birds, the peculiar African

forms are met with in the greatest abundance and most characteristic

species.

Of the 758 species of birds which Dr. Hartlaub includes in the

138 Bibliographical Notices.

Zoology of Western Africa, no less than 400 appear to be peculiar

to this part of the continent; 150 occur also in North-east Africa ;

64 are also found in South Africa; the remaining 140 appear to be

pretty well dispersed over the continent, since they are met with in

North-eastern, Western, and Southern Africa. Of the 124 Acei-

pitres which are known to occur on the African continent, 56 are

met with in Western Africa; but, singularly enough, no examples

of the genera Gypogeranus, Polyboroides, or Helotarsus, which are

the three most characteristic African types of this order.

Of Passeres we have notice of no less than 450 species, among

which are members of many remarkable genera—such as Meropiscus,

Parinia, Ivonotus, Striphrornis, Peoptera, Hypergerus, Bias, Me-

gabias, Elminia, Artomyias, Erythrocercus, Lobotos, Chaunonotus,

Picathartes, and Onychognathus, which, as far as is hitherto known,

are all peculiar to Western Africa. Of Columbe 17 species ; of Gal-

line 19, including members of the peculiar African genera Numida,

Agelastus, and Phasidus. The two latter forms are restricted to

Western Africa. The order Struthzones is worthily represented by

the Ostrich.

Among the 99 species of Gralle contained in Dr. Hartlaub’s list,

the most eccentric form is perhaps Temminck’s Ralline genus Hi-

mantornis, discovered by Pel in Ashantee. Lastly, 42 species of

Anseres conclude the series of West African birds.

Popular History of the Aquarium of Marine and Freshwater Animals

and Plants. By Grorce BREeTTINGHAM Sowersy, F.L.S.

12mo. London, Reeve, 1857.

If we may apply to some of our writers on science the old rule

that “by their fruits ye shall know them,” it would almost ap-

pear that they consider one of the great beauties of a popular work

to consist in its resemblance to those complicated pieces of patch-

work in which our grandmothers used to take so much pride. The

prescription which they adopt in the manufacture of a book would

seem to be somewhat as follows :—Take all the standard works on

the subject to be treated of ; transfer the choicest passages to a note-

book ; select those which suit you best; tack them tcgether with as

much of your own material as may be absolutely necessary ; sprinkle

in a few fragments of poetry (which you may “easily pick up along

with your other plunder) ; print and publish. The less trouble you

take, the better, as you will the sooner be done and get your money :

if the book sells, the publisher is satisfied ; and as for ‘the public, your

conscience may be perfectly easy, for the matter you appropriate is

far better than anything your own brains are capable of furnishing ; so

what right has anybody to complain? The only answer to the last

question that we can think of at the moment, is that the authors of

the works subjected to this shameless system of robbery may per-

haps be foolishly inclined to think that it would be more to their

advantage if the public would read their works in the original form,

rather than in pirated extracts ; but this we must leave to their con-

sideration.

Bibliographical Notices. 189

As far as we can judge from the results, it would appear that

some very similar rule must have guided our author in his literary

labours ; and at all events, we may safely say that he is one of the

greatest proficients in the art of scissors and paste. Of the little

work whose title stands at the head of this article, nearly a third

consists of acknowledged quotations from the works of Gosse, John-

ston, Forbes, Bell, Dalyell, Baird, &c.; fully another third is abs-

tracted, with more or less verbal alteration, from the same authori-

ties, and the remainder is twaddle.

In his preface Mr. Sowerby apologizes for his limited acquaintance

with the ‘‘ Hydroid Zoophytes,” as well as with some other “animal

organisms.” If he had included the whole range of Zoology in this

avowal of ignorance, he would have been nearer the mark. An utter

want of knowledge is observable in almost every page : names are

continually misspelt (as, for example, dcephala for Acalepha, which

occurs in two or three places) ; Johnston’s definition of Zoophytes,

which applies to both the Polypes and Polyzoa, is given as belonging

to the former only ; and as if to make up for this, the four species of

Polyzoa to which the author refers are placed, three of them with

.the Hydroid Zoophytes, and the fourth (Aleyonidium) with Aleyo-

nium, amongst the Asteroida. Circumstances such as the presence

of thread-cells in the Polypes, are also referred to repeatedly as if

peculiar to certain species, simply because they are mentioned in

some quotation, although the author informs his readers at the out-

set (in a passage borrowed from Gosse) that this is the case in all

Polypes. There are some curious confessions of ignorance in dif-

ferent parts of the work, as, for instance, at p. 209, where we find

that the author’s “‘ only opportunity of observing a living specimen

of the Entomostracous division of Crustacea was that afforded me by

the attendant at the Zoological Society’s Fish-house, who had just

taken from a pike a specimen of Argulus foliaceus.”

This primitive ignorance, of which there is abundant proof, would

pethaps have been of less importance had the author taken the

trouble to study his subject as he went on; but the idea that there

was any necessity for such an exertion as this appears never to have

entered his mind. Even the portions copied with modifications from

other works are often disfigured by considerable blunders, as, for ex-

ample, in the following beautifully intelligible passage (p. 164), which

is evidently derived from Forbes’s Star-fishes. After speaking of the

oral and anal openings of the Echinodermata, our author tells us

-that ‘‘ whatever relative positions these two openings take, the intes-

tinal canal leading from one to the other is winding, and is attached

to the inside of the shelly case by means of what is called an integu-

ment (!), as well as all the internal lining, with vibratile cilia, and

which is connected with the function of respiration. They are be-

lieved to possess also a muscular apparatus, which has pulsations and

branching veins connected with it, like the heart in more advanced

animals.”” We need not dwell on the elegance and perspicuity of

these passages, but the muscular apparatus which has “ pulsations

connected with it’? would be a curiosity to see.

140 Bibliographical Notices.

We find in the preface that to make up for the numerous quota-

tions on those branches of science of which the author confesses

himself to possess an imperfect knowledge, “other parts of the work

contain more original observations and opinions, many of which will

be new to the reader.””’ We do not know whether the statement at

p- 288, that the author has “seen the heads of common Mackerel

shining brightly in a dark cellar,’’ is one of these new observations ;

but his application of the fact to the establishment of the luminosity

of fish in the sea, is certainly novel, as is also the implied statement

that Pyrosoma isa fish, given on the same page. One of the “ original”

opinions is undoubtedly that expressed at p. 241, which attempts to

account for the production of Hermit-crabs by the accidental intro-

duction of the larval form of some common Crab into empty shells.

Mr. Sowerby has not yet made the necessary experiments for the

establishment of this theory, and ‘‘in the meanwhile we must,” as

he advises us, “be content to take the obvious facts as we find

them.”

Some of the animals referred to appear to us to be very absurdly

introduced into a book on the Aquarium. Such are especially the

freshwater Tortoises, Turtles, and Alligators, none of which are

within the reach of the ordinary possessors of aquaria. Still more

ridiculous is the introduction of an account, two pages in length, of

Professor Owen’s Euplectella, a sponge from the Philippine Islands,

which Mr. Sowerby seems to hope may yet be seen “living and

flourishing in our tanks.’ What interest Mr. Sowerby can possibly

have in the matter we cannot tell; he would certainly know no more

about Euplectella after seeing it, than he does now by simply reading

about it.

We might without much trouble extend our list of Mr. Sowerby’s

errors, but such a treatment of such a work would be almost

like breaking a fly upon the wheel, an operation which we have no

desire to imitate. We have, indeed, already devoted to it far more

space than it deserves on any consideration, except as it furnishes

such a striking example of that wholesale and disgraceful pillage of

standard works on science, by ignorant and careless compilers, which

now threatens to become so much the fashion. Considering the

number of works of all prices already existing upon the same sub-

ject, we cannot think that the present book was necessary on public

grounds ; and if the necessities of his series compelled Mr. Reeve to

bring out a work on the “Aquarium,”’ he ought at least to have

taken care that the workman to whom he confided its production

was rather more a master of his craft than the one whose literary

offspring we have just been examining. We must add, that the

volume, which is one of Mr. Reeve’s popular series, is as usual illus-

trated by twenty coloured plates. These are drawn on stone by the

author, and most of the figures are tolerably effective. One or two,

however, are bad, especially that representing the Newts and Water-

beetle, which is positively a ridiculous caricature.

Royal Society. 14]

A Popular History of British Crustacea; comprising a familiar

account of their classification and habits. By Avam Wuire,

Assistant, Zoological Department, British Museum. Sq. 12mo.

London, Reeve, 1857.

Mr. Reeve probably admires a good contrast ; at least this is the

only motive to which one can attribute his publishing consecutively

two such opposite books as this and the one to which we have just

called attention. In Mr. White’s ‘ Popular History of the Crustacea’

we have the carefully and conscientiously executed work of one who

is well acquainted with his subject ; and although we meet here and

there with tolerably lengthy quotations relating to the habits of the

animals described, it would be a hard-hearted critic indeed who

would object to this, when the portion of the work evidently due to

the author’s own labour so greatly preponderates.

By this, we do not mean to say that any great amount of originality

is displayed in its pages, and Mr. White himself is as ready as any

one to acknowledge that in treating popularly of a subject upon which

so much has been done, there is but httle chance of striking into any

new path; for he has evidently aimed solely at furnishing the young

naturalist with a sketch of the characters and habits of the numerous

Crustacea inhabiting the waters of our Islands, and it is not too

much to say that he has been eminently successful. His little book

is an extremely interesting and valuable addition to our popular litera-

ture of Natural History, especially as no work with the same scope

was previously in existence, and the plates with which it is illustrated

are, it seems to us, superior to most of those which have hitherto

appeared in Mr. Reeve’s series.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

May 14, 1857.—General Sabine, R.A., Treas. and V.P., in the Chair.

*On the Organization of the Brachiopoda.” By Albany Han-

cock, Esq.

In the present memoir the author states at length, and fully illus-

trates by figures, the conclusions to which he has been led by a long

series of researches into the anatomy of the Brachiopoda; investigations

which have been conducted with a special reference to the discrepant

opinions maintained by Prof. Owen and the older writers on the one

hand, and by Prof. Huxley and himself on the other. Some of the

points in dispute have already been discussed in a paper read before

the British Association at Cheltenham, and in the present memoir

the author not merely reiterates the statements which he then made,

but gives a detailed account of the whole organization of the Bra-

chiopoda based upon his dissections of the following species :—Wald-

142 Royal Society :—

heimia australis, W. Cranium, Terebratulina caput-serpentis, Rhyn-

chonella psittacea, Lingula anatina, and another species of Lingulu.

The Brachiopoda are divisible into two groups, according as the

valves of their shells are articulated or not. Waldheimia is the type

of the former group, Lingula of the latter.

In the articulated forms there are usually three apertures opening

into the pallial chamber ; of these, one is the mouth,—the other two

are situated at the apices of the organs which have been described as

“hearts.” In Rhynchonella, where there are four such ‘ pseudo-

hearts,”’ there are of course five apertures instead of three. In Lin-

gula, which possesses a distinct anus, opening on the right side of

the pallial cavity, the apertures into the cavity are four, viz. one oral,

one anal, and two appertaining to the pseudo-hearts.

After a description of the general arrangement of the organs in the

articulated and non-articulated Brachiopoda, an elaborate account of

the various systems of organs is given.

The muscles of the Terebratulide are divisible according to their

functions into two groups,—the adductors of the valves, and those

which adjust the shell upon the pedicle. Of the former, or “ val-

vular’’ muscles, there are three pairs,—the adductors, cardinals, and

accessory cardinals of previous writers; which the author prefers to

term occlusors, divaricators, and accessory divaricators. Of the latter

there are likewise three pairs, the so-called dorsal and ventral pedicle

muscles and the capsular muscle; these the author terms the dorsal

and ventral adjustors, and the peduncular muscle. The attachment

of the muscles in Waldheimia australis and their actions are par-

ticularly described. The peduncular (capsular) muscle is shown to

be the continuation of the muscular fibres contained within the pe-

duncle. Inthe other articulated Brachiopoda examined, the arrange-

ment of the muscles is essentially the same, but interesting differ-

ences are observable even in closely allied species.

| Names of homologous

Names in use. Names proposed. muscles of articulate

Brachiopoda.

Anterior retractors ...| Anterior occlusors ......... Anterior occlusors.

Anterior adductors...... Posterior occlusors......... Posterior occlusors.

Posterior adductors .....|Divaricators ............... Accessory divaricators.

a protractors...... pies adjustors Saas \ Ventral adjustors.

External protractors ...|External adjustors ......

Posterior retractors ... Posterior adjustors......... Dorsal adjustors.

mepaelar’s 500.0 20. Soe} OCMEMEMNAL concen ous oats Peduncular.

Anterior parietals.

Posterior parietals.

Thus, in a species differing but little from Waldheimia australis,

and in W. Cranium, the divaricators and accessory divaricators are

united. In Waldheimia Cranium and Terebratulina caput-serpentis

Mr. A. Hancock on the Organization of the Brachiopoda. 143

the dorsal adjustor muscles are not attached to a hinge-plate, but are

inserted into the valve itself. In Rhynchonella psittacea there is a

air of peduncular muscles, In Lingula there are six pairs of muscles,

all of which have both extremities attached to the valves. They have

been divided into adductors and sliding muscles, the latter again being

subdivided into protractors and retractors; but the author, con-

sidering that no sliding motion takes place, regards the latter terms

as improper, and gives a set of new names, of which a concordance

with the older denominations is given on the preceding page.

The author conceives that the valves are separated by the action

of the divaricators, combined with that of the parietals; these

muscles compressing the visceral cavity posteriorly, and thus driving

its contents into the anterior portion. The antagonists of these are

the oeclusors ; while the office of the adjustors appears rather to be

to supply the place of a hinge, and to prevent anything like sliding

of the valves one over the other.

The muscular fibres of Zingula are smooth and unstriated. In

Waldheimia those of the posterior occlusors are strongly striated, but

the rest of the muscles have smooth fibres. The arms, their attach-

ment and minute structure are next fully described.

In Waldheimia the canals of the attached portions of the arms

coalesce into a single wide tube, which lies externally between the

produced and reflected crura of the calcareous loop, and is separated

by a partition from a canal of corresponding size—the “ brachial

sinus,’’—which also extends throughout the whole length of the pro-

duced and reflected crura, and is in fact a prolongation of the peri-

visceral chamber. The cirri are arranged in this and all the other

Brachiopoda examined, in a double alternating series—not in a single

row, as has hitherto been stated to be the ease. The walls of the

brachial canal are tolerably well supplied with delicate muscular

fibres, which run diagonally round the tube, and are most strongly

developed towards the sides, near the grooved ridge which supports

the cirri. An indistinct band of exceedingly delicate longitudinal

fibres may also be observed nearly opposite to it. The author has

however completely failed to discover, either here or in Rhynchonella,

anything like the double spiral arrangements of fibres described by

Prof. Owen, and believes that the latter observer has mistaken the

blood-sinuses for muscles.

The author doubts whether the spiral coil can be unwound, and

conceives that the muscular fibres described, are chiefly for the pur-

pose of giving firm support to the grooved ridge on which the cirri

and brachial fold are seated, and thus affording the complex mus-

cular fibres which the ridge contains a better fulerum whence to act

upon the cirri.

In Terebratulina caput-serpentis, which possesses no calcareous

loop, the pallial lobe connecting the produced and reflected portions

of the arms is strengthened by calcareous spicula, which are so

numerous as to preserve the shape of the part even when the animal

basis is removed.

In Lingula the arms contain two canals; one, the anterior, being

the equivalent of the single canal in Rhynchonella, and, like it, ter-

144 Royal Society :—

minating at the side of the cesophagus in a blind sac. The posterior

brachial canal probably communicates with the perivisceral cavity and

exhibits a peculiar arrangement of muscles, by whose action perhaps

the arm can be exserted.

In addition to those parts of the alimentary canal and its append-

ages which are already known in the articulated Brachiopoda, the

author describes a short median gastro-parietal band arising from the

upper surface of the stomach and passing upwards and backwards to

the dorsal parietes a little in advance of the hinge-plate. With

regard to the existence or absence of an anal aperture in the articu-

lated Brachiopoda, the writer states: ‘‘I have made numerous dis-

sections under a powerful doublet, and have removed the part and

examined it with a microscope: I have filled the tube with fluid

as the fingers of a glove with air, and by pressure have attempted to

force a passage: I have tried injections; but have equally, on all

occasions, failed to discover an outlet, and have only succeeded in

demonstrating more and more clearly the cecal nature of the ter-

minal extremity of the alimentary canal. Therefore, how much

soever it may be opposed to analogy and to authority, the fact must

be recorded—there is no anal orifice in Waldheimia, Terebratulina,

orin Rhynchonella.”’

In Lingula, as in the articulated Brachiopoda, the first inflection

of the intestine is towards the ventral surface, but the alimentary

canal eventually ends in the easily observable anus placed nearer the

dorsal than the ventral surface, on the right side of the body. The

rudimentary mesentery, and the lateral gastro-parietal and ilio-parietal

bands of Lingula are described. There is no median gastro-parietal

band. Fecal matter rolled into round pellets is commonly obser-

vable in the intestine of Lingula, while no feeces are ever found in

that of the articulated Brachiopoda.

The genitalia in the articulate Brachiopoda are developed between

the two membranes of which the inner wall of the pallial sinuses in

which they are contained is composed, and, thrusting the inner of the

two membranes from the outer, form a prominent mass connected by

a band with the inferior wall of the sinus. The genital artery runs

along the upper or outer edge of the band, and the genitalia are

developed round it.

In Lingula the reproductive organs are withdrawn from the man-

tle and lodged within the visceral chamber, forming four irregularly

lobulated or branched masses, two above and two below the alimen-

tary canal, so that they may be distinguished as dorsal and ventral

genital masses. The dorsal ovaries are suspended by the ilio-parietal

bands, and the ventral by the continuation of these bands along the

free margins of the pseudo-hearts. In both cases the attachment is

along the margins of the bands, which are related to the genitalia

much in the same manner as the suspending membrane is to the

genital bands in Waldheimia; and it would seem that in Lingula

the reproductive organs are really developed between the two layers

composing the ilio-parietal bands. The author adduces arguments ~

to show that the Lingule are hermaphrodite, the testis being a red-

dish mass, which ramifies over the true ovary.

Mr. A. Hancock on the Organization of the Brachiopoda. 145

The ova probably make their way out by the so-called ‘hearts,”’

which open by their apices into the pallial cavity, and by their patu-

lous bases (the so-called auricles) into the periyisceral chamber, and

are hence capable of performing the functions of oviducts. The

author has assured himself of the constant presence of the apical

aperture of the pseudo-heart in all Brachiopoda. As pointed out by

Prof. Huxley, there are four of these pseudo-hearts in Rhynchonella,

but only two were found in the other Brachiopoda examined.

The pseudo-hearts have nothing to do with the propulsion of the

blood, a function which is performed chiefly by the pyriform vesicle

discovered by Prof. Huxley in Waldheimia and Rhynchonella, and

which was found attached to the stomach in all the Brachiopoda ex-

amined. It is composed of two layers, the inner distinctly mus-

cular, the outer transparent and homogeneous. Connected with this

heart are vessels or blood-channels (particularly described in the

Memoirs); the ‘venous canals,’ which open into it anteriorly,

returning the blood conveyed by the posterior arterial channels into

the system of peripheral sinuses originally described by Prof. Huxley.

Accessory “‘hearts”’ or pulsatile vesicles have been found in some

of the articulated Brachiopoda ; the mantle and the walls of the body

are essentially composed of a plate of substance traversed by reticu-

lated lacunze, and lined upon each side with epithelium. After ex-

plaining at length the distribution of the lacunee throughout the

mantle, the sheath of the intestine, its bands, the genital folds, the

arms, &c., the author proceeds to give the following sketch of the

course of the circulation :-—

‘* Having now gone over all that I have been able to ascertain with

respect to the central and peripheral portions of the circulatory appa-

ratus, and having also examined the lacunes and blood-canals of the

brachial organs, it will not be difficult to follow the flow of the blood

throughout its entire course in Waldheimia; and as it is in it, so

will it be in all probability in all other Brachiopods.

“Tt has been shown that the heart is a simple, unilocular, pyri-

form vesicle, suspended from the dorsal aspect of the stomach, and

projecting freely into the perivisceral chamber; that there is neither

auricle nor pericardium,—unless the membrane which closely invests

it can be so called,—that it is hardly more complex in structure than

the pulsating vessel of the Tunicata; and that in Lingula, indeed,

it scarcely at all differs from the heart of these lowly organized mol-

lusks. This vesicle, or heart, propels the blood through four arterial

trunks or channels, to the reproductive organs and mantle, and pro-

bably also to the alimentary tube, and is apparently assisted by four

or more pulsating vesicles in connexion with these principal trunks.

The blood thus conveyed by the genital or pallial arteries will escape

by the lacunes in the membranes suspending the genitalia, into the

plexus in the floor of the great pallial sinuses. Thence it will find

its way into the outer lacunary system of the pallial lobes, and into

that of the dorsal and ventral walls of the body, as well as into the

lacunes of the anterior parietes. Having saturated all these parts of

the peripheral system, it will divide itself into two currents, one of

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 10

146 Royal Society :—

which will set backwards in the direction of the membranous bands

connecting the alimentary tube to the parietes, and will flow through

their channels into the system of visceral lacunes, which encircle the

alimentary canal within the sheath, aud which probably carry blood

to the liver. This current will also supply blood to the lacunes

nourishing the muscles. The blood thus directed will reach the

branchio-systemic vein, either by the great cesophageal lacunes, or

through the foramina which penetrate the sides of the channel as it

runs along the dorsal ridge of the stomach.

“The other blood-current will set forward in the direction of the

base of the arms, and some of it will pass into these organs through

their general system of lacunes; but the principal portion will be

carried by the afferent brachial canal to the extensive plexus of

lacunes in those parts, and will circulate, in the manner before

pointed out, within the walls of the great brachial canal. The blood

will then be drawn up one side of the cirri through the vessels—

the afferent brachial arteries—originating in the great brachial

plexus, and returning down the other, will be poured into the efferent

brachial canal, and thus reach the lateral efferent sinuses at the root

of the csophagus. Thence it will enter the great cesophageal

lacunes, and there meeting with the other current of returning blood

from the visceral lacunes, will be carried to the heart by the bran-

chio-systemic vein along the dorsal side of the stomach.

«Thus it is perceived that the blood finds its way back to the cen-

tral organ in a mixed condition. That which is conveyed by the

gastro-parietal and other bands will be imperfectly aérated, having

only flowed through the pallial membranes, which must be looked

upon as but accessory oxygenating agents. The arms undoubtedly

perform the office of gills, and are true respiratory organs. The

blood which circulates through them will consequently be returned

in a perfectly aérated condition, to be mixed, however, with that in

a less pure state from the visceral lacunes before it enters the heart.

This mixed state of the blood is not by any means peculiar to these

animals, for it obtains in many of even the higher mollusks.”

The perivisceral cavity and the great pallial sinuses have no com-

munication with the proper blood-vascular system, but are to be com-

pared to the atrium of the Ascidianida, and the water-chambers of

the Cephalopoda and other mollusca. The pseudo-hearts enable the

perivisceral cavity to communicate with the exterior, and convey

away the genital, and probably the renal products. On this head

the author says :—

“From the foregoing account of the circulatory apparatus, it

would appear that the perivisceral chamber, and its various so-called

vascular ramifications in the mantle, are not connected with the

blood-system. This is no doubt a startling fact. I commenced the

present investigation fully imbued with the opinion that these parts

were blood reservoirs and channels, and I only relinquished it when

it became no longer tenable. Step by step the points relied on had

to be abandoned, until at length the full conviction was arrived at

that I had been seeking to establish a fallacy. I have been unable

Prof. R. Owen on the Placenta of the Elephant. 147

to discover any communication between the true blood-system and

the pseudo-vascular ramifications in the mantle or the perivisceral

chamber. Injections were thrown into this chamber, but none of

the fluid found its way into any part of the lacunary system. The

pallial lobes were removed, and the great pallial sinuses distended to

their fullest capacity, with exactly the same result; and it was not

until the tissues were ruptured on applying great pressure, that

a little of the injected matter was extravasated into the peripheral

lacunes. The perivisceral chamber, then, and all its various ramifi-

cations, are in no way connected with the true blood-system.”’

The nervous system of the articulated Brachiopoda is described at

length. Besides the principal subcesophageal ganglion, two minute

enlargements are shown to exist upon the anterior part of the ceso-

phageal commissure, and two small pyriform ganglia are described

in connexion with the under part of the principal ganglion. The

peripheral nerves are minutely traced out, and two peduncular

nerves, not hitherto known to exist, are described. The author

denies the existence of the so-called “ circumpallial’”’ nerves. He has

been unable to detect the nervous centres in Lingula, and he is in-

clined to regard the cords, described as nerves in that genus by Prof.

Owen, as blood-sinuses.

The author next makes some remarks on the structure of the

shell, pointing out that in Terebratulina caput-serpentis there are

two distinct layers, an external and an internal; and he then draws

attention to the important anatomical characters which separate the

articulated Brachiopoda as a group from the inarticulate division.

In conclusion, the author draws a parallel between the Brachio-

poda and the Polyzoa, demonstrating the close structural conformity

between these two groups.

“Qn the Placenta of the Elephant.” By Professor Richard

Owen, F.R.S., &e.

In this paper the author gives a description of the foetal mem-

branes and placenta of the Indian Elephant. The chorion forms a

transversely oblong sac about 2 feet 6 inches in long diameter, en-

compassed at its middle part by a placenta of an annular form, 2 feet

6 inches in circumference, from 3 inches to 5 inches in breadth, and

from 1 inch to 2 inches in thickness ; in structure resembling that of

the annular or zonular placenta of the Hyrax and Cat. The part of

this placenta which had been detached from the maternal portion

occupied a narrow annular tract near the middle line of the outer

surface. A thin brown deciduous layer was continued from the

borders of the placenta for a distance varying from 1 to 3 inches

upon the outer surface of the chorion. Flattened folds of a similar

layer of substance, or false membrane, could be raised from some

parts of the surface of the placenta; at other parts the substance

formed irregular fibrous bands,—the fibres extending im the direction

of the circumference of the placental ring. The outer surface of the

chorion is for the most part smooth and even shining, but at each

of the obtuse extremities of the sac there was a villous subcircular

10*

148 Royal Society :—

patch, between 2 and 3 inches in diameter, the villi being short and

graniform, 2th of a line in diameter or less. Thus the chief points

of attachment of the chorion to the uterus are, at the equator by

the annular placenta, and at each pole of the elongated sac by the

subcircular villous patch. The umbilical cord was short and rather

flattened: it was formed by two arterial and one venous trunks, and

by the slender neck of the allantois, with the connecting cellular

tissue and the covering of amnios: it measured about 6 inches in

length, before the division of the vascular trunks, and about 3 inches

in circumference. The inner surface of the amnios is roughened by

brownish hemispherical granules, from 1 line to {jth of a line in

size—commonly about } a line; the outer surface is finely wrinkled,

but smooth; the amnios is continued from the base of the umbilical

cord upon the allantois, which is of considerable size, and is so in-

terposed between the chorion and amnios as to prevent any part of

the amnios attaining the imer surface of the placenta. The amnios

consists of two layers: one is the granular layer, continued upon

the inner or foetal surface of the allantois, and thence upon the

umbilical cord ; the other is the smooth outer layer, continued upon

the outer or chorional surface of the allantois, and thence upon the

inner surface of the chorion. The allantois divides where the am-

nios begins to be reflected upon it into three sacculi; the disposition

of these sacculi is described in detail. The chief peculiarity was the

presence, upon the inner layer of the allantois, and chiefly upon the

endochorionic vessels, of numerous flattened oval or subcircular

bodies, varying in diameter from an inch to half a line: their tissue

was compact, structureless, and of a grey colour. On dissecting some

of the vessels over which these bodies were placed, the vessel was

found to pass on the chorionic side of the body without undergoing

any apparent change, the body being developed from the allantois,

and from that part which forms the allantoic side of the sheath of

the vessel. These bodies were most numerous near the placenta:

their free surface was smooth, not villous like the cotyledons of the

Ruminantia, from which they likewise differed in projecting inwards

towards the cavity of the allantois. The most important modifica-

tion of the vascular structures connecting the chorion with the

uterus, in the Elephant, is their combination of two forms of the

placenta, viz. the ‘annular’ and the ‘ diffused,’ which have hitherto

been supposed to characterize respectively distinct groups of the

class Mammalia.

The author concludes by a comparison of the different known

forms of the placenta, including those of the Pteropus or large fru-

givorous Bat, and of the Chimpanzee ; and by remarks on the value

of placentary characters in the classification of the Mammalia.

June 15, 1857.—The Lord Wrottesley, President, in the Chair.

«On the Causes and Phenomena of the Repulsion of Water from

the Feathers of Water-fowl and the Leaves of Plants.” By George

Buist, D.C.L. of Bombay, F.R.S.

Happening to reside in Bombay, in the neighbourhood of a number

Dr. Buist on the Repulsion of Water from the Leaves of Plants. 149

of small tanks or ponds abounding with the Lotus or sacred bean

of India, and with four different varieties of Water Lily, I was

struck with the different appearances presented by these when im-

mersed in water, or when water was sprinkled on them. The leaves

of the lily, like those of the Lotus, floated with considerable buoy-

ancy on the surface, but never, like the Lotus, rose above it, on a tall

independent stem. The lily leaf is full of holes about the size of a

pin’s head, and serrated at the edges. Through these, when the

leaf is pressed down, the water perforates freely. The upper surface

of the leaf is smooth and shining, and water runs off it without wet-

ting it, as it does off a piece of glass or greased surface. When

placed under the water at an angle of about 45°, the leaf of the

lily seems to change colour; the dark purple leaf of the red lily

appears of a bright rich pink, the dark green or bluish-green of the

white, pink, and blue lilies seem to become of a bright emerald-

green ; the intensity of these hues varying with the angle at which

the immersed leaf is seen.

When the Lotus leaf is placed under water it reflects light like a

mirror, so that the image of any object, if presented to it at a proper

angle, is seen by the spectator as distinctly as if the surface were one

of polished metal. When water is thrown on the surface of a float-

ing leaf, it flows off like a pool of quicksilver, reflecting light from

the whole of its lower surface ; and this holds good on all occasions.

The repellent property of the leaf is on the upper side only, for the

lower side is always wet, being only destroyed by severe rubbing.

These peculiarities seem long to have been familiar to the natives,

and have given rise to the Mahratta lines in reference to the virtuous

man, which may be thus translated :—

“ He is not enslaved by any lust whatever ;

By the stain of passion he is not soiled,—

As in the water, yet unwet by the water,

Is the Lotus leaf.”

On examining carefully into the cause of this, | found the Lotus

leaf covered with short microscopic papille, which entangle the air

and establish an air-plate over the whole surface, with which in

reality the water never comes in contact at all. Another pecu-

larity connected, but not necessarily so, so far as I could discover,

with this, was the singular respiratory pores of the Lotus. The

leaves of the Lotus, when full-sized, are from a foot to 16 inches

in diameter ; on cutting off a leaf 6 inches broad, the stalk of which

was less than the third of an inch in diameter, I was able to collect

33 cubic inches of air in an hour, when the vital energies of the

plant must have been injured by its mutilation ; at this rate a tank

covered with Lotus leaves would produce daily an atmosphere 4 feet

in depth throughout its whole surface. When the leaf is pushed

slightly under water, a constant succession of air-bubbles seem to

arise from it, at the rate of two or three a minute at each spiracle.

The air-bubble diffuses itself as it is extricated, presenting a very

broad base to the leaf and blunt low-crowned apex, and seems de-

150 Botanical Society of Edinburgh :—

tached with difficulty. The air-plate all over the surface must thus

become continually renewed and the arrangement kept perfect.

Sensible respiration is not at all essential to the repelling power of

leaves ; the most beautiful manifestation of it I have met with is in

the Pestia, a little floating water-plant abounding in our shallow

tanks, and resembling common endive. When pushed under the

surface, it looks like a little mass of burning silver. The same ap-

pearance is presented on cabbages, young clover, and a vast variety

of other leaves ; it is the cause of the bright pearl-lustre of dew.

The same phenomenon is manifested on the wings and backs of divers

when they dash into the water. In this case it has been ascribed,

most erroneously as I believe, to the presence of grease or oil in the

feathers, and is, I have no doubt, due to the presence of an air-plate

repelling the water, so that it never comes in contact with the feathers

at all. The trimming process, so carefully performed by Water

Fowl, is probably an application of oil or grease, with the object of

separating or dressing the little fibres of the feathers so as to produce

an arrangement fitted to entangle the air. The reflexion of light

from the lower surface of the water is the proof of want of contact.

A piece of polished marble or of glass, a waxed, oiled or greased

surface, readily throws off the water without remaining wetted ; but

no reflexion is in this case observable.

Might not the manufacturers of waterproof cloth or clothes take a

hint on this point from the economy of nature? Could they ma-

nage to produce a surface such as would entangle and retain a film of

air, no india-rubber varnish or other water-tight material would

be required, while the texture would permit the free transmission

of respiration or moisture from the body, which Mackintosh’s and

other similar contrivances obstruct.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

May 14, 1857.—-Professor Balfour, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The following papers were read :—

1. “Notice of two cases of Poisoning with the seeds of Thevetia

nereifolia,’ communicated, with remarks, by Dr. Douglas Maclagan.

The history of these cases, which occurred in India, was furnished

by Dr. John Balfour, H.E.I.C.S. The symptoms were narcotico-

irritant, the irritant character predominating, and the somnolence

and other cerebral phenomena being, in Dr. Maclagan’s opinion,

probably as much those of exhaustion as of true narcotism. There

was vomiting of a peculiar character. Thevetia nereifolia, Juss.

(Cerbera Thevetia, L.), now naturalized in India, appears to have

been introduced probably from South America.

2. * Account of the Insect which infests the seeds of Picea nobilis,”

by Andrew Murray, Esq., F.R.S.E.

The Picea nobilis was first introduced into this country from the

north-west of America by Douglas in 1831. No second importation

Dr. A. Smith on the Influence of Light on Vegetation. 161

of seed was made in any quantity till Jeffrey sent home some packages

in 1852. These proved all bad, and apparently had suffered from the

ravages of an insect. Mr. Beardsley and my brother next sent a

quantity in 1854, and I noticed the fact that in almost every cone of

P. nobilis, the seeds were being eaten by a small caterpillar. My

brother had found these caterpillars in the green as well as in the

mature cone, their eggs evidently having been deposited in the kernel

while the cone was yet soft and easily penetrated. One or two sub-

sequent importations of seed proved to be also to a greater or less

extent infested by an insect. I have bred the insect, and find that

it belongs to the genus Megastigmus, one of the Chalcidites. Out

of hundreds of insects which I have seen developed from the cones

of Picea nobilis, 1 never saw any other species, except one small

moth. In the April Number of the ‘Zoologist,’ Mr. Parfitt has

named the insect Megastigmus Pini. Ue has described only the

female, not haying seen the male. I obtaimed specimens of both,

which I have placed in the British Museum. The male is smaller

than the female, and differs in having its upper surface entirely black.

The immense quantities in which the insect has been found in the

cones, at least in all the later importations, and the fact that the

early stage in which the cone is attacked renders protection or pre-

vention by man nearly impossible, are likely, I fear, to keep this pine

always comparatively scarce.

3. “On the supposed influence of the Moon on Vegetation, in

Peru,” by Archibald Smith, M.D.

The author thought it not unreasonable that the lunar ray might

have a peculiar chemical agency on the functions of plants and ani-

mals, as it appears to have on dead animal matter. It must be borne

in mind that the light afforded both by the sun and moon in Peru is

much greater than in the British Islands,—so that, although we may

reasonably repudiate any marked effect from the moonlight in these

islands, the more intense lunar light of Peru may exercise a sensible

power on plants. The author alluded particularly to the surprisingly

rapid growth of lucern, which is extensively cultivated in Peru, and

is evidently much favoured by light, whether of sun, or sun and moon

together. During the prevailing misty season on the coast (which

is the time when the low and maritime sand-hills are garnished with

grass and flowers to their summits) the growth of lucern in the plains

and valleys is greatly stinted. In these wet months, as they are

called, though the rain very rarely forms into a light shower, or

exceeds the limits of a dripping mist, the clover or lucern does not

attain to a flowering maturity ; but no sooner do the vapours of the

coast begin to break up, and the sun show itself in a brightening

sky, than this useful plant receives a fresh impulse, yielding two or

three luxuriant crops in succession. This remarkable vigour of

vegetation under the influence of a returning sun, argues on behalf

of light, more than of heat. Besides, in the temperate valleys of

the Sierra, where the summer temperature of the air does not exceed

the winter temperature of the coast, the lucern grows luxuriantly

152 Botanical Society of Edinburgh :-—

under a bright clear sky during the diy season, though there also its

growth is checked in the cloudy and rainy months; and yet the

sunny season of the mountains is subject to night chills, or even

frost at certain elevations, whereas the wet months are not so. Light,

therefore, seems the essential condition to the recurrence of the more

luxuriant vegetation, as observed in the successive climates of the

Andes.

4. “On some of the leading Plants of the lowest zone in Teneriffe,”

by Professor J. Piazzi Smyth.

The author described the manner and characteristics of growth of

the chief plants as met with advancmg from the sea-coast inland,

and found both the indigenous and cultivated plants to exhibit a

poverty of growth as compared with many other lands in the same

latitude (28°). ‘The cause of this, he thought, was owing to the

special predominance of the trade-wind throughout the archipelago

of the Canaries during the whole of the summer season, and to the

want of rain, and the low temperature which that wind produces,

both primarily and secondarily. The author treated at length on the

Dracena Draco as being, par excellence, the characteristic plant of

the lowest zone of Teneriffe.

June 11, 1857.—Professor Fleming, President, in the Chair.

The following papers were read :—

1. “On the Identity of Achorion Schonleini, and other vegetable

parasites, with Aspergillus glaucus,’ by Mr. John Lowe.

The object of this communication was to show the relation which

exists between the parasitic growth in Porrigo favosa and other skin-

diseases, and a common species of fungus, Aspergillus glaucus, and

to establish the identity of a number of these forms which have

hitherto been regarded as specifically distinct. A quantity of favus

crust having been procured from a case of Porrigo lupinosa, a por-

tion was immersed in pure glycerine, another was placed on cheese,

and a third in a solution of raw sugar. The first did not germinate,

but became disintegrated after about ten days. This was probably

owing to the temperature of the fluid not being sufficiently high, as

it is well known that the yeast-plant grows nich facility in the same

medium, at an elevated temperature, during the manufacture of

butyric acid. The cells placed on cheese also failed to germinate,

and died in about the same time as those put into glycerine. Those

immersed in the saccharine solution gave a different result. At the

end of forty-eight hours the cells had become swollen and more oval

than at first; on the day following, they began to unite into monili-

form chains forming a mycelium, the filaments of which after a time

were observed to contain granules and nucules. At the end of about

a month, the perfect fructification of Aspergillus glaucus appeared.

During the growth of the plant, the different stages of development

were observed daily, under the microscope, and the whole of the fol-

lowing species (so-called) were found accurately represented, so far

as appearance goes, by one or other of the forms produced: Micro-

Identity of Achorion Schoénleim with Aspergillus glaucus. 153

sporon furfur, Robin; Oidium albicans, Ch. R.; Torula guttata;

Trichophyton toneurans, Malmsten; T. ulcerum, Ch. R.; Micro-

sporon Audowini, Ch. R.; M. Mentagrophytes, Ch. R.; Achorion

Schonleini, Remak.; Leptomitus, six species; with a considerable

number of other epizootic forms. With regard to the majority of

these, the author remarked that they could not be with certainty

considered as identical with Aspergillus, but that there was every

probability of such being the case,—Ist, from the exact identity of

form; and 2ndly, from the extreme unlikelihood of their being di-

stinct species, as shown by their never or rarely producing fruit ;

proving them to be mere variations of some other fungus growing

under unfavourable circumstances, and not arriving at a perfect de-

velopment. With Achorion Schonleini the case is different. The

following facts may be adduced in support of its alleged identity with

Aspergillus :—\st. The sporules of the former, carefully watched

during their growth, developed the perfect sporangia of the latter,

which, 2ndly, is produced in a state of fructification in the air-sacs

of birds,—showing the possibility of its growing on animal tissues.

3. The figure given by Dr. Bennett of a section of the scalp affected

by favus, exhibits the true fructification of an Aspergillus.

2. “On the Properties of Lolium temulentum,” by Mr. John Lowe.

After noticing the physiological effects which hare been ascribed

to the action of Darnel, the author remarked that there exists a great

want of information as to the amount of the seed requisite to produce

these results. From all that has been written on the subject, it

would appear as if the virulence of the herb varied in different lo-

calities. A series of experiments was given in detail, showing that

Darnel grown in the Botanic Garden produced no effect when taken

in doses of half an ounce. The observations of Professor Christison

on the Gnanthe crocata show an analogous result, this plant being

a virulent poison when grown in England, but innocuous in Scotland.

A similar example is seen in the Cannabis indica, which only yields

its gum-resin when grown in a hot climate. Further experiments

are required with regard to Lolium.

3. “Further Observations on Dust-showers,”’ by Mr. George

Lawson, F.R.P.S.

Mr. Lawson laid before the Society a letter from Dr. J.O. M‘Wil-

liam, R.N., in which that gentleman remarks: ‘‘ While I was at Boa

Vista, the easternmost of the Cape de Verd group, during the months

of April, May, June, and part of July, 1846, I had ample oppor-

tunity of witnessing these pheenomena. In my meteorological register

I find that in April [1846] the atmosphere is recorded as hazy, and

filled with sand, ten days; in May, eleven days; in June, five days;

and during the first ten days of July, three days. As a general rule,

when these sand-fogs prevailed, the north-east trade-winds were

blowing with more than usual force ; they sometimes lasted for three

or four days without any intermission. At the period of their pre-

valence, the sand-heaps which abound in this barren, parched, vol-

canic region are drifted about from the windward to the leeward side

154 Miscellaneous.

of the island, filling the hollows in the plas, and sometimes, in the

course of a few hours, obliterating all traces of pathways, and thus

bewildering the newly-arrived traveller. I was in the leeward side of

the island when the first sand-shower occurred, and the residents

differed in opinion as to its source, some saying that it came from

the beach and sand-hills on the windward side of the island; while

others, more correctly, as I consider, attributed its origin to the

African Desert. I had soon an opportunity of ascertaining that they

did not originate on the island itself, for 1 witnessed a sand-shower

of considerable density over the sea to windward of the island, be-

tween which and the African coast no land intervened ; and I there-

fore came to the conclusion that that coast was its source,”

4. “Analogy between the serial arrangements of the Leaves of

Plants and Crystalline Forms,’’ by Mr. William Mitchell.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Causes of the Opening and Closing of Stomates.

By Hueco von Moat.

In this memoir Von Mohl corroborates by actual experiments the

general impression, the truth of which had not been demonstrated,

that stomates shut when the guardian-cells collapse, and open when

they become turgid.

The opening of the stomate is guarded by two crescent-shaped

cells, the guardian-cells, which generally take the following form.

On their external surface each bears a cuticular projection, which is

usually formed by a thin membrane: in other cases, however, it con-

sists of the cell-wall considerably thickened, or the cell-wall is some-

times even thick enough to form a salient protuberance. The edges

of these projections unite at both ends of the stomate, so as to

make an orifice above the true opening of the stomate ; this orifice

may be wider or narrower than the true opening. It leads into a

continuation of the true opening, filled with air, and lying above the

opening; this Von Mohl calls the anterior cavity, or antechamber

(Vorhof ), and the opening, the orifice of the antechamber, It is

bounded on both of its lower sides by the upper part of the lateral

surfaces of the guardian-cells, these surfaces being concave horizon-

tally and convex vertically. Turned towards the stomatic cavity, on

the lower side of the guardian-cells, there lies in most plants another

projection like that on the upper side, but generally smaller, by

which a posterior cavity, corresponding to the anterior cavity, is

separated from the cavity of the stomate.

A transverse section usually shows that the thickness of the walls

of the guardian-cells is very unequal in different places; the part of

the wall contiguous to the epidermal cells is generally rather thin,

so that these cells must prevent the guardian-cells from swelling out

at this par‘

Miscellaneous. 155

Having cut through the epidermal cells, so as to discharge their

contents, and thus prevent them from exerting any lateral pressure

on the guardian-cells, it was found that when placed in water (which

they imbibe), the guardian-cells increased the space between them

very perceptibly ; but when placed in a solution of sugar (into which

they exude a portion of their contents), they closed it completely.

By changing from water to a solution of sugar, the same opening

might be alternately opened and closed. Another series of experi-

ments on intact leaves showed that this action of the guardian-cells

is impeded by the pressure of the epidermal cells, in proportion as

they come into contact with the former. This is also shown by the

fact, that when this pressure is taken off by emptying the epidermal

cells of their contents (which may be done by immersing the latter

in a solution of sugar), the guardian-cells always open. As the epi-

dermal cells contain more sap than the guardian-cells, the same result

is obtained by letting a leaf wither off. The orifices of intact leaves

cut off in the morning were found to be closed ; when exposed to the

sun for several hours, they opened again, but closed with rapidity

when immersed in water,—showing that the power of the guardian-

cells is increased, in comparison with that of the epidermal cells, by

the influence of light and heat, quite independently of the humid state

in which they may occur. This, the author thinks, can hardly be

explained except by assuming that when the guardian-cells are ex-

posed to the influence of these agents, they form such combinations

as are able to induce a powerful endosmosis, and are more or less

decomposed when light is withdrawn; for, as is well known, the

guardian-cells, like the cells of the parenchyma, contain chlorophyl-

laceous matter.

Direct comparative measurements show that the projecting part of

the guardian-cells, beyond the anterior cavity, contracts but slightly,

so that the process is effected chiefly by the change in the form of

the boundaries of the true opening.

The guardian-cells expand most in a vertical direction, and thus

change their transverse diameter from a circular to an elliptical form,

so as to draw in the thinner portion of the lateral surface which lies

free in the opening of the stomate. This explains why the opening

is not closed when these cells are distended by the water which fills

them.— Botanische Zeitung, 1856, No. 40, and Silliman’s Journal,

March 1857.

Descriptions of new Norwegian Annelides. By M. Sars.

Family TeLeETHUSA.

Genus Notomastus, Sars, n. g.

Lobus capitalis conico-acuminatus. Os subtus ; pharynx exsertilis

breviter clavata, papillis obsita. Anterior corporis pars cylindrico-

subfusiformis, e segmentis duodecim medio suleo in annulos duos

divisis, primo absque et ceteris undecim utrinque fasciculis binis

setarum capillarium, mamillis pedalibus carentibus, composita. Pos-

terior corporis pars longior et tenuior, e segmentis constans numerosis

156 Miscellaneous.

indivisis, utrinque mamillis pedalibus seu toris et superioribus et in-

ferioribus sine setarum uncinatarum ornatis. Branchie null.

Species unica: Notomastus latericeus.

This species resembles an drenicola, and belongs, like it, to the

family Telethusa. Its nearest ally is Dasybranchus of Grube (Fam.

der Anneliden). Its colour is a brilliant red on the anterior part of

the body, brick-red on the posterior, passing gradually into reddish-

yellow and yellow. The pedal tubercles are all of a paler red or

yellowish-red. Its length is 5-6 inches, and its breadth about

4th of an inch.

This Annelide is rare, and is found buried in the sand. At Floroén

in the Séndfjord it oceurs in the Laminarian zone, so that when the

reflux of the tide is very great, it may sometimes be obtained by

digging. It was also taken at Manger, near Bergen, at a depth of

50-60 fathoms, and at Oxfjord, in Finmark, at 20-30 fathoms.

Clymene Miilleri, Sars, n.s.

Corpore segmentis 25-27, quorum 17-19 setigeris, 5 ante-analibus

nudis; segmento anali margine cirris 15-23 vel pluribus, quorum 2

ventrales ceeteris duplo longiores sunt, ornato; lobo capitali declivi,

ovato, plano, margine circumdato integro; segmentis 4 anterioribus

setigeris modo aculeum in mamilla pedali ventrali gerentibus.

This species is usually found of about 4 inches in length and

1—.1-th of an inch in thickness, but imperfect specimens {th of an

inch thick have been met with, and these were probably ef larger

size. Its colour is yellowish or brownish-red, or flesh-colour ; there

is usually a darker ring across each segment at the point where the

bristles are placed. It is the commonest species of the genus on the

west coast of Norway, where it is found at a depth of 12-50 fathoms.

It lives in a cylindrical tube, open at both ends, composed of sand,

fragments of shells, &c., like that of Terebella. It approaches nearest

to Clymene Ebiensis, Aud. and M.-Edw.

Clymene quadrilobata, Sars, n. 8.

Corpore segmentis 26, quorum 19 setigeris, 5 ante-analibus nudis ;

segmento anali margine cirris 35, quorum uno ventrali ceteris

longiore ; lobo capitali declivi, ovato, plano, margine cristis duabus

lateralibus cutaceis bilobatis cireumdato; segmentis 3 anterioribus

setigeris modo aculeum in mamilla pedali ventrali gerentibus.

Perfect specimens, of which only two have been met with, are

about 5 inches long and 54th of an inch broad; the segments be-

hind the middle of the body are of remarkable length. It is found

rarely at Floroén and Manger at a depth of 20-40 fathoms.

Sabellides borealis, Sars, n. s.

Sabellides octocirrata, Sars, Mag. f. Naturv. 1850, p. 85.

Pollicaris, flava; cirris tentacularibus octo sulphureis ; tentaculis

oralibus pinnatis; segmentis sectionis anterioris corporis 14, tribus

anticis mamilla dorsali setis capillaribus instructa absque pinna ven-

Miscellaneous. 157

trali, ceeterisque et pinna dorsali setis capillaribus et ventrali setis

uncinatis ; segmentis sectionis posterioris corporis 12 absque setis in

pinna dorsali cirriformi, et setis uncinatis in pinna ventrali; segmento

anali cirris duobus.

This species, previously described erroneously by Sars as S. octo-

cirrata, is an inch, or rather more, in length. Its colour is light

yellow, and that of the tentacular cirri bright sulphur-yellow. It

was found at Reine in Lofoten, and at Oxfjord in Finmark, at a depth

of 50 fathoms on a muddy bottom.

Sabellides sexcirrata, Sars, n. s.

Pollicaris, fulva; cirris tentacularibus sex; segmentis sectionis

anterioris corporis 17, tribus anticis mamilla dorsali setis capillaribus

instructa absque pinna ventrali, czeterisque et pinna dorsali setis ca-

pillaribus et ventrali setis uncinatis ; segmentis sectionis posterioris

corporis 13 absque pinna dorsali et setis uncinatis in pinna ventrali ;

segmento anali cirris nullis.

A single specimen of this species was taken at Manger at the depth

of 50-60 fathoms on a muddy bottom. In form and dimensions it

resembles S. dorealis.

Sabellides cristata, Sars, n. s.

Sesqui-bipollicaris, fulva; cirris tentacularibus octo; tentaculis

oralibus filiformibus simplicibus (absque pinnis) ; segmentis sectionis

anterioris corporis 18, tribus anticis fasciculo setarum capillarium

dorsali absque mamilla pinna ventrali carente, ceeterisque et pinna

dorsali mamilla setis capillaribus et ventrali setis uncinatis ; segmentis

sectionis posterioris corporis 50-53 absque setis in pinna dorsali cir-

riformi minima et setis uncinatis in pinna ventrali; segmento anali

cirris nullis.

The colour of the body of this Annelide is yellowish or minium-

red, with the tentacular cirri light green; its length is 1}—2 inches,

and that of the cirri 3rd of an inch. It lives in a cylindrical tube of

5 or 6 inches in length, and {,—1th of an inch in thickness, resem-

bling that of Sadel/a, and similarly formed of clay or mud. It is

found pretty frequently in the vicinity of Manger, with the lower

extremity of its tube attached to submarine objects, at a depth of

50-60 fathoms on a muddy bottom, and has also been met with,

under the same circumstances, at Reine in Lofoten and at Havésund

in Finmark.

Sabellides octocirrata, Sars,

the fourth Norwegian species described in 1835 by Sars, is only half

an inch in length, of a fulvous colour, with the tentacular cirri

greenish. It has only been met with hitherto in the neighbourhood

of Bergen, near Glesvaer and Floroén, at a depth of 20-40 fathoms

on a muddy bottom.—Fauna Littoralis Norvegia, part 2. pp. 9-24,

158 Miscellaneous.

GLADIOLUS IMBRICATUS, Linn.

Mr. Borrer has sent to me specimens of the above-named plant,

found by the Rey. W. H. Lucas in the New Forest, Hampshire, in

1856. Mr. Borrer says, ‘‘I saw the plant in two places [in June

1857], about two miles apart, and each of them at least a mile from

any house. One is on the road from Lyndhurst to Balderwood,

where it grows in some quantity on both sides of the road; the other

in the heart of the Forest, S.E. from the turnpike, two miles from

Lyndhurst on the Christchurch road. Here it abounds for about

a quarter of a mile, with short intervals. In both places it grows

scattered on dry ground amongst Pteris, which overtops it before it

comes into flower.’ ‘‘The situation is such in both places, that I

should suppose no one would suspect that the plant is other than

indigenous; as truly as its companion Habenaria bifolia.’ This

seems to be a very interesting addition to our flora, which has escaped

notice from its being hidden in the masses of brakes.—C. C. B.

Notes on some new and rare Diatomacee from the Stomachs of

Ascidie. By Grorce Norman, Esq.

Being engaged some time ago in examining dredged oyster-shells for

Diatomaceze, I discovered on the surface of one of the shells a cluster

of semi-transparent gelatinous bodies of a yellowish-green colour, of

which the shape, however, was not uniform, owing perhaps to their

being dead and flaccid. In size they approached small hazel-nuts.

These I take to be Ascidiee of some species, as they were apparently

enveloped in an outer mantle or skin of somewhat tough consistency.

By cutting through this mantle and towards the centre of the body,

a large stomach was exposed, quite distended with what appeared

to be brown mud. On examining this under the microscope I was

delighted to find it almost entirely composed of Diatomaceze, still

quite fresh and full of chlorophyll. The Diatoms were mostly

uncommon forms: the most conspicuous of those which occurred

in the first I opened were, Coscinodiscus concinnus (in great numbers

and of unusually large size), Pleurosigma lanceolatum, n. s., Eupo-

discus crassus and Ralfsii, Eucampia zodiacus, and a very curious

tubular Rhizoselenia, which Mr. Brightwell has named Rhizoselenia

styliformis.

Since then I have examined many Ascidiz from the same source,

and have never failed in any instance in obtaining Diatomaceze in

abundance ; these have mostly consisted of species which, from their

occurring in deep water, are somewhat uncommon and difficult to

obtain, unless the collector be furnished with an expensive dredging

apparatus.

Some of the forms are of great rarity, and others are even quite

new. I would, therefore, call the attention of all diatomists to this

source as an easy and inexpensive means of obtaining good and rare

forms, in a comparatively clean state and without much trouble, as

the trawling-boats are constantly bringing to market the large

—— ey

Miscellaneous. 159

dredged oysters, which are frequently covered with Ascidize. The

locality whence my oysters were obtained is some twenty or thirty

miles from the Yorkshire coast, a little to the north of the river

Humber, and is known as the “ Silver Pit.”” I annex a list of the

species hitherto detected in merely four gatherings, and this will

serve to show what may be expected when Ascidize are examined

from other and possibly more favourable localities. The letter A.

preceding the name denotes that the species occurs abundantly, F.

that it occurs occasionally (though less frequent than the first), and

R. that it occurs rarely—perhaps, for instance, one or two specimens

in a slide.

List of Species.

F. Eucampia zodiacus. A. Rhizoselenia styliformis, un. s.

F. Pinnularia distans. F. Rhizoselenia, small species, with

A. Pleurosigma lanceolatum, n. s. ; ends produced into a long,

resembling P. angulatum, but slender, hair-like filament.

has much coarser strie, the F. Rhizoselenia, a curious and

valve nearly straight, the cen- beautiful species, apparently

tral line much curved, and with new, with feather- or scale-like

a faint depression running markings.

across the centre of the valve. F. Biddulphia turgida, not entire.

The colour of the dry valve <A. B. Baillyii, fine.

is the same as in Pl. transver- F. B. rhombus.

sale. This form is constant, A. B. aurita, in filaments.

and occurs in most gathermgs F. Chetoceras Wighamii.

from deep water. F. Chetoceras,apparently two more

F. Pleurosigma prolongatum. species.

R. Pleurosigma, small form, with R. Nitzschia Closterium ?

very acute extremities. R. N. lanceolata?

R. Pl. transversale. F. Orthosira marina.

R. Pl. fasciola. R. ? Orthosira, sp.

A. Coscinodiscus concinnus, very A. ? Asterionella, two species.

large. R. Podosira maculata.

F. C. perforatus. A. ? Melosira, sp.

A. C. excentricus, very fine. F. Stephanopyzxis, species; beautiful

F. C. radiatus. form with cellular structure,

A. Eupodiscus crassus, fine. and furnished with clubbed or

F. E. Ralfsii. forked horns at the ends of the

R. E. sculptus. valves; occurs in filaments of

R. E. argus, in fragments. four to five frustules.

R. Hupodiscus, new species, with . Stauroneis pulchella.

cellular markings like a Cosci- R. Triceratium favus, fragments.

nodiscus, and a single process R. T. striolatum.

near the margin. R. ? Triceratium, curious form with

R. Amphiprora didyma? a star-hke marking in the

R. Surirella fastuosa. centre of the valve.

F. Doryphora amphiceras. F. ? Melosira, small form with lon-

F. Doryphora, sp.?, with parallel gitudinal markings.

moniliform striz. R. Navicula Hennedyii.

A. Actinocyclus undulatus, fine. R. N. lyra.

R. ? Actinocyclus, sp. without rays. A. ? Himantidium, sp.

Hull, 27th July, 1857.

160 Miscellaneous.

On the Vascular System of Anodonta. By Professor LANGER.

The structure of the circulatory system of the Mollusca having

given rise to a great number of discussions during the last few years,

it is interesting to see new data coming in for the solution of the

debate. According to Langer’s observations, the vascular system of

the Anodonte appears to be closed. The walls of the vessels may

be demonstrated in most of the organs. The venous system origi-

nates in two ways: in certain parts of the animal (the alimentary

canal, tentacles, and sexual glands) it is the simple continuation of a

superficial capillary network ; in other organs (the foot and mantle)

it arises from a peculiar tissue (Schwellgewebe) capable of dilatation.

The venous blood of the body flows into the median venous sinus

discovered by Bojanus, and passing thence through the meshes of the

organ which that anatomist regarded as a lung*, arrives in the

branchize. The venous blood of the central parts of the mantle, on

the contrary, does not pass into the respiratory organs, but arrives

directly in the auricle of the heart, like the venous blood of the walls

of the vestibule of the corpus Pojani and that of the partitions of the

branchial walls. The arterial circulation, consequently, is not com-

pletely isolated from the venous. The affiux of the blood ito the

branchiz takes place across the vessels of the corpus Bojani, which

constitutes a sort of rete mirabilis between the median venous sinus

and the branchial arteries.

Langer was unable to ascertain the presence of an aquiferous system

in the Anodonta. He nevertheless convinced himself of the exist-

ence of a direct communication between the vascular system and the

exterior. It is the corpus Bojani that serves for the absorption of

water. The aperture which was described even by Bojanus under

the name of respiratory orifice, leads into the space which Keber has

called the vestibule, and which is itself in direct communication with

the proper cavity of the corpus Bojani. These two cavities are only

enlargements of a long viscus twisted in different directions, and of

which the extremity opposite to the orifice of the organ of Bojanus

is nothing but the well-known aperture of communication of the

pericardium. The water is thus conducted into the pericardium.

The two orifices which Keber has described in the latter at the side

of the rectum are constant; they lead into the venous network of

the mantle.

Analogous observations have been made by Gegenbaur in the

Heteropoda, by Agassiz in the Lamellibranchiata, &c. Langer sup-

poses that the introduction of water from without into the sangui-

ferous system is for the purpose of furnishing calcareous salts required

for the formation of the shell. We must confess that we do not

know why the carbonate of lime should be furnished in this way

rather than any other.—Sitzungsber. der Akad. zu Wien, 1850,

p- 150. Abstract in Bibl. Univ. de Geneve, Nov. 1856, p. 252.

* This organ, known under the name of corpus Bojani, is generally

considered as the kidney. It is to be noted, however, that Schlossberger,

in some recent investigations, was unable to discover in it the least trace of

uric acid.

TELE uae NN ALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

No. 117. SEPTEMBER 1857.

XV.—Researches on the mode in which Gum-Tragacanth 1s

formed. By Hueco von Mon.*.

THE examination of Tragacanth gum possesses some theoretical

interest, for it is connected with many difficult and as yet ob-

scure points in the anatomy and physiology of plants.

Tournefort+ was the first of those to whom we are indebted

for exact observations on the secretion of gum-tragacanth from

one of the plants furnishing this substance. His observations

were made on Astragalus creticus, Lam., on Ida in Cretet. Ac-

cording to the figure which he gives, the stem of the said traga-

canth-plant attains a thickness of about 1 inch. The exudation

of the tragacanth, in the form of coiled threads, takes place at

the end of June and in the succeeding months.

Tournefort regarded tragacanth as the sap inspissated by the

heat, which burst the vessels and poured itself out in the middle

(le cwur) of the stem and branches, as well as in the medullary

rays (dans Vinterstices des fibres, lesquelles sont disposées en

* Botanische Zeitung, Jan. 16, 1857. Translated by Arthur Henfrey,

F.R.S. &e.

t Relation d’un Voyage au Levant, i. 22. Amsterd. 1718.

{ Sieber (Reise nach Kreta, 11.68) has endeavoured to prove that Tourne-

fort’s statement is altogether incredible, for, according to his investiga-

tions in Crete, no tragacanth at all is secreted from the plant above named;

but since not only Tournefort’s statements regarding the parts of the

stems in which the tragacanth is formed agree perfectly with my investi-

gations, but his indication of the season at which the tragacanth exudes,

as well as of the furtherance of the exudation resulting by making inci-

sions in the stems, are confirmed by the observations made a century later

by Olivier in Persia,—no one will be led to doubt, on such authority,

Tournefort’s statement that the said plant seeretes tragacanth in Crete.

When Sieber refers to the testimony of Belon, he makes a mistake, for

Belon (Observat. p. 23) only says that no gum is collected on Mount Ida.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx.

162 H.von Mohl on the Formation of Gum-Tragacanth.

rayon), and as it was gradually driven out on the surface of the

stem by fresh sap taken up by the roots, hardened in the air

in the shape of worms. He adds further, the conjecture that

contraction of the fibres of the stem assists in pressing out the

gum, since the fibres, broken down into stringy masses, where

exposed to be trampled on by sheep and horses, were contracted

by heat, which would favour the emission of the sap.

These statements agree in many points with those of Olivier*,

who observed the secretion of tragacanth from Astragalus verus

in Persia.

In this species, also, the stem attained a thickness of an inch

or more, and the gum exuded at the time of the greatest heat

of summer, partly where the bark was split by the pressure of

the sap, partly where the stem was injured by the tread of

animals.

Further confirmation as to the season at which the tragacanth

exudes from the stem is furnished by the statements of Labil-

lardiére and Landerer, the former of whom saw the gum ex-

ereted from Astragalus gummifer, Labili., in August, on Mount

Lebanon; the latter, from Astragalus aristatus, in Greece, in

August and September. In like manner, the statement that

wounding the plants favours excretion of tragacanth, derives

confirmation from the circumstance that in the district of Biths

it is customary to make incisions in the plants for this purposef.

Labillardiére{ mentions as an additional external cireum-

stance favouring the exudation of tragacanth, moisture of the

atmosphere, stating that, in Lebanon, cloudy nights and abun-

dant dew are necessary for the excretion of the gum, and that

this only exudes in quantity during the night, and for a short

time after sunrise,—whence it happens that the shrubs growing

on the lower part of Lebanon, which are exposed to very great

heat by day, but receive little moisture at night, yield only a

small quantity of tragacanth.

These statements of Labillardiére are confirmed by the ob-

servations of Fraas$ in Greece, who states that no gum exudes

(from Astragalus aristatus and creticus) on the higher mountains

of the Peloponnesus, on Parnassus, or on dry mountains in ge-

neral, while the gum is collected in Achaia. He regards the

excretion of the gum as dependent on atmospheric influences,

and ascribes it to the abundant cold rain with alternations of

great heat, in the mountains of Calaryta, &c.

Labillardiére drew, from the facts he observed, the conclu-

* Voyage dans l’Empire Othoman, 1807.

+ Ritter, Erdkunde, x. 689.

t Rozier, Observations sur la Physique, &c., 1790, xxxvi. p. 48.

§ Synops. Plant. Flore Classice, p. 39.

H. von Mohl on the Formation of Gum-Tragacanth. 163

sion, that the tragacanth-shrubs, exposed to the glowing heat

of the sun by day, rapidly absorbed the moisture of the clouds

and fogs, and that the tragacanth, greatly swollen by the moist-

ure of the fogs and dew, broke out through the pores of the

bark, and exuded in the form of curled worms.

Labillardiére’s observation furnished DeCandolle* with an

opportunity of explaining in a somewhat different manner the

way in which tragacanth is squeezed out. He compared this

exudation of tragacanth with that of Nemaspora crocea (which

he at that time regarded as a gum, and not as a fungus) from

the bark of the beech-tree, when kept ina damp place. He re-

tained this view in his ‘ Physiologie’ (i. p. 175), after he had

recognized that Nemaspora was an independent plant, having

convinced himself that the eruption of Nemaspora on dead

trees was connected with the moisture of the atmosphere, and

concluding from this that the action of moisture caused the wood

to expand more than the bark; the wood being thus as it were

compressed in a sheath, squeezed out upon the surface any slimy

substance lying in the inner part of the bark. This explanation

did not meet with any favour from Treviranus+, who assumed

that the exudation of the gum depended upon increased secretion.

The botanists above mentioned, as also the most recent phar-

macologists (for instance, Pereira) had not the slightest doubt

that tragacanth was a mucilaginous juice secreted by the plant.

Kiitzing{, from the microscopic examination of exuded gum,

set up the view that it was an independent organism, a fungus,

composed of starch-bearing cells, among which lay the fibres of

the parent-plant. The walls of these cells were described as

consisting of many thick layers, composed of bassorin, and

lined by a delicate membrane composed of cellulose. We look

‘in vain for any proof that these cells are of Fungal nature ;

although such would be anything but superfluous, for Fungi

with cellulose membranes and starch-granules would be not a

little remarkable.

Unger § ascribes a totally different origin to gum-tragacanth,

stating that it is formed of the secondary layers of the medullary

rays in several species of Astragalus.

I know of no other microscopic investigations of tragacanth

which teach anything ; those of Guibourt || are devoid of interest.

Seeking for an explanation of the nature of gum-tragacauth,

I regarded it as of primary necessity to examine, not the gum

occurring in commerce, but the stems of a large number of spe-

cies of Astragalus of the section Tragacanthe. Unfortunately

* Astragalogia, 1802, p. 12. fT Physiologie, u. p. 21.

{ Philos. Botanik, i. 203. § Anat. u. Physiol. d. Pflanzen, 119.

|| Hist. naturelle des Drogues simples, 4 edit. iii. p. 420.

11*

164 H.von Mohl on the Formation of Gum-Tragacanth.

my materials were so far imperfect that I possessed no thick

stems, only such as were at most as thick as a little-finger, such

as are found in herbarium specimens, on the bark of which no

exudation of tragacanth was visible. The sequel will show,

however, that this material was sufficient for the mvestigation of

the mode in which the gum is formed.

The examination of excreted tragacanth is most instructively

made in thin flat pieces. A transverse section of such a plate,

swollen in water, exhibits abundance of thick-walled cells lymg

in an amorphous slimy mass. The walls of these cells are

colourless, gelatinous, and formed of thick layers m part clearly

separated from each other, so that in this respect they exhibit

much resemblance to the laminated substance of a starch-grain.

In the cavity of the cells hes a more or less considerable quan-

tity of small starch-granules. Application of iodme is necessary

for the exact investigation of these cells. It acts upon them

very slowly, the iodized chloride of zine solution producing no

other alteration for several hours beyond colouring the starch-

grains blue, and producing a slight yellow colour in the cell-

walls. Distinct coloration of the cell-walls only commences

after the solution has been in operation twenty-four hours or

more. The thin innermost layer of the cell-walls is then found

coloured bright violet, and isolated thin layers, of a more or less

bright violet colour, are observed in the thick swollen cell-mem-

brane, their thin, coloured lamine being separated from each

other by thick, colourless, gelatinous layers. The outermost of

these coloured lamine are frequently torn, in which case the

colourless gelatinous substance has partly exuded through the

rents, and become blended with the slimy substance in which

the cells lie imbedded. From this partial solution of the outer |

layers, the magnitude of the cells, which are about *07 milli-

metre in diameter, cannot be determined accurately, and many

detached fragments of the blue iodine-coloured laminz occur,

scattered irregularly in the amorphous mucilaginous mass.

In tragacanth of the form of vermicular filaments, the cells

were less perfectly preserved, and the amorphous mucilage in

which the lighter and darker violet membranes and starch-

granules were diffused, formed a relatively large portion of the

entire mass.

In still smaller quantity did well-preserved remains of cells

occur in Syrian tragacanth, having the form of nodular, yellowish

fragments, in which, moreover, the quantity of starch-grains

was far greater and their size more considerable, the granules

being also frequently conglomerated in compound granules.

From the investigation of tragacanth gum I proceeded to the

examination of the stems, which extended to all the following

H. von Mohl on the Formation of Gum-Tragacanth 165

species of the section Tragacanthe : Astragalus angustifolius, Lam.;

aristatus, L’Herit.; Anacantha, M. B.; aureus, Willd.; Barba

Jovis, D.C.; breviflorus, D.C.; bunophilus, Boiss. ; campylanthus,

Boiss. ; caucasicus, M. B.; cephalanthus, D.C.; chromolepis,

Boiss.; compactus, W.; creticus, Lam.; cyllenius, Boiss.et Heldr. ;

denudatus, Stev.; echinoides, 17 Herit.; Echinus, D.C. ; erianthus,

W.; gossypinus, Fisch.; lagopodioides, Vahl; letocladus, Boiss.;

massiliensis, L.; microphysa, Boiss.; murinus, Boiss.; persicus,

Fisch. et Mey.; plumosus, W.; Pseudo-tragacantha, M. B. ;

_ ptychophyllus, Boiss.; pychocephalus, Fisch.; pycnophyllus, Stev.;

sciureus, Boiss.; siculus, Biv.; susianus, Boiss.; tumidus, W.

Among these occurred only four species in which no tragacanth-

formation could be found in the stems, namely A. aristatus,

L’Herit. (from the Pyrenees), massilensis, L., angustifolius, Lam.,

and echinoides, L’Herit. In all the rest, tragacanth had made

its appearance in more or less abundance*.

The structure of the stem in general is as follows. The wood

is composed of thin annual layers, extremely tough, tearing

easily in a longitudinal direction into slender fibres, enclosing a

small pith, and traversed by pretty numerous medullary rays,

exhibiting nothing unusual, as is the case with the bark also,

which contains a well-developed liber and is clothed by a dense,

tough periderm. The pith, on the other hand, and a large por-

tion of the medullary rays, have a most striking characteristic,

for, instead of presenting a thin-walled parenchymatous tissue,

they appear to the naked eye in the form of a hard, transparent,

gummy mass, and swell up into a jelly in water. On cut sur-

faces of the stem we frequently find a projecting mass of dry

gum, which has exuded from the pith-cavity.

When we have recourse to the microscope, we perceive im-

mediately that the gum-like mass which fills up the pith-cavity

and the medullary rays, or has exuded from cut surfaces, does

not consist of dried mucilage, but of the cells of the pith and

medullary rays themselves, which have undergone a more or

less complete transformation into gum-tragacanth.

Ordinarily this transformation has not affected all the cells of

the pith and the medullary rays, but the outermost layers of

the medullary rays, next to the wood-cells, regularly, and not

unfrequently, in like manner, the outer part of the pith, lying

against the woody bundles, are composed of ordinary thin-

* How far the subsequently described conversion of the cells into gum-

tragacanth occurs in the species of Astragalus belonging to the other

sections of the genus, I have not specially investigated; I may remark,

however, that I observed the same transformation also in a couple of spe-

cies of the section Incani which I took out at random, viz. A. brachycarpus,

M.B., and A. angulosus, D.C.

166 H.von Mohl on the Formation of Gum-Tragacanth.

walled parenchyma-cells, the membrane of which is coloured

bright violet by the iodized chloride of zinc solution. These

unaltered cells form, however, usually only a very thin stratum,

composed of but a few cells, while all the rest of the cells con-

stituting the central mass of the pith and of the medullary rays

are metamorphosed.

That the peculiar character of these cells is a result of the

transformation of ordinary parenchymatous cells, and not an

original peculiarity of the cells of these parts, is shown by the

fact, that the pith and medullary rays of the extremities of the

shoots exhibit no unusual appearance.

The metamorphosed cells are distinguished from ordinary

cellular tissue, in respect to their physical character, in that in

a dry condition they form a very hard, transparent, gum-like

mass, and in a wet condition a swollen slimy substance. Under

the microscope these cells display, when their transformation

has not advanced far, the angular forms and the close cohesion

of parenchymatous cells, but their walls are very thick, and

distinctly composed of many very thin lamine; their primary

membrane may be readily distinguished from the secondary

layers of thickening, and is not thickened, as is seen in particular

in cross-sections of the ‘pits,’ in which the primary membrane

lies free. The whole form of these cells, the distinct lamination

of their membrane, and the gelatinous softness of the latter in

a wet condition, impart to them a great resemblance to the

well-known cells of the cotyledons of Schotia.

In this stage of transformation into gum-tragacanth were,

according to circumstances, either only those cells next m con-

tact with the unaltered layers, or those also which formed the

centre of the pith and the medullary rays; as I saw in young

stems of A. cyllenius, Boiss., which, according to Orphanides, is

one of those from which tragacanth is collected im Greece.

If the metamorphosis has advanced a step further, the indivi-

dual cells swell up in a conical form in water, and become more

or less completely isolated, retaining however their full integrity,

no slime exuding from them into the water being rendered visible

by the application of iodine.

In the last respect, however, I found a striking exception in

some species (A. aureus, W.; Pseudo-tragacantha, M.B.; com-

pactus, W.; pycnocephalus, Fisch.), for the cells were surrounded

by an exuded slimy substance, apparently perfectly soluble im

water, which immediately assumed a beautiful indigo-blue colour

on the application of the iodized chloride of zinc. The same

colour was produced in the amorphous contents of the cells, as

also in the contents of the unchanged cells of the medullary

rays, and of a part of the cortical cells. But this coloration was

H. von Mohl on the Formation of Gum-Tragacanth. 167

transitory, for in the course of a few hours the blue colour had

entirely vanished, and a yellowish tint remained. This phzeno-

menon again reminds us of the cotyledons of Schotia, from which

in lke manner exudes a slimy substance coloured bright blue

by iodine and coagulable by alcohol. In other cases, in parti-

cular in A. cyllenius, the metamorphosed cells discharged into

the water a slimy substance coloured yellow by iodine; both

this, however, and the slime coloured blue by iodine, are excep-

tional.

When the transformation of the cells into gum-tragacanth

has advanced farther, the membrane which swells up strongly in

water is no longer distinctly seen to be composed of numerous

thin lamin. This conversion into a mass, of homogeneous

aspect, advances from without inwards in the cell-membrane ; for

I saw (in Astragalus murinus) cells in which this affection had

attacked the outer half of the cell-wall, while the inner half,

separated from the outer homogeneous mass by a sharp line,

still displayed the fine lamination.

The final conversion into perfect tragacanth results when the

cells lose their external solid boundaries, and their outer laminz

coalesce into a more or less uniform slimy mass; in which, as is

frequent in exuded gum, the inner lamine may still exist in

perfect integrity.

The cells metamorphosed in the above-described manner ex-

hibit, at least when wetted, a considerably greater diameter than

the thin-walled cells from which they originate: thus, one of the

large unaltered cells of the medullary rays of Astragalus denu-

datus is ‘0064 of a millimetre in diameter, while a metamor-

phosed but still distinctly defined cell from the interior of the

same medullary ray measures ‘035 millim., that is, about five

times the size; in A. Echinus the size of the metamorphosed

cells of the pith amounted to ‘06 of a millimetre, and had thus

reached about the magnitude of the cells contained in tragacanth

which had exuded from the stem.

The behaviour of the cells with iodine alters in proportion to the

degree of metamorphosis they have undergone. The unchanged

cells of the pith and medullary rays assume a deep violet colour

with the iodized chloride of zine solution in the space of twenty-

four hours. The cells which have been only slightly altered,

and have still the form of angular but thick-walled prosenchy-

matous cells, are likewise coloured deep violet. But this colour

is not uniform throughout the whole thickness of the cell-wall,

_ the innermost and outermost laminz being especially brightly

coloured, while solitary thin lamelle among the secondary

layers exhibit a violet tint. I could not determine whether

the uncoloured lamine between these coloured layers were

168 H.von Mohl on the Formation of Gum-Tragacanth.

perfectly colourless or tinged with a very light violet colour.

A similar condition is well known to occur frequently in other

thick - walled parenchyma-cells which become softened and

greatly swollen when placed in water; for instance, in those of

Schotia.

The further the dissolution of the cells and their conversion

mto gum-tragacanth proceeds, the lighter is the violet colour

assumed by the entire mass of them, since the uncoloured or

slightly tinted laminze more and more exceed in proportionate

dimensions ; and even the coloured laminz, especially the outer,

perhaps simply as a result of greater mechanical expansion,

exhibit a lighter colouring.

The described observations will leave no doubt of the fact

that gum-tragacanth is neither a secreted sap dried by exposure

to the atmosphere, nor an independent Cryptogamic organism,

but that its formation depends upon a more or less perfect

transformation of the cells of the pith and medullary rays mto

a gelatinous mass, which swells up to many hundred times the

original size of the cells when placed in water.

Whether the production and expulsion of the gum occur but

once in one and the same part of the stem, or are repeated durmg

many years, can of course be determined only in the native

country of the tragacanth-plants ; perhaps, however, the con-

jecture that it is a process persisting through an extended period

is not too bold. The transformation of the pith can of course

only occur once in any given part of the stem, and this souree

will be extinguished with the earlier or later expulsion of the

gum formed. But the case may be otherwise with the medul-

lary rays, since all the medullary rays of any particular part of

the stem do not undergo their metamorphosis at the same time.

In the younger of the stems examined by me, at least only a

portion of the medullary rays had undergone this change, while

the rest still displayed the usual constitution of thin-walled cells.

It may be indeed assumed, from the great firmness of the peri-

derm clothing the stem, that the breaking-out of the gum through

the bark takes place annually from only a small portion of the

medullary rays, and thus perhaps goes on for many years, until

all the medullary rays of a length of the stem have been

emptied.

Surveying the vegetable kingdom, with a view to ascertain

whether analogous conversions of cells into mueilage occur

elsewhere, we find similar processes to be anything but rare

Attention has been especially directed by Alex. Braun* to the

fact of an exactly corresponding softening of the cell-membranes,

* Verjungung, p. 203. Ray Society’s Memoirs, 1853, p. 189.

H. von Mohl on the Formation of Gum-Tragacanth. 169

a swelling-up in a gelatinous form, terminating in their dissolu-

tion, being a very ordinary phenomenon in the families of Palmel-

laceze, Chroococcacez, and Nostochine ; that analogous changes

of the cell-coats occur in Hydrodictyon and Botrydium ; and that

the gelatinous softening of the membrane of the parent-cells of

pollen-grains also stands in connexion with their subsequent solu-

tion. In like manner I have satisfied myself that the abundant

‘intercellular substance’ in the albumen of many Leguminosz,

such as Gleditschia and Sophora, depends on an exactly analogous

process, on a conversion of the outer laminz of the cell-walls

ito a homogeneous jelly, in which latter an indication of the

primary membrane may often be detected for a long time, till

at length it vanishes, and leaves no trace. I have also no

doubt that the formation of the ‘intercellular substance’ of the

Fucoids, of Chondrus crispus, &c., depends upon exactly analo-

gous processes. We have therefore to regard the formation

of gum-tragacanth as a special example of a widely diffused

disorganization-process of cell-membrane, which proceeds from

without inwards, sometimes affecting the whole cell-wall, some-

times only the outer lamin, and terminates in the conversion

of the membrane into a more or less soluble jelly. On the other

hand, it appears to me less proper to draw a parallel, with

Unger, between the formation of gum-tragacanth and the form-

ation of the secondary and tertiary gelatinous cell-membranes,

such as occur in the seed-coats of Cydonia, Linum, Collomia,

Ruellia, &e.; at all events, it is not known to me that these

exist m the condition of cellulose-membrane previously to the

period in which they are found with the character of gelatinous

pellicles.

Tubingen, Dec. 1856.

[ Note of Translator.—With regard to the remarks in the last paragraph,

we find the ‘swelling-up’ coats of the hairs of Collomia, Ruellia, &c.,

to be the metamorphosed outer membranes, which take a violet colour

with sulphuric acid and iodine when dissolved into a mere jelly, while the

spiral fibres or rmgs (secondary deposits) are coloured yellow. Hence we

regard these structures as parallels of the cell-membrane of tragacanth.

The author’s view of the structure of the horny thallus of Chondrus is

entirely confirmed by our own examinations of the tissue in various stages

of development.—A. H. ]

170 Mr. J. Lycett on the so-called Sands

XVI.—On the Sands intermediate the Inferior Oolite and Lias

of the Cotteswold Hills, compared with a similar deposit upon

the Coast of Yorkshire. By Joun Lycerr*.

My friend Professor Buckman having invited me to throw to-

gether some geological conclusions to serve as a foundation for

a discussion, I select a subject which has already received some

consideration at the hands of the Club, and which, from its local

position, and a difference of opmion which has arisen with respect

to the zoological affinities of its fauna, seems to claim some

further examination. I allude to the series of micaceous sands

and marls which are situated intermediate the Inferior Oolite

and Lias, and which are known to English geologists generally

as the Sands of the Inferior Oolite, and to continental cultivators

of the science as the Jurensis marls; the Grés Supraliassique ;

the Hydroxyde Oolithique; the superior portion of the Upper

Lias; the Lias Zeta of Quenstedt, &c. Dr. Wright} and Mr.

Hull{ have each recently exemplified this deposit in copious

and well-known memoirs; but as regards the Cotteswold Na-

turalists’ Club, the present is the first communication which has

been presented to it in a written form. The conclusions arrived

at by the authors above referred to are based solely upon zoo-

logical evidence, and are therefore liable to be affected by sub-

sequent additions, which may tend to alter the relative propor-

tions of Oolitic or of Liassic species found in the deposit ; and

as some interesting accessions to its fauna have recently been

made, more especially in the lower fossiliferous zone, which was

but little known until within these few months, I present a

notice of them, with the remark, that although as contributions

they possess some value, they by no means afford a triumph to

any foregone theoretical conclusions ;—that they may be com-

pared rather to a portion of the materials forming a part of the

structure of a buried edifice whose proportions are not yet fully

developed, and of whose full history so much yet remains to be

ascertained, that at present it would be injudicious to indulge

in absolute conclusions respecting it. This sandy deposit must

be seen to be fully appreciated: presenting much variability in

its thickness throughout its long course in the Cotteswolds, it

is everywhere readily recognized, and even the approximate

position of any small exposures of it may be predicated with

tolerable exactness. Unfortunately, nearly the whole of the

* Read to the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Club, July 28, 1857.

+ “On the so-called Sands of the Inferior Oolite.” Journ. Geol. Soe.

1856.

+ Mem. of the Geol. Surv. of Gr. Brit. “ The country around Chelten-

ham.” 1857.

of the Inferior Oolite. 171

Cotteswold sections are of a small and imperfect character, con-

sisting chiefly of cuttings of rock upon deep lane-sides, or upon

the banks of water-courses ; and although these in the aggregate

exhibit the entire physical features of the deposit, they do not

enable us to ascertain the thickness of the whole, in particular

localities, with any near approach to accuracy. We can there-

fore only estimate the thickness by tracing upwards the beds

upon hill-sides, and occasionally by examining the rock brought

up during the process of well-sinking. From information ob-

tained in this manner, it would appear that the thickness of the

sands varies in the middle Cotteswolds from 35 to 80 feet ; and

Mr. Hull has shown that over the northern and southern Cottes-

wolds they present even a greater amount of variability in thick-

ness. My own observations lead to the conclusion, that, like

the mass of the Inferior Oolite generally, the thickness is greater

upon the outer western escarpment of the Cotteswolds than in

the interior valleys, where they are far remote from the outer

range. In tracing upwards the beds from the Lias there occurs

the following general order of succession :—

A. Upper Lias clay, grey or blue, soft, and clearly distinguished

from

B. Brown or chocolate-coloured, marly, micaceous sandstone,

with frequent red ferruginous stains between the lamination;

occasionally the stone is more argillaceous, and buries the

hammer when struck; in other instances, from the presence

of portions of shells, it is more hard, but is peculiarly irre-

gular and uncertain both in hardness and colour, varying

from a blackish-grey to a bright foxy or reddish hue, every-

where glittermg with micaceous particles. At about 4 feet

from the base are usually one or two thin bands charged with

fossils, the greater number of which are very imperfectly pre-

served: this may be designated as the lower shelly zone, and

may be studied in small Jane-side sections at Nailsworth and

at Brimscombe. In the Yorkshire exposition of the deposit,

I shall subsequently show that a shelly zone occurs in a similar

position. Passing upwards from 10 to 20 feet, there occurs

a general diminution of compactness in the rock, and of its

marly structure; there gradually sets in

C. Micaceous, foxy-coloured or yellowish, incoherent sands,

seldom much compacted, but locally becoming soft sandstone,

from 20 to 40 feet, abruptly terminated upwards by

D. Concretionary marly bed, usually darker in colour than the

sands, but varyimg much in structure and aspect within short

distances, and everywhere more or less fossiliferous ; the tests

of Mollusca are less frequently preserved than in the lower

172 Mr. J. Lycett on the so-called Sands

zone. <A constant mineral feature is the presence of small

oval grains of hydrate of iron disseminated through the rock ;

a structure which, however, is not peculiar, as it is present in

the Inferior Oolite at Dundry and in the Lias of France.

From 2 to 4 feet is the thickness of this bed in the Cottes-

wolds.

Immediately overlying this upper Ammonitiferous bed are

several others of hard brown or yellowish caleareo-siliceous

sandstones, in which fossils are usually very sparingly distributed,

and, from the evidence these afford, the beds have by universal

consent been assigned to the Inferior Oolite.

In Yorkshire, the lofty iron-bound coast at the Peak and at

Blue Wick exhibits the same remarkable deposit in considerable

thickness, and slightly modified in its mineral character from

the Cotteswold Sands. In a visit which I recently made to this

coast, in company with my friend Professor Morris, the identity

of the lower portion of the Dogger or Inferior Oolite of Phillips

with the Gloucestershire Sands was strongly impressed upon my

mind. At Blue Wick the Dogger is altogether about 80 feet m

thickness, and rises in successive beds in descending order from

the rocky beach into the face of the lofty cliff, the lower 40 feet

representing the sands of the Cotteswolds. Beneath these suc-

ceed the hard beds of the Upper Lias Shale, 200 feet thick,

followed by the Middle Lias, nearly equal in mass ; ultimately,

at the Peak, facing Robin Hood’s Bay, these great deposits are

all exposed in one yast unbroken section, forming a lofty mural

cliff, nearly 400 feet in height and three miles in length, in the

course of which the Dogger attains the summit of the cliff.

Words are scarcely adequate to express my admiration of this

grand exposition of the lower Jurassic rocks, which for extent

and completeness can scarcely be paralleled. Proceeding north-

wards, the upper 40 feet of the Dogger loses more than half its

thickness, and the lower portion, or representative of the Sands,

thins out altogether; a great fault then succeeds, by which the

Middle Lias is upraised to the summit of the cliff.

The highest bed of the Upper Lias consists of black, finely

laminated shale, the transition to the sandstone above being

abrupt and very distinctly marked. The sands are here com-

pacted into thick-bedded, dark grey micaceous sandstones in

the lower part, and into brownish or foxy-coloured micaceous

sandstones in the upper part, so that the whole nearly resembles

the Cotteswold Sands, and differs chiefly in its greater compact-

ness. Fossils are distributed very sparigly throughout the

mass of the sandstones, but they are present more abundantly,

as in the Cotteswolds, in two calcareo-argillaceous zones, situated

in like manner, the one at the top, the other near to the base of

of the Inferior Oolite. 173

the series. The lower fossiliferous zone is a dark grey concre-

tionary band of rock crowded with valves of Lingula Beanii; in

smaller numbers are Orbicula reflexa, Vermetus concinnus, Avicula

inequivalvis ? and another Avicula, a small smooth Pecten, Ceri-

thium, &e. Belemnites are not uncommon, but Ammonites are

rare, and are obtained singly and at intervals throughout the

sandstones; these are, A. variabilis, var. Bean, A. striatulus,

and A. Aalensis; the latter form has not been observed in the

Cotteswolds, but occurs in the same stage (lias Zeta of Quen-

stedt) in the Jura. Vermetus concinnus occurs at intervals

throughout the sandstones in small groups, and usually isolated.

The dark grey colour of the lower beds of sandstone changes

upwards to a foxy hue, and at the summit is the upper fossili-

ferous zone, from 14 to 18 inches thick, concretionary and

dark-coloured ; altogether it nearly resembles the Cotteswold bed

at Haresfield Hill, with Cephalopoda. In lke manner, each

abounds with a Terebratula, which is its predominating fossil ;

the Yorkshire shell is the Terebratula trilineata of Young and

Bird, 7. ovoides, Sow., a larger form than the subpunctata of

Haresfield, but which very much resembles the latter shell when

collected indiscriminately at each locality, and without prefer-

ence to presumed typical forms: unfortunately, the Blue Wick

specimens are more frequently compressed and distorted. Other

fossils recognized are, Pleurotomaria subdecorata, D’Orb., which

also oecurs at Nailsworth ; Belemnites compressus, B. irregularis,

and portions of Ammonites. ARhynchonella cynocephala has

occurred very rarely, and several specimens of /. bidens are also

recorded. The thick sandstones of the Dogger which overlie

this zone abound with small quartzose pebbles, which are never

seen beneath the ¢rilineata bed.

In Gloucestershire, the lower zone at Brimscombe and Nails-

worth has produced the Liassie Orbicula reflexa, Avicula in-

aquivalvis?, Lima Galathea, Ammonites Raquinianus, which

is the crassus of Phillips, and another tumid form which much

resembles it, and may be only a distinct variety. These have

not been found to pass into the upper zone; but the oolitic ele-

ment is fully represented in this lower zone by certain Conchi-

fera, as Myoconcha crassa, Perna rugosa, Trigoma striata, Pho-

ladomya fidicula, Modiola cuneata, Goniomya angulifera, Mytilus

lunularis, Modiola ungulina, Gresslya abducta, and Modiola com-

pressa. The upper zone contains in addition the following

Oolitic species:—Cypricardia cordiformis, Hinnites abjectus,

Astarte excavata, Sow., var., A. detrita, Macrodon Hirsonensis,

Modiola Sowerbi, Gervillia Hartmanni, Gresslya conformis,

Homomya crassiuscula. Pecten textorius and Turbo capitaneus

appear to have a considerable stratigraphical range, as they are

174 Mr. J. Lycett on the so-called Sands

found from the Upper Lias to the Inferior Oolite inclusive. Of

the eighteen Ammonites, which appear to include fifteen distinct

species, several are undoubtedly derived from forms which occur

in the higher beds of the Upper Lias shale of the counties of

York and Somerset ; others seem to be proper to the stage, and

not one of the Ammonites passes upwards into the Inferior

Oolite. The Brachiopoda appear to be entirely Liassic deriva-

tives ; and even Rhynchonella cynocephala, which, from its abun-

dance and wide diffusion, seems to offer a good designation for

the stage (Cynocephala-stage), is perhaps nothing more than a

variety of R. acuta,—the number of plaits, whether anterior or

lateral, affording no constant or reliable distinctive character ;

in other respects the general figure of both is absolutely the

same. The single Nautilus, N. latidorsatus, is also Liassic. On

the other hand, in the numerous Conchifera the Liassic element

nearly disappears altogether, and we find a considerable infusion

of the Oolitic, leaving, however, no inconsiderable number of

species which appear to be proper to the stage. It is indeed a

very striking but undoubted fact, that of the very numerous

Liassic Conchifera and Gasteropoda, not more than four or five

are continued into the Cynocephala-stage, and even of these

two only are found in the upper zone. The more common

Upper Lias Ammonites (Lias Epsilon) are equally absent in the

Cynocephala-stage, as A. communis, A. serpentinus, A. bifrons,

A. annulatus, A. exaratus, A. elegans, Y. & B., A. fimbriatus.

A, striatulus is strictly identical with the Liassic form; but the

common Cotteswold form of A. variabilis var. dispansus offers

well-marked distinctions from the Liassic variety, which, as it is

the A. Beanti of Simpson, may be termed the variety Beanit.

The variety dispansus is more compressed, the volutions more

enveloped ; both the fasciated tubercles and the ribs are smaller,

less prominent and more numerous; the ribs being much more

curved near to the keel. The Liassic variety, however, occurs very

rarely at Frocester Hill. Ammonites opalinus I have omitted

altogether, as the single specimen found lying upon the ground

at Haresfield Hill may have been derived from those superin-

cumbent Inferior Oolite beds to which it has been referred by

Quenstedt and Oppel. The species alluded to is the opalinus of

Reinecke, Zieten, and Quenstedt, but not the primordialis of |

Schlotheim and D’Orbigny, which is sometimes confounded with

it. 4. primordialis is an Upper Lias species. Two forms of

these Cotteswold Ammonites appear hitherto to have been un-

described ; these will shortly appear, under the names of A.

Moorei and A. Leckenbyi* ; the former is allied to Aalensis, the

latter to hircinus.

* The Cotteswold Hills: Handbook to their Geology and Paleontology.

of the Inferior Oolite. 175

The statement that these Ammonites all cease with the high-

est bed of the stage, needs some little qualification: a single

specimen of A. striatulus and A. variabilis has occasionally been

detected in the lowest of the hard brown beds which overlie the

Cephalopod-bed at Frocester Hill; Belemnites and Rhynchonella

cynocephala are more frequent. Whether, however, these Tes-

tacea may have been washed into the newer bed, or may for

awhile have lingered there as living denizens, is of little moment,

as it is certain that the occurrence is of a local nature, and ex-

tends only to the lowest bed of the Inferior Oolite.

In assigning to the Sands the provisional rank of a distinct

zoological stage, my conclusions are founded upon a review of

its fossils compared with those of the Upper Lias “ Epsilon” on

the one hand, and of the Inferior Oolite on the other, to each of

which they offer certam approximations, in some instances

amounting to absolute identity, im others to the more distant

affinities of varieties ; after deducting these, a considerable num-

ber still remain, which appear to be proper to the stage. This

view is to some extent in accordance with that of Quenstedt,

who, in his ‘Jura,’ has separated the Jurensis marls from his

Lias “ Epsilon,” or Upper Lias shale, into a distinct subdivision

or stage of the Lias, under the name of Lias “ Zeta.” It may be

preferable for the present to allow it to remain as an independent

stage until more extended observations shall have been made,—

more especially until the Testacea of the Lias “ Hpsilon ” shall

have been more fully figured and described. In this respect

it may rank as of the same stratigraphical value as the Cornbrash

or the Kelloway Rock, a theoretical arrangement which will

leave the problem to be determined by future researches, viz. to

which of the two great formations bordering it, its fossils offer

as a whole the nearest approximation. Considerable as the list

of these has now become, it is evident that much still remains

to be done; other localities require to have their fossils better

collected and examined. How imsuflicient is our list from Dor-

setshire ; how few species have been distinctly assigned to the

stage in Yorkshire; how short a time has elapsed since the

fossils of the lower zone have been collected in the Cotteswolds ;

how meagre is the list of M. Eugéne Deslongchamps from Cal-

vados; and, in the Mozelle, how considerable a number of the

species remain undetermined! The recollection of these defi-

ciencies should induce us to discourage for awhile all decisive

conclusions, and lead us rather to compare our acquisitions from

time to time, carefully and rigidly subjecting them to the neces-

sary comparisons, free from the bias of preconceived opinions.

In the Cotteswolds, 56 Testacea have been obtained in the

upper, and 54 in the lower zone; in all, 81 species,—divided

176 Mr. J. Lycett on the so-called Sands of the Inferior Oolite.

into, Cephalopoda, 22; Brachiopoda, 4; Gasteropoda, 9; Con-

chifera, 46.

The followmg amended list of fossils from the Cynocephala-

stage of the Cotteswolds offers some additions and corrections

to those previously published, and is divided into two distinct

zones.

Upper Zone at Frocester Hill, at Haresfield Hill, and at various

other smaller sections.

Ammonites variabilis, D’Orb., var.

Beanii.

variabilis, var. dispansus.

striatulus, Sow.

radians Orbignianus, Schlot.

radians Dewalqueanus, Rein.

comensis, De Buch.

insignis, Schub.

—— ——,, var.with compressed back.

subinsignis?, Op.

—— Jurensis, Ziet.

discoides, Ziet.

Boulbiensis, Y. & B.

Levesquei, D’ Orb.

torulosus, Schub.

Moorei, Lye.

—— Leckenbyi, Lyc.

Belemnites tripartitus, Schlot.

nregularis, Schlot.

compressus, Voltz.

Nautilus latidorsatus, D’ Orb.

Turbo capitaneus, Miinst.

Cerithium papillosum, Desh.

Cypricardia cordiformis, Desh.

brevis, Wright.

Cucullea ferruginea, Lyc.

Tancredia, n. sp.

Cardium Hulln, Wright.

Opis lunulatus, Sow., var.

Opis carinatus, Wright.

Tngonia Ramsayi, Wright.

striata, Sow.

costata ?

Astarte complanata, Rem.

excavata, Sow., var.

—— detrita, Goldf.

lurida, Sow., short, gibbose var.

Macrodon Hirsonensis, D’ Arch.

Gryphea plicata, Lyc.

Hinnites abjectus, Phil., sp.

Lima Electra, D’Qrbd.

beliula, Mor. § Lye., var.

Modiola Sowerbyi.

Pecten textorius, Schlot.

Gervillia Hartmanni, Goldf.

Pinna fissa, Goldf.

Goniomya angulifera, Sow., sp.

Pholadomya fidicula, Sow.

arenacea, Lyc.

Gresslya abducta, Phil., sp.

conformis, Ag.

Myacites arenacea, Aqg., sp.

species undet.

Homomya crassiuscula, Mor. & Lye.

Terebratula subpunctata, Dav.

Rhynchonella cynocephala, Rich.

Jurensis, Quenst., var.

Lower Zone at Nailsworth and Brimscombe.

Ammonites variabilis, var. dispansus.

— Raquinianus, D’Orb.

, species allied to Raquinianus.

—— Jurensis, Ziet.

radians Orbignianus, Schlot.

striatulus, Sow.

subinsignis ?, Op.

concavus, Sow.

Belemnites compressus, Voltz.

— tripartitus, Sch/ot.

Nautilus latidorsatus, D’ Ord.

Turbo capitaneus, Miinst.

Trochus duplicatus, Sow.

Pleurotomaria subdecorata, D’ Ord.

Chemnitzia lineata, Sow., sp.

, Species undet.

Natica adducta, PAil.

Oppelensis, Lye.

Orbicula reflexa.

Astarte lurida, Sow.

complanata, Rem.

rugulosa, Lyc.

Trigonia striata, Sow.

Cypricardia brevis, Wright.

cordiformis, Desh.

Cucullea ferruginea, Lyc.

Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera.

K }

Cucullza oliveeformis, Lyc.

Nucula Jurensis, Quenst.

Cardium Hullu, Wright.

Unicardium, sp. indet.

Myoconcha crassa, Sow.

Perna rugosa, Miinst.

Goniomya angulifera, Sow., sp.

Gervillia Hartmanni, Jiiizst.

fornicata, Lyc.

Avicula inequivalvis ?, Sow.

Modiola cuneata, Sow.

Sowerbu, Sow., sp.

compressa, Miinst.

ungulina, Y. § B.

Mytilus lunularis, Lye.

, Sp. indet.

Lima Electra, D’ Orb.

bellula, var., Mor. & Lye.

—— Galathea, D’Orb.

ornata, Lyc.

, 1. sp

Pholadomya arenacea, Lyc.

—— fidicula, Sow.

, Sp. indet.

Myacites arenacea

, Sp. indet.

5 Lye.

Rhynchonella cynocephala, Rich.

ylicatella, var.

XVII.— Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera.

By Jonn Nizrner, Colombo, Ceylon.

[Contiaued from vol. xix. p. 388.]

In the first of these papers (Annals, xix. p. 247) I have described

a winged species of Gidichirus, a Brau supposed to be without

organs of flight; and i have since (xix. p. 885) given publicity

to “the more “important discovery of wings 11 the single genus

which forms the family of the Georyssi, also hitherto “supposed

to be apterous ; I am now about to announce to some and con-

firm to others the existence of these organs in the family of the

Scydmeenide, a fact, although incomplete, of more importance

than either of the former, considering the extent of the family

and the difference of opmion which appears to exist on the

subject amongst the most eminent entomological authorities.

It is this importance which mduces me to enter more fully on

the subject.

Tam not acquainted with the famous monograph of the family

of the Scydmznidz by Dr. Schaum; however, from the manner

in which it is quoted by Lacordaire in his ‘ Genres des Coleopt.,’ I

should infer that these two celebrated authors agree in all vital

points. In Lacordaire’s diagnosis of the family, these insects

are described as having (with the exception of the American

genus Brathinus, of which Lacordaire is not quite sure that it

belongs to the family) the elytra soldered together, and being

destitute of wings. Now, it is scarcely credible that on a point

so easily ascertamed as this, any difference of opinion should

exist ; still, Westwood, in his ‘ Modern Classification of Insects,’

in describing the same family, makes statements which imply

the contrary. However, Lacordaire’s description, being by

fifteen years more recent, and, in fact, the latest, is, if only for

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 12

178 Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera.

this reason, entitled to be considered before all others; and

looking upon it in this light, that is, as the essence of all former

observations, I shall for the present occupy myself with it alone.

According to this description, as mentioned above, the imsects

which it regards have the elytra soldered together and are destitute

of wings. This bemg the case, I was startled to find that out of

the thirteen species described below, nine or ten which I exa-

mined in this respect had neither the elytra soldered nor were

they destitute of wings ;—on the contrary, the elytra were uncon-

nected in the middle, and the wings were nearly double the size of

the whole insect, and could not possibly be overlooked. 1 would will-

ingly have supposed that the 100 species of this family contained

in European collections, and principally derived from Europe

and North America, agreed with Lacordaire’s description, and

that the Ceylon species were exceptions to the general rule, had

not Westwood’s observations alluded to above corroborated my

own, thus rendering me suspicious of some unaccountable mis-

take or oversight somewhere or other. That this mistake cannot

consist in a slip of the pen or a misprint in the ‘Genres des Co-

leopt.’ quoted above, is clear from the obvious care which has

in every respect been bestowed upon this work, and from the

same remarks being repeated in different words. Where this

mistake is, and upon what grounds it rests, it would, under my

circumstances, be useless to attempt to unravel. However, it

appears certain to me that some more detailed and positive re-

marks on the subject cannot be superfluous, and must be new

to some entomologists. Placing the fullest confidence, as every

one would do without hesitation, in the mfallibility of the de-

scription of the Belgian author, it was not likely that I should

have looked for wings at all in the Scydmeenidee (a family to

which I have not until lately paid much attention) had I not

been struck by seeing the elytra of my S. alatus open, when

handling it with a fine painter’s brush in a drop of water, it

being at the time quite out of the question that the opening

could have been effected by pressure. On opening the elytra

fully, 1 had no difficulty in discovering the wings. Rendered

extremely curious by this discovery—diametrically opposed to

the distinct statement of so great an authority as the one just

alluded to—I now examined other species, and all with the same

result, most of them opening the elytra without my assistance,

in the same manner as the S. alatus ; and I have not the slightest

doubt that when a sufficient number of specimens enables me to

exainine the rest, it will still be with the same result. That

these insects use their organs of flight, may be gathered from

the following :—At a former period I lived in a house situated

on a small eminence, and overlooking extensive groves of cocoa-

Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera. 179

nut-trees, cinnamon gardens, paddy-fields, and patches of jungle.

Here I collected large numbers of Pselaphide, especially Au-

plectus, in thin, scarcely visible spider-webs, with which the white

walls of the house were covered in certain places—thus forming

one large trap for anything small flying about. That these had

been caught here when on the wing, there could be no doubt ;

but I was much surprised to find with them (what is so common

in more congenial localities, here also) a considerable number of

Seydneni, especially my S. advolans and pubescens, as they were

said, by the most recent authority, to be unable to fly, and the

position they then found themselves in was one they could not

well, or could not possibly, have got into otherwise than by fly-

ing. For some reason or other, I am ashamed to say, I did not

follow up the matter at the time; but I am now certain on the

subject :—indeed, to remove all doubt, and to settle all disputes,

I have just been so fortunate as to take my S. advolans actually

on the wing, flymg im my garden in the evening at sunset.

Having gone so far, I will (in spite of some slight misgivings

of bemg laughed at for telling an old story with so grave a face)

add a few descriptive words about the organs in question. The

wings of my Scydmeni are ample, about double the size of the

whole insect, oblong, having the margin beautifully ciliated,

and, with the exception of a few yellowish veins at the base,

without any visible organs of this kind.

In spite of the difference in their shape, &c., I believe all the

species described below to be genuine Scydmeni as restricted

at present. Being, however, unacquainted with the sexual di-

stinctions of these insects (which, indeed, I believe not to have

been satisfactorily pointed out by any one, and to differ in dif-

ferent species), J] should not be surprised if one or two of my

species were eventually ascertained to have been separated upon

these grounds alone. However, as I have been very reluctant

to admit mew species, it is just as likely that individuals may

hereafter be found united in one, which ought to be separated

into two species. But I trust that neither may happen. The

species were all collected by myself in the immediate neighbour-

hood of Colombo ; I have, however, no doubt that they occur all

over the 8.W. of the island, which is of a uniform. physical

character, and perhaps occupy a still larger portion of it. None

of them are quite common; on the contrary, of nearly half of

them I possess only one or two specimens. My S. femoralis I

found under the soft, rottmg bark of an Erythrina indica; S.

Ceylanicus and ovatus I found dead in spider-webs ;_ S. gramini-

cola, glanduliferus, and pyrtformis I have hitherto exclusively

taken in the sweepmg-net on the lawns of my garden about

sunset; the other species J have met with indiscriminately in

12*

180 Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera.

spider-webs, under rotting vegetable substances, and in the

grass.

After this preamble, which I trust may not be deemed quite

superfluous, I now enter upon the description of my species,

drawing attention previously to the three very natural and very

distinct groups which they form, the characteristics of which

will at once be pereeptivie from the headings given below. With

regard to the first group (A. I. sp. 30-34) I may mention that

the elongated legs, largely developed posterior trochanters, and

often distant posterior cox, render the motions of the in-

sects belonging to it staggering when walking, which, together

with their oblong, subdepressed body, distinguishes them at

a glance. I have subdivided them from the cultriform or

grooved mesosternal carina. The second group (A. II. spee.

35-41) is equally well characterized by the more robust, pyri-

form and subconvex body of the msects. S. pselaphoides in

the former, and S. advolans in the present group, form eonnect-

ing links between the two; especially S. pselaphoides, which in

general appearance rather belongs to the second; upon closer

examination, however, it is easily ascertained to be an anomalous

member of the former. From the rounded or narrowed occiput

I have divided the second group into two subdivisions, giving pre-

ference to the distinctions to be drawn from this part of the body

to those to be derived from the thorax, which, from the variety of

shapes it assumes, would naturally suggest itself for that pur-

pose; but the gradations between the principal forms appear to

me too many, too fine, and therefore too indistinct, to adopt

them. As to the third group (B. spec. 42), the insect which

alone forms it amongst those described below, is so different

from any of the others, that its peculiarities must strike any

one at first sight.

A. Species with a thick neck, abruptly formed and immersed in

the thorax.

1. Fourth joint of the maxillary palpi not acuminated ; head sub-

quadrato-ovate ; eyes middling or small, finely granulated,

little or not at all prominent ; antenne subapproximate at the

base; posterior trochanters elongated at the apex ; thorax

obovate; body elongate, subdepressed.

a. Mesosternal carina slight, simple.

30. Scydmanus alatus, N.

S. dilute brunneus, pedibus antennisque dilutioribus, tarsis palpisque

testaceis; pubescens. Long. corp. 3 lin.

Antenne art. 1° apice biacuminato, 3-4 subsequalibus, 5 preece-

Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera. 181

dente majore, 6 longitudine inter 4 et 5, ovato, 7-8 subsequalibus,

9 majore, 7-9 apice angustatis, tubiformibus, 10-11 ovatis, clavam

formantibus, vel art. 9 globoso, 9-11 clavam formantibus. Palpi

maxill. art. ultimo minimo, apice truncato. Mandibulz dente bifido

munitee, basi fortiter abrupteque dilatatee. Thorax foveis basalibus

nullis. Pedes elongati, tarsis art. 2-3 subaequalibus.

I include in this species individuals with a 2- and others with

a 3-jomted antennal club. The latter ave further distinguished

by having a slight smuosity in the rounded outline of the basal

angles of the thorax, by having the posterior part of the meta-

thorax and the base of the abdomen sensibly incrassated, and

the head rather less quadrate than the former. However, the

individuals thus distinguished being in all other respects exactly

like those with the 2-jointed club, I cannot help looking upon

all these distinctions as sexual ones, and uniting the insects in

the same species.

The head from the eyes to the neck is of a transverse sub-

quadrate form merging into the oval by the angles being rounded

off; the anterior part is narrowed. This is the typical form

of the skull in all the five species of this group. The eyes in the

present species are middling. The antenne are rather approxi-

mated at the base, and inserted in the centre of the front under

a ridge which runs across it from eye to eye. The first joint is

biacuminated at the apex; the fifth is longer than the adjoming

ones ; joints 7-9 in the individuals with the two-jointed, and

7-8 in those with the three-jomted club, are of a peculiar con-

struction, being narrowed at the apex, and fitting into each

other like the tubes of a spy-glass. The club-joints are ovate,

flat at the base; the last is large and obtusely acuminated. I

consider the principal distinguishing character to lie in the re-

markable structure of joints 7-9 of the antenne. The maxillary

palpi have jomt 2 rather strongly incrassated at the apex ; joint

3 obovate, narrowed at the base; joimt 4 very minute, truncated

at the apex. The mandibles are furnished with a bifid tooth,

and are strongly and abruptly dilated at the base. The thorax

is of an obovate or cbcordato-ovate form, being rather strongly

rounded off before the middle and gradually narrowed below it ;

the usual basal impressions are wanting. The posterior margin

has two slight simuosities; the posterior angles are rounded-off

or obliquely truncated. Scutellum obsolete. Elytra furnished

with a very short elevated ridge at the shoulder. Legs elon-

gated; cox large, the two posterior ones rather distant from

each other; two posterior trochanters much elougated, imcras-

sated at the tip; apex of tibie subcylindric, but not narrowed,

and hairy, especially in the second pair; joints 2-3 of the tarsi

of equal size, the first longer, the fourth a little shorter; two

182 Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera.

anterior tarsi slightly contracted, second and third pair more

and more elongated. Penultimate segment of abdomen with

a strong longitudinal groove on the back.

31. Scydmenus femoralis, N.

S. statura et magnitudine preecedentis; testaceus. Antenne art.

34 subzequalibus, 5 preecedente longiore, 6-8 gradatim minoribus,

subglobosis, 7-8 apice fortius oblique truncatis, 9-11 gradatim

/majoribus, subglobosis, clavam formantibus. Palpi maxill. art.

ultimo minimo, semigloboso. Thorax magnus, obovatus, basi ro-

tundatus, 4-foveolatus. Elytra apice truncata, 2-sinuata. Pedes

femoribus 2 posticis medio constrictis, tarsis art. 1-4 gradatim

minoribus.

Of the general appearance of the former, but of a light yel-

lowish colour, and well distinguished by the large thorax, trun-

cated elytra, and abnormal construction of the two posterior

femora. Antenne with jomts 7-8 rather strongly obliquely

truncated at the apex, 9-11 ferming a club, subglobose, flat at

the base, the last acuminated and slightly cut away, or even ex-

cavated on the inside at the apex. Last joimt of maxillary palpi

semiglobose ; these otherwise the same as in the former. Thorax

and elytra of S. alatus, the former, however, larger, rounded at

the posterior margin, and with four basal impressions ; the latter

slightly truncated at the apex, and with a slight sinuosity in the

truncature on either side of the suture. Scutellum very small.

Legs with the tibiz slightly bent at the base, the apex as in the

former ; tarsi with joints 1-4 gradually decreasing im size, first

pair contracted and furnished with brushes on the inside. ‘The

two posterior legs inserted rather distant from each other, the

basal part of abnormal construction: the trochanters are much

elongated and incrassated at the tip, whilst the femora are at the

place of the juncture rather abruptly narrowed, bent and slightly

compressed ; as they are at the same time thinner than the ad-

joining apex of the trochanter, the constriction is very striking.

32. Seydmenus Ceylanicus, N.

S. alati colore, sed major et magis depressus. Long. corp. 2 lin.

Caput maguum, robustum, thoracis latitudine. Antenne basi non

approximatze, art. 3-4 et 5-7 inter se subzequalibus, arcum for-

mantivus, 8-10 gradatim majoribus, subglobosis, depressis, apice

oblique truncatis, 11° magno, conico, 8—11 longius pilosis, clavam

formantibus. Palpi maxill. art. 4° minimo, semigloboso. Thorax

ovatus, foveis basalibus nullis. Elytra apice singulatim rotundata.

Pedes validi tarsis art. 1-4 subeequalibus, 2 anterioribus art. 1°

subtus acumine sat forti producto.

An anomalous species, especially with regard to the antenne,

Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera. 183

which are much less approximated at the base than those of the

rest of the species belonging to this group, and with regard to

the two posterior coxie, which, on the contrary, are more approxi-

mated than in any of the species just referred to. The insect is

of the light brown colour of the two former, but larger and more

depressed. The head is strikingly large and heavy, of the width

of the thorax; in its hind part, which is strongly transverse,

the oval form prevails over that of the square. Eyes small.

Antenne inserted under two strong protuberances rather than

under a ridge; their club four-jointed, joints 3-7 forming a

section of a circle bent inwards; joints 8-10 strongly com-

pressed, obliquely truncated (subperfoliated), 11 large, conic.

The third jomt of the maxillary palpi is of an oblongo-ovate

shape; the external basal angle is prolonged into a small pe-

duncle inserted in the apex of the second joint ; the fourth joint,

about the semiglobose shape of which I am not quite satisfied,

appears to be obliquely inserted in the tip of the preceding.

Thorax oval, of a similar shape to that of the former; anterior

margin slightly emarginated. Scutellum obsolete. Elytra with

the traces of a humeral costa, separately rounded-off at the apex.

Legs strong; two posterior coxe not more distant from each

other than the four anterior ones ; tibie elongated, bent at the

base and apex, at the latter place slightly narrowed, subeylindric

and hairy; tarsi with joints 1-4 subequal, in the first pair

strongly contracted, joint | of this pair produced in a spine on

the inside.

b. Mesosternal carina middling, grooved.

33. Scydmenus intermedius, N.

S. alati statura sed major et robustior, colore obscuriore. Long.

corp. $ lin.

Antennee art. 1° apice biacuminato, 2 et 5, 3 et 4, 7 et 8 inter se

subzequalibus, 6 quarto paulo minore, obovato, 7-8 subglobosis apice

oblique truncatis, 9-11 gradatim majoribus, obovatis, clavam forman-

tibus, 11 acuminato. Palpi maxill. art. 3° obovato, 4° minimo, semi-

globoso. Thorax subrotundatus, basi 4-foveolatus. Elytra apice

singulatim rotundata. Pedes tarsis art. 1-4 gradatim minoribus vel

2-3 subzequalibus, 4 anterioribus intus pilosis. Mesosternum sat

fortiter carinatum, carina dorso deplanata, fossulata, apice acumi-

nata.

This species stands in the middle between S. a/atus and psela-

phoides. To the former it is allied by its general appearance

rather than by anything else, differing from it very much in the

structure of the antennz and the mesosternal carina. ‘To the

latter, on the contrary, it is allied by similarity in the structure

184. Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera.

of the said carina, differing, however, from it in general appear-

ance. The colour is that of S. alatus, but a shade or two darker,

the insect being at the same time larger and altogether more

robust. The eyes are small. Ante cae club three-jointed, the

joints forming it gradually i pees in size, obovate, flat at

the base, the Tact acuminated. Scutellum obs picts Elyiva with

two slight basal impressions, the traces of a humeral costa, sepa-

rately rounded-off at the apex. Legs elongated as usual; two

posterior coxee distant ; tibize straight, sube ylindric, but not nar-

rowed at the apex, ae four anterior ones hairy ; tarsi with jomts

1-4 almost imperceptibly decreasing in size, or perhaps 2-3

equal, the anterior ones slightly contracted, these and the inter-

mediate ones hairy on the mside. Mesesternal carma middling,

flat on the back, with a shallow, but very distinct, longitudinal

groove or excavation, anterior part projecting, acuiminated.

34. Seydmenus pselaphoides, N.

S. subpyriformi-ovatus, subconvexus, magis mmusve brunneus, pedi-

bus antennisque subtestaceis, femoribus apice nigrescentibus, tarsis

palpisque testaceis; flavo-pubescens. Long. corp. 1-1} ln.

Antenne art. 1° mediocri, apice biacuminato, 2-4 sensim minori-

bus, 5 et 2, 6 et 3, 7 et 8, 9 et 10 inter se subzequalibus, 9-1F ela-

vam formantibus, 6-11 basi rotunde truncatis, 6-8 apice oblique

truncatis, 7-S compressis, 9-11 obovatis. Mandibule dente bifido

munitze, basi dilatatee et ciliate. Palpi maxill. art. 5° inverte conico,

4° minimo apice truneato. Thorax obovatus, latitudine quarta parte

longior, basi 4-foveolatus. Elytra apice singulatim rotundata. Pedes

validi, tarsis art. 1—4 gradatim minoribus, anterioribus dilatatis, his

cum intermediis has fortius pilosis. Mesosternum preecedentis.

An anomalous species with regard to its general appearance,

which differs considerably from that of the rest of the group,

and makes it, as I have ‘remarked above, the connecting g lmk

between this and the foliowing group. This is the | largest spe-

cies I have hitherto met with. The system of coloration is the

usual one,—more or less deep brown, legs and antennz Nene

tarsi and palpi very light. Eyes middling. Antenne with ¢

3-jointed club, the joints subglobose, flat ‘at the base, the last

large, conic; joints 6-8 are slightly truncated at the apex; 7

and 8, being at the same time strongly compressed, have a sub-

perfohated appearance. The mandibles are furnished with a

bifid teoth. The third joint of the maxillary palpi has the shape

of an inverted cone, the fourth minute and truncated at the

apex. The thorax is of an obovate form, about { longer than

broad, rounded-off before and gradually narrowed below the

middle, subquadrate at the base, impressed with four fovez or

pits, the posterior angles rounded-off. Scuteilum mimute. Ely-

Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera. 185

tra with two short humeral costz, separately rounded-off at the

apex. Legs stout; two posterior cox distant ; tibiz slightly

bent at the base, subeylindrie at the apex, the four anterior ones

hairy ; tarsi with joints 1-4: gradually decreasing in size, the

anterior ones dilated, the joints transversely tr iangular, the in-

termediate pair hairy on the inside. Mcsosternum of the pre-

ceding. Miétastetitin with a slight longitudinal depression

down the middle. Penultimate abdominal “segment grooved on

the back, as in S. alaius. In the enlargement of the anterior

tarsi lies undoubtedly, as in other beetles, a sexual distinction,

as it is not equally strong in all mdividuals. I may mention

here, that upon some of the individuals [I found ticks (some

genus allied to Jzodes, but not a Gamasus) fastened, one of them

having made a wound such as, supposing it to be inflicted at a

corresponding place and on a proportionate scale, few animals of

a higher order, 1 think, would have survived ; still this little

beetle appeared perfectly at its ease. The parasite alluded to

had fastened itself right in the centre of the forehead, and the

wound it had inflicted m this, one would imagine most dangerous

place, was a deep hole or pit with a callous ‘border. The latter

led me to infer that the jury was an old one, and the tick being

to)

at the time Sate im it (and this so firmly that I had some

difficulty in detaching it), I feit sure it had been in this position

for months. The j injury was observable under a shght magni-

fier, and to compare it to one inflicted by a rifle- ball, would, {

think, be greatly underrating its importance.

Il. Fourth joint of the maxillary palpi acuminated ; mesosternal

carina strongly developed; eyes large, prominent, coarsely

granulated ; antenue distant at the base; two posterior tro-

chanters stmple; thorax variable; body robust, pyriform,

subconven.

a. Occiput rounded.

35. Scydimenus advolans, N.

S. long. corp. 2 lin. Anteunz art. 3 et 4, 5 et 6, inter se sub-

equalibus, pve 7 majore, subgloboso, 8-10 subglobosis, basi

rotunde-, apice oblique-, truncatis, cum 11° conico clavam

formantibus. Palpi maxill. art. 3° elongato, inverte conico, 4° me-

diocri. Mfandibule tenues, medio acuminate l-dentatee, basi

abrupte dilatate. Thorax ovato-retundatus, apice fortius angus-

tatus, basi leviter 2-sinuatus, 4-foveolatus. Elytra apice smgulatim

rotundata. ‘Tarsi art. 2-3 subzequalibus.

The inseet is of a brown colour, the antenne lighter, the legs

186 Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera.

still more so, the tarsi and palpi very light ; the femora are dark

towards the apex; the head, thorax and suture are occasionally

of chestnut-colour ; it is, as usual, pubescent. The sculpture of

the head in this and the following species is not, as in the pre-

ceding, based upon the oblong square or the oval, but rather

upon the form of a ball, which, im a more or less compressed

state, is always perceptible ; in some instances it is narrowed on

one side. In the present species the head is heavy and subglo-

bose. The eyes are large, prominent, and coarsely granulated.

The antennz are inserted distant from each other under two

protuberances of the anterior part of the forehead. The club is

four-joited, the joints composing it being flat at the base, and,

with the exception of the last, obliquely cut away at the apex,

the last itself being conic. The maxillary palpi have jomt 3

rather elongated, and of the form of an inverted cone; joint 4

middling, acuminated. The thorax is of a rounded-oval shape,

and rather strongly narrowed towards the apex. The scutellum

is obsolete. The elytra have the usual rudimentary costz at the

shoulders, and are separately rounded-off at the apex. The legs

are middling ; two posterior coxze inserted close together; tro-

chanters all simple; tibiz slightly bent at the base, narrowed

and subcylindric at the tip, the four anterior ones hairy; tarsi

with joints 2-3 subequal, the first a little longer and the fourth

shorter, the two anterior ones slightly contracted. I include in

this species some individuals which slightly differ from the fore-

going description, being more robust, covered more densely and

with longer hair, especially on the occiput and thorax, with the

latter rather obconico-ovate, and the costz of the elytra more

distinct, and, moreover, occasionally of a chestnut colour.

36. Scydmenus pubescens, N.

S, preecedente gracilior ; long. corp. 3 lin. Antenne art. 3 et 4, 5 et

6 inter se subzequalibus, subcylindricis, 7° secundo paulo minore,

fortiter cylindrico, 8-10 subglobosis, eum 11° conico clavam for-

mantibus. Palpi maxill. art. 3° inverte conico, 4° minuto. Man-

dibulze tenues, medio obtuse obsoleteque unidentatze, basi abrupte

dilatatee. Thorax conicus, latitudine haud longior, basi 4-foveo-

latus. Elytra et pedes preecedentis, tibiis tamen apice leviter

arcuatis.

Less robust than the former, and further distinguished from

it by the seventh antennal joint (the one preceding the club),

which is of a strongly cylindric shape, by the minuteness of the

last joint of the maxillary palpi, the obtuse and nearly obsolete

tooth of the mandibles, the short conical form of the thorax,

and the tibie, which are slightly bent at the apex.

Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera. 187

37. Scydmenus pygmeus, N.

S. statura et colore preecedentis sed longius pubescens et sesqui

minor; long. corp. 4 lin. Antenne art. 3 et 4, 5 et 6 inter se

subsequalibus, rt? majore, ovato, 8-10 subglobosis, fortius com-

pressis, cum 11° clavam formantibus, hoe maguo, obconico, apice

obtuso. Palpi maxill. art. 2° tenuiore, 3° inverte conico, 4° mi-

nuto. Mandjibulee obsolete unidentatze. Thorax conicus, latitu-

dine parum longior, elytris fortiter applicatus, basi 2-sinuatus et

4-foveolatus. Pedes et elytra preecedentis, his tamen amplioribus.

Strongly allied to the two preceding species, but very much

smaller, more compact, and covered with longer hair,—thus of

rather a different appearance regardless of its size. From S. pu-

bescens this species would principally differ in the shape of the

seventh antennal joint, also in that of the first three club-joints,

which are much more compressed and more hairy in S. pygmeus.

The thorax of the latter is more firmly applied to the base of the

elytra, the latter have a fuller and more robust appearance about

them, the palpi are more slender, and the tooth of the mandibles

is pointed. From S. advolans it would principally differ, besides

the generalities mentioned above, in the shape of the thorax

and in some of the points in which it differs from S. pubescens.

b. Occiput narrowed.

38. Scydmenus glanduliferus, N

S. robustus; long. corp. $ lin. Antenne art. 3-7 sensim majoribus,

8-10 globosis, fortiter compressis, cum 11° qlanduliformi clavam

formantibus, longe ciliatis. Palpi max. art. 2° tenuiore, 3° inverte

conico, 4° mediocri. Thorax conicus, latitudine basali haud lon-

gior, elytris fortiter applicatus, basi 2-impressus, in impressionibus

2-foveolatus. Tarsi art. 2-3 subzequalibus.

Of the size of S. advolans and the plump shape and colour of

S. pygmeus, the latter being rather lighter than that of S. advo-

lans ; it has the longer hairy vesture of the former (especially on

tle occiput and thorax). The occiput is slightly narrowed be-

hind. The antennal club is composed of four joints, the first

three of which are strongly compressed, the fourth bemg plump,

and of the shape of an acorn with its cup; ail are ‘strongly

ciliated. The thorax is conic, firmly applied to the base of the

elytra, as in the preceding species, depressed, and with two pits

at the base, posterior margim with two sinuosities. The shoulder-

ridges of the elytra are short, but rather strongly marked.

The tibie are narrowed, subcylindric, and hairy at the apex.

Joints 2-3 of the tarsi are subequal, the anterior pair more, the

intermediate less contracted.

188 Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera.

39. Scydmenus graminicola, N.

S. gracilior; long. corp. 3 lin. Antenne art. 3 et 4, 6 et 7, 9 et 10

inter se subzequalibus, 5° adjacentibus paulo longiore, 3-7 sub-

cylindricis, 8 subgloboso, 9-10 fortiter globosis cum 11° clavam

formantibus. Palpi maxill. art. 3° inverte conico, 4° mediocri.

Mandibule apice arcuatee, medio acuminate 1-dentatze, basin ver-

sus sensim dilatate. Thorax obconicus, basi depressus, 2-smuatus

et 2-foveolatus, rectangulatus. Pedes tibiis elongatis basi apiceque

arcuatis.

Of the usual brown colour, legs and antenne lighter, tarsi and

palpi very light ; femora nigrescent at the apex ; hairs of occiput

and thorax rather long, the former slightly narrowed behind ; the

head thus of a somewhat rhomboid form. Antennal club com-

posed of three joints, the first two of which are strongly globose,

the last being acuminated and slightly cut away on one side at

the apex. The mandibles are furnished with an acuminated tooth

at the middle, bent at the apex, and, what is rather uncommon

in this genus, gradually enlarged towards the base. The thorax

is obconic, rather longer than broad. The elytra are somewhat

more extended than usual in this group; the rudimentary hu-

meral coste are rather prominent, they are separately rounded-

off at the apex. Tuibiz more or less elongated, slightly bent at

the base and apex, at the latter place subcylindric and hairy.

Tarsi with jomts 2-3 subequal, first pair slightly contracted.

A sexual distinction appears to be expressed in the length of the

tibiz, which are less elongated in certain individuals, which are

at the same time less robust than the others. The insect is

easily distinguished by its general appearance.

40. Seydmenus pyriformis, N.

S. supra castaneus, subtus brunneo-testaceus, pedibus antennisque

dilutioribus, tarsis palpisque flavo-testaceis, anteunarum clava ni-

gricante. Long. corp. } lin.

Antenne art. 3-8 fere subzequalibus, excepto 5° parum longiore,

8° subgloboso, minore, 9-10 subglobosis majoribus cum 11° acuminato

clavam formantibus. Palpi maxill. art. 3° inverte conico, 4° minuto.

Thorax obovatus, basi 2-foveolatus. Pedes coxis 2 posticis distan-

tioribus ; tibiis 2 anterioribus basi apiceque leviter arcuatis, reliquis

subsimplicibus ; tarsis art. 2-3 subzequalibus.

A pretty little species, at once distinguished by its colour,

which is chestnut, darker at the base and suture of the elytra,

and light, more or less brownish or yellowish, below; the an-

tennz being of the latter colour, with a nigrescent club. The

occiput is slightly narrowed ; the head altogether plump, heavy,

and transverse. The antennal club is composed of three sub-

Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera. 189

globose joints, the last of which is acuminated and slightly cut

away on one side, as in some of the preceding species. The

thorax is obovate, broadest below the middle, and gradually

narrowed towards the apex. The elytra have the usual two

shoulder-ridges, and are rather strongly dehiscent at the apex.

The two posterior coxee are rather distant at the base ; the tibize

are slightly angustated and subcylindrie at the apex, the four

anterior ones hairy ; the first pair, moreover, slightly bent at the

base and apex, but the rest nearly straight.

41. Scydmenus angusticeps, N.

S. castaneus, antennis pedibusque dilutioribus, tarsis palpisque tes-

taceis. Long. corp. | lin.

Caput magnum, subtrigonum, occipite fortiter angustato, hoc et

thorace longe pilosis. Antenne art. 3 et 4, 5 et 6 inter se sub-

eequalibus, 7-11 gradatim majoribus, vel 9-10 subzequalibus, sub-

globosis, 8-10 leviter depressis, cum 11° clavam formantibus. Palpi

maxill. art. 2° tenuiore, 3° inverte conico, 4° mediocri, conico-acumi-

nato. Thorax obconicus, basi subquadratus, 2-sinuatus et 4-foveo-

latus. Elytra costis 2 fortioribus abbreviatis. Tibize subrectze.

A handsome species, of a chestnut colour, more or less deep,

with lighter legs and antennze. The head is large, heavy, and,

from the eyes to the neck, strongly triangular; the occiput and

thorax are covered with long hair, which adds much to the pe-

culiar appearance of the insect. The antenne are thick and

robust, the club 4-jomted. The thorax is subquadrate at the

base up to the middle, and conic towards the apex. The punc-

tures or pits at the base are four in number. The scutellum is

small. The humeral cost are more strongly developed than in

any of the other species, and traceable to the middle of the

elytra. The tibice are nearly straight, subcylindric at the apex ;

the four anterior ones hairy. The tarsi have jomts 2-4 nearly

subequal.

B. Species without a neck.

42. Scydmenus ovatus, N.

S. ovatus, convexus, brunneus. Long. corp. 4 lin.

Caput subquadrato-ovatum. Antenne art. 3-11 sensim incras-

satis, 9-11 subglobosis, depressis, cum 11° magno, conico clavam

formantibus. Palpi maxill. art. 4° minuto, acuminato. Thorax

amplus, semiorbicularis, margine posteriore medio producto, basi 2-

foveolatus. Tarsis art. 1-4 subzequalibus.

The colour of this insect is, as usual, shaded-off from brown

190 Rev. P. B. Brodie on the Lias

to light yellow ; however, in other respects it differs materially

from all the preceding species. The body is regularly oval ;

thorax and elytra convex, pubescent. The head is subquadrate-

ovate; the eyes rather small, but prominent; the neck is alto-

gether wanting. The antenné are as distant from each other

at the base as they can be, being inserted below the eyes; the

club is three-jointed ; the joints increase gradually m size from

the third to the eleventh. The maxillary palpi have the second

joint slender, the third rather pear-shaped, the fourth minute

and acuminated. The thorax is very ample, semiorbicular, of

the shape and nearly the size of the apical half of the elytra;

the basal angles are acuminated, and slightly envelope the

shoulders; the posterior margin is prolonged in the middle to-

wards the scutellum; the foveze or basal impressions are two,

and rather distant from each other. Scutellum obsolete. Elytra

with two depressions at the base. Tibie straight; tarsi with

joints 1-4 subequal, or very nearly so. Mesosternal carina

middling.

[To be continued. |

XVIII.—Remarks on the Lias of Barrow in Leicestershire, com-

pared with the lower part of that Formation in Gloucestershire,

Worcestershire, and Warwickshire. By the Rev. P. B. Bropiz,

M.A., F.G.S., Vice-President of the Warwickshire Naturalists’

Field Club*.

During a late visit to the well-known Lias quarries at Barrow-

on-Soar, I was able to compare the various sections there

exposed with those in the equivalent beds in Warwickshire,

Worcestershire, and Gloucestershire ; and, although I could de-

tect no remains of Insects, nor even a trace of themt, the posi-

tion of the strata, and their lithological characters, are identical

with the true Insect limestones in the counties above men-

tioned.

As Mr. Jukes has already described the lower Lias at Barrow

and the neighbourhood in ‘ Potter’s Charnwood Forest,’ it will

be needless for me to repeat those sections ; but it will be neces-

sary to give one not referred to by him, taken from an upper

quarry of Mr. Lee’s, in order to identify the beds,—where we

have, in descending order,

* Read to the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Club, January 27, 1857.

+ Although, in the short examination I was able to give the Barrow

limestones, I could discover no Insect remains, nor could hear of any

ever haying been found, it is possible that a closer research would detect

them.

of Barrow in Leicestershire. 191

ft. in.

1. Alluvial drift, sand and red clay, with rolled boulders of Lias 8 0

Pea ERA tec Selec oc Tabac Bina n dees n Acs Gs nde ORY ch= arn dea nhiaca sau te 30

Hard blue limestone (Rummels), with young Plagiostoma gi-

af gantea, Lima rudis, and numerous Ammonites, similar to fo 9

the Plagiostoma-bed in Gloucestershire ..............sceseseeee

UE a TOE) ea, ee ea ae 4 0

3. Blue limestone (representative of Insect-bed) ............00000 0 6

ES UM ELVES uu Rig ses hye opaawineian Rape ya ce lege ing At ag

7. Limestone (representative of Insect-bed) ........eccceceeeeeeeeee 0 6

ePMMMCRS MNS 221 5.2508 usco.tvedoeads - Sead Rb dee sae di Ma 1 0

Blue nodular and crystalline limestone (top hurls)—a very

2 peculiar band, resembling a bed near to the ‘firestone’ ato 6

Warwickshire, as at Grafton in that county ..........0..060

10. Shale.

Bottom of quarry. 19 5

As Mr. Jukes truly observes, the strata vary considerably

even in adjacent quarries—certain beds thin out and others come

im; thus, in Mr. Ellis’s large pit on the other side of Barrow,

there is at least 80 feet of shale above the ‘rummels, No. 3 in

section, and there are more courses of limestone, especially those

which appear to represent the Insect limestone. It is worthy

of note, that while the Rummels No. 3 is evidently the equivalent

of the Plagiostoma-bed in Gloucestershire and elsewhere, it is

succeeded at once by the beds of Lias, which in Gloucestershire,

Worcestershire, and in some portions of Warwickshire, occur

much lower in the series, the intervening strata being entirely

wanting in that part of Leicestershire. Most of the quarries

do not exceed 30 feet in depth, but some have been opened to a

depth of 42 feet, the lowest stratum being a bed of blue marly

clay. The limestones are used in Leicestershire for the same

economical purposes as the Warwickshire ‘ paving-stones,’ and

are equally adapted for this object ; but they do not seem to be

employed for making hydraulic lime, as they are in the quarries

belonging to my friends Messrs. Greaves and Kershaw at Wilm-

cote, near Stratford-on-Avon.

In places there are several small faults, and in one pit the

lower strata were thrown up so as to form a complete saddle, of

limited extent, at right angles to Mount Sorrel, not far off,—

showing on a small scale what the effect of such a dislocation

would be on a large one.

Except in No. 3 of section, shells are scarce; below this, I

observed only a few Ammonites planorbis and Aptychus, and a

long shell (Meleagrina?) common in the shale at Brockeridge

Common, near Tewkesbury in Gloucestershire, and there asso-

ciated with numerous and beautiful specimens of the same Am-

monite.

The fine Saurians and Fish for which this district has been

long famous occur more or less in all the shales and limestones,

192 On the Lias Formation of Barrow in Leicestersiise:

though some courses are richer than others; and for the last

two years very few have been met with. In Mr. Lee’s extensive

collection, the genus Dapedium was by far the most abundant,

many of which were quite perfect ; and among several fine fish,

I noticed one nearly 2 feet in length, belonging to a different

genus, and in a remarkably fine state of preser vation.

The only Crustacean I observed was the Eryon Barroviensis

(Ms Coy), which was small and ill-preserved, and by no means

equal to the large and perfect specimens met with occasionally

at Bidford in Warwickshire*.

I did not detect any remains of plants.

At Wilmeote in Warwickshire there are indications of nu-

merous faults (which were lately pomted out to me by Mr.

Kershaw), in all directions round the district, more than are

generally supposed. Thus the ‘firestone,’ which is the lowest

and hardest stratum worked, crops-out at various points and

dips at a considerahle anele, on the higher ground; and the

several bands of ‘Insect limestone’ and shale lie in a basin.

formed by the outcrop of this lower bed. The ‘ Plagiostoma-

bed, containing P. gigantea, Cardinia ovalis, and Astarte lurida,

occurs in places i in its normal position ; but there appears to be

no trace of the underlying Saurian beds, which are of consider-

able thickness m Gloucestershire, and their absence is to be

noted both at Wilmcote and Barrow, which implies a great

thinning-out of the lower Lias in that direction. This holds

good, at all events, with respect to the lower Lias at the latter

place, where there are fewer bands of ‘ Insect limestone;’ but at

the former they are more numerous, not less than eight courses

divided by thick shale ; and as the ‘ Insect-bed’ in Gloucestershire

is often confined to one, or at most two layers, only a few inches

thick, the increased number of ‘ Insect-beds’ in Warwickshire

may represent the ‘ Saurian beds’ in Gloucestershire and other

places, with which they were perhaps coeval in point of time.

The ‘firestone’ above referred to is a hard, crystalline lime-

stone, full of oysters and spines of Echini, from 3 to 7 inches

thick. In Warwickshire it always underlies the last ‘bed of

‘Insect limestone,’ but does not occur in Leicestershire.

* This species is not uncommon in the Insect limestone at Strensham

in Worcestershire (where the finest Insects have been obtained, but the

pits are now, unfortunately, closed), and Forthampton, near Tewkesbury,

where they are generally well preserved, though imvariably of small size.

I have only seen two specimens of the large Eryon from Warwickshire,

one of which is in my own collection, and the other in that of my friend

Mr. Kershaw. I am indebted to his kindness for another fine but appa-

rently distinct species of this genus.

The largest measures 6 inches in length from the top of the head to the

extremity of the tail, and a little more than 2 inches m breadth in the

widest portion of the body.

Mr.J2D. Macdonald on Foraminifera from the Feejce Islands, 193

XIX.— Observations on the Microscopic Examination of Forami-

nifera obtained in Deep-sea Bottoms at the Feejee Islands. By

Joun Dents Macponaxp, Assistant Surgeon H.M.S. Herald.

{With two Plates. }

THE accompanying figures (Plates V. and VI.) represent some

forms of Foraminifera obtained by two soundings taken in the

Feejee group, from the respective depths of 1020 fathoms and

440 fathoms; the former between Kandaru and Mbengga, and

the latter pormeen Ngau and Viti Lara, about four miles from

the barrier reef.

Illustrations of all the divisions of D’Orbigny’s classification

were found in a few atoms placed under the microscope; and

from the great number of species eccurring in so small a quan-

tity of the bottom, it may be readily conceived how vast must

be the accumulation of these microscopic beings at the depths

of the ocean, but more especially in the neighbourhood of islands

and continents, on whose coasts they are originally developed.

The figures may be arranged as follows:

I. Monostega, figs. 1-5. rie Entomostega, fig. 25.

Il. Stichostega, figs. 6-10. . Euallostega, figs. 26 & 27.

ill. Helicostega, figs. 11-23, 24 ?. VE Agathistega, figs. 28-30.

The Stichosteya and Agathistega occurred in the bottom taken

at 440 fathoms, and nearly all the others were found in that

brought up from a depth of 1020 fathoms; but this | am in-

clined to refer to casualty rather than to any essential difference

in the materials existing in both.

Figs. 31-33, representing living Helicostega, obtained

shallow w ater, will presently be noticed.

During our late cruises we frequently observed considerable

numbers of recent Foraminifera adhering to the fronds of the

smaller marine Algze (Confervacez, &c. ti either floating on the

surface of the ocean, or growing on the shores of the Pacific

Islands; so that the abundant appearance of the dead shells

of these animals in the sand of every beach, and in every

sea-bottom fathomed by the armed lead, was_ satisfactorily

accounted for. 7

On examining some living Bryozoa taken with the dredge at

Port Curtis, and including the British genera Serialaria, Vesi-

cularia and Crisia, { first observed that the Foraminifera brought

up with them were pedunculated, and so fixed to the poly pidoms

as to preclude locomotion completely*. I could not help re-

* These results furnish a striking confirmation of the statements pub-

lished by Mr. W. Clark in the Annals S for May 1849 and March 1850,—Eps.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xx. 13

194 Mr.J.D.Macdonald on Foraminifera from the Feejee Islands.

marking also that the Foraminifera themselves closely resembled

some of the forms entombed in the chalk formations of England,

and there can be little doubt that these facts will prove of con-

siderable importance in a geological point of view. I generally

find it convenient to support the correctness of my own observa-

tion by submitting any particular object to the scrutiny of

others, and in this way I can vonch for the truth of figs. 31, 32,

and 33. Fig. 32 is a minute Nummulina, nearly sessile on the

frond of a sea-weed, gathered on the barrier reef at Ovalau ; but

in figs. 31 and 33 (Operculina) the pedicle is more distinctly

seen. In the latter, the little Foraminifer is attached to a sprig

of Serialaria.

The pedicle in some instances very much resembles, both m

colour and general appearance, that of a young Lepas, but in

other cases it is short, ill-defined, and interspersed with calca-

reous granules.

With these facts before us, the nature of the broken stems of

figs. 2, 4, 6, 21, 23 and 30, becomes at once apparent; and a

simple rule is thus established for our guidance in representing

these objects.

It is not at all improbable that the tubular structure, often

so distinctly visible between the cells on the umbihcated side

(Faujasina, Operculina), is intimately connected with the deve-

lopment and growth of the pedicle, offering some analogy to the

cement-tubes of the Lepadide.

It is rather difficult to comprehend the nature of an animal

which is invested with an incompressible case, composed of cells,

which only communicate with one another by very small open-

ings, and with the exterior by still more minute perforations,

frequently amounting to a mere porosity. Moreover, each ad-

dition newly made is in a certain ratio larger than that which

preceded it, and parts once formed suffer no farther imerease

in size or change of form. In all these particulars the Fora-

minifera so differ from other forms of animal iife, that, as might

be expected, diversity of opinion and misconceptions respect-

ing their true position in the scale of being, have existed from

the days of Linnzus to the present time. That illustrious

naturalist referred them to the highest order of Mollusca, namely

the Cephalopods, and was supported in this fanciful idea by

succeeding anatomists of deserved celebrity ; but no one appears

to have questioned its truth until Dujardin proved its fallacy in

a memoir published in the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles,’

1835. Strange to say, however, the total absence of any affinity

existing between the Foraminifera and the Mollusca was not

generally admitted until the year 1846, when D’Orbigny, who

had laboured most in this field, abandoned his former views,

Mr.J.D. Macdonald on Foraminifera from the Feejee Islands. 195

and released the Cephalopods from a reputed alliance which

must have been based on the most superficial observation. An-

other idea, however, requiring some qualification, has been sub-

stituted by this naturalist, namely that the Foraminifera hold a

position intermediate between the Echinodermata and Polypifera.

“Much less complete than the Echinodermata or the Polypifera

as to their internal organization, they have, through their fila-

ments (pseudopodia), part of the locomotion of the former, and

are, by their isolated, non-aggregated, free existence, more ad-

vanced in the scale than the latter. This individual existence

of the Foraminifera, the liberty they enjoy, and their mode of

locomotion, are characters which deserve to be taken into con-

sideration *,”

The fancied resemblance of the pseudopodia, or the filaments

that protrude through the cell-walls of the Foraminifer, to the

ambulacral tubes of an EKchmus may partake somewhat of ana-

logy, but this does not necessarily imply affinity. Apart, how-

ever, from the internal anatomy of the Foraminifera (a subject

which I hope to enter upon more in detail at a future period),

I merely desire, at present, to reconcile the facts above stated,

from my own observations, with those doctrines so prominently

set forth in the quotation just given from D’Orbigny, namely

that these curious littie animals are free and locomotive.

The spicula of Sponges and Asteroid Polypes, and the minute

or embryonic shells of Gasteropoda, Pteropoda and Conchifera,

are usually found with the Foraminifera in sea-bottoms. The

pelagic shells descend into the deep by their own gravitation,

but the others are washed off from every coast and reef; thus,

millions of organic forms enrich the dark bed of the ocean and

smoothen its rugged surface. The muddy bottom outside the

Heads of Port Jackson is nearly altogether composed of these

materials, and a portion brought up from a depth of 70 fathoms

contained some few Foraminifers which I have not detected

elsewhere.

In connexion with the geological bearing of the subject now

briefly reviewed, it is of importance to observe that Lunudites

are frequently brought up on the sounding-lead, in much the

same condition as the Foraminifera, while living examples of

those Bryozoa are to be found on the Australian coast at the

depth of a few fathoms. I have not yet sufficiently proved their

existence in the recent state amongst the South Sea Islands,

though this can scarcely be doubted.

* D’Orbigny, Sur les Foraminiféres Fossiles du Bassin Tertiaire de

Vienne, as quoted in the English Cyclopzedia.

13*

196 M.E.Claparéde on the Development of Neritina fluviatilis.

XX,

On the Development of Neritina fluviatilis.

By E. Ciaparepe*.

THE capsules, which are usually taken for the eggs of the Neri-

tine, are round balls, a little flattened on one side, 0°7—1 mill.

im diameter, enclosed in a hard shell, which has been described

as calcareous, but which does not effervesce with acids. They

consist of two segments, firmly united at first, but readily sepa-

rable afterwards; the upper one is larger, and forms a hemi-

spherical dome ; the other is of a flatter form, and resembles a

bowl. Each female attaches her eggs to the back of her neigh-

bour, but not to her own. In the neighbourhood of Berlin this

is not the case, but the capsules are usually attached to stones,

or, where these are wanting, to the shells of Dreissene and other

Mollusca. When the capsules dehisce, the lower segment re-

mains attached, and this has given rise to an erroneous opinion

that the capsules corrode the surface of the shell, producing

small indentations: this appearance is caused by the raised

margins of the lower segments.

The capsules consist of two membranes, not easily separated :

the inner one is delicate, perfectly colourless, transparent and

structureless ; the outer thick, yellow and opake. The outer

membrane of the upper segment has sometimes an appearance

of cellular structure, which is due to adherent Diatomacez: the

outer membrane of this part exhibits no recognizable struc-

ture; that of the lower segment, however, shows a reticulated

structure, caused by round or oval spaces separated by darker

intervals. These are not cells, but lighter and probably thinner

spots in the capsule. ‘Their diameter varies from 0-006 to

0:04 mill.

The margins of the segments possess a horizontal border, like

the rim of a plate, 0-06 mill. in breadth ; these two borders are

in contact. Their surfaces are finely striated or furrowed, and

the adherence of the segments is doubtless caused by the raised

lines on the rim of one segment fitting into the furrows of the

other.

In the earliest stage of development observed, the capsules

contained from forty-five to sixty or more spheres. These

might have been globules of segmentation, as only a single em-

bryo was developed in each capsule; this was originally very

* An abstract of part of M. Claparéde’s paper “ On the Anatomy and

Development of Neritina fluviatilis,” in Miller’s Archiv, 1857, pp. 109-248.

This abstract is confined to the portion which refers to the earliest develop-

ment of Neritina, as this alone bears upon the opposite views of the de-

velopment of these Mollusca held by Dr. Carpenter and MM. Koren and

Danielssen.—W. S. D.

M. BE. Claparéde on the Development of Neritina fluviatilis. 197

minute, and gradually increased in size, whilst the yelk-mass

disappeared in the same proportion. But they had exactly the

appearance of segmented eggs: they were yellow, transparent

globules, 0:12—0°07 mill. in diameter, and appeared to be com.

posed of a great many smaller spheres. The latter were per-

fectly transparent, their surface alone being sparingly sprinkled

with small, strongly refractive, vitelline granules. “The spheres

presented ‘the greatest resemblance to the eg ge of Modiolaria

marmorata in the last stage of segmentation, as figured by Lovén.

No vitelline membrane could be detected with certainty upon

them: when crushed, a sort of empty envelope was obtained,

but this deliquesced immediately. The small internal globules

(nuclei) presented a distinct contour, but they were not true

cells, contained no nucleolus, and, when pressed, broke up like

lumps of a gelatinous or fatty substance. Lovén mentions the

same thing with regard to the nuclei of Mediolaria.

The diameter of the spheres coutained in the capsules exactly

agreed with that of the mature eggs from the upper part of the

oviduct ; and it was scarcely probable that in their progress to

the vaginal orifice they would acquire fifty or sixty times that

bulk. New matter would certainly have exhibited a different

nature from the rest of the yelk, but the 45-60 spheres were

exactly similar. The capsules were therefore to be regarded as

containing numerous eggs

The development of the single embryo in this case could not

take place in the way described by Koren and Danielssen, as

the smallest embryos were not much larger than the segmented

eges, so that the embryo must be fitane in aecordance ai the

or rdinary law, from a single egg. The embryo in the period of

rotatory movement is a ground creature, ciliated on its whole

surface, with a diameter of 0°112 mill., or about the same as

that of a moderate-sized egg. It turned round within the vitel-

line membrane, which was now distinct, although soft ; its con-

tents formed an opake coarsely granular mass, a sort of emulsion

of larger or smaller fatty drops, in which the peripheric layer

was not clearly perceptible, probably from its beimg very thin.

In most known larve of Mollusca, the rotating embryo is clothed

with cilia, which are either produced beneath the vitelline mem-

brane, through which they afterwards penetrate, or formed upon

that membrane itself ; in Cardium, however, according to Lovén,

the same thing occurs as in Neritina. The only embryo seen

in this condition died before breaking through the vitelline

membrane.

The embryo developed from one egg devours the other eggs, as

was stated by Carpenter, in opposition to Koren and Danielssen,

to be the case in Purpura. In Purpura, as in Neritina, all the

198 M.E. Claparéde on the Development of Nevitina fluviatilis.

spheres undergo segmentation, but they are not surrounded by

a peculiar membrane. There is no perceptible difference be-

tween them; and in Nevitina no such distinction in the mode

of segmentation as that discovered by Busk in Purpura, was to

be seen. The only difference is in their ultimate destiny ; and

it appears probable that the genesis of both structures is the

same, as the segmentation of the “ egg-lke bodies” is in favour

of their being true eggs; and the distinction observed by Busk

may not be of great importance, as it is asserted only that many

of the “egg-lke bodies” contained in the capsule exhibit a very

marked irregularity in the first segmentation; so that it is not

impossible that the others might have presented the same thmg

less distinctly ; and, moreover, there is no certain proof that the

former were really the so-called true eggs. All the eggs in the

capsules both of Neritina and Purpura may therefore be regarded

as genuine eggs, but how most of them are arrested in their

development still remams a mystery.

When the abortive spheres in the eapsules of Purpura have

undergone segmentation, they exhibit a deeided tendency to

become amalgamated, and adhere to each other with such tena-

city, that they cannot be separated without difficulty ; finally,

their boundary-lines disappear entirely, and there remains only

a uniform conglomeration of small vitellme segments. This

never occurs in Neritina. At the time when the embryo makes

its appearance, the abortive segmented eggs split up mto groups

of globules, each of which is about half the size of an entire egg,

and sometimes even smaller. These usually consist of one large

and numerous smaller yelk-spherules. But there is never even

a slight mutual adhesion of these groups, and they remain sepa-

rate until they disappear by being devoured by the embryo.

The observation of the different stages of development was

rendered difficult by the opacity of the capsules, which required

to be opened to enable their contents to be examimed, and by

the fact that the Neritine do not lay their eggs in eaptivity,

probably because the still water does not suit them. The

smallest embryos deteeted, which had completely lost their ciliary

coat, formed an irregular cylinder, divided into two parts by a

circular notch; these parts may be distinguished as “ cephalic”

and “abdominal,” names employed by Vogt in Acteon. The

cephalic portion bears an elevation on its dorsal surface, forming

a more or less distinct oval swelling, beset with very delicate

cilia. ‘This is the first trace of the velum. Close before it, at

the anterior end of the animal, is a shallow impression,—the

mouth. Immediately below this a disciform organ soon makes

its appearance, which is at first very narrow and short, but gra-

dually increases in size posteriorly. This is the first indication

M. E. Claparede on the Development of Neritina fluviatilis. 199

of the still inoperculate foot. At this period the internal organs

of the abdominal part or true body are not recognizable. The

velum very soon increases rapidly, becoming developed like a

hem, whilst its margin acquires longer, more distinct, and more

numerous cilia. This margin grows considerably thicker in

proportion to the membrane of the velum. In the abdomen a

spacious cavity is formed, and in this a quantity of forma-

tive mass collects as an aggregation of fatty drops of various

sizes. ‘The foot forms an oval organ possessing thick walls and

an inner cavity which seems to be in connexion with that of

the abdomen. The foot is still completely destitute of cilia.

The pit-like anterior impression becomes converted into a trans-

verse buccal orifice, which leads into a tubular cesophagus. The

entrance into the mouth is ciliated all round, as is the whole

surface of the cesophagus. The same thing was seen by other

observers in the embryos of many Mollusca.

Thus the alimentary canal makes its appearance in the em-

bryo of Neritina as soon as the foot, or perhaps sooner. In

Acteon, according to Vogt, the alimentary organs are very

late in appearing, ;—much later, for example, than the otolithes

and the shell. The same was observed by Sars, Lovén, &c.,

especially in the Nudibranchiata; and, according to Koren and

Danielssen, the formation of the heart in Buccinum precedes

that of the cesophagus, although this appears improbable, both

from Carpenter’s statements with regard to Purpura, and from

what takes place in Neritina. In Neritina the cesophagus is

formed and lined with cilia before the first traces of the auditory

and visual organs, the shell, &c., have appeared ; and Carpenter

met with the same conditions in Purpura. Leydig also says

that the embryos of Paludina are furnished with a ‘mouth and

anus, and the foundations of the pharynx and intestine, before

any trace of an ear exists.

This early appearance of the alimentary organs is of great im-

portance for the further development of the Neritina. From

this moment it is no longer a mere immature embryo, but a

larva, swimming freely about in the capsule, and feeding upon

the remaining contents of the latter, the sister-eggs, which have

not arrived at development. This is not a mere assertion, ren-

dered probable by the gradual increase of the minute embryo

and the simultaneous disappearance of the rest of the yelk-mass,

until the embryo fills the whole capsule,—but a fact proved by

observation. If the capsule be opened carefully, the little em-

bryo escapes and swims about amongst the numerons groups of

globules already mentioned as formed by the breaking-up of the

abortive eggs, which are perfectly transparent and of a pale

golden-yellow colour; they consist of a homogeneous, tenacious,

200 M.E.Claparéde on the Development of Neritina fluviatilis.

fat-like substance. These globules are enveloped by a thin,

colourless layer of a mucous matter, in which extremely fine

yelk-granules are imbedded. This is the food of the young

Neritina. The larva swims about in the water under the miero-

scope, and is soon seen to approach a yelk-mass and give it a

revolving motion by means of the cilia of the velum, whilst. the

animal itself is stationary. By this means the globules are

brought to the mouth, not to be swallowed at once, but merely

licked away. They are constantly turned before the mouth,

whilst the granules of the colourless outer layer are torn away

and swallowed by means of the cilia. They pass into the funnel-

shaped pharynx, where they are kept in tremulous movement by

the cilia, until they reach the abdominal cavity and unite with

the accumulation of nutritive material already existing there:

Although the yelk-granules of a globule are seen continually pass-

ing into the pharynx, their number does not pereeptibly diminish ;

so that one is compelled to suppose that new granules are formed,

probably from the transparent yelk-globule, to replace those

which are swallowed. This feeding of the young Neritine in

the capsule suffices to explain their great increase of size; for

towards the end of its embryonal life the animals have attained

forty to sixty times their original volume. Carpenter states that

in Purpura this feeding can rarely be observed, and only under

peculiarly favourable circumstances ; in Neriéina it may be seen

with almost every embryo. The young animal sometimes swal-

lowed foreign bodies besides the yelk, when they came within

reach of the cilia of the velum: a Navicula or a Synedra was

several times carried mto the pharynx. It must be remarked

that Koren and Danielssen represent the abdomen in young

embryos of Purpura and Buccinum as filled with an aggregation

of yelk, consisting of uninjured eggs, although the cesophagus

is too narrow to allow of the passage of these. No eggs are

found in the abdominal cavity of embryos of Neriétina in the

corresponding state, but merely an aggregation of larger or

smaller granules or drops, agreeing mm nature and colour with

the vitellme substance. Nevertheless, the nutriment, when

swallowed, not very unfrequently cakes together within the em-

bryo in such a manner that similar formations might easily have

been mistaken by the Scandinavian naturalists for eggs. Their

statements with regard to the original aggregation and fusion

of the eggs for the formation of embryos, does not agree with

what takes place in Neritina; so that Carpenter has probably

come nearer to the truth.

It is only after the embryo of Neritina has reached a certain

size, acquired a mouth and csophagus, and eaten foreign yelk,

that the shell makes its appearance, and soon afterwards the

Prof, C. Gegenbaur on Trachelius ovum. 201

operculum and organs of the senses show themselves. At this

time the velum has reached its greatest development, and it then

gradually diminishes. The tentacles first appear as small tu-

beréles‘close to the eyes, and gradually increase until they form

distinct tentacles by the time the animal quits the capsule,

When the velum has completely disappeared, and the triturating

plate and lingual cartilage have made their appearance, the cap-

sule opens and the little Neritina escapes, to live henceforward

in freedom. It creeps about upon the Dreissena whose shell

bore its egg-capsule, and finds upon this the microscopic or-

ganisms which now serve for its nourishment instead of its

sister-yelks.

XXI.— Observations on Trachelius ovum, Ehrenberg.

By Professor Cart GEGENBAUR*.

In the course of last November I met with an Infusorium, which,

at the first glance, I took to be Trachelius ovum. Of this, how-

ever, | soon began to entertain doubts, although I could discover

no known form with which there existed any agreement. For

this purpose I could only consult Ehrenberg and Dujardin.

The outlines agreed with Trachelius ovum, and the form of the

“intestine” also was in general the same as in that species.

The longitudinal series of cilia, however, were far more nume-

rous ; and beneath the cuticula, in the walls of the body, a great

many vesicles, arranged at regular distances apart, lay imbedded :

with a moderate magnifying power, these looked almost like nu-

clei, but they were really contractile organs. I reckoned their

number at from 50 to 60. They were not spherical, but discoid ;

they contracted very slowly, and out of about ten which might be

watched at the same time, | never found more than one or two

in action. In Ehrenberg’s figure of Trachelius ovum, something

is represented that may be referred to these organs. A little

above the middle of the body there is a large, richly ciliated

cleft, which I regard as the mouth. It leads by a pouch-lke

prolongation, which is also ciliated, into a finely granular organ,

which passes through nearly the whole length of the animal,

and which possesses a very different form in different specimens.

This part never lies in the middle of the body, but always nearer

to the side on which the buccal slit is situated, where it is also

partially amalgamated with the wall of the body. Numerous

processes, consisting of hyaline or finely granular substance,

issuing from this ‘‘intestiniform”’ organ, penetrate the cavity of

ra Translated by W.S. Dallas, F’.L.S., from Miiller’s Archiv, June 1857,

Pp: 4:

202 Prof. C. Gegenbaur on Trachelius ovum.

the body, and become amalgamated with the wall of the body,

which is considerably thickened here and there. These trabe-

cule are contractile. In the principal mass of the structure

originating from the mouth, and which has been compared to

an ‘‘intestine,” I not unfrequently found balls of food, and

indeed always in the posterior and never in the anterior half of

the body, the direction of the pouch-like cleft bemg downwards.

Sometimes the balls of food were accumulated in the obtuse ex-

tremity of the body. They appear also to be capable of passing

through thin trabeculz, for not unfrequently one of these enclosed

a ball, often of considerable size, about the middle of its length.

I have given the name of “ intestine” to the branching sub-

stance passing through the body from the mouth, merely because

the food is always enclosed in it, but no further idea is to be

attached to this term. There exists no essential difference be-

tween it and the substance of the walls of the body.

In the substance enclosing the balls of food, however, there

lies an organ, which, in accordance with Siebold’s views, must

be designated the “nucleus.” It is a sharply circumscribed,

band-like structure, somewhat inflated at both ends, and com-

posed of closely appressed globules. One end is usually directed

forwards, the other backwards. Is this Ehrenberg’s band-like

gland? All individuals presented this organ; the form, size and

position certainly varied, but it always lay with its central part

close to the buccal cleft, which passed over it with its czecal process.

The buccal cleft, that is to say, what I regard as such, is not,

however, the only opening on the body. A far smaller one lies

further in front, a little below the moveable “ proboscis ;” at

that point also the wall of the body is more strongly thickened,

and produced into a trabecula, which is either united with the

rest of the trabecular system only by a very thin branch, or

inserted with its extremity at some point in the opposite wall.

I always found the opening to be of the same diameter; the

cilia surrounding it strike towards it. It leads into a tube which

is at first somewhat dilated and provided with firm walls, then

narrowed in the form of a funnel, but destitute of cilia through-

out; it frequently presents delicate longitudinal folds, and is

continued into the above-mentioned trabecula.

This aperture with its continuation has nothing except its

position in common with the orifice described by Ehrenberg in

Trachelius ovum. I have observed a great many individuals for

a long time under the microscope, but have never seen a dilata-

tion of the aperture; on the contrary, I have seen, although

rarely, a dilatation of the funnel-shaped extremity of the canal,

so that the lumen equalled the external aperture. At the same

time I also think I have seen an opening at the end of the canal ;

Prof. C. Gegenbaur on Trachelius ovum. 203

it appeared to be a longitudinal cleft, which closed again in a

moment, and left no trace after the walls of the extremity of the

canal had come in contact. The frequent union of the end of

the trabecula in question with the opposite wall of the body,

its delicacy, which often causes it to appear like a fine filament,

the constancy of the size of the external orifice, and the cireum-

stance that balls of food were never to be seen in its vicinity, or

indeed in the anterior portion of the body generally,—lead me

to conclude that this anterior aperture has nothing to do with

the reception of aliment.

It has already been mentioned, in the description of the buccal

orifice, the ‘intestine,’ and the trabecular system, that there is

a “general cavity” (Leibeshohle), and | regard this as not unim-

portant in judging of the nature of this creature. The general

cavity never contains food; and even when particles of food

project into it from the so-called “ intestine” and the trabecule,

they are still always enveloped by a distinctly perceptible layer

of the finely molecular substance of the body. The general

cavity is filled with a clear fluid, which never contains any

distinctly formed parts. I regard this fluid as water, and must

suppose that it is admitted through the above-mentioned canal.

{ have not seen this take place, and experimental feeding with

colours gave no result, probably because the delicate cilia stand-

ing round the small orifice prevented the entrance of molecules.

On the other hand, I am convinced that water is nevertheless

admitted.

Thus, when I had been for a long time observing an animal-

cule imprisoned in a narrow space, it happened, nearly every

time that I could wait long enough for it, that it suddenly con-

tracted strongly ; the trabecule shortened themselves, and the

form, which was originally full and tense, shrank into a de-

formed, irregular, and folded mass. 1 thought that I should

now see the zéio in partibus take place, but, by continued ob-

servation, I found not only that no particle separated from the

shrivelled body, which was evidently reduced in size much more

than half, but that the animal even continued to swim about

briskly. How little injury had been suffered by such a specimen

was evident when I put it into a more spacious capsule, for it

then very soon acquired the same form and size as before, and

on comparison with figures previously prepared, exhibited no

change, except that some trabecule had become amalgamated

together, whilst others had made their appearance. I have re-

peated this observation several times, and always with the same

results. How can the considerable alteration of volume be ex-

plained, except by the consecutive loss and reception of water ?

204 Dr. L. Radikofer on true Parthenogenesis in Plants.

XXII.— On true Parthenogenesis in Plants.

By Dr. L. Rapixorer, of Munich*.

Ir would indeed be difficult to find anywhere a more evident

proof of the imperfection of human knowledge than is furnished

by the contradictory results of the latest embryological investi-

gation, in the departments of zoology as well as of botany. If

our knowledge of the process of fecundation in animals appear

to have made an important step forward through the observation

of the penetration of the spermatozoids into the ovum,—if this

seemed to put beyond all doubt the material participation of the

spermatozoids in the formation of the embryo,—we must be

doubly surprised by the observation, that in particular—appa-

rently determinate—cases, the formation of the embryo occurs

without any cooperation of the spermatozoids, therefore without

previous fecundation of the ovum. This trne Parthenogenesis,

demonstrated with all the exactness which science can require

by Prof. Von Siebold+, in the Lepidoptera, and in the Bees

particularly, is paralleled by analogous cases in the neighbouring

domain of plants.

In calling the attention of zoologists for a moment to an

account of them, I have a twofold purpose: to convince those

still in doubt by the number of proofs, and to attract to the

subject itself as many observers as possible.

Embryological researches in the vegetable kingdom have kept

pace with those in the department of zoology. Analogues of

the animal ovum, analogues of the animal fecundating matter,

have been demonstrated in all groups of the vegetable kingdom,

with the exception of the Fungi and Lichens.

To the ovum corresponds the germ-vesicle of the Phanero-

gamia, of the Rhizocarpee, Equisetaceee, Ferns and Mosses;

and, besides this, the primordial spore-cell of the Alge. The

germ-vesicle (vegetable ovum) presents itself as a perfect cell,

furnished with a membrane and a cytoblast{; in the Alge we

find, instead of the perfect cell, one devoid of a membrane, an

ovum without an integument,—the naked primordial spore-cell.

To the spermatozoids contained in the spermatic fluid of ani-

mals, the material basis of which we must regard, according to

* Translated from Siebold and Kolliker’s Zeitschrift, vii. Heft 4 (1857),

by Arthur Henfrey, F.R.S. &c.

+ True Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees, &c. By C. Th. Von Siebold.

Translated by W. 8. Dallas, F.L.S. London, Van Voorst, 1857.

* We dissent from the author on this point, beleving that the unim-

pregnated germ-cell has not yet a cellulose membrane, but resembles the

unimpregnated spore of Fucus. See Annals of Nat. Hist. 2nd ser. xvii.

p- 217 (Sept. 1856).—[A. IL]

Dr. L. Radlkofer on true Parthenogenesis in Plants. — 205

researches now before us, either in its totality or in part, as the

proper fecundating power, as the actual fecundating substance,—

correspond the spontaneously moving form-elements (sper matozoids)

in the fertilizing (spermatic) fluid of plants. In some Algze and

in the Phanerogamia only are these form-clements wanting in

the fecundating ‘fluid ; the fertilizing fluid itself appears in these

cases as the fecundating substance.

Throughout the vegetable, as in the animal kingdom, the act

of fecundation i is completed by the fecundating matter—whether

it possesses an independent form or not—coming into unmediate

contact with the vegetable ovum and its contents*. This is the

case in particular in the Phanerogamia, as I have placed beyond

all doubt by my investigations+. As we shall have in the sequel

to speak more minutely, and exclusively, of this, it is requisite

to sketch briefly the process of fecundation in the Phanerogamia,

and in so doing, we may take the hberty, for the sake of sim-

plicity, to omit all reference to the fecundating processes of the

Coniferee and Cycadez, which deviate from those of the rest of

the Phanerogamia in many respects.

The ovum to be fertilized, the germ-vesicle, is contained, in

the Phanerogamia, in a large cell, the so-called embryo-sac,

which itself constitutes the centre of a variously constructed,

cellular organ, the seed-bud (gemmu/a—hitherto inconveniently

termed ovulum). This seed-bud (ovule) it is which, when per-

fectly developed, becomes, in its mature condition, the seed. It

is enclosed in the germen or ovarium, and usually a number of

these ovules occur in the same ovary.

The fecundating matier consists of the contents of isolated

cells, the pollen-grains. If one of these pollen-grains arrive at

the proper part of the ovary, upon the stigma, it undergoes

further development. The cell of which it consists grows, be-

comes tubular (pollen-tube), and penetrates through all the

parts lying between the stigma and the embryo-sac, so as at

length to allow its contents to pass over into the embryo-sac

and germ-vesicle, by endosmose, and thus to render the germ-

vesicle capable of further development, of forming an embryo.

It is no wonder, in the face of the observations on the material

participation of the fecundating substance in the formation of a

new plant (z.e., im the Phanerogamia, the formation of seeds),

mentioned at the beginning of this paper, that little faith

came to be placed in the accounts of the earlier botanists, of

* For the further explanation of the conditions here referred to, I would

direct the reader to my recent treatise “‘ Befruchtungsprocess im Pflanzen-

reiche,” &c., Leipsic, 1857. [A translation of this will shortly appear in

our pages, —Ep. Ann. Nat. Hist. J

+ Radlkofer, Die Befruchtung der Phanerogamen. Leipsic, 1856.

206 = Dr. L. Radlkofer on true Parthenogenesis in Plants.

cases of formation of seed without cooperation of the male organs,

of the pollen. The more surprising therefore are the proofs of

the reality of such cases which are here gathered from the most

recent observers.

In the first rank here must be mentioned the observations on

Ceelebogyne ilicifolia, a dicecious Euphorbiaceous plant, native of

Australia, female specimens of which were long since introduced

into England, and were widely distributed from there, before

the male plant had been detected by travellers in its native

country. No living specimens of the male plant have yet reached

Europe; only a dried shoot with male flowers exists in the

Herbarium at Kew. A glance at this suffices to show, from the

composition of the inflorescence of the plants, the impossibility

of the occurrence of a hermaphrodite flower in Colebogyne,

and to show, further, that if the exceptional case which has been

observed in other plants, of a production of male flowers on

female specimens of dicecious plants, occurred in Calebogyne

also, it could not be overlooked. Finally, all botanists who have

had an opportunity of examining the female plants of Calebogyne,

and among these are numerous authorities, agree in declaring

that no male organs occur on them. In spite, however, of the

fact that the exclusion of the fertilizing pollen of the same spe-

cies must here certainly be most perfect, the plants cultivated

at Kew annually ripen an abundance of seeds, from which even

the third or fourth generation of (female) plants have been raised

there.

Observation of the fact that at Kew the Calebogyne is kept in

company with other Euphorbiacez, led me to think, while stay-

ing there, that the enigma might probably find its solution in

the detection of a hybridation. Although this conjecture was

very much weakened by the simultaneous observation that the

progeny have hitherto preserved entirely the character of the

original mother-plant, yet I was more inclined even to the idea

that, as an exceptional case, a hybrid might be developed with

the characters of only one of its parents, than to believe that a

seed, and consequently an embryo, could be developed without

previous fecundation. I endeavoured to acquire certainty on

this point by the following means :—

1. An examination of the stigmas of all the ovaries (placed at

my disposal by the kindness of Sir W. Hooker, Director of the

Garden), in order to detect if pollen-grains were present; and

2. A search through the cavities of the ovaries and the ovules,

for the presence of pollen-tubes.

Among twenty-one ovaries which I examined, I found, upon

the stigma of one alone, a dried pollen-grain, which adhered to

the surface with other bodies which come under the denomina-

Dr. L. Radlkoter on true Parthenoyenesis in Plants, 207

tion of dust. No pollen-tube could be observed in this case.

It is further to be remarked, that no embryo could be found in

the ovules of this ovary, although it was at the proper age.

Each ovary contains three ovules. In none of these could be

discovered a pollen-tube, by the most careful examination, in

which, by longitudinal sections and subsequent dissection with

the needle, the path which the pollen-tube must have taken,

down to the embryo-sac, was visibly exposed. Neither could

any be found in the cavity of the ovary, outside the ovules.

In other Euphorbiacez, chosen for comparative investigation,

whose ovaries and ovules had essentially the same structure as

those of Calebogyne, and presented neither more nor less diffi-

culties than Calebogyne for the discovery of the pollen-tubes in

their course from the stigma to the embryo-sac, a pollen-tube

was readily demonstrated in the interior of the ovules.

Notwithstanding this absence of pollen-tubes in Caelebogyne—

in two-thirds of those ovules which were neither too young, nor

were rendered abortive by the overpowering growth of their

neighbours,—of the three ova (germ-vesicles) which were con-

tained in each embryo-sac, sometimes all, sometimes two, and

sometimes only one, were developed into young embryos, and the

particular stages of development in the formation of the em-

bryo were found to be perfectly in agreement with those which are

passed through, in other Euphorbiacee, after fecundation has

taken place.

After these observations, the idea of a hybridation in Celebo-

gyne must be given up. I think that I am rather warranted in

concluding from them—with the same certainty as Von Siebold

derived from the numerical proportion of the positive and nega-

tive results of his observations on the presence of spermatozoids

in the eggs of worker- and drone-bees—that in Celebogyne the

embryo really can be developed without a previous fecundation of

the ovum. PY

A testimony in favour of the correctness of this assumption

is furnished by the behaviour of the stigmas of our Calebogyne-

plants, upon which the first observer of the Parthenogenesis of

Celebogyne, J. Smith*, very properly laid great weight.

In all plants which are regularly fertilized, in which a suffi-

cient number of pollen-grains arrive at the stigmas of the ovary,

to provide the ovules with the requisite pollen-tubes, the expan-

sion of the ovary, which takes place simultaneously with the

development of the embryo, is the signal for the decomposition

of the stigmas: they wither, dry, and mostly separate from the

ovary. The delivery by the cells of the stigma of the material

* Linnean Transactions, xviii. p. 509.

208 = Dr. L. Radlkofer on true Parthenoyenesis in Plants.

necessary for the development of the pollen-tubes from the pol-

len-grains, brings in its train the immediate death of the former,

and a destructive action upon the stigmas is usually ascribed to

the pollen-grains. In our Celebogyne,on the contrary, the stigma

not only does not wither and dry up at the epoch in which

the development of the embryo is announced by the expansion

of the ovary, but it grows and increases in size simultaneously

with the enlargement of the ovary.

We are indeed deficient here in comparative observations on

the behaviour of the stigmas of individuals regularly exposed to

the influence of the pollen, which hitherto could only be ex-

amined in the native country of Celebogyne; and a doubt may

perhaps be expressed whether we may venture to take the per-

sistent enlargement of the stigmas of Celebogyne as a proof that

no pollen has acted upon them, or whether we may not have to

do here with an exceptional peculiarity, opposed to the ordinary

behaviour of plants. For the removal of this doubt, however,

facts come to our aid from other quarters, facts which we have

become acquainted with through a series of observations on the

occurrence of Parthenogenesis in the vegetable kingdom, which

we place in a second rank.

Spallanzani’s observation, of the power of reproduction pos-

sessed by the female plant. of Hemp (Cannabis sativa), without

the cooperation of pollen, has been subjected, m the last few

years, by Ch. Naudin of Paris, to repeated test-experiments, the

investigations being extended at the same time to Mercurialis

annua and Bryonia divica*. From all these plants he has ob-

tained fertile seeds, z.e. seeds containing an embryo, in spite of

the exclusion of the pollen. The plants raised from these, in

Cannabis, were male and female: no statement is made on this

point in reference to the other plants.

With regard to the results obtained in Bryon, we shall not

place any dependence upon them, since the specimens used in

the investigations were cultivated in the open ground, and there-

fore could not be guarded from the influence of the pollen with

all the precautions requisite in such experiments.

The female Hemp-plants were, however, raised in a detached,

constantly closed chamber, so that the advent of pollen-grains,

either of the same or other species, was most improbable ;—I

will not say it was impossible, for I will not deny to accident

the pleasure of now and then intervening when we least expect

it, and since we even know that ordinary door- and window-

fittings can be no absolute obstacle to the entrance of pollen-

* Bullet. de la Soc. Botan. de France, xii. p. 754, No. 11. Paris, 1855;

and Comptes Rendus, xliii. p. 538 (1856).

Dr. L. Radlkofer on true Parthenogenesis in Plants. 209

grains. The impossibility of the action of Hemp-pollen, at

least, was, however, really secured by the circumstance that the

period of the experiment did not coincide with the epoch of

flowering of the Hemp cultivated in fields and gardens. For

the absence of any abnormally developed male flowers from

the plants used, we have the testimony of the eyes of Naudin

and Decaisne. I owe it to Decaisne’s kindness that I myself

had an opportunity of seeing one of these plants. Nothing

could be stranger than their appearance: the plant was just

ripening its fruits; these ripening fruits were, however, still

crowned by long feather-like stigmas, im which there was no

trace of commencement of withering,—and this at an epoch

when the ovaries of the same plants which have been exposed

to the action of pollen have long lost their stigmas.

The same phenomenon was observed in plants of Mercurialis

annua, which Thuret of Cherbourg raised in a closed chamber,

excluding males, for the purpose of testing Naudin’s experiments.

Here also, giving not a little peculiarity to the whole habit, the

highly developed fruits were still, when they had attained nearly

their full size, furnished with wnwithered stigmas, which had

enlarged in proportion with the growing ovaries; while in such

specimens as vegetate under regular conditions, in company

with male plants, the stigmas are very transitory, and always

wither and fall off when the expansion of the ovary has scarcely

begun. Dissection proved that the seeds of those plants raised

in closed chambers contained embryos.

This unusual and remarkable behaviour of the stigmas cannot

be ascribed to any other circumstance than this,—that they had

not been exposed to the action of the pollen; that their cells had

not been called upon to give up any part of their contents for

the nutrition of the tubes growing from the pollen-grains. The .

researches on Cannabis and Mercurialis complete the above-

mentioned observation of the peculiar behaviour of the stigmas

in Celebogyne, in a manner calculated to remove completely any

doubt that might still prevail in that case. This behaviour of

the stigmas is the surest evidence that the exclusion of the pollen

in the experiments on Cannabis and Mercurialis, and, in like

manner, on Celebogyne, was not merely probably but actually

complete; and we are no longer compelled, in making certain of

this, to trust to the supposed sufficiency of the artificial means

of exclusion, nor to the belief in the impossibility of our eyes

being deceived.

Thus, then, is proved the existence of Parthenogenesis in the

vegetable kingdom.

Circumstances, unfortunately, did not allow of my giving the

same negative testimony, as in the case of Calebogyne, as to the

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 14.

210 ~=Dr. L. Radlkofer on true Parthenogenesis in Plants.

absence of pollen-tubes in the ovaries and ovules of Cannabis

and Mercurialis,—nor to institute here, as I did in that case,

comparative investigations on the development of the fecundated

and the virgin ova into embryos. I trust to be able to do so

hereafter.

Reviewing the facts which compel us to transfer the idea of

Parthenogenesis in the vegetable kingdom from the domain of

chimeras into the domain of reality, we find them, briefly, as

follows :—

A. We are acquainted, in the specimens of Calebogyne culti-

vated in Europe, with plants in which the participation of the

pollen of the same plant in the production of the embryo is im-

possible. The participation of the pollen of any allied piant is

rendered in the highest degree improbable by the absence of all

signs of hybridation in the progeny.

The absence of any such participation is directly demonstrated

here by microscopic investigation.

This evidence is strengthened by the behaviour of the stigmas

of the ripening ovaries. Our observations on this point can of

course be only one-sided, but they are rendered good testimony

by the support derived from analogy.

B. In other plants (Cannabis, Mercurialis) we may acknowledge,

not indeed the impossibility, but the great improbability of an

action of the pollen of the same or allied plants on flowering

female plants kept in closed chambers.

For the absence of such action we are still without the nega-

tive proof, derived from microscopic examination, which we must

never dispense with in scientific questions. On the other hand,

we have a supplementary positive proof of it in the behaviour of

the stigmas, on which we here possess observations made on all

sides and mutually corrective.

We might greatly increase the number of these cases of Par-

thenogenesis, if we made use of the statements for whose accuracy

we might take the name of the observers as surety. But we

prefer, in so important a question, in which is involved the

upsetting of a physiological law which is supposed to have been

just certainly established by the most recent researches,—not to

advance beyond our own observations; moreover, it was not

part of our plan to give a list of the cases in which Partheno-

genesis had been observed, but only a statement of those in

which and through which it could be demonstrated.

Munich, Dec. 4, 1856.

Zoological Society. 211

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

December 9, 1856.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

Descriptions or CoLeoprerous INSECTS IN THE COLLEC-

TION OF THE British MusreuM, HITHERTO APPARENTLY

UNNOTICED. By ApAm WHITE.

Tn addition to the species described in my previous paper (Annals,

vol. xviil. p. 475), I have reason to believe that the following are also

new.

1, DevcALIon WoLuasTONyI, 0. s.

D. aterrimus ; capite post oculos in mare elongato, thorace levi-

gato, lateribus inermibus, elytris dorso depressis, a basi ultra

medium punctato-impressis, singulis lineis tribus levibus longi-

tudinalibus.

Hab. Lord Howe’s Island.

Although this Longicorn differs in some particulars from either of

the species of Mr. Wollaston’s most interesting genus, I am unwilling

to form another genus for its reception till the group has been more

studied. The antennz in the female are considerably longer than

the elytra: in the male they are very long; the head in the male is

considerably produced behind the eyes; the thorax is twice con-

stricted : above the surface is smooth, beneath before the fore legs it

is delicately and closely transversely striated.

2. MoNEILEMA ALBO-PICTUM, DN. 8.

M. aterrimum, thorace elytrisque pilis albis variegatis ; oculis

antice pilis albis marginatis, capite inter oculos pilis albis

ornato.

Long. lin. 81.

Hab. Mexico.

3. MONEILEMA LEVIDORSALE, DN. S.

M. aterrimum, supra leve ; elytris lateribus valde compressis, bast

punctatis, dorso carina separatis.

Long. lin. 8.

Hab. Mexico.

4. MoneEILEMA ? LONGIPES, N. 8.

M. scabriuscule punctatum, aterrimum ; pedibus elongatis crassis,

thoracis lateribus obsolete tuberculatis ; tarsis subtus fulvis.

Long. lin. 8. ;

Hab. “China?”

This species differs somewhat in form from the others; it is longer

and less squat ; the spine on each side of the thorax is almost obso-

lete ; the legs, especially the femora, are longer and thicker; the

coxee have no spot of hairs. It is rather coarsely and generally

212 Zoological Society :-—

punctured, even on the legs and the antenne; the tibize of all the

legs are considerably bent at their origin.

This was obtained on the voyage of H.M.S. Sulphur, and is more

likely to be from the west coast of America than from China.

5. ANISOCERUS ONCA.

A. pallide ochraceus rufescenti tinctus ; capite thoraceque nigro

maculatis et fasciatis ; elytris singulis 17-18 maculis nigris ;

corpore subtus nigro fasciato ; antennis articulo tertio apice

nigro-fasciculato ; tibiis tarsisque pallidis, tibiis apice nigris.

6. ANISOCERUS CAPUCINUS.

A. ater, genis miniaceo vittatis ; scutello nigro ; elytris miniaceis,

fasciis tribus transversis et macula ante apicem nigris, sutura

nigra.

7. ANISOCERUS DULCISSIMUS.

A. ater, genis miniaceo vittatis ; elytris sulphureis seu albido-

flavescentibus ; fascia basali angusta et scutello miniaceis,

fascia lata ante medium obscure miniacea ; marginibus apicali

et laterali miniaceis ; punctis quatuor nigris in parte postica

elytrorum.

These three fine species of the peculiarly Brazilian genus Aniso-

cerus are described in the second part of the Museum Catalogue of

Longicorn Beetles, pp. 405, 406. It is just possible that the two

last so-called species may eventually be found to be one. We have

two specimens of the last which differ from each other in coloration,

and probably connecting varieties may yet be sent to our collections

from the banks of the Amazon. The A. capucinus was first ob-

tained at Para by J. P. George Smith, Esq. of Liverpool; the 4.

dulcissimus was found on the Tapayos, a tributary of the Amazon,

by Mr. Bates, who also sent the 4. Onca from Ega, a locality on the

same great river, which has proved to be very prolific in insect life.

8. PHHZDINUS XANTHOMELAS, 0. S.

P. niger ; abdomine subtus pallido, elytris sulphureis, apice macu-

laque ante medium nigris; femoribus subtus ultra medium

ciliatis.

Long. lin. 63.

Hab. Villa Nova, in ripis fluvii Amazon (Coll. Bates).

Head rather wide, black ; eyes ferruginous ; a yellow mark on the

clypeus, with many scattered punctures. Antennz with the two basal

joints shining, the others dull; joints from the third to the tenth

dilated triangularly at the tip on the inner edge ; terminal joint ob-

long, sides parallel, tip pointed. Thorax densely punctured and

hairy, a smooth spear-shaped space on the back in the middle, pointed

in front, a tubercle on each side; scutellum black. Elytra rounded

at the tip, of a sulphur-yellow, each broadly tipped with black, and

having a subtriangular spot just before the middle ; each elytron with

two parallel costze, evanescent about the middle just behind the black

Mr. A. White on new Coleopterous Insects. 213

spot which lies across them. Under side of abdomen pale ochra-

ceous ; legs black ; femora grooved beneath at the base, edges of the

groove ciliated with pale hairs.

Having only seen a single specimen of this curious species, I am

unwilling to give it a new generic name, although its short form,

simple sternum, grooved and ciliated femora, and the soft under side

of the abdomen, with other characters, show that it differs considerably

from Phedinus.

9. PH@BE CONCINNA, Ui. 8.

P. albido-pubescens ; thorace postice pallide violaceo, elytris pallide

violaceis, fascia latiuscula ante apicem alba, pedibus pallide

Jlavis, antennis basi flavis, apice fuscis, capite bicornuto.

Long. lin. 5-53.

Hab. Ega, on the banks of the Amazon (Coll. Bates).

A most delicately coloured species of the genus Phebe of Serville.

The head, thorax, and body are clothed with a dense white pubes-

cence ; the hinder part of the thorax has a pale violet band with a

projecting lobe in front. The elytra are covered with a most deli-

cate pale violet pubescence, passing into white at the tip, and with a

rather wide transverse white band before the tip, widest at the sutures.

The antenne spring from a portion of the head, which divides each

eye into two portions ; the first four joints are pale yellow, the others

are brown ; the face has two projecting upturned horns, which are

sharp and brown, and when viewed in front have a semicircular out-

line. The abdominal segments beneath in the middle and at the

end are tinged with yellowish-pmk. ‘The legs are of a delicate

yellow.

10. AGELASTA CALLIZONA, N.S.

A. nigra, supra pube curta griseola reticulata; elytris fascia trans-

versa mediana rubescente albo-reticulata, apice rubescentibus ;

Semoribus supra tibiis basi rubescentibus, tibiis apice nigro-

fasciculatis, tarsis aurato-fulvis, articulis basalibus supra

nigris.

Long. lin. 6-94.

Hab. Sarawak, Borneo (Coll. A. R. Wallace).

Blackish, with scattered punctures ; the head, thorax, and elytra

reticulated all over with a short griseous pubescence ; the elytra at

the tip and a transverse band across the middle of a pinkish-red, re-

ticulated with white ; sides of thorax, plate above, middle legs, and

band behind base of hind legs pinkish-red ; femora on the upper side

and tibiz, except at tip, pinkish-red ; tibize at the ends black, and

clothed thickly with hairs. Tarsi of a tawny golden-yellow, the

base of the last joint above and the upper side of other joints black.

Antennz blackish-brown ; basal joint the longest, reticulated with

griseous pubescence; five terminal joints short, brown-black, the

others ringed; the sixth joint pinkish-grey, except at the tip, which is

black.

214 Zoological Society :—

11. AGELASTA WALLACHI, n. 8.

A. capite nigro-fusco, ochraceo vittato ; thorace nigro-fusco, late-

ribus albidis, dorso ochraceo quinque-lineato tribus lineis abbre-

viatis ; elytris nigro-fuscis, fascia lata alba transversa ; ely-

tris singulis basi ochraceo uni-guttatis, apice quinque-maculatis ;

pedibus ochraceis, tarsis supra nigris.

Cat. Longicorns, Brit. Mus. pt. 2. pl. 10. f. 10.

Long. lin. 6-8.

Hab. Borneo (Sarawak) (Coll. A. R. Wallace).

Head blackish-brown, cheeks and face banded with ochraceous

pubescence, crown with three ochraceous lines ; antennz dark ferru-

ginous, outside of first joint and base of the four succeeding joints

pale ochreous. Thorax blackish-brown, sides margined with whitish

pubescence ; the back with five longitudinal ochraceous lines, two

extending from front to hind margins, the alternate three abbreviated.

Scutellum of a deep blackish-brown. Elytra deep blackish-brown,

with a very wide white pubescent band, which is continued on the

underside of the thorax ; an ochraceous spot at the base, a little

white spot on the suture behind the scutellum; each elytron with

five ochraceous marks on the apical half, three on the suture. Legs

ochreous ; femora subferruginous ; tarsi above black ; claw, except at

the base and tip, ochreous.

12. AGELASTA AMICA, N.S.

A. nigrescenti-fusca; eapite thoraceque albo-lineatis, elytris rufo-

fuscis cinereo polystictis, punctis majoribus nigris, fasctis dua-

bus subundatis nigris, anteriore interrupta.

Long. lin. 6-64.

Hab. Borneo (Sarawak) (Coll. A. R. Wallace).

Blackish-brown ; head lineolated longitudinally with white. Tho-

rax above with about ten white lineolets arranged longitudinally.

Scutellum blackish. Elytra mostly covered with a light reddish-

brown pubescence, varied with many small black dots, and with two

transverse, somewhat waved, black bands, the anterior ones inter-

rupted. Abdomen black, sides with white pubescence, edges ciliated

with white; sides beneath with greyish pubescence; middle black, sides

spotted with black. Legs cimereous ; tarsi and tips of tibize black.

13. AGELASTA POLYNESUS, 0. s.

A. nigro-brunnea ; capite thoraceque cinereo lineatis ; scutello ci-

nereo ; elytris cinereo irregulariter lineatis et notatis ; pedibus

cinereo-pubescentibus.

Cat. Longicorns, Brit. Mus. pt. 2. pl. 10. f. 9.

Long. lin. 6-74.

Hab. Borneo (Sarawak).

Of a very dark ferruginous brown. Head with five cinereous lines

and a short one behind each antenna. Thorax with seven cinereous

pubescent lines, the central one the slightest; scutellum cinereous ;

elytra covered with many irregular pubescent cinereous lines and

Mr. R. F. Tomes on the species of Lasiurus. 215

marks, well relieved by the dark blackish-brown background ;

underside covered with whitish pubescent hairs; abdomen down the

middle nearly bare of hairs; legs with cinereous pubescence.

14. AGeLasta NEWMANNI, 0. s.

A. cerulescenti-cinerea, pubescens ; thorace nigro transversim unt-

fasciato, elytris nigro bifasciatis et maculatis.

Long. lin. 63.

Hab. Borneo (Sarawak) (Coll. A. R. Wallace).

The greater part of the insect covered with a bluish-grey pubes-

cence ; the head with some black marks ; the antennee black, the five

basal joints bluish-grey at the base; thorax above with a transverse

black band, the front and hind margins running into the greyish

pubescent part. Scutellum covered with grey pubescence. Elytra

with two transverse black bands, one before, the other behind the

middle ; the parts clothed with greyish pubescence have a few black

spots, those between the bands arranged transversely, those at the

apex triangularly.

February 24, 1857.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

A MonoGRrRaApH OF THE GENUS LASIURUS.

By Rosert F, Tomes, Esa.

The object of the present memoir is rather to enumerate and de-

scribe all the species at present arranged under the above name, than

to enter into the claims of the group to be considered as a distinct

genus.

An attempt is also made to give a tolerably correct synonymy ;

but there are so many descriptions which appear to refer to varieties

only, as to render this part of the work by no means easy, and not

altogether satisfactory. Attached to the account given of the first

species on the list—Zasiurus noveboracenstes—will be seen a rather

voluminous list of synonyms ; and it may appear as if too little regard

had been paid to the labours of other writers, in thus reducing to one

species what has by them been considered as constituting at least

six. But in the examination of a large number of examples, I have

felt myself quite unable to come to any other conclusion than the

one here given. The various descriptions apply to the same species

under the influence of the climate of different degrees of latitude.

Thus the Vespertilio noveboracensis answers well to the account

given of it in its proper locality ; but as we proceed southward, we

find that a Bat occurs, having precisely the same form and size, but

differing somewhat in the colouring of the fur; and this difference

continues to increase until we reach the tropical parts of America,

where a bright ferruginous colour completely supersedes the original

hoary-brown, or, as it might not improperly be called, roan-colour.

At various localities it has been met with by travellers, and the

colour of the fur varying in most of them, has given rise to the

216 Zoological Society :—

great multiplicity of names. A large series has passed under review

whilst preparing this paper, and the most exact and rigorous exami-

nation, both externally and internally, has failed to afford any mate-

rial difference, beyond that of colour.

I have already referred this to the effect of climate; but it is

necessary to add, that the colour of the fur is so capricious, even in

the temperate parts of North America, that Major Le Conte, when

describing specimens from the vicinity of Philadelphia, found the

varieties so perplexing, that he could give no very definite description.

However, it may be stated, that generally the North American

examples are some mixture of brown or rufous, thickly sprinkled

with white, giving a hoary appearance ; whilst those from ‘Tropieal

America are almost uniformly of a bright ferruginous hue, without

any mixture of white.

1. LaAstURUS NOVEBORACENSIS, Erxl.

Vespertilio noveboracensis, Erxl. Syst. Reg. Anim. p. 195, 1777 ;

Harl. Faun. Amer. p. 20, 1825; Godm. Amer. Nat. Hist. i. p. 50,

1826; Fisch. Synop. Mam. p. 114, 1829; Coop. Ann. Lye. N. H.

New York, iv. p. 57,1837; Le Conte, Pe Acad. Nat. Sei. Philad.

1855.

New York Bat, Penn. Arct. Zool. p. 184, 1792; Synop. Quad.

p- 367, 1771.

Vespertilio rubellus, Palisot de Beauvois, Cat. Peale’s Mus. 1796.

Vespertilio lasiurus, Linn. edit. Gmel. 1788; Schreib. Saugt.

1826 ; Geoff. Ann. du Mus. viii. p.200, 1806; Desm. Mam. p. 142,

1820; Fisch. Synop. Mam. p. 109, 1829.

Vespertilio Blosseivillii, Less. et Garn. Bull. des Sci. Nat. viii.

p- 95; Fisch. Synop. Mam. p. 110, 1829.

Vespertilio Bonariensis, Less. Voy. de la Coquille, 1829.

Fespertilio villosissimus, Geoff. Ann. du Mus. viii. p. 478, 1806;

Desm. Mam. p. 143, 1820; Fisch. Synop. Mam. p. 110, 1829;

Rengg. Saugt. von Parag. p. 83, 1830; Wagn. Supp. Schreib. Sauet.

1. p. 536, 1840.

Vespertilio monachus et V. tessellatus, Raf.?

Nycticejus noveboracensis, Temm. Mon. u. p. 158, 1835-41 ;

Wagn. Supp. Schreib. Saugt. i. p. 546, 1840 ; Schinz, Synop. Mam.

i. p. 199, 1844.

Nyct. varius, Poep. Reise in Chili, i. p. 451, 1835 ; Wagn. Supp.

Schreib. Saugt. i. p. 547, 1840.

Nyct. Atalapha, Raf.?

Atalapha Americana, Raf. Prin. de Som.?; Desm. Mam. p. 147,

1820.

Chauve-souris septieéme, Azara.

Lasiurus rufus, Gray, Cat. Mam. B.M. 1843; Gosse, Nat. So-

journ. Jamaica, p. 280, 1851.

The muzzle is of very moderate length and substance, and rather

pointed ; the nostrils are rather small, near together, and directed

Mr. R. F'. Tomes on the species of Lasiurus. 217

sublaterally. The end of the nose, between the nostrils, is somewhat

emarginate. The ears are short, ovoid, and very much rounded at

their tips, which are directed outwards. Towards the base of the

front edge of the ear is a lobular projection, occasioned by a notch in

the margin immediately under it, quite at the base of the ear, and

contiguous to the tragus. The outer margin is continued forward

along the side of the face toward the angle of the mouth, and ends

near to it, in the form of a moderately developed lobe. The tragus

is narrow at its base, from which it expands evenly and rather ra-

pidly for half its length, where, making a conspicuous angle, it

slopes inwards, and comes to a narrow but rounded point, its inner

margin all the time maintaining a nearly straight line, excepting near

the tip, where it has a decided inward curvature, The outer mar-

ginal angle, already mentioned, is something more than a simple

angle, being, in fact, a rounded projection from the crooked edge of

the tragus.

The wing-membranes extend to two-thirds of the distance be-

tween the extremity of the tibia and the base of the toes.

‘The face is more or less covered with hair on all parts, the end

of the nose and the margins of the lips only being naked. On the

forehead the fur is very thick, and approaches nearly to the end of

the nose. Immediately in front of the eye is a tuft of stiff hairs,

and on the upper lip is a moustache of softer ones. The inner sur-

faces of the ears are sparingly suffused with very fine short hairs, as

are also their outer margins.

The interfemoral membrane is densely hairy on the whole of its

upper surface, and the same peculiarity extends to the upper sur-

face of the feet. The fur of the back also extends on to the mem-

branes of the wings, over and beyond the tibia, but is there bounded

by a well-defined line. It differs in this respect from the fur of the

under surface, where it is seen to extend along the membrane be-

neath the fore-arm, somewhat irregularly scattered, and having the

appearance of yellow down. Towards the wrist it becomes thicker,

and is more especially so about the base of the fourth finger. This

finger is also seen to be fringed with fine soft hairs at its base, when

viewed from above ; and a small patch of hair is visible at the base

of the thumb.

Everywhere the fur is soft in texture, rather long, and tolerably

thick. That which extends on to the under surface of the mem-

branes is unicoloured, and of a yellowish buff colour. A narrow

stripe of fur, bounding that of the back on each side, is frequently

of the same colour. But the colour of the body varies so much,

that it appears desirable to give a short description of each of the

extreme varieties, observing, at the same time, that every interme-

diate state may be met with.

Var. \. Fur of the back of four colours: dark near to the skin,

succeeded by yellowish brown, which is again succeeded by pale

rust colour, and finally tipped with white.

Beneath, the fur is nearly similar, excepting that which is con-

218 Zoological Society :—

tiguous to and on the membranes; this is unicoloured and pale

buff.

Hab. North America, “ from one end of the country to the

other, equally numerous”’ (Le Conte).

Var. 2. Similar to the last, but with the colour brighter and

without the white tips to the fur.

Hab. The same as the last.

Var. 3. Fur of the upper parts nearly black at the base, suc-

ceeded by yellowish-buff, passing into bright ferruginous-red, shining

and silky. That on the interfemoral membrane uniform bright fer-

ruginous. Beneath, the fur is nearly black at its base, passing into

dark brown, and tipped with bright rust-colour. The fur on the

under surface of the membranes is also of the latter colour. Some-

times this variety has the chin and throat of a yellowish-buff co-

lour, and then answers well to the description of Nycticejus varius,

as given by Poeppig.

Hab. South America; Jamaica; Canada.

In all these varieties a white spot is observable at the axilla. The

membranes appear to be light or dark, according to the depth of

the colour of the fur. Frequently the membranes of the wings,

near to the sides of the body, exhibit a singularly spotted appear-

ance, occasioned by the network of veins being paler in colour than

the portions enclosed by them. It was probably to one of these

that Rafinesque applied the appropriate epithet “ ¢essellatus.” The

example in which I have seen this peculiarity most conspicuous was

obtained in the Island of Mackinac, between Lakes Huron and Mi-

chigan, by my friend Mr. P. L. Sclater, who, knowing bow much I

am interested in this order of Mammals, kindly presented it to me,

with other North American Bats collected by him in the autumn of

1856.

Dentition.—In. , C. 45, P.M. 3, M. 8=%.

The first pre-molar on each side in the upper jaw is small and

rudimentary, and perhaps is sometimes wanting. It is placed in the

angle between the canine and the contiguous pre-molar, in such a

manner as not to be visible from the outside.

ae 2. 3. 4, 5.

in. lines. | in. lines. | in. lines. | in. lines. | in. lines.

Length of the head and body...| 2 7 ea WP) VE ee al Ws Bi fe 2

Otte baw ee seeee scutes oe POM EMD > Oe | see eOr ar ar G ES

—_ of the head............... OBE OS 84 4h0 S804 0 TTR Oe

— of the ear .........0000e- Ons: 6) One Sy i Oasis nO nes, | AOE

——— of the tragus ............ Doe Zt On Zio WO F224 0 eZ) lee

——-—— of the fore arm ......... od | 6B 7S Ge ee

——— ofthe longest finger ...13 3 13 2 13 5 |3 2 12 11

2. Lasturus pRUINOSUS, Say.

Vespertilio pruinosus, Say, Long’s Exped. Rock. Mount. i. p. 168,

1825 (?) ; De Kay, Nat. Hist. New York, i.; Fisch. Synop. Mam.

Mr. R. F. Tomes on the species of Lasiurus. 219

p- 113; Godm. Amer. Nat. Hist. i. p. 68 ; Harl. Faun. Amer. p- 21;

Coop. Ann. Lyc. N. H. New York, iv. p. 54.

Scotophilus pruinosus, Gray, Mag. Zool. and Bot. ii. p. 498, 1838.

Nycticejus pruinosus, Temm. Mon. ii. p. 154, 1835-41; Wagn.

Supp. Schreib. i. p. 544; Schinz, Synop. Mam. i. 197.

Lasiurus pruinosus, Gray, Cat. Mam. Brit. Mus. p. 32, 1843.

Vespertilio cinereus, Palisot de Beauvois, Cat. Peale’s Museum,

1796.

It is not unusual to see the name of this species attached to speci-

mens of the former, an error not easy to commit, if actual comparison

of the two were made. The present one is greatly superior in size

to the last, and besides this, presents some other very distinctive

characters.

The head is broad, and the forehead flat ; the muzzle is obtuse ;

the nostrils are surrounded by a well-defined rim, are directed sub-

laterally, and separated by a considerable interval, which is emar-

gmate. The ears are irregularly round, their front margins project-

ing considerably over the forehead, Their outer or hinder margins

are brought forward along the sides of the face in the shape of nar-

row prolongations, and terminate in two slightly projecting lobes

behind the corners of the mouth. The tragus appears to offer some

slight variations of form in different individuals, and even in the

same specimen I have, in one instance, observed it dissimilar in the

two ears. In its general form it resembles the same part in the last

species, but it is much less attenuated towards the tip, and the outer

margin has a less distinctly angular projection. At its base it is of

average width, from which it expands rather rapidly, and proceeds

outwards for the distance of about a line, when it takes an upward

direction, and becoming narrower, ends in a rounded tip. This

change of direction from horizontal to vertical leaves an angle at

its outer edge, which is nearly a right angle, whilst its inner edge

maintains a pretty regular concave line from the base to the tip.

In one instance, above alluded to, I have observed it in one ear only

of full breadth at the base, and gradually curving upwards and in-

wards, terminate in a rounded end, about half the breadth of the

base ; the tragus of the other ear being of the usual form.

The membranes of the wings barely extend to the base of the toes.

The thumb is rather long, and has its terminal phalange twice the

length of the basal one.

The fur of the forehead extends nearly to the end of the nose.

The sides of the face, and the muzzle, are moderately hairy, with a

tuft of stiffish hairs in front of the eye, and a black moustache frin-

ging the upper lip. The chin is nearly naked. A patch of fine,

short, adpressed hairs occupies the inside of the ear near its tip, and

the exposed surface of the tragus is similarly furnished.

Seen from beneath, the whole of the antibrachial membrane is

covered with close downy hair of a yellowish colour, and fur of the

same kind extends from the side of the body along the membrane

beneath the arm and fore-arm, to the bases of the fingers, which, in

220 Zoological Society :—

some examples, are completely obscured by it. In breadth this

band of fur varies from half to three-quarters of an inch, widest

towards the fingers. Only a portion of the base of the interfemoral

membrane, as seen from below, is hairy.

Viewed from above, the whole of the interfemoral membrane is

hairy, as are the feet and legs, and a portion of the membrane of

the wings, where they are attached to the sides of the body. The

hair on the latter part, however, is of no great breadth, and its outer

margin is usually straight and well defined. Over the tibia the inter-

femoral fur passes but to a trifling extent, and in many specimens

that limb constitutes its exact boundary. In the species last de-

scribed, the fur usually passes over it, and occupies a considerable

space on the base of the wing.

The variations in colour in this species appear to be much less

considerable than in the last. The fur of the muzzle, chin, and

around the eyes, is black; that of the throat pale buffy-yellow,

the line of separation of the latter colour and the black of the chin

being pretty distinct. On the forehead the fur is of the same yel-

lowish hue as that of the throat, and on the top of the head it is

similarly coloured at its base, but becomes of au umber-brown colour

about its middle, and is then tipped with white. This arrangement

of colours represents pretty nearly the colour of all the upper parts

of the body, excepting that the fur has in addition a dark-coloured

root. The colours may be thus briefly given :—dusky-grey (at the

root), yellowish-buff, umber-brown, and finally white. The white

is most plentiful on the shoulders, along the middle of the back, and

on the rump ; the yellow colour prevails on the head and neck, but

becomes less in regular gradation towards the rump, where the brown

in great measure takes its place, which it does completely on the

interfemoral membrane.

The under surface is nearly similar, but differs in having the co-

lours paler, the yellow less conspicuous, and the tips of the hairs

buff-coloured instead of white. On the under parts, as on the upper,

the yellowish colour gives way to the brown on approaching the

hinder parts, and the hair on the contiguous part of the interfemoral

membrane is wholly dark for the greater part of its length, and

is tipped with light brown. At the insertion of the humerus is a

light-coloured spot. . The fur of the sides of the body, under the

arms, is of a brownish-buff colour. All the fur on the wing-mem-

branes is buffy-yellow.

The membranes are dark, excepting where there is a growth of

hair, such parts being reddish-brown.

Dentition.—In. “2 hh 3 P.M. 3 M. i

In the following Table of dimensions, column No. 1 has been

taken from a specimen purchased of Mr. J. G. Bell of New York,

No. 2 from a specimen in the British Museum, from the United

States, and No. 3 from a specimen not quite adult, taken in Ber-

muda by the Rev. H. B. Tristram, and very kindly forwarded by him

for my use.

Mr. R. F. Tomes on the species of Lasiurus. 221°

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3.

in. lin. in. lin. in. lin.

Length of the head and Psa about... 3 6 3 10 2 10

erEHe GRIe cs a» : oe ee 1 10 apselta

neta hen cds oc ee ae Qk) 3 0 10

REC’ CHE Re cid Stas a win Ee niafninn Ot ae 0 43

CT TIAN a cals din oleh 0 3 as 0 3

OR LHC MAGTE-OP IT 0 oi. so. alin isis ims re RT. 2.0

of the longest finger ..... 4 4 4 0 4 0

of the fourth finger. . . 2 8 7 ey | 2 4

of the thumb . 0 6 dei 0 6

of the tibia ...... ERE 0 11 0 9

of the foot and claws . PE | EY Qo 0 53

of the os calcis ce cats | OL: 0 72

Lae ee a ee 16 6 15 6

Hab. North America, not abundant.

Major Le Conte observes, that he has only had the opportunity

of examining six or seven examples. The British Museum contains

a specimen “from California, and another presented by Mr. W. S.

MacLeay is labelled South America. Assuming the latter specimen

to be correctly labelled, its locality renders it probable that this spe-

cies, like the last, is distributed over a considerable part of the New

World, and the idea is somewhat strengthened by its occurrence in

California and Bermuda.

Major Le Conte has referred this species to the Vesp. cinereus of

the Catalogue of Peale’s Museum, bearing date 1796. There ap-

pears to be no doubt that it was to this species that the above name

was applied, as the only other North American Bat with which it

would be likely to be confounded—/’. noveboracensis—was clearly

distinguished in the Catalogue, and called V. rubellus. As I do not

know whether any description accompanied the name of V. cinereus,

I must for the present retain the name given by Say; but in the

event of any specific characters having been added in the Catalogue

just referred to, the name of LZ. cinereus must of course be adopted.

3. Lasturus GRAYI, 0. s.

This species, which I believe is undescribed, is in size a little su-

perior to the larger examples of L. noveboracensis, but smaller than

L. pruinosus. 'To the latter species, however, it bears the greatest

resemblance in its forms and general appearance, but differs in several

respects, which will be hereafter noticed.

The muzzle is rather obtuse, but less so than in L. pruinosus. The

ears are angular-round, but more pointed than in the last-mentioned

species, and have the ear-lobe near the angle of the mouth more

strongly developed. The tragus, although it presents the same

general form, yet differs in having the upper or ascending part

straight instead of being curved. It is also much narrower at its

base.

222 Zoological Society :—

The thumb has the same long terminal phalange and short basal

one observable in the last two species. The feet are large in rela-

tion to the size of the animal. The membranes of the wings extend

a little way beyond the extremity of the tibia, but do not reach half-

way along the foot, exclusive of the toes. The extreme tip of the

tail is slightly exserted, and very pointed.

The fur of the head extends down the forehead nearly to the

nose; the face is moderately hairy, and has a tuft of fine long hairs

immediately in front of the eye. The basal part of the hinder sur-

face of the ear is hairy, some of the hair projecting beyond the inner

margin so as to be visible from the front. Two patches of short ad-

pressed hair of a fine nature line the inside of the ear, one of them

extending from the front margin to near the tip, and the other

fringing that part of the margin nearest to the root of the tragus.

The latter part is sparingly covered with short adpressed hairs on

its exposed surface.

The muzzle and greater part of the face are brownish-black. The fur

of the upper parts is of four colours —dark at its root, then yellowish-

brown, succeeded by dark brown, and tipped with white. Towards

the hinder parts of the body, and on the interfemoral membrane, the

yellowish colour gives way to the brown, and the fur is wholly of

the latter colour, tipped with white. The throat is light yellowish-

brown, passing into dusky-brown on the breast. On all the under

parts the fur is of a faded brown colour for the greater part of its

length, but near the tip it becomes a little darker, and is finally

tipped with dirty buff colour. The fur on the membranes beneath

the humerus is in some examples of the same tricolour as the under

parts of the body, but more frequently it is of a uniform brownish-

yellow hue, as is that beneath the fore-arm, and that at the base of

the fingers.

The hairy portions of the membranes are reddish-brown; the

remaining parts very dark brown.

The variations in colour to which this species is subject depend

upon the tint of the brown colour near to the tips of the hairs. In

one example in the British Museum, this part of the hair is of a

light red colour, inclining to pinkish, and takes up a much greater

space than usual in each hair, the dusky at the base being there

very much reduced. In this specimen the black of the face and the

yellowish colour of the throat are scarcely observable ; and this, with

the red colour, gives it, at first sight, a great resemblance to the

L. noveboracensis.

The colour of the fur is an index to that of the membranes—in

this instance a reddish-brown.

The dentition has not been well examined, but the incisors are

similar in number and shape to those of the last two species.

Five examples have been examined in drawing up the above de-

scription, and these are all so remarkably uniform in size, that it

appears unnecessary to give the dimensions of more than two, those

presenting the greatest disparity being selected.

Mr. R. F. Tomes on the species of Lasiurus. 223

No. 1. No. 2.

in. lin. in. lin.

Length of the head and body, about .. 3 2 3. 3

SVS Cg oe gg haem dey ner tg Ai pee | bey lgs aa

1 AP ag C3 at ae elie ea te a 0 9

Lig 2h OE DC epee apart: te eh 0 32 0 31

of the tragus tessa iye 0 3 0 2%

GE Ge FOTEMEI Sis ss oem» 1 93 1 93

of the longest finger ........ 3 10 3 8

of the fourth finger....... Spee ei gag ae |

GISUNCHEIND: 3 ates sein mes on thang OU) Ore 0. 5

——— of the tibia ................ 0 8 0 8

of the foot and claws ........ pS 0 42

Bi GHE ON CRICIS: os cc :-eps a w= <= ee 0 8

RIN POMECTOU MINER oo ane > 2 ans << wey © 14 0 13 9

The dimensions in column No. | have been taken from a perfectly

adult individual in the British Museum, the locality being unknown.

The specimen which has furnished the dimensions in the second

column is also full-grown, but nevertheless retains some indications

of youth.

Hab. This second specimen was forwarded with another, perfectly

similar, from Chili, by Mr. Bridges. All the other specimens in

the British Museum Collection are without authentic habitats.

4, LASIURUS CAUDATUS, N.S.

The extreme length of the tail of this species, exceeding that of

the head and body, together with the considerable length of the

hinder limbs, gives to it a very remarkable appearance, ‘and seems

to distinguish it at first sight from all the others of the group.

The muzzie has much the form and proportions of that of L. nov-

eboracensis. The ears are obtusely triangular, as broad as high, and

have their outer margins brought downwards and forwards along

the side of the face to within a little distance of the corners of the

mouth, and on the same level with it. Here they terminate, as in

all the preceding species, in a separated lobe, in this instance more

clearly developed than usual. This part of the ear bears consider-

able resemblance to the same part in the genus Molossus, but is less

considerable in degree. The tragus is narrow at its base, from which

it rapidly expands, and abruptly bending inwards, leaves an outer

angle and curves to an obtuse point. It differs chiefly from the

same part in L. pruinosus in having a more decided inward direction.

The wing-membranes barely extend to the base of the toes. The

tail is longer than the head and body.

The fur of the forehead extends uninterruptedly in the direction

of the nose, and approaches it nearly. As in all the preceding spe-

cies, the other parts of the face are moderately hairy.

The fur of the back encroaches on the membranes of the wings

for a distance of about four lines, where it has a clearly defined

boundary. That of the under parts extends on to the membrane

224. Zoological Society :—

beneath the humerus, but has no regularly defined margin. Between

the fore-arm and the fourth finger, in the angle formed by the two,

is a growth of extremely short downy hairs of a yellow colour. The

upper parts of the feet are moderately hairy, much less so than is

usual in LZ. pruinosus and L. noveboracensis. On the upper surface

of the interftemoral membrane, the fur of the rump extends only for

half its length, the remaining half being naked. Its under surface

is sparingly. clothed with hairs for about one-third of its length, near

to the tail only ; that part of the membrane near to the knees and

the end of the tail being quite naked.

The membrane itself is rather thickly marked with transverse

dotted lines.

The fur is rather long and silky ; that of the whole of the upper

parts is of a uniform yellowish- buff colour, brown for a short length

in immediate proximity to the skin. Beneath, it is reddish-brown

at the base for about a third of its length; the remainder being yel-

lowish-buff.

ae et

Dentition.—In-—;'C. — ;

No. 1. No. 2.

in. lin. in. lin.

Length of the head and iheape bond

ne al crie Tous o2ion0:

of the head .........

of. thé earsyc. aias ae.dviax

of the tragus ....ce6-..

of the fore-arm

of the longest finger

——— of the fourth finger......

of the thumb 4. - 2yanceee

of theitibia ot dscistzaciet

———— of the foot and claws ....

of the os caleis.....

Expanse of wings .):)566 ). sa oa

role

tole

bol tole

tol tol

SCooonwerococonmwrnd

OhORWAOWWNAS

—

wreooonweOoeo:

SUNWNmMLOWODWWwW’

1249

Hab. Pernambuco, from which place the specimen was received

which furnished the above description, and the dimensions in column

No.1. No. 2 is from a specimen in a bad state in spirit, from Chili.

I have met with no other examples than the ones here described.

5. Lasrurvus AGa, P. Gerv.

Nycticejus Aga, P. Gerv. in Castelnau, Expéd. dans les parties

centrales de l’ Amérique du Sud, &c., livr. 16. p. 73, 1855.

The following description is taken from that by the original de-

seriber.

Ears subround ; tragus in the form of a hooked knife (“a peu

prés de la forme d'une serpette’’). The nostrils are subtubular,

pierced in the sides of the small nose, which is a little emarginate in

the centre.

Tail, in the two specimens examined, absent, having been with-

Mr. R. F. Tomes on the species of Lasiurus, 225

drawn from the membrane, in which a median furrow is left im its

stead, from the inspection of which it may be inferred that the tail

occupied the whole length of the membrane (as in the other species

of this group).

The upper surface of the interfemoral membrane has some hairs

on its base, as in many species of the genus Vespertilio; and its

under surface bears some transverse lines of small follicles.

The general colour of the fur is buffy-chestnut, glossy above, and

paler beneath.

in. lin.

Dearth of fhe bod yes 9) pono. -ejeches suis neti 2 4 (English).

Interfemoral membrane along its central line.. 1 9

ONC Atha af, itae ett “Ls -tast eo eke nae cl. woclsay &

ATE ES ae RM ial, ela” Te Be ees | ees. |

I now give a description of a specimen evidently of this species

‘collected at Ega, on the Amazon, by Mr. Bates, and labelled by him

* houses, Ega.”” As it appears to be in a better state of preservation

than the two obtained trom the same place by M. Castelnau, I am

able, besides confirming the accuracy of his description, to give a

more detailed scale of dimensions than he has given.

It is desirable to note, that this specimen, although probably full-

grown, yet exhibits some slight indications of non-maturity.

The muzzle is a little longer relatively than in the species I have

before described, and is about as much pointed as in L. novebora-

censis. The end of the nose is small; the nostrils somewhat tubular,

with a distinct notch between them.

The ears are triangular-round, and somewhat more pomted than

those of any other species here described. The tragus is similarly

formed to that part in L. pruinosus.

The wing-membranes barely extend to the base of the toes, and

the extreme tip of the tail is exserted.

The fur of the forehead does not approach so nearly to the nose

in this species as in the others of the group.

The basal half of the superior surface of the interfemoral mem-

brane is hairy, but the hair does not reach laterally over the tibia.

Beneath, it is sparingly hairy at the root of the tail only. The

membranes of the wings contiguous to the body, both above and

below, are hairy, more especially on their under surface, where the

hair reaches to the elbow, but does not follow the fore-arm.

On al) the upper parts the fur is vellowish- buff, the hairs slightly

tipped with brownish, and on the under parts uniform yellowish-buff.

Membranes of the wings darkish brown, the interfemoral mem-

brane being paler and marked with about twenty transverse dotted

lines.

in. lin

Length of the head and body, about .. 2 0

— of the tail.................. PORE oH 7

— of the head.............-.. OFS

—oftheears ................ 0 34

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 15

226 Zoological Society :—

in. fin.

Length of the tragus ...... sient 0 22

—— of the fore-arm .......... : Oy

— of the longest finger pee: RA

of the fourth finger... . soa bain ee

—— of the themb .............. 0 4

SE CA a ie @ 8

of the foot and claws ........ 0 52

= GL EME OS NCIS oes ene sme le

PRDANSe GL WIRES on. caae a 22 aie ig ie

In colour this species very closely resembles the last, but, besides

many minor points of distinction, the great length of the tail in the

former will at once be sufficiently distinctive.

I have now described all the species that I am able with certainty

to refer to this group; but there are two others described by Major

Le Conte in the ‘ Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of

Philadelphia’ for 1855, characterized by the same formula of denti-

tion as in Lasiurus, but which appear nevertheless to have the other

parts as in the more ordinary Bats.

One of these—Vesp. pallidus, Le Conte, — the writer says, has

only four incisors in the lower jaw,—altogether an anomalous cha-

racter, if not due to some accidental cause.

The other species is the Vesp. crepuscularis of the same naturalist

- (F. creeks, F. Cuv.), which, while possessing only two upper incisors,

precisely as in Lasiurus, has yet all the other characters similar to

those of Vesp. Carolinensis,—a species clearly appertaming to that

division of the genus Scotophilus which constitutes Section 6. of the

genus Vesperugo of MM. Keyserling and Blasius.

It would appear from this that the number and form of the inci-

sors in the upper jaw do not furnish a very valuable generic cha-

racter ; and when we find another species from India, not only dif-

ferent in its forms from Lasiurus and Nycticejus (so called), but

also differing from the above-mentioned Vesp. crepuscularis in all

respects save in the upper incisors, which are similar, we are quite

justified in regarding this as a character of subordinate value in the

arrangement of this difficult group of animals.

The Indian species to which I allude is referable, as far as external

form is concerned, to that section of the genus Vespertilio which has

been called Cappacinius by Prince Charles Lucien Bonaparte, and

Trilatitius by Dr. Gray. It is closely aftined to the Vesp. Tasma-

nensis of the latter zoologist, and may perhaps prove identical with it.

Besides the species given in this Monograph, there are several

others differing materially from them, and from each other, but

which have the tail-membrane hairy. As instances, may be cited

Vesp. noctivagans, Le Conte (V. pulverulentus, Temm.), Lasiurus

Pearsonii, Horsf. (closely affined to the Vesp. emarginatus* of the

* In alluding to this species, I may mentien, that it is the Vesp. emarginatus

of continental writers to which I refer,—a well-marked species very similar in ap-

Mr. R. F. Tomes on new species of Bats. eae

continent of Europe), and Vesp. suillus, Temm., called Murina

suillus by Dr. Gray, and Noctilinia Lasyura by Mr. Hodgson.

From this it must be evident that this character is of generic value

only when associated with others of greater constancy, and it is only

by the characters taken collectively that the groups can be truthfully

defined.

The form of the head, the muzzle, and the nostrils, of the ears and

the tragi, the extent of the membrane in reference to the hinder ex-

tremities, the quality and distribution of the fur, the number and

form of the upper incisors, and more than all, the general conforma-

tion of the cranium, supply the means by which the Lasiwri may be

recognized and associated.

Mr. Tegetmeier exhibited a collection of skins of new varieties of

domestic Fowls, the property of Mr. C. Darwin.

Those from the Madras Presidency were chiefly of the Malay type,

more or less resembling the gigantic Kulm Fowls that were imported

some years since by Colonel Sykes, and which were formerly in the

possession of the Society. The Fowls from Singapore were remark-

able for the recurved character of the plumage. The imterior of

Persia furnished a very beautiful steel-black variety, perfectly distinct

from any known in this country, and which was stated to be the

Common Fowl of the distriet. Good specimens of the black-skinned,

white silky-plumaged Fowl with black periosteum were forwarded

both from Singapore and Madras. Mr. Tegetmeier called attention-

to the fact, that all the specimens shown differed in a much greater

degree, than our common English Game Fowls, from the Gallus

Bankiva, so frequently asserted to be the origin of our domesticated

species of the genus Gallus.

March 10, 1857.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

DeEscrieTions OF FouR UNDESCRIBED SPECIES OF Bats.

By Rosert F. Tomes.

1. ScoTorpHILUS PACHYOMUS, N. 8.

Muzzle rather obtuse; ears ovoid ; tragus short, of nearly uni-

form breadth, and round at the end. Wing-membranes ex-

tending to the base of the toes. Fur bicoloured. Size rather

larger than S. noctula.

This species appertains to the same division of the genus as S.

pipistrellus, S. Kuhlii, S. marginatus, S. minutus, and perhaps S.

Carolinensis ; but it is to the S. discolor of Europe that it bears the

greatest apparent resemblance, owing in some measure to the simi-

larity in the quality and colour of the fur.

In size it a little exceeds the Noctule Bat, being much the largest

species of the restricted group to which it belongs.

pearance to Lasiurus Pearsonii, but not more than half the size, and with less

hair on the interfemoral membrane. The so-called British species is, I believe,

no other than Vesp. mystacinus.

ios

228 Zoological Society :—

The muzzle is somewhat obtuse, the nostrils rather prominent,

and opening sublaterally. The ears are rather long, ovoid, and nar-

rowed towards their tips. The tragus is scarcely half the length of

the ear, of nearly uniform breadth, round at the end, and slightly

curved towards the head.

The wing-membranes extend to the base of the toes; the latter

are a little longer than the remaining portion of the foot.

The face is moderately hairy ; on the top of the nose and about

the muzzle nearly naked, but with a slight group of hairs on the

gland of the upper lip, which extends to the angle of the mouth.

The fur is markedly and singularly bicoloured, very much re-

sembling that of S. discolor. That of the upper parts is of a dark

brown, conspicuously tipped with whitish brown. Beneath, it is

brown at its base, with the terminal half yellowish brown.

The upper incisors are four in number, in pairs, of nearly uniform

size, separated from the canines by an interval on each side, and

with an interval in the middle, of very moderate extent.

a “.

Length of the head and body...... 2 6

SF tHE! tal 38 2s 2S bees 1 10

Gr the nead. /. ) Sea 0 9

of the fore:arm’ oY drse-ardt 42981

——— of the longest finger ...... 3.9

——— of the fourth finger ...... 2 7

— 6f the tibia....invl. 2007 550

of the foot and claws...... 0 53

Expanse of wings .........5..4. 13466

Hab. India. In British Museum, collected by Capt. Boys.

2. ScOTOPHILUS PUMILOIDES, 0. s.

Muzzle tumid; ears small, broadly ovoid, not emarginate, with

their tips directed a little outwards. Tragus of nearly uni-

form breadth, round at the end, and curved inwards. Wing-

membranes extending to the base of the toes.

In its general character this species bears considerable resemblance

to the smaller Australian species of Bats, such as S. picatus, Gould,

S. Greyii, Gray, and S. pumilus, Gray, all having the forms of the

S. pipistrellus of Europe, with some slight modifications. As its

name indicates, it is most closely aftined to S. pumilus, but it differs

from it in being somewhat larger.

The muzzle is short and rather tumid ; the nostrils and lips pre-

sent no variation from what is usual in the restricted group to which

the species belongs, being in fact similar to the same parts in the

common Pipistrelle.

The ears are small and very short, being scarcely longer than wide,

and are of a tolerably regular ovoid form, but with their extreme tips

brought to a blunt angle directed somewhat outwards.

The tragus is about half the length of the ear, of nearly uniform

breadth, with a rounded tip, and a slight inward curvature.

Mr. R. F. Tomes on new species of Bats. 229

As in all the species above enumerated, the wing-membranes ex-

tend as far as the base of the toes. The extreme tip of the tail is

exserted, and the interfemoral membrane is marked with twelve trans-

verse dotted lines.

The fur of the whole of the body is very thick and close, that of

the back extending on to the interfemoral membrane for nearly a

fourth of its length. In one example, the fur of the pubes also ex-

tends on to the membrane around the root of the tail ; but this ap-

pears to be an exception.

On all the upper parts the fur is bicoloured, dark at its root, with

the terminal third yellowish-brown; beneath it is similar, but the

tips are pale brown with a slight olive-yellow cast, which is most

conspicuous on the pubes and flanks.

The cutaneous system is of a medium brown colour.

The dentition has not been examined.

Length of the head and body .... 1 6 1 6

—— of the tail .............. ae 3

— of the head, about ...... ir YH. 0 64

— of the ears.............. 0 33

— of the tragus............ 0. 2

of. the fore-arm... . 2728-716 1} 3h L 3

— of the longest finger ...... 2 4 2 3

— of the fourth finger ...... bi: 9 iA

— of the thumb, about...... 0 23

— ofthe tibia .... ....... 0 6 0 5%

—— of the foot and claws...... 0 32h 0 32

ESPAMSe OF WIRES 2 cha: ocean AF tee 9 3

TTab. China.

3. VESPERTILIO CHINENSIS, Ni. S.

Top of the head very slightly elevated ; muzzle rather thick ;

ears narrow, ovoid; tragus narrow, nearly straight and

pointed ; wing-membranes extending to the base of the toes ;

toes longer than the remaining portion of the foot.

In its general forms this species bears considerable resemblance to

FP. murinus of Europe, but the ears are much narrower. It is also

somewhat larger; and if we except the V. maximus from South

America, is the largest true Vespertilio known*.

The top of the head is elevated only to a very moderate extent,

and the face is rather long and thick. The nostrils are slightly

tubular, and open sublaterally. The ears are of a longish oval form,

not emarginate, but narrowed towards the tips. They bear greater

* The specimens of V. murinus that I have made use of for comparison with this

species, have been received from various parts of the continent of Europe, from

Algeria, and from Nubia. Those from Switzerland are the only ones that appear

to approach it in size; but even they, although perfectly adult, are decidedly

smaller, whilst the species I am describing presents indications of youth in the

imperfectly ossified condition of the finger-joints.

230 Zovlogical Society.

resemblance to those of V. Nattereri than to those of any other

species with which I am acquainted, but are relatively more narrow

towards the ends. The tragus is narrowish at its base, from which

it expands to near its middle, which is the widest part. From this

it tapers to an acute point, having a slight inward tendency.

The wing-membranes extend to the base of the toes, and the latter

are longer than the remaining part of the foot, just asin V. murinus

and V’. formosa, Hodgs.

The forehead is hairy, and the hair extends nearly to the end of

the nose. On the upper lip is a thick moustache, the space around

the eye being the only part of the face which is naked.

The fur is longish, fine in texture, and rather cottony, but not very

thick. It does not anywhere encroach on the membranes.

All the upper parts are very dark brown, with the extreme tips of

the hairs a little paler. Beneath, nearly similar, but the tips of the

hairs are pale grey-brown on the breast and belly, whilst the sides

of the body and pubal region are almost black.

The membranes are very dark.

Length of the head and body, about ...... 3 9

Bip LG Palle ore cece Seen coer age 2 2

————— OF the MEAG... te aca es ee og te OU

= Of THE ERES . we. wc ice ae ne oe ae

Of the UPAESY ne) ad fe ren kee oe te fi eine

Of the fore-armt 7. o-oo) + she eats 2 S5itor6

of the‘lonvest ‘finper’. 3 js a AU

of the fourth finger” one anf 2d

—— of the thumb.................. 0 6 or 6}

a OF thevtibia.- 93)5 Sues me calc aelean ee

of the foot and claws <. .... 0,-2.6 ee: Ding.

Expanse of wings, about................ 16 O

Hab. China, collected by Mr. Fortune.

4. VesSPERTILIO BLYTHHI, n. Ss.

Ears ovoid, somewhat pointed, their ends sloping outwards.

Tragus narrow and tapering to a subacute point. Crown mo-

derately elevated. Peet large, wholly disengaged from the

wing-membranes.

In form and proportion this species resembles Vesp. macropus,

Gould, from Australia, and in colour is somewhat like V. ferrugineus,

Temm., from South America, both having the same subgeneric cha-

racters as V. Hasseltii, V. Caroli, V. Daubentoni, and V. dasy-

cnemus.

To the restricted group of which the above are representatives,

Prince C. L. Bonaparte has given the name of Cappacinius, whilst

Dr. Gray distinguishes it by the name of Trilatitius.

The crown is moderately elevated, and the snout is of medium

length and substance. The ears are oval, somewhat pointed, and

have their tips directed a little outwards. The tragus is narrow, and

Geological Society. 231

tapers evenly to a subacute point, which has a very slight outward

tendency.

The wing-membranes exteud only to the distal extremity of the

tibia, leaving the feet wholiy disengaged. The latter are large, and

have the toes longer than the remaining part of the foot.

On the interfemoral membrane may be observed about eight

strongly marked transverse lines. 'T he tip of the tail is free for the

length of its terminal joint.

The wings are ample and broad, as the length of the fingers re-

latively to each other, and to the other dimensions, as given below,

will testify.

The fur of the forehead approaches to near the end of the nose,

but around the eyes the face is nearly naked, and the upper lip is

destitute of a moustache. All the membranes are naked.

The fur is long, rather soft, and inclining to silky on the upper

parts. On the whole of the upper surface of the body it is dark

brown at the root, with its terminal half cinnamon-brown, brightest on

the rump, and tinged with grey on the head and neck. Beneath it is

dark at its base, with its terminal half brownish-white. Both above

and beneath, the bicoloured character of the fur is conspicuous, and,

as already mentioned, bears some resemblance in this respect to that

of V. ferrugineus.

Length of the head and rite abou ee tee

= opie tail Cp ee Pen cee nite cee ee OL

— of the head No 2 oa sacle cer i 0 10?

of the ears ee Be ee Oe

of the tragus eV 0 4

olntheniorerannde oa ee eee 2 ror 3

of tietongest-fmnger. Pree Pe S10

of the fourth finger iT oe

- ofthe thumbrti t).2e. wi feta Wind

of the tibia oF ee oP Oe ee Ong

of the foot and claws .......... 0,.-63

Expalse Of wang" Wee SPS eae oe aU

Hab. A single specimen in the British Museum Collection is

labelled ‘‘ India, Nassenabad, from Mr. Warwick, 1848,” and, I be-

lieve, was collected by Capt. Boys.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

April 8, 1857.—Col. Portlock, R.E., President, in the Chair.

The following communication was read :—

‘«On the Species of Mastodon and Elephant occurring fossil in

Great Britain.—Part I. Mastodon.” By H. Falconer, M. ra F.R.S.,

PGS.

The object of this communication Js to ascertain what are the

species of the Proboscidea found fossil in Britain ; what the specific

names which ought to be applied to them; and what the principal

232 Geological Society :—

formations and localities where they are elsewhere met with in Europe.

The Mastodon of the Crag forms the subject of this first part of the

memoir: the second part will treat of the Elephant-remains found

in Britain. The author commenced by insisting on the importance

to geology that every mammal found in the fossil state should be

defined as regirds, first, its specific distinctness; and, secondly, its

range of existence geographically and in time, with as much severe

exactitude as the available materials and the state of our knowledge

will admit. He observed that with regard to the remains of the

proboscidean genera, Dinotherium, Mastodon, and Elephant, some of

which abound in the miocene and pliocene deposits of Europe, Asia,

and America, the opinions respecting the species and their nomen-

clature, in all the standard paleontological works on the subject, are

extremely unsettled and often contradictory.

Dr. Falconer then proceeded to explain his views of the natural

classification of the proboscidean Pachydermata, recent and fossil,

according to dental characters. In the Dinothere, with its tapiroid

molars, the last milk-molar and the antepenultimate (or first) true

molar are invariably characterized by a ‘‘ ternary-ridged-crown-

formula,” or in other werds, their crowns are divided intc three trans-

verse ridges. In the Mastodon not only the last milk-molar and

the first true molar, but also the second or penultimate true molar

(being three teeth in immediate contiguity), are invariably charac-

terized in both jaws by an isomerous division of the crown into either

three or four ridges; or, in other words, are severally characterized

by either a ‘“‘ternary-” or ‘“‘ quaternary-ridge-formula.” ‘These

three isomerous-ridged teeth are referred to as ‘‘ the intermediate

molars.” ‘To the ternary-ridged species the author assigns the sub-

generic name of Trilophodon ; and Tetrulophodon, to the quaternary-

ridged species. ‘The molar in front, and that one behind these in-

termediate molars are also characteristically modified in these two

subgenera. In Trilophodon the penultimate or second milk-molar

is two-ridged. and the last true molar is four-ridged: in Tetralophodon

the former is three-ridged, and the latter five-ridged. ‘Lhe author

considers it highly probable that a subgeneric group characterized

by a quinary-ridge-formula (Pentelophodon) has existed in nature,

but of which no remains have yet been discovered.

The Elephants are distinguished from the Mastodons by the absence

of an isomerous-ridge-formula, as regards the three intermediate

molars. and by the ridges ranging from six up to an indefinite

number in these teeth, in different groups of species. Dr. Falconer

arranges the numerous fossil and recent forms in three natural sub-

genera, founded on the ridge-formula, in conjunction with other

characters. In the Stegodon (comprising besides other forms the

Mastodon elephantoides, Clift) the ridge-formula is hypisomerous ;

and the ridges number six or eight. The Lozodon (including the

African Elephant) is also hypisomerous, and has from seven to nine

plates cr ridges. The Euelephas (including the Elephas indicus

and six fossil species) is the largest and most important group,

and comprises the typical Elephants having thin-plated molars.

Dr. Il. Falconer on the Fossil Mastodon of Britain. 233

Here the ridge-formula is anisomerous, and regulated by progressive

increments, as 8, 12, 16; the higher its numerical expression, the

greater the liability to vary, within certain limits dependent upon

the race, sex, and size of the individual; the lower molars often

exhibiting an excess of plates over those in the upper molars.

Reverting to the Mastodons, Dr. Falconer observed that the sub-

genera Trilophodon and Tetralophodon, as regards number of forms,

are of nearly equal value; the former comprising seven, and the

latter six well-marked species. Each group is divisible into two

parallel subordinate groups. In the one series the ridges are broad,

transverse, more or less compressed into an edge; with the inter-

mediate valleys open throughout and entirely uninterrupted by sub-

ordinate tubercles. ‘These are represented in Trilophodon by Triloph.

ohioticus, and in Tetralophodon by Tetr. latidens. In the other

series the ridges are composed of blunt conical points, which are

fewer in number, flanked in front and bebind by one or more

subordinate outlying tubercles, which disturb the transverse direction

of the ridges and block up the valleys. This series is represented by

Trilophodon angustidens and by Tetralophodon arvernensis. In both

subgenera the species with transverse compressed ridges may be

compared with Dinotherium, as regards their molar crowns; and

the other series with Hippopotamus.

The European fossil species of Mastodon, according to the author,

are the following :— Trilophodon Borsoni, 1. Hays, Tril. tapiroides,

Cuvier, Tril. angustidens, Cuvier (pro parte), Tril. pyrenaicus, Lartet

MS., Tetralophodon longirostris, Kaup, and Tetr. arvernensis, Croizet

and Jobert. With the exception of 7riloph. Borsoni and Tetral.

arvernensis, Which are of Pliocene age, the above-named species are

of Miocene age.

Dr. Falconer proceeded to state that the remains of only one species

of Mastodon have hitherto been discovered in the British Isles. They

occur in what is called the Older Pliocene Red Crag, at Felixstow

and Sutton, in Suffolk, and in the Newer Pliocene Fluvio-marine or

Mammaliferous Crag at various localities near Norwich and in

Suffolk. After remarking that Professor Owen had referred the

teeth of the Crag Mastodon to M. angustidens, making M. longi-

rostris and M. arvernensis to be synonyms of this species (as

Cuvier had also done), Dr. Falconer gave in detail the history

of the discovery and publication of the true M. angustidens (Cuvier),

and of the M. arvernensis and M. longirostris. He then passed

in review the opinions and statements of these authors, as well as

of Blainville, Laurillard, Gervais, Pomel, Lartet, and Sismonda, on

these species, and on the specimens which these observers had

severally described, sometimes under additional specific names.

He then described the characteristic peculiarities both of the molars

and of the symphysis of the lower jaws in these three species;

and showed that the molars from the Crag Mastodon were, like

those of Tetral. arvernensis, characterized by four-ridged molars,

with their conical points more or less alternating, and with their

valleys blocked up; and that they essentially differed from the molars

234 Geological Society :—

of the Triloph. angustidens from Simorre, Dax, &c., and from the

Tetral. longirostris of Eppelsheim. ‘Tbe M. arvernensis of Mont-

pellier, Auvergne, Italy. &c. had no lower tusks; and the author is of

opinion that the only specimen which has been figured and described

as one of the lower tusks of the Crag Mastodon is a terminal fragment

of one of the upper tusks of that species.

From osteological considerations it appears that Tetral. arver-

nensis was of a low and heavy make; that Tetral. longirostris was

of similar general proportions; and that Triloph. angustidens was

higher in its limbs and of a comparatively light and slender shape.

In his observations on the geological age and associated faunas

of the formations in which these species severally occur, Dr. Falconer

observed that Trilophodon angustidens is a characteristic species of

the miocene Falunian beds throughout Europe, and is associated with

Triloph. tapiroides in the Faluns of France and the upper freshwater

Molasse of Switzerland. Tetralophodon longirosiris is an important

member of the Eppelsheim fauna, which, though its determination

is accompanied with great difficulty, appears to be identical in its

leading features with that of the Falunian deposits of France and

Switzerland. The Tetralophodon arvernensis is characteristic of the

pliocene fauna; and it had a very extended range of habitat over

Europe, accompanying Lowxodon meridionalis (Nesti) in ‘Tuscany,—

Trilophodon Borsont, Loxodon priscus, and Euelephas antiquus in Pied-

mont and Lombardy,— Lozrodon meridionalis at Montpellier,—and

Tril. Borsoni, Lox. meridionalis, and Loz. priscus, in Velay and

Auvergne. After having reviewed the circumstances under which

Mastodon-remains occur in the British strata, Dr. Falconer con-

cludes that,—1st. The Mastedon-remains which have been met with

in the Fluvio-marine and Red Crags belong to a pliocene form, namely

Tetralophodon arvernensis. 2ndly. ‘the Mammalian fauna of the Red

and Fluvio-marine Crags, regarded as a whole, bears all the cha-

racters of a Pliocene age, and is identical with the Subapennine

Pliocene fauna of Italy. 3rdly. ‘The Red and Fluvio-marine Crags,

tested by their mammalian fauna, must be considered as beds of the

same geological age.

Throughout this paper, for the sake of clearness, the subgeneric

names have been used in designating the species. ‘The author,

finding that the name Elasmodon, applied to the third group of

Elephants, in the ‘ Fauna Antiqua Sivalensis,’ in 1847, had been

previously used for a fossil fish, has abandoned it, and applies the

term Huelephas in lieu of it.

April 22, 1857.—Colonel Portlock, R.E., President, in the Chair.

The following communications were read :—

1. ‘‘ Description of a Crustacean from the Lias Bone-bed.” By

C. Gould, Esq., B.A. Communicated by J. W. Salter, Esq., F.G.S.

The specimen described was found in a coprolitic mass from the

bone-bed of Aust Passage, by E. Higgins, Esq. It consists of a

carapace and four abdominal segments. The former is smooth, sub-

rectangular, with the eyes widely separated, and has three longitu-

Prof. Huxley on a Crustacean from the Coal-measures. 235

dinal ridges, and a cervical furrow extending right across the carapace.

The latter are sculptured somewhat after the pattern of Nephrops, and

are 2 lines in length altogether. Some small fragments of subtri-

gonal limbs accompany the carapace. After comparing the spe-

cimen with the known forms of Stomapoda and Macrura, the

author concludes by stating that it appears to be a Decapodous

Crustacean presenting certain points of resemblance to Scyllarus

and Nephrops, but not assignable to any existing genus. Mr.

Gould names it Tropifer levis.

2. “ Description of a Crustacean (Pygocephalus Cooperi) from the

Coal-measures.” By Prof. Huxley, F.G.S.

This new and remarkable Crustacean is represented by three

specimens in ironstone nodules ; each presenting, from the breakage

of the nodules, the ventral surface in relief, with the corresponding

impression. ‘I'wo of the specimens are the property of R. S. Cooper,

Esq., of Bilston, and were obtained from the shale overlying the

upper or thick coal-beds of that place, associated with fragments

of Pecopteris. The other specimen belongs to the Manchester

Museum, and was derived from the coal-shales at Medlock Park

Bridge. ‘The animal is about 14 inch in length; its ventral sur-

face presents at one extremity a quadrate disk, about 4 inch long,

furnished anteriorly with two pairs of jointed appendages (the large

outer pair being antenne; the inner smaller pair, the antennules), and

margined by the narrow flattened edges of the carapace. ‘The central

portion of the body is about 5 an inch in length, and is divided into

a series of seven thoracic segments, composed of one medial and

two lateral subquadrate plates, and increasing in size backwards by

the gradual widening of the medial plates. Each segment is provided

with a slender jointed limb on either side: the limbs are directed

either forward or outward; and in one instance at least there is

clear evidence of a fine, jointed filament, or exopodite, attached to

a limb (the fifth). The posterior extremity of the specimen (consti-

tuted by the termination of the large abdomen, bent upon itself) is

much wider than the other, and has the form of a semicircular

disk ; the base of the semicircle forming the widest part of the body,

and being about half an inch distant from the centre of the curve.

This semicircular, caudal plate is traversed by a linear depression at

about the middle of its length; another transverse depression mark

is near its periphery; and, on clearing away the matrix from the

opposite surface of one of the specimens, this portion was found to

be continued underneath with a greater convexity, and with indica-

tions of other transverse lines of depression, bounding dorsal

segments. ‘Lhe surface of the caudal plate is also divided longi-

tudinally by two depressions into three broad subtriangular lobes.

Prof. Huxley described in detail the process of his determination

of the above-described characters from the successive examination of

the several specimens; and intimated that at first, so problematical

were the characters afforded by one or two specimens only, that the

broader extremity was regarded as possibly the cephalic buckler of an

236 Miscellaneous.

anomalous Apus-like crustacean, with its dorsal surface presented to

view. Subsequent examination of the specimens kindly lent by

Mr. Cooper enabled the author to take a different and more probable

view of the structural relations of these interesting fossils. Prof.

Huxley pointed out that the Pygocephalus Cooperi has some peculiar

relations with the little Mysis or Opossum-shrimp, especially in the

schizopodous character of its thoracic appendages, in the proportional

size of the carapace, and in the gradual increase in width, from

before backwards, of the sterna of the thoracic somites. In the

proportions of its abdomen, however, the Pygocephalus approximates

more nearly. to the true Stomapoda; and a Gonodactylus bent upon

itself presents an appearance in some respects very analogous to that

of the fossils in question.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Nervous System of Dentalium entalis.

By M. T. pe Lacaze Duruiers.

THREE pairs of ganglia constitute the nervous system of animal life.

One is placed in the cavity of the foot, another above the mouth, and

the third a little in front and on each side of the anus.

The ganglia of the first pair, or pedal ganglia, are pyriform and

approximated ; they furnish the nerves of the foot and a single thread

to the diaphragm which separates the visceral cavity from that of the

foot.

The supra-cesophageal ganglia are well developed and approximated

by their margins ; each of them presents behind a secondary inflation,

which cannot be regarded as another ganglion; from them arise im-

portant nerves, some of which, to the number of five, pass to all the

anterior part of the tube of the mantle, others to the mouth, whilst

the last, two in number, are distributed in the fold which serves as

the base of the tentacular filaments surrounding the base of the buccal

process.

The ganglia of the third pair are small, triangular, distant, and

placed on each side a little in front of the orifice of the digestive tube.

They only give origin to a long nerve, which after gliding between

the elements of the liver, passes to the dorsal surface to run to the

posterior extremity of the body, to the cavity through which the

water serving for respiration enters. From their position and the

nerves which originate from them, these ganglia appear to be exactly

analogous to the branchial ganglia of the lamellibranchiate Acepha-

lous Mollusca.

Connective nerves and commissures unite these little nervous

centres amongst themselves. ‘The cords which unite the pedal to the

supra-cesophageal ganglia enclose the first portion of the digestive tube

in a collar and are deeply seated; those which join the supra-ceso-

phageal to the posterior ganglia are in the fold of union of the mantle

Miscellaneous. 237

and the base of the foot ; they form a new circle which embraces the

whole base of the foot and the digestive apparatus. The anus always

remains beyond this. The ganglia being generally close together,

there is only one distinct commissure, that which unites the two pos-

terior ganglia, passing in front of the anus.

This arrangement of the nervous system reminds one of that of

the lamellibranchiate Acephala: there are two collars attached to the

supra-cesophageal ganglia,—one anterior, terminating with the pedal

ganglia,—the other posterior, and completed by the posterior ganglia

and their commissure. ‘The mouth is surrounded by the former ; the

anus, on the contrary, is behind and without the second, as in the

Acephala.

The organs of special sense are the otolithes and the tentacles.

The otolithes, formed by two small transparent vesicles containing a

great number of small calcareous corpuscles (soluble with effervescence

in nitric acid) constantly agitated by the movements of the vibratile

cilia of the walls, are attached to the back of the pedal ganglia.

The very numerous ¢entacular filaments, placed in the vicinity of

the mouth and forming two tufted branches, appear to be organs of

touch, and perhaps of prehension, like those on the heads of some

Amnelides. The cutaneous fold which bears them receives a very

voluminous nerve which is distributed in its interior and furnishes

numerous branches ; there is no part of the animal so richly provided

with nervous filaments. The tentacles themselves possess so much

contractility and execute such varied movements that they might be

taken for twisted worms, and their extremities are clavate and fur-

nished with a cavity which forms a true sucker. From this cavity,

which is clothed with vibratile cilia, a canal penetrates into the fila-

ments, but the author has been unable to follow it far. Dentalia

placed in small glass vessels protruded their filaments and fixed them

to the walls. There are no apparent organs of vision.

The stomato-gastric or sympathic nervous system exists in Den-

talium. It arises from the buccal nerves furnished by the same

supra-cesophageal ganglion by two roots, one right, the other left.

These two roots run backward towards the lingual musculo-cartilagi-

nous mass, become inflated into two small ganglia united by a trans-

verse commissure, then continue their course, rising towards the back,

become inflated again into two small ganglia also united by a transverse

commissure, and lose themselves in the digestive canal. The lingual

apparatus is thus surrounded by a network formed by the commis-

sures, the roots and the branches arising from the secondary ganglia.

Towards the middle the first commissure furnishes a single branch

which penetrates into the lingual apparatus from its lower surface.

The nervous system of Dentalium is therefore much more complete

than was supposed. The division of Cirrhibranches formed by

Blainville, in accordance with the interpretation given by Deshayes

to the tentacular filaments, is much compromised if these filaments,

instead of being branchiz, are organs of touch, and it will also be

difficult to admit the opinion of Mr. W. Clark, who regards them as

salivary glands.—Comptes Rendus, April 27, 1857, p. 864.

238 Miscellaneous.

Descriptions of some new Norwegian Polypes. By M. Sars.

1. Briareum grandiflorum ; 2-3-pollicare, miniatum, basi effusa,

tenui ; ramis eylindricis, gracilibus, patulis, flexuosis et tortuosis,

dichotomis ; ; cellulis polyporum maximis (diametrum rami duplicem

longitudine equantibus), cylindricis, sparsis, ad apicem ramorum

densioribus seu coacervatis ; polypis non retractilibus.

Taken at Oxfjord i in Finmark, at a depth of 200 fathoms, attached

to living specimens of Oculina prolifera, to dead branches of Primnoa

lepadifera, and to the tubes of Tubularia indivisa; often covering

these objects with a coating of isolated polypiferous cells and ascend-

ing branches.

2. Rhizoxenia filiformis ; 2-3-pollicaris, cinereo-albida ; basi com-

muni repente filiformi, diametrum cellularum polypiferarum conico-

convexarum bis crassiorum longitudine bis—ter superante ; polypis

albis, retractilibus.

Taken once at Manger, at the depth of 30-40 fathoms, attached

to a large stone. Sarcodictyon catenata, Forbes, also belongs to

this genus.

3. Virgularia finmarchica; 40-pollicaris, sanguinea; stipite

sterili crassiore, fusiformi, 6—7-pollicari ; pinnulis utrinque 100-112

crassitudinem stipitis eequantibus vel paululum superantibus, semi-

lunaribus, sessilibus, latera et faciem anteriorem stipitis oblique cir-

cumdantibus (dorso nudo relicto), seriem cellularum 8-10, spiculis

densis fasciculatis farctarum, gerentibus.

Taken only at Oxfjord in Finmark, in the deepest part of the bay,

at a depth of 240 fathoms, with the barren part of its stem buried

in the mud. It is frequently brought up by the hooks of deep-sea

lines.

Of the family Pennatulide, of which only three species are re-

corded as British by Johnston, no less than seven occur on the

Norwegian coast. These are—

Pennatula phosphorea, Linn. (P. rubra, Ehrb., not Linn.)

Pennatula borealis, Sars.

Pennatula stellifera, Miller (Kophobelemnon Miilleri, Asbjornsen,

Fauna Litt. Norv. ii. p. 81).

Virgularia mirabilis, Miller.

Virgularia Christii, Koren and Danielssen.

Virgularia finmarchica, Sars.

Pavonaria quadrangularis, Blainville.

Genus ULocyaTuus, Sars.

Polyparium calcareum, turbinatum, simplex, liberum, cum vestigiis

adhzesionis (in eetate juniore) in basi brevissima, cuneiformi, adunca,

acuminata. Coste parum eminentes, interdum obscure. Calyx

profundissimus, margine sinuato et crispo. Columella nulla, patuli

nulli. Lamelle radiantes (septa) tenuissime, alte, super marginem

calycis valde prominentes, tota longitudine discretze. Animal sim-

plex, actiniforme, ore plicis numerosis, seriebus tentaculorum conico-

Miscellaneous. 239

subulatorum verrucosorum apice globoso lzevi non retractilium plu-

ribus (3-4) cireumdato.

4. Ulocyathus arcticus, the only species, was taken at Oxfjord in

Finmark, at a depth of 150-200 fathoms, perfectly free, upon a

bottom of clay and mud. The largest specimen met with was

4 in. (Paris) in height and 1,5 inch in its largest diameter. The

smallest specimen measured about > an inch in each of these direc-

tions. The colour of the animal is bright minium-red, with the

inner tentacles darker, and the folds of the mouth blood-red or

brownish-red. The polype is quite solitary, and resembles an Aectinia

in appearance, but the base of the coral is naked.—Fauna Tittoralis

Norvegia, livr. ii. pp. 63-79.

Natural History of the Conway Reef.

By Joun Dents Macponatp, Assistant-Surgeon H.M.S, Herald.

Gasreropopa.—After a little search, we obtained one recent

Stomatella of small size, with a white, polished shell; Cyprea an-

nulus (young), and a species of Vermetus; but, besides these, no

other living Gasteropods were observed, although it cannot be doubted

that many exist. Amongst the dead shells, however, which had

been washed up from the deeper parts, more especially on the northern

side of the Sandy Islet, we noticed a great profusion of a species of

Turbo, apparently identical with that which is so conspicuous in the

elevated cural terraces of the Isle of Pines.

Examples of the following gerera were also noticed, though in

smaller quantity: viz. Pyramis and Conus, a very large species of

each ; Conus generalis, and one or two others; Triton tritonts, Do-

lium perdix, and Cyprea, several species.

ConcuHireRA.—With the exception of the genus Tridacna, two

species of which were everywhere to be found, no Conchifera seemed

to exist on this reef.

Crustacea.—Species of the genera Pisa, Portunus, Pyremela

and Sesarma were taken on the verge of the Sandy Islet, with a

single member of the genus Squzlla.

ANNEL1DA.— Dorsibranchiate and Tubicolous kinds numerous.

EcHINODERMATA.—These embraced examples of the genera

Echinus, chiefly occurring in the deeper parts amongst the branches

of Madrepores, Ophiocoma, Holothuria, and Sipunculus, the latter

belonging to the small coral-perforating division.

TuRBELLARIA, DeNDROc@LA.— Planaric of comparatively large

size.

Puytozoa.—Astrea, Caryophyllia and Madrepora in great

variety, with Nullipores and small Sponges.

Autea.—Nearly all the Alge are small, and require microscopic

examination; the total absence of any of the larger kinds is very

remarkable.

The Sandy Islet is mainly composed of disintegrated coral and

marine shells; and im several superimposed and sloping layers of

240 Miscellaneous.

coral-conglomerate rock occurring on the south side, portions of

species at present existing on the reef may be distinctly recognized.

As the outer margin of the reef has not yet been elevated above the

surface of the sea, there is necessarily some difficulty in its examina-

tion; but future years will bring to light many of the hidden trea-

sures of its natural history.

Description of Siphonactinia, a new genus of Actinie from Norway.

By D. C. Dantexssen and J. Koren.

Genus SIPHONACTINIA.

Siphone cylindrico, valde excentrice extra discum prominente,

a disco et aliquanto sursum duodecim plicis membranaceis cohzeren-

tibus—collari tentaculiformi—circumdato ; superiore in parte margo

rotundatus, cujus in parte exteriore tres eminentize cartilaginose et

in interiore fissura per totam siphonis longitudinem porrecta; tenta-

cula uniseriata nec retractilia.

Siphonactinia Boeckii, the only species, occurs on the coast of

Norway at a depth of 80-200 fathoms. It is a small species, with

the body about an inch in length ; and the tentacles, which are twelve

in number and arranged in a single row, measure about 2ths of an

inch.— Fauna Litt. Norvegia, livr. i. p. 87.

On the Occurrence of Urocerus gigas in Cornwall.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—Observing in the Number of the Edinburgh Phi-

losophical Journal for last month (p. 172) a notice of the appearance

of Urocerus gigas at Banchory in Scotland, I am induced to call

your attention to a similar fact having taken place in my neighbour-

hood, at Coldrennick, near Liskeard, Cornwall, the seat of Charles

Trelawney, Esq. Some ladies, last week, sitting in an arbour, were

attracted by a singular tapping in one of the posts of fir (which had

been cut from a neighbouring plantation in the previous year); after

a time, a black, moveable head made its appearance on the surface,

which was speedily followed by the body of an insect, which they

caught, and which turned out to be the Urocerus. Subsequently,

for several days, fresh specimens were noticed of individuals of the

same species, though varying in size. Although most writers speak

of these pests being rare in this country, yet it is to be feared, from

these two localities above mentioned being infested with them, that

they have probably become indigenous, and will require the attention

of naturalists to devise some method of destroying them, short of

the German practice of cutting down the plantations.

I enclose one of the insects, a male, which corresponds with the

plate and description given in Donovan’s * British Insects,’ except

that the abdomen is entirely black, and the last seven segments of

the back of a yellow colour.

Your obedient Servant,

Plymouth, Aug. 10, 1857. Epwarp Moores, M.D., F.L.S.,

Vice-President Plymouth Institution.

LALE,AA NALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

No. 118. OCTOBER 1857.

XXIU1.—The Process of Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. By Dr. L.

RaDLKOFER*,

Sect. I. The Regular Propagation of Plants, and the Organs

devoted to it.

Arter the existence of different organs, whose cooperation for

the production of the rudiment of a new vegetable individual

appeared to be a necessary condition, had been demonstrated in one

series of the plants long regarded as Asexual—the Cryptogamia

of Linnzeus,—it was natural that the question should press itself

upon the minds of naturalists, whether or not a sexual process

of propagation was not connected with the maintenance of the

species, in all departments of the Vegetable Kingdom, either

occurring by itself, or im company with other contrivances for

attainimg a similar end,—I mean the multiplication of plants by

division and gemmation, through the mdividualization of cells

or groups of cells.

Many who had entertained the question had also arrived at

the conviction that it must be answered in the affirmative ; and

they were not behindhand even in finding out the required

sexual organs in the said plants. But their efforts served for

the most part only to verify the words with which Montagne

commences the account of his observations on the multiplication

of the Characee: ‘The sciences of observation, and natural

history in particular, present in their study this remarkable cir-

cumstance, that we scarcely ever arrive, at the first onset, at the

aim which we propose to attainy.” Now, however, reliable ob-

* Leipsic, 1857, 8vo. Translated by Arthur Henfrey, F.R.S. &e.

+ Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xviil. p. 65.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xx. 16

242 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

servations have in many cases confirmed the earlier conjectures ;

not in all groups of plants, however, have they demonstrated

the existence of sexes. This applies to the Fungi and Lichens

in particular. We shall endeavour in the following pages to

expound the results of these observations in systematic order,

making reference at the same time to the opinions of the older

writers.

1. Funet.

Micheli had already discovered those organs, terming them

sometimes ‘filamenta’ and sometimes ‘stemones,’ which

Gleditsch, Bulliard, and some later observers regarded as homo-

logous with the stamens of the higher plants. Micheli* him-

self had ascribed to them the office of keeping apart the ‘ lamellze’

of the Agarici, so as to prevent the seeds decaying between

them.

These organs, which have been observed in various Hymeno-

mycetes, are cylindrical tubular cells, standing on the hymenium

itself between the basidia and the paraphyses, and containing

colourless granular fluid. The granules display molecular

motion.

According to Montagne+, their contents are ultimately dis-

charged, and appear at the points of the cells in little round

drops. He ascribes to the stickiness of this liquid the adhesion

of the spores detached from basidia, to their cells, without de-

cidedly adopting the opinion of Corda, that the spores are thereby

fecundated. Cordat regarded these ‘ granule-bearing utricles,’

from the analogy of their structure and contents, as organs

representing anthers, ‘antheridia.” In the third volume of his

‘Icones Fungorum§,’ he altered his opinion, and thought it

better to compare these organs rather with the simple pollen-

cell than with the elaborately constructed anthers ; hence he gave

them the name of ‘ pollinaria.’ He assures us that their appear-

ance is anterior to the development of the basidia, that the spores

are not formed until the period when the pollinaria begin to

discharge their contents, and that the latter disappear soon after,

* P. A. Michelius, Nova Plant. Genera juxta Tournefortii methodum

disposita. Florent. 1729, pp. 126, 133. tab. 68. L, 73.1. K. L, 76. A. B.

See also Hedwig, Theoria Generat. et Fructificat. Plantar. Cryptogam.

Linnzi. Petropol. 1784, p. 130.

+ C. Montagne, Organography and Physiology of the Class Fungi.

Transl. by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. ix.

t A. J. Corda, Ueber Micheli’s Antheren der Fleischpilze. Flora, 1834,

i. p- 113; Icones Fungor. tom. ii. p. 35. tab. 15. fig. 124. 4. g. (Prague,

1838.

§ Ie. Fung. t. i. p. 44 et seg. (Prague, 1839.)

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 243

at the time when the spores are mpe. Klotzsech* calls them

anthers, and believes that he has observed that the spores which

come in contact with these utricles are more certain to germi-

nate. The majority of recent inquirers regard these structures

as forms representing stages of development of the basidiat.

Berkeley { calls them ‘utricles.’ Leveillé$ gives them the name

of ‘cystidia.” We shall immediately examine his view of their

import.

In his “ Disposition méthodique des espéces du genre Hry-

siphe||,” the last-named savan expresses the opinion that the

cystidia of other Fungi are represented by the cells which

rise from the mycelium in longitudinal rows, as jointed filaments

(spores articulées, Lev.; filaments sporiféres (Oidium), Bornet)

supported on branches of the mycelium (pedicellis), and which,

from separating readily, like the cells of Ozdiwm, fall on the

mycelium, and give this a pulverulent aspect. He conjectures

that these cells are destined to fecundate the subsequently de-

veloped conceptacula (peridia)4§. Although far from regarding

the granules of the contents of these cells, which likewise exhibit

molecular motion, as spermatozoids, yet he sees, in the relative

time and order of development of these and the conceptacles,

and the circumstance that enduring rain, which washes these

cells from the mycelium, or continued heat, which dries them

up, produces barrenness of these Fungi,—suflicient ground to

support his conjecture. The words with which he concludes his

exposition appear to me so characteristic of the present state of

the question, and the mode in which it is usually treated, that

I cannot refrain from quoting them here** :—

“ The Fungi have been considered as asexual plants, and there

is really no proof that they have sexual organs. But it 1s not

long since the Algz were also regarded as asexual plants. The

beautiful researches of MM. Decaisne and Thuret have taught

us that these plants are not only furnished with male and female

* Dietrich’s Flora der Konigreich. Preussen, Band vi. (Vide Schleiden,

Grundziige der wiss. Botanik, 3rd edit. u. p. 40.) (Principles of Botany

(London), p. 156.)

+ Vide Tulasne, Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xx. p. 173, note 2 (1853).

+ Berkeley, on the Fructification of the Pileate and Clavate Tribes of

Hymenomycetous Fungi. Annals of Nat. Hist. i. p. 81 e¢ seq.

§ Leveillé, Recherches sur / Hymenium des Champignons. Ann. des Se

nat. 2 sér. vill. pp. 325, 326 et seq. (1837).

|| Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xv. p. 109 (1851).

{ Lindley, Berkeley, Fresenius, Amici and Tulasne have seen these

cells germinate, and regard them as brood-cells. Tulasne, Quedam de

Erysiphis animadversiones. Bot. Zeit. 1853, p. 259-60. [Also Nouv. Obs.

sur Erysiphe. Ann. des Se. nat. 4 sér. vi. p. 299 (1856).—A. H.}

wr toe. ew. p. 119.

L6*

244 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

organs, like the Characez, Mosses, and Hepatic, but that they

are also moncecious and dicecious. How is it, then, that we find

nothing of the same kind in the Fungi? Perhaps, as was long

the case with the Ferns and Equisetacee, the organs are sought

where they do not lie. The cystidia of the Basidiosporous Fungi,

the paraphyses of the Thecasporous Fungi and of the Lichens,

and the free utricles of the mycelium of the Erysiphes, seem to

me to represent organs of fecundation. Although their presence

is not constant, we cannot refuse them a destination. No one

has hitherto thought of attributing to them any part im the nu-

trition, respiration, or circulation; and it does not require any

great effort of imagination to suppose that they serve for repro-

duction : what is difficult, is to prove this. But ought we to con-

clude from the fact, that these organs do not exist in all Fungi,

that they do not fulfil any function, and that they are useless in

those cases where they are observed? No; we must wait until

experience has spoken. In the research of truth, we have first

to prove that existing theories are false, and then to show by

direct experiment the reality and the advantages of that which is

proposed : this, however, is impossible for me at present. With

the aid of the simplest preparation, I doubt not, the existence

of fecundating organs will be established ; but it must not be

forgotten that the principle vivifying the germs is not always

accompanied by spermatozoids, as is shown us by the Phanero-

gamia. Why should not this be the case also in other plants?

In seeking and recognizing as the incontestable character of the

existence of male organs, these moving corpuscles, do we not

seek that which cannot be found? This great exception of the

Phanerogamia is well worthy to fix the attention of investigators

of nature.”

To render the historical summary complete, we have still to

mention that which, in Hedwig’s eyes, above all spoke decisively

against their supposed nature, namely that the ‘stamina’ of

Micheli remain equally fresh during the maturation of the spores,

which in his opinion must always be subsequent to the fecunda-

tion. From observations on species of Agaricus, Hydnum and

Boletus, resting upon the epoch of their development, and its

non-coincidence with that of the formation of the spores, he

considered “the very numerous, oval, light brownish globules

lying on the filaments on the inner surface of the volva, annulus,

and the surface of the stipe itself,’ as the male fecundating

apparatus. Agaricus and Boletus are, in his view, moncecious

plants with distinct sexes*. Similar conditions as regards the

* J. Hedwig, Theoria Generat. et Fruct. Plantar. Cryptogam. Linnei.

Petrop. 1784, pp. 132, 134 et seq.

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 245

order of their appearance led Meyen* to the opinion “that the

Aicidiolum exanthematum, Ung., is the male or fecundating

structure of the Aicidium-pustule contaming true spore-like

vesicles, by which it is sueceeded.” At the same time, Meyen

was “by no means of opinion that an actual or true fecundation

took place here.” The same contradiction occurs in his expres-

sions relating to the Fungus-anthers of the older authors (cys-

tidia, Lev.), which he held to be “ organs which contain a ferti-

lizing substance,” and a few lines further on, “ abnormally

altered sporophores+” (basidia).

The investigations of Tulasne, which are in close connexion

with the researches of Itzigsohn on the Lichens, presently to be

mentioned, are partly supplementary to those above enumerated,

and partly of a nature to open out new points of view for the

study of the organs of fructification of the Fungi. For the sake

of rendering these matters perfectly clear, I postpone the details

to the section on the Lichens, and only mention here, that

Tulasne found in the Fungi, and in the first instance in the

Pyrenomycetes t, corpuscles similar to Itzigsohn’s spermatozoids

of Lichens. He calls them spermatia, and the structures in

which they are contained, spermogonia. The latter are found

sometimes on the same thallus with the thecz filled with spores,

sometimes separated from these, and have frequently been re-

garded as distinct and independent Fungi (species of Spheria,

Cytispora, Microspora, Polystigma, Ascochyta, &c.). And he

considers several genera of the Coniomycetes, in like manner,

to be dependent and imperfect structures, and thinks that they

represent, as for example cidiolum exanthematum, Ung.,

spermogonia of Uredinez or Spheriez, &c.§

Besides these spermatia and the spores contained in the thece,

the same inquirer found, in some cases in the same Fungi, other

spore-like bodies, which, like the spores of the Hymenomycetes,

were developed upon sterigma-like processes, each upon a basi-

dium-like cell, and these he therefore calls stylospores. Con-

cerning the order in which these various stages of development

of the Fungi, bearing spermatia, stylospores, or proper spores,

make their appearance, he observes, that the spermatia, which

may be contemporaneous with the stylospores, always appear

* F, J. F. Meyen, Pflanzenpathologie, herausgeg. v. Nees v. Esenbeck.

Berlin, 1841, p. 143.

+ Wiegmann’s Archiv, 5 Jahrg. Bd. 1. Berlin, 1839, p. 50.

+ L. R. Tulasne, Note sur l’Appareil reproducteur dans les Lichens et

les Champignons. Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xv. p. 370. (Transl. in Ann.

Nat. Hist. vii. p. 114. ]

§ See on this point Tulasne, Seconde Mémoire sur les Uredinées et les

Ustilaginées. Ann. des Se. nat. 4 sér. ii. p. 113 et seq. (1854).

246 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

before the perfect form, sometimes even several months earlier,

“like the antheridia of the Ferns or Equisetacew before the

formation of the spore-bearing capsules of these plants.”

The occurrence of spermatia is not limited to the sections of

the Fungi above mentioned. In the Discomycetes, also, Tulasne

found them (as in Cenangium, Tympanis, Dermatea, Peziza,

Stictis, Tryblidium, Rhytisma, Hysterium, Heterospheria, Bul-

garia), and in part upon the same organs which bore the spori-

ferous asci, preceding the formation of these (Cenangium Fran-

gule, Tul.), or about simultaneous with them (Peziza benesuada,

Tul.), “ perhaps representing hermaphrodite receptacles*.”

The like are met with m the Hymenomycetes (Tremellini) .

They have here two kinds of origin. In some (Tremella mesen-

terica, Retz.) they originate side by side with the basidia, at the

ends of the hymenial filaments imbedded in the gelatinous mass ;

in others (Dacrymyces deliquescens, Dub., &c.) they are developed

from the multilocular spores, each cell (each chamber) producing

a pedicel, the end of which swells up into a globe, which sub-

sequently separates as a spermatium. Another portion of the

same spores exhibits the ordinary kind of germination—if, for

the sake of convenience, this expression may be permitted,—

such as is known of the spores of Fungi from the researches of

Oschatzt, Corda§, Tulasne ||, Bornet 4], Cohn**, De Bary+t, &e.:

the cells of the spores extend out at one or more points into filiform

prolongations, the threads of the mycelium. These spores ex-

hibiting such diverse development, although they appear exactly

alike to our eyes, are compared by Tulasne to the two kinds of

spores in the Lycopodiacee and Rhizocarpee ; and he regards

it as fitting to apply to them the terms ‘ androspore’ and ‘ gyno-

spore,’ which Bayrhoffer, without equal ground, had introduced

for the Lichens. The latter kind of formation of spermatia

* Tulasne, Recherches sur Appareil reproducteur des Champignons.

Ann. des Se. nat. 3sér. xx. p.129, 1853; De Organis apud Discomycetes pro-

pagationi inservientibus. Bot. Zeitung, 1852, p. 49; Nouvelles Recherches

sur l’Appareil, &e. Comptes Rendus, Noy. 13, 1852, p. 841. (See also the

articles under the heads of the genera cited here, in the ‘ Micrographic

Dictionary.’)

+ Tulasne, Observ. sur Organisation des Tremellinées. Ann. des Se.

nat. 3 sér. xix. p. 193 (1853).

+ Oschatz, De Phalli impudici Germinatione. Nova Acta A.C.L.C.

xix. i. p. 663. ,

§ Icones Fungorum.

|| Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xv. p. 271, &e. loc. cit.

—— sur Organisation des Meliola. Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xvi.

p. 264.

** Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pilobolus crystallinus. Nova Acta A. C.

L. C. xxi. 1. p. 505.

+7 Botan. Zeitung, 1854, p. 425,

and its relation to that m the Anmal Kingdom, 247

occurs also in Peziza bolaris, Batsch*, Peziza vesiculosa, Bull.,

and Peziza tuberosa, Bull.t, modified in the last two by the

occurrence, in the place of the simple pedicel between the sper-

matia and the (andro-) spores, of a complicated structure form-

ing in itself a kind of mycelium—promycelium, Tulasne; in

Bulgaria iniquans, Fries, this occurs together with the former.

“Tt corresponds in every respect to the formation of spermatia

in the majority of the Lichens, where they originate singly upon

a cell which nourishes them }.”

Of the subsequent history of the spermatia formed in this

way, which Tulasne calls sporogenous, nothing further is known ;

on the other hand, a kind of germination has been observed in

some of them which are produced, not from the spores, but from

the spermogonia, and which Tulasne, in reference to their later

evolution, calls opsigenous. When left for a long time in water,

they develope filiform prolongations, like spores. So also with

the spermatia which precede the formation of the ergot, which,

with the tissue producing them, were described by authors as a

SphaceliaS, and those of Spheria Laburni, which hitherto had

been regarded as the spores of a Cytispora in the vicinity of the

perithecia of the former.

In face of these observations, and of the experience that phy-

siologically diverse organs frequently have similar characters,

Tulasne naturally did not venture to declare these two kinds of

spermatia identical ; nor, in the absence of direct observation on

their relation to the fructification of the Fungi—not to speak of

the opsigenous, which may merely represent a second form of

the stylospores,—even to compare the sporogenous spermatia

* Now and then, though rarely, spores are met with which produce

at the same time spermatia and one or more mycelial filaments. (Ann. des

Se. nat. 3 sér. xx. p. 174.)

+ Of the spermatia of this species, Tulasne observes, “ Neither is it

uncommon to perceive, in the interior, an incomplete excentric circle, a

sort of spiral line, the inner extremity of which would correspond pretty

nearly to their centre; but I have never remarked that they were endowed

with any movement.” (L. c. p. 176.)

t In the same memoir Tulasne shows, that the pairs of cells (sporidia

bilocularia) hitherto regarded as spores, m the genus Podisoma, are only

the basidia, which produce much branched and multicellular sterigmata, and

only upon these the proper, subsequently germinating spores; as Gasparrini

had already observed. The granules of Mcidiwm and Uredo, and the

fruits of Puccinia and Phragmidium behave like these sporidia of Podisoma

as regards ther growth in germination. See Bot. Zeitung, 1853, p. 611;

Ann. des Se. nat. 4 sér. li. p. 123 (1854).

§ Tulasne, Mémoire sur!’Ergot des Glumacées. Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér.

xx. p.5. The ergot itself is shown, by Tulasne’s beautiful investigations,

to be the sclerotoid mycelium of a Spheeriacea (Claviceps purpureus, Tul.),

the development of which takes place after the ergot has lain several months

in moist earth. (See ‘ Claviceps,’ Micrographie Dictionary.)

248 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

definitely with the spermatozoids of the rest of the Crypto-

gamia.

In like manner, future observations must decide whether these

sporogenous spores resemble the proper spores of the Uredinee

in any other respect than that merely relating to their origin*.

De Baryt+ and Caspary{ have furnished researches, partly con-

firming Tulasne’s, partly adding to them.

In conclusion, one more kind of spore-formation remains to

be mentioned, which has its analogy and a wider field of occur-

rence in the Algze (Zygnemez, Desmidiaceze, &c.), the so-called

conjugation in Sizygites§. We shall return to this case here-

after, in examining the import of the process of conjugation

generally.

2. LicHENs.

In the Lichens, Micheli|| regarded the spores and thece as the

(female) flowers, the sterile thallus as the male plant, the soredia

as the seeds. Dillenius€{ and Linnzeus** regarded the apothecia

as the male, and the soredia as the female organs of fructifica-

tion. Hedwig+t+ gave these parts, according to his observation

that the latter preceded the former, exactly the reverse interpre-

tation. He took for their male organs not merely the soredia,

but also those structures already known by him and Dillenius,

and figured in Borrera ciliaris,—distinguished by the former only

so far as their external appearance allowed,—the brown or black

dotted elevationst{, which recently, since Itzigsohn declared

them to be antheridia, have so strongly excited the interest of

botanists.

Schacht §§, in stating that “ Itzigsohn’s antheridia were first

seen and figured by Alex. v. Humboldt |||/—(he found them on

* Vide note t (p. 247).

+ Untersuchung. iiber Brandpilz. Berlin, 1853.

t ‘Flora,’ 1855, p. 483.

§ Vide Ehrenberg, Verhandl. Gesell. Naturf. Freunde. Berlin, B. 1.

Stuck. ii. p. 98, 1820; Corda, A. C. J., Prachtflora europaisch. Schimmel-

bild. Leipz. u. Dresd. 1839, p. 49.

|| Micheli, Nova Genera Plant. Florent. 1729, pp. 73, 74.

€ Dillenius, Historia Muscorum. Oxon. 1741.

** Linneus, Genera Plantarum, ed. 6. Holmiz, 1764, p. 566.

+t Hedwig, Theoria Generat. et Fructificat. Plant. Cryptog. Linnzi.

Petrop. 1784, p. 120 et seq.

tt “ Puncta queedam aliquid diversum ab ipsa fronde notantia ;—verrucas

nigro punctulo—breyi in vertice macula fusca, dein nigricante—notatus ;

hanc verrucam si verticaliter utrinque secaverimus....apparet distinctus sub

vertice loculus...... granulosa massa refertus,” &e. l. c. pp. 121-123.

§§ H. Schacht, Die Pflanzenzelle. Berlin, 1862, p. 120.

\||| Alex. ab Humboldt, Flora Friburg. specimen, Plant. Cryptogamas

presert. subterraneas exhibens. Berol. 1793.

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 249

Lichen parietinus ;—Humboldt explained them as rudiments of

apothecia”’),—appears to me to err in an explanation of a figure

on Plate 2 of the ‘ Flora Friburgensis’ of Humboldt, represent-

ing a varietas prolifera of Lichen parietinus, which the author

describes as follows, at page 15: “ Peltz, margine revoluto, cui

6-8 peltz juniores citrini coloris elegantissime imposite sunt.

Nescio an hee varietas ullo Botanico jam prius observata fuerit ?”

On the other hand, Humboldt had of course seen the black

spotted elevations on the surface of the thallus of Borrera ciliaris,

described by Hedwig, but wholly refrained from expressing an

opimion of their import; for at the end of the description of

Lichen ciharis*, he mentions them merely with the words:

“Quid verrucz atree quibus szpissime pagina superior frondis

vel laciniarum notata apparet ?”

Meyer} regarded the organs in question as abortive apothecia,

and considered their black colour, in Lichens which normally

present no black apothecia, as a peculiar diseased character.

By other Lichenologists they were characterized, sometimes

as peculiar species of Lichens (Pyrenothea, Fr.t, Thrombium,

Wallr.), sometimes as parasites (Hndocarpon athallon, Spr. ;

Spheria epiblastemica, Wallr.; Spheria lichenicola,Smf.; Spheria

Lichenum, Rebent.) ; sometimes, when the papille were rather

larger, as in Lichen ciliaris, &c., as ‘ vesicular-fruit’ (Physco-

cymatia, Wallr.), or as a kind of accessory apothecia filled with

gongyli (Cephalodia, Ach.), or as anamorphoses of apothecia

(status angiocarpt Lichenum gymnocarporum, Fries§). Holle||,

when he describes among the rudimentary apothecia of Borrera

ciliaris some of dark brown or blackish colour, the internal tissue

of which is partly decayed, and appears like a fluid, in which

often swim whole legions of small Fungoid structures,—appears

to me also to have confounded the organs of which we are speak-

ing with the young apothecia. Speerschneider describes them

in Borrera ciliaris and Parmelia Acetabulum, as soredia ; im an-

other place as abortive and lignified apothecia**,

H. Itzigsohn ++ next made the observation, that the corpuscles

* Loc. cit. p. 21.

+ G. F. W. Meyer, Die Entwickl., Metamorph. und Fortpflanz. der

Flechten. Gottingen, 1825, p. 162 et seq.

{ V. Flotow, indeed, regarded part of the species of this genus as not

independent, and called the mdividuals furnished with them variet. py-

renodes.

§ Vide Flotow, in a letter to Itzigsohn, Bot. Zeitung, 1850, p. 914, and

Tulasne, Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xvii. p. 153.

|| G. v. Holle, Zur Entwickl. von Borrera ciliaris. Gottingen, 1849,

pp- 6 and 7.

{{ Botan. Zeitung, 1853, p. 730; 1854, p. 491 and p. 506. pl. 12. fig. 6.

** Ibid. 1854, p. 614. pl. 14. figs. 11 & 12,

tt Ibid. 1850, pp. 393, 916 et seq.

250 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

contained in these organs—described by him as exactly like the

spermatozoids of Polytrichum and Marchantia,—when brought

to light by pressure, began after some time to move tumul-

tuously. He therefore held these corpuscles to be the sperma-

tozoa of the Lichens, and their conceptacles antheridia. He

describes the latter in Cladonia alcicornis as small (scarcely as

large as a millet-seed), mostly stalked nodules at the tips of

some of the lobes of the thallus, quite distinguishable by the

naked eye, but not occurring in all individuals, on account of the

probably dicecious inflorescence ;—as larger in Borrera ciliaris,

in which they are distinguished by their brownish colour from

the young apothecia, which are green. The spermatozoa he

describes further as little cylinders, whose length exceeds their

diameter 10-20 times. They are stated to be developed im

lenticular cells which are contained in the gonimic layer, and

out of which he had seen them escape. Their movement was

essentially different from mere molecular motion (no motive

organs, however, are described, at all corresponding to the cilia

of the Moss-spermatozoids) : the motion was seen most clearly

in those spermatozoa which collected at the top of the water as

a shining, hard pellicle after several days’ maceration of the

Lichens, gomg on to the commencement of putrefaction (Bor-

rera, Peltidea, Lecanora, Parmelia, Cladonia).

Kiitzing* and K. Miller} confirmed the existence of the

cylindrical corpuscles, but saw no movement of them. Von Flo-

tow { saw it (in Verrucaria), but regarded it as molecular motion,

and the antheridia as abortive fruits. Rabenhorst, after many

unsuccessful attempts$ with macerated Lichens, likewise per-

ceived it, and was of opinion that it was of decided animal, 7. e.

spermatozoic nature||. Schacht"], after minute examination,

ean only recognize im the antheridia “stunted (verkummerte)

rudiments of the apothecia,” and the spermatozoa of Itzigsohn

he regards as “ the cells of the articulated paraphyses separated

by absorption ;’ m a subsequent publication**, as “ foreign

bodies come in through decomposition, probably Vibriones.”

Hofmeister++ likewise only saw a molecular motion of the said

corpuscles: the corpuscles with slow, snake-like motion, which

* Botan. Zeitung, 1850, p. 913.

+ In the addition to his translation of Montagne’s essay, “* Morpholo-

gische Grundrisse der Flechten,” Halle, 1851, p. 30.

{ Botan. Zeitung, 1850, p. 916.

§ Ibid. 1850, p. 913. || Ibid. 1851, p. 153.

§{ Pflanzenzelle, Berlin, 1852, p. 120.

** Schacht, Das Mikroskop. &c., 2nd edit. Berlin, 1855, p. 83.

+t W. Hofmeister, Vergleich. Untersuch. der Keimung, &c., hoherer

Kryptog. Leipzig, 1851, p. 139, note.

and us relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 251

appeared after long maceration of Borrera (even of such pieces

as bore none of the so-called antheridia), he regarded as Infu-

soria.

Tulasne* gave a new aspect to Itzigsohn’s observations when

he demonstrated the existence of his antheridia, not only in the

great majority of all Lichens, but also in the Fungi (as above

indicated, p. 245), and thus secured new points from whence

their nature could be critically examined.

Their regular occurrence on almost all genera of Lichens, the

peculiarity of their aspect and structure, would not permit him

to regard them as accidental organs, as abortive apothecia, para-

sites, or Lichens suz generis, as had been done by previous

authors,—but warranted him in the conviction that they were a

special reproductive apparatus, probably occurring in all Lichens,

which, in reference to physiological functions, doubtless stand

in close connexion with the other fructifymg apparatus, repre-

sented by the apothecia. He was prevented from distinctly

acknowledging Itzigsohn’s spermatozoa, as such, by the want of

direct observations on their function. He therefore prefers for

the present to attach to them the name ‘ spermatia,’ which, how-

ever, 1s only intended to express that they are bodies destined

to play some part in the reproduction. He calls the organs in

which they are contained ‘ spermogonia.’ The structure of these

is the same as in many Fungi (Pyrenomycetes and Discomy-

cetes)—closed receptacles more or less resembling the perithecia

of the Pyrenomycetes, usually imbedded in the thallus and pro-

jecting only a little from its surface, rarely free above, like the

apothecia (Cladonia, Cetraria, Gyalecta), of globular or oblong

form, with a simple or multilocular cavity, which is clothed by a

kind of hymenium ; this consists of basidium-like cells or rows

of cells (sterigmata) resembling Conferva-filaments, at the points

and joints of which origmate the spermatia, as linear corpuscles,

apparently in the same way as the ramification takes place in

Conferva glomeratat, and by no means in special cellst. He com-

pares these spermatia with the motionless spermatozoids of the

Florideze, and—on the ground of the unexceptional differences

between the form and dimensions of the spermatia on the one

* Tulasne, Note sur l’Appareil reprod. dans les Lichens et Jes Cham-

pignons. Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xv. p. 370 (translated in Ann, Nat. Hist.

2nd ser. vill. p. 114); Mémoire sur l’ Histoire organographique et physio-

logique des Lichens. Ann. des Se. nat, 3 sér. xvi. pp. 5 & 153 (1852).

+ Vide the figures in V. Mohl’s ‘ Vegetable Cell,’ plate 1. fig. 1.

} Tulasne himself (Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xvii. p. 216) entertams some

mistrust of his own earlier observation, that in Verrucaria atomaria,

spermatia and fertile sporanges are developed im the same conceptacles

(apotheeia),—a condition which has an analogy among the Fungi in Peziza

benesuada, Tul., Cenangium Frangule, Tul., and the Tremellini.

252 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

hand, and of the true spores and gonidia on the other, but,

above all, from the consideration of the peculiar mode of deve-

lopment in each of these organs,—he declares distinctly against

the opinion which would estimate the spermatia only as spores

or gonidia*.

The view of Leveillé+, who regarded the paraphyses of the

Lichens as their fecundating organs, and Bayrhoffer’st, who

ascribed a different sexual nature to the separate layers of the

thallus, need merely be mentioned for the sake of completing

the historical summary.

o. ALGER:

But a few years since, exact science knew nothing of a process

of fecundation in the Alge. The conjugation of Spirogyra,

known as long ago as by Vaucher§, had indeed been taken to

be such ; but the asserted observation, that the formation of the

spore occasionally occurred without any union of the conju-

gating cells really having taken place, had brought the whole

matter into question again in the most recent time. Vaucher

had perceived the so-called horns, and even conjectured that

they had the import of anthers||; but from the suspicion to the

experimental proof, with which alone science can be satisfied,

the road is often very long, and not to be traversed without

numerous fruitless diversions.

* Tulasne’s observations extend at the same time to the (so-called)

germination of the spores of Lichens, and confirm and complete in this

respect the statement of Meyer (Joc. cit. p. 175), Fries (Lichenogr. Europ.

reformat. Lund, 1831, pp. lv, lvi), Buhse (Ueber d. Fruchtkorper der

Flechten, Bull. Naturforsch. Gesell. Moskau, Bd. 49, p. 32, 1846), Meiss-

ner (Bot. Zeitung, 1848, p. 90), Holle (/. c. p.31), and Speerschneider

(Bot. Zeit. 1853, p. 721, 1854, pl. 14. figs. 10 & 11). The internal cell ot

the spore breaks through the cuticle—in the compound spores usually at

the points ef the end-cells, and elongates into ramified filaments. Sub-

sequently septa appear in these, from their point of origin onwards, by

which they are converted into moniliform rows of cells. By interweaving

together, these filaments form a tolerably closely-meshed plexus—proto-

thallus of authors, prothallus of Tulasne,—on which, at several points, is

formed a layer of colourless, round cells—to judge from fig. 3. pl. 3 of

Tulasne’s memoir, by detachment of cells produced as buds (abschniirung)

—as is assumed of the gonidial cells by Schacht (Pflanzenzelle, p. 135)

and Speerschneider (Bot. Zeit. 1853, p. 710, &c.; 1854, p. 214, &e.). Upon

these soon appear cells, filled with green substance, perfectly resembling

the gonidial cells of the full-grown thallus. The cultivation of the young

plant never succeeded beyond this point.

+ Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xv. p. 120 (1851).

t J. D. W. Bayrhoffer, Einig. iiber die Lichenen und deren Befruchtung.

Bern, 1851.

§ J.P. Vaucher, Histoire des Conferves d’eau douce. Genéve, 1803,

p. 43 et seq. || L.e. p. 14 et seq. pl. 2 & 3.

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 253

Thus the matter rested for more than fifty years, until know-

ledge took the place of conjecture. Pringsheim* it was who

made the matter clear by the direct observation of the act of

fecundation in Vaucheria sessilis. While other phycologists

believed in a conjugation of the horn with the sporange standing

besidet+ it, and Karstent thought that he discovered a process

of fecundation by the emission from the horn of a cell containing

formative matter (which he compared with the pollen-cell, as

supposed to be efficient on Schleiden’s former hypothesis), which

united, together with its membrane, with a germ-sac-cell con-

tained in the sporange, and thus became a productive (entwick-

lungsfthig) germ or spore,—Pringsheim saw the terminal cell of

the horn open at its point and emit a great number of minute,

bacillar corpuscles—spermatozoids, which slipped away in all

directions with a rapid motion. Many of them crowded into

the orifice already formed in the beak-hke apex of the spo-

range by the pressure of its accumulated protoplasm—zinto the

micropyle of the sporange, and appeared partly to penetrate into

the protoplasm itself. Immediately upon this, the protoplasm

became enveloped by a new cell-membrane, and thus appeared

as a complete resting-spore, completely filling the sporange.

The formation of the horn—the antheridium, as well as that of

the sporange, takes place by a papilla-lke bulging-out of the

wall of the tubular cell of Vaucheria, such as happens in the

ordinary ramification, and a subsequent separation of its cavity

from that of the general filament of the Alga, by aseptum. The

sporange remains as a simple cell, until the time of the forma-

tion of the spore ; the curved, tendril-like antheridium is divided

by a cross-septum into two superposed cells before it is mature.

In May of last year I had an opportunity of making confirm-

atory observations on this important discovery of Pringsheim’s,

which at once throws a bright light over the essential nature of

the fecundating process in the vegetable kingdom, and fills up a

hiatus in the related observations on the higher Cryptogamia.

Specimens of Vaucheria sessilis, collected in a ditch at Jena,

exhibited both perfectly ripe fruits and partly decomposed horns,

and, besides these, all the earlier stages of development of the

sporange and antheridia, back to the earliest nipple-like pro-

* N. Pringsheim, Ueber der Befruchtung, &c., der hoheren Algen.

Monatsbericht der K. Acad. d. Wiss. Berlin, 1855. (Abridged in Ann. Nat.

Hist. 2 ser. xiv. p. 346, &e. Quarterly Journal of Microscop. Science, iv.

p- 63.)

+ Vide Nageli, Neuerer Algensystem, &c. Zurich, 1847, p. 175. pl. 4.

figs. 21 & 22; and A. Braun’s doubts as to Nageli’s account in his * Ver-

jungung,’ &c. (Transl. in Ray Society, vol. 1851, p. 296.)

t H. Karsten, Der Fortpflanzung der Conferva fontinalis, L. Botan.

Zeitung, 1852, p. 89. pl. 2.

254 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

jection on the wall of the main tube. It was not difficult to

find, after a little search, some which gave signs that the act of

fecundation might be immediately expected,—that is, sporanges

in which the orifice for the entrance of the spermatozoids was

already formed at the apex, while the neighbouring horn was

still perfect. I isolated several of the filaments so developed,

and carefully covered those which appeared ripest with a piece of

thin glass, in order to trace their further development under the

microscope. The pressure of the cover was even too much for

the antheridia which were near bursting. They opened, and I saw

the greater part of their mucous contents exude with a sudden

jerk. A quantity of short spindle-shaped corpuscles escaped

from this, and moved about in the water by means of cilia

vibrating like a whip-lash (whether each corpuscle bore one or

two—and, indeed, as it appeared to me in several, one at each

end of the body—TI could not make out with certainty). I saw

but few, as compared with the total number, penetrate into the

open beak of the sporange, and there perform the movement of

crowding against the mass of protoplasm as described by Prings-

heim. Whether any of them actually penetrated into this, I could

not certainly ascertain. Pringsheim, indeed, has not directly

observed the penetration of the spermatozoids into the mass of

protoplasm ; he rather concludes it, from the subsequent detee-

tion of a colourless corpuscle inside the new cell-membrane.

In the germination of the resting-spore of Vaucheria, the in-

most layer of its membrane is directly developed into the thallus-

filament *.

Pringsheim has demonstrated the existence of at least the

micropyles of the sporanges, in which the resting-spores ori-

ginate, in a number of other freshwater Algze,—for example, in

Achlya prolifera, where they exist in numbers probably equal to

that of the spores formed in each sporange +; in G2dogonium

and Bulbochete. And his observations render it probable that

the microgonidia first described by Alex. Braun{, and shown to

exist in various families of freshwater Algze, which in Bulbochete

and (Edogonium attach themselves upon the sporangium or in

its immediate neighbourhood§, and discharge their contents

either immediately or after forming a few cells—are to be re-

garded as antheridia,

* Pringsheim, J. c. p. 12.

+ Thuret represented them in the masterly drawings accompanying his

* Memoir on the Zoospores of Alge,”” but he regarded them as little lids.

Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér, xiv. p. 231. pl. 20. fig. 11 (1850).

Alex. Braun, ‘ Verjiingung’ (Ray Soe. vol. 1%: 51, p. 137).

§ As observed also by De Bary, and figured in his essay “ On dogonium

aa Bulbochete,” Abhandl. der Senkenberg. Naturf. Gesellsch. i. pl. 3 & 4.

(Frankfort-on-Maine, 1854.)

“

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 255

(Supplementary note.—Just before the printing of this essay,

we received, through the kindness of the author, Pringsheim’s

second memoir on the fecundation and alternation of generations

in the Alge*. This contains a full confirmation of the conjec-

ture in the preceding paragraph. Pringsheim saw developed in

a portion of the species of Uidogonium and in Bulbochete, in

the end-cells of a structure (male plant) produced from a micro-

gonidium (now called androspore, to distinguish it from all

other, probably very diverse swarming bodies hitherto con-

founded together under the name of microgonidia)—in each a

spermatozoid furnished with cilia, which, after it had been set

free, completed the act of fecundation exactly in the same way

as in Vaucheria. In a portion of the species of Gidogonium the

spermatozoids are developed singly in determinate, successive

cells of the Gfdogonium-thread, which consists of only one row

of cells. In this case, Pringsheim applies the name of antheri-

dium to the whole sum of the cells forming spermatozoids.)

In Achlya prolifera the antheridia are perhaps represented by

the branchlets, first described by Alex. Braun (also in Coleochete

pulvinatat), which apply themselves upon the sporangium, and

penetrate into the orifices of this by means of lateral, papillary,

projecting processes. In Bulbochete, as also in Coleochete and

probably in Cidogonium, the subsequent development of the

resting-spore is essentially different from that of Vaucheria. It

does not directly produce the thallus of the plant, but zoospores

(almost like the other zoospores of the same plant), by the ger-

mination of which is first produced the structure resembling the

parent plant.

A similar condition, formation of spores of a third kind, accord~

ing to Pringsheim, occurs sometimes in the resting-spore of

Achlya proliferat, probably aiso in Spirogyra jugalis§ ; whether

* Monatsbericht der Berlin. Acad. 1856.

+ Alex. Braun, /. c. (Ray Transl. 298).

{ Pringsheim, Entwickl. der Achlya prolifera. Nova Acta A.C.L.C. xxiii.

pt. 1. p. 427. pl. 47. fig. 17. Vide also Nageli in Zeitschr. f. wiss. Bo-

tanik, von Schleiden and Nageli, 3 & 4 Heft, p. 30, note (1846),

§ Flora, 1852, p.479. (Ann. Nat. Hist. 2 ser. xi. p. 210 et seg.) The

active spores here described by Pringsheim in Spirogyra jugalis, formed

sometimes in conjugated cells, sometimes in unconjugated young filaments,

probably occasionally also in the conjugation-body itself—which Nageli

was also acquainted with, and, since they did not appear capable of ger-

mination, compared with the ‘ swarming-cellules’ (spermatozoids) of Fucus

(Botan. Zeit. 1849, p. 578)—are identical with Itzigsohn’s ‘ spermato-

spheria’ (mother-cells of spermatozoa) of Spirogyra arcta, Kutz. ; the cilia

of these spores doubtless constitute the little heads or tails of the discharged

spiral animaleules which Itzigsohn described. ( Vide the letter of this author

on this subject to Tulasne, Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xvii. p. 150 (1852), and

his figures in ‘ Hedwigia,’ 1852, No. 2. pl. 1, and in Botan. Zeitung,’ 1853,

256 Dr. L. Radikofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

the quaternary division of the spores of Mesocarpus, Staurocarpus,

and Tyndaridea, observed by Thwaites*, is referable here, must

be shown by further observation. Parallel to this stand the

conditions observed in the zoospores. Pringsheim has observed

their division in Achlyat; and in Gidogonium vesicatum, Link,

the same observer saw the contents of a germinating zoospore

which had come to rest, transformed into a number of small,

active spores, which again germinated f.

Similar sexual conditions are rendered probable in the Pal-

mellacez, by the discovery of resting, red spores (together with

the zoospores).

Cohn has not only likewise confirmed the observation of

Pringsheim on Vaucheria, but at the same time brought forward

a new example of sexual reproduction in the Algz, and in a plant

widely differing from Vaucheria, namely Spheroplea annulina§.

The spermatozoids, externally resembling the microgonidia of

other Alge ||, which are developed in separate cells (antheridia)

and are discharged from these by a previously-formed orifice,

here fecundate still membraneless spores, formed by the divi-

sion of the cell-contents, im other cells (sporangia), to which

they make their way through minute orifices. Cohn does not

consider that observations justify his assuming a direct penetra-

tion of the spermatozoids into the primordial spore-cell; it

rather seemed to him as if they attached themselves on the out-

side of the spore, and were finally converted into mucilaginous

globules. The further development of the fecundated spore is

essentially the same as in Bulbochete.

We have likewise recently received a satisfactory key to the

import of the conjugation of the Alge. Areschoug’s§ observa-

tions on this in the Zygnemez lead him to the conclusion, that

the spores now and then observed in cells which have not con-

p- 201. pl. 5.) Cohn regards the structures in question, not as reproductive

bodies, but foreign structures belongmg to the domain of fermentation-

phenomena (Unters. ib. Mikroskop. Alg. u. Pilze. Nova ActaA.C.L.C.

xxiv. pt. l. p. 160.) [This is decidedly erroneous.—A. H.]}

* Vide Botan. Zeitung, 1846, p. 498.

+ Flora, 1852, p. 484, note. t Ibid. 1852, p. 482.

§ Ferd. Cohn, Ueb. Entwickl. u. Fortpflanzung der Spheroplea annulina.

Monatsb. Berl. Acad. May 1855. (Transl. in Ann. Nat. Hist. 2 ser. xviii.

. 81.)

; || Meyen (Pflanzenphys. i. p. 446) asserts that he often observed in

very various Conferve, about the time when the spores are formed, an

innumerable quantity of small, spirally curled, and spirally or undulatmgly

moving animalcules (spiril/a), and he represents these in Spheroplea anau-

lina, in plate 10. fig. 17; his drawing, hewever, agrees so hitle with Cohn’s

description of the spermatozoids of these Algz, that it is difficult to sup

pose that Meyen really saw the same things.

§ Vide ‘ Flora,’ 1855, p. 675 et seq.

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. B57

jugated, have not really the import of spores, but represent only

the condition of cell-contents metamorphosed into a daughter-

cell (?) just before conjugation ; and the same of those cases in

which a spore appeared to be contained in each of the conju-

gated cells. This author, in the last case, saw one of the sup-

posed spores send out a long, tubular process through the con-

jugation-canal which pierced into the other pseudo-spore (in

light-coloured, longish places lying transversely as regards the

long axis of the conjugation-cell) ; its remaining portion soon

passed by degrees through the canal, and penetrated into the

interior of the other spore. The real spore was produced out of

the pseudo-spores united in this way, and in a few days appeared

in the same form as the resting-spores of the other joints.

Further, the same observer saw all the stages of a case in which

two supposed spores occurred in one conjugation-cell, arising

from the tubular prolongation of the travelling pseudo-spore

missing the above-mentioned spot in the other, and its penetra-

tion being thus frustrated ; in this case no formation of a spore

followed,—the two pseudo-spores, lymg side by side, were dis-

solved without undergoing any further change.

The direct production of a plant resembling the parent-fila-

ment, from the spore produced through conjugation (of Spzro-

gyr@), was observed by Vaucher*, and has been recently con-

firmed by Alex. Braun} and Pringsheim f.

In the Fucoidez, J. Ag., the presence of antheridia was first

demonstrated by Thuret, and this in the section Fucaceze. They

here consist of ovate cells, seated on the hairs of conceptacles

sometimes special and sometimes containing also sporanges, and

they are filled with zoospore-like spermatozoids (antherozoids,

Thuret). Lyngbye, Montagne, J. Agardh, Kiitzing, and other

inquirers had already observed these, without having arrived at

any clear conception of their import: by most, even by Nagel,

Mettenius ||, and Al. Braun 4], they were taken for true zoospores,

although no germination had been observed. Reaumur** had

first announced the existence of male organs in Fucus, taking

‘for such the filaments in the cryptostomata of Kiitzing.

First in connexion with Decaisne+}, and next in his essay on

* Conferves d’eau douce, p. 47. pl. 4, 5 & 6.

+ Verjiingung, &c. (Ray Transl. p. 135.)

{ Pringsheim, Algol. Meth. Flora, 1852, p. 465. (Transl. in Ann. Nat.

Hist. 2 ser. xi. p. 210, &c.)

§ Bot. Zeit. 1849, p. 578.

|| Mettenius, Beitrage z. Botanik. Heidelb. 1850, p. 34.

{{ Verjiingung, &c. p. 152. (Ray Soe. transl. 1851, p. 142.)

** Historia Fucorum. Petrop. 1768.

++ Decaisne et Thuret, Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. iii. p. 5 et seg. (1845).

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 17

258 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

the antheridia of the Cryptogamia*, Thuret assumed the active

2-ciliated corpuscles contained in the above-mentioned cells to be

spermatozoa, on account of their not germinating; more recently,

he has given proof of the correctness of his hypothesis by ex-

periments on dicecious species of Fucus, showing that where these

bodies are excluded, the spores remain incapable of germination,

i.e. unfecundated. According to his account, the spores (sporules

of authors) are formed in eights, fours, twos, or only one, in

the unicellular sporanges, which have a smaller cell forming a

pedicle to attach them to the wall of the conceptacle. These

spores emerge from the sporange as primordial cells, as yet un-

enclosed by a proper membrane, but surrounded by a common

envelope (and thus hitherto regarded by authors as smgle 8- &e.

parted spores, octospores, &c.), from which they are immediately

set quite free, and come in contact with the spermatozoa. The

author could not detect a material penetration of the spermatozoa

into the spore-mass. Soon after fecundationt the spore becomes

clothed by a cell-membrane, and then is developed into the

young plant.

Pringsheim§ confirmed Thuret’s statements. The only dif-

ference is, that Pringsheim thinks the spermatozoids actually

penetrate into the membraneless spore-mass, and are immediately

enclosed by the new cell-membranes. He was led to this opmion

by observing a number of small red-brown nuclei inside the

spore-membrane, which were not present before the fecundation,

and appeared to him to be the remains of the spermatozoids,

which are furnished with a red nucleus.

With regard to the other sections of the Fucoidex, spermato-

zoids have been described by Thuret || in Cuéleria, by Prmgsheim

in Sphacelaria and Cladostephus§. The structure of the antheri-

dia is different in these plants.

In the Floridez peculiar organs have likewise been long

known, which the first observers, although without sufficient

reasons, explained as antheridia. This was the case with C.

Agardh. lLyngbye regarded them as an animal structure ;

J. Agardh as a hypertrophic metamorphosis of the ordmary

organs of propagation ; Kiitzing** applied to them the name of

‘spermatoidia,’ considering them as seed-like accessory strue-

* Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xvi. p. 5 (1851).

+ Ibid. 4 sé. ii. p. 197 (1854).

t Thuret, Mémoires de la Soc. Imp. de Cherbourg, v. April 1857.

§ Pringsheim, Ueb. d. Befruchtung u. Keimung der Algen. Berlin,

1855, p. 12 et seq. (Annals, 2 ser. xiv. 1. c.)

|| Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. p. 12 (1851).

{ Ueb. Befrucht. der Algen. Berlin, 1855, pp. 21, 23.

** Phycologia generalis, pp. 107-109 (1843).

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. — 259

tures, the development of which into new individuals had not

yet been observed.

They ordinarily occur upon distinct individuals, and occupy

upon them the same places as the fruits on the fertile plants.

Their essential portion consists of numerous small round cel-

lules, which are sometimes grouped, without any envelope, upon

special organs, or definite regions of the frond, but sometimes

enclosed by a common cuticle. These cellules were com-

pared by Nageli* with the spermatic cellules of the antheridia

of Mosses, and he believed that he detected in them a spiral

filament lying upon the wall. Derbés and Solier+ also believe

that each cellule contains an antherozoid, with a filiform append-

age as an organ of motion.

Thuret{ demonstrated with certainty the absence of this

structure. According to him each antheridial cellule contains a

hyaline, spherical or longish corpuscle, with somewhat granular

contents (antherozoid), which is expelled with a slow movement

from the cell, but then comes to perfect rest. Mettenius$ could

detect no movement of these corpuscles, which he regarded as

cells formed out of the entire contents of the antheridial cells.

He applied to them the name of ‘seminal cellules’ (Samenzellchen)

but declared himself inclined to regard them as spores which do

not possess the power of germination. Pringsheim||, who calls

them simply antheridium-cells, compares the statements of

Thuret and Mettenius ; the absence of movement is insufficient,

in the face of the agreement of their structure with that of the

spermatozoids of Fucacez and of Sphacelaria, to permit his as-

serting them not to be the real spermatozoids of the Floridez.

At the same time, this author concludes, from his observations

on the germination of the tetraspores and capsule-spores of

Ceramium, that the former, which produce immediately a new

plant resembling the parent, only officiate like buds, for asexual

propagation ; but that the capsule-spores are either themselves

the true female sexual organs of the Floridez (in those namely

where the capsule-fruit has a canal penetrating into its interior),

or (in those with a closed fruit, as Ceramium) that the structure

produced from them in germination, unlike in appearance to

the parent-frond, represents a kind of prothallium, which in

some manner takes on the female sexual function.

* Nageli, Neuer. Algensystem. Zurich, 1847, p. 190. pl. 6 & 7; also in

Zeitschr. f. wiss. Bot. 3 & 4 Heft, p. 224 (Zurich, 1846), and Botan. Zeit.

1849, p. 569.

+ Derbés et Solier, Org. reprod. des Algues. Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér.

xiv. p. 275 et seq. (1851).

+ Rech. sur les Antherid. &c. Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xvi. p. 14 (1851).

§ Beitr. zur Botanik, pp. 36, 39, 42.

|| Ueb. Befrucht. der Alg. p. 16.

17*

260 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

Characee.—These plants, hitherto destitute of a fixed home

in Systematic Botany, we treat in connexion with their relatives

the other Algze, from which they have never been separated but

with reluctance or by violence, and among which they will

doubtless for the future occupy their right place, namely the

uppermost.

The two kinds of organs of fructification are so conspicuous

in these plants, that they were known in the earliest days of

observation. The views of the older botanists were in tolerable

agreement as to their sexual nature, although direct observations

on the act of fecundation itself were and are still wanting.

Most recent writers preferred, and justly, to withhold for the time

any opinion of the import of the ‘ globules’ (antheridia).

Linneus, from the resemblance in external structure and the

order of development, regarded the red ‘ globules’ of Chara as

anthers, the spores with their 5-celled envelope (sporange) as the

pistil; and ultimately transferred these plants, which he had at

first placed among his Cryptogamia*, into the Monecia Mon-

andria +. Ff

Hedwig t, in whose works we find figures executed with his

usual accuracy, so far as the means of observation then accessible

permitted, regarded the red granular contents of the oval cells

which serve as the peduncle of the triangular external cells of

the globules (and upon which appeared to him to depend the

red colour of the external cells), as the fecundating matter,—

the granular contents of the spore, exclusive of the starch-

granules, as the proper seeds.

Vaucher§, Kaulfuss ||, Bischoff§, C. H.Schultz**, and K. Mul-

ler++ each observed the entire development of plants resembling

the mother-plant from the spores. In this operation the spore

(nucule) ordinarily first loses its cellular covering (sporangium),

the outer coat of the spore opens at the upper end of the spore,

and the inner cell expands into the first cell of the young plant.

Fritsche{{ furnished an exact description and representation

of the globules (antheridia) and the spiral filaments contained in

* Genera Plant. Ed. 6. Holm. 1764, p. 567.

+ Systema Nature. Ed. 12. Holm. 1767, ii. p. 613.

} Theor. Generat. et Fructif. Plant. Crypt. &ce. Petrop. 1784, p. 125.

pl. 22, 33.

§ Mém. sur les Charaignes. Mémoires de la Soc. de Phys. et d’Hist. nat.

de Genéve, i. pt. 1. p. 168 (1821).

|| Erfahrung. iiber das Keimen der Charen. Leipsic, 1825.

{| G. W. Bischoff, Krypt. Gewachse. Nuremb. 1828, p. 9.

** Natur der lebenden Pflanze, B. 11.

+t K. Miller, Zur Entwickl. der Charen. Botan. Zeit. 1845. (Transl.

in Ann. Nat. Hist. xvii. p. 254.)

tt Fritsche, Ueber den Pollen. Petersburg, 1837, p. 6-19. pl. 1 & 2.

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. — 261

the confervoid rows of internal cells (pollen-cells, Fritsche).

The Infusorium-like movement of these spiral filaments after

their escape from the cells, was first observed by Bischoff *.

Meyen}¥ called them spermatozoids ; in agreement with his state-

ment, J.C. Varley t (1834) had already seen and figured a cilium

on them, which Meyen himself copied§. Thuret|| and Amici

showed that each spiral thread possessed two cilia. Thuret**

believes even that he has detected the opening in the cells through

which the spiral filaments escape, ordmarily with the unciliated

end first. According to the concurrent testimony of all ob-

servers}}, the spiral bodies are developed from (in?) the nuclei,

which, however, are not so sharply defined, but more irregularly

shaped than usual. They are not formed simultaneously in a

whole row of cells, but, according to Thuret, first in the cells of

the apex, subsequently in those of the base of a filament ;—

according to Mettenius, in the contrary order.

Although we possess no direct observation on the process of

fecundation in the Chare, when we look at the certain explana-

tions which we have lately obtamed as to the import of active

spiral filaments in the vegetable kingdom, and at the above-

described mode of development of the young plants of Chara

from the spore,—we may with safety suppose that the fecund-

ating process takes place here before the complete development

of the spore, and that to produce this the spermatozoids pene-

trate mto the young sporange. In this hypothesis we are

strengthened by the circumstance that the cells of the sporange

are not completely closed up over the spore-cell in the earliest

stage of its growth, but leave between them an open canal; the

ripening of the antheridia, their dehiscence, and the emission of

the spermatozoids taking place at this epoch; further, that in

* Kryptog. Gewichse, p. 13, note.

t+ J. F. Meyen, Pflanzenphys. ii. pp. 206, 217.

{ Improvements on the Vial Microscope. Trans. Soc. of Arts, &e.

London, vol. i.

§ Pflanzenphysiol. ii. pl. 12. figs. 22-28, and p. 222.

|| Thuret, Note sur Anthére du Chara, &c, Ann. des Se. nat. 2 sér.

xiv. (1840).

{| Flora, 1844, B. ii. p. 516.

** Loc. supr. cit. pl. 6. fig. 21.

tf See, im particular, Mettenius, Beitrage zur Entwick. der beweegl.

Spiralfas. von Chara hispida. Bot. Zeit. 1845, p. 17. pl. 1.

Nageli, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Botanik, Heft 1. p. 55 (1844); Heft 3 & 4.

p- 105 (1846), where he calls the nuclei ‘ seminal utricles.’

Thuret, Sur les Antheridies des Cryptog, Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xvi.

p- 21 (1851).

Schacht, Pflanzenzelle, p- 113 (Berlin, 1852).

(Alex. Braun, Monatsb. Berlin Acad. Jan. 1853. Ann. Nat. Hist. 2 ser.

xi. p. 297.)

262 Mr. W. Clark on Rissoa pulcherrima.

those species in which the spores do not ripen until late in the

autumn, the germination does not take place until the following

spring, and occurs therefore at a time when none of the previous

year’s spermatozoids remain and no new ones are yet developed.

[To be continued. ]

XXIV.—On Rissoa pulcherrima. By Witiram Crark, Esq.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Norfolk Crescent, Bath, 14th Sept. 1857.

GENTLEMEN,

My friend Mr. Barlee, to whom all that are interested in

malacological pursuits are under the greatest obligations, has

just favoured me, from Guernsey, with many lively specimens

of the Rissoa pulcherrima of recent authors, which has been

constituted a species, solely, I believe, from conchological indices.

I have therefore thought that some of your readers would be

elad to have an account of the external organs of this, if it be

so, undescribed animal.

Rissoa pulcherrima, Forbes and Hanley.

Shell spiral, ovately conical, pale yellowish-white, of 34-44

well-rounded volutions divided by a rather deep suture, and

marked with 2-4 rows of distinct, palish rufous spots, which

in other words are lines running from base to point, that are

variously interrupted, so as to form well-separated, subquadrate,

minute areas. The aperture is suboval, usually thin at the

outer margin, with little or no umbilical fissure. Axis tse

diameter =4,-.', of an inch.

Animal.—Ground-colour white, shot with the minutest snowy

flakes and points, and blotched with dark smoke patches and

lines, as well as with more or less yellow or sulphur-coloured

suffusions on particular parts of the body. Mantle entire; but

I did not detect the peudent filament from the aperture, which

1 have often mentioned as visible in the Rissoe, and which is

perhaps the generative organ.

Rostrum moderately long, above longitudinally cloven or bi-

lobed; buccal disk below having the usual vertical fissure, from

which the animal frequently protrudes the white corneous jaws

and masticatory processes ; it is tmged with yellow hues, above

and below, of various intensity and extent.

The tentacula are long, slender and flat, rounded at the tips,

and horizontally clothed with fine sete; the eyes are large,

Mr. W. Clark on Rissoa pulcherrima. 263

very black, and fixed at the external angles on minute yellow

mamelons.

Foot long, narrow and rounded in front, with minute auricles,

and scarcely labiated ; it is a little constricted at the junction

with the body ; the sole is impressed with a faint, central, longi-

tudinal line, and the posterior termination is sublanceolate. The

foot is also furnished with a large operculigerous plate, well alated

at the hinder portion, and marked on each side with a dark irre-

gular blotch, which often runs into stripes or fine lines at its

margins ; indeed, these markings vary, in most individuals, in

shape, intensity of colour, and position. The black spot noticed

by authors in the Rissoa inconspicua is sometimes, though not

frequently, seen in this minute creature, and is often due to the

phases of position of the lateral, dark, smoke-coloured patches

that are often very apparent on the upper part of the ale of the

opercular lobe, which carries a grossly spiral, but finely striated,

rissoidean, suboval, corneous operculum ; and its caudal extremity

is furnished with a very long, pointed, cirrhal filament, even

more developed than in Rissoa parva.

The animal freely admits of the closest examination, and con-

tinues for several days with very little diminution of vivacity.

The object of this account of the animal of the so-called

Rissoa pulcherrima is to propose its removal from the British

list as a species, and to enable malacologists to compare these

minutes with the recorded descriptions of what I consider its

type—the common and very variable Rissoa inconspicua.

The agreement of the two appears complete in all essentials ;

the minor discrepancies arise from the minuteness of the object ;

but they yield at once to lenses of high power, which discover

the elements of features that sufficiently prove the pulcherrima

to be one of the endless varieties of the Rissoa inconspicua.

In support of these views on the soft parts, see Forbes and

Hanley, ‘Brit. Moll. vol. iu. pp. 113-117; and myself in

‘Brit. Mar. Test. Moll.’ p. 358.

With regard to the shells I may state, that I have examples of

the imconspicua taken by myself at Exmouth, of the same size as

the pulcherrima found by Mr. Barlee at Guernsey ; both having

the partial spiral lines on the body-volution, and the peculiar

and unmistakeable, often semi-obsolete, close-set, vertical ridges

or strize.

These united considerations are, I think, conclusive of the

absolute affinity of the two animals.

I am, Gentlemen,

Your most obedient Servant,

WiriraMm Crark.

264 Mr. J.D. Macdonald on Deep Soundings in the Pacific,

XXV.—Further Observations on Deep Soundings obtained by

ALM.S. “ Herald,’ Capt. Denham, R.N., F.R.S., employed on

Surveying Service in the South-western Pacific; with an Ac-

count of the Examination of the Alimentary Matter of the

Salpze as bearing on the nature of the Materials composing the

Sea-bottom. By Joun Dents Macponatp, Assistant-Sur-

econ.

[With a Plate. ]

Tue following observations are intended as an appendix to a

former paper, on the microscopic examination of the bottom

obtained in two soundings taken in the Feejee group, from the

respective depths of 1020 fathoms and 440 fathoms. To these

positive soundings we can now add several others of much in-

terest, the most important of which, however, was registered on

the 30th May 1856, when, in latitude 30° 25! S. and longitude

161° 57' E., and about forty miles E. by S. of the reported

position of the Lady Nelson Shoal, a deep cast was taken, bring-

ing up bottom from a depth of 919 fathoms.

Unfortunately, the greater part of the materials had been

washed away during the ascent of the lead through the water ;

and it was only with the help of the microscope that many

Foraminifera, siliceous spicula of Sponges, and the fragments

of the solid parts of more minute organisms were detected.

Enough, however, was retained in contact with the arming of

the lead, to prove that the bottom had been reached. Indeed,

this microscopic test is often in requisition, for in several in-

stances we have been enabled by its aid to pronounce with cer-

tainty, where the most scrupulous examination by unaided vision

had failed to decide.

It may be mentioned here, that when the deep sounding in

1020 fathoms, above alluded to, was obtained, a double lead was

employed, and the greater part of the matter which had been

submitted to microscopic analysis was taken out from between

the strands of the lashing, very little being at all visible on

the arming. While these facts show how readily one may be

deceived in a matter apparently so easily determined, they sug-

gest the adoption of some simple apparatus, by means of which

a reasonable quantity of those minute materials might be safely

brought up from the bottom, both for inspection and preservation.

As legitimately connected with this subject, the examination

of the alimentary matter of the Sa/pe opens up some new and

interesting facts, which prove the wide dispersion of numerous

minute organisms, both animal and vegetable, hitherto supposed

only to be found in shallow zones skirting the land.

Having ascertained, with a certain degree of precision, the

and on the Alimentary Matter of the Salpz. 265

nature of the materials to be found in deep soundings off the

coast of Australia, and in the neighbourhood of the South Sea

Islands, it is a discovery of peculiar interest to find the same

minute organic forms in vast numbers mixed up with the ali-

mentary matter of Salpians and other pelagic animals, obtained

in the open ocean far distant from those shores.

The presence of the siliceous spicula and the fenestrated cells

of Thalassicolla with the embryonic shells of the pelagic Mollusca

might be readily accounted for; but how minute bivalves, Fora-

minifera, and a great variety of Diatomaceze, and even Desmidieze,

including the genus Closteriwm—and all apparently recent—

could have been, as it were, casually inhaled, is not so easily

explained. Such are the facts, however; and the means by

which those bodies are so widely distributed seem inscrutable

to us, unless it be ultimately determined that they are in great

part purely pelagic examples of the orders and genera to which

they belong. This appears to be the most consistent view of

the matter, seemg that the agency of drift-weed, or any other

fortuitous cause, would be quite inadequate to produce so vast a

result, even so far as mechanical dispersion is concerned, not to

complicate the question with the more important part of the

problem, namely the preservation of the vitality and integrity of

the beings under consideration.

Wherever the deep-sea lead plumbs the bottom, and, by

sunple inference, in those depths immeasurably below its ex-

ploring reach, geometrical atoms exist, far removed from the

supposed source of their development. But when we know that

identical or allied forms, with their living crust or contents, are

being continually swallowed with the daily food of the Salpian

and the Pteropod, at the surface of the ocean, we can easily

perceive how, at the termimation of their short existence, the

less perishable parts may ultimately be distributed through the

illimitable and unknown districts of the ocean-bed.

The alimentary matter of the Sal/pe is composed of animal

and vegetable elements in nearly equal proportions; and when

the microscope reveals the calcareous shells of Foraminifera, the

beautifully sculptured frustules of Diatomacez, keen siliceous

needles, and the sharp armature of minute Crustacea, within an

intestinal tube so tender and friable that it withers at the human

touch,—one cannot help admirmg the operation of those con-

servative. properties with which its delicate tissues are endowed.

Each atom yields to acute impressions as by an instinctive

intelligence, evading injurious contact ; and although a con-

tractility of the tube is essential to the due performance of its

functions, no evil thus befalls its integrity till the term of life

is at an end.

266 Mr. J.D. Macdonald on the Alimentary Matter of the Salpe.

The accompanying figures (Pl. VII.), which might be increased

ad infinitum, sufficiently illustrate the character of the little bodies

above noticed as occurring in the alimentary matter of Salpe.

The Diatomacee appear to embrace many new genera, but

some recent.

Gallionelle (B), Navicule (c), and forms allied to Pzxidium (p)

will be readily recognized. The latter are composed of two

valves. At fig. 1 (p) the separation of these valves is repre-

sented ; but, from the want of symmetry exhibited by them,

it would seem as though each pair originally formed one quarter

of a quadrate body, dividing by crucial fission into four distinct

portions.

Fig. 2 (p) is a simpler and more symmetrical form, with its

soft contents remaining.

In fig. 3 (p), which is rather imperfect, the radiating ribs are

beautifully branched and reticulated.

It is rather remarkable that the minute bivalves (fig. £) were

generally found with the soft parts little changed, and the uni-

valves (Fr) empty, as though the animals had been digested out

of their shells.

The Foramimifer with long silky hair-like processes is de-

serving of particular observation. It is the species most usually

taken at the surface of the ocean. One or two other forms with

minute spherical gemmules are figured in the neighbourhood.

It appears to be much easier to establish a line of demarcation

between the Desmidieze and Diatomacez than between the latter

and the Foraminifera.

With all our opportunities of observing living Foraminifera

in the South-western Pacific, where they abound in the most

diversified forms, we have never been able to discover their

branched “ pseudopodia,” so called, or the slightest evidence of

the crawling movement which they are reputed to exhibit, while

we can vouch for the actual fixity of some. The soft contents

of the Foraminifer are grosser than those of the Diatom. They

each consist of a yellowish amber-tinted, or rich brown, more or

less homogeneous or granular pulp, interspersed with fatty

globules. The essential differences are yet to be detected by the

accurate observer of both.

The connexion of the Foraminifera with the encrusting

Corallines, through the genus Ordiculina, is worthy of further

investigation.

Mr. Huxley’s curious genus Thalassicolla would appear to be

referable rather to the Diatomaceze than the Foraminifera, but

I must defer any observations on this subject to a future period.

On the Mollusca of Nordland and Finmark. 267

XXVI.—On the Distribution of the Mollusca in Depth on the

Coasts of Nordland and Finmark. By K. M‘Anvrew, F.R.S.

and L. Barrert, F.G.S.

We have divided the space between high water and 200 fathoms

into four zones: the first, or Littoral zone includes the shore

between high- and low-water marks; the Laminarian zone ex-

tends from low water to 20 fathoms ; the Coralline zone between

20 and 60 fathoms; and the deep-sea Coral zone includes the

ground between 60 fathoms and the greatest depth explored,

which was 200 fathoms. We have given a list of the shells

found in each zone.

Littoral Zone.

The species found living at low water on the coast of Finmark

are all Arctic, the same species being inhabitants of the lit-

toral zone of Greenland. In Nordland, Patella vulgata, Trochus

tumidus and Trochus cinerarius are abundant in this zone, but

they do not range to Finmark or Greenland; while Buecinum

cyaneum and Natica clausa, abundant species in Finmark, are

not found farther south than the northern part of Nordland.

When the shore is composed of sand or mud, bivalye Mollusca

are most common. Ona rocky coast Gasteropoda are abundant,

and Conchifera scarce. Several species included in the following

lists ought perhaps to be considered inhabitants of the next

zone, though they occurred abundantly on several occasions at

extreme low water,

Testacea of the Littoral Zone.

Shore Rock. Shore Sand.

Buccinum cyaneum*, Natica clausa.

undatum. Mya truncata*.

Purpura lapillus*. | arenaria*,

Bela turricula ? Astarte compressa ?

Littorina littorea*. arctica ?

rudis*. Cardium edule ?

arctica*,

grcenlandica*.

Lacuna vincta?

Rissoa ulye*.

Skenea planorbis*.

- Trochus tumidus.

cinerarius.

Margarita undulata ?

helicina.

Acmeea testudinalis*.

Dendronotus arborescens.

Mytilus edulis*.

Crenella discors.

Saxicava arctica.

Note.—The asterisk indicates that the species attams its maximum of

development in that region; the note of mterrogation implies that the

species is probably a straggler.

268 Messrs. M‘Andrew and Barrett on the Mollusca

Laminarian Zone.

The ground in this region is generally rock; between low

water and 15 fathoms the bottom is covered with Laminaria,

and below 15 fathoms with a small red weed, which is the

favourite habitat of Margarita cinerea. On the fronds of the

Laminaria abound several species, as Lacuna vincta, Trichotropis

borealis, Margarita helicina and undulata, and Patella pellucida.

In the south, Uraster rubens, Echinus sphera and Echinus miliaris

are common among Laminaria; in the north, Echinus neglectus

is found in great numbers just below low-water mark.

Testacea of the Laminarian Zone.

GASTEROPODA.

Cancellaria viridula.

Trichotropis borealis.

Fusus antiquus.

Trophon clathratus.

Gunnerl.

Bueeinum undatum.

Nassa reticulata.

icrassata.

Bela turricula.

rosea.

—— rufa.

mitrula.

Trevelliana.

Defrancia linearis.

Natica nitida.

Montagui.

helicoides.

—— pusilla.

clausa.

Velutina laevigata.

flexilis.

Odostomia plicata.

Cerithium reticulatum.

Aporrhais pes-pelecani.

Turritella communis.

Sealaria groenlandica.

Loveni.

Littorina littorea.

Lacuna vincta.

Lacuna labiosa.

Rissoa calathus.

striata.

parva.

rufilabrum.

Skenea, species.

Trochus millegrauus.

—— tumidus.

cinerarlus.

Margarita helieina.

undulata.

—— cimerea.

Puncturella noachina.

Emarginula reticulata.

Pileopsis hungaricus.

Patella pellucida.

Acmzea virginea.

testudinalis.

Pilidium fulvum.

Dentalium entale.

Chiton ruber.

asellus.

——— marmoreus.

eancellatus.

Cylichna truncata.

Philine seabra.

aperta.

Aplysia hvbrida.

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.

Anomia ephippium.

patelliformis.

aculeata.

Pecten opercularis.

islandicus.

Pecten pusio.

striatus.

—- similis.

Lima hians.

Loscombii.

of the Coasts of Nordland and Finmark.

Lima subauriculata.

Astarte suleata.

Mytilus edulis. elliptica.

Modiola modiolus. arctica.

Crenella decussata. compressa.

discors. ’ Venus striatula.

nigra. ovata.

—— marmorata. Mactra elliptica.

Area nodulosa.

Tellina solidula.

Nueula nucleus. fabula.

tenuis. Psammobia ferroensis.

Leda caudata. tellinella.

lucida. Syndosmya alba.

Cardium echinatum. prismatica.

edule. intermedia.

fasciatum. Solen pellucidus.

nodosum. Mya truncata.

Lucina borealis. arenaria.

—— flexuosa. Corbula nucleus.

Artemis exoleta. Saxicava arctica.

lincta. Thracia convexa.

Kellia suborbicularis.

Montacuta substriata.

Cyprina islandica.

phaseolina.

Periploma pretenuis.

Lyonsia arenosa.

269

Coralline Zone.

This region is very rich in Mollusca, and many of the rarest

northern shells were obtained from it. The most common and

generally distributed shells are, Trophon Gunneri, Pleurotoma

nivale, Cerithium metula, Scalaria grenlandica, Trochus mille-

granus, Margarita alabastrum and cinerea, Patella ceca, Pilidium

fulvum, Chiton asellus, Cylichna cylindracea, Terebratula cranium,

Terebratulina caput-serpentis, Crania anomala, Pecten islandicus

and striatus, Modiola phaseolina, Crenella nigra, Nucula nucleus

and tenuis, Astarte crebricostata and elliptica. Echinodermata

are not so abundant as in the next zone, but several species are

common, among which are Hehinus miliaris, Amphidetus ovatus,

Schizaster fragilis, Astropecten Miillert, Luidia fragilissima,

Amphiura filiformis, and Ophiopholis aculeata.

Testacea of the Coralline Zone.

R GASTEROPODA.

Cancellaria viridula. Bela turricula.

Trichotropis borealis. rufa.

Fusus antiquus. Trevelliana.

Trophon clathratus. Defrancia linearis.

Gunneri. pyramidalis.

Buccinum undatum. Natica nitida.

Humphreysianum. Montagui.

fusiforme. helicoides.

Nassa incrassata. —— pusilla.

Pleurotoma nivale.

— clausa.

Messrs. M‘Andrew and Barrett on the Mollusca

Lamellaria prodita.

Velutina leevigata.

flexilis.

Odostomia plicata.

Chemnitzia, sp.

Eulimella Scille.

Eulima bilineata.

—— polita.

Cerithium metula.

reticulatum.

Triforis M‘Andrei.

Aporrhais pes-pelecani.

Twritella communis.

Scalaria groenlandica.

Loveni.

Lacuna vincta.

Rissoa striata.

Skenea, species.

Trochus millegranus.

tumidus.

cinerarius.

Margarita alabastrum.

helicina.

Terebratula cranium.

Terebratulina caput-serpentis.

Margarita undulata.

cinerea.

Scissurella crispata.

angulata.

Puncturella noachina.

Emarginula reticulata.

Patella czeca.

Acmeea virginea.

Pilidium fulyum.

Dentalium entale.

Chiton Hanleyi.

ruber.

asellus.

— levis.

marmoreus.

Tornatella fasciata.

Cylichna alba.

cylindracea.

—— truncata.

Amphisphyra hyalma.

Scaphander librarius.

Philine scabra.

quadrata.

BRACHIOPODA.

Rhynchonella psittacea.

Crania anomala.

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.

Anomia ephippium. Cardium edule.

patelliformis, fasciatum.

—— aculeata. nodosum.

striata. suecicum.

Pecten opercularis. elegantulum.

islandicus. Lucina borealis.

—— tigrinus. flexuosa.

striatus. ferruginosa.

similis. Artemis lincta.

Lima hians. Kellia suborbicularis.

— Loscombii. Montacuta bidentata.

subauriculata. Cyprina islandica.

Mytilus edulis.

Modiola modiolus.

phaseolina.

Crenella decussata.

discors.

nigra.

marmorata.

Arca pectunculoides.

nodulosa.

Nucula nucleus.

tenuis.

Leda pernula.

caudata.

— lucida.

Cardium echinatum.

Astarte suleata.

crebricostata.

elliptica.

—— arctica.

—— compressa.

Venus striatula.

ovata.

Mactra elliptica.

Tellina solidula.

proxima.

Psammobia ferroensis.

tellinella.

Syndosmya alba.

—— prismatica.

—— intermedia.

of the Coasts of Nordland and Finmark. 271

Nevera obesa.

Saxicava arctica.

Thracia convexa.

Solen pellucidus.

Mya truncata.

arenaria.

Newra cuspidata. phaseolina.

—— costellata. Teredo norvegica.

Deep-sea Coral Zone.

Off the coast of Nordland the ground of this zone was gene-

rally mud, but in the north a fine gravel or sand. The charac-

teristic shells of the region are, Hulimella Scille, Dentalium

vitreum, Cylichna alba, Cardium fasciatum and suecicum, Leda

lucida, Lucina flecuosa, and Arca raridentata.

Most of the Arctic Echinodermata are found in this zone ;

the following are the species most generally met with :—Psolus

squamatus, Eupyrgus hispidus, Schizaster fragilis, Amphidetus

ovatus, the three species of Astrogonium, Pteraster militaris,

Ctenodiscus crispatus, Astropecten arcticus and Lutkeni, Ophiura

albida and Ophiacantha spinulosa. Oculina prolifera has only

been taken living in this zone. Several species of Sponge are

common.

Testacea of the Deep-sea Coral Zone.

GASTEROPODA.

Cancellaria viridula.

Trichotropis borealis.

Fusus propinquus.

islandicus.

norvegicus.

-Trophon clathratus.

Gunneri.

craticulatus.

Buecinum Dalei.

— Humpbhreysianum.

fusiforme.

undatum.

Pleurotoma nivale.

Bela turricula.

rufa.

Trevelliana.

Defrancia pyramidalis.

Natica Montagui.

pusilla.

clausa.

Chemnitzia, sp.

Terebratula cranium.

Terebratulina caput-serpentis.

Eulimella Scille.

Eulima bilineata.

Cerithium metula.

Triforis M‘Andrei.

Aporrhais pes-earbonis.

Margarita alabastrum.

—— undulata.

cinerea.

Scissurella crispata.

Puncturella noachina.

Patella ceca.

Pilidium fulvum.

Dentalium entale.

vitreum.

Chiton Hanleyi.

asellus.

alveolus.

Cylichna alba.

truncata.

Philme quadrata.

BRACHIOPODA.

Rhynchonella psittacea.

Crania anomala.

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.

Anomia ephippium.

Pecten tigrinus.

eroenlandicus.

Pecten, sp.

nga

Lima subauriculata.

272 Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera.

Lima excavata. Cardium nodosum.

Limopsis, sp. suecicum.

Modiola phaseolina. fasciatum.

Crenella decussata. Lucina flexuosa.

discors. ferruginosa.

—— nigra. Astarte sulcata.

marmorata. crebricostata.

Arca pectunculoides. Venus ovata.

Nucula tenuis. Tellina proxima.

corticata. Syndosmya intermedia,

Leda pernula. Nera cuspidata.

caudata. Thetis Koren.

lucida. Saxicava arctica.

—— pygmea. Thracia convexa.

—— limatula. Lyonsia striata.

XXVII.— Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera.

By Joun Nrerner, Colombo, Ceylon.

{Continued from p. 190.]

43. Cyclosomus dyticoides, N.

C. suborbicularis, depressus, obscure castaneus, elytris piceis fasciis

2 testaceis ornatis, pedibus brunneo-testaceis, tarsis, antennis ore-

que magis minusve brunneis. Long. corp. 43-5 lin.; lat. 25-3 lin.

Antenne art. 3-11 depressis. Thorax transversus, antice profunde

semilunariter sinuatus; basi quadratus, medio leyiter subquadrate

emarginatus, elytris parum angustior, ante scutellum subtiliter stri-

gosus ; apicem versus sensim angustatus. Elytra basi subquadrata,

striata, fasciis 2 (una subhumerali, altera subapicali) transversalibus,

interruptis, interstitia 2-8 occupantibus, testaceis ornata. Pedes

tibiis apice 2-calcaratis, calcaribus 2-serratis, tarsis maris 2 anterio-

ribus art. 1-3 subtus leviter dupliciterque penicillatis, intermedius

fortiter simpliciterque penicillatis. Prosternum subhastatum.

In prov. occid. arenis peraridis Amararum more victitat.

To judge from what Lacordaire says of this genus in his ‘Genres

des Coléoptéres’ (a work which, as I have said elsewhere, I look

upon as containing the essence of all former researches), it would

appear that the present species differs very materially from the

three others hitherto described, namely in the flatness of the

antennal joints, in the serrated edges of the tibial spurs, in the

existence of the tarsal brushes in the male, and in the colour,—

to say nothing of some other minor distinctions. The first three

of these peculiarities (too important not to have been noticed by

Lacordaire or any other describer of the genus, had they been

aware of them) add considerably to the characteristics which

already constitute this genus one of the most remarkable of the

extensive family of the Carabide, whilst through the colour of

Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera. 273

the present species it becomes still more closely and more

strikingly allied to certain Dyticidee (Hydaticus) than has hitherto

been the case.

The prevailing colour of the insect is deep chestnut, lighter

along the sides of the thorax ; the elytra darker. The latter are

variegated with two transverse belts of irregular outline, and

interrupted in the middle near the suture; one of these is sub-

humeral, the other subapical ; they are of yellowish colour, and

reach from the first to the eighth stria, a small discoloured spot

being projected from the subhumeral belt on either side to the

ninth stria, and a discoloured prolongation of the other filling

the apical angles, with the exception of a dark spot ; the margin

is also of a more or less brownish colour. The legs are dark

yellowish, with chestnut tarsi; the mouth and antenne are

brown, the latter light at the base. These colours vary alto-

gether from lighter to darker. The head is of the typical sculp-

ture; it has two impressions at the posterior margin of the

clypeus, and is finely sulcated between the eyes. The antennz

are strong, stiff, and short, reaching hardly beyond the base of

the thorax ; joint 1 is of middling size; 2, short; 3, 4 are sub-

equal; 5, rather shorter; 6-11 still shorter, subequal; joints

3-11 are strongly compressed and pubescent, but only on the nar-

row side. The labrum is deeply subtriangularly emarginated in

front, and increases in breadth towards its base. The maxill

are furnished with a thick brush at the apex, having much of the

rough appearance of a minute bundle of coir. The inner edge of

the lobes of the mentum is very broadly cut away. The ligula

appears, as I understand it to be from Lacordaire’s description,

coriaceous, of middling size, of the shape of an oblong square,

depressed in front and at the sides, set in its membranous and

ample paraglosse as in a broad frame; the whole obliquely

truncated at the anterior angles, and ciliated along the anterior

margin. ‘The palpi can hardly be said to be truncated at the

apex of the fourth joint, finishing off rather like an acorn. The

remaining parts of the mouth and the head in general are of

typical construction. The thorax is strongly transverse, sub-

quadrate at the base, and firmly applied to the elytra, but not

quite as large. The latter being also subquadrate at the base,

the place of the juncture of these two parts of the body presents,

upon close inspection, rather a peculiar appearance. The thorax

is gently narrowed towards the apex ; the anterior part is deeply

emarginated in the shape of a crescent, the posterior part slightly

so at the middle, the emargination being long, shallow, and

nearly rectangular, its external corners fitting imto two deep

notches in the base of the elytra. The anterior angles are rather

acuminated. The back is elevated and divided by a longitudinal

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 18

274 Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera.

line ; it has two impressions at the base, and is finely sulcated

just in front of the scutellum. The elytra are furrowed and

regularly impressed with deep punctures along the ninth ridge ;

they are slightly dehiscent at the apex. The legs of the male are

of the following description :—coxz strong; trochanters and

femora simple, the latter slightly setose; the anterior tibic

strongly dilated towards the apex and costated, strongly spinoso-

dentate at the outer edge, with a strong, blunt spur at the notch

and another at the apex ;-the latter place, moreover, furnished

with spines. The intermediate and posterior tibiz with three

rows of spines along the outer, and two rows of strong bristles

at the inner side, all inserted on ridges, strongly 2-calcarated at

the apex, the inner spur longer than the outer one. These apical

spurs of the tibie are in all the legs slightly compressed and ser-

rated on the two narrow sides. The anterior tarsi have jomts

1-4 slightly dilated, the apex of the first, second, and third being

at the same time furnished below each with two small white brushes

fenced-in by spines. Joint 1 is triangular, with the external

apical angle strongly prolonged; 2 and 3 are almost equal,

transversely ovato-subcordiform, 2 slightly, but distinctly, pro-

longed at the external apical angle, 3 less so, but still prolonged ;

4, small, cordiform ; 5, long, subcylindric; joimts 1-4 with two

spines at the apical angles, these spines removed in the 5th, the

one to a subapical, and the other to a position at the middle; in

joints 1-3 these spines are shorter and thicker at the outer angle

than at the inner; in the 4th this difference is scarcely obser-

vable, and in the last it does not exist ; the claws are strong and

simple. The intermediate tarsi are elongated; joit 1 trian-

gular; 2 and 3 nearly equal, quadrato-subcordiform; 4, of a

similar form, but much smaller ; all furnished with spines at the

apical angles in the manner of the anterior tarsi. The znner side

of the apical half of joint 1 and joints 2 and 3 with strong brushes

of reddish colour bordered by rows of spines, the entire lower sur-

Jace forming one thick brush, and not two, as in the first pair.

The posterior tarsi are still more elongated, joints 1-4 decreasmg

gradually in size, subcylindric; 5 quite so; all armed hke the

preceding. The legs of the female are very similar to those of

the male, still there is some difference in the tarsi; the brushes

are wanting ; the anterior pair has joints 1-3 fully as much, and

4, more dilated ; joints 2—4 are subcordiform, 2-3 rather more

prolonged on the outer side than in the male. In the inter-

mediate pair the joints are more distinctly triangular. The pro-

sternum is elliptic, pointed at the apex, or of the shape of a

spear-head with the lateral angles rounded-off; it is depressed

at the sides, strongly marginated (as is also the anterior part of

the mesothorax), being furnished with a few thin hairs within

QjQak

Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera. 275

the margin. The size of the individuals is no criterion as to

their sex, sometimes the female and sometimes the male being

the largest.

Regarding the habits of these sects, one would feel inclined

to suspect them to be of a semi-aquatic nature, that is, that the

insects frequent the banks of rivers or other damp places; how-

ever, the direct contrary is the case: they live in the driest,

hottest, and sandiest places that can be found, where they burrow

in the sand exactly in the manner of the well-known genus Amaya.

In the course of six years I took but two of these interesting

insects, both in the neighbourhood of Negombo, the one in the

Cinnamon Gardens there, the other flymg on my table at night.

Of late, however, I have been more fortunate, taking consider-

able numbers of them im the Cinnamon Gardens of Colombo im

holes, made by the rooting-up of weeds, into which they had

run and could not escape, the loose sand giving way under them

whenever they attempted to do so. When wishing to find them,

I had to search the corners of these holes, where some leaves

had usually collected, when I have sometimes dug up eight at a

time, frequently rather deep in the sand. They are quick of

motion, and bemg thus pursued, immediately bury themselves

in the sand.

On reconsidering the peculiarities which so effectually distin-

guish this species from the three others known, and which I have

thought it not superfluous to set forth at such length, I am

doubtful whether there is not ample reason for forming it into

a new genus, unless, indeed, the other species were very imper-

fectly known and described, which latter I almost suspect with

regard to the foot-brushes of the male. If, however, otherwise,

the diagnosis as given by Lacordaire requires at all events to be

entirely recast, and the genus to be removed from the tribe

Cratoceridse (one of the characteristics of which is the want of

foot-brushes in the male), in which he has placed it; and, this

being agreed to, I would, taking all its peculiarities into consi-

deration, propose to carry out Lacordaire’s idea, and to form it

into a new tribe, “ Cyclosomide,” to which it appears as much

entitled as the genus Omophrom.

Tribe BEMBIDIID®.

Ochthephilus, n. g., N.

Corpus oblongum, subparallelum, valde depressum. Caput mag-

num, antice trigonum ; oculis magnis, ovatis, prominulis ; collo forti.

Mentum subquadrate emarginatum, lobis extus fortiter rotundatis,

apice abrupte acuminatis, dente parvo acuminato. Ligula parva,

apice quadrate truncata, libera, paraglossis setiformibus marginem

18%

276 Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera.

anteriorem longe superantibus. Palpi robusti, art. 4° elongato, tenui,

acuminato; maxillares art. 3° interne, 2° externe incrassato; labiales

art. 3° robusto, externe incrassato, 2° parvo, cylindrico. Labrum

parvum, subtrigonum, antice emarginatum. Mandibulz elongate,

rectee, trigonee, apice arcuate, infra medium pluries dentate. An-

tennee robustze corporis med. fere attingentes, art. 1° et 11° medio-

cribus, subeequalibus, 2-4 et 5-10 inter se subzequalibus, illis sub-

eylindricis, his ovatis. Thorax subcordatus, basi quadratus. Pedun-

culus brevis. Elytra apice rotundata. Pedes omnes simplices, sub-

eequales, anteriores tibiis profunde excavatis, tarsis leviter contractis,

art. 1-4 gradatim minoribus, art. 1° subcylindrico, 2—4 subtrigonis,

5° sat magno, unguibus simplicibus.

44, Ochthephilus Ceylanicus, N.

O. brunneo-testaceus, pedibus palpisque testaceis, tenuiter pubescens;

fronte profunde 2-sulcata; elytris obsolete striatis, in striis punc-

tatis. Long. corp. 13 lin.

In fluminum ripis Bembidiorum more victitat.

This interesting little beetle might at first sight be mistaken

for a Lemophleus, of which it has the size, depressed form, and

colour; the prominent eyes, however, and cordate thorax—to

say nothing of its habitat—remind one very soon of its real

connexions. I do not think there can be any doubt that this

insect forms a new and interesting addition to the Bembidude.

Tn fact, the question whether it belongs to this tribe or not,

depends, in my opinion, mainly upon the inferences drawn from

the structure of the terminal jomt of the palpi. It is true that

this joint attains in Ochthephilus a degree of development un-

equalled amongst the Bembidiide ; as, however, this development

is not confined to the one particular joint alluded to, but affects

the entire organ of which it forms a part, it can hardly be said

to be a variation of much importance; and as, moreover, the

general shape (independently of the elongation) and mode of

insertion are the same as in the typical Bembidide, I have not

hesitated to refer my new genus to this tribe.

The head is as broad as the thorax, and altogether of about

the same size ; it is strongly triangular from the eyes to the tip

of the mandibles ; the forehead is impressed with two deep lon-

gitudinal furrows; the eyes are large, rather oval and promi-

nent; behind them the head is abruptly contracted into a thick

neck. The antenne are long and thick, reaching nearly to the

middle of the body; joints 1 and 11, 2, 4, 5-10 are subequal

amongst themselves, 5-11 oval, 1-4 subcylindric. The labrum

is small, rather triangular, being narrowed at its base; it is

emarginated in front, with a slight angle in the middle of the

emargination. The mandibles are long, straight, triangular,

Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera. 277

bent at the tip only, dentated below the middle, the one more so

than the other. The maxill are thin and slender, gently bent

outwards at the base, and inwards at the apex, the outer lobe

corresponding with the inner one in shape and strength. The

palpiare robust ; both the maxillary and labial ones have joint 4

elongated, thin and acuminated, in fact, needle-shaped, firmly

implanted in the preceding one, not loosely hinged to it. The

maxillary ones have joints 3 and 2 robust, the former swollen

on the inner, the latter on the outer side. In the labial ones,

joint 3 is still plumper than in the others, but differs in shape

by being incrassated on the outer instead of the inner side, the

second joint being at the same time quite small and cylindric.

The mentum is large and simple, as above described. The ligula

is small, oblong, very slightly narrowed and transversely cut

away at the apex; the paraglossze separate from its sides a little

below the anterior corners; they are setiform, and reach much

beyond it. The whole organ is of membranaceous texture,

having, however, a more substantial centre or back. The thorax

and elytra are simple, and sufficiently described above. I may

add, that the former is divided by a longitudinal furrow, and

that both are furnished with a narrow margin at the sides. The

scutellum is very small, and the abdomen furnished with a short

peduncle. The legs are weak, simple, and nearly equal; the

anterior tibize are deeply notched ; the lower margin of the fourth

tarsal joint of the same pair is furnished with a long, thin spine,

the apex of which fits in between the claws. I have been unable

to discover any foot-brushes or other sexual distinctions in the

specimens before me; but it is not improbable that the tarsal

spine just mentioned occurs only im one sex.

The habits of the insect are those of the Bembidia, in whose

society it lives upon the banks of rivers, like them taking readily

to its wings. I have found it occasionally in considerable num-

bers upon the sandy banks of the Maha Oya in the neighbour-

hood of Negombo, close to the edge of the water.

Tribe Leptin vel PERICALID.

Creagris, n. g., N.

Corpus oblongum, valde depressum. Caput magnum, robustum ;

oculis mediocribus, ovatis, sat prominulis; collo brevi. Mentum

forma ferri-equini vel trifurcatum (hinc n. g. Creagris), lobis angus-

tis, subparallelis, inter med. et apic. leviter dilatatis, apice oblique

truncatis, dente lobis parum breviore, tenui, acutissimo. Ligula

magna, cornea, infra apicem leviter constricta, angulis anticis rotun-

datis, paraglossis connatis, apicem non attingentibus. Palpi maxill.

art. 4° claviformi, apice fortiter truncato; labiales art. 4° subelliptico,

278 Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera.

truncato. Labrum maximum, suborbiculatum, convexum. Man-

dibulze parvee, basi obsolete unidentatze, labro obtectee. Antenne

robustee humeros attingentes, art. 1, 3 et 11 longitudine fere sub-

eequalibus, mediocribus, 2° parvo, rotundato, 4-10 subzequalibus, cum

11° ovatis. Thorax parvus, capite sesqui minor, transversus, longi-

tudine duplo fere latior, infra med. fortius angustatus, basi parum

prolongatus. Pedunculus brevis. Elytra apicem versus leyiter

dilatata, apice fortiter subquadrate truncata. Pedes robusti, sini-

plices, subeequales, aut. tibiis profimde excavatis, omnes tarsis

brevibus, art. 1° sequentium 2 fere longitudine, subcylindrico, 2, 3

gradatim minoribus, magis minusve triangularibus, 4° magno, pro-

funde bilobo, 5° mediocri, unguibus simplicibus, art. 4° subtus dense

penicillato.

45. Creagris labrosa, N.

C. picea, ore antennisque, coxis, trochanteribus, femorum tibiarumque

apice et tarsis brunneis; dense punctata obsoleteque pubescens ;

elytris striatis. Long. corp. 43 lin.

Specimen singulum prope Colombo nocte ad lumen cepi.

I consider this scarce and interesting insect to form a passage

between the Lebiide and Pericalidee, but am doubtful to which

of these two tribes to refer it, as, although it partakes of the

characteristics of each, it is at the same time distinct from

both. Distinguished in several respects, its most extraordinary

character lies im the curious shape of the mentum. This is,

however, easily described as large, of the shape of a horse-shoe,

with a long, thin, very poimted tooth in the middle, the apical

half of the sides (lobes) being at the same time gently dilated,

the apex itself beg obliquely cut away from the outer towards

the inner side (the inner angle being the most advanced), and

slightly dentated at the edge thus formed. Or it may also be

described as a fork with the outer teeth somewhat enlarged,

truncated at the apex, and so forth. As far as I know, this

variation from the usual form of the mentum is repeated in no

other Carabideous insect. The other parts of the mouth have

not much to distinguish them, with the exception, however, of

the labrum, which attains a very extraordinary degree of deve-

lopment, occupying rather more than one-third of the whole head,

although the latter itself is large and heavy. It is of a sub-

orbicular shape, very slightly produced in front mto an obtuse

angle; it is vaulted, covers the mandibles, has two longitudinal

impressions at the sides of the base, and is highly polished. The

head has two impressions in front of the eyes, is densely punc-

tured and thinly pubescent; it is strongly but gradually con-

tracted behind the eyes, and formed into a short neck. The

antenne are strong, and reach to the shoulders; joints 1, 3 and

11 are of about equal length, middling, the two former subcylin-

Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleuptera. 279

drie ; joint 2 is small, rounded, 4—10 subequal, and with the 11th

oval. The thorax is small, only half as large as the head, rather

narrowed, strongly transverse, twice as broad as long, slightly

emarginated in front; the anterior angles rounded, contracted

below the middle, subquadrate and prolonged at the base; pos-

terior angles depressed, longitudinally divided by a deep furrow.

The elytra are striated, and, like the thorax, densely punctured

and thinly pubescent. The legs are strong, simple, and sub-

equal; the anterior tibiz are deeply notched; the first joint of

the tarsi is as long as the two succeeding ones together, sub-

cylindric, the second triangular, the third of a similar but more

transverse form, smaller—all three have the apical angles aeum-

nated, the fourth is large and deeply bilobed, the fifth middling,

thin; the claws simple. The tarsi are altogether short and

strong, the first joint is furnished with longer, the second and

third with shorter stiff hair, whilst the fourth is strongly peni-

cillated below. The anterior tibie are slightly spinose, the

others more so.

I believe the only specimen of this insect which has hitherto

come into my possession, and which has served as a type for the

above description, to be a female.

Tribe GALERITID.

Heteroglossa, n. g., N.

Corpus oblongum, subparallelum, depressum, tenuiter hirsutum.

Caput mediocre, oculis semiglobosis, sat prominulis; collo brevi.

Mentum sat profunde subquadrate emarginatum, lobis magnis, extus

fortiter rotundatis, apice abrupte acuminatis, dente magno excavato,

apice inflecto, obtuso, magis minusve profunde sinuato. Ligula

subcornea, apice libera, truncata, vel quadrata, vel obeonica vel

leviter bisinuata ; paraglossis cylindricis, marginem anteriorem lon-

gissime superantibus, magis minusve arcuatis. Palpi hirsuti, art.

ultimo sat elongato, subcylindrico, apice truncato vel subtrigono.

Labrum transversum, antice emarginatum. Mandibule validz, tri-

gonze, apice arcuatze, basi pluries dentatee. Antennze robustz, cor-

poris med. attingentes, art. 1° incrassato, sequentibus 2 longiore,

2° parvo, 3-11 subeequalibus. Thorax subcordatus, basi transver-

sim truncatus leviterque prolongatus. Pedunculus brevis. Elytra

apice fortiter subquadrate truncata, costata, costis 16 majoribus,

in interstitiis subtilissime bicostulata, in sulcis (sulco e tribus inter

costas binas majores medio excepto) tenuiter pilosa, in omnibus

transversim rugulosa. Pedes anteriores tibiis sat fortiter emargi-

natis, tarsis maris art. 1-3 leviter dilatatis, subtus squamularum

seriebus 2 munitis, art. 1° elongato-trigono, 2-3 rotundato-trigonis,

3° preecedente parum minore, 4° parvo cordato 3° plus sesqui minore,

his omnibus angulis acuminatis, 5° magno, unguibus simplicibus.

This diagnosis may appear somewhat vague, still I have been

280 Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera.

unable to express the characteristics of the imsects from which it

is drawn in more precise terms, although they have features quite

peculiar to themselves, by which they are easily recognized when

once seen.

The points in which the three species which form this genus

more or less disagree are the following :—(1) The labrum: this

is more transverse in H. elegans, and less deeply emarginated in

H. ruficollis than in the other two species respectively ; still in

all three it is emarginated, and has, moreover, the peculiarity

of being furnished with bristles at the two anterior corners.

(2) The mentum: this is subquadrately emarginated, the lobes

being strongly rounded on the outer side, and abruptly acumi-

nated at the apex; at the base of the emargination it is furnished

with a broad, excavated tooth, which is inflected and obtuse at

the apex: so far all three species agree ; however, whilst in H.

elegans and ruficollis this tooth is slightly emargimated at the

apex, it is sharply notched in H. bimaculata, m fact, bilobed, the

lobes being large and rounded at the apex. I look upon this

notch, which is sharp, but not deep, as a mere variation from the

emargination existing at the apex of the tooth of the former two

species. (3) The palpi: these, the labial as well as maxillary, have

their terminal joint truncated at the apex ; and so far, again, all

three species agree: however, whilst this joint is of elliptic form

in the palpi of H. ruficollis, it is in H. elegans only so in the labial

ones, that of the maxillary ones being cylindric at the base. In

H. bimaculata, finally, this joint is rather club-shaped or sub-

triangular, and more strongly truncated than in the former two

species. (4) The ligula: this organ is of subcoriaceous texture,

middling size, the shape of an oblong square, free, and trans-

versely truncated at the apex; these characters are common to

all three species, and in H. ruficollis I have nothing to add to

it; however, the anterior margin, which is straight in this spe-

cies, is slightly bisinuated in H. elegans, the outer angles being

acute, and the central one obtuse. ‘The ligula of H. bimaculata

differs from both the former in as far as it is narrowed towards

the apex and depressed towards the sides and the front; the

anterior margin is otherwise cut away straight, without any

sinuosities, but it is rather strongly armed with bristles. The

paragzlossee agree in all three species, in as far as they are highly

developed, reach much beyond the anterior margin of the ligula,

and are more or less bent inwards. Their greatest development

they assume in H. elegans, in which they nearly touch each

other in front of the anterior margin, being cylindric and slender

at the same time. In H. ruficollis the paraglossee are somewhat

shorter and straighter, and in H. bimaculata still more so.

In all other poimts the three species perfectly agree, in saying

Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera. 28]

which I lay particular weight upon the unusual sculpture of the

elytra, and the rather peculiar hairy vesture of the insects, bear-

ing also in mind their general appearance, proportions, system

of coloration, mode of living, &c. As to the hairy vesture of

certain parts of the body and the sculpture of the elytra, it is

true that these are not generally looked upon as of much im-

portance ; however, they appear to me so in this instance, as

they present certain unusual variations repeated in all three

species. The hairy vesture consists of thin yellowish or reddish

hairs thinly scattered over the back, and still more thinly over

the whole of the lower surface of the insects, being at the same

time longer on the latter place. This vesture acquires its greatest

density on the legs, especially the tibize and tarsi, whilst its uni-

form presence on the palpi forms almost a generic character.

The elytra are exquisitely sculptured into about eight larger

cost on each, and into two smaller ones between every two

of these; the furrows thus formed are finely transversely rugose,

and (with the exception of the central furrow between every

two larger costz) thinly pubescent.

It is possible that this sculpture of the elytra may occur

in other Galeritide. If so, the insufficiency of my means to

ascertain this fact to a certamty must plead my excuse for

attaching undue importance to it. However, I should in this

event consider my books of reference, none of which say any-

thing to that effect, greatly (and, indeed, more than myself) at

fault for not alluding to it, as, in my opinion, it is sufficiently

peculiar to be mentioned.

After this lengthy preamble, I shall have but a few words to

say in finishing the description of the species.

46. Heteroglossa elegans, N.

H. supra rufo-castanea, capite obscuriore, maculis 2 humeralibus

obsoletissimis ferrugineis ; subtus dilutior, pedibus, antennis ore-

que subtestaceis; elytris ad angulos apical. extern. testaceis.

Long. corp. 33 lin.

In lacus Colombensis ripis sub vegetab. putrescent. non infre-

quenter cepl.

An agile, pretty little msect, of chocolate colour, and with its

family features about it. Head smooth, polished, above and

below slightly punctured, with two impressions in front of the

eyes; anterior angles of labrum rather acuminated. Thorax

deeper and more densely punctured than the head, and with the

elytra thinly hirsute, rather strongly emarginated in front, less

so behind ; sides, especially at the basal angles, depressed, divided

longitudinally by a deep furrow. Scutellum, like thorax, pune -

282 Mr. J. Blackwall on Lycosa tarentuloides Maderiana,

tured and hairy. Elytra with the inner apical angle right-angled

and the outer rounded-off, largely punctured within the margin,

especially near the apex. Tibize with a row of large spmes down

the outer, and a row of smaller ones down the inner side, 4-cal-

carate at the apex, the two inner spurs larger.

47. Heteroglossa ruficollis, N.

H. colore preecedentis sed obscurior, thorace pectoreque rufo-testa-

ceis, antennis art. 3 primis nigrescentibus. Long. corp. 43 lin.

Cum precedente sed rarius et per occasionem nocte ad lumen

cepi.

The shape of the body is quite that of the former, but the

insect is larger. The head is less distinctly punctured than in

the former, and there is an additional impression in the middle

of the forehead. The thorax is also less deeply punctured, but

the divisional furrow is more so than in the preceding species.

The anterior tibiz appear somewhat less deeply notched. There

is nothing else to add to the description that has not been

pointed out already.

48. Heteroglossa bimaculata, N.

H. subcastanea, thorace capiteque rufo-testaceis, elytris medio ma-

culis 2 flavis pictis, pedibus abdominisque apice testaceis. Long.

corp. 53 lin.

Ubi przecedentes infrequentissime legi.

Head, with the exception of the forehead, deeply punctured,

with two impressions in front of the eyes; anterior angles of

labrum rounded. Thorax densely and deeply punctured, with

elytra thinly pubescent ; the latter with a round, yellow spot at

the middle of each.

[To be continued. |

XXVIII.—Descriptions of the Male of lycosa tarentuloides

Maderiana, Walck., and of three newly discovered species of

the genus Lycosa. By Joun Buacxwatt, F.L.S.

Tribe OCTONOCULINA.

Family Lycosipa.

Genus Lycosa, Latr.

Lycosa tarentuloides Maderiana.

Lycosa tarentuloides Maderiana, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t. 1.

p- 291, la femelle.

Length of the male ,ths of an inch; length of the cephalo-

and new species of the genus Lycosa. 283

thorax +; breadth 2; breadth of the abdomen vo 5 length of

a posterior leg 13; length of a leg of the third pair 12.

The cephalo-thorax is large, compressed before, rounded on

the sides, convex, hairy, with a slight longitudinal indentation

in the medial line; it; ishiofna dark ereyish-brown hue, with a

broad, yellowish-grey band extending along each side and an-

other along the middle, the latter, whose anterior part is the

broadest, being somewhat the darker-coloured. The four small

anterior eyes form a transverse, slightly curved row, having its

convexity directed upwards, and the two intermediate ones are

larger than the lateral ones. The falces are powerful, conical,

vertical, armed with a strong curved fang at the extremity, and

a few teeth on the inner surface: the lip is somewhat quadrate,

rather longer than broad, and slightly hollowed at its extremity.

These organs are of a brownish-black colour, the apex of the

latter having a red-brown hue. The maxille are straight, and

rounded at the extremity, which is enlarged and truncated

obliquely at its inner surface; and the sternum is oval. These

parts are of a dark brown hue, the base of the maxille being

the darkest. The legs are long (much longer than those of the

female), densely clothed with hairs, and provided with long

spines ; the femora, on the upper side, have a yellowish-grey

hue, that of the tibiz, metatarsi and tarsi being bright orange-

red, and the colour of the under side of all the joints is dark

brown tinged with grey; the fourth pair is the longest, then the

first, and the third pair is the shortest; each tarsus is termi-

nated by three claws; the two superior ones are curved and

pectinated, and the inferior one, which is very small, is inflected

at its base; the metatarsi and tarsi are provided on the under

side with hair-like papille, constituting a climbing apparatus.

The colour of the palpi resembles that of the legs, but is more

intense; the under side is tinged with yellow, and the extremity

of the digital jomt has a dark brown hue; the radial is longer

than the cubital jomt; the digital joint has an elongated oval

form, is convex and hairy externally, compact at its extremity,

and has a concavity near its base, on the under side; this con-

cavity comprises the palpal organs, which are moderately deve-

loped, rather complex im structure, with a prominent process

near the base, below which there is a fine, pointed, straight

spine directed obliquely forward and downward, and are of a

reddish-brown colour. The abdomen is oviform, rather broader

at the posterior than at the anterior part, convex above, densely

clothed with hairs, and of a yellowish-brown colour ; an obscure,

fusiform band extends along the middle of the upper part,

nearly half its length, and an angular, dark brown mark occurs

at its anterior extremity, within the vertex of which there is a

284. Mr. J. Blackwall on new species of Lycosa.

tuft of yellowish hairs; the under is paler than the upper part,

except in the medial line, which has a brown hue, and that of

the branchial opercula is brownish-yellow.

The male of this handsome species does not appear to be

known to arachnologists. Having had an opportunity of ex-

amining adult individuals of both sexes, found under stones in

the island of Porto Santo, by James Yate Johnson, Esq., I am

enabled to supply the deficiency. M. Walckenaer has given a

very brief description of the female, from a specimen in the col-

lection of M. Guérin, but states erroneously that the legs are

not provided with spines.

Lycosa ingens.

Length of the female 1 ich and {4ths ; length of the cephalo-

thorax +/, ; breadth ;5,; breadth of the abdomen 3; length ofa

posterior leg 1,7,; length of a leg of the third pair 12.

The legs are long, robust, densely clothed with hairs, and pro-

vided with long, sessile spines ; they are of a brown-black colour,

with white annuli and spots; one of the latter occurs on each side

of the extremity of the tibiz, and another at the extremity of

the metatarsi, on the upper part; the fourth pair is the longest,

then the first, and the third pair is the shortest ; each tarsus

is terminated by three claws; the two superior ones are curved

and pectinated, and the inferior one is very small, and inflected

at its base; the metatarsi and tarsi are provided on the under

side with hair-like papille, constitutmg a climbing apparatus.

The palpi are short, and are terminated by a curved, pectinated

claw; they resemble the legs in colour, but the radial and digi-

tal joints have neither annuli nor spots. The cephalo-thorax is

compressed before, rounded on the sides, convex, thickly clothed

with short hairs, and has a slight longitudinal indentation in

the medial line; it is of a dark brownish-grey colour, with an

irregular greyish-white band extending along each lateral mar-

gin, and another of the same hue along the middle, whose ante-

rior part is the broadest, of an elongated oval form, and com-

prises two parallel, curved, brownish-grey, longitudinal lines,

having their concavity directed towards each other. The four

small anterior eyes are nearly equal in size, and form a straight,

transverse row near the frontal margin of the cephalo-thorax.

The falces are powerful, conical, vertical, convex at the base,

armed with a strong, curved fang at the extremity, and a few

teeth on the inner surface : the maxille are straight, and rounded

at the extremity, which is enlarged and truncated obliquely at

its inner surface : the lip is broader in the middle than either at

the base or the extremity, which latter is truncated and hollowed ;

Mr. J. Blackwall on new species of Lycosa. 285

and the sternum is oval and glossy, with small prominences on

the sides, opposite to the legs. These parts are of a brownish-

black hue, the sternum and the extremities of the maxille and lip

having a tinge of red. The abdomen is oviform, rather broader

at the posterior than at the anterior part, convex above, densely

clothed with short hairs, and of a brown-grey colour, the sides

and under part, which are rather paler, being obscurely spotted

with brown; at the anterior extremity of the upper part there is

a large, angular, brown mark, and within the angle a yellowish-

white triangular spot, trifid at its base, and having its vertex

directed forwards ; to this spot succeeds a fusiform, brown band,

whose margins are the darkest ; it extends nearly to the middle

of the upper part, is bifid at its extremity, and has a small an-

gular point on each side, near the middle, immediately above

which there is a minute, red-brown depression encircled with

yellowish-white hairs ; a similar but somewhat smaller depression

occurs on each side of the posterior extremity of the band, and

these latter depressions are wider apart than the former ; a series

of minute, obscure, yellowish-white spots, commencing nearly

opposite to the small angular point on each side of the fusiform

band, extends to the spinners, which have a dark reddish-brown

hue; the sexual organs have a longitudinal septum in the middle

and are of a red-brown colour, that of the branchial opercula

being yellowish-brown.

Two adult females of this fine spider, the largest species of

the genus to which it belongs, were discovered under a stone in

one of the Desertas,—rocky, uninhabited islands near Madeira.

They were sent to me for inspection in August 1857, by James

Yate Johnson, Esq., to whom I am obliged for permission to

describe this and the preceding Lycose.

Lycosa herbigrada.

Length of the female =3,ths of an inch; length of the cephalo-

thorax 4; breadth +';; breadth of the abdomen 4,; length of

a posterior leg }; length of a leg of the third pair +.

The four small anterior eyes are arranged in a transverse row |

in front of the cephalo-thorax, the two intermediate ones being

rather the smallest. The cephalo-thorax is compressed before,

depressed and rounded on the sides, and has a slight longitudinal

indentation in the medial line ; it is of a red-brown colour, the

space comprising the eyes, a broad, irregular band extending

along each side, and a narrow line on each lateral margin having

a brown-black hue; the red-brown spaces are covered with

greyish hairs, and the medial one is abruptly contracted near

its anterior extremity. The falees are powerful, conical, and

286 Mr. J. Blackwall on new species of Liycosa.

armed with a curved fang at the extremity and a few teeth on

the inner surface : the maxille are short, straight, and enlarged

and rounded at the extremity: the palpi are moderately long,

and are terminated by a curved, pectinated claw. These parts

have a red-brown hue, the maxille being the palest, and the

palpi the darkest at their articulations. The lip is nearly

quadrate, being rather broader at the base than at the apex,

and is of a dark brown colour. The sternum is heart-shaped,

clothed with greyish hairs, and is of a red-brown hue, with an

oval space in the middle bounded by a fine, dentated, brown-

black line, and has spots of the same hue on the lateral margins.

The legs are long, moderately robust, provided with hairs and

sessile spines, and of a red-brown hue, with dark brown streaks,

spots and annuli; the fourth pair is the longest, then the first,

and the third pair is the shortest ; each tarsus is terminated by

three claws; the two superior ones are curved and pectinated,

and the inferior one is inflected near its base. The abdomen

is oviform, hairy, convex above, and projects over the base of

the cephalo-thorax; it is of a reddish-brown colour, the under

part being the palest, and has on each side of the upper part a

strongly dentated, brownish-black band; these bands taper to

the spinners, where they unite, and from some of their larger

exterior angles, rows of brownish-black spots pass obliquely to

the sides, which are marked with other spots of the same hue ;

in the anterior part of the space comprised between the dentated,

brownish-black bands there is an oblong-oval, reddish-brown

mark, bounded by a fine black line having an acute angular

point on each side and its posterior extremity bifid; the sexual

organs, which are highly developed and prominent, have a dark

reddish-brown colour, and that of the branchial opercula is

brown.

Two adult and two immature females of this Lycosa were

forwarded to me in Wales in December 1856, by Mr. R. H.

Meade. The two former were discovered by O. P. Cambridge,

Esq., of Bloxworth House, in Dorsetshire, under a stone, near

Pennsylvania Castle, in the Isle of Portland, on the 29th of

September 1854; and the two latter were captured in July 1854,

in Morden Park, near Bloxworth House, by the same gentleman,

who has kindly permitted me to describe the species.

Lycosa pollipes.

Length of the female ¥,ths of an inch; length of the cephalo-

thorax $; breadth ;4,; breadth of the abdomen 4; length of a

posterior leg 2; length of a leg of the third pair >>.

The legs are moderately long, robust, provided with hairs and

Mr. J. Blackwall on new species of Lycosa. 287

sessile spines, and are of a uniform pale yellow-brown hue; the

fourth pair is the longest, then the first, and the third pair is

the shortest ; each tarsus is terminated by three claws; the two

superior ones are curved and pectinated, and the inferior one is

inflected near its base. The palpi resemble the legs in colour,

and have a curved, pectinated claw at their extremity. The two

intermediate eyes of the four forming the anterior row are very

conspicuously larger than the lateral ones. The cephalo-thorax

is glossy, thinly clothed with hairs, compressed before, depressed

and rounded on the sides, which are marked with slight furrows

converging towards a narrow longitudinal indentation in the

medial line; it is of a pale brown colour, with a yellowish-brown

band extending along the middle, whose broad anterior extremity

comprises a pale brown, bifid line terminating im an angle at the

medial indentation ; the lateral margins are supplied with hairs

of brilhant whiteness, and the part occupied by the eyes has a

dark brown hue. The falces are powerful, conical, and armed

with a curved fang at the extremity and teeth on the inner sur-

face: the maxillee are short, straight, and enlarged and rounded

at the extremity. These parts are of a pale reddish-brown

colour. The lip is nearly quadrate, being rather broader at the

base than at the apex; it is of a dark brown hue tipped with

yellowish-brown. The sternum is heart-shaped and of a pale

yellowish-brown colour, with black spots on the margins, opposite

to the legs. The abdomen is oviform, rather broader at the pos-

terior than at the anterior extremity, sparingly clothed with

hairs, convex above, and projects over the base of the cephalo-

thorax ; it is of a brown colour, the under part being the palest

and the sides the darkest; a yellowish-brown band extends from

the anterior extremity of the upper part more than a third of its

length, and on each side of the pointed termination of this band

there is a brownish-black spot ; between it and the spinners

several curved, transverse, brownish-black bars occur, which

diminish in extent as they approach the latter ; they have their

convexity directed forwards, their extremities somewhat enlarged,

and, with the two brownish-black spots, have brilliantly white

hairs distributed upon them in the form of minute but distinct

spots; a short, curved, white line is directed upwards from the

base of each superior spinner, and the sides are densely mottled

with white; the sexual organs are small and of a dark reddish-

brown colour, that of the branchial opercula being yellowish-

brown.

An adult female Lycosa pallipes was taken in Algeria, by the

Rev. Hamlet Clark, in the summer of 1856. This species

should occupy a place among the semi-aquatic Lycose, being

nearly allied to ZL. piratica and L, piscatoria.

288 Dr. F. Leydig on Hydatina senta.

XXIX.—On Hydatina senta. By Dr. F. Leypie*.

[With a Plate.]

Wuoever has taken notice of the literature of the Rotifera is

aware that for a long time the sexual relations of this group of

animals were involved in obscurity ; for although recent observers

were agreed that the parts described by Ehrenberg as testes,

seminal ducts, and seminal vesicles, can by no means have any

such import, still, on the other hand, no undoubted male sexual

organs and seminal corpuscles could be detected.

The discovery of the sexual relations was made by Dalrymplet.

He proved that Notommata anglica is not hermaphrodite, but

that it possesses separate sexes. Subsequently the present

writer made known the male of a new species{, nearly allied

to the English one; and on comparing the structure of the

Rotatoria, with which I had become acquainted by my own ob-

servations, with the published statements, I was compelled to

conclude, “that male individuals of other species have also been

already described, but that they have been described under the

title of peculiar genera and species.” And amongst other things,

I asserted that to my mind it was “beyond all doubt ” that the

Enteroplea Hydatina is the male of Hydatina senta.

Unfortunately, I could not at that time meet with this Rotifer

in the neighbourhood of Wiirzburg, although, as many observers

state, it is one of the very common and widely distributed spe-

cies; and this was the more to be regretted, as, in consequence

of Ehrenberg’s descriptions, the Hydatina senta as it were played

the part of a typical representative of the Rotatoria in books.

Nevertheless I had the satisfaction of seeing my assertion with

regard to the male nature of Kiteroplea Hydatina confirmed by

another observer. Cohn namely$ had the opportunity of exa-

mining this animal, and found the testes and motile spermatozoa.

During the present spring, in the early part of March, I fished

a small pool near Wiirzburg, which is dry in summer, and there

obtained Hydatina senta in innumerable multitudes; at that

time the animal was almost the sole inhabitant of the water, for

besides it I only observed a few Vorticelle, with here and there

a Brachionus and some larve of Diptera. Towards the end of

March they had increased to so extraordinary an extent, that

* Translated from Miiller’s Archiv, No. 4, June 1857, p. 404. By

W.S. Dallas, F.L.S. &e.

+ Phil. Trans. 1849.

= Ueber den Bau und den syst. Stellung der Raderthiere; Zeitschr. fiir

wiss. Zoologie, 1854.

§ Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zoologie, 1855.

Dr. F. Leydig on Hydatina senta. 289

they formed a nearly continuous greyish-white stratum close to

the surface of the water. The Hnteroplea, which at first occurred

rather sparingly, had then also become so numerous, that per-

haps one Enteroplea might be counted to every twenty or thirty

Hydatine. I studied the animalcule closely, and as my results

do not agree in all pomts with Cohn’s, it may not be superfluous

to give some details of the structure of Hydatina and Enteroplea.

It is incorrect when the above-mentioned author says that

Hydatina senta ‘is one of the largest Rotatoria:” it is rather

only one of middle size, for many other species, such as Notom-

mata myrmeleo, and especially Notommata Sieboldi, exceed it

three, four, and five times in size. That naturalist, indeed, well

remarks, that the form of the animal in its true outlines can

only be recognized when it is swimming about freely im a suffi-

cient quantity of water; but neither the figure nor the descrip-

tion given by him of the form of Hydatina can be indicated as

true; his figure of the rotatory organ especially departs far more

from nature than that given by Ehrenberg, for which reason I

consider it necessary to publish a new representation of it.

As regards the form of the animal, we perceive in individuals

which are swimming about quietly, revolving upon their axis,

that the body is divided into three principal parts,—a cephalo-’

thorax, an abdomen, and a tail. If we disregard the abdominal

notch, the cephalothorax appears to be distinguished from the

abdomen, especially on the dorsal surface, by a tubercular infla-

tion, upon which the single setigerous pit (Borstengrube), beneath

which nerves terminate, is situated. This tubercle of the cephalo-

thorax, however, only makes its appearance distinctly when the

stomach is not exceedingly full, or the ovary is not too much

developed : when either of these circumstances occurs, the tubercle

must of course disappear more or less in consequence of the

inflation of the abdomen. ‘The first or anterior third of the

cephalothorax is separated as the head by a sharp furrow. The

abdomen, which is faintly annulated, ceases with the segment

which bears the cloacal orifice ; then follow the segments of the

tail, of which even the first is narrower than the last segment of

the abdomen. The tail diminishes rapidly, and runs out into a

didactyle foot.

The margin of the head or rotatory organ (PI. VIII. fig. 1) is

not simple, but distinctly formed of two lips, with a tolerably

deep furrow between them. On the dorsal surface this furrow

rises into a papilliform process, lyimg in the median line, corre-

sponding to which the inner lip of the rotatory organ also gives

rise to a prominence ; the surface of the rotatory organ bounded

by the inner lip sinks into a funnel-shaped depression or buccal

cavity. As regards the ciliary coat, we may easily distinguish a

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 1

290 Dr. F. Leydig on Hydatina senta.

border consisting of fine long hairs, which runs uninterruptedly

round the rotatory organ and belongs to its outer edge. The

hairs strike outwards. Perceptibly different from these, are some

strong or bristle-like cilia, which stand next to them on the mner

lip of the rotatory organ, and also form a continuous series ;

similar bristles also fringe the true margin of the buccal cavity,

which lies further inwards; and even between the two series of

bristles above indicated, cilia, of equal strength and irregularly

distributed, are seen working; lastly, the two papilliform pro-

cesses previously mentioned also bear a tuft of about six bristles.

All the thick, bristle-like cilia strike like hooks inwards.

The ceaseless movements of the animal, and the constant in-

version and eversion of the cephalic extremity, add not a little

to the difficulty of observing it; and in order to convince one-

self of the true form of the rotatory organ, it is advisable to kall

the animal slowly, and without its inverting itself. For this

purpose I made use of an extremely weak solution of bichromate

of potash, in which they continued to swim about for hours, and

remained extended after death. That a covering glass is not to

be used in examining them, is a matter of course.

The external integument (PI. VIII. fig. 2), as has been shown

to be the case in other Rotatoria, consists of two different layers,

namely of the external structureless cuticula, and the “ granular

layer” situated beneath this. I should not have considered this

worth mentioning, had not Cohn said that the granular layer

described by me is scarcely to be distinguished as such in ma-

ture individuals of Hydatina. Both in fresh objects and in

animals which have been acted upon by acetic acid, the separate

nuclei of the soft cutaneous layer in question may be seen as

clearly as can be desired, and in many individuals single fatty

points lie in this cutaneous stratum.

With regard to the muscles, it may be stated, that besides the

longitudinal and annular muscles, of which the former are the

broadest, and also exhibit a differentiation into a clear cortical,

and granular axial substance (Pl. VIII. figs. 1 & 2, 5), there are

also branched muscles, and that not only in the head, where they

are especially striking, but also in every segment of the body.

In the broad, longitudinal muscles (figs. 1 & 2) the granules of

the axial substance are sometimes observed to be very regularly

arranged, so as to remind one of a delicately-marked transverse

striation. Cohn’s statement, that the substance of the muscles

sometimes “ appeared frothy from vacuoles,” can only refer to

altered or dead muscles.

Of the brain and the nerves radiating therefrom, I thought

I might also give a new figure (PI. VIII. fig. 2,c): this

organ, when seen from above, is nearly quadrangular; when

Dr. F. Leydig on Hydatina senta. 291

seen in profile, it presents a tolerably strong convexity above.

To the single pit with the tuft of bristles two strong nerves

pass ; two other filaments also go to it; these are of a muscular

nature, and I certainly saw them contract. These are the fila-

ments which Cohn describes as “ going to the same spot in the

neck from other centres of the nervous system.” The substance

of the fresh brain exhibits small nuclei, imbedded in a homo-

geneous fundamental mass, in which there are also still more

distinct molecules. The “large, circular, limpid vesicle, appa-

rently a vacuole, very frequently observed” by Cohn, is, in my

opinion, a product of decomposition ; such appearances readily

appear in the delicate tissues of the lower animals, when their

vital activity is diminishing.

I shall pass over the alimentary apparatus, as it has the same

structure which has been described by me in detail in other

Rotatoria, whose alimentary system is divided into pharynx,

cesophagus, stomach and intestine; only, with regard to the

pharynx, I may add, that the apparently beautiful cells, which

we think we see in the fleshy parts (see fig. 1, a), are the trans-

verse sections of muscles, and, indeed, of such muscles the sub-

stance of which is separated into a homogeneous cortical layer

and a granular axis; this, therefore, is the reason why, on close

examination of these apparent cells, we perceive that they have

a clear, distinctly marked, peripheric layer, and internally a

granular mass of contents, from which a limpid nucleus glim-

mers*,

With reference to the “ respiratory system,” I am again under

the necessity of declining the corrections which Cohn has be-

stowed upon my statement. I had stated (/. c. sup.) that the

so-called tremulous organs (Zitterorgane) in their form repre-

sented two types, which, however, do not occur in one and the

same animal, but show themselves to be distributed in different

genera. Thus some remain as cylindrical tubes, of uniform

width,—such are possessed, for example, by Notommata myrmeleo ;

others are dilated at the free extremity, and thereby acquire a

somewhat trumpet-like form, as in Notommata centrura, Euchlanis

triquetra, Eosphora najas. Cohn, however, asserts, ‘that one

and the same tremulous organ presents one or the other form

according to its position,” and in support of this, cites the figure

of Notommata centrura, in which both forms are to be seen.

But our author here evidently misunderstands the figures, for

* In opposition to Cohn’s statement that there is ciliary movement in

the cesophagus of Brachionus, I adhere to my previous assertion, that the

cesophagus of the Rotatoria is never clothed with cilia; in Brachionus the

cesophagus is very short, and Cohn has erroneously transferred the strong

ciliation at the commencement of the stomach into the cesophagus.

19*

292 Dr. F. Leydig on Hydatina senta.

what he regards as cylindrical tremulous organs are trumpet-

shaped ones seen in longitudinal section ; from their flat nature,

they then appear cylindrical. When Cohn becomes acquainted

with true cylindrical, uniform tubes, such as occur, for example,

in Notommata Sieboldii, he will perceive the difference of form

between the two.

The fluid which fills the abdominal cavity, washes the viscera,

and forms the analogue of the blood, m individuals which had

been plentifully fed with Huglena viridis, contained numerous

clear globules, or blood-corpuscles, of a roundish form and un-

equal size. It was remarkable to meet again in Hydatina senta

with the same structures which I had formerly, as a matter of

supposition, attempted to indicate in Lacinularia as spermatozoa*,

and afterwards arranged in the series of parasitic formations.

They are globular bodies with sharp outlines; their margin is

furry, as if with a fine coat of hair. Towards the end of March

the entire abdominal cavity of many individuals was so filled

with these globules, that the animal appeared strongly white by

reflected light. However, the individuals thus affected swam

about just as briskly as those which exhibited nothing of the sort.

The clavate bodies in the tail consist of a delicate envelope and

pale molecular contents, in which beautiful nuclei, each with a

nucleolus, may be distinguished; in many individuals, small

fatty points are also present in variable amount. I regard the

organs in question as glands, which in their position and fune-

tion correspond with the caudal glands of Hnoplus for examplef ;

they open at the apex of the caudal appendages (Fusszangen) ;

and as the worm just mentioned “can attach itself firmly to the

object-bearer by the posterior extremity of the body, in order to

carry the body round this point with a waving motion,” so also

can the Hydatina fix itself by the tips of the caudal appendages,

probably by means of the sticky substance excreted here. It

seems to me also that im a certain upright position of the caudal

appendages, I have detected the opening at their tip.

The hairy coat of the “winter eggs,’ which Ehrenberg, in

opposition to R. Wagner, declared to be an Alga, Hygrocrocis

vestiens, is distinctly perceptible even on the eggs in the ovary.

The male Hydatina, or the Enteroplea Hydatina of Ehrenberg

(Pl. VIII. fig. 3), is certainly considerably smaller than the female,

but has the same outline of body, and even the rotatory organ

is notched on the ventral side, as in Hydatina senta, This struc-

ture is seen with certainty in animals which tumble about freely

without being annoyed by a glass cover, and thus turn their

rotatory organs to the beholder from all sides. Cohn erroneously

* Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zool. 1851.

+ Miiller’s Archiv, 1854, tab. 11. fig. 12.

es oo cea Sil eee

Dr. F. Leydig on Hydatina senta. 293

asserts that the obliquely funnel-shaped depression of the rota-

tory organ is wanting in the male. In animals which begin to

tire in their movements, we may perceive, with regard to the

form of the body, that the dorsal surface is somewhat arched,

and the ventral rather flat; perfectly fresh individuals are con-

tinually contracting, and the body thus appears strongly folded

longitudinally.

The muscles, the brain with the nerves, the contractile vesicle

with the vessels and tremulous organs, are essentially as in the

female, for which reason they will not be further mentioned ; I

refer the reader to fig. 3. The clavate glands in the tail also

are not wanting; but this difference is perceptible—they are

faintly notched several times on the margin, which is not the

case in the female.

Dalrymple had observed in Notommata anglica, as I have done

in N. Sreboldiz, that the male is entirely destitute of an alimentary

canal. The male animals possessed neither pharynx nor jaws,

esophagus nor stomach. There was only an irregular aggrega-

tion of cells, which was regarded as the rudiment of the aliment-

ary canal. Ofthe male Hydatina also Cohn states, that in it (the

Enteroplea) the nutritive apparatus is completely wanting in all

its parts, and that not even the cellular rudiments of the above-

mentioned species of Notommata are to be detected. With this

view, however, I cannot altogether agree. It is true that, as

was already established by Ehrenberg, the Enteroplea is entirely

destitute of biting organs, and a developed ¢ractus cibarius is

altogether wanting ; moreover, no solid nourishment taken from

without is ever observed in the transparent animal. But it may

be said with perfect certainty, that the alimentary canal exists in

an abortive state. Thus, the part which Cohn has characterized

as the suspensor testis, and Ehrenberg as the intestine, and which

the former author regards as a long and broad band, originating

from the anterior apex of the testis, and running transversely

through the cavity of the body towards the frontal region, is

undoubtedly a rudiment of the alimentary tube (P1. VIII. fig.3, a),

as is Shewn both by its position and structure. When the ani-

mal is examined in profile, the anterior extremity of the rudi-

mentary intestine passes exactly towards that spot in the rotatory

organ where the buccal orifice is situated in the female ; pos-

teriorly, as will be mentioned immediately, it extends to the

cloacal orifice. As regards its more intimate conditions, we find

the rudimentary intestine, like other organs which have become

retrograde, more or less abortive in different individuals ; some-

times it is a clear, folded tube, without cellular parts ; in another

case it contains unmistakeable remains of the stomachal cells—

namely large vesicles, with aggregations of such yellowish-brown

294 Dr. F. Leydig on Hydatina senta.

bodies as fill the stomachal cells of all Rotatoria,—thus furnish-

ing a distinct indication of its nature.

In order to trace the further relations of the rudimentary in-

testinal canal, regard must at the same time be had to the ¢estzs,

which is situated in the hinder section of the abdomen. This

organ (Pl. VIII. figs. 3, 4,¢,c) forms an oval sac, the walls of

which are, however, by no means, as Cohn describes them, “ very

thick and muscular,’ but, on the contrary, formed of a thin

membrane. What the naturalist just mentioned calls the “ very

thick and muscular walls” is the continuation of the rudimentary

mtestine : we see this soldered to the testis, and by this means

an apparent second envelope of the organ is produced. Some

band-like filaments pass from this envelope to the skin for

the purpose of attachment. They are, however, no more con-

tractile (here also Cohn makes an opposite assertion) than the

entire rudimentary stomach which surrounds the testis. The

testis itself and its contents, as well as the efferent duct and its

accessory glands, display the greatest similarity with what I

have described in Notommata Steboldii, only that everything,

down to the parts of the tissue, is smaller im Hnteroplea. The

spermatozoa (fig. 5), as in Notommata, are of two kinds: some

have a bacillar form, exhibit no movements, and are stiff; the

others consist of a body pointed before and behind, upon which

an undulatmg membrane rises like a crest. In many indivi-

duals all the spermatozoa, so long as they were enclosed in the

testis, remained quiet, and only began to move when they were

pressed out and brought m contact with water; then, however,

the movement became slower, and soon stopped altogether.

Another time the spermatozoa exhibited a swarming movement

even within the testis.

Perhaps the spermatozoa undergo a further development

within the body of the female as soon as they are transferred

there by copulation ; at least, it is remarkable to me that the

seminal elements moving about in the abdominal cavity of cer-

tain females were much thicker at one end, and as it were had

a separated head, which was never seen in those pressed out of

the testis. In exact accordance with what was observed in No-

tommata, the motionless, bacillar spermatozoa lie in the testis,

especially at the poimt where the efferent duct commences, and

by their regular arrangement produce a radiate striation at this

point. I must directly contradict the statement that this “ close,

parallel, longitudinal striation” occurring at the posterior end

of the testis, is due to “ muscular fibres ;” the “ strie”’ may be

pressed out as well as the rest of the contents of the testis; and

in*this way we may convince ourselves that the bacillar sperma-

tozoa were the cause of the striation. The wall of the testis, as

Dr. F. Leydig on Hydatina senta. 295

has been already mentioned, is destitute of contractility ; but it

may be observed that the efferent duct is capable of strong con-

tractions, and I also refer its thick wall and the transverse stria-

tion visible on the latter, to a muscular membrane. Cilia exist

in the interior of the duct; they are longest at the orifice, and

the latter is situated on the first segment of the tail. On the

outside of the efferent duct there are some glandular bodies,

which might be compared with accessory glands, perhaps a pro-

state, as was also done with regard to Notommata.

The same dark aggregations of granules (Pl. VIII. figs. 3, 4, b)

which are observed in many embryos and young animals of the

Rotatoria occur in Enteroplea; they usually form two masses,

but sometimes three; the granules vary greatly in number and

size, and sometimes we see accumulations of small globules;

sometimes they consist of a few single, large fragments. From

their optical and chemical characters, I had pronounced these

granules to be uric concretions, and expressed the opinion

that such accumulations of granules or crystalline formations

occurring, except in the males, only in the embryonic stage

and in early youth, might have the signification of a primor-

dial kidney. Cohn, on the contrary, thinks that “this whole

hypothesis falls with the proof that in Enteroplea the vesicle

with the dark granules stands in no sort of connexion with the

intestine, nor indeed can do so, as no intestine exists, and that

it is rather firmly adherent to the outer wall of the testis, which

I could prove beyond a doubt.” And yet I cannot avoid re-

marking that, as is evident from the above description of the

testis, Cohn’s “ undoubted proof” is an error. For the clear

space containing the dark granules is not “adherent” to the

true wall of the testis, but to that outer envelope which repre-

sents the rudimentary stomach and intestine ; or, more properly

speaking, the clear space enclosing the concretions belongs to

the abortive alimentary canal itself, which extends from the

notch of the rotatory organ to the cloacal opening; so that

Enteroplea displays the same characters as the other Rotatoria,

although this is in complete opposition to the description given

by Cohn. My opinion that the granules in question are uric

concretions, is of course no more strongly supported by the

position of matters detected in Enteroplea than before, but the

objection raised by Cohn appears to be removed. The opinion

first put forward by Weisse, which is also favoured by Cohn,

that the granules are the remains of unused yelk-masses, I must

reject, without taking other reasons into account, if only because

the vitelline elements and the granules in question have no

resemblance to each other, but are perfectly different things.

In conclusion, something may be stated regarding a parasite

—

296 Dr. F. Leydig on Hydatina senta.

living in the stomach of the female Hydatina, which appears to

be hitherto undescribed, and may be referred to Ehrenberg’s

family of the Astasiza. The parasite was so plentiful, that nearly

every Hydatina, out of hundreds that were examined, had at least

one in its interior ; nay, it was found that very young individuals,

of which the stomach was still colourless, harboured as many as

five or six of these creatures. If it should be supposed that it

might be a pseudo-parasite, which forms some part of the

nourishment received, an idea which may occur at first, this

is contradicted by the fact that the animalcule is never met with

in a condition which indicates, even to a certain extent, that,

like other swallowed animals, such as Euglene, it is subject to

the digestive power of the stomach; it is rather found always

uninjured, and in most powerful movement.

Our animalcule (PI. VIII. fig.6) is of the size of Euglena viridis,

and has considerable resemblance to it in form; but it appears

to be most nearly allied to the Distigmia tenax of Ehrenberg

(Proteus tenax of Miiller and Schrank). The foundation of its

body is formed by a soft, gelatinous substance, from which

no proper cortical layer or skin has separated. In the interior

there are numerous globules, of a fatty lustre, of various sizes,

and not of a simple round form, but which appear sometimes

stratified, sometimes as if pierced by an orifice, and sometimes

repeatedly divided; many look as if they had undergone seg-

mentation into four portions. After pressure with the glass

cover, they acquire a tolerably mtense indigo-blue colour. In

consequence of these bodies, which resemble fat-drops, the para-

site appears very white by reflected light. Moreover, towards

the anterior extremity of the body, two clear, nucleus-like bodies

are distinguished, and these again display a more opake spot.

Lastly, a reddish point, or “ eye-spot,” which has a sharply cir-

cumscribed form, is situated quite in front. The movements of

the animal are very lively, especially when the stomach of the

Hydatina begins to make unusual contractions on the occurrence

of any deficiency of water; it then endeavours to escape from

the intestine, and if it succeed in this, it hurries away there-

from in great haste by its peristaltic contractions. The animal-

cule swells up, and constricts itself from before backwards, mm

a manner analogous to that in which, in the contractions of the

muscles of the lower animals, a thickened space is often seen to

pass in an undulating manner along the muscle.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII.

[All the figures magnified about 300 diameters. |

Fig. \. The head of the female Hydatina from below, to show the form of

the rotatory organ: a, the pharynx, should be represented further

forward, nearer to the buccal orifice; 6, 6, muscles.

Royal Society. 297

Fig. 2. Head of a somewhat smaller animal, from above

6, muscles; ¢, brain; d, “respiratory tubes.”

Fig. 3. Male Hydatina (Enteroplea Hydatina): a, the rudimentary intes-

tinal canal, to which the dark aggregations of granules, b, belong ;

c, testis.

Fig. 4. The hinder extremity of an Enteroplea, exactly in a lateral posi-

tion: a, remains of the tractus; 6, the aggregations of granules

(“uric concretions”); ¢, testis; d, efferent ducts ; e, “ prostate.”

Fig. 5. Spermatozoa of Enteroplea: a, stiff, bacillar form; 6, form fur-

nished with an undulating membrane.

Fig. 6. The animal living in the stomach of the female Hydatina. It is

. represented in its various stages of contraction.

: a, pharynx ;

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

June 18, 1857.—The Lord Wrottesley, President, in the Chair.

“On the Development of Carcinus Manas.’ By Spence Bate,

Esq., F.L.S.

The author, after noticing the history of the subject, and the

opposition which the assertion, “‘that the Zoéa of naturalists is the

larva of a common crab,”’ received, traces the progress of the deve-

lopment of the animal from the Zoéa to the adult, and endeavours to

demonstrate, that from the youngest to the most perfect form, the

changes are the result of no sudden transformation, but produced

hy a gradual series of alterations contemporary with every succeeding

moult; that the Zoéa is connected with the Megalopa, and the

latter with the adult by many intermediate gradations, each in itself

scarcely appreciable, and progressively approximating more and

more nearly to the more perfect stages.

The author asserts that the development is earliest and most com-

plete anteriorly ; that when first born, the seventh or posterior segment

of the head, one or more of the posterior segments of the pereion

(thorax), and the penultimate of the pleon (abdomen) are wanting

ur the brachyurous Decapods ; but that this general law loses some-

what of its force in the descending scale of development; and as it

becomes less persistent, the anima! approximates in the larval con-

dition nearer to the form of the adult type; while on the other

hand, the same appears to be a constant law of the depreciation in

adult forms, as exhibited in the more or less aberrant Amphipoda,

such as Cyrtophium, Dulichia, &e. The author likewise shows that

the appendages, which act the principal parts im the larvee, become

the secondary parts of the same organs in the perfect animal. For

instance, the lower antenna is represented in the larva by the com-

plementary appendage of the adult form; the true antenna is de-

veloped from the base of the embryonic organ, which represents

298 Royal Society :—

the squamiform and spinous appendages, more or less constant in

the macrourous Decapods, but lost in the short-tailed genera, and

the organ itself is gradually increased with every successive moult.

This is true, more or less perfectly, of all the other appendages pre-

sent in the larvze of all Decapoda ; and no change of form, as under-

stood in the term metamorphosis as applied to insects, takes place in

the development of Carcinus. That the distance between the old

and young forms is the result of an exaggeration of parts in the

larva as compared with the relative proportion of the same in adult

animals, together with the absence of others, which are gradually

produced, and assume the permanent condition of the adult type.

The author has observed the rudiments of the future legs shortly

after birth. He has dissected and figured eight or nine of the more

important stages, and shown the relative alteration of each part con-

secutively, commencing with the Zoéa taken from the egg, and pur-

sued the observations through the older forms to that of the adult

Carcinus.

“On the Anatomy and Physiology of the Spongiade.”’ By J.S.

Bowerbank, F.R.S., F.L.S. &c.

The arrangement of the Spongiade by Lamarck, based entirely on

external form, is wholly inadequate for the discrimination of species.

The classification adopted by Drs. Fleming, Grant, and Johnston,

dependent more especially on the chemical constituents of those

bodies, is far too limited to be applied in generic characters. The

author has, therefore, for this purpose rejected both systems, and has

retained the latter one for forming primary divisions only; he

purposes founding the generic characters principally on the organic

structure and mode of arrangement of the skeleton, in accordance

with the practice so generally adopted by naturalists with regard to

many of the higher classes of animals. Tethea, Geodia, Dysidea and

a few others are the only well-defined genera that have yet been

established ; while others, such as Halichondria, even in the narrow

circle of the list of British species, contain at least ten distinct

modes of arrangement of the skeleton, each of which is constant and

well-defined in its character.

It is not intended to propose the rejection of any of the well-esta-

blished genera of preceding authorities, but to confine each genus

strictly within the bounds imdicated by the peculiar mode of struc-

ture of the skeleton which exists in that species of sponge which is

the oldest-established and best-known type of the genus, and to refer

all others that may distinctly differ from that type to new genera

founded on structural principles.

It is proposed to characterize the elementary tissues in the follow-

ing order :—

. Spicula.

. Keratode or horny substance.

. Membranous tissues.

. Fibrous tissues.

. Cellular tissues.

. Sarcode.

am kWN RE

Mr. J.S. Bowerbank on the Anatomy of the Spongiade. 299

And, in the second place, to treat of the organization and physio-

logy 3 in the following order :—

. The skeleton.

“a The sarcodous system.

3. The interstitial canals.

4. The intermarginal cavities.

5. The dermal membrane.

6. The pores.

7. The oscula.

8. Inhalation and exhalation.

9. Nutrition.

as Cilia and ciliary action.

. Reproduction, gemmules, &ce.

And to conclude with observations on the generic characters.

The author then proceeds to describe the spicula, which he states

are essentially different in character from the fibres of the sponge ;

although the latter may be equally siliceous with the former. How-

ever closely the spicula may be brought into contact with each other,

or with siliceous fibre, they appear never to unite or anastomose ;

while the fibre, whether siliceous or keratose, always anastomoses

when it comes in contact with other parts of its own body or with

those of its own species. A detailed description is given of the

origin and progressive development of these organs, from which it

is inferred that they are the homologues of the bones in the higher

classes of animals, and that the forms they assume are always of an

organic type, never crystalline or angular; and the same forms of

spicula are found composed of either silex or carbonate of lime,

demonstrating the fact that the deposits of earthy matter are in-

fluenced by the laws of animal organization only, and never by those

of inorganic or crystalline arrangement.

Each species of sponge has, not one form of spiculum only, equally

dispersed throughout its whole substance ; but, on the contrary,

separate parts have their appropriate forms ; and thus we find that

there are often three, four, or even more forms of spicula in the

same individual. The author therefore, in describing them, pro-

poses to treat of these organs in the following order :—

1. Spicula of the skeleton.

2. Connecting spicula.

*3. Defensive spicula.

4. Spicula of the membranes.

5. Spicula of the sarcode.

6. Spicula of the gemmules.

1st. The spicula of the skeleton in the siliceous sponges are

usually simple, elongate in form, slightly curved, and are occasion-

ally more or less furnished with spines. They are either irregularly

matted together, collected in fasciculi, or dispersed within or upon

the keratose fibres of which the skeleton is to a great extent com-

posed. All these elongate forms of spicula are subject to extreme

variety of length. In some species they maintain a great degree of

uniformity, while in others they vary to a very considerable extent,

300 Royal Society :—

according to the necessities arising from the mode of the construction

of the skeleton.

2nd. The connecting spicula are not necessarily a part of the

skeleton; they are a subsidiary portion of it under special circum-

stances, in a few genera only ; as in Geodia, Pachymatisma, and other

sponges which have a thick crustaceous surface, which the spicula

serve to support and retain in due connexion with the mass of the

animal beneath. The normal form of these spicula is very different

from that of the general mass of those of the skeleton, and they are

much more complex and varied in their structure. They usually have

a long, stout, cylindrical or attenuating shaft terminating either

acutely or hemispherically at the base, while the apex is divided into

three equi-angular radii, which assume in different species a con-

siderable amount of variety as regards form and direction. The tri-

radiate apices are usually cemented firmly to the inner surface of the

crustular coat of the sponge; while the stout and elongated shaft is

intermingled with keratode, and firmly cemented by it to the general

mass of the skeleton.

3rd. The defensive spicula are divisible into two classes: those

of the exterior, and those of the interior of the sponge. They are

neither of them necessarily present in every species, nor are they

confined to particular genera, but occur occasionally, and in certain

species of various genera apparently as the necessities of the animal

may render their presence requisite. Their office is evidently to

defend the sponge’ from the attacks of predaceous animals. They

are projected for about half or two-thirds of their length at various

angles from the surface of the sponge, or they are based on the

fibre of the skeleton, and are projected at about right angles into its

interstitial cavities.

4th. The spicula of the membranes are of two distinct classes.

The office of the first of these is to strengthen and support those

delicate tissues, and to communicate to them a certain amount of

tension. Their forms are few in number, and their structure com-

paratively simple. The office of the second class is that of assisting

in the retention of the sarcode on the interstitial and other strue-

tures. They are usually minute in size, and often very complicated

in form.

5th. Spicula of the sarcode. The numerous and beautiful tribe of

stellate spicula appear to be devoted to connect and give substance to

the gelatinoid sarcode which so abundantly covers the whole of the

interior membranous structures of the sponges in which they occur.

They are often exceedingly minute, and are occasionally remarkably

complex and beautiful in structure, and we frequently find more

than one form imbedded in the sarcode of the same sponge.

6th. The spicula appropriated to the gemmules of sponges occur in

various modes of disposition. First, they are imbedded irregularly in

an external envelope of the gemmule, or on the surface of the

gemmule itself at right angles to lines radiating from its centre.

Secondly, they are arranged symmetrically in the crust of the

gemmule parallel to lines radiating from its centre. Thirdly, they

Mr. F. Currey on the Fructification of Fungi. 301

are disposed in fasciculi in the substance of the gemmule from the

centre to the circumference.

The forms occurring in the second class of these spicula are

exceedingly varied and beantiful, and especially characteristic of the

species in which they occur.

The author has named and figured the whole of the spicula de-

scribed in the paper, and has traced some of the most complicated

ones from their earliest and simplest state, through all the stages of

their development to the adult condition. More than a hundred

distinct forms of these organs are thus described, so as to render

them available hereafter to naturalists as characteristic of species.

“On the Fructification of certain Spheriaceous Fungi.” By

Frederick Currey, Esq.

The author refers to the recent inquiries into the diversities of

form existing in the reproductive organs of Fungi, and notices the

physiological importance of the results, and the probable future effect

upon systematic arrangement.

Two different classes of Sphzeriaceous Fungi are then noticed in

detail, in the former of which the different forms of fruit produced

are essentially distinct, whilst in the latter the fruit is modified so as

to assume a form materially different from the normal form.

The following are the plants included in the former of these classes,

with the principal points noticed in each.

1. Spheria verruceformis, Ehr. The occurrence of an ascigerous

and cytisporous state of fructification within the same circumscribing

line, and the nature of the cells constituting that line.

2. Spheria favacea, Fr. Points of distinction between it and S.

verruceformis. Curious modifications in the shape of the asci.

3. Spheria olivacea, n.s. Aberrant forms of asci, and descrip-

tion of the sporidia.

4. Spheria tiliaginea,n.s. The existence of spermatia and stylo-

spores, and description of the form and modes of growth of those organs.

5. Spheria vestita, Fr. The existence of perithecia and naked

spores within a conceptacle common to both, and having a common

orifice.

6. Spheria fragiformis, Pers. Description of a secondary form

of fruit belonging to the Spheria, hitherto considered to have been

a growth parasitical upon it.

7. Spheria salicina, Pers., and Coniothectum Amentacearum,

Corda. The production of these Fungi (hitherto supposed to be

distinct plants) from the same mycelium, and the probability of a

similar relation between Spheria lanciformis, Fr., and Coniothecium

betulinum, Corda.

The following are the plants included in the latter of the two

classes, and the principal points noticed with regard to them.

1. Spheria angulata, Fr. The occurrence of a state of fructifica-

tion similar to that of the genus Cryptosporium; the varieties of

structure in the normal sporidia, and the probable origin and nature

of the abnormal fruit.

302 Royal Society.

2. Spheria lanciformis, Fr., and Hendersonia polycystis, B. & Br.

Irregularity of form in the sporidia of Spheria lanciformis. The

growth of perithecia in the same stroma, some producing the fruit of

Spheria lanciformis, others that of Hendersonia polycystis. Notice

of the probable existence of a third form of fruit of Spheria lanci-

formis.

3. Spheria siparia, B. & Br., and Prosthemium betulinum, Kunze.

Constant association of the two forms; their external resemblance ;

nature of the fruit and other circumstances leading to the conclusion

of the identity of the two plants.

«On the Anatomy of Jridacna.”’ By John Denis Macdonald,

Esq., Assistant-Surgeon R.N.

The author first explains the peculiar position which the animal

of Tridacna occupies in its shell, in which it differs from bivalves in

general. He then describes the mantle and its borders, the mem-

branous interpallial septum, the respiratory and wide pedal openings

communicating with the interpallial space, the two pairs of branchiee,

the mouth with the anterior and posterior lip and the four oral

palps, the foot, the extensive cloacal cavity with its subdivisions, and

the circular contractile cloacal orifice opening on the dorsal surface.

He next gives an account of the form and arrangement of the ali-

mentary canal, and its relations to the liver and large ovary; and

describes a large viscus situated in the space between the ovary, the

adductor muscle, the base of the foot and the pericardium, divided

into a central and two lateral portions, and secreting a dark brown

liquid loaded with fatty matter. This body he thinks may be con-

nected with the secretion of the byssus, but, at the same time,

remarks that it may be homologous with the organ of Bojanus.

Lastly, the anatomy of the heart and great arteries is given, and is

in substance as follows.

On cutting through the floor of the cloaca, the pericardium is laid

open, and in it is seen the large, rather square-shaped ventricle, with

a capacious but thin-walled auricle opening into it on either side,

through an orifice guarded by semilunar valves. From the thick-

walled ventricle, a short tube conducts into a conical dilatation or

bulbus arteriosus, with muscular walls, having its base included

in the pericardium, and giving rise near its narrow end to the

anterior and posterior pallial arteries; whilst a visceral artery

passes from the ventricle to the ovary and adjacent parts. As in

other bivalves, the intestine, before its termination, passes through

the heart: in coming through the pericardium, surrounded by

that membrane, it forms a short round pedicle which joins the fore

part of the ventricle; it is then continued through the ventricle and

bulbus arteriosus, and finally opens into the cloaca. The blood

from the ventricle flows between the outer surface of the intestine

and the inside of the sanguiferous channel; and “that part of

the intestine which traverses the bulbus arteriosus is closely sur-

rounded with elongated membranous valvulz, which arise from the

anterior part of the chamber where the gut enters, and are fixed by

Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 303

a number of chordze tendineze to the posterior wall, where it makes its

exit ;” a contrivance which permits the blood to pass between the

rectum and the little valves, but prevents its reflux.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

July 9, 1857.—Professor Fleming, President, in the Chair.

Professor Balfour exhibited specimens of Bryum pallescens, col-

lected by Mr. W. Wilson near Warrington.

The following papers were read :—

1. “Notice of Cryptogamic Plants found near New Abbey,’ by

the Rev. Hugh Macmillan.

During May 1857, at New Abbey, in Kirkcudbrightshire, I was

particularly struck with the immense profusion of Parmelia Borreri

and P. tiliacea. They occurred on almost every tree—pines, oaks,

and ashes indiscriminately, sometimes even to the complete exclusion

of the common species, such as P. saxatilis and pulverulenta, which

usually monopolize their bark. I found them, also, occasionally

spreading in large patches over rough boulders of grey granite. I

gathered here and there a few specimens of both species, covered

with fine apothecia. They occur in a little wood, with a stream

running through it, at the base of Criffel, a lofty mountain rising up

immediately behind New Abbey; also in Shambelly Wood, along

with immense quantities of Parmelia caperata and perlata, Sticta

limbata, fuliginosa and scrobiculata, and Opegrapha elegans, which

affects most of the smooth-barked trees, and is particularly beautiful

and luxuriant on the hollies. Hypnum Crista Castrensis is very

abundant on mossy boulders, in damp shady places in the same wood,

and Parmelia sinuosa occurs sparingly on the exposed rocks at the

top of the wood; while Neckera pumila spreads in large patches

over the oak- and beech-trees, amid dark masses of Jungermannia

tamariscrfolia.

2. **On the occurrence of Pertusaria Hutchinsie and other rare

Lichens on the Breadalbane Mountains,” by Mr. Alexander C.

Maingay.

3. “Notice of Localities for some of the rarer Plants collected

during the recent excursions of the Botanical Class around Edin-

burgh,”’ by Professor Balfour.

4. “Remarks on certain Glandular Structures in Plants,’ by

Mr. George Lawson.

The author stated that our knowledge of this subject had not

kept pace with other branches of vegetable physiology, for it was very

much in the same position in which Meyen left it twenty years ago.

He pointed out many instances in which the secretions of plants

were poured out upon the surface and into the cavities of the plant,

and not stored up in its constituent cells; and referred particularly

to the glands of Rubiaceze, Galiaceee, Aurantiaceze, Passifloraceze,

&c. The statement that glands are modified epidermal cells, has

304: Botanical Society of Edinburgh :—

long remained unquestioned. Some years ago Dr. Weddell discovered

peculiar glands in Cinchonacez, and the results of his observations,

as well as of my own, on the similar glands of Galiaceze were detailed

to the Society (Amn. Nat. Hist. ser. 2. xiv.). The homological

character of these glands was not then referred to; for when viewed

in connexion with the glands of Sundew and some other plants, their

structure did not appear explicable on the supposition that they

were formed of epidermal cells. Since my former paper was pub-

lished, an extended series of observations on vegetable glands, and

especially on the stipules of plants belonging to the Apocynacese, has

shown that the cinchonaceous’ glands, and all other forms, are re-

concilable with the idea of epidermal origm. The cinchonaceous

gland consists of two kinds of cells, one of which represents ordinary

leaf-tissue, and the other may be regarded as the epidermal cells

transformed for secretion. The gland is, in fact, the homologue of

the leaf,—a leaf very much reduced in size, as stipular leaves usually

are, and with its epidermal cells changed into secreting ones; and it

closely resembles in structure the stipules of Dipladenia, which no

one can regard as being other than reduced leaves. When we see a

gland thus formed by a cone of tissue elevated above the general

surface of the organ to which it is attached, with its whole epidermal

surface consisting of secreting tissue, we can readily understand how

an epidermal gland can also be formed in the tissue of the plant, by

simply introverting the epidermis. In this way the remarkable

ovarian glands of endogenous plants are explained, and probably also

the imbedded glands of the Orange, the latter bearing the same rela-

tion to the cinchonaceous gland as the conical receptacle of the

Strawberry does to the hollowed-out receptacle of the Fig. The ova-

rian glands of Endogens are especially deserving of attention on this

point, for we find them of very frequent occurrence ; and in cases

where three or more carpels are united into one fruit, these glands

always occupy a position corresponding with the points of union of

the carpels. Irrespective of histological characters, the glandular

tissue is seen in these cases to be necessarily formed by the contiguous

layers of epidermis where the two surfaces of the carpels are brought

into contact.

5. “On the Development of the Yeast Plant,’ by Mr. John Lowe:

Mr. Lowe observed, that, under the microscope, brewers’ yeast

consists entirely of cells, spherical in form, transparent and nucleated,

varying from ;3;;th to 5);<th of an inch in diameter. The nuclei

are highly refractive, and vary from two to ten in number. These

nuclei were termed ‘globuline’ by Turpin.

The growth of yeast has been divided by Pereira into three stages.

lst, that in which the cells are single; 2nd, that in which they have

become elongated, and form a mycelium; 3rd, that of aérial fructifi-

cation. The first stage, or that of yeast proper, is said by Mitscher-

lich to consist of two kinds, viz. Oberhefe (or surface-yeast) and

U nterhefe (or sediment-yeast). These two varieties are propagated

3° different ways, and each produces specific results upon the fer-

Mr. J. Lowe on the Development of the Yeast-plant. 305

menting liquor. The Unterhefe is the’ ferment of Bavarian beer,

which is allowed to ferment very slowly and at a low temperature.

The formation of lactic and acetic acids is thus avoided. The fol-

lowing is a brief account of the changes which I have observed yeast

to undergo in the process of fermentation at the distillery of Messrs.

Duncanson, and at the brewery of Messrs. Jeffrey, to whose kindness

Iam much indebted. Before its application to the wort, yeast is

seen to consist of isolated cells of a spherical form, intermixed with

some which are oval or tubular. These latter are only formed on

the surface of the yeast where it has come in contact with the air.

They are the commencing mycelium, and should never be present in

any considerable quantity, as they materially affect the process of

fermentation. The spherical cells are seen to be of two kinds; the

one having a thin, very transparent cell-wall, containing from two to

ten nuclei; these are found in yeast which has become sour, and

they are usually met with at the bottom of the yeast-cask. They

appear to correspond with the Unterhefe of Mitscherlich. In speci-

mens of yeast kept in bottles, I have found that the cell-wall became

thinner and the nuclei more numerous in proportion as the fluid

became more acid. The other kind of cell has a thicker cell-wall,

and contains, instead of a number of nuclei, a large, globular, granular

mass or blastema, which, in older yeast, is converted into nuclei.

This is the most perfect form of yeast, and is the only kind which

should be used. Its activity I have found to be always proportionate

to the thickness of the cell-wall ; and this, a most important subject

to brewers, can easily be determined under the microscope, and thus

the value of any specimen of yeast made apparent. After being

added to the wort, yeast, which consists of the two varieties of cells

above mentioned, is observed to undergo two kinds of growth. The

nucleated cells, with the thin walls, burst and liberate the nuclei

(globulins seminiféres of Turpin), which then increase in size and

become like the second kind of cells. This is the form of propaga-

tion which Turpin observed in the rupture of the cells, although he

makes the cell-contents appear to be finely granular instead of nuclear.

I am satisfied that it only takes place in old, acid yeast, and not, as

Turpin imagined, as a result of normal fermentation; and this ex-

plains why others have failed to observe the process of bursting in

fermenting yeast, for it can only be seen on the first addition of the

yeast to the wort; and, moreover, in new yeast these cells are often

altogether absent. The thick-walled cells and the enlarging nuclei,

after the period varying according to the temperature and the activity

of the yeast, are observed to put forth minute bud-like processes,

which soon separate and enlarge themselves, afterwards undergoing

the same process. This is the second mode of growth noticed by

Turpin, and is, in fact, the only result of true fermentation. My

own observations confirm those of Mitscherlich, who thinks the two

modes of propagation just mentioned are the only ones, and that the

conversion of ‘globuline’ into cells is entirely erroneous. The budding

was observed by Turpin to begin after an hour, and the gemmations

were doubled in size in three hours; in eight, they had attained the

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 20

306 Botanical Society of Edinburgh :—

size of the maternal cell. There can, however, be no stated time for

these changes, for they vary with the temperature. In distillery-

wash, which is worked at a much higher temperature than brewery-

wort, the process begins much sooner, and is sooner completed ; and,

as might be inferred from the fact of their rapid growth, the cell-

walls are much thinner in the former than in the latter. One very

important fact results from this, viz. that yeast which has been

worked at a high temperature loses a considerable amount of its

activity. It is, in fact, ‘‘ foreed ;” and if yeast of this kind be applied

at once to work at a lower temperature, the process of fermentation

will be late in commencing, and will often stop. If, however, the

yeast be allowed to stand for a day or two, it recovers some of its

activity, but it is never so good for working at a lower temperature ;

and, therefore, as a general rule, yeast should always be worked at a

higher temperature in each succeeding operation ; that is, it should,

if possible, be worked in cool wort before being applied to wort which

requires to be worked at a greater heat. As soon as the process of

fermentation has attained its maximum, the budding begins to de-

cline, and ceases towards the close of the operation. The cells,

which were before of very variable size, now become more uniform,

and the nebulous mass in their interior assumes a more definite out-

line, and appears to be finely granular. After remaining on the

liquor for five or six days, a portion of the cells which are exposed

to the atmosphere become oval, and then elongated into tubes, mul-

tiplying still by gemmation and fissiparous division. Similar forma-

tions are also found in the sediment of the tun. This is the first

stage in the formation of the mycelium, and exercises an influence

of an important kind over the fermentation of the liquor. The

subsequent changes consist in the formation of a mycelium com-

posed of a network of ramifying tubes. These tubes are identical

in form with those given in a previous paper, and need not therefore

be again described. The perfect fructification in the specimens

which I have examined is that of Aspergillus glaucus, but there

can be no doubt, as I have before remarked, that other species and

genera are also present. In proof of this, a series of experiments

were made in Messrs. Jeffrey’s brewery, with the following results :

Ist, A quantity of mixed Penicillia and Aspergilli (P. glaucum,

Asp. glaucus, A. nigrescens, &e.) were placed in a gallon of wort,

at a temperature of 65° Fahrenheit, and allowed to stand in the tun-

room. On the second day the surface was covered with specks of

foam. On the third day the fermentation had fairly set in, and the

surface became coated with pale yeast, which, under the microscope,

exhibited oval non-nucleated cells in a state of gemmation. On the

fourth day, the fluid gave off a nauseous ‘foxy’ odour, which disap-

peared on the sixth day, when the yeast-cells were observed to have

become spherical, and in all respects like good yeast. On the eighth

day the yeast was removed from the surface, and applied to a fresh

quantity of wort at the same temperature. This entered into fer-

mentation on the first day, and exhibited all the characters of perfect

yeast. The second experiment was made by placing a portion of

Mr. J. Lowe on the Development of the Yeast-plant. 307

Penicillium glaucum in wort wader the same circumstances as in ex-

periment 1. The same series of phzenomena ensued, ending in the

production of good yeast. A third and fourth experiment were made

with Aspergillus glaucus and A. nigrescens, with like results, the

only difference being that the sporules produced by the latter were

at the commencement larger and more spherical than in either of the

other species, from which it may be inferred that this species would

yield a better kind of yeast. The idea that yeast can be produced

spontaneously in nitrogenous fluids, we hold to be entirely erroneous,

for we see that the lower class of Fungi are capable of yielding it,

and from the general distribution of these, they must be present in

every kind of exposed fluid.

Another subject which has not received the attention it deserves,

is the growth of Fungi on malting barley. Whole floors of malt

may be seen in summer-time covered completely with various Fungi,

which grow from the interior of the grain, and ramify within the

perisperm. ‘These must have a most important influence on the

saccharine matter contained in the grain, and there can be little doubt

that they effect its decomposition, and cause an immense loss to the

brewer. The fact that malt made in summer-time is never so sweet

as that made in winter, sufficiently attests to the truth of this ob-

servation. It is not improbable, where the fungus is so abundant as

I have sometimes seen it, that one-third of the saccharine principle

is destroyed, and the foundation laid for the inefficient working of

the wort during fermentation.

In conclusion, I would merely remark upon one or two cases of

skin-disease which I have met with in those engaged amongst the

yeast in breweries. Brewers, generally speaking, are not likely sub-

jeets for the growth of parasitic plants, but I have met with several

cases which seem to me to prove that these are derived from the

growing yeast, and thus tend to establish the proposition laid down

in my last communication regarding the origin of skin-diseases. In

one brewery I met with two cases of psoriasis annulata, and one of

mentagra. These occurred in the only persons who were engaged

amongst the yeast. The former were both situated on the right

upper extremity, in the one case on the back of the hand, and in the

other, on the anterior surface of the fore-arm, about 3 inches above

the wrist. It commenced as a small red spot, and in eight days had

attained to the size of a shilling. On examining it carefully under

the microscope, a distinct mycelium was obtained, differing in no

respect from the same growth in favus, with a recent specimen of

which it was compared. I have not yet had an opportunity of

making inquiries at all the other breweries, but I have little doubt

that other instances of a like nature will be found. Drawings were

exhibited in illustration of Mr. Lowe’s observations.

6. “ List of Desmidieze observed in the neighbourhood of Dundee,”

by Mr. W. M. Ogilvie. Communicated by Mr. G. Lawson.

This list embraced upwards of fifty species, many of them rave

20%

308 Zoological Society :—

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

March 24, 1857.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

On THE Nest anv Eceés or THE Waxwinc (BoMBYCILLA

GARRULA, TemM.). By Joun Wo ttey, Jun., Esa.

The Waxwing, as observed in Lapland, makes a good-sized and

substantial nest, “but without much indication of advanced art. It is

of some depth, and regularly shaped, though built of rather imtrac-

table materials. As in those of many other birds in the Arctic

forests, the main substance is the kind of lichen commonly called

tree-hair, which hangs so abundantly from the branches of almost

every tree. This lichen somewhat resembles a mass of delicate root-

lets, or perhaps may be compared to coarse brown wool; but some

of it is whitish, and in one nest there is a little of this mixed with

the ordinary brown or black. This main substance of the nest is

strengthened below by a platform of dead twigs, and higher up to-

wards the interior by a greater or less amount of flowering stalks of

grass, and occasionally pieces of equisetum. It is also interspersed

with a little reindeer lichen, perhaps a sprig or two of green moss,

and even some pieces of willow cotton. There may also be observed

a little of the very fine silvery-looking fibre of grass leaves which

probably have been reduced to that condition by long soaking in

water. In one of the nests examined there were several pen-feathers

of small birds as an apology for a lining. Of other nests which are

to be found in the same forest, it most resembles, but is considerably

less than that of the Siberian Jay, which however is less securely

put together, but has many more feathers and soft materials for a

lining.

The nest of the Waxwing is built on the branch of a tree, not

near the bole, and rather, as one of the observers has said, standing

up from the branch like a Fieldfare’s or other Thrush’s nest, than

supported by twigs touching it at the sides, as the nests of many

birds are supported. Of six nests, four were in small Spruces, one

in a good-sized Scotch fir, and one in a Birch—all placed at a height

of from 6 to 12 feet above the ground. The tree in several instances

was unhealthy, thin and scraggy in its branches, to which there hung

a good deal of hair lichen; and the nest seems generally much ex-

posed, though from its resemblance to the lichen hanging near, it

might escape the eye. The nests found were in parts of the forest

considerably open, once or twice on the side of low hills, near a river,

or with an undergrowth of dwarf swamp-loving shrubs. But at

present we have scarcely enough examples to show that there is a

preference for any particular kind of ground.

Five seems to be the ordinary number of eggs; in one nest only

there were as many as six. They have a pale salmon(?)-coloured

ground, upon which are distributed pretty equally good-sized purple

spots, some with more and some with less deep colour, but nearly all

Mr. J. Wolley on the Nest and Egys of the Waxwing. 309

of them having a shade or penumbra, such as is common especially

in eggs of the Chaffinch. The only very marked variety I have yet

seen, has short streaks and much smaller and more numerous spots

than usual, of which markings a considerable proportion are of a

pale yellowish-brown. The eggs may be about an inch in length,

but hardly enough have been obtained to determine the average di-

mensions. Marked differences in size in the eggs of the same nest

have not yet been observed ; but, as with other birds, we find that

one nest may have all its eggs considerably larger than those of an-

other nest.

In the backward and cold spring of 1856, Waxwings had their full

complement of eggs about the 12th of June.

The writer abstains for the present from offering any remarks on

the distribution of this bird in the breeding season, hoping that upon

this subject, as upon the habits of the Waxwing in the summer, he

may hereafter have some more complete observations to communi-

cate.

YOUNG OF THE WAXWING.

A young bird caught on the 5th of August, as it fluttered from

the nest, had a general resemblance to the adult, though all the co-

lours were more dull. The wax-like ends to the wing-feathers, the

yellow tip to the tail, the black patch between the eye and the beak

are all there, whilst the rich mahogany of the under tail-coverts is

of a quieter brown; the blooming vinous colour of the head and back

has not yet emerged from a homely neutral, and the crest is but just

indicated by the longish feathers of the crown. The most marked

difference between the adult and young is in the throat and under

surface generally. There is at present scarcely a trace of the deep

black patch of the chin, and the delicate tint of the general under

surface of the adult is replaced by mottled neutral and white. This

upon examination is found to owe its appearance to those longer

webs, which arising towards the root of each feather, extend as far

outwards as the webs which arise nearer its tip, being very pale or

white, and thus relieving, on both sides, the last-mentioned darker

webs.

LapLanp Own. Strix lapponica, Temm.

Two nests of the Lap Owl were found in Finnish Lapland in 1856.

In’ one near Sodankyla there were two eggs, and when one of the

birds was shot, a third egg was found ready for exclusion. They

were placed on the jagged end of the stump of a large Scotch fir,

about 12 feet from the ground, at which spot the tree had been

snapped across by some storm, the upper part not yet entirely sepa-

rated, but sloping downwards till the greater part of its weight was

supported by the ground.

The other nest was near the Aunasjoki, at the top of a lowish

Scotch fir. Some time previously in the same year a bird had

been shot at this spot, which was found to be a female with eggs in-

side. The nest was not observed until after the shot was fired. At

the second visit on the 28th of May, there were two eggs in the

310 Zovlogical Society :—

nest, and again a bird was shot, which turned out to be a new female

with a fully-formed egg inside, through which the bullet had passed.

The skin is now in England. The birds seemed on both occasions

remarkably fearless.

The eggs are smoother, and, as might be expected, considerably

smaller than those of the Eagle Owl. The dimensions of the two

in the last-mentioned nest are 2 in. x 1°6 in. and 2°1 in. x 1°65 in.

At the meeting of Scandinavian naturalists in Christiania last sum-

mer, before I heard of these two nests having been found, I was able

to announce that the Lap Owl generally makes its nest on the top of

a stump. I had received several reliable accounts from different

woodsmen, but had never found a nest myself, or been able to get

the eggs, which indeed have, I believe, hitherto been unknown to

ornithologists. It appears that three is the ordinary number of eggs.

TENGMALM’s Own. Strix Tengmalmi, Gmel.,

lays its eggs in holes of trees and occasionally in egg-boxes. When

once established it cannot easily be made to leave its quarters, and it

can, as it is said, keep possession against a much larger bird; yet

from the present nest (the only one I have had the good fortune to

meet with), after having laid four eggs, the mother was ejected by a

Golden Eye. The dimensions of the egg accompanying this paper

are 1°32 in. x 1°05.

Muoniovara, February 2nd, 1857.

ON THE SKULL OF A SPECIES OF MECISTOPS INHABITING THE

River BinvE or Tsappa, in CentTRAL AFRICA.

By Dr. Batrour Barxie, F.R.Geogr.S., etc.

The genus Mecistops, from the fewness of its numbers and the

retired localities which it inhabits, is but little known, scarcely any

mention of it being found in zoological writings. It was first distin-

guished as a species of Crocodilus by Cuvier, from a specimen still

preserved in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in Lon-

don, and which he named C. cataphractus. Since that time two

other species have been described, M. Bennettii or M. leptorhynchus

from Western Africa, and M. Journei, said to be from New Guinea.

With the exception of this latter species it is quite an African genus,

inhabiting the various rivers falling into the Atlantic. In the ‘ Pro-

ceedings of the Zoological Society’ for 1835, p. 128, the C. lepto-

rhynchus of Bennett is said to have come from Fernando Po; but I

should think that this, except established on undoubted authority,

must be incorrect, chiefly because in that island the physical condi-

tions requisite for its existence are wanting. Fernando Po is a small

voleanic island, totally without the muddy rivers delighted in by

Crocodilide, and possessing nothing beyond streams which, during

the rainy season, are tumultuous mountain torrents with rocky beds.

It is much more likely that the specimen alluded to was obtained

from some of the numerous rivers opening into the Bight of Biafra,

opposite to Fernando Po, and that it came to England vid Fernando

Dr. B. Baikie on the Skull of a species of Mecistops. 311

Po, that island being a common point of call for vessels on their way

home.

In August 1854, while at the town of Ojogo on the river Binué,

my assistant procured from a native the skull of a Mecis‘ops ; and as

this was the only occasion on which I met with its remains, and as I

never saw one in the river, I conclude that it is there a comparatively

scarce species. I have since described the animal to Dr. Barth, who

informs me that during his lengthened wanderings he never remem-

bers to have met with it. Crocodiles again were everywhere to be

seen, and in many places most abundant.

The skull seems from its appearance to be that of an adult animal.

Its extreme length is 22} inches, the greatest breadth being 9} inches,

or nearly in the proportion of 23 to 1. From this it may be inferred

to be most probably M. cataphractus, that being the proportion of

the length to the breadth in that species, while in M. Bennettii (it

distinct) it is said to be as 3 tol. It has seventeen alveolar sockets

on each side of the upper jaw, and fifteen in the lower, in which par-

ticulars it agrees with the characters originally given by Cuvier in

the ‘Ossemens Fossiles,’ “la longueur de sa téte étant comprise deux

fois et demie dans sa largeur.”’ * * * “On lui compte dix-sept

dents de chaque cété & la machoire supérieure et quinze aT inférieure,”

4 ed. tom. ix. p. 116. In each are intermaxillary sockets; but for

various reasons I am inclined to believe that this is the case only in

the adult, and that in the young animal there are five intermaxillary

teeth on each side. The ninth remaining upper tooth is the most

prominent, and it is distant from the extremity of the snout

7 inches.

In all essentials the skull of the Mecistops shows it to be properly

a member of the family Crocodilide rather than the Gavialide.

The teeth are irregular, the sides of the jaws are not parallel, there is

a distinct swelling opposite the ninth remaining upper molar, and

the lower canines are received in notches in the upper jaw.

The skull is considerably depressed, much produced anteriorly,

and the extremity of the snout somewhat enlarged. Upper surface

smooth. Forehead nearly flat, pitted, sides not raised, converging

anteriorly. Cranial fosse nearly circular, resembling those of the

Gavial. Orbits rather more convergent than in the Crocodiles, and

the nasal aperture more circular. Nasal bones more prolonged than

in Gavialis, yet not reaching, as in the Crocodili, the nasal opening,

but distant from it an inch and a half. Anterior spine of middle-

frontal very long, slender, tapering, and pointed. Lacrymal bones

lengthened and narrow. Notch for lower canines about an inch

beyond posterior edge of nasal foramen, and about half an inch from

the anterior extremity of the nasal bones. Anterior palatine foramen

small. Palatine bones tapering and pointed anteriorly.

Extreme length of lower jaw 243 inches, suture 53 inches in length,

extending to opposite the seventh tooth on each side. Narrowest

portion of lower jaw between fifth and sixth teeth, where it does not

exceed an inch and three-eighths. Tenth and eleventh teeth nearly

equal, the latter being rather the larger, but by no means exceeding

312 Zoological Society :—

the others in the same proportion that it does in Crocodilus. Its

attenuated snout, narrow jaws, and small teeth would seem to indi-

eate that it lives principally on fish.

Thus while it offers some analogies with the Gavialide, its true

affinities are undoubtedly with the Crocodilide, though it may be

held to represent the former in the African and other rivers which

it inhabits.

April 28, 1857.—John Gould, Esq., F.R.S., V.P.Z.S., in the Chair.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MANATUS.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., F.L.S., V.P.Z. & Ent. Soc. Etc.

Dr. Balfour Baikie having requested me to examine the skull of

the Manatee from Africa, which he described at a preceding meet-

ing, I am induced to send you the following observations.

There appears to be considerable confusion respecting the nomen-

clature of the skulls of these animals.

MM. Cuvier and De Blainville figure the skeleton and skull of the

American Manatee (M. australis) from the same specimen sent

from Cayenne in the Paris Museum. This animal differs essentially

from all the four skulls from the American coast which are in the

British Museum Collection, in the great elongation of the front

of the lower jaw, and the comparative length and narrowness of the

nasal opening. A copy of the front part of Cuvier’s figures is

given by Dr. Harlan as that of M. americanus. On the other hand,

the four skulls (two of which come from the West Indies and one

from Cuba) in the British Museum all agree with the skull figured

by M. Cuvier as the Lamantin du Sénégal*, and also with that

(which is probably from the same specimen as Cuvier’s in a more

imperfect state) which De Blainville figures under the name of M.

latirostris of Harlan, in the short rounded form of the front end

and the prominence of the gonyx on the under side of the lower

jaw, and in the shortness and breadth of the nasal opening; and

this appears to be different from the skull which De Blainville figured

under the name of M. Senegalensis. The skeleton of a young female

specimen from Jamaica is figured by Sir Everard Home (Lectures,

iv. t. 54), and the head of this skeleton is copied under the name of

M. australis by Wagner (Saugeth. t. 381. f. 4), and the animal is

figured from a drawing by Mr. Gosse in the Figures of Animals

published by the Christian Knowledge Society, as the Manati.

The more adult of the Museum skulls exactly agree with Dr.

Harlan’s figures of the skull on which he founded M. latirostris

from the coast of East Florida.

I am inclined to believe that all the skulls from America in the

British Museum, and that of a very young specimen in the same

Collection, belong to one species, though they vary considerably in

the height of the intermaxillary bones, in the comparative length

* The front part of this figure is copied by Dr. Harlan for comparison with

that of his M. latirostris.

Dr. J. E. Gray on the species of the genus Manatus. 313

and breadth of the nasal opening, the extent of the bending down

of the front of the upper jaw, the completeness and incompleteness

of the orbit, and in the smoothness, roundness, or angularity and

rugosity of the gonyx of the lower jaw ; but I think that all these

differences may be referable to the age and sex of the specimens, the

upper jaw being more deflexed and lengthened as the animal in-

creases in age. All the older specimens have a small, conical, ru-

gose, bony prominence in the middle line of the front of the lower

jaw, and the apex of the coronoid process truncated and expanded

into an angle behind and before, as represented in De Blainville and

Cuvier’s figures of M. australis and M. latirostris. This is even

the case in the skull of a very young animal with only the milk teeth.

On the other hand, in Dr. Baikie’s skull of M. Vogelii, and in

M. De Blainville’s figure of M. Senegalensis, the coronoid process

of the lower jaw is narrow above, with the hinder upper part ob-

liquely rounded off, and with a slight angle in front ; so that this is

probably the character of the African species. I may also remark,

that the front of the lower jaw of Dr. Baikie’s specimen is produced

and very differently shaped from that of any of the American skulls,

and in this character it differs from M. De Blainville’s figure of M.

Senegalensis ; but this difference may be only in consequence of its

outh,

i Dr. Harlan observes :—‘‘ Cuvier estimates the teeth at 36, nine

on each side; in both my specimens they do not exceed 32, eight on

each side.”

In the very young skull above mentioned, which has holes for the

rudimentary upper cutting or canine teeth, there are only 24, viz.

six on each side; and the two hinder on each side must have been

hidden in the gums. In the older skulls some have eight and others

nine on each side, but in most of them only six on each side are

perfect ; as the anterior one on each side drops out as the new ones

are formed behind, and in each of the skulls two hinder on each

side are in process of development.

But the question of the permanent specific difference between the

M. australis from Cayenne, the M. latirostris from East Florida,

Jamaica and Cuba, and between M. Senegalensis of Blainville (not

of Cuvier, which is like the first) and M. Vogelii, must wait for

solution until a larger series of skulls of these species can be pro-

curéd, and until the other parts of the skeleton can be compared ;

it being always borne in mind that, at least according to my experi-

ence, the skulls and other parts of the skeleton of the animals are

quite as liable to vary in form and structure as any of the external

soft parts by which they are moulded.

On THE Genus Necturus or MENOBRANCHUS, WITH AN

Account oF ITs SKULL AND TEETH. By Dr. Joun Ep-

WARD Gray, F.R.S., F.L.S., V.P.Z. & Ent. Soc. Etc.

Dr. Kaup lately sent to me the skull of the Proteus of the Lakes,

Necturus maculatus. As it presents some peculiarities, I am in-

314 Zoological Society :—

duced to lay a figure and some observations upon it before the

Society.

1. It is the general belief of the inhabitants of Lake Erie that the

bite of the Proteus of the Lakes is poisonous.

Dr. Holbrook observes that by the fishermen these animals are re-

garded ‘as poisonous, and are consequently seldom taken in hand.”

The Hon. Miss Amelia Murray in her ‘ Letters’ mentions this

animal as caught in a net at Detroit, under the name of Fish Lizard

(vol. i. p. 172), and observes: “The fishermen said its bite was very

poisonous, and it had the yellowish-brown lurid look which seems

to appertain to venomous reptiles ; but Dr. Kirtland says it is per-

fectly harmless.”

And this latter opinion appears to be the almost unanimous im-

pression of the naturalists of America.

Yet the examination of the teeth will almost justify the popular

belief, and at least render it very desirable that the animal should

be examined in its living state, and that its bite be submitted to care-

ful experiment.

The upper jaw of the skull is furnished with two series of small,

acute, uniform, nearly transparent, conical, slightly curved teeth, the

outer series being placed on the narrow intermaxillary bone, the

inner series on the front edge of the vomer and on the outer edge

of the lateral processes of the pterygoid bone. The lower jaw has

a single series of similar teeth, which lock between the two series

above described.

All these teeth have a conical cavity on the hinder part of their

base, with a short linear slit on the middle of the inner side, and an

oblong perforation above the slit in the middle of the inner side of

the tooth. The form of these teeth is exactly similar to the fang of

poisonous Serpents ; that is to say, the cavity is not a hollow in the

substance of the tooth itself, but is formed by the sides of the teeth

being produced and folded together, leaving a conical cavity in the

inner side of the base, as is easily proved by the examination of the

teeth, which shows that the cavity is lined with enamel; and the

junction of the two lateral expansions is rarely complete, but marked

by a more or less distinct or continued slit between the basal notch

Dr. J. Bi. Gray on the genus Necturus or Menobranchus. 315

and the subcentral foramen. In the poisonous Snakes the duet of

the poison occupies this cavity ; and the similarity of the form and

structure leads to the idea that it may be used for the same purpose

in the Proteus of the Lakes.

The chief difference between the teeth of the Proteus of the Lakes

and the fangs of Serpents, is, that in the former the upper aperture

of the cavity is nearer to the centre of the tooth, some distance

from the apex, while in the fang of the Serpent it is generally near

to the tip.

I know of no other instance of a Batrachian having this structure

of its teeth, nor do I know any instance, except in the Mexican

Lizard, called Heloderma horridum, in which all the teeth are uwui-

formly furnished with a basal cavity and foramen; and this Lizard

is said to be noxious, but the fact has not been distinctly proved.

2. When Dr. Barton, in his paper on the Siren, first described

the Hell-bender (Protonopsis horrida), he considered the Proteus of

the Lakes as the young state of the latter species.

The skull bears more affinity to the skull of that animal than to

that of any other Batrachian, and the difference between them is

just such as one might expect between the larva and adult of other

similar animals; and it will be observed that the Proteus of the

Lakes is only known in its larva-like state, and Protonopsis, as far

as I know, only in its adult form.

The first great, and indeed almost insurmountable, argument

against regarding the Proteus of the Lakes and the Hell-bender as

two states of the same species, is the geographical distribution of the

animals as given by the American herpetologist.

Thus Holbrook, for example, states, “The Menopoma Alleghanien-

sis (Hell-bender) is found in the Alleghany river and its tributaries,

and doubtless inhabits many of the branches of the Ohio and Missis-

sippi rivers ; ”’ and M. fusca, ‘ the waters of the mountainous regions

of North Carolina and Georgia ;”’ while the Proteus of the Lakes

(Menobranchus maculatus) has as yet been found only in Lake

Champlain and Lake Erie and their tributary streams.

It is true that a second species of the genus, Menobranchus lateralis,

according to Dr. Holbrook, “ has a wide range, it being found in many

of the rivers and streams that open into the Mississippi on its eastern

side; but I am not aware of its existence west of that river. Say

found it as far north as Pittsburg in Pennsylvania, and Troost as far

south as Cumberland river in Tennessee :”’ and further, “ the Meno-

branchus lateralis was first described by Say from a specimen taken

by a hook in the Alleghany river.” He proceeds: “At first I was

disposed to believe that the M. maculatus and M. lateralis were one

and the same animal, but I am now convinced that the latter is at

least a well-marked variety, if not a distinct species ; it is more slender

in proportion, its colours and markings different ; it is found only in

the western waters that run into the Mississippi, while the former

inhabits the rivers and streams that flow into the northern lakes, and

all the tributaries of the St. Lawrence river.”

From these remarks on the observations of other American herpe-

316 Zoological Society.

tologists, one may conclude, that though one species or variety of

Menobranchus is found in the same system of waters as the Meno-

poma, the Menopoma has not hitherto been observed in the same

lakes, or indeed in the same district of country, where one variety or

species, viz. the Menobranchus maculatus, is alone found, and where

it is abundant.

But an experienced American naturalist, Dr. Baird, has ob-

served, that ‘the non-discovery of the adult is no argument against

its existence. I had caught hundreds of the very remarkable larva

of Pseudotriton Salmoneus near Carlisle, before 1 found an adult.’

(Journ. Acad. N. Sci. Philad. 1849, 292.)

Dr. Holbrook observes, that ‘‘ the Menobranchus maculatus is

seldom taken except in the months of April and May, which

is their spawning season. Their eggs are about the size of peas,

and as many as one hundred and fifty have been counted in a single

female.”’

This would lead one to believe that they are adult animals ; but

eggs have been equally found in the Azolotl of Mexico, which is re-

garded by most naturalists as a larva.

3. It is to be observed, that though the Proteus of the Lakes

(Necturus) has a more distinct and separate opercular flap, united by

a distinct fold under the throat, than either the Proteus of Carniola

or the Siren, and in this respect more nearly resembles the Azolotl

of Mexico and the larva of Tritons—yet, that, like the Proteus an-

guinus and the Siren, it has only two slits on each side of the neck,

with a single free ray between them, the anterior and posterior car-

tilaginous ray being united to the skin, as in those genera; while

the Avolotl and the larva of Tritons have the gill flat, quite free from

the gill-rays, and there are three slits between the gill-rays as well

as the larger anterior one, making four slits on each side, and the

inner edge of the rays being toothed as in fishes.

From these considerations I am inclined for the present to consider

the Proteus of the Lakes as a distinct kind of Batrachian, which

is arrested in its development and never reaches the perfect state.

The skull is much more developed than in the other genera of

Meantia, and in its outline and the disposition of its teeth it resembles

that of the genus Protonopsis as figured by Cuvier (Oss. Foss. il.

409. t. 26. f. 3, 4, 5), but there are no maxillary bones, and the

nasal and frontals are more developed.

The exterior nostrils are on the upper surface of the margin of

the nose, above the first third of the upper lip ; and the imer nostrils

are large, and, as in the other Meantia, not on the palate, but on the

side of the mouth between the lips and the outer edge, near the

hinder part of the series of vomerine teeth, nearly as they are in the

genus Avolotl, well figured by M. Bibron (Herpet. t. 95. f. 2).

4. I may observe, that we have specimens both of Necturus macu-

latus and N. lateralis in the British Museum, the latter from the

Ohio; and I cannot discover any difference between them, except

that the one named N. lateralis has two broad, pale, dorsal streaks,

and is about half the size of the other specimens ; and I doubt if

Miscellaneous. 317

these dorsal streaks are not the result of youth, and vanish as the

animal increases in size, as is the case with the Siren.

5. While on these animals, I may observe, that Dr. Garden’s

specimen of Stren that was originally described by Ellis, which is

now in the British Museum, shows a number of lines of mucous

pores on the chin and on the head, the latter not being so distinct

as the former, and a very distinct series of oblong white spots,

forming an interrupted line along the upper part of the sides of

the body, and continued to the middle of the sides of the tail ;

the spots on the hinder part of the body and tail being larger, more

distinct, and closer. These spots evidently represent the lateral

lines in T'ritons and fish, and I have seen them mentioned in the

modern descriptions of the animal.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Vitality of Seeds transported by Marine Currents.

By M. C. Martins.

Boranists, struck by the facts establishing the transport of seeds

by marine currents, have thought that the latter must have played a

great part in the diffusion of the disjoined species of plants which

form isolated colonies upon islands or continents separated by vast

extents of sea. Geologists, surprised at the uniformity of the vege-

tation of the great archipelagos scattered in the ancient seas, were

still more disposed to consider marine currents as the principal agents

in the dissemination of seeds upon the surface of the globe. These

a-priort conclusions have never been directly verified by experiment ;

—it has never been tried (1) whether many seeds are sufficiently

light to float upon salt water; and (2) whether these seeds, after

floating for a long time at the surface of the sea, still retain their

germinative faculty.

To settle this question experimentally, the author selected some

fresh seeds, of which the germination never fails, taking them from

the principal families, and generally preferring those of large size,

furnished with a hard and thick episperm, or those of littoral plants.

The former should resist the action of salt water, from their volume

and the impermeability of their envelopes; the others should have

more chance of germinating if they fell upon a sandy shore.

Of 98 species, 55 floated, and 39 were specifically heavier than the

water of the Mediterranean, the density of which, off Cette, is 10258.

Four seeds had a specific gravity equal to that of salt water ; these

are, Nelumbium speciosum, Datura Stramonium, Juglans nigra, and

Gingko biloba. Thus, of a certain number of seeds taken by chance,

we may say that two-thirds float.

To try the action of sea-water upon floating seeds, the author

endeavoured to place them in the same physical conditions to which

they would be subjected when floating at the surface of the sea. A

318 Miscellaneous.

wrought-iron box, measuring 0°30 m. square by 0:03 m. in depth,

divided into 100 equal compartments, received 98 species of seeds ;

each compartment contained 20 seeds of the same species. Of some

large seeds there were only 6, 12, or 18, and of the small ones a

large pinch was put in. The lid was then soldered on, and the walls

of the box pierced with small holes, through which the water could

pass easily.

The apparatus was fixed upon a buoy at the entrance to the har-

bour of Cette. By the rising and falling of the buoy, the box was

alternately raised out of and immersed in the water, so that the seeds

were exposed to the action of air and water, as if they were floating

on the surface of the sea. The box remained attached to the buoy

from the 14th February to the Ist April, 1856, or for six weeks ;

41 of the 98 species of seeds were completely rotten. The other 57

were immediately sowed in pots of turf-mould, and placed under

frames. Only 35 germinated, and from these 17 must be deducted,

which, being heavier than salt water, could not have floated at the

surface ; this reduces to 18 the number of seeds which, after six

weeks of floating, would be capable of germinating when placed in

the most favourable circumstances. These are,—Cakile maritima,

Nelumbium speciosum, Linum maritimum, Paliurus aculeatus, Cu-

eurbita pepo, Eryngium maritimum, Scabiosa maritima, Xanthium

macrocarpum, Asclepias Cornuti, Rumex aquaticus, Salsola Kali,

Beta vulgaris, Euphorbia paralias, Ricinus communis, R. africanus,

Gingko biloba, Ephedra distachya, Pancratium maritimum, and

Asphodelus cerasiferus. These are the species which, after a navi-

gation of six weeks, would have had some chance of establishing

themselves upon the shore.

Six weeks being a very short time compared with that which some

seeds must occupy in their voyage from one continent to another,

the author resolved to replace in the sea the 35 seeds which had

germinated after six weeks’ exposure; of each of these 20 were

placed in the same box, which was fastened to the buoy on the 17th

June, 1856, and remained attached to it until the 18th September,

that is to say, 93 days, or three months. At the end of this period,

11 seeds were rotten. The remaining 23 were sowed under frames,

when 9 germinated ; but from these 2 must be deducted, viz. Acacia

julibrissin and Canna gigantea, which do not float upon sea-water.

There remain therefore 7 species which might float upon the

surface of the sea for three months without losing their germinative

power, and these are only ;{;th of the total number operated upon.

They are, Cucurbita pepo, Xanthium maerocarpum, Rumex aquaticus,

Beta vulgaris, Ricinus communis, R. africanus, and Ephedra dt-

stachya.

Considering the extraordinary concurrence of circumstances neces-

sary to enable a seed thrown upon a shore to fructify and become the

centre of a vegetable colony, we may conclude with Alph. DeCandolle

that this mode of transport, which is so frequently referred to, can

have taken only a very small part in the diffusion of the plants of the

present and geological epochs ; and yet the number of identical spe-

Miscellaneous. 319

cies separated by vast seas, and which marine currents alone could

have transported from one continent to another, is so considerable,

that the idea of the multiplicity of centres of creation will every day

acquire more probability.— Comptes Rendus, 24 Aug. 1857, p. 266.

Description of a new Norwegian Star-fish. By M. Sars.

Astropecten arcticus.

Sinubus inter brachia rotundatis; diametro minore ad majorem

(in 13 pollicari)=1: 24; scutis marginalibus 25; tuberculis conicis

brevissimis undique obsitis, superioribus spatio paxillifero quater

vel quinquies angustioribus, inferioribus latitudinem superiorum ter

superantibus. Color pallide miniatus vel aurantiacus.

Size a little more than 1} inch. Colour pale minium- or orange-

red on the dorsal surface, passing to bright yellow towards the mar-

gins of the disk and arms. The paxillee and marginal plates are

bright yellow ; the spines of the ventral and adambulacral plates are

bright, and the feet the same. Four individuals were taken at

Oxfjord, at a depth of 100-150 fathoms, on a muddy bottom. It

belongs to the third division of the genus, according to Miiller and

Troschel, in which there are tubercles in place of spines on the mar-

ginal plates of the back.—fauna Inttoralis Norvegie, livr. i. p. 61.

Description of a new Tanager. By Putuie Lutiey Scuater,

M.A., F.L.S., ere.

Euphonia Gouldi.

3. Supra olivacea, eneo induta : pileo usque ad oculos cum fronte

flavis: subtus, gula et cervice flavescenti-olivaceis, abdomine

medialiter castaneo, hoc colore flavo utrinque marginato ; late-

ribus olivaceis flavo mixtis: crisso castaneo : rostro et pedibus

nigris.

?. Supra mari similis sed dilutior, fronte et pileo antico rubris :

subtus flavescens, abdomine medio cum crisso dilute castaneis,

lateribus flavido-olivaceis.

Long. tota 4°1, ale 2°2, caudze 1:0, tarsi 0°7.

Hab. In Guatimala et Mexico Meridionali.

Gould’s Huphonia does not sufficiently resemble any other of the

known members of the group to render it liable to be confounded

with them. It may, I think, be most naturally placed at the head of

the section containing Euphonia pectoralis, E. rufiventris and others

(which has been denominated I/iolopha by Prince Bonaparte), and

will serve to connect them with the yellow-headed species which pre-

cede them in my arrangement. I have suspected its existence for

some time, but these examples are the first good ones I have seen of

it. Ihave had for several years in my possession a bird which I

now find to be an immature individual of this species ; and M. Salle’s

collection comprised a single specimen not in very good condition,

which he obtained in Southern Mexico. I gave a short description

320 Miscellaneous.

of the latter bird without naming it in my list of his collection (see

P. Z. S. 1856, p. 303), but was mistaken (as I now see) in consider-

ing it a female.

This Euphonia is the fourth additional Tanager I have met with

since completing the synopsis of these birds given in the Proceedings

for last year; the others being Calliste rufigena (P. Z. 8. 1856,

p- 311), Saltator melanopterus (Pr. Ac. Se. Phil. vii. p. 361), and

Pyranga roseigularis (P. Z. 8. 1857, p. 6). The latter bird was

long ago described by Dr. Cabot, but at the time of completing my

synopsis I had not seen specimens of it.—Proc. Zool. Soc. April 28,

1857.

Description of a new genus of Star-fish. By P.C. AspsoRNSEN.

Genus BRISINGA.

Discus aculeatus. Tessella madreporiformis marginalis. In bra-

chiorum lateribus dorsalibus duze pororum genitalium series ; tenta-

culorum duz series; os ab angulis brachiorum distans; brachia

cylindracea, induta cute cum multis costellis transversalibus, calcariis,

tenuibus. A brachiorum sulcis utrinque tres series papillarum acu-

formium, sicut aculeoli disco ceterisque partibus insidentes, et ipsze

echinulatze, et insuper inclusze vagina cutanea ; innumeris pedicellariis

tecta.

Brisinga endecacnemos, n. sp.—This is the only species. It was

dredged at Hardangerfjord, at the end of August 1853, at a depth

of 100-200 fathoms, where it was placed on the lateral and perpen-

dicular plane of a mountain, which seemed to descend from 80 or

90 to 200 fathoms or more. It occurs rarely, and is very brittle, it

being impossible to obtain perfect specimens, from the facility with

which they throw off their arms. When seen under water in the

dredge, the author describes it as a true “gloria maris.”” The smallest

specimen obtained measured 6 inches between the points of the op-

posite arms; the largest was about 2 feet in diameter.

The colours are very brilliant. The disk is reddish-yellow, deeper

in the centre; the arms are of a bright pale vermilion, becoming

brick-red on the sides; the elevated ridges are pearly-white, and the

marginal ridge greyish. The spines are pale red, with still lighter

transparent vesicles at their extremities. The mouth is deep red,

and all the other parts of the disk are reddish-yellow and yellowish.

This remarkable Star-fish seems to a certain extent to form a

transition from the Asteriade to the Ophiuridz. At the first glance

it appears to be a gigantic Ophiura with the anomalous number of

eleven arms, but it has the ventral furrows and rows of tentacles of

an Asteria, and the structure of the skeleton and internal organs

agrees with that presented by the Asteriadee.—Fauna Littoralis

Norvegia, livr. i. pp. 95-101.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES. ]

No. 119. NOVEMBER 1857.

XXX.—On some new Paleozoic Star-fishes. By J. W. SALTER,

Esq., F.G.S., Geol. Survey of Great Britain.

[With a Plate. ]

Ir is not often that a dozen new Star-fishes turn up together

from the same locality—even in the Oolites or Chalk, where we

expect to meet with them. In the Silurian rocks they have

been scarce indeed, except in one particular spot in Westmore-

land, where, years ago, Professor Sedgwick obtained three or

four species. These were described by Professor Edward Forbes,

who thought he recognized in them affinities with our common

Cross-fish, and in one remarkable long-armed species, to be

presently noticed, relations with some Arctic forms of the

Euryales.

Within the last twelvemonth a new and most prolific locality

has been found at Leintwardine, Shropshire, and the active

geologists of Ludlow have not been slow to work upon it.

Col. Colvin, C. B., of Leintwardine, has also collected many spe-

cimens, and the locality i is now becoming well known. Having

visited it last year with Col. Colvin and “Messrs. Lightbody and

Cocking of Ludlow, no doubt could be entertained as to the

geological position of the beds. They are the usual thin flag-

stones of the Lower Ludlow rock, and are covered by a thin

course of Aymestry limestone, full of Pentamerus Knightit.

The beds in question have yielded many other fossils besides

the Star-fish, particularly some fine Crustaceans: Pterygotus

(an undescribed one of great size), Ceratiocaris of several species,

and Limuloides, a genus apparently closely allied to Limulus,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 21

322 Mr. J. W. Salter on some new Paleozoic Star-fishes.

but with moveable body-segments. There are also new Encri-

nites and Bryozoa, and abundance»of the common Graptolite

and shells of the Lower Ludlow rock.

The Star-fish in this locality therefore occupy nearly the same

geological horizon as those found by Prof. Sedgwick in West-

moreland, viz. the upper portion of the Lower Ludlow rock ;

and one of them, the Uraster primevus of Forbes, is identical

with a Kendal species.

Besides these Upper Silurian species, Prof. Forbes had one

other from the Lower Silurian rocks of Wales. Another is now

added, which fortunately supplies parts not observable in the

species described by our late friend ; and while these were being

examined, a third was found among some rubbishy specimens

from the Upper Caradoc or Pentamerus beds of the Malverns.

They will be described first, as probably nearest to the living

forms.

The species referred by Forbes to Uraster were not perfect

enough for him to see whether they possessed more than a

double row of suckers in each ambulacral avenue, and the general

form—the reticular skeleton (above) and the tufts of short spines

—resembled much the corresponding parts in that genus. But

the specimens now at command are much more complete, and

show that there were not more than two rows of hollows for

suckers ; while the other characters of the skeleton, particularly

the row of great submarginal or rather adambulacral plates, are

quite incompatible with the Urasterie.

The excessive shallowness of the ambulacra in most of the

species, and the square plate-like form of the ambulacral ossicles,

render two out of the five genera to be noticed unlike any of

the modern forms ; but in others there is a greater depth in the

srooyes, and the ossicles themselves are longer and narrower, and

more of the ordinary type. This is the case with Palasterina

primeva (Uraster, Forbes) (Pl. IX. fig. 2), the first-described of

the British species; and the analogy of the pentagonal-plated,

thin disk of this species with the Asteriscus (or Asterina) roseus

is sufficiently close to induce a further comparison, and was

indeed first suggested by Prof. M‘Coy (Synops. Woodw. Mus.

Fasc. 1, 1851).

After examination of all the accessible forms of Astertade in

the British Museum, or those figured in Miiller’s work, no better

affinity than this could be found for the whole group—from

Paleaster (P|. 1X. fig. 1), which in its thick and rounded arms

' closely resembles those species of Asteriscus called Patiria by

Gray, to the extreme form of Paleocoma (fig. 3), in which the

bordering spines are of enormous length compared with the size

of the Star-fish. This latter form finds, I think, its nearest

Mr. J. W. Salter on some new Paleozoic Star-fishes. 823

analogy in the northern form Pleraster, which Miiller has sepa-

_ rated from the other species of Asteriscus.

Protaster, in which the arms stretch far beyond the plated

disk, presents some points of analogy with the latter-named

genus, but it is clearly referable to the Ophiuride, and must be

regarded as a new form of that family, in which the lower or

basal plate (as well as the upper one) has become longitudinally

divided+. The ambulacral pores (or passages for the feet) do

not lie between the rows of plates, as in the Asteriade, but on

the outside of them (PI. IX. fig. 7), as in Ophiura (fig. 8).

Exclusive of the form last quoted, the Silurian Star-fishes

present one character which effectually distinguishes them from

Asteriscus, and indeed from any other group of Asteriada, un-

less it be the Pteraster above mentioned; it is the possession

of the row of large adambulacralt plates, or plates bordering

the avenues before alluded to (Gonzaster and its allies have the

large plates marginal). If we compare, for instance, Paleaster

with the living Asteriscus (Patiria) crassus, there is a near agree-

ment in outline, and m the rough upper surface covered with

close-set rows of prominent tubercles. But neither in this spe-

cies nor in A. graniferus, or any other species I have seen, are

the mner or adambulacral rows enlarged, although the basal

pairs of each row (fig. 2, cx) are increased in size, and bear combs

of spines (in A. Gunnii for instance, which in this point exactly

resembles our fossil).

This striking character should probably indicate a subfamily,

which might be called Palasterine, and may hereafter be again

subdivided according to the development or otherwise of the

arms or disk respectively.

Fam. ASTERIADE.

Genus 1. Palaaster§, Hall. Arms thick, convex, short or

+- The number of bones in the complete circlet for the arm in this genus

(fig. 7) is at least six; to account for which, if we regard them as Ophiure,

we must suppose the upper or dorsal plate to be divided, as well as the

lower. Instances of accidental fission of the upper plate are indeed some-

times met with in recent Ophiure—Ophiolepis for instance ; but no species

is known which has it normally divided. The analogy with the Euryales

is very remote, nor do I quite see in what way Forbes considered them

allied, since no Euryales have the arms covered by plates externally.

t Forbes does not seem to have recognized this character, but to have

mistaken these large adambulacrals for the ossicles of the avenues them-

selves: ‘ Ossiculis ambulacralibus oblongis, latis, interstitiis lmearibus,”

ee i. pl. 1. p.2. The true ambulacral ossicles are deep-set, and much

smaller.

§ Prof. Hall's deseription of an Upper Silurian Star-fish under this name

21*

324. Mr. J. W. Salter on some new Paleozoic Star-fishes.

moderately elongate, and formed of many rows of small spinous

ossicles above (with a madreporic tubercle near the angle of

one pair of arms); ambulacra deep, with transverse ossicles,

and a single row of large adambulacral plates. Disk plates

between the arms none. [Lower Silurian to Carboniferous. |

5 species.

Genus 2. Palasterina, M‘Coy*. Pentagonal, depressed, the

arms a little produced, with three or five principal rows of

tubercles above, combined with a plated disk which fills up the

angles; ambulacra rather shallow, of subquadrate or slightly

transverse ossicles, bordered by a single row of squarish large

plates, the lowest of which (ad-oral adambulacral plates, Huxley +)

are large and triangular, bearing combs of spines. [Upper

Silurian. |

Genus 3. Paleocoma,n.g. Flat: all the centre of the disk

above membranous, with scattered star-like spicule of lime, the

angles filled up with a similar membrane. Arms of several rows

of quadrate, reticular plates or ossicles, the outer ones fringed

with spines. Beneath, the ambulacra are narrow and very

shallow, the ossicles square or even elongate, and placed alter-

nately. Two rows of bordering plates,—the inner squarish and

free from spines, the outer oblique and with combs of very long

spines. A loosely reticular membranous web between the arms.

Subgenus Bdellacoma (BdeXXa, a leech).

Arms as in Paleocoma, but elongate [and with no membranous

disk between them ?]; the ambulacral ossicles much contracted

and with wide, open pores between. The upper surface with

short, scattered clavate tubercles ; margins with hair-like spines.

We have at present only one species, but the characters are so

remarkable, that I cannot avoid giving it a name. If it were

quite certain there was no membranous web between the arms

(our specimens show no trace), it would clearly form a distinct

genus.

Subgenus ? Rhopalocoma (po7rador, a club).

Disk broad, membranous, with stellate spicul, which become

square, reticular meshes upon the arms, and bear clavate, com-

does not make quite clear the structure of the ambulacra; they are, how-

ever, bordered by the large row of plates.

* Suggested by Prof. M‘Coy for this Upper Silurian Star-fish, which

seemed to him to differ from Uraster, and to resemble Asterina. He did

not, however, describe the genus.

+ Angle-ossicula (Forbes).

Mr. J. W. Salter on some new Paleozoic Star-fishes. 325

pressed spines. Ambulacra of slender remote ossicles, bordered

by reticular plates, with club-shaped spines.

Fam. OpHivuriIp&.

Genus 4. Protaster, n. g. Arms elongate, extending much

beyond a circular, closely reticulate disk. The arms are com-

posed above of éwo rows of deeply sculptured plates, spinous at

the edge, and below of two rows of elongate ambulacral ossicles,

bordered by a row of large spinous plates. The basal ossicles

of the ambulacra, bordering plates, and disk, combined to form

a petaloid mouth below.

Genus 5. Paleodiscus, un. g. Arms not produced beyond the

large plated pentagonal disk, nor distinguishable from it above ;

ambulaera beneath of crowded transverse ossicles, the basal

joints of which are greatly enlarged, thickened, and placed in

vertical pairs to form the mouth.

There is not a complete series of affinities in the above five

genera. We want a connecting link between Palasterina and

Paleocoma; while the thick, obtuse-armed Paleaster needs some

intermediate form to connect it closely with the first-named

genus. The most difficult to place is Paleodiscus, which most

resembles Palasterina in form and in the transverse shape of

its ambulacral bones, but which is perhaps an extremely con-

densed form of Ophiuride allied to Protaster. Possibly some

intermediate forms may be discovered to connect these two

genera.

It is not desirable in this short sketch to give more than a

diagnosis of each species, as I hope more fully to describe them

in a Decade of the Geological Survey.

Patm#aster, J. Hall.

We have materials to show both the upper and under surfaces,

the former tuberculato-spinose, the latter with deep ambulacral

grooves bordered by large plates. The madreporic tubercle is

present in our figured species.

1. P. asperrimus, n.sp. PI. IX. fig. 1.

P. triuncialis, convexissimus, brachiis brevioribus, fere cylindricis

obtusis ; pagina superiori tuberculis 12-fariis plurimis exasperata,

nec coronata; ambulacris profundis, ossiculis marginalibus acuti-

carinatis, transversis.

Very like Asteriscus crassus (Gray) m general form.

Loc. In the Caradoc or Bala sandstones, at a spot called the

Quakers’ Burying-ground, near Welchpool, N. Wales.

326 Mr. J. W. Salter on some new Paleozoic Star-fishes.

2. P. obtusus, Forbes.

Uraster obtusus, Mem. Geol. Surv. Decade 1. pl. 1. f. 3, 1849.

P. uncialis, depresso-convexus, brachiis subconicis, disco brevioribus;

infra assulis oblongis majoribus punctatis (‘‘ pagina superiori reti-

culato-spinosa,”’ Forbes).

Better specimens than those Forbes had, show the ambulacra

pierced for two rows of suckers only. The under side was

closely plated-over by the large adambulacral bones, which are

closely punctate. The shape was clumsy, with thick, short arms,

very like the form of some recent Asterine.

Loc. This rarity should be sought for in the fossiliferous

slates of Drumcannon parish, Waterford; also in the ash-bed

west of Bala Lake, N. Wales, where it was first found by Prof.

Sedgwick and myself, and mentioned under the name Asterias

primeva, in the Quart. Geol. Journal, 1845, vol. i. p. 20. It

would have been better to have kept this name, if Forbes had

not appended it to the Kendal species.

3. P. coronella, n. sp.

P. parvulus, 6-coronatus; brachiis brevibus acutis carinatis, tuber-

culato-spinosis ; pagina inferiori ?

A small species, with four rows of tubercles on each arm, and

a close corona of six tubercles.

Loc. Gunwick Mill, Malvern (in the May Hill sandstone).

Mus. Pract. Geology.

4. P. Ruthveni, Forbes, l. c. Decade 1. pl. 1. f.

P. 2-3-uncialis disco fere nullo, brachiis teretibus longis subcarinatis ;

assulis [ad jambulacralibus linearibus longis geniculatis.

It will not be difficult to distinguish from P. asperrimus ; the

arms are longer, slenderer, and pomted, and the disk is if pos-

sible smaller. Forbes’s diagnosis (abbreviated) is given above.

Loc. Ludlow rocks, Westmoreland (Woodw. Mus.).

5. P. hirudo, Forbes, l.c. Dec. 1. pl. 1. f. 4. ®

It appears to belong to this genus, but is very imperfect ;

the lanceolate arms will easily distinguish it.

Loc. Very abundant at Pottersfell, Kendal ; in Ludlow rocks.

6. There is a fine Pa/easter in the Lower Carboniferous rocks

near Barnstaple, N. Devon.

Mr. J. W. Salter on some new Paleozoie Star-fishes. 327

PaxasteRinaA, M‘Coy (proposed J851).

The type of this genus is the Uraster primevus of Forbes, but

he would have referred it, and with it the whole group, to their

true position near Asteriscus (Palmipes) but for an accident. In

his enumeration of the fossil Asteriade*, he quotes the Asterias

antiqua of Hisinger, not among the paleozoic rocks of Gothland,

its real locality, but as from the cretaceous strata of Sweden.

Its aspect is so much like that of the Gonzasters, frequent in the

cretaceous rocks, that the mistake is easily accounted for. It is

an excellent species of Palasterina, and appears to differ from

the British one chiefly in the large size of the disk, and conse-

quent pentagonal outline.

P. antiqua, Hisinger, Leth. Sue. p. 89. t. 26. f. 6.

Loc. Mt. Hoburg, Gothland, Sweden; in Ludlow rocks.

1, P. primeva, Forbes, Mem. Geol. Surv. Dec. 1. pl. 1.

PISIX, fig, 2.

P. brachiis triangularibus acuminatis, disco lato brevioribus; pagina

superiori tuberculata, brevi-spinosa ; ossiculis [ad]ambulacralibus

subquadratis, convexis, basalibus majoribus.

The basal, or angle-ossicula are enlarged, three-cornered, and

furnished with a pyramid of spines pointed inwards. The upper

surface is roughly tubereulate, and with short tufts of spines.

Loc. Underbarrow, Westmoreland; a common species in the

Ludlow rocks. Leintwardine, Shropshire (fig. 2 is from thence).

PALXOCOMA, 0. g.

These differ widely from Palasterina in appearance, and in the

much smaller amount of calcareous matter entering into the

composition of their skeleton. Yet the principal characters by

which they differ are the elongated shape of the narrow ambu-

lacral bones and the double row of bordering plates, the outer

of which bears the combs of long spines.

The spines are often so long as to form a complete fringe, and

m one species, P. Colvini, the disk is equally spiniferous. In

the curious subgenus Bdellacoma they are short, and intermixed

with some larger clavate spies on the upper surfaces. And in

the extreme form, Rhopalocoma, which may hereafter have to be

separated as a distinct genus, the hair-like spines are all absent,

and clavate ones take their place.

* Mem. Geol. Surv, vol. il. pt. 2. p. 481.

328 Mr. J. W. Salter on some new Paleozoic Star-fishes.

(If Pteraster militaris, MiilJ., be compared with our fossils, it

will be seen that the inner row of plates bordering the avenues

is very large, but bears a comb of spines comparable to that on

the outer row of Paleocoma. For the accompanying figures I am

indebted to the kindness of Mr. L. Barrett.

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

S q_¢

aon c j —\

WA a7 ee

Fig. 1. Pteraster militaris ; part of reticulated upper surface.

Fig. 2. Ditto, inferior plates, with combs of spines: a, ambulacral space ;

b, adambulacral row of plates; c, outer cee

The first discovered and most plentiful species of Paleocoma

is the

1. P. Marstoni, n. sp. Pl. IX. fig. 3.

P. triuncialis, brachiis lanceolatis, quam latis quadruplo longioribus,

apicibus obtusis; ambulacris angustis; spinis brachiorum mar-

ginalibus rigidis haud longis ; ore magno.

Shorter spines, set at a wide angle from the margins of the

arms, distinguish this from the next species. The beautiful and

delicate web-like disk between the arms bears short spines also ;

it is sometimes expanded as in our figure, but more generally

contracted, so as only to make the arm a little broader, and give

it a blunt appearance. The mouth is wide, of a true pentagonal

shape, and with rather strong bordering plates, of which the tri-

angular adambulacral plates (*) in fig. 3, b, are most conspicuous.

The stellate calcareous spicule which dot over the thin disk are

easily seen through the opening of the mouth.

Dedicated to my young friend Mr. Alfred Marston of Ludlow,

to whose kindness I owe much valuable information, and the

free use of all his choicest specimens. He is an ardent collector

of the fossils of his district, and well acquainted with their

characters.

Loc. Church Hill, Leintwardine. (Lower Ludlow.)

2. P. Colvini, n. sp.

P. planus, sesquiuncialis, spinis longissimis flexuosis hirsutus ; bra-

chiis ligulatis et cum disco tenui spinosissimis ; ambulacris angus-

tis; ore parvo.

Col. Colvin, C.B., of Leitwardine, found the first specimen

of this remarkable star-fish, which in the length of its hair-like

Mr. J. W. Salter on some new Paleozoic Star-fishes. 329

spines exceeds any known species, recent or fossil. It is in

many respects like P. Marstont,

There is another species very like P. Marstoni, but with slen-

derer and less closely reticular arms, much longer in proportion,

clothed with delicate short spmes, and with a thin, membranous,

inter-radial web. It may be called P. eygnipes, and be thus

characterized :—

3. P. cygnipes, sp. nov.

P. 2}-uncialis, tenuis, disco membranaceo expanso ; brachiis elongatis

brevi-spmosis ; ore parvulo rosaceo.

Same locality as the last.

Subgenus BoeLiacoma.

4. P.(Bd.) vermiformis, n. sp.

P.brachiis longis linearibus, brevi-spinosis, tuberculis clavatis remotis ;

assulis ambulacri lati alternatis, remotis, intervallis rotundis.

Differs from both the preceding by its short spines, long arms,

and wide, flat, ambulacral avenues with large alternating apertures

for the suckers. It is doubtful if these avenues are bordered

by more than a single row of plates; but as there is a double

set of tufts of spines, this is probabie.

The main character of the species, however, and that which

distinguishes the subgenus, is the possession of scattered clavate

tubercles over the upper surface. These are nearly as long as

the spines. The ambulacral avenues, too, appear to differ ma-

terially from those of Paleocoma, in which they are remarkably

narrow and the plates close, while in Bdellacoma they are broad

and the ossicles remote.

So much depends, however, on the state of preservation in

these shale fossils, that I do not feel warranted at present in

ranking Bdellacoma higher than as a subgenus. The ambulacra

are not clearly seen.

Loc. Leintwardine.

Subgenus RuopaLocoma.

5. P. (Rh.) pyrotechnica, u. sp.

P. 2}-uncialis, pentagona; brachiis brevissimis reticulatis ; spinis

brevibus clavatis compressis.

The subgeneric and specific characters of this fine species

must be taken together, and reside in the distribution of short,

broad, clavate and compressed spmes over the upper surface

330 Mr. J. W. Salter on some new Paleozoic Star-fishes.

and margin, rather more than their own breadth apart, and set

on at the intersection of the reticular meshes which cover the

arms and the angles between the arms, but which are quite ab-

sent from the central portion of the disk. This central portion

above, which corresponds to the wide aperture of the mouth on

the under surface, is covered only by scattered, stellate, caleareous

spiculz of large size. A closer reticulation is found on the por-

tions between the arms, and the meshes become square in a

double row down the middle of the rays, and appear to corre-

spond nearly in position to the ambulacral bones of the under

surface. The latter are very slender and remote, even more so

than in P. vermiformis, and form a broad ambulacrum, with

only a few reticular plates bordering it, which bear clavate spines

at intervals. The mouth-angles project a good deal inwards,

and are armed with short combs of spines.

Loc. Leintwardine.

PROTASTER.

The species on which Forbes founded this genus is inter-

mediate in size between the larger and smaller species here de-

scribed. But it presents the same essential characters, the parts

varying in proportion only: the plated disk, the arms reaching

nearly to the centre, and forming a pentagonal rosette, and the

double row of plates above and below. ‘The largest form of the

genus is the

1. P. Miltoni,n.sp. Pl. IX. fig. 4.

P. magnus, disco caleareo subrotundo, brachiis 3—4-uncialibus, latis;

ossiculis incrassatis paribus, superne concavis, ad angulum internum

perforatis ambulacro* lato; assulis oris rectis.

The roundish disk of this conspicuous species is often more

than 1 inch wide, and covered with small ridged plates. The

arms are wide, composed of large ossicles, which become smaller

at their base of insertion in the disk above, leaving a wedge-

shaped space between, which, joined with those of the other

arms, forms a conspicuous pentagon above, equal in size to that

formed by the divergent ossicles of the mouth below.

The arms themselves are made up of a double row of about forty

pairs of squarish concave plates above, placed exactly opposite,

not alternating as in other species (PI. [X. fig. 4,5). The sutures

between these are deep, and the inner angles marked with a

deep pit or pore, bounded by tubercles set cross-fashion. The

outer margin bears a tuft of spines, long and short. On the

* The term may be conveniently applied to the pair of central plates

(subambulaerals), though they cover the true ambulacrum.

Mr. J. W. Salter on some new Paleozoic Star-fishes. 331

under surface (4, c) the marginal plates are highly convex, and

between them lies a double row of central plates of an hour-glass

shape, on the outer sides of which, and between them and the

marginal row, is a large round aperture on either side—the

passage for the suckers or feet. The mar ginal plates bear a row

of spines as long as the width of the arm, vand striated across.

The oral pentagon is made up of twenty bones, five pairs of

which are the central row enlarged (*), and these diverge at a wide

angle, and nearly join the neighbouring pairs; the other five

belong to the lateral rows, and are linear (*), set parallel, and

bear the conspicuous, triturating combs of spines. The oral

ossicles in this species form an angular pentagon, being made

up of straight pieces; in some others they are arched, and give

an ogive form.

Loc. Abundant and of all sizes in the quarry at Leintwar-

dine. The environs of Ludlow have been rendered classic by

the great author of ‘ Comus.’

2. P. leptosoma, n. sp. Pl. IX. fig. 5.

P. disco tenuissimo, brachiis angustis, superne ossiculis alternatis

semisulcatis ; infra ambulacro angustissimo impresso, spinis bre-

vibus, paucis?; ore rosaceo.

This is also a very abundant species, and occurs in hundreds

over the surface of the slabs, just as Ophiure are now found in

clusters upon the muddy bottom, the dredge often coming up

filled with a single species.

It is a small star-fish, the rays seldom above an inch long;

and the central disk apparently very thin, and often scarcely

visible on the stone. The oral pentagon, however, is always

conspicuous, and is of a beautiful petaloid shape, made up of a

series of ogives, the salient angles of which are inserted into the

base of the arms, and formed of three pairs of bones (while in

P. Miltoni only two are distinct, and these are set in an angular

ee) ; small spines are affixed to their extremities.

The arms appear more slender than they really are, in conse-

quence of their being only convex along the median line; the

sides of the ossicula are very thin, and only by careful search

can the prominent margins be seen. These are thickened a little

along the outer and the hinder edges, but not in front ; and the

squarish plates (more transverse near the mouth and elongate

towards the tips) are rounded-off behind and pointed in front, so

as to be somewhat falcate.

The plates of the lower surface are four, as in the other spe-

cies, the lateral ones squarish, and bearing rows of short spines ;

the middle rows are exceedingly narrow, and offer an excellent

332 Mr. J. W. Salter on some new Paleozoic Star-fishes.

character for distinguishing the species; they are scarcely half

the width of the outer plates.

Named in compliment to our friend R. Lightbody, Esq., of

Ludlow, an indefatigable collector and liberal donor.

From the same locality as the last.

3. P. Sedgwicki, Forbes.

P. Sedgwicki, Forbes in Mem. Geol. Surv. Decade 1. pl. 4.

P. disco conspicuo, brachiis elongatis, superne ossiculis quadratis,

alternatis, profunde exaratis, infra ambulacro latissimo, ossiculis

convexis ; spinis ?; ore rosaceo.

The disk in this species is large, full 3 of an inch in breadth,

and coarsely reticular. The arms start nearly from the centre,

leaving a small five-petaled rosette, which corresponds to the

oral pentagon below. The rays are rather broad, and very

strongly sculptured, convex along the middle line, as in P. lep-

tosoma, with a sharp median line and short sutural grooves.

The outer half is far more deeply grooved than in the preceding

species, the strong, oblique furrow occupying nearly all the cen-

tral portion of each ossicle, and leaving a thickened margin all

round. The ossicles are transverse, nearly twice as wide as long,

and show no trace of spines in the figured specimen (a cast of

which I have before me), though such are represented by Forbes

in his restored figure, having probably been detected in other

specimens.

On the under side the arms present a good character in the

very wide and convex median (ambulacral) rows, much wider

than in P. Miltont or the P. leptosoma, and even wider than the

lateral plates. The central pentagon is very deeply cut, of five

oval, pointed petals.

Loc. Underbarrow, Westmoreland.

4. Another species of this genus, P. Salterz*, should be sought

for by collectors m the Lower Silurian rocks, near Cerrig-y-

Druidion on the Holyhead Road. Prof. Sedgwick and myself

found a very perfect specimen in the large quarry there, but it

was unfortunately lost by the late Prof. Forbes.

PAaLZODISCUS, n. g.

It now only remains to notice the somewhat anomalous form

to which the above name seems appropriate, and which, whether

it eventually prove to be an incomplete specimen or not, differs

* Quart. Geol. Journal, vol. i. 1845, p. 20.

Mr. J. W. Salter on some new Paleozoic Star-fishes. 333

widely, both in specific and generic character, from all that are

yet described.

Peferete., Ele dake dte. 6.

P. disco magno, e squamis hexagonis majoribus spiniferis structo ;

assulis (brachialibus sew) ambulacralibus intra discum creberrimis ;

ossiculis oris robustis parallelis.

We have only the disk, and its angles are not complete. It

is composed of large, irregularly rhomboid plates, radiating in

seven or eight rows from the mouth in each interambulacral

space, and furnished with short spines.

The inner angles of each of these spaces form a prominent

triangular boss or tubercle, cut off distinctly by a furrow, and

between these are the large elongated basal plates (6) of the am-

bulacra, lying parallel, and not at all divergent. They are thick

and blunt, and, together with the bosses above mentioned, form

a circumscribed star in the centre, the massive character of

which contrasts strikingly with the thinness and delicacy of all

the other parts either of the ambulacra or disk. The ambulacra

are narrow, composed of a double row of transverse plates, nar-

rower and more crowded than in Palasterina or Paleaster, and

apparently very thin in texture. They can be detached, and

leave the upper plated surface (a) free, which is covered with the

irregular plates. If there be no deception in this—for we have

only a single specimen—the affinity would be much closer with

the forms above mentioned, although the strong oral apparatus

reminds us more nearly of the Protaster. Tull other specimens

are obtained with the angles perfect, it will not be easy to decide

whether it be an Ophiurid with contracted arm-plates, or one of

the Asteriade with a greatly developed masticatory apparatus.

The powerful teeth suggest the specific name. The specimen is

in the cabinet of Mr. Marston of Ludlow, who has contributed

largely to the illustration of these Silurian star-fish.

Loc. Leintwardine.

Other species, both of Protaster and of Paleocoma, are known,

but it is only necessary here to notice those which serve to illus-

trate the genera proposed in the Reports of the British Associa-

tion for 1856, p. 76, Trans. Sections. There are, no doubt, many

species yet to be discovered in the old rocks of our own country,

and, judging from what has already been collected, a great

variety of forms may be expected to reward research.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX.

[The figures are only diagrams, but express the principal characters of the

species represented. ]

Fig. 1. Paleaster asperrimus, n.sp. Lower Silurian. Welchpool, North

Wales: a, magnified underside; 4, section of arm.

334 Mme. J. Power on the Habits of various Marine Animals.

Fig. 2. Palasterina primeva, Forbes. Upper Silurian (Lower Ludlow

rock). Church Hill, Leintwardine, Shropshire: 0 is a cast of the

lower surface; c, portion of ditto, magnified, showing the large

adambulacrals and their basal ossicles (*).

Fig. 3. Paleocoma Marstoni, n. sp. Same locality : 3 5, somewhat mag-

nified ; 3 ¢ shows the narrow ambulacral rows, the broad smooth

adambulacrals, and the outer spine-bearing rows.

Fig. 4. Protaster Miltoni, n. sp. Same locality : 4 a, nat. size; 4 6, upper

plates magnified ; 4c, lower surface with the large pores.

. Protaster leptosoma, n. sp. Same locality.

. Paleodiscus feror, n. sp. Same locality.

. Section of arm of Protaster, for comparison with Ophiura (fig. 8).

It shows the siz component plates.

Fig. 8. Section of the arm of Ophiura, to show the four component plates

and the passage for the suckers.

Fig.

“IO or

XXXJ.— Observations on the Habits of various Marine Animals.

By Madame Jeannetre Poweryt.

On the Food and Digestion of the Bulla lignaria.

From 1832 to 1842 I was engaged in studying marine animals

in aquaria established m my house at Messina. These aquaria

were filled with sea-water, and about 1832 I gave them the name

of ‘cagest.’? In 1833 I invented other aquaria, which I also

called ‘cages’$; these I deposited (after obtaining permission

from government) in a stream of sea-water which flows through

the lazaretto of Messina.

Marine animals of large and moderate dimensions being thus

kept in their native element, were in a better condition for my

investigations than in the aquaria placed in my house; and as

the sea which washes the coast of Sicily is very limpid and

transparent, I was enabled to observe the least movements of

my animals minutely and exactly.

The smaller marie animals I continued to study in my own

house ; and I had also invented a small glass aquarium, which I

suspended by means of cords in a large ‘ cage’ im the sea.

After publishing memoirs upon Argonauta Argo and other

marine animals, I proposed to continue my publications; but,

unfortunately, in the confusion of packing-up, preparatory to

my departure from Sicily, my manuscripts were mislaid, and I

+ Communicated by Prof. Owen.

~{ See the Journal of the “ Cabinet littéraire de Académie Gicenia de

Catania” for December 1834, in which Professor Carmelo Maravigna gives

an account of the investigations which I made upon Argonauta Argo, in

my own house at Messina.

§ In 1835 these cages received from the Académie Gicenia the name of

*‘ Gabiole alla Power,’ and in 1838 the Zoological Society of London called

them ‘ Power cages.’

Mme. J. Power on the Habits of various Marine Animals. 335

have only just discovered them amongst some old papers; I

therefore hasten to lay the following observations before you.

Having procured several living specimens of Bulla lignaria, 1

opened their digestive sacs, to ascertain what their nourishment

consisted of ; in almost all I found small specimens of Dentalium

entale. I then set myself to vestigate the mode and the time

which they employ to digest the Dentalia.

On the 15th July 1836 I placed some specimens of Bulla

lignaria in a ‘cage, without providing them with food, and on

the 16th I placed close to my Bulle a quantity of Dentalia ;

when, by not losing sight of the Bulle, I saw that they devoured

the Dentalia. An hour after their repast, I took one of them,

opened its digestive sac carefully, and found in the alimentary

canal, extending in a straight line from the mouth to the orifice

of the digestive sac, five Dentalia placed side by side, and their

points were already digested for a distance of 2 millimetres in

length. The digestive sac of the Bulla consists of two very hard

pieces, supported by membranous and elastic ligaments, which

allow the movement of trituration, and this acting from right to

left, and facilitated by the gastric juice, reduced the Dentalia

into a nutritive pulp; they slip by little and little and altogether

into the sac, in proportion as the animal triturates them. This

is the only food of the Bulla lignaria.

Two hours after my first observation, I took a second Bulla:

its alimentary canal only contained four Dentalia, which were

more than half digested. Two hours afterwards I took a third:

of six Dentalia which it had in its alimentary canal, there only

remained a length of 3 millimetres. The last that I opened had

employed seven hours in its digestion.

From the observations which I have made, I have ascertained

- that some Bulle digest more rapidly than others.

On the Nourishment and Digestion of the Asterias (Astropecten)

aurantiacus.

On the 20th July 1836, I placed three large specimens of

Asterias in a ‘ cage,’ and left them until the 23rd, without giving

them any food; I weighed them, noted their weight, then put

them again in the cage, and placed within their reach a quantity

of livmg Natice of various dimensions, and some Jrocht. The

Asterias feeds only upon these mollusks.

The mode in which it swallows and arranges them in the

interior of its rays and body is very curious. It commences by

seizing a small Natica with the point of each of its rays, and

then brings it gradually up to the body, which is of a spherical

form ; it places on, or beneath the body a circular row, and then

336 Mme. J. Power on the Habits of various Marine Animals.

a second of rather larger size, and so on, finishing in the centre

with a very large one; after this it buries itself in the sand, and

remains quiet to digest its food, employing in this function two

or three days, and sometimes more. I weighed my Star-fishes

again after their repast : one of them had swallowed 370 grms.

of Natice, the second 256, and the third 240.

They have the habit of coming out of the sand early in the

morning, hide themselves about nine o’clock, and reappear

about four in the afternoon, when the heat of the sun begins to

diminish.

Observations upon Octopus vulgaris and Pinna nobilis.

Into one of my cages I had put a living Pinna nobilis adhering

to a fragment of rock ; this cage also contained an Octopus vul-

garis and some living testaceous Mollusca which I had placed

there for the purpose of my investigations.

One day, whilst observing my animals, I saw that the Poulpe

was holding a fragment of rock in one of its arms, and watching

the Pinna, which was opening its valves; as soon as they were

perfectly open, the Poulpe, with incredible address and prompti-

tude, placed the stone between the valves, preventing the Pinna

from closing them again, when the Octopus set about devouring

the mollusk.

The next day I was observing the Poulpe again, when I saw

him crush some Telling, then search about amongst other

shells, and finally stretch himself close to a Triton nodiferum.

I had the perseverance to remain on the watch for four hours.

The Triton extruded half the body from its shell, no doubt with

the purpose of going to seek its food, when the Poulpe sprang

upon it, and surrounded it with his arms; the mollusk retired

precipitately into its shell, and in closing this with its operculum

pinched the point of one of the arms of the Poulpe, which, by

struggling, at last left the tip of his arm in the shell of the

Triton.

It would require whole pages to describe all the stratagems

employed by the Poulpe for the capture of his prey. I should

have to tell things which would appear incredible ; and his vora-

city is such, that notwithstanding the abundance of nourishment

with which I furnished him, I was compelled to remove him

from the cage, or he would have devoured all my Mollusca.

I would beg Professor Costa and others who occupy them-

selves with this branch of science to repeat my experiments in

their aquaria; they are of the greatest interest in the apprecia-

tion of the habits of this animal. So great is its voracity, that

it even attacks man, tears away his flesh, and eats it. In the

Port of Messina they occur in great numbers and of large size.

Prof. Buckman on Cnicus tuberosus. 337

XXXII.—On the discovery of Cunicus tuberosus at Avebury,

Wilts*. By Professor Buckman, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.A.S. &e.

In reporting upon our meeting at Avebury, Wilts, on July 15,

1856, I took occasion to remark upon some interesting plants

which I had obtained from the Druidical Circle; and amongst

notes upon others, will be found the following :—

“ Cnicus acaulis, Stemless Thistle, with—anomalous as it ap-

pears—stems several inches high. This is one of the forms

which has given rise to the many synonyms by which the true

species 1s surrounded +.”

In July of the present year I found myself at the Avebury

Circle in company with my friend Edwin Lees, Esq., F.L.S.,

I.G.8., when this Thistle was more minutely examined by us;

and upon carefully gettmg some specimens up by the roots, we

were pleased to find that it agreed in this and other respects

with the Cnicus tuberosus, Willd., Tuberous Plume Thistle,—a

specimen of which appears to have been sent by A. B. Lambert,

Esq., to Sir J. H. Smith, and is figured in ‘ English Botany,’

t. 2562, to the description of which is appended the following

habitat :—“ A copse-wood, called Great Ridge, on the Wiltshire

Downs, between Boyton House and Fonthill, abundantly ;” and

Smith states that he there gathered it in 18194.

For many years, however, this form appears to have become

extinct in this its original habitat; and it was thought to have

been entirely lost to our flora until within the last few months,

when my friend Mr, W. Cunnington of Devizes fortunately dis-

covered that a nurseryman in his neighbourhood had propagated

the plant from its original stock presented to the nurseryman

by Lambert himself; the two or three specimens thus handed

down are now in Mr. Cunnington’s possession ; and upon paying

him avisit at Devizes, on our way from Avebury to Stonehenge,

I was gratified to see a specimen in full flower in his garden, as

well as two dried examples in his herbarium ; from an examina-

tion of these, [am enabled to declare their complete identity

with those I had so recently gathered at Avebury.

Here, then, we have a curious example of a plant having been

lost for many years in one locality, and subsequently occur-

ring in another; and yet, though the collecting botanist may

perhaps felicitate us upon restoring this to the British flora, [

have myself great hesitation in receiving it as a true and un-

* Read to the Cotteswold Club, Oct. 6, 1857.

t Address to the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Club, by Prof. Buckman,

Jan. 27, 1857, p. viii.

{ English Flora, vol. iii. p. 393.

Am. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 22

338 Prof. Buckman on Cnicus tuberosus.

doubted species, the grounds for which I would shortly sum up

as follows :—

It occurs sparingly at Avebury, surrounded by the true Cnicus

acaulis and Cnicus acanthoides in great abundance.

Its most important distinctive character will be found in the

radical tubers, which, in full-grown examples, are somewhat

large and fleshy, and unilaterally placed on the rhizome. In

smaller specimens the roots are long and flexile, but not ex-

panded into tubers,—which is just the state in which they occur

in the Cnicus acaulis.

It is true that it cannot be described as acauline, as the stem

is more than a foot in height, but this is also often the case with

the true acaulis, as we have now before us examples of this spe-

cies several inches high.

From these circumstances, in connexion with the rarity of the

tuberous form in a plant that seeds so abundantly, each head of

flowers being capable of perfecting as many as 150 seeds,—

taking also mto consideration the well-known sporting propen-

sity of this genus,—I cannot help thinking this to be a hybrid;

and from the fact of the abundance of the two forms before indi-

eated in its immediate vicinity, we may not unreasonably look

upon them as the origin of our tuberous type.

There is perhaps no genus of plants more perplexing to the

botanist than that of Carduus, which is now made to include

Cnicus ; hence the variation in the number of species in our

different floras; and thus Babington heads his descriptions

of them with the following significant note—“many hybrids

occur in this genus*;” and my friend Lees has kindly furnished

me with the following note upon another disputed species, which

bears directly upon this question :—

“Tn August 1856, I found the Cnicus Forsteri of Smith, in

a field near Crowle, Worcestershire. In the same marshy field

was a considerable quantity of Cnicus pratensis and a very nu-

merous growth of C. palustris. The position of Forster’s Thistle

was between the C. pratensis and C. palustris, so as to give rise

to an immediate suspicion of its hybridity; and, upon examina-

tion, the characters shown by C. Forster? were exactly interme-

diate also. The leaves were much like those of C. palustris,

while the stem and flowers were in small clusters, instead of

being single as im the latter. Indeed, the result of my examina-

tion convinced me that C. Forsteri could be only a hybrid; and

this I stated in an account I sent to the ‘Phytologist,’ and which

appeared in the September Number of that Journal for 1856.”

For the present, then, I must content myself with having

* Manual of British Botany, 3rd edition,

Dr. A. Lindsay on the Amphioxus lanceolatus. 339

offered presumptive evidence of the non-specific character of

what is, after all, a decidedly distinctive form; and as I have

brought home some specimens and planted them in my botanical

garden, where I shall also introduce the acaulis and acanthoides,

I shall look forward to the result of experiments with these with

no little degree of interest, as in all probability, like so many

other experiments which I have been enabled to perform in the

same direction, these may serve still more to perplex the question

“What is a species 7”

Cirencester, July 1857.

XXXITI.—On the Amphioxus lanceolatus.

By ALexanveR Linpsay, M.D.

THe Amphioxus lanceolatus is said to inhabit most, if not all,

the European seas. It was first discovered on the coast of

Cornwall. Since that time it has occasionally, and at distant

intervals, been found on various other parts of the British coasts.

The late Mr. Yarrell, to whom we are indebted for its first accu-

rate description, had, when he wrote, only one specimen for his

guidance. Mr. Goodsir, who ably investigated the anatomy of

this interesting fish, had, while making his researches, only two

at his disposal. Hitherto it has been reckoned among the rarest

of our fishes,—the securing a specimen a something worthy of

note.

~ The object of this communication is to show that in some

localities the Amphiozus is neither so rare nor so difficult to ob-

tain as is generally supposed, and that in localities supplying

the necessary conditions for its existence, it may be sought for

with every hope of success. We think it due to naturalists to

make them aware of this fact. To the zoologist this little

creature is full of interest, to the anatomist and physiologist

equally so. From the transparency of its tissues, and from its

being, like all animals low in the scale of organization, tenacious

of life, it affords great facilities for microscopic observation.

The writer was desirous of procuring an Amphiozus for ana-

tomical purposes. Aware that it had been obtained within

recent years on the west coast of Scotland, he concluded that

by a diligent search others might be secured. His own oppor-

tunities for researches of this kind being few, he solicited the

aid of an intimate friend and industrious naturalist, Mr. David

Robertson of this city. He is engaged in preparing a list of the

Crusgaceans procurable in the Frith of Clyde, for the Natural

History Society of Glasgow. Much of his spare time being

22%

340 Dy. A. Lindsay on the Amphioxus lanceolatus.

devoted to dredging for this purpose, he was requested to watch

for the fish when opportunities offered for pursuing his investi-

gations. In April last he succeeded in obtaining one.

No further examination of the ground whence the first was

obtained was made till August. In that month the writer, with

his friend and a companion naturalist, Mr. Little of Millport,

made arrangements for a second exploration of the locality. To

the surprise of all, we captured no less than three in our first

dredge, and on the same day other three were taken. On a

subsequent occasion, Mr. Robertson obtained five in one haul.

Without entering imto particulars, we may at once state, that

in five different dredgings, on separate days, twenty-two were

captured.

The scene of operations was on the Ayrshire coast, near Por-

tincross, at a point nearly midway between the mainland and

the east end of the Little Cumbrae. Dr. Landsborough mentions

his having dredged one near the same place.

On looking at some statements regarding this fish, it is said

to be found principally among sand. It may be so; but this

did not by any means accord with our experience. Invariably

they were present in clean unmixed gravel. When even a very

moderate amount of sand or mud appeared in the dredge, we

soon learned not to expect the fish. As regards this, we were

never disappointed. It was further remarkable, that when we

had secured the Amphioxus, there was a complete absence of

everything else likely to interest either the marine botanist or

zoologist. To this we may state there was one exception, there

being invariably an Annelide present, evidently one of the family

Nereide. The species we were unable to determine.

Already we have spoken of the tenacity of hfe manifested by

the Amphiorus. Half an hour under the microscope seemed to

interfere little with its vitality: on being replaced im the water,

it darted rapidly off, little the worse for the examination. It

may not, however, be always convenient to examine them in the

live condition. When placed in alcohol, they speedily become

opake: the addition of soda, in certain proportions, is said to

prevent this. We cannot on this point speak from our own

experience ; but we can confidently advise the use of glycerine

as a preservative fluid; the appearance of specimens of the Am-

phiowus, after being put up for weeks, being not in the slightest

degree altered.

169 George Street, Glasgow.

Mr. B. Clarke on the Production of Monstrous Flowers. 341

XXXIV.—On the Production of Varieties and Monstrous Flowers

by Pruning. By B. Crarxsn, F.L.S., &e.

As the varieties of species are attracting imcreased attention,

and the circumstances in which they originate are becoming

more particularly attended to, the following notes on the effects

of increased luxuriance from pruning, and especially on the seed,

may perhaps assist in throwing further light on this department

of vegetable physiology, as making it, I believe, sufficiently evi-

dent that varieties, and not improbably improved varieties, could

be produced, at least in some instances, by placing a plant in

peculiar circumstances during the period of flowering.

Having cultivated female specimens of the variety of Hemp

known as Cannabis indica, for the purpose of inquiring into the

truth of the report that seeds could be produced without the

fertilizing influence of pollen, and apparently with success, as

a few seeds came to perfection*, a specimen of the common

variety was grown, to further substantiate, if possible, the result

of the trial with the C. zndica.

It was raised so early as to be in flower in the last week of

June, but, unlike the C. indica, the first flowers produced no

seed, although the plant was growing much more luxuriantly.

The upper portion of the stem was then cut off, for the purpose

of giving to the remaining masses of fiowers an increased supply

of sap; but this also failed, except that three or four fruits were

observed growing on the main stem, the masses of inflorescence

remaining quite barren, although the remaining foliage had

acquired a deep and very luxuriant green. The experiment was

then continued by cutting off each fresh shoot as soon as it

appeared; but it bore no more seed till about the latter end of

August, and then twelve or fifteen were observed in the outer

portions of the masses of inflorescence.

The following spring these seeds were planted; but, as some

* Two plants of this variety were raised late in summer, and flowering

in the autumn, proved to be both females; they produced two seeds each

from the first pairs of flowers, some time after the male plants usually have

ceased flowering ; neither was Hemp known to grow in the neighbourhood.

These were planted early in the followmg spring, and proved to be all

female plants, which in some degree confirmed the supposition that they

were produced without the aid of pollen. Two or three of them produced

seeds from the first flowers as before, and then remained barren until some

male plants of the common variety, which had been sown later, came into

flower, and they then fruited abundantly. One of them, however, which

which was quite as strong or rather stronger than the others, and covered

with flowers, bore no seed, although masses of male flowers were repeatedly

placed upon it; but as its ovules appeared to be perfect, as in the other

plants, its barrenness was thought to be the consequence of the seed from

which it had been raised having been produced without the aid of pollen.

342 Mr. B. Clarke on the Production of Varieties

of them proved to be males, it was concluded that some male

plants must have been growing in the neighbourhood. Among

them, however, was a plant having a peculiar appearance, and it

was found that instead of the two opposite or somewhat alternate

leaves which Hemp usually has, it had three regularly opposite

leaves at each node, which was continued quite to the summit of

the inflorescence. The plant being a female, it was fertilized by

the flowers of a male, the inflorescence of which had for the

most part been cut off, to give an increased luxuriance to the

remaining part, and an abundance of seed was produced. From

this seed twenty plants were raised, and six of them not only

have three leaves opposite, but five of them germinated with

three equal opposite cotyledons ; and in two instances, two em-

bryos were produced, in one of them the two being adherent by

their cauliculi. Of the five plants with three cotyledons, a

part are males, so that a permanent tricotyledonous variety could

most probably be produced by cultivation, particularly as the

tricotyledonous plants are all of them amongst the largest, the

greater part of the dicotyledonous beg comparatively small.

This unexpected result suggested that by cutting away the

greater part of the inflorescence of a plant just before flowering,

so as to give the remaining flowers an increased quantity of sap,

improved varieties might be produced. For this purpose a

variety of red wheat was allowed to grow till it became evident

the ears had begun to form, although they had not protruded

from their sheaths; and all the smaller stems were then cut

away, leaving only two, the upper half of each ear being sub-

sequently cut off, as soon as it began to protrude from its sheath,

by which it was expected a vigour would be acquired by the re-

maining anthers which could not otherwise be attained. During

their progress to maturity, fresh shoots frequently sprang from

the roots, which were always removed as soon as they appeared.

Of this seed five grains were planted the following autumn, and

although grown under circumstances less favourable than the

year before, the ears were decidedly longer, from an increased

length of the rachis, giving them a peculiar appearance* ; and

one of the ears had five of its spikelets containing five seeds

each, four being the highest number of the year beforey. It

may therefore be supposed that an increased vigour in growth

* An ear had been kept, which allowed the comparison to be made.

+ Wheat-ears haying some of the spikelets ‘five-set,’ are found occa-

sionally in the most luxuriant corn-fields (on the borders of them only),

but are not known to occur under other circumstances; but this plant was

grown in poor ground, being only 3 feet high, and this same variety of

wheat, when it is ‘ five-set,’ has not the increased length of ear alluded to

as an effect of the experiment.

and Monstrous Flowers by Pruning. 345

has been gained in one year, giving to the ear a different habit;

and although a distinct variety was not produced, yet the same

process continued yearly, selecting the largest grains of the year

before, might lead to useful results.

As serving to show the facility with which a departure from

an ordinary mode of growth may occasionally be effected, merely

through a superabundant supply of sap from pruning, a variety

of inflorescence was in a few weeks produced in a plant of Atri-

plex angustifolia, which may deserve attention, because it is not

known, that I am aware of, to flower in this very unusual way,

however rich the soil may be in which it is growing; and this

plant was not very luxuriant, as it grew m a rather poor soil.

It was allowed to grow till most of its branches had the appear-

ance of commencing inflorescence, and then about half of them

were removed, and the remainder more or less cropped, the

young shoots which subsequently sprouted being cut off every

week or ten days. The remaining portion soon acquired a con-

gested appearance, and it was found on examination that the

receptacles of some of the female flowers had produced additional

female flowers ; from two to six, and in one instance seven were

observed, each having two sepals as usual, and the ovary two

stigmas. When two, they were opposite the sepals; when five

or six, they irregularly surrounded the ovary.

These flowers, developed from the receptacle, may serve to

explain the origin of a singular monstrosity occurring in Dian-

thus barbatus*, in which a flower, the calyx of which consisted

of the usual number of parts, had within it five imperfect flowers,

which grew from the receptacle so as to surround the ovary ; and

the same variation in growth is also noticed as occurring im the

Clove Carnation.

A monstrosity occasionally occurs in Prunus spinosa, appa-

rently produced in the same way as in the Aériplex, consisting

of flowers with double the number of petals and stamens, and

two or three ovaries. .

Should such experiments on other plants be followed by the

production of permanent varieties from the seed, it will become

obvious that the grazing of cattle would occasionally give rise

to varieties, inasmuch as the greater part of the inflorescence of

a ae is often destroyed, leaving a few flowers only to perfect

seed,

* Phytologist, vol. ii. p. 667.

344 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Feeundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

XXXV.—The Process of Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. By Dr. L.

RADLKOFER.

[Continued from p. 262. ]

4. Mossess.

THE opinion that the antheridia of Mosses constitute the male

reproductive organs of these plants, is as old as the observation

that they are matured and their contents discharged at the same

epoch as that at which the archegonia are developed,—as old, in

fact, as any minute investigation of the characters of Mosses.

Micheli*, Dilleniust+, Linnzeus }, and Haller§, generally compared

the spores of the Mosses with the pollen-grains of the Phanero-

gamia, and therefore took the capsule for the male and the antheri-

dia for the female organs ; while Micheli, Schreber ||, and others

had proclaimed the paraphyses, Hull] the teeth of the peristome,

KG6lreuter** the calyptra, Schmidel++ the cells between the inner

and outer walls of the capsule, Miller} the upper part of the

columella inserted in the operculum, and O. F. Miiller$§ (im the

Jungermanniez) the abortive archegonia—as male organs ;—

Hedwig ||||, however, first observed the development of the young

plants from the spores, detected the relation in time in which

the perfect condition of the antheridia, first discovered by him

in the majority of Mosses (to which, also, Schmidel J ascribed a

fecundating office), stood to the archegonia, and in consequence

of this pronounced decidedly for the above-mentioned view.

This opinion remained predominant from that time; and while,

in recent times, more definite evidence was, with right, required

of the sexuality of the plants, yet, in the face of the continually

multiplying observations of the sterility of dicecious Mosses in

the absence of antheridium-bearing individuals, criticism could

scarcely do more than cause Hedwig’s opinion to be expressed

with a little less determination. Still more lately, however, an

analogy was sought to be established between the spores and

* Noya Gen. Plant. Flor. 1729, p. 108. pl. 59, u. 5.

+ Histor. Muscorum. Oxon. 1741.

+ Syst. Natur. ed. 12. Holm. 1767, 1. p. 698.

§ Historia Stirpium. Bern. 1768.

|| J. Ch. D. Schreber, De Phasco Observationes. Lips. 1770, p. xix.

{| History of Plants. London, 1751.

** Das entdeckte Geheimn. der Krypt. Karlsruhe, 1777, pp. 34, 133.

+t Dissert. de Buxbaumia. Erlang. 1758, § xxiv. p. 37.

{£ Illustration of the Sex. System of Linnzeus. London, 1779, 1. p. 104,

pl. 103. figs. 10-13.

§ Flor. Friedrichsdal. Argentor. 1767, p. 188, no. 378.

\|\| Theoria Generat. et Fruct. Plant. Crypt. Petrop. 1784.

*{{ Icones Plant. ed. 2, Erlang. 1793, i. p. 85. no. 4.

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 345

pollen-grains—not, however, in the same sense as by Linneeus—

by Valentine* and Schleiden+, so long as the latter regarded

the pollen-grain as the vegetable ovum.

The antheridia consist, in the Liverworts}, of an ellipsoidal

mass of small cubic cells, which are enclosed by a layer of larger

cells containing chlorophyll; sometimes they are imbedded in

the frondose stem (Riccia, Pellia), or on a special receptacle (Mar-

chantiee) ; sometimes they are borne on small cellular pedicels

on the frond (Fossombronia), or on the axils of the leaves (leafy

Jungermannica). In the Mosses§ their structure is the same,

but their form is in general more cylindrical, their place at the

end of the stem (of the shoot). In the interior of each of those

eubic cells, which, when the antheridium is perfectly ripe, separate

from their fellows and become absorbed, is formed, nearly filling

it, a lenticular vesicle (daughter-cell ?see on this point Nageli if

who calls it a ‘seminal utricle’ = samen- blischen), in which is

developed a spirally-coiled spermatozoid J. After the escape of

the vesicle from the opened apex of the antheridium, each sper-

matogzoid is set free, by rupture or solution of the vesicle, and

moves about in the water by the help of two long cilia.

Schmidel**, to whom we are indebted for the } knowledge of the

antheridia of ia erworts, detected the motion of the discharged

contents of the antheridia of Fossombronia pusilla, without clearly

perceiving the spermatozoids themselves ; the same was the case

with Nees v. Esenbeck in respect to Sphagnum capillifolium+t.

The latter regarded the vesicles, set in motion by the still en-

* Trans. Linn. Soe. xvii. London, 1837.

7 Grundz. wiss. Botanik.

{ Vide on this point the excellent works of—

Nees vy. Esenbeck, Naturgesch. d. europ. Lebermoose. Berlin, 1833.

G. W. Bischoff, Bemerk. iib. die Lebermoose. Nova Acta A. C. Ll. C.

Xvi. pt. 2. p. 924.

J. B. W. Lindenberg, Monogr. der Riccien. Noy. Act. A. C. L. C. xviii.

pt. 1. p. 392.

C. M. Gottsche, Ueb. Haplomitr. Hookeri. Nova Acta, xx. pt. 1. p. 293.

Hofmeister, Vergleich. Untersuch. &e., hoh. Krypt. Leips. 1851.

Thuret, Rech. sur les Anthéridies des Cryptog. Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér.

xvi. (1851).

§ See W. P. Schimper, Rech. anat. et morpholog. sur les Mousses.

Strasburg, 1848.

Thuret, J. c.

Hofmeister, /. c., and Botan. Zeit. 1849, p. 793.

|| Zeitschr. f. wiss. Botamik, Heft 3 & 4. Zurich, 1846, p. 105.

{| Schacht believes that he has certainly observed that the spiral filaments

are produced from the nuclei of the cells, of which one exists in each of the

daughter-cells formed in fours inside the antheridium-cells. Vide Pflan-

zenzelle. Berlin, 1852, pp. 107, 112; Ueb. Antherid. der Leberm. Bot.

Zeit. 1852, p. 155.

** Tcones Plant. ed. 2. Erlang. 1793, i. p. = no. 5. pl. 22. fig. 8.

TT Flora, 1822, B. i. p. 33. pl. 1.

346 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

closed spermatozoids, as Monads; the former observed the sper-

matic vesicles with the spermatozoids imperfectly extricated

from them, and described them as actively-moving, stalked

molecules, possessing a tail. Later observers, as Mirbel*, over-

looked this motion. Unger?t first distinctly observed the sper-

matozoa themselves, and called them Spzrillum bryozoon. De-

caisne and Thuret{ observed their cilia. Hofmeister§, who,

following Nageli||, traced the antheridia back to the first cell,

could find only two cilia im Pela. Schacht™ did not see more

than one anywhere.

The statements of Gottsche** and Schacht++, that the an-

theridia of some Liverworts have the envelope composed of a

double layer of cells,—and those of Unger{t, Schleiden§$§, and

Schacht || ||, that the whole of the spermatic vesicles are contamed

in one large cell whose wall les immediately beneath the enve-

lope,—are in contradiction to the observations of Hofmeister 94.

The archegonia, for a knowledge of whose whole course of

development we are likewise indebted to Hofmeister, in their

earliest stages exactly resemble the rudimentary antheridia,

When fully developed, they consist of flask-shaped organs,

mostly stationed at the ends of the shoots, and surrounded by

special leaves (perichetium, Mosses), or cup-like envelopes (calya,

Liverworts) ; more rarely they are immersed in the flat stem

(Riccia). The axial row of cells of each archegonium loses its

horizontal walls by solution, so that they are converted into a

canal, which leads below into an enlarged cell (central cell of

the archegonium) lying in the expanded part, and at the epoch

of puberty opens at the top by the separation of the uppermost

layer of cells bounding it. According to Hofmeister***, the

central cell of the archegonium contains a daughter-cell formed

* Compl. des Obs. sur Marchantia. Mém. de l’Instit. de France, xii.

p- 377. Paris, 1835.

+ Ueb. Anthere vy. Sphagnum. Flora, 1834, i. p. 145.—Neuer Beob. tib.

die Moos-anthere, &c. Nova Acta A. C. L. C. xviii. pt. 2. p. 687.—Weitere

Beob. iib. die Samenthierch. der Pflanzen. Ibid. p. 785 (Ann. des Se. nat.

2 sér. xi. p. 257, 1839).

t Ann. des Sc. nat. 3 sér. iii. p. 14 (1845); xvi. pl. 10-14 (1851).

§ Vergleich. Untersuch. &e. Leipsic, 1851, p. 16.

|| Zeitschr. f. wiss. Botanik, Heft i. p. 172. Zurich, 1844,

{| Das Mikroskop, &c., 2nd ed. Berlin, 1855, p. 86.

** Nova Acta, xx. pt. 1. p. 294. pl. 16. fig. 5.

tt Pflanzenzelle, p. 109; Mikroskop, p. 83.

tt Nova Acta, xviii. pt. 2. p. 689. pl. 53. fig. 1, 6.

§ Grundz. d. wiss. Botanik, 3rd ed. u. pp. 67 & 80.

\|\| Pflanzenzelle, p. 110.

§{ Vergleich. Unters. &c. Leips. 1851, pp. 43, 69; and Flora, 1855,

. 438.

Pet Flora, 1854, p. 259.

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. B47

round a secondary nucleus (the rudiment of the future capsule)

before the time when the canal opens at the top. Pringsheim*

states that he could not convince himself of the presence of this

cell before fecundation.

The majority of the archegonia are arrested at this stage

of development. In the rest, as Hofmeister has shown, and as

Valentine} likewise had previously described, there originates

from the last-mentioned free cell, by repeated division and the

enlargement of the newly produced cells, a more or less fusiform

cellular mass (formerly described as a ‘nucleus,’ and regarded as

an integral part of the archegonium—and so even by Schacht f),

lying free in the simultaneously expanding cavity of the original

central cell, its lower end penetrating, in its further growth, into

the base of the archegonium, and becoming intimately con-

nected with the surrounding structures through the products

of solution of the cells which it here displaces. The arche-

gonium being no longer capable of withstanding its continued

vertical extension, becomes circularly torn at the bottom, and

its upper fragment is carried up by the young capsule as the

calyptra, while the remnant remains as the vaginula§. I need

not further describe the development of the lower part of the

cellular body into the seta (pedunculus), and of the upper into

the theca (capsula), still less the formation of the spores through

quaternary cell-division in mother-cells which are arranged in

one or more layers. It is equally unnecessary to discuss here

the analogies between this and the formation of pollen in the

Phanerogamia||._ The spore-capsules of the Marchantiee and of

* Pringsheim, Ueb. Befrucht. u. Keimung der Algen, &c. Monatsber.

Berlin. Acad. 1855, p. 15.

t W. Valentine (Trans. Linn. Soc. of London, xvii. p. 466, read May

7th and June 18th, 1833) had already described a free cell at the bottom

of the archegonium, and assures us that he had succeeded in dissecting it

out uninjured. See also his figures, pl. 23. figs. 1-7, and the explanation,

p. 482.—H. Philibert likewise detected a free cell (‘ embryo-cell’) before

fecundation in the central cell of the archegonium (which he called the

‘embryo-sac’) both in Mosses and Liverworts, and in the Ferns. Comptes

Rendus, 1852, p.851; Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd ser. xi. p. 482 (1853).

{ Bot. Zeitung, 1850, p. 459. pl. 6. figs. 1-4.

§ Vide Hofmeisier, /. c. supra; and on the structure of the ripe capsule,

Lantzius-Beninger, Nova Acta, xxii. pt. 1; and Schimper, Recherch. sur

les Mousses, &c. Strasburg, 1848.

|| See hereon—

V. Mohl, Ueb.’Entw. d. Sporen von Anthoceros levis. Verm. Schr. p. 84,

au eee tb. d. Entw. u. Bau der Sporen der Crypt. Gewiichse,

id. op. p. 67.

Lantzius-Beninga, De Evolutione Sporid. in Capsul. Muscorum. Gét-

ting. 1844.

Schacht, Beitr. z. Entwick. d. Frucht u. Sporen v. Anthoceros levis.

Bot. Zeit, 1850, p. 457.

348 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Feeundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

Riccia are distinguished merely by their lower portion not be-

coming developed into a pedicel.

Only Anthoceros possesses, according to Hofmeister and

Schacht, a structure of the archegonia aberrant from that hitherto

described. They do not appear here as organs isolated from

the rest of the cellular tissue, a particular row of cells of the

frondose stem, simply, becoming converted into the archegonial

canal. The cell lying immediately beneath this row assumes

the part of the central cell of an archegonium.

Hofmeister found inside the calyx of Jungermannia bicuspidata

and divaricata, beside the just-opened archegonia, spermatozoids

still in motion ; motionless ones frequently in the mouth of the

archegonial canal*, and, according to his most recent publica-

tion}, still moving ones which had penetrated a third of the

distance down the archegonial canal in Funaria hygrometrica.

A similar statement is made by Schimper in respect to Sphagnum.

The development of the young plant of Mosses from the spore

was first observed by Hedwig; more recently, by Nees v. Hsen-

beck, Bischoff, and, above all, by Gottsche, W. Schimper and

Hofmeister§. In the Mosses, it is not produced directly from

the internal cell of the spore, but through the intermediation of

a tissue of jointed confervoid filaments—protonema (pro-embryo,

Hofmeister). According to Hofmeister, these filaments are not

all of one kind, some appearing to correspond to stems, others to

leaves. The former only are capable of development, by the divi-

sion of their terminal cell by means of alternately inclined septa,

into bud-rudiments, sometimes bearing leaves and root-fibrils,

and thus of becoming the foundation of perfect Moss-plants.

When they penetrate into the soil, they acquire oblique septa,

and are destitute of chlorophyll, like the so-called roots of the

Mosses ; on the other hand, Nageli|| and Schimper have observed

that the protonema-threads developed in the axils of leaves or

from the cells of leaves (aérial roots of authors), and even the

roots of Mosses, become green, form perpendicular cross-septa

and produce buds, in situations where they are exposed to the

light.

"In regard to the Liverworts, Hofmeister’s account of the de-

velopment at least renders the universal occurrence of a pro-

embryo doubtful§[. Gottsche’s opinion is to the same effect **,

* Vergleich. Unters. pl. 8. figs. 49 (properly 79) & 61, pl. 9. fig. 2.

pp: 37, 38. t Flora, 1854, p. 259.

+ Ann. des Se. nat. 4 sér. i. p. 320 (1854).

§ Op. cit. supra.

|| Zeitschr. f. wiss. Botanik, Heft ii. p. 168. Zurich, 1845.

{| See also Hofmeister, Ueb. die Stellung der Moose in Systeme. Flora,

1852, p. 6.

is Nova Acta A.C. L. C. xx. pt. 1. p. 386.

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 349

Bischoff thought he detected a pro-embryo in some species*.

J. Groenland also regarded the cellular body produced by the

spore in all the species he examined, which by no means passed

gradually into the proper frond, as the pro-embryo ( protonema)t.

5. Preriporpe# (Ferns and their allies).

It would lead too far if I more than mentioned summarily the

attempts of the older botanists to demonstrate in the Filices (in

the widest sense) sexual organs, on the cooperation of which they

believed the regular reproduction of all plants to depend—

attempts which were taken up again with the more zeal, since

Hedwig had made good so preponderating a probability of the

existence of sexuality in the Mosses. While Linnzeus and his

predecessors thought that the spores of these plants generally

must be identified with pollen, subsequent investigations as to

their further development, their germination, the final result of

which was known even by Morison and Stehelin, led, here as

everywhere else, to their unconditional estimation as seeds, and

consequently to that of the spore-capsules as female organs.

The function of male organs of the flower has been attributed

successively, in the true Ferns, to corpuscles (glandular hairs)

occurring among the ramenta of the young petiole (Michelit)

—upon these ramenta (Griffith $)—and on the points of the

indusia (Schmidel ||) ; to the stomata (Gleichen{]); to the annulus

of the capsules (Schmidel**) ; to groups of spiral-fibrous cells at

the ends of the nerves of the leaves (Bernhardi) ; to the indusium

(K6lreuter++); tothe glandular hairs of the nerves of the pimnz

(Hedwig tt); to the contents of young spore-capsules with their

spores (Gaertner and Mirbel) ; to the loose cells of the lenticels

of Tree-ferns (V. Martius$$) ; to the glandular hairs occurring

* Bischoff, Bemerk. z. Entwick. der Lebermoose. Bot. Zeit. 1853,

p- 113 (from observations made in 1828-9).

+ Mém. sur la Germin. de quelques Hépatiques. Ann. des Se. nat. 4 sér.

. p- 2 (1854).

{ Tozzelius, in Append. ad Michelii Cat. pl. hort. Czes. Florent. Florent.

748, p. 135.

§ Posthumous Papers, Journal of Travels (teste A. Henfrey, Rep. Brit.

Assoc. 1852, p. 107).

|| Icon. Plant. ed. 2. Erlang. 1793, p. 48. pl. 13. figs. 6-9.

4] Das Neueste aus dem Reiche der Pflanzen. Nuremb. 1764, p. 24.

pl. 3. fig. 6. Abschn. ii. p. 30. pl. 24. fig. 9.

** Dissert. de Buxbaumia. Erlang. 1758, pp. 37, 38.

a Das entdeckte Geheimn. der Kryptogamen. Karlsruhe, 1777, pp. 89,

135.

{{ Theoria Gener. et Fruct. Pl. Crypt. Petrop. 1784, p. 40.

§§ Denkschr. der Bot. Gesellsch. in Regensb., ii. p. 125 (teste V. Mohl,

Verm. Schrift. p. 111).

- 850 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

on the pedicels of the spore-capsules of many Ferns (Presl*,

Meyent), &c. In the Equisetacee, Du Hamel t, Hedwig §, and

Vaucher || regarded as stamens the extremities of the elaters,

upon which they had observed small granules; Kélreuter re-

garded the shields of the spore-fruits as stamens ;—in the

Lycopodiaceze the membrane of the capsules. In the Rhi-

‘zocarpex, most botanists regarded the small spores as male,

and the large as female organs**,

Ferns (in the restricted sense).—Observations on the develop-

ment of Ferns from their spores led Nageli++ to the discovery of

antheridia upon the lower face of the prothallium ( pro-embryo

of some authors), previously described (by Kaulfuss{{, Nees v.

Esenbeck $$, &c.), and called the pseudo-cotyledon. Leszezye-

Suminski, Wigand, Thuret, V. Mercklin, Schacht, Hofmeister,

and Henfrey have furnished contributions to the history of their

development and the knowledge of their contents. In their

origin and general structure they repeat the type of the antheridia

of Mosses, and are usually elevated above the surface of the

prothallium upon one or a few superimposed peduncular cells.

Their envelope consists, according to Hofmeister||||, of a few

large cells. These enclose a globular group of small cubic cells,

whose walls are dissolved when the antheridia are ripe, and thus

set free the vesicles (primary nuclei of the cubic cells?) con-

tained in them, which have the spiral threads im their interior.

The uppermost enveloping cell of the antheridia then tears in a

stellate manner, the spermatic vesicles escape, and are likewise

ruptured, letting out the spirally-wound spermatozoids, which

are furnished with numerous cilia at the anterior, thicker ex-

tremity.

According to Wigand§/{, the antheridia of different species,

and often even those of one and the same prothallium, possess a

different structure, in some cases consisting of a single cell.

* Tentamen Pteridographiz. Prague, 1836, p. 15. pl. 11, a. B.

+ Pflanzenphysiologie, ii. p. 199.

{ Physique des Arbres. Paris, 1838.

§ Op. supra cit. p. 35.

|| Monogr. des Préles. Mém. de la Soe. d’Hist. nat. de Genéve, i. pt. 2.

pp- 350, 359 (Geneva, 1822).

{ Op. supra cit. pp. 119, 135; pp. 73, 174.

** See the more complete bibliography in Mettenius, Beitr. z. Kenntn.

der Rhizocarpen. Frankfurt, 1846.

+t Zeitschr. f. wiss. Botanik, i. Zurich, 1844, p. 168.

ti G. Fr. Kaulfuss, Das Wesen der Farrenkrauter. Leipsie, 1827.

§§ Entwickl. der Pieris serrulata. Nova Act. A.C.L.C. xii. pt. 1. p. 157.

\\\| Vergleich. Untersuch. Leipsic, 1839, p. 79 et seq.

qq Alb. Wigand, Entw. der Farrenkrauter. Bot. Zeit. 1849, p.17; and

Botanisch, Untersuch. Brunswick, 1854, p. 44,

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 351

Leszezyce-Suminski* thus represents the antheridia of Pteris ser-

rulata. Hofmeister observed such conditions only in the antheri-

dia of the proliferous shoots of abortive prothalliat. Thurett

and Mercklin§ regarded the centre of the antheridium as an in-

tercellular space ; Schacht||, in agreement with his views of the

structure of the antheridia of Mosses, as a large cell, inside

which the swarming-filament cells originated im fours in mother-

cells. Henfrey{] agrees with him in regard to the first point.

The shape of the spermatozoids and the mode of arrangement of

their cilia, first detected by Thuret and Suminski, are also stated

by Wigand** to be very various.

The archegonia, the discovery of which we owe to Leszezye-

Suminski++, appear a little later, before the successive production

of antheridia is at an end,—ordinarily upon the same, but in a

few cases upon separate prothallia. They present themselves as

shortly cylindrical, ellipsoidal organs projecting from the pro-

thallium on the lower surface, and consist of four (8-10-joimted)

rows of cells surrounding a central canal. The canal is formed

either by the solution of the transverse walls of a fifth axial row

of cells, or by the separation of the four rows at their common

commissure. Both modes of formation occur in different arche-

gonia of the same species, even of the same prothallium{{. Ac-

cording to Mettenius $$, the lower part of the canal is formed as

an intercellular space above the central cell of the archegonium

(called by Mettenius the germinal vesicle) before the longitu-

dinal growth of the cylindrical neck of the archegonium is com-

pleted. This canal leads at the bottom to a cell, distinguished

by its magnitude, seated at the base of the archegonium—the

central cell of the archegonium. In this, as in the Mosses, be-

fore the opening of the canal externally, a free cell (germinal

vesicle), a daughter-cell, is formed around a new secondary cell-

nucleus ||||, constituting the foundation of the new plant4/4.

* Zur Entwickl. der Farrnkr. Berlin, 1848.

+ Vergleich. Untersuch. &e. p. 84.

t Sur les Anthérid. des Fougéres. Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xi. p. 5 (1849),

§ Beobacht. an dem Prothall. der Farrnkr. Petersburg, 1850.

|| Pflanzenzelle. Berlin, 1852, p. 114; and Beitrage zur Entwickl. der

Farrnkrauter, ‘ Linnea,’ xxii. p. 753 (1849).

{| On the Dev. of Ferns from their Spores. Trans. Linn. Soc. London,

xxl. p. 12] (read June 15 and Nov. 2 & 16, 1852).

** Op. cit. p. 46. +f Op. cit.

{{ The Ferns thus form, in reference to the construction of the arche-

gonia, the connecting link between the Mosses on one side and the Rhizo-

carpeze and Lycopodiacez on the other. Hofmeister, Vergl. Untersuch.

p- 81. §§ Beitr. z. Botanik, Heft i. p. 18. Heidelberg, 1850.

\|\|_ Vide Hofmeister, Ueb. Befrucht. der Farrnkr. ‘ Flora,’ 1854. (Ann.

Nat. Hist. 2 ser. xiv. p. 272.)

|] As to the presence of this cell at the epoch before the archegonium

352 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

As a rule*, only one archegonium becomes further developed.

The cell just described increases in size, until it fills the central

cell, and is converted by repeated divisions into a multicellular,

ellipsoidal body lying in the cavity of the archegonium, formimg

thus the rudiment of the new plant—the primary, never-developed

embryonal axis. In the course of further growth, its point gra-

dually acquires rather intimate adhesion to the cells of the base

of the archegonium. Beneath the point, at the anterior side,

turned towards the younger, cordately-notched border of the

prothallium, sprouts out the first frond, soon breaking through

the archegonium and curving upwards. Opposite this, from the

side next the older part of the prothallium bearmg the antheridia

and radical hairs, arises the first adventitious root. The main

(axial) rvot, the lower end of the ovate embryo, remains un-

developed. Between the first frond and the permanently un-

developed point of the embryo soon arises, as a little cellular

papilla, the secondary, developing axis of the new plant, which

continually throws out new fronds from beneath its apex.

On abortive prothallia, which under favourable circumstances

continue to vegetate for a long time, new archegonia are suc-

cessively developed, but of different shape, wanting the elongated

neck ; they were regarded by Suminski and Mercklin as younger

stages of development of the archegonia. In addition to these,

there oceur numerous shoots bearing abundance of unicellular

antheridia.

Leszezye-Suminski and Mercklin+ have observed the entrance

of the spermatozoa into the canal of the archegonia. The account,

long ago and generally refuted, given by the former, of the

origin of the embryo from the end of a spermatozoid which had

entered into the central cell of the archegonium—arising from

confounding the coagulated protoplasm of the archegonial canal

with a spermatozoid—requires no further notice. Even Mercklin

modified Suminski’s statements, saying that the spiral filaments

which penetrated the archegonium “here dispose a cell (through

dynamic or material action ?) to development under definite laws

becomes either abortive or further developed, Hofmeister, Wigand, Merck-

lin, and Suminski are agreed; Pringsheim, on the contrary, states that

here, as in the Mosses, he could not detect it at this time as a cell (vide

op. cit.). With him accords Henfrey, if we properly connect his compa-

rison of the said structure with the germinal vesicles of the Phanerogamia

(Linn. Trans. xxi. p. 125), and his opimion, subsequently to be mentioned,

that these germinal vesicles possess no membrane before fecundation, but

are mere masses of protoplasm.

* Exceptional cases were observed by Mercklin and Wigand (vide op.

cit. supra).

+ Vide Op. cit. supra, and Mercklin, Offentl. Briefe an H. Schacht, ‘ Lin-

nea,’ xxiii, p. 732,

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom 353

of formation, whose product is the frond.’ Hofmeister has

recently seen* the spermatozoids penetrate through the attenuated

and softened membrane of the central cell of the archegonium, into

its interior, and then for a time move round the free part of the

germinal vesicle. The inner end of the canal of such archegonia

appeared closed by the subsequent expansion of the surrounding

cells,—the first sign of fecundation having taken place.

Eaquiseracex.—The so-called germination of the spores of the

Equiseta had been long ago minutely investigated, especially by

Agardh+, Vauchert, and Bischoff§, but it was only after the dis-

covery of the antheridia of the Ferns had excited new conjec-

tures, that the antheridia were observed in the irregularly lobed

prothallium of the Equiseta, first by Thuret ||, and afterwards

by Milde and Hofmeister**. They occur upon the border of

the prothallium, as conical, cellular papille, not definitely sepa-

rated from the prothallium, but with their bases imbedded in it ;

the cells of their simple envelope are directly continuous with

the upper layer of cells of the prothallium. The nucleus con-

sists, in the young state, of small cubical cells, in which are

formed spiral-thread-producing vesicles, in the same way as in

the Ferns. When perfectly ripe, they open by the separation

from each other of the upper cells of the envelope, which remain

connected with the lower cells only by their inferior walls, and

surround the orifice like a crown}t. The spermatozoids are larger

than those of the Ferns—in fact, are the largest hitherto met

with in plants, and consist of a band-like body, wound like a

corkscrew, furnished with numerous cilia at the anterior ex-

tremity. The posterior extremity, in contrast to that of all

other known spermatozoids, is much spread out.

The emission of the spermatozoids from the spermatic vesicles

is often imperfect, as occurs also in the Mosses and Ferns; the

vesicle then remains hanging on the anterior or posterior ex-

tremity of the spermatozoid, and is carried along by it.

The first notice I find of the detection of a (dead) archegonium

* Flora, 1854, p. 257. (Ann. Nat. Hist. 2nd ser. xiv. p. 273.)

+ Observ. sur la Germination des Préles. Mém. du Muséum, Paris, ix.

p- 283 (1822).

{ Monogr. des Préles. Mém. de la Soc. phys. &c. de Genéve, i. pt. 2.

p- 347 (1822). Mém. sur la Fructification des Préles. Mém. du Muséum,

Paris, x. p. 429 (1823).

§ Kryptog. Gewachs. Nuremberg, 1828.—Ueb. Entw. d. Equiseteen.

Nova Acta L. C. N.C. xiv. pt. 2. p. 779 (1828).

|| Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xi. p. LO (1849).

{| Zur Entwickl. der Equiset. u. Rhizocarp. Nov. Act. xxiii. pt. 2. p. 630.

De Sporarum Equiset. Germinat. Linnea, xxii. p. 558 (1850).

** Vergleich. Untersuch. &e. p. 100.

ti See Thuret’s figure, Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xvi. pl. 15 (1851).

Am. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 23

354 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

on the prothallium of the Equiseta is by Mettenius*. Hofmeis-

ter+ and Milde} had figured rudiments of archegonia in their

earlier essays ; subsequently these two observers simultaneously

discovered them in a developed condition on prothallia which,

after various, often unsuccessful attempts, they had raised from

the spores; Milde in Equisetum Telmateia$, Hofmeister || in

Equisetum arvense (pratense and variegatum).

In the species hitherto observed the archegonia are ordinarily

developed, and at a comparatively late period, on separate pro-

thallia{], not bearing antheridia at the same time, distinguished

by more vigorous vegetation, or at least upon separate, later-

formed shoots of the prothallium**. They originate at the border

of the prothallium, but by the continued development of the

mass of the prothallium under them, they are ultimately brought

upon its upper surface. Their structure is essentially the same

as in the Ferns; their course of development is as follows}+ :—

A cell of the surface of the prothallium bulges outwards and

divides into two superposed cells by forming a septum parallel

to the surface of the prothallium. The lower cell of the two is

the central cell of the archegonium ; the upper cell is divided by

two septa at right angles to each other, but perpendicular to the

upper surface of the central cell, into four cells, which by re-

peated division by horizontal septa, form the cylindrical neck of

the archegonium, consisting of four collateral rows of cells. The

cells bordering on the central cell, dividing many times, form one

or two epithelium-like layers of cells surrounding the central cell.

The cells at the apexof the neck of the archegonium elongate more

than the lower ones, and curve back, after the formation of the

archegonial canal (by the separation of the four rows of cells at

their common commissure), like the top of the stigma of a Cam-

panula. In the very earliest stages of development of the arche-

gonium, a free daughter-cell—the germinal vesicle—is formed

round a secondary nucleus in the central cell{{. That part of

* Beitrag. zur Botanik, Heft 1. Heidelberg, 1850, p. 22.

+ Vergleich. Untersuch. Leipsic, 1851], pl. 20. figs. 61, a, b, & 62.

{ Op. supra cit. pl. 59. fig. 47, a.

§ Das Auftreten der Archegon. am Vork. von Equiset. Telmateia, Ehr.

Flora, 1852, p. 497. (Aug. 28. From a private letter to Prof. Schleiden,

accompanied by a drawing, dated June 20, 1852, I find that this discovery

was made simultaneously with Hofmeister’s.)—Zur Entwick. d. Equiseteen

Bot. Zeitung, Aug. 6, 1852, p. 537.

|| Ueb. Keimung der Equisetaceen. Flora, 1852 (June 7), p. 385.—

Beitr. z. Kenntn. der Gefiass-Kryptog. Abhandl. Sachsisch. Gesellsch. der

Wissensch. Leipsic, 1852, p. 168. pl. 17-19.

{| B. Bischoff describes an exceptional case in Eq. sylvaticum, L. (Be-

merk, z. Entwick. der Equiset. Bot. Zeit. 1853, p. 97.)

** Vide Milde, Nova Acta A.C. L. C. xxiv. pt. 1. pp. 68, 71 (1854).

+t Vide Hofmeister, op. supra cit.

ti Milde was fortunate enough to press out this cell ‘entire’ from a

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 355

the contents of the central cell not consumed in nourishing the

germinal vesicle, appears to be discharged into the canal of the

archegonium.

Ordinarily, more than one archegonium is fecundated on the

same prothallium. The earliest processes after fecundation has

taken place, are so completely accordant with those in the Ferns,

that their description may be passed over. Here, again, the

primary axis of the embryo remains undeveloped. On one side of

its apex shoots forth the secondary axis of the new plant, soon

turning upward and penetrating through the prothallium; op-

posite to it, and breaking through the prothallium below, appears

the first adventitious root.

Ruizocarrex.—To Niageli* we owe the knowledge of the

spermatozoids of these plants. They are developed as simple

filaments in minute vesicles (nuclei?), which are contained,

singly (Pilularia) or several together (Salvinia), inside small cells

produced during the so-called germination of the microspores ;

this germination consisting of the bursting of the cuticle and

the protrusion of the internal cell in the form of a tube about as

long as the spore, inside of which those cells are formed, after-

wards to be set free by its bursting. In Salvinza the microspores

are agglutinated together inside their sporangium; they germi-

nate without leaving it, their tubes breaking out through itt.

From the isolated cells the spermatozoids themselves emerge at

once, without any previous escape of their parent-vesicles from

the spore-cell. In their motion and the arrangement of their cilia

they exactly resemble the spermatozoids of the Polypodiacezt.

The same inquirer opened the way to the correct compre-

hension of the prothallium, which emerges from the summit of

the megaspore, composed of few cells, and remains in connexion

with the spore to bear the archegonia there. Our insight into

the import of this organ was completed by the investigations of

Hofmeister§ and Mettenius ||.

The archegonia of Pzlularia perfectly agree with those of the

Equisetacez in the main points of structure. In this, as in the

next genus, the prothallium bears only one archegonium.

In Marsilea there is a little difference, since not only the four

ay ruptured archegonium. Nova Acta A. C. L. C. xxiv. pt. 1. p. 69

(1854)

* Fortpflanz. der Rhizocarpeen. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Bot. Heft ii. & iv.

p- 188. Zurich, 1846.

+ Milde, Beitr. z. Keim. v. Salon u. Pilularia. Nova Acta A.C. L. C.

xxl. pt. 2. p. 642. pl. 60.

{ Hofmeister, Vergleich. Untersuch. p. 109.

§ Op. supra cit. p. 103; and Fruchtbild. u. Keim. der héher. Krypt.

Bot. Zeit. 1849, p. 793.

|| Beitr. z. Botanik, Heft i. p. 3.

23%

356 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Feeundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

cells originally covering the central cell, but also those lying

beside them, undergo repeated division by cross-septa, parallel

to the outer surface of the prothallium, where the neck of the

archegonium appears immersed in the substance of the prothal-

lium instead of projecting in a cylindrical form above it.

In Salvinia, finally, this neck of the archegonium is composed

exclusively of these four covering-cells. The archegonial canal

leading to the central cell is then a short intercellular passage

formed by the separation of these cells at their common com-

missure. ‘Two germinal vesicles are often formed in the central

cell here*.

The transformation of the germinal vesicle into the embryo,

and its subsequent development, follow essentially the same type

as in the Equisetaceze and the Ferns.

The statements of earlier observers, that when the microspores

and megaspores are kept apart, the latter produce prothallia,

but no young plants, are confirmed by Hofmeister.

The microspores are formed inside spore-cases comparable with

those of the Ferns, collectively enclosed, with the megaspores,

in a common envelope, which constitutes the fruit (receptaculum)

of the Rhizocarpez. Their development is according to the same

type as that of the formation of pollen in the Phanerogamia, in

special mother-cells arranged tetrahedrally inside a mother-cell.

The megaspore is produced by the preponderating growth of

a young spore of this kind, accompanied by the displacement of

not merely the other young spores contained in the same mother-

cell, but also of all the rest of the spores in the whole sporange

(together with their enveloping mother-cells). In Salvinia, the

microspores and megaspores are contained in separate receptacles.

The analogy of structure between the large spore of Azolla

and that of Salvinia, as also between the microspores of the

same genera, has been demonstrated by Mettenius{.

Lycoropracex.—A. Selaginellee.—The excellent researches

of Mettenius§ and Hofmeister || show us that the small and large

spores of the Selaginellee behave exactly like the microspores and

megaspores of the preceding groups, both in reference to their

mode of development and their import in the process of reproduction.

As regards the first, it will suffice to observe, that the course

of development of the megaspore-capsule (Kugel-kapsel, Hofm.)

is the same as that of the microspore-capsule (Staub-kapsel, Hofm.),

* Flora, 1854, p. 257.

+ Among them was P. Savi, Sulla Salvinia natans, &c. Biblioth. Italic.

xx. (G. L. Duvernoy, De Salvinia nat. Dissert. Tiibmgen, 1825, p. 5).

+ Linnea, xx. (1847) ; Ann. des Se. nat, 3 sér. ix. p. 116 (1848),

§ Beitr. z. Botanik, p. 7.

|| Vergleich. Untersuch, p. 118.

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 397

as far as the formation of the mother-cells of the spores. In the

megaspore-capsule only one of these continues its development

—to the formation of four special mother-cells, and spores, all

of which here attain their full development. According to Hof-

meister, the spore-capsule is not produced from the leaf upon

which it afterwards appears implanted, as assumed by V. Mohl*,

but arises from the cells of the stem just above the leaf.

Five months after sowing, Hofmeister saw small globular cells

in the microspores, in which cells were developed spirally-coiled

spermatozoids, moving slowly after they had emerged from the

cells +.

Not until six weeks later occurs the so-called germination of

the megaspores, the development of a prothallium bearing arche-

gonia, so that fecundation could only be possible when later-

sown microspores were present at this epoch. While the mega-

spore is still contained in its capsule, it exhibits at its upper

part (under the point where it was originally in contact with

the three sister-spores, at which place meet three ridges with

longitudinal slits, corresponding to the commissural angles) a

double layer of cells, of which it is not yet decided whether they are

produced by free cell-formation in the manner of the endosperm-

cells in the embryo-sac of the Coniferse, or by cell-division. A

few repetitions of the process of longitudinal and transverse

cell-division convert this layer into the flat prothallium. At

several points on this arise archegonia formed by the horizontal

division of a cell bulging outwards, enlargement of the lower, new

cell mto the central cell, and the successive division of the upper

into two tiers, each composed of four cells, the upper tier of

which alone projects from the surface of the prothallium. The

archegonial canal and the germinal vesicle are formed as in the

Rhizocarpez. The free space in the cavity of the spore situated

below the prothallium becomes gradually filled wp with cellular

tissue which grows from above downwards.

The first step in the formation of the embryo is the horizontal

division of the germinal vesicle. Ordinarily this is repeated a

number of times, with simultaneous longitudinal extension of

the newly-formed cells; in this way is formed a pro-embryonal

cord of cells (suspensor) which penetrates downwards into the

cellular tissue filing the megaspore, and here first gives birth to

the body of the embryo, by the division of its end-cell by alter-

nately-inclined septa. The secondary axis is not produced from

the apical cell of the embryonal mass, but from one at the side,

quickly assuming an ascending direction, breaking through the

* H. Von Mohl, Vermischte Schriften, p. 106.

+t [We have found the spermatozoids developed, but not yet moving,

after a much shorter interval than this.—A. H.]

358 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

prothallium above and soon displaying leaves ; the first adven-

titious root appears opposite to it. The end of the primary axis

expands in the internal cavity of the spore, displacing the cel-

lular tissue existing there. It is rare for more than one embryo

to be formed on a prothallium.

B. Isoétee.—The reproduction of Jsoétes is the same in all

essential points as in Selaginella. The spermatozoids are deve-

loped in lenticular vesicles, which are produced singly or two

together in small cells formed from the contents of the micro-

spores (in their so-called germination). The spermatozoids are

filiform, with the anterior end thicker and ciliated, the posterior

attenuated; the movement is slow compared with that in the

Ferns. Mettenius observed this first*.

Hofmeistert gives a complete history of the stages of develop-

ment of the embryo. It agrees in its essentials with that of Sela-

ginella, but the suspensor is wanting. Rarely more than one

embryo is developed on the same prothallium. Hofmeister t

believes that he has often seen the remains of spermatozoids

which had ceased to moye, lying in the archegonial canal.

C. Lycopodiee.—There still exists here an essential gap in

our knowledge of the reproduction of the higher Cryptogamia.

The sowing of the spores of this group has never been attended

with any result hitherto, however frequent or varied the attempts

may have been. Since they only bear one kind of spore, it may

be conjectured that this produces in germination a prothallium

bearing both antheridia and archegonia.

6. PHANEROGAMIA.

In the Phanerogamia Meyen§ attempted a comparison be-

tween the granules of the fovilla (in part starch-granules, as in the

Onagracez) which exhibit molecular motion, and spermatozoids,

calling these granules “spermatic molecules.” Grisebach ||

imagined that he found in the winter-buds of Rhamnus infectoria

and other plants an apparatus analogous to the antheridia of the

Mosses and Ferns (to which at the same time he denied any

sexual import), believing that he found in them long-tailed cor-

puscles (““Phytozoa”) either enclosed in a cell or swarming about

free. Itzigsohn did not hesitate to assert that these phytozoa

were the true spermatozoids of the Phanerogamia{[. A produc-

tion of cellules in the pollen-tubes of the Coniferz, similar to

* Beitr. z. Botanik, p. 16.

+ Beitr. z. Kenntn. der Gefasskryptog. Abhandl. Sachsisch. Gesellsch.

der Wissenschaft. iv. p. 123. Leipsic, 1852. See here also for the other

bibliography on Isoétes. f Op. cit. p. 131.

§ Pflanzenphysiologie, ui. p. 192. || Botan. Zeitung, 1844, p. 661.

{ Bot. Zeit. 1849, p. 560.

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 859

what occurs in the tubes of the microspores, led Hofmeister to

the conjecture that spermatic filaments might also be produced

there* ; but his own later researches, and those of Schachtt,

have not confirmed this supposition.

Conrrer& and CycapE& (GyMNosPERMIA).—In the Coniferze

the investigation of the formation of the embryo has not arrived

at satisfactory conclusions in all points{. But there exists evi-

dence to produce overwhelming probability that it originates from

a cell—ua germinal vesicle,—with which the pollen-tube enters

into as intimate contact as in the rest of the Phanerogamia.

But the process of fecundation in Coniferz deviates strikingly in

two points.

The first deviation is in the organization of the ovule. The

embryo-sac here becomes filled-up with endosperm, by cell-

formation around free nuclei and subsequent cell-division, before

the complete penetration of the pollen-tube through the nucleus

(which is clothed by a single integument). Certain of these

endosperm-cells (belonging to the second stratum, counting

down from the micropyle) expand, displacing the neighbouring

tissue, forming secondary embryo-sacs (corpuscula, R. Br.), and

subsequently, as 5-8 longish sacs, either lie immediately side

by side (Cupressinez) or remain separated by layers of unen-

larged endosperm-cells. That cell of the outermost layer of

endosperm-cells which covers the summit of each corpusculum, is

converted by crossing perpendicular walls into a rosette of four

cells, between which the pollen-tube, after breaking through the

softened membrane of the (primary) embryo-sac, subsequently

penetrates, bulging out, either simply to apply itself upon the

outside of the corpusculum, or, by the absorption of the apex, to

advance some distance into the interior.

About this time the corpusculum becomes filled up with deli-

cate cells (some of which already contain four daughter-cells),

swimming free, one of which immediately begins to enlarge, and

is subsequently found at the end of the corpusculum turned

* Wergleich. Untersuch. p. 132 (1851).

+ ‘Flora,’ 1854, p. 529.

{ Vide: Hofmeister, Vergleich. Unters. &c. Leipsic, 1851, p. 126; Ueb.

Befrucht. der Coniferen. Flora, 1854, p. 529. (Ann. Nat. Hist. 2 ser. xiv.

. 429.)

: Schacht, Pflanzenzelle, p. 417 (1852); Beitr. z. Anat. u. Phys. der Ge-

wachs. Berlin, 1854, pp. 287, 324; Das Mikroskgp. Berlin, 1855, p. 148.

Gélémoff, Ann. des Sc. nat. 3 sér. xiv. p. 188 (1850).

Pineau, Ann. des Se. nat. 3 sér. xi. p. 83 (1849).

Gottsche, Botanische Zeitung, 1845, pp. 378, 507.

Mirbel et Spach, Ann. des Se. nat. 2 sér. xx. p. 257 (1843).

Rob. Brown, Ann. des Se. nat. 2 sér. xx. p. 193 (1843); Ann. Nat. Hist.

Xili. p. 368 (read at the meeting of the British Association at Edinburgh in

August 1834).

360 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

away from the micropyle, where it first of all becomes divided

by a cross-septum. Sometimes in both daughter-cells, some-

times in one only, there occurs a division by two vertical septa

standing at right angles, forming the so-called lower cell-rosette,

the pro-embryo (Hofmeister). After further cross-division once

or several times repeated (and longitudinal division in some

Coniferz), the pro-embryo comes to consist of a few (8-4) super-

posed stories, each of 4—6 cells, the second or first of which

(counting away from the micropyle) elongates greatly, breaks

through the base of the corpusculum, and penetrates. into the

disinteerated endosperm, pushing onward the lower tiers of cells

before it.

In the further behaviour of this pro-embryo, usually composed

of four strings of cells, lies the second of the deviations indicated

above ; to wit, the individual strings of cells of which it is com-

posed separate from each other gradually, from below upwards

(m Taxus only imperfectly), and the end-cell of each string pro-

duces a rudimentary embryo of some size; but only one of all

those contained in the ovule proceeds further in its develop-

ment, all the rest becoming abortive. Some observers, especially

Géléznoff, question the subdivision of the pro-embryo into single

suspensors*,

So far as existing researches can show, the Cycadez agree

with the Coniferze in the organization of the ovule and the

formation of the embryo.

MonocoryLepones and DicoryLevones (Phanerogamia in

the restricted sense).—In these plants, one (rarely more) of the

two or more cells lyimg in the apex of the embryo-sac—the ger-

minal vesicles,—is, through the influence of the pollen-tube, which

ordinarily applies itaclf upon the outside of the embryo-sac, more

rarely breaks through it, and allows a part of its contents to

exude, enabled, by elongation and one or several times repeated

cross-division, to change into a one- or many-celled pro-embryo,

the end-cell of which, by repeated division in different directions,

produces the embryo-mass, the embryonal globule. This consti-

tutes the rudiment of the first, developing axis of the new plant,

the lower end of which, turned toward the micropyle, becomes

the root, while, by the sprouting of the first leaves below its

point, the upper end becomes the terminal bud.

For the literature ‘and the evidence of the statements made in

the text, I refer the reader to my recently published memoir ‘ Die

Befruchtung der Kryptogamen,’ Leipsic, 1856. To the literature

cited in the historical part of that essay—in which it was only in-

tended to teuch upon what was of especial importance for the deve-

* Gottsche, Botan. Zeitung, 1845, p. 378 et seq.

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 36%

lopment and present state of the question—I here add what I have

Jearnt since from new works or from such as I had not then access to.

For acquaintance with part of these I am indebted to Dr. Caspary.

(The older literature here alluded to will be found for the most part

included in the list of works appended to a Report by the translator

on this subject, printed in the ‘Annals,’ 2nd ser. ix. p. 458.—A.H.]

An essay of Mirbel and Spach on Zea Mays (‘ Notes pour servir

a Vhistoire de ? Embryogénie végétale.? Ann. des Se. nat. 2 sér. xi.

p- 200, 1839; and ‘ Rectification d’un erreur,’ &c., id. op. pp. 381,

382), is very far from hitting the decisive points.

Wilson’s Researches on Tropeolum majus (Hooker's London

Journal of Botany, ii. p. 623, 1843) do not go back to the epoch of

the actual origin of the embryo.

Trécul (‘Recherches sur Nuphar lutea.’ Aun. des Sc. nat. 3 sér.

iv. p. 328, 1845), according to his description, saw the pollen-tube

in the micropyle canal, but regarded it as a “ coagulated stream of

fovilla,” and he left it undecided whether the embryo seen in con-

nexion with this ‘‘proceeded from the fovilla,”’ or whether “ the ovule

also contributed a few granules”’ to its formation,

Dickie (Ann. Nat. Hist. ser.1.xvii.p.5,1846, &ser.2.i. p. 260, 1848)

wandered from the right path. He, like Brongniart previously, took

the end of the pollen-tube projecting from the micropyle for a process

belonging to the nucleus (Narthecium) or the embryo-sac (Luphrasia),

ending blindly outside (ovu/e-tube) ; the suspensor he thought was a

continuation of this, and the point of the embryo-sac perforated ; and

he did not explain the connexion of the embryonal body with the end

ef the suspensor. According to his own view, he could not find the

pellen-tube. Independently of these observations, his reasonings

inclined to Schleiden’s theory.

Gasparini (Ann. des Sc. nat. 3 sér. xi. p. 365, 1849), continuing

his earlier publications, gave some very imperfect researches, deviating

fax from the facts, on the supposed formation of an embryo without

the influence of the pollen, in Figs.

Cobbold (‘ Embryology of Orchis, Gesneria,’ &c. Ann. Nat. Hist.

ser. 2. x. p. 238. London, 1852; written in the summer of 1849)

found in the embryo-sac before fecundation “one or more cytoblasts

or embryonal vesicles,” and believed that the embryo was formed

either through the metamorphosis of one of these pre-existing “ ger-

minal or embryonal vesicles,” under the dynamic influence of the

fovilla, or, as appeared to him more probable, through the union of

the contents of the pollen-tube with those of a germinal vesicle,

which process he compared with the conjugation of the Algze.

A. Henfrey (‘ Orchis Morio,’ Linnean Trans. xxi. p. 7. Read

April 3, 1849) found ordinarily three germinal vesicles in the un-

fecundated embryo-sac; usually one, more rarely two of them were

converted into embryos after fecundation by the pollen-tubes, which

mostly travelled down a little distance on the side of the embryo-sae.

His researches are accompanied by more detailed drawings than those

of his predecessors in the examination of the same plant.

Sanderson (‘ Hippuris vulgaris, Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 2. v. p. 259,

862 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

1850) detected the germinal vesicle long before the bursting of the

anthers, but only a single one. From this, after fecundation, he saw

produced the suspensor and embryo.

H. Criiger (‘ Befrucht. bei den Orangen,’ Bot. Zeit. 1851, p. 57)

placed himself decidedly in opposition to Schleiden. His observa-

tions, however, were by no means complete; in particular, he did

not detect in the unfecundated embryo-sac the germinal vesicles, of

whose presence recent researches leave me in no doubt.

W. Hofmeister, in his memoir on Zostera (Bot. Zeit. 1852, p. 121,

and Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, ser. 2. Nat. Hist. i. p. 239, 1853)

adds to his numerous earlier researches a new history of development

of the embryo, agreeing perfectly with his former account.

Postscript.—I make use of this opportunity to report on certain

memoirs which, either more recent or of the same date as my own,

have come into my hands since that was printed.

Schacht has published new researches ‘On the Origin of the Em-

bryo in Tropeolum majus’ (Bot. Zeit. 1855, p. 641; Ann. des Se.

nat. 4 sér. iv.). He here detected the germinal vesicles in the un-

fecundated embryo-sac, but was of opinion that they disappeared

again at the time when the pollen-tube entered the micropyle. He

regarded the fecundated germinal vesicle, which he detected at a

subsequent period, as a totally different structure from the first—

namely, as the immediate prolongation of the pollen-tube.

Th. Deecke (‘ Entwickl. der Embryo der Pedicularis sylvatica,

Bot. Zeitung, 1855, p. 657; Aun. des Se. nat. 4 sér. iv.) endeavoured

to answer Hofmeister’s objections to the interpretation given by

himself and Schacht to his much-discussed preparation, and to

strengthen his reasoning with the results of new investigations. I

was indebted to the kindness of Th. Deecke for an opportunity of

examining this preparation, and of acquiring a positive conviction as

to the condition of the anterior end of the embryo-sac. I perceived

not merely the two lines which Schacht has drawn as running

away from the points of contact of the lateral boundary-lines of the

embryo-sac and suspensor, and uniting below in an angle projecting

downwards,—but also two others, which (as nearly as I can describe

their positions) passed from the same points, each running about

paraliel to the lines drawn by Schacht on the other side, thence

uniting at angles projecting upwards. These two lines, therefore,

with the two drawn by Schacht, bounded an almost rhomboidal hole,

which, from the condition of its edges, was doubtless artificial ; one

section of this (I do not recollect exactly whether the lower (figured)

or upper one) being over, the other under the suspensor which had

been drawn forward out of it.

With regard to Th. Deecke’s newer preparations, on which pl. 10

is based, several of which also he was kind enough to show me,

what I observed agrees no better with his drawings; for example, in

the preparation drawn in fig. 6, I saw, in the space which exists in

the drawing between the end of the suspensor (¢, p) and what is

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 368

represented as the introverted membrane of the embryo-sac, a ger-

minal vesicle which had remained unfecundated ; and in this, as well

as in the suspensor, the characteristic surface of attachment against

the internal wall of the embryo-sac.

In the ‘ Botanische Zeitung,’ 1856, p. 121 (Stachys sylvatica), the

same author publishes his latest researches. He has overlooked

the germinal vesicles in the unfecundated embryo-sac. In the im-

pregnated sac he never found but one; this he regarded as the pollen-

tube, which he supposed to have penetrated into the embryo-sac.

The point of attachment of the germinal vesicle to the embryo-sac

was looked upon by him as a hole made by the pollen-tube.

Tulasne published first in the ‘Comptes Rendus’ (1855, No. 12.

p- 790) a short report of the results of his later embryological

studies, which have since appeared in full (Ann. des Se. nat. 4 sér.

iv. p. 65). So far as relates to the fecundated embryo-sac, they

agree perfectly with our observations, and especially contain many

proofs of the peculiar circumstance that the end of the pollen-tube

often lies at a considerable distance from the point of attachment of

the fecundated germinal vesicle to the outside of the embryo-sac.

On the other hand, Tulasne in these cases, again, has been unable to

detect the germinal vesicles in the unfecundated embryo-sac. More-

over, we miss frequently in his figures, and indeed in all the very

recently fecundated embryo-sacs, any representation of the abortive

germinal vesicles or their remains.

Tulasne’s (erroneous) view of the act of fecundation has conse-

quently undergone no alteration. The fact that (at the end of his

essay) he considers it illogical to perceive the germinal vesicle in the

unfertilized embryo-sac, cannot alter the fact of our having seen it.

A. Henfrey read before the Linnzean Society of London, March 4,

1856, a paper ‘ On the Development of the Ovule of Santalum album,

with some remarks on the Phenomena of Impregnation in Plants

generally,’ the essential contents of which are reported in the Annals

of Nat. Hist. ser. 2. xvii. p. 438 (published in Linn. Trans. vol. xxii.

p- 69). He thinks that Griffith was decidedly in error on the point

that the pollen-tube penetrated into the embryo-sac. The unfecun-

dated germinal vesicles detected in the embryo-sac are stated by him

to be devoid of a bounding cell-membrane, and he regards them as

mere masses of protoplasm (pre-existing protoplasmic globules). He

thinks that a similar relation is set up between the embryo-sac and

the end of the pollen-tube, to that existing in the conjugation of the

Alga. Soon after the pollen-tube has become adherent to the poimt

of the embryo-sac, the pre-existing protoplasmic globule—the ‘ germ-

globule ’—acquires a cell-membrane and becomes an actual cell, the

germinal vesicle, from which is produced the suspensor.

I must abstain from any close discussion of Henfrey’s observations

until the entire memoir, with the drawings, is published, since I

cannot until then contrast and compare what I saw in the prepara-

tion kindly shown me by Prof. Henfrey, with his own views derived

from them. But I cannot help making a few remarks on the con-

clusions he has drawn.

364 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom.

My last-year’s observations on various plants, and some which I

have just completed on the unfecundated embryo-sac of Viscum,

have taught me that the germinal vesicle by no means possesses so

firm a cell-membrane as we are accustomed to see in completely-

developed vegetable tissues; that it has sufficient solidity to retain

its original oval form for a few moments when the section passing

through, halves both embryo-sac and germinal vesicle ; but very soon,

directly the contents of the latter begin to coagulate under the

influence of water, it shrivels up, follows the contracting contents,

and can no longer be perceived as distinct from them, In other

words, the coagulating cell-contents do not retract from the cell-wall,

but remain constantly in intimate contact with it, the cell-wall

coagulating equally with the contents. But that we have not here

to do with a mere primordial utricle, with a naked cell, is shown by

the following conditions :—If we take a portion of the embryo-sae

of Viscum album consisting of about ith of its length, and turn this

inside out, so that the germinal vesicles lie outside and are seen free,

with no membranous portion of the embryo-sac lying over or under

them to obscure the view,—and then carefully tear them with a

needle, supposing this has not already happened im the previous

manipulation,—their membrane remains as an extremely delicate,

ragged, and wrinkled pellicle adhering to the everted inner surface

of the embryo-sac. It is of unequal thickness—thicker at the base

of the germinal vesicle, thinner at its apex. At the exact place

where it passes off, free (as side-wall), from the basilar surface of the

germinal vesicle, its surface of attachment to the embryo-sac, its

optical section appears as a broad line with a double boundary, under

a power of 160 diameters. Towards the apex of the germinal vesicle

(turned away from the top of the embryo-sac) the membrane becomes

thinner and thinner, until, at the very top, it is, in its earlier stages,

a scarcely consolidated pellicle. If the germinal vesicle had not a

proper membrane, of appreciable thickness at least at the base, the

boundary-line of its surface of attachment to the embryo-sae could

not present itself as double, which is the case here in Viscum, even

under a low magnifying power. Henfrey’s observations were made

on flowers which had been long preserved in spirit: the germinal

vesicles must here naturally have been contracted, and could no

longer present a distinct cell-membrane. I shall discuss in the sequel

Henfrey’s view as to the occurrence of conjugation between the

embryo-sac and the pollen-tube.

London, June 8, 1856.

[Note by Translator.—The remarks in the preceding paragraphs are by

no means convincing. It is our universal experience of nascent cells, that

the cellulose membrane, be it ever so thin, does not contract on the con-

tents; onthe contrary, it is always first somewhat expanded through endos-

mose, and /eaves the contents, afterwards shrinking again (evenly), which

is admissible by its elasticity; by that time, however, the contents have

shrunk up and coagulated, so that they he free permanently in the cavity

of the cell.—Since the above notices were written, Schacht bas published

Mr. P. H. Gosse on Locomotion in the Foraminifera. 365

a paper on Gladiolus Segetum (Ber. Berl. Acad. May 22, 1856), in which

he takes up our view entirely, from independent observation, made in

ignorance of our researches. A notice of his results appeared in the

Annals, ser. 2. xviii. p. 217, 1856. In a still more recent essay by Hof-

meister (Jahrb. d. wiss. Botanik, Heft i. Berlin, 1856), the existence of a

cellulose membrane on the germinal vesicle before fecundation, is said to

be usual, but liable to exception.—A. H.]

[To be continued. }

XXXVI.—On the Presence of Motile Organs, and the Power of

Locomotion, in Foraminifera. By P. H. Gossz, F.R.S.

In a valuable paper by Mr. Macdonald “On Deep Soundings in

the Pacific,” which was published in the ‘ Annals of Nat. Hist.’

for October last, there occurs the following passage :—“ With

all our opportunities of observing living Foraminifera in the

South-western Pacific, where they abound in the most diversified

forms, we have never been able to discover their branched

‘ pseudopodia,’ so called, or the slightest evidence of the crawling

movement which they are reputed to exhibit; while we can

vouch for the actual fixity of some.”

I have read this passage over and over, and cannot come to

any other conclusion than that, as the language is unlimited, it

is intended that the doubts should apply to the whole class of

Foraminifera. As the opinions of so excellent a zoologist will

have deserved weight, though founded on evidence which is

merely negative, it may not be amiss to furnish some positive

testimony on the opposite side—testimony which I should other-

wise have thought perfectly superfluous. For, on turning to

the works of one of our most eminent physiologists, Dr. Car-

penter, who has devoted much careful attention to these minute

animals, I find him (in his treatise “On the Microscope,” for

instance, p. 503 e¢ seg.) recognizing, without any doubt, the

existence of pseudopodia; and he reproduces two beautiful

figures, after Schultze, of the genera Gromia and Rosalina, taken

from the life, in which these organs are seen extended im copious

profusion. He does not, indeed, allude to their power of

changing place; but to this fact, as well as to the existence of

pseudopodia, I can add my own testimony.

In the spring of 1855, at Weymouth, I obtained, chiefly in

the minute tufted Algz, such as Corallina, Polysiphonia, and

Ceramium, a good many specimens of the pretty little Polysto-

mella crispa. These were always found, a few hours after the

weed had been deposited in my vases, adhering to the glass,

with the pseudopodia extended in opposite directions, just as

366 Mr. P. H. Gosse on Locomotion in the Foraminifera.

represented in my outline figure of the species*, which was

taken from the living animal. Very frequently these tiny atoms

were found, in the morning, two, three, or even four inches up

the sides of the perpendicular glass vases, having crawled this

distance in the course of the night. And they never remained

long stationary ; the next morning would find them in some

remote part of the glass. The night was manifestly their time

of activity.

After my return to London, all through the spring and early

summer, one of my tanks was literally swarming with a species

of Polymorphina; the individuals increasing immensely and

rapidly by generation, or perhaps by gemmation (for, bemg very

much pressed with other work, I had not time to investigate the

interesting problem of their mode of increase) ; although, when

I stocked the tank, I was not cognizant of the presence of any ;

the fruitful parents of this abundant progeny having doubtless

been introduced in some tuft or tufts of weed.

The individuals were of various dimensions; a large number

having quickly attained the adult size, viz. about ;,th of an inch

in length. They studded the sides of the vessel, the stones, and

the slender weeds, adhering to the filaments of the latter in such

profusion as to cover the whole contents of the vessel with white

dots, conspicuous even upon the most cursory glance. These,

like the Polystomelle, were constantly roaming ; they crawled up

and down the stems and branches of the Algee, and over the

various objects in the tank, never remaining long in one station.

On removing one from the vessel (which I did frequently) to

an aquatic cell or ‘ live-box,’ for microscopic examination, it was

found to be entirely withdrawn; but, in the course of a few

minutes, the pseudopodia were seen to be protruding their tips ;

and then they gradually (so gradually that the eye could not

recognize the process of extension) stretched and expanded their

lines and films of delicate sarcode, till, in the course of a few

hours, these would sometimes reach almost from side to side of

the glass cell. The extension was principally in two opposite

directions, corresponding to the long axis of the shell; though

the branched and variously connected films often diverged con-

siderably to either side of this line, giving to the whole a more

or less fan-like figure.

Though the array was so very deliberately put forth, it was

very rapidly withdrawn on any disturbance to the animal; as

when the water was agitated by slightly moving or turning the

cover of the cell.

I am quite certain, from manifest (though small) changes of

* Marine Zoology, vol. i. p. 13. fig. 14.

Mr. J. Lycett on the Fossil genus Isodonta. 367

position in the shells, while under observation on the stage of

the microscope, that it is by means of the adhesion and contrac-

tion of the pseudopodia, that the animal drags itself along a

fixed body.

I hope I have not misunderstood the observation of my re-

spected fellow-labourer, by supposing it more absolute than he

intended it ; but, at all events, the facts above recorded may

possess an intrinsic interest sufficient to warrant their publication.

XXXVII.—WNote on the Presence of the Fossil genus Isodonta,

Buv., in the English Jurassic Rocks. By Joun Lycert, Esq.

To James Buckman, Esq., Hon. Sec. to the Cotteswold

Naturalists’ Club.

Dear Sir,

Will you have the goodness to communicate to the Club, at

their next meeting, that we may claim the genus Jsodonta, Buy.

iaeer by, D’Orb.), as an addition to the fauna of the English

ura ?

_ The sole species hitherto described is the Isodonta Deshaysea,

Buv., from the ferrugimous Oolite of the Oxfordian beds of the

Department of the Meuse. Recently, my good friend Mr.

Leckenby presented me with a fine specimen of the so-called

Cucullea triangularis, Phill., from the Cornbrash of Scarborough.

The resemblance in the general aspect of this shell to the Jso-

donta of Buvignier was at once apparent ; but it was only upon

an inspection of specimens in the British Museum, collected by

M. Tesson, that their identity with the Yorkshire shell became

a conviction to my mind. Individual specimens vary in their

elongation and in the degree of angularity at their infero-pos-

terior extremity: little differences of this kind form the sole

distinction between the British fossil and that of the Meuse,

and the Normandic specimens in the Museum differ from each

other at least to an equal extent. The Cucullea triangularis,

Phill. Geol. York. i. tab. 3. fig. 31, is from the Coralline Oolite

of Malton; it is somewhat less elongated than my Cornbrash

specimen, and agrees more nearly with the figures of Buvignier,

‘ Paléont. de la Meuse,’ Atlas, pl. 10. figs. 30-35, except that

the figure of Phillips is somewhat more imequilateral from the

shortness of the posterior slope: in the Cornbrash specimen, as

in those from Normandy and from the Meuse, this feature is

less conspicuous; but there can be no doubt that the anterior

side is always somewhat more produced than the other; the

surface is smooth, but with two distant and strongly-marked

368 Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera.

folds of growth. The very tumid figure and incurved umbones

are the external characters whereby it may be distinguished

from Tancredia; the test is likewise thicker than in the latter

genus. At present it does not seem that the Cornbrash shell

can be separated as a species either from that of the Yorkshire

Coralline Oolite, from the Normandic specimens, or from those

figured by Buvignier from the Department of the Meuse; but

it is desirable that additional British examples of this rare form

should be examined. I need hardly suggest to you the expe-

diency of making a rigorous search in the Cornbrash and the

Kelloway rock of the vicinity of Cirencester ; and believe me to

remain, dear Sir,

Yours, &c.,

Joun Lycerr.

Minchinhampton, October 19, 1857.

XXXVIII.— Descriptions of new Ceylon Coleoptera.

By Joun Nierner, Colombo, Ceylon.

{Continued from p. 282.

Tribe CRATOCERID.

Oosoma, n. g., N.

Corpus ovatum, subconvexum, glabrum. Caput transversim sub-

orbiculare, robustum; oculis magnis, ovatis, parum prominulis.

Mentum profunde emarginatum, lobis extus rotundatis, apice sub-

obtusis, dente minimo, obtuso. Ligula submembranacea minima,

angustata, paraglossis maximis, connatis, ligulam totam amplec-

tentibus, apice leviter sed abrupte et sat profunde emarginatis.

Palpi art. ult. ovato, apice abruptius angustato leviterque truncato.

Clypeus subsemilunariter emarginatus. Labrum transversum, pro-

fundius angulate emarginatum, angulis anter. rotundatis, lateribus

angulato-rotundatum. Mandibulze parvee, validz, edentatze, inter

med. et apic. arcuate. Antennze robuste, thoracis med. parum

superantibus, art. 1 et 11 subzequalibus, 2-10 parum brevioribus,

subzequalibus, 1-3 basi angustatis, reliquis ovatis, 5-11 leviter de-

pressis. Thorax transversus, capite parum latior, basi quadratus,

apicem versus leviter angustatus, antice vix emarginatus, postice

leviter bisinuatus, elytris fortiter applicatus. Elytra basi quadrata,

thoracis latitudine, apice oblique subtruncata, striata. Pedes validi

fortiterque armati, subzequales; tibiis costatis, ant. sat profunde

emarginatis, apicem versus dilatatis, 4 post. apice 4-calcaratis ; tarsis

art. 1-4 gradatim minoribus, ant. leviter dilatatis, art. 1° eylindrico-

trigono, 24 trigonis, post. art. 1-4 subtus longitudinaliter biserratis.

Interesting insects, apparently nearly allied to Nothopus, of

an appearance which easily distinguishes them from any other

Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera. 369

Carabide I have hitherto met with in this island. The head is

plump, transversely orbicular, immersed up to the eyes in the

thorax. The clypeus is narrow, transverse, rather deeply emargin-

ated in the form of a crescent ; anterior angles acuminated. The

labrum is of thin, translucent texture, deeply angularly emar-

ginated in front ; the anterior angles rounded, setose, sides angu-

lar, rounded. Mandibles short and thick, curved from the middle

to the tip, edentate. Maxille simple. Antenne short, thick,

reaching a little beyond the middle of the thorax ; joints 8-11

pubescent, 5-11 slightly compressed, 1-3 narrowed at the base,

4-11 oval, 1 and 11, 2-10 of about equal length respectively.

Mentum with a straight, deep emargination ; lobes rounded ex-

ternally, rather obtuse at the apex; tooth very small, obtuse.

Ligula very small, narrow, slightly dilated towards and rounded

at the apex; paraglosse very large, connate, enveloping the

ligula on all sides, the whole slightly truncated at the anterior

angles, and slightly, but sharply and pretty deeply emarginated

or notched at the centre of the anterior margin. Palpi, both

maxillary and labial, with the terminal joint oval, rather ab-

ruptly narrowed and slightly truncated at the apex; these

characteristics are more distinctly expressed in the labial palpi.

All the lower part of the mouth is situated in or forms a cavity.

Thorax a little broader than the head, nearly twice as broad as

it is long, quadrate at the base, slightly narrowed towards the

apex, anterior angles slightly produced; the anterior margin

can hardly be called emarginated; two slight sinuosities at the

base, firmly applied to the elytra, and as broad as these. Scu-

tellum broad, triangular. The elytra rather abruptly cut away

at the apex; internal angles rather obtuse, slightly dehiscent.

Legs stout and strongly armed, very much in the manner of my

Cyclosomus dyticoides, of which the insect under consideration

in various respects reminds me most forcibly. The spines of

the tibize are inserted on ridges, the anterior ones being dilated.

The tarsi are all concave on the inner side. I have been unable

to discover anything in them by which to distinguish the sexes,

not even additional spines or bristles ; however, the sexes appear

well marked by the difference in size. The anterior tarsi are

dilated, the intermediate and posterior ones more and more

elongated, and the joints subcylindric; jomt 1 of the latter is

longer than the three followimg together; all four have the

edges of their concave inner side serrated—an extraordinary

circumstance. The highly-developed prosternum reminds me

again of Cyclosomus.

The habits of these insects are those of the Amaras: they

live in dry, sandy places under grass and leaves ; at certain times

they take freely to their wings, and O. arenaria may then be

Amn. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 24

370 Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera.

caught in great numbers at night about the lights. This species

is very common in all the dry and sandy parts of the neigh-

bourhood of Colombo; the pretty little O. Gersteckeri, however,

is scarce.

49, Oosoma arenaria, N.

O. supra brunneo-zenea, subtus magis minusve brunnea, pedibus,

palpis antennarumque basi testaceis, tarsis, labro limboque angus-

tissimo obscurioribus ; capite ad clypei marginem post. punctis 2

impresso ; thorace ad basin obsoletissime 4-foveolato, linea longi-

tud. abbreviata, indistincta, diviso, basi anticeque obsoletissime

striguloso ; subtus tenuiter hirsuta. Long. corp. 23-3 lin.; lat.

14-15 In.

50. Oosoma Gersteckeri, N.

O. supra brunneo-enea, seepius glaucescens, elytris dorso dilute

brunnescentibus maculis 4 longitud. irregularibus flavis _pictis,

subtus magis minusve brunnea, pedibus, antennis labroque testaceo-

brunneis, palpis antennarumque basi testaceis. Long. corp. 27 lin.;

lat. 14 lin.

Excepting in colour, not essentially differing from the former.

However, the marks of the thorax are more distinct, and the

four cbsolete pits are replaced by two longitudinal impressions ;

the whole insect is, moreover, more graceful than the former.

The maculz of the elytra may be said to commence at the basal

angles of the thorax, which are of a similar, but less distinct,

colour. The true humeral macule begin at the base of the

elytra, and stretch nearly to the middle as a thick straight line

or narrow parallelogram, the principal part of which occupies

the sixth interstice, a spot being thrown out on either side.

The apical macule commence a little below the middle, and are

essentially composed of small squares heaped upon each other,

so as to form steps or an inverted pyramid.

As this design varies more or less in different individuals, it

can be of no importance to describe it in a more detailed man-

ner; suffice it to say, that apparently in no instance does any

part of it reach either the inner or outer margin, the field upon

which it is displayed being enclosed by the first and seventh

strie. The brownish-green metallic upper surface of the insect

in some individuals throws off a fine blue reflex, very perceptible

on the head and thorax. The part of the back enclosed by the

maculz is washed out to alight brown, with the exception of the

suture, which remains dark.

In naming this pretty species after Dr. Gerstecker of the

Royal Museum, Berlin, I wished to pay that gentleman the only

triflmg compliment circumstances admit of, in acknowledgement

for various useful hints he has kindly communicated to me.

Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera. 371

51. Chlenius princeps, N.

C. aureo-viridis, scutello cupreo, elytris nigro-viridibus ad basin et

infra marginem viridibus, sutura nigra, subtus piceus, coxis tro-

chanteribusque 4 ant. dilutioribus, femoribus trochanteribusque

2 post. testaceis, tibiis tarsisque obscurioribus, ore antennisque

brunneis, labro, mandibulis limboque castaneis; capite obsolete

ruguloso, punctulato; antennis art. 3° quarti prope longitudine ;

menti dente forti laciniis apice rotundatis ; thorace ovato-quadrato,

latitudine parum longiore, angulis ant. subrectis, post. rotundatis,

basi fortiter 2-impresso, punctato; scutello canaliculato ; elytris

striatis, in striis punctatis, ad strias, preesertim apicem versus,

tenuiter pilosis. Long. corp. 8 lin. ; lat. 3 lin.

Specimen singulum f. prope Colombo sub lapidibus cepi.

A very handsome species, distinguished by its size and com-

paratively great breadth. The clypeus is impressed with two

setigerous pits near the anterior corners. The labrum is trans-

verse, slightly sinuated in front, narrowed at the base, and has

the anterior angles strongly rounded-off. The last joint of both

the maxillary and labial palpi is cylindric and truncated at the

apex; in the maxillary it is shorter than in the labial ones, in

the latter somewhat narrowed at the base and slightly inflated

at the middle; both appear slightly compressed at the apex.

The elytra are strongly rounded at the apex. The insect has a

very strong smell, somewhat like musk, about it.

52. Chlenius maleolens, N.

C. capite, thorace scutelloque obscure cupreo-viridi-glaucescentibus,

elytris obscurioribus, pubescentibus, maculis 2 subapicalibus flavis

ornatis, subtus piceus, pedibus testaceis, ore autennisque brunneis,

mandibulis limboque castaneis; capite ad clypel marginem post.

profundius 2-foveolato, punctulato, occipite leviter transversim

ruguloso; antennis art. 3° quarto subzequali vel paulo breviore ;

menti dente apice leviter sinuato; thorace subquadrato, lateribus

leviter rotundatis, profundius punctulato atque levissime transver-

sim ruguloso, ad basin 2-impresso, parce piloso; elytris densius

pubescentibus, striatis, in interstitiis 3-8 utrinque ante apicem

macula suborbiculari flava ornatis. Long. corp. 6 lin.

Specimen singulum m. prope Colombo cepi.

Also a handsome and rare species, smelling strongly and dis-

agreeably of creosote. The head, thorax and scutellum are of a

dull bluish-green colour, with a copper reflex from the back ;

the elytra are of a blackish-green, pubescent, and adorned with

two yellow spots between the middle and apex; these are of

irregular rounded outline, and stretch from the middle of the

third interstice across to the eighth stria. The fourth joint of

the maxillary palpi is subcylindric, that of the labial ones larger,

24°

372 Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera.

plump, and rather triangular. Tooth of the mentum not bifid,

but truncated and merely slightly sinuated at the apex. The

elytra are narrowed at the apex.

53. Chlenius Dohrnii, N.

C. elongatus, parallelus, capite thoraceque viridi-nitentibus, elytris

viridi-glaucescentibus maculis 2 apicalibus flavis pictis, subtus

dilute piceus, apicem versus brunneus, pedibus testaceis, ore anten-

nisque brunneis ; capite subleevi nitidissimo ; antennis art. 2° parvo,

reliquis longitudine subzequali; palpis maxill. art. 4° cylindrico,

lab. eodem subtrigono ; thorace oyato-quadrato, crebrius punctato,

basi 2-impresso ; elytris striatis, punctatis, pubescentibus, 2-macu-

latis, maculis subapicalibus prolongatis, interstitia 2-8 et angulum

apicalem occupantibus, flavis. Long. corp. 6 lin.; lat. 2 lin.

Specimen singulum f. prope Colombo nocte ad lumen cepi.

The elongated and parallel shape of the body distinguishes this

species at first sight ; it is very pretty and scarce, but has other-

wise nothing remarkable in its construction. However, I may

add to the above description, that the mentum is large, the lobes

obtuse at the apex, and the tooth but slightly sinuated at the tip.

The ligula is of the usual construction, the paraglosse obtuse

and ciliated at the apex. The last two joints of the labial palpi

are rather elongated, whilst in the maxillary ones they are the

reverse ; the former have the terminal joint triangular, the latter

cylindric; both are strongly truncated at the tip. The head is

middling, with two impressions in front of the eyes; the man-

dibles are rather more curved than usual; the labrum is emar-

ginated in front ; the antennz are rather short and stout, reach-

ing only to the base of the thorax; the latter is a little broader

than the head, and of an ovato-quadrate form. The elytra and

legs are simple.

I have named this species after the president of the Entomo-

logical Society of Stettin, to whom I am indebted for much

entomological information.

54. Harpalus (Ophonus) senilis, N.

H. oblongo-ovatus, subdepressus, punctato-rugosus, griseo-pubescens,

supra zeneus, subtus piceus, ore pectoreque dilutioribus, pedibus

testaceis, antennis basi palpisque apice flavis ; capite robusto, antice

rotundato, postice parum angustato, thorace vix angustiore; antennis

humeros attingentibus, art. 2° parvo, reliquis longitudine subzequali-

bus; mandibulis obconicis, robustis, una unidentata, altera incisa ;

labrovix emarginato ; palpis art. 4° ovato, apice abruptius angustato,

leviter truncato ; thorace transverso, longitudine tertia parte latiore,

elytris vix angustiore, lateribus rotundato, infra med. leviter an-

gustato, basi subquadrato, hic vix, antice leviter emarginato, angulis

apicalibus obtuse acuminatis, basalibus subrecte rotundatis ; elytris

Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera. 3738

punctato-striatis, apice fortius 2-sinuatis et angustatis; tarsis art.

4° cordato. Long. corp. 43 lin.; lat. 1} lin}

Prope Colombo sat copiosus.

This, as well as the succeeding two species, flies very commonly

into the rooms at night during the rainy weather. The present

species is a fine, comparatively large, robust insect. I may add

to the above description, that the emargination of the mentum is

of middling size, its lobes rounded externally, and its tooth just

marked in the shape of a slight obtuse rising at the bottom of

the emargination. The ligula is very small and narrow, the

paraglosse very large, adhering to it, and enveloping it fully

and on all sides; the whole is very slightly cut away at the

apical angles, and slightly, but abruptly and rather deeply,

notched at the centre of the anterior margin. I may further

notice, that some of the individuals before me have the apex of

the maxillary palpi prolonged, cylindric, and slightly bent in-

wards. As this is not a sexual distinction, and as the insects

thus distinguished differ in no other respect from the rest, I

look upon them as curious varieties.

55. Harpalus (Ophonus) rugosus, N.

H. preecedenti simillimus sed sesqui minor, magis rugosus, antennis

robustioribus art. 5-11 ovatis, leviter depressis, colore supra parum

obscuriore, subtus dilutiore, pedibus albidis, coxis tarsisque brun-

neis, antennis totis castaneis. Long. corp. 3} lin.

The small size and, upon close inspection, the other peculiari-

ties just pointed out, readily distinguish this species from the

former, in spite of their close affinity in other respects. They

are both equally common about Colombo.

56. Harpalus (Selenophorus) Colombensis, N.

H, statura preecedentis sed gracilior, glaber, supra leete zeneus, subtus

subcastaneus, pedibus albidis, coxis, tarsis, antennis palpisque

testaceis, ore brunneo; capite transversim ruguloso; antennis

preecedente tenuioribus, palpis gracilioribus apice magis angusta-

tis ; labro basin versus leviter dilatato; mandibulis infra apicem

abruptius arcuatis, una uni-, altera bi-dentata; thorace lateribus

precedente minus rotundato, basi minus angustato, hic rugoso-

punctato, antice leviter longitudinaliter strigoso; elytris striatis,

parce punctulatis, in interstitiis 3°, 5° et 7° punctis majoribus im-

pressis. Long. corp. 3 lin.

Prope Colombo sat copiosus.

A pretty little insect, very distinct from the preceding two.

T may add, that it also differs somewhat in the paraglossz, the

interior angles of which are distinct.

O74 Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera.

Tribe Harparipz?

Lepithriz, n. g., N.

Corpus oblongum, robustum, subconvexum. Caput ovatum,

mediocre ; oculis semiglobosis, prominulis. Mentum leviter sub-

semilunariter emarginatum, lobis extus rotundatis, dente vel parvo,

obtuso vel nullo. Ligula mediocris, cornea, oblonge quadrata, apice

transversim truncata, libera, paraglossis cylindricis apice truncatis,

sat robustis, marginem ant. parum superantibus. — Palpi articulo

ultimo elliptico, truncato. Labrum apicem versus angustatum, apice

rotundatum. Mandibulee validee, apice arcuatee, una uni-, altera bi-

dentata. Antenne filiformes humeros parum superantes, art. 2° par-

vo, reliquis longitudine subeequalibus. Thorax mediocris longitudine

parum latior, antice vix, postice haud emarginatus, lateribus leviter

rotundatus, basi parum angustatus, angulis omnibus rotundatis,

margine elevato. Elytra ovata, infra med. parum dilatata, apice

leviter angustata et acuminata. Pedes subzequales, tibiis apice bi-

calcaratis, calcaribus intus subtiliter serratis, ant. leviter emarginatis,

tarsis 2 ant. art. 1-3 leviter dilatatis gradatim minoribus, art. 1°

cylindrico, 2° obcordato, 3° trigono, omnes art. 4° maris bilobo,

Jemine bifido, art. 5° magno, unguibus validis, simplicibus ; subtus

tarsis 2 ant. art. 1-4, intermed. art. 2-4 squamularum longepedun-

culatarum seriebus duabus munitis.

57. Lepithriz foliolosa, N.

L. glabra, supra obscure brunnea, thoracis elytrorumque limbo tes-

taceo, subtus brunneo-testacea, pedibus albidis, antennis art. 3

primis flavis, reliquis nigrescentibus, palpis art. ultimo testaceo,

reliquis flavis; thorace ad angulos basales profundius foveolato ;

elytris striatis; prosterno canaliculato. Long. corp. 3—4 lin.

Specimina nonnulla mens. Octob. prope Colombo nocte ad lumen

cepi.

The internal vesture of the tarsi of these otherwise inconspi-

cuous insects constitutes their most important character, and is

altogether of a very interesting nature. I proceed at once to

describe it at full length, premising that J believe I have both

male and female before me. The individual which I take to be

the male is smaller and of a darker colour than the other. The

legs, with the exception of the tarsi, are the same in both sexes.

They are of middling strength ; the tibiz are furnished with two

spurs at the inner side of the apex, which spurs are finely serrated

along their inner edge; the tarsi have joints 1-3 of the first pair

slightly dilated; the posterior pair is elongated, subcylindric;

and the intermediate one forms a passage between the two.

Joints 1-3 of the first pair gradually decrease in size, joint

1 being at the same time subcylindric, jot 2 rather cordi-

form, and joint 38 rather triangular; joint 4 in all six tarsi is

bilobed in the male and bifid in the female, this character being,

however, less distinctly expressed in the two posterior tarsi than

Mr. J. Nietner on new Ceylon Coleoptera. 375

in the four anterior ones; joint 5 is large, and the claws strong

and simple ; a membranaceous process of triangular form covers

the base of the latter above.

The internal vesture of the four anterior tarsi of the male is

of the following description. The inner part of joints 1-4 of the

two anterior ones is furnished with two longitudinal series of

pedunculate squamule, which are of a broad triangular form, and

lie like tiles upon each other, covering the sole of the tarsus ;

they are flanked by bristles, which partake of the nature of

scales, being dilated in the shape of a lancet. These squamulz

are without any particular colour, they are unconnected amongst

themselves, their edges ave entire, and they attain their highest

development at the apex of the fourth jot; in fact, their deve-

lopment is gradual, from the base of the first joint to the apex

of the fourth. The intermediate tarsi, although not dilated, are

similarly provided with the anterior ones, but only at the apex of

the second and at the third and fourth joints, the squamule

being of rather a square shape triangularly prolonged and

pedunculate at the base; the first joint is naked in this pair.

The tarsi of the female are very much the same as those of the

male, excepting the fourth joint, which, as above mentioned, is

bifid. A further distinction exists, however, in the squamule.

In the two anterior tarsi of the female these are present at the

apex only of the first and second joints (hardly distinct at the

former) ; however, they are well developed in the third, and very

highly in the fourth joint; the squamulaccous bristles are less

conspicuous, but the peduncle attains extraordinary length in

the fourth jomt; the squamule do not cover each other like

tiles, but stand more freely and loosely, and are curved inwards

so as nearly to touch in the middle; their shape is that of an

elongated triangle; they are veined, and their apical edge is

serrated. Being such, and placed upon long, slender peduncles,

they forcibly remind me of the leaflets of certain Ferns( Adiantum),

and hence the specific name jfoliolosa. The intermediate tarsi

are similarly provided, but, as in the male, the first joint is

naked, and the second furnished with scales at the apex only.

The lower edges of the two posterior tarsi are very neatly fenced-

in with small, closely-sct spines.

I feel doubtful as to the affinities of these insects, especially

if in reality I have described both sexes, and if the vesture of

the intermediate tarsi is allowed to be of the same importance

as that of the anterior ones; however, I think they must find a

place amongst the Harpalide as restricted by Lacordaire. I

must not omit to mention that the tooth of the mentum appears

to be variable, one of my specimens (a male) being decidedly

without it, whilst another 1s furnished with a small, obtuse one.

376 Zoological Society :—

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

March 10, 1857.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

CHARACTERS OF SOME APPARENTLY New SPECIES OF AMERICAN

Ant-TurusHes. By Puainie Lututey Scuater, M.A.,

F.L.S., &c.

1. FoRMICARIUS TRIVITTATUS.

Supra fusco-cinnamomeus, subtus clarior, gula pallidiore: alis

caudaque nigris cinnamomeo tinctis, illarum tectricibus minort-

bus et majoribus fascia terminali et remigibus ipsis fascia me-

diali alba preditis, itaque alis trifasciatis: oculorum ambitu

seminudo: rostro et pedibus nigris.

Long. tota 7:0, alee 3°4, caudee 275.

Hab. In ripis fl. Amazonum.

Mus. Brit.

The only individual of this species which I have yet seen is that

in the British Museum. It is easily recognizable among its conge-

ners by its thrice-banded wings. I am now. acquainted with seven

birds which I consider to be probable members of this genus, viz.

—(1.) cayanensts, Bodd. Pl. Enl. 821 (colma, Gm. et Bodd.,

tetema, Licht., fuscicapilla, Vieill., ruficeps, Spix), ex Guiana et

Brasilia. (2.) anatis (Lafr. et d’Orb.), Voy. d. PAm. Mér. Ois.

pl. 6*. f. 1, ex Bolivia, Cayenna et ins. Trinitatis. (3.) NIGRIFRONS,

Gould, P. Z. S. 1855, p. 68, ex Nov. Grenada et fl. Amazon. (4.)

MONILIGER, Sclater, P. Z. S. 1856, p. 294, ex Mexico. (5.) TRI-

vitratus. (6.) ERYTHROPTERUS, Gould, P. Z. 8. 1855, p. 69.

(7.) NigRomacutatus (Lafr. et d’Orb.), Voy. d. ?Am. Mer. pl. 6*.

f. 2, ex Bolivia et fl. Amazon sup.

The last three birds have the space round the eyes more or less

denuded, and would form the subgenus Phlegopsis, Reichb., of which,

I believe, F. nigromaculatus is the type. In that very peculiar

member of this family Pyriglena nudiceps (Myiothera nudiceps,

Cassin, Pr. Ac. Se. Phil. v. p. 106. pl. 6), this formation is developed

to a still greater extent, the whole top of the head being naked.

2. CoNOPOPHAGA CASTANEICEPS.

Conopophaga ardesiaca, Tsch. Faun. Per. p. 179, et Sclater in

P. Z. S. 1855, p. 145, nec Lafr. et d’Orb.

Supra olivascenti-brunnea ; pileo castaneo, frontem versus letiore :

lateribus capitis et gula nigricanti-cinereis : penicillum post-

oculart album: subtus cinerea, abdomine medio albescentiore :

lateribus olivaceo indutis : mandibula superiore nigra, inferiore

flava, pedibus brunneis.

Long. tota 4°4, ale 2°9, caudee 2°7.

Hab. In Nova Grenada, Bogota et in Peruvia Orientali (7'sch.).

Mus. Brit. et P. L. 8.

‘This is a typical Conopophaga, with the characteristic white pencil

Mr. P. L. Sclater on new species of American Ant-Thrushes. 377

of feathers on the sides of the head. Trusting to Tschudi’s identifi-

cation of a specimen collected by him, which is now in my collection,

I had considered it to be d’Orbigny’s C. ardesiaca. But upon exa-

mining the type of that species in the French National Collection I

found such was not the case. That bird does not possess the chest-

nut-brown cap or darker cinereous colour of the throat belonging to

the present species, but is more uniform in its colouring both above

and below.

There is a specimen of this bird in the British Museum from Bo-

ota.

5 M. O. des Murs, in the Ornithology of the Voyage of Castelnau

and Deville, has described and figured another Conopophaga, somes

what resembling the present, C. peruviana, pl. 16. f. 1. But this

bird has spots upon the wings and a varied back.

3. HypocNEMIS ELEGANS.

2, Sclater, P. Z. S. 1855, p. 147.

I have lately seen other specimens of this bird, and have one in

my own collection—a Bogota skin. Though closely allied to H. me-

lanosticta, I cannot consider it otherwise than specifically distinct,

and therefore propose a name for it: I have already given its cha-

racters in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1855.

Hypoenemis

4. MyrMECIZA HEMIMELZENA.

$. Castaneus: dorsi medii pennis basi albis, inde nigris, apice

castaneis: capite toto undique et corpore subtus ad medium

pectus nigris: ventre medio albido: campterio summo et ma-

culis tectricum alarium apicalibus albis: rostro nigro, pedibus

flavis : cauda rufo-castanea unicolore.

?. Obscure olivacea rufo tincta : interscapulii pennis basi albis :

dorso postico, alis et cauda rufis: alarum tectricibus nigris,

sicut in mari albo aut fulvescenti-albo guttatis: subtus lete

Serruginea, pectore et ventre medio pallidioribus: lateribus’et

erisso rufescenti-olivaceis.

Long. tota 5:0, alz 2°4, caudze 1°7.

Hab. In Bolivia (Bridges).

Mus. Brit.

There are single specimens of both sexes of this bird in the Bri-

tish Museum, which are the only examples I have yet seen. It

may be best arranged near Myrmeciza loricata, the type of the genus,

with which it agrees generally in form, although the tail is compara-

tively much shorter.

5. FoRMICIVORA HEMATONOTA.

Supra brunnea, dorso medio rubro, hee colore uropygium versus

dilutiore: alarum tectricibus nigris, omnibus macula terminali

pallide cervina preditis, secundariarum externarum apicibus

eodem colore obsolete terminatis: subtus cinerea, gula nigra

maculis triangularibus albis aspersa : ventris lateribus et crisso

378 Zoological Society :—

pallide brunneis ; cauda unicolore brunnea: rostro nigro, pedi-

bus brunneis.

Long. tota 4:0, alee 2:0, caudze 1:2.

Hab, Chamicurros in ripis fl. Huallaga in Peruy. Orient. (Zaua-

well).

Mus. Brit.

Obs. Similis F. gulari (Spix, Av. Bras. ii. t. 41. f. 2) sed dorso

medio rubro nec cinnamomeo, et colore subtus dilutius cinereo dig-

noscenda.

ON THE SPECIES OF CROCODILUS INHABITING THE RIVERS Kwora

AND Binuié (Niger anp Tsappa) In CENTRAL AFRICA.

By Dr. Batrour Barxig, F.R.Geog.S. Xe.

Among the Zoological collections which I made during my visit to

the rivers Kwoéra and Binué in 1854, were several skulls of Croco-

diles, varying in length from 14 to 26 inches. A careful compara-

tive examination of these shows them all to be possessed of similar

characters; but on attempting to refer them specifically, I have ex-

perienced considerable difficulty, their proportional measurements

not agreeing with any hitherto described. Two African species of

Crocodilus are already known,—C. vulgaris, the Nilotic or Egyptian

Crocodile, and C. marginatus of Southern Africa. Of these, accord-

ing to the best recent authority, namely Dr. Gray, the characters

are,—

C. vulgaris.—“ Head elongate, triangular, flat, smoothish aboye,

narrow, tapering at the sides, nearly twice as long as the width of

the head behind ; muzzle at the notch nearly two-thirds the width

of the forehead, at the ninth tooth as wide as half the distance be-

tween the eyes and nostrils ; forehead flat, with nearly parallel sides.”

C. marginatus. — “ Head elongate, triangular, rather convex,

rounded, sides slightly swollen behind the notch, half as long again

as the width of the head behind; muzzle at the first notch as wide

as the forehead, and at the ninth tooth as wide as two-thirds the

distance between the eyes and nostrils ; forehead deeply concave, with

the sides high, promiment and nearly parallel; dorsal plates very

strongly keeled.”

T shall now describe generally the skulls which I brought home,

giving the measurements of four of them; from which it will be

seen, that while in various prominent points they more resemble the

latter, yet in proportional measurements they approach more nearly

to, while not altogether agreeing with, C. ru/garis, thus showing that

in many characters they are intermediate, and thus either lowering

these two into mere varieties, or what is, I believe, more probable,

establishing for themselves specific characters.

Head elongate, oblong, somewhat triangular, rather convex, espe-

cially posteriorly, rounded, upper surface rough, sides distinctly

swollen behind the notch ; length more than twice the width of head

behind ; forehead slightly concave, sides not prominent, converging

anteriorly ; muzzle at notch nearly two-thirds the greatest width of

Dr. Baikie on the species of Crocodilus of Central Africa. 879

forehead; at the ninth tooth more than two-thirds the distance be-

tween the eye and nostrils.

Measurements.

No. l. No. 2. No.3. No. 4.

in. in. in. in.

Pixtreme length’ sig... ge: 05. 20 241 221 21

Greatest width behind.. .... 123 12 112 101

Distance from eye to nostril. . 103 10 9 83

Breadth at ninth tooth...... 73 i 61 53

Breadth at notch. ae 4t 2. 38 23

Width of forehead, “anteriorly. 5 4 41 4

Width of forehead, posteriorly 64 53 a 5

Extreme length of lower jaw.. 29 27 244 —

The proportions of all these correspond almost exactly, and I have

ascertained the proportional measurements of a smaller one to be the

same, although from its being in pieces and not yet put together, I

have not time to take the exact dimensions. They show the Croco-

dile from the Binué to be proportionally longer than C. vulgaris, and

much more so than C. marginatus, to be in form of upper surface

and of forehead near the latter, but without the prominent sides to

the forehead,—also in breadth at the ninth tooth to agree with C.

marginatus, while the converging shape of the forehead differs from

both.

I shall add some few other general characters derived from these

skulls :—Cranial fossee somewhat oblong and ear-shaped, converging

anteriorly, and almost touching by their inner and anterior margins,

the outer side being nearly straight. Orbits with a slight notch an-

teriorly. Nasal foramen broadly pyriform, and almost quadrilateral.

Foramina for the two anterior teeth converted in old specimens into

deep notches. Articulating extremities of lower jaw much curved

inwards.

I have compared these skulls with twelve others of Indian and

American species, from all of which they are quite distinct.

The ninth upper tooth of Crocodiles is said to be enlarged like a

canine, but this is not strictly correct. I have examined the denti-

tion in eighteen skulls of various species ; in the lower jaw there are

always nineteen teeth, but in the upper jaw the number in the adult

is seventeen on either side, while in the young it is eighteen. This

is owing to the second incisor being deciduous, and in old skulls the

socket is completely cbliterated by the enlargement of the foramen

for the two anterior teeth. Thus in old animals there are only four

teeth in each intermaxillary bone, while in younger individuals there

are always five. So, more strictly, it is the tenth and not the ninth

upper tooth which is enlarged.

The characters which I have above enumerated seem to me di-

stinctive, and possibly on further investigation, when the entire animal

is examined, and its external characteristics determined, it may prove

a new species. The Crocodiles which I saw on the mud banks, or

swimming about in the river, appeared of a dark green colour.

3880. é Zoological Society :—

Adanson mentions two apparently from the upper parts of the Niger,

which he distinguished—* Crocodile vert du Niger” and * Crocodile

noir du Niger.” Whether either of these resembles my specimens

I have no means of ascertaining ; but Cuvier speaks of African Cro-

codiles “qui ont la téte un peu plus allongée 4 proportion de sa

largeur,” though he adds, “et un peu plus plate, ou plutét moins

inégale, a sa surface.” If this prove to be distinct, I would suggest

for it the specific designation C. Binuensis, from the name of the

river whence I obtained the specimens.

April 28, 1857.— John Gould, Esq., F.R.S., V.P.Z.S., in the Chair.

DESCRIPTIONS OF THREE NEW AND VERY BEAUTIFUL SPECIES

oF Brrps, FROM GUATEMALA AND FROM THE ISLAND OF

Lomsock. By Joun Gou.p, Esa., F.R.S., V.P.Z.S. etc.

- CoTINGA AMABILIS.

Male. Head, lores, line beneath the eye, all the upper surface,

lesser wing-coverts, upper tail-coverts, sides of the chest, band across

the breast, flanks, vent and under tail-coverts fine verditer blue ;

wings dull black, the greater coverts, spurious wing and the seconda-

ries margined with verditer blue; tail dull black, margimed exter-

nally with dull verditer blue; chin, throat and centre of the abdo-

men very rich purple.

Female. Upper surface greenish-brown, each feather tipped with

greyish-white ; under surface greyish-white, with dark brown centres

to the feathers of the breast, upper part of the abdomen, and flanks ;

vent and under tail-coverts dull white.

Total length, 8 inches ; bill, 3; wing, 43; tail, 22; tarsus, 1.

Hab. Guatemala.

Remark.—The Cotinga amabilis forms one of the most beautiful

members of this lovely genus of birds, and affords the first instance

of a species being discovered to the northward of the Isthmus of

Panama. It is allied to Cotinga cincta and C. Maynana ; the chest

being crossed by a band as in the former, which it also resembles in

the black colouring of the under surface of the wing, while it assimi-

lates to the latter in the peculiar tint of the verditer blue of the

upper surface and flanks.

For a knowledge of this lovely species we are indebted to the re-

searches of George Ure Skinner, Esq., than whom no one has done

more towards making us acquainted with the rich ornithological and

botanical treasures of the fine country to which this bird belongs.

HALCYON FULGIDUS.

Head, cheeks, back of the neck, back, wings, flanks and under

tail-coverts deep black, washed with rich ultramarime blue on the

back of the neck, back and wings ; rump-feathers glaucous or chalky

white, with black bases, and with a narrow line of blue between the

Mr. J. Gould on new species of Birds. 381

black and the white portion, which alone is seen; tail deep ultrama-

rine blue; chin, breast, and abdomen white ; bill and feet coral-red.

Total length, 125 inches ; bill, 21; wing, 53; tail, 5; tarsus, 32.

Hab. The Island of Lombock.

Remark.—This is an exceedingly fine species, of which I have not

been able to find a description. Iam therefore induced to believe

that it is new: still it may be contained in the Leyden Collection ;

but on this point I have consulted Mr. Frank, who is well acquainted

with its rich stores, and he tells me that he has no recollection of it.

PirTa CONCINNA.

Head, back of the neck, cheeks, chin and stripe down the centre

of the throat velvety black; from the nostrils. over each eye a

broad mark of deep buff, posterior to which is a narrower one of

pale glaucous blue; back, tail and wings dark grass-green; lesser

wing-coverts and a band across the rump glossy verditer blue ;_pri-

maries and secondaries black, the fourth, fifth and sixth of the

former crossed by a band of white near their base, and all the

primaries tipped on the external web with olive-grey ; upper tail-

coverts black ; under surface delicate fawn-colour, becoming much

paler where it meets the black of the cheeks and throat; centre of

the abdomen black ; vent and under tail-coverts fine scarlet; bill

black ; feet fleshy.

Total length, 6 inches; bill, 1; wing, 4; tail, 14; tarsus, 13.

Hab. The Island of Lombock. bey

Remark.—This bird ranks as one of the smaller species of this

particular section of the group, it being even less than the Pitta

brachyura of authors, to which it bears a general resemblance, but

from which the black colouring of its throat will at all times distin-

guish it. ;

For this and the preceding species we are indebted to the researches

of A. R. Wallace, Esq.

May 12, 1857.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

On PARUS MERIDIONALIS AND SOME OTHER SPECIES MEN-

TIONED IN THE CATALOGUE OF BIRDS COLLECTED BY M.

Sauté in SourHeERN Mexico. By Purr L. Senater,

M.A., F.L.S., etc.

In the Catalogue of Sallé’s Mexican Collection, read before the

Society in July last, I described a new species of Titmouse under

the name of Parus meridionalis. Not having at that time within

my reach specimens of Parus atricapillus of the United States, it

was not without hesitation that I separated the Mexican species from

that bird. I am now, however, able to exhibit to the Society speci-

mens of Parus atricapillus which I obtained in North America last

- autumn, and I think that a comparison of them with the type of my

Parus meridionalis (which M. Sallé has again kindly placed in my

hands) leaves no doubt that these two Pari are, as I had anticipated,

382 Zoological Society :-—

really distinct, although closely allied species. In its upper plumage

Parus meridionalis differs from P. atricapillus in having the back

deeper cinereous without any tinge of brown—the narrow outer

edgings of the secondaries are brownish and not white, and the black

does not extend so far down the nape. Below, the plumage is also

much darker; the whole abdomen and crissum being of a nearly uni-

form rather mouse-coloured cinereous, with a pale whitish medial line.

In Parus atricapillus the whole middle of the belly is much lighter

and more white, and the sides are deeply tinged with pale rufous.

There is not much difference in the size of the two species, but the

tail of Parus meridionalis is slightly longer.

Mr. Gould’s collection contains an example of Parus meridionalis

also from Mexico.

With regard to other species contained in the same catalogue, I

have to state that Cyanocitta floridana (sp. 135) is probably an im-

mature bird of C. ultramarina (Temm.).

I have compared specimens of Passerculus zonarius, Bp. (sp. 187)

with examples of Peucea Lincolni, which I obtained in the United

States, and can discover no difference between them, and I consider

these two names to be synonymous.

The bird named Coturniculus Henslowii (sp. 187), upon further

comparison, does not seem to be distinct from the ordinary C. pas-

serinus, of which I also possess specimens from Guatemala,

On Turee New SPECIES OF THE GENUS TODIROSTRUM.

By Puitie Lutiey Scuater, M.A., F.L.S., eve.

Sir William Jardine has kindly lent me some specimens of birds

of the genus J'odirostrum out of a collection received by him a short

time ago through Professor Jameson of Quito from the Rio Napo.

They were obtained in that locality, as I have reason to believe, by

Don Villavicencio, a Naturalist who was for some time resident at Porto

del Napo, on the Upper Rio Napo, where the Italian traveller Oscu-

lati mentions having seen him in 1847. Two of them appear to be

certainly undescribed. The third is not in a very good state of pre-

servation, but I think it may possibly be referable to Dr. Hartlaub’s

LT. rufilatum.

1. TopIROSTRUM CALOPTERUM, 0. §.

Supra flavescenti-olivaceum ; pileo et cauda nigris: alis nigris,

harumn tectricibus lete fiavis, campterio intense badio ; secunda-

ris ultimis extus flavicante limbatis: subtus flavum; gutture

albo: tectricibus subalaribus flavidis: rostro nigro : pedibus

pallidis.

Long. tota 3°6, ale 1°9, caudze 1°2.

Hab. In rep. Equatoriana in ripis fl. Napo.

Mus. Gul. Jardine, Baronetti.

This is a typical Todirostrum, but with the beak rather shorter

and broader than in 7. cinereum. The only known species which it

at all resembles in colouring is 7. nigriceps, mihi (P. Z. S. 1855,

Mr. P. L. Sclater on new species of the genus Todirostrum. 383

p- 76. pl. 84. fig. 1), from which it may be at once distinguished by

the fine deep chestnut colouring of the bend of the wing. It is, I

think, the most beautiful species of this group yet discovered.

2. ToprRosTRUM CAPITAL, 0. 8.

Supra olivaceum, pileo rufo ; alis caudaque nigris extus olivaceis,

secundariis ultimis et caude rectricibus lateralibus in pogonio

externo lactescenti-albo late limbatis, hoc colore extus tenuiter

olivaceo marginato : subtus cinerascenti-album, medialiter albes-

cens, ventre medio et tectricibus subalaribus flavicantibus :

rostro superiore nigro, inferiore flavido, pedibus fuscis.

Long. tota 3°7, ale 1°8, caudee 1°2.

Hab. In rep. Equatoriana in ripis fl. Napo.

Mus. Gul. Jardine, Baronetti.

The rufous crown of this species distinguishes it from every one

of its congeners except 7’. ruficeps, from which it may be separated

by the want of the dark pectoral band, and other easily perceived

characters.

The shape of the bill is typical, but rather broader and flatter than

in T. cinereum.

I have also lately obtained two specimens of another species of

this genus, not quite so typical in form or striking in plumage as the

last two, but hardly to be placed without the limits of the group.

This I propose to call

3. TopIROSTRUM EXILE, 0. 8.

Supra olivaceum, alis caudaque fusco-nigris ; illarum secundariis

et tectricibus flavicanti-olivaceis, hujus rectricibus olivaceo extus

marginatis : loris et capitis lateribus fusco-albidis : subtus

margaritaceo-album, lateribus flavido tinctis ; gutture et pec-

tore striis paucis elongatis fuscis obsoletissime flammulatis :

rostri nigri basi pallida, tarsis gracilibus et cum pedibus colore

carneis.

Long. tota 3°5, alee 1°7, caudz 2°6.

Hab. In Nova Grenada.

The first example of this species that came under my notice was

received from MM. Verreaux of Paris in 1854. It is labelled “‘ New

Grenada.” I purchased a second not quite mature from Mr. Hurst

of Albany in the State of New York. A third is in the British

Museum, and is evidently a Bogota skin. The bill of this Todiros-

trum is smaller than in the ordinary run of the species, but of nearly

the same form, though not quite so flat. The tail is proportionately

rather longer, the tarsi very slender.

DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME New Species or LEPIDOPTEROUS

Insects FROM NorTHERN INnpriA. By FrepERIc Moore,

Assistant Museum East INp1A Company.

1. Prerts Nama, E. Doubleday, MS.

Male.—Upper-side white ; fore-wing with a narrow brown hne

384 Zoological Society :—

along costal margin, curving and widening across near the middle of

the wing, and again tapering to posterior angle; hind-wing tinged

with black (as if from intensity of that colour on the under-side)

along the outer margin, where the veinlets are dark brown. eat:

Female.—Brown, with three longitudinal white streaks in middle

of fore-wing, and two in the hind-wing: these streaks in some speti-

mens being confluent and occupying nearly the whole of the middle

of both fore- and hind-wings; under-side, along costal margin and

widening to the outer margin of fore-wing, greenish-yellow, the rest

white ; hind-wing greenish-yellow, darker on the veins, and nearly

white along discoidal cell towards anterior angle.

Expanse of wings 21 to 3 inches.

Hab. Darjeeling; Sylhet; Bootan. In Mus. East India Com-

any.

: Ronavh =the late Mr. E. Doubleday was acquainted with the

male insect only, to specimens of which im the British Museum he

applied the above MS. name; I have now the pleasure of charac-

terizing both sexes.

2. Pieris Seta, Moore.

Upper-side blackish-brown ; fore-wing with two rows of narrowish

white marks, two lengthened marks between median and submedian

veinlets, and four small spots within discoidal cell ; hind-wing with

a marginal row of whitish spots, another row from costal margi

widening towards the anal angle, abdominal margin broadly whitish,

the latter tinged with yellow, also a white linear mark in discoidal

cell. Under-side as above, but with all the markings on the hind-

wings yellow. Wings shaped as in P. Thestylis. Expanse of wings

32 inches. :

Hab. Bootan. In Mus. East India Company.

3. Preris Sanaca, Moore.

Upper-side white ; fore-wing with the veins and veinlets broadly

clouded with black, leaving only a row of lanceolate white spots on

the outer margin, and another row of more linear-shaped marks ex-

tending across the disc ; hind-wing with the veins and veinlets sharpl

defined with black,. discoidal and median veins clouded with black,

the latter broadly so; also a marginal row of angular lunate marks ;

anterior base and anal angle bright yellow. Under-side: fore-win

as in the upper-side, but the white markings more clearly defined,

those near the anterior angle being yellowish; hind-wing with the

dark colour broader, and the white spaces nearly covered with yellow.

Shape of wings as in P. Belladonna.

Expanse of wings 31 inches.

Hab. Darjeeling. In Mus. East India Company.

4, Preris InprRA, Moore.

Upper-side dark brown; fore-wing with a central longitudinal

space of white from the base, also two small white spots near ante-

Mr. F. Moore on new species of Lepidoptera. 385

rior angle ; hind-wing with the anterior base brownish greenish-

white, also with two white spots near anterior angle. Under-side :

fore-wing with a broad irregular fascia from middle of costal margin

to posterior angle; anterior angle chrome-yellow, with some white

dividing the two colours ; basal half white, tinged with straw-yellow

along discoidal cell; hind-wing chrome-yellow, and minutely irro-

rated with brown ; anterior half of discoidal cell and space between

each veinlet near outer margin white, also a dark brown dot on disco-

cellular veinlet. Wings shaped as in P. Pavlina. Expanse of wings

3 inches.

Hab. Darjeeling. In Mus. East India Company.

The nearest ally of P. Indra appears to be P. Lalage, E. Double-

day, Diurnal Lep. t. 6. f. 5, also from N. India.

5. Prerts Durvasa, Moore.

Male.—Upper-side white ; fore-wing from middle of costal margin,

curving transversely, apically, and scolloped to near end of outer

margin, black, and having near the apex some white marks, gene-

rally three, the outer ones being sometimes indistinct ; base of costal

margin and body greenish ; on the middle of disco-cellular veinlets

is a round black spot, and another more quadrate spot between the

first and second median veinlets, the latter slightly touching at the

angle the scolloped black outer margin.

Female.—Black colour broader, the quadrate spot larger and

broadly confluent at the angle with the outer margin, thus forming a

white spot on middle of outer margin; hind-wings of female with a

marginal row of blackish spots, the extreme margin and anal angle

being yellowish-white. Under-side: apex of fore-wing pale yellow,

the black colour forming only a curved transverse bar, besides the

two black spots ; hind-wings wholly pale yellow, and having a small

disco-cellular black spot ; body yellowish.

Expanse of wings 2; to 33 inches.

Hab. Darjeeling, Assam. In Mus. East India Company.

The form of the wings of Pieris Durvasa is the same as in P.

Paulina and P. Pandione.

6. Papitio Janaka, Moore, n. sp.

Upper-side black ; hind-wing with a white patch on the dise,

which is divided by three of the veinlets, thus forming four separate

patches, the outer one on each side being the shortest, and the two

nearest the abdominal margin being tinged with red; three submar-

ginal and three marginal lunules and circular mark at anal angle red;

tail with two red spots. Under-side black ; fore-wing with the base

red ; hind-wing with patch on the disc as on upper-side, but the por-

tion nearest abdominal margin nearly covered with red, which colour

is continued upwards and downwards, occupying the base of the wing

and the whole space between the third median veinlet and submedian

vein; lunules as above, but larger, and a fourth submarginal one

appears between the discoidal and first median veinlets ; tail spotted

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 25

386 Zoological Society :—

as above ; cilia between the angles white; head, neck, body beneath

and sides red.

Wings shaped as in P. Bootes, Westw. Arc. Ent. t. 31.

Expanse of wings 5 inches.

Hab. Darjeeling. In Mus. East India Company.

Remark.—Papilio Bootes appears to be a near ally of P. Janaka.

May 26, 1857.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., V.P., in the Chair.

DeEscRIPTION OF CHINESE SHEEP SENT TO H. R. H. Prince

AuLBertT BY RuTHER¥FORD Atcock, Esa., H.M. Vice-Con-

SUL AT SHANGHAI. PRESENTED By H. R. H. To THE

Zoo.tocicaL Society 1N Aprit 1855. By A. D. Barrt-

LETT, Esa.

These Sheep differ from all others that I have seen in not possess-

ing external ears. In size they are equal to ordinary sheep; the

wool is perfectly white, rather coarse und mixed with long hairs ;

the head and face are smooth, and covered with white hair; they

have no horns; the tail is short, rather broad, and turned up at the

tip ; the profile is very convex.

My attention was first called to these sheep from the fact of their

great reproductive power. I find they breed twice in a year, and

produce four and sometimes five at a birth, the three ewes now

in the Society’s Gardens having this spring produced thirteen

lambs. These lambs are very easily reared by hand, and are perfectly

hardy. Upon referring to Miss Corner’s ‘ History of China,’ pub-

lished in 1547, it appears that since the introduction of the cotton

plant into China (which took place during the Ming dynasty, about

500 years ago), the breeding and rearing of sheep have been neg-

lected, as the following extract will show :-—

“The extended cultivation of cotton was one of the causes that

led to the almost entire disappearance of sheep from the southern

provinces, for it was found that it would take much more land to

supply a certain number of persons with mutton and wool, than with

rice and cotton. Then the pastures were gradually turned into rice

and cotton plantations, while sheep were banished to the mountains

and less fertile parts of the country. For the same reason cattle,

horses, and other domestic animals are scarce ; the few that are kept

for the purposes of husbandry are poor and ill-fed ; for there is not

a common on which they can graze, so that they are tied up in stalls

when not employed in the field. Dairy farms are unknown in China,

where people use neither milk, butter, nor cheese.”

In a recent letter from China, the writer mentions, among other

matters, that in giving a good dinner to some distinguished friends,

one of the choicest dishes was a leg of mutton, the cost of which

was equal to 30s.

Having submitted specimens of the wool of this animal to my

friend Dr. Price, who kindly forwarded the same to Mr. Darlington,

the Secretary to the Chamber of Commerce at Bradford, for the

purpose of having it examined by the most competent judges, the

Mr. A. D. Bartlett on Chinese Sheep. 387

following report from these gentlemen was received. They say,

“That the sample of sheep’s wool from China enclosed in Dr. Price’s

letter, is a class of wool which would be extensively used by the

manufacturers of this district for goods of low quality ; that it ap-

pears to be wool suitable for combing purposes, and would now

command about one shilling per pound.”

That the wool does not appear to offer any great inducement for

its introduction will be seen by the above report, but I think it

highly probable that, by cultivation and judicious crossing, a great

improvement may be fairly looked for. It is, however, a matter of

the utmost importance to us that we should possess animals whose

power of reproducing is greatest, in order to supply the increased

demand for meat.

The origin of our domestic animals has been a subject of much

discussion ; the remote period of their domestication involves us in

much doubt ; and this mystery and obscurity will probably never be

satisfactorily cleared up. It is, however, interesting to find in a

country whose civilization is of such ancient date as China, the most

perfect of domestic animals: I mean by this, the animals that are

furthest removed from their natural condition.

Now, knowing what wonderful changes can be, and are produced

in the vegetable kingdom by skilful modes of propagating, culti-

vating and artificially treating plants, causing them completely to

change their nature, producing all kinds of variety of monstrous

growth, double flowers, fruit and seed in enormous abundance ;—all

this being done by the interference of man, may I ask, is it not pro-

bable that a people like the Chinese, whom we know to have practised

these arts for ages,—is it not likely that they have by artificial means

induced a similar power in these domestic animals ; as we find, for

example, the pigs, the fowls, the geese and the sheep of China more

prolific than the same animals in any other part of the world? In-

stances of Chinese sows producing twenty-two at a litter have come

within my own observation ; their fowls are certainly unequalled for

the number of their eggs, and their geese as reproducers stand un-

rivalled.

It is almost needless to say, that the result of cultivation, whether

as applied to plants or animals, has produced an unnatural and ab-

normal condition : instances too numerous to mention may be found,

but it will be sufficient to notice the pigeons and ducks. The former

in a wild state produce only two broods in a season; while in a state

of domestication they continue to breed all the year. The domestic

ducks not only produce a much larger number of eggs, but one

drake is sufficient for a number of ducks, five or six ; while in a state

of nature they universally are found in pairs.

Experience has proved that by a careful admixture or crossing in

the breed of the Chinese pigs, geese, and fowls, the mixed races are

much improved in quality and size, while they retain the reproduc-

tive power undiminished, and the animals are more hardy. As

regards poultry, I cannot admire the celebrated Cochin China

breed in their pure state, but I have abundant proof of their great

25*

388 Zoological Society :—

value for breeding and crossing ; the least possible trace of the breed

appears sufficient to impart all that is desirable, and by after-breed-

ing, the improvement that may be made is as astonishing as it is un-

deniable. As crossing the breed in the animals before mentioned

has been attended with so much success, there is no reason why

crossing the Sheep should not also produce a favourable result.

It must not be supposed, because the Chinese have banished their

Sheep (having found cotton and rice more suited to their climate

and better adapted to their wants), that they are unworthy of our

notice, taking into consideration that in this country we cannot grow

cotton or rice.

Having witnessed the many attempts that have been made to re-

duce some of the existing wild animals to a state of domestication,

and observing the utter failure in all instances of producing what

may fairly be called a domestic variety of any true species, I am

inclined to believe it is necessary as a means of reducing wild anima.s

to a domestic condition, that they must be crossed with nearly allied

species; by this means the creatures are rendered unnatural, and

consequently dependent on man. Different varieties would doubtless

be produced, according to the manner in which they were crossed,

and permanent varieties would be thus established. Such is the

opinion at which I have arrived, after a long and mature considera-

tion of this extremely interesting subject.

June 23, 1857.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., V.P. Zool. & Ent. Soc.,

in the Chair.

On Two Species or Bats INHABITING NEw ZEALAND.

By Rosert F. Tomes.

The first notice of the occurrence of Cheiroptera in New Zealand

was given by Forster in 1772-74 *, who recorded the occurrence of

a Bat flying over the sea-shore near the margin of a wood in the

estuary of Queen Charlotte. It was shot, but being struck only in

the wing, lived for two days. ‘‘ He was described by me,” says he,

“and was drawn by my son.’ To this species Forster gave the

name of Vespertilio tuberculatus. The description has been pub-

lished in the work noted below, and the drawing is now in the British

Museum. I shall have occasion to refer to both the description and

the figure.

In 1843 Dr. Gray gave a very condensed description of a Bat in

the Appendix to Dieffenbach’s Travels in New Zealand, which he,

believing to be the species mentioned in the MSS. of Forster, called

by the same specific name. As Dr. Gray had specimens for exami-

nation, he at once perceived that they could by no means be consi-

dered as representatives of the genus Vespertilio, and that they did

not even belong to the same family. Accordingly we find them

in the ‘ Catalogue of the Mammalia of the British Museum,’ pub-

* Descriptiones animalium in itinere ad maris australis terras per annos 1772-74

suscepto observatorum, edidit H. Lichtenstein. 1844.

Mr. R. F. Tomes on species of Bats inhabiting New Zealand. 389

lished in 1843, placed in the family Noctilionina, with the new

generic appellation Mystacina, the old specific name tuderculata

being retained.

Having some time since had occasion to examine some species of

Bats in the Museum of the College of Surgeons, Prof. Quekett

showed me one which had been recently received from New Zealand.

It was not until I had been assured that it came directly from that

country, in a bottle with a collection of New Zealand insects, that I

could be persuaded that no mistake as to locality had been made.

The forms presented by this example were so entirely unlike those

of the only New Zealand species with which I was acquainted, that

it was with considerable surprise I beheld a bat having pretty much

the same forms and proportions as the common little English Pépz-

strelle.

Shortly afterwards an opportunity occurred of inspecting the fine

collection of Cheiroptera in the Leyden Museum, which contains

three examples of this supposed new species, but without any specific

name. Finally, I detected other examples in the British Museum,

amounting in number to five.

Being then satisfied of the existence of two species of Bats in New

Zealand, I was anxious to pursue the subject further, and to deter-

mine, if possible, to which of these Forster had given the name of

V. tuberculatus. The kindness of Dr. Gray speedily placed in my

hands all the necessary materials. There could be no hesitation ;

the supposed new species was undoubtedly the one from which

Forster’s drawing had been made, whilst the description, indicating

the number of incisors, and other peculiarities, pointed unequivocally

to the same conclusion.

As the above-mentioned zoologists have certainly been the first

describers of two distinct animals, the names imposed by them will of

course be retained ; but it is much to be regretted that their specific

names are similar; and the more so, as the one most recently given

was clearly intended as a reference to the earlier known species.

The following description has been taken from the specimen in the

College of Surgeons, and also from the specimens in the British

Museum. With the advantages of specimens in spirit and in skin,

it is probable that the description will be found tolerably correct,

both as regards the form of the face, ears, &c., and the quality

and colour of the fur.

Fam. VESPERTILIONINA.

1, ScoToPHILUS TUBERCULATUS, Forster, Descript. Anim. p. 63,

1772-74, Icon. ined. in Brit. Mus. t. 1.

In form and proportions somewhat resembling the Pipistrelle of

Europe; im size resembling Vesp. Nattereri ; in colour very nearly

similar to the Scotophilus Gouldii of Australia.

The muzzle is rather broad and obtuse, and moderately hairy.

The nostrils are tumid, and of an oval form, with their inner margins

more prominent than their outer, giving them a sublateral opening ;

390 Zoological Society :—

they are distant from each other about two lines. The forehead is

rather flat. The lower lip is broad, with the extreme edge naked,

and rather thickly clothed with short hair on the chin, which be-

comes very thick on the throat. Immediately within the symphysis

menti is a small but distinct wart.

The ears are rather small, oval-triangular, with a pretty uniform

outline, and with a kind of plait or crease on the basal front of the

inner margin, giving that part of the ear a slightly projecting lobe,

not however of sufficient magnitude to interfere materially with its

general uniformity of outline. The outer margin is not hollowed

out, but maintains a pretty regular curve, and has its basal portion

brought forward, in the form of a narrow rudiment of membrane, on

to the cheek, where it ends immediately under the eye.

The tragus is short, rather broad, and of nearly uniform breadth,

with the end round. It has, as in all the other species of this re-

stricted group, an inward curvature.

The wing-membranes spring from the base of the toes, and the

latter occupy about half the length of the entire foot. The os calecis

extends one-third of the distance from the foot to the tip of the tail,

which has its extreme tip free.

The face is furnished with some tufts and lines of bristly hair.

Immediately in front of the eye may be noticed a tuft, consisting of

a few hairs, and on the gland of the upper lip is a similar one.

From behind the nostril proceeds a narrow band of fine bristly hairs,

which curves downwards and backwards on the lip for a short distance,

and then taking an upward curvature, passes in front of the eye, and

is lost in the fur of the forehead.

All the membranes, both above and below, have those parts con-

tiguous to the body, hairy, especially the interfemoral, on which it

extends more markedly than elsewhere. The part of the latter mem-

brane which is destitute of hair is smooth, and has about ten trans-

verse strongly dotted lines.

Over the whole of the body the fur is very thick, soft, and rather

long. On the top of the head it is long enough to obscure the basal

half of the ears, and thus give the appearance of an elevated crown.

Everywhere the hair is unicoloured, and of a black-brown colour

on the head and back, passing into chestnut-brown on the rump.

Beneath it is similar in colour, but more strongly tinged with brown,

especially towards the pubal region, where it is reddish-brown.

On examining the cranium, I find that its chief peculiarity consists

in its extreme shortness in relation toits other dimensions. In this

respect it more nearly resembles the cranium of Lasiurus novebora-

censis than that of any other species of Bat I have yet seen, but it is

even shorter than in that species. In its general conformation it

bears considerable resemblance to that of the common Pipistrelle of

Europe, especially in the degree of elevation of the cerebral region ;

the arrangement of the dental series is more like that of the

Noctule Bat than that of the Pzpistrelle, but bears a still greater

resemblance to that of the Scotophilus Gouldii of Australia. Thus,

on examining the teeth of the upper jaw, they are seen to be arranged

Mr. R. F. Tomes on species of Bats inhabiting New Zealand. 391

in two straight lines which are nearly parallel, the incisors only de-

viating from these lines, being placed across the front of the space

enclosed by them. This enclosed space—constituting the anterior

part of the palate—is nearly a parallelogram, being but slightly nar-

rower in front than posteriorly. Its length to its breadth is as one

and a quarter to one.

The range of the teeth in the lower jaw must, of course, bear exact

relation to that of the upper *, varying only in the number of the

teeth and their individual form.

The number of the teeth is as follows :—

In. >; Can. ae Premol. oo ; Mol. =p

The upper incisors are arranged in pairs, of which the inner one

of each pair is much larger than the outer one. They are all some-

what elongated, conical, and pointed, and when viewed in front are

seen to have their points directed inwards, but when seen laterally

have nearly a vertical direction, similar in this respect to the canines.

A considerable interval separates them on each side from the latter

teeth, and this, with their regular conical outline and nearly vertical

position, constitute their chief peculiarities. In the centre, between

the inner ones, is a considerable opening, caused by the non-deve-

lopment of the anterior margins of the intermaxillary bones, and the

notch in the front of the palate, just as in the Noctule Bat and most

other true Vespertilionide. The other teeth in the upper jaw pre-

sent no deviations from what is usual in the genus.

In the lower jaw the incisors are of the form ordinarily observed

in this genus; they are symmetrically arranged and trilobed. The

canines present no marked peculiarities of form. The premolars are

small, pointed, and have their basal cusps less developed than those

of the corresponding teeth in the Noctule Bat. The first of these

teeth is much the smaller of the two. The molars differ in no re-

spect from those of the above-mentioned species, excepting that their

cusps are perhaps somewhat longer and more pointed.

In the following Table of dimensions, the first column represents

the measurements of the specimen in spirit in the Museum of the

* Tt will not be out of place here to remark, that this expression applies ex-

clusively to the normal state of dentition of animals in a state of nature. The

reverse of this may occasionally be seen in accidental varieties or malformations,

and frequently in domesticated animals, where a great change in the form of the

jaws and teeth has often resulted from long-continued selection of individuals

from which to produce a breed for some special purpose, which selection may

have been further assisted by a constant training to the purpose for which the

breed was designed. This must certainly be the case with some of the varieties

of dogs. In the bull-dog, for instance, we find a most remarkable development

of lower jaw, attended with an equally distorted arrangement of the teeth. It

is scarcely necessary to allude to the singular appearance often observable in the

front teeth of the human species, under- or over-lapping each other, as the case

may be, and displaying every degree of intermediate arrangement. But these

deviations from the normal state of dentition in no way affect the statement above

made respecting the relation of the inferior to the superior maxilla, and their im-

planted teeth.

392 Zoological Society :—

College of Surgeons, before alluded to, and the other columns have

been taken from specimens in skin in the British Museum :—

Nos 1s No. 20 \"Noo., jp Now

Length of the head and body. . | 25 La agit sad a

——— of the tail .......... LiF Ld

of ithe heads 2.43 S05 | 0 74 |

of the. eatiitn on. civeek 0 33

of the tragus) 2 ~.cs.i< O 1%

——— of the forearm ......| 1 6/1 6]1 6j)]1 6

of the longest finger ..| 2 8|210|/2 8/)2 7

——— of the fourth finger 1.10.) PO. 1-2) OZ

+= of the thumi-.72.28e) 00, 20 0°31 0 "Ss taeee

— of the foot and claws..| 0 33,0 4|0 4/0 43

Expanse of wings .... ..... 10 9 \10 4

The foregoing description had been taken with a view to its pub-

lication, before that of Forster had been examined, the impression at

that time being that the species was new.

For the convenience of immediate comparison, and to show the

general similarity of the two descriptions, a condensed description

wil now be given of that furnished by Forster.

About the size of Vesp. communis, or a little larger; the head

like that of a mouse, and of medium size; snout blunt, emarginate,

simple, with bi-tuberculated nostrils. The lower jaw rather shorter

than the upper.

Incisors in the upper jaw 4, in pairs, of which the two inner ones

are the larger; the two outer ones smaller, and approximate to them.

. . . 1—1

In the lower jaw 6, very small and approximate. Laniares (?) = ;

4-4

molars 7—;-

Ears moderate, smooth, subovate ; tragus semiorbicular. Wings

large and dark brown. The fur everywhere soft, fine, and rusty

brown.

Length from the end of the nose to the root

BiH CE a gee ae ane ae Mc anianeenetlga ny 2 inches.

Ui Dag AC EA Wei pila cence pee Ly’ »

EEX PAGRE OL WAKES seas ooo om 1a pin, isan

Fam. NocTiILIoNINA.

Genus Mysracrna, Gray.

Body very short and broad. Snout much produced ; nostrils sub-

lateral, surrounded by a thickened projecting rim. Under jaw much

shorter than the end of the nose. Top of the head considerably ele-

vated ; ears lateral, simple ; tragus long, narrow, and pointed.

Wings moderate ; thumb moderate. Index finger with two pha-

langes, second finger with four, third and fourth fingers with three,

each. Wing-membranes extending to the distal extremity of the

tibia. Legs and feet short and stout. Tail very short, piercing the

Mr. R. F. Tomes on species of Bats inhabiting New Zealand. 393

interfemoral membrane near to its base, and projecting on the upper

surface of it, as in Z'aphozous. Interbrachial membrane, a narrow

piece of membrane beneath the fore-arm, that adjoining the sides of

the body, and that enclosing the tibia, as well as the basal portion of

the interfemoral membrane, thick and leathery, with numerous deep

wrinkles or corrugations on its upper surface. Incisors, 2 in the

upper jaw, large, contiguous, and shaped like canines ; in the lower

e 2, small, and placed i in front of the canines.

. MysTacina TUBERCULATA, Gray.

ae tuberculata, Gray, Cat. Mam. Brit. Mus. p. 34, 1843 ;

Gray in Dieffenb. Journ. App. p. 296, 1843; Gray, Zool. Voy. Sul-

phur, No. II. p. 23, 1843 ; Zool. Voy. Erebus and Terror, No. IV.

pl. 22. 1844.

The snout of this singular-looking species is considerably elongated,

with the end of the nose emarginate between the nostrils, which are

very prominent, and directed sublaterally. The mouth is placed far

back in relation to the nose, and a space intervenes between the two,

which is clothed with very fine short hairs. The hairiness and form

of this space are somewhat similar to the same part in the Coati

Mondi. No very strongly-marked peculiarity is observable in the

mouth itself, but it is rather small, and has only the extreme edges

of the lips destitute of hair.

The top of the head is convex, rounding off on every side, and the

space between it and the end of the nose, 7. e. the face, is concave in

its longitudinal direction, but not transversely, as in T'aphozous.

The ears are lateral, and remarkably simple in form. Instead of

the forward extension on the side of the face, so usual in the insecti-

vorous species of this order, they are attached precisely as in the

fruit-eating species, 7. e. just as we may observe them in a dog or cat.

In form they are regularly oval, and slightly pomted. The tragns

is straight, narrow, and pointed, reaching to the middle of the ear.

The wings are rather broad, and of medium length. The thumb

is of moderate size, with the basal joint very short ; the index finger

is composed of two phalanges, the terminal one being very minute.

The second finger has four phalanges, and the third and fourth fin-

gers have three each. The presence of four phalanges in the second

finger, instead of the usual number of three, in this family, will be

again adverted to. ‘The wing-membranes barely extend to the distal

extremity of the tibia.

The legs and feet are very short and stout, as in the genus Mo-

lossus. The heel-cartilage is of medium length and substance, and

the interfemoral membrane is rounded at its posterior margin, and is

perforated near its base by the tail, which is short, and exhibits its

terminal half free above the membrane, as in the genus Taphozous.

The portions of membrane contiguous to the fore-arm, the sides

of the body and the tibia, are very thick and leathery, with numerous

deep wrinkles, and the basal half of the interfemoral membrane (as

far as to where the tail becomes free) possesses the same peculiarity.

The wrinkles, in many places, cross the legs and fore-arms, but they

394: Zoological Society :—

are only observable on the upper surfaces of the membranes and

limbs. This singular part of the cutaneous system is marked by a

regular and decided outline, and can scarcely be said at any place to

graduate into the smooth membrane of the wings. Its extent is pretty

well indicated by the hairy portions of the membranes in the genus

Lasiurus, excepting that it only occupies one-half of the interfemoral

membrane.

In its general character, the fur is short, crisp and thick, having

a grizzly shining appearance, very similar to that of some of the

Soricide. That of the head extends towards the nose, and covers

the whole of the face, beg bounded anteriorly by a frill of stiff up-

right hairs; that commencing near the corner of the mouth extends

upwards in front of the eye, and meets on the top of the nose with

the corresponding part of the other side of the face. On all the

upper parts of the body the fur is similar. It is dusky at its base,

and tipped for half its length with shining grey-brown, having a

slight tinge of olive. Beneath, the fur is brown at its base, with shi-

ning tips of grey-brown. The fur of the throat extends to the chin

and under-lip, and densely covers the whole, excepting the extreme

edge of the lip.

The whole of the cutaneous system is very dark brown, with the

exception of the wrinkled part already mentioned, which is paler,

and tinged with yellowish.

The cranium exhibits some peculiarities worthy of note. Viewed

from above, the cerebral portion is seen to be about as much arched

as that of Vesp. Nattereri, and has a faint sagittal crest towards the

occipital region. There is also a moderately pronounced occipital

crest, which becomes more strongly developed in the vicinity of the

acoustic elements of the skull. The auditory bulle have much the

same form and proportion as the same parts in Vesp. Nattereri, and

the facial portion of the skull is proportioned much as in that species.

The orbital openings are of very moderate size, and the zygoma but

little arched, and very slender. The bony palate terminates a little

posteriorly to the last molar. The nasal opening is small, and the

intermaxillary bones meet in front, for the support of the contiguous

incisors, as in Miniopteris and Furipterus among the Vespertilionina,

and Molossus, Rhinopoma, and Noctilio among the Noctilionina.

The incisors in the upper jaw are two in number, large, conical,

and pointed. They are provided with a distinct cingulum, visible

in front, which passes into a well-marked basal lobe, or cusp, behind

the tooth. As the incisors are situated very near to the canines, and

are themselves in contact, this lobe is only visible when seen directly

from behind. The incisive foramina are two in number and very

minute. The canines are long, pointed, and triangular, without any

basal lobe. The next two teeth in the upper jaw present the same

forms which usually characterize the premolars in the insectivorous

Cheiroptera ; and the three remaining teeth, 7. e. the molars, may be

similarly passed over.

The hinder part of the lower jaw is formed very similarly to the

same part in the genus Vespertilio, but has the posterior process less

Mr. R. F. Tomes on species of Bats inhabiting New Zealand. 395

produced. Another point of difference occurs in the form of a some-

what rounded posterior angle, something like that observable in Fu-

ripterus, but more nearly resembling the same part in the jaw of the

Ursus labiatus, and, as in the latter instance, very thin in substance

laterally. The jaw itself is straight, especially the alveolar margin,

which is in a line continuous with the posterior process.

The canines in the lower jaw are of considerable size, and have a

basal lobe behind. They are nearly contiguous, and the incisors,

two in number, are placed in front of them, as in some species of the

genus Molossus (Nyctinomus), and, as in that genus, are probably

lost with age. They are very small, feebly implanted in the jaw,

and have their tips trilobed. The next two teeth are of the usual

premolar type, such as we find in Vespertilio proper, and they are

succeeded by the three molars, presenting no marked peculiarities of

conformation.

one 2 —l 3—3 aid

Dentition :—In. 5; Can. + ao een. ; Mol. —=;-

In the following Table of eet et cok No. 1 has been

taken from a large and probably adult specimen in the British Mu-

seum, and Nos. 2 and 3 from specimens, perhaps not quite adult,

in my own collection. The latter one, having all the bones retained,

would furnish the more exact dimensions, but that it is probably im-

mature. From it the skull was extracted, from which the above

characters have been taken :—

No. 1. No. 2 No. 3.

Length of the head and body ........ 2 6 a4 2 4

— of the enclosed part of the tail.. 0 3 0 3 0 3

of the free pare of the tail 0 3 0 3 0 23

of the head . Mee. tO. sO lee OL

—— — of the fore-arm.............. | ie ee | oat:

of the longest finger.... . 3 0 2 11 2 113

—-— of the fourth finger... a4. els 2 4 2 4

Cina (CRG TL] Oy eee an O59 044 0 4

DE CRC IDI eco cs cereus «the ielas 0 8 O. sf, Ca

of the foot and claws ... 7 Ore 6 0 6

PIS PAMRE LOL WINES. ..0f..5,6 > scone spopeyoin sens U2 Oe td LO, PG

The following are the dimensions of the skull extracted from the

specimen which has supplied the measurements given in the second

column of the above Table :—

“

Length from the occipital crest to the anterior margin of the if

apicewsibbrery DOOR hI '2.! NES. RT RI ed ONGIES oss 0 93

Breadth across the zygomatic arches............-...06-. 0 5

Lenethsatthemasal bones. sj.is «tere ialelslueith isis, Vets kal 0 3

Greatest breadth of the nasal bones’) ........000.00.0.005. 0 14

Length of the dentinal series in the upper jaw...... ay | ai:

Breadth between the two outer cusps of the two posterior

TRIMMER RG Ohne ees <reiccieaiel Shah Baletcpon hte hay SAAD a valbarburere red iw ola ro 0 32

Breadth between the points of the two upper canines ...... 0 13

396 Zoological Society.

Total length of the lower jaw. . ... rite hu) PORES

Length of the dentinal series in fe Wa jaw. ere? Ome

Breadth between the outer cusps of the two posterior nals 0 22

Breadth between the points of the lower canines ........ eviQvell

In summing up the characters of this singular species (which, as far

as is known, is the sole representative of the genus), several affinities

not usually associated are manifest. Thus in the form of the tail, and

the way in which it perforates the interfemoral membrane, it bears

strong resemblance to the genus Taphozous, whilst the strength and

form of the hinder limbs, but more especially the form and implan-

tation of the canine and incisor teeth, would seem to indicate an afti-

nity with the genus Molossus (Nyctinomus), both of these genera

being representatives of the family Noctilionina. Again, on exami-

ning "attentiv ely the forms of the ear and tragus, we shall be struck

with the great resemblance which the latter bears to that of some of

the examples of the genus Vespertilio, and the former, although dif-

fering considerably from the ear in Vespertilio, bears nevertheless a

greater resemblance to it than perhaps to that of any other genus.

But there is another peculiarity to which I have already alluded,

which is deserving of especial notice—the presence of four bony pha-

langes in the second finger,—a peculiarity in which it resembles the

Phyllostomide or Leaf-nosed Bats of the New World, that number

being one of their characteristics ; whilst in all the Old World genera,

with the exception of the one now under notice, we find that that

finger has only three bony phalanges*. There are, however, several

characters present which appear to belong exclusively to the present

genus, such as the form of the snout and nostrils, the singular mark-

ings on some of the membraues, and the peculiar quality of the fur.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Note on Elephant Remains from the Gr vavel near Ballingdon Hill,

Lssex. By Joun Brown, Esq., F.G.S., of Stanway.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Stanway, uear Colchester, Oct. 1, 1857.

GENTLEMEN,—In the eighth volume of the Magazine of Natural

History, for the year 1835, p. 353, is an article which at that time I

had the pleasure of sending to Mr. Loudon, the then editor of that

interesting and very useful work, on some fossil remains (teeth and

bones) found at that time in a gravel-pit at Ballingdon, Essex, near

Sudbury. These remains consisted of tusks, teeth, and many bones of

* A similar peculiarity occurs in the genus Centurio, which, when first de-

scribed by Dr. Gray, was thought to be a native of the Old World, but there was

some doubt as to the exact locality from which it had been received. But other

examples have been since obtained from the New World, and its near alliance

with the tailless Phyllostomide has been satisfactorily established. The existence

therefore of four phalanges in this finger in Cenfurio cannot be considered, as in

Mystacina, as an exception to a general rule, but on the contrary as a further

extension of it.

Miscellaneous. 397

the Elephant, and bones and horns of a Jarge species of Deer. Sub-

sequently to that period, many fossils of the same kind have been

met with from time to time in the same gravel-pit: some of these

still remain in the possession of the proprietor of the estate, some are

in the Museum of the Geological Society of London, and some have

been sent to private museums in the neighbourhood.

Unfortunately, the Elephants’ tusks found in former excavations

in this gravel were so much decomposed as to baffle every attempt to

remove them ; they all fell to pieces when touched : an outer coat of

ivory was left on the spot where one tusk had lain so long, and its

strong curvature could be very plainly seen. In the year 1855

another tusk was found in the same bed of gravel,—broken, indeed,

into several pieces, but not so much decomposed as former ones.

In laying all these pieces out carefully according to their natural

curvatures, they were found to form collectively a tusk seven feet

in length on its outer curve, and it showed a curve that was quite

as deep as that of a former tusk found here, viz. nearly a half-circle.

On a chord-line, the distance from the basal part to the extreme

point of this fossil, which is fortunately preserved, is 3 feet 10 inches,

and 21 inches from the chord-line to the upper surface of the tusk,

in the position in which it is now mounted—its natural position,—

a greater curvature than any I have before observed in tusks found

in this county.

An Elephant’s tusk, equally large, was found at Clacton, about

sixteen years ago, but not so deeply curved as the tusks above

noticed.

If we allow 3 feet to any Ballingdon tusk for that part which goes

into the socket on the side of the Elephant’s head (which I am told

is not too much), we have a tusk altogether 10 feet long. The tusk

found at Clacton was, when alive, 12 feet.

As the former discoveries of Mammalian fossils at Ballingdon are

recorded in the Magazine of Natural History, this is also at your

service, if sufficiently important.

The last tusk found at Ballingdon was only mounted last Monday

week. It was found, as well as all the other mammalian fossils,

30 feet below the surface, in gravel of the glacial period.

I am, Gentlemen,

Your most obedient Servant,

Joun Brown.

Note on Bovine Remains, lately found at Clacton, Essex.

By Joun Brown, Esq., F.G.S., of Stanway.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Stanway, Oct. 22, 1857

GENTLEMEN,—On a visit to the freshwater deposit at Great

Clacton, about three weeks ago, I fortunately obtained a beau-

tiful pair of horn-cores of a large species of Bos; and, compared

with the description given by Professor Owen in his Report to the

398 Miscellaneous.

British Association for the Advancement of Science, for the year

1844, on “ British Fossil Mammalia,” these fossils appear to belong

to Bos priscus, described in that work, page 234,

The Clacton freshwater deposit has from time to time, ever since

its discovery in 1832, produced highly interesting remains of the

Elephant and other large Mammalia, in great numbers, now to be

seen in various museums; a long series of freshwater Mollusca has

also been obtained from this deposit.

The horn-cores so recently obtained from the Clacton freshwater

deposit are quite as large as any of that species heretofore found

there: their entire length is 2 feet 9 inches from base to point upon

the outer curve, 17 inches in vertical diameter, and 43 inches from

front to back at their base. In these specimens we have also the

graceful double curvature and the deeply impressed grooves usual in

the horn-cores of Bos priscus, pointed out by Professor Owen in his

Report above alluded to.

The curvature of these cores, on the inner side, is 7 inches from

the chord-line to the inner surface.

Still larger specimens than the foregoing have been met with in

the freshwater beds at Clacton; but as they do not possess the deep-

grooved character, and are of greater dimensions, they may probably

belong to a different species, and perhaps to Bos primigenius.

I am, Gentlemen,

Your obedient Servant,

Joun Brown.

Description of anew species of Pachyrhamphus. By P.L.Scuater.

PacHyYRHAMPHUS ALBO-GRISEUS, sp. Noy.

3. Supra cinereus, pileo cum nucha nitenti-nigris : linea frontali

inter oculos alba: alis nigris, tectricibus et secundariis extus

late albo marginatis: subtus albus, precipue apud latera cine-

rascente tinctus: cauda nigra, rectricibus omnibus, sed harum

extimis precipue, late albo terminatis : rostro plumbeo : pedi-

bus nigris.

2. Saturate castanea, subtus valde dilutior, cinnamomescenti-

ochracea. (?)

Long. tota 5:5, alze 3:0, caudee 2°4.

Hab. New Grenada, Bogota.

Mus. P.L.S.

I possess an adult male specimen, and what, I think, is probably

the female of this Becard, which is a close ally of the two preceding

species. It is, I suppose, the New Grenadian representative of the

form ; and, I confess, it is not without hesitation that I separate it

specifically from P. marginatus. The differences are the further

extension of the black over the nape of the neck, the entire want of

black on the back, the more purely white colouring below, and the

much deeper white terminations of the outer rectrices in the present

species.— Proc. Zool. Soc. April 28, 1857,

Miscellaneous. 39%

PLACODUS ANDRIANI.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,— In examining some fossil specimens recently trans-

mitted for sale, by M. Krantz of Berlin, to the British Museum, I

noticed certain structures in a part of the cranium of the Placodus

Andriani, Agassiz, which convinced me that that triassic animal

belonged to the class of Reptiles, and not, as Count Munster and

Prof. Agassiz have described, to the class of Fishes. As some ac-

count of the teeth of Placodus is given in the chapter on the denti-

tion of Pyenodont Fishes, in my ‘Odontography’ (p. 73. pl. 30),

on the authority of those eminent paleontologists, and before I had

had the opportunity of seeing original specimens, I lose no time in

correcting the error, as I trust to be able to prove it to be, when the

evidences of the Reptilian nature of Placodus are given in detail.

I am, Gentlemen,

Your obedient Servant.

British Museum, October 13, 1857. RicHARD Owen.

A few Remarks on the Midge Fly which infests the Wheat.

By Jonatuan Covucn, Esq., F.L.S. &c.

In the more eastern parts of the kingdom there has been long

known a little fly, the larva or maggot of which is highly injurious

to the ear of wheat, but, as far as my limited inquiries extend, it has

been little known in Cornwall, and it is only in the present year that

I have had an opportunity of examining it, or of hearing of its

ravages among us. It is called the wheat midge, or, according to its

more scientific name, Cecrdomyia Tritici ; of very minute size, dark

colour, and slender shape; the larva is of a decided yellow colour

and active habits.

A long, and it may be supposed accurate account of this little pest

is to be found in a small work on the Blights of Wheat, published

by the Religious Tract Society ; and as the smallness of the price of

this volume renders it accessible to all who wish for information on

the subject, I will not repeat anything which is to be learnt there.

But in addition to this, an account of this midge-fly—for there are

several others of this genus—in its depredations on our staff of life,

was read before the meeting of the British Association, when it was

held at Plymouth, by an eminent naturalist ; and it is to notes made

at that meeting, added to the few observations collected in the month

of July in the present year, that I am desirous of soliciting attention

on the present occasion, to prepare our farmers for meeting this

plague, and, if possible, to prevent its obtaining residence among us.

According to the little tract above referred to, this fly lays its

eggs in the grain in the month of June; but some of them were

busy about the grains in the latter half of July; and the succession

of development and hiding, which appears to take place in the larve,

is presumptive proof that “the depositing of eggs is not accomplished

in a very short space. At this time the grains of wheat had grown

400 Miscellaneous.

to the full size, and such as had been first attacked had disappeared

altogether, their place being marked with an empty husk. But these

maggots, small as they are, are not soon satisfied, nor is their larval

state of very short duration ; they therefore scatter themselves further

among the grains; and one of the latter was observed especially,

that had suffered no injury in the course of its growth, but which

was infected with a pale spot at the place where a wandering maggot

had fixed itself to begin its operations. Under such circumstances,

the ravages of this apparently contemptible insect must prove ex-

ceedingly formidable ; and the more so, as there is reason to suppose

that they continue to feed until the hardening of the grain renders it

beyond their power. It is remarkable that this larva has not been

traced into its state of chrysalis. Such of these larvee as are first

hatched escape into the earth, where, no doubt, they undergo their

natural changes, to prepare them for again appearing in the form of

a fly in the following year ; but such is not the fate of a large num-

ber of them, which, according to the observant naturalist quoted

above, are conveyed to the barn, and from thence to the winnowing

machine, where they become separated in the chaff. So great is the

number of these, that from 10,000 to 20,000 are believed to have

been contained in a single bushel. By the action of winnowing they

become separated with the dust, and they are found to drop to the

ground within the distance of three yards from the machine. It is

not the least remarkable point in the history of this animal, that all

these larvae, thus separated, are incapable of surviving; and the

utmost skill has not been able to rear them into the condition of a

fly : no danger for the future is therefore to be feared from them ;

and it is only those which have buried themselves in the field that

produce the insect for the future harvest. The difficulty of providing

against future injury is great in proportion to our ignorance of the

further history of the insect; but it has been observed that heavy

rolling of the ground in which it is buried—or what is better, the

trampling of much cattle—has been to a considerable extent suc-

cessful. The exact season for doing this must be determined by

experience.—Report of the Roual Cornwall Polytechnic Society for

1856.

Description of Actinopsis, a new genus of Actinize from Norway.

By D. C. Danrexssen and J. Koren.

Genus AcTINOPSIS, n. g.

Brevis, cylindrica, infra in magnum et gracilem basin extensa,

margine oris in duos longos et rigidos semicylindros prolongato,

quorum margines laterales deorsum flexi et extremitates bisulce ;

tentacula non retractilia.

Aetinopsis flava, the only species, is about > an inch in length of

body, and the outer tentacles measure about 2ths of an inch. Its

colour is yellow. Two specimens were taken in the Bay of Hard-

anger, half a league from Utne, at a depth of about 250 fathoms.

They were attached to Lima excavata.—Fauna Litt. Norveg. ii. p.87.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

{SECOND SERIES.]

No. 120. DECEMBER 1857.

XXXIX.— Description of eight new species of Entomostraca found

at Weymouth. By Joun Lussock, F.G.S.

[With two Plates. ]

Durine a short visit to Weymouth this autumn, I endeavoured

to rediscover Calanus (or Temora) Finmarchicus, in order to clear

up certain doubtful points in its anatomy.

Though unsuccessful in this search, I was amply repaid by

the discovery of eight new species of Entomostraca, three of

which belong to genera not previously caught in our seas, and

two are even the representatives of families not hitherto recorded

as British.

Calanus Eucheta.

Frons obtusa. Cephalothorax 5-articulatus, postice obtusus, superne

visus sinuatus. Antenne anticee cephalothoracis longitudine ; setis

apicalibus, et subapicali postera, eequis, subapicalibus anteris bre-

vibus. Antenne secundz, ramo uno longo, altero plus duplo bre-

viore, l-articulato. Pedes primi, ramo uno 3-articulato, altero

2-articulato, articulo primo elongato. Pedes posteri, parvi, uno

tantum ramo, setis plumosis non instructi. Styli candales breves,

setis mediocribus.

This species is colourless, except the eye, which is bright red.

The cephalothorax is of the ordinary form, and much resembles

that of C. comptus, except that it is rather more obtuse; in this

respect more nearly resembling C. szmplicicaudus. The first

segment of the cephalothorax occupies about 2ths of its whole

length. The antenn, measured from end to end in the posi-

tion they usually occupy, are as long as the cephalothorax, and

about eight of the sete are considerably longer than the rest,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 26

402 Mr. Lubbock on new species of Entomostraca.

and equal to one another ; two of these are situated at the apex,

one on the posterior side of the second segment, one on the an-

terior side of the fourth, and the others at nearly equal distances

along the antenna. The penultimate anterior and the ante-

penultimate setz are short. This diffusion of the long setz over

the whole length of the antennz is very peculiar, and similar to

what occurs in the genus Eucheta.

The second pair of antennz, Pl. X. fig. 3, are also abnormal,

and resemble those of no other species with which Iam acquainted.

They consist, as usual, of two branches, one of which is long

and three-jointed, and bears at the apex two tufts, one of six,

the other of eight long hairs. The second segment bears one

hair, and the basal one eight, increasing in length from the base

towards the apical end. This branch is neither rounded nor

truncate at the free end, but ends in a sharp edge like an adze,

or the gnawing tooth of a Rodent. The smaller branch is not

jointed, and is truncate, with eight hairs at the end.

The first pair of legs (or, according to Prof. Dana’s nomen-

clature, the second), Pl. X. fig. 4, have the outer ramus three-

jointed, the first and second each bearing one hair on the inner

side, and, as well as the third, a short spine on the outer margin.

The inner branch consists of two segments, of which the basal

is long and narrow, with parallel sides, and three hairs at equal

distances.

The fifth pair of legs (Pl. X. fig. 5) have only one ramus, are

four-jointed, and have no plumose setz, and only one long, naked

hair at the base.

The abdomen has four subequal segments and short Jamelle,

with six diverging hairs, of which the fourth (counting from the

outside) is a little the longest; the third and fifth are rather

shorter, the second again rather shorter, and the first and sixth

are quite small.

The cephalothorax had, in the greater number of specimens,

three very minute spines on the posterior margin of the last

segment; a few specimens, however, had four; and one or two

had only two, or even none.

I also found other specimens which had the abdomen only

three-jointed, and the posterior legs (Pl. X. fig. 6) consisting of

a basal part bearing on each side a long and large hair, and of a

small second segment ending in a stout spine about half as long

as these hairs. These specimens I have little doubt were the

females of this species, since they agreed in all the other charac-

ters, especially in the form of the cephalothorax, the structure of

the two pairs of antennz, and the first pair of legs.

I have described this species at length, in order to distinguish

it from others that may hereafter be discovered ; from all those

Mr. Lubbock on new species of Entomostraca. 403

at present known, however, it is separated by the arrangement

of the sete of the anterior antenne.

It was frequent at Weymouth this last September and Octo-

ber, and in confinement preferred the top of the water, and the

sunny side of the glass in which it was kept. Several specimens

had spermatic tubes attached to them.

Length 51;th of an inch.

Pl. X. figs. 1-6.

Calanus anglicus, un. s.

Frons rotundata, contracta. Cephalothorax 4-articulatus, postice

rotundatus, superne visus sinuatus, subacutus. Antennze corpore

paulo breviores, setis brevibus, subapicalibus longioribus, postica

penultima brevi. Pedes primi, ramo uno 3-articulato, altero 1-

articulato. Pedes alii, ramis ambobus 3-articulatis. Abdomen

4-articulatum ; stylis setisque abdominalibus mediocribus.

This species occupies a place in the genus close to C. levis,

with which alone it can be confounded. The anterior penulti-

mate seta of the anterior antenna is much longer than the pos-

terior penultimate, and the antennz themselves are rather shorter

than the body. Moreover, ail my specimens had the abdomen

four-jointed. It might be objected to this, that my specimens

may have been males, and those of Dr. Dana females; but I

believe that I found both sexes,—at least some had the posterior

abdominal segment quite short, while in others it was nearly as

long as the preceding segment. One specimen had, attached

to the first abdominal segment, a sac, containing a round, darkish

body, which seemed too large to be an egg (Pl. X. fig. 10).

Colour red. Length of cephalothorax 028 of an inch; total

length ‘04. Length of anterior antenna (measured across the

curve) ‘035.

Caught at Weymouth in October 1857.

Pl. X. figs. 9 & 10.

Diarromus.

This genus, when originally founded by Mr. Westwood, con-

tained only our well-known freshwater species, D. Castor; and

it maintained its freshwater character until I assigned to it, with

some doubt, the marine form D. dubius. I have now to describe

two new species, both characterized by having the eyes small

and close together, if not united; the right anterior antenna of

the male, and the fifth pair of legs in the same sex, prehensile ;

and the maxillipeds and second pair of antennze Calanoid. Prof.

Dana describes the posterior legs of the female as being long,

thick, and unlike the preceding pairs. In these organs, how-

ever, there is considerable variation: in D. longicaudatus, now

26%

404 Mr. Lubbock on new species of Entomostraca.

to be described, they consist each of one three-jointed ramus,

possess no hairs, but only a few spines, and altogether resemble

the same organs in some species of Pontella. In D. Castor and

D. americanus, on the contrary, both legs possess two three-

jointed branches, and if not ordinary hairs, at any rate a very

near approach to them.

Further, in D. Bateanus, my other new species, the organs

in question much resemble the other legs, and indeed differ

only in having a spine, stronger than usual, but varying con-

siderably in size, on the inner side of the second segment of the

outer branch. This spine is the representative of a much larger

one which occupies a corresponding situation in the right leg of

the male, but (and this is somewhat remarkable) is not present

in the left leg of that sex, although present on both sides in the

female.

It follows from Prof. Dana’s description, that his species of

Calanopia resemble Pontella in their maxillipeds and first pair of

legs, but he does not expressly say so, and in other respects they

so closely resemble the species now to be described, that I can-

not doubt that they belong to the same group.

Diapiomus Bateanus, n. s.

Frons obtusa. Cephalothorax postice rotundatus, mucronatus. An-

tennze anticee corpore paulo breviores, setis brevibus, postica pen-

ultima articulum longitudine superante, setis aliis brevioribus.

Pes posticus maris dexter magnus, digito elongato, inflexo. Pedes

postici foeminze pedibus aliis fere similes.

The right male antenna has a series of minute teeth occupying

the anterior side of the fifth, sixth and seventh segments, count-

ing from the free end, and the hinge-joint is between the fifth

and sixth.

The mazillipeds resemble those of the species which I have

named Diaptomus dubius.

The first pair of legs have both branches three-jointed ; the

basal segment of the lesser ramus bears one hair, the second

two, and the third three on the inner margin and two at the

apex. The second segment of the larger branch bears one hair,

the inner margin of the terminal segment four, and the apex

has a large spine, serrated on the outer side.

The fifth pair of legs resemble those of C. brachiata, but the

long spine on the second segment of the outer branch of the

right leg is curved, but not bent at a right angle.

The abdomen is four-joimted, and the caudal lamelle and

sete are moderately long, the fourth from the outside being the

longest.

Mr. Lubbock on new species of Entomostraca. 405

I found some specimens agreeing with this species in the form

of the second pair of antennz, second pair of maxille, cephalo-

thorax, the first and fourth pairs of legs, maxillipeds, and the

abdominal lamella. The fifth pair of legs, however, were large

and natatory, but the inner branch exactly agreed with that of

the male. The outer one was two-jointed, the apical segment

twice as large as the basal, and bearing at the free end a large

spine, and on the inner margin four long hairs, all on the apical

half of the segment. I believe therefore that these were females

of this species.

I have named it after Mr. Spence Bate, who has done and is

doing so much good service in the cause of science.

Caught at Weymouth, October 1857.

Length of cephalothorax ‘034; of abdomen ‘016; of anterior

antenna ‘046.

Pl. XI. figs. 1-3.

Several specimens were attacked by one of the parasitic Iso-

pods, apparently an Anzlocra, which was firmly fastened to the

back of its victim. This is the first time, I believe, that a

Crustacean parasite has been observed attached to any of the

Cyclopoidea. The Anzlocra was more than half as long as the

Diaptomus.

Diaptomus longicaudatus, n. s.

Frons obtusa. Cephalothorax postice rotundatus. Antenne antic

corpore breviores, setis brevibus, subeequis. Pedes primi, ramo

uno 3-articulato, altero 2-articulato. Pedes postici, uno tantum

ramo preediti. Abdomen 5-articulatum; styli caudales longi,

abdomine vix breviores.

The absence of angles to the cephalothorax, and the structure

of the fifth pair of legs, separate this from the preceding species ;

but as it has the right antennz and right posterior leg of the

male prehensile, aud the second pair of antenne Calanoid, it

must belong to this genus.

The first pair of antenne are shorter than the body, but longer

than the cephaiothorax; the sete are all short, none of them

much exceeding the length of one of the segments.

The second pair of antenne are Calanoid.

The mazillipeds closely resemble those of Diaptomus dubius.

The first pair of legs have one segment three-, the other two-

jointed. This is also the case with the first pair.

The fifth pair of legs are prehensile and Pontelloid. The

figure will give a better idea of their form than description can

convey.

The abdomen is five-jomted. The caudal lamella is nearly as

long, and has five hairs at the end, of the usual relative lengths.

406 Mr. Lubbock on new species of Entomostraca.

Length of cephalothorax ‘03, of abdomen °012, of lamella -01.

Total, °052. Length of antenna ‘048.

Colour opake brown; eye red. Not so numerous as D.

Thompsoni, but not unfrequent.

Weymouth, October 1857.

Female. also caught several specimens of a female, which

I believe belongs to this species. It agreed in the general form

of the cephalothorax and abdominal lamella, antennze, maxilli-

peds, and first pair of legs. The fifth pair of legs are small,

symmetrical, and three-jomted; the apical segment bearing four

spines, two at the end and one on each side. The abdomen was

three-jointed.

Pie X. figs: Dh, 123 (Php ktfies: 12, lis:

PONTELLA.

The genus Pontia was instituted by Milne-Edwards ; but the

name was altered by Dana to Pontella, Pontia having been

already used. Before the appearance of Dana’s work on Crus-

tacea, three species only were known; but that great naturalist

described and figured no less than twenty-seven new species,

and divided them into three highly natural groups: Ist, Cala-

nopia, the species of which ought rather, I think, to be referred

to Diaptomus ; 2nd, Pontellina, havmg the head unarmed; and

3rd, Pontella, in which it has a reversed spine on each side.

The present species is the first that has been found in our

seas, and may be described as follows :—

Pontella Wollastoni.

Frons subtriangulata, apice rotundata. Cephalothorax 7-articulatus,

postice acutus. Oculi magni. Antenne antic cephalothorace

non breviores, maris dextra, crassa, prehensilis, setis brevibus.

Pedes primi paris, ramo uno 3-articulato, altero 2-articulato. Pes

EE : :

posticus maris dexter, crassus. Abdomen 4-articulatum, stylis

setisque caudalibus mediocribus.

In this species the front is subtriangular, rounded in front.

The cephalothorax is seven-jointed, the posterior segment being

short and having its angles slightly elongated. The anterior

antenn are swollen; the fourth and fifth segments (counting

from the apex) are elongated, and toothed along the inner mar-

gin. ‘The setze are short.

The posterior antenne have the larger branch only about 4

longer than the other.

The mazille and mazillipeds are as usual.

The first and fourth pairs of legs have both rami three-jointed.

The fifth pair (PI. XI. fig. 11) are as usual. The penultimate

Mr. Lubbock on new species of Entomostraca. 407

segment, or hand, is swollen, and bears at the base a long im-

moveable spine, which acts in opposition to the still longer curved

finger. The left leg appears to consist of two rami.

Caudal sete as usual; the fourth (counting from the outside)

being the longest.

Female. The preceding description applies to the male. The

female, which I believe to correspond to this species, agreed with

the male in the general form of the cephalothorax, which was

‘07 of an inch in length, but the posterior segment was not very

clearly separated from the penultimate. The anterior antenne

were rather longer than the cephalothorax ; the posterior penul-

timate seta was about half as long again as its segment. The

other sete scarcely exceeded the length of the segments to which

they were attached. The maxillipeds and first pair of legs agreed

with those of the male.

Prof. Dana observes, that the fifth pair of legs in the female

do not afford good specific characters in this genus; but, with

all respect for so great an authority, I venture to offer a different

opinion, at least as regards all those which I have been able to

examine. In this species the two branches are reduced to

simple, ovate, inarticulate lobes ; the outer and larger being about

+ longer than the other, and haying a small tooth on the inner

margin near to the apex.

Colourless, except the bright red eyes.

Collected at Weymouth in October 1857.

I have named the species after my friend Mr. Wollaston, so

well known for his excellent work on the Coleoptera of Madeira,

and for other interesting essays on various branches of ento-

mology.

Pl. XI. figs. 9, 10, 11 & 18.

Pontellina brevicornis.

Frons rotundata. Cephalothorax 5-articulatus, articulis quatuor pos-

ticis subzequis, postice in angulis productus, dextro longiore ; seg-

mento primo non lateribus angulatis. Antenne prime cephalo-

thorace breviores, setis brevibus, apicalibus longioribus, articulum

longitudine superantibus. Antennarum posticarum rami non valde

ineequales. Pedes primi, ramis 3-articulatis. Pedes postici maris

erassi. Abdomen 5-articulatum, stylis setisque mediocribus.

This species represents the third of the groups into which

Prof. Dana has divided the genus, and consequently wants the

reversed spine on the side of the first cephalothoracic segment.

The front is rounded, and the posterior corners of the cephalo-

thorax are produced into short angles.

The anterior antenne are shorter than the cephalothorax ;

some of the apical setz are more than twice as long as the seg-

408 Mr. Lubbock on new species of Entomostraca.

ment; the penultimate setz are short, the anterior antepenulti-

mate is longer again.

The second pair of antenne have the lesser ramus nearly as large

as the other, and with six long terminal hairs.

The mazillipeds have the five terminal segments united into

one, which, however, shows its compound nature by being pro-

vided with five lobes or shallow projections on one side.

The first pair of legs have both rami three-jointed; the outer

branch has one hair on each of the two basal segments; the

inner branch has one hair on the basal segment, two on the

_ second, and six in all on the apical.

The fifth pair of legs differ so much in Pontella, that the dif-

ferent species may generally be distinguished by them alone.

Their forms, however, are so irregular, as to be somewhat diffi-

cult of description. In this case both legs consist of three sub-

equal swollen segments, differing, however, in the two legs, and

ending in the right by a simple, rather long spine. There are

no setose hairs.

The abdomen is five-jomted ; the caudal Jamelle are about as

long as the posterior segment, and the sete are of the usual

length and comparative sizes.

All the upper part of the body was colourless, the lower part

dark brown.

Length of cephalothorax -03 of an inch, of abdomen -01;

total 036. Length of anterior antenna *028.

Found at Weymouth, October 1857. There were not many

specimens.

The female which I suppose to belong to this species was the

only female Pontel/ina I met with, as the male was the only male ;

they agree in the general form, in the anterior antenna of the

left side, the maxillipeds, first pair of legs, abdominal lamelle

and sete. Most of the specimens were colourless, but one was

black.

The branches of the fifth pair of legs (Pl. XI. fig. 8) consist

of only one segment, and are of almost equal breadth through-

out; the lesser branch ends in two equal teeth, and the larger

has the external angles produced into two spines, the inner one

being the longer, and also a still larger spine projecting from

the apex; there is also a small spine on the middle of the outer

Inargin.

Pl. XI. figs. 4-8.

Coryceus anglicus, n. s.

Cephalothorax crassiusculus, postice acutus. Conspicilla larga, remo-

tiuscula. Antennze anticze longe setigeree. Antennarum secun-

darum digitus articulo secundo longior. Abdomen 2-articula-

Mr. Lubbock on new species of Entomostraca. 409

tum. Styli caudales abdomine breviores. Sete caudales stylis

longiores.

This species belongs to a small group of the genus which con-

tains four others also. From C. crassiusculus it may be at once

distinguished by the two-joimted abdomen; from C. laticeps by

the caudal lamella being more than half as long as the abdomen

(excluding, of course, the lamella itself); and from C. vitreus,

agilis, and orientalis by the finger of the second antenna being

considerably longer than the second segment.

The cephalothorax, seen from above, much resembles that of

Coryceus styliferus, mihi.

Specimens of this species were often found im coitu, and when

so, clung together very tenaciously, not being in some eases

separated when put into spirits of wine, so that they were not

divided even by death. Prof. Dana was unable to discover any

sexual differences in the genus, but I always found in this spe-

cies the first segment of the abdomen of the male occupied by a

bright mass, w hich was absent from that of the female. The

vermiform mass of pigment attached to the eye, also, went con-

siderably further back in the male than in the female ; so that

I should be inclined to regard Prof. Dana’s representation of

C. vitreus as that of a inale, and that of C. agilis as that of a

female.

Being the first species found in the British seas, I have named

it C. anglicus.

Length of cephalothorax ‘029, of abdomen -014; total O04.

Pl. XI. figs. 14 to 16.

MonstRILLA.

The genus Monsérilla and the family Monstrillidee were founded

by Prof. Dana for a single specimen caught by him in the Sooloo

Sea; and I have now the pleasure to ‘record a second species

found hy me at Weymouth. Both appear to be very rare ; at

least Prof. Dana in all his travels met with only one specimen;

and though I searched with great diligence, I was scarcely more

fortunate.

Monstrilla anglica.

Frons quadrata, angulis rotundatis. Cephalothoracis segmentum

primum postice paulo latius. Antenne 5-articulatee, setis antenna

brevioribus. Abdomen 4-articulatum, segmentis subzequalibus.

Styli caudales oblongi, divaricati, setis 6 subzequis, diffusis.

This species differs considerably from M. viridis. In the first

place the cephalothorax is rather broadest behind instead of in

the middle, and the three posterior segments are somewhat

moniliform, so that their sides do not form an even line. The

410 Mr. Lubbock on new species of Entomostraca.

abdomen is four-jointed, and the basal segment bears on each

side a large plumose hair, which passes backward and outward.

Upon the fourth caudal seta (counting from the outside) is an-

other, rather smaller than the other five. It hes so close to the

fourth seta, that it might easily be overlooked. For the sake of

clearness, however, I have in my figure separated them.

Length of cephalothorax ‘037, of abdomen ‘012; total :049;

of antenna *027.

Caught at Weymouth, October 1857.

Pl]. X. figs. 7 & 8.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE X.

Fig. 1. Calanus Eucheta, in outline, seen from above; x 65.

Fig. 2. Ditto. End of left anterior antenna; x65.

Fig. 3. Ditto. Antenna of the second pair; x 250.

Fig. 4. Ditto. Leg of the first pair; x66.

Fig. 5. Ditto. Fifth pair of legs of the male; x 125.

Fig. 6. Ditto. Fifth pair of legs of the female; x 125.

Fig. 7. Monstrilla anglica; x30.

Fig. 8. Ditto. Antenna; x65.

Fig. 9. Calanus anglicus ; end of antenna; X125.

0. Ditto. End of cephalothorax and abdomen, seen from the side;

x 65.

Fig. 11. Diaptomus longicaudatus ; end of anterior antenna of male; x 140.

Fig. 12. Ditto. Fifth pair of legs of male; x 125.

Fig. 13. Pontella Wollastoni; fifth pair of legs of female; x30.

Fig.

PiaTte XI.

Fig. 1. Diaptomus Bateanus; x65.

Fig. 2. Ditto. End of cephalothorax, and beginning of abdomen, seen

from the side; X65.

Fig. 3. Ditto. Fifth pair of legs of male; x50.

Fig. 4. Pontella brevicornis; end of left anterior antenna of male; x 100.

Fig. 5. Ditto. End of left anterior antenna of female; x 65.

Fig. 6. Ditto. Fifth pair of legs of male; x 100?

Fig. 7. Ditto. End of maxilliped; x 250.

Fig. 8. Ditto. Fifth pair of legs of female; x 100.

Fig. 9. Pontella Wollastoni; front seen from above.

Fig. 10. Ditto. Anterior antenna of male; x65.

Fig. 11. Ditto. Fifth pair of legs of male; x65.

Fig. 12. Diaptomus longicaudatus; end of anterior antenna of female;

x 65.

Fig. 13. Ditto. Leg of fifth pair of female; x 130.

Fig. 14. Coryceus anglicus; abdomen seen from above; X65.

Fig. 15. Ditto. Abdomen and end of cephalothorax, seen from the side ;

x 65.

Fig. 16. Ditto. Antenna of second pair; x80.

Fig. 17. Ditto. Eyes; x 250.

Fig. 18. Pontella Wollastoni; end of anterior antenna of female; x65.

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the great Bird of Paradise. 411

XL.—On the great Bird of Paradise, Paradisea apoda, Linn. ;

‘Burong mati’ (Dead bird) of the Malays; ‘ Fanéhan’ of the

Natives of Aru. By Aurrep R. WaLiace.

Havine enjoyed the rare privilege of a personal acquaintance

with this remarkable bird in its native haunts, durmg my resi-

dence in the Aru Islands, I am enabled to give a more complete

account of its habits, its local and geographical distribution, and

some peculiarities of its structure and ceconomy, than has yet

been published, and to correct several errors and misstatements

which occur in all the accounts I have seen. I have supplied

the deficiencies of my own observations by carefully comparing

the accounts of those natives who shoot the birds and prepare

the skins for sale, and with whom I have resided for more than

tvo months in the interior of the forests. My own Malay

hunters, who have shot most of the fine specimens which I have

obtained, have been another independent source of information.

A person cannot be long in the interior forests of Aru without

hearing a loud, harsh, often-repeated cry, wawk-wawk-wawk,

wok-wok-wok. This is the Paradisea, and it is sure to be heard

morning and evening, besides occasionally throughout the day.

It is the most frequent and the loudest of all the eres in the

forest, and can be heard at the greatest distance. One soon

becomes convinced that the bird is most abundant ; and it is, in

fact, over a very large part of Aru, one of the very commonest

species. Much of the noise, however, is made by the young

birds of various ages, and who seem to be ten times as numerous

as the full-plumaged, adult males. We shot nearly a dozen of

the former befere we even saw one of the latter. The adults

frequent the very loftiest trees, and are shy and wary, and so

strong and tenacious of life, that I know no bird of its size so

difficult to kill. It is in a state of constant activity, flying

from tree to tree, scarcely resting still a moment on the same

branch, and, at the slightest alarm, flying swiftly away among

the tree-tops. It is a very early bird, commencing to feed be-

fore sunrise ; but it does not seem to gorge itself and then rest

half-torpid, like many fruit-eating birds, as it may be seen and

heard at all times of the day in a state of activity.

On examining a freshly killed bird, we see the great muscular

strength of the legs and wings, and find the skin to be remark-

ably thick and tough, and the skull as well as all the bones very

hard and strong. ‘The whole neck is lined with a thick, mus-

cular fat, exactly similar to that of the Cephalopterus ornatus,

in the same position, and probably serving in both cases to

nourish the highly developed plumage of the adjacent parts.

This causes the throat externally to appear very wide, and as if

412 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the great Bird of Paradise.

swollen, which displays to great advantage the dense, scaly,

metallic plumage. The flesh, as might be expected, is dry,

tasteless, and very tough—to be eaten only in necessity. By

far the greater number of the birds I have opened have had their

stomachs full of fruit, and this seems to be their usual and

favourite food. At times, however, they seek after insects, prin-

cipally Orthoptera; and I have found one of the largest of the

Phasmide almost entire in the stomach of a full-plumaged bird.

It is only for two or three months of the year, during the

height of the east monsoon, that the natives obtain them; and

this circumstance has no doubt led to the statement that they

are migratory in Aru, arriving from New Guinea at the end of

the west, and returning there again at the end of the east mon-

soon—which is quite incorrect, as they are permanent residents

in Aru, and the natives know nothing about their being found

in New Guinea. About April, when the change from the west

to the east monsoon occurs, the Paradiseas begin to show the

ornamental side feathers, and in May and June they have mostly

arrived at their full perfection. This is probably the season of

pairing. They are in a state of excitement and incessant activity,

and the males assemble together to exercise, dress and display

their magnificent plumage. For this purpose they prefer cer-

tain lofty, large-leaved forest-trees (which at this time have no

fruit), and on these, early in the morning, from ten to twenty

full- plumaged birds ‘assemble, as the natives express it, “ to play

and dance.” They open their wings, stretch out their necks,

shake their bodies, and Keep. the long golden plumes opened and

vibrating—constantly changing their positions, flyimg across and

across each other from branch to branch, and appearing proud

of their activity and beauty. The long, downy, golden feathers

are, however, displayed in a manner which has, I believe, been

hitherto quite unknown, but in which alone the bird can be seen

to full advantage, and claim our admiration as the most beautiful

of all the beautiful winged forms which adorn the earth. Instead

of hanging down on each side of the bird, and being almost

confounded with the tail (as I believe always hitherto repre-

sented, and as they are, in fact, carried during repose and flight),

they are erected vertically over the back from under and behind

the wing, and there opened and spread out in a fan-like mass,

completely overshadowing the whole bird. The effect of this is

inexpressibly beautiful. The large, ungainly legs are no longer

a deformity—as the bird crouches upon them, the dark brown

body and wings form but a central support to the splendour

above, from which more brilliant colours would distract our

attention,—while the pale yellow head, swelling throat of rich

metallic green, and bright golden eye, give vivacity and life to

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the great Bird of Paradise. 413

the whole figure. Above rise the intensely-shining, orange-

coloured plumes, richly marked with a stripe of deep red, and

opening out with the most perfect regularity into broad, waving

feathers of airy down,—every filament which terminates them

distinct, yet waving and eurving and closing upon each other

with the vibratory motion the bird gives them ; while the two im-

mensely long filaments of the tail hang in graceful curves below*.

In the freshly killed specimens it can be easily seen (even did

not observation of the living bird prove it) that this is the natural

position of the long plumes. They all spring from an oval fold

of the skin, about an inch im length, situated just below the

elbow or first joint of the wing. On this point they turn as on

a hinge, and admit only of being laid down closed beneath the

wing, or erected and expanded in the manner described, which

position they take of their own accord, if the bird is held up by

the legs, with the head inclining a little downwards, and the

whole gently shaken. In this manner, by slightly altering the

position of the body, all the forms which the plumage assumes

during life can be correctly and beautifully imitated. If I am

right in supposing this attitude to be now first made known in

Europe, and our taxidermists succeed in properly representing

it, the Bird of Paradise will, I am sure, excite afresh universal

admiration, and be voted worthy of its illustrious name.

The curious habit of the males assembling to play and exer-

cise their limbs and feathers, occurs in some other birds, as the

Turkeys and Argus Pheasants, and particularly in the Rupicola

cayana, which, though a true arboreal bird, has its ball-room on

the ground, generally on a flat rock, on which a space of a few

feet in diameter is worn clean and smooth by the feet of the

dancers. On these spots the natives set snares, and catch these

beautiful birds alive. The soaring of the Lark, and, in all song-

birds, the exertion of singing, probably results from the same

desire for action at the time when the moulting is completed,

and the frame overflowing with health and vigour.

When the natives wish to procure ‘ Burong mati,’ they search

for one of the trees on which the birds assemble, and, choosing

a time when they are absent, construct among its branches a

little hut of boughs, so chosen as to afford them a good con-

cealed station for shooting the birds. They say the greatest care

is necessary to make the covering very close, and at the same

time not too artificial ; for if the birds once see anything move

within, they will quit the tree, and never return to it. They

ascend to this nest before daylight in the morning, with their

bow and a good stock of arrows ; a boy accompanying them, who

* A note on the mode in which the male Bird of Paradise displays his

plumes, will be found in the Annals for February 1854, vol. xii. p. 157.

414 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the great Bird of Paradise.

remains crouched at the foot of the tree, to secure the birds as

they fall, and recover the arrows. They sometimes use arrows

with a large rounded piece of wood at the end, so as to make no

wound ; but they say the bird is so strong, that it is very hard

to kill them with this, and they therefore prefer the usual long,

pointed arrows, which transfix the body and certainly bring

down the bird. The assembly commences soon after sunrise,

and when a sufficient number are in full play, the archer begins

his sport, and if skilful, will shoot nearly the whole of them

im succession, as each bird seems so much intent on his own

enjoyment as not to miss his companions. In skinning, they

take out the bones of the head and legs, and apply ashes to the

skin, a stick being pushed up to the base of the beak, on which

the skin of the head and neck shrinks to about a tenth of its

natural size. A little peg of wood is pushed through the nos-

trils, by which the skin is hung up to dry, and a string tied

round the wings to keep them im their place. In damp weather

the skin about the base of the beak often breaks, and is then

mended with pitch! and the smoky atmosphere of the native

houses, in which half-a-dozen families have their cooking-fire in

daily action, soils and darkens the whole plumage, especially the

pale yellow head and the delicate downy portion of the long

plumes. When dry, they are preserved wrapped in palm-leaves,

which, however, seldom cover the extreme ends of the feathers,

which thus become still more rubbed and dirtied. Some years

ago, two dollars each were paid for these skins, but they have

gradually fallen in value, till now there is scarcely any trade im

them. I purchased a few in Dobbo at 6d. each.

Of the geographical distribution of the Bird of Paradise many

erroneous statements have been published. Its supposed migra-

tions have by some been extended to Banda, by others to Ceram

and all the eastern islands of the Molucca group. These state-

ments are, however, totally without foundation, the species being

strictly confined to New Guinea and the Aru Islands, and even

to a limited portion of each of those countries. Aru consists of

a very large central island, and some hundreds of smaller ones

scattered around it at various distances, many being of large

size and covered with dense and lofty forests; yet on not one

of these is the Paradisea ever found (although many of them are

much nearer New Guinea), being limited to the large island,

and even to the central portions of that island, never appearing

on the sea-coast, nor in the swampy forests which in many places

reach some miles inland. With regard to its distribution in

New Guinea, the Macassar traders assured me it was not found

there at all; for, although they obtain quantities of ‘ Burong

mati’ from most of the places they visit on the west coast of

Mr. A. R. Wallace on the great Bird of Paradise. 415

New Guinea, they are all of another kind, being the Paradisea

papuana, a smaller and more delicate, but less brilliantly coloured

species. On inquiry I found they did not trade to the eastward

of Cape Buro (135° E.). Lesson*, I believe, found the larger

species in the southern peninsula of New Guinea, and an intel-

ligent Ceramese trader I met at Aru assured me that, in places

he had visited more eastward than the range of the Macassar

traders, the same kind was found as at Aru. It is therefore

clear that the Paradisea apoda is confined to the southern pen-

insula of New Guinea and the Aru Islands, while the Paradisea

papuana inhabits only the northern peninsula, with one or two

of the islands (most probably) near its northern extremity. It

is interesting to observe, that though the Ké Islands and Goram

approach nearer to New Guinea than Aru, no species of the

Paradise birds are found upon them,—pretty clearly showing

that these birds have not migrated to the islands beyond New

Guinea in which they are now found. I have, in fact, strong

reasons for believing, from geographical, geological, and zoo-

logical evidence, that Aru is but an outlying portion of New

Guinea, from which it has been separated at no very distant epoch.

In examining my series of specimens, I find four such well-

marked states of the male bird, as to lead me to suppose that

three moults are required before it arrives at perfection. In the

first condition it is of a nearly uniform coffee-brown colour,

darker on the head and paler on the belly, but entirely without

markings or variety of colour. The two middle tail-feathers are

exactly equal in length to the others, from which they only differ

in having a narrower web. In the next series of specimens, the

head has acquired the pale yellow colour, and the throat and

* Since writing this paper, I have, by the kindness of a German physician

residing at Macassar, Dr. Bauer, obtained a perusal of the ‘ Zoology’ of the

voyage of the ‘ Coquille,’ containing Lesson’s observations on the Paradise

Birds. There is, however, a great want of preciseness in his account, owing

to his using French trivial names, and his not stating where and how he

obtained each species. He visited, I find, only the north coast (Dorey Har-

bour) and the islands of Waigiou. His details of habits refer to, and the

specimens shot by himself or companions are spoken of as, the “ petit

Emeraude,” which must be the P. papuana, Bechst. (P. minor, Forst.).

He states, however, that he procured from the natives at Dorey the two

species of ‘ Emeraude,’ the other being, no doubt, the true P. apoda, Linn.,

which I believe does not inhabit that district. They were probably obtained

from the Ceramese traders, who had brought them from the south or from

Aru, just as they offered me at Aru specimens of the P. papuana which

they had brought from the north peninsula of New Guinea. He mentions

the apparently large number of females, and concludes that the bird is

polygamous! but I have no doubt that what he took for females were

mostly young males. He says nothing about the vertical expansion of the

plumes, which will form, I hope, an important addition to our knowledge

of these remarkable birds.

416 Mme. J. Power on the Habits of the common Marten.

forehead the rich metallic green of the old birds ; the two middle

tail-feathers, however, are still webbed, but are now two or three

inches longer than the rest. In the next state these two feathers

have been replaced by the immensely long, bare rachides, quite

equal to the greatest size they attain; but there is yet no sign

of the fine side-plumes which mark the fourth and perfect state

of the species. I am inclined to believe, therefore, that this

extraordinary mass of plumes is only obtained by the Paradisea

in its fourth year, and after three complete changes of its feathers.

This will account for the very large number of immature birds

everywhere seen, while the full-plumaged males are comparatively

scarce. It is singular that I have not deen able to obtain a single

adult female, my only specimen of that sex being, I think, also

a young bird. It is exactly similar to the youngest males, of a

coffee-brown all over; but in Bonaparte’s ‘Conspectus’ it is

stated that the female is dusky yellow and brown, with the

under parts entirely white. This, I cannot help thinking, must

be a mistake, or altogether another bird; for neither myself nor

my hunters have ever seen one at all resembling it, out of many

hundreds in various states of plumage. The natives who shoot

the birds are also quite unacquainted with it, and always declared

that the birds of a uniform brown colour were the females. I

am sorry I could not positively determine the point, because I

shall probably not again visit the districts in which the Paradisea

apoda is found. I hope, however, to obtain the allied P. papuana

on the north coast of New Guinea, and trust to be more successful

in ascertaining the female of that species. It is also worthy of

notice that the long cirrhi of the tail im the full-plumaged males

vary very much in length, and the shortest is often the most

worn, showing that it has reached its full development for the

year. A specimen occurs occasionally with immense cirrhi; one

of mine has these feathers 34 inches long, while the general

length seems to be from 24 to 28 inches. I think it probable,

therefore, that these cirrhi increase in length each year, and that

the very long ones mark very old birds. The other dimensions

of the bird, and the length of the ornamental side-plumes, are

in all cases almost exactly equal.

XLI.— Observations on the Habits of the common Marten (Martes

foina). By Madame JEannetTE Powrr*,

Every one knows that the Marten is very wild, and that it

inhabits the forests. As cunning as the Fox, it prowls like that

animal round about isolated houses and farms, and enters these

for the purpose of plunder ; its visits, which are not disinterested,

* Communicated by Prof. Owen.

Mme. J. Power on the Habits of the common Marten. 417

reduce the farmer’s wife to despair, for the passage of the Marten

is always indicated by ravages in the pigeon-house and poultry-

yard. It almost always escapes the traps which are laid for it,

and all the precautions employed to protect the poultry-yard

from its attacks. Nor does it find much sympathy amongst

sportsmen, who regard it as a formidable rival.

It generally feeds upon small birds and quadrupeds, causing

an immense destruction of young partridges, leverets, young

rabbits, and other small game. It eats dry fruits, almonds,

walnuts, nuts, figs and grapes.

Wishing to study the habits of these little animals, and to

ascertain the extent of instinct with which they might be en-

dowed, I succeeded in obtaining a pair, male and female, which

were caught, at the age of about three or four months, in the

forests of Mount Etna.

My observations soon showed me that the Marten is a very

interesting animal, in respect of the perfection of its instinct ;

one might say that it possesses a consciousness of what it does.

To tame my Martens, I began by giving them their food with

my own hands, three times a day regularly. Their food con-

sisted of beef. At first they were rather wild; but with per-

severance and care, I succeeded in overcoming their wildness ;

they formed a great friendship for me, and began to mount upon

my knees and to lick my hands; they followed me all over the

house, and at last they were almost always close to me.

When I went out, I shut them up in a little room; on my

return, they came to me with a sad aspect, listened to me, and

gave me to understand how weary they had been of my absence.

I would take them upon my knees and caress them ; my caresses

brought them to a good humour, when they would leap upon

the chairs and tables, or whatever was within their reach.

To make a slight trial of their natural forest mstinct, I had a

tree brought into my antechamber ; hardly had it been placed

there, when my Martens climbed to the top of it; but on seeing

me return to my room, they descended from the tree in order to

follow me. They slept upon the tree, and almost always with

the head bent down. If I shut them up in my antechamber,

they gnawed at the door, and cried with all the force of their

little lungs ; I was then obliged to yield and open the door for

them.

When I was dressing for the evening, or undressing to go

to bed, the Martens introduced themselves gently between the

mattresses of my bed, with the view of keeping me company

and passing the night with me, which did not suit me at all.

Shortly after I obtained my Martens, the mice which we had

in the house disappeared; but I never observed that they caught

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx.

418 Mme.J. Power on the Habits of the common Marten.

any. leven made the experiment of giving them, at one of

their meals, the flesh of a large rat ; they smelt at it, at the same

time making faces, but did not touch it, and went away from

it with an air of disgust and repugnance.

The Marten has the senses of smell and hearing very delicate.

Mine always smelt at their meat before touching it, exactly in

the same way as a cat. If the meat were not fresh, they did

not eat it, came to me with an uneasy air, and endeared

by their little actions, to make me understand that they were

hungry. When my servant came to fetch the basket in which

he usually placed the meat which I sent him to buy for the

Martens, they would spring upon the window-sill, and there

watch for his return; when they saw him, they ran before him,

jumping about with joy, and emitting their little ery, Hi, ki, hi.

One day the servant, wishing to see what the Martens would

do if he arrived with empty hands, left the basket upon the

staircase, and came into the antechamber. They were soon con-

vineed, by the fineness of their scent, that he had not brought

any meat. A very interesting scene then took place: first of all,

they showed their. anger against the servant, by grimacing at

him and showing their teeth ; then they came to me, opening

their mouths, and endeavoured to make me understand that

their food had not been given tothem. They mounted upon my

knees, gave me a thousand caresses, played a thousand tricks,

and at this critical moment displayed all the sagacity with which

they were inspired by their instinct. I was then obliged to yield

to their earnest entreaties, and give them the meat for which

they were so anxious.

Wishing to know how the Martens contrive to attack squirrels,

and the mode of defence of the latter, I procured a living squirrel,

and put it upon the tree; as soon as the Martens perceived it,

they threw themselves upon it, and notwithstanding its agility,

it could not long escape from the cruelty of its two enemies.

The battle was short; the squirrel was attacked, killed, soon

torn to pieces, and devoured. The Martens only left the skin,

the head and the intestines.

I remarked that although they were very fond of the flesh of

young game, they always gave the preference to beef, but they

never ate the fat. Another very curious and interesting obser-

vation with regard to the instinct of these animals is, that when

my Martens saw ill-dressed people entering the house, even

though they were in the habit of seeing them come frequently,

they threatened them by showing their teeth, and their hair

stood on end to the very tips of their tails. I was then called

immediately, and was compelled to threaten them with a cane

which I held in my hand when I was angry with them, to pre-

Mme. J. Power on the Habits of the common Marten. 419

vent them from springing at the face of these people. This did

not happen with persons of my acquaintance, whose costume dif-

fered from that of the class of people for whom they had such a

dislike ; they ran before these, testifying by caresses, cries of

hi, hi, hi, and leaps, the pleasure which they experienced in see-

ing them again. I cannot compare these amicable demonstra-

tions to anything better than those of a dog towards those

whom he knows to be friends of the family.

They often went into the kitchen, and one day they carried

off a fillet of beef; after eating a piece of it, they hid the re-

mainder under my bed. I was informed of this robbery, and

thought it necessary to watch my Martens. I soon perceived

that they went frequently under my bed. I gave orders for an

inspection in this direction, but they soon saw that the booty

which they had deposited there was about to be taken from them,

and began to show signs of discontent and irritation towards the

servant. I was obliged to mterfere, with all my authority, and

armed with the stick, in order to prevent them from biting the

person to whom I had given orders to carry off their prey, that

is to say, the remainder of the fillet of beef.

I was not long in showing them the means of cleanliness, and

for this purpose I frequently took them into the kitchen. If this

room happened to be closed, they got the door opened by signs,

and then went of their own accord into a corner, where I had

from the first caused some sand to be placed and renewed

daily. -

It is customary in Sicily to take the air upon the balconies of

the houses: when I did this, my Martens followed me, and

mounted upon the balustrade of the balcony, or upon my

shoulders, to look into the street. When they perceived any

of my friends, they had a movement, a manner of recognizing

them ; but if a dog came by, they put themselves in a threaten-

ing posture; their hair stood on end, they showed their teeth

with contortions of the face, and uttered a slight grunting noise.

Frequently I have seen the passengers stop to look at them, and

many of these kept their dogs by them in order to prolong a

scene which was truly amusing in every respect. From time to

time, also, they gave chase to the cats; and there was not one

of these animals that ventured to approach my house.

A still more extraordinary fact is the following. The Martens

often remained alone upon the balcony, when, if they happened

to notice one of my friends, they came into the room, and by

nieans of repeated and unequivocal signs, made me follow them

to the balcony ; but if they saw that the person turned the cor-

ner of the street, they ran to a window which opened above the

gate of our court-yard, where they watched and waited for my

27*

420 Mme. J. Power on the Habits of the common Marten.

friend’s entrance; then they ran to let me know, by their usual

demonstrations, and afterwards went into the antechamber; if

the servant was not there, they ran to seek him, just as an intel-

ligent dog might have done.

If, in jumping about, they happened to break a glass or a

cup, they appeared to be quite conscious of their fault ; for they

made their escape and hid themselves, dreading correction.

My maid having left a ball of knitting cotton upon a chair,

one of the Martens took the end of the thread, and mounted

upon the tree; in less than two hours it succeeded in construct-

ing, at the top of the tree, a sort of net, most artistically inter-

woven, so as only to leave very small spaces between the threads.

I could not imagine for what purpose this pretty piece of work

was intended. At last I understood, and calling in some boys,

I promised them a reward if they were clever enough to eatch

me some living birds ; I gave them my nets, a cage, and some

corn, and in eight hours they brought me eleven birds. The next

morning I opened the cage underneath the net; several of the

birds flew mto the tree, others upon the windows and doors.

The Martens, on seeing the birds, climbed up the tree, the win-

dows, and the doors, killing those which they could catch: the

chase was for some time very amusing, not for the poor birds,

but for me, and two of my friends who were present. When all

the birds were killed, the Martens devoured several of them,

only leaving the feathers, the beak, the feet and the intestines ;

afterwards they hid the other birds under a piece of furniture,

going from time to time to make sure that they were still there.

When they were hungry, they went to take the birds and eat

them.

When they saw me busy writing, they mounted upon my

shoulders, and watched for a favourable moment to steal a book

cr some papers, which they carried off to their tree with incre-

dible velocity, or hid under some furniture.

One day, my servant, on going into the kitchen to clean the

plate, could not find it, and then perceived that many kitchen

utensils and all the dusters were wanting, as well as some linen

which was being wasbed; he came to me, pale and frightened,

to tell me that I had been robbed. I went into the kitchen,

where I thought it strange that the Martens had not followed

me; i called them, and they came with a timid air, trembled,

and kept at a distance from me, and I observed that they looked

towards a cavity under a staircase. I took the cane with which

I corrected them, and showed it to them, scolding them at the

same time with a severe air, and making them understand that

they had committed a crime. They fled into a corner, and took

a supplicating posture, on seeing them in which I could not

Mme. J. Power on the Habits of the common Marten. 421

help laughing. I told the servant, who understood nothing of

this scene, to look under the staircase ; to his great surprise, the

objects were found, and, which is astonishing, not one of them

was broken or torn. Whilst we were busy looking over the

different objects recovered, the Martens took to flight, and went

to hide themselves between the mattresses of my bed; they

remained concealed there for more than two hours, but hunger

caused them to make their appearance. They passed along the

wall of the room in which I was; they had a frightened air, and did

not venture near me. I pretended not to see them. After their

meal, they hid themselves again; I called them; they came to

me with a pitiful look; I scolded them, and showed them the

cane, when they began their little cry of /z, hi, ki, and came in

a supplicating manner to lick my hands. After this, they were

well-behaved for some time.

If any one pretended to strike me, my Martens became ex-

ceedingly angry, and if I had not kept them back by menaces,

they would have bitten him. One evening, being very busy

writing, I had my door closed. One of my friends, Mr. Pin-

kerton, called upon me, and was told that I was not to be

seen. In going away, he met one of his friends, who was also

coming to see me. He told him that I did not wish for any

visitors ; but in passing along the street, a foolish idea came

ito their heads. Meeting one of the lamp-lighters, to take his

ladder, mount to the balcony, and enter the saloon was the work

of a moment. The Martens went before them with the usual

ceremonies, and then came into my study to announce that I

had visitors; not understanding what they wanted, I turned

round and saw the two gentlemen, when I understood every-

thing. As I was going to scold these gentlemen, I saw my

Martens getting angry; I ran into the saloon, and arrived just

in time to hinder the Martens from biting a gentleman who had

imprudently followed the example of his friends. The Martens

had never seen this gentleman, who had been absent from Mes-

sina whilst I had these animals, and certainly he did not expect

such a reception. Two of my intimate friends presented them-

selves ; the servant, knowing that | had somebody in the drawing-

room, showed them in. The Martens went betore them with a

thousand caresses; the stranger advanced to shake hands, but

the Martens would not permit him, and the scene was about to

recommence. I then took the cane, and they retired into a

corner of the room, but still kept their eyes fixed upon their

enemy. As it was the time for their meal, I had some meat

brought upon a plate, and gave it to this gentleman, at the

same time placing one of the Martens upon his knee. The

Marten took the meat with a grunting noise; the other Marten

422 Mme.J. Power on the Habits of the common Marten.

jumped up close to his companion, and after their meal, peace

was established.

A fortnight after this incident, I heard a noise, and ran to my

balcony. There was a crowd of people in the street, and my neigh-

bour was telling them that she had been robbed. Being too far off

to hear what she said, I passed into my bed-room, the balcony of

which was close to that of my neighbour, when I was struck by

seeing there some things which did not belong tome. There was

a bonnet, some shoes, two cups, a glass, a watch, some flowering

plants which had been torn up from their pots, and other things.

I begged the lady to come into my house, assuring her that I

would give her some information about the robbers. One may

easily understand the pleasure which this lady experienced on

seeing her goods.

I told her the history of my Martens, and of the taste they

had for stealing, at which she laughed much. I called my

Martens, but they did not come; I looked about for them; I

had the mattresses removed from my bed, but they were not

there ; at last I found them concealed at the top of the curtains,

when they took to flight. I called them, when they came and

received a good punishment. It is strange that they never

touched anything either in my drawing-room or my bed-chamber.

My Martens feared, but were much attached to me; they

never attempted to bite me when I punished them. One day I

was weeping for the loss of a friend; they climbed upon me,

caressed me, put on a sad air, and seemed to partake of the

grief which I experienced.

The two Martens lived in perfect friendship; what one did,

the other imitated, and they were always together in committing

any mischief. Sometimes, however, although very rarely, the

male corrected his companion.

Being obliged to quit Sicily to come to London, and expecting

to return to Messina, I confided my Martens to the Duchess of

Belviso; her husband, the Chevalier Benoit, who studied natural

history, undertook the care of them. The female, which was

near littering, died, either from grief at not seeing me any more,

or from some other cause ; and the male made his escape. This

surprised me, for during the fifteen months that they stayed

with me, they had every liberty, but never attempted to escape.

Sometimes they crept along the wall into the street ; they then

went close to the gate of the courtyard, and when this was

opened, returned into the house.

Sir P. de M. Grey Egerton on the genus Pleuvacanthus. 423

XLIU.—On the Unity of the genera Pleuracanthus, Diplodus and

Xenacanthus, and on the Specific Distinction of the Permian

Fossil Xenacanthus Decheni (Beyrich). By Sir Purip ve

Maupas Grey Eeerron, Bart., F.R.S

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

I am induced to offer the following notice for publication in

the Annals of Natural History by the strong feeling I entertain

(in common, I believe, with all naturalists) of the advantage of

correcting and amending the nomenclature of the various objects

of our studies in accordance with the progress of scientific know-

ledge and the discoveries of the day.

The genus Pleuracanthus was established by Professor Agassiz

in the year 1837. The only portion of the fish then discovered

was the defensive spine, the resemblance of which to the dagger

of the Trygon and other armed Rays induced him to classify

Pleuracanthus with that family. The species P. /evissimus was

found in the Dudley coal-field. Two other species were sub-

sequently named, found in the coal-fields of Leeds and North

Wales. More recently these peculiar spines have been found in

considerable abundance in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh and

at Carluke, and three additional species have been described by

Dr. Newberry from the coal-measures of Ohio. In the year

1834 I discovered, in the coal-shale of the Silverdale Mine in

North Staffordshire, some remarkable tricuspid teeth, to which

Agassiz assigned the new generic title Diplodus. Similar teeth

were discovered about the same time by the late Dr. Hibbert Ware

in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and by Mr. Rankin at Car-

luke. They have since proved of common occurrence in most

of our British coal-fields, and I have also received specimens

from Prof. Dawson from the same formation in Nova Scotia.

In the ‘Jahrbuch’ for 1849, Professor Beyrich gives a detailed

description of Xenacanthus Decheni, a most remarkable fish found

in the Rothe-todt-liegende at Riippersdorf in Bohemia. The

general form of the fish resembles Squatina, but its most remark-

able feature is the msertion of a defensive spine immediately be-

hind the occiput. This spine is described as having the greatest

resemblance to those of the genera Plewracanthus and Orthacan-

thus of Agassiz ; so much so, that Beyrich suggests the propriety

of uniting the three genera as a subfamily of ‘the Raiide. The

late Prof. Goldfuss went a step further, and merged Xenacanthus

in Orthacanthus. It is therefore fair to presume, that the conti-

nental discovery has given us the clue to the true characters of

the fish from which these peculiar spines are derived. In his lucid

424 Mr. J. Couch on the species of Whales

description of Xenacanthus Decheni, Beyrich remarks that the

teeth resemble those of Diplodus. If evidence were wanting to

complete the argument for the approximation of these genera, it

is supplied by this fact ; for I had the opportunity of determining

most conclusively, by the examination of the fine series of spe-

cimens exhibited at the meeting of the British Association at

Glasgow (1855), that the spines of Pleuracanthus and the teeth

of Diplodus belonged to the same fish.

Through the kindness of Sir Roderick Murchison, I have been

enabled within the last few days to settle this matter decisively,

by the inspection of a series of most perfect specimens of Xen-

acanthus Decheni, Beyr., from the Permian strata of Klein Neun-

dorf. The spines of this Permian fish cannot be generically

distinguished from those of the genus Pleuracanthus of the Car-

boniferous rocks ; neither can the teeth be separated from those

of Diplodus of the same age. There are, no doubt, differences

between them, but these are of specific, not of generic signifi-

cance. The genus Orthacanthus of Agassiz has evidently very

close affinities with Pleuracanthus ; but the approximation of the

lateral rows of tubercles on the under surface of the spine, is a

character, perhaps, of generic import. All these spines differ

from the defence-bones of the armed Razde im having hollow

bases. Considering publication as the test of priority, the ge-

nera Diplodus (1843) and Xenacanthus (1847) must merge ito

Pleuracanthus, which was put forth in the ‘ Poissons Fossiles’ m

1837.

I remain, Gentlemen,

Your most obedient Servant,

P. pe M. Grey EceErton.

Oulton Park, Nov. 17, 1857.

XLI1.— Remarks on the species of Whales which have been ob-

served on the coasts of Cornwall. By Jonatuan Cowcu, Esq.,

F.LS. &.*

THERE is no department of Natural History, unless perhaps we

except the minute and microscopic, which is so little understood,

especially in regard to the distinction of species, as that which

comprises the Whale tribe; two or three of which, that have

been numbered among British animals, appear to have been con-

founded together by different writers, while others have been

cousidered as distinct that are only varieties, and some have pro-

bably escaped observation altogether ;— circumstances which

were the chief inducements to F. Cuvier, brother of the more

* Abridged from the Report of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society,

1856, p. 27.

observed on the coasts of Cornwall. 425

celebrated Baron Cuvier, to write his well-known and excellent

work on these animals, in which, however, he has carried his

scepticism to a somewhat unwarrantable extent. This confusion

of species, with its attendant ignorance of habits, is in part owing

to the distance which the larger species keep from the haunts of

men, to their migratory habits, according to the seasons or the

distribution of their food, or to their mighty bulk and strength,

which prevent their becoming the prey of the fisherman, whose

efforts are only directed against such as, by the abundance of

oil they furnish, are likely to pay him for his expense and dan-

ger. A practical fisherman has rarely been a scientific naturalist ;

and therefore, if an dividual of the rarer species has chanced to

fall in the way of those most likely to meet with it, it has not

been examined with such intelligent attention as is likely to add

to the amount of our knowledge.

It is, again, only after long intervals that, most frequently

compelled by the violence of some disease, an individual of the

larger sort has become stranded on our shores ; and in cases like

this, it is to be regretted that the fact has not been known to a

competent observer until the animal has suffered such mutilation

as obliterates the particular characters of the species ; or perhaps

such fragments only are left for his inspection as serve to increase

rather than diminish the general amount of error regarding them.

Unfortunately for the cause of science, it has very rarely happened

that any one observer has had an opportunity of inspecting more

than a single specimen of the rarer species, and consequently of

comparing one individual with another,—a circumstance which,

perhaps more than any other, has led to the multiplication of

species in the catalogues of naturalists; and under the more

ordinary circumstances, a great amount of uncertainty, both in

the description and drawing, will necessarily arise, from the

presence of a crowd of people which are sure to gather together

to the sight, and the awkward manner in which the enormous

bulk is likely to take the ground as the tide retires, at which

time only, for the most part, the whole of the body can be seen,

These latter remarks are not only intended as an apology for

the imperfection of the notes I have brought together of such of

those animals as have been met with on our coasts, but also to

point out to fishermen and others how much it may be in their

power to assist the researches of the naturalist, which more

especially may be done by communicating to any competent

observer the occurrence of a specimen that might not otherwise

be known to him, and by refraining from mutilating it until an

examination of it has been made,—a circumstance which may

prove highly to the advantage of the fisherman himself; since

the preservation and sale of an unknown or rare example may

426 Mr. J. Couch on the species of Whales

prove of far more value than might arise from the price of the oil

it may produce. A measurement of the length, the preservation

of the bones of the jaws, with a note of the situation and form

of the teeth or whalebone, and also of the blowing-holes on the

top of the head—whether single or double, —with the situation

and shape of the hump or dorsal fin, and the presence or absence

of a series of longitudinal folds under the throat, will consider-

ably assist in determining the character of an uncertain species.

But as also in some instances it has happened that even an

observing fisherman has been at a loss to decide whether the

creature he has seen at sea has been a whale or one of the larger

species of sharks (and more than one of the latter class has been

known to attain the size, with much of the shape, of a whale of

the middle order, so that the basking shark was long confounded

with the whales, even by naturalists), it is proper to remark, that

cetaceous animals or whales may be easily determined, even

when moving through the water, by being seen to have their

tails placed horizontally, or across the direction of their course ;

whereas the line of direction of the tail in all true fishes, as the

shark, is upright, or perpendicular to their course, and con-

sequently with a lateral, and not an elevating or depressing

motion. The circumstance of spouting water or vapour from

the head, is also a character of most of the species of whales.

Whales, in fact, are not to be classed with fishes; for they give

suck to their young with milk drawn from teats, and draw air

through breathing-holes on the top of the head into real lungs,

spouting it out again through the same orifices, either in the

form of vapour, or with an accompanying rush of water; and it

is an excellent fitting of parts to the necessities of the creature,

that this horizontal position of the tail is so well adapted to the

purpose of raising the head with a slight effort, and of again sink-

ing it below the surface. It is thus that the rolling motion is

obtained which is seen in almost all the whales, when they offer

themselves to an observer, but especially in the group of Dolphins.

It appears, also, that some of the larger whales possess a power

which enables them to sink in the water by an imperceptible ac-

tion, independent of the motion of the tail; for a fisherman has

informed me that he has seen, and carefully noted, a large whale

very near his boat, which more than once threw itself on its back,

with its white belly uppermost ; and after lying in this position

for a time, it sank without apparent effort, deeper and deeper, for

several fathoms, until it was out of sight. The Rev. Mr. Scoresby,

who was a Greenland fisherman for several years, has, I believe,

noticed the same thing ; and it is known that several diving birds

are able to keep themselves deeply immersed without apparent

effort, while swimming and seeking to escape observation,—a

observed on the coasts of Cornwall. 427

fact which is explained by the supposition that they are able to

increase the specific gravity of their bodies by means of an in-

herent muscular contraction : it is probable that this sinking of

the Whale is effected by a somewhat similar means,

(Family BALa2NID 2.)

Genus BALZNOPTERA.

RorquaLt.—B. musculus, Fleming’s British Animals, p. 30;

Beil’s British Quadrupeds, p. 520. B. Boops, Zoologist, vol. i.

p- 33; Gray’s Catalogue of the British Museum, p. 32.

Dr. Gray describes, under the name of Razor-back (Physalus

antiquorum), a whale that was brought into Plymouth by some

trawlers, in October 1831, and which by others has been de-

scribed as the species B. musculus. It “ was found floating on

the sea in a decomposed state, and is said to have been 102 feet

long and 75 feet in circumference; but most likely the abdo-

minal cavity was distended by the internal decomposition.”

These particulars, with others in the same volume, are so very

different from notes in my own possession concerning a whale

that was towed into Plymouth, about the same date, that they

would seem to refer to another capture and species, although I

have not heard of more than one of those enormous creatures

as being obtained at that time. The advertisement which drew

public attention to the skeleton of this whale, as it was exhibited

at Plymouth in December 1831, announces it as being 75 feet

in length; and my own note, written at the time, is—‘ B. mus-

culus: a female specimen of this species was found dead, and

towed into Plymouth by some trawlers, Sept. 27th, 1831; its

length was 79 feet. Its gullet was found filled with a large

quantity of pilchards, by which it was supposed to have been

choked.” This whale frequented our coast for a few years. It

was first noticed in February 1828, and was described by a

fisherman as about 60 feet in length, with a low fin far back on

the body, and blowing or spouting from the top of the head.

In February 1831, it approached very near the shore, and came

so close to our fishing-boats as to excite alarm. Three indivi-

duals, supposed to be of the same species, were in company, and

one of them was judged to be nearly 100 feet long. In August

and September, one of them, supposed to be the same that was

found afterwards dead, kept close to the land, and remained in

the neighbourhood of Lantivet Bay (near Fowey) for three weeks,

feeding on the abundance of young Clupee (herrings or pilchards)

that were assembled there.

This species seems to be not uncommon, and most usually

comes near us in the winter. There are traditionary notices of

428 Mr. J. Couch on the species of Whales

perhaps the same kind of whale having come on shore near

Padstow about the end of the last century ; and at the beginning

of the same a very large individual came on shore near Looe.

About the year 1810, another, much mutilated, was thrown on

shore at Polperro; but, as the head was defective, after close

examination, I was unable to determine the species.

Pixr-HEapep Wuate.—B., rostrata of Gray, Hunter; Bell’s

Brit. Quad. p. 521.

There is little doubt that this is the B. Boops of some natu-

ralists, and perhaps of F. Cuvier, pl. 20; but if so, he has con-

founded two species together under this name,— this name

having been assigned to a single specimen by an observer who

had never seen another.

A specimen was caught in a mackerel drift-net, and brought

into Polperro, in May 1850. By the obliging assistance of the

fisherman, I had an opportunity of making a sketch of this spe-

cimen before it was quite dead, and while yet afloat, the body

being sustained on its side with ropes for that purpose. All the

published figures I have seen are imperfect in form or expression.

This individual is described in the ‘ Reports of the Natural His-

tory Society of Penzance.” The blubber was 2 inches in thick-

ness. Another specimen was taken at Plymouth a few years

before, and it appears to be not uncommon on our coasts.

In the museum of the Natural History Society of Penzance

there is a ramus of the jaw-bone of some species of Whale, which

is marked as belonging to the Hyperoodon; but, for anatomical

reasons, it cannot be assigned to a species classed by naturalists

under that name. It resembles much more closely a branch of

the jaw of B. rostrata ; and it is here noticed more particularly,

because of the information supplied by Mr. Chirgwin, who pre-

sented it to the museum,—that the animal, which was 22 feet

long, produced 90 gallons of oil. Another whale, which was

18 feet in length, and which the same gentleman called the

Lesser Rorqual, but which I suppose to be the same species,

afforded also 90 gallons.

Genus MEGAPTERA.

M. longimana, Gray (Catalogue of Brit. Mus. p. 26), who, quoting

Professor Eschricht, says, “ this is the most common whale in

the Greenland seas ;” but it is not distinguished by Scoresby,

Cuvier, or Bell. I have supposed it to be the species referred

to in the information given me by an observing and intelligent

fisherman.

In the middle of July 1835, a whale came about his boat, and

observed on the coasts of Cornwall. 429

continued near it, at intervals, for a long time, sometimes at no

greater distance than a fathom. It was such as, although an old

fisherman, he had never seen before; and he supposed it to be

between 30 and 40 feet long; but he could not well distinguish

the hinder part of the body. The body itself was very thick

and solid, and it had a fin on the back, of an extraordinary shape,

appearing like a hump,—not high, but, as he judged, about two

fathoms long, having the upper portion in a waved form, as if

in separate humps, and tapering behind into the general shape,

where the body became more slender. It appeared to blow or

breathe from the middle of the head, and seemed by no means

shy, although at times it moved swiftly.

A doubt must rest on this species, as a visitor to our coast,

until an instance of its capture shall enable some fortunate ob-

server to examine it more closely ; but there is little difficulty in

believing that some of the larger whales which come to us are

still little known to naturalists.

It is to this class of whalebone whales that writers refer when

they tell us that whales, sturgeons, and, as some assert, por-

poises, are royal fishes, which the king, by his prerogative, has

a right to claim when cast on the shore in any place within the

kingdom; except this right has been granted, as in a few in-

stances it has been, to any of his subjects. ‘ The king himself,”

says Jacob in his ‘ Law Dictionary,’ “is to have the head and

body, to make oil; and the queen is to have the tail, to furnish

whale-bones for her royal vestments.” I shall say more on this

subject when I come to speak of the fisheries of former days.

The royal vestments would have been badly supplied, if stiffened

only with the bones obtained from the whale’s tail; and the

whale itself is so seldom thrown on shore, that we might suppose

the regal cupidity to have received but little gratification from

the occurrence of such an accident. But we shall by-and-by

discern other reasons that made it valuable; and therefore it

was thought not unworthy of being included within a grant b

the crown of the charter constituting the Black Prince the first

Duke of Cornwall, where whales and sturgeons occurring within

the king’s dominions on that coast are specially granted to him.

It is uncertain what other permanent lay grants besides this, in

our county, of the same objects, exist; but at least there is one

of small extent, along the eastern shore of the county, in the

parish of Talland, and which is claimed—and for other objects

besides whales has been exercised, even in recent instances,—by

the ancient family of Trelawny, in right of purchase with the

family mansion from the crown in the reign of Queen Elizabeth.

But it can scarcely be supposed that ecclesiastical persons would

overlook an acquisition esteemed so valuable; and although in

430 Mr. J. Couch on the species of Whales

this instance there were no ladies to require in their garments

the stiffening formed by the bones of the animal’s tail, yet at

least the oil would serve to light the midnight lamp, supposed

to be employed to afford light to his studies; and a tithe of it

was therefore secured by the bishop. This will be seen, from

the following extract of a letter from the famous antiquarian

herald, Anstis—himself a native of Cornwall—to his patron the

Bishop of Exeter; and it is to be observed that, in the grant

referred to, the word Balena, signifying the large whalebone

whale only, is not used, but another, which might be interpreted

to mean any of the species that was worthy of notice. “I met

with,” says he, “an Inspeximus of a grant made by Henry the

3rd, wherein is granted to the Bishop of Exon and his successors

for ever omnes decimas Craspesiorum within Cornwall and Devon,

and is confirmed to them by Edward the 2nd. This without

doubt was of value, otherwise the Bishopps would not have been

solicitous to have had a confirmation of itt, But it is a question

of what it is, the word not being to be found in any of the

Glosaryes, And I have asked many persons whose business lyes

among the old Records, who never remember that they mett

with any such word, But I think that I have since mett with the

meaning thereof in the Patent Rolls of R. 2, wherein are those

words de piscibus regalibus vocatis whales sive Graspes, from

which word I suppose like Lawyers they make Craspesiorum,

But if it only extended to such great fishes, it will be of no great

value.—The word Craspisces is used in Bracton, not only for

Royall fishes, but for any big fish whatever, And I take the

word in the Grant to be of the same signification. Oct. 10.

1700.”

The doubts of the learned Anstis about the meaning of a name

applied by lawyers to a species of animal, of the nature of which

they were clearly ignorant, will also apply to the designation

given in another document, of which I possess a copy, to some

one of the same class of creatures; and of which I have not

been able to obtain an explanation in any work to which I could

obtain access. It is found in a Commission under the Great

Seal of Charles the 2nd, in which that sovereign appointed

Sir John Trelawny, Baronet, Vice-Admiral of the south coast of

Cornwall; and under the authority of which the latter appoints

Nicholas Sunders of Truro his Deputy; authorizing the latter

therefore “to serré, secure, recover, recerize and regave—among

other rights of the Admiralty—all fishes Royall: namely Stur-

geon, Whales, Rigges, Porpusses, Granpoles, and generally

whatsoever fish of a great breadth and fulness antiently of right

belonging to the Lord High Admiral.” I confess my utter

ignorance of the creatures here mentioned under the name of

observed on the coasts of Cornwall. 431

Rigges—a name which does not occur in any of the ancient

books on Natural History.

(Family PuyserEeRIp2.)

Genus PHysEeTER.

Biunt-HEADED Birowrer.—P. macrocephalus, Linn., Fleming’s

Brit. Animals, p. 39; Jenyns’ Manual, p. 44; F. Cuvier, Ce-

tacées, pl. 19; Bell’s Brit. Quad. p. 506; Gray’s Catalogue

Brit. Mus. p. 49. Humped Blower, Cornish Fauna.

Dr. J. E. Gray says, “the dorsal fin or hump forms a very

obtuse angle, and is ill-defined, being about 10 inches in length

and 3 inches in height, there being also between it and the caudal

two or three quite ‘small finlets.” But it is probable that these

finlets, humps, or irregularities, vary in number, and may at last

disappear ; and also that what is more properly the dorsal hump

or fin is more elevated and fin-like in the younger condition.

This whale grows to a large size; but the only one I ever had

an opportunity of examining , which I supposed to belong to this

species, but of which I was prev ented from obtaining a figure,

was less than 20 feet in length: it had run itself on shore in

pursuit of small fish, and was left by the tide. There is no par-

ticular account of the capture in Cornwall of an individual of

full growth, although in the eastern counties this has often

happened ; but it has certainly been seen at the entrance of the

Channel. When met with, it may be known by the enormous

proportions of its head, from which spermaceti may be extracted.

A specimen, which was called in the newspapers the lesser

Cachalot, 20 feet in length, was taken at Ropehaun, and had

300 mackerel in its stomach.

Hiecu-FrInNED BLowEer.—P. Tursio, Fleming’s Brit. An. p. 38 ;

Bell’s Brit. Quad. p.512. Compare Gray’s Catalogue of Brit.

Mus. p. 48.

This is a rare species, not often seen, and still less frequently

caught ; but although doubted by some, its existence as a species

cannot with any probability be called in question. I myself once

saw the dorsal fin of what could only be this species, as it is

described by those who have examined it more closely. It was

tall and slender, in shape like the trysail of a small boat, and it

passed along the surface for a considerable space without dipping

under, while the body was concealed below. Fishermen also

have informed me of a similar circumstance. In the month of

May, 1850, an observant fisherman told me that he had noticed

a cetaceous animal, the fin of which rose above the surface to the

432 Mr. J. Couch on the species of Whales

height of not less than 7 feet, and of the form I have described ;

and although accustomed to a fisherman’s life for more than

forty years, he had never seen the like before. Another of our

fishermen saw one of these whales in the month of April, while

engaged in the drift-fishery for mackerel: his attention was

directed to the height of its fin, which remained above the sur-

face for a quarter of an hour, as the body continued its progress

beneath. The accuracy of these remarks, made by intelligent

but unscientific fishermen, is authenticated by a communication

made by the late Mr. William Thompson to the Annals, &c., of

Natural History, vol. xvii., where it is illustrated by a charac-

teristic sketch. Capt. Walker, who was Mr. Thompson’s authority,

reports that he saw several of these whales, which came close to

his boat: two of them appeared, as comparing them with his

boat, to be about 25 feet long ; and they were so near, as to cause

him to be afraid that they would overturn his boat: this was off

Wexford. The back fin appeared to be from 10 to 12 feet high,

and there was a round, white spot on the back. They went on

steadily in the water, without rolling over, a circumstance which

implies some difference of structure from that of the whales with

which we are best acquainted; and it is remarkable that this

habit should have attracted the attention of myself, and also of

the only fishermen who, as far as my knowledge extends, have

particularly noticed these animals.

Sir Robert Sibbald quotes the ‘ Polyhistor’ (of Solinus) as say-

ing that whales were so common in Britain, that the inhabitants

employed the teeth to ornament the handles of their swords, the

substance being polished like ivory. This could only apply to

the teeth of the family now under consideration ; of which also,

according to Belon, or of whales in general, the bones were

commonly employed as pales for their gardens. It is probable,

however, that this excellent observer committed the error of

confounding a special instance with a general practice; for we

ean scarcely believe that whales were more abundant in the reign

of Queen Elizabeth than in that of Victoria.

(Family DeLpHinip2.)

Genus Hyperoopon.

Borritencav.—H. Butzkopf, Bell’s Brit. Quad. p. 492. H. ros-

tratum, Gray’s Catalogue Brit. Mus. p. 64; Thompson, Ann.

& Mag. Nat. Hist. for 1838, p. 221.

In the year 1821, a specimen, which appears to have been of

this species, was washed on shore at Looe, in a putrid state, with

much of the tail and the dorsal fin gone. It measured 18 feet

observed on the coasts of Cornwall. » 433

in length: the pectorals not large; the under jaw slender in

front, at which part were two blunt teeth, in size and form

resembling the eggs of the common Bantam fowl. It is said

that, at least sometimes, these teeth are imbedded in the gums.

Genus DeLrHINuws.

1. Delphinus.

Do.ruin. — D. Delphis, Linn., Fleming’s Brit. An. p. 35;

Jenyns’ Manual, p. 40; Bell’s Brit. Quad. p. 463; Gray’s

Catalogue of Brit. Mus. p. 120.

This very prettily marked species is the Dolphin of ancient

Roman and Greek writers, who tell surprising stories of its

affection for the human race, none of which, however, have been

verified in later ages. They come to our coasts in considerable

numbers, more especially when pilchards and mackerel abound;

and not unfrequently they are taken in the drift-nets, in the

meshes of which they become entangled by their teeth. In the

month of September 1845, so many as eight or ten in a day

were brought on shore in Mount’s Bay, for many days in suc-

cession.

Borrie-Nosep Doteuin.—D. Tursio, Bell’s Brit. Quad. p. 469 ;

Gray’s Catalogue of Brit. Mus. p. 109.

It seems probable that the figure in Borlase’s ‘ Natural History

of Cornwall,’ which he ealls a porpoise, compared with his first

figure, of the true Dolphin, belongs to this species. That it is

furnished with a snout, is a proof that it is not the common

porpoise or sniffer, and the inferior dimensions of that part are

suflicient to show its distinction from the true Dolphin. This

species is not so beautifully marked with lines as the last-named ;

the snout is much shorter; the upper jaw not so long as the

lower; the dorsal fin smaller, and more posterior, as | noticed

also in a specimen inspected at Plymouth. The eye also appears

smaller, and placed more directly over the angle of the mouth ;

the teeth small, conical, and twenty-three on each side. It is

not known in what respect its habits differ from those of the

more common Dolphin.

Dovusie-FInNeD Doteuin.—D. Mongitori, Rafinesque ?

We are informed, in M.-F. Cuvier’s ‘ Hist. des Cetacées,’

that the French naturalists, MM. Quoy and Gaimard, when in the

South Sea, had an opportunity of observing in the water a kind

of Dolphin which they perceived to be furnished with two fins

on the back, one of which was so far backward as to be not far

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 28

434 Mr. J. Couch on the species of Whales

from the tail, and the other close to the head—if, indeed, it was

not on the very forehead itself; for the creature was not caught,

and the observers were unable to discern with certainty the head

itself. Several examples of this remarkable species were seen at

a short distance from the ship; but these naturalists remained

at last uncertain whether they should regard the anterior pro-

tuberance as a fin or a horn; although we may judge that their

final opinion inclined to the latter supposition, from the fact of

their assigning to it the name of the “ Rhimoceros Dolphin.” We

can scarcely suppose that this remarkable species, seen in the

South Pacific Ocean, can be the same with that which was no-

ticed in the Mediterranean by M. Rafinesque, and which also

was furnished with two fins on the back; but, unfortunately, in

the last-named instance also, no specimen was caught; ana we

can only judge it to be the same with an example lately seen

under favourable circumstances on our own coast, by the close-

ness of the described likeness, and the known disposition to

wander, which all the cetacean animals possess.

In the month of April of the present year (1857), a close and

accurate observer of nature, in company with some friends, had

an opportunity of observing a company of dolphins at play, at a

very short distance from him, with the water so clear, that the

projecting snout was easily seen, and all actions closely traced.

Being elevated on a rock above them, an individual was made

out, which without difficulty was distinguished from the others

by the remarkable character of having two dorsal fins. It was

the belief of the observers that there was a pair of these two-

finned Dolphins in the herd; but one of them was especially the

object of their attention: the snout of the Dolphin distimetly

visible; length of the body from 6 to 8 feet ; the shape more

slender than in the common Dolphins, of which about a dozen

were in the company; the colour much as in the ordinary

species ; and as it repeatedly came to the surface, it was noticed

that the first dorsal fin was at about the middle of the length,

and the other 2 feet nearer the tail. Its motions were like those

of the other Cetaceans that were then amusing themselves at

their leisure near the rocks in Lantivet Bay, but they appeared

a little more active. There is no reason to suppose that this

species has ever been taken; but, should it fall into the hands

of a fisherman, it is important to science that it should be exa-

mined by some competent naturalist, as there can be no doubt

it will show some other peculiarities besides that of having two

dorsal fins.

2. Phocena.

Pitot or Leapinc Wuate.—Delphinus Deductor, Scoresby. D.

observed on the coasts of Cornwall. 435

melas, Fleming, Brit. An. p. 24. Phocena melas, Bell’s Brit.

Quad. p. 483; Gray’s Catalogue of Brit. Mus. p. 87.

The figure given by Mr. Bell, copied originally, as I think,

from Scoresby, is altogether unnatural; for it is only by great

violence that the tail could be thrown into the posture there

represented. In the specimens I have closely examined, the teeth

in the upper jaw were loosely, yet securely, attached by a tendi-

nous or cartilaginous substance, and not inserted into sockets,

although the animals were of full growth, and with the appear-

ance of age. They seem to be common on our coasts; since I

have known the capture of three specimens, two of which ran

themselves on shore. In one instance sixty, and in another

seventy gallons of oil were obtained. In one of them there were

remains of Hakes in the stomach.

From two of these specimens I had an opportunity of taking a

figure at Jeisure ; and at that time the following notes were made,

in reference to Mr. Bell’s figure :—“ It is far too slender—not

enough compressed posteriorly, nor sufficiently ridged above and

below at that part: the tail not characteristic ; the forehead not

sufficiently prominent and rounded ; the teeth too numerous and

prominent, and in the under jaw too projecting. I find eleven

in the under jaw, on each side, well worn down, with a separa-

tion of teeth at the symphysis.” The men report that when one

of these specimens was taken, it made a great bellowing; and

that some species of whales are able to utter loud sounds, the

following instance, among others reported to me, will render

highly probable :—A fisherman was not far from land, early in

the morning, in the month of June, and a herd of porpoises,

probably dolphins, were at their gambols near him, when there

rose up, close to his boat, an individual of another sort,—as he

judged, about 20 feet long, and much blacker than a porpoise

(in this respect, as in some others, answering to the Leading

Whale), and it uttered a loud note, which he compared to the

sound of the horn then usually employed by the postman, and

which, for three times, as the animal rose to the surface, was

repeated, with a continuance of half a minute at a time. At the

hearing of this sound, the porpoises or dolphins hastened towards

it, and followed its progress to the westward for a long distance.

M. F. Cuvier says that this species blows or spouts water from its

breathing-hole m the same manner as the Physeters.

Grampus.—Delphinus Orca, Fleming’s Brit. An. p.34. Ph. Orca,

Bell’s Brit. Quad. p. 477. D. gladiator, Gray’s Catalogue of

Brit. Mus. p. 92.

This species is either rare, or rarely taken. One was found

dead on the shore near the Lizard, in October 1846, a female,

28%

436 Mr. J. Couch on the species of Whales

containing a foetus. Of another, the remains of which came on

shore in Mount’s Bay, I had an opportunity of examining the

jaw-bone, which cannot be mistaken for that of any other of the

British species. The decay had advanced so far, that the two

sides had separated at the symphysis, and the teeth had dropped

out. It was 17 inches long, with nine sockets for teeth, rather

closely placed together, and occupying about one-third of the

space of the jaw; and five openings for blood-vessels or nerves,

at increasing distances from each other backward. The line of

insertion of the teeth was singularly deflected.

Pliny the naturalist, B. 9. c. 6, gives a remarkable instance of

the gladiatorial habits of this species, and something not much

unlike it took place in the autumn and spring of 1855-56, as

reported to me by several persons who were witnesses to it. The

visits of this animal in Plymouth Sound were continued at

intervals for the space of about six months ; it was very active,

and attracted much notice by the boldness, not to say fierceness

of its conduct. It on one occasion laid hold of a boat’s hawser

with its mouth, and, as the rope happened to be unfastened, it

carried it entirely away. It seized the blade of an oar a man

was sculling with; went in among the boats and vessels in

Plymouth Pool without fear, so that some of the men who had

occasion to go on the water in small boats became afraid of it.

It not unfrequently leaped out of the water, and on one occasion

was seen to lay its head on a buoy in the harbour, and appeared

to rub its face against it. To an observer it seemed to be

about 12 feet long, very thick and solid in the body, with a

blunt head ; the dorsal fin not sufficiently high to be conspicuous ;

the colour dark. Attempts were made to shoot and catch it,

but in vain.

SnrFFER, or common Porpoise.—D. Phocena, Linn., Fleming’s

Brit. An. p. 33. Ph. communis, Bell’s Brit. Quad. p. 473 ;

Gray’s Catalogue of Brit. Mus. p. 81.

The most common, although perhaps not the most abundant

of our cetaceous animals; usually keeping in pairs. The name

of Sniffer is bestowed on it by fishermen, from the sound it

utters as it rolls itself up to the surface, to expel its breath and

take in a new supply of air. A description of the skeleton of

this animal is contained in the Report of the Royal Cornwall

Polytechnic Society for 1852.

White specimens of some one or other of the cetaceous ani-

mals are not uncommon, and mottled individuals are still more

frequently seen. Fishermen frequently report them to me; and

on one occasion three individuals, which were supposed to be

observed on the coasts of Cornwall. 437

more than 16 feet in length, were observed to keep themselves

separate from other species, while they remained about the same

place for a few weeks. In August 1853, I noticed a herd of

Cetaceans, eight or ten in number, all of which were cream-

coloured ; and on another occasion I traced the actions of a herd,

as well when under water as above, and saw among them a single

white one, which accompanied them in all their movements.

But as thus it appears highly probable that some tribes of these

animals are much disposed to assume a white appearance, and

perhaps by keeping constantly in one herd preserve this distinc-

tion in the race for several generations, on the other hand there

is reason for believing that we are sometimes visited by the

Beluga, which is pre-eminently called the White Whale; and

that there is also a species of which white or a light grey is the

prevailing colour, but which has not yet been scientifically

recognized.

Waite Wrare.—Delphinus albicans, Jenyus’ Manual, p. 43.

Delphinaptera albicans, Fleming’s Brit. An. p. 36. Beluga

leucas, Bell’s Brit. An. p. 488.

The following description of a species of Whale that was seen

in Mount’s Bay in 1854, communicated by a friend, can only

apply to the well-known Beluga, an inhabitant of the Northern

Seas. It was judged to be about 10 feet in length: the head

blunt, of a conoidal form: the body spindle-shaped, or tapering

much towards the tail : no dorsal fin ; and as on one occasion it

rose above the surface, the pectoral. fins were seen to be very

small: the mouth small: the body a reddish-cream colour. It

remained in the bay for several weeks, and appeared to be feed-

ing on pilchards.

The only reason for doubting whether the following account

refers to the same species, arises from the mention of a dorsal

fin; but as this was assigned to a situation on the body where

it is unusual, if not unknown, im any known whale, it is mere

probably a mistake of the observer. It was about mid-channel

that the fisherman found himself surrounded by a multitude of

whales, the numbers of which he estimated by hundreds, scat-

tered as they were over a wide space, where they were feeding on

herrings. He saw them for several days in succession ; and they

were so little afraid, that they came very near his boat, and even

went under it at no great-depth in the water. They were all

white, or a pale grey, about 18 feet long, and remarkably slen-

der, the proportions being much like those of the blue shark.

He supposed he could perceive a low fin on the back, about

4 feet from the head. In some instances, about half the body

438 Mr. J. Couch on Cornish FVhales.

was raised out of the water; but he never saw any one that

leaped entirely out of it.

We have already referred to a supposed prerogative of the

crown, by which whales and porpoises are claimed as belonging

exclusively to the king; and this very remarkable nght, however

it arose, is recognized in an act of parliament passed in the year

1324—the 17th of Edward the Second, Stat. i. ¢. 2—where

“ Ballenas et Sturgiones captos in mari vel alibi intra regnum,

exceptis quibusdam locis privilegiatis per Reges” are particularly

specified, but without, in this instance at least, any mention of the

grampus or porpoise—the latter so highly esteemed as a royal

dish at table, on which it was accustomed to appear, even so

Jate as the reign of Charles the First. Whales, porpoises, and

thulapolls formed part of a feast made by Bishop Cosin in that

reign. I suppose the last-named to be grampuses, and I believe

they have also been called whirlpols; the latter a corruption of

the former, which signifies what they have also been called,

northeapers, from their residence near Ultima Thule, whence

the Bishop of Durham might obtain them. If strictly inter-

preted, this act of parliament would authorize a royal claim to

any whalebone whale—Jballena and sturgiones, for balena end sturio

—even when taken in a regular fishery within the jurisdiction

of the British Admiralty; and that it was not suffered to lie a

dead letter under the Norman sovereigns, appears from a grant

made by King John to some merchants of Bayonne, who rented

the monopoly of this fishery, through the British Channel,

from St. Michael’s Mount to Dartmouth, for which they paid

him £10 yearly—a large sum at the time, when a quarter of

wheat was sold for 12s. The same claim also appears from the

grant, already quoted, of the Droits of Admiralty to Sir John

Trelawny, in the reign of the second Charles. It was in acknow-

ledgment of the same prerogative that, on the authority of

Tonkin, as quoted by Lysons in the early part of the last (18th)

century, Mr. Corker of Falmouth, Mr. Kemp of Rosteage, and

some other gentlemen, procured a patent for a whale-fishery, and

were at some expense in providing expert harpooners ; but it

did not answer—not, however, for want of fish, if they could

have taken them. They disposed of their patent among the

bubbles of 1720, and “ saved themselves harmless.”

Tonkin mentions the existence of two fisheries for cetaceous

fishes, that of the Porpoise and the Whale, the former of which,

he says, would have been of great value, if they had understood

how to extract the oil and make the most of it. He once saw, nm

1720, between eight and nine score of porpoises (but which, from

their number, may have been the Leading Whale), taken in a

Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom. 439

creek under St. Mawes. The second fishery he mentions took

its rise from the quantity of what he calls grampuses and blowers

that frequented the coast in the pilchard season ; but, owing to

mismanagement or some other cause, the concern did not prosper.

These grampuses would not have been recognized by naturalists

as the species now known by that name, for they seem always to

have been rare, and usually solitary in their habits; but they were

probably the more common Dolphin. The numbers taken at

times at a remote date would seem to show that the ecclesiastical

right of the Bishop of Exeter, as mentioned by Anstis, was not

unworthy of attention; but it is to be presumed that the mer-

chants of Bayonne were too much alive to their own interests to

bring the produce of their fishery within the reach of the bishop’s

officers, or that of the clerical incumbent of the parish, who

made claim to tithe from fish thus caught. Buchanan says, as

quoted by Sibbald, that on one occasion—of course, in Scotland

—twenty-seven whales were taken as tithes from the number

that were caught.

XLIV.—The Process of Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. By Dr. L.

RADLKOFER.

{Concluded from p. 365.]

Secr. II. The Process of Fecundation.

Our insight into the events occurring in fecundation, into the

essential nature of the process of fecundation, has been importantly

advanced of late, in the department of zoology in particular, by

direct observation of the behaviour of the spermatozoids in regard

to the ovum. Although Keber’s* account of the penetration of

the spermatozoids into the micropyle of the ovum of the Naiade

has been shown by Von Hessling’s+ researches to be fallacious,

yet the fact, that the spermatozoids reach not merely the outer

surface of the membrane of the ovum, but, penetrating this, come

into direct contact with the vitellus itself, has been completely

demonstrated by the observations of other inquirers.

This was the case first with Barry in the ovum of the Rabbitt.

* F. Keber, Ueber den Eintritt der Samenzellen in das Ei. Insterburg,

1853.

Ibid. Mikrosk. Unters. ib. Porositat der Korper, nebst em Abhandl. tb.

d. Eimtritt der Samenzellen in das Ei. Konigsberg, 1854.

+ Zeitschr. fir wiss. Zoologie, Von Siebold und Kolliker, Bd. v. Heft iv.

p. 392 et seq.

{ Martin Barry, Spermatozoa within the Mammif. Ovum. Phil. Trans.

London, vol. 133. p.33, 1843.

440 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

His observations were confirmed by Meissner*, and then by

Bischoff}, previously Barry’s opponent. Beyond this, by Nel-

sont (and Meissner, Joc. cit.) in Ascaris mystax ; by Newport§

in the ovum of the Frogs; by Leuckart|| and Meissner (/. ec.)

in the Insecta; by the latter, also, in Lumbricus (/.c.) ; and by

Lacaze-Duthiers§ in Dentalium.

The modes in which the penetration of the spermatozoids is

rendered possible, are diversified. Either the coat of the ovum

(chorion) or vitelline membrane, or both, presents ready-made

holes—micropyles—at determinate points, especially in those

cases where the whole coat is of tough texture (as in the Insecta,

in Gammarus, in the Holothuriadz, certain Star-fishes, Worms,

bivalve Mollusks ; probably also in the Frogs, bony Fishes, &e.) ;

or the coat is of such consistence that the spermatozoids can pene-

trate at any point whatever, without the pre-existence of orifices,

as in the Mammalia**; in a third case, finally, the coat is en-

tirely wanting at the time of fecundation, the ovum consisting

then solely of a compact mass of yelk, into which directly pene-

trate all or part of the spermatozoids, as in the Earth-wormt+t.

We perceive at once, from the last cireumstance, that the mem-

brane of the ovum cannot constitute any essential part of the

ovum.

Of the subsequent fate of the spermatozoids which pene-

trate the oyum, of the share which they take in the immediately

succeeding changes in the ovum, we must own ourselves, in

point of fact, ignorant.

Let us hear Leuckart on this point tt}: “ The only thing that

we know definitely is this: that the spermatozoids, which partly

penetrate into the vitellus, partly remain in the immediate viei-

nity of the vitellus, between this and the vitellime membrane,

are gradually dissolved (according to my observations on Melo-

phagus and Ephemera) far more rapidly than spermatozoids which

remain outside....... What, however, becomes of the remains of

these fecundating elements, is at present unknown to us. ......

* G. Meissner, Beobacht. iib. das Eindring. der Samenelemente in den

Dotter. Siebold u. Kolliker’s Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zoologie, Bd. vi. Heft ii.

(1854).

+ Bestatigung der von Dr. Newport bei den Batrachien u. Dr. Barry bei

den Kaninchen behaupt. Eindring. &c. 1854.

~ H. Nelson, Reproduction of Ascaris mystaz. Phil. Trans. London,

vol. 142. p. 563, 1852.

§ G. Newport, On the Impregnation of the Ovum in the Amphibia.

Phil. Trans. London, vol. 143. p. 233, 1853.

|| Miiller’s Archiv, 1855, p. 90 et seq.

§ Vide Leuckart, op. cit. p. 249.

** Leuckart, l.c. ++ Meissner, J. e.

+f Op. cit<p. 252.

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 441

It is extremely probable that the mass of the corpuscles becomes,

after solution, mixed with the vitellus, but whether as fluid,

or in the form of molecules, we know not; we do not even know

whether this mixture takes place only after the completion of

the fecundation, or whether it constitutes some essential element

of the processes of fecundation and development. Still less, of

course, can we judge whether, in the last case, any remnants of

the spermatozoids take a direct part in any way im the formation

of the embryonal cells, or in the evolution of the embryo.”

The former of the two cases here referred to is in favour of the

hitherto current theoryas to the essential nature of the fecundating

process, in accordance with which the spermatozoids perform

merely the part of a ferment. Meissner* declares decidedly for

the latter. He thinks we may imagine that the changing sper-

matic elements, like fermenting bodies, may excite in the vitellus,

with which, as we now know, they come into direct contact, move-

ments—the immediately commencing phenomena of develop-

ment—and that at the same time their component parts, which

remain in the ovum, do not undergo changes independently of

the vitellus, but become at last blended with the parts of this

(into an embryonal yelk, as Nelson called it), and constitute a

material portion of that which becomes developed into the em-

bryo; he regards the process of fecundation neither as a simple

chemical process, nor as a simple contact-action, but as a pro-

cess sui generis, which exhibits traces of the presence of both,

but yet is itself neither one nor the other.

Obscure as are at present our conceptions therefore as to the

essential nature of the process of fecundation, yet the existing

observations appear to me to give satisfactory evidence of two

things: first, of the error of Burmeister+, when he regarded

“the male molecular element (spermatozoid) no longer as merely

constituting the vivifying agent in fecundation, but even as the

actual primitive germ, the primary rudiment of the new organism,”

and considered “the female individual really as the alma mater,

which rears, nourishes, and developes the germ delivered to her

as a formally and materially determinate rudiment,”—an error

which Schacht + has also adopted, on which account alone I of

course come to speak of it here. From other quarters, besides

those above cited, facts come to oppose this hypothesis: the

independent, if not ordinarily very far-extended expression of

the developmental force which has its seat in the ovum, the

segmentation and formal development of embryos in unfecun-

* Siebold u. Kolliker’s Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zoologie, Bd. vi. Heft ii. p. 259

et seq., 1854.

+ Abhandl. Nat. Ges. zu Halle. 2 Bd. 3 Quartal. pp. 189, 190.

t Ueb. Befrucht. der Pedicularis sylvat. Flora, 1855, p. 471.

442 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

dated ova*. In the second place, it seems to me a settled

fact, that the part played by the spermatozoid after penetration

into the ovum in fecundation, whether it be a ferment or any-

thing else, is not connected with its shape, but purely with the

substance of which it is composed, and consequently that we

need not particularly wonder, if we should meet anywhere in

nature with a fecundating substance—I might say spermatozoids

—without definite, independent form.

From each vitellus is produced first of all an zndividual being

(the embryonal vitellus itself appears to a certain extent as

sucht). It either remains as such until at the highest stage of

its development it has acquired the power of sexual reproduction,

or it becomes multiplied before that epoch by asexual propagation

(by formation of gonidia and buds, division). A special form of

this asexual propagation, in which the progeny, either of the first

or of a subsequent generation, appear from thei origin onward ¢

under a form unlike that of the asexual plant—as nurses—is

known by the name of alternation of generations§. This is a

* Leuckart, Article ‘ Zeugung,’ in Wagner’s Handworterbuch der Phy-

siol. Bd. iv. p. 958 (1853). I shall not refer here to the observations of

development of individuals from unfecundated ova of Daphnia, Taleporia,

Psyche, &c., the explanation of which is perhaps still to be discovered.

But, as will be seen clearly in the sequel, the clothing of the unfecundated

spore of Fucus by a cellulose membrane, and the formation of tubular pro-

longations from these, is certainly connected with the above questions.

(Thuret, Ann. des Se. nat. 4 sér. n. p. 204, 1854.)

+ I consider myself quite justified in leaving unnoticed, as insufficiently

established, the single ese, as yet contradictory of the above, of the occur-

rence of several embryos in one ovum in Planaria. The accuvunts given

by Van Beneden of a subdivision of originally simple ova of Tubularia and

Hydractinia into several smaller ova, each of which produces an embryo,

are, as Prof. Gegenbaur of Jena informs me, already refuted ; and also those

of Koren and Danielssen, forming a counterpart to the former, as to a sup-

posed fusion of every 20-40 of the fecundated ova of the Gasteropodous

genera Buccinum and Purpura into a common mass, which produced only

one single embryo. [See on this point Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 2. xix. pp. 336,

433, and xx. p. 6.—A. H.]

t Following Leuckart, we do not include in the conception of alterna-

tion of generations the case certainly not yet discovered in the Animal

Kingdom, but conceivable, and actually occurring in the Vegetable King-

dom—in the propagation of Alge by zoospores, which again multiply be-

fore their metamorphosis into the plant, unless we rather regard them as

gonidia, and therefore as larvee,—where an undeveloped animal (larva)

should produce by asexual generation a multitude of individuals like itself,

which, no matter whether im the first or a later generation, would become

capable of going through the metamorphosis not completed by the latter,

in which ease, consequently, the metamorphosis would appear, not as asso-

ciated with reproduction, but merely as a transformation of a being ;—this

we regard as an ordinary metamorphosis with multiple larva-generations.

§ See Leuckart, Sicbold u. Kolliker’s Zeitschr. Bd. ii. p. 170 (18651),

and Article ‘ Zeugung,’ /. c. supra.

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 443

result of a ‘setting-back’ (zuriick-greifen) to a very early stage

of development, of the asexual multiplication, which otherwise

mostly occurs only just before puberty, and then with variability

as to whether the puberty is subsequently attained or not,—or

after that epoch*. These themselves are not repeated (at "least

not in the last generation), but others, ab origine different, are

produced—the asexual multiplication appears directly combined

with metamorphosis. Such is the case in Animals.

In the Vegetable Kingdom, the observations of Pringsheim,

Cohn, and Thuret on certain Algz, which are reported with some

confirmations in former pages (852-8), have demonstrated a pro-

cess of fecundation exactly resembling that of animals, completed

through immediate contact of spontaneously moving spermatic

(fecundating) corpuscles with a naked mass of zerminal substancey

corresponding with the naked vitellus of the Worms. Without

contact with the former, the latter remaims undeveloped, or its de-

velopment does not go on beyond the first step (commencement of

germination of the spore of Fucus}); the contact, on the con-

trary, is followed by development, and either proceeds without

interruption, or, after definite periods of rest, with or without

intermediate forms (imtermediate generations), onward to the

repetition of the sexual mother-plant.

In the Mosses and Ferns (in the extended sense) we are ac-

quainted, in the spermatic filaments, with structures correspond-

ing exactly to the fecundating corpuscles of the Algz; here

also the germinal vesicle (the daughter-cell of the central cell of

the archegonium) is completely analogous to the germinal sub-

stance of the above: it requires for its further development the

influence of the spermatozoids, whose approximation toit has been

observed by Suminski, Mercklin, and Hofmeister (see pp. 348,

352). It may for the present remain as undecided here, whe-

ther the germinal vesicle about to be fecundated is, as Pringsheim

conjectures, a naked primordial cell, or, as Hofmeister states,

already possesses a cellulose membrane. ‘The latter condition,

which would correspond to an ovum possessing a vitelline mem-

brane at the epoch of fecundation, would merely require that

the spermatozoids, to come into direct contact with the proper

vitelline (germinal substance) mass, should penetrate the enve-

* In the case of Alcyonelia, to be mentioned presently, we see it set

back to the rudimentary embryo.

+ Cell-contents without coating membrane ; “the contents enclosed by

this envelope (cellulose membrane)-are the essential and original part of

the cell, mdeed must be considered as the cell even before the env eloping

membrane is formed,” says Alex. Braun (‘ Verjiingung,’ p. 166); and in

this sense I use, in the sequel, the expression ‘ primordial cell,’ without at

all including in the conception the presence of a primordial utricle.

{ Ann. des Sc. nat. 4 sév. 11. p. 204 (1854).

444 Dr. Li. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

loping membrane. That we are still in some uncertainty on

this point, appears scarcely more than a gap in our knowledge ;

the recognition of the phenomena known to us as a process of

fecundation perfectly correspondiny to that of animals, can no

longer be delayed by this.

The fecundating corpuscles of the plants as yet referred to,

possess a peculiar, as we usually say, independent motion, like

the spermatozoa of most animals. Of most? Even in animals

this is not a universal property of the fecundating corpuscles.

It is absent in the Isopoda and Amphipoda. Its absence will

not therefore deter us, in plants, from acknowledging as fecund-

ating corpuscles, things, which on other important grounds we

are obliged to accept as such. We find ourselves in this position

in reference to the corpuscles contained in the antheridial cells

of the Floridee. Yet at present we can scarcely venture more

than conjectures as to the fecundating process of these plants ;

we are still in uncertainty which of the parts capable of being

regarded as ova, really have that import.

In the Charz, also, in which we are acquainted with motile

spermatozoids, it remains for future researches to furnish eyi-

dence of the conjecture ventured on in an earlier page, that the

young (primordial ?) spore-cell has the import of an ovum.

Neither the independent movement, therefore, of the sperma-

tozoids, nor, as we have already noticed above, their independent

form, appear to be essential properties in reference to their final

destination—the fecundation of the ovum. They appear only

essential to this in ensuring that the fecundating substance, the

substance of which the spermatozoids is composed, arrives at the

place of its destination*. Consequently we have no need to be

surprised if Nature, where (to speak anthropomorphically) she

can accomplish this object in a different way, does not in the

first stance organize the fecundating substance into the form

of spermatozoids. We meet with this case in the Phanerogamia.

By my researches I have established with scientific cer-

tainty, that the embryo of the Phanerogamia is produced, not

from the end of the pollen-tube, but from a cell—the germinal

vesicle—existing in the embryo-sac before the pollen-tube arrives

at the latter. Further, it is the general rule, that this remains

undeveloped when it does not receive the influence of the pollen-

tube+. The fact that no one has happened to think that the

* We are at present ignorant of the arrangement by which this is effected

in the animals with motionless spermatozoa.

+ In recent years little faith was any longer placed (Mohl, ‘ Vegetable

Cell,’ 1851) in the assertions frequently made by the older authors, of ex-

ceptions to this rule, in Cannabis sativa, Spinacia, and Mercurialis (vide

Bernhardi, Sur la Formation des Graines sans l’aide de Fécondation. Ann.

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 445

influence of the pollen-tube resides in its membrane, is no proof

that such is not the case; but it is a sufficient reason for our

not introducing such a speculation here. We have not only a

right to assume the transfer of its contents into the germinal

vesicle in those cases where a direct contact of the pollen-tube

with the latter takes place, or only the membrane of the embryo-

sac intervenes, but we are compelled to assume it in the case

where, as the optical conditions alone suffice to show, the contents

on the two sides are different.

des Se. nat. 2 sér. xii. p. 362 (1839), translated from Allgemeine Garten-

zeitung, 1839, nos. 41 & 42; also Meyen’s Report on an Observation by

Ramisch in Wiegmann’s Archiy, 5 Jahr. B. ii. p.42. Berlin, 1839). The

more enigmatical therefore appeared the uncontested fact of the formation

of seeds and embryos in the introduced female specimen of Calebogyne

ilicifolia (Kuphorbiacez) without the presence of anthers. (Smith, Linn.

Trans. xvui. p. 509. London, 1841.)

To the kindness of Sir William and of Dr. J. D. Hooker I am indebted

for materials for the investigation of this phenomenon. Cealebogyne, the

male spiked blossom of which is known in Europe only in the Hookerian

Herbarium, is cultivated at Kew in company with a great number of other

Euphorbiaceze. The possibility of hybridation was therefore considerable.

But this conjecture was necessarily greatly weakened by the observation,

that plants of the third and fourth generations still exactly resembled the

mother-plant. The circumstance that I detected a dry pollen-grain upon

the stigma of one of the fertile germina which I examined, cannot, from

its isolated occurrence, counterbalance the evidence against hybridation

arising from the permanence of character. I could not discover a pollen-

tube m any part of an ovary or ovule of Celebogyne; in other Kuphor-

biacez selected for comparative examination, there was no difficulty in

demonstrating a fragment of a pollen-tube protrudmg from the mamilla

nuclei. The young ovule of Celebogyne exhibited three germinal vesicles

adherent to the internal surface of its upper end; im older ovaries, some-

times one, sometimes two, sometimes even all three, had been converted

into embryos. The various conditions of development of the germinal

vesicle into the embryo exactly resembled those in all other Euphorbiacez.

Naudin has published an account of repeated and fully established

observations on the related cases in Mercurialis annua, Bryonia dioica,

Cannabis sativa, &c. (Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France, xii.

p- 754 (no. 11, 1855), and more at length in the Comptes Rendus of the

present year). Liebmann also (Ann. Nat. Hist. 2 ser. vi. p. 395, 1850)

reports the formation of an embryo in a Cycad without the influence of

pollen. We may mention, finally, Gasparini’s account (Note sur l’Origine

de PEmbryon. Ann. des Sc. nat. 3 sér. vy. 1846, p. 306) of the formation

of embryos in Figs developed in summer, which are said never to contain

male flowers—although, from the actual words of this writer in a later

publication (Nouv. Recherch. sur l’Anat. et la Physiol. du Figuier. Ann.

des Se. nat. 3 sé. xi. pp. 369, 371, 1849), it appears to follow that he

detected a pollen-tube in the micropyle-canal of the ovule of the Fig, but

mistook its nature.

The cases in the Animal Kingdom comparable with these (Daphnia, &c.)

have already been mentioned, and we may direct attention on this head to

Siebold’s recent essay on ‘ Parthenogenesis.’—Author’s Note, Oct. 1856.

[See ‘Annals,’ the present volume, p. 204.—A. H.]

446 Dr. li. Radikofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

In the case where the point of attachment of the end of the

pollen-tube on the outside of the embryo-sac corresponds, not

to the point of attachment on the inside of the wall of a germinal

vesicle developed into a suspensor, but to the point of attach-

ment of a destroyed germinal vesicle—it can scarcely be decided

whether the transit of the contents of the pollen-tube into the

former is effected through the intermediation of the latter, or

through an exudation of the contents of the pollen-tube over

the embryo-sac, which can be shown to occur to a certain extent.

When one sees how the germinal vesicle lying immediately

opposite the end of the pollen-tube, the contents of which assume

exactly the optical character of the contents of the pollen-tube, is

aborted in certain plants with apparently unexceptional regularity,

while the other, seemingly less favourably situated, is developed,

the idea is not far-fetched, that the further development of the

former is arrested actually by the transfer to it of too large a

quantity of the dense fluid contents of the pollen-tube. At pre-

sent we are, indeed, ignorant of the more intimate relations in

which the growth or re-formation of a cell-membrane stands to

the character of the cell-contents ; yet we may assume that both

(putting all else out of the question) may be rendered impossible

by too slight or by too great a concentration of the formative fluid.

It might even be supposed that the contents of the pollen-tube

must here first undergo dilution in the one germinal vesicle, to

enable it to fertilize the other! Strange as this arrangement may

appear to our existing notions, yet, even if a perfect analogy ought

scarcely to be sought beyond the limits of the vegetable king-

dom, a phenomenon may be referred to which admits of the

supposition, that in the fecundation of the animal ovum, also, it

may be by no means left to accident how much of the fecun-

dating substance mingles with the vitellus. When we observe,

namely, in the ova of the frog, which come in contact on all sides

with a great quantity of spermatozoids, that the vitelline mem-

brane is only penetrable by them at a definite and limited spot,

while no great resisting power can be attributed to this on phy-

sical grounds, it may ‘be admissible to allow the above idea a

place in the discussion of this question.

Lastly, by what means the mixture of the fecundating sub-

stance with that to be fecundated takes place in the case where

the end of the pollen-tube touches the embryo sac at a distance

from the points of attachment of the germinal vesicles, and

therefore does not come in contact with any of them, as strangely

happens in various plants, according to Hofmeister’s recent in-

vestigations, which I believe are not yet published*,—by what

[* Hofmeister, Embryo-bildung der Phanerogamen. Jahrb. fiir wiss.

Botanik, i. p. 180. Berlin, 1857. Ad,

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 447

means this takes place, cannot be quite perceived, unless we

assume that such a dilution of the contents of the pollen-tube

as must occur here before it can reach a germinal vesicle, does

not remove its fecundating properties, or is perhaps even actu-

ally necessary for their operation. Such cases alone may yet

leave some hope for those who, in contradiction to the negative

results of all existing observations, still expect, from analogical

reasoning alone, ¢o find morphological fecundating elements—

spermatozoids—in the Phanerogamia.

In the foregoing we have discussed only an endosmotic transit

of the contents of the pollen-tube into the embryo-sac and ger-

minal vesicles. Karlier observers, as Meyen* and Cobbold+, and

also, quite recently, Henfrey{, have been inclined to assume

that a copulation or conjugation, analogous to that of the Con-

fervee, takes place between the end of the pollen-tube and the

embryo-sac, thus furnishing a direct passage for the transit of

the contents of the pollen-tube. We are certainly not of opinion

that such a condition is impossible, but must at the same time

own that we have never yet been able actually to observe any-

thing of the kind. If such negative observations have but a

very inferior value, yet on the other side there exist no positive

proofs; and, in addition to this, the circumstance, that in the

ordinarily occurring condition of the germinal vesicle to be

fecundated, standing at a distance from the end of the pollen-

tube, such an arrangement would noi cause a direct passage of

the fecundating substance to the mass of germinal substance—is b

no means calculated to render us more inclined to adopt the

hypothesis in question.

However this may be, so much is ascertained,—that the con-

tents of the pollen-tube form the analogue of the spermatozoids,

the germinal vesicle that of the ovum ; that the fecundating pro-

cess of the Phanerogamia corresponds completely to that of the

Cryptogamia, and to that of Animals.

Are we justified in distinguishing in the germinal vesicle of

the Phanerogamia contents and membrane, like the vitellus and

its membrane? It might almost appear so, since we see that in

no case does the original membrane of the germinal vesicle take

part in the structure of the embryo itself. Yet, since the mode

of formation of the latter is so different from that of the animal

embryo, it may be going too far to try to find analogies here.

It remains only for us to estimate the import of the conjuga-

tion of the Alge. Areschoug’s observations have removed every

difficulty that might have prevented us from regarding it as a

true process of fecundation. If some room still remain for doubt

* Pflanzenphysiologie, ii. p. 314. t+ L. c. supra.

t L. ¢. supra.

448 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

whether the contents of each of the conjugating cells are con-

verted into separate cells before copulation, by the formation of

an investing membrane, and whether this opinion may not have

originated perhaps merely from cases of monstrous spore-forma-

tion, similar to those represented by Cohn, fig. 10. pl. 17, in

the ‘Nova Acta Acad. C. L. C.’ vol. xxiv.,—the observations of

Areschoug have assured us that the resting-spore origiates only

by the wnion of two masses of plasma developed and nourished in

separate organs. We can no longer hesitate to consider one of

them as the analogue of the male semen, the other as the ana-

logue of the ovum*. We meet here with a second example of

fecundation without definitely formed spermatic elements. At the

same time we see here unequivocally, the fecundating substance

take a direct share in the constitution of the germ (the resting-

spore). This simplest case of the fecundating process is that

in which its essential nature is most clearly announced.

We also obtain here some important indications as to the

proper signification of the process of fecundation. For when we

behold in the Desmidiacez that from the conjugation of two

individuals, which are only capable of this act once, in each in-

stance only one spore is produced, and therefore find the process

of fecundation here a process of reduction instead of a process of

multiplication, we are necessarily led to the conclusion that we

must not conceive fecundation to be essentially a means for the

multiplication of individuals, that is, for the maintenance of the

existence of the species, even im those cases where nature has

assigned this part to it on account of the complicated organi-

zation of a being having rendered impossible a multiplication

through direct individualization of one of its parts—that is,

through asexual propagation. When we see, on the other hand,

how, in asexual propagation, the progeny depart more and more

from the type of the first, sexual stock (the ancestors), while this

type is restored by sexual reproduction, we can hardly be in

error if we regard the fecundating process as essentially the

means which nature employs to maintain the species in its full

integrity, corresponding to the original plan of structure. This

object (if, for convenience, we may be allowed so to express it)

seems to be so important to it, that im certain cases an effort is

made to attain it even at the cost of diminishing the number of

individuals. Perhaps this condition is most strikingly exempli-

fied in the behaviour of Palmoglwa, in which we see even two

individuals, not merely their parts, become blended together, in

* We have already become acquainted with a spore-formation through

conjugation in the Fungi also. Unless the position of the plant in ques-

tion among the Fungi be doubtful, this would be the first case of a sexual

reproduction in the class.

and its relation to that in the Animal Lingdom. 449

order to form the foundation of a series of individuals produced

from the conjugated structure by asexual multiplication*. The

Protozoa exhibit to us an exactly similar condition in the Animal

Kingdomt.

Secr. III. The different Phases of Development in the Vegetable

Kingdom.

Having recognized the act of fecundation as a universally

equivalent formative process, in the majority of the divisions

of the Vegetable Kingdom (excepting, namely, the Fungi and

Lichens), and as corresponding to the act of fecundation in

the Animal Kingdom, we may consider ourselves justified in in-

quiring how far the stages of development preceding and suc-

ceeding this act correspond in various places, and how far the

organs most intimately concerned in it stand parallel to each

other in physiological and, to some extent, in morphological

respects. We do not, indeed, propose to give a detailed exposi-

tion of this plan, but must confine ourselves in general to giving

merely indications, especially in those cases where the matter

seems to declare itself immediately as a result of the facts given

above, and entering upon minute discussion only in reference

to the more important points. Where gaps occur in the text, the

tabular surveys will conveniently complete it, and we therefore

refer the reader to them (pp. 457, 458, 459).

In the Vegetable Kingdom, as in the Animal Kingdom, the

fecundated germinal mass presents itself as the first rudiment of

a new individual being{. This either remains as such, and sooner

or later acquires the capacity to act in the sexual generation of

new plants, which course of development we must designate as

the highest, in a physiological point of view, of which either

plant or animal is capable,—or it multiplies asexually before it

has attained this stage. The same form of this asexual multi-

* Alex. Braun, Verjiingung (Ray Translation, 1851, p. 135).

+ Siebold, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zoologie, iii. p. 62.

t{ Luse the term ‘individual’ only in the ordinary sense, not desiring

to enter upon an exhaustive definition of it here,—as a single being which

presents itself as a living, independent, finite whole,—and this I do on

physiological grounds. If, with Alex. Braun, from morphological consi-

derations, we apply the term ‘individual’ to the shoot, calling, for instance,

a tree a colony of polymorphous individuals, a vegetable stock (or phyti-

dom), analogous to the polype-stock or polypidom,—which, however, in

a physiological point of view can likewise only be placed beside the simple

animal (see Leuckart, Wagner’s Handworterbuch d. Physiol., Article ‘ Zeu-

gung,’ B. ui. p. 975),-—the results of the following reflections would be

altered in the main only so far that we must assign to the alternation of

generations a much more comprehensive field of operation in the Vegetable

Kingdom than we are here inclined to do; at the same time we see that

phenomenon assume far more complicated conditions. We shall return to

this point.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. 29

450 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

plicationwhich we have called alternation of generations in animals,

must receive the same name here. The question, whether an

alternation of generations, according to the definition which we

have above given, is possible in the asexual multiplication of

plants which have attained the highest point of their development

(puberty)—a question which we first arrive at here, because no

case of this kind is known in the Animal Kingdom—must be

answered in the affirmative. But this is in such cases of course

only possible when the asexually produced progeny, which or-

dinarily directly repeats the development of its mother, has un-

dergone a retrogressive metamorphosis. We shall refer to this

again.

The comparison of Phanerogamous plants with animals, as we

have attempted it in Table I., searcely requires discussion. The

position of the developed animal as correspondent to the leafy

(and rooted) axis, whether this be simple or branched, is a direct

consequence of that conception of the individual which we have

declared for above. The comparison of the anthers with the

testis, of the ovule with the ovary, &c., bears reference of course

to morphological conditions.

Very closely connected with the Phanerogamia as most strictly

defined, are the Gymnospermia (Cycadez and Coniferz), differmg

from the former only in the internal structure of their ovules,

but through this very deviation forming the most direct and

easy transition to the groups of Selaginella and Rhizocarpee.

Hofmeister* has already shown most strikingly that the essen-

tial parts of the ovule of the Conifers, the secondary embryo-

sacs (corpuscula, KR. Br.), correspond in every respect with those

of the archegonia, and, with their neighbourimg structures—

epithelial appendage, covering-cells,—frequently imitate even

the form and structure of the archegonia. The only distinction

which can be found between the female organs of reproduction,

the essential parts of the female inflorescence of the two groups

of plants, is that in the Gymnospermia they remain in connexion

with the mother-plant until after fecundation is completed,

while in the Selaginelle and Rhizocarpee they separate from it

in a very early stage of their development, as rudimentary flowers

(megaspores).

If we wish to call to alti further analogies within the repro-

ductive sphere of the two groups, we may mention the behaviour

of the pollen-grains on the one hand, and of the antheridial

grains (microspores) on the other, in both of which a long inter-

val of time intervenes between the mor phological completion and

the accomplishment of their functional activity ; also the oceur-

rence of a suspensor in Selaginella.

* Vergleich. Untersuch. p. 140.

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 451

Whether or not the suspensor of the Conifer, which gives

origin to a number of embryos, is to be regarded as a nurse(Amme),

cannot be decided from the varying statements of authors, nor,

indeed, until we obtain perfectly continuous series of observa-

tions on the stages of development of the Coniferze. The phe-

nomenon in question would in such case assume a great pecu-

liarity, beyond its early occurrence, from the fact that, since only

one of the numerous embryos actually becomes developed,—

asexual multiplication of a sexually generated individual in truth

never taking place,—it would represent little more than an at-

tempt (sz¢. ven. verb.) at alternation of generations.

The antheridial granules of the Selaginelle and Rhizocarpee

constitute the most direct transition imaginable between the

pollen-grains of the Phanerogamia and the antheridial cells (of

an early rank—the mother-cells of the cells producing the sper-

matozoids) of the Equisetaceze and the Ferns (in the restricted

sense). While they correspond with the former completely in

reference to their origin and formation, and even in the earlier

features of their subsequent development—the emergence of the

internal celi out of the cuticle in the form of a tube,—they agree

with the latter in the ultimate formation of definitely shaped

fecundating elements inside special vesicles. An immediate ap-

proximation to the last process is met with in the pollen-tubes of

the Coniferz, in the occurrence of a distinct cell-formation.

If, led by the unmistakeable analogies which the Coniferz

exhibit, on the one hand with the Phanerogamia, and on the

other with the Lycopodiaceze and Rhizocarpez, we have found

the right path to the explanation of the import of the fecundating

organs in the Ferns (in the wider sense), we shall hardly allow

ourselves to be diverted from it again, although in the lower sec-

tions of this group, the Equisetacee and Ferns proper, we may

find these organs no longer rigidly preserving their original resem-

blance. We find the germinal vesicle, central cell of the arche-

gonium, and the archegonium itself, here still true to the former

type. Only the organ bearing the latter, the female receptacle,

the prothallium, undergoes striking metamorphoses. These relate

above all.to its size, shape, and its relation to the cell (spore)

giving origin to it; more remotely they result from the neces-

sities of an independent nutrition (formation of radical fibrils).

In the male fecundating organs also we here find diversities

connected both with their organization and their position. We

have already referred to the former; in regard to the latter, we

here no longer find the antheridia connected with the morpho-

logically developed plant, but transplanted, either alone (uni-

sexual flowers), or together with the archegonia (hermaphrodite

flower) on to a prothallium. If we understand by the term

29%

402 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

flower the totality of the organs necessary for fecundation, or

of these together with their immediate support and special en-

velope when this is present, we may apply the term to the pro-

thallium bearing antheridia and archegonia, as was done by

Sumuinski, the discoverer of the feeundating process of the Ferns ;

and it may be regarded only as an inessential peculiarity that

here this does not attain its perfect development in connexion

with the plant which produces it, but separates from the latter

in its most rudimentary condition,—we may say, as the first cell

of the flower-bud.

In the Mosses we find archegonia and antheridia both again

developed and their functions completed in connexion with the

plant morphologically perfect and arrived at puberty. But from

the fertilized germinal vesicle is not produced, as in the Phanero-

gamia and Ferns (in the widest sense of both terms), an embryo,

which—either as primary or secondary axis—grows up, after a

period of rest in the former, and immediately in the Ferns, into

a plant like the mother; it gives rise to a structure totally dis-

similar from the mother-plant, remaining mechanically connected

with this, finally, by the production of numerous gonidia (spores)

in its interior, which do not give birth to a like progeny, dis-

playing the character of a genuine nurse (Amme). Its progeny

even (of the first generation) do not—in the Mosses, at least—

regain the type of the sexual plant; they represent rather a

second generation of nurses —protonema,—each of which produces

a renewed asexual propagation by the formation of buds. It is

the individuals originating in this way that assume the power of

growing up into sexually-potent plants.

In here agreeing with Henfrey* in regarding the protonema

(pro-embryo) of Mosses as a nurse, in opposition to Hofmeister’s+

opinion, I consider it less necessary to justify myself, since in so

doing I remain true to the above-given well-established concep-

tion of the alternation of generations, than to endeavour to

remove the obstacles for those who might find an objection

in the difficulty which seems to be produced by the occur-

rence of a similarly formed pro-embryo in the asexual multipli-

cation of full-grown Mosses, on their radical hairs, cells of the

leaves, &c. We have discussed above the question whether an

alternation of generations is possible in the asexual multiplica-

tion of perfectly developed organisms, 7. e. whether with the

asexual multiplication of such can be combined a metamorphosis

terminating in the restoration of the mother-type. Such a com-

bination involves, of course, a previous retrogression to a lower

stage of development. This is given when the cell of the full-

* Report Brit. Association for 1851, p. 121, note.

+ Flora, 1852, p. 6.

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 458

grown Moss-plant forms a new protonema-tissue (nurses) in

place of immediately reproducing itself; with the asexual mul-

tiplication of this is combined the same ascending metamorphosis

as before, the propagula of the protonema-threads re-assuming

the form of the perfect plant.

The alternation of generations of the Mosses,—both on account

of the occurrence of two diverse generations of nurses, and in

reference to the production of these, the first time through go-

nidia*, the second time through buds,—bears a striking resem-

blance to the alternation of generations in the Trematoda: that

the first nurse remains mechanically connected with the mother-

plant, seems altogether an imessential condition, and has its

counterpart in Coryne, in which the sexual animals remain in

connexion with the nurse producing them, and almost appear

to be the sexual organs (testes and ovaries) of the nurse-indi-

vidual.

To the much-favoured notion which regards the prothallium of

the Ferns as a distinct generation, standing parallel with the leafy

Moss-plant (as a sexual generation), while the morphologically

developed Fern-plant is placed beside the capsule (with the seta)

of the Moss, as a nurse, no objection is to be made, provided the

view is carried out logically, and, as is necessary, extended to

the Phanerogamia. This carrying-out leads inevitably to a more

morphological conception of the idea of a “vegetable individual,”

in Al. Braun’s senset. We must then regard, not merely the

leafy (simple!) Moss-plant bearing antheridia and archegonia,

and the prothallium of the Ferns, as well as the prothallium

enclosed in the megaspore of the Lycopodiaceze and Rhizocarpez,

together with the microspores,—as complete, sexually developed

plants, but also the flowers of the Phanerogamia, now once and

for all corresponding to the prothallium, But if we regard the

flower—the floral shoot—as a perfect plant, as an individual,

we must attribute the same value to the preceding shoots; we

must regard the compound plant as a colony of polymorphous

* These should perhaps be regarded merely as a peculiar form of buds.

Montague described, m a letter to Berkeley (Annals, xvi. p. 354), a mon-

strosity of Eucamptodon perichetialis, the perfectly ripe capsule of which

contained buds instead of spores, analogous to the gemmule-cups of Mar-

chantia, and Berkeley confirms the fact. In reference also to the import

which we have above attributed to the spores of Ferns, Henfrey’s remarks

on this case appear very much to the point (Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 2. ix.

p. 453, note), when he says that it is a distinct evidence of the bud-nature

of the spores of the higher Cryptogamia.

+ Al. Braun, Das Individuum der Pflanze. Berlin, 1853. (Annals, ser, 2.

xv.) See also former note, page 449.

The simple plant, im Schleiden’s sense, appears—if, in the present

obscurity which prevails upon the laws of the ramification of roots, we may

be permitted to regard only the ascending growth—as a colony of homo-

454 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

individuals, and the shoots which necessarily precede the flower

in the series as so many generations of nurses. In hke manner

with the stems of the Lycopodiaceze, Rhizocarpeze, and Equise-

tacee. But then we must not compare the compound Moss-

plant as a whole unconditionally with the prothallium (the floral

shoot) of the Ferns, but only the floral shoot of the Moss-plant*.

The first two (Lycopodiaceze and Rhizocarpeze) would in this

case correspond almost completely to the already-mentioned

conditions of Coryne, since here the developed individuals, at

least the males, appear as it were as merely organs appendicular

to the nurses. The fact that the assumption of this point of

view leads to the appearance sometimes of the nurse (Ferns) and

sometimes of the sexual plant (simple Moss) as the morphologically

developed member of the series,—could not give ground for any

limitation of it, since the like occurs in the Animal Kingdom,

which, moreover, affords us information that morphological and

functional development do not keep side by side in all cases

(retrogression of the parasitic Crustacea at the period of puberty).

I hope in this way to have successfully elucidated a contra-

diction which must have been repugnant to all primary impres-

sions of the facts,—the contradiction which lay in making the

prothallium of the Fern equivalent to the ramified Moss-plant,

and the separation of the latter from the vegetative formations

of all the higher groups of vegetables. Which of the two

views I have- here attempted to expound, deserves the prefer-

ence, must be decided by every one for himself, according as he

adopts a physiological or the pure morphological conception of

the ‘ vegetable individual’—until science has decided the point.

I confess freely that I have been guided merely by the simple

verdict of natural impressions, in for the present inclining to the

former.

Against one thing more I must declare, and that decidedly,

namely, against the view which makes the Ferns fecundate in

the middle of their lives, by this becoming capable of growing up

to perfection,—according to which, the new individual cycle of

development commences not with the germinal vesicle, but with

the spore (in the Mosses as well as the Ferns)+. To show that

the name spore is applied to things of very diverse import, is almost

supertiuous, after what we have said abovet. The spores of the

morphous (sexual-) individuals, developed without antecedent nurse-forma-

tions.

* The merely trifling changes which would thus be required in columns

2nd to the 5th of our Table I. are included in Table Il. All the other

columns remain unaltered.

+ V.Mohl, Vegetable Cell, p. 125. London, 1852.—AlI. Braun, Verjiin-

gung, &c, (Ray Translation, 1853, p. 307).

{ Neither morphology nor the history of development give us invariably

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. A455

Mosses are gonidia of a nurse; those of the Ferns and Equiseta

correspond to the hermaphrodite or unisexual flower-buds of the

Phanerogamia, or rather to the rudiment of these, their primary

cell—separating from the mother-plant before their development

into flowers; the megaspores of the Lycopodiacee and Rhizocarpee

stand in the same relation to the female flowers of the Coniferee ;

the microspores, lastly, to the pollen-grains of the Phanerogamia,

to which latter may be applied the name ‘ spores’ with the same

right as to the previously enumerated structures, since the term

can relate to nothing further than individualized cells of similar

outward character and corresponding mode of formation, which

play a part in the propagation of plants. And yet with so vague

a definition we should already take away the name from the

spores of the Algz !

We have already given the reasons for our opinion of the im-

port of the spore of Chara. From it, after a long pause, directly

proceeds a sexually-potent thallus. In this respect it corresponds

to the embryo of the Phanerogamia. Its envelope, the sporan-

gium, as Schacht has already rightly observed*, corresponds to

the archegonium of the higher Cryptogamia.

The value of the spores and spore-capsules of the Floridee

must be decided by future researches.

In the Fucacee (so far as is known at present) the segmental

spore, as primordial cell, corresponds to the unfecundated ger-

minal vesicle of the higher divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom.

From it is directly produced the sexual plant.

Among the Freshwater Alge, Vaucheria is most allied to the

Fucacee. A cell preparmg germinal substance opens at its

apex, and from this moment its membrane becomes a sporan-

gium, and its contents a primordial cell corresponding to a ger-

minal vesicle. After fecundation it presents itself, enclosed by

a special membrane, as a completed propagation-cell—embryonal

cell, which, after a long rest, is developed directly mto the per-

fect plant.

The feeundation of Spheroplea (and Achlya) takes place ina

similar manner. The only distinction here consists in the spo-

rangium containing a number of primordial Sper -cells, which,

as in Fucus, are all “fecundated !

In Spher -oplea, i in Bulbochete and Coleochete, the perfect spore

presents itself as a nurse, whose dissimilar progeny (zoospores)

become perfect Algee. We here meet with retrogression to an

asexual multiplication at a very early epoch of life, and it might

appear questionable whether we ought to consider the said pro-

cess merely as such, or as a true alternation of generations.

the correct criterion for determining the value of a structure; we must

regard the function as, above all, decisive on this point.

* Pflanzenzelle, p. 400.

456 Dr. L. Radlkofer on Fecundation in the Vegetable Kingdom,

However, the spore-cell, which enlarges and becomes tubular,

still remaining simple, before propagation, cannot be considered

equivalent to even a very young Alga-thread, and in so far, there-

fore, the germ-cells (zoospores) asexually produced from it cer-

tainly ascend to a higher stage of metamorphosis, since they do

not become resting-spores again, but perfect Alge.

That the form of the alternation of generations is here the

same, or nearly the same, as in the asexual multiplication of the

developed plant, is certainly a peculiar, yet in our eyes irrelevant

condition. When Cohn* sees a resemblance, in the case above

mentioned, to the origin of several embryos in the ova of Pla-

naria, the well-founded doubt which may be entertained of the

correctness of the observation of the latter point is sufficient to

make me withhold my assent; besides that I can by no means

compare the swarming-spores to an embryo. On the other

hand, I believe I have better right to introduce here another

case from the Animal Kingdom, as analogous to ours, in which

likewise a very early asexual multiplication occurs combined with

an immediately advancing metamorphosis,—the case, namely,

of Alcyonella, whose rudimentary embryo (nurse) gives birth by

a kind of gemmation to two tufts of polypesyt.

In regard to the Algze fecundated by conjugation, I have nothing

to add to what I have already said, or to what is indicated in the

Tables. Here, also, the perfect spore presents itself as a nurse ;

as in Palmoglwa, and probably also in the conjugation-bodies of

Mesocarpus and Staurocarpus, referred to in a former page.

In conclusion, I subjoim a third Table, in which on the one

hand the spore, on the other the embryo contained in the seed,

are taken as the point of departure of the individual cycle of

development, and the separate stages of development placed to-

gether in the order of time. The contradictions which occur

from this view are too striking for it to be requisite to point

them out in detail, and this comparison can only serve to set in

a still clearer light the validity of the developments which have

been stated in this essay.

[ Note.—To the Fucoidez (J. Ag.) furnished with antheridia, mentioned

at page 258, should be added, from Thuret’s observations, Tilopteris Mer-

tensii, Kg. (Ectocarpus Mertensii, Ag.) and Dictyota. The antheridia

and spermatozoids of the latter genus resemble those of the Floridez (vide

Thuret, Ann. des Sc. nat. 4 sér. m1. 1855).

To p. 259.—An enumeration of the Floridez in which the existence of

antheridia has been demonstrated is given m the same memoir of Thuret.

Al. Braun has also discovered antheridia in Batrachospermum, which Thuret

includes among the Floridez (Algar. Unicellul. genera nova, &c. Leipsic,

1855, p. 105).)

* Entw. u. Fortpfianz. der Spheroplea, p. 16 (Annals, ser. 2. xviii. p. 81).

+ See Siebold, Vergleich. Anatomie (1840), p. 33.

ee ee oe

and its relation to that in the Animal Kingdom. 457

Taste II. (referred to at page 454).

Lycopodiaceze

and

Rhizocarpez.

Equiseta

and Ferns.

Animal Mono- and | Gymno-

Kingdom. Dicotyledones.| — spermia. Mosses. |

Fecundated | Feeundated| Fecundated| Fecundated| Fecundated! Fecundated

vesicle. vesicle. vesicle. vesicle. vesicle. vesicle.

Embryo Embryo. | Embryo Embryo. | Embryo. Rudiment

ao: ae of theca.

Theca.

tie tT

puree Vegetative | Vegetative | Vegetative | Vegetative | Protonema

" ee: Fee shoots. shoots. shoots. shoots. and

generations®. vegetative

shoots.

_ 5 Flower-

Prothallium Erovallia shoot

~ . (with :

Sexual Flower- Flower- |(and micro- = (bearing

: antheridia ae

animal. shoot. shoot. | spore com- mia antheridia

plex). archegonia), and

archegonia).

* These may be absent both in animals and plants ; for example, in all plants whose terminal

or lateral shoots end in flowers, which therefore present themselves as a nurse-stock, not as a

stock of sexual individuals.

Tas e III. (referred to at page 456).

2 Lycopodiaceze A

Animal Phanero- Equisetaceze

Kingdom. gamia. Boer and Ferns. Mosses. Alge.

Seed Megaspore

Embryo. and Spore. Spore. Spore.

(embryo). | microspore.

Prothallium)Prothallium

bearing |bearingboth Protonema

Vegetative!» -chegonia,| archegoni

2 ; gonia| and leaf:

Infancy. sphere aa ei ana pace Y | Thallus.

Ceay matozoids. | antheridia. | (vegetative

axis). | Fecunda- | Fecunda- sphere).

tion. tion.

| Reproduc-

Reproduc- (ee sphere | Antheridia

Y ri rm > | ~ 3 .

bs ] here. -| sphere. : P aes

tion. Fecunda- | *? ] archegonia).| Fecunda-

tion. | Fecunda- tion.

tion.

Formation] Formation] Formation | Formation | Formation | Formation

of of of of of of

embryo. seed. spores. spores. spores. spores.

(The epochs of resting periods are marked (in all the Tables) by blacker lines.]

Taste I. (referred to at page 450).— Comparison of the apparently equivalent

Animal Kingdom.

Fecundated | Fecundated | Fecundated | Fecundated | Feeundated

ovum.

Phanerogamia.

Mono- and

Dicotyledones. Gymnosperms.

germinal

vesicle.

germinal

vesicle.

subdivisions of the Vegetable Kingdom

Pteridoidez.

Selaginelle,

Isoétez, and

Rhizocarpee.

Equisetacese Mosses (proper).

and Ferns (s. s.).

Fecundated |

germinal |

germinal

vesicle.

germinal

vesicle.

a ff

Embryo or

Nurse.

Morphologi-

cally deve-

loped animal.

Sexual

apparatus.

Testis.

Spermatic

cysts.

(Spemeeells. |

fea

Spenmstovoas

Ovary

(and uterus).

Ovarian follicle

(Graafian ve-

sicle).

Unfeeundated

ovum.

Germinal

vesicle.

First cellof the

Embryo. Embryo.

Leafy axis. | Leafy axis.

First cell of the

unisexual

flower-bud.

hermaphrodite

or each of the

unisexual

flower-buds.

Flower: sexes

separate or | Male and fe-

hermaphro- |male flowers*.

dite.

Anther. Anther.

Pollen-grain. | Pollen-grain.

Contents of

pollen-tube.

Contents of

pollen-tube.

Ovule. Ovule.

Embryo-sacs,

Embryo-sac. :

secondary.

Unfecundated| Unfecundated

germinal germinal

vesicle. vesicle.

Cytoblast of | Cytoblast of

the germinal | the germinal

vesicle. vesicle.

Sporangium o

microspores.

Theca, Spore.jf

Embryo. Embryo. Protonemaf. |

Bud-rudiment.i)

Leafy axis. | Leafy axis. | Leafy axis.

Megaspore. Spore.

Antheridia

and

Prothallium ; | archegonia.

sexes separate

or hermaphro-

dite.

Microspore—

complex, and

prothallium.

Antheridia. | Antheridia.

Mother-cell of Mother- cell o

Microspore.

the spermatic | the spermatic

vesicles. vesicles.

Spermatic

vesicles.

Spermatic

Spermatie

vesicles.

Spermatozoa. | Spermatozoa. | Spermatozoa. |

Archegonium.

Archegonium.| Archegonium.

Central cell of|Central cell of; Central cell |

the archego- | the archego-

germinal

vesicle.

germinal ve-

germinal

sicle.

vesicle.

Cytoblast of | Cytoblast of | Cytoblast of |

the germinal | the germinal | the germinal |

vesicle. vesicle. vesicle. |

* The latter essentially only ovule.

stages of Development, Seaual Apparatus, and Sexual Products in the different

and the Animal Kingdom.

Alge.

: Desmidiee,

Chare. Floridex. Fucacer. Vaucheria. Sphzroplea. | Bulbochezte. |Diatomez, and

Zygnemee.

Sted (Resting-) (Resting-) | (Resting-) | Conjuga-

pene: > |Fecundated| spore spore spore tion-body

(embryonal| Spore ? : (-nurse) (-nur (resting

cell) spore. |(embryonal urse). nurse). resting =

cell). Reais pons a

Zoospore. | Zoospore.

Thallus. Thallus. Thallus. Thallus. Thallus. Thallus. Thallus.

———— es |

—_— | |

Antheridia =e eae : a

| Antheridia rd (Concepta- =e suthendis Snes United

it and sporangia?} culum.) et: ABE nc eee Sten

: lium ?

>} 7—_—_ I >— i — |_| —{j :

| First conju-

Microgo-

nidia and | Contents

their pro- | (daughter-

cells of an-| cellules. ducts in | ‘eel 2) of

theridium. germina- | the above.

tion.

Nucleus of

2 ee Spermato- | Spermato- | Spermato-

dium- like sper- 5 : 3

ow zoids. zoids. zoids.

corpuscles. | matozoids.

nee epee et ee| se Sere ul Se eee | bee ee J

Sporan- | Sporan- Sporan- Sporan- | Sporan- oti:

efem gium. gium. gium. gium. ae

Primordial Primordial | Primordial | Unfeeund-| Contents

Ne pa noo i (unfecund- | (unfecund- | (unfecund- | ated spore- | (daughter-

a al cell? ated) spore-|ated) spore-jated) spore- cell. cell ?) of

; y cell. cell, cell. the above.

Nucleus of

spore-cell.

+ These two intermediate generations absent in the Liverworts.

460 Zoological Society :—

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

May 26, 1857.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., V.P., in the Chair.

On tHE ANIMAL AND BARK OF THE GENUS ANTIPATHES.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., F.L.S., V.P.Z. anp Ent. Soc. etc.

In the ‘ Proceedings’ of the Society for 1832, p. 41, I described

for the first time the bark and animal of Antipathes dichotoma from

Madeira.

It is to be observed that this species has been separated from the

others of the genus because the surface of the axis is smooth and

not covered with a number of minute, uniform, cylindrical spines

like the true dntipathes, and has been called for that reason Leto-

pathes; and it has been further stated, that though Lezopathes has

a distinct bark and animal like Gorgoniade, this may not be the

case with the normal species of the genus, some of which have been

described by Ellis as having a very peculiar kind of animal.

To set this question at rest, I have carefully examined all the spe-

cimens of Antipathes which have come under my observation, and

have failed to discover any traces of a bark or remains of any kind

of animal matter on their surface, until a few days ago, when Mr.

Samuel Stevens brought to the Museum a very fine specimen of a

long simple-stemmed Azxtipathes from the Seychelles, which appears

to be a new species, allied to Ad. spiralis, if more than a very fine

straight specimen of that species.

This specimen is entirely covered from near the expanded base

to the apex (except at certain parts where the surface has been ac-

cidentally abraded) with a very distinct bark or animal covering.

The bark is continuous, completely hiding the spinules of the sur-

face of the axis, smooth, and showing a number of thicker, browner,

irregular-shaped plates on the surface, which are separated from each

other in some places only by narrow crack-like grooves, and at others

by a considerable distance ; and there is no appearance, in the dry

state, as far as I can detect, of any apertures for the emission of the

heads of the polypes.

The bark in its dry state is tough and rather rigid; when

soaked in water, it becomes thick, coriaceous externally, aaa fleshy

within; when Goaked in a solution of potash, the harder plates

appeared to be formed of a rather convex horny plate of irregular

shape and rather twisted on the surface, and the other part of the

bark is scattered with groups of very small, uniform-sized, regular-

shaped, oblong plates, of a somewhat similar consistence and colour.

The hard parts of the bark are quite distinct in form and ap-

pearance from the spiculze of the Gorgoniade. They are hard and

brittle, not soluble in strong muriatic acid, nor are they affected by

a strong solution of caustic potass. They are most probably siliceous.

Mr. P. L. Sclater on the Upland Goose. 461

I have not been able to discover the tentacles of the animal, though

I have submitted them to the same process by which I observed them

in Leiopathes dichotoma, as mentioned in my former paper; but I

have seen sufficient of the internal structure of the animal to lead

me to believe that in its general character it agrees with the other

Gorgoniade.

June 9, 1857.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., V.P., in the Chair.

Notre oN THE UPLAND GOOSE.

By Puiuie Lutriey Scxuater, M.A., F.L.S. etc.

The new ‘‘ Upland Goose” recently received by the Society from

the Falkland Islands, is certainly the true Magellanic Goose ( Chloz-

phaga magellanica), Gmelin’s name magellanica being founded on

Buffon’s Pl. Enl. 1006—a sufficiently recognizable representation of

what seems to be the female of this species. See also Darwin’s

Zool. of the Beagle, Birds, p. 134, where ‘‘ Upland Goose”’ is stated

to be the name applied to this bird at the Falklands.

The bird, which has for several years, I believe, bred in the So-

ciety’s Gardens, and is commonly called the ‘* Magellanic Goose,”

is ‘‘The Ashy-headed Goose”? (Chloéphaga poliocephala) of the

British Museum Catalogue of Gallinze, Grallze and Anseres, published

in 1844.

This species is well figured in Gray and Mitchell’s Genera of Birds

(pl. 165), under the name Bernicla inornata. But it seems doubt-

ful whether this is really the true Anas inornatus of King (Proc.

Comm. Zool. Soc. i. p. 15).

The adults of both sexes of this Goose, which are now in the So-

ciety’s Gardens, are coloured as nearly as possible alike, which is

rather curious, if, as appears to be the case, in the nearly allied C.

magellanica the male and female are quite different.

There are two other fine Geese which inhabit the southern extremity

of the S. American continent—namely, B. antarctica (Gm.) and B.

melanoptera, Eyton. Specimens of all these four species are in the

British Museum.

DESCRIPTION OF A New GENUus OF GorGONIADH. By Dr. JoHN

Epwarp Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z. & Ent. Soc., F.L.S. etc.

ACANTHOGORGIA.

Coral branchy ; branches free, cylindrical, slender, both of them

almost entirely composed of transparent spicula ; cells elegantly bell-

shaped, contracted at the bottom, and less so rather below the aper-

ture, spinulose, with eight equidistant lines of two or three series of

diverging short spines ; the mouth of the cell surrounded with nume-

rous diverging, very slender, transparent, elongate spines, nearly as

long as the cell. Axis horny, black, more slender and brown near

the tips.

462 Zoological Society :—

Acanthogorgia hirsuta, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851, Radiata, pl. 3.

fig. 2.

Coral branched ; branches nearly on the same plane, separate.

Hab. Unknown. British Museum.

This genus bears some relation to Primnoa, but the cell is armed

externally with rows of short, thin, and its mouth with a series of

delicate, elongated bristle-like spines, instead of the broad scale of

that genus. From all other genera of the family it is most distinct.

The MS. description of this very curious coral was accidentally

mislaid at the time at which it was read, and did not appear in the

printed Proceedings of the Society. It was figured, by an error of

the artist, for and under the name of Nidalia occidentalis in the Pro-

ceedings of the Society for 1851.

June 23, 1857.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., V.P. Zool. & Ent. Soc.,

in the Chair.

DESCRIPTIONS OF TWELVE NEw oR LITTLE-KNOWN SPECIES

OF THE SourH AMERICAN Famity ForMICARIID&.

By Puinie Lutvey Scxuater, M.A., F.L.S. ere.

1. GRALLARIA FERRUGINEIPECTUS.

Supra pallide brunnea, olivaceo induta: loris et regione oculari

et auriculari fulvo tinctis: subtus flavicanti-ferruginea, collo

antico medialiter et ventre toto cum crisso albis : alis nigrican-

tibus pallido brunneo limbatis, tectricibus alarum superioribus

omnino nigricantibus, inferioribus autem cum campterio ochra-

ceis: rostri nigri basi flavicante : pedibus pallidis.

Long. tota 3:8, ale 2°6, caudz 1:2, tarsi °85.

Hab. In Venezuela, in vicin. urbis Caraccas (Levraud).

Mus. Paris.

2. GRALLARIA LORICATA.

Supra olivacea: pileo castaneo: oculorum ambitu, loris et gula

tota albidis, fulvo tinctis : stria duplici gutturis utrinque nigra:

pectoris et ventris lateralis plumis omnibus medialiter fulvo-

albidis, undique late nigro marginatis : ventre medio et crisso

albis, hypochondriis brunnescentibus : rostro clare brunneo,

basi flavida : tectricibus subalaribus pallide brunneis.

Long. tota 4:0, alee 2°8, caudz 0-8, tarsi 1°6.

Hab. In Venezuela, in vicin. urbis Caraccas (Levraud).

Mus. Paris.

These two Grallarie are of smaller size and have shorter tarsi

than the typical members of the genus. The bill also is shorter,

broader, and more flattened, and furnished with many basal bristles.

Together with Lafresnaye’s Grallaria nana, they seem to form a sub-

ordinate group pointing towards Conepophaga.

ty om

Mr. P. L. Sclater on species of Formicariide. 463

3. HypocNEeEMIS MELANOPOGON.

3. Cinereus, subtus dilutior, ventre medio albicante ; gula nigra :

alis brunnescenti-nigris, tectricibus omnibus albo. marginatis :

cauda nigra rectricibus omnibus anguste albo terminatis : rostro

nigro, pedibus fuscis.

2 aut 3 jgunr. Supra mari adulto similis, subtus gutture et pectore

cinereo variegatis, gastreo albo, lateraliter cinerascentiore.

Long. tota 4°5, alee 2°5, caudze 1°5.

Hab. In Peruvia Orientali, Chamicurros (Zauewell).

Mus. Brit. et P.L.S.

This bird nearly resembles H. pecilonota and H. myiotherina in

style of colouring, but the bill is longer and more slender, and more

like that of some of the species of Myrmeciza. From H. pecilonota

it is easily distinguished by the want of the white edgings of the

interscapularies, from H. m yiotherina by the restriction of the black

colour to the throat, the want of the superciliary mark, and by the

white termination of the rectrices.

I have two specimens of this species in my own collection, and

there is one in the British Museum, which formed part of Haux-

well’s collection from Chamicurros.

4. FORMICIVORA MELENA.

Fuliginoso-niger, subtus intensior ; lateribus plumosis cum tectri-

cibus subalaribus albis: alarum tectricibus et caude rectrici-

bus albo terminatis : rostro et pedibus nigris.

Long. tota 4°0, alee 3:1, caudze 2°5

Hab. New Grenada, Bogota.

Mus. P.L.S.

Obs. Similis F. axillari, sed colore corporis supra nigro nec plum-

beo dignoscenda.

FORMICIVORA UROSTICTA.

Cinerea, subtus dilutior et magis albescens : plaga gulari elongata

nigra: alis nigricanti-cinereis extus cinereo strictissime lim-

batis, tectricibus autem nigris, albo terminatis: cauda nigra,

rectricibus omnibus albo late terminatis ; rectricis une utrin-

que extime tertia fere parte apicali alba, hoe colore apud alias

rectrices gradatim decrescente : rostro nigro, pedibus fuscis.

Long. tota 3°5, alee 2-0, caude 1°2.

Hab. In Brasilia Orientali.

Mus. Brit. et P. L.S.

Obs. A Formicivora axillari et aliis affinibus colore subtus dilu-

tiore, gula nigra magis restricta et preesertim rectricum apicibus late

albis distinguenda.

6. FoRMICIVORA BREVICAUDA.

Formicivora brevicauda, Sw., Zool. Journ. ii. p. 148.

3. Cinereus unicolor, plaga ovali in gutture et pectore superiore

nigra: alis nigricantibus extus cinereo limbatis, harum autem

464 Zoological Society :—

tectricibus nigris albo terminatis : cauda brevi, colore nigro-

cinerea, rectricum macula subapicali nigra, tpsarum autem api-

cibus albidis : rostro corneo, pedibus nigris.

9. Olivascenti-brunnea, subtus clarior, capite subcinereo gutture

albicantiore : tectricum alarium apicibus colore dilutioribus.

Hab. In Brasilia Orientali prope urbem Bahia (Sw.).

Mus. Brit. et P. L.S.

Obs. Species ab auctoribus cum F. avillari et affinibus confusa,

sed crassitie minore, cauda breviore, colore corporis cinereo unicolore

et plaga gutturali ovali bene definita facile dignoscenda.

7. FormictvorA HAUXWELLI.

Plumbea, subtus paulo dilutior, mento albescentiore : alis nigris,

tectricibus omnibus albo terminatis, duas lineas albas formanti-

bus ; secundariis dorso proximis extus caude quoque tectrici-

bus et rectricibus ipsis omnibus macula terminali alba preditis :

uropygii plumis laxis, elongatis: cauda brevissima : rostro

nigricanti-plumbeo, pedibus fuscis.

Long. tota 3:7, alz 2°1, caudee 9.

Hab. In Peruy. Orientali (Hauzwell).

Mus. Brit.

8. FoRMICIVORA CINERASCENS.

Formicivora cerulescens?, Sclater, P. Z. S. 1854, p. 112 (nec

Vieill.).

Pallide cinerascens fere unicolor, subtus dilutior ; interscapula-

rium basibus albis : alis nigricanti-brunnets cinereo limbatis ;

tectricum apicibus albo guttulatis : cauda nigricante, rectricibus

omnibus albo terminatis : rostro et pedibus nigris.

Long. tota 6:0, alee 2°4, caudee 2°2.

Hab. In Peruv. Orientali, Chamicurros (Hau«well) et in ripis fl.

Napo.

Mus. Brit.

Obs. Similis F'. cerulescenti ex Brasilia sed rostro fortiore et lon-

giore, cauda breviore et aequaliore, colore corporis inferioris dilutiore

et campteriis non albis distinguenda.

I formerly referred this bird to Vieillot’s Form. c@rulescens, of

which Menetriés has given a figure in his ‘ Monograph of the Myio-

therins,’ pl. 6. But a comparison of specimens of both species,

which are now in the British Museum, has convinced me that these

two birds, though much resembling each other in plumage, are essen-

tially distinct, and I have given above the characters by which they

may be easily separated.

The example from Chamicurros, which was part of Mr. Haux-

well’s fine collection, is not quite mature, and shows brownish colour-

ing beneath and upon the wings. Like F’. cerulescens, this bird has

only ten rectrices.

9. HeRPSILOCHMUS PECTORALIS.

Cinereus, dorsi medii plumis albo mixtis ; pileo nigro: fronte,

Mr. P. L. Sclater on species of Formicariide. 465

superciliis et lateribus capitis albis: alis nigris, tectricum om-

nium apicibus albo guttatis, secundartis late, primariis stricte

albo extus marginatis : cauda nigra, rectricis une utrinque ex-

time dimidio apicali et proximarum trium apicibus gradatim

decrescentibus albis ; rectricibus duabus intermediis extus an-

guste albo marginatis et tectricum caude apicibus quibusdam

eodem colore guttatis: subtus obscure cinereus, plaga magna

in pectore antico nigro: rostro plumbeo, mandibula inferiore

albicante : pedibus nigris.

Long. tota 5:0, alee 2°1, caudze 1°7.

My attention was first called to this species when looking through

the specimens of this family inthe Museum of the Academy of Nat.

Se. of Philadelphia.

There is also a single specimen in the British Museum, which

came, I believe, from the same origin as the one at Philadelphia—

that is, from the Massena collection. There is no locality affixed.

In style of colouring this bird seems to come nearest to H. pilea-

fus, but it is much larger in size, and the pectoral black patch ren-

ders it easily distinguishable from every bird of the family known

to me.

10. Dys1IrTHAMNUS XANTHOPTERUS.

Dasythamnus wxanthopterus, Burm. Syst. Ueb. d. Th. Bras. iii.

p. dl.

3. Capite colloque cinereis, fronte, regione superciliari et lateri-

bus capitis albo striolatis: interscapulio et alis extus lete

rufis, illo dilutiore ; dorso postico valde plumoso, colore virides-

centi-rufo, hujus pennarum basibus cinereis : cauda nigricanti-

cinerea, rectricibus extus rufescente marginatis : subtus albus,

lateribus cervicis cinereis, ventris autem ochracescentibus : rostri

nigri mandibula inferiore pallida, pedibus nigris.

2. Mari similis sed pileo rufo et subtus magis fusco-flavicans.

Long. tota 5°5, alee 2°4, caudee 2:0.

Hah. In Brasilia Orientali.

Mus. Brit. et P. L.S.

The British Museum possesses the male, and I have a female speci-

men of this. Dysithamnus, which is easily recognizable by its deep

chestnut-red wings and back; the same in both sexes. The bend

of the wing and whole of the upper coverts are of this colour, and I

could hardly, therefore, at first think it possible that this could be

the Dasythamnus xanthopterus of Burmeister (Syst. Ueb. d. Th.

Bras. 11. p. 81), although his description agrees with the female of

my species. But recollecting that Zav60s, though commonly used

in Natural History as synonymous with the Latin favus and English

“yellow,” is also capable of bearing the meaning ‘‘ auburn,” or even

** chestnut ;”” it appears to me that the name ‘“ xanthopterus,”

though eminently calculated to mislead as applied to this bird, is

perhaps not sufficiently inaccurate to require to be replaced by a new

name. I have therefore retained Professor Burmeister’s appellation

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx.

466 Zoological Society.

for this species. His single example was obtained in the vicinity of

New Friburg in the province of Rio de Janeiro. Those in the British

Museum and my own collection have the ordinary appearance of

Brazilian skins, and are probably from Rio or Bahia.

I do not know what has induced Prof. Burmeister to attempt to

change Cabanis’s correctly formed generic term Dysithamnus into

Dasythamnus ; but in this, as in other instances, that author seems

to undervalue the principle of priority, now universally recognized

in the application of names in Natural History.

11. THAMNOPHILUS MELANOTHORAX.

Supra intense castaneus, remigibus alarum intus nigricanti-brun-

neis, lateribus capitis et corpore subtus ad imum pectus atris,

hoc colore in ventrem sensim dilutiore : ventre et lateribus oli-

vascenti-brunneis rufo tinctis : cauda unicolore castanea : rostro

corneo, pedibus nigro-fuscis.

Long. tota 6°5, alee 3°2, caude 2°8.

Hab. Yn America Meridionali?

Mus. Brit.

I have never met with but the single example of this curious bird

which is in the British Museum. The genus Thamnophilus is the

only one I know of in which it can be placed; but the bill is more

conical and thicker and rather shorter than in the birds of that

group, which most nearly approach it in size. There are two white

spots on the outer secondaries of the specimen, but these are evi-

dently the results of an incipient albinism.

i2. THAMNOPHILUS MELANOCEPS.

Thamnophilus melanoceps, Spix, Av. Bras. ii. pl. 39. fig. 1. p. 28.

Ferrugineo-rufus, subtus clarior: capite toto undique et collo

supero nigris: rostro et pedibus nigris.

Long. tota 7-0, ale 3:2, caudee 24.

Hab. Eastern Peru, Sarayacu on the Ucayali (Cast. et Dev.).

Mus. Paris.

I was not acquainted with this fine species of Thamnophilus when

I wrote the article on the arrangement of those birds in the ‘ Edin-

burgh N. Phil. Journal.’ I have since seen several examples in the

Museum of the Jardin des Plantes, which were obtained by MM. de

Castelnau and Deville at Sarayacu on the Ucayali. The irides are

marked “ orange.”

Description oF A New Species oF ANTELOPE (ORyx BeEa-

TRIX) FROM Bompay ?, LATELY LIVING IN THE MENA-

GERIE OF THE Society. By Dr. Jonn Epwarp Gray,

F.R.S., F.L.S., V.P.Z. & Ent. Soc. Ere.

The African genus Oryw is divided into two sections, according

to the form of the horn. In one, the Kookaam, or Gemsboc (0.

—

A yee

oS ee ee

Miscellaneous. 467

gazella), the horns are straight ; in the true Oryx (O. leucoryx), they

are arched and recurved. The former has a black streak along

the lower part of the sides, and is found over a large extent of

Africa, from the Cape to Abyssinia ; for O. Biessa of Riippell ap-

pears to be only a small variety of O. gazella, the smaller size de-

pending on some peculiarity in the climate or locality, as is the case

with the Strepsiceros kudu found in Abyssinia by Capt. Harris,

which is only half the size of that inhabiting the Cape of Good Hope.

The O. leucoryx, on the other hand, which is confined to Senaar

and Senegal, is without any indication of the lateral streak.

The animal now under consideration is intermediate between these

species ; it has the straight horn of 4. gazella and the plain colour

of 4. leucoryx, but its dark legs and peculiar white feet at once

separate it from either.

The animal was presented to the Society by Capt. John Shepherd

of the India House ; it was regarded in the Gardens as a half-grown

Oryx gazella, and is said to have been brought from Bombay. A

pair was shipped from the latter port, but the female died at sea.

The male is now in the Collection of the British Museum.

Oryx Beatrix. The Beatrice.

The horns slender, straight, or only very slightly curved near the

tip, annulated nearly to the tip. White; a spot on the middle of

the face, a smaller spot between the base of the horns, a large

patch on each cheek, extended above up to the eyes, and united to-

gether beneath under the throat; the knees and front of the fore-

and hind-legs, and a large.spot on the chest, dark blackish brown ;

the legs to the posterior grey-brown; end of the tail black.

Hab. Bombay, but probably brought from the shores of the Red

Sea. Brit. Mus.

This specimen is not half the size of the Gemsboc from the

Cape, and is immediately known from it by the distribution of its

colours.

In form and size it resembles the true Oryx (O. leucoryx), but it

differs in the straightness of the horn, the size and form of the cheek-

spot, and especially in the dark colour of the legs, and the well-

marked white ring around the fetlock joint just above the hoof.

The hair is whorled on the middle of the haunches as in the rest of

the genus, and the hairs of the back in front of the withers are

directed forwards.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On Circulation in Plants. By A. Trécut. (First Part.)

Brrore putting forward the opinion which my observations have

suggested to me with regard to circulation in plants, I think it

indispensable to examine the forces to which this phenomenon is

30*

468 Miscellaneous.

generally attributed. Considering the use that has been made of the

known physical forces for explaining the absorption of liquids from

the soil, the ascent of the sap, and also its descending course, I was

for a moment surprised that no analogous experiment had been tried

in order to account for the absorption of the gases drawn from the

atmosphere. Nevertheless, this latter faculty of plants, which authors

have been content with indicating, is not less important than the

absorption of liquids by the roots. But it has not been capable of

explanation by the ordinary laws of physics. I am about to attempt

to prove that the aspiration by the roots, and the movements of

liquids in plants, cannot be effected under the influence of the phy-

sical forces to which such an important part is still ascribed, namely

capillarity and endosmose. Even those physiologists who ascribe a

great part in the ascent of the sap to capillarity, and especially to

endosmose, are compelled to admit that they are incapable of raising

liquids to the height of our trees, without the aid of the evaporation

which takes place in the leaves, and which, as they say, draws the

liquids towards those organs. For my part, I think, that if evapora-

tion causes the liquids to rise, it must prevent them from descending :

now they descend after rising; therefore evaporation does not assist

in their elevation. I also think that Nature never makes use of

insufficient causes like endosmose and capillarity ; and on the other

hand, the part attributed to endosmose is incompatible with the

constitution of plants.

Suppose, for a moment, with the physiologists, that it is eadosmose

which causes liquids to rise by the ligneous mass, and afterwards to

descend by the bark. In order that this phenomenon should be

accomplished, the density of the juices must constantly increase as

they rise (this is what has been observed) ; and this density must

also increase in passing through the leaves from the ligneous mass to

the bark, and in descending from cell to cell in the interior of the

cortical tissue. (At the last meeting of the Academy I stated that

these juices do not descend in the laticiferous vessels, which have

other functions.) We could not, moreover, recur exclusively to

gravitation, seeing that there are pendent branches as well as erect

ones.

The botanists who admit the endosmotic theory have not remarked

that they have thus, side by side, two currents of liquids of different

densities ; they have not noticed that the ascending sap, being less

dense than the descending, would necessarily be attracted by the

latter, as the membranes are permeable; they have not considered

that throughout the whole length of the trunk there would neces-

sarily be a horizontal, centrifugal current, until an equilibrium of

density was established, and that then the double ascending and

descending current could not exist. As this is not the case, the

endosmotic theory is erroneous. A force distinct from endosmose

must therefore preside over the absorption of the liquids drawn from

the soil, as well as over that of the gases taken from the atmosphere.

And thus there are in plants other movements than that of the

ascending and descending sap. This sap, in its course, gives off, into

Miscellaneous. 469

all the cells, the substances necessary for their nutrition. These cells

assimilate the elements which they require, and reject those which

are useless to them. The rejected elements are taken up by the

laticiferous vessels, or collected into peculiar reservoirs, like the

essential oils, &e. These reservoirs, however, do not contain a liquid

of greater density for which these essential oils have an affinity.

Here again, therefore, endosmose has no part in the movement of the

liquids.

The tendency to admit purely physical causes to explain physio-

logical pheenomena is again observed with regard to the spongiole ;

for this extremity of the root has been compared to a sponge, as is

indicated by its name. Let us see, therefore, how far this comparison

is exact.

In my memoir on the origin of roots, I have shown that the

young tissues, the formation of which causes the elongation of the

roots, are protected during their development by a sort of little cap,

which, for this reason, I called the pileorhiza. It actually envelopes

the extremity of the root like a cap. This organ may be easily ob-

served, especially upon the roots of aquatic plants, because in these

the development is more rapid than in most other plants. This cap

adheres to the extremity of the root by the interior of its apex ; it is

from this point that it is renewed, whilst its outer part, which is

oldest, becomes destroyed. The external cells becoming disaggre-

gated, could alone have given the idea of a little sponge. With

regard to the power of absorption, which, at least in certain plants,

is much stronger at the extremity of the root than in other parts of

that organ, it evidently cannot be assimilated to the capillary phe-

nomena which cause liquids to rise in a sponge. The word spongiole,

therefore, gives a false idea of that which really takes place in

roots.

Some botanists who admit the spongiole, have nevertheless recog-

nized the existence, on the surface of many roots, of prominent cells

to which they attribute a share in absorption. I hold their opinion

in this respect ; and I am, moreover, led to believe that, even in the

woody roots of trees, the whole of the surface is endowed with the

property of absorbing liquids from the soil. In trees with a vigorous

vegetation, such as Paulownia, I have sometimes had the opportunity

of observing, I think in the spring, that the dead part of the bark

was impregnated with a considerable quantity of liquids, which would

probably be yielded to the living parts of the root.

The liquids absorbed by the roots, by the agency of that force

which we only know by its effects—namely life, are conveyed into

the ligneous mass of these organs, and thence into that of the stem.

These juices rise into the leaves, and then they descend towards the

roots, describing a sort of circle. As they pass through the whole

extent of the plant, I think that it would be advisable to call this the

great circulation, and to give the name of venous circulation to that

which, by the laticiferous vessels, conducts the substances which the

cells have not assimilated to the true vessels. There is also an intra-

cellular movement which has been observed in many vegetables.

470 Miscellaneous.

This movement has received the name of rotation, because the juices

appear to turn upon themselves, with more or less regularity, in the

interior of each cell.— Comptes Rendus, Sept. 28, 1857, p. 434.

On a new Genus of Birds from Mexico. By P. L. Scuarer, Esq.

CAMPTOSTOMA.

Genus novum Tyrannidarum, Tyrannulo affine: rostrum altum,

breve, valde compressum, apice acuta et dente finali nulla; cul-

mine multum arcuato et regulariter incurvo, gonyde paulum

ascendente ; vibrissis rictalibus nullis: ale modice, dimidium

caude attingentes ; primariis secunda, tertia et quarta inter se

equalibus et quintam paulo excedentibus, sexta his paulo bre-

viore sed primam superante: cauda modica quadrata: tarsi

breviusculi : pedes ut in genere Tyrannulo.

C. IMBERBE, Sp. nov.

C. supra olivascenti-fuscum, pileo semicristato, cinerascenti-fusco;

alis fuscis, secundariarum et tectricum marginibus externis pal-

lidioribus et albicantibus ; cauda pallide cinerascenti-fusco

unicolore : subtus cinerascenti-albidum flavo perfusum: rostri

nigri mandibula inferiore basi flavicante ; pedibus nigris.

Long. tota 3°5 ; ale 2°8; caudz 1°3.

Hab. In vicinitate urbis S. Andres Tuxtla in rep. Mexicana.

M. Sallé’s recent collections contain a single specimen of this curi-

ous little bird, which was obtained in the neighbourhood of S. An-

dres Tuxtla. There is no doubt about its belonging to the Tyran-

nide, but the form of the bill appears to be quite different from

that of any bird hitherto recognized as of that family, and to require

a new generic appellation. I have therefore called it Camptostoma

from the arched form of the culmen. The specific name wnberbe

refers to the entire absence of rictal bristles. I consider Tyrannulus

to be perhaps its nearest-allied generic form, from which, however,

it may be at once distinguished by the peculiar depth and compres-

sion of the bill. Dr. Hartlaub’s Ornithion inerme belongs, I suspect,

to this same section of Tyrannide.—Proc. Zool. Soc. July 14, 1857.

Miscellaneous. 471

Discovery of Footsteps of Quadrupeds in the New Red Sandstone of

Saint-Valbert, near Luxeuil (Haute-Sadne). By M. Dausrée.

In reporting the pee in the above French locality, of the

footprints described by Kaup as those of the Cheirotherium, and

which Professor Owen has attributed to the Labyrinthodon, a gigantic

Batrachian, the author gives the following particulars as to the occur-

rence and characters of these remarkable impressions. He says,

“Above the great red beds which are quarried for building purposes,

some thin strata of sandstone, also of a red colour, and spotted with

pale green, alternate with clays of the same coloration. It is in these

latter strata that I observed the impressions, at the very limit of the

clay and sandstone. As at Hildburghausen, the foot first made an

impression in the clay, and the relief which the sandstone presents

on its lower surface is only the counterproof of the direct impression.

In their form, as in their disposition, the prints just discovered in

France exactly resemble those of Saxony, and belong to the same

species of animal.”

«« By the side of the large feet there is also an innumerable multi-

tude of small ones, turned in various directions, only presenting four

toes, and somewhat resembling those of Batrachia.”’

«A new circumstance increases the interest of the vestiges of the

Cheirotherium at Saint-Valbert. The mud upon which the animal

walked was sufficiently plastic not only to take and preserve the exact

form of the feet with their claws, but also to catch the inequalities

of the skin with as much delicacy as if it had been done by a clever

moulder ; these latter peculiarities are even reproduced in the counter-

proof. . Each foot, whether anterior or posterior, presents in all its

parts, both on the sole and the toes, a granulation which is un-

doubtedly of organic origin. Beyond the footprints the surface of

the slab presents nothing of the kind. This granulation is very

regular, except upon some oblique ridges, where the sliding of the

animal’s foot has caused a slight stretching ; ; they are small, Tounded

asperities, the largest of which do not attain a millimetre in diameter.”

«Such an exact knowledge of the inequalities of the integument

of the Cheirotherium, furnishes useful evidence as to the class of Ver-

tebrata to which the animal should be referred. The lower part of the

feet of Reptiles usually presents either more or less irregular scales,

gradually decreasing in size to the extremity of the member, or a

smooth skin with folds, or a few warts arranged in certain lines. In

no existing animal of the groups of Batrachia or Chelonia does the

foot appear to present inequalities of such comparatively small size,

and so uniformly arranged, as in the footprints of Saint-Valbert.

On the other hand, the asperities in question exactly resemble the

papillee of the sole of the foot of certain Mammalia, such as the Dog.

For facility of comparison, I have had casts made, with the materials

of the New Red Sandstone itself, of the feet of various quadrupeds,

such as the Bear, Kangaroo, Opossum, Crocodile, Lizard, &e. It

is observable that the hairs leave no traces upon the impressions of

the feet of many Mammalia, any more than upon the fossil foot-

4.72 Miscellaneous.

prints in question. Thus the papilliform granulation of the skin of

the Cheirotherium is in favour of the zoologists who have regarded

it asa Mammal. Now, this last conclusion is of importance, inas-

much as it leads to the admission that Mammalia existed on the

surface of the globe at the time of deposit of the most ancient strata

of the Triassic period.’’—Comptes Rendus, Oct. 26, 1857, p. 646.

On two new species of Birds from Bogota.

By P. L. Scxuater, Esq.

ANABATES STRIATICOLLIS.

Olivascenti-brunneus, capite virescentiore et hujus plumis tenuis-

sime nigro marginatis : alis nigricantibus, extus brunneo, intus

autem cinnamomeo marginatis : subtus clarior et cinnamomeo

tinctus ; gutture et pectore antico pallidioribus et scapis plu-

marum cum harum parte mediali clare flavicanti-albidis, strias

obsoletas formantibus : cauda unicolore rufa: rostro flavido,

culmine brunnescente, pedibus nigricantibus.

Long. tota 6-0, alee 3°3, caudze 2°6.

I have lately obtained a Bogota skin of this dzabates. Another

specimen, which was previously in my collection and has been sub-

mitted to M. de Lafresnaye’s examination, is marked in his hand-

writing “ Anabates striaticollis, Lafr.’ I have therefore used that

name, though as yet, I believe, unpublished. These two examples

merely differ in their slightly inferior size from a third specimen

marked “ Anabates olivaceiventer”’ by M. de Lafresnaye some years

since. I do not know whether he considers the two species indi-

cated by these MS. names as distinct. For myself I doubt the fact.

The cervical strize, whence the name is derived, are not very well

marked in my Bogota specimens.

SCLERURUS BRUNNEUS.

S. supra brunneus cinnamomeo tinctus, subtus paulo pallidior ;

gutture albo mixto: alarum et caude pennis intus nigricanti-

bus, illarum marginibus externis dorso concoloribus : rostro

nigro, basi flavicante : pedibus nigris.

Long. tota 6-0, alee 3-4, caudz 2-1.

I have lately obtained a single Bogota skin of a bird of this genus,

to which (as I cannot associate it with any of the already-described

species) I have given a new name. From S. cavdacutus of Brazil

and S. mevxicanus (P. Z. 8. 1856, p. 290) of Mexico and Guatimala,

it differs in the want of the bright rufous colouring in the rump and

fore neck. In this respect it would seem to resemble Hartlaub’s

S. guatimalensis (Rev. Zool. 1844, p. 370), but that bird is said to

be of the size of S. caudacutus, to which the present species is con-

siderably inferior in dimensions.—Proc. Zool. Soc. Jan. 27, 1857.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

SUPPLEMENT TO VOL. XX. DECEMBER 1857.

eee»

XLV.—On the Natural History of the Aru Islands.

By Aurrep R. Watrace.

In December 1856, I left Macassar in one of the trading prows

which make an annual voyage to these islands. On January

Ist, 1857, we arrived at the Ké Islands. Here we remained six

days, while the natives, who are clever boat-builders, finished

two small vessels our captain purchased for the Aru trade.

During this time I made daily excursions in the forests, collect-

ing birds and insects; but the weather was showery, and the

coralline-limestone rocks, which everywhere protrude through

the thin soil, are weather-worn into such sharp-edged, honey-

combed, irregular surfaces, as to make any distant excursions

almost impossible. The great Fruit Pigeon of the Moluccas

(Carpophaga enea) was abundant, its loud, hoarse cooings con-

stantly resounding through the forest. Crimson Lories of two or

three species were also plentiful, but were so wary that we could

not obtain any. All other birds were scarce, and I only obtained

thirteen species in all, many of which will, however, I think,

prove new, viz. :—

Megapodius, sp., same species Tropidorhynchus, n. sp. ?

at Aru. Cinnyris, n. sp.

Carpophaga enea. Zosterops citrinella, Mill.

Ptilonopus, n. sp. Rhipidura, two species.

Macropygia, sp., same at Aru. Muscicapide alie, two species.

Dicrurus, sp. Psittacus (Geoffroyus ?), sp.

Among the birds offered for sale, Eclectus Linnei and Psitta-

codis magnus were the most abundant. Of Mammalia I saw none,

and could only learn that a wild pig and a species of Cuscus in-

habited the island. The only reptiles I saw were lizards of two

or three kinds, one of which, a very long and slender species,

with a finely-pointed tail of a most brilliant blue, swarmed every-

where on the low herbage, gliding among leaves and twigs in the

most rapid and elegant manner. Of insects I made a nice little

Ann. &§ Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol.xx. Suppl. 31

474. Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural History

collection, the natives bringing me several very fine Coleoptera.

A considerable proportion appear to be quite new; those known

being a mixture of New Guinea and Molucca species. It would

occupy too much space to enter into any details on this exten-

sive class; I shall therefore give only the results of my six days’

work, as follows :—

Coleeptera*t'! . AA GY OT T7Uilspecies.

Hiepideptera ss. hae carts cae ess

Diptera: tS eee PaO 6) Gs

liyimenoptera ~--) 2s es en,

Hemiptera‘and-others, <. 2 3. 5!'. ,,

194 species of insects.

It was here I first made acquaintance with the Papuan race in

their native country, and it was with the greatest interest I

studied their physical and moral peculiarities, and noted the very

striking differences that exist between them and the Malays, not

only in outward features, but in their character and habits.

A day and a half’s sail brought us to the trading settlement of

Dobbo, situated on a sandy spit running out in a northerly diree-

tion from the island of Wamma, which here approaches to within

a mile of the great island of Aru. Having obtained the use of

one of the palm-thatched sheds here dignified with the name of

houses, arranged my boxes and table, and put up a drying-snelf

indoors and out, protected by water-insulation from the attacks

of ants, I was ready to commence my exploration of the un-

known fauna of Aru. I had brought with me two boys, whose

sole business was to shoot and skin birds, while I attended en-

tirely to insects, and to the observation and registry of the habits

of the birds and animals I met with in my walks in the forest.

The first fortnight was very unpropitious, violent gusts of wind and

driving rain allowing us to do very little out of doors, and making

the drying of the little we obtained a matter of great difficulty.

It soon became apparent that in this small island there was a

very limited number of birds, and I determined to go as soon as

possible to the large island; but that was not an easy matter,

and I now found that I should have brought from Macassar

three men accustomed to the islands, and who could take me

wherever I wanted to go. As it was, I had to get natives, and

there was, as usual, all sorts of delay, and then there was an

alarm of pirates, and unfortunately it was not a false alarm. <A

fleet of the celebrated [lanun pirates, from the island of Magui-

danao, had really arrived; they attacked a small vessel not far

from Dobbo, which, escaping from them with one man wounded,

brought the news. Then came messengers from one of the

northern islands, telling how they had been attacked, and many

of the Aru Islands. 475

taken prisoners, and the rest of the population had all fled to the

mainland. Now for some time there was no more hope of my

getting boats and men. Guards were set in I)obbo, and prows

were got ready to go after the pirates. A few days more, and the

crew of one of our captain’s small vessels which had gone trading

among the islands, returned stripped of everything. They had

got on shore, while the pirates plundered the prow, taking every-

thing, even to the men’s boxes and clothes. They reported that

the pirates were all at the east side of the islands, where the

merchants send their small vessels to buy pear]-shell and tripang,

and there was no danger of thew returning again to this side,

where they had more to fear and less to get. Now, too, I re-

ceived a letter I had been expecting from the Governor of

Amboyna, with orders to the Aru chief to give me assistance ;

and, after two months’ residence in Dobbo, I succeeded in getting

a boat and two natives, and set off for the great island of Aru.

I visited several localities, and at length, finding a good one

near the centre of the island, I stayed there six weeks, and got,

on the whole, a very fine collection of birds. Returning to

Dobbo, I intended to make another short excursion ; but lame-

ness, produced by the constant irritation of insect-bites on my

legs, kept me im the house for several weeks, and the east wind

became so strong, and the weather so wet and boisterous, as to

render travelling by sea in a small boat out of the question. A

little later, one of my bird-skinners left me, and the other was

laid up with intermittent fever, so | was compelled to make the

best of it, and get what I could in the small island till the com-

mencement of July, when we returned direct to Macassar.

Having thus given an outline of my journey, I shall proceed

to give some account of the ornithology and general natural

history of the Aru Islands, and a summary of the collections I

have made there. The very first bird likely to attract one’s atten-

tion at Dobbo is a most beautiful brush-tongued parroquet, closely

allied to Trichoglossus cyanogrammus,Wagl. It frequents in flocks

the Casuarina-trees which line the beach, and its crimson under

wings and orange breast make it a most conspicuous and bril-

liant object. Its twittering whistle may be heard almost con-

stantly in the vicinity of the trees it frequents. Almost the only

other birds which approach the village are a swallow (Hirundo

nigricans, Vieill.), found also in New Guinea and Australia, and

an Artamus, probably A. papuensis, Temm., which perches occa-

sionally on the house-tops, or on dead trees in the neighbourhood.

A little black-and-white wagtail flycatcher (Rizpidura, sp.) may

also often be seen among bushes, and on the sea-beach, chirping

musically, and waving laterally its expanded tail whenever it

alights.

3l*

476 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural History

In the forest which everywhere covers the islands, sombre and

lofty as on the banks of the Amazon, a different set of birds is

met with, the two most abundant being both New Guinea species,

PESO varius, Gm., sp., and Phonygama viridis, L. The former

has a loud and very varied note; sometimes a fine musical

whistle ; at others (principally w hen alarmed), a harsh, toad-like

croak, It is very active, flying about from tree to tree and from

bush to bush, seeking after insects, or feeding on small fruits.

It is a long time before one can recognize its various cries for

those of one and the same bird. The Phonygama is a very

powerful and active bird; its legs are particularly strong, and it

clings suspended to the smaller branches, while devouring the

fruits on which alone it appears to feed. Its affinities seem to

be with the Paradiseas rather than with the Garrulide. Next to

these, two species of Dacelo are most frequently met with, and

their loud monotonous cry, very much resembling the bark of a

dog, most frequently heard. A large crow, with a fine sky-blue

iris, and hoarse cawing cry, is also not uncommon ; and now I

have mentioned all the birds, except parrots and pigeons, that

are common enough to be at all characteristic of the forest near

Dobbo. For noise, however, the Psittacidz surpass all others,

and the Yellow-crested Cockatoo (Plyctolophus galerita) is an ab-

solute nuisance. Instead of flying away when alarmed, as other

birds do, it circuits round and round from one tree to another,

keeping up such a grating, creaking, tympanum-splitting scream,

as to oblige one to retire as soon as possible to a distance. Far

more agreeable is the low cooing of the pigeons, several fine

species of which are not uncommon. Carpophaga pinon, Q. & G.,

is plentiful, and another, which seems to be C. Zoé, Less., rather

scarce ; while C. alba, L., is common everywhere. Of the smaller

and more beautiful species there are also three, Ptilonopus

perlatus, Temm., P. pulchellus,Temm., and P. purpuratus, Lath.

These birds are all very difficult to obtain in good condition,

because their feathers fall so readily ; but they are always accept-

able, as their flesh (especially that of the smaller species) is per-

haps equal in delicacy and flavour to that of any birds whatever.

In one or two excursions which I made to the mainland, im-

mediately opposite Dobbo, I obtained the two beautzful fly-

eatchers, Arses telescophthalma, Garn. & Less., and A. chrysomela,

G. & L., as well as some species of Ptzlotis and other small

birds new to me. It was not, however, until I was regularly

established in the central forests of the large island that I ob-

tained a true insight into the ornithological fauna of Aru. Then

a host of new species burst upon me, revealing the richness of

the country, and its intimate connexion with New Guinea.

Paradisea apoda, lu., P. regia, L., Microglossus aterrimus, Wagl.,

of the Aru Islands. 477

Brachyurus Macklotti, Temm., B. nove-guinee, Schlegel, Tany-

siptera, sp., Eurystomus gularis, Vieill., Carpophaga, u.s., with

several small flycatchers, thrushes and shrikes, and that most

magnificent of the swallow-tribe, Macropteryx mystaceus, Less.,

were what I now obtained,—almost all New Guinea species, or

new, and none of them found on the smaller islands. Of the

beautiful little “ King Bird of Paradise,” I obtained several spe-

cimens in perfect plumage and excellent condition. It feeds, I

believe, entirely on fruit, frequenting lofty trees in the deep

forest, where it is very active, flying from branch to branch,

shaking its wings, and expanding its beautiful fan-shaped breast-

plumes*. When quite at rest, or feeding, these plumes are closed

and concealed beneath the wing. Of the “Great Bird of Para-

dise,” I have recorded my observations in a separate paper. The

Black Cockatoo is a very curious bird, of most disproportionate

form and dimensions. Its huge head certainly weighs as much

as its whole body. The legs are very long and slender for the

tribe, while its wings are large and powerful. Its ery is a shrill

whistle, very different from that of most other cockatoos. The

bill of the male is larger, and the apex more produced, than in

the female; but the crest-plumes are equally long in both. The

Tanysiptera is a Kinghunter, feeding on insects, worms, &c.,

which it picks up from the ground in the damp forest. Its coral-

red bill is always dirty from this cause, and sometimes so

incrusted with mud that the bird seems to have been actually

digging for its food. The Syma torotoro, Less., also occurs, but

much more rarely, and seems to have very similar habits. Two

species of Megapodius are plentiful, and the immense mounds of

earth and leaves formed by them are scattered all over the forest.

These mounds are generally from 5 to 8 feet high, and from 15

to 30 feet in diameter. But the giant of the Aru forests is the

Cassowary (Casuarius galeatus, Vieill.) ; 1t is by no means un-

common, and the young are brought in numbers to Dobbo, where

they soon become tame, running about the streets, and picking

up all sorts of refuse food. When very young, they are striped

with broad lines of rich brown and pale buff. This gradually

fades into a dull pale brown, and in the old bird changes to black.

They si¢ down to rest on their tibize, and lie down on their breast

to sleep; they are very frolicsome, having mock fights, rolling

on their backs, and leaping in a most ridiculous manner with all

the antics of a kitten. The same species is said to be found in

Ceram, and also in the small island of Goram, as well as in New

Guinea. The following list shows the number of species in each of

the principal tribes and families which I have observed in Aru :—

* The Paradisea minor was figured by Dr. J. E. Gray from life, with the

breast-plumes displayed as above-described, in the ‘ Illustrations of Indian

Zoology,’ vol. 1. pl. 37.

478 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural History

Grallz and Natatores. 12 One duck, near Anas radjah, Less.

Gallinacee . . . . 15 Twelve pigeons, AlectheliaUrvillet,

Less.

Accipitres (Falconide) 4

Psittaci W472 EO

Paradiseidee 2 New Guinea species.

Cinnyride . 5 Three New Guinea species.

Meliphagidee 9 Six Prilotis.

Sturnide 2 Both New Guinea species.

Corvide . 1

Garrulide 1

Lanide 3 Two New Guinea species.

Turdide . 6

Pittidee 2 Both New Guinea species.

Maluridze 2

Oriolidee 2

Artamidee 1 A New Guinea species.

Muscicapidze 13. Four or five New Guinea species.

Edoliidee 6

Coraciadee 1 Eurystomus, same at Macassar

and Lombock.

Hirundinide 3 One New Guinea, one Australian.

Caprimulgidée 2 Podargus and Caprimulgus.

Aleedinide . . . . 11 Four or five New Guinea species.

Cuculidee Centropus and Chrysococcyz.

Total species . 116

From this list, and the preceding observations, it will be seen

that many Australian genera and some species occur in Aru;

while, considering the very small number of species known from

New Guinea, and the necessarily very imperfect exploration of

Aru in such a short time, the number of identical species is very

remarkable. I believe that nearly one-half of the hitherto-de-

scribed species of passerine birds from New Guinea will be

found in my Aru collections, a proportion which we could only

expect if all the species of the latter country inhabit also the

former. Such an identity occurs, I believe, in no other countries

separated by so wide an interval of sea, for the average distance

of the coast of Aru from that of New Guinea is at least ]50 miles,

and the points of nearest approach upwards of 100. Ceylon is

nearer to India; Van Diemen’s Land is not farther from Au-

stralia, nor Sardinia from Italy; yet all these countries present

differences more or less marked in their faunas ; they possess

each their peculiar species, and sometimes even peculiar genera.

Almost the only islands possessing a rich fauna, but identical

with that of the adjacent continent, are Great Britain and Sicily,

and that circumstance is held to prove that they have been once

of the Aru Islands. 479

a portion of such continents, and geological evidence shows that

the separation had taken place at no distant period. We must,

therefore, suppose Aru to have once formed a part of New

Guinea, in order to account for its peculiar fauna, and this view

is supported by the physical geography of the islands ; for, while

the fathomless Moluccea sea extends to within a few miles of them

on the west, the whole space eastward to New Guinea, and south-

ward to Australia, is occupied by a bank of soundings at a

uniform depth of about 30 or 40 fathoms. But there is another

circumstance still more strongly proving this connexion: the

great island of Aru, 80 miles in length from north to south, js

traversed by three winding channels of such uniform width and

depth, though passing through an irregular, undulating, rocky

country, that they seem portions of true rivers, though now

occupied by salt water, and open at each end to the entrance of

the tides. This phenomenon is unique, and we can account for

their formation in no other way than by supposing them to have

been once true rivers, having their source in the mountains of

New Guinea, and reduced to their present condition by the sub-

sidence of the intervening land.

This view of the origin of the Aru fauna is further confirmed

by considering what it is not, as well as what it is; its defici-

encies teach as much as what it possesses. There are certain

families of birds highly characteristic of the Indian Archipelago

in its western and better-known portion. In the Peninsula of

Malacea, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the Philippine Islands, the

following families are abundant in species and im individuals.

They are everywhere common birds. They are the Buceride,

Picide, Bucconide, Trogonide, Meropide, and Eurylaimide ; but

not one species of all these families is found in Aru, nor, with

two doubtful exceptions, in New Guinea. The whole are also

absent from Australia. To complete our view of the subject, it

is necessary also to consider the Mammalia, which present pecu-

liarities and deficiencies even yet more striking. Not one species

found in the great islands westward inhabits Aru or New Guinea.

With the exception only of pigs and bats, not a genus, not a

family, not even an order of mammals is found in common. No

Quadrumana, no Sciuride, no Carnivora, Rodentia, or Ungu-

lata inhabit these depopulated forests. With the two exceptions

above mentioned, all the mammalia are Marsupials ; in the great

western islands there is not a single marsupial! A kangaroo

inhabits Aru (and several New Guinea), and this, with three or

four species of Cuscus, two or three little rat-like marsupials, a

wild pig and several bats, are all the mammalia I have been able

either to obtain or hear of.

It is to the full development of such interesting details that

480 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural History

the collector and the systematist contribute so largely. In this

point of view the discovery of every new species is important, and

their correct description and accurate identification absolutely

necessary. The most obscure and minute species are for this

purpose of equal value with the largest and most brilliant, and

a correct knowledge of the distribution and variations of a beetle

or a butterfly as important as those of the eagle or the elephant.

It is to the elucidation of these apparent anomalies that the

efforts of the philosophic naturalist are directed ; and we think,

that if this highest branch of our science were more frequently

alluded to by writers on natural history, its connexion with geo-

graphy and geology discussed, and the various interesting pro-

blems thence arising explained, the too prevalent idea—that

Natural History is at best but an amusement, a trivial and aim-

less pursuit, a useless accumulating of barren facts, —would give

place to more correct views of a study, which presents problems

as vast, as intricate, and as interesting as any to which the

human mind can be directed, whose objects are as infinite as the

stars of heaven and infinitely diversified, and whose field of re-

search extends over the whole earth, not only as it now exists,

but also during the countless changes it has undergone from the

earliest geological epochs.

Let us now examine if the theories of modern naturalists will

explain the phenomena of the Aru and New Guinea fauna.

We know (with a degree of knowledge approaching to certainty)

that at a compar atively recent geological period, not one single

species of the present organic world was in existence ; while ‘all

the Vertebrata now existing have had their origin still more re-

cently. How do we account for the places where they came into

existence ? Why are not the same species found in the same

climates all over the world? The general explanation given is,

that as the ancient species became extinct, new ones were created

im each country or district, adapted to the physical conditions of

that district. Sir C. Lyell, who has written more fully, and with

more ability, on this subject than most naturalists, adopts this

view. He illustrates it by speculating on the vast physical

changes that might be effected in North Africa by the upheaval

of a chain of mountains in the Sahara. ‘“ Then,” he says, “the

animals and plants of Northern Africa would disappear, and the

region would gradually become fitted for the reception of a po-

pulation of species perfectly dissimilar in their forms, habits, and

organization.” Now this theory impiies, that we shall find a

general similarity in the productions of countries which resemble

each other in climate and general aspect, while there shall be a

complete dissimilarity between those which are totally opposed

in these respects. And if this is the general law which has

of the Aru Islands. 481

determined the distribution of the existing organic world, there

must be no exceptions, no striking contradictions. Now we

have seen how totally the productions of New Guinea differ from

those of the Western Islands of the Archipelago, say Borneo, as

the type of the rest, and as almost exactly equal in area to New

Guinea. This difference, it must be well remarked, is not one

of species, but of genera, families, and whole enders sa PYetat

would be difficult to point out two countries more exactly re-

sembling each other in climate and physical features. In neither

is there any marked dry season, rain falling more or less all the

year round; both are near the equator, both subject to the east

and west monsoons, both everywhere covered with lofty forest ;

both have a great extent of ‘flat, swampy coast and a moun-

tainous miterior’s both are rich in Palms and Pandanacee. If,

on the other hand, we compare Australia with New Guinea, we

ean scarcely find a stronger contrast than in their physical con-

ditions: the one near the equator, the other near and beyond

the tropics ; the one enjoying perpetual moisture, the other with

alternations of excessive drought; the one a vast ever-verdant

forest, the other dry open mao! downs, or deserts. Yet the

faunas of the two, though mostly distinct in species, are stri-

kingly similar in character. Every family of birds (except Me-

nuride) found in Australia also inhabits New Guinea, while

all those striking deficiencies of the latter exist equally in the

former. But a considerable proportion of the characteristic

Australian genera are also found in New Guinea, and, when that

country is better known, it is to be supposed that the number

will be increased. In the Mammalia it is the same. Marsupials

are almost the only quadrupeds in the one as in the other. If

kangaroos are especially adapted to the dry plains and open

woods of Australia, there must be some other reason for their

introduction into the dense damp forests of New Guinea, and we

can hardly imagine that the great variety of monkeys, of squirrels,

of Insectivora, and of Felide, were created in Borneo because

the country was adapted to them, and not one single species

given to another country exactly similar, and at no great distance.

if there is any reason in the hardness of oie woods or the scarcity

of wood-boring insects, why woodpeckers should be absent from

Australia, there is none why they should not swarm in the forests

of New Guinea as weil as in those of Borneo and Malacca. We

can hardly help concluding, therefore, that some other law has

regulated the distribution of existing species than the physical

conditions of the countries in which they are found, or we should

not see countries the most opposite m character with similar

productions, while others almost exactly alike as respects climate

and general aspect, yet differ totally in their forms of organic life.

482 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Natural History

In a former Number of this periodical we endeavoured to show

that the simple law, of every new creation being closely allied to

some species already existing in the same country, would explain

all these anomalies, if taken in conjunction with the changes of

surface and the gradual extinction and introduction of species,

which are facts proved by geology. At the period when New

Guinea and North Australia were united, it is probable that their

physical features and climate were more similar, and that a con-

siderable proportion of the species inhabiting each portion of the

country were found over the whole. After the separation took

place, we can easily understand how the climate of both might

be considerably moditied, and this might perhaps lead to the ex-

tinction of certain species. During the period that has since

elapsed, new species have been gradually introduced into each,

but in each closely allied to the pre-existing species, many of

which were at first common to the two countries. This process

would evidently produce the present condition of the two faunas,

in which there are many allied species,—few identical. The

great well-marked groups absent from the one would necessarily

be so from the other also, for however much they might be

adapted to the country, the law of close affinity would not allow

of their appearance, except by a long succession of steps occu-

pying an immense geological ‘interval. The species which at the

time of separation were found only in one country, would, by the

gradual introduction of species allied to them, give rise to groups

peculiar to that country. This separation of New Guinea from

Australia no doubt took place while Aru yet formed part of the

former island. Its separation must have occurred at a very re-

cent period, the number of species common to the two showing

that scarcely any extinctions have since taken place, and pro-

bably as few introductions of new species.

If we now suppose the Aru Jslands to remain undisturbed

during a period equal to about one division of the Tertiary epoch

of geologists, we have reason to believe that the change of species

of Vertebrata will become complete, an entirely new race having

gradually been introduced, but all more or less closely allied to

those now existing. During the same period a new fauna will

also have arisen in New Guinea, and then the two will present

the same comparative features that North Australia and New

Guinea do now. Let the process of gradual change still go on

for another period regulated by the same laws. Some species

will then have become extinct in the one country, and unre-

placed, while in the other a numerous series of modified species

may have been introduced. Then the faunas will come to differ

not in species only, but im generic groups. ‘There would be then

the resemblance between them that there is between the West

of the Aru Islands. 483

India Islands and Mexico. During another geological period,

let us suppose Aru to be elevated, and become a mountainous

country, and extended by alluvial plains, while New Guinea was

depressed, reduced in area, and thus many of its species perhaps

extinguished. New species might then be more rapidly intro-

duced into the modified and enlarged country ; some groups,

which had been early extinct in the other, mght thus become

very rich in species, and then we should have an exact counter-

part of what we see now in Madagascar, where the families and

some of the genera are African, but where there are many ex-

tensive groups of species forming peculiar genera, or even fami-

lies, but still with a general resemblance to African forms. In

this manner, it is believed, we may account for the facts of the

present distribution of animals, without supposing any changes

but what we know have been constantly going on. It is quite

unnecessary to suppose that new species have ever been created

“perfectly dissimilar in forms, habits, and organization” from

those which have preceded them; neither do “ centres of crea-

tion,” which have been advocated by some, appear either neces-

sary or accordant with facts, unless we suppose a ‘ centre” in

every island and in every district which possesses a peculiar

species.

It is evident that, for the complete elucidation of the present

state of the fauna of each island and each country, we require a

knowledge of its geological history, its elevations and subsi-

dences, and all the changes it has undergone since it last rose

above the ocean. This can very seldom be obtained; but a

knowledge of the fauna and its relation to that of the neighbour-

ing countries will often throw great light upon the geology, and

enable us to trace out with tolerable ‘certainty its past history.

A consideration of the birds of Aru has led us at some length

into this subject, both on account of the interest attached to. it,

and because we are not aware of any attempt to explain in detail

how the existing distribution of species has arisen, or strictly to

connect it with those changes of surface which all countries have

undergone. The Birds and Mammalia only have been used for

illustration, because they are much better known than any other

groups. The Insects, however, of which I have made a very ex-

tensive collection, furnish exactly sunilar results, and were these,

particularly the Coleoptera, well known, they would perhaps be

preferable to any group for such an inquiry, from the great

number of their genera and species, and the very limited range

which many of them attain. In imperfectly explored countries,

however, Birds are almost always better known than any other

group, as a larger proportion of the whole number of species may

be obtained in a limited time. I think it probable that I have

484 Mr.A.R. Wallace on the Natural History of the Aru Islands.

collected more than half the birds inhabiting Aru, while I do

not imagine I have obtained one fifth part of the Insects. The

following is a brief summary of my collections in this class :—

Coleoptera’ Uy-qr = PB) DO eee et Gia SPeeless

emmloptera 20) fare ta Fe mee

tyvatenoptera ‘es sae. oe ee ee Oe

Pptera see ste te ere

Hemiptera and Homoptera . . . . 130

Orthoptera and Neuroptera, &c. . . 34

Making a total of 1364 species.

Lest the conchologists should think I have quite neglected

their interests, I may mention, that I have collected all the land-

shells I could find or procure from the natives. I have only

obtaimed, however, 25 species. Almost all are Helices (20 spe-

cies), some pretty and some of curious forms, but I am not suf-

ficiently acquainted with shells to say how much novelty they

present. It is remarkable that I have not found a single Bulimus,

which in Celebes was the most abundant group; the few Cyclo-

stomata are also small and obscure. Reptiles are scarce. I did

not see a snake six times in as many months. There are, how-

ever, on the shores many sea-snakes, whose bite is very deadly.

The natives spear and eat them. Lizards are rather plentiful in

species and individuals; they are almost all plant-dwellers,

and run on the leaves and twigs with great agility. The coasts

swarm with fish in immense variety, and mollusca innumerable.

A shell-collector would obtain a fine harvest, but I have been too

fully occupied myself to attend to any of these last-mentioned

groups ; having often found the greatest difficulty in properly

drying and securing my bird and insect collections in the rude

houses, boats, and sheds I have been compelled to occupy. Damp,

mites, ants, rats and dogs, are all enemies which must be guarded

against with ever-watchful vigilance, and from all of them I have

suffered more or less severely. Bird and animal skins require

daily exposure to air and sun for weeks before they are dry enough

to pack away. In this time they accumulate to such an extent,

that it is a constant puzzle and difficulty to find places to put them

in, so as to keep them free from ants, which establish colonies in-

side the skin, whence they sally out to gnaw the eyelids, the base

of the bill and the feet ; arsenic they laugh to scorn ; and there is

absolutely nothing that will keep them away but water-isolation,

which again requires space and constant care to keep perfect.

When to these are added insect specimens by thousands, requi-

ring still greater care, the mere labour of watching the collections

during the time they must remain exposed to the air, to sun-

Mr. J. D. Dana on Spectes. 485

shine, and often to artificial heat, is greater than a collector in a

temperate climate, and residing in weather-tight roomy houses,

can have any conception of. These remarks are merely my

apology for not collecting everything, which stay-at-home natu-

ralists often imagine may be as easily done anywhere else as in

England.

XLVI.—Thoughts on Species. By James D. Dana *.

Wnuite direct investigation of individual objects in nature is

the true method of ascertaining the laws and limits of species,

we have another source of suggestion and authority in the com-

prehensive principles that pervade the universe. The source of

doubt in this synthetic mode of reaching truth consists in our

imperfect appreciation of universal law. But science has already

searched deeply enough into the different departments of nature

to harmonize many of the thoughts that are coming in from her

wide limits; and it is well, as we go on in research, to compare

the results of observations with these utterings of her universality.

I propose to present some thoughts on species from the latter

point of view, reasoning from central principles to the cireum-

ferential, and, if I mistake not, we shall find the light from this

direction sufficiently clear to illumine a subject which is yet in-

volved in doubts and difficulties.

The questions before us at this time are—

1. What is a species ?

2. Are species permanent ?

3. What is the basis of variations in species ?

1. What ts a species ?

It is common to define a species as @ group, comprising such

individuals as are alike in fundamental qualities; and then by

way of elucidation, to explain what is meant by fundamental

qualities. But the idea of a group is not essential ; and more-

over it tends to confuse the mind by bringing before it, in the

outset, the endless diversities in individuals, and suggesting

numberless questions that vary im answer for each kingdom,

class, or subordinate group. It is better to approach the subject

from a profounder point of view, search for the true idea of di-

stinction among species, and then proceed onward to a consi-

deration of the systems of variables.

Let us look first to inorganic nature. From the study of the

inorganic world we learn that each element is represented by a

* From Silliman’s Journal for Noy. 1857; having been read before the

American Association at Montreal, Aug. 13, 1857.

486 Mr. J. D. Dana on Species.

specific amount or law of force ; and we even set down in num-

bers the precise value of this force as regards one of the deepest

of its qualities, chemical attraction. Taking the lightest element

as a unit to measure others by, as to their weights in combination,

oxygen stands in our books as 8; and it is precisely of this nu-

merical value in its compounds: each molecule is an 8 in its

chemical force or law, or some simple multiple of it. In the

same way there is a specific number at the basis of other quali-

ties. Whenever then the oxygen amount and kind of force was

concentered in a molecule, in the act of creation, the species

oxygen commenced to exist. And the making of many such

molecules instead of one, was only a repetition in each molecule,

of the idea of oxygen.

In combinations of the elements, as of oxygen and hydrogen,

the resultant molecule is still equivalent to a fixed amount,

condition, or law, of chemical force; and this law, which we ex-

press in numbers, is at the basis of our notion of the new species.

It is not necessarily a different amount of force; for it may

be simply a different state of concentration or different rate or

law of action. This should be kept in mind in connexion with

what follows *.

The essential idea of a species, thence deduced, is this: a spe-

cies corresponds to a specific amount or condition of concentered

force, defined in the act or law of creation.

Turn now to the organic world. The individual is involved

in the germ-cell from which it proceeds. That cell possesses

certain inherent qualities or powers, bearing a definite relation

to external nature, so that, when having its appropriate nidus or

surrounding conditions, it will grow, and develope out each organ

and member to the completed result, and this, both as to all

chemical changes, and the evolution of the structure which be-

longs to it as a subordinate to some kingdom, class, order, genus

and species in nature. The germ-cell of an organic being de-

velopes a specific result ; and like the molecule of oxygen, it must

correspond to a measured quota or specific law of force. We

cannot apply the measure, as in the inorganic kingdom, for we

have learned no method or unit of comparison. But it must

nevertheless be true, that a specific predetermined amount, or

* When we have in view oxygen and the elements, we are apt to think

of their molecules as distinguished by a different amount and kind of force.

But when we consider the many different compounds that may be made of

the same elements (as carbon and hydrogen), in the very same proportions,

we are led to conceive of these as differing molecularly in a different law

of the same force or forces. When, again, we see the same element under

conditions as diverse as any two compounds, as in cases of allotropism, we

are still better satisfied with adopting, for the present, the most general

expression—a different law of action or condition of molecular force.

Mr. J. D. Dana on Species. 487

condition, or law of force is an equivalent of every germ-cell in

the kingdoms of life. I do not mean to say that there is but

one kind of force ; but that, whatever the kind or kinds, it has a

numerical value or law, although human arithmetic may never

give it expression.

A. species among living beings, then, as well as inorganic, is

based on a specific amount or condition of concentered force defined

in the act or law of creation.

Any one species has its specific value or law of force ; another,

its value; and so for all: and we perceive the fundamental no-

tion of the distinction between species when we view them from

this potential stand-poit. The species, in any particular case,

began its existence when the first germ-cell or individual was

created ; and if several germ-cells of equivalent force were cre-

ated, or several individuals, each was but a repetition of the

other: the species is in the potential nature of the individual,

whether one or many individuals exist.

Now in organic beings,—unlike the inorganic,—there is a

cycle of progress involving growth and decline. The oxygen

molecule may be eternal as far as anything in its nature goes.

But the germ-cell is only an incipient state in a cycle of changes,

and is not the same for two successive instants; and this cycle

is such that it includes in its flow, a reproduction, after an inter-

val, of a precise equivalent of the pareut germ-cell. Thus an

indefinite perpetuation of the germ-cell is in fact effected ; yet it

is not mere endless being, but like evolving like in an unlimited

round. Hence, when individuals multiply from generation to

generation, it is but a repetition of the primordial type-idea ;

and the true notion of the species is not in the resulting group,

but in the idea or potential element which is at the basis of every

individual of the group ; that is, the specific law of force, alike

in all, upon which the power of each as an existence and agent

in nature depends. Dr. Morton presented nearly the same idea

when he described a species as a primordial organic form.

Having reached this idea as the starting-point in our notion

of a species, we must still, in order to complete and perfect our

view, consider what is the true expression of this potentiality.

For this purpose, we should have again in mind, that a living

cell, unlike an inorganic molecule, has only a historical existence.

The species is not the adult resultant of growth, nor the initial

germ-cell, nor its condition at any other point; it comprises the

whole history of the development. Each species has its own

special mode of development as well as ultimate form or result,

its serial unfolding, inworking and outflowing ; so that the pre-

cise nature of the potentiality in each is expressed by the line of

historical progress from the germ to the full expansion of its

488 Mr. J. D. Dana on Species.

powers, and the realization of the end of its being. We com-

prehend the type-idea only when we understand the cycle of

evolution through all its laws of progress, both as regards the

living structure under development within, and its successive

relations to the external world.

2. Permanence of species.

What now may we infer with regard to the permanence or

fixedness of species from a general survey of nature ?

Let us turn again to the inorganic world. Do we there find

oxygen blending by indefinite shadings with hydrogen or with

any other element? Is its combining number, its potential

equivalent, a varying number,—usually 8, but at times 8 and a

fraction, 9, and so on? Far from this, the number is as fixed as

the universe. There are no indefinite blendings of elements.

There are combinations by multiples or submultiples, but these

prove the dominance and fixedness of the combining numbers.

But further than this, fixed numbers, definite in value and

defiant of all destroying powers, are well known to characterize

nature from its basement to its top-stone. We find them in

combinations by volume as well as weight; that is, in all the

relations of chemical attraction; in the mathematical forms of

crystals and the simple ratios in their modifications,—evidence

of a numerical basis to cohesive attraction; in the laws of light,

heat, and sound. Indeed, the whole constitution of imorganic

nature, and of our minds with reference to nature, as Professor

Peirce has well illustrated, involves fixed numbers ; and the uni-

verse is not only based on mathematics, but on finite determinate

numbers in the very natures of all its elemental forces. Thus

the temple of nature is made, we may say, of hewn and measured

stones, so that, although reaching to the heavens, we may measure,

and thus use the finite to rise towards the infinite.

This being true for inorganic nature, it is necessarily the law

for all nature; for the ideas that pervade the universe are not

ideas of contrariety, but of unity and universality beneath and

through diversity.

The units of the inorganic world are the weighed elements

and their definite compounds or their molecules. The units of

the organic are species, which exhibit themselves in their simplest

condition in the germ-cell state. The kingdoms of life in all

their magnificent proportions are made from these units. Were

these units capable of blending with one another definitely,

they would no longer be units, and species could not be recog-

nized. The system of life would be a maze of complexities ;

and whatever its grandeur to a being that could comprehend the

infinite, it would be unintelligible chaos to man. The very beau-

ties that might charm the soul would tend to engender hopeless

Mr. J. D. Dana on Species. 489

despair in the thoughtful mind, instead of supplying its aspira-

tions with eternal and ever- expanding truth. It would be to

man the temple of nature fused over its whole surface and

through its structure, without a line the mind could measure or

comprehend.

Looking to facts im nature, we see accordingly everywhere,

that the purity of species has been guarded with great precision.

It strikes us naturally with wonder, that even in senseless plants,

without the emotional repugnance of instinct, and with repro-

ductive organs that are all outside, the free winds being often

the means of transmission, there should be rigid law sustained

against intermixture. The supposed cases of perpetuated fertile

hybridity are so exceedingly few as almost to condemn them-

selves, as no true examples of an abnormity so abhorrent to the

system. They violate a principle so essential to the integrity of

the plant-kingdom, and so opposed to nature’s whole plan, that

we rightly demand long and careful study before admitting the

exceptions.

A few words will explain what is meant by perpetuated fertile

hybridity. The followmg are the supposable grades of results

from intermixture between two species :—

1. No issue whatever—the usual case in nature.

2. Mules (naming thus the issue) that are wholly infertile

whether among themselves or in case of connexion with the pure

or original stock.

3. Mules that are wholly infertile among themselves, but

may have issue for a generation or two by connexion with one

of the original stock.

4. Mules that are wholly infertile among themselves, but may

have issue through indefinite generations by connexion for each

with an individual of the original stock.

5. Mules that are fertile among themselves through one or

two generations.

6. Mules that are fertile among themselves through many

generations.

7. Mules that are fertile among themselves through an indefi-

nite number of generations.

The cases 1 to 5 are known to be established facts in nature ;

and each bears its testimony to the grand law of purity and per-

manence. The examples under the heads 2 to 5 become seve-

rally less and less numerous, and art must generally use an un-

natural play of forces or arrangements to bring them about.

Again, in the animal kingdom, there is met same aversion in

nature to intermixture, and it is emotional as well as physical.

The supposed cases of fertile hybridity are fewer than among

plants.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xx. Suppl. 32

490 Mr. J. D. Dana on Species.

Moreover, in both kingdoms, if hybridity be begun, nature

commences at once to purify herself as of an ulcer on the sy-

stem. It is treated like a disease, and the energies of the species

combine to throw it off. The short run of hybridity between

the horse and the ass, species very closely related, reaching its

end in one single generation, instead of favouring the idea that

perpetuated fertile hybridity is possible, is a speaking protest

against a principle that would ruin the system if allowed free

scope.

The finiteness of nature in all her proportions, and the neces-

sity of finiteness and fixedness for the very existence of a king-

dom of life, or of human science, its impress on finite mind, are

hence strong arguments for the belief that hybridity cannot

seriously trifle with the true units of nature, and, at the best,

can only make temporary variations.

It is fair to make the supposition, that in case of a very close

proximity of species, there might be a degree of fertile hybridity

allowed ; and that a closer and closer affinity might give a longer

and longer range of fertility. But the case just now alluded to

seems to cut the hypothesis short ; and moreover it is not reason-

able to attribute such indefiniteness to nature’s outlines, for it

is at variance with the spirit of her system.

Were such a case demonstrated by well-established facts, it

would necessarily be admitted; and | would add, that investi-

gations directed to this pot are the most important that modern

science can undertake. But until proved by arguments better

than those drawn from domesticated animals, we may plead the

general principle against the possibilities on the other side. If

there is a law to be discovered, it is a wide and comprehensive

law, for such are all nature’s principles. Nature will teach it,

not in one corner of her system only, but more or less in every

part. We have therefore a right to ask for well-defined facts,

taken from the study of successive generations, of the inter-

breeding of species known to be distinct.

Least of all should we expect that a law, which is so rigid

among plants and the lower animals, should have its main ex-

ceptions in the highest class of the animal kmgdom, and its

most extravagant violations in the genus Homo; for if there be

more than one species of Man, they have become in the main

indefinite by intermixture. The very crown of the kingdom has

been despoiled; for a kingdom in nature is perfect only as it

retains all its origmal parts in their full symmetry, undefaced

and unblurred. Man, by receiving a plastic body, in accordance

with a law that species most capable of domestication should

necessarily be most pliant, was fitted to take the whole earth as

his dominion, and live under every zone. And surely it would

Mr. J. D. Dana on Species. 491

have been a very clumsy method of accomplishing the same

result, to have made him of many species, all admitting of inde-

finite or nearly indefinite hybridization, in direct opposition to a

grand principle elsewhere recognized in the organic kingdoms.

It would have been using a process that produces impotence or

nothing among animals, for the perpetuation and progress of the

human race.

There are other ways of accounting for the limited produc-

tiveness of the Mulatto, without appealing to a distinction of

species. There are causes, independent of mixture, which are

making the Indian to melt away before the white man, the Sand-

wich Islander and all savage people to sink into the ground be-

fore the power and energy of higher intelligence. They dis-

appear like plants beneath those of stronger root and growth,

being depressed morally, intellectually and physically, contami-

nated by new vices, tainted variously by foreign disease, and

dwindled in all their hopes and aims and means of progress,

through an overshadowing race.

We have therefore reason to believe, from man’s fertile inter-

mixture, that he is one in species; and that all organic species

are divine appointments which cannot be obliterated, unless by

annihilating the individuals representing the species.

It may be said, that different species in the organic world

combine so as to form new units, and why may they not in the

organic ? It is true they combine, but not by indefinite blend-

ings. There is a definite law of multiples, and this is the central

idea in the system of inorganic nature. In organic nature, such

a law of multiples, if existing, would be general, as in the inor-

ganic; it would be an essential part of the system and should

be easily verified, while, in fact, observation lends it no support,

not even enough to have suggested the hypothesis.

In one kingdom, the inorganic, there is multiplication of kinds

of units by combination, according to the law of multiples, and no

reproduction ; while in the organic, there is reproduction of like

from like, and no multiplication of kinds by combination. And

thus the two departments of living and dead nature widely diverge.

Neither does the possibility of mere mixture among inorganic

substances afford any analogy to sustain the idea of possible

hybrid mixture indefinitely perpetuated, among living beings.

The mechanical aggregation of units that make up ordinary

mixture, is one thing; and the combination that would alter a

germ, one of the units in organic species, even to its funda-

mental nature, is quite another. This last is not aggregation.

It is as different from mere mixture as is chemical combination,

and stands somewhat in the same relation, so that the analogy

has no bearing on the question.

32%

492 Mr. J. D. Dana on Species.

3. Variations of species.

But there are variations in species, and this is our next topic.

The principles already considered teach, as we believe, that each

species has its specific value as a unit, which is essentially per-

manent or indestructible by any natural source of change; and

we have, therefore, to admit in the outset, if these principles are

true, that variations have their limits, and cannot extend to the

obliteration of the fundamental characteristics of a species.

To understand these variations, we may again appeal to

general truths.

Variation is a characteristic of all things finite, and is involved

in the very conditions of existence. No substance or body can

be wholly independent of every or any other body in the uni-

verse. The most comprehensive and influential law in nature, the

most fundamental in all change, composition, or decomposition,

growth or decay, is the law of mutual sympathy, or tendency to

equilibrium in force through universal action and reaction.

The planets have their orbits modified by other bodies in space

through their changing relations to those bodies. A substance,

as OXygen or iron, varies in temperature and state of expansion

from the presence of a body of different temperature; in

chemical tendencies from the presence of a luminous body like

the sun; in magnetic or electrical attraction from surrounding

magnetic or electrical influences. There is thus unceasing flow

and unceasing change through the universe. All the natural

forces are closely related as if a common family or group, and

are in constant mutual interplay.

The degree or kind of variation has its specific law for each

element ; and in this law the specific nature of the element is in

a degree expressed. There is to each body or species the nor-

mal or fundamental force in which its very nature consists ; and,

in addition, the relations of this force to other bodies, or kinds,

amounts or conditions of force, upon which its variations depend.

One great end of inorganic science is to study out the law of

variables for each element or species. For this law is as much

a part of an idea of the species, as the fundamental potentiality ;

indeed the one is a measure of the other.

So again, a species in the organic kingdoms is subject to varia-

tions, and upon the same principle. Its very development de-

pends on the appropriation of material around it, and on attend-

ing physical forces or conditions, all of which are variable through

the whole of its history. Every chemical or molecular law in

the universe is concerned in the growth,—the laws of heat,

hght, electricity, cohesion, &c.; and the progress of the de-

veloping germ, whatever its primal potentiality, is unavoidably

subject to variations, from the diversified influences to which it

Mr. J. D. Dana on Species. 493

may be exposed. The new germ, moreover, takes peculiarities

from the parent, or from the circumstances to which its ancestry

had been exposed during one or more preceding generations.

There is then a fixed normal condition or value, and around

it librations take place. There is a central or intrinsic law which

prevents a species from being drawn off to its destruction by any

external agency, while subject to greater or less variations under

extrinsic forces.

Liability to variation is hence part of the law of a species ;

and we cannot be said to comprehend in any case the complete

idea of the type until the relations to external forces are also

known. ‘The law of variables is as much an expression of the

fundamental equalities of the species in organic as im inorganie

nature; and it should be the great aim of science to investigate

it for every species. It is a source of knowledge which will yet

give us a deep insight into the fundamental laws of life. Varia-

tions are not to be arranged under the head of accidents; for

there is nothing accidental in nature; what we so call, are ex-

pressions really of profound law, and often betray truth and law

which we should otherwise never suspect.

This process of variation is the external revealing the internal,

through their sympathetic relations ; it is the law of universal

nature reacting on the law of a special nature, and compelling

the latter to exhibit its qualities ; it is a centre of force mani-

festing its potentiality, not in its own inner working, but in

its outgoings among the equilibrating forces around, and thus

offering us, through the known and physical, some measure of

the vital within the germ. It is therefore one of the richest

sources of truth open to our search.

The limits of variation, it may be difficult to define among

species that have close relations. But being sure that there are

limits,—that science, in looking for law and order written out

in legible characters, is not in fruitless search, we need not

despair of discovering them. The zoologist, gathering shells or

mollusks from the coast of eastern America and that of Japan,

after careful study, makes out his lists of identical species, with

the full assurance that species are definite and stable existences ;

and he is even surprised with the identity of characters between

the individuals of a species gathered from so remote localities.

And as he sees zoological geography rising into one of the

grandest of the sciences, his faith in species becomes identified

with his faith in nature and all physical truth.

If then we may trust this argument from general truths to

special,—eeneral truths I say, for general principles as far as

established are truths—we should conceive of a species from

the potential point of view, and regard it as—

494 Mr. J. D. Dana on Species.

a. A concentered unit of force, an imeffaceable component of

the system of nature; but

b. Subject to greater or less librations, according to the uni-

versal law of mutual reaction or sympathy among forces.

And, in addition, in the organic kingdom,

ec. Exhibiting its potentiality not simply or wholly in any

existing condition or action, but through a cycle of growth from

the primal germ to maturity, when the new germ comes forth

as a repetition of the first to go another round in the cycle and

perpetuate the original unit; and, therefore, as follows from a

necessary perpetuity of the cycle—

d. Exhibiting identity of species among individuals, by per-

petuated fertile intermixture im all normal conditions, and non-

identity by the impossibility of such intermixture, the rare cases

of continuation for one or two generations attesting to the

stability of the law, by proving the effort of nature to rid herself

of the abnormity, and her success in the effort.

e. The many like individuals that are conspecific do not

properly constitute the species, but each is an expression of the

species in its potentiality under some one phase of its variables ;

and to understand a species, we must know its law through all

its cycle of growth, and its complete series of librations.

We should therefore conceive of the system of nature as in-

volving, in its idea, a system of units, finite constituents at the

basis of all things, each fixed in law; these units in morganic

nature as adding to their kinds by combinations in definite

proportions; and those in organic nature adding to their

numbers of representative individuals, but not kinds, by self-

reproduction; and all adding to their varieties by mutual

reaction or sympathy. Thus from the law within and the law

without, under the Bemg above as the Author and sustaimer of

all law, the world has its diversity, the Cosmos its fullness of

beauty.

I would remark again, that we must consider this mode of

reaching truth, by reasoning from the general to the special, as

requiring also its complement, direct observation, to give un-

wavering confidence to the mind; and we should therefore

encourage research with a willingness to receive whatever results

come from nature. We should give a high place in our estimate

to all investigation tending to elucidate the variation or per-

manence of species, their mutability or immutability; and at

the same time, in order that appearances may not deceive us,

we should glance towards other departments of nature, re-

membering that all truth is harmonious, and comprehensive law

the end of science.

A word further upon our conceptions of species as realities.

Mr. J. D. Dana on Species. 495

In acquiring the first idea of species, we pass, by induction, as

in other cases of generalization, from the special details dis-

played among individuals to a general notion of a unity of type;

and this general notion, when written out in words, we may take

as an approximate formula of the species. One system of phi-

losophy thence argues that this result of mduction is nothing

but a notion of the mind, and that species are but an imaginary

product of logic; or at least, that since, as they say (we do not

now discuss this point), genera are groupings without definite

limits which may be laid off variously by different minds, so

species are undefined, and individuals are the only realities—the

supposed limits to species being regarded as proof of partial

study, or a consequence of a partial development of the king-

doms of nature. Another system infers, on the contrary, that

species are realities, and that the general or type-idea has, in some

sense, areal existence. A third admits that species are essentially

realities in nature, but claims that the general idea exists only

as a result of logical induction.

The discussion in the preceding pages sustains most nearly

the last view, that species are realities in the system of nature

while manifest to us only in individuals; that is, they are so

far real, that the idea for each is definite, even of mathematical

strictness (although not thus precise in our limited view), it

proceeding from the mathematical and finite basis of nature.

They are the units fixed in the plan of creation; and individuals

are the material expressions of those ideal units.

At the same time, we learn, that while species are realities

in a most important and fundamental sense, no comprehensive

type-idea of a species can be represented in any material or

immaterial existence. For while a species has its constants, it

has also its variables, each variable becoming a constant so far

only as its law and limits of variation are fixed; and in the

organic kingdoms, moreover, each individual has its historic

phases, from the germ through the cycle of growth. The

general idea sought out by induction, therefore, is not made up

of invariables. Limited to these, it represents no object, class

of objects, or law, in nature. The variables are a necessary

complement to the invariables ; and the complete species-idea

is present to the mind, only when the image in view is seen to

be ever changing along the lines of variables and development.

Whatever individualized conception is entertained, it is evidently

a conception of the species in one of its phases,—that is, under

some one specific condition as to size, form, colour, constitution,

&e., as regards each part in the structure, from among the many

variations in all these respects that are possible: mind can pic-

ture to itself individuals only and not species, and one phase

496 Mr. J. D. Dana on Species.

at a time in the hfe of an organic individual, not the whole

cycle.

We may attempt to reach what is called the typical form of a

species, in order to make this the subject of a conception. But

even within the closest range of what may be taken as typical

characters, there are still variables; and moreover, we repeat it,

no one form, typical though we consider it, can be a full expres-

sion of the species, as long as variables are as much an essential

part of its idea as constants. The advantage of fixmg upon

some one variety as the typical form of a species is this,—that

the mind may have an initial term for the laws embraced under

the idea of the species, or an assumed centre of radiation for its

variant series, so as more easily to comprehend those laws.

Again, abrupt transitions and not indefinite shadings have

been shown to be the law of nature. In proceeding from special

characters to a general species-idea, nature gives us help through

her stepping-stones and barriers. In former times, man looked

at iron and other metals from the outside only, and searching

out their differences of sensible characters, gradually eliminated

the general notion of each, by the ordinary logical method of

generalization. But science now brings the elements to the line

and plummet, and reaches a fixed number for iron and other

elements as to chemical combination, &c. By this means, the

studying-out of the idea of a species seems almost to have

escaped from the domain of logic into that of direct trial by

weights and measures. It is no longer the undefined progress

of simple reason, with a mere notion at the end, but an appeal

to definite measurable values, with stable numbers at bottom,

fixed in the very foundations of the universe. So, in the

organic kingdoms, where there is, to our limited minds, still

greater indefiniteness in most characters, the barrier against

hybridity appears to stand as a physical test of species. We

are thus enabled, in searching into the nature of a species, to

strike from the outside detail to the foundation law.

The type-idea, as it presents itself to the mind, is no more a

subject of defined conception than any mathematical expression.

Could we put in mathematical terms the precise law, in all its

comprehensiveness, which is at the basis of the species iron, as

we can for one of its qualities, that of chemical attraction, this

mathematical expression would stand as a representative of the

species ; and we might use it in calculations, precisely as we can

use any mathematical term. So also, if we could write out in

numbers the potential nature of an organic species, or of its

germ, including the laws of its variables, this expression would

be like any other term in the hands of a mathematician ; the

mind would receive the formula as an expression for the species,

Mr. J. Blackwall on British Spiders. 497

and might compare it with the formulas of other species. But,

after all, we have here a mere mathematical abstraction, a sym-

bol for an amount or law of force, which can be turned into con-

ceptions, only by imagining (supposing this possible) the force

in the course of its evolution of coucrete realities, according to the

law of development and laws of variations embraced within it.

XLVII.-— Supplement to a Catalogue of British Spiders, including

remarks on their Structure, Functions, diconomy, and Systematic

Arrangement. By Joun Buackwatt, F.L.S.

[Continued from vol. xiv. p. 33. ]

Tribe OCTONOCULINA.

Family Myeaipe.

Genus Atypus, Latr.

Atypus Sulzeri.

To the remarks on this species given in the catalogue (Ann. and

Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd Series, vol. vii. p. 257) add the following

particulars. Since the instances of the capture of Atypus Sulzeri,

recorded by Dr. Leach, several females have been procured by

the Rev. Hamlet Clark from the neighbourhood of Carlisle ;

Mr. R. H. Meade also has received specimens of it from Mr.

Newman, which were found in lanes near Hastings in the

autumn of 1855; and Mr. O. P. Cambridge took an adult male

early in January 1857, from a rabbit-earth in Dorsetshire, which

Mr. Meade afforded me an opportunity of inspecting.

Family Lycosipz.

Genus Lycosa, Latr.

After Lycosa rapax in the catalogue (Ann. and Mag. Nat.

Hist. 2nd Series, vol. vi. p. 258) add

Lycosa herbigrada.

Lycosa herbigrada, Blackw. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd Series,

vol. xx. p. 285.

Two adult and two immature females of this Lycosa were

forwarded to me in Wales, in December 1856, by Mr. R. H.

Meade. The two former were discovered by Mr. O. P. Cam-

bridge under a stone, near Pennsylvania Castle, in the Isle of

498 Mr. J. Blackwall on the Structure, Functions, Economy,

Portland, on the 29th of September 1854; and the two latter

were captured in July 1854, in Morden Park, near Bloxworth

House, Dorsetshire, by the same gentleman.

After Lycosa piratica in the catalogue (Ann. and Mag. Nat.

Hist. 2nd Series, vol. vil. p. 397) add

Lycosa piscatoria.

Lycosa (Potamia) piscatoria, Koch, Die Arachn. B. xv. p. 6.

tab. 506. figs. 1417-1419.

Mr. R. H. Meade took adult males and females of this species,

which is closely allied to Lycosa piratica, in the last week of

June 1856, in a swampy piece of ground in Buckinghamshire,

and transmitted them to me for inspection.

Family Satricip2.

Genus Salticus, Latr.

After Salticus Jenynsii in the supplement to the catalogue

(Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd Series, vol. xiv. p. 29) add

Salticus Blackwallit.

Salticus Blackwallii, Clark, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd Series,

vol. xvi. p. 329.

This fine species was discovered by the Rev. Hamlet Clark

in September 1855, on a gate near the sea-shore, at Southport

in Lancashire.

nal

Family THomisip&.

Genus Thomisus, Walck.

After Thomisus erraticus in the catalogue (Ann. and Mag.

Nat. Hist. 2nd Series, vol. vu. p. 449) add

Thomisus sabulosus.

Thomisus sabulosus, Hahn, Die Arachn. B. i. p. 28. tab. 8. fig. 24.

Xysticus sabulosus, Koch, Die Arachn. B. xii. p. 64. tab. 411.

figs. 999, 1000.

M. Walckenaer has placed this spider among the synonyma

of Thomisus cristatus, from which it differs in size and in the

design formed by the distribution of its colours ; and on refer-

ring to M. Koch’s ‘ Uebers. des Arachn. Syst.’ erstes Heft,

p- 25, it will be seen that Thomisus sabulosus had been con-

founded with Thomisus lanio (Xysticus lanio, Koch) by that

arachnologist, an error which he afterwards corrected in treating

on the species in the twelfth volume of ‘ Die Arachniden,’ p. 66.

and Systematic Arrangement of British Spiders. 499

Four immature females were taken near Blandford in Dorset-

shire, by Mr. O. P. Cambridge, and were forwarded to me, in

December 1856, by Mr. R. H. Meade.

Genus Philodromus, Walck.

After Philodromus dispar in the catalogue (Ann. and Mag.

Nat. Hist. 2nd Series, vol. vil. p. 451) add

Philodromus pallidus.

Philodromus pallidus, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t. 1. p. 554.

Artamus griseus, Koch, Die Arachn. B. xii. p. 81. tab. 415. figs. 1013,

1014.

On the 8th of June 1856, I received a living adult female

of this species from Mr. R. H. Meade, which had been taken on

the trunk of an ash-tree in Kent a few days previously. This

female, about the middle of June, fabricated in the box nm which

it was confined a very slight cocoon of white silk, measurmg

Sths of an inch in diameter, and deposited in it numerous sphe-

rical eggs of a pale brown colour, not adherent among themselves.

Family Drassipm.

Genus Drassus, Walck.

Drassus lucifugus.

To the remarks on this species given in the catalogue (Ann.

and Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd Series, vol. vii. p. 389) add the follow-

ing particulars. Mr. R. H. Meade transmitted to me in De-

cember 1856 an adult female Drassus lucifugus, which had been

taken by Mr. O. P. Cambridge, near Blandford in Dorsetshire.

Family CINrFLONIDA,

Genus Ciniflo, Blackw.

After Ciniflo feroz in the catalogue (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.

2nd Series, vol. vii. p. 99) add

Ciniflo humilis.

Cinifio humilis, Blackw. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd Series,

vol. xvi. p. 120.

This small species of Ciniflo was captured by Mr. R. H. Meade

in Buckinghamshire, in August 1854; two specimens of adult

females have also been received from the Rev. Hamiet Clark, who

took them in Northamptonshire.

500 Mr. J. Blackwall on the Structure, Functions, Afconomy,

Family AGELENID.

Genus Agelena, Walck.

Agelena montana.

Subjoin the following statement to the remarks on this species

recorded in the catalogue (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd

Series, vol. viii. p. 102). In August 1852 both sexes, in a state

of maturity, were found among moss in woods on the slopes of

the same mountain (Gallt y Rhyg).

Genus Tegenaria, Walck.

After Tegenaria civilis in the catalogue (Ann. and Mag. Nat.

Hist. 2nd Series, vol. vi. p. 3834) add

Tegenaria silvicola.

Tegenaria silvicola, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t. iv. p. 464.

Hahnia silvicola, Koch, Die Arachn, B. xii. p.158. tab, 432. figs. 1076,

1077.

An adult female Tegenaria silvicola was captured in Norfolk

by the Rev. Hamlet Clark early in May 1854, and another spe-

cimen was taken by Mr. R. H. Meade in Buckinghamshire in

the autumn of the same year.

Family ToEripi1p#&.

Genus Theridion, Walck.

Theridion pallens.

Add the following synonym of this species to the synonyma

given in the catalogue (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd Series,

vol. vill. p. 445).

Theridion minimum, Wider, Museum Senckenb. B. i. p. 249. taf. 17.

fig. 2; Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t. ii. p. 320.

In the remarks on Theridion pallens, expunge the words “in a

small globular cocoon of white silk of a loose texture,” and sub-

stitute for them the following description :—in a pyriform co-

coon having several conical prominences disposed in a circle

round its greatest circumference ; it is composed of a tissue of

fine, compact, white silk, and measures ~,ths of an inch in

length and {th in diameter.

Theridion flavo-maculatum.

The following particulars relative to this species should be

added to those given in the supplement to the catalogue (Ann.

and Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd Series, vol. xi. p. 118). In confirma-

and Systematic Arrangement of British Spiders. 501

tion of the opinion that the female Theridion flavo-maculatum

described by M. Koch was immature, I subjoin the measurement

of an adult discovered under a stone in a wood at Oakland on

the 14th of August 1855 Length, #,ths of an inch; length of

the cephalo-thorax, ++, ; ; breadth, 7 jx; breadth of the abdomen,

ts3 ; Tengen of a posterior leg, 3, ; length of a leg of the third

pair, #;. The length of M. Koch’s specimen was ‘only one line.

Family Linypaip2.

Genus Neriéne, Blackw.

After Neriéne vagans in the catalogue (Ann. and Mag. Nat.

Hist. 2nd Series, vol. ix. p. 21) add the following species.

Neriéne dentata.

Theridion dentatum, Wider, Museum Senckenb. B.i. p. 229. taf. 15.

fig. 8.

Argus dentatus, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t. il. p. 354.

Early m May 1854, adult males of this species, which has all

the characteristics of a Neriéne, were taken by the Rev. Hamlet

Clark in Norfolk; and im the autumn of the following year

Mr. kh. H. Meade captured a male near Bradford.

Neriéne affinis.

Neriéne afinis, Blackw. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd Series,

vol. xvi. p. 121.

Two adult males of this species were received from Mr. R. H.

Meade in June 1855, one of which had been taken in the vicinity

of Burton-on-Trent, and the other at Hornsea, near the east

coast of Yorkshire, in the preceding year.

After Neriéne graminicola in the catalogue (Ann. and Mag.

Nat. Hist. 2nd Series, vol. ix. p. 269) add the following species.

Neriéne cornigera.

Neriéne cornigera, Blackw. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd Series,

vol, xvii. p. 233.

This remarkable spider was discovered among moss growing

under trees in a wood on the northern slope of Gallt y Rhyg, in

the autumn of 1854.

Neriéne montana.

Neriéne montana, Blackw. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd Series,

vol. xvii. p. 234.

This spider, which was found on Ingleborough, a mountain in

502 Mr. J. Blackwall on British Spiders.

Yorkshire, in September 1855, was received from Mr. kh. I.

Meade.

Genus Walckenaéra, Blackw.

After Walckenaéra humilis in the catalogue (Ann. and Mag.

Nat. Hist. 2nd Series, vol. ix. p. 465) add

Walckenaéra vafra.

Walckenaéra vafra, Blackw. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd Series,

vol. xvii. p. 235.

Adult males of Walckenaéra vafra were discovered under

stones in the woods about Hendre House, near Llanrwst, in

October 1855.

Family Epérrip%.

Genus Epéira, Walck.

After Epéira calophylla in the supplement to the catalogue

(Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd Series, vol. x. p. 183) add

Epéira acalypha.

Epéira acalypha, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t.1i. pp. 50 and

O01.

Epéira geniste, Hahn, Die Arachn. B.i. p. 11. tab. 3. fig. 7.

Zilla geniste, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 5.

Zilla decora, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 5.

Zilla acalypha, Koch, Die Arachn. B. vi. p. 139. tab.213. figs. 530,

03].

Seven females of this species were received from Mr. R. H.

Meade, who took them from their webs, which were constructed

among the twigs of gorse and other bushes growing in Buck-

inghamshire, in the last week of June 1856.

After Epéira diadema in the catalogue (Ann. and Mag. Nat.

Hist. 2nd Series, vol. x. p. 188) add

Epéwa angulata.

Epéira angulata, Koch, Uebers. des Arachn. Syst. erstes Heft, p. 2 ;

Die Arachn. B. xi. p. 77. tab. 379. figs. 892-895.

Epéira cornuta, Walck. Hist. Nat. des Insect. Apt. t. i. p. 123.

An adult female Epéira angulata, and an immature male which

had to undergo its final change of integument, were taken near

Blandford in Dorsetshire by Mr. O. P. Cambridge, and were

forwarded to me in December 1856 by Mr. R. H. Meade.

The descriptions of Epéira angulata given by arachnologists

are, in general, so brief and imperfect as to render any attempt

to reconcile the perplexed synonyma of this species almost

hopeless.

Mr. T. V. Wollaston on certain Coleopterous Insects. 503

Epéira tubulosa.

Add the following particulars to the remarks on this species

recorded in the catalogue (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 2nd Series,

vol. x. p. 249) :—In December 1856 I received from Mr. R. H.

Meade an adult female, which had been captured by Mr. O. P.

Cambridge near Blandford in Dorsetshire.

XLVIII.—On certain Coleopterous Insects from the Cape de

Verde Islands. By T. Vernon Woxtaston, M.A., F.LS.

Tue southern position which the Cape de Verde Islands occupy,

with reference to the neighbouring Atlantic groups, renders any

contribution towards their fauna of peculiar interest ; and it is

with much pleasure, therefore, that I am enabled to offer, through

the liberality of my friends John Gray, Esq., and the Rev. Hamlet

Clark, a few observations on the Coleoptera which they collected

at St. Vincent’s, during a day’s sojourn there (whilst on their

passage to Rio Janeiro) in December of 1856.

Considering the excessive barrenness of this the only island

at which the mail-steamers touch, on their outward and home-

ward route, and the short space of time which is allowed for the

passengers to go on shore, it will not appear strange that only

fifteen species were the result of the combined labours of Messrs.

Gray and Clark during the day that they spent at St.Vincent’s.

Yet, despite the poverty of the place, in an entomological point

of view, it is not difficult to gather, even from these few expo-

nents of the Coleopterous world,—if not indeed the general

nature of its insect population, at any rate the important fact,

that the preponderance which the Heteromera possess (as

might, however, be anticipated), over all the other sections of

the order, in this sterile spot, is quite extraordinary. Thus, of

the fifteen species alluded to, whilst as many as eight are Hetero-

merous, only two belong to the Geodephaga, and but one to each

of the great divisions Brachelytra, Necrophaga, Cordylocerata,

Priocerata, and Rhynchophora.

The two representatives of the Geodephaga are Cicindela litto-

ralis, Fab. (an insect of Mediterranean latitudes, occurring both

in the south of Europe and the north of Africa), and an Ambly-

stomus, which may perhaps* be peculiar to these islands, and

* I say “perhaps,” because the species which form the subject of the

paper, by Erichson, above alluded to, are professedly from Angola. Never-

theless [ am assured by Dr. Schaum of Berlin, that the collector who

amassed the materials from which Erichson’s memoir was compiled, stopped

at the Cape de Verdes, on his passage to the African coast; and that, as

504 Mr. T. V. Wollaston on certain Coleuptercus Insects

which appears to agree sufficiently well with the description of

the Hispalis viridulus, given by Erichson in the ninth volume of

Wiegmann’s ‘Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte,’ in 1843. The former

of these, the Cicindela, I am told by Mr. Clark, was abundant

in a salt locality, or marsh, immediately behind the ‘ Valley of

Death’ (so called from its having been the burial-place of the

unfortunate sufferers from the cholera during the fearful visita-

tion of 1855); whilst the Amblysiomus occurred amongst the hght

soil around the roots of a small succulent plant (probably either

a Sedum or a Mesembryanthemum),—wouch in the same manner

as we often observe the Harpali to congregate along the sea-

shores in ‘England ; and where they were most likely secreted

on account of the little shade and moisture which such a posi-

tion would naturally afford them.

The exponent of the Brachel/ytra is a solitary example of an

Isomalus, Evichs.,—evidently a new species, which may be thus

briefly characterized :—

Tsomalus Hesperidum.

I, niger, nitidus, glaberrimus, valde depressus, ubique subtilissime

alutaceus sed fere impunctatus ; capite magno, plano; prothorace

cordato, postice fortiter angustato, lateribus vix pone medium

leviter excavatis, dentem obtusum efficientibus, in dorso latissime

longitudinaliter depresso, antice intra angulos anteriores utrinque

leviter notato; elytris prothorace paulo longioribus, _punctulo dis-

cali impressis ; antennis fuscis, basi pedibusque piceis.

Long. corp. lin. 2.

I believe that ‘it was detected by Mr. Gray, but I have no

note as to the precise circumstances of its capture.

The section Necrophaga is represented by what I conceive to

be the Dermesies lupinus, Esch.,—a species lable to be intro-

duced almost everywhere, and therefore well nigh cosmopolitan.

The exponent of the Cordylocerata is a very distinct and ele-

gant Saprinus, the S. equesiris of Erichson (Klug’s Jahrb. d.

Ins. 8S. 175; and Wiegm. Archiv, ix. 226. 43),—captured by

Mr. Clark, near the sea-beach, in stercore humano.

The section Priocerata is shadowed forth by a single Elater,

which, I am informed by Mr. Janson, may possibly belong to

the genus Monocrepidius, but which is probably new as regards

the species. It may be described thus :—

he shortly afterwards died, the insects of the two localities were unfortu-

nately mixed up together; and Erichson, who was not aware that he had

touched at those islands at all, described the whole of them as coming

from Angola. Thus an amount of confusion has been caused, which can

only be dissipated by an accurate knowledge of the Coleopterous faunas of

the two regions.

from the Cape de Verde Islands. 505

Monocrepidius ? Grayit.

M. linearis, fusco-niger, pilis brevibus cinereis depressis ubique dense

vestitus ; prothorace convexo, creberrime subtilissimeque punctu-

lato punctulisque majoribus undique erebre obsito; elytris sub-

punctato-striatis, interstitiis vix punctulatis ; ; antennis, palpis (lon-

giusculis) pedibusque leete rufo-ferrugineis.

Long. corp. lin. 6.

It was found beneath a stone on one of the highest points of

the island; and I have much pleasure in dedicating it to my

friend John Gray, Hsq., to whose kindness I am shortly about

to be indebted for the opportunity of investigating, under the

best of auspices, the various portions of the Canarian Group.

The representative of the Rhynchophora is a curious insect allied

to (though scarcely, I think, identical with) Brachytarsus, of

which there is a solitary specimen ; and it is worthy of remark

that it appears to coincide, even as regards the species, with one

taken by Mr. Clark at Blidah, in Algeria, during the previous

June of the same year.

And, lastly, with respect to the Heteromera above referred to,

the eight species are as follows:

1A very beautiful, but variable, Phaleria, with a black dorsal

patch behind the middle (and common to both) of its elytra ;

in some examples of which the patch is so largely developed as

to cover the entire surface of the elytra, except the shoulders

and extreme lateral margin. I would thus characterize it :—

Phaleria Clarki.

P. ovata, ferruginea; capite plus minus infuscato ; prothorace trans-

verso-subquadrato, basi utrinque foveola brevi longitudinaliter im-

presso ; coleopteris late testaceis, macula magna discali sublunata

nigra vix pone medium ornatis.

Var. (3. Prothoracis disco elytrorumque regione scutellari ac

sutura (una cum macula discali) plus minus suffuse nigrescentibus.

Var. y. Capite, prothoracis disco, elytrisque (humeris et limbo

pallidiore exceptis) nigrescentibus.

Long. corp. lin. 23-3.

It was discovered by Messrs. Gray and Clark (to the latter

of whom I have dedicated the species) sub stercore humano, on

the sea-beach ; having buried itself in considerable numbers, at

Some distance below the excrement,—in the same manner as is

the case with the Phalerie (when under such circumstances)

generally.

2. A small insect allied to Cerandria, Dej., but generically

distinct from it.

3. The common Opatrum fuscum, Hbst,—so universal in

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser. 2. Vol. xx. Suppl. 33

506 Mr. E. Blyth on the Columbine.

Mediterranean latitudes, and which occurs also in Madeira and

the Canarian Group.

4. A rather large insect, intermediate apparently between

Opatrum and Asida, of which I have not been able as yet to

determine the genus; but which (as it would seem to be abun-

dant in those islands) is probably well known.

5. An insect, which may perhaps constitute a new genus,

bearing some slight prima-facie resemblance to a Pedinus; but

with much slenderer legs, distinctly clubbed antenne, a brownish

piceous hue, and a somewhat pubescent surface.

6 and 7. Two species of Oxyura, Sol. (= Melancrus, De}j.),—

probably the O. hegetervides and pedinoides of Erichson, described

in Wiegmann’s ‘ Archiv’ (ix. 236, 64 and 65), amongst the

supposed Coleoptera of Angola.

8. The Hegeter elongatus, Oliv. (=striatus, Latr.), an abundant

insect in Madeira and the Canary Islands, which M. Deyrolle

of Paris informs me that he has received, also, from Senegal,

on the opposite coast of Africa; and which, moreover, has even

been admitted (though I cannot but believe erroneously) into

the European Catalogues.

Such are the 15 species collected by Messrs. Gray and Clark

during a day’s hard work in this barren island. And I can only

add that their investigations, for so short a visit, may be con-

sidered as eminently successful; for I am informed by my

nephew, F. W. Hutton, Esq., of the 23rd Welsh Fusiliers, who

lately touched at St. Vincent’s on his route to India, and who,

likewise, went on shore for a day, to obtain for me all that he

was able, that he only “succeeded in® capturing szz species of

beetles, sundry locusts, and a lizard ;” and he further adds the

somewhat significant remark, that “ a grave-stone sticking out of

the middle of the Atlantic would be a paradise compared to it.”

XLIX.—Remarks on the Columbine, with a Description of a new

Indian Pigeon, akin to the ‘Stock Dove’ of Europe. By Evwarp

Bryta*.

In no other group of birds is the difficulty of discriminating

between species and permanent varieties, whatever latitude may be

allowed under either denomination, so great and so constantly

recurring, as in sundry genera of Pigeons. And yet each race,

however slightly distinguished from certain other races, is re-

markably true to its particular distinctive characters, where-

soever it be found; and it remains to show that any gradations

* From the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. 3, 1857,

Mr. E. Blyth on the Columbine. 507

or transitions occur from one to another, which might not be

readily accounted for by intermixture, where such cognate races

meet. The numerous permanent races (considered by the Prince

of Canino and others as species) affined to Turtur risorius or to

T. auritus, afford ample exemplification ; and we are unaware

that any of these have been known to interbreed one with an-

other. Moreover, so far as has been observed, it would seem

that the voice or coo differs appreciably in each race, just as the

notes of other proximate but distinct species of birds do in general,

to a notable extent—as familiarly exemplified by those of the

British Phylloscopus trochilus and Ph. rufus, and of many others

that might be cited.

In Europe, three kinds of wild Pigeon are familiarly known,

in addition to the wild Turtle Dove (Columba turtur, L.). They

are the common ‘ Ring-dove,’ Cushat, or Ramier (C. palum-

bus, L.), the ‘Stock-dove’ or Columbin (C. enas, L.), and the

‘Rock-dove,’ ‘Rockier, or Biset (C. livia, Latham): the first

two of which are foresters, habitually perching and roosting

upon trees ; and the third is chiefly an inhabitant of sea-cliffs,

and never alights on a tree. The first builds a platform-nest,

which is supported by the lighter branches of trees; the second

builds in the holes of trees (old pollard ‘ stocks’ especially), and

not unfrequently in rabbit-burrows; and the third resorts to

the cavities and deep recesses of precipitous rocks, and especially

the caverns of sea-cliffs, where it nidificates in large societies.

Each is the type of a generic or subgeneric group (i. e. a named

division), according to the Prince of Canino; and each has its

immediate representative or counterpart in India.

1. Patumsus. The ‘Cushats.’? In the W. Himalaya a bird

of this group is common, which differs so litle from the Euro-

pean race, that the two would probably blend, were they to

inhabit together. The only distinctions consist in the neck-

patch, which is large and almost pure white im the Huropean

Cushat, being much contracted and of a buff-colour m that

of Asia; while the primaries also of the latter are more nar-

rowly margined externally with white. Upon these slight di-

stinctions, the Prince of Canino designates the oriental race

P. casiotis, and notes it from Chinese Tartary. He also remarks

that the Cushats of Algeria have the white neck-patch more ex-

tended than in the European race; and distinguishes another

and better characterized raec, from N.W. Africa, by the name

P. excelsus.

The only other true Cushats known are from this country,

viz. P. pulchricollis (Hodgson), from the EH. Himalaya, and P.

Elphinstonei (Sykes), from the Nilgiris and Malabar Ghats,—

3a%*

508 Mr. E. Blyth on the Columbine.

of which latter the P. Torringtonii (Carpophaga Torringtoni,

Kelaart) can scarcely be considered more than a variety*, and

was first indicated as such in the J. A. 8. xx. 178. Neverthe-

less, according to Mr. Edgar L. Layard, the late H. EB. Strick-

land “ at once pronounced it to be distinct” from P. Elphinstonet.

All will agree in admitting P. tor ‘quatus, P. pulchricollis, and

P; Elphinstonei as good ‘ species ;’ probably also P. eacelsus ;

but most systematists would prefer retaining casiotis and Tor-

ringtonit as ‘permanent races,’ or ‘ varieties,’ of P. torquatus

and P. Elphinstonei respectively. It will be observed, that this

is a mountain type in India, being wholly unknown in the plains,

save P. Elphinstonei rarely on the elevated table-land of the

Dukhun; and perhaps the castotis may prove to be a winter

visitant in the Punjab, occurring probably in large flocks.

There are two other fine Indian Wood Pigeons of the same

Columbine type (as distinguished from the Carpopha gine series

of Fruit Pigeons) ; each of them being recognized as the type of

a separate subdivision by the Prince “of Canino, They are the

Dendrotreron Hodgsonit (Vigors), which is peculiar to the Hima-

layan forests, and the Alsocomus puniceus, Tickell, of Orissa,

Central India, and also Ceylon, though seemingly more common

in Arakan, and especially the island of Ramri. These are men-

tioned merely that it might not appear that they had been over-

looked.

2. PatumBena, Bonap., founded on Col. enas, L. (P. colum-

bella, Bonap.), the British ‘Stock Dove,’ to which the Prince

has since added P. Eversmanni, from western and central Asia ;

very like P. @nas, but distinctly smaller, with black bill and

yellow tip (dertrum),—the colouring of the bill havi ing doubtless

changed in drying, as will be shown presently. This should be

the Col. enas apud Meyendorff, from Bokhara, described as having

the croup of a very pale grey, with all the feathers white at base,

in which it accords with our Indian species; and it is not un-

likely to prove the very same,—migrating according to season.

The true P. @nas probably coexists with it in W. Asia; and

the European bird is known to be extensively diffused over N.

Africa.

P. Eversmanni (?), Bonap. (If new, P. enicapilla, nobis.)

Smaller than P. @nas, with wings and tail each 1 inch shorter,

the difference in the length of tail beimg very conspicuous.

Colouring much the same; but the croup and fore-part of the

wings underneath are of a whitish-grey (not pure white) in the

Indian bird, instead of being uniformly dark-coloured with the

rest, as in the European ‘Stock Dove.’ The same vinaceous

* Comptes Rendus, xlii, p. 837,

Mr. E. Blyth on the Columbine. 509

tint (whence the name wnas) prevails on the fore-neck and breast

of both species ; but im the Indian it appears also on the crown,

which in the other is pure dark ashy. The wings are simi-

larly marked, except that in our presumed new species there is

less black upon the winglet, and the great alar feathers (including

the tertiaries) are much less dark in colour. Length of closed

wing 83 inches, and of tail 4 inches only.

Among some descriptions of birds sent for identification avout

ten years ago, by the late Major Boys, of the Bengal Cavalry, we

find one of this Indian ‘Stock Dove.’ He gives the length of a

fresh-killed male as 114 in., extent of wings 24 in., and weight

7 oz. 4dr. Mr. Selby states that P. @nas “measures about

14 inches, and in extent of wing nearly 26 in.” “ The beak,”

remarks Dr. D. Scott of Hansi, who has favoured us with the

specimen here described, “is of a yellowish colour, and as if

translucent ; but this appearance is only visible in the fresh

bird, as it had disappeared when the specimen became dry*.

The legs also had a distinctly yellowish tinge, instead of the red

of the common Biue Pigeon; but this also soon disappeared.”

Major Boys describes the bill and cere as grey, the skin round

the eye yellow, iris buff, and legs flesh-pink ; those of our com-

mon Blue Pigeon being of a deep pinkish-red.

Of the habits of the race, Major Boys merely remarks, that

“These birds fly in flocks, and affect trees”! When at Cawn-

pore, last year in May, I observed every evening a large flock of

Blue Pigeons to collect and roost upon some high trees within

cantonments, end therefore not to be fired at ; and having never

observed the common Blue Pigeon of this country to roost upon

trees, I was led to suspect that the birds in question were of a

race of ‘Stock Doves’ probably different in species from the

European—a conjecture which seemed to be verified by the dis-

covery of the bird now under consideration ; but I am assured,

upon good authority, that the Columba intermedia, Strickland,

does commonly roost upon trees, in which habit it would seem

to differ remarkably from its very near affine the C. livia of

Europe and N. Africa.

Of the Indian ‘ Stock Pigeon,’ Dr. Scott remarks,— Though

I have been at Hansi nearly five years, | have never seen these

Pigeons before ; but others have seen them, and have assured

me of their occurrence as a distinct race, different from our

common Blue Pigeon which breeds in wells. Early in March

there were hundreds of them about here, but they soon disap-

peared. They feed in the fields morning and evening, and roost

in the day (and I suppose the night also) in trees, generally in

* Jn the dry specimen, the bill is black, with yellow dertrum, as in the

Prince of Canimo’s P. Eversmanni.

510 Mr. E. Blyth on the Columbine.

the common ‘babul’ tree, called here the ‘keeker.’. The natives

distinguish them by the name ‘kummer kulla’ or ‘ kula,’ the last

word being the name of a colour*. To Europeans they are also

known here as the ‘ Hill Pigeon, though whether they came

from the hills I cannot say.” These Pigeons have hitherto been

observed only in the N.W. of India.

3. CotumpBa, L. (as restricted to the ‘ Rockier’ group of

the major continent). Of this type the Prince of Canino recog-

nizes several nearly affined races, some of which differ more or

less in habit, as well as in the details of colourmg. From certain

of these races all the numerous varieties of domestic Pigeons

have undoubtedly descended.

The most unlike the rest is the fine Snow Pigeon of the

Himalaya (C. leuconota, Vigors), which is confined to great ele-

vations near the snow, and assuredly does not appear to have

given origin to any domestic variety.

The European Rock Pigeon (C. fivia, Latham), according to

the Prince of Canino, is found identically the same in Europe,

Egypt, the whole Barbary coast, and thence on to Senegal and

the Gold coast+. It is said to abound in the islands of Madeira

and Teneriffe. Northward, it is common in the Hebrides, and

in the Orkney, Shetland, and Faroe Isles; but in Scandinavia

is altogether confined to the island of Runnesdn, on the 8.W.

coast of Norway, where it breeds in great numbers{. According

to Temminck, Japanese specimens do not differ in any respect.

It also abounds along the rocky shores of the Mediterranean

and A%gean (Italy, Sicily, Malta, Greece, &c.), and those of the

Euxine and Caspian, evincing everywhere a decided and remark-

able predilection for the crevices and especially the deep caverns

and recesses of sea-cliffs, even where the entrance is close over

the water at the height of the tide; it penetrates further into

such recesses than any sea-bird is known to do. It also feeds

more on the tops of plants than the domestic races do habitually§,

and small Helices are commonly found in its craw. Though

rarely, if ever, inhabiting inland, unless somewhat domesticated,

* In the chapter devoted to the rearing of pigeons in the ‘Ayin Akbari,’

a number of breeds or races are enumerated, concluding with the ‘ Komeree’

and the ‘ Gowlah’ (Gladwin’s translation). These names refer to the tame

Collared Turtle-dove and to the common ‘ Blue Pigeon’ of the country (or

C. intermedia) respectively. The latter, indeed, is stated to be “a wild

pigeon, of which, if a few are taken, they are speedily joined by a thousand

others of their kind.”

+ Comptes Rendus, xxxix. p. 1107.

+ Nilsson, as quoted by Major Lloyd, ‘Scandinavian Adventures,’ ii. 336.

§ The British Cushat is a great devourer of turnip-tops, as remarked by

Gilbert White. : :

Mr. . Blyth on the Columbine. 511

sundry old-established dove-cots have been stocked with it m

various parts of Britain, where the race is maintained pure; and

as thus observed, it shows no disposition to associate with the

domestic breeds in neighbouring dove-cots, although considered

to be the parent race from which the latter are mainly derived.

Even when eggs taken from the inland colonies referred to have

been hatched, and the young brought up by domestic Pigeons,

these Rockiers have been known to quit their foster-parents, as

soon as they could fly strongly, to rejoin their immediate rela-

tives and. progenitors. Another characteristic of the race is,

that they like to breed in extensive societies; so that the large

colonies of them soon absorb any stray birds, even from a great

distance.

In England there is likewise a race of wild or semi-wild Blue

Pigeons which maintains itself distinct, and (though numerous

in individuals) continues as true to its distinctive colouring and

all other characters as does the genuine Rockier, of which it is

regarded as a variety. These birds frequent inland cliffs and

large buildings; being also extensively reared in dove-cots, to

meet the demand for pigeon-matches. They have invariably a

speckled wing, each covert being marked with a black spot on

each of its webs, in addition to the black bars of the typical

livia. The scapularies also are thus marked, and the back in-

distinctly. The croup is pure white, as in the ordinary hwvia;

and the race is chiefly remarkable for the permanency of its par-

ticular markings, and for commonly inhabiting much more inland

than the true Biset*.

Another such race in Italy (a degree, perhaps, more different)

is indicated by the Prince of Canino by the name of C. turricola,

and it has also been received from Persia; the croup being of

“a pale blue-grey”—whitish-grey (7), as in the Indian ‘ Stock

Dove’—“ never pure white.”

Another, again, is termed by him C. rupesiris, from the moun-

tainous and rocky parts of Songaria and Dauria (or Dahuria),—

* The same spotting of the wing is common among the Indian domestic

Pigeons derived immediately from C. intermedia, and otherwise not differ-

ing from the pure wild race of the latter; but I know of no analogous wild

or semi-wild race in this country, which presents this particular colouring

as a eonstant distinction. Individuals or pairs so marked are here common

among the tame flocks, with other varieties of colourmg, as black, buff,

pure white, pied, &c., and without variation in other characters or tendency

to assume the peculiarities of the various ‘fancy breeds.’ These last mani-

fest no tendency ever to return to wildness, their domestication beg too

complete; but tame Pigeons of some kind are said to have gone wild in

North America, a few pairs of them breeding along the highlands of the

Hudson; and whether these ‘feral’ birds tend to assume a uniform and

typical coloration, we have not learned.

512 Mr. E. Blyth on the Columbine.

adopted from Pallas, but the particular distinguishing characters

are not specified.

C. Schimperi, also, “ which covers with its innumerable flocks

the more desert plaims of Abyssmia.” It is stouter and more

albescent than the common C, livia.

Likewise C. gymnocyclus, Gray, from Senegal. ‘ Obscurior ;

orbitis nudis; rostro valde robustiore.”

Lastly, C. intermedia, Strickland, of India* ; the common ‘Blue

Pigeon’ of this country, which only differs from C. livia by having

the croup uniformly coloured with the back, as in the European

‘ Stock Dove,’ and by a somewhat deeper and more uniform shade

of ash-colour. Yet the purely wild birds continue true to this

colouring, and no variation will be seen in the largest flocks of

them, where unmixed with domestic Pigeons; but they most

readily mingle with the latter, and scarcely require encouragement

to fall into domestic habits. In the vicinity of Calcutta, the

pure wild race can hardly be obtained, though there are domestic

Pigeons in every ordinary flock (not of ‘fancy birds’) which are

undistinguishable from the wild, in company with others varying

more or less in colouring from the type. But even at Benares

we remarked a great assemblage of these birds, nestling in the

innumerable nooks about the famous mosque of Aurungzebe,

and sought in vain for any variation of colouring among them,

and especially for the white croup of the true C. livia. Col. Sykes

refers this bird to C. @nas, and remarks that it is ‘ the most

common bird in the Dukhnn, congregating in flocks of scores,

and a constant inhabitant of every old dilapidated building.”

He saw “the same species, on board ship, on the voyage to

England, brought from China;” and the Rey. J. Mason notes

the occurrence of what he considers to be the same bird, wild in

Burma. In Ceylon, accordmg to Mr. Edgar LL. Layard, “ this

species is extremely local, beg confined to two places, ‘ Pigeon

Island,’ off Trincomali, and a rock of the southern coast near

Barberryay+. From these it makes incursions into the interior ;

and I have heard,” he adds, ‘‘of specimens being shot on the

great central road, about 50 miles from Trmeomah.” Dr. Jerdon

remarks, that “it abounds all over India, and is occasionally

found in the more open spaces of jungles, especially in rocky

districts, and in the neighbourhood of waterfalls,—but more

generally in the open country, inhabiting walls of villages, pa-

godas, wells, and any large buildings, and breeding chiefly in

old walls.” Major Tickell, again, notices it as “ exceedingly

common in Chota Nagpur, breeding in all the steep, lofty rocks

* Comptes Rendus, xlii. p. 838.

+ Resorting thus, it would seem, to sea-cliffs, wherever the latter are

available.

Mr. Hi. Blyth on the Columbine. 5138

of that country.” Lastly, Capt. Hutton states that “it is found

in Afghanistan, where, as in many parts of India, it builds in

wells and ruined buildings; the ‘ Kazeezes,’ or Artesian wells of

Afghanistan, are sometimes crowded with them. They occur

also in the Deyra Doon, and are known as the common Blue

Pigeon. At Masur, I have seen them only in the cultivated

fields, low down on the sides: of hills, in warm situations.’

Length 13 in. by 23 in. m breadth; and C. livia is described as

measuring 135 in. by 22 in.; though it is doubtful if there be

any real difference.

Upon other authority we have been assured that the common

Blue Pigeon of Afghanistan has the white rump of the European

livia. It is probably identical with the Kemaon bird next to

be described; and both with the C. rupestris of the Prince of

Canino.

The late Major Boys, a most experienced collector of Indian

birds, whose description of the Indian ‘ Stock Pigeon’ we have

just verified, also distinguished a ‘Blue Rock Pigeon,’ which

he procured at Hawulbagh, in Kemaon. “This Pigeon,” he

remarks, “ differs considerably from the common Blue Pigeon,

particularly in its weight and size. It is in every respect much

lighter in plumage. Length of a male 12? m. by 25 in.;

weight 7 oz. 8dr. Bill black, the cere grey; iris red; legs

pink. ‘Top of head, chin, and sides of face, ashy-grey. Back

of neck and upper part of breast glazed metallic green. Bottom

of neck metallic purple, blendmg into ashy light grey on the

belly. Flanks and vent light grey; wmg-coverts and upper

part of the back of the same colour. Jéiddle of back white.

Upper tail-coverts dark ashy-grey. Quills grey, the shafts black,

darker near their tips; second quill longest ; outer webs darker

than the inner. Some of the larger wing-coverts, those covermg

the fectrices [tertiaries?], together with the six or seven last

tertiary feathers, bear a patch of greyish-black, which, when the

wing 1s extended, forms two indistinct and somewhat curved

bands. Tail dark grey at base, broadly tipped with black, and

having between these two colours a broad stripe of white (wanting

im the common C. intermedia). Inferior coyerts white, blendmg

with grey towards the anterior margin of the wing. Length of

tail 5 in.; the quills (when the wings are closed) reaching to its

tip. The exterior tail-feathers are pure white from their bases

on the external web, finished off at the tip with black ; the inner

webs being grey at the base, as obtaming in the intermediary

feathers.”

Any collector who has the opportunity should endeavour to

verify this particular race, the habitat of which would seem to be

intermediate to that of the ‘ Snow Pigeon’ (C. /euconota) and that

514 Mr. H. O. Stephens on two new Cryptogams.

of the ‘Common Blue’ of the plains of India; the white rump

alone would readily distinguish it from the latter.

Note on the Green Pigeons of Ceylon.

The Columba pompadoura, Gmelin, founded on pls. 19 and 20

of Brown’s ‘Illustrations of Zoology’ (1776), has long been

sought to be verified; and at length, it would appear, success-

fully by the Prince of Canino, in a small species, as originally

described, of the size of C. olax, Temminck*. Consequently,

the Treron Malabarica var. pompadoura of Mr. Layard’s cata-

logue is a distinct bird, which may bear the specific name flavo-

gularis, nobis. It is very hke 77. Malabarica, Jerdon, being of

the same size as that species, with an equal development of the

maroon colour upon the mantle of the male; but is readily

distinguished by its yellowish-green forehead, pure yellow throat,

and by having no buff patch on the breast of the male; it is

also further remarkable, that whilst the male of 77. Malabarica

has the usual deep cinnamon-coloured lower tail-coverts, that of

Tr. flavogularis has them green with broad whitish tips, as in

the female, and as in both sexes of 77. chloroptera of the Nico-

bars. Zr. pompadoura is a much smaller species, with the quan-

tity of maroon colour on the mantle of the male greatly reduced,

and with cinnamon-coloured lower tail-coverts, as usual in the

males of this genus.

Following the Prince of Canino’s classification, the following

species of Treronine inhabit the island :—

1. Crocopus chlorigaster (Blyth).

2. Osmotreron bicincta (Jerdon).

3. flavogularis (Blyth).

4, pompadoura (Gmelin).

The first and second are common to Ceylon and the mainland

of India, and the third and fourth pecuhar to the island, so far

as is known at present.—E. B.

L.—A Description of two new Cryptogams +.

By Mr. H, O. SrepHens.

[ With a Plate. ]

THE curious production about to be described I detected on

calcined bones of oxen, part of the cargo of a vessel laden with

* Comptes Rendus, xxxix. p. 875.

+ Communicated by the Author; having been read at a Meeting of the

Bristol Microscopical Society, Sept. 16, 1857.

Mr. H. O. Stephens on two new Cryptogams. 515

hides and bones from South America. It appeared to pervade

all the bones, and its red colour immediately attracted my

attention.

Almost every fragment of bone was dotted with patches of

various sizes, of a cimnabar- or orange-red colour.

When moistened, these became slightly turgid or elevated,

and rugose or papillate on the superior surface. Under a Jens

of good power (a 2th was used), they are found to consist of

very numerous quadrangular cells, a little rounded at the angles,

united in fours, and these, again, grouped four together. They

are very minute, varying in magnitude from ‘0002 to -0003

linear.

In a growing state I think they would be found enveloped in

mucilage, traces of which are even now discernible.

I am inclined to suppose, that in the perfect condition of the

plant, the quaternate-celled bodies are arranged in a linear series

imbedded in the mucus of the pseudo-frond. In some of the

heaps I am pretty certain that traces of this structure were

observed, but too cbscurely defined to admit of delineation.

Mr. Berkeley has pointed out to me their resemblance to

Sarcina. In the form and quaternary arrangement of the cells

they are indeed very like the frustules of S. Ventriculi; but

these measure about ‘004 linear, and contam greenish-brown

endochrome, of which there is no trace in our plant.

The cells are turned olive-brown by sulpho-iodine. Both

_ Mr. Berkeley and myself have failed in propagating this plant.

The affinities appear to be with Palmell, and the alliance

with Sarcina very close,—I believe the nearest ally to that

curious Alga yet known. Mixed with the bone Algoid are

globose bodies of much greater diameter than the four-celled

Sarcinoid bodies, accompanied by branched threads, which, on

first examination, 1 thought an mtegral part of the Alga. More

careful observations have, however, convinced me they are di-

stinct, and belong to a filamentous Fungus.

The structure of this Fungus is highly curious: it seems to

emerge from the Alga in circular or radiating white spots, very

minute, but of various sizes. These are made up of branched

threads, bearing on their extremities, or on lateral branches,

round cells or spores. A vast number of these spore-like cells

are detached and free amongst the threads, the threads being

sparingly produced, or at least not abundantly, when compared

with the profusion of the spores.

It is evident the globose cells must be formed in rapid suc-

cession from the points of the threads ; the process of formation

can, indeed, be partially seen; for I observed the extremities of

some of the threads to be termmated by a thickened process,—

516 Bibliographical Notices.

evidently the spore-like, globose cell in its nascent state, or in

progress of evolution.

Bristol, Dighton Street, Oct. 3, 1857.

Note.—Mr. Berkeley writes me :—“‘I believe in the end both it and the

Sarcina of the stomach will prove the incunabula of Moulds.” I searcely

venture to dissent from such an authority, yet there is as great difficulty

@ priori in thinking Sarcina to be an Alga, altered in development and its

autonomous state masked by growing in an unusual or unnatural habitat,

than that a similar condition affecting the growth of a mould should cause

it to assume the character of Sarcina. Mr. Berkeley, comparing the bone

Sarcina with his mounted specimens of S. Ventriculi, makes both pretty

nearly correspond in size. Specimens, however, of S. Ventriculi in the

collection of Mr. Stoddart of this city, to whom I am indebted for the

measurements of the bone-plant, are fully four times the size of the latter.

It appears, then, that S. Ventricult varies very greatly in size; yet Mr.

Stoddart, for an entire year, made careful daily measurements of the

granules of S. Ventriculi from the ejectments of a patient, and found them

invariably of the same size.

As the real nature and affinities of the genus Sarcina are as yet doubtful,

the two known species may be provisionally thus characterized :—

S. Ventriculi (Goodsir). Granulis opacis, fusco-olivaceis.

Habitat in ventriculo hominis presertim.

S. ossium (mihi). Granulis pellucidis.

Habitat in ossibus bovinis ustis ex Brasilia.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.

a, a, a. Portions of bone with Cryptogams.

b, b. Cells of Sarcina ossium, more or less magnified.

c,c. Gelatinous matter (of frond?) and granules or cells of Sarcina

ossium, treated with sulpho-iodine.

d. Alga, with filamentous Fungus magnified.

e,e,e. Threads and spore-like cells of ditto.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

A Manual Flora of Madeira and the adjacent Islands of Porto Santo

and the Dezertas. By R.T. Lowe, M.A. Part I. Thalamifloree.

12mo. London, Van Voorst, 1857.

Tue residence of so eminent a naturalist as Mr. Lowe in Madeira

during twenty-six years has afforded ample time and opportunity

for the acquisition of an accurate knowledge of its vegetation; and

botanists have long looked to him for a good Flora of the island.

He was well known to be devoting his leisure time, since his return

to England, to the preparation of such a work. Unfortunately a bad

state of health has again rendered a temporary removal to a warmer

climate necessary. He has therefore published so much of this

work as could be prepared for the press and printed before his de-

parture. An examination of this portion of the work, extending to

106 pages, renders us only the more desirous that he may soon be

enabled to return home and complete the remainder of the book.

In this part we are given short, but sufficiently full characters of all

Bibliographical Notices. 517

the plants found in the Madeiran Isles which belong to the Thalami-

florcus Orders. The author seems to have spared no labour requisite

to render his book complete. It is arranged somewhat on the plan

of Babington’s ‘Manual of British Botany,’ although usually rather

fuller in idbtail than that work, and containing many more critical

remarks than were there requisite. The European botanist will find

much to study in it; and even the especially British student cannot

fail to rise with profit from its perusal. According to the views of

the lamented Professor E. Forbes, Madeira forms one of the remains

of the ancient great Atlantic continent, and accordingly possesses

a part of its flora. ‘This book tends to show that those views were

well founded ; for a very large proportion of the plants here described

are also natives of the south-east of Europe, and not a few of them

inhabit England and Ireland.

Mr. Lowe divides the island into four zones relatively to elevation.

As might be expected, we find very few British plants noticed »as

characteristic of the lower two of these zones, which extend from the

level of the sea toan elevation of 2500 feet, and “below whose upper

limit snow never lies longer than a few hours.” Viola odorata,

Fragaria vesca, Agrimonia Eupatoria, Lobelia urens, Brachypodium

pinnatum, Triodia decumbens, Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Agrostis

canina, and Ceterach officinarum may be mentioned, and all of them

seem to be confined to the second zone.

Water-plants are of course almost altogether wanting in a country

where all the streams are torrents. — >

Fumaria capreolata is not included in the flora, but is represented

by the #. muralis (Sond.), which is probably confounded with it in

Britain and other western parts of Europe. J. Vaillantii is perhaps

‘incorrectly combined with J. parviflora: in England, they certainly

seem to be distinct.

The name of Viola sylvestris (Lamk.) is adopted for the V’. sylva-

tica (Fries), with the remark, that the latter name is very inappro-

priate in Madeira. Unfortunately, Lamarck’s plant is the VY. eanina,

and therefore his is net “the original name”’ of Fries’s plant.

The Tamarix anglica (Webb) is rejoined to the 7’. gallica (Linn.),

with the remark, concerning the hypogynous disk, that it is ‘‘ nor-

mally 8-10-lobed, the lobes united in pairs, often indistinct or

obsolete.”

We are surprised to find that the only Pink is Dianthus prolifer.

Silene maritima (Wither.) is said to pass “by a thousand inter-

mediate gradations into” S. inflata.

The name Spergularia is employed in place of the older term,

used generically, of Lepigonum. Many botanists seem determined

to overlook the fact that Persoon (who is always quoted as the au-

thority for it) did not consider his group Spergularia as a genus, and

that Wahlenberg first placed the plants in a distinct genus, calling

them Lepigonum. According to the recognized laws of nomenclature,

his name ought therefore to be adopted.

The Geranium purpureum (Vill.) is separated from G. Robertianum,

and the G. Robertianum 3. (Smith) and G. Rati (Lindl.) quoted as

518 Bibliographical Notices.

synonyms of it. It is remarked, that there are ‘no intermediate

states between it and G. Robertianum, {. maritimum (Bab.), although

the two are found constantly growing intermixed. Few plants, in

fact, are either more constant in their differences, or more easily dis-

criminated.”” “In higher, shady spots, G. Robertianum 3. retains

all its hairiness ; G. purpureum (Vill.) growing by its side becomes,

on the contrary, smoother.”’

We have only to add a strong recommendation of this book to the

notice of botanists.

The Grasses of Great Britain. Wlustrated by J. E. Sowersy ;

described by C. Jonnson. Parts 1 and 2. 8vo, London, 1857.

It is probable that this series of plates of Grasses will fulfil the

object intended, namely, to supply to those who are interested in

them, as agriculturists rather than botanists, the means of ascertain-

ing the names of Grasses, and also to give an account of their value

to the farmer. No pretension seems to be made to advance science

by this publication, and neither the plates nor the letter-press are of

much use to the botanist. We cannot avoid thinking that it was

quite possible to have rendered the plates of scientific value, without

detracting from their practical utility. Dissected flowers are figured,

but they 2 are not so executed as to give confidence in their scientific

accuracy, and it is very doubtful if they will be of any value to the

unscientific reader.

The Insect Hunters ; or, Entomology in Verse. 12mo, 1857, London.

It is not often that we have to notice a scientific work written in

verse,—indeed we believe that none such has ever been mentioned in

this Journal. That now before us is a very clever poem, intended

to present to young entomologists a concise statement of the classi-

fication of Insects. The metre is similar to that of Longfellow’s

well-known ‘ Hiawatha,’ and it is wonderful to remark how well the

troublesome details of science are expressed in it. A rather careful

examination has convinced us that the characters of the orders and

tribes of Insects are very accurately given by the author. May his

hope that it will tend to popularize’ this interesting science, be fully

realized! How far the uninitiated will appreciate it, is hard to say ;

but certainly those who have attained to some knowledge of entomo-

logy will read it with pleasure and profit. Although no author’s

name appears in the book, it may apparently be fairly referred to

the pen of the well-known Edw. Newman, who has done so much

for scientific entomology, and been the chief cause of the present

popularity of the study of Ferns.

Zoological Society. 519

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

June 23, 1857.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., V.P., in the Chair.

Description or New Genera or Gorcontap#. By Dr.

JoHN Epwarp Gray, F.R.S., F.L.S., V.P. Z. & Ent. Soc.

1. SARCOGORGIA.

The coral rather irregularly furcately branched on a single plane.

The axis black, cylindrical, thick at the base, with slender flexible

branchlets. The bark fleshy ; in the dry state, thin, like a continuous

skin, smooth, without spicula, with rather close, more or less raised

cells, strengthened with a quantity of sand-like, granular spicula.

This genus is at once distinguished from all the other Gorgonie

that I have seen, by its thin, smooth, skin-like bark studded with

sandy, more or less raised, wart-like cells, which on the thick stem are

numerous all round the surface, scarcely raised, while on the thinner

branchlets they are further apart, and form prominent wart-like

cells.

The axis is olive-brown, formed of concentric lamin, which often

show a space between them at the fractures. When the bark is soaked

in potash it is rather thick and flesh-like, and the cells are surrounded

with a single series of rather regularly disposed, nearly equal-sized,

angular, sand-like, transparent particles, forming a sheath to the

polype..

The tentacles of the polypes, when examined in this state, are

thick, conical, and simple, without any indication of the pinnate tu-

bereles which are to be seen in the living Gorgonia, according to the

observations of most naturalists.

I know of only a single species of the genus, which was purchased

of a dealer in natural history at Liverpool, without any habitat,

SARCOGORGIA PHIDIPPUS.

2. SUBERGORGIA.

Coral fureately branched, rather compressed, with a continued

sunken groove up the middle of each side. Cells rather prominent,

convex, in two or three somewhat irregular series up each edge. Axis

pale brown, wart-like, formed of rather loosely concentric fibrous

laminee, containing a large quantity of calcareous matter, and effer-

vescing with muriatic acid. The bark when dry is rather thin,

smooth, hard and granular within.

SUBERGORGIA SUBEROSA.

Gorgonia suberosa, Esper. t. 49.

This genus, and the genera Junceella, Ctenocella, and Gorgonella

520 Zoclogical Society :-—

of Valenciennes, should be arranged with Coral/ium under the family

Coralliida, characterized by having a calcareous axis.

DESCRIPTION OF A RABBIT SAID TO BE FOUND ON THE HiIMaA-—

LAYAN Mountains. By A. D. Bartiett.

This animal is smaller than the domestic Rabbit, being shorter

and more compact ; its body is pure white, the nose, ears, legs and

tail are of a dark brownish-black, the eyes dark red.

The fur is much shorter and more nearly equal in length than in

the common Rabbit. The young are perfectly white all over until

they are five or six weeks old, at ‘which time the nose and tail begin

to get dark-coloured ; the feet soon afterwards get dark, and lastly

the ears turn black.

In their movements they appear quicker than other rabbits, and

they jump a considerable distance ; some in my possession I have

seen leap upon objects 3 feet from the ground. The first specimens

of these animals that came under my notice were obtained by Mr.

Baker, who informed me that they came from the Himalayas. I

have since seen a large number of ‘them, and in no instance have I

observed any variation in the colour or markings. They are prolific

breeders, and appear extremely hardy.

Having some recollection of hearing a furrier once speak of the

skins of the Polish Rabbit, I took an opportunity a few days since to

examine a large quantity of these skins at a fur warehouse, when I

found that they were beyond all doubt from the animal now under no-

tice. Upon inquiry I was told that these skins are imported into this

country in large numbers, and extensively used as a substitute for

ermine, which fur they much resemble. I find in Mulsant, ‘ Cours

Elémentaire d’ Histoire Naturelle,’ the following :—‘“ The fur of the

White Rabbit, even that of the Polish Rabbit, is easily distinguished

from that of the ermine, by its less cylindrical hairs, which are con-

siderably longer than the down.” I am also informed that they

are bought at the great sale of furs that takes place annually at

Leipsic ; to this great fair, skins are brought from all parts of the

world, and I think it highly probable that these skins are imported

from the mountainous parts of Asia.

T have not at present examined the skull of this animal, but should

I find sufficient difference upon comparing it with the skulls of the

other known species, I shall then propose for it the name of Lepus

nigripes, or Black-footed Rabbit.

July 14, 1857.—Dr. Gray, F.R.S., V.P., in the Chair.

Mr. Gould having returned from a visit to the United States,

whither he had proceeded for the purpose of studying the habits and

manners of the species of Trochilus frequenting that portion of the

American continent, detailed some of the results of his observations.

Having arrived just prior to the period of the bird’s migration

from Mexico to the north, and having had ample opportunities for

Mr. J. Gould on Ceriornis Caboti. 5a]

observing it in a state of nature, he noticed that its actions were very

peculiar, and quite different from those of all other birds: the flight

is performed with a motion of the wings so rapid as to be almost

imperceptible ; indeed the muscular power of this little creature ap-

pears to be very great in every respect, as, independently of its rapid

and sustained flight, it grasps the small twigs, flowers, &c. upon

which it alights with great firmness, and if wounded clings to them

with the utmost tenacity : it appears to be most active in the morn-

ing and evening, and to pass the middle of the day under the shade

of the thick leafy branches. Occasionally it occurs in such numbers,

that fifty or sixty may be seen on a single tree. When captured,

it so speedily becomes tame, that it will feed from the hand or

mouth within half an hour. Successful in keeping one alive during

a long railway journey, in a gauze bag attached to his breast-button,

for three days, during which it readily fed from a small bottle filled

with a syrup of brown sugar and water, Mr. Gould determined to

attempt the bringing of some living examples to England, in which

he succeeded, but unhappily they did not long survive their arrival

in London, and died on the second day: had they lived, it was his

intention to have sent them to the Society’s Gardens, where they

would doubtless have been objects of great attraction. Mr. Gould

added, that he was certain that they might be readily brought to this

country ; that they would live in the gardens at least during the

months of summer, and that the captains of any of the great steamers

now voyaging between England and America would willingly render

the assistance requisite to effect this desirable object.

Mr. Gould exhibited a highly interesting species of Ceriornis,

whieh he had found in the Collection of Dr. Cabot of Boston, who,

with the greatest liberality, permitted him to bring it to England

for the purpose of comparison and description. ‘The appearance of

this bird is very singular, and the uniform buff colouring of the

breast would lead to the supposition that it is merely a variety of

one or other of the previously known species of the genus ; but the

greater length of the tarsi, and the well-defined markings of the

back, forbid such a conclusion. For this new bird, forming the

fourth species of the genus, Mr. Gould proposed the name of

Crerrornis Caxort.

Forehead, sides of the head, nape and chin, black ; crest and sides

of the neck deep red; all the upper surface mottled with black, rich

chestnut, and buffy white, the latter colour assuming the form of a

large circular spot at the tip of each feather; this buff mark greatly

increasing in size on the scapularies and the greater wing- and tail-

coverts; primaries and tail-feathers very dark brown, crossed with

toothed markings of buff mottled with black ; breast and under sur-

face deep sandy buff stained with red, and black on the flanks, under

tail-coverts and thighs.

Total length, 18} inches; bill, 12; wing, 10; tail, 71; tarsi, 31;

middle toe and nail, 23.

Hab. China.

Ann. & Mag. N, Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xx. Suppl. 34.

522 Zoological Society :—

Remark.—This species is more nearly allied to C. Temmineki than

to the other members of the genus. The specimen is believed to be

unique.

July 28, 1857.—Professor Busk, F.R.S., in the Chair.

DeEscripTIONs or SEvEN New SHELLS FROM THE COLLEC-

TION OF THE Hon. Str Davip Barctuay, or Port Lovis,

Mavritivus. By Love.u REEvE, F.L.S., F.G.S.

Sir David Barclay, a gentleman resident at the Mauritius, and

long known to conchologists as a zealous collector of shells, having

availed himself of the occasion of visiting this country to bring a few

of the rarer specimens of his cabinet for comparison, I have, at his

request, examined them, and selected the following as beg new :—

1. Srrompus TAuRus. Strom. testa ovata, crassissima, pon-

derosa ; spira exserta, nodoso-tuberculata; anfractibus trans-

versim striatis et tenuiliratis, ultimo superne obtuse angulato

et perampliter bi- tri-tuberculato, tuberculo obliquo peramplo

infra in medio ornato ; columella densissime callosa, superne

Sere ad apicem appresse dilatata ; apertura subcontracta, labro

dense incrassato, tuberculis peramplis obtusis armato superne

bidactylo, dactylo supremo elongato, curvato ; albida, aurantio-

Susco variegata et sparsim vittata, columella et apertura fauce

rubido-carneo tinctis.

Long. 34 poll., lat. 22 poll.

Hab. Amirante Islands, a group of the Seychelles.

This remarkable shell, which Sir David Barclay has for some time

past known as an undescribed species, and distinguished in his

cabinet by the above name, is curiously intermediate in its generic

characters between Strombus and Pterocera. In detail of pattern

and sculpture it resembles.S. Jaciniatus, but there is a large central

oblique tuberele on the back, and the lip is thickened into two very

large obtuse oblong tubercles, the upper part being produced into

two decided Pterocera claws, one of which is prolonged in a curved

manner to the extent of an inch and a half. The specimen has

rather the appearance of being malformed ; but notwithstanding this

seeming irregularity of growth, there is no doubt whatever of its

being specifically distinct from any hitherto described form.

2. Cyprza Barcriayi. Cypr. testa pyriformi-ovata, subumbili-

cata; dorso elevatiusculo, extremitatibus eleganter calloso-pro-

ductis, subrostratis ; basi convexa; dentibus utrinque octo-

decim ad novemdecim fortibus tumidiusculis ; interstittis con-

spicue sulcatis, profundis ; dentibus exterioribus super labrum

decurrentibus, medianis bifidis ; nitente, alba, dorso aurantio-

spadiceo undique eximie punctato et lentiginoso, extremitatibus

aurantio-spadiceo tinctis.

Long. 1 poll., lat. 2 poll.

Hab. Island of Diego Garcia, a dependency of Mauritius (taken

on a block of coral dredged up from deep water).

Mr. Lovell Reeve on new Shells. 523

An exquisitely delicate species in the finest possible condition,

perfectly unlike any of this favourite genus hitherto known. It is

of an elegantly pyriform shape, with the extremities rather produced;

the teeth on each side the aperture being especially characteristic,

from their strong development and deeply grooved interstices. The

painting is a delicate profusion of orange-buff dots of different degrees

of tone upon a shining pearl-white ground; the extremities and

teeth, the outer of which extend nearly across the base, being tinged

with the orange-buff in a darker and brighter hue.

3. Pyruta (Rurizocuitus) De Burcuiz. Pyr. testa pyri-

Sormi-ovata, subanguste umbilicata; spira breviuscula, tur-

rita ; anfractibus superne late angulato-expansis, ad angulum

squamis subamplis plano-compressis flabellatim coronatis, infra

basin versus attenuatis, undique dense liratis, liris subtilissime

serratis ; alba, aperture fauce sulcata.

Long. 12 poll., lat. 14 poll.

Hab. China.

A beautifully turbinated pagoda-like shell, being coronated through-

out the expanded angle of the whorls with large compressed fan-

shaped scales. It is of the same peculiar typical form as the Pyrula

Mawe, the umbilicus being, however, much more contracted, and is

believed to be an inhabitant of the same locality.

I have the pleasure of naming this very delicate and remarkable

species in honour of Mrs. De Burgh, a lady, whose warm assiduity

and zeal in collecting shells is equalled by her intelligent apprehen-

sion of their characters and correct estimation of their comparative

rarity and beauty.

4. Trocuus (EucHELE) ALABASTRUM. Tro. testa subdepresso-

conoidea, anguste profunde umbilicata ; spira exserta ; sutura

peculiariter profunde excavata ; anfractibus deinde concavis, et

fortiter tricarinatis, carinis subirregulariter undatis et eaqui-

site serratis; calcareo-alba, carinis punctis nigris subdistantibus

peculiariter notatis.

Long. 2 poll., lat. 2 poll.

Hab. \sland of Diego Garcia, a dependency of the Mauritius.

Of this very striking species there is a second specimen in the col-

lection of Mr. Cuming. It is of a pure chalk-white substance,

strongly spirally grooved and keeled throughout, the keels being

sparsely dotted with black.

5. Murex Barcutayi. Mur. testa trigono-ovata, canali bre-

viuscula, recurva ; spira brevi, acuminata ; anfractibus transver-

sim tenuissime serrato-liratis et striatis, longitudinaliter tri-

varicosis, varicibus basin versus conspicue fimbriato-laminatis,

interstitiis trisertatim tuberculatis et nodatis ; rosaceo-alba,

purpurascente et ferrugineo-carneo tincta et maculata.

Long. 31 poll., lat. 13 poll.

Hab. St. Brandon Shoal, near Mauritius (thrown on shore after

a hurricane).

34%

32-4 Miscellaneous.

This very beautiful species is very closely allied to a shell in Mr.

Cuming’s collection, which has been attributed by Mr. Sowerby, in

his *Conchological Mlustrations,’ to M. trigonulus, Lamarck. It

is also as closely allied to a shell in the collection of the King of

Denmark, which was figured for that species by myself in the ‘ Con-

chologia Ieonica.” From both, however, it is sufficiently distinct to

establish its claim to rank as a new species.

6. CycLosroMa TUBULUM. Cycl. testa imperforata, turbinata ;

spira elevatiuscula ; anfractibus rotundatis, levibus ; apertura

circulari ; labro eleganter expanso ; lutescente-alba, nigricanti-

Susco multifasciata.

Lat. 1+ poll.

Hah. ?

This very elegant species partakes of the characters of C. Belairi

and Boivini, but is quite distinct from either of those species. There

is no umbilicus and very little umbilical callosity. The bands are

peculiar in extending over the expanded lip to the extreme edge.

7. CycLtostoma Evciunitx. Cycl. testa subprofunde umbilicata,

subdepresso-orbiculari ; spira brevi ; anfractibus ad suturam

leviter impressis, deinde convexis, spiraliter dense elevato-

striatis, in medio acute tenuicarinatis ; apertura circulari,

labro (in hoe specimine) simplici; fulvescente-spadicea, infra

castaneo plus minus tenue vittata.

Lat. 1 poll.

Hab. Mauritius (found in the heights of Flacq, at the roots of a

Bois-de-Natte tree).

Most nearly allied to C.. filosum, but of lighter texture and warmer

colour.

MISCELLANEOUS.

British EpRIOPHTHALMA.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Plymouth, Dee. 16, 1857.

GENTLEMEN,—Further opportunities and more extended investi-

gations compel me to make the following corrections in the Synopsis

of the British Edriophthalma recently published in the Annals :—

1. Instead of adopting Dana’s arrangement of the genus Orchestia,

and making Talitrus a subgenus, it will be more in accordance with

our present knowledge to divide Talitrus itself into two genera, as

has been done by Nicolet and Stimpson, and thus adopt the genus

Orchestoidea of the former (Gay’s ‘ Chili’), which is synonymous

with Megalorchestia of the latter (Proc. Nat. Hist. Society Boston,

‘Crust. &c, Pacific Shores of North America’).

Miscellaneous. 525

The classification of these animals will therefore stand thus :—

Genus Talitrus,

*Orchestoidea,

Talorchestia,

Orchestia,

of which the first and last only are British.

2. Lysianassa Chausica in the synopsis (not Edwards’s) is evi-

dently L. longicornis of Lucas (‘ Exped. to Algiers’).

3. The genus Tetromatus, mihi, Pseudophthalmus, Stimpson, is

synonymous with Ampelisca of Kroyer. This was kindly pointed

out to me by Mr. Stimpsont.

4. The term Pontoporeides cannot stand for that of the sub-

family as arranged in the synopsis, inasmuch as Pontoporeia of

Kroyer is itself so closely allied to dnonyx, that it must be placed in

the subfamily Lysianassides. It is therefore proposed to adopt the

term Phovides for the subfamily that embraces the genus Phoxus, &c.

5. Phoxus Kréyerti, mihi, will be changed into P. simplex; the

former specific name having previously been used by Mr. Stimpson

in the same genus.

§. After P. Holbélli, read Kroyer instead of mihi.

7. The genus Lonchomerus is evidently that of Lalasia of Lucas

(‘ Exped. to Algiers’ ).

8. In the genus Iphimedia, the species I. Eblane, mihi (Nat.

Hist. Review) is to be added.

9. In the note relative to Gam. fluviatilis, instead of to Edwards,

reference should have been made to Latreille, ‘ Dict. d’ Hist. Nat.’

10. There is to be added to the genus Siphonocetus of Kroyer the

species Cerapus Whitei of Gosse: this may probably be synonymous

with S. Krdéyeranus, mihi.

11. In the subfamily Corophiides, Unciola irrostrata of Say is

to be added. But from an examination of Mr. Gosse’s specimen,

kindly placed by that gentleman in my possession for the purpose,

the species appears to be synonymous with Glauconome leucopis of

Kroyer.

12. After Hyperia oblivia, read Kroyer instead of Edwards.

13. Cyamus gracilis (Gosse) should have been C. Thomsoni,

Gosse, Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. xviii. 1855.

I am, Gentlemen,

Yours obediently,

C. Spence Bare.

* Orchestoidea tuberculata (Nicolet) is synonymous with Talitrus in-

sculptus of Dana.

+ “There being now no animal named Tetromatus, it will be desirable

that the title of the subfamily Tetromatides should be changed into Am-

peliscades.”

526 Miscellaneous.

On Circulation in Plants. By A. Tricun. (Second Part*.)

During the life of a plant all the liquids are in motion in each of

the utricles of which it is composed, either to carry into these

the elements necessary for their growth, or for the formation of the

amylaceous, saccharine or albuminoid principles, &c., to which they

give origin, or to remove from them those substances which have

become useless and which require to be eliminated, or those which

have to be carried to other parts of the plant to serve for the multi-

plication of the cells and the growth of the individual. It is this

general movement that constitutes the circulation; but this name is

usually given to definite currents, more perceptible than this general

intracellular movement, which traverse the plant through its whole

length from top to bottom and from the bottom to the top.

It is to this double current that I give the name of the great cir-

culation. I have also indicated the venous circulation, which takes

place, as I have stated, in the laticiferous vessels.

The great circulation is observed in all vascular plants; but the

laticiferous vessels have not yet been detected im all plants which

possess vessels.

The great circulation therefore consists of an ascending current of

the sap, and of a descending current. Let us first of all take the

former into consideration. It takes place in the vessels which

receive and elaborate the juices drawn from the soil by the roots.

When this ascent commences, all the cells are at work. The nutri-

tive substances which they contain arrange themselves by assimi-

lation. Starch, dissolved no doubt by diastase, and converted into

sugar, as has been shown by MM. Payen and Persoz, is carried to

the parts where the cellular multiplication is to take place. The

starch of the base of the buds serves for the alimentation of the

latter ; that of the bark passes into the internal cells of that part of

the plant, which very probably also receives some by the medullary

rays. It is under the influence of these nutritive materials that the

increase in diameter by the multiplication of cells commences. This

multiplication at starting really takes place without the aid of the

sap elaborated by the leaves, for in many of our trees the layer of

young cells (generative layer, also called cambium) acquires a con-

siderable thickness before the appearance of the leaves.

These first pheenomena make their appearance with the ascent of

the sap. This, in rising, undergoes an elaboration, with which I am

not sufficiently acquainted to speak of it at greater length; I shall

content myself with indicating the beautiful experiments of M. Biot,

which have shown us the changes which sugar undergoes during the

progress of this sap. During its ascent it already contains assimilable

principles which may assist in the nutrition of the leaves and buds

(in which the spiral vessels make their appearance from below up-

wards) ; but in the spring these buds are indebted for their first

development especially to the alimentary substances amassed in the

neighbouring cells.

* See Annals, Dec. 1857, p. 467.

Miscellaneous. 527

The sap, which on its way takes part in the nutrition of the first

organs developed, arrives in the leaves, in the green parenchyma of

which it is submitted to a fresh elaboration, or in the chlorophyll-cells

of the stem of the fleshy plants destitute of leaves. The earbonic acid

of the air is absorbed and then decomposed during the day ; its

carbon is retained by the sap and its oxygen in great part rejected.

The sap, thus modified under the influence of respiration, takes its

course through the cortical cells, which it nourishes. It then aids

in the multiplication of the cells of the generative layer, which are

produced in horizontal series. A portion of these cells thus hori-

zontally multiplied forms a new layer of bark, the woody fibres and

medullary rays ; the others are converted into vessels in the following

mauner. The excess of the descending sap which is not employed

in the nutrition of the newly formed cells, or in thickening those

first developed, descends through certain of the newly formed cells ;

it dilates them, perforates them, and makes them take all the

characters of vessels, so that these cells, which, during the first

phase of their development, resembled all the others, appear sub-

sequently to be of a totally different nature,

It is this vascular formation, which takes place, as we see, from

above downwards, at the expense of cells origmating from a multi-

plication in horizontal series, that has led the authors of the theory

of descending fibres to believe that these vessels, of which they did

not recognize the nature, were true roots of the buds or leaves.

~ But all the sap absorbed by the old or new cells, whether for their

increase in size or thickness, or for the production of starch, albu-

minoid substances, &e., which are to serve for subsequent growth,

is not used up by the cells. These only assimilate a part of its

elements and reject the rest. It is this caput mortuum which, in

the form of resins, essential oils, &c., is collected in peculiar reser-

voirs, from which it is afterwards thrown outwards*; or the un-

assimilated matters are taken up by the laticiferous vessels, which

carry them back into the vessels properly so called (this is the

venous circulation). There these substances, which are usually

destitute of oxygen, are elaborated and oxidized by the action of

the oxygen derived from the air, which penetrates even to the

vessels by intercellular passages; they become again fitted for

assimilation. It would be from their oxidation, as I have already

stated, that the carbonic acid rejected by plants during the night

would be produced ; that which is produced during the day being

decomposed on its passage into the leaves under the influence of

light; its oxygen is poured out into the atmosphere together with

that arising from the decomposition of the carbonic acid taken

directly from the air by respiration.

The vessels produced by the descending sap, serve in the following

years for the ascent of the juices. ‘They are filled therewith as long

as the vegetation is very active, but usually empty themselves when

* Tt is undoubtedly emissions of this nature and of this origin that con-

stitute what are called the excretions of the roots, of which agriculture

seeks to turn to account in the rotation of crops.

528 Miscellaneous.

the juices drawn from the soil become less abundant or cease alto-

gether.

The experiments which I described in a memoir read to the

Academy on the 25th of July 1853, prove in the most evident

manner the course of the descending sap; for when obstacles are

opposed to the progress of this sap, by means of ligatures, or of

spiral, annular, or semicircular decortications, the course of the sap

may be changed at pleasure. It then gives origin to very sinuous

vessels, presenting vertical parts and others oblique or horizontal,

which are always formed of cells elongated vertically, that is to say,

parallel to the axis of the SEL and of which the form, which is not

generally changed, is similar to that of the surrounding cells. The

sinuosities of these vessels show the currents of the sap progressing

through the cells of the generative layer, turning in all directions to

find an issue, perforating the cells from above downwards or hori-

zontally, according as the current is vertical, oblique or horizontal.

All these facts prove evidently that it is the circulation that pro-

duces the vessels,—that is to say, that it is the function that creates

the organ.

Since the circulation exists before the vessels, when there are

only simple cells through the walls of which the sap filters, the ob-

jection made by some anatomists to the existence of the circulation

in the laticiferous vessels, an objection founded on the cellular

structure of these vessels in certain plants, does not possess the

importance which they assign to it, as we see the dotted aa striped

vessels, &c., formed by a current of sap pre-existing through im-

perforate cells; and moreover these anatomists should consider that

there is not a living cell which is not traversed by juices, although

the great majority ‘of these cells do not present any perforation

visible by means of our mest powerfvl microscopes. And then

there are laticiferous vessels which are evidently composed of super-

posed cells, the transverse partitions of which present very wide

apertures (the laticiferous vessels of Musa, formed of large cells

with very thin walls, are fine examples of this).— Comptes Rendus,

Oct. 5, 1857, p. 466.

SEPIA OFFICINALIS.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Weymouth, December 14, 1857.

GENTLEMEN,—The beach at Weymouth was this morning strewed

with the Cuttle-bone (Sepia officinalis). Within the space of half a

mile I believe I might have gathered a thousand. In no instance

could I find a portion of the animal. Apparently there has been no

weather to account — such an unusual occurrence, it having been

moderate for many days, with a slight southerly wind.

This mollusk is but rarely found mien e, though after a storm a few

stray specimens of the so- called bones are thrown up.

I am, Gentlemen, your most obedient Servant,

Rosert Damon.

Miscellaneous. 529

On the Spheerovolus stellatus.

By the Rev. H. H. Hieerns, M.A.

The author exhibited a drawing of this plant, in various stages of

development, the several processes of which the reverend gentleman

had had an opportunity of witnessing. He had found the plant, a

minute species of Fungus, in the neighbourhood of Huyton Quarry,

on the 20th of September. It was growing on the flat surface of a

stump, near the ground. He took it home, with a portion of the

wood on which it was growing, and placed it on a bed of damp sand

covered with a glass shade. A cluster of similar plants soon sprang

up, and the mode of growth in a single specimen was this :—-At first

appears a little patch of reticulated fibres, the centre of which becomes

elevated from beneath by the growth of the young plant, which at

length bursts through the web, and assumes the colour and size of a

grain of mustard-seed. Subsequently it becomes egg-shaped, and

attains a height of about a line. A star-like fissure now divides the

apex of the plant into five or six equal segments, which fall back like

the petals of a flower, and discover the inner or lining membrane,

resembling a minute egg-cup, and containing a sporanyium or ball of

spores. At the period of maturity, this inner membrane suddenly

turns itself imside out, with an audible snap, projecting the sporan-

gium to a distance of several inches. The inside of the glass shade

used as a cover for the plants became spotted with forty or fifty of

these sporangia, which had been ejected with such force as to flatten

them against the glass.

A portion of the spore-pulp, under a high magnifier, exhibited in-

numerable minute particles, displaying with great activity the ordinary

Brownian movements. When the pulp was taken from an unripe

-sporangium, there were also to be seen, by the aid of iodine and a

magnifier with very good power of definition, certain other bodies of

a linear or slender oblong shape, many times the size of the moving

particles, and quite pellucid. ‘These appeared to be attacked and

entered by the particles; but whether the linear bodies afterwards

became developed into perfect spores, the observer was not able to

ascertain.— Proc. Lit. and Phil. Soc. of Liverpool, Nov. 17, 1856.

The Grape Disease.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Sheffield, Dec. 9, 1857.

GENTLEMEN,—Without at all questioning the influence of the

Oidium as a cause of the grape-blight, there can be little doubt that

in this, as in all similar epidemics, some predisposing cause will be

found, by which the vital energies of the organism affected (plant or

animal) are depressed, and a vantage-point is thus offered to the

disease. We know that if a vegetable be planted in soil totally de-

prived of some one of the necessary ingredients, it is unable to exist.

Tf, however, instead of the missing constituent, there be found some

580 Miscellaneous.

analogous substance, the plant may continue to liye, though in less

perfect health. Thus potash may be to a certain extent replaced by

soda, and, as has been observed im certain samples of tobacco, even

by lime. In the case of the grape, no rotation of crops is possible,

and the probability of exhaustion is therefore so much the greater.

The juice of the grape is very rich in potash, which is deposited, on

standing, in the form of crude tartar. This potash is not returned

to the soil, but is consumed for manufacturing purposes. Without

having had the opportunity of proving this view by analysis, I am of

opinion that the soil of old vineyards will be found deficient in pot-

ash. As ameans of remedying this defect, I suggest that granite

should be heated to redness, plunged in water, and ground to powder.

Let this be well mixed with about half its weight of lime, and the

mass be exposed for some time to the action of the atmosphere.

This compost may then be sparingly applied as a manure to the vines.

J. W. SLATER.

On the Cause of the Rhythmic Motion of the Heart.

By James Pacer, Esq., F.R.S.

The author draws the following conclusions as to the most pro-

bable explanation of the rhythmic action of the heart :—

1. In the Vertebrata it is due to the time-regulated discharges of

nerve-force in certain of the ganglia in and near the substance of the

heart, by which discharges the muscular walls are excited to con-

traction.

2. In Invertebrata, the corresponding pulsatile movements of

hearts or vessels are probably independent of nerve-force.

3. The time-regulated rhythmic action, whether of the nervous

centres or of the independent contractile walls, is due to their nutri-

tion being rhythmic, 2. e. to their being, in certain periods, by nutri-

tive changes of composition, raised, with regulated progress, to a

state of instability of composition, in their decline from which they

discharge nerve-force, or change their shape, contracting.

4, The muscular substance of the heart in the Vertebrata, governed

in its rhythmic action by appropriate nervous centres, has a

rhythmic nutrition of its own, corresponding and coordinate with

theirs ; the impairments of its structure during action being repaired

in repose.

5. Rhythmic nutrition is a process in accordance with the general

laws of organic life, very many organic processes being composed of

timely-regulated alternate action and inaction, or alternate opposite

actions, 7. e. being rhythmical, with larger or shorter units of time;

and all organic processes beg chronometric, 7. e. ordered according

to laws of time as exact, and only as much influenced by external

conditions, as are those relating to weight, size, shape, and com-

position.— Proc. of Roy. Soc. May 28, 1857.

531

INDEX to VOL. XX.

Acanruocorcta, deseription of the

new genus, 461.

Achorion Schonleini, on the identity

of, with Aspergillus glaucus, 152.

Actinopsis, description of the new

genus, 400

Adams, A., on the animal of Turbo

Sarmaticus and other mollusca, 41.

Agelasta, new species of, 213.

Algee, on the process of fecundation

in, 252.

Amphioxus lanceolatus, on the habits

of, 330.

Anabates, new species of, 472.

Anderson, T., on the Indian species

_of Lycium, 126.

Anisocerus, new species of, 212.

Annelides, descriptions of new, 155.

Anodonta, on the vascular system of,

160.

Antipathes, on the animal of the

genus, 460.

Ant-thrushes, on some apparently

new species of, 376.

Asbjérnsen, P. C., on a new genus of

star-fish, 320.

Ascidize, on new and rare Diatomacez

from the stomachs of, 158.

Aspergillus glaucus, on the identity

of Achorion Schonleini with, 152.

Asterias aurantiacus, on the food and

digestion of, 330.

Astrogonium, new species of, 47.

Astropecten, new species of, 46, 319.

Babington, C. C., on the occurrence

of Gladiolus imbricatus in Hamp-

shire, 158.

Baikie, Dr. B., on the skull of a Ma-

natus from Western Africa, 66; on

the skull of a species of Mecistops,

310; on the species of Crocodilus

of Central Africa, 378.

are Cavern, on the fauna of the,

Barrett, L.,on Echinodermatadredged

between Drontheim and the North

Cape, 43; on four new species of

Echinodermata, 46; on the distri-

bution of the Mollusca in depth on

the coasts of Nordland and Fin-

mark, 267.

Bartlett, A. D., on Chinese Sheep,

386; on a new species of Rabbit,

52U.

Bate, C. S., on the development of

Carcimus Meenas, 297; on the Bri-

tish Edriophthalma, 524,

Bats, new species of, 227, 388.

Bees, on a true parthenogenesis in,

48.

Berkeley’s (Rev. M. J.) Introduction

fe Cryptogamic Botany, reviewed,

Blackwall, J., on the male of Lycosa

tarentuloides Maderiana, and on

three new species of the genus

Lycosa, 283; on British Spiders,

497.

Blyth, E., on the Columbine, with

description of a new Indian Pigeon,

506.

Books, new: — Siebold’s Partheno-

genesis in Moths and Bees, 48;

Kingma’s Comparative Anatomy of

the Otolicnus Peli, 50; Berkeley’s

Cryptogamic Botany, 55; Steudel’s

Synopsis Plantarum Glumacearum,

57; Hartlaub’s System der Orni-

thologie West Afrika’s, 136 ; Sow-

erby’s Popular History of the Aqua-

532

rium, 138; White’s British Crus-

tacea, 141; Lowe’s Flora of Ma-

deira, 516; Sowerby’s Grasses of

Great Britain, 518; The Insect

Hunters, 518,

Botanical Society of Edinburgh, pro-

ceedings of the, 150, 303.

Bovine remains, lately found at Clac-

ton, Essex, on some, 397.

Bowerbank, J. S., on the anatomy

and physiology of the Spongiade,

298.

Brachiopoda, on the organization of

the, 141.

Briareum, new species of, 238.

Brisinga, description of the new genus,

320

Brodie, Rey. P. B., on the Lias of

Barrow in Leicestershire, 190.

Brown, J., on Elephant-remains from

the gravel near Ballingdon Hill,

Essex, 396; on bovine remains,

lately found at Clacton, Essex,

397.

Buckman, Prof., on the discovery of

Cnicus tuberosus at Avebury, Wilts,

337.

Buist, G., on the causes and phzno-

mena of the repulsion of water

from the feathers of water-fowl and

the leaves of plants, 148.

Bulla lignaria, on the food and di-

gestion of, 334.

Calanus, new British species of, 401.

Camptosoma, description of the new

genus, 470.

Carcinus Meenas, on the development

of, 297.

Carpenter, Dr. W. B., on the deve-

lopment of Purpura lapillus, 17,

127.

Carter, J. H., on the ultimate struc-

ture of Spongilla, 21 ; on the fresh-

water Infusoria of Bombay, 34.

Cecidomyia Tritici, observations on,

399.

Cephalopoda, on Hectocotylus-forma-

tion in the, 81.

Cereariz, observations on the, 129.

Ceriornis, new species of, 521.

Chapman, Prof. E. J., on the occur-

rence of the genus Cryptoceras in

Silurian rocks, 114.

Cheirotherium, notice respecting the,

471.

Chlenius, new species of, 371.

IND EX.

Chloéphaga magellanica, note on,

461.

Claparéde, M., on the development of

Neritina fluviatilis, 197.

Clark, W., on Rissoa pulcherrima,

262.

Clarke, B., on the production of va-

rieties and monstrous flowers by

pruning, 541.

Clymene, new species of, 156.

Cnicus tuberosus, on the discovery

of, at Avebury, Wilts, 337.

Coleoptera, descriptions of new, 117,

17/5 211, 273, 368, 505.

Columbine, remarks on the, 506.

Conopophaga, new species of, 376.

Coryeeus, new British species of,

408.

Cotinga, new species of, 380.

Couch, J., on the Midge-fly which

infests wheat, 399 ; on the species

of Whales observed on the coasts

of Cornwall, 424.

Craspedophorus, new species of, 117.

Creagris, characters of the new genus,

2h1-

Crocodilus, on the Central-African

species of, 378.

Crustacea, notes on British Edrioph-

thalmous, 524.

Crustaceans, fossil, descriptions of

new, 234, 235.

Cryptoceras, on the oceurrence of

the genus, im Silurian rocks, 114.

Cryptogams, descriptions of new, 514.

Currey, F., on the fructification of

certain Spheriaceous Fungi, 301.

Cyclosomus, new species of, 272.

Cyclostoma, new species of, 524.

Cypreea, new species of, 522.

Damon, R., on Sepia officinalis, 528.

Dana, J. D., on species, 485.

Danielssen, D. C., on the develop-

ment of the Star-fishes, 132; on

new genera of Actinie, 240, 400,

Daubrée, M., on footsteps of quadru-

peds in the New Red Sandstone,

471.

Dentalinm entalis, on the nervous

system of, 236.

Deucalion, new species of, 211.

Diaptomus, new British species of,

404.

Diatomacee, on the occurrence of

some new and rare, 158.

Dolium galea, on the saliva of, 75.

INDEX.

Duthiers, M. T. de L., on the nervous

system of Dentalinm entalis, 236.

Dysithamnus, new species of, 465.

EKarth-worm, uew species of, 13.

Echinodermata, new species of, 43,46.

Egerton, Sir P. de M., on the unity

of the genera Pleuracanthus, Di-

plodus and Xenacanthus, and on

the specific distinction of Xenacan-

thus Decheni, 423.

Elephant, on the placenta of the, 147 ;

fossil remains of, on some, 396.

Elsey, M., on the birds of Northern

Australia, 61.

Entomostraca, new British species of,

401.

Equisetacez, on the process of fecun-

dation in, 353.

Euphonia, new species of, 319.

Eupyrgus, new species of, 46.

Fairholme, Mr., on the Australian

Dugong, 80.

Falconer, Dr., on the species of Mas-

todon and Elephant occurring fossil

in Great Britain, 231.

Fauna of the Aru Islands, on the, 473.

Feathers of water-fowl, on the repul-

sion of water from the, 148.

Feeundation, on the process of, in

the vegetable kingdom, and its re-

lation to that in the animal king-

dom, 241, 344, 439.

Ferns, on the process of fecundation

in, 349.

Filippi, Dr. P. de, on the larve of

the Trematode worms, 129.

Foraminifera from the Feejee Islands,

on, 193; on the presence of motile

organs, and the power of locomo-

tion in, 365.

Formicarius, new species of, 376.

Formiciveora, new species of, 377, 463.

Fowls, on new varieties of domestic,

227.

Fungi, on the process of fecundation

in, 242; on the fructification of

certain Spheeriaceous, 301.

Gegenbaur, Prof. C., on Trachelius

ovum, 201.

Geological Society, proceedings of

the, 231.

Geoplana, new species of, 3.

Gladiolus imbricatus, on the occur-

rence of, in Hampshire, 158.

Glandular structures in plants, on cer-

tain, 303,

533

Gorgoniade, new genera of, 461, 519.

Gosse, P. H., on the presence of

motile organs, and the power of

lecomotion in Foraminifera, 365.

Gould, A. A., on the true Nautilus

umbilicatus of Lister, 57.

Gould, C., on a Crustacean from the

Lias Bone-bed, 234.

Gould, J., on some new species of

birds, 880; on the habits and man-

ners of the species of Trochilus,520 ;

on a new species of Ceriornis, 521.

Grallaria, new species of, 462.

Grape disease, note on the, 529.

Gray, Dr. J. E., on the genus Nec-

turus, 313; on the species of the

genus Manatus, 313; on the animal

of the genus Antipathes, 460; on

new genera of Gorgoniad, 461,

519 ; on a new species of Antelope,

466.

Seat Caan on the formation of,

161.

Halcyon, new species of, 380.

Halicore australis, on the habits of, 80.

Hancock, A., on the organization of

the Brachiopoda, 141.

Harpalus, new species of, 372.

Hartlaub’s (Dr.G.) Ornithologie West

Afrika’s, reviewed, 136.

Harvest mouse, on the occurrence of

the, in Cornwall, 77.

Heart, on the cause of the rhythmic

motion of the, 530,

Hectocotylus-formation in the Cepha-

lopoda, on, 81.

Herpsilochmus, new species of, 464.

Heteroglossa, characters of the new

genus, 279.

Higgins, Rey. H. H., on the Sphero-

bolus stellatus, 529.

Huxley, Prof. T. H., on the present

state of knowledge as to the struc-

ture and functions of nerve, 71 ; on

a Crustacean from the coal-mea-

sures, 235.

Hydatina senta, on the structure of,

288.

Hypocnemis, new species of, 377,463.

Infusoria of Bombay, on the fresh-

water, 34.

Isodonta, on the presence of the fossil

genus, in the English Jurassic

rocks, 367.

Isomalus, new species of, 504.

Kingma’s (P. H.) Observations on

534

the Comparative Anatomy of the

Otolicnus Peli, reviewed, 50.

Koren, J., on the development of the

Star-fishes, 132; on new genera of

Actinie, 240, 400.

Langer, Prof., on the vascular system

of Anodonta, 160.

Lasiurus, monograph ofthe genus,215.

Lawson, G., on dust-showers, 153;

on certain glandular structures in

plants, 303.

Lepidoptera, new species of, 383.

Lepithrix, description of the new

genus, 374.

Lepus, new species of, 520.

Levdig, Dr. F.,on Hydatinasenta, 288.

Lias of Barrow, in Leicestershire, on

the, 190.

Lichens, on the process of fecunda-

tion in, 248.

Lindsay, A.,onthe Amphioxus lanceo-

latus, 339.

Loligo Forbesii, description of, 84.

Lolium temulentum, on the properties

of, 153.

Lowe, J.,on the identity of Achorion

Schoénleiniwith Aspergillus glaucus,

152; on the properties of Lolium

temulentum, 153; on the develop-

ment of the Yeast-plant, 304.

Lubbock, J., on new British species

of Entomostraca, 401.

Lumbricus corethrurus, description

of, 13.

Lycett, J., on the sands intermediate

the Inferior Oolite and Lias of the

Cotteswold Hills, 170; on the

presence of the fossil genus Iso-

donta in the English Jurassic recks,

367.

Lycium, on the Indian species of, 126.

Lycosa, new species of, 284.

Lycosa tarentuloides Maderiana, on

the male of, 283.

M‘Andrew, R., on Echinodermata

dredged between Drontheim and

the North Cape, 43; on the distri-

bution of the Mollusca in depth on

the coasts of Nordland and Fin-

mark, 267.

Macdonald, J. D., on the microscopic

examination of Foraminifera ob-

tained in deep-sea bottoms at the

Feejee Islands, 193; on the natu-

ral history of the Conway Reef, 239 ;

on deep soundings in the Pacific,

INDEX.

and on the alimentary matter of

the Salpz, 265; on the anatomy

of Tridaena, 302.

Maclagan, Dr. D., on two cases of

poisoning with the seeds of The-

vetia nereifolia, 150.

Macmillan, Rev. H., on Cryptogamic

plants found near New Abbey, 303.

Manatus, on the skull of a, 66; on

the species of, 313.

Marten, on the habits of the, 416.

Martins, M. C., on the vitality of

seeds transported by marine cur-

rents, 317.

Mastodon, on the fossil species of,

occurring in Great Britain, 231.

Mecistops, on the skull of a species

of, 310.

Midge-fly which infests wheat, on the,

399.

Mohl, H. von, on the causes of the

opening and closing of stomates,

154; on the mode in which gum-

tragacanth is formed, 161.

Mollusca, notes on some, 42; on the

distribution of, in depth, im Nord-

land and Finmark, 267.

Moneilema, new species of, 211.

Monocrepidius, new species of, 505.

Monstrilla, new British species of,

409.

Moore, Dr. E., on the occurrence of

Urocerus gigas in Cornwall, 240.

Moore, F., on some new species of

Lepidopterous insects, 383.

Mosses, on the process of fecundation

in, 344,

Miiller, Dr. F., on the terrestrial

Planariz of Brazil, 2; on a new

species of Earth-worm, i3.

Murex, new species of, 523.

Murray, A., on Coleoptera from Old

Calabar, 117 ; on the insect which

a the seeds of Picea nobilis,

150.

Myrmeciza, new species of, 377.

Myrmecophaga jubata, on the ana-

tomy of, 59.

Mystacina, description of some species

of, 392.

Nautilus umbilicatus of Lister, on the

true, 57.

marr erg observations on the genus,

Neritina fluviatilis, on the develop-

ment of, 197.

INDEX.

Nerve, on the structure and functions

at. 41.

Nietner, J., on new Ceylon Coleo-

ptera, 177, 273.

Norman, G., on some new and rare

Diatomacez, 158.

Notomastus, characters of the new

genus, 155.

Ochthephilus, characters of the new

genus, 275.

Octopus vulgaris, observations on, 336.

Oosoma, description of the new genus,

368.

Oryx, new species of, 466.

Otolicnus Peli, on the comparative

anatomy of, 50.

Owen, Prof., on the anatomy of the

Great Ant-eater, 59; onthe placenta

of the Elephant, 147; on Placodus

Andriani, 399.

Pachyrhamphus, new species of, 398.

Paget, J., on the cause of the rhyth-

mic motion of the heart, 530.

Paleaster, new species of, 325.

Palzocoma, description of the new

genus, 327,

Palodiscus, description of the new

genus, 332,

Palasterina, new species of, 327.

Papilio, new species of, 385.

Paradisea apoda, on the habits of the,

411.

_Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees,

on, 48; in plants, 204.

Parus meridionalis, observations on,

381. ;

Peach, C. W., on the occurrence of

the Harvest mouse in Cornwall, 77.

Phzedinus, new species of, 2] 2.

Phaleria, new species of, 505,

Phoebe, new species of, 213.

Picea nobilis, on the insect which n-

fests the seeds of, 150.

Pieris, new species of, 383.

Pigeon, description of a new, 506.

Pinna nobilis, observations on, 336.

Pitta, new species of, 381.

Placodus Andriani, on the reptilian

nature of, 399.

Planariz, on the terrestrial, 1.

Plants, on true parthenogenesis in,

204; on the process of fecundation

in, 241, 344, 439; on certain glan-

dular structures in, 303; habitats

for rare British, 303; on circulation

in, 467 ; 526,

535

Pleuracanthus, Diplodus and Xena-

canthus, on the unity of the genera,

423,

Polypes, descriptions of new, 238.

Pontella, new British species of, 406.

Pontellina, new British species of 407.

Power, Madame J., on the habits of

various marine animals, 334; on

the habits of the Marten, 416.

Protaster, new species of, 331.

Pruning, on the production of varieties

and monstrous flowers by, 341.

Pteraster militaris, on the develop-

ment of, 133.

ips on the development of, 17,

127.

Pygocephalus Cooperi, description of,

235.

Pyrula, new species of, 523.

Radlkofer, Dr. L., on true partheno-

genesis in plants, 204; on feeun-

dation in the vegetable kingdom,

and its relation to that in the ani-

mal kingdom, 241, 344, 439.

Reeve, L., on some new species of

shells, 522.

Rhizoxenia, new species of, 238.

Rissoa pulcherrima, on the animal of,

262.

Rotifera, on the sexual relations of

the, 288.

eels Institution, proceedings of the,

yale

Royal Society, proceedings of the,

141, 297.

Sabellides, new species of, 156.

Salpez, on the alimentary matter of

the, 265.

Salter, J. W., on some new palaozoic

Star-fishes, 321.

tO of the inferior oolite, on the,

170.

Sarcina, new species of, 514.

Sarcogorgia, characters of the new

genus, 319,

Sars, M., on new Annelides, 155 ; on

new Polypes, 238; ona new Star-

fish, 319.

Schmidl, Dr., on the fauna of the

Baradla Cavern, m Hungary, 79.

Schultze, Dr. M., on the terrestrial

Planarie, 1.

Sclater, P. L., on a new Tanager,

319; on the genus Camptostoma,

470; on new birds from Bogota,

472; on some apparently new spes

5860 INDEX.

cies of American Ant-thrushes,376;

on Parus merdionalis, 381; on

three new species of Todirostrum,

382; on new species of Pachy-

rhamphus, 398; on the Upland

Goose, 461; on new species of

Formicariadz, 462.

Sclerurus, new species of, oe

Scotophilus, new species ot, 2 297, 389.

Scydmznus, new species of, 180.

Seeds, on the vitahty of, transported

by marine currents, 317.

Sepia officinalis, note on the occur-

rence of, 528.

Sheep, description of Chinese, 386.

Siebold’s, Von, Parthenogenesis in

Moths and Bees, review ed, 48.

Siphonactinia, description of the new

genus, 240.

Slater, J. W., on the grape disease,

529.

Smith, A., on the supposed influence

of the moon on vegetation, 151.

Species, thoughts on, 485.

Spherobolus stellatus, observations

on, 529.

Spiders, descriptions of new, 282;

remarks on some British, 497.

Spongi adee, on the anatomy and phy-

siology of the, 998.

Sponzilla, on the structure of, 21.

Star-fishes, on the development of

the, 132; descriptions of new pa-

leozoic, 321; on new Norwegian,

319, 320.

Steenstrup, Prof. J., on Hectocotylus-

formation m the Cephalopoda, 81.

Stephens, H. O., on two new Crypto-

gams, 514.

Stomates, on the causes of the open-

ing and closing of, 154.

Strix lapponica, on the nest and eggs

of, 309.

Strombus, new species of, 522.

Subergorgia, characters of the new

genus, 519,

Tanager, cn a new, 319.

Thamnophilus, new species of, 466.

Thevetia nereifolia, on two cases of

poisoning with the seeds of, 150.

Todirostrum, new species of, 382.

Tomes, R. F., on the genus Lasiurus,

215; on new species of Bats, 227,

388.

‘Trachelins ovum, on, 201.

Tréeul, A., on circulation in plants,

467, 526.

Trematode worms, on the larve of

the, 129.

ieee on the anatomy of, 302.

Trochilus, on the habits of the spe-

cies of, 520.

Trochus, new species of, 523.

Tropifer, new species of, 235.

Troschel, Prof., on the saliva of Do-

lium galea, 75.

Turbo Sarmaticus, on the animal of,

4).

Urocerus gigas, on the occurrence of,

in Cornwall, 240.

Vegetation, on the supposed influence

of the moon on, in Peru, 151.

Vespertilio, new species of, 229.

Virgularia, new species of, 238.

Wallace, A. R., on the Great Bird of

Paradise, 411; on the natural his-

tory of the Aru Islands, 473.

Waxwing, on the nest and eggs of

the, 308.

Whales, on the British species of,

494,

White, A., on some new Coleopterous

insects, 211].

Wollaston, T. V., on certain Coleo-

pterous insects from the Cape de

Verde Islands, 505.

Wolley, J., jun., on the nest and

eggs of the Waxwing, 308.

Yeast-plant, on the development of

the, 304.

Zoological Society, proceedings of the,

57,211, 308, 376, 460; 51e:

END OF THE TWENTIETH VOLUME.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,

RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

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