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THE ANNALS

AND .

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,

INCLUDING

ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY.

{BEING A CONTINUATION OF THE ‘ ANNALS ’ COMBINED WITH LOUDON AND

CHARLESWORTH’S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. )

CONDUCTED BY

PRIDEAUX JOHN SELBY, Esq., F.I.S.,

CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Ese., M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S.,

JOHN EDWARD GRAY, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., V.P.Z.S. &c.,

- AND

WILLIAM FRANCIS, Ph.D., F.LS.

04 Bo

eee ee see \

VOL. XIIL—THIRD SERIES.

——eeeeeeeeeeee oes

LONDON:

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS.

SOLD BY LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, ROBERTS, AND GREEN; SIMPKIN, MARSHALI,

AND CO.; PIPER AND CO.; BAILLIERE, REGENT STREET, AND PARIS:

LIZARS, AND MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH:

HODGES AND SMITH, DUBLIN: AND ASHER, BERLIN.

1864,

‘‘Omnes res create sunt divine sapientie et potentie testes, divitie felicitatis

humane :—ex harum usu bonitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini;

ex ceconomia in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis elucet.

Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibirelictis semper estimata; a veré eruditis

~ et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper inimica fuit.”—

LINNZUS.

‘* Quel que soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut qu’ouvrir les yeux pour voir

qu’elle est le chef-d’ceuvre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rapportent

toutes ses opérations.”—-BRUCKNER, Théorie du Systeme Animal, Leyden, 1767.

ec eee eile teeta: ete s), SO yev en POWers

Obey our summons ; from.their deepest dells

The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild

And odorous branches at our feet ; the Nymphs

That press with nimble step the mountain thyme

And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed,

But scatter round ten thousand forms minute

Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock

Or rifted oak or cavern deep: the Naiads too

Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face

They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush

That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles,

Where peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread,

The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne,

All, all to us unlock their secret stores

And pay their cheerful tribute.

on J. TayLor, Norwich, 1818.

‘Se

CONTENTS OF VOL. XIII.

(THIRD SERIES. ]}

NUMBER LXXIII.

_ 1. On the Menispermacee. By Joun Miers, F.RS., F.L.S. &.

II. On the Homologies of the Insectean and Crustacean Types.

Ls snus vdleds tnd Uae sn: gusnchveindunnnaieeathestacsante

III, On Freshwater Rhizopoda of England and India; with Illus-

trations. By H. J. Carrer, F.R.S.&e. (Plates I. & IL) .........

IV. On the Animal and Affinities of Fenella; with a List of the

Species found in the Seas of Japan. By ArrHuR Apams, F.L.S. &c.

Y. Observations on Raphides. By Georce GuLuiiver, F.RS. .

VI. Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazon Valley.

Co.tzoprera: Lonaicornes. By H.W. Bares, Esq. ...:........

VII. On a new Species of Hyena from the Red Crag of Suffolk.

By By Ay DANKcestTer. (Plate VIIL.) .....5...ccl lec cteceepeceteeves

VIII. On Species of Ostracoda new to Britam. By Grorar S.

IE TUMIONE RAE. OC LV.) ooo 50. sco sty uspeaabvanevecesbesassadeccendgetens

IX. On the Foraminifera of the Crag. By Prof. T. R. Jonszs,

MPR MMMATNY sas PARE IER E680. ns srispsdedcusshosoeescoccsssocssccess mes

_X. On the Law of the Production of the Sexes in Plants, Animals,

and Man. By Prof. THury, of Geneva............cccscsssoccsccescesceees

XI. On the Process of Mineral Deposit in the Rhizopods and

Sponges, as affording a Distinctive Character. By G. C. WaLLicu,

IMINO Posi 5 cdansesce.ccnthaucdsues secdsaecvievecesccccespeorsaceeses

XII. On undescribed British Hydrozoa, Actinozoa, and Polyzoa.

By the Rev. ALFRED Mere Norman, M.A. (Plates IX., X., XI.)

New Book :—Flora of Surrey ; or, a Catalogue of the Flowering Plants

and Ferns found in the County, with the Localities of the Rarer

Page

iv CONTENTS.

Page

Species. From the Manuscripts of the late J. D. Salmon, F.L.S.,

and from other Sources, by J. A. Brewer..........+. Veocseccaseammuanl 90

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ..........s.sessesseseeeeceere 93—111

Notes on Pustularia rosea, Gray, and Hyalonema, by Dr. J. E. Gray,

F.R.S. &c.; Note on Ophiolepis gracilis (Allman), from the

Brick-Clay of Seafield, by Robert Walker ........+...s0008 Pe rs

NUMBER LXXIV.

XIII. List of the British Pyenogonoidea, with Descriptions of

several new Species. By Georce Hopes. (Plates XII. & XIII.) 113

XIV. On the Climbing -Habits of Anabas scandens. By Capt.

JessE MITCHELL, of the Madras Government Central Museum...... 117

XV. Observations on Raphides. By Grorce Guuuiver, F.R.S. 119

XVI. On the Menispermacee. By Joun Miers, F.R.S., F.L.S.

XVII. Characters of Coilostele, an undescribed Genus of Auricu-

lacea(?), and of Species of Helix, Pupa, and Ancylus, from India,

West Africa, and Ceylon. By W.H. BENSON, Esq. «..s.secseeeseeees 136

XVIII. Notes on some Molluscous Animals from the Seas of China

and Japan. By ARTHUR ADAMS, F.L.S. &. .c.ceccseceeseceseeueees «- 140

XIX. Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazon Valley. —

CoLreopTeRA: Loneicornes. By H. W. Bartss, Esq. «..s0.00000 144

New Book:—A Manual Flora of Madeira, by R. T. Lowe, M.A.

BBP TLL, vie sndseiedecisenaasadSaccbsncsaceasscesqcvensenthsenriauaaaae . 164

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ..........0+ vies osnesnboueneale 165—182 —

On the Classification of the Gasteropodous Mollusca, by M. Gouriet ;

Note on Fucus Anceps, Ward & Harvey ......:.ccsesceenseeenee 183, 184

NUMBER LXXV.

XX. On the Red Crag and its Relation to the Fluvio-marine Crag,

and on the Drift of the Eastern Counties. By S. V. Woop, Jun.

(Plate SVE) aii. eae eavins Meweeer a peas ene sobs bi 185

XXI. On the Occurrence of Ameebiform Protoplasm, and the

Emission of Pseudopodia, among the Hydroida. By Professor

Ar iMan, F.ReS.:.( Plate SLY, ) si :cics saves os agen cool dasene Siakdtovices 203

CONTENTS. Vv

XXII. On the Species of Neera found in the Seas of Japan. By

RTE MISAMB. EUS. BOC, secssecessscsceserressvegoeepesnecsccccecedecebe 206

XXIII. Characters of new Land-Shells from the Mahabaleshwar

Hills in Western India, and from Agra in the North-west Provinces.

By W. H. Benson, Esq. ......000..eeeeeeeeeees COvopeeedevesedacd dense ddseoes 209

XXIV. Description of a Labyrinthibranchiate Fish from the Nile.

By Dr. A. GUNTHER oocsessccssccenscecssccnerseceeneeeseressseeeseeseneeees 211

XXYV. Observations on Raphides. By Georce GuLLIvER, F.R.S. 212

XXVI. On the Extent, and some of the Principal Causes, of

Structural Variation among the Difflugian Rhizopods. By G.-C.

Watticn, M.D., F.L.S., &c. (Plates XV. & XVI.) ....c0...cereseeee 215

New Books :—The Natural History of Tutbury, by Sir Oswald Mosley,

Bart., D.C.L., F.L.S. Together with the Fauna and Flora of

the District surrounding Tutbury and Burton-on-Trent, by Edwin

Brown.—Homes without Hands ; being an Account of the Habita-

tions constructed by various Animals, classed according to their

principles of Construction, by the Rev. J. G. Wood, M.A., F.L.S.

245—248

Proceedings of the Zoological Society .......+.+++ fois o> sna abae 248—261

On a Function of Roots, by M. Henrici; On the Air of the Swimming- ..

Bladder of Fishes, by A. Moreau ; On the Intercellular Substance

and the Milk-Vessels in the Root of the common Dandelion, by

RUMPMPOMMIT< viesovscacnncssecscacccsdccessencescccs eases censs dase 261—264

NUMBER LXXVI.

XXVII. Histological Researches on the Formation, Development,

and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. By Prof. H. Karsten.

Crees Vi, V1.5 VII.) © «ss...... eka saints ec duhinds dh oudts decane ie aii 265

XXVIII. Notes on the Byblus-Rush and the Byblus-Bok. By

EEE UNECE EAs EU .1D,, Ee Lites CCCs ace scoscoessaaececcceccesnseaunsss 290

XXIX. Observations on Raphides and other Crystals. By GEorGE

Et. sswecesccussdonheosee ea Lipd sasep ain Lact eases baw 292

XXX. A Description of, and Remarks upon, some Fossil Corals

from Sinde. By P. Martin Duncan, M.B. Lond., F.G.S. &e.

NE ore va oc av0sopel vqeiasvrpeiceed becshtawscalebesss¥oassb 295

XXXI. On some new Genera and Species of Mollusca from the

Seas of China and Japan. By ArrHur Apams, F.L.S. &e. ......... 307

XXXII. Diagnoses of new Forms of Mollusks collected at Cape

St. Lucas by Mr. J. Xantus. By PuHitip P. Carpenter, B.A., Ph.D. 311

Vi CONTENTS.

Page

XXXII. On the Menispermacee. By Jonn Miers, F.RS.,

WG IS: Gee ces casas ha ah dedasancvisasecadés Wri 315

XXXIV. New Observations on the Existence of Man in Central

France at a period when that Country was inhabited by the Reindeer

and other Animals which are now extinct there. By MM. Larter

ON: CHRIBDY. sv enhe speiva snap durashnedhakdersneskupione sees¢ieeiiegiemaann 323

New Book :—Flora Belfastiensis. The Plants round Belfast, with

their Geographical and Geological Distribution, by Ralph Tate,

HS Gers gid. vaticaverdes cogs bovddecgeuddeadasuua cdecscdcxeace ieee aanaanmmnnn 330

Proceedings of the Zoological Society .......csececessseseesereenes 330—343

On Alternate Generation in the Annelida, and the Embryology of

Autolytus cornutus, by A. Agassiz: Note on the Reproduction of

the Larvee of Insects, by Prof. Nicolas Wagner, of Kasan. 343, 344

NUMBER LXXVII.

XXXV. On the Construction and Limitation of Genera among the

Hydroida.. By Prof. ALLMAN, F.R.S. ....00....0.0csceseneceeesuepeeenee 345

XXXVI. Descriptions of new Genera and Species of Eumolpide

from the Collection of the Rev. Hamlet Clark. By the Rev. T. A.

MARSHALL... eeeseeceecsccseeeneeeseceeeessaaenaeeenteesceseccesseeenauareeeanenes 380

XXXVII. On the Moth of the Esere or Ordeal Bean of Old

Calabar. By Tuomas R. Fraser, M.D. Edin., Assistant to the

Professor of Materia Medica in the University of Edimburgh ......... 389

XXXVIII. On the Belgian Equivalents of the Upper and Lower

Drift of the Eastern Counties. By S. V. Woop, Jum. ...0........ceeeee 393

XXXIX. Observations on Raphides and other Crystals. By

GEoRGE GULLIVER, FURS.) G.civeisscoccercsessccces 03 aap esp arcanacERees 406

XL. Histological Researches on the Formation, Development, and

Structure of the Vegetable Cell. By Prof.H. Karsten ....... sucess SUD

XLI. Notice of the Capture of Mithras paradozus in England.

By JoHN BLACKWALL, FLAS. ...cceeesssseescesseeseeseeones beaten ons scgue 435

New Book :—An Elementary Text-book of the Microscope, including

a Description of the Methods of preparing and aan Objects,

&c.,: by. J. We Griffith; ‘MD., POLS... Sinaaaie. oo Rinseacssness eon 436

Dredgings in the Freshwater Lakes of Norway, by G. O. Sars; On

CONTENTS. Vii

Page

the Expulsion of the Carbonic Acid from the Blood during

Respiration, by Dr. Ludwig; “New Forms of Mollusks”? by

EO, TOR MED... sshecescevesnssasersecs. seasss eee 437—440

NUMBER LXXVIII.

‘XLII. On the Classification of the Cyclostomacea of Eastern Asia.

By Wiiiiam T. BLanrorp, A.R.S.M., F.G.S. ......cccscceceeceeeees 44]

XLII. Notes on Irish Vespide. By Ricuarp Lestock Epcr-

Semen, On Pemmity College, Dublin... 5... 5i55c.5c. case coe seccesseeassncence 466

_XLIV. Diagnoses of new Forms of Mollusks collected at Cape

St. Lucas by Mr. J. Xantus. By Puinip P. Carpenter, B.A., Ph.D. 474

XLY. Histological Researches on the Formation, Development,

and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. By Prof. H. Karsren ...... 479

XLVI. On the Menispermacee. By Joun Miers, F.R.S.,F.L.S.

ETB e Whe seiWisscnccovcectscse\issncsocuspcsvertedereccsucederbacs 486

XLVII. Descriptions of new Species of Helix and Pupa from the

Colony of the Cape of Good Hope. By W.H. Benson, Esq. ...... 491

XLVIII. Note on the Habits of some Mexican Reptiles. By F.

I GE AUs kil diivin Yo.ss0 5 <sindad secon sccvcacsescecacetecesecssestecapes - 497

XLIX. Observations on Raphides. By Grorce GuLLIveER,

RUMEN RIEACUANY GS Sh 42 5 cess nie dci boning .videviuvseuveesccdecdvencarsevsccesvess 508

New Books :—The Birds of India, &c., by T. C. Jerdon, Surgeon-

Major, Madras Army, Author of ‘ Illustrations of Indian Ornitho-

logy.’—A Flora of Ulster, and Botanist’s Guide to the North of

Treland, by G. Dickie, M.D., Prof. of Botany, Aberdeen... 511—516

On Scientific Nomenclature, by Professor Asa Gray ; On the Roman

Imperial and Crested Eagles, by John Hogg, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.,

F.L.S. &e. ; Note on the Climbing Habits of the Anabas scandens,

prampe weaee Mitchell 6... te... cccssccedcedeccssceccconeseceaes 517—523

Vili CONTENTS.

PLATES IN VOL. XIII.

Freshwater Rhizopoda of England and India.

n= Ha British Ostracoda.

WE }eretopment and Structure of the Vegetable Cell.

Pe New Species of Hyzna from the Red Crag of Suffolk.

IX.

X. ‘ew British Hydrozoa, Actinozoa, and Polyzoa.

XI.

XII.

XIII.

XIV.. Structure of Aglaophzenia pluma and Antennularia antennina.

New British Pyenogonoidea.

ae V- } steueture of the Difflugian Rhizopods.

XVII. Red Crag, Fluvio-marine Crag, and Drift of the Eastern Coun-

ties.

XVII. | Fossil Corals from Sinde.

THE ANNALS

P AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

(THIRD. SERIES. ]

$6 ecocserseseeeees PEF litOra spargite muscum,

Naiades, et circm vitreos considite fontes :

Pollice virgineo teneros hic carpite flores :

Floribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum.

At vos, o Nymphe Craterides, ite sub undas ;

Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco

Vellite muscosis e rupibus, et mihi conchas

Ferte, Dez pelagi, et pingui conchylia succo.”

" N. Parthenii Giannettasii Ecl.1.

‘No. 73. JANUARY 1864.

—————

I.—On the Menispermacee.

By Joun Mrzrs, F.R.S., F.L.S. &e.

IN 1851 (Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 2. vii. 33) an outline was given

of the results of a careful examination of the Menispermacee,

which I had completed three years previously: the object of

that sketch was to call the attention of botanists to the subject,

and to solicit the aid of better materials for the elucidation of

some of the genera, which I had not been able to examine.

During the long interval since elapsed, the addition to our

knowledge on this subject has been small; and this is one reason

why the idea of making a complete monograph of this little-known

extensive family, as at first contemplated, has been renounced.

But as the principal facts relating to this inquiry remain yet

‘unpublished, it may be useful to give in succession some further

details of my previous investigations; and with this view I now

proceed to offer some prefatory remarks on the general structure

of the order.

The Menispermacee are generally marked by an external

aspect by which, even in herbaria, they are instantly recognized.

With rare exceptions, they are all scandent plants, with twining

stems, which are often of immense length, presenting a wood of

considerable toughness : this has a coarse porous structure formed

of radiating segments connected together by walls of dense

ligneous tissue, thus bearing some analogy to the Lardizabalacee,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xii. 1

2 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez.

Nepenthacee, Aristolochiacee, Piperacee. &c. On this account,

many years ago, Professor Lindley separated these families from

Exogens, under the name of Homogens, the leading feature of

which was then believed to be, that, “instead of their wood

being formed by zone after zone, season after season, as is the

case in the great mass of Exogens, they never have more than

one zone of woody matter, to whatever age they may have

arrived.” This conclusion was, however, soon abandoned, as

the existence of more zones than one was fully proved. I have

frequently seen several annular rings in the stems of Menisper-

macee ; and Gardner found one, in Ceylon, in which he counted

more than forty distinct concentric zones; but such instances

are comparatively rare. It would be needless to detail the

structure of the wood in this family, as the subject has been

ably demonstrated by Decaisne and others, and as there is little

novel information to offer respecting it. ° ae

The leaves in the plants of this order are constantly alternate,

petioled, and always without stipules; but in many cases the

petiole, finally deciduous, is articulated upon a prominent pulvi-

nate cup, on the upper margin of which, adjoining the stem, is

seen a budlike process, appearing as if a pair of stipules had

embraced the cup, and had become agglutinated to it and the

stem : this must not be confounded with the gemma of a nascent

branch or flower-stem, which in most instances is supra-axillary.

In the genus Antizoma, the pulvinate process just mentioned,

at its articulation with the petiole, is elongated in the form of a

spur, so that it bears the appearance of a short spine. The

petiole is often much swollen and tortuous at its base, and, being

suddenly bent back, it performs the office of a tendril in sup-

porting the young climbing branches. Its insertion into the

blade of the leaf is either peltate or palate. In the former case

the point of union is never quite central, but always more or less

excentric, sometimes approaching the margin, where the leaf is

more or less truncated or cordate. The palate insertion, how-

ever, is more frequent, when the petiole, at its junction with the

midrib, often subtends a considerable angle with the plane of

the leaf, and is commonly much swollen at that extremity by an

enlargement which the French botanists call a bowrrelet. The

leaves vary greatly in form, substance, and texture, and have

generally, but not always, three, five, or more nerves springing

from the point of insertion of the petiole : they are generally

entire on the margin, but sometimes are sinuous or distinetly

lobed, more rarely sinuately dentate, or cleft into palmate seg-

ments, or a Burasaia) divided into three sessile leaflets on the

summit of a long petiole.

The inflorescence varies in different genera, being chiefly

Mr, J. Miers on the Menispermaceee. 3

axillary, with one or several racemes, more or less simple, grow-

ing from a point a little above the origin of the petiole; the

pedicels are sometimes branched, when the inflorescence becomes

somewhat paniculate; at other times the flowers are condensed

into globular heads upon the peduncle; sometimes the axillary

flowers appear in fascicles of pedicillated single flowers, or are

simply umbellate, or in umbels compounded to the second or

third degree. I have frequently observed the racemes growing

abundantly on the stems devoid of leaves. The flowers are ge-

nerally furnished with bracts; they are extremely minute, and,

though often hairy, are sometimes destitute of pubescence: they

are, with very rare exceptions, universally unisexual and dice-

cious. They are said to be sometimes moneecious ; but this ap-

pears doubtful. In the two instances recorded by DeCandolle,

I found, by an examination of the original specimens, that they

were decidedly dicecious. St. Hilaire records the existence of a

moneecious species of Cissampelos (C. monoica): this has not been

confirmed by any other observer, and is the only instance on

record. I have, however, seen two cases where the flowers are

distinctly hermaphrodite, or, rather, polygamous. I have ob-

served, in Anomospermum, a solitary ovary in the male flowers

in a few instances; and I found it a universal feature in a spe-

eimen of Tiliacora from the island of Ceylon.

The arrangement of the floral envelopes (sepals) is usually in

several ternary imbricated series, gradually decreasing outwards,

the two internal whorls being in most instances considerably

larger than the others; and they probably constitute the true

normal number of six sepals; and all the outer ones, frequently

very minute in size, may be considered as bracts. These six

sepals, though in estivation generally in two imbricate series,

are fixed in a nearly circular whorl around a small central torus;

but sometimes as many as five ternary whorls are seen arranged,

one above another, upon a cylindrical gynzcium, as in the Mag-

noliacee. The number in each series is generally three, though

sometimes four, five, or six occur: in Anamirta and Quinium we

have a pentamerous arrangement; in Antitawis the floral parts

are disposed in opposite pairs, while in Antizoma we have the

remarkable instance of two opposite sepals hooding two petals

placed before them: rarely, as in Rhaptomeris, owing to the

confluence of the margins of its six sepals, the calyx is gamo-

phyllous, being quite tubular and campanulate. In Synelisia,

according to Mr. Bentham, the sepals are somewhat united at

base into a very short tube; while in Stephania and Cyclea,

although the sepals remain distinct, they assume, by their erect

position and approximated margins, the semblance of a tube.

The estivation of the sepals, although in most cases imbricate,

4. Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee.

is sometimes valvate, as in the cases last mentioned: this occurs

in Tiliacora, Abuta, and Limacia. The symmetry in the arrange-

ment of the floral envelopes, though generally similar in both

sexes, does not exist in Cissampelos, Cyclea, Clypea, Antizoma,

and Stephania, where, in the female flowers, many of the parts

are wanting, being sometimes reduced to a single sepal and only

one minute petal, while the male flowers exhibit the usual num-

ber of sepals.

The petals, usually six in number, are in the form of small

scales or fleshy leaflets originating from the torus. Little notice

was taken of them formerly, as they were looked upon as a mere

nectary ; but they are now universally regarded as real petals,

though of minute size; in some few instances they are en-

tirely wanting, as in Abuta, Anelasma, and Batschia: in Fi-

braurea they are apparently deficient, but they are probably con-

fluent with the filaments, seemingly as if wrapped round them:

in many of the genera the petals, though quite free, are found,

in a similar manner, with their margins involute and embracing

the filaments.

The stamens, especially in the male flowers, by their form and

position, afford constant and valid characters; they are usually

equal in number to the petals, opposite to them, and generally

in two distinct approximated whorls. In most instances they

are all quite free; but sometimes the three outer stamens are

free, while the others are partially monadelphous in the centre ;

at other times they are all more or less compactly united into a

simple central column. They are usually as long as the petals,

frequently double their length. The anthers are generally two-

lobed, the lobes being often separated by a connective, which is

continuous with the filament ; sometimes they are combined to-

gether without the intervention of any connective, and partially

sunk in the apex of the filament, or often approximated and

dorsally affixed upon it; generally these lobes open by a longi-

tudinal suture, but they sometimes burst by a transverse, verti-

eal, or oblique’fissure. In the Cissampelos group, the stamen

consists of a single filamentous column supporting a horizontal

peltate disk bearing on its margin four, six, eight, or more

anther-cells, combined in an annular form, which burst on their

outer edge, like the indusium of some ferns. In other cases

several anther-cells are combined into a globular mass, and are

either sessile on the torus or supported on a central column.

In many cases each anther-cell appears bilocellate, owing to a

prominent septum that almost or completely divides it. These

great varieties in the disposition and structure of the stamens

are constant in each genus, and may be trusted as good discri-

minating characters. --

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez, 5

In the female flowers we generally find the same number and

disposition of floral envelopes as in the male; and there is some-

times a similar number of sterile stamens around the ovaria,

but in most instances they are altogether wanting. In the

centre of the flower the torus rises more or less in a cylindrical

form, to the sides of which the sterile stamens, when present,

are attached; they are generally free from one another, but

are more rarely attached at their base by a short ring that

surrounds the more elevated gynecium. This latter, in some

few cases, bears on its summit only a single ovary; but most

generally it carries three distinct ovaries, occasionally four, five,

or six, or rarely as many as twelve, arranged in a single whorl.

These ovaries are generally sessile, but are sometimes borne each

upon a stipitate support, that lengthens considerably with the

growth of the fruit. The ovary is unilocular in every instance

that has fallen under my observation, and never contains more

than a single ovule—a character which forms a valid line of

distinction between this order and the Lardizabalacee, Schizan-

dracee, and Winteracee.

The growth of the ovary and the development of the ovule,

together with the changes produced in the structure and form

of the fruit, present excellent and constant characters, that have

not been sufficiently attended to. St. Hilaire was the first

botanist who devoted any consideration to the subject, when, in

describing a species of Cissampelos (Pl. Us. tab. 35), he gave a

detailed account of this growth, from the period of the impreg-

nation of the ovule to the final perfection of the fruit. Accord-

ing to his view, the ovary, by its excentric growth, gradually

curves itself round in the form of a horseshoe, until the two

sides thus bent round touch one another, when they become

agglutinated together (se soudent) : it thus assumes an ovoid or

subglobular form, and the original apex, indicated by the style,

is thus approximated to the base, the two being separated by

the septum thus formed, which extends far into the cell, and

which is generated by the “ deux portions rapprochées et soudées

du péricarpe.” The cell, and consequently the seed, thus assume

a corresponding hippocrepical shape.

This view, not altogether correct as far as regards Cissampelos,

wholly fails to explain the changes attendant on the development

of the fruit in other cases. Although the ovule, in an early

stage, is simply anatropal and attached to the ventral face, at a

point somewhat above its middle from the summit, of a linear

placenta on the imner angle of the cell, there is always seen

upon the corresponding concave margin of the ovule, below the

point of its suspension, a thickened and somewhat curved rib,

which is probably the indication of the raphe and chalaza: the

6 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermaceze.

ovule is now partly free from the placentiferous angle of the

cell, but most generally it becomes at length adherent to it

after the excentric growth and apparent duplicature of the ovary.

It is incorrect to say, regarding this development, that the two

halves of this curvature are brought together till they unite in

order to form the incomplete dissepiment in the manner above

described. The circumstance which St. Hilaire mentions as the

cause of the metamorphosis appears to me, on the contrary, the

result of an agency which he has entirely overlooked, and to this

source only the apparent duplicature can be referred. My ob-

servations tend to the conclusion that it originates in a peculiar

expansion and induration of the placenta within the cavity of

the cell, to which cause alone is to be attributed this excentric

growth of the ovary ; for, in those cases where the placenta does

not become expanded, no such duplicature occurs. In the in-

stance of Cissampelos, cited by St. Hilaire, it may be seen that

the linear placenta first protrudes and extends itself at right

angles with the side of the ovary, in the direction of the centre

of the cell, and that the growth of the pistil on that side is at the

same time arrested, in consequence of which the style and the

base of the ovary preserve nearly their original distance, while

the growing force is all expended on the opposite or dorsal side,

thus producing the hippocrepical appearance described. By

observing a section of a half-matured seed of Cissampelos, the

development of the pseudo-dissepiment may be seen distinetly,

when the nourishing vessels belonging to the placenta can be

traced in the centre of this line of extension, reaching to its ex

tremity, like an imbedded umbilical cord, which is found in the

same position after the whole has become ossified. There is no

appearance of any duplicature of the pericarpial covering of the

ovary, and its subsequent agglutination, as described by the

eminent botanist referred to: it will be found to exist only in

the endocarpial portion. The development, as I have explaimed

it, is even more evidently demonstrated in the seed-vessels of

Ileocarpus and Stephania, where the hippocrepical cell is formed

round a flat, solid, orbicular disk, in the substance of which the

nourishing vessels can be traced, as in the pseudo-dissepiment

of Cissampelos.

In a group which I have called Heterocliniee, the growth is

somewhat varied: there, in the early stage, the ovule is attached

as described in Cissampelos; but the placenta, from which it is

suspended, is like a broad oval disk upon the inner face of the

cell; and while the ovary continues to increase equally in all

directions, the increment about the placentary space is somewhat

less : this face of the cell thus gradually assumes a convex shape

inside, and the placenta swells into a globular figure, forming

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee. 7

sometimes a hollow prominent chamber within the cavity of the

cell, round which the seed is moulded and becomes fungilliform

and attached to it by its short line of raphe and chalaza. In

Odontocarya, Jateorhiza, Calycocarpum, and Aspidocarya, the

inner face of the putamen is nearly flat, or only slightly convex

within, the placenta does not swell and form a vacant chamber,

and the seed remains suspended from its normal point of attach-

ment, the raphe and chalaza, more or less free from the epicarp,

being clearly manifest along the middle face of the seminal in-

tegument. Thus it will be found that the fruit and seed, in the

several genera, assume different shapes and degrees of develop-

ment, to be hereafter detailed, furnishing constant and valuable

distinguishing characters.

For the facility of concisely describing the peculiar enlarge-

ment of the placenta, which acts so important a part in the de-

velopment of the putamen and seed, I proposed many years ago

to call it a condylus, because the seed is articulated upon it as a

socket. The use of this term has been objected to (as I think,

somewhat hypercritically) by the learned authors of the ‘ Flora

Indica’ (p. 169), because they consider it improper to apply

specific terms to modifications of structure peculiar to single

orders; and they prefer to designate the same as a “ processus

internus condyliformis putaminis””—a term more objectionable,

because more circumlocutory. If the term “condylus” is to be

rejected on account of its use in zoological science, then we

ought to discard the words “umbilicus, placenta, vagina, vitel-

lus,” &c., as well as other designations commonly used by

botanists with much advantage, such as “retinaculum, hypan-

thium, gynophorus, ochrea, rostellum, corona, labellum,” and a

number of others peculiar to certain orders. I therefore still think

itadvisable to give a comprehensible designation to that important

development which, in the Menispermacea, offers a good and

constant character for generic purposes.

The fruit in the Menispermacee is drupaceous, of an oval,

gibbous, or pyriform shape, consisting of a membranaceous

coloured pericarp, sometimes hairy, covering a more or less

fleshy mesocarp, and enclosing a solid putamen. When the

number of ovaries is three or more, some of them prove abortive

and fall off, leaving distinct scars upon the gynecium to which

they were attached. These drupes are sometimes sessile upon

the gynzcium; but in other cases the base of each drupe is nar-

rowed and prolonged into a stipitate support, so that there is no

immediate contact of the putamen with the gynecium ; in other

cases, besides this stipitated support, each drupe is articulated

upon a distinct emanation of the gynecium, which is pedicelli-

form, as in Tiliacora, where it is comparatively short ; but in

8 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermaceze.

Sciadotenia this emanation becomes elongated in an extraors

dinary manner: in this case the number of ovaries is constantly

nine, uniserially:sessile upon the summit of a columnar gyne-~

cium; in the course of its growth a process is generated be-

neath each ovary, which becomes elongated in the form of along

pedicel on which the fruit is articulated; so that they bear the

appearance of an umbel of nine distinct flowers, each bearing

a single seed. This was the inference I drew when I first saw

the plant *; but I was soon afterwards convineed of the true

nature of this development, on obtaining a specimen where in

some of the flowers eight of the ovaries remained sessile and

abortive upon the gynecium, while only a single fruit was car-

ried up by the pedicel-like expansion of nearly three times the

length of the seed. This curious development, which some

years afterwards was noticed by Mr. Bentham‘, is evidently the

growth of the gynecium, not of the ovary, which is articulated

on its summit, and leaves a scar when it falls off, while the

pedunculiform expansion remains solidly attached to the gy-

neecium.

The structure of the endocarp is deserving of some considera-

tion. With few exceptions, it becomes hardened into a firm and

often osseous nut, more seldom into a chartaceous putamen,

which is sometimes thin and horny. In all the Leptogonee and

Platygonee, where the cell is curved round a central condylus,

the outer rim of the putamen is transversely marked with several

broad and deep crenelures ; and as the shell is of uniform thick-

ness, the seed becomes indented with corresponding impressions,

In the Heterocliniea, where the form of the nut is usually oval

or orbicular, the external surface, though sometimes smooth, is

frequently covered with tubercular or irregular cristate projec-

tions ; and sometimes, upon the internal and ventral surface of

the cell, across each side, numerous more or less elevated cris-

tate plates project, which enter into corresponding fissures of

the albumen, much after the manner seen in the seeds of many

- of the Anonacee. In Odontocarya and Jateorhiza, genera of the

Heterocliniee, and in Hematocarpus among the Pachygonee, the

putamen is covered with an extremely dense tomentum, formed

of innumerable fine simple hairs or fibres which are imbedded in

the pulpy mesocarp. In Anomospermum, the drupes of which I

examined in the living state, the mesocarp consists of a number

of fleshy masses, each about a line in diameter, which, by mu-

tual pressure, are somewhat angular; they adhere together with

some tenacity,and can only be removed from the putamen by

force. A number of cancellated furrows, filled with ligneous

* Ann, Nat. Hist. ser. 2, vii. 43. + Journ. Linn. Soe. v. Suppl. p. 51.

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez. 9

fibres, are seen on the surface of the putamen, corresponding

with the lines of junction of these gland-shaped masses. After

the fruit has become dried, these glands cannot be detected,

though the cancellated furrows always remain. Similar cancel-

lated furrows, filled with fibres, are seen on the putamen in

Coscinium and Anelasma, whence it may be inferred that, in the

ripe state, their mesocarp is constituted as in Anomospermum.

The seed, in all the Menispermaceous plants that have fallen

under my observation, is covered by two thin membranaceous

integuments, the inner one being of delicate texture; the raphe

is always found on the ventral face of the outer one, in the form

of a thickened line of a darker colour; and here generally is

seen a‘thin carinated duplicature of this integument, extending

along the whole length of the placenta, and this duplicature

enters into a corresponding furrow on the condyle, by which, at

the period of maturity, the seed is found attached.

Albumen is present in the genera of all the tribes, except in

those of one, where it is altogether wanting. In the tribes

Leptogonee and Platygonee it is simple and homogeneous ; in

Anamirta, among Heteroclinee, it is nearly so. In Anomosper-

mum and in most of the Tiliacoree, where the embryo is terete,

the thick cireumambient albumen is cleft transversely, almost

to the centre, by numerous fissures, into which the integument

enters, thus producing a ruminated structure similar to that

seen in the Anonacee. In the Heterocliniee the albumen con-

sists of two nearly distinct plates, that on the dorsal face being

like a thin simple lamina, while that on the ventral side is much

thicker and deeply cleft, as before mentioned, by a number of

irregular fissures penetrating nearly its whole depth. In the

Pachygonee, where the albumen is wanting, the embryo occu-

pies the entire space of the cell.

The form of the embryo is various. In all the genera of the

Leptogonee it is slender and terete, with the radicle equal in

diameter to the cotyledons, and nearly of equal length, some-

times a very little longer or a little shorter. In Anomospermum

the embryo is also slender and terete ; but the cotyledons, which

are coequal in diameter with the radicle, are ten times its

length. In Tiliacora, where the embryo is of similar form, the

cotyledons are only twice the length of the radicle. In all the

Platygonee the radicle is always terete ; but the cotyledons are

flattened, subfoliaceous, and at least double its breadth, often

much broader. Throughout the preceding instances, the coty-

ledons are adpressed and contiguous, as in ordinary cases, being

accumbent in the Pachygonee, Anomospermee, and Hypserpee, but

incumbent in the Tiliacoree, Leptogonee,and Platygonee : these are

important distinctions, that merit more attention than they have

10 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez.

obtained. The embryo is of a very different and very peculiar —

form in all the Heterocliniee, where the cotyledons are extremely

thin, foliaceous, and present the singular anomaly of being

widely and divaricately spread on a plane parallel with the ex-

ternal face.

When, after careful study, I first attempted to classify the

Menispermacee, it became manifest, from the foregoing evidence,

that the floral parts, always of diminutive size, were little adapted

for this purpose ; but by adopting as a basis the development of

the fruit, it was easy to establish several valid and well-defined

groups. An interval of nearly sixteen years has tended to con-

firm this conviction; and accordingly the same arrangement

which I formerly adopted is here repeated, with some modifica-

tions, by dividing the family into seven well-marked tribes, in

the following manner :—

Tribe 1. Hererocrinrex. The putamen here is generally

osseous, rarely chartaceous, somewhat compressed antically and

postically, 1-locular, with an internal umboniform or globular

condylus in the middle of its ventral face, which is often divided

into two chambers by a partition, to which the more or less

meniscus-shaped seed is attached in the manner before men-

tioned, the line of the raphe with a portion of the integuments

being drawn into this partition, from which it is difficult to

detach it. But sometimes the condyle entirely vanishes in a

mere umboniform depression of the ventral face of the nut, cor-

respondingly convex within the cell, the seed being suspended

from near its summit by a mere point or extremity of the raphe

which is seen continuous upon the free integument, running

down its ventral face: this modification occurs in Calycocarpum,

Jateorhiza, Fibraurea, Parabena, Aspidocarya, and Odontocarya.

It should be mentioned, as a general character of the tribe, that

the remnant of the style is always seen near the summit of the

drupe, or comparatively little removed from it. The embryo is

consequently nearly orthotropous, with large foliaceous coty-

ledons placed laterally and divaricately on the same plane, and

imbedded in distinct cells of the albumen, which is thin and

homogeneous on the dorsal side, always thicker on the ventral

portion, which latter is most frequently deeply cleft or ruminated

by numerous fissures, as in Anona, the radicle being short,

terete, and superior.

Tribe 2. ANomosPERMES. Here the style is on the apparent

summit of the drupe, whose stipitate support is on one side of

the longer diameter of the fruit, so that the style is more or less

excentric to the real base of the drupe, which, properly speak-

ing, is transversely or obliquely oval and gibbous. The putamen

is coriaceous, and the seed is quite cylindrical and straight for

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez. 11

two-thirds of its length, and more or less uncinately curved at

its base. In both cases the seed is folded upon a perpendicular

internal laminiform condyle, which protrudes from the ventral

face of the putamen. nearly to the centre of the cell, where it

terminates in a longitudinal placentiferous margin ; the copious

albumen which fills the cell is deeply ruminated in all directions

by numerous clefts; the integuments penetrate these clefts, and

x he cover the deep longitudinal groove formed by the projecting

condyle, to the placentiferous margin of which they adhere along

the line of the raphe. The embryo is nearly anatropous, a little

bent or partially heterotropous, very slender, terete, and elongated,

with cotyledons of the same diameter as the very short terete

radicle, which is quite superior and only one-tenth of their

length: these are accumbent, and placed on the axis of the al-

bumen. The sepals are imbricated in estivation, and the free

fleshy petals separately embrace and almost conceal the stamens.

Tribe 3. Trzr1acorem, The drupe is so extremely gibbous

that the style is seen near the base of the fruit. The putamen

is transversely oblong, laterally compressed, sulcated by a central

line along the middle of each face, and rendered bimarsupiate

by a long, horizontal, septiform, internal condyle; the cell (and

therefore the seed) is hippocrepiform; the albumen is deeply

cleft or ruminated, as in the last tribe, the integuments pene-

trate its sinuosities, and they adhere to the condyle along the

line of the raphe. The embryo, which lies in the centre of the

albumen, is elongated, hippocrepiform, and nearly terete; the

radicle, pointing to the style, is of the diameter of the coty-

ledons, and about equal to them in length ; they are always in-

cumbent (not accumbent, as in the former tribe). The sepals

of the inner row are slightly imbricated in estivation in some

_ genera, and valvate in others.

Tribe 4. Leproconeax. The growth of the fruit is equally

excentric as in the last tribe, so that the style is always seen

near the base. The putamen is generally osseous, nearly orbi-

cular, laterally very compressed, forming a crescent-shaped or

nearly annular cell circumscribed round the edge of an external

eltiform condyle, a portion of the integuments along the

ne of the raphe being drawn into a fissure of the condyle.

The embryo partakes of the cyclical form of the cell, is slender,

elongated, and terete, with incumbent cotyledons (not accum-

bent as in Tribe 2), equal in thickness and length to the

terete radicle, the whole being imbedded in the middle of simple

albumen ; the radicle at the extremity of the upper horn points

to the style. The sepals are imbricated in estivation. In one

section of the tribe (Cissampelide) the number of floral parts is

greatly reduced in the female flowers.

12 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee.

Tribe 5. Hypserrex. The style here also is seen near the

base of the fruit, in consequence of its excentric growth. The

putamen is formed as in the preceding tribe, and the embryo,

imbedded in simple albumen, is of the same slender proportions;

but the cotyledons are accumbent (not incumbent). The sepals

in estivation are either imbricated or valvate, and the flowers

are sometimes remarkable for being very unsymmetrical in the

relative number of their parts.

Tribe 6. PLaryconex. The style here also is near the base of

the fruit. The putamen either resembles that of the Tiliacoree

in shape, divided by a septiform condyle, having a hippocrepi-

form cell, or the condyle is subglobular and often 2-camerate,

variously perforated, to the edge of which the integuments are

attached, as in the two last tribes, the cell being in this case

cyclical. The seed is either 2-crural or cyclical ; the embryo is

imbedded in the middle of the albumen, which fills. the cell,

partakes of its form, has large incumbent cotyledons, as in the

Leptogonee (not accumbent) ; these are flattened and foliaceous,

twice or three times the breadth of the more slender terete

radicle, and always from two to six times its length; the radicle

in the upper horn points to the style. This is a very natural

and well-marked division, and ought on no account to be con-

founded with the two former. -

Tribe 7. Pacuyconrem. The style, as in the three former

groups, is near the base of the fruit, or it is more removed from

it. The putamen is generally coriaceous, with a septiform con-

dyle, which is sometimes almost obsolete. Unlike all the other

tribes, the embryo is here quite exalbuminous, so that it entirely

fills the cavity of the hippocrepiform or reniform cell, the radicle

being extremely short and small, pointing to the style, the coty-

ledons being very large, extremely fleshy, cyclically curved and

accumbent. These characters render it one of the most natural —

divisions of the family.

The authors of the ‘Flora Indica, in their arrangement of

Asian Menispermacee (in 1855), were the first to adopt the

principle of the above distribution; but they made several ob-

jectionable alterations in it, losing sight of some of the more

prominent and constant characters, and adopting others of less

value. They divided the family in a somewhat different manner,

some of their groups being extremely heterogeneous. Their

first tribe (Cosciniee) offers no character different from my

Heterocliniee ; the latter was adopted by them as their second

tribe, but they changed its name to Tinosporee without any

advantage; the former designation certainly better expresses

the very peculiar and most salient character of the group—that

of their divaricated cotyledons imbedded in distinct cells of the

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee. 13

albumen. Their fourth tribe consists of my subdivision Cissam-

pelide, which they separated from the rest of my Leptogonee.

They abolished my tribe Tiliacoree, which offers such distinct

characters, and united the only Indian genus belonging to it

with the rest of the Leptogonee: these, together with my Platy-

gonee, constituted their third tribe, Cocculee—a name especially

objectionable on account of its old association with Anamirta

Cocculus (the Cocculus of commerce), and thus likely to lead

many persons into error: in this group different forms of em-

bryo are mixed together, and the important distinctions between

accumbent and incumbent cotyledons are totally disregarded.

Their fifth tribe is adopted upon my Pachygonee, with little

alteration. .

Messrs. Bentham and Hooker, in their ‘ Genera Plantarum,’

published a few months ago, have followed in the steps of the

authors of the ‘ Flora Indica,’ but have avoided some of their

errors, and properly discard the Cosciniee ; they have, however,

followed the same principle of distribution. They adopt my

Heterocliniee (under the name of Tinosporee) as their first tribe,

and my Pachygonee as their fourth tribe ; they also separate my

subtribe Cissampelidee from the rest. of the Leptogonee as their

third tribe ; while for their second tribe, under the objectionable

name of Cocculee, they confound together my Anomospermee,

Tiliacoree, the remainder of the Leptogonea, and all the Platy-

gonee, thus mixing up heterogeneously opposite conditions of

albumen, and different forms of embryo, and totally disregarding

‘the important. distinction of accumbent and incumbent coty-

ledons—characters fully appreciated by them in other families.

This, no doubt, has been done with a view to concentration ;

but it cannot be denied that it is effected at the sacrifice of con-

sistency. It appears to me that, if we profess to adopt a principle

as a basis of division, it should be carried out strictly. The

feature of ruminated albumen is too peculiar to be so overlooked;

and hence the Anomospermee and Tihacoree are deserving of

special places, and should be held distinct, not only because of

having quite a different direction of the condyle, but on account

of one having accumbent, the other incumbent cotyledons. It

is for this latter reason that I have ventured to add a new tribe,

Hypserpee. The marked contrast between the slender thread-

like embryo of the Leptogonee, as contradistinguished from

those with foliaceous cotyledons, many times the breadth of the

slender radicle, is too important to be passed over; and hence

the necessity for maintaining the Platygonee as a distinct tribe.

The differences in floral structure are of secondary importance ;

and for this reason the Menispermee and Cissampelidee have been

retained by me as subtribes, and conjoined into a single tribe

14 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee.

(Leptogonee), in which all the genera are alike distinguished for

one uniform character of embryo. I think, therefore, it will

be conceded that my distribution is based on more consistent

principles; and I perceive no disadvantage whatever in having

as many as seven well-defined tribes, seeing that this is not an

uncommon number accorded to other families by the authors of

the ‘Genera Plantarum.’ It will be noticed that the same emi-

nent botanists have changed the names of my tribes, calling them

after some particular genus which, as before shown in Coceu-

lee, may be very inappropriate: by this no advantage is gained ;

on the contrary, it is far better to name a tribe, wherever it can

be done, by its principal distinguishing feature, which at once

recalls to mind the group to which any plant belongs: thus the

names Heterocliniea, Leptogonee, Platygonee, and Pachygonea,

speak for themselves more readily than Tinosporee and Cocculee.

This method has been extensively followed in that great work, the

‘Prodromus,’ of DeCandolle, from which no inconvenience what-

ever has yet arisen.

In their distribution of the Menispermacee, the eminent bota-

nists before mentioned annul several genera which appear to me

to stand on valid ground: among these they are decidedly in

error in excluding my genus Odontocarya, not only from the

Heterocliniee, but from the order altogether, referring it to

Euphorbiacee : its carpological features all conform unquestion-

ably with those of the Heterocliniee, and place it in immediate

affinity with the genus Aspidocarya of the ‘ Flora Indica.’ Ane-

lasma, though a very good genus, has been discarded by the.

same authorities, who have likewise condemned Batschia. For

these, and some other genera in like manner suppressed by them,

the evidence will be given on which they have been maintained.

After mature reconsideration of all the facts relating to the

differences in structure in the several genera, I feel bound to

adhere to my previous distribution of the Menispermacee, formed

by many years of attentive study and careful analyses. It must

be remembered that when this investigation was undertaken little

was known of the extremely varied structures in this family—

structures resolvable into several well-marked groups ; for it is

evident that the meagre information previously recorded was

based upon a large amount of error, as will be seen by reference

to the ‘Prodromus’ of DeCandolle and Endlicher’s ‘ Genera

Plantarum.’ It was not till my “ Remarks” were published in

1851, that some light began to gleam on the subject; even

then a mere outline only was given of the new facts obtained,

the details of which remain yet unpublished. These will now

be given in succession, and will be afterwards illustrated by some

of the numerous drawings made at the time of the examination.

Mr. J, Miers on the Menispermacez. 15

The question of the affinities of the group was considered in

my first “ Remarks on Menispermacez ” (Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 2.

vii. 34); this has since been so ably discussed by the authors of

the ‘ Flora Indica’ (p. 170) that it is unnecessary to go over the

same ground, as I concur in most of their views on the subject.

The relationship towards Lardizabalacee, Magnoliacee, and

Anonacee, as is there shown, cannot be doubted; but this is

not so considered in the new ‘Genera Plantarum,’ where the

apocarpous order Lardizabalacee is transferred as a mere tribe

into the monocarpous family of Berberidacee, and that of the

Canellacee (intimately related to this last family) is carried far

away and placed between Violacee and Bixacee: this appears

to be a very illogical view of their true relationship. The apo-

carpous Thalamiflore, with parietal placentation, constitute so

natural a group, and are connected together by so many similar

characters, that it is difficult to conceive why any of them should

be placed elsewhere; and, in regard to Canellacee, the fact of

having two or four lines of parietal placentation, as in some

Lardizabalacea, the resemblance of the ovary and seed to those

of Drimys (especially in the shape and position of their small

embryo), their many-seried imbricated sepals and petals (as in

Magnoliacee), their extrorse anthers (as in Anonacee), the ex-

- trorse monadelphous stamens (as in many Menispermacee), their

solitary carpel (as in Berberidacee), and the resemblance to the

whole of these orders in their mode of placentation, are charac-

ters extremely manifest *. The weight of this evidence leads to

the conclusion and confirms the opinion that the Canellacee

should rest in contiguity with Berberidacee, osculating at the

same time with the above-mentioned apocarpous group, and not

with Bixacee or Violacee, with which they have little analogy.

If these eminent authorities had classed the Canellacee where

they have placed the Lardizabalacee (before Berberidacee), and

had retained the Lardizabalacee in their former position among

the climbing polycarpous families, near Menispermacee, such an

arrangement would have met with the general accord of botanists ;

and this it is to be hoped they will be induced to do in a second

edition of their important work.

* Having lately defined the characters of the Canellacee (Contrib. Bot.

i, 112, pl. 23, 24), I cannot be considered presumptuous in venturing to

differ in opinion from the above-mentioned eminent botanists, who acknow-

ledge the resemblance of the seeds to those of Winteracee, but who object

that the Canellacee differ widely in the structure of the perianth, stamens,

and ovary. This can hardly be conceded; for if we compare the sepals

and petals of Cinnamodendron (pl. 24) with those of Drimys (pl. 26) or of

Iilicium, they will be found to accord in a remarkable manner ; and if we

conceive the extrorse stamens of Drimys united by their margins, we have

precisely the staminal tube of Canella; in like manner, by joining the five

16 Prof. J. D. Dana on the Homologies of

IIl.—On the Homologies of the Insectean and Crustacean Types.

By James D, Dana.

In a note to the article on Cephalization (Annals, 1868, vol. xii.),

at page 193 a brief statement is made by the writer on the

relations between the structures of Insects and Crustaceans.

The following diagram and explanations will make the subject

more intelligible :—

C T A

(—aaceeeeNeontnnein pom Nomm “ a

Inseor........] | | |] ttl birt dt teat

12 83 4 56 67-8 9 1011 12131415 1617 18 19 20 21

Crustacean..][ || / 1/111) 111101T11TTT4

abe" Wir Wey IS a 4

C T A

N J

The diagram presents to the eye the succession of normal

segments in the two types—that of the Insect or highest Insec-

tean, and that of the Decapod or highest Crustacean (including

Crabs, Lobsters, &c.). The spaces between the vertical lines

stand for the segments, which are numbered from 1 to 21.

C stands for the cephalic portion or head; T, for the thorax ;

A, for the abdomen; CT, for the cephalothorax.

The number of normal segments in a Crustacean has been so

clearly and conclusively demonstrated by Milne-Edwards that it

is unnecessary to add here to what has already been said on the

subject. The series and its subdivisions are illustrated in the

line above, opposite Crustacean: fourteen segments are shown

to belong to the cephalothorax, and seven to the abdomen. It is

established beyond all doubt that each segment corresponds to

a single pair of members, as follows :—number 1 to the eyes,

2, 3, to the two pairs of antennz; then, in the Decapod, 4, 5, 6,

7, 8,9, to organs of the mouth (or mandibles, maxille, and

maxillipeds) ; 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, to feet; and 15-21 to the

abdomen*.

The abdominal members in all Decapods which have them,

and four or more posterior pairs of thoracic members or feet in

degradational forms of Decapods (as in Gastrurans or the Squilla

group and in Schizopods), are two-branched, or have two jointed

terminations proceeding from the second segment: and this is

the nearest approach in Decapods to that duplication of the

carpels of Drimys by their margins into one, we have exactly the ovary of

Cinnamodendron with its sessile stigmata and five lines of placentation, as

shown in pl. 24.

* In the Tetradecapod, 4, 5, 6,7 pertain to organs of the mouth, and

8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 to feet.

the Insectean and Crustacean Types. 17

pairs of legs to each segment which occurs in the Juli and some

other related Myriapods*.

As the true normal limit of the head in an animal is deter-

mined by the fact that this part includes the senses, mouth, and

mouth-appendages (for this is demonstrated by the principles of

cephalization already explained, if not established on other

grounds), the head in the Decapod includes nine segments, and

the thorax five, although there is no constriction of the body to

make the division obvious to the eye.

The relation of. the Insect-type to the Decapod is at once

apparent from a comparison of the two lines in the preceding

diagram. Supposing the parallelism rightly presented, the

following facts are to be noted :—

1. The Insect-type wants the three posterior segments of the

Crustacean. .

2. The head and thorax together of the Insect-type have the

same number of segments (nine) as the head alone of the Decapod.

3. The head and thorax of the Insect-type contain half of its

total number of segments (eighteen) ; the same of the Decapod-

type contains two-thirds of its total (twenty-one).

4. The head of an Insect contains six segments, which is one-

third of the total in the Insect-type; that of a Decapod nine

segments, or three-sevenths of the total in the Crustacean type.

[The head of a Tetradecapod, it may be added, contains seven,

or one-third the total. |

5. The visceral segments (or those containing the viscera

connected with digestion) are the 10th, 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th,

in both the Insect-type and the Decapod-type. But in the

Insect the 10th is the first behind the thorax; and in the Crus-

tacean it is the first behind the head (or the mouth-organs)t}.

* The writer has suspected that the multiplication of segments in the

Phyllopods might be due to the basal part of each pair of feet becoming a

separate body-segment, and that the branches corresponded to the double

feet of the Juli; but, as the members in these multiplicative types appear

often (if not always) to have the full number of basal joints, this view does

not appear to be tenable.

T Only in a degradational group of Decapods (that of the Gastrurans)

do the viscera reach into the abdominal segments, or those following the

14th. The abdomen is very much elongated in these species, the cephalo-

thoracic portion of the body is comparatively small, and the whole struc-

ture is lax and low in grade. The species thus stand apart from the

Macrurans as ‘a separate tribe, equivalent to those of Brachyurans and

Macrurans, while the Schizopods are only degradational Macrurans. See

* Annals,’ /.c. In the fact that the viscera of the Squilloids or Gastrurans

are contained in the abdominal portion of the animal, this group appears

to approach the order of Insects. But this seeming approximation comes,

as observed, through degradation, and is analogous to that between a

Limulus and an Inseci, as explained on page 193.

Ann. & Mag, N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol, xiii. 2

18 Mr. H. J. Carter on Freshwater Rhizopoda

The last two or three normal segments in Insects (that is, the

16th, 17th, and 18th) are frequently wanting. .

In the above homological comparisons it is assumed that the

three anterior normal segments present in a Crustacean are

normally and potentially present in an Insect. This will be con-

sidered by many as the doubtful point in the above comparisons.

But it is proved to be correct by the fact that these three seg-

ments are sense-bearing segments in Crustaceans, and the Insect

fails in no sense belonging to the Crab. As stated on page 188

(Annals, /. c.), the absence of a jointed organ is no proof of the

absence of the segments, unless it be true also that the corre-

sponding sense is wanting.

If the constitution of the anterior part of the head in the

Insect be still questioned, there is nevertheless good reason for

making the mandibular segment in the Articulate type (as it ad-

joins the centre in embryonic development, from which progress

goes on forward and backward) normally identical in all groups

under that type; and hence from this segment, or No. 4 in the

Crustacean series, on to No. 18, the parallelism between the

Insect and Crustacean must be rightly given; consequently, if

there is any doubt, it holds only with regard to Nos. 1, 2, and 8.

The law of unity of structure under a type seems, however, to

preclude even this chance for doubt.

Comparing the higher Decapods among Crustaceans and the

higher Insects, the mean size or mass is about as 50 tol. This

ratio indicates approximately the amount of condensation in the

Articulate structure connected with the elevation of grade from

the typical Crustacean to the typical Insectean.

IlIl.—On Freshwater Rhizopoda of England and India; with

Illustrations. By H. J, Carrmr, F.R.S. &e.

[Plates I. & II.]

Tux object of this communication is to bring together descrip-

tions and illustrations of the freshwater Rhizopoda which I haye

found in England since my return from India in 1862, and also

to add some of those which from time to time came under my

notice in the island of Bombay, in order that I may, to a certain

extent, show what species are common to both localities, and

also some of those which may be peculiar to Bombay, or at least

may not yet have been described.

Further, I have drawn most of these on the same scale, and

have added some of their varieties respectively, so that an idea

may be thus gained of their sizes generally, as well as of some

of their differences in point of shape ; for, unless they are treated

of England and India. — | 19°

in this way, we shall never be able to get on without much con-

fusion either in describing them or in distinguishing their spe-

cies. Mere descriptions at this period of their history will not

suffice, as those of Schlumberger testify (Ann. des Sc. Nat. t. il.

p- 254, 1845), especially where a single or only a few specimens

of the species have been obtained, because numbers are required

for comparison, to establish a species ; and although a figure may

not be absolutely necessary with a great number of specimens of

the same species, it, for the same reason, becomes absolutely so

with one or only a few of it. It is only by numbers that we can

arrive at the typical form of the species, here as well as in the

Rhizopoda generally, where those who are well acquainted with

them know that the varieties are almost infinite.

Appended to the descriptions will also be found ‘ Observa~

tions,” in which any structural or physiological fact bearing on

the species only, or in connexion with the Rhizopoda generally,

that appeared to me deserving of notice, has been mentioned,

This is particularly the case under Difflugia compressa, a new

and interesting species, which has been found so abundantly

that I have been able to make out almost as much about it as

about D. pyriformis.

AM@BA.

Ameba princeps, Ehr.

This species often occurs in Bombay as well as in Europe, and

often with the villi on the posterior extremity, first pointed out by

Dr. Wallich. I have given a description and illustrations of it

(Annals, 1863, vol. xii. p. 30), chiefly for the purpose of pointing

out the occasional presence in it of certain cells which appear to

me to be reproductive elements; and have nothing more to add

concerning it here, saving allusion to the corrections or altered

views respecting the nucleus, which will be found at page 254

of the same volume.

Ameba quadrilineata, Cart. (Annals, 1856, vol. xviii. pl. 5. f. 8) ;

A, radiosa (?), Duj. (ibid. figs. 10-16) ; and A. verrucosa,

Ehr., Annals, 1857, vol. xx. pl. 1. fig. 12.

I have already figured these as they occur in Bombay. A.

radiosa was only thus named provisionally; but since I have

returned from India, and have seen Auerbach’s paper on the

Amebe (Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftl. Zoologie, Dec. 31, 1855),

which just preceded my own in publication, it seems evident to

me that this species would be better termed A. bilimbosa, which

Auerbach has figured as a new species.

Another Ameba to which I should allude here is that which

I have delineated with tlie last-mentioned, and have also pro-

20 Mr. H. J. Carter on Freshwater Rhizopoda

visionally called A. Gleichenii? (figs. 5-8), showing its different

stages from the active to the passive capsuled condition, as it

affords the only instance that I have ever noticed of an Am@eba

becoming covered with a distinct, peculiar, brown, chitinous (?)

capsule. It was observed at Bombay, just before the commence-

ment of the “rainy monsoon,” on the 13th of June 1855; and

the figures in my journal are accompanied by the following

remarks :—

* Took some water from a tank in the garden, which had be-

come nearly dry, leaving the shallow pool which remained in it

scattered over with patches of Oscillatoria, and the water ren-

dered green by the presence of Euglena. Found this water

nearly filled with large Am@be, which were very active and

contained fresh green and brown or half-digested food; also a

number of circular, colourless, semitransparent, apparently cap-

suled, refractive bodies, of different sizes, the largest —1,;th of

an inch in diameter [these, at the time, I viewed as “ ovules ;”

they may have been the “ reproductive cells ;” they could hardly

have been starch-granules, from their circular form]; a large

spherical nucleus containing a faintly marked nucleolus, a con- |

tracting vesicle, and granules. Having put some scores of these

into a little clean water in a watch-glass, at 12 o’clock in the

day, I found that the greater part of them, by 10 a.m. on the

following day, had become respectively enclosed in a round,

conical, rough, brown capsule, which was attached to the watch-

glass by its point or by a short pedicle prolonged therefrom.

Many others were seen in different stages between the most

active and the entirely fixed and capsuled condition, as repre-

sented in the figures to which I have referred. It was remark-

able to witness the increasing density of the pellicle, as indicated

by the difficult and sudden way in which the sarcode every now

and then burst through the surface of those individuals which,

although uncapsuled and still transparent, were already fixed by

their pedicle to the glass. Some of the largest of these Ameba,

in a subround state, measure ;!;th of an inch in diameter. In

their most active condition they moved about by globular ex-

pansions; and in no instance did I observe any pointed ones.

Perhaps this kind of polymorphism may have been induced

by the thickening of the pellicle, and at another period the

pseudopodia might have been pointed. The sides of the tank,

which was excavated in trap-rock, were scattered over with dried

masses of Spongilla, and the little water that was left in it be-

strewn with their capsules.”

I tried to repeat the experiment, ust mentioned; but Coleps,

the most destructive of all the Infusoria, became developed in

the watch-glass, which appeared overnight to contain nothing

of England and India. 21

but the Amebe, and the next morning presented absolutely no-

thing but Coleps. The “rains” then set in, filled the tank,

and destroyed all trace of these Amebe, since which period I

have never met with a similar occurrence.

Ameba monociliata, nu. sp. PI. II. fig. 19.

Polymorphic, charged with granules ; possessing a single large

cilium and villi on the posterior extremity.

Hab. Fresh water. Locomotion reptant.

Loc. Bombay.

Obs.—I remember this specimen well. It stands figured in

my journal for May 1855 under two forms, as represented in

the plate, with no mention of the size, or anything more than

has been above stated. In the presence of the flagelliform organ

we seem to have perpetuated the one or two cilia with which the

young or monadine forms of the Rhizopoda, so far as my know-

edge extends, are generally provided, but which disappear as

they grow older, leaving the more developed form inferior in

_ point of locomotive organs to the less matured one. Whether

the cilium of A. monociliata could be retracted or not I am not

enabled to decide, because I never observed more than one

specimen. But that we have an instance of this power in the

Rhizopoda is seen, not only in the young of Acimeta (which,

on issuing from the parent, commence with cilia which finally

become retracted and give place to capitate tentacula), but also

in the division of the free or stemless species, where one half

only puts forth cilia till its separation is thus completed, and

then retracts them again, to be followed by tentacula, as in the

young one—a fact which is well worth remembering, whether it

ars upon the question of A. monociliata being able to retract

its cilium or not, since it affords another instance of the extra-

ordinary extemporizing power of the Rhizopoda, viz. that of

being able to put forth vibratile cilia and retract them as the

occasion may require—organs which, in the other Infusoria,

when once developed, appear to be as unalterable in form as

their motions seem to depend on fixed muscular machinery.

It is possible that this so-called species may be but a variety

of Podostoma filigerum, Clap. et Lachm. (p. 441, pl. 21. figs. 4-6) ;

but, as above stated, I never saw but one specimen, and this did

not remain sufficiently long under observation to undergo more

changes in form than those which I have figured.

Dirriveta, Ehr.

Difflugia pyriformis, Perty (mihi).

A detailed description of this species will be found in the

‘ Annals’ (ser. 3. vol. xii. p. 249), and I have nothing further to

22 Mr. H. J. Carter on Freshwater Rhizopoda

add to it here, except that certain bodies in the sarcode, which I

supposed to be larger starch-granules, now appear to me to have

been cells analogous to, if not homologous with, the “ repro-

ductive” ones described in Ameba princeps, which will presently

be seen to exist also in D. compressa, n. sp.

The type form (perhaps) of the test of D. pyriformis, with its

varieties—together with delineations of the animal, its nucleus

in a spheruliferous condition, also in the effete state after the

spherules have passed into the body, and, finally, their develop-

ment in the watch-glass—will be found in PI. I. figs. 1,2, 3, & 4,

illustrative of all that has been described in the paper to which

I have alluded.. It should be remembered, however, that, if

(in fig. 1) the animal part had been shaded sufficiently deep to

represent its normal green colour, it would be nearly black.

Both the faint yellowish tint and the form of D. oblonga, Ehr.

(tab. 9. fig. 2), seem identical with the generative stage of D.

pyriformis that I have termed “ colourless.”

Difflugia compressa, n. sp. PI. I. figs. 5 & 6.

Test lagenoid, compressed, circular posteriorly, elongated into

a short neck, with even aperture anteriorly *; composed of hya-

line grains of quartz-sand held together by a gelatinous (albu-

minous ?) substance ; presenting a dark, undulating, collar-like

mark at the junction of the neck with the body of the test.

Animal composed of diaphane and sarcode, the latter charged

with “molecule,” ‘granules,’ portions of undigested food,

starch-granules, yellow oil-globules, and small brown cells, which

latter appear to impart to it its characteristic light-brown colour.

Granules minute, colourless. Nucleus probably posterior, but

not seen in situ; vesicule or contracting vesicles also probably

posterior and marginal, as in D. pyriformis.

Hab. Heath-bog water. Abundant among conjugating con-

fervoid Algee and Desmidiee. Progressing with the oral aper-

ture downwards and the test erect. Locomotion and capture of

food performed by obtuse digital prolongations of the body slowly

projected from the aperture. The “ brown cells” do not enter

the pseudopodia.

Size. Length =},th, greatest breadth of broad side ++,th,

aperture ;1,nd, greatest breadth of narrow side =4,th, aperture

<isth of an inch.

Loc. England; south coast of Devon, Budleigh-Salterton.

Observations. They were found in abundance about the middle of

September, in company with conjugating confervoid Alge, &c., as

* Of course, where the test is covered with grains of sand, the outer

margin of the aperture must be rough; but where these grains are absent or

scanty, the inner one is found to be smooth and even.

of England and India. 28

above stated, which formed a slimy layer over the surface of a drain

adjoining a heath-bog. Out of upwards of 200 specimens, the

largest average size was that above given. There is considerable

variety of shape, even to that of a circular figure (4) ; but all have

the characteristic compressed form (c)from which I havedesignated

the species; all present a light brown colour, and most of the

tests have that peculiar collar-like mark (ff) round the neck

above mentioned. Neither the nucleus nor the vesicule could

be seen in situ, on account of the opacity of the tests; and until

one is found sufficiently transparent to admit of this, these points

must remain undetermined. I did not meet with a single spe-

cimen of D. pyriformis among those of D. compressa where the

latter so abounded, although they are both very plentiful at

their respective localities in the same neighbourhood, and both

in ditches draining the same heath-bog ; but while D. pyriformis

prevailed among dead leaves only, D. compressa was chiefly found

im company only with the conjugating Alge mentioned. Still

I found specimens of D. compressa with D. pyriformis, and am

now inclined to believe that those which I have considered to be

D. proteiformis, Ehr.,in my “Observations” on D. pyriformis (1.c.

p- 250), were specimens of D. compressa, the compressed form

of which would easily be mistaken for globularity; for, when

passive, this species always rests on its broad surface, and its

compressed form is not seen until it be turned over, or until the

animal becomes active and assumes the erect position. Further,

I am inclined to think that they must have been specimens of

D. compressa because this species is so generally distributed

throughout the same neighbourhood, and, lastly, because they

did not present the “deep olive or greenish colour” which I

now find (ap. Pritchard) is one of the characteristic features of

D. proteiformis. It is true that the size of D. proteiformis is set

down (/. c.) as much less than that of D. pyriformis and that of

D. acuminata, Ehr.; but this matters little, and the characteristic

form also of D. proteiformis, viz. “ ovate subglobose,” is so near

that of D. pyriformis, that there remains no specific difference

that I can now see, to disunite these so-called species. Thus,

after all, D. pyriformis, Perty, may be but a larger and more

elongated form of D. proteiformis, Khr., in which case the original

name should be retained for the typical form, whichever that

may be.

n submitting D. compressa to pressure, and crushing the

test in water under a glass cover, as stated in my paper on D.

pyriformis, the animal part was found to consist of protoplasm

charged with colourless molecule, small brown cells, yellow oil-

globules, starch-granules, the nucleus, certain large cells which

I shall provisionally term “ reproductive,” and portions of food

24 Mr. H. J. Carter on Freshwater Rhizopoda

in process of digestion. Thus there are no chlorophyll-cells as

in D. pyriformis, but small brown cells, yellow oil-globules, and

reproductive cells, all of which do not appear in the latter, un-

less, as above stated, I have mistaken the “ reproductive cells”?

in D. pyriformis for large starch-granules, which the sequel will,

I think, make probable. Let us now review these parts more in

detail.

1. Small brown cells (PI. I. fig.6). These are globular in

form, filled with granular protoplasm, and about z,55th of an

inch in diameter, not near so numerous or so striking as the

chlorophyll-cells in D. pyriformis, although they, with the

yellow oil-globules, appear to give the light brown colour to the

species.

2. Oil-globules (c). These are more striking than in D. py-

riformis, from their constant presence, greater number, and

bright amber-colour: they vary in size, and, under the appli-

cation of a solution of iodine in iodide of potassium, lose their

yellow colour, but only to become more brilliant and refractive.

3. Starch-granules (d) and nucleus (fig. 6). The same as in

the green specimens of D. pyriformis, where the latter has be-

come spheruliferous.. The nucleus is also about the same size,

(the -4,st part of an inch in diameter), but the spherules more

marked and sometimes granuliferous. As the nucleus in all the

specimens which I examined, and which were very numerous,

was in the same condition, while in its original state it probably

bore the usual appearance, viz. a circular discoid body (the

nucleolus) attached to the inner surface of a larger translucent

and spherical cell (the nucleus), it may be that this is the state

in spring, and the former the autumnal one, indicative of the

time of the year at which the animal generates.

4. Reproductive cells (e,f). These are certain cells of an

oval or circular shape, filled with homogeneous contents, colour-

less, more or less refractive, and generally about ~1>th of an inch

in diameter, but varying to twice this size or more, even in the

same animal. They also vary in number, from ten to twenty or

more, and have been seen frequently both with and without the

presence of the nucleus in its spheruliferous condition. On the

application of iodine, they, for the most part, assume a light

amber colour, and sometimes present granuliferous contents (f),

which distinguishes them at once from the starch-granule; but

they also present occasionally a claret-colour, although never so

deep or with such homogeneous contents as the starch-granule.

As before stated, I suspect that these cells also exist in D. pyri-

formis, and that I have mistaken them there for large starch-

granules.

In no instance have I yet found the body of D. compressa

of England and India. 25

charged with the “ granuliferous cells” and the nucleus empty,

as in the colourless specimens of D. pyriformis, although, as above

mentioned, these cells have sometimes been seen to have arrived

at the granuliferous stage in the nucleus. Then I have not found

any indication here to direct me to this condition, as in D. pyri-

formis, where the absence of the green colour at once shows that

the spherules of the nucleus have passed into the body of the

animal. Probably it does take place here as well as in D. pyri-

formis ; but this remains to be seen.

Still it is perhaps worth recording that in one specimen an

abortive nucleus was found, in which there were not only a few

of the spherules remaining, but starch-granules and yellow oil-

globules also, such as occur in the body of the animal, showing

that where the development of the spherules fails of its object,

the elements of which they are composed may pass into other

compounds. On the application of iodine to this nucleus, the

remaining spherules assumed their usual amber tint, the starch-

granules a deep claret one, and the yellow oil-globules lost their

colour, as in the body of the animal under similar circumstances;

while the contents of the nucleolus, which were homogeneous,

also (as usual) received a claret tint which, although not so

deep as that of the starch-granules, yet always, in this respect,

indicates in these contents a more amylaceous composition than

in those of the nuclear cavity.

Of what import are the “reproductive cells” of D. compressa,

which appear to be homologous with those described in Ameba

princeps ?

It may be seen that, while I have described and figured

certain granuliferous cells, &c., which occasionally accompany

the reproductive cells in Ameba princeps, still I could never

recognize in any of these a true nucleus (/.c. p. 42, pl. 3.

fig. 1 d,e). But I have done so in D. compressa, and, as above

stated, have seen the reproductive cells in company with a sphe-

ruliferous nucleus. However, I have observed and figured

in Ameba princeps (fig. 5, l.c.) one of the reproductive cells

twice the size of the others, which I have also interpreted as a

yet undivided reproductive cell. On the other hand, Dr. Wallich

(if we both refer to the same kind of bodies) states (Annals,

ser. 3. vol. xii. p. 124) that he has seen, in his A. villosa, a nucleus

among them; and, where these cells have been less numerous,

“three distinct nuclei,” of almost equal size. The latter, I

think, must be what I have considered undivided reproductive

cells—that is, under the view that these cells are multiplied by

duplicative division, which, in the large ones mentioned, is a

little retarded. But be that as it may, we have in D. compressa

the spheruliferous nucleus and these reproductive cells together

26 Mr. H. J. Carter on Freshwater Rhizopoda

in the same animal ; and I have already stated that the spherules

of the nucleus, after passing into the body of D. pyriformis,

ultimately appear in the watch-glass with ciliated polymorphic

bodies, whereby we may fairly infer that the same changes take

place in those of D. compressa. What, then, becomes of the

“reproductive cells” in D. compressa? Now, assuming, as we

have done, that the reproductive cells in D. pyriformis were

mistaken for large starch-granules, and remembering also not

only that the spherules were ciliated, but also that Amebe much

larger in size were among the contents of the watch-glass (Pl. I.

fig. 4 a,b), which were inferred to come from the colourless

specimens of D. pyriformis, in which the spherules had passed

into the body of the animal, is it not worthy of consideration

whether the latter (that is, the Amebe) may not have come from

the reproductive cells? and, therefore, whether the spherules of

the nucleus may not bear the relation of spermatozoids to these

reproductive cells? If so, too, in some instances, the granula-

tion of the nucleus may take place in one, and the formation of

the reproductive cells (from a larger subdivision of the nucleus)

in another individual—thus rendering the species dicecious ;

while others may be both moneecious and diccious. It

would be easy for impregnation to take place in the body of the

Diffiugia, where both the spherules of the nucleus and the repro-

ductive cells might come together in a preeminently plastic state

for their union, although it be true that in many instances the

procreative elements of other organisms eliminate themselves

from the parent and get into the water before this act takes

place: at the same time here it must occur quickly, or the forma-

tion of a pellicle over the surface of the protoplasm of the germ-

cell or sperm-cell (which it does not appear to be in the power

of either to control) inevitably defeats the process.

There is another question also which I have not yet been able

to determine, viz. whether or not the chlorophyll-cells in D. pyri-

formis and the brown cells in D. compressa are not identical with

those bodies in the Amebe, &c., which I have termed “ gran-

ules” (Annals, ser. 3. vol. xii. p.83 &c.). Inthe amcebous cell of

Spongilla they are frequently of a bluish emerald-green colour

under the microscope, and, in some instances, appear to impart

the green colour to the mass, Again, in Ameba princeps, &e.,

they frequently pass into crystalloids; while I have seen and

figured them also in the pseudopodia of Difflugia tricuspis, Cart.

(Annals, ser. 2. vol. xviii. pl. 7. fig. 80), and in those of Arcella

vulgaris, Ehr. Yet in those of D. pyriformis and D. compressa 1

have never seen anything but a dense number of fine granules,

which look like those with which the sarcode is charged, and

to which I have given the name of “molecule.” Hence I

of England and India. 27

have stated, in the description both of D. pyriformis and of D. com-

pressa, that neither the chlorophyll-cells nor the brown cells

enter the pseudopodia of either of these species respectively ; at

the same time that I might have erred in calling their contents

granules instead of molecule, if the chlorophyll-cells and brown

cells should hereafter prove to be homologouswith the “granules”.

We shall find the latter particularly marked in Euglypha com-

pressa, n. sp., and in Cyphoderia margaritacea, Schlum., where

they are globular in the former and oblong in the latter (Pl. I.

fig. 13 k, & Pl. IL. fig. 18 /).

Diffiugia urceolata, n. sp. PI. I. fig. 7.

Test ovo-globose, truncated anteriorly ; aperture wide, even ;

margin everted, reflected; neck obsolete : composed of grains of

hyaline quartz-sand. Animal colourless, hidden, with the ex-

ception of the pseudopodia, by the opacity of the test.

Hab. Heath-bog water. Progressing with the aperture down-

wards and the test erect. Locomotion performed by obtuse

digital prolongations of the body slowly projected from the

aperture. ;

' Size. Length ,rd, breadth ,!;nd, aperture +3,th of an inch

in diameter.

Loc. England ; south coast of Devon, Budleigh-Salterton.

Obs. I have only seen one specimen of this species, and in

this the animal was fortunately present and active. On crush-

ing the test, no nucleus or starch-granules appeared, but a

dozen cells (c), each of which was about +;!;>th of an inch in

diameter, and so much like the earlier or acapsular stage of the

“reproductive cells” of Amaba princeps that little doubt could

be entertained of their being of the same nature. There

was nothing present, either to represent the chlorophyll-cells or

brown cells of D. pyriformis and D. compressa respectively, un-

less a number of elongated, elliptical, colourless bodies, which I

took to be the “granules,” might have been thus considered

(fig.7d) 5

Difflugia Bombayensis, n. sp. Pl. II. fig. 16.

_ Test ovo-globose, of a dark-brown colour, truncated anteriorly,

aperture even; composed of grains of sand externally, which

rest upon a cancellated structure formed of circles of large parti-

cles, in the areas of which are scattered a number of smaller

ones. No part of the animal seen within the test, on account of

its opacity. Pseudopodia numerous, digitiform, obtuse or forked

at the extremity.

Hab. Fresh water.

Size. About ~},th of an inch long.

Loc. Island of Bombay.

28 Mr. H. J. Carter on Freshwater Rhizopoda

Obs. Annexed to the figure of this in my journal is the fol-

lowing note (Sept. 1855) :—“ There are two Difflugia [in the

island of Bombay], viz. one small, ovoid, almost colourless, and

about ;1,th of an inch in length; test covered with grains of

quartz-sand, sometimes with particles or bodies of equal length

laid side by side in regular arrangement, as in Arcella aculeata,

Ehr. Conjugates like Huglypha; flesh shrinks up into a round

form at the bottom of the test. [This is probably the species

which I have called D. tricuspis, 1. c. pl. 7. fig. 80.] The other

much larger,” &c. [This is the species last described. ]

Attached to the figure of another ovo-globose specimen (in

my journal), covered with hyaline grains of quartz, but not

brown, is also this note (July 1855), viz. :—“ A large Difflugia,

with sandy test, translucent, and about =1,th of an inch long.”

The last measurement probably equals that of any English spe-

cies of Difflugia ; and as the same shape is often figured in my

Bombay journal, although of much smaller dimensions than

this, it is probable that they all belong to the “ ovo-globuse”

species of this locality, of which the maximum size is that just

mentioned. The habitat is fresh water. If thought desirable,

it might be named “ D. ovoglobosa.”

Difflugia elliptica, n. sp. PI. I. fig. 26.

Test ovo-elliptic, compressed, pointed posteriorly, truncated

anteriorly, with even aperture; composed of hyaline grains of

quartz. No part of the animal seen but the pseudopodia, which

were digitate and obtuse.

Hab. Fresh water.

Size. s1>th of an inch long, and =+,;th transversely on the

broad surface.

Loc. Island of Bombay.

Obs. I have only one specimen of this form figured. It dif-

fers from D. compressa in having the posterior part of the test

pointed, and the anterior part without extended neck ; hence I

have designated it differently; but, as ‘one swallow does not

make a summer,” so one specimen is not enough to establish a

species, and therefore the name may be considered provisional.

Difflugia peltigeracea, n. sp. PI. I. fig. 12.

Test flask-shaped, transparent, with wide mouth and double

inflation, viz. one in the body, and the other towards the aper-

ture ; composed of minute, irregular, polygonal scales in juxta-

position. Animal colourless ; nucleus posterior.

Hab, Found about Peltigera canina (Dog-Lichen).

Size. Length =4,th, greatest breadth ;4,th, aperture 54,th

of an inch.

Loc, Tavistock, Devon.

of England and India. 29

Obs. Only two specimens of this Rhizopod were obtained—

viz. one containing the animal in a passive state, and the other

empty. ‘They were found in the water which had been poured

over some specimens of Peltigera canina, to moisten them; and

these specimens had been brought from the neighbourhood of

Tavistock. Figures of both tests are given to show that there is

some little variety in their shape; and the small one is drawn

upon the same scale as that of the Difflugie generally, to show

its relative size. In the test containing the animal, the latter

will be observed to be retracted, and, as usual under such cir-

cumstances, to have secreted a kind of fibrous structure, which

is arranged transversely, in the form of a diaphragm, towards

the aperture. Portions of undigested food are seen in the body;

and the presence of two of these around the nucleus (one of

which is posterior to it, in which position it never occurs in

Euglypha) makes me call this Rhizopod, provisionally, a Dz/-

flugia, although the form of the pseudopodia can alone settle

this question, which thus must be left for future observation to

determine.

Difflugia spiralis, Bailey (mihi). Pl. I. fig. 9.

This species is also very common here. I never saw it in the

island of Bombay. It is generally covered with grains of hyaline

quartz, but still not unfrequently with minute, short, cylindrical,

colourless filaments, arranged parallel to each other, although in

a more or less tortuous manner (d). In Dr. Wallich’s figure of

this species, under the name of “ Difflugia proteiformis (var. septi-

fera” (Annals, ser. 3. vol. xi. pl. 10. fig. 12), the covering appears

to consist of little subround bodies, of uniform shape; and in

that of D. acuminata, Ehr., close by, it is observed (p. 453)—

“the portion of the test around the aperture is built up entirely

of chitinous pellets.”

Difflugia ? PI. I. figs. 10, 11.

The tests of two other Difflugia (figs. 10 & 11) were both found

in heath-bog water, with D. urceolata, the former empty, the

latter contaming the animal; but as these were the only speci-

mens of this shape met with, I have merely inserted their figures

for what they may hereafter prove worth,

Ecurnopyxis, Clap. et Lachm.

Echinopyzis aculeata, Ehr. (sp.) PI. I. fig. 8.

Common in the island of Bombay, as well as on the south

coast of Devon, at Budleigh-Salterton. The largest specimens

that I have seen in the latter locality measured about +4;th of

an inch long, and about the same transversely in the broadest

80 Mr. H. J. Carter on Freshwater Rhizopoda

part, the anterior half being rather contracted, and the aperture

large and circular, or slightly elongated transversely. The latter

feature, together with the tendency of the aperture to an ex-

centric or terminal position and the depression of the test ante-

riorly, while it is elevated behind, causes this Rhizopod to bear

a similar relation to Difflugia that the pleurostomatal form: of

Euglypha (Trinema acinus, Duj., Euglypha pleurostoma, Cart.)

bears to the latter genus; and when we observe that its test is

formed of grains of hyaline quartz, and that the pseudopodia

are digital and obtuse, the alliance is still greater. The spines

then become the chief distinguishing character, out of which,

according to Claparéde and Lachmann (p. 447), delicate pseudo-

podal prolongations are projected. But even the spines vary

greatly in number and position (i, d), while in some yarie-

ties they are altogether absent (g,h), as may be seen by the

group of figures I have given of them, which, being all drawn

upon the same scale, show not only their relative sizes to each

other, but to those of the other Diffilugie.

In the lateral view of the large specimen (d), I have endea-

voured to give another variety in the disposition of the spines,

and have figured on the test the regular arrangement of. short

straight filaments (e) which, at Bombay, I found occasionally

substituted for the grains of quartz; while in other instances the

test was composed of a mixture of both, and sometimes of the

frustules of Navicula pusilla (mihi) only, with the endochrome

still in them. Thus, as we have now seen, these animals avail

themselves of much variety in the material of their covering,

although grains of sand, and especially of colourless hyaline

quartz, seem to be preferred.

Arcetua, Ehr.

Arcella vulgaris, Ehr. PI. II. fig. 14.

Among the figured specimens of this Rhizopod and its varie-

ties are the largest that I have seen; and in the horizontal view

of the depressed form will be observed the double nucleus, viz.

one situated diametrically opposite the other. This occurs also

in all the varieties; and I wonder that no allusion has been

made to the circumstance by other authors who have written on

this Rhizopod, especially since my figure illustrating the fact

was published in 1856 (Annals, ser, 2. vol. xviii. pl. 7. fig. 79). I

think that I have found specimens with only one nucleus, but

certainly none with “ twelve or fifteen,” as stated by Auerbach

and repeated by Claparéde and Lachmann (p. 445). But I

have figures of specimens, observed in the island of Bombay,

containing even more than this number of what appear to me

now to have been “reproductive cells” analogous to those which

of England and India, 31

I haye described in Ameba princeps. In a figure of A. vulgaris

which was active, there are twenty-one of these cells repre-

sented ; and in another of the facetted variety (4. angulosa, Ehr.),

which was passive, these cells are all gathered up into the body

of the animal, which has thus assumed a compressed circular

form corresponding with that of the interior of the test, and in

this state much resembles the condition of A. princeps when the

body, filled with reproductive cells, has become almost effete and

barely forms more than a protective covering to them. (Annals,

ser. 3, vol. xii. pl. 3. fig. 4). Huglypha alveolata is also represented.

in a similar state (Annals, ser. 2. vol. xviii. pl. 5. fig. 26). Hence

I think it possible that the authors above mentioned may have

mistaken these cells for nuclei; at the same time, the apparent

areolation of the nucleus, which arises from the circular semi-

opake nucleolus being much smaller than the more transparent

nuclear cell, is at the same time as characteristic of the nucleus

as it is distinctive of it from the “ reproductive cell,’ which has

no areolation, It is, however, possible, as I have inferred in A,

princeps, that these cells may arise from a division of the nucleus;

and this, if I am right in my conjecture, may have led to their

having been called nuclei.

_ The depressed, arched, elevated, and facetted forms of Arcella

Bpietieely, one would have concluded, a priori, to have been

all variations from one type form, if this had not been confirmed’

by Claparéde and Lachmann (p. 446) through actual observation;

and that type form one would further conclude to be A. vulgaris,

if there were not room for doubt still left respecting the probable

passage of the new test produced by the variety returning to the

original form,—that is, if the sagacious observers just mentioned

had not only established that all the varieties which they have

mentioned may come from A. vulgaris, but also that these varie-

ties never returned to it. Beyond this I have nothing to add to

their excellent article on the subject, saving that, if the green

colour of A. viridis, Perty, should depend upon the presence of

chlorophyll-cells, then I think this should be considered a dis-

tinct species.

My figures are chiefly intended to bring the principal varieties

together, for the purpose of showing their resemblance to each

other, the identity in form of their pseudopodia with those of

Diffiugia, and their size relative to the other Rhizopoda which

are illustrated with them. They all are as common in the island

of Bombay as here on the south coast of Devon.

Arcella patens, Clap. et Lachm. (p. 446, pl. 22. fig. 7).

This species (very like Ehrenberg’s Pyzidicula operculata,

tab, x. fig. 1, and placed by this illustrious microscopist among

32 Mr. H. J. Carter on Freshwater Rhizopoda

the Diatomacez) stands figured in different parts of my journal

since 1855, as it is found in the island of Bombay, and now

copied into Plate II. fig. 15. Its diameter there does not ex-

ceed the +,,,th part of an inch, which is less than half the size

of the species found near Berlin by Claparéde and Lachmann ;

but, like that, the test is hemispherical, open below, and the

nucleus and vesicula single; while, unlike it, the test of the

Bombay specimens is light-brown or fawn-coloured. Portions

of food were observed in it; and I think the pseudopodia were

more pointed than those of Arcella vulgaris—thus more resem-

bling those of Ameba. It was found abundantly in fresh water,

creeping over filaments of Spirogyra and Cladophora. I have

not yet met with it on the south coast of Devon.

One of the figures in my journal is subspherical, apparently

in preparation for forming a new individual by duplicative divi-

sion, aud thus represents the new half a little less in size, and

much lighter in colour, than the older one,—which not only

makes it resemble the Pyxidicula (c) figured by Ehrenberg under

a similar condition, but also the globular frustules of the chain-

like Diatomacee (e. g. Melosira) when, under division, their

hemispherical form is supplying the new half. I think, by and

by, much alliance will be found to exist between the Rhizopoda

and the Diatomacee.

KuGLYPHA, Duj.

Euglypha compressa, un. sp. Pl. I. fig. 13.

Test ovate, compressed, convex, more or less expanded later-

ally, terminating in a sutural edge all round, except at the aper-

ture, which is 10-12-denticulated ; composed of elongated hex-

agonal scales in juxtaposition, except at the aperture, where

their free ends are pointed ; furnished with about twenty hairs or

spines irregularly scattered along a little more than the posterior

half of the sutural line. Animal occupying the whole of the

test, except towards the centre, where it is constricted, and thus

forms a line of demarcation between the anterior opake portion,

which contains the food, and the posterior or transparent one,

which contains the nucleus together with a great number of

colourless cells. The latter, globular in figure, with strongly de-

fined edge, appear to be the “ granules.” Vesicula in plurality,

situated opposite the constricted portion of the body.

Hab. Heath-bog water. Progression erect, or with the aper-

ture downwards. Locomotion and capture of the food performed

by pseudopodia, which are straight, attenuated, ray-like, and of

variable length.

Size. Length z1,th, breadth 51,th, thickness in the mid-

of England and India. 33

dle =1,th, aperture ;1,th, body-scales z,,th long by 37'55th

of an inch broad.

Loc. South coast of Devon, Budleigh-Salterton.

Obs. Of this Rhizopod I have only found two specimens, one a

little broader and shorter than the other. It strictly agrees with

Euglypha alveolata, as may be seen by my figure of the latter

(Annals, ser. 2. vol. xviii. pl. 5. fig. 25), in the essential features

of the genus, but differs from it specifically in its compressed

form (after which it has been designated), its sutural edge, re-

striction of the hairs to this line, and in the figure of the scales.

Euglypha alveolata. PI. Il. fig. 17.

The accompanying figure of this species is to show that it may

possess at least twelve hairs scattered over the posterior part of

the test, or in a variable number down to their complete ab-

sence ; also to show that the body-scales of the specimens here

found are circular and overlap each other, giving the area an hexa-

gonal form, and not an oval one, as that of the scales of the

specimens found in the island of Bombay, to the illustration of

which I have just referred; further, that the pointed ends of

the scales arotind the aperture present serrated edges under a

high power, that is, under a $th-of-an-inch object-glass.

Cyrnoperta, Schlumberger (mihi) *.

Cyphoderia margaritacea, Schlum. PI. II. fig. 18.

This, although extremely common here (south coast of Devon),

I have never met with in the island of Bombay. It has been

figured to show how far it agrees and how far it differs from

Euglypha. The test varies in form occasionally by the presence

of a diverticulum posteriorly, which is more or less extended, as

in Difflugia acuminata, and which I have never seen in Euglypha.

During progression, the test is inclined, corresponding with the

oblique direction of the aperture, which, in all the testaceous

Rhizopoda when in motion, is brought into parallelism with the

plane on which they may be creeping, and thus determines the

position of the test under these circumstances. The scales of

the body are more or less regularly hexagonal and in juxta-

position, but not denticulated (as in Zuglypha) at the aperture,

which, in Cyphoderia margaritacea, presents a beaded edge, ec.

But it is not until we come to the pseudopodia that we find any

very marked difference between this genus and Euglypha, and

here only in their length, branched condition, the rapidity with

which they are projected (more resembling those of Trinema —

acinus, Duj.=Euglypha pleurostoma, Cart.), and the peculiar

* See description ap. Pritchard, p. 557, ed. 1861.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xiii. 3

34 Mr. H. J. Carter on Freshwater Rhizopoda

manner in which they are suddenly retracted, with or without

the prehension of a particle of food—the latter seemingly pro-

duced by the distending power which kept the semifluid sareode

in a ray-like form being suddenly withdrawn, when the sareode,

accumulating into a kind of drop at the end of the filament,

incepts the particle of nourishment, and gradually, by amalgama-

tive union, withdraws it and itself into the body of the animal.

Interiorly the body so strictly accords with that of Huglypha

that I have assumed that the vesicule (which I have not yet seen

in Cyphoderia) are in like manner situated opposite the constric-

tion (for the convenience of emptying themselves there ?), and

therefore have provisionally placed them in this position in the

figure. In the posterior translucent part, which contains the

nucleus and “ granules,” the latter will be observed to be oblong

or elliptical, and not globular as they are in Euglypha com-

pressa. |

The two figures of the test (d, e) on a smaller scale are given

respectively, to show the acuminated variety, and for comparison

in size with the rest of the figures.

Sometimes the animal, instead of extending back to the pos-

terior extremity of the test, is attached, a little distance from it,

to the upper limb by a digital prolongation, in which I have seen

a contracting vesicle fill and discharge itself.

The largest specimens that I have met with have been about

zisth of an inch long, 74,th broad, the aperture =,,th by

gaszth, and the scales =,1,;th in diameter.

A marine species (specimen?) has been described by Prof.

Schultze under the name of Lagynis Baltica, out of which he

has made the genus Lagynis (Organ. der Polythal. p. 56,

tabb. 7 & 8. fig. 1).

Actinorurys, Ehr.

Actinophrys paradoxa, n. sp. PI. II. fig. 20,

Polymorphic; surface even, or furnished with capitate and

actiniform tentacula, separately or together; capitate tentacula

short, numerous, forming a villous surface over the body, re-

tractile or extensile ; actiniform tentacula few in number, long,

radiated, and much larger than the rest. Incepts crude mate-

rial for food. Neither nucleus nor contracting vesicle seen.

Hab. Common in the freshwater tanks of the island of Bom-

bay, from April to June inclusive.

Size. About ~1,th of an inch in diameter.

Obs. This species has been designated from its changeable

form—viz. at one time appearing without any tentacula, and at —

another with one or both kinds present. Figs. a, b, e represent

changes of form successively seen in the same individual ; and d is

of England and India, 35

assumed to be the same species, with the tentacula in a capitate

form and of various lengths, the capitate portion not being so

distinct in 4 and c, where these tentacula are but just put forth

beyond the body. But that it incepts crude food, I should have

considered it an Acineta. I have not seen this Rhizopod in

England.

It is right, however, to add that the same form, and under-

going the changes above mentioned, once occurred in company

with that peculiar cyst of Acineta which is surrounded by trans-

verse circular ridges, out of one of which cysts I have (p, m)

figured, doubtfully, its exit. But, be this as it may, the specimens

contained no crude food, and were more or less densely charged

with the granules so characteristic of Acineta. Can it be that

this Rhizopod, after all, is an Acineta which both lives on suc-

tion through the capitate bulbous tentacula and on crude food,

like Actinophrys, as the occasion may require ?

Actinophrys Eichhornii, Ehr. PI. II. fig. 21.

Of this Rhizopod I only met with two specimens in the island

of Bombay, of the size given, in eight years, in different locali-

tities and at a long interval of time, both in fresh water. The

first had no pseudopodia, but presented the vesicula in plurality

and in the forms given in the figure (f, f), as well as the cell (g)

supposed to be the nucleus. Both specimens contained much

crude food, and the last specimen seen was more or less scattered

over with actiniform tentacula. In each instance, the body

was filled with a parenchyma consisting of vacuoles suspended in

granular sarcode. The vacuoles appeared to be spherical in their

primary form (c), and each contained granules in active motion,

while the granular sarcode alone was projected into the form of

tentacula, which bore with them a covering of the plastic invest-

ing membrane, as represented in the drawing (a, a). The vesi-

cule made their appearance between the surface of the paren-

chyma and the investing membrane, and, bursting through the

latter, were followed by protrusion of the parenchyma, as shown

at e. Hach specimen was about =th of an inch in diameter;

and that figured is drawn upon the same scale as most of the

other delineations, viz. 4th to ~};th part of an inch,

Fig. 22 (whose body was only ;i;th of an inch in diameter,

but contained vacuoles similar to those of A. Hichhornii, was in

the same basin with and was probably only a small specimen of

it) presented on different parts of its actiniform tentacula little

globules, apparently of the substance of which the investing

membrane is composed. In the same basin was also an Actino-

phrys in which all the tentacula radiated from one point of the

body (Plagiophrys spherica, Clap. et Lachm, p. 454 ?), and also

36 Mr. H.J. Carter on Freshwater Rhizopoda

many specimens of A. oculata, Stein (mihi), in aggregated

masses of nine or more individuals held together by their united

sarcodes, in the midst of which were spaces containing large

cells of homogeneous, semiopake, colourless matter, like those

of the marine species figured by Stein: but of this gregarious

form I hope to write more hereafter.

Figs. 23 & 24 represent yet two more species (or, perhaps,

varieties) of A. Hichhornit. vi both, the plastic investing mem-

brane is seen to be carried out in an arachnoid form beyond the

body ; but in fig. 23 only was the nucleus and a portion of crude

food observed; while in the two specimens of fig. 24 seen (one

with and the other without the arachnoid expansion) there was

nothing, according to my notes, but colourless granules. Hence

this, with the capitate tentacula, makes it look like Acineta ; but

its general appearance, and the probability that the hastiform

extremities of the tentacula are merely accumulations of the

plastic investing membrane, incline me to the side of Actino-

phrys.

ACANTHOCYSTIS, nov. gen.

Acanthocystis turfacea,n.sp. Pl. II. fig. 25.

This species is described at p. 263 of the ‘Annals’ (ser. 3.

vol. xii.) and fully illustrated in Pl. II. fig. 25, &c., while a detailed

account of the illustrations will be found in the ‘ Explanation’

to the plate. I have nothing more to add here to my description,

except that, if A. viridis, Ehr., be A. brevicirrhis, Perty, coloured

by chlorophyll, as suspected by Claparéde and Lachmann (p.452),

then the description of the latter given at p. 450 makes it also

very like Acanthocystis turfacea; but the two descriptions will

be found to be by no means identical.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

N.B. The tests in Plate I. figs. 1, 5, 7-11, 129, 13 f, 14 a, g, i, 1, m,

and 26, and in Pl. II. figs. 15 g, 16, 17, 18d, e, and fig. 21, are all drawn

upon the scale of jth to 545th of an inch, in order that their relative sizes

may be seen.

All the figures are, of course, more or less diagrammatic, for the purpose

of description; but nature has been departed from as little as possible.

Prare I.

Fig. 1. Diflugia pyriformis, Perty (mihi), magnified: a, test; 0, grains of

hyaline quartz; c, pseudopodia; d, diaphane; e, dentiform at-

tachments of the same to the test; f, sarcode; g, chlorophyll-

cells; h, food; i, nucleus; k,k, vesicule or contracting vesicles ;

1, acuminated variety of test; m, pyriform variety.

Fig. 2. The same, spheruliferous nucleus of: a, nucleolus; 0, imaginary

section of the same; ¢, central cavity; d, layer of nuclear proto-

of England and India. 37

plasm bearing the spherules; e, nucleolus, with layer of granules

and central cavity ; f, chlorophyll-cells; g, starch-granules. All

these figures are greatly magnified.

Fig. 3. The same, effete nucleus of the colourless specimens, after the

spherules have passed into the body of the animal: a, flocculent

matter, the remains of the nuclear protoplasm in which the sphe-

rules were suspended; 6, nucleus, with layer of granules and

central cavity still remaining; c, granuliferous cells (origiually

the spherules of the nucleus, which have now passed into the

body of the animal) undergoing multiplication by duplicative

; division; d, starch-granules. All greatly magnified. :

Fig. 4. The same: a, granuliferous cells after they have passed from the

animal into the watch-glass, now become ciliated; 3, small

Amebe which also appear in the watch-glass. All greatly mag-

nified.

Fig. 5. Difflugia compressa, n. sp., magnified: a, broad side of test;

-b, grains of hyaline quartz-sand; ¢, narrow side; d, grains of

quartz on the same ; e, e, pseudopodia; f,f, dark collar-like mark

at the base of the neck of the test; g, h, i, k, dotted lines show-

ing respectively varieties in the form of the test; /, aperture of

the circular variety. It should be remembered that the grains of

quartz, &c., are only partially delineated over the test, to save

trouble in the engraving.

Fig. 6. The same, spheruliferous nucleus of; the spherules more or less

granuliferous: a, nucleolus; 5, brown cells; c, yellow oil-glob-

ules; d, starch-granules ; e, reproductive cells; f, one under the

effect of iodine, showing that it is granuliferous, and not homo-

geneous like the starch-granule under the same circumstances.

All greatly magnified.

Fig. 7. Diffugia urceolata, n. sp., magnified : a, grains of quartz; b, pseudo-

podia; c, reproductive cells; d, oblong colourless cells or bodies

(the “granules” ?). The two latter much more magnified than

' the test.

Fig. 8. Difflugia aculeata, Ehr.; magnified under surface: a, grains of

hyaline quartz; 5, aperture; c, ¢, spines; d, lateral view of the

same, showing a different arrangement of the spines; e, minute

eigen of straight filaments, sometimes substituted by the animal

or grains of sand; f, pseudopodia; g, oblong variety, without

spines—under surface ; h, lateral view of the same; #, circular

variety, with spines all round.

Fig. 9. Diffiugia spiralis, Bailey (mihi); magnified lateral view: a, test;

6, grains of hyaline quartz; ¢, posterior view ; d, short filaments

arranged parallel to each other, but in a tortuous form, substi-

tuted for grains of quartz.

Fig. 10. Difflugia ? magnified. Test empty; animal not seen.

Fig. 11. Difflugia ? magnified ; colourless: a, pseudopodia.

Fig. 12. Diffugia peltigeracea, un. sp. (provisionally so named), magnified ;

scale ;4th to z7h 5th of an inch: a, test; b, form of scales;

ce, body of animal in a passive state ; d, nucleus; e, e, e, portions

of food; f, fibrous matter forming a kind of diaphragm; g, an-

other form of the same on the scale of 4th to y45th of an inch

(for comparison in size with the rest of the tests on this scale).

Fig. 13. Euglypha compressa, n. sp., magnified ; scale ',th to 3355th of

an inch: a, broad side of test; , scales near aperture; c, the

same, a little further back; d, spimes; e, narrow side; f, broad

side, on the scale of jth to g}9th of an inch (for comparison)

Fig.

26.

14,

15.

for)

17.

18.

Mr. H. J. Carter on Freshwater Rhizopoda.

g, pseudopodia; h, body of the animal; i, nucleus and nucleolus;

» * granules,” (?) globular in shape; 1, 1, vesicule in situ.

Difflugia elliptica, n.sp., provisionally so named: a, broad side

of test ; 5, posterior extremity viewed from above, showing its

compressed form ; c, pseudopodia. Indian specimen.

Puate II,

Arcella vulgaris, Ehr., magnified: a, test; 6, form of plates;

c, aperture; d, animal attached to the test by dentiform pro-

cesses; e,e, the two nuclei situated opposite each other; f, vesi-

culz in great plurality; g, lateral view; h, form of pseudopodia ;

z, lateral view of more elevated variety ; k, pseudopodia; /, hori-

zontal view of facetted variety ; m, lateral view of the same.

Arcella patens, Clap. & Lachm. (mihi), magnified : a, under surface

of test ; b, body of animal; c, nucleus; d, vesicula; e, upper view;

f, lateral view; g, size of test on the scale of 4th to goth of an

inch (for comparison).

. Difiugia Bombayensis, un. sp., magnified: a, grains of quartz;

6, cancellated structure of the test beneath, in circles; ¢, pseudo-

odia.

uglypha alveolata, Duj., magnified ; furnished with twelve hairs:

a, form and arrangement of body-scales, more magnified ; 3, ser-

rated edges of apertural scales, as seen under $th-inch focus.

Loc. South-east coast of Devon.

Cyphoderia margaritacea (Schlumberger), magnified, on the scale

of th to 59th of an inch: a, test; 5, form of scales; c, beaded

form of apertural margin; d, test less magnified, viz. on a scale

of 4th to s45th of an inch (for comparison); e, ditto, acuminated

variety ; f, f, pseudopodia, more or less branched; g, h, forms

under retraction, the latter incepting a particle of food at its ex-

tremity ; 7, body of the animal, containing fragments of nutritious

matter in progress of digestion; k, nucleus, surrounded by / ob-

long “ granules” (?); m, vesicule opposite the constriction of the

body, situated as in Euglypha (assumed position).

- Ameba monociliata, n. sp., magnified ; under two different forms:

20.

a, cilium ; 4, villous appendage on posterior extremity.

Actinophrys paradoxa, n. sp., magnified: a, simple form; 4, the

same, covered with capitate tentacula, the capitate portion not

visible, probably from their shortness and evenness in length; ec,

ditto, with both capitate and actiniform tentacula; d, ditto, with

the capitate portion now become visible, and these tentacula of

different lengths. The figures a, b, c represent changes witnessed

successively in the same individual; d represents another indivi-

dual, assumed to be of the same species, with the capitate cilia

fully developed: this is the commonest form, perhaps because

most easily recognized.

. Actinophrys Eichhornii, Ehr., magnified ; scale {th to gyoth of an

inch (for comparison): a, a, investing membrane seen extending

up the actiniform tentacula,also covering the contracting vesicles ;

b, vacuoles with which the body is densely charged; c, the same,

more magnified, showing the granules within their interior, which

are so remarkable for their active motion (probably owing to that

of the protoplasm in which they may be suspended); d, actini-

form tentacula, formed of the granular protoplasm of the paren-

chyma only, but sheathed apparently throughout with the in-

vesting membrane (I did not see any of the vacuoles in the

Mr. A. Adams on the Animal and Affinities of Fenella. 39

granular protoplasm of even the largest tentacula); e represents

a portion of the parenchyma which appears to protrude after

rupture of a contracting vesicle (thus apparently showing that

the fluid contents of this organ are expelled externally); f, f, ve-

sicule or contracting vesicles; g, nucleus? h, bodies like the

“reproductive cells ;” 7, portions of food in process of digestion,

among which is a rotiferous animalcule ; ’, a tentaculum, trun-

cated in the drawing only. N.B. The body has not been filled

up with the vacuolar parenchyma, nor have the actiniform tenta-

cula been scattered over it, as in nature, to save trouble in the

drawing, &c.

Fig. 22. The same, magnified small specimen of (?), with the actiniform

tentacula bearing little pellets of the investing membrane (?).

Fig. 23. The same; another specimen (?), where the investing membrane

is carried out by the tentacula into an arachnoid form; the body

_ presenting the nucleus and a portion of crude food.

Fig. 24. The same; another specimen (?), where the investing membrane

has not only been carried out into an arachnoid form, but appa-

rently has also assumed a hastate form at the ends of the tenta-

cula respectively.

Figs. 22-24 are drawn upon no scale, but in body may be set down

as about <3,th or ;-}th of an inch in diameter respectively.

Fig. 25. Acanthocystis turfacea, n. sp. et gen., magnified; on the scale of

+rth to sZooth of an inch: a, body; 4, minute, curved, fusiform

spicules covering the capsule; c, c,c, forked spines; d, d, d, ten-

tacula, granuliferous; e, nucleus; f, vesicula discharging itself ;

g, chlorophylil-cells ; 2, starcli-granules; i, a spine, more magni-

fied ; k, proximal or discoid end ; /, distal or forked end; m, more

magnified representation of a fusiform spicule.

IV.—On the Animal and Affinities of Fenella; with a List of

the Species found in the Seas of Japan. By Arnruur Apams,

F.L.S. &e.

In the ‘ Annals’ for 1860 I described some exquisitely sculp-

tured little shells under the common appellation of Dunkeria, a

form of Pyramidellide separated by P. P. Carpenter from Tur-

bonilla on account of their convex whorls. At Takano-Sima, on

the East coast of Niphon, I afterwards discovered the animal of

my genus Fenella (by mistake printed Finella in the ‘ Annals’

for 1860), and found it to possess all the characters of a Rissoid.

A comparison of my Dunkerie and Fenella pupoides has con-

vineed me that they all belong to the same Rissoid group.

The species I examined was the original type, Fenella pupoides,

A. Ad. It occurred in tolerable abundance on a sandy-mud

bottom, in 2 fathoms water, at Takano-Sima. The head is broad,

dilated, and flattened ; the muzzle large, long, annular, and of a

pale brown colour, edged with white. The tentacles are small,

filiform, wide apart, and of an opake-white colour. The eyes

are small, black, and sessile, in the centre of white spaces on the

sides of the head, behind the bases of the tentacles. The foot is

40 List of the Japanese Species of Fenella.

long and narrow, truncate in front, with parallel sides, pointed

behind, and entirely of a white colour. It swims at the surface

of the water, shell downwards, with great facility, and, in

crawling, uses the muzzle to assist the foot. .

The nearest allied genus to Fenella is Alvania of Risso, which

comprises some smal] Rissoid shells with cancellated whorls and

a marginal varix to the outer lip. The genera Bittiwm, Leach,

and Cerithiopsis, Forbes & Hanley, also resemble Fenella in the

turreted form of the shell; but in both those groups the aper-

ture is emarginate in front. The genus is dedicated to one of

Sir Walter Scott’s heroines (vide ‘ Peveril of the Peak’).

Genus Fenreiia, A. Adams.

An. capite proboscidiformi. Rostrum elongatum, cylindricum,

annulatum. ‘Tentacula filiformia, distantia. Oculi sessiles, parvi, in

areolis albidis ad lateribus capitis, pone basin tentaculorum, positi.

Pes elongatus, angustus, antice truncatus, postice acuminatus.

Operculum corneum, subspirale.

Testa turrita, subulata seu pupoidea, imperforata; anfractibus

decussatis seu cancellatis. Apertura ovali, antice integra; peritre-

mate interrupto; labro simplici, acuto, non reflexo, incrassato aut

varicoso.

1. Fenella pupoides, A. Ad.

Ann, & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1860.

Hab, Takano-Sima: Tsu-Sima: Yobuko: Seto-Uchi.

2. Fenella asperulata, A. Ad.

Dunkeria asperulata, A. Ad., Annals, 1860.

Hab. Mino-Sima: Gotto Islands; 48 fathoms,

3. Fenella pulchella, A. Ad.

Dunkeria pulchella, A. Ad., Annals, 1860.

Hab. Mino-Sima ; 63 fathoms: Gotto; 48 fathoms.

4, Fenella fusca, A. Ad.

Dunkeria fusca, A. Ad., Annals, 1860.

Hab. Sea of Okhotsk: Rifunsiri: Mososeki.

5. Fenella ferruginea, A. Ad.

Dunkeria ferruginea, A. Ad., Annals, 1860.

Hab. Sado, 48 fathoms.

6. Fenella scabra, A. Ad.

Dunkeria scabra, Annals, 1860.

Hab. Kino-O-Sima: Bingo-Nada: Tsu-Sima.

Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides. 41

7. Fenella reticulata, A. Ad.

Dunkeria reticulata, A. Ad., Annals, 1860.

Hab, Awa-Sima ; in shell-sand.

8. Fenella craticulata, A. Ad.

Dunkeria craticulata, Annals, 1860.

Hab. Gotto Islands; 48 fathoms: Mino-Sima; 63 fathoms.

9. Fenella rufocincta, A. Ad.

Dunkeria rufocincta, A. Ad., Annals, 1860.

Hab. Mososeki: Takano-Sima: Tanabe.

V.— Observations on Raphides. By Guorce Guiuiver, F.R.S.

[Continued from vol. xii. p. 447.]

Raphis-bearing Orders——Of British plants we have already

shown that there are many orders, as Rubiacez, Balsaminacez,

and Onagraceze, which are truly raphis-bearing ; and an exami-

nation of a few exotic species has confirmed the propriety of

this character. We have also proved that, in typical plants of

this kind, the formation of raphides is a constant, fundamental,

essential, and intrinsic result of the vigorous plant-life; and

that they are, throughout its existence, so truly part and parcel

of its very nature, that we find them abundantly from the ovule

to the seed-leaves and thence through all the stages of the

plant-growth to the ripe fruit—in short, from the cradle to the

grave of the species. And hence, independently of the value of

the facts in other respects, raphides may in some instances

afford a more certain and useful diagnosis than any other single

one which has yet been employed in systematic botany.

While such raphidiferous orders may be closely surrounded,

in the natural arrangement, by other orders destitute of raphides,

there are, conversely, orders not affording raphides, and yet

standing between orders which are regular raphis-bearers. Thus,

Hydrocharidacez, an order not characterized by raphides, is im-

mediately preceded and succeeded, in Professor Babington’s

‘Manual of British Botany,’ by Dioscoreaceze and Orchidacerx—

two orders which abound in raphides. Again, Alisma and every

species which I have examined of Potamogeton are devoid of

raphides, while all the British orders placed between Alismaceze

and Potamogetonaceze are remarkably raphidiferous; and nu-

merous other instructive examples of the like kind might be

given.

Surely all these facts amount to an accumulation of evidence,

42 Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides.

not only of the importance of raphides, but that they have been

hitherto strangely neglected in systematic botany. Indeed they

afford such a weighty and essential natural character, often

available when all other diagnostics are utterly inapplicable,

and so truly expressive of the intimate economy of the plant,

that it must henceforth claim an eminent place in the deserip-

tions of any flora, and still more so in every true history of the

vegetable kingdom.

Lihacee.—But very extensive observations are yet wanting to

enable us to define peremptorily the distribution and exact value

of raphides in this point of view; for though we have seen that,

as far as regards the British plants yet examined, certain orders

are as constantly raphidiferous as others are not so, there are

still different orders, some of the members of which produce

raphides regularly and abundantly, and others either irregularly, -

scantily, or not at all. Thus, of the order Liliacez, some of the

species abound in raphides, and others are devoid of them. In

the following examples, careful examinations were made, and

they are confined, in this paper, when not otherwise expressed,

to the leaves, for the sake of equal comparison. Raphides were

not found in Tulipa sylvestris, Fritillaria Meleagris, Lilium Mar-

tagon, L. candidum, L. aurantium, Allium Schenoprasum, A. ur-

sinum, A. Cepa, and A. Moly; while raphides were always found

in Ornithogalum umbellatum, Scilla verna, 8. peruviana, Endymion

nutans, Muscari racemosum, Tritoma media, and several species of

Yucca.

Such an irregular distribution of raphides in the members of

one order might lead us to suppose that the fact must be con-

nected either with season, climate, or soil,—which, I believe, is

not entirely the case, because in some (though not all) of the species

mentioned the constancy of the results was verified under many

such conditions. Several of the plants were examined more than

once from various localities, and during different seasons and

years; while Allium ursinum and Ornithogalum umbellatum were

particularly made the subjects of repeated and protracted ob-

servations, and always with the same results of no raphides in

the former and an abundance of them in the latter species.

Besides, any true raphidiferous plants, as Hpi/obium and many

others, will always be found abounding in raphides; while, on

the contrary, there are many entire orders which I have repeatedly

searched in vain for raphides. In fact, this presence or absence

of raphides is alone a sufficient diagnosis between some species

of the order Liliacee. It will probably be objected that the

Onion, now marked as a plant not characterized as raphidiferous,

is the very one so often given by botanical writers as an example

of a raphis-bearing species. But the crystals which have been

Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorns of the Amazon Valley. 48

found in its bulb differ from raphides ; and endless confusion

will continue unless we restrict this term, as proposed in the

‘Annals’ for September last. The distinctive characters also of

the larger crystal prisms, which sometimes, as in Yucca, occur

in the same leaf with regular raphides, should not be over-

looked.

Dioscoreacee.—In the fleshy root of Dioscorea Batatas (the

only part of this plant which I have yet examined) raphides are

very abundant. We have before seen how truly Zamus com-

-munis is a raphidiferous plant. It is a very good example of the

constancy of this character, as I have found from many observa-

tions, under widely different circumstances, of the stem, leaves,

perianth, stamens, and berry. Recently I have examined its

yam-like root and young subterranean stem-shoots, and found

them all equally rich in raphides. So large and distinct are they

in the root, and contrast so remarkably with the starch-granules

of which it is chiefly made up, that a more beautiful microscopic

object of the kind could not easily be found.

Bromeliacee.—Raphides plentiful in the fruit and crown-

leaves of the pine-apple (Ananassa sativa).

Musacee.—In the outer part of the rind of the Banana-fruit

(Musa paradisiaca?) raphides are numerous, but not so in the

pulp.

Edenbridge, Dec. 2, 1863.

[To be continued. ]

V1.— Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazon Valley.

Coxzorrers : Loneicornes. By H. W. Barus, Esq.

[Continued from vol. xii. p. 38].]

Genus BaryssINvs, noy. gen.

Body oblong, convex. Antenne stout, furnished sparingly

with sete beneath. Thorax somewhat short and broad, widening

from the front to the tips of the lateral spines, which are very

thick, and placed near to the hind angles. Elytra furnished with

bétatroatinwal tubercles, surmounted each by a pencil of hairs; the

rest of their surface naked ; apices scarcely perceptibly truncated.

Apical abdominal segments in the male short and obtuse, in the

female slightly prolonged, so as to form a short sheath for the

ovipositor, the dorsal plate being flattened and obtuse, the ven-

tral bluntly truncated. Mesosternum depressed, not tubercu-

lated. Legs stout; thighs clavate ; basal joint of the tarsi short,

not surpassing in length the second and third taken together.

This genus, which comprises a few small species resembling

44, Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

Trypanidius in facies, has some affinity with Leptostylus. We

are therefore, after pursuing the line of affinities which leads

through a series of depressed forms of Leiopodine from Alcidion

to Parecus, brought back again to the starting-point,—the pre-

sent genus commencing a suite of genera of more convex form

of body. The presence of hairy-crested centro-basal ridges or

tubercles distinguishes Baryssinus from all the genera which

follow, whilst the existence of a prominent ovipositor in the

females, and the shape of the thorax, with the position of its

lateral spines, separate it from Leptostylus and the allied groups.

1. Baryssinus penicillatus, n. sp.

B. oblongus, cinereo-brunneus, fusco obscure variegatus: thoracis

dorso antice tumido: elytris utrinque tricostatis, apice rotundatis.

Long. 4 lin. o. ae

Head ash-coloured. Antenne stout, one and a half times the

length of the body (¢), stout, setose beneath, ashy testaceous,

tips of the joints (from the third) dusky. - Thorax with the an-

terior part of its disk rising into a large obtusely conical eleva-

tion ; lateral spines stout and curving posteriorly; surface ashy

brown, with indistinct darker brown markings. Elytra oblong-

quadrate, being but slightly narrowed to the tips, which are

broadly rounded; the disk of each has three faintly marked ribs

which do not reach either the base or the apex; centro-basal

tubercles each with a thin pencil of black hairs; surface, to the

tips, covered with largish punctures, ashy brown, with blackish-

brown markings, which form two fascize beyond the middle, the

anterior one oblique, the posterior one forming a curve on each

elytron. Body beneath ashy. Legs pale reddish, clothed with

tomentum, which forms rings alternately of an ashy and brown

hue.

Beaten from dead branches; woods near Santarem.

2. Baryssinus bilineatus, n. sp.

B. oblongus, rufescenti-brunneus, cano fuscoque variegatus: thorace

nigro bivittato: elytris apice breviter obtuse truncatis, pone me-

dium vittis duabus abbreviatis nigris. Long. 43 lin. 9.

Head ash-coloured. Antenne twice the length of the body( 2),

setose beneath, ashy reddish, with the tips of the joints (including

the first) blackish. Thorax regularly and moderately convex ;

hind margin with a single row of punctures; surface smooth,

and ornamented with two blackish stripes, a line of the same

colour also encircling (above) the bases of the lateral tubercles.

Elytra oblong, very slightly narrowed to the tips, which appear

rounded, but are seen, on close examination, to be obtusely

truncate ; surface free from raised lines, with the exception of

of the Amazon Valley. 45

the centro-basal ridges, which are slightly elevated, but crested

with black hairs; the basal part only of the elytra is punctured;

the colour is reddish brown, with a light grey tinge near the

middle and apex, and a number of small blackish spots, besides

a short vitta, on the disk of each behind the middle, which has

at each end a whitish spot. Body beneath pale reddish, clothed

with ashy-brown tomentum ; legs reddish, ringed with ashy and

black.

Taken at Ega, on dead branches.

Genus CHZTANES, nov. gen.

Body oblong, convex, setose. Antenne one and a half times

the length of the body, stout, furnished with a few setee beneath.

Thorax rather narrow, widening slightly from the front; lateral

spines distinct, acute, standing out from the sides, and placed at

a distance from the hind angles. LElytra with centro-basal

tubercles, surmounted each by a crest of hairs; the rest of the

surface hispid, with tufts of short bristles and longer sete;

truncated at the tip. Legs stout; thighs abruptly clavate ;

basal joint of tarsi equal in length to the second and third taken

together. Apical abdominal segment in the males with both

dorsal and ventral plates deeply notched, the angles of the ven-

tral plate produced into spines: ovipositor elongated in the Q ;

dorsal plate acute lanceolate, ventral truncated. Mesosternum

in the ¢ plane, in the 2 tumid, as in Trypanidius.

The only species which I have at present seen belonging to

this genus has the bulk and general form of the Trypanidii ; but

it differs from them by the presence of crested centro-basal

tubercles on the elytra, and by the absence of tubercles on the

mesosternum in the male sex.

Chetanes setiger, n. sp.

C. oblongo-ovatus, fuscus, fulvo cinereoque varius : antennis pedibus-

que squamis cinereis sparsis: elytris apice utrinque macula tri-

angulari nigra velutina liturisque cinereis. Long. 5-6} lin. ¢ Q.

Head dull black, sprinkled with tawny-coloured hair-scales.

Antenne scarcely one and a half times the length of the body,

even in the males, dull black, sprinkled with minute ash-coloured

hair-scales; the bases of the joints (from the fourth) ashy;

sparingly setose beneath, the second joint having a little tuft of

stiff hairs. Thorax moderately convex, widened from the front

to the bases of the lateral spines, which are small and acute, and

placed at a short distance from the hind angles; the surface dull

black, variegated with tawny; sides. (below the spines) ashy-

tawny, sprinkled with black. LElytra oblong oval, briefly and

rather obliquely truncated at the apex, moderately convex ; sur-

46 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

face densely clothed with short, erect, black bristles, some of

which arise from a little tuft of shorter bristles; moderately

punctured ; centro-basal tubercles surmounted each by a rather

long pencil of hairs: the colour is blackish brown, with a few

tawny specks; behind the middle is a short transverse ash-

coloured line crossing the suture (in some examples almost

obliterated), and close to the apex on each side is a triangular

velvety-black spot, notched on its inner side and margined with

ashy, the sutural space between the spots being sometimes

wholly ash-coloured. Body beneath and legs tawny ashy,

sprinkled with black; middle of abdomen black, with edges of

segments tawny. The legs are stout; the thighs clavate, the

basal joint of the tarsi fully equal in length to the two following

taken together.

3 The apical ventral segment in the male is semicireularly

notched, the dorsal segment briefly and obtusely notched.

2 The apical dorsal segment in the female is much elongated,

lanceolate and acute, but not keeled above; the ventral segment

semitubular and truncated at the tip.

Ega and S. Paulo, Upper Amazons, on dead branches in the

forest. I have a specimen also from the interior of French

Guiana, collected by M., Bar.

Genus ATRYPANIUS, nov. gen.

Body oblong-oval or elliptical, convex. Head with the front

elongated; eyes oblong. Antenne not much longer than the

body, and nearly naked. Thorax as in 7rypanidius—namely,

slightly uneven on the surface, widening from the front to the

tips of the lateral spines—which are short, conical, and acute,

not curved posteriorly, and placed not much after the middle of

the thorax. Elytra with centro-basal ridges not conspicuous ;

obtuse at the tip, naked. Feet very stout; thighs strongly

clavate; basal joint of the tarsi short, scarcely longer than the

second, Mesosternum simple. Dorsal and ventral plates of the

apical abdominal segment obtuse in the male: ovipositor in the

female very short, scarcely apparent beyond the tips of the

elytra, the dorsal plate broadly rounded at the tip, the ventral

truncated.

The present genus is founded on Lamia conspersa of Germar,

a species which differs from all the allied genera, except Trypa-

nidius, in the shortness of the basal joint of the tarsi, The ob-

tuseness of the apical abdominal segment in both sexes, the

shortness of the ovipositor in the female, and the elongation of

the eyes and forehead, also distinguish it from most of the groups

to which it is in other respects most nearly related. It differs

from Trypanidius (besides the elongation of the eyes) in the

of the Amazon Valley. 47

mesosternum being plane instead of tumid, and also in the style

of coloration, although agreeing in general form as well as in the

shape of the tarsi. The genus 7rypanidius is unknown in the

Amazons region,

Atrypanius conspersus, Germar.

Lamia conspersa, Germar, Ins. Spec. nov. p. 474.

A. ellipticus, griseus, carneo nigroque conspersus : capite carneo-fulvo,

fronte grisea: elytris plaga irregulari pone medium alteraque api-

cali griseis nigro maculatis,-apice breviter oblique truncatis.

Long. 4-6 lin. ¢ 9.

The species has a wide range, being found near Rio Janeiro,

on the Upper Amazons, and in Mexico. I see no difference in

specimens which I have compared from all these widely distant

countries.

Genus Prozativs (Dej. Cat.), Thomson.

Thomson, Classif. des Cérambye. p. 16.

Body elliptical. Antenne scarcely one and a half times the

length of the body, furnished with short stiff hairs, some of

which are arranged in whorls around the tips of the joints.

Thorax slightly convex, its outline curvilinearly widening from

the front to the tips of the lateral spines, which are placed near

the hind angles: ovipositor not produced in the females; ter-

minal dorsal plate truncate and bidentate in both sexes; corre-

sponding ventral plate obtuse, and, in the females, slightly

notched. Llytra setose, even, briefly truncated and generally

spined at the apex. Legs moderate; thighs clavate ; tarsi short ;

basal joint of the hind foot about as long as the two following

taken together,

This is one of the best-defined and most homogeneous genera

in the host of variable forms constituting the group Leiopodine.

The character drawn from the apical abdominal segment is

seen to be constant here, bringing together species agreeing

in facies and many other points, but greatly diversified in colours

and markings.

1. Probatius Chryseis, un. sp.

P. ellipticus : capite thoraceque auratis: elytris viridibus sericeis,

nigro setosis, apice mucronatis ; abdomine testaceo-rufo. Long.

5-6 lin. ¢ Q.

Head and thorax shagreened, of a rich golden colour shading

into green with the play of light, naked. Antenne black, setose ;

thoracic spines large, acute, pointing obliquely rearwards, and

placed very near to the hind angles. Elytra of a breadth nearly

equal to three-fourths their length, thence narrowing to the

apex, which, in each elytron, is prolonged into an acute spine ;

48 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

surface clothed with minute silky-green scales, and having a

well-marked sutural stria with regular rows of black bristles,

each proceeding from a puncture. Sides of breast rich golden

green; sternum clothed with hoary tomentum; abdomen red-

dish testaceous, clothed (especially towards the base) with hoary

pile. Legs black; thighs beneath hoary.

¢ Apical abdominal segment much longer than the medial

segments ;, ventral plate obtuse at the tip; dorsal plate square,

with the angles each produced into a stout tooth.

? Apical abdominal segment of the same relative length as in

the ¢, but the ventral plate more convex ; dorsal plate narrowed

towards the tip, and terminating in two stout teeth.

One pair, taken in copuld on a dead branch, at Obydos, on the

Guiana side of the Lower Amazons. The insect has a deceptive

resemblance to species of the Cerambycideous genus Chryso-

prasis, found in the same localities.

2. Probatius humeralis, Perty.

Acanthocinus humeralis, Perty, Delectus Anim. Art. Itin. Spix & Martius,

p- 91, pl. 18. fig. 8.

'P. oblongus, fusco-niger, sericeus: thoracis vitta centrali, scutello,

macula elytrorum utrinque humerum circumdante lineaque abbre-

viata marginali aurantiacis. Long. 4} lin. ¢ Q.

The apical abdominal segment is of nearly the same shape

in both sexes as in P. Chryseis ; but the ventral plate in the 2 is

briefly notched at the apex.

This species has a wide range. I have specimens before me

from Rio Janeiro, the Upper Amazons, and Cayenne. It is also

found in Mexico, but exists there under the form of a well-

marked local variety or race, the P. mexicanus of Thomson (Classif.

des Céramb. p.17). This differs from the South-American form

by the orange-coloured marginal streak extending to the tip of

the elytra, instead of halting halfway, and by the thoracic vitta

extending over the crown of the head.

8. Probatius partitus, White.

P. ellipticus : capite, thorace (brunneo indistincte bivittato) articulo-

que basali antennarum testaceo-ochraceis: elytris postice valde

attenuatis, nigris, nitidis, basi obscure testaceis, maculis minutis

griseis in fasciis undulatis tribus dispositis, nigro setosis, striato-

punctatis, postice unicarinatis. Long. 4~—43 lin.

The apical abdominal segment is of a similar form in both

sexes to that of P. Chryseis. The antenne, excepting the pale

basal joint, are black, with the bases of the joints whitish. The

thoracic spines are thick, conical, and obtuse. The apical spines

of the Amazon Valley. 49

of the elytra are very long and acute, the smooth posterior carinze

of the wing-cases continuing to their tips.

Found at Para, on dead boughs in the forest. It has also

been found by M. Bar in the interior of French Guiana, speci-

mens collected by that gentleman having been sent to me from

Paris under the MS. name of P. ruficollis.

4. Probatius apicalis, n. sp.

P. oblongo-ovatus, fusco-niger, sordide ochraceo canoque variegatus;

thorace ochraceo nebuloso, medio fusco bivittato: elytris postice

modice attenuatis, apice transverse sinuato-truncatis, angulis ex-

ternis longe spinosis, dorso punctis setiferis in striis dispositis,

dimidio basali maculaque apicali ochraceis nigro conspersis, fascia

lata pone medium fusco-nigra lineolis canis variegata: antennis

fusco-nigris, infra dense setosis, articulo quarto annulo lato pallido.

Long. 47 lin. ¢ 2.

Head dingy ochraceous; vertex with two divergent blackish

vitte. Antenne black; basal joint dingy rufous, second and

base of third joints hoary, basal half of fourth whitish ; they are

furnished with long sete, the first joint being fringed beneath

with them. Thorax dingy ochraceous, partly lighter and partly

darker in hue, the centre having two nearly parallel, distinct,

dark-brown vitte ; the lateral spines are large, conical, simply

acute, and not prolonged at their points. Elytra gradually and

moderately narrowed to their tips, which latter are transversely

sinuate-truncate, the sutural angle of the truncature being ad-

vanced but obtuse, the external angle prolonged into a stout

spine ; the posterior carina, which in P. partitus is very long, is

here reduced to a faint elevation close to the tip of each elytron,

and the sutural stria is not strongly impressed; the surface has

many rows of setiferous punctures; the basal half is dingy

ochraceous, much speckled with black; the apical part has an

ochraceous patch neatly limited on its anterior edge, and varied

with dusky points, the extreme apex near the suture having a

smaller opake ochreous spot ; the rest of the elytra is dull black-

ish, which colour forms a broad fascia, varied only by minute

grey linear specks, arranged in lines. Body beneath and legs

dingy ashy; tarsi pale testaceous; apical segment of abdomen

black ; ventral plate obtuse, dorsal plate truncate and bidentate

in both sexes.

This was rather a common insect at Ega, on branches of dead

trees in the forest.

5. Probatius ramulorum, nu. sp.

P. ellipticus, fusco-niger, fulvo-ochraceo variegatus: thorace dorso

nigro, lineis duabus ochraceis antice convergentibus : elytris fusco-

- higris, maculis ochraceis conspersis et fasciatis, apice oblique trun-

Ann. & Mag. N, Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xiii,

50 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

- eatis, angulis externis vix dentatis: antennis nigris, infra parce

setosis, articulo quarto basi pallido. Long. 4? lin. )

Head tawny ochraceous, vertex with two oblique flexuous

dusky lines. Antenne black, two basal joints dingy ochraceous,

fourth with the basal third of its length pale testaceous; they

are setose, but the basal joint beneath is free from sete. Tho-

rax on the sides tawny ochraceous, the middle blackish, with

two oblique S-shaped streaks converging in front on the fore

part of the disk ; the dorsal line is also dotted with ochraceous.

Elytra strongly narrowed towards the tip, which is not spined,

but obliquely truncated, with the sutural angle rounded off and

the external one simply acute; the surface is furnished with

rows of setiferous punctures; there is no posterior carina, and

the colour is shining brown-black, with a sprinkling of tawny

specks, some of which collect to form two indistinet narrow

fasciee, one near the middle, the other near the apex. Body be-

neath dusky, with dingy ashy pile; margins of ventral segments

whitish. Legs blackish ; claw-joints of the tarsi testaceous, The

apical dorsal plate has shortish and rather blunt teeth.

Valley of the Irura, Santarem ; on dead boughs.

Genus OxaTHREs, nov. gen.

Body elliptical, moderately convex, setose. Antenne fur-

nished with numerous sete. Thorax as in Probatius, its outline

widening from the front to the tips of the lateral spines, which

are small, conical, and placed behind the middle. Abdomen in

the male with the apical dorsal plate notched or entire; ventral

plate truncated and terminating in two stout teeth, like the

dorsal plate of Probatius. In the female the apical abdominal

segment is prolonged as a conical or short tubular sheath to the

ovipositor, the dorsal plate tapering into a very sharp point, and

in some species acutely carinated on its upper surface; the

ventral plate is simply truncated in the female. Legs moderately

short and stout; thighs abruptly clavate; tarsi short, even in

the hind legs, much shorter than the tibiz, but the first joint

slender and longer than the two following taken together.

This genus, although closely allied to Probatius, is distin-

guished at once by the bidentation of the apex of the abdomen

existing on the ventral instead of the dorsal plate; but this

is seen in the males only, the females differing from the same

sex in Probatius still more widely—namely, by having an ex~

serted ovipositor and a prolonged pointed dorsal plate, instead of

a bidentated one,

1. Oxathres navicula, n. sp.

O. ellipticus, rufescenti-fuscus vel obscure fuscus: thorace dorso

of the Amazon Valley. — 51

. convex, levi, spinis lateralibus brevibus conicis mox pone medium

sitis: elytris granulato-punctatis, lineis interruptis cinereis apice

peroblique truncatis, angulis interioribus obtusis, externis sub-

acutis. Long. 3} lin. ¢ 2.

Head dusky. Antenne reddish, with a few short stiff hairs

both above and beneath the joints, especially at their apices.

Thorax convex, smooth, reddish brown, sometimes with a faint

ashy vitta on each side, the lateral spines forming simply conical

protuberances on the sides, a little behind the middle. Elytra

strongly narrowed posteriorly in the ¢, more ovate in the 9,

obliquely and obtusely truncated at the tips; surface with nu-

merous punctures, each surmounted by a raised point, dull red-

dish or dark brown, with scanty ashy pubescence arranged

partly in interrupted lines. Body iiaeell and legs dull reddish

wn or blackish, shining, scantily clothed with ashy pile ; legs

hirsute ; basal joint of the hind tarsi as long as the three re-

maining joints taken together.

3 The apical abdominal segment in the ¢ is greatly elongated,

at least the ventral plate, with the angles of the apex acute ; the

dorsal plate is much shorter and deeply notched.

? The ovipositor projects beyond the tips of the elytra;

apical dorsal plate with raised margins and a sharp keel running

into a prolonged point.

Para and Santarem, on slender dead branches.

2. Oxathres Erotyloides, n. sp.

O. ellipticus, flavo-testaceus: elytris cinereis, utrinque nigro decem-

maculatis. Long. 4? lin. ¢.

Head testaceous yellow, with golden-yellow pile. Antenne

black, with three white rings, sparingly clothed with long sete.

Thorax small, yellow-testaceous ; lateral spines forming simply

conical protuberances on the sides, a little behind the middle.

Elytra of equal breadth to about three-fourths of their length,

thence rapidly narrowing to their tips, which latter are briefly

and rather obliquely truncated, the sutural angle of the trunca-

ture rounded off, the external one produced into a short blunt

tooth directed outwards; surface densely clothed with dusky

sete and punctured, with an obtuse smooth posterior carina on

each side running into the apical tooth. The colour is ashy,

with, on each elytron, ten rounded black spots—namely, three

on the margin near the shoulders, four in a line parallel to

and near the suture, and three on the disk. Body beneath and

legs yellow-testaceous ; basal joint of tarsi equal in length to

the two following taken together. Apical dorsal plate of the

abdomen (¢) rounded and closely applied to the ventral plate,

which is truncated and strongly bidentate.

52: Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

‘I found only one example of this singularly coloured species.

It was met with at Ega, on an old stump in the forest, and was

mistaken at first for an Erotylien, especially a species of Prio-

telus, which is almost identical in colours with this Longicorn,

and which was often seen in similar places when the fallen trees

were covered by fungi.

3. Oxathres muscosus, n. sp.

O. oblongus, cinereo-olivaceus, nigro conspersus: antennis, pedibus

_ elytrisque longe setosis, his apice sinuato-truncatis, angulis externis

_ breviter mucronatis. Long. 23-2? lin. @.

Head olivaceous, vertex with two dusky spots. Antenne with

all the joints except the basal one furnished with a few longish

and straight bristles, placed both above and beneath; they are

blackish in colour, with the bases of the joints (from the fourth)

pallid. Thorax rather narrow; lateral spines thick, conical,

and placed near the hind angles; surface olivaceous, with dusky

marks and four rather darker spots on the disk. Elytra oblong,

apex sinuate-truncate ; sutural angle obtuse, external one pro-

duced into a short tooth; surface clothed with long black bris-

tles, punctured towards the base, partly in lines, ashy olivaceous,

with numerous black spots, some of which are united near the

middle and form an imperfect flexuous belt. Body beneath

ashy. Legs hirsute, dingy ashy; tarsi reddish testaceous.

@ Apical abdominal segment with the dorsal plate lanceolate,

the point prolonged and acute; ventral plate simply truncated.

Ega; on dead branches in the forest.

Genus TRICHONIUS, nov. gen.

Body oblong, setose. Antenne about twice the length of the

body in both sexes, furnished with numerous longish sete.

Thorax broad, widening in a curved line from the front to the

tips of the lateral spines, which form thick conical protuberances

situated near to the hind angles. Elytra setose, not much nar-

rowed behind, with their tips obtusely truncated or rounded.

Legs stout, bristly ; thighs clavate ; tarsi much shorter than the

tibiz, but the basal joint slender and elongated. Apical abdo-

minal segment in ¢ not elongated, with tips of both dorsal and

ventral plates broadly rounded; in @ slightly prolonged as a

sheath to the very short ovipositor, which scarcely passes the

tips of the elytra; its dorsal plate flattened and rounded at the

tip, its ventral plate truncated.

- Inthe shape of the thorax and setose clothing of the body and

limbs this genus resembles Probatius and Oxathres. It differs

from both in the obtuse apices of the ventral and dorsal plates,

of the terminal abdominal segment in both sexes. There is a

of the Amazon Valley. — | 58

somewhat close relationship between Trichonius and Baryssinus,

but this latter genus is amply distinguished by its crested centro-

basal tubercles.

1. Trichonius quadrivittatus, n. sp.

T. oblongus, subdepressus : thorace lato, cinereo, fusco quadrivittato :

elytris apice obtuse breviter truncatis, cinereis, fusco multiguttatis.

Long. 33 lin. 9.

Head brownish ashy, vertex with two fuscous dots. Antennz

more than twice the length of the body, bristly both above and

beneath, reddish, bases of the joints from the fourth pallid.

Thorax short and broad; lateral spines conical, scarcely pointed,

and placed very near to the hind angles; surface smooth,

brownish ashy, darker in the middle, and with four distinct

dark-brown stripes, besides one less distinct on each side below

the lateral spines. Elytra rather depressed, slightly narrowed

behind, obliquely and very obtusely truncated at the tips, clothed

with long bristles, which arise from punctures placed in rows

independent of smaller punctures lying rather thickly towards

the base; brownish ashy in colour, with a large number of

small dark-brown spots which cover the setiferous punctures.

Body beneath and legs dingy ashy, the latter bristly.

Villa Nova; on dead branches.

2. Trichonius fasciatus, n. sp.

T. oblongus, subdepressus: thorace cinereo, fusco bivittato: elytris

apice truncatis, angulis exterioribus prominentibus, cinereis, pone

medium fusco fasciatis. Long. 3} lin. 2.

Head brownish ashy. Antenne more than twice the length

of the body, blackish, with the basal joint dull reddish, bristly

both above and beneath; bases of the joints, from the fourth,

pallid. Thorax broad ; lateral spines thick, pointed, and slightly

curving behind; surface smooth, brownish ashy, darker in the

middle, and with two distinct dark-brown vitte, besides two

dusky spots on each side above the lateral spines. Elytra rather

depressed, very slightly narrowed behind, transversely truncated

at the apex, with the exterior angles slightly produced; surface

clothed with long bristles, which arise from punctures placed in

rows independent of smaller punctures lying rather thickly to-

wards the base ; brownish ashy in colour, with a rather well-

defined dark-brown fascia lying behind the middle, besides two

small lateral marks of dark-brown colour, one near the base, the

other near the apex. Body beneath and legs reddish testaceous,

clothed with ashy down; the legs bristly and ringed with dusky.

Santarem. ,

3. Trichonius picticollis, n. sp.

T. oblongus, convexus: thorace spinis lateralibus crassis, leviter

54 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

curvatis, dorso brunneo vittis posticis duabus nigris intus albo

notatis: elytris breviter setosis, brunneis, postice nigro alboque

guttatis, apice rotundatis. Long. 3} lin. ¢.

Head dingy brown. Antenne scarcely twice the length of the

body, setose, the bristles much longer and more numerous be-

neath than above; reddish, tips of all the joints blackish ; bases

of the joints, from the fourth, pallid. Thorax broad, lateral

spines very thick, large, and pointed, slightly curving and placed

at a short distance from the posterior angles; surface anteriorly

clear brown, posteriorly dusky, with two indistinct black vitte

not reaching the front margin, and dotted on their inner sides

with whitish; there are also other white specks on the base and

sides. Elytra rather more convex than in the allied species,

scarce perceptibly truncated at the tips; surface clothed with

shortish bristles, which are decumbent, instead of suberect as in

the preceding species, and which arise from punctures placed in

rows independent of the smaller irregular basal punctures; the

colour is purplish brown, with a few indistinct black streaks and

dots, and, behind the middle, a number of white specks. Body

beneath and legs reddish, clothed with ashy pile; legs hirsute,

but not bristly.

S. Paulo, Upper Amazons.

Genus Sroretvs, nov. gen.

Body elongate-oblong, free from inequalities on the surface.

Antennz twice the length of the body, setose both above and

beneath. Thorax subquadrate, rounded on the sides, and not

widened from the front, the lateral spines forming small obtuse

tubercles situated some distance from the hind angles. Elytra

oblong, clothed with stiff hairs, simply and briefly truncated at

the tip. Thighs clavate; hind tarsi with the basal joint elon-

gated. Apical abdominal segment with both dorsal and ventral

plates notched in the male, forming a sheath to the more or less

exserted ovipositor in the female, the dorsal plate of which is

pointed, the ventral truncate.

The few species combined to form this group differ from all

the other genera of setose Leiopodine in the oblong narrow

form of their bodies and the subquadrate shape of the thorax,

with the shortness of its lateral spines. In colour they are

either blackish with ashy spots, or grey sprinkled with blackish.

§ 1. Ovipositor of the 2 short, scarcely apparent beyond the tips of the

elytra (Chetissus).

1. Sporetus (Chetissus) porcinus, n. sp.

S. elongatus, hirsutus, griseus, fusco conspersus : capite thoraceque

elytris angustioribus. Long. 23lin. 2.

Head dull greyish. Antenne brownish, with the bases of the

of the Amazon Valley. Sa 55

joints from the fourth pallid; setose both above and beneath,

orax grey, with a few indistinct darker markings. Llytra

rather wider than the head and thorax, and widened towards

two-thirds their length, truncated at the apex, with both angles

distinct ; surface clothed with long black bristles, grey, with

dusky specks lying over the setiferous punctures and arranged

in lines. Body beneath and legs dull testaceous, clothed

with grey pile; thighs not abruptly clubbed; tarsi very mode-

rately elongated. Ovyipositor short; apical dorsal plate of the

abdomen broad at the apex, and produced into a point in the

middle. :

S. Paulo, Upper Amazons.

This species, in the length of the ovipositor of the female,

forms a connecting link between Sporetus and Trichonius; the

terminal dorsal plate, although short and broad, is pointed at

the apex, and not rounded off as in Trichonwus.

§ 2. Ovipositor of the 2 long, projecting to the length of a line beyond

the tips of the elytra; dorsal plate tapering to a sharp point.

2. Sporetus seminalis, n. sp.

S. fusco-niger, cinereo conspersus: thorace medio cinereo quadri-

guttato, lateribus utrinque bivittatis: elytris apice albis, oblique

truncatis, Long. 3-4 lin. ¢ Q.

Head dark brown, with a central line from vertex to epistome,

another on each side from the upper inner margin of the eye, and

the cheeks yellowish ashy. Antenne black, basal joint red, bases

of third, fourth, sixth, eighth, tenth, and eleventh joints white ;

setose both above and beneath. Thorax above dark brown, the

disk having four ashy dots, namely, one each on the front and

hind margins, and two, smaller and more rounded, placed trans-

versely in the middle; the sides each with two oblique ashy

lines, which sometimes meet at the hind angle. eG with

the tips truncate, both angles distinct ; surface densely clothed

with short stiff hairs, finely punctured, dark brown, with a large

number of ashy specks, of different sizes and shapes, the extreme

apex having a distinct white spot on each side. Body beneath

ashy ; sides of breast striped with dark brown. Legs elongated ;

thighs abruptly clavate, black or pitchy red, ringed with grey ;

basal joint of hind tarsi longer than the three remaining taken

together.

Para and Ega; not uncommon: found also at Cayenne. At

Ega a strongly marked variety occurred, which merits separate

name and mention :—

Var. agglomeratus. The ashy spots of the elytra are partly

collected into large cinereous patches, one on each side, placed

56 Mr. E.R. Lankester on a new Species of Hyzna

transversely in the middle of the elytron, the space anterior and

posterior to this large spot being nearly free from markings.

Long. 3-4 lin. 3 Q.

Ega; less common than the type*.

[To be continued. }

VII.—On a new Species of Hyena from the Red Crag of Suffolk.

By E. Ray Lanxester.

(Plate VIII.]

Mosr of the terrestrial Mammals of the Red Crag strata in

England are known by few and fragmentary specimens, consist-

ing either of teeth or portions of sea-worn jaws. The species at

present recognized amount to thirteen; they are as follows, and

are nearly all identical with species from Miocene beds on the

continent of Europe :—Rahinoceros Schleiermacheri, Kaup; Ta-

pirus priscus, Kaup; Sus paleocherus, Kaup; Sus antiquus,

Kaup; Equus, sp., Owen; Hipparion, sp., Owen; Mastodon

angustidens, Owen; Cervus dicranoceros, Kaup; Megaceros, sp.,

Owen ; Felis pardoides, Owen; Pterodon, sp., Owen; Canis, sp.,

Owen; Ursus, sp., Owen.

The relations of land and water at the time of the deposition

of the Red Crag it is not my intention to discuss, although the

presence of a Miocene land-fauna associated with marine Mol-

lusca of an eminently arctic type may bave some important

bearings on that subject. Attention is merely drawn to the fact

as showing the necessity of a comparison with Miocene species

in attempting to identify any apparently new Mammalia from

the older Crags of Suffolk.

Figs. 5, 6, 7, Pl. VIIL, are drawings of a tooth belonging to

a species of Hyzna which the author obtained from the Red

* The following Rio-Janeiro species belongs also to section 2 of the

genus Sporetus. It has a strong resemblance to Propatius ludicrus, and is

confounded with it in some collections :—

S. probatioides. Oblongus sive ellipticus, purpureo-fuscus, sericeus,

cinereo maculatus. Caput fuscum, sericeum. Antenne longissime,

breviter setose, purpureo-fusce, articulis (tribus basalibus, 7™ et 9°

exceptis) basi griseis. Thorax convexus ; spinis lateralibus minutis

mox pone medium sitis; dorso fusco angulis et margine posticis ob-

scure cinereo maculatis. Elytra apice subsinuato-truncata, angulis

obtusis, dorso nigro-setosa, punctata, purpureo-fusca, sericea, guttis

sex basalibus, maculis duabus lateralibus (una magna ante medium,

altera parva pone medium) et signaturis apicalibus cinereis. Corpus

subtus griseum. Pedes subelongati, obscure castanel, griseo annulati,

haud setosi; femoribus valde clavatis. Maris segmento apicali abdo-

minis emarginato. Long. 43 lin. ¢. Had. Rio Janeiro, a Dom.

Squires lecto. men

from the Red Crag of Suffolk. 57

Crag at Felixstowe, in Suffolk. The specimen presents that pe-

culiar gloss on the surface and mineralized appearance which is

characteristic of dental remains from this deposit. In addition

to these circumstances, portions of the shelly matrix still adhere

between the two fangs of the tooth; so that there can be no

doubt as regards its claims to belong to the same deposit which

has furnished the remains of the Felis’ pardoides, Mastodon an-

gustidens, &c. The author has submitted the tooth to Dr. Fal-

coner, who “infers it to be an upper third premolar of a species

of Hyznoid animal, and probably Hyena,” and “ would approxi-

mate it to a species of the subgenus Crocotta, which includes H.

spelea and H. crocuta. The fossil does not appear to belong to

the Miocene H. Hipparonum of the Vaucluse, which is imper-

fectly known. Fossil Hyznas are got in the Val d’Arno (Mio-

cene), which are not yet sufficiently made out. ~The above

opinion is expressed with the reserve dictated by the very limited

amount of the evidence—a solitary premolar.”

The characters of the subgenus Crocotta of Kaup are the

presence of spots instead of stripes on the skin, and the absence

of a mane and anal pouches, which are possessed by the type of

the other genus, Hyena striata. The dental characters, however,

form the most important distinction. In both types the formula

is, i, —, ¢. pm. —, m.—. The molar tooth is very small in

H. striata, presents a narrow oblong surface, and is inserted by

two fangs. In H. crocuta or Crocotta maculata the molar is

quite rudimentary, and has a circular conical crown. In H.

spelea it is even still smaller, and is inserted by a single process.

The fourth premolar of the lower jaw further distinguishes the

two subgenera—in H. striata a very prominent tubercle being

persistently developed, which is absent in H. crocuta and H.

spelea. With regard to the third premolar of the upper jaw,

which more immediately relates to the fossil under description,

in H. striata the central cusp of the tooth (PI. VIII. fig. 4) is less

produced and less cylindrical than in H. crocuta or H. spelea,

the “cingulum ” is not appreciably developed, whilst an anterior

and posterior tubercle are very prominent. In H. crocuta and

H. spelea, the “cingulum” is invariably strongly marked, and

is developed posteriorly so as to form an elongated ascending

ridge, which is not, however, comparable to the tubercles in H.

striata. It is not.difficult thus to separate into subgenera the

living and Pleistocene species ; but when we go further back in

time, and examine the species of older deposits, the distinctions

fail, and a combination of characters is found which renders it

impossible to place the Miocene and older Pliocene species of

Hyena in either subgenus. In fact this is what would be anti-

58 Mr. E. R. Lankester on a new Species of Hyena.

cipated, it being a pretty generally received axiom that the

divergence of types increases as we ascend the geological ladder.

The tooth from the Red Crag, which is the upper third premolar

of the left side, is less produced in proportion to its length and

breadth than the corresponding tooth of any of the other spe-

cies I have been able to examine. The anteroposterior measure-

ment is also proportionately larger than in other species. The

“cingulum” is slightly developed all round the base of the

crown, and posteriorly is enlarged into a very conspicuous ridge,

as in H. spelea, but this does not abut against the central cusp.

Between the “cingulum” and cusp a small tubercle exists,

which would therefore approximate it to the H. striata type.

No anterior tubercle exists, as there does in H. striata, but the

“cingulum”? is slightly enlarged (figs. 5, 6, 7).

There appears to be no description of any species of Hyena

corresponding with the characters of this tooth, the specimens

from the older Continental beds being, as far as I am able to

judge, very different, if M. de Blainville’s memoir may be relied

on. I therefore, for the sake of perspicuity and convenience,

propose to call this species Hyena antiqua, provisionally. If at

any time further material should identify it with any known

species, my name must be rescinded. It rests on facts quite as

characteristic and distinctive as does the Felis pardoides of Owen,

of which we still require further evidence before affirming it

positively to be distinct from the Felis antediluviana of Kaup,

from the Miocene of Germany.

The following is the arrangement of species of Hyena given

by M. de Blainville, in which I have inserted the new Crag

form :—

Hyena striata, Zimmerm. India (living).

Syn. H. vulgaris. H. Sivalensis ?

H, prisca, De Serres. Caverns of Lunel-Viel.

Syn. H. Monspessulana, Christol.

. arvernensis, Croizet & Jobert. Auvergne.

. fusca, Thunb. Cape (living).

. Perrieri, Croizet & Jobert. Auvergne.

. intermedia, De Serres. Lunel-Viel.

. spelzea, Goldfuss. France, England, &c.

. erocuta, Bodd. Cape (living).

. antiqua, Lankester. Felixstowe, Suffolk (Red Crag).

jcogengeagcngacga= a=

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII.

Fig. 1. Upper third premolar tooth (left side) of Hyena crocuta, Bodd.

Fig. 2. Ditto of Hyena spelea, Goldfuss. From Kent’s Hole.

Fig. 3. Ditto of Hyena arvernensis, Croizet & Jobert. Auvergne.

Mr. G. 8. Brady on new British Species of Ostracoda. 59

Fig. 4. Ditto of Hyena striata, Zimmerm.; three-quarter view, to show

the anterior tubercle.

Figs. 5, 6, 7. Ditto of Hyena antiqua, Lankester. Red Crag, Suffolk.

Fig. 8. Ditto of Hyena striata, Zimmerm. View of the crown of the

tooth.

Fig. 9. Ditto of Hyena crocuta, Bodd.

VIIL.—On Species of Ostracoda new to Britain.

By Grorce S. Brapy.

[Plates II. & IV.]

Tue following species of freshwater Entomostraca have been

taken during the present year in the counties of Northumberland

and Durham. One of them (Cypris affnis) is a Continental

species, not heretofore recorded as a native of Britain. The rest

are now for the first time described. To these descriptions I

have appended a few notes on the animal of Cyprideis torosa

(Jones), and on its occurrence in a recent state in this district.

Fam. Cypride.

Subfam. 1. CYPRIN AI (Dana).

Genus Cypris, Miiller.

Cypris oblonga, n. sp. PI. III. figs. 1-4.

Elongate, subreniform ; lower margin slightly sinuated; upper

edge considerably arched, highest in the middle; extremities

rounded, the posterior being the more obtuse. Seen from

above, the carapace is ovoid in shape, the junction of the

valves forming, toward the extremities, a well-marked keel,

which is most prominent anteriorly. The valves are clothed

with a few scattered hairs, and marked irregularly with one

or more transparent patches, which appear light or dark

according to the mode of illumination. Colour light brown.

Length +48, inch; height +24; inch.

This species is nearly allied to C. fusca, which differs from it

in being broader and more tumid, as well as in the surface-

markings. The abdominal rami of the two species are also dif-

ferent, as may be best seen by a comparison of the figures

(PI. IIL. figs.4 &5). The “lucid spots” are much larger and

more distinct in C. oblonga. It is perhaps worthy of notice that

specimens of C. fusca, when steeped in solution of potash, impart

to the liquid a beautiful purple colour. I have not noticed this

with other species, but should suppose it likely to occur where

a sufficiency of brown pigment exists in the shell.

Cypris oblonga was taken in a pond at Fenham, near New-

castle, in April 1863.

60 Mr. G. 8. Brady on Species of

Cypris striolata,n.sp. Pl. ILI. figs. 12-17.

Valves broadly subreniform; dorsal margin greatly arched ;

ventral margin slightly sinuated ; anterior and posterior mar-

gins obtusely rounded; the highest part of the carapace

somewhat behind the middle. Viewed from above, the cara-

pace is much compressed, and tapering toward the extremi-

ties, of which the posterior is more obtusely rounded than the

anterior. Surface of the valves smooth, and regularly marked

with beautifully fine, anastomosing, longitudinal striations.

Colour deep brown. Length +3; inch; height +2, inch.

This approaches very closely to C. compressa; and, except in

the sculpturing of the carapace (which is very well-marked and

characteristic) and the sinuation of its lower margin, I cannot

find any feature which distinctly separates it from that species.

The valves of C. compressa are more or less deeply pitted; and

in no instance have I been able to find any trace of the striation

which distinguishes the present species. The general contour

of C. striolata is more nearly reniform, the lower edge being

decidedly sinuated, and the extremities are not quite so abruptly

rounded. It is also larger than C. compressa.

Habitat. Broomley Lough, Northumberland. April 1863.

Cypris affinis, Fischer. PI. III. figs. 6-11.

Cypris affinis, Fischer, Mémoires des Savants Etrangers, St. Petersburg,

vol. vi. p. 146, pl. 4. f. 1-11; Lilljeborg, De Crust. ex ord. tribus

Cladocera, Ostracoda, et Copepoda in Scania occurrentibus, p. 116,

pl. 11. f. 8-14.

Valves elongated, broad anteriorly; upper margin arched, highest

a little in front of the centre, and with a slight gibbosity,

from which it slopes gently backward ; inferior margin sinu-

ated; extremities rounded, the posterior being much the

narrowest. Valves sculptured with a reticulated pattern,

giving somewhat a scaly appearance to the surface. Seen

from above, the carapace is broadly oval in form, with pointed

extremities. Colour olive-grey or brown. Length +49, inch;

height +22, inch. .

This species is easily distinguished by the peculiar sculpturing

of the valves, which, in fine specimens and with good illumina-

tion under the microscope, resembles an exquisitely wrought

pattern of- silver filagree-work. The reticulations of which the

ornament is composed are largest toward the extremities of the

valves: across the middle of the carapace they are not very con-

spicnous, as the shell-structure is there more condensed. The

junction of the open work of the extremities with that of the

closer central band is shown in Pl, III. fig. 7. It will be seen

Ostracoda new to Britain. 61

that, though very much compressed, the tendency to a radiate

arrangement of the lacune (?) is continuous throughout.

I first found this species in a pond at Fenham, near Newcastle,

in April of the present year; and it has since been taken by the

Rey. A. M. Norman in two ponds near Sedgefield, county Durham,

and again by myself near Whitburn, in the same county.

Genus Canpona, Baird.

Candona virescens, n.sp. Pl. IV. figs. 1-5.

Carapace elongated, compressed, rather higher in front than be-

hind ; ventral margin slightly sinuated; dorsal margin very

gently arched ; anterior and posterior margins rounded. Sur-

face of the valves smooth. Seen from above, the carapace is

compressed, widest in the middle, and tapering gradually to-

ward the extremities. Colour a delicate sea-green, irregularly

variegated with markings of a lighter hue. Filaments of su-

perior antenna five long and seven short. Length +33, inch;

height +44, inch.

This species was found in considerable abundance in a shallow

weedy pond at Ashburn, near Sunderland, in May 1863. In

shape it closely resembles Dr. Baird’s figures of C. similis; and

some specimens have, when fresh, two dark spots, which however

disappear on drying: they seem to correspond with the eye- and

muscle-spots. When I first found my specimens, I supposed that

they might prove to be merely the young of C. reptans, as they are

not unlike in shape to that species, though much paler in colour.

But the absence of any brush of setz on the lower antenna is of

itself a sufficient character to separate the two species. I find

that even the very youngest specimens of C. reptans possess

these setz quite distinctly developed.

Candona albicans, n. sp. PI. 1V. figs. 6-10.

Valves oblong. Dorsal margin straight, curving abruptly at the

posterior extremity, and more gradually in front; ventral

margin deeply sinuated; extremities obtusely rounded off.

Surface of the valves uniformly and closely punctated, with a

few scattered slender hairs round the anterior and posterior

margins. Seen from below, the carapace is flattened, ovate,

and produced into a fillet at the anterior extremity. Colour

opake white, uniform or with pellucid patches. Length

+325 inch ; height +4%, inch.

. I took a single specimen of C. albicans (from which the ac-

companying drawings were made) in fresh water near Sunder-

land, in 1861. It has been found plentifully this year, in a

62 Mr. G. S. Brady on Cyprideis torosa.

small grassy pond near Sedgefield, by the Rev. A. M. Norman, in

company with C. lucens, Cypris tristriata, C. affinis, C. ovum, &e.

With reference to his specimens, Mr. Norman remarks: “ This

species approaches very near to C. lactea (Baird), but is wider in

proportion to its length, is not so ventricose, and wants the con-

spicuous encircling fillet of that species. The surface in C,

albicans is excavated with very numerous, small, shallow pits;

but in C. Jactea it is only sparingly and finely punctate.”

Subgenus Cyprivets, Jones.

Cyprideis turosa, Jones. Pl. IV. figs. 11-23.

Cyprideis torosa, Jones, Entomostraca of the Tertiary Formation of

England, 1856, p. 21, pl. 2. figs. 1 a-1 4, and woodcut, fig. 2, p. 16.

Candona torosa, Jones, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 2, 1850, vi. p. 27,

pl. 3. fig. 6.

Valves oblong, convex, somewhat broader in front than behind.

Ventral margin straight, or with a very slight sinuation, mostly

furnished with a single stout spine at the posterior angle ;

dorsal margin arched, higher anteriorly. Hinge-margin of

the right valve bearing a series of corrugations or elongated

tubercles, which are received into corresponding depressions

of the opposite valve. Extremities obtusely rounded. The

right valve is smaller than the left, and has the dorsal margin

inclined more steeply, and almost in a right line, from before

backwards. “Surface of the valves marked with closely set

angular pittings,” and with a more or less conspicuous trans-

verse sulcus somewhat in front of the centre. Young speci-

mens are sometimes furnished also with a few short, thinly

scattered hairs, and at the postero-inferior angle, near the

spine before mentioned, there is often a conspicuous group of

rather long hairs. Lucid spots arranged in a transverse

row of about four near the sulcus. Dorsal aspect ovate,

irregularly and obsoletely angular. Length +33, inch;

height +28; inch.

The occurrence of this species in a recent state was first men-

tioned by Professor T. Rupert Jones (/oc. cit.), who obtained it

from ditches of brackish water at Gravesend, and who has kindly

supplied me with specimens from that locality for examination.

These ditches are now, I believe, nearly silted up with mud and

decomposing matter. It has also been taken by the Rev. A. M.

Norman on the sands at Weston-super-Mare, to which position

it had probably been washed by the Uphill River. Mr. Norman

has recently taken it in fresh water in the “‘ Forge Dam,” Sedge-

field, and in immense profusion in brackish water at Hartlepool.

Lastly, I have myself found it im extraordinary numbers in

-estuarine pools at Warkworth.

Mr. G. S. Brady on Cyprideis torosa. 63

The following table indicates the Crustacea with which C. to-

rosa was found associated in the localities above specified :—

Sedgefield. Gravesend. Hartlepool. Warkworth.

(fresh water). (brackish). (brackish). (brackish),

Cypris ovum. Crangon vulgaris. | Palemon varians.|Crangon vulgaris.

—— gibba. Cypris gibba. _ |Gammarus locusta.|

—— punctillata. aculeata.

Candona serrata | Candona lucens.

—— reptans

&e. &e.

The animal of C. torosa differs only very slightly from that of

the genus Cythere. The limbs (except the first pair of legs, of

which, owing to their minute size, I have not been able to obtain a

satisfactory drawing) are represented in Pl. IV. figs. 11-15. The

only characters by which I can distinguish them from the limbs

of Cythere are the absence, from the second joint of the inferior

antenna, of the long stout seta which is always found in that

genus, and the presence, on the cox of the last pair of legs, of

four or five rows of long hairs having apparently a semiverticillate

arrangement. ‘The tufts of bristles which occur in other situa-

tions are similar in disposition to those of Cythere. Some of the

longer sete or hairs are terminated with a peculiar ringed and

serrated armature, which is shown at fig.15. This character is

always confined to certain hairs, which are constant in position,

and is found likewise in Cythere. I have not been able, in my

recent specimens of C. torosa, to detect the regular tuberculation

figured and described by Mr. Jones: but there is much difference

in the various specimens, according to age and locality ; and it is

evident that considerable latitude must be allowed in this as well

as in the spinous armature of the carapace. In comparatively

few of the Gravesend specimens have I found any appearance of

the single spine, while in those from Warkworth it is almost

constant. I have frequently, in examining C. ¢orosa, found the

carapace almost filled posteriorly with a very large mass of ova.

This fully accounts for the prodigious quantities in which the

species is found in favourable localities, such as those at Hartle-

pool and Warkworth, and is the more remarkable, as in Cythere,

so far as I have observed, the ova are very few in number.

Sunderland, Nov. 23, 1863.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PuLaTe III.

Fig. 1. Cypris oblonga (Brady), dorsal aspect; x 30.

Fig. 2. Ditto, ventral aspect; x 30,

64 Messrs. T. R. Jones and W. K. Parker on

3. Cypris oblonga (Brady), left ee x 30.

4. Ditto, abdominal ramus; x 1

ig. 5. Cypris fusca, abdominal ramus ; x 120.

Fig. 6. Cypris affinis (Fischer), abdominal ramus; x 120.

7. Ditto, shell-sculpture ; x 310.

8. Ditto, lucid spots; x 120.

. 9. Ditto, ventral aspect; x 40.

Fig. 10. Ditto, dorsal aspect; x 40.

Fig. 11. Ditto, right valve; x 40.

Fig. 12. Cypris striolata (Brady), left valve; x40.

Fig. 13. Ditto, dorsal aspect; x 40.

Fig. 14. Ditto, ventral aspect; x 40.

Fig. 15. Ditto, shell-sculpture; x 310.

Fig. 16. Ditto, lucid spots; x 310.

Fig. 17. Ditto, abdominal ramus ;. x 210.

Puate IV.

Fig. 1. Candona virescens (Brady), right valve; x 40.

Fig. 2, Ditto, dorsal aspect ; x 40

Fig. 3. Ditto, ventral aspect; x 40.

Fig. 4. Ditto, superior antenna; x 100,

Fig. 5. Ditto, inferior antenna; x 100

Fig. 6. Candona albicans (Brady), left enn x 40.

Fig. 7. Ditto, dorsal aspect; x 40.

Fig. 8. Ditto, ventral aspect; x 40.

Fig. 9. Ditto, shell-sculpture; x 210.

Fig. 10. Ditto, lucid spots; x 210.

Fig. 11. Cyprideis torosa (Jones), superior antenna; xX 100.

Fig. 12. Ditto, inferior antenna; x 100

Fig. 13. Ditto, second leg; x 100.

Fig. 14. Ditto, third leg x 100.

Fig. 15. Ditto, ringed seta; x 400.

Figs. 16-18. Ditto, outlines of carapace (Gravesend specimens); X 20.

Figs. 19-21. Ditto, outlines of carapace (Warkworth specimens) ; X 20.

Fig. 22. Ditto, posterior margin, with spine; X 20

Fig. 23. Ditto, ditto, with ova; x 40.

IX.—On the Foraminifera of the Crag.

By Prof. T. R. Jonzs, F.G.S., and W, K. Parxer, Esq.

Tue chief material we have had for examination in studying the

Foraminifera of the Crag of Suffolk and adjacent counties is a col-

lection liberally placed at our disposal by Mr, S. V. Wood, F.G.S.,

and made by him from the Crag at and near Sutton in Suffolk.

This collection was referred to by Mr. Charlesworth, in May

1835, in a paper, read by him before the Geological Society of

London, “On the Crag of part of Essex and Suffolk ” (Proc.

Geol. Soc. vol. 1. pp. 195, 196), in which he mentioned that

‘“‘for his general information respecting the organic remains in

the two beds” of the Crag he was indebted to Mr. Searles Wood

(then of Hasketon, near Woodbridge), whose collection of Crag

fossils included “ fifty species of minute Cephalopods,”—Fora-

the Foraminifera of the Crag. 65

minifera being in those days regarded generally as microscopic

Nautili, &e.

Mr. Wood’s original collection has been enlarged by the accu-

mulation of specimens since 1835; but very few additional

species of Foraminifera have occurred to him in his continued

examination of the Crag of Sutton and elsewhere. Many of the

forms met with by Mr. Wood have also been found by us in

miscellaneous hand-specimens of Crag; and we have also some

additional forms from these sources. We have taken about

twenty forms (mostly common) from hand-specimens of Crag in

which the Cardita senilis abounds, and nearly as many (mostly

the same) from Crag with Cyprina Islandica: the former: (Car-

dita) is very abundant at Sudbourne, Mr. Wood informs us, and

is not wanting at Ramsholt; the latter (Cyprina) prevails at

both places in company with the Cardita. Some half a dozen

forms we met with in a piece of Crag with Ostrea; but these

are not uncommon forms. Specimens of Bryozoan Crag have

afforded a dozen forms, mostly common in other varieties of the

Crag. Specimens of Crag from Sudbourne, Aldborough, and

Gedgrave have also yielded us a few Foraminifera, but, as in our

other gatherings, with a paucity of individuals and poverty of

size and variety that are strongly contrasted with the conditions

under which Mr. Wood found his numerous and large specimens

in the Crag of Sutton. On this subject Mr. Wood has remarked,

in letters to us dated March 11th and August 5th, 1863 :—*« It

is pretty nearly as you suspect: those fine specimens were from

‘a special bed, which was at one time particularly rich in those

remains; and nearly the whole of what I then considered my

fifty species were obtained from the Crag at one locality in the

parish of Sutton. This spot, which formerly yielded to my ex-

amination specimens by hundreds (indeed, I may say by thou-

sands), now scarcely supplies me with any. As this locality

fails to furnish me with any but the commoner kinds of shells

and Foraminifera, I imagine that the rich community must have

nestled in a protected nook, out of the reach of the moving

waters, or in some quiet place under specially favourable condi-

tions, and that the excavations in the deposit, as they have been

extended westward, have passed beyond this particular habitat.

The bed at Sutton seems to have been a bank something like

the ‘Turbot-bank,’ about five miles south of Larne. The Crag

- at Sutton is somewhat isolated now, and separated from that at

Ramsholt probably by denudation. At the latter place the

White or Lowest (‘ Coralline’) Crag is overlain by the Red Crag;

but at Sutton it has been excavated by denudation, and the Red

Crag abuts against it, as has been pointed out by Lyell (Mag.

Nat. Hist. new ser. vol. ii. 1839, p. 314). Most of my speci-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xiii. 5

66 Messrs. T. R. Jones and W. K. Parker on

mens came from the east side of this hill, where the Crag

deposit appears to have been sheltered; whilst on the west side

the Crag is almost indurated, and its material comminuted.”

Mr. Wood adds that the true Bryozoan bank of the Crag (in

which he found but few Foraminifera) is to be seen in the neigh-

bourhood of Aldborough, Sudbourne, and Orford, overlying the

bed wherein shells, with occasional Actinozoa and Bryozoa,

abound.

The geological relations of the several deposits of “ Crag” in

Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex have been treated of by Mr. Charles-

worth in the ‘Proceedings of the Geological Society, 1835,

vol. ii. p. 195, &c. (“ On the Crag of part of Essex and Suffolk”);

in the ‘London and Edinb. Phil. Mag.’ (Nos. 38 & 42, August

and December 1835), ser. 3. vol. vii. pp. 81, 465, &c. (“ Observa-

tions on the Crag-Formation and its Organic Remains, &e.”),

and in the ‘ Report of the British Association’ for 1836, Trans.

of Sections, p. 84 (“A Notice of the Remains of Vertebrated

Animals found in the Tertiary Beds of Norfolk and Suffolk ”’) ;

also by Sir C. Lyell, in the ‘ Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 1839, new series,

vol. in. p. 813, &e. (On the Relative Ages of the Tertiary De-

posits, commonly called the ‘ Crag,’ in the Counties of Norfolk

and Suffolk’). Of the three recognized divisions of the “ Crag,”

the lowest has been known as the “ Coralline Crag”? ever since

Mr, Charlesworth so named it in 1835, on account of its abound-

ing with little coral-like fossils, which, however, when duly

studied, were found to be Bryozoa (Polyzoa), Corals being ex-

ceedingly rare in it. “ Bryozoan Crag” ought, therefore, to

take the place of this common misnomer; but ‘“ White Crag,”

“ Lowest Crag,” and “ Suffolk Crag” are still better names for

this division, and are already in use. For general and special

information on the Crag deposits, the reader can also refer with

advantage to Lyell’s ‘Manual of Elementary Geology,’ 5th edit.

1855, chap. xiv.; and to Phillips’s ‘ Manual cf Geology,’ 1855,

chap. xiii. In reading the latter, however, “ Bryozoan” must

be substituted for ‘ Coralline”’ and “ Zoophytic,” with reference

to the particular fossils and beds referred to.

The collection of Foraminifera obtained by Mr. 8. V. Wood

from the Crag of Sutton comprises about forty-five reputed spe-

cies, or species and important varieties recorded binomially;

and here we must remark that though, zoologically speaking,

many of the recognized forms of Foraminifera are not species,

but merely varieties, of different systematic values, yet, for the

sake of convenience to zoologist and geologist, they have received

and retain binomial appellations, that stand in the lists like spe-

cific names. The zoological value of these names is critically indi-

cated in our papers on the “ Nomenclature of the Foraminifera,”

the Foraminifera of the Crag. 67

in the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ for June and

November 1859; February, March, April, June, July, and

November, 1860; August and September 1861; February and

September 1863.

These Foraminifera from the Crag at Sutton are remarkable,

for the most part, for size and abundance. The leading forms

are Miliola, Lagena, Dentalina, Polymorphina, Textularia, Pul-

vinulina, and Nonionina. As a fauna, they are best represented

(in our collections) by dredgings from the Atlantic, south of the

Scilly Isles, at from 50 to 70 fathoms, and from the Mediterra-

nean, on the north of Sicily, at 21 fathoms.

From all other parts of the Lowest or White Crag of Suffolk,

as far as our collections serve, we have got a somewhat similar ©

fauna, not only greatly reduced in number of individuals and

variety of forms, but composed of dwarfs in contrast with those

of Sutton, except in the case of some of those that inhabit shal-

low water, as Rotalia Beccarii and Polystomella crispa, and even

these are but feeble. Hence we may suppose that the Foramini-

feral deposit at Sutton was formed either in deeper or in warmer

water than other portions of the Crag were. Our chief sources

of these less luxuriant growths are specimens of Crag full of

Cyprina and Cardita ; and as the former shell lives in the British

seas, at from 5 to 80 fathoms—a depth similar to that affected

by the Atlantic and Mediterranean groups of Foraminifera above

uded to—we must suppose that some deteriorating influence,

either cold currents, floating ice, or cold climate, was at work

locally, at least, in the Crag sea, excepting possibly the Sutton

area. .

Similar conditions are indicated by the Bivalved Entomostraca

of the Crag described in one of the Monographs published by

the Paleontographical Society.

Of the Foraminifera of the Middle or Red Crag we have but

a poor supply ; indeed it is not easy to determine in every in-

stance whether we have a native.or a derived fossil in a specimen

from the Red Crag, as this deposit has been much disturbed,

and with it are mixed fossils from the Lowest or White Crag,

and even from older Tertiary beds. (See Mr. S. V. Wood’s

memoir on this subject, ‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ 1859, vol. xv,

p- 32.)

The Foraminifera of the Red Crag indicate a rather shallow

sea-zone ; they comprise a few common species of Miliola, Poly-

morphina, Textularia, Truncatulina, Rotalia, Calcarina, Polysto-

mella, and Nonionina, not abundant as individuals, nor of large

size—and are such as live at present in the British seas, with the

exception of Calcarina.

The Uppermost, Mammaliferous, or Norwich Crag (Thorpe,

68 Prof. Thury on the Law of the Production

Southwold, and Bramerton) yields a Rhizopodal fauna somewhat

similar to that of the Red Crag.

The few kinds of Foraminifera yielded by the Chillesford Crag,

a deposit regarded by Messrs. Wood and Prestwich (Quart.

Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. v. p. 350) as probably contemporaneous

with the Crag of Norwich (Uppermost or Mammaliferous Crag),

indicate a rather shallow and cold sea (perhaps somewhat brack-

ish too) as their probable habitat. They are Polymorphina lactea,

Bulimina elegans, Truncatulina lobatula, Rotalia Beecarii, Poly-

stomella crispa, and P. striatopunctata. Mr. Prestwich’s observa-

tions (/oc. cit. p. 351) on the probable influence of cold currents

from the northern seas on the fossil fauna at Chillesford coincide

with the above remarks.

Lastly, some Foraminifera collected by H.C. Sorby, Esq., F.R.S.,

from the Bridlington Crag*, some years ago, and kindly lent to

us, have to be noticed. These comprise Cornuspira, Miliola,

Lagena, Dentalina, Cristellaria, Polymorphina, Cassidulina,

Truncatulina, Polystomella, and Nonionina, and are the most

conspicuous of a probably more extensive fauna, nearly allied to

that of the Suffolk Crag,

X.—On the Law of the Production of the Sexes in Plants,

Animals, and Man. By Prof. Tuury, of Genevat.

M. Tuury’s memoir is divided into three parts. In the first,

entitled “ Deduction of the Law of the Sexes,” the author indi-

cates the course of ideas which has led him to his theory. The

second, which is shorter, contains, under the title of “ Résumé,”

the complete exposition of the author’s notions. The third is a

*‘ Notice,” prepared by M. Cornaz, in which this clever agricul-

turist describes the experiments which he has made, during two

consecutive years, for the verification of the author’s theory, and

hy which the latter has been completely confirmed.

The limits of this article do not allow of our following the

author through the whole series of reasonings by which he

establishes his theory. We shall only state that the study of

_plants, in which, by the management of the influence of external

agents, the observer is enabled to instigate the development

of either one or the other sex, seems to prove that the develop-

* Mr. Bean wrote of the Bridlington Crag in 1835 (Mag. Nat. Hist.

vol. viii. p. 355), and Sir C. Lyell in 1839 (Mag. Nat. Hist. new series,

vol. iii. p. 313. See also Phillips’s ‘Geol. Yorkshire,’ 1829, vol. i. p. 69 ;

and H.C. Sorby’s paper on this Crag, in the ‘ Proceed. West Riding,

Yorkshire, Geol. and Polytech. Sdc.’ 1857, iii. p. 555.

+ Translated by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., from the abstract by Prof. Pictet

in the ‘ Bibliothéque Universelle,’ September 20, 1863, p- 91,

of the Sexes in Plants, Animals, and Man. 69

ment of the male sex is always related to those general causes

which induce a more complete maturation of the juices and a

more perfect development of the organs.

‘This fundamental fact the author applies to the animal king-

dom. He refers, in the first place, to the fundamental identity

of the two sexes—an identity which allows us to explain the

characteristic differences of the sexes by simple differences in the

mode and amount of development. He then seeks the causes of

these differences, by analogy with plants, in the conditions

which, at a certain moment (very near the first origin of the

organism, since it is anterior to the determination of the sex),

produce a more complete development in the case of a male, and

a less advanced or less complete development in that of a female.

It remained to fix the precise moment at which this primary

determination of the sex takes place. This might be before

fecundation, or during or after this act. In the former case, if

the fecundation were retarded, this retardation, permitting a

more complete development of the ovum, must generally in-

duce the production of male individuals. Now, in bees, accord-

ing to the observations of Huber, if the fecundation take place

early, workers (i. e. females) are chiefly produced ; whilst, if the

fecundation be retarded beyond the twenty-second day, all the

eggs deposited are male eggs. According to M. Thury, the

decisive moment for the production of the sex will therefore

precede the act of fecundation.

_ It is true that, in bees, the interpretation of the facts is very

complex, partly on account of parthenogenesis, partly in conse-

quence of some other peculiar circumstances in the reproduction

of these insects. But the author also knew, from some previous

experiments, that, in domestic poultry, the eggs last laid nearly

always furnish the cocks of the clutch ; and he thought it pro-

bable that the last eggs which detach themselves from the ovary

of the fowl are those which have had the most time for matura-

tion. These eggs are fecundated, as all physiologists are aware,

during their passage through the upper part of the oviduct.

Therefore here also, when the fecundation is retarded, males are

the result. .

It was easy to apply the preceding data to the uniparous

Mammalia. In these the ovum separates from the ovary at the

commencement of the rutting-season, and it may be fecundated

at any time during the whole period that the female continues

in heat, and consequently when its maturation or development

is more or less advanced. If the fecundation take place at the

commencement of the period of heat, a female is the result ; if

at the end of this period, a male. This is the conclusion which

is fully justified by the experiments of M. Cornaz.

70 Prof. Thury on the Law of the Production

It is plain that, according to the author, the life of the un-

fecundated ovum is divisible into two periods. In the first of

these it is in principle a female ovum, in the second a male

ovum. The turning moment (moment de vire), according to the

author, is the time (probably very short) which separates the

two periods, and in which the natural course of development

induces some sudden change, the nature of which histology

should reveal to us. He assumes that the relative duration of

the two periods of the life of the ovum may be modified under

the influence of the organic state of the female, whence would

result a predisposition on the part of some females to give birth

either to individuals of their own sex or to males. Temperature,

by its direct action upon the ovum, and the influence of the

fecundating male upon the organic condition of the female,

would also produce similar results, —

The author, in all his deductions, appears to start from a

general point of view, which he certainly indicates, but nowhere

demonstrates in a positive manner, regarding it apparently as a

sort of axiom. He assumes that “ sexual life, being common to

animals and plants, must be subjected to identical fundamental laws

in both kingdoms.” If this be true of the two kingdoms, it must

apply with still more reason to the various divisions of the same

kingdom. This admits of much generalization ; but (and this is

the difficulty) we have yet to distinguish with certainty the facts

which bear upon essential laws from the infinitely varied mani-

festations by which these same laws are realized in combination.

The second and third parts of M. Thury’s memoir are here

reproduced entire.

Second Part. Summary and Practical Observations.

1. Sex depends on the degree of maturation of the ovum at

the moment of its fecundation.

2. The ovum which has not attained a certain degree of ma-

turation, if it be feeundated, produces a female; when this de-

gree of maturation is passed, the ovum, if fecundated, produces

a male.

3. When, at the rutting-season, a single ovum separates from

the ovary to descend slowly through the genital canal (as in uni-

parous animals), it is sufficient that the fecundation takes place

at the commencement of the rutting-season to produce females,

and at the end to produce males—the turning-point of the ovum

occurring normally during its passage in the genital canal.

4, When several ova separate successively from the ovary

during a single generative period (multiparous animals and ovi-

parous animals in general), the first ova are generally the least

developed, and produce females ; the last are more mature, and

of the Sexes in Plants, Animals, and Man. 71

furnish males. But if it happens that a second generative period

succeeds the first one, or if the external or organic conditions

change considerably, the last ova may not attain to the superior

’ degree of maturation, and may again furnish females.

Ceteris paribus, the application of the principle of sexuality is

less easy in the case of multiparous animals.

5. In the application of the above principles to the larger

Mammalia, it is necessary that the experimenter should first of

all observe-the course of the phenomena of heat in the very in-

dividual upon which he proposes to act, in order that he may

know exactly the duration and the signs of the rutting-season,

which frequently vary in different individuals.

6. It is evident that no certain result can be expected when

the signs of heat are vague or equivocal. This is scarcely ever

the case in animals living in a state of freedom; but cattle in

the fattening-sheds or in the stable sometimes present this ab-

normal peculiarity. Such animals must be excluded from ex-

perimentation.

7. From the mode in which the law ruling the production of

the sexes has been deduced, it results that this law must be

general and apply to all organized beings,—that is to say, to

plants, animals, and man. ,

It is necessary to distinguish carefully the law itself (1 and 2

of this summary), which is absolute, from the applications of it

which may be made with more or less facility.

Third Part. Notice by M. George Cornaz.

I, the undersigned, George Cornaz, administrator of the estate

of my father, the late M. A. Cornaz, President of the Agricultural

Society of “ La Suisse Romande,” at Montet, in the Canton de

Vaud, certify that I received from M. Thury, Professor in the

Academy of Geneva, under date of the 18th February 1861,

some confidential instructions the object of which was an experi-

mental verification of the law which governs the production.of

sex in animals.

I have applied to the management of my herd of cows the

data furnished to me by M. Thury, and obtained at once, with-

out any uncertainty, all the expected results.

In the first place, in twenty-two successive cases, I wished to

obtain heifers ; my cows were of the Schwitz breed, and my bull

a pure Durham; the heifers were in demand amongst breeders,

and the bulls were only sold to the butchers. I obtained the

desired result in all cases.

Having subsequently purchased a cow of pure Durham breed,

I desired to obtain from them a new bull, which might replace

the one which I had bought at great cost, without waiting for

72 . Dr. G. C. Wallich on the Process of

the chance of the birth of a male. I operated in accordance

with the directions of Prof. Thury, and the success again con-

firmed the truth of the process which had been communicated

to me—a process the application of which is direct and very easy.

Besides my Durham bull, I obtained six other bulls, of a

cross-breed between the Durham and Schwitz, which I intended

for work : by selecting cows of the same colour and size, I ob-

tained very well-matched pairs of bulls.

My herd consists of forty cows of all ages.

To sum up, I have made in all twenty-nine experiments ac-

cording to the new process, and all have given the desired pro-

duct, male or female: I have had no case of non-success. All

the experiments were made by myself, without the intervention

of any other person.

I can consequently declare that I regard the method of

Prof. Thury as real and perfectly certain, hoping that he will

soon be able to profit all breeders and agriculturists in general

by a discovery which will regenerate the business of cattle-

breeding.

(Signed) G. Cornaz.

Montet, Feb. 10, 1863.

_ XI.—On the Process of Mineral Deposit in the Rhizopods and

Sponges, as affording a Distinctive Character. By G. C.

Wattuicn, M.D., F.L.S., &c.

In a paper published in the Number of the ‘ Annals’ for Decem-

ber last, Professor Max Schultze adduces evidence in support of

the opinion that the siliceous spicules found within the chambers

of certain Foraminiferous shells do not constitute integral por-

tions of these organisms, but are the products of entozootic

sponge-growth,—the evidence in question being based on the

strictly Foraminiferous type of the shells in which such spicules

occur, on the presence of the latter being only occasional, on

their position and distribution when met with, and on the cha-

racters of sponge-sarcode as compared with “the organic sub-

stance remaining after specimens [of Polytrema] preserved in

spirits” have been decalcified by subjection to dilute hydro-

chloric acid.

But whilst this may be regarded as the circumstantial evidence

in the case, the opinion advocated by Professor Schultze appears

to me to be sustained by proofs of a more direct and generally

applicable nature. These I shall now proceed to notice.

According to Dr. Bowerbank*, “in the early stage of their

* “On the Anatomy and Physiology of the Spongiade,” ‘ Philosophical

Transactions of the Royal Society ’ for 1858, p. 281 e¢ seq.

Mineral Deposit in the Rhizopods and Sponges. 73

development the spicula [of Sponges] appear to consist of a

double membrane, between which the first layer of silex is

secreted ; and in this condition they present an internal cavity

approaching very nearly to the size of the external diameter.”

And again: “the deposit of silex is not continuous and homo-

geneous, but produced in concentric layers, which, it would ap-

pear, are, at least for a period, equally secreted by the inner

surface of the outer membrane and the outer surface of the

inner one.”

Now, although all truly spicular sponge-growths are formed, as

here laid down, by concentric layers of silex secreted from two

distinct surfaces, and, in their earliest condition, occasionally

“approach very nearly to the size of the external diameter,”

unless I am much mistaken in my interpretation of the appear-

ances, they are neither “secreted equally ” from these two sur-

faces after the deposit of the first layer evolved by each, nor are

they formed within membranous cavities.

n order to render the process intelligible, it is desirable to

take as an illustration the simplest type of siliceous spicule,

—namely, the common elongate cylinder, without reference

to the shape of its extremities, or the closure of its tubule

either at one or both ends. But first with regard to the mem-

brane here spoken of by Dr. Bowerbank as occurring among the

Spongiadze, and asserted by Professor Schultze to be present in

the Foraminifera*.

Tn the living or fresh sarcode, whether of the Sponges or

Foraminifera, there are no membranous cavities from the sur-

faces of which mineral deposit takes placet+. There are cavities,

and these doubtless present a definite outline, but not more

definite than that of the vacuole which, in the sarcode of both

classes, appears and disappears without leaving the slightest

trace behind. It is also true that in spirit-specimens, and

under the action of acids, an amount of “ hardening” is produced

which causes the external layer of sarcode to assume the appear-

ance of membrane. But, as I have endeavoured to show with

regard to Ameba t, we are by no means warranted in taking it

for granted that characters, manifest only under the action of a

chemical reagent, have necessarily existed prior to its employ-

ment ; and, in further confirmation of this view, I may state

* See paper above referred to, p. 413, where the following passage oc-

curs : “The organic substance remaining after the treatment of specimens

of Polytrema preserved in spirits consists of an external membrane and a

tenacious brownish-red substance.” t See same paper, p. 418.

} “On the Value of the Distinctive Characters in Ameba,” ‘ Annals’

for August 1863, p. 128.

74 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Process of

that the effect of plunging albumen (the substance most closely

allied in character to sarcode) momentarily into strong spirit,

acid, or even hot water, is to produce on its surface a hardened

membranous-looking layer, which, as seen under the microscope,

has all the appearance of the ectosarc of Ameba. It is a remark-

able fact, moreover, that in those specimens of Ameba in which

the ectosare presents the nearest approach in aspect to a mem-

brane, under the application of a moderate degree of heat every

trace of this vanishes, and the sarcode-mass becomes homogeneous

to its extreme margin; whereas, in the encysted condition of

Ameba, no heat, short of that capable of destroying the tissue

altogether, suffices to alter the then strictly membranous character

of the cyst*,

One of the most characteristic features of sarcode is its ten-

dency to vacuolation—that is to say, the formation of cavities

within its substance, occupied by fluid or solid matter +. The

first step in the process of spicular deposit is the formation of

such a cavity, subject, of course, to variation in shape and size

in different species, but the essential character of which remains

the same in every instance. Taking for illustration, then, the

simplest type of spicule above referred to, a correspondingly

shaped vacuole makes its appearance in the sarcode-mass, but

with this singular and constant peculiarity—that its long axis

is traversed by a thread of sarcode, or vacuolar stolon, as I pro-

pose to term it. This stolon is occasionally free at one of its

extremities, but never at both. In the adjoining woodcut, a

diagrammatic view is given of the order in which the successive -

layers of silex are deposited in a sponge-spicule, the upper end

being closed, the lower open—the sectional view in each case

being given immediately below. Fig. 1 represents the vacuolar

cavity as seen in section longitudinally, s being the stolon, and

v the space or cavity produced by endosmotic effusion of fluid

containing silex in solution. There are present, therefore, two

surfaces of sarcode, namely that of the cavity and that of the

stolon. Each of these now secretes a layer of silex, not, how-

ever, with an intervening space between, but in the closest ap-

position. In fig. 2 these two layers are indicated by the horse-

shoe-shaped spaces numbered 1 and 2 respectively, but which,

in all probability, are formed simultaneously.

Now, as each layer becomes immediately consolidated and is

* These cysts may readily be mounted in balsam; but, in the ordinary

condition of Amba it is impossible to preserve a vestige of outline when

so mounted.

+A vacuole may be defined as a space in a fluid of one density occupied

by fluid or solid matter of another density.

Mineral Deposit in the Rhizopods and Sponges. 75

non-elastic*, no further deposit can possibly be effected from

either surface unless by displacement of an equivalent volume of

sarcode, whether of the cavity or stolon. The next layer may

therefore be formed around the stolon as in layer 4, fig. 4, or

by the retrocession of the boundary of the cavity, as in layer 3,

fig.3. Most frequently the layers are deposited one within the

other—this being the reason why the diameter of the first two

layers (which generally represent the diameter of the spicule) is

“nearly equal to the size of the external diameter,” as stated

by Dr. Bowerbank. But nevertheless successive layers of silex

may continue to be added externally as well as internally. If

internally, the stolon gradually diminishes in diameter, and may

ultimately be altogether obliterated. Therefore, as a general rule,

the greater the diameter of the tubular cavity of a sponge-spicule

and the thinner its wall, the younger is the spicule, and vice

versa t.

It has been stated that the first two layers secreted are inva-

riably in contact. The proof of this is afforded by the fact that

spicules never occur in which there are two distinct hollow

cylinders enclosed one within the other, and presenting a free

* It is scarcely necessary, I presume, to state that the siliceous substance

of a spicule is resilient, but not expansible.

t+ When the stolon is continuous with the cavity at each extremity, the

layers of silex do not constitute a sealed tube, as shown at the upper por-

tion of the horse-shoe figures, but remain open, as seen at the lower.

76 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Process of

intermediate space, such as would necessarily exist were the

first two layers not secreted in contact. Hence it follows, that,

after the deposit of the two primary layers (by the surface of the

stolon and of the vacuolar cavity, as seen in fig. 2), all subsequent

layers must be evolved from these surfaces in opposite directions

—that is to say, centrifugally as regards the outer series, and

centripetally as regards the mner one. And it may be stated

that the growth of every sponge-spicule takes place in two oppo-

site directions between its axis and periphery, and that every

spicule presents an axial tube (or the remains of such tube),

which was originally occupied by the vacuolar stolon around

which its several layers were deposited.

I shall now endeavour to show that, with the exception of one

group of organisms which constitute the true connecting link

between the Sponges and the Rhizopods, the process of mineral

deposit in the latter class of Protozoa takes place so differently

from that just described as prevailing in the former, that it fur-

nishes a most important distinctive character between the two

classes.

If we leave out of the question the genera Polytrema, Carpen-

teria, and Dujardinia, which are still sub judice, and restrict the

term “spicule” to structure identical in its mode of formation

with the spicules of the Sponges, no spicular growth has hi-

therto been met with amongst the Foraminifera. The point for

decision is not whether the spicules found in these genera are

true sponge-spicules (for of that fact there is no doubt), but how

they came there,—my argument being that, inasmuch as they are

undoubtedly true spicular growths, they cannot belong to, or be

formed by, Foraminifera, and must consequently be of ento-

zootic origin. |

Figure 5 is intended to illustrate the order in which the suc-

cessive layers of calcareous matter are formed in a shell of the

Globigerine type, P c representing the primordial chamber,

t T the first layer of shell secreted from the sarcode-surface with

which it is in contact ; s, s, s, pseudopodial stolons traversing the

shell through the larger foramina, and terminating at times, but

not necessarily always, in pseudopodia; p, p, p, pseudopodia

taking their rise from an external layer of sarcode (or chitosare,

to be described immediately), and, in like manner with the

pseudopodial prolongations of the stolons, not always in direct

communication with the sarcode-mass within the chambers;

and, lastly, a, the aperture of the chamber.

s c represents the second chamber; the letters 1’ 1’ the first

layer of shell, as in the primordial chamber; s,s, the stolons,

with the large foramina for their exit; p, p, p, pseudopodia, in

this case springing directly from the sarcode-mass of the cham-

Mineral Deposit in the Rhizopods and Sponges. 77

ber—a”' being the principal aperture, through which the sarcode-

mass is seen to bulge outwards.

Fig. 5,

The difference between these two chambers deserves special

attention. As already stated, the first layer of shell is deposited

from the immediate surface of the sarcode-mass within, being

only interrupted at the main aperture and those points through

which the stolons and pseudopodia make their escape. In the

normal condition of the organism, no further deposit takes place

within. Every subsequent addition to the thickness of the shell-

wall is made from without, and is brought about by a special

layer of sarcode which spreads over the entire external surface

from the stolons*, and thus seems to secrete the shell-substance

by its gradual retrocession outwards, as in the case of the wall

of the cavity in which the sponge-spicule is formed, This outer

layer of sarcode may very readily be seen in mature Globigerine,

and it is probably present in all Foraminifera, although visible

with difficulty in some, too subtle to be appreciable in others,

and perhaps taking its origin, in the imperforate genera, by a

‘distinct reflexion of the sarcode-substance through the main

* These stolons, unlike those which take part in the secretion of silex

in the case of the sponge-spicule, seem designed actually to prevent the

deposit of calcareous matter wherever they occur; since otherwise no

apertures would remain for communication between the internal sarcode

of the chambers and the medium in which the organism lives. ~

73 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Process of

aperture of the last-formed chamber, after the fashion of Gro-

mia*,

Of the highly important office performed by this outer layer,

there appears to be no room for doubt. Owing to this import-

ance, and the misconception that would inevitably arise were it

to be regarded as made up of ectosare alone, I have thought it

necessary to distinguish it from the rest of the soft mass by

the name of chitosare (xuT@v, a coat). But it must be ex-

pressly understood that this layer is not distinct in constitution

from the rest of the sarcode, but formed out of it, and (as in the

case of the naked Rhizopods) continually intermingling with

the internal portion by ameebasis. It is through the agency of

the internal surface of this layer or chitosare that the increase in

the thickness and strength of the shell is effected, the various

complicated canal-systems formed, and all secondary deposits

and the entire series of surface-markings of the Foraminifera

producedf.

This layer would seem to be present in all the testaceous genera

of Rhizopods. In Gromiait has long been recognized, and sup-

posed to be altogether derived from a reflexion of the sarcode-mass

issuing at the mouth of the test. In the Polycystina, as in the

Foraminifera, it undoubtedly produces all the beautiful sculp-

turings for which these organisms are so celebrated. The growth

of the siliceous framework of the Acanthometrina and Dictyochide

is almost wholly dependent on its presence; whereas in the highest

order of Rhizopods, namely the Proteina, it is extremely proba-

ble that it occurs also in all the testaceous genera, although,

from the greater differentiation of the sarcode-substance gene-

nerally, it is more delicate and less easily traceable. In this

order I have not seen it; but there seems reason to suspect that

in Euglypha and indeed all the Lagynide, and also in the tes-

taceous Amecebans (as in Difflugia and Arcella), it is not only

reflected from the main orifice, but escapes partly through the

minute pore or pores which are distinctly visible at the apex of

the test in Euglypha, Cadium, Protocystis (Wall.), and Difflugia.

In the latter genus the pore is at times produced into a hollow

cylindrical tube of some length, as shown in my paper on Ameba,

* For reasons which will be given in a later portion of this paper, I am

inclined to believe that the test of Gromia may not be strictly imperforate.

+ The presence of an outer investing film of sarcode in certain Foramini-

fera appears to have been recognized by Dr. Carpenter and Prof. Schultze.

In the ‘ Introduction to the Study of the Foraminifera’ (p. 128), the former

author accounts for the exceptional structure of Dactylopora by ascribing

its formation to this outer film, and cites Gromia as an example in which

it is reflected back over the entire test, from the sarcode-body protruded

through the main aperture.

Mineral Deposit in the Rhizopods and Sponges. 79

&e., in the Number of the ‘ Annals’ for June last (Pl. X. fig. 13)

and in those forms of Arcella in which a number of spine-like

processes are formed, and the original chitinous test becomes

covered with sandy particles, it is probably through apertures

in these that the sarcode escapes.

Lastly, it is a most interesting fact, that, if we turn to the Pro-

tophytes, as, for-example, the Diatoms and Desmidians, a layer

of protoplasm, as is well known, envelopes the harder portions

exteriorly. This layer is homologous with the chitosare of the

Rhizopods.

Now one of the strongest corroborations of the view here ad-

vanced is to be found in the fact that in an abnormal condition

of the oldest Globigerine shells, in which the larger foramina

become almost wholly obliterated by calcareous deposit (and

it would appear that elective affinity exercises greater power

than the inherent secretory faculty of the sarcode), a secondary

free layer of shell-substance becomes deposited within the

primary layer; and from this the delicate calcareous spines pre-

sent in some of the heaviest of the free-floating surface Globi-

gerine of tropical seas seem to be projected. At first sight

these spmes look like pseudopodia ; they are undoubtedly cal-

careous, however, and, as before stated, never tubular.

In the diagram a second layer is represented as having been

already added on the external surface of the primary chamber,

Pp c,—this layer extending, however, only over the external

area of the primordial chamber, and not over that portion of it

which is covered by the second chamber, sc. The latter is repre-

sented as seen prior to the deposition of this outer or secondary

layer—the spreading out of the stolons, so as to form the chi-

tosare, having yet to take place before any external addition to the

shell can be brought about. Thus it has been shown that the

deposit of mineral matter, of which the Foraminiferous shell is

composed, takes place only in one direction at a time, and not

within a cavity, but either upon or within a surface of sarcode.

The same remark applies to the spinous projections which

are occasionally present. These may be traversed by a canal-

system, but they never exhibit a tubule originally occupied by a

stolon from which they have been partly secreted. On the con-

trary, they are built up of consecutive additions of calcareous

matter, laid on, as it were, at right angles to their axes, and

extending in one direction only, that is to say, from the axis of

the chamber outwards ; whilst the secreting surface constitutes a

progressive mould into which the mineral matter is poured out,

the base of the secreting cavity being, at the commencement of

the operation, closed by the calcareous area upon which the

spinous process is projected. Here it is evident that the in-

80 Dr. G. C. Wallich on the Process of

ternal sarcode of the chamber on which the spinous processes

occur has no direct share in their production, from the cireum-

stance of there being no aperture or pit at the interior point of

the calcareous chamber which corresponds to the base of the

process exteriorly. It may be stated, therefore, that the process

of spine-formation in the Foraminifera is brought about by the

secretion of calcareous matter upon an already existing calea-

reous surface, each successive layer being received into the

mould progressively made for it by the outward extension of its

investing chitosarc. Fig. 5 diagrammatically represents the

process, sp being the first and sp! the second stage of spine-

formation referred to.

On these grounds, then, coupled with the fact that no Fora-

minifera secrete silex, although several genera build up their

shells by the addition of siliceous and other mineral particles

derived from extraneous sources, I base my opinion that the

spicules met with occasionally in Polytrema, Carpenteria, and

Dujardinia* do not constitute integral portions of these or-

ganisms, but have their origin in entozootic growth; and

further, that the process of mineral deposit in the Sponges, as

compared with that prevalent in the Foraminifera, is absolutely

incompatible with the formation of true spicular growth.

In the Polycystina the plan of mineral deposit is in every es-

sential respect identical with that observable in the Foraminifera.

That is to say, the siliceous portions (which do not constitute a

shell, but ought to be regarded as an internal skeleton or frame-

work) are formed by the addition of siliceous matter at right

angles to the principal line of growth, and in one direction only.

They are never formed around stolons, and consequently are not

tubular—the finer threads of silex being projected from point to

point of the reticulations, much after the same fashion that the

threads of mélted glass are fashioned by the glass-worker into

miniature baskets, &c.,—the spinous processes so largely deve-

loped in this family forming no exception to the rule, and it

being only in the earliest rudiment of the siliceous structure

that the silex is deposited in the shape of an extremely minute

composite but solid spicule within the sarcoblast. This identity

in the plan of. deposit in the Foraminifera and Polycystina, not-

withstanding the difference in the mineral material and the cha-

racter of the hard parts, therefore.yields a reason in addition to

those derivable from the organization of the soft parts for the

view advanced by me regarding the ordinal unity of these two

families.

* On similar grounds I consider the marginal cord in Operculina to be

an ordinary secondary growth, in no wise analogous to spicular develop-

ment.

’ Mineral Deposit in the Rhizopods and Sponges. 81

In the Acanthometrina which belong to another order, namely,

the Protodermata, the plan of siliceous deposit is nevertheless

essentially the same—the elongated spines (acanthostypes) never

being tubular, as erroneously asserted by Professor Miller. The

appearance of tubularity in these organisms, as in the Polycystina,

is an optical illusion engendered by the longitudinal ribs of

which the acanthostypes may be said to be made up*.

In the Thalassicollide, which, together with the Dictyochide,

are placed by me in the same order as the Acanthometrina, the

plan of deposit is for the first time modified, but only to the extent

of taking place in two directions from the axis of each spicule.

In other words, the spicule is deposited within the sarcode en-

tirely, but not in previously existing cavities or around stolons.

Hence the silex is secreted only from within outwards.

Lastly we arrive at the Dictyochide, a group I have found it

necessary to set apart as a distinct family, owing to the fact

of their presenting the solitary example of true tubular forma-

tion amongst the whole of the Rhizopods. In the organization

of their soft parts they are closely allied to the Acanthometrina

and Thalassicollide; whilst the tubularity of their siliceous

framework, and its formation of two separate isometrical portions,

at once stamp this family as the true connecting link between

the Rhizopods and Sponges. It is a singular fact that up-

wards of twenty varieties of these very common organisms have

been described as distinct species on characters of no higher

import than the number of spines or angles presented by the

siliceous framework ; and that some have actually been described

and figured as seen in a living condition with half of the internal

skeleton deficient !

_ It only remains for me to add that in other genera of the

Foraminifera than those referred to by Professor Schultze (as,

for instance, in Globigerina), and likewise in some of the Poly-

eystina (Haliomma), specimens are not unfrequent in which the

chambers are more or less choked up with entozootic sponge-

growth ; whilst the chambers of Globigerina are at times filled

with effete frustules of a free-floating pelagic surface Diatom,

namely, Chetoceros.

Hence, assuming the order of deposit of the mineral matter

of all these structures to be constant amongst the members of

the same family, the facts now advanced furnish the fullest

* In the ‘Annals’ for October 1863, Mr. Carter describes, under the

name of Acanthocystis turfacea, an organism recently found by him in De-

vonshire, which he refers to the order Echinocystidia (Echinocystida ?) of

MM. Claparéde and Lachmann. ‘The spines in this form are said to be

hollow; but, for reasons above given, this would at once remove it from

Acanthometra, and indicate, in this respect, its close affinity to Acineta,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser. 3. Vol. xiii. 6

$2 Rev. A. M. Norman on undescribed -

confirmation of the accuracy of Professor Schultze’s view ; and

we must henceforth regard all siliceous spicules exhibiting tubu-

lar. cavities as distinct in their origin from the organisms within

whose chambers they occur, unless every portion of the wall or

framework of such chambers is similarly constituted.

Kensington, December 18, 1863.

XII.—On undescribed British Hydrozoa, Actinozoa, and Polyzoa.

By the Rev. ALrrep Mertz Norman, M.A.

[Plates IX., X., XI.]

AutHoueH the animals formerly associated in the class Zoophyta

have long since been physiologically parted asunder, it is often

practically convenient to unite them, or rather, perhaps I should

say, to arrange them side by side, in our collecting, our cabinets,

and our papers. I trust therefore that this practical convenience

may be deemed a sufficient excuse for here bringing together

descriptions of animals belonging to totally different classes.

I must return my sincere thanks for the assistance that I

have received from my ever-kind friend, Mr. Alder. Any value

that this short paper may have will be due to his accurate

drawings which illustrate the species.

Class HYDROZOA,

Fam. Corynide.

Genus Tusiciava (Allman).

Tubiclava Cornucopia, n.sp. PI. IX. figs. 4 & 5.

T’. reticulo tubulorum conchis viventibus adherentium basali; hydro-

thecis ab hoc reticulo assurgentibus cornucopiis forma similibus,

_ supra quam infra paulo latioribus, suberectis, vix curvatis, sub-

diaphanis, incrementi lineis plus vel minus circumcinctis ; polypis

elongato-claviformibus, tentaculis filiformibus, discretis, et in capite

et in stipite sparsis ; gonophoris mori fructus formam referentibus,

gonoblastidiis brevissimis, tubulis repentibus adjunctis, affixis.

Pollicis quadrantem vix attingit. Mare Zetlandicum habitat.

A number of little trumpet-shaped tubes arise from a creeping

base, which is attached to the shells of living Mollusca. These

slightly curved tubular hydrothece are a fifth of an inch or a

little more in height, narrowest at the bottom, and from thence

of gradually increased diameter towards their distal extremity.

Here and there encircling slightly elevated lines on the hydro-

theca mark the successive stages of the animal’s growth. The

polypites are furnished with greatly elongated club-shaped heads,

over the whole of which, as well as upon the upper portion of

British Hydrozoa, Actinozoa, and Polyzoa. 83

the body, filiform tentacula are scattered. The gonophores are

in the form of mulberry-like masses, at first sight apparently

sessile, but really upon very short gonoblastidia, which are

situated in openings in the creeping base of the hydrozoon.

Tubiclava Cornucopia was dredged in from 80 to 100 fathoms,

about twenty miles north of Unst in Shetland, and was parasitic

on the shells of Astarte sulcata and Dentalium Entalis. It is

worthy of remark, that in every instance the hydrozoon was ob-

served upon shells still occupied by the living Mollusca, and

that it invariably had assumed a position at the posterior ex-

tremity of the shell, where it would receive the benefit of the

aqueous currents caused by the mollusk, which, while providing

for its own necessities, thus unwittingly performed the kindly

office of feeding its hungry neighbour.

The genus in which this undescribed form is placed was esta-

blished by Professor Allman in the ‘ Report of the British Asso-

ciation’ for 1862. ~ .

Fam. Tubulariade.

Genus Evpenprium (Ehrenberg).

Eudendrium annulatum, n. sp. Pl. IX. figs. 1-3.

E. fruticosum ; ramis majoribus crassis, coalescentium fistularum

insolito reticulo obductis ; ramulis numerosissimis, brevibus, passim

distincte (sicut in Coryne ramosa) annulatis ; polypis calices non

expansos obsidentibus, tentaculis 16-20 preeditis; gonophoris

_ uvarum formam simulantibus, in gonoblastidiis positis.

Hydrozoon quatuor pollices attingit. In freti “‘ Burrafirth”’ cavernis

apud insulas Zetlandicas vitam degit.

This Eudendrium grows to a height of about 4 inches, and is

seen at a glance to differ from its congeners E. rameum and E.

ramosum in its more shrubby and dense habit. The main stems

are very thick and strengthened with a curious network of ana-

stomosing tubes on their surface (PI. IX. fig. 3). The smaller

branches are closely and regularly ringed in every part (fig. 2),

and are excessively numerous. The tubes are not expanded at

their extremities to receive the polypites, as is the case in some

allied species. The polypites are furnished with from sixteen to

twenty tentacles. The gonophores are grouped in clusters,

consisting of eight to twenty egg-shaped bodies attached round

the axis of gonoblastidia, which are of moderate length.

Eudendrium is a difficult genus ; but the present species appears

to be very distinct from the seven British forms which have

hitherto been described. It was found in a cave, known as

“* Buness Hall,’ which is one of many caverns, all remarkably

rich in animal life, which penetrate the cliffs on the eastern side

of Burrafirth, the northernmost of the voes of Shetland. It was

84 Rev. A. M. Norman on undescribed

attached to the perpendicular sides of this cavern, about a foot

beneath the water at the lowest spring-tide. Other, but much

smaller specimens were inhabiting a rock-pool just outside the

cave. These last examples, though not more than an inch or an

inch and a half high, were loaded with reproductive bodies,

which, however, were wholly absent from their larger brethren

in the cave.

Class ACTINOZOA.

Fam, Alcyonide.

Genus Ruizoxenta (Ehrenberg),

Rhizozenia albicolor, n.sp. Pl. X. fig. 1.

R. albescens ; basi communi sive interstitiis cellularum polypiferaruam

convexarum latitudinis fere dimidium haud attingentibus, longitu-

dine plerumque vix eequantibus rarissimeque superantibus cellu-

larum diametrum. .

Mare prope insulam Jersey habitat.

This species is at once distinguished from R. catenata (Forbes)

by its colour, which is white. The polyps are placed very closely

together ; their diameter is half as great again as that of the

connecting creeping base, and the distance from polyp to polyp

is generally less than the diameter of the polyp itself.

In these respects the present form differs widely from a white

species which has previously been described by Sars under the

name of Rhizoxenia filiformis (Sars, Faun. Litt. Norveg., sec.

livr. p. 65, pl. 10. figs. 13-17).

R. albicolor was found creeping over a stone dredged off

Gorey, in Jersey, in 1859,

The genus Rhizoxenia was established by Ehrenberg, in his

‘Corallenthiere des rothen Meeres,’ Berlin, 1834, p. 55, and

thus has precedence of Forbes’s genus Sarcodictyon.

Class POLYZOA.

Fam. Membraniporida.

Genus Leprara, Johnston.

Lepralia venusta, n. sp. Pl. X. figs. 2 & 8.

ZL. cellulis ovatis, convexis, umbone levi magno conspicuo in

medio infra orificium sito instructis ; superficie perforata ; orificio

orbiculari inferne sinuato ; peristomate simplici, inermi ; ovicellula

galeata, punctata, avicularium parvum in summo sustinente.

Cells ovate, somewhat elongated, convex, irregularly disposed,

haying a large and prominent smooth umbo placed a little below

the mouth ; surface elsewhere perforated. Mouth nearly circular,

but haying a wide shallow sinus on the under lip. No spines on

British Hydrozoa, Actinozoa, and Polyzoa. 85

the simple peristome. Ovicell in the form of a helmet, punc-

tured in the same manner as the cells, and surmounted by a

small avicularium.

Dredged on shell off Guernsey, in about 10 fathoms (1859).

This well-marked form is not likely to be confounded with

any previously described Lepralia that we are acquainted with.

Lepralia complanata, n.sp. Pl. X. fig. 4.

L, cellulis rhomboideis, planis, immersis, perforatis, lineis elevatis

inter se separatis ; orificio semicirculari, margine inferiore recto

evexo, superiore convexo inermi; ovicellula minima, depressa,

lunata, leevi.

Cells lozenge-shaped, much flattened, having their surface

punctured and separated from each other by elevated lines.

Mouth semicircular, with the upper lip well arched and not

furnished with any spines, and the lower lip nearly straight, but

pouting. Ovicells depressed, in the form of a quarter-moon,

and having their surface smooth.

This species was found among the valuable collection of

British Zoophytes accumulated by my late friend Mr. Barlee,

and bequeathed to me by him. It is lodged in the little hollows

of a rounded and much water-worn piece of coarse-grained

granite. This fact may probably hereafter lead to the identifi-

cation of the exact locality of the specimen, which (there being

unfortunately no label attached) is at present unknown to me.

Tn company with it on the stone were Membranipora spinifera,

Lepralia spinifera (true), and Lepralia punctata.

Lepralia laqueata,n. sp. PI. X. fig. 5.

L. cellulis rhomboideis, latis, subimmersis, granulosis, puncturis

margiualibus magnis lineisque elevatis sejunctis ; orificio semicir-

culari, margine superiore dentibus tribus (?) plerumque evane-

scentibus armato, inferiore recto evexo denticulum penitus collo-

catum desuper spectato ostendente ; ovicellula rotundata, convex-

juscula, subimmersa, granulosa, ad marginem perforata.

Cells lozenge-shaped, nearly immersed, having their surface

granular, and pierced with a single row of large punctures

round the margin. The cells are separated from each other by

raised lines. Mouth semicircular, apparently armed when per

fect with three teeth on the upper margin, but in all the speci-

mens I have seen only the stumps remained. The lower margin

of the mouth is straight and considerably pouting. A den-

ticle is situated within the lower lip, but is so deeply seated that

it cannot be seen when the cell is viewed in front. The ovicells

are round and nearly immersed, being only slightly convex.

86 ~ ‘Rev. A. M. Norman on undescribed

Their surface is granular, and they are punctured round the

margin in the same manner as the cells. Found on stones,

from 80 to 100 fathoms, Shetland, 1861 and 1863.

This species approaches certain forms of L. variolosa very

closely ; and indeed it is difficult to point out the distinctions of

the two species in words. I have seen, however, a large number

of L. laqueata, and they all differ from L. variolosa,—lst, in

having the cells much larger, more rhomboidal, and less elon-

gated, wider in proportion to their length, and less regularly

arranged in quincunx ; 2ndly, in being invariably tinged with

red in living and being ivory-white in dead specimens, and

having their surface dull, instead of shining with the bright gloss

which is so marked a feature in L. variolosa; 3rdly, in having

the denticle much more deeply seated within the mouth, and in

haying the ovicells less immersed.

Lepralia divisa, n. sp. Pl. X. fig. 6.

L, cellulis convexiusculis, glabris, approximatis, in lineis dispositis ;

orificii margine superiore spinis sex longissimis armato, inferiore

denticulato ; ovicellula globosa, glabra, fissura angusta longitudi-

nali parallela inferne occlusa discissa. ;

This is an exquisitely beautiful Lepralia, remarkable for its

snow-white colour, the linear arrangement of its closely crowded

cells, and the very great length of the six spines which surround

the upper margin of the mouth. The cells themselves are small

and smooth, but have little character, being quite subordinate to

the mouth and ovicell, which are the parts of the polyzoary

which at once strike the eye ; indeed the cell is generally almost

entirely hidden by the superincumbent ovicell of the cell placed

immediately beneath it in its own linear series. The mouth has

the lower lip furnished with two or three tooth-like points, and

sometimes produced outwards into a large spatulate process or

flattened umbo. The upper lip, when not surmounted by an

ovicell, is furnished, as before stated, with six very long and

slender spines. The ovicell is semielliptical, much elevated, but

somewhat flattened on the face, which is marked with longitu-

dinal lines, and cleft down the centre with a narrow, parallel-

sided slit, which is closed below.

Dredged in 1859, between Guernsey and Herm, on dead

shells. |

- Lepralia divisa is allied to L. fissa (Busk); but the latter spe-

cies may at once be known from it by the presence of a conspi-°

cuous central sinus on the lower lip, and the absence of the teeth

of L. divisa, and by the fissure in the ovicell being triangular,

rapidly widening towards and quite open at the base, and not

extending so far towards the summit of the ovicell as is the case

British Hydrozoa, Actinozoa, and Polyzoa. 87

in the narrow slit of Z. divisa. There are other differences, but

of minor importance, between the two species.

. Lepralia polita. P\. XI. fig. 1.

Z. cellulis ovatis, tumidis, suberectis, irregulariter dispositis, aliquan-

_ tum sejunctis ; superficie leevi, nitida; orificio semicirculari labio

inferiore recto, superiore quatuor vel quinque spinis evanescentibus

brevibus armato; peristomate plerumque ad latus utrumque in

processum parvum elevato; ovicellula globosa, tumidissima, re-

_ cumbente, polita.

The living polyzoary is pinkish. The cells are oval, very

tumid, irregularly disposed, and a little elevated anteriorly.

Their surface is nearly smooth, and highly polished. The semi-

circular mouth has the lower lip straight, and the upper armed

with four or five short spines, which however are very rarely

present. On each side of the mouth the peristome is raised into

an elevated shoulder-like process, against the base of which the

ovicell, when present, rests. The ovicell is globose, tumid, and

glossy, and leans backward off the mouth.

_ In small patches on shells and stones, dredged in 70-100

fathoms off Shetland.

Lepralia microstoma, n. sp. Pl. XI. fig. 2.

L. cellulis lageniformibus, superne liberis, elevatis, sejunctis, in stra-

to punctato dispositis; superficie subtiliter granulosa; orificio

contracto, peristomate producto, labio inferiore evexo, superiore

ad apicem centralem assurgente ; ovicellula globosa, tumidissima,

recumbente, subtiliter granulosa.

The polyzoary in Lepralia microstoma frequently shows a ten-

dency to assume an irregular outline ; and processes, three or four

cells wide, branch out here and there. In shape the cells are

flask-like, very tumid, and gradually contracted above into a

narrow neck. They are arranged without any order, and rise

from a punctured crust, which fills up any interstices between

the cells; their upper portion is much raised and quite free, so

that the cells have a semierect position. The surface of both

cells and ovicells is minutely granular. The mouth is very

small, situated as it were on the top of the produced cell, and

opening upwards. The peristome is much raised on the lower

margin, forming a pouting lip, and on the upper rising to a

central point. The ovicells are globose and very tumid, and

have a backward inclination.

~~ Encrusting small stones dredged in 80-100 fathoms in the

Shetland Sea, about 20 miles north of Unst.

- The general form of the cells and the manner of growth of

the polyzoary of this species remind us of L. simplex; but the

two species differ widely in all their details. ,

88 . Rey. A. M. Norman on undescribed

Lepralia cruenta, n. sp.

i — var. cruenta, Busk, Cat. Marine Polyzoa, p. 69, pl. 110.

g. 1.

L, cellulis vix definitis, subovalibus, salebrosis, granulatis, paucis at

magnis puncturis perforatis ; orificio subcirculari, simplici, margi-

nibus rotundate inflatis, a cellularum apice remoto; colore eruento

vel nigrescente.

This is certainly not an overgrown state of L. violacea. The

many specimens which I have seen, some of which were dredged

by myself and some by Mr. Barlee in deep water at Shetland, all

agree in those characters which are well represented in plate 110.

fig. 1 of ‘The Catalogue of British Marine Polyzoa.” If Mr.

Busk had been better acquainted with the form at the time he

published his work, I feel satisfied that he would not have re-

ferred it to L. violacea. The cells of L. cruenta are larger and

broader than those of L. violacea ; there is usually a slight depres-

sion in the median line of the former, but it seems to me to bear

no resemblance to the central pore of the latter. The species is

remarkable on account of the massive thickness of the cell-walls,

their very rugged surface, and the position of the mouth, which

is at some distance from the anterior extremity of the cell. The

cells are ill-defined, but nearly ovate; their surface is not only

undulated and (to employ a word which best expresses the ap-

pearance) puffy, but also roughly granular, and perforated here

and there with large cellules. The thick cell-walls close in the

nearly circular mouth with a broad, rounded fillet. The ovicells

of the species are unknown to me. Deep red is the usual colour

of L. cruenta, but one of my examples is blackish ; this, however,

may be the colour of the polyzoary if dead before it is dredged.

LL. cruenta is generally in small roundish patches on large

stones brought up from 70-100 fathoms, and is more rarely

found on shell.

Genus Memsranrpora (De Blainville).

Membranipora sacculata, n. sp. Pl. XI. fig. 8.

M. cellulis rhomboideis, membrana nitida, tenui, subtiliter granulosa

obductis ; orificio magno, cellularum dimidium fere occupante, ad

latera paulum contracto, itaque tres sinus inconspicuos for-

mante ; peristomate inermi, crenato et cum margine cellularum

elevato crenato continuo ; ovicellulis semiellipticis, tumidis, supra

leevibus, infra spatio triangulari subtiliter granuloso ; aviculariis

rarissimis, inter cellulas sitis, mandibulis triangularibus acutis -

superne directis. int

The cells of this species are regularly rhomboidal or lozenge-

shaped, margined with a much-elevated crenated rim, and co-

vered in on their lower half with a thin, glistening, minutely

British Hydrozoa, Actinozoa, and Polyzoa. 89

ular membrane. The oral aperture occupies nearly or quite

half the cells, and has a somewhat three-lobed outline, from the

fact that midway up each side there is a slight constriction of

the orifice. The peristome is totally devoid of spines, and is an

elevated crenated rim which is continuous with, and indeed re-

presents, the cell-margin. The avicularia are very sparingly de-

veloped. When present, they are situated between the cells, are

acutely triangular, and have the much-produced mandible di-

rected upwards. The ovicells are semielliptical, tumid, and

smooth, but having on the front a triangular space which is

minutely granular. The colour of the species seems to be in-

variably pale olivaceous green.

Membranipora sacculata is not uncommon in the deep waters

of the Shetland Sea, ranging from seventy to one hundred fa-

thoms or more, and encrusting both stones and shells.

It is allied both to M. cornigera and M. Rosselii. The mem-

brane which closes the cells is thinner than in either of those

species. In the form of its cells it approaches very closely to

the former, but never shows a vestige of spines, still less of the

curious branched processes,and has avicularia differing totally in

character from the numerous elliptical blunt-mandibled organs

of that species. It may be known from M. Rosselii by the form

of its cells, which are regularly rhomboidal and broader in pro-

portion to their length. In M. Rosselii the polyzoary has the

appearance of being formed of a number of loops, caused by the

peculiar elongated ovate form of the cells, which are wider above

than below, and by the fact that the raised marginal rim is more

strongly developed round the summit of the cells than at the

sides, whereas in M. sacculata the rim is of equal thickness

throughout. In typical specimens of the former, moreover, the

orifice occupies a much smaller proportion of the whole cell than

is the case in the latter species.

Fam. Tubuliporide.

Genus Diastorora (Lamouroux).

Diastopora Sarniensis, n. sp. Pl. XI. figs. 4-6.

D. strato niveo, punctato, opaco, nullis lineis radiatis diaphanis

notato; cellulis longiusculis, suberectis, punctatis; cellulis qui-

busdam capsula (forsitan ovicellula) umbone conspicuo mediano

_ perforato instructa, superne occlusis.

Diastopora Sarniensis consists of a milk-white, opake, punc-

tured crust spreading upon shells, with a round or lobulated

outline, and sometimes reaches three-quarters of an inch in

diameter. The polyzoary is not marked with the alternate

opake and transparent radiating lines of D. obelia, and its

90 _ Bibliographical Notice.

cells are more raised above the crust and tubular than those of

the latter species. Here and there among the open-mouthed

cell-tubes, there occurs a tube which, instead of being open, is

closed above with a little cap, from one side of the centre of

which rises an umbonal-like process which is perforated at the

apex (Pl. XI. fig.6). Probably these organs are connected with

the reproduction of Diastopora, and are homologous with ovi-

cells.

Dredged off Guernsey and Jersey, in 1859.

Sedgefield, Dec. 21, 1863.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE IX,

Fig. 1. Eudendrium annulatum (Norman). The hydrozoon of the natural

size.

Fig. 2. The extremity of a branch of the same species, magnified to show

the structure of the branches, the polypites, and the gono-

blastidia.

Fig. 3. A portion of one of the larger stems of the same species, showing

the curious network of tubes with which they are strengthened.

Fig. 4. Tubiclava Cornucopia (Norman). The hydrozoon on a shell of

Astarte sulcata: of the natural size.

Fig. 5. A portion of the same, magnified, and showing the structure of the

several parts of the species.

PLATE X.

Fig. 1. Rhizowxenia albicolor (Norman), enlarged.

Fig. 2. Lepralia venusta (Norman),

Fig. 3. A single cell of the same, viewed laterally.

Fig. 4. Lepralia complanata (Norman).

Fig. 5. Lepralia laqueata (Norman).

Fig. 6. Lepralia divisa (Norman).

PuaTeE XI,

Fig. 1. Lepralia polita (Norman),

Fig. 2. Lepralia microstoma (Norman).

Fig. 3. Membranipora sacculata (Norman).

Fig. 4. Diastopora Sarniensis (Norman): natural size.

Fig. 5. A portion of the same species, magnified.

Fig. 6. A few cells and ovicells more highly magnified.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

Flora of Surrey ; or, a Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns

found in the County, with the Localities of the rarer Species.

From the Manuscripts of the late J. D. Salmon, F.L.S., and from

other Sources. By J. A. Brewer. 12mo. London: John Van

Voorst, 1863.

THE preparation and publication of local Floras in England has

recently undergone a change. Formerly it was thought sufficient to

form a complete list of the plants observed in a county or other

Bibliographical Notice. 91

limited district, and to mention the exact localities in which the rarer

lants were found : anything beyond this was considered unnecessary.

No attempt was then made to determine the frequency of the plants

throughout the district, especially that of the more common species,

nor was their history usually noticed ; but, in the place of these latter

facts, we were often furnished with their generic and specific charac-

ters. It is now considered advisable to omit the descriptive part,

for so many good general Floras of Britain exist that it has become

unnecessary. The omission of the descriptions has allowed the space

thus gained to be devoted to a more accurate account of the geo-

graphical distribution of the plants, to notices of their first observa-

tion in the district, and to other interesting subjects. This new kind

of local flora was introduced by the publication of Messrs. Webb and

Coleman’s ‘Flora of Hertfordshire ;’ and the same plan has been

followed in the Floras of Cambridge, Essex, and that of Surrey now

before us. The first peculiarity of these books is that the counties

to which they relate are divided into districts, and a complete list of

the plants, with their localities, is recorded for each of those divisions,

by which more complete elaboration of the Flora we obtain inform-

ation of much value to the botanical geographer. We learn not only

that a common plant is found in the county, and perhaps abundant

in one part of it, but also that it is, or is not, frequent in each of the

districts adopted by the author. For instance, in Surrey, the Wych

Elm (Ulmus montana) is frequent in two of the nine districts included

in the county, it is local in one of them, apparently only planted in

another, and absent from the remaining five; also the Common

Elm (U. suberosa) is “common throughout the county.” When

similar Floras of Kent, Suffolk, and Norfolk have been published,

our information concerning the distribution of plants in a part of

England which is very interesting to botanists (because its proximity

to the Continent caused it to be the first British ground reached by

what are called Germanic plants, in their migration) will be very

complete, and of much use to us in forming an idea of the approxi-

mate time of arrival and rate of diffusion of them.

This book contains more than a thousand species; and when we

remember that the county is not at all mountainous nor maritime,

this must be considered as a very large number, and a clear proof that

the authors have spared no pains in their researches. Indeed the

result is in all respects highly creditable to the late Mr. Salmon and

also to Mr. Brewer, who is very far from being only the compiler, as

he modestly designates himself on the title-page. He has succeeded

in obtaining the help of many active observers, and is especially for-

tunate in receiving that of Mr. H. C. Watson, whose name appears

upon nearly every page, and whose localities are recorded in a very

complete and instructive manner. Of course it was to be expected

that Mr. Watson would add largely to the value of any local flora to

which he might condescend to contribute ; for who is not acquainted

with mio or and accuracy in all matters relating to local botanical

geography ?

he larger portion of the volume is occupied by the list of species,

92 Bibliographical Notice.

with their localities and such occasional remarks as seemed requisite;

and we do not find much that requires our notice, for, of course,

extracts are impossible. The author retains (as we think, unad-

visedly) the name of Spergularia, which was given by Persoon to a

section of the genus Arenaria, as the generic name of a genus called

Lepigonum (1818) by Fries previously to the use of Spergularia as

a generic name by St. Hilaire (1829) or Pres] (1819). This is con-

trary to the laws of botanical nomenclature, according to which a

term used as the name of a section has no claim of precedence over

another term given to the same section when first recognized as a

genus. Impatiens fulva seems to be extending itself along the rivers -

in northern Surrey, and has certainly established its claim to full

naturalization in England. Sali# viridis is a new name, if not a new

species, introduced on the authority of the great Swedish salicetist,

Dr. N. J. Anderson. We are unacquainted with it, unless, as sug-

gested by Mr. Watson, it is our S. Russelliana. Pinus sylvestris is

establishing itself on the heaths of the county. Is it not probable

that this is only a return of one of the aborigines to its ancient

habitation? There was a time when the Scotch Fir was widely ex-

tended, as a native tree, both in England and Ireland. The restora-

tion of the name of Hyacinthus non-scriptus to the Scilla nutans of

Smith (the Endymion nutans of some modern botanists) rather sur-

prises us. Surely it is not really a Hyacinthus. Leesia oryzoides is

stated to occur abundantly by the river Mole. We are not certain

that we know what is intended by Festuca duriuscula. Smith

seems to have given that name to a state of F'. rubra (Linn.), whereas

apparently it really belongs to a plant very closely allied to, if not a

variety of, F’. ovina.

The latter part of the book is occupied by Appendices.

Appendix A. “ Plants probably introduced and not thoroughly

naturalized ;”’ fourteen in number.

B. “Plants found on the Thames side, near Wandsworth and

Battersea, undoubtedly introduced to the locality.” This is a long

aud interesting list. ‘They were mostly observed by Mr. A. Irvine.

It seems unlikely that many of them will be able permanently to

establish themselves.

C. ‘‘ Geological Distribution of Plants in Surrey.” All the spe-

cies belonging to the Flora are recited, and their geological position

marked in a tabular form.

D. Here the number of species in Surrey is contrasted numeri-

cally with that of the whole kingdom, by natural orders. It appears

that the plants of this county constitute three-fifths of our whole

flora—Dicotyledons three-elevenths, Monocotyledons two-thirds, and

Ferns and allies one-half of the total number belonging to those

classes respectively.

An alphabetical Index of the orders and genera, and another of

the English names, conclude the volume.

We heartily congratulate Mr. Brewer upon the production of so

creditable a Flora of his county, and are sure that it will be properly

appreciated by botanists out of, and especially in, Surrey.

Zoological Society. 93

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

March 24, 1863.—W. H. Flower, Esq., F.Z.S., in the Chair.

Nores on Two New Srecies or Mammats. By J. K. Lorp,

F.Z.S., Narurauist TO THE British NortrH-AMERICAN

BounpAary CoMMISSION.

My principal reason for bringing to your notice this evening two

animals, a Musk Rat and a Lagomys, that I propose making new

species, is to elicit from the zoologists who are before me opinions

on that most debatable of all debatable questions, Where does well-

marked variety end, and species begin? Is it enough if you have

decided differences of habit, size, colour, and locality—variations

that are always constant, but without well-defined structural differ-

ences, or these, if any, but trivial in character ; or must there of ne-

cessity be decidedly marked variations in structure, particularly in

the skull and dental formulee, as well as in habit, colour, size, and

habitat, to constitute a species? I now have on the table four ani-

mals, two of which are described and figured, and two I believe

specifically distinct from the former ; and although the latter, as I

shall be able to point out to you, present differences of habit most

singularly well marked, and strongly defined differences of size and

colour, habitat, and range, yet an examination of their skulls shows

only some slight differences, principally in size.

First, then, of the Musk Rat. The one which I believe is the well-

known Fiber zibethicus (Cuv.) makes its holes in the clayey banks

of streams and pools where the water runs slowly. The entrance is

always below the surface of the water ; the hole is dug up in a

slanting direction till above the water-level. A stage or flat place is

then cleared, which constitutes his dining-, drawing-, and bed-rooms ;

leading to the entrance of his mansion are a large number of open

cuttings, running in all directions, cut or dug in the mud at the bot-

tom of the water. When foraging about, as he usually does about

twilight, if alarmed, he dives at once into one of these cuttings, and,

rushing rapidly through it, stirs up the mud, and so fouling the

water, completely and effectually conceals himself.

The other Musk Rat, which I propose to make a new species, and

to call Fiber osoyoosensis, having obtained it at a large lake (Lake

Osoyoos) situated between the Cascades and Rocky Mountains, and

through which the boundary-line (the 49th parallel of latitude) runs,

differs in size, in colour, in locality, but particularly in habits, from

the preceding.

This fellow chooses as his haunt a clear pond or lake, and in water

from 3 to 4 feet deep constructs a house of bullrushes, in form

conical, built up from the bottom—how, I am at a loss to imagine,—

the roof cleverly arched over into a domed shape, and raised about

a foot above the water. Up in this dome, skilfully constructed, is

his suite of apartments, the entrance to which is far below the sur-

94 Zoological Society :-—

face of the water. His habits very nearly approximate those of the

Beaver: he swims about boldly in the day-time, but dives rapidly

on the approach of danger. If a dead or badly wounded duck be

left on the pool, it is at once seized on, towed into the house, and

devoured.

I am quite satisfied, from careful observation, that the Musk Rat

is a carnivorous beast whenever he has a chance; and the straight,

sharp-cutting, strong incisor teeth are well adapted for the indul-

gence of such propensities.

If there were no rushes growing where the mud-rover lived, it

might be assumed that he dug a hole into the bank from lack of

material to build a house; but I have often seen the rushes growing

abundantly where he has chosen his mud hut, offering every facility

for architectural pursuits, had he so willed. On the other hand, had

the rush-builder been precluded from finding a mud-bank in which

to construct his mansion, it might have been supposed that he had

resorted to making a hut with rushes on that account.

This Lagomys, which I propose making a new species, and calling,

from its being so much less than any other, Lagomys minimus, lives

on the summit of the Cascade Mountains, at an altitude above the

sea-level of about 7000 feet. He chooses as his residence loose piles

of rocks and stones. He is shy and wary, and on the slightest noise

takes a header into a crevice. When everything is again still and

quiet, he cautiously peeps out, and, growing bold in the silence, climbs

up on the top of astone, and, sitting on his hind legs like a begging

dog, gives a sharp shrill cry ; and so curiously deceptive is it that I

constantly imagined the sound was far distant when it has been close

to my feet. It was in October, when I was on Ptarmigan Hill, a

high mountain in the Cascade range ; the snow was just beginning to

fall ; and all these little fellows were then busily employed in making

large nests, in the crevices between the stones, of dry grass and leaves,

evidently for their winter sleep, and perhaps store-house. I should

have made much more extensive observations, had not the prospect

of coming snow driven me down.

This Lagomys, which is much larger, and which I believe to be

the same as the one described and figured by Sir J. Richardson (pl. 19)

as Lepus (Lagomys) princeps, I first saw at Chilukweyuk Lake, a

large lake on the west side of the Cascades, close to the boundary-line,

and next on the trail leading from Fort Hope on the Fraser River

to Fort Colville on the Columbia, both fur-stations of the Hudson’s

Bay Company. The animals were in a narrow gorge, among large

heaps of loose stones that had rolled down from the high precipitous

sides of the gorge. I saw them busily feeding on grass, much after

the fashion of a rabbit, eating a few mouthfuls, then stopping and

sitting up and quietly taking a survey of things in general. At this

period, later in the year, about the same date at which in the year

preceding I had seen Lagomys minimus making its nest, not a trace

of a nest could I see, nor any evidence of an attempt to make one.

It was at the same period of the year, and about the same altitude,

that I saw this Lagomys at Chilukweyuk Lake; but no nest, nor a

Mr. J. K. Lord on two new Mammals. 95

shadow of an attempt to construct one, was there to be seen. Early

in October I returned again by the trail I had used in going from

Fort Colville to Fort Hope; the snow had fallen to about the depth

of 6 inches, completely covering up the rocks and stones. All the

little fellows had disappeared, and, although I searched most care-

fully, there was not a hole nor track in the snow to show they had

ever left their quarters. It was quite impossible a nest could have

been made in the interim ; hence I feel perfectly sure they hybernate

in deep holes without a nest, whereas Lagomys minimus, living at a

much greater altitude, makes a large nest of hay to pass his winter

sleep in.

The two new animals may be described as follows :—

FrsEer osoyoosensis, Lord, sp. nov.

Sp. char.—In total length 3} inches shorter than Fiber zibethi-

cus (Cuv.) ; in general size much smaller. General hue of back jet-

black ; but, the hair being of two kinds, if viewed from tail to head it

looks grey—the under fur being fine, silky, and light grey in colour ;

concealing this on the upper surface are long coarse black hairs ; the

belly and sides somewhat lighter ; head broad and depressed ; neck

indistinct ; ear small, upper margin rounded ; eye-small and black ;

the feet, legs, and claws are so exactly like those of Fiber zibethicus

that it would be useless to describe them again ; whiskers long, and

composed of about an equal number of white and black hairs ; inci-

sors nearly straight, on the external surface orange-yellow.

The skull differs from Fiber zibethicus in being much smaller,

24 inches in length, 14 inch in width, very much shorter from the

anterior molar to incisors ; nasal bones much more rounded at their

posterior ends, the superior outline less curved ;_postorbital process

not nearly so much developed; the cranial portion of the skull in

its upper outline is much less concave, and smoother ; superior out-

line of occipital bone not so prominent or strong; incisors shorter

- and much straighter; molars much smaller, but in general outline

similar.

Lacomys minimus, Lord, sp. nov.

Sp. char.—Differs from Lepus (Lagomys) princeps of Sir J.

Richardson (F. B. A., i. p. 227, pl. 19) in being much smaller. Pre-

dominant colour of back dark grey, tinged faintly with umber-yellow,

more vivid about the shoulders, but gradually shading off on the

sides and belly to dirty white ; feet white, washed over with yellowish

brown ; ears large, black inside, the outer rounded margin edged

with white ; eye very small and intensely black ; whiskers long, and

composed of about an equal number of white and black hairs.

Measurement: Head and body 6} inches; head 2 inches; nose

to auditory opening 1} inch; height of ear from behind 1 inch.

The skull differs in being generally smaller ; the cranial portion

of the skull in its superior outline is much narrower and smoother,

The nasal bones are shorter and broader, and rounded at their poste-

rior articulation, instead of being deeply notched as in L. princeps.

96 Zoological Society :—

Distance from anterior molar to incisors much less ; auditory bullee

much smaller. Incisors shorter and straighter, and very deeply

grooved on the anterior surface. Molars smaller, but otherwise

similar in form. Length of skull 1} inch.

General differences from Lagomys princeps—First, in being smaller,

1} inch shorter in total length; the ear, measured from behind, Linch

shorter : the colour generally darker, especially the lower third of

the back.

Secondly, in the structural differences of the skull; for although

these differences are not prominent or well defined, yet they are un-

questionable variations.

Thirdly, in the habit of constructing a nest of hay for the winter

sleep, and in living at a much greater altitude.

April 21, 1863.—E, W. H. Holdsworth, Esq., F.Z.S., in the Chair.

DESCRIPTIONS OF SEVERAL New Species or WorMS BELONG-

ING TO THE ANNELIDA ERRANTIA AND SEDENTARIA OR TU-

BICOLA OF MiLNE-Epwarps. By W. Barrp, M.D., F.L.S.

The following very interesting species of Annelides were collected

by Mr. Lord, during the time he was engaged as naturalist on the

N.W. American Boundary Commission. They appear to me to be

undescribed. They will be figured in the forthcoming report of the

labours of the commission.

1, LeprIponotus INsiGNis, Baird.

This is a very fine species of the genus Lepidonotus. It is rather

more than 3 inches long, and is nearly £ an inch in breadth, exclu-

sive of the setee of the feet. On the upper surface, the body is of a

whitish colour, marbled with black. The sides, which are covered by

the elytra, are white, and a broad black line runs down the centre of

the dorsum throughout its whole length. The feet are encircled

with fine black circular lines. The elytra, eighteen pairs in number,

are oval, white, with black dots on the outer sides and centre, and -

they are marked with a black semicircular patch on the inner edge.

They do not overlap each other, except near the head. On the body

of the animal they are wide apart, leaving the centre of the back ex-

posed. The under surface is of a bluish-black colour, with a narrow

white line running down the centre. The proboscis is large and

wrinkled, and the jaws are of a reddish-brown colour. The antennee

are five in number, the central one being nearly three times as long

as the external pair, and of a pure white colour ; the internal and

external pairs white, ringed with black. The feet are very prominent,

strong, rounded, conical, and armed with seven or eight stout brown

bristles. The second branch is extremely small, and sends off two

or three very small white sete. The superior cirrus is tolerably

long and sharp-pointed ; it is pedunculated, the peduncle being stout,

conical, and of a deep black colour. The inferior cirrus is short,

conical, and sharp-pointed. ‘The last segment of the body is termi-

nated by two tolerably stout, but not long, cirri.

Hab, Esquimalt Harbour, Vancouver Island (Mus. Brit.).

Dr. W. Baird on new Species of Worms. 97

2. Lerrponotvus Lorot, Baird.

This species is about 3 inches long, and rather more than one-third

of an inch in diameter at the broadest part of the body. It tapers

gradually from the head to the tail, which is only about ;?;ths of an

inch broad. The colour is of a light brown, a broad line of a much

darker brown running along the whole length of the centre of the

back. On the under surface, a groove runs down the centre of the

body throughout its whole length. The elytra are thirty-five pairs

in number, thin, membranous, and of a light-brown colour. The first

two overlap each other slightly in the middle; but, for the rest of

its length, the centre of the back is uncovered. The antenne are

five in number, the central one short, of much the same length as

the internal ones; the two external the longest, white, with a bright

black ring round the upper part, but leaving the point white, which

is acute at the apex. The feet are tolerably stout, and the two divi-

sions are both furnished with sharp, but curved, pointed bristles.

The superior cirri are white and of a moderate length ; the inferior

ones very short.

A good many specimens of this species were taken, and they were

all found nestling under the shell, and occasionally coiling themselves

under the foot, of the animal of Fissurella cratitia.

Hab. Esquimalt Harbour, Vancouver Island (Mus. Brit.).

3. Leprponotus Gruset, Baird.

This species is about 2 inches long, and } an inch broad. The

body underneath is of a uniform brown colour; above it is whitish,

mottled with black. The elytra are eighteen pairs in number, nearly

round, rough, with small tubercles, edged by a slightly raised margin,

and mottled with black and white. They do not meet each other in

the centre, but leave a portion of the back uncovered. The superior

cirri are rather long, blunt-pointed, pedunculated, marked with a

black spot at the base, where they issue from the peduncle, and are

ringed with black a little distance from the extremity. The inferior

cirri are short and acute-pointed. The feet are broad, and the

bristles of both branches are stout, of a bright brown colour, and

toothed on one edge near the extremity. The antenne are five in

number, and are all short and nearly of equal length.

Hab. Esquimalt Harbour, Vancouver Island (Mus. Brit.).

4, Lerrponorus FRAGILIS, Baird.

This species, owing to its brittle character, is in too bad a state to

describe accurately. It is about 23 or 3 inches long, and is rather

narrow. The scales or elytra appear to be very thin and membra-

nous; but as they are deciduous, it is difficult to ascertain the num-

ber, especially as the worm is broken into several pieces. The supe-

rior cirri are stout and club-shaped at the tip. There appear to be

no ventral cirri on the feet, and the superior cirri become nearly

obsolete on the lower half of the body.

It was found by Mr. Lord adhering to a starfish ; “but,” he says,

**it is next to impossible to obtain one perfect, as they break them-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xiii.

98 Zoological Society :—

selves to pieces on the slightest touch, or however carefully killed.”

In this respect it resembles a species of Annelide belonging to the

group of vermiform Aphrodisians, described by Risso as occurring

in the Mediterranean, under the name of Eumolpe fragilis.

Hab. Esquimalt Harbour, Vancouver Island (Mus. Brit.).

5. NEeRxIS FouiaTA, Baird.

This Nereid is of a dark grey colour above, and of a lighter hue

underneath, somewhat iridescent. It is 15 inches in length, and

at the broadest part is about } an inch in breadth. It tapers gradu-

ally towards the tail, which terminates in two short, blunt, caudal

styles. ‘The first or occipital segment of the body is about twice the

length of the second. The tentacular cirri are unequal, and vary

in length: in the largest and best-developed specimen the longest

are only about as long as the first two segments ; while in another

specimen, nearly of the same size, they are nearly equal in length to

the first four segments, and in one or two small specimens, not a

third the length of the two just mentioned, these cirri are equal in

length to at least eleven of the first segments of the body. The

shorter ones are only about half the length of the first segment of

the body. The feet are well developed, the superior branchial ap-

pendages are large and in the form of a leaf, giving the animal at

first sight the appearance of a species of Phyllodon. The antennz

are shorter than the palpi, which are strong and conical in shape.

Hab. Esquimalt Harbour, Vancouver Island (Mus. Brit.).

This species approaches very nearly to Nereis virens of Sars, from

Newfoundland (vide Middendorf, Sibirische Reise, Annulos. 6,

tab. i. figs. 2-6).

6. NEREIS BICANALICULATA, Baird.

This is rather a small species, about 2 inches long, and 2+ lines in

breadth. It is of a dull white colour, and is remarkable for having

a channel running down both the dorsal and ventral sides. The

channel on the dorsal surface is rather deep, commencing from the

eleventh ring, and continues to the tail; the channel itself is quite

smooth, the divisions or rings of the body not showing on its surface.

On the ventral surface the channel shows marks of the divisions or

rings into which the body is divided. The head is small, the an-

tennee about equal in length to the palpi, and the tentacular cirri

are equal to about five or six rings of the body. The upper portion

of the body is rounded, and not channeled ; and the tail terminates in

a round, blunt knob, without caudal filaments. The feet are rather

small, but are rendered unusually distinct from the peculiar manner

in which the rings or divisions of the body are interrupted by the

channel running along the centre of the body. It tapers very gra-

dually, and almost imperceptibly for some time, from the head to the

tail.

Hab. Esquimalt Harbour, Vancouver Island (Mus. Brit.).

7. GLYCERA CORRUGATA, Baird.

This Annelide is about 4 inches in length, exclusive of the pro-

Mr. A. Newton on the Dispersion of Seeds by Birds. 99

boscis, which, when exserted, is ?ths of an inch long, and is about

3 lines in breadth ; the proboscis is 4 lines at its greatest diameter.

The head is rather short and conical, and strongly ringed. The an-

tennze are somewhat broad. The feet are broad, composed of two

lobes, and are destitute of branchial filaments. The bristles are

jointed, and the setee straight and sharp. The segments of the body

are very numerous, composed of a double ring, the one on which the

feet are set being the narrower of the two and raised ; while the

whole surface of the body, especially on the upper side, is pat

though not very strongly, corrugated throughout its whole length.

The proboscis is densely scabrous, and covered with very short dark-

coloured bristles. The body tapers to a narrow point posteriorly,

and terminates in a loosely connected short lobe, armed at the extre-

mity with a slightly curved, horny, sharp-pointed claw.

Hab. Esquimalt Harbour, Vancouver Island (Mus. Brit.).

8. SABELLARIA SAxIcAvA, Baird.

This Worm lives in the rock. The tube in which it lodges is

solitary, and is evidently hollowed out of the solid (though not very

hard) rock by itself, and appears to be quite round.

The thoracic portion of the body is round; the abdominal flat-

tened, with an impressed line running down through its whole length.

The head is surmounted by an opercular disk composed of two rows

of stout, dissimilar bristles (palee). The inner row consists of about

ten stout, cylindrical, sharp-pointed bristles of a dark horn-colour,

gradually increasing in size from the dorsal margin towards the ven-

tral. The outer row consists of about eighteen bristles, not so stout,

flattened, and finely denticulated on both sides for about half the

length. The postoccipital segment of the body is long, of a dark

colour, somewhat wrinkled, and marked with three or four fleshy

tubercles, on each side. ‘The thoracic feet are three pairs, and are

broad, but short. As only one specimen was found, it was thought

unadvisable to dissect the whole worm out ; in consequence of which

the extremity has not been seen. I am unable to say whether it

terminates in a caudal appendage or not.

The length of the exposed portion of the worm is 11 inch, the

breadth about 2 lines. Probably the part enclosed in the tube may

be of about equal length.

Hab. Esquimalt Harbour, Vancouver Island (Mus. Brit.).

On AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE MANNER IN WHICH BIRDS MAY

OCCASIONALLY AID IN THE DispeRSION OF SEEDs. By

Atrrep Newton, M.A., F.Z.S. :

Last summer, my friend Mr. Henry Stevenson, the Secretary of the

Norfolk and Norwich Museum, showed me the singular specimen

which, by his liberality, I now exhibit. It will be seen that it is

the leg and mutilated foot of a French Partridge (Caccabis rufa,

G. R. Gray), a great part of which is imbedded in a mass of clay.

At my request he has since furnished me with the following parti-

culars respecting it :—

100 Zoological Society :—

“On the 8th of December 1860, Mr. Sayer, a bird-stuffer at

Norwich, showed me the Partridge’s leg and ball of earth which I

recently placed in your hands, and, in answer to my inquiries, gave

me the following particulars:—‘A gentleman, whose name he did

not know, but whose face was quite familiar to him as an occasional

visitor to his shop, brought the leg to him a day or two before,

stating that the bird to which it belonged had been seen, on a heavy-

land farm in Suffolk, hobbling along in a very unusual manner, and

was with little difficulty ran down and secured. It was then found

that the lower half of one leg was imbedded in a mass of earth, which

raised it considerably from the ground, and necessarily kept the

limb in a bent position. The bird was half starved.’

‘The lump, measuring 7} inches in circumference, and weighing

62 oz., had become as hard as stone, and certainly in that state ac-

counted for the bird not having been able to free itself from the en-

cumbrance. Two toes only are visible, of which one has the nail

torn off level with the edge of the mass itself. From the upper part

protrudes a short bit of straw, and this being entangled round the

foot probably by degrees collected the soil, which may also have

been hardened by the frost at night. The unfortunate bird may, too,

have been wounded in the leg, and thus unable to endure the pain

of removing the earth when it first began to accumulate. Ihave no

reason to doubt Mr. Sayer’s statement, and believe he told me what

Dr. J. E. Gray on new Genera of Lizards. 101

he heard from the gentleman. The leg, when I saw it, looked fresh

where it had been cut off.

(Signed) “ Henry STEVENSON.”

It will be remembered that Mr. Darwin, in his work on the

‘ Origin of Species,’ speaks of the possibility of the seeds of plants

being occasionally transported to great distances by being enclosed

in earth adhering to the beaks and feet of birds; and he mentions

the fact of his having “‘removed twenty-two grains of dry argillaceous

earth from one foot of a Partridge,” in which earth ‘there was a

pebble quite as large as the seed of a vetch”’ (pp. 362, 363). Now

the mass of clay I exhibit is enormously greater than the quantity of

earth mentioned by Mr. Darwin, and is sufficient to hold the germs

of a very extensive flora.

Apart from the statement of Mr. Stevenson, that the lump, when

he first saw it, was “as hard as stone,” and the contrast thereby

afforded by the “ fresh look ’’ of the leg, a close examination of the

specimen convinces me that the clay, as that gentleman suggests, ac-

cumulated gradually. The two toes which are visible have become

distorted, and have accommodated themselves as well as they were

able to the shape of the mass. I imagine also that the loss of the

claw, noticed by Mr. Stevenson, has been experienced since the mass

attained nearly its present size and shape; and it will be seen that

the stump has perfectly healed over. Now all this must have taken

some time; I do not venture to say whether days, weeks, or months.

It is clear that, as the bulk and weight of the encumbrance increased,

it would more and more interfere with the bearer’s means of obtain-

ing a livelihood; and hence, weakened by starvation, the bird was

finally unable to rise, and met its death in the manner stated.

If, as I believe, the clay accumulated by degrees, it is obvious that

there was once a time when the incipient mass was no heavier a bur-

then than the bird was able to bear in flight. What the actual limit

was, is a question we have no means of determining; at least I am

not aware of any experiments having been made tending to show

what weight a Partridge is capable of supporting on the wing. But

I trust I have said enough to justify me in bringing this before the

Society as a singular illustration of the manner in which birds may

occasionally aid in the dispersion of seeds.

Descriptions or Two New Genera or Lizarps (Hotaspis

AND PoritopoGaster, A. Smitru, MS.). By Dr. J. E.

Gray, F.R.S., etc.

Sir Andrew Smith, M.D., having most kindly sent’to the collection

of the British Museum two most interesting Lizards, which he has

very properly named as the types of two new genera, I hasten to

send to the Society a short description of each of them under the

MS. names which Sir Andrew Smith has attached to them in his

museum.

The first genus is allied to the family Lacertinide, and is at once

known from all the genera of that group by the peculiarity of having

102 Zoological Society :—

two series of broad band-like scales down the vertebral line of the

back, which are continued on the upper surface of the base (and pro-

bably of the whole length) of the tail; but the single specimen which

I have seen has evidently had the end of the tail reproduced and

covered with abnormal scales. The tail is depressed, and has a

eg of prominent keeled scales, forming a dentated keel on each

side.

This genus I consider forms a distinct family, which may be called

Hotaspip&, distinguished from Lacertinide by the form of the tail

and the peculiarities of the scales.

1. Hoxasris, A. Smith, MS.

Head pyramidal, depressed; crown covered with regular, many-

sided shields; side of face shielded; nostrils nearly on the ridges

near the front of a single scale with a shield in front of it; labial

shields low ; temple covered with small scales; eyes lateral ; lower eye-

lids scaly ; eyebrow. covered with three large shields; ears large,

oblong, erect, open; tympanum rather sunk ; tongue slender, re-

tractile (?); the apex deeply notched, acute. Body depressed, with

a slight keel on each'side of the belly. The back and upper part of

the neck covered with whorls of narrow elongated keeled scales, with

two series of smooth, oblong, transverse shields, one on each side of

the vertebral bones. The belly covered with cross series of square

smooth shields, placed in few longitudinal series. The throat and

neck covered with small rather convex scales, and with a distinct

collar formed of a regular series of large half-ovate scales. The legs

rather depressed, covered with granular convex scales; the front

legs with a series of broad smooth shields on the upper front side ;

the thighs with two (an upper and lower) series, and the hind legs

with an inferior series, of smooth broad shields, like those on the

front of the fore legs; the hind feet slightly fringed on the inner

side ; toes 5: 5, elongate, slender, unequal; claws acute. The femoral

pores small. Vent with a single half-oblong shield in front. Tail

depressed, with a fringe of compressed close scales on each side, the

sides covered with rings of small convex scales, and with two series

of small broad band-like shields on the upper and lower surface.

Mr. Cope has pointed out to me that this genus agrees in many

particulars with the genus Placosoma of Fitzmger, MS., described

by Von Tschudi in an article on the family of Hepleopoda (Arch. fiir

Naturg. 1847, pp. 50 & 58).

The scaling seems very similar; but the body of Placosoma is not

said to be so depressed and fringed on the sides ; and the small part

of the tail that remains on the specimen described is not said to be

depressed and fringed on the sides; and I can hardly believe that

Von Tschudi would have overlooked such a peculiar form, and there-

fore I believe they are different.

Von Tschudi describes the scales on the upper surface of the

small part of the tail that remains, which is only 3 lines long, as small,

like those on the sides ; but in Dr. Smith’s genus the upper surface

of the tail is covered with two rows of large shields, like the back.

Dr. J. E. Gray on new Genera of Lizards. 103

Placosoma cordylinum is described from a specimen in the Mu-

seum at Bonn, on the Rhine, collected by Dr. John Natterer in

North Brazil ; and it is probable that the Holaspis Guentheri may

also be a Tropical-American form.

Hotasris Guentuert, A. Smith, MS.

Bluish brown (in spirits), with three bluish-white equidistant re-

gular lines down each side of the head, neck, and body, and a stripe

down the front of the fore leg.

Hab.

The specimen was purchased in Paris without any habitat affixed

to it.

The tail has been reproduced, and the reproduced part is of the

normal form, fringed and toothed on the sides, but of a different (that

is to say, uniform dull leaden) colour.

The second genus has many characters in common with Xantusia

of Baird, and will most probably belong to the family Xantusiide,

as proposed in the ‘ Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences,’ Phila-

delphia, for 1858, p. 255. .

2. PortopoGaster, A. Smith, MS.

Head pyramidal; sides erect; crown flat, hard, bony, covered

with very thin polygonal normal shields ; superciliary ridge bony,

solid; temple covered with a shield; lower jaw thick, bony, solid,

covered with a single series of large broad, thin, membranous shields,

which are united in a straight line on the middle of the chin ; eyes

circular, large, lateral, without any eyelids; pupil large, circular ;

tongue not retractile, broad, flat, attached nearly to the tip, the tip

only obscurely nicked; teeth simple; ears oblong, large, with a

groove to the angle of the mouth ; tympanum sunken; nostrils late-

ral, anterior in the suture between two nasal shields, the front situ-

ated between the upper edge of the rostral and the front odd plate.

The sides of the neck and throat covered with round, convex

scales of moderate and nearly uniform size. The throat with two

folds on each side, and with a cross fold in front of the chest ; these

folds are covered with scales of the same size and kind as the rest of

the throat. The back of the neck, back, and sides of the body

coyered with uniform, convex, roundish scales, with numerous scat-

tered, larger, prominent, conical, tubercular scales placed in longi-

tudinal rows along the centre of the back, and larger and more abun-

dant ones on the sides. The belly covered with cross series of square

flat smooth shields, most of which have a dark large pore-like crypt in

the middle of their hinder edge ; the shields of the chest are smaller,

more numerous, and placed in converging lines. The legs strong,

covered with round convex scales; the hinder ones armed with

larger prominent tubercles on the upper surface. Toes 5:5, unequal,

slender ; claws sharp, curved, the under. surface covered with flat

shields ; femoral pores large, distinct. The front of the vent covered

with three pairs of equal flat shields, each having a very large crypt

in the middle of its hinder edge, the hinder pair next the vent being

the largest. The tail cylindrical, tapering, covered above with rings

104 Zoological Society —

of square keeled scales, every fourth ring being larger, prominent ;

the under side with rings of small square shields.

PoriopoGasTerR Grayit, A. Smith, MS.

Brown, yellowish beneath.

Hab. ? British Museum.

Mr. Cope, to whom I have shown the specimen of this species, has

drawn my attention to the genus Xantusia of Professor Baird, no-

ticed in the ‘ Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences’ for

1858, p. 255, which agrees with it in many particulars, but is cer-

tainly distinct, though probably belonging to the same family, Xan-

tusiide, which may be characterized by the form of the tongue, the

front fold on the throat uniting the ears, and the absence of the eyelids.

Professor Baird describes the pupil of Xantusia as vertical ; in our

genus it is circular.

This similarity to Xantusia makes it probable that this genus

is from Lower California.

M. Auguste Duméril, in the ‘ Revue et Magasin de Zoologie’ for

1852, describes and figures a new genus of Saurian under the name

of Lepidophyma flavimaculata (t. 17), from the province of Peten

in Central America, which resembles this Lizard in many particulars;

but he particularly says that it has no femoral pores, which he says

are found in all the Zonures with which he has compared it.

M. Duméril’s genus is probably the same as the Xantusia of

Baird; but cannot be the same as the one here described, which is

peculiar, not only from having large femoral pores, but pores on the

ventral shield as well.

May 12, 1863.—E. W. H. Holdsworth, Esq., F.Z.S., in the Chair.

On a New Species or CALuiste rrom Costa Rica.

By Ossert Satvin, M.A., F.Z.8.

CauuisTeE Dowtl, sp. nov.

Supra nigra: dorso vie viridi lavato, plumis nuche et laterum

colli utrinque argentescenti-viridi terminatis, pilei margine pos-

tico ochracescente marginato: uropygio argentescenti-viridi, tec-

tricibus supertoribus rectricum cyaneis : subtus gula tota nigra:

pectore superiore nigro, plumis virid tt-cinnam termi-

natis : ventre imo cum crisso et lateribus cinnamomeis, pectore

inferiore paulo dilutiore: primariis usque ad terminos, secun-

dariis, tectricibus alarum et rectricibus omnino nigris, pogoniis

externis omnium cyaneo marginatis, tectricibus subalaribus

albis, vix cinnamomeis ; campterio cyaneo, albo vittato: rostro

nigro, mandibule inferioris basi albida : pedibus flavo-nigris.

Long. tot. 5°25, alee 2:9, caudee 2, tarsi :75, poll. angl.

Hab. Costa Rica.

This is a very distinct species, and unlike any of the genus. The

greenish-silvery feathers of the neck and the green uropygium sug-

gest the group which Dr, Sclater unites under the head of Proenopis,

as its proper position in the genus, its nearest ally being the New

Granadian C. nigriviridis, from which, however, it differs essentially.

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Box Tortoises. 105

This makes six species of Calliste now known to inhabit Central

America and the Isthmus of Panama, viz. C. larvata from the hot

forest-region of the Atlantic side of Guatemala, C. Francesce* trom

Costa Rica and Veragua, C. Dowii from Costa Rica, C. Frantzii from

the same country, C. gyroloides, a species ranging from Costa Rica

to Bolivia, and C. inornata from Panama to the Isthmus of Darien.

The single specimen of this Oalliste now described was procured

by Capt. J. M. Dow, Corr. Mem. Z.S., at San José, the capital of

Costa Rica, during a short visit he paid to that city m the early

part of the present year, and by him most kindly presented to me.

He was unable to inform me exactly whence it came ; but it was most

probably obtained from the low forest-region of the Atlantic slope.

I dedicate the species to Capt. Dow, whose researches in the ma-

rine fauna of Central America are too well known for me to need to

dilate upon the justice of the appellation.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE Box ToRTOISES, WITH THE DESCRIP-

TIons oF Turee New Asiatic Species. By Dr. J. E.

Gray, F.R.S., etc.

The knowledge of the animals of our own country is progressive

and only gradually acquired ; and how much more so must it be as

regards the species which we receive from a distant country, whence

we get only isolated specimens, and often in a more or less imperfect

condition, without any account of how they live, and what they eat,

and in what manner they conduct themselves!

In such cases how can we do more than guess at what is a species,

and into what groups the species should be divided? and yet, because

we doubt in what we are doing (and the older we become in the

study, the more do we see the necessity for doubting, and the more

‘do we see the imperfection of our materials)—yet, on the doubts

which arise from such causes and not from any want of faith in the

principle that species are permanent, if we only had materials enough

to study them properly, do theorists wish to support the theory that

species gradually pass into each other, and have been derived, or

rather have originated, from such transformations. Never was a

theory more baseless, as far as our knowledge is concerned.

This imperfection of our knowledge is specially the case with re-

spect to exotic Tortoises, of which we sometimes only procure the shell,

at other times the animal with the shell in a more or less perfect

condition ; and when the latter is procured, we find that the conclu-

sions that we had come to as regards the probable form of the animal,

or some part of it, are more or less incorrect, and we are thus obliged

to reconsider the situation the species occupies in the series.

* T had considerable doubts whether this species was really separable from

C. larvata, but, having examined a number of skins of both species, have come

to the conclusion that the distinction, small as it is, is constant. Dr. Sclater

has pointed out in his ‘ Monograph’ what the differences are, to which I may

add that C. Francesce seems a lighter rather than a brighter bird than C. darvata;

the blue on the forehead is a trifle broader in the former ; and the outer bluish-

green margin to the middle wing-coverts of the latter is almost obsolete in the

former. In fact, there is just a difference, and that is all.

106 Zoological Society :—

Having lately received more perfect specimens of some of the

Indian Box Tortoises, I am induced to suggest their arrangement as

follows :—

The Tortoises belonging to the tribe Cistudina are characterized

by having the sternum attached to the back by a ligamentous suture

on each side, and divided across the centre by a similar cross suture,

leaving the front and hind lobe more or less moveable.

In the normal Cistudine, which have the lobes of the sternum

moveable at all ages, the cartilaginous sutures and the suture between

the pectoral and ventral shields of the sternum are at the same situ-

ation; and the lobes of the sternum are broad, as broad as the open-

ing of the thorax, and cover the legs when they are contracted.

The normal Cistudine may be divided into genera, according to

the more or less aquatic habits of the animal, as indicated by the

structure of the feet.

I. Sternum-lobes unequal ; front shorter, almost free from the sym-

physis. The hind foot slender, elongate; toes very unequal,

second longest. ~N. America.

1. Cistupo.

Thorax convex, solid; sternum rounded or truncated before and

behind; the front lobe smaller, almost free from the symphysis.

The fore legs with large shields in front; the toes short, enclosed,

not webbed, with short conical claws. The hind feet elongate, nar-

row, with the second toes produced ; the rest short, nearly enclosed,

not webbed; the soles of the feet with subequal moderate-sized

scales, the hinder edge rounded.

N. America.

* The hind feet with small hinder or outer fourth toes. Cistudo.

Cistupo CAROLINA, Gray, Cat. Shield Rept. B.M. p. 39.

Of which C. ornata and C. major, Agassiz, seem to be varieties.

** The hind feet without any small fourth toes. Onychotria.

CistuDO MEXICANA, Gray, Cat. /. ¢. p. 40.

See also C. triunguis, Agassiz, which is.said to be smaller than

C. carolina and C. mexicana.

Dr. Holbrook describes and figures Cistudo Blandingii (t. 3) as a

separate species, because it has a head like Hmys, the upper jaw

deeply emarginate in front, the front lobe of the sternum less ele-

vated. On these characters Leconte refers it to Lutremys, and

Agassiz to Emys, as restricted by Bonaparte, who regards HL’. europea

as the type. The figures of Holbrook look very like Cistudo caro-

lina; but Agassiz, who forms for it a subfamily, describes it as much

more depressed. It is probably distinct ; but I have never seen an

American Box Tortoise that could be arranged or confounded, as

Leconte has done this, with our European Lutremys. It certainly

is not H. Meleagris of Shaw, as Agassiz believes.

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Box Tortoises. 107

Il. Sternum-lobes subequal, both forming part of the lateral sym-

physis. The Old World.

i. Hind foot elongate ; toes very unequal, nearly free, second longest.

2. Pyxipra.

The thorax convex, solid. Sternum flat ; lobes rather narrow,

truncated in front, notched behind. Legs with large band-like thin

shields in front ; toes short, scarcely exserted, with band-like shields

above, slightly webbed. The hind feet rather elongate : toes slightly

webbed, short; the second rather elongate, produced, with a large

claw. Claws conical, acute.

Pyxipga Movnotu.

Cyclemys Mouhotii, Gray, Ann. & Mag. N. H. 1862, x. p. 157.

Hab. Lao Mountains, Siam.

The back is flattish and sharply three-keeled.

ii. The hind foot elephantine ; toes subequal.

3. CisTOCLEMMYS.

Thorax convex, solid. Sternum nearly flat, rounded before and

behind ; the front lobe large, partly enclosed in the symphysis. The

fore feet subclavate ; the toes very short, nearly enclosed, not webbed ;

the claws short, blunt. The hind feet elephantine, subcircular ; toes

very short, enclosed. Soles with two series of large prominent

shields; the hinder edge keeled, but scarcely produced. Tail

shielded beneath. . Asiatic.

This genus, in the convex and solid structure of the thorax, is like

Cistudo ; but the foot is more like that of the Land-Tortoises; and

the hind foot is subcylindrical, instead of elongate as in the Ame-

rican genus.

CisTOCLEMMYS FLAVOMARGINATA.

Dark brown, shields of the back deeply concentrically grooved ;

the sternum flat, black ; the lower side of the margin of the thorax

yellow ; head olive, temple yellow, with a yellow streak on each side

of the crown, becoming wider and triangular behind.

Cuora trifasciata, var., Gray, Cat. Shield Reptiles in B.M. p. 42.

Specimen ec.

Hab. China (J. Reeve, Esq.) ; Formosa (R. Swinhoe, Esq.).

The surface of the shell is often more or less eroded ; the one

which we first received from Mr. Reeve was so on the whole upper

surface. The form of the foot, as well as the height and thickness

of the shell, at once separates this species from Cuora trifasciata,

with which I formerly confounded it.

Mr. Swinhoe informs me that this Tortoise is very abundant in

the ponds in the district of Tamsuy, N.W. Formosa. He did not

fall in with it in South Formosa, where the Emys Bennettii* is the

prevailing species. He has frequently seen the Tamsuy Tortoise

showing its head and the top of its back on the surface of the water

* Emys sinensis proves to have been founded on the young state of this species,

as is shown by the fine series of specimens brought from Formosa by Mr. Swinhoe.

108 Zoological Society .—

in ponds about the rice-fields, and has watched them basking, several

at a time, on the tops of large stones in such ponds.

iii. The hind feet flattened, fringed ; toes webbed and with band-

like shields above.

4. Cuora.

The thorax rather convex, more or less three-ridged. The sternum

flat ; lobes subequal, both enclosed in the symphysis. Head flat at

top; eyes lateral. The front of the fore legs with large scales. The

toes all banded above, webbed. The claws conical. The hind feet

depressed ; the hinder edge fringed and angularly produced. Asiatic.

* The head large, flat, with two yellow streaks on each side; back

one-coloured ; toes broadly webbed. Cuora.

Cuora AMBOINENSIS, Gray, Cat. Shield Reptiles B.M. p. 41.

Hab. Amboina; Gilolo (Wallace) ; Borneo (Wallace).

** Head smaller, oblong, with two dark streaks on each side ; back

three-banded ; toes narrowly webbed. Pyxiclemmys.

Cuora rrirasciaTa, Gray, Cat, Shield Rept. B.M. p. 42.

Hab. China.

5. Lurremys.

Thorax depressed. Sternum flat; lobes subequal, both enclosed

in the symphysis. Head ovate; eyes superior. The legs with large

scales in front. The feet depressed; toes webbed, banded above ;

the hind feet fringed and angularly produced behind. Claws elon-

gate, acute.

LuTREMys EUROPA, Gray, Cat. Shield Reptiles B.M. p. 40.

Hab. Europe.

Very variable in colour.

iv. Toes webbed; they and legs covered with very small scales ;

front legs only with thin band-like plates in front ; the lobes

of the sternum narrow.

6. NoTocHELys.

Back convex, flattened above. The sternum flexuous ; lobes rather

narrow, truncated in front and behind. The legs and toes covered

with minute scales ; the front legs having a series of broad, thin,

band-like shields in front. Toes webbed. Claws acute.

This genus is like a true Emys in most of its characters ; but the

sternum is scarcely raised above the underside of the margin, and

is united to the thorax by a cartilaginous symphysis ; the lobes are

separated by a straight depressed suture, but scarcely moveable. It

differs from all the other Cistudine in the legs and toes being

covered with minute lanceolate scales as in Batagur, with only a few

very narrow shields near the elaws.

NOTOCHELYS PLATYNOTA.

Emys platynota, Gray, P. Z. 8. 1834, p. 54.

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Box Tortoises. 109

Cyclemys platynota, Gray, Cat. Shield Reptiles B.M. p. 43.

Hab. Sumatra; Singapore (Wallace).

The head with a pale streak on each side, extended down the

upper part of the sides of the neck.

The young specimens have one small black spot on the back edge

of the areola of the costal, and two on the back edge of the areola of

the vertebral plates.

In the aberrant Cistudine the lobes are only moveable in the

young state; the suture that divides the bones of the sternum

into two parts is straight and transverse, while the front edge

of the pair of ventral shields overlaps its edge and forms a sinuous

line in front of the suture. The lobes of the sternum are narrower

than the opening of the thorax, as in Hmys, and do not cover the

legs when they are contracted.

This genus forms the transition to the Tortoises with solid and

fixed sternum ; but it is easily known from them by the sternum

being scarcely raised above the margin of the thorax, and by the

existence of the cartilaginous sutures between the sternum and thorax.

7. CYCLEMYS.

The thorax convex or depressed. The sternum flat or slightly

convex, with the lateral symphysis well marked, truncated before

and notched behind ; the cross suture indistinctly marked and nar-

row, more or less obliterated in the adult, covered with the produced

front edge of the ventral shields. The legs covered with large,

band-like, thin plates in front. The toes banded above; the front

one short, webbed. The hind feet flattened, with the toes broadly

webbed ; the hinder edge keeled and angularly produced.

* Thorax depressed, suborbicular.

1. CycLtemys orpicuLatTa, Bell, P. Z. S. 1834, p. 17.

Cyclemys dentata (adult), Gray, Cat. Shield Reptiles B.M. p. 42,

t. 19.

Shields brown-rayed.

Hab. Java.

The small figure of mys dentata of my ‘Illustrations of Indian

Zoology’ represents, I think, probably the young of Geoémyda gran-

dis, Gray (Ann. & Mag. N. H. 1860), judging by the series of spe-

cimens brought by M. Mouhot from Camboja. The larger figures

are those of a young Batagur.

** Thorax oblong, convex.

2. CycLemys O_pHamMtl.

Thorax oblong, convex ; back flattened, bluntly keeled, and with

a convexity in front, and two acute prominences at the end of the

two last vertebral shields; costal plates rather convex, with the

areola on the upper hinder margin ; shields concentrically striated,

brown, with some black lines on the part of the costal shield near

the lateral keels ; margin toothed behind. Thorax flat ; shields pale,

with dark rays.

110 Zoological Society.

Cistudo dentata (adult), Gray, P. Z. S. 1856, p. 183; Bell, Tes-

tudinata, t. (with animal) ?

Hab. Mergui (Professor Oldham) ; Siam (M. Mouhot).

I was formerly inclined to believe this was an adult of the former

species ; but we have lately received a second specimen, which proves

that it is perfectly distinct.

3. CyCLEMYS OVATA.

Thorax ovate, grey-brown, convex, hinder edge acutely dentated ;

the middle of the back rather flattened, bluntly keeled in front and

above, and acutely keeled on the shelving hinder parts; the side

shelving, the front slightly and the hinder part rather deeply im-

pressed ; the upper part of the costal plates convex; the sternum

pale grey-brown.

Hab. Sarawak (Wallace, no. 138).

The specimen is not in a good state; probably the animal had

been in confinement and was out of health ; the cross suture on the

sternum is much eroded on the edge, and the shell seems to be dis-

coloured.

There is a second specimen, which was presented to the British

Museum by Sir Andrew Smith, C.B., without any habitat, which is

perhaps a younger stage of the species ; but it does not show any

mark of the transverse suture on the sternum, and the marginal

plates are all broad and equally so, while, in the specimen from

Borneo, the fourth, fifth, and sixth lateral marginal plates are much

broader than the others on each side, and ascend up into the margin

of the costal ones; and the sides of the shell are rather more convex

in front, and only slightly and not so deeply impressed behind.

The shell is uniform pale brown above, and brown below, with

regular close radiating paler rays, which are wider and more distinct

near the margin of the shield. The areola on the vertebral shield is

close to the hinder margin, near the upper hinder angle of the costal

shields, and it is near but not on the hinder outer edge of the sternal

shields.

The dried animal is brown; the front edge of the fore legs is

covered with irregular-sized scales.

Mr. Bell, in his ‘ Testudinata,’ gives two figures of the underside

of the shell of his Cyclemys orbiculata ; and in his text says that he

Miscellaneous. 111

cannot assent to M. Bibron’s referring this species to the genus

Cistudo. These undersides evidently represent two distinct species ;

and the upper figure of the two shows the very cross suture the

existence of which Mr. Bell denies.

The lower figures represent the sternum of Cyclemys orbiculata,

with the lobes, especially the hinder ones, narrower than the open-

ings in the thorax.

The upper figure represents a species where the lobes are broad

and rounded, and nearly as broad as the aperture in the thorax.

It indicates the existence of a species which has not occurred to

me, and to which the name of C. Bellii may be applied. Perhaps it

is one of the specimens which he received from either Madras or

Bombay ; for he says he has received them from those countries as

well as from China; and I have not seen any specimens of the genus

from either of these two localities.

All the three specimens of this species in the British Museum have

the lobes of the sternum narrow, like the lower figure. The figure

of the shell with the animal in Mr. Bell’s work better represents

Cyclemys Oldhamii than the depressed, flattened C. orbiculata of Java.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Notes on Pustularia rosea, Gray, and Hyalonema.

By Dr. J. BE. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

In Mr. Dallas’s translation of Prof. Schultze’s paper on Polytrema

miniaceum (Annals, ser. 3. vol. xii. p. 411), it is stated that I have

given to Polytrema miniaceum the new name of Pustularia rosea.

This is a mistake: Pustularia is quite distinct from Polytrema.

The latter genus is well known to me. Pustularia, if a Foraminifer,

is nearly allied in external form to the genus Lepralia, and very

unlike the massive Polytrema.

Having my pen in my hand, I may observe that I cannot agree

with Prof. M. Schultze in regarding the spicula in Carpenteria or

Polytrema as parasitic and part of a Sponge, any more than I can

agree with him and Dr. Bowerbank in regarding the fibres of Hyalo-

nema as the spicula of a Sponge which is covered with a parasitic

Zoanthus.

Note on Ophiolepis gracilis (Allman), from the Brick-Clay of

Seafield. By Ropert Waker.

Specimens of this Starfish were found for the first time, about a

year ago, in brick-clay near Dunbar. Prof. Allman described the

species at a meeting of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in March

last. The following remarks will show the condition of the Seafield

specimens, and may assist in determining the species, if found in

other quarters.

None of the specimens have the disks sufficiently preserved to

show clearly the arrangement of the dorsal plates ; and in one or two

instances only can the form of the radial shields be made out. Their

112 Miscellaneous.

inner margins are straight ; the outer nearly parallel, and somewhat

rounded toward both ends. Prof. Allman says that in his specimens

these shields “have their opposed edges in contact for their entire

length.’ In almost every case the animal has split up horizontally,

and the shields of whichever side happened to be uppermost have |

been lost, apparently, with the upper layer of clay. Of course, it is

the internal surfaces of the shields only that are presented to view ;

and in no instance can the dorsal shields of the arms be seen in posi-

tion. In one or two individuals, however, that lay on the dorsal

surface, the inner sides of these shields are exposed; their margins

are parallel across the arms, and they meet each other by slightly

bevelled edges. At the proximal end these dorsal shields are broader

than long; but this is gradually reversed as they approach the ex-

tremity of the arms, where the length is nearly double the breadth.

In some of the arms the central ossicles which form their axis

are preserved, about half the length of the former. When these

ossicles are lost or removed, the inner sides of the lateral shields can

be distinctly seen; each shield meets that of the opposite side by a

median suture on the lower side of the arms; in some eases this

suture can be traced to almost the extreme points of the arms; but

when the shields are in their natural position, it is not so apparent.

Each lateral shield has a small knob on the internal surface, in most

cases placed near the aboral margin. The notches on the aboral

edges of the lateral shields, for the exit of the cirri, mentioned by

Allman, can be readily seen. The spines on the lateral shields are

difficult to distinguish, and can be seen in one or two instances only;

they appear to be rather short, and there are indications of two on

some of the shields ; the condition of the present specimens, however,

will scarcely admit of a positive statement on the point. The ven-

tral shields are very small, and can be seen, in a few instances, in

the inside view of the arms, more especially where the lateral shields

are a little apart at their lower angles.

The specimens are of various sizes. In the largest specimen the

disk is 2 of an inch in diameter, and each arm is about 2 inches long.

The arms are preserved to the minute points; from which we may

infer that the animals had been suddenly killed, otherwise we should

have expected to find them in a disjointed state.

The Seafield Brick-Clay is about two miles west from St. Andrews.

The bed containing the fossils is from 15 to 18 feet above the level

of the sea. The present condition of the clay-pit will not admit of

the section being correctly taken ; it may, however, be stated roughly

to consist of—(1) red sandy clay, containing a few small stones ;

(2) finer red clay, containing some nodule-looking concretions ;

(3) tenacious clay, of a bluish colour, without any stones. This

latter bed is about 15 feet from the surface; and from it the fossils

were obtained.

_ Since the above was written, Mr. Meldrum (through whose efforts

the Starfishes were preserved) has informed me that fragments of

shells are sometimes found in the upper beds; they will be taken

"care of in future, and may form the subject of another Note.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES.]

No. 74 FEBRUARY 1864.

XI1I.—List of the British Pycnogonoidea, with Descriptions of

several new Species. By Grorcr Hopae *,

[Plates XII. & XIII.]

No complete list of the British Pyenogons has appeared, and

such information as we possess is scanty and scattered. It is

difficult to account for this neglect, as these animals possess

considerable interest, both in their life-history and their pe-

culiarly degraded physiological features.

An examination of such records as I have been able to consult

has enabled me to compile a list of twenty-two species—the

total number recorded as British. With two exceptions (that of

a Phowichilidium by Mr. Gosse, and a Phoxichilidium and a

Nymphon by myself), no uew species have been published since

Harry Goodsir’s and- Dr. Johnston’s time: the former described

seven species, principally from the Frith of Forth ; it is possible,

however, that two or three of them might not sustain a very

critical examination. The list, as it now stands, contains

13 species of Nymphon,

2 a Pallene,

4, x Phozichilidium,

1 3 Pasithoé,

1 = Phozichilus,

1 ee Pyecnogonum,

making in all 22 species, including the 4 which were recorded

in my Report of the Pyenogons obtained last year, during the

_* Communicated by the author, having been read at the British Asso-

ciation Meeting at Newcastle-on-Tyne, August 1863,

- Ann, & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xiii. 8

114 Mr. G. Hodge on the British Pycnogonoidea.

dredging expedition to the Dogger Bank, under the auspices of

the British Association.

I have now to increase this list by the addition of ten species,

seven of which are new to science, and three new to Britain.

The new species are contained in the following genera :-—

Ammothoa, a genus not before represented by any British

form.

Achelia, a new genus which I found it necessary to establish.

Pallene and Phoxichilidium.

The genus Ammothoa is in some respects like Nymphon, the

most decided difference being the greater number of joints of

the palpi, Ammothoa possessing eight*, whilst Nymphon has only

five. The footjaws in Nymphon are always as long as or longer

than the rostrum ; in Ammothoa they are much shorter. D

I have two new species to describe, for which the specific

names of brevipes and longipes are proposed.

Ammothoa brevipes (Hodge). Pl. XII. figs. 1-4.

Limbs short and robust, furnished with moderately long, strong

spines. Rostrum conical, with the apex truncate. Footjaws

nearly two-thirds the length of the rostrum; palpi equal in

thickness throughout,—if anything, slightly thicker at the

free end. Oculiferous tubercle terminating in a pointed wart

directed backwards. Abdomen long, slightly tapering.

Several specimens have occurred on the Durham coast, from

deep water. Length +4, of an inch.

Ammothoa longipes (Hodge). Pl, XII. figs. 5, 6.

Animal slender. Rostrum stout, as long as the thorax, taperin

toa blunt point. Palpi long and slender, the four terminal

joints of equal length. Footjaws long ; fingers destitute of

teeth. Oculiferous tubercle slightly tapering.

A single specimen from Polperro. Length +4, of an inch.

' Achelia is distinguished by the possession of two pairs of

palpi—one pair long and slender, the other short and stout.

The genus may be thus characterized :—

Antenne two-branched, one pair long and slender, eight-jointed;

the other pair short and stout, two-jointed, and produced imme-

diately in front of the oculiferous tubercle. ;

In some respects this genus agrees with a form possessing

two pairs of palpi, which Kroyer named Zefes ; it may, however,

at once be distinguished by the very different character of the

* The foreign forms are said to possess nine.

Mr. G. Hodge on the British Pycnogonoidea. 115

rostrum,—Zetes being much elongated and seated upon a sort

of stalk, Achelia being short and stout.

I have three species of this genus to describe, for which the

specific names of echinata, hispida, and levis are proposed.

Achelia echinata (Hodge). PI. XII. figs. 7-10.

Animal robust, with moderately long legs, furnished with strong

spines produced from little eminences upon the limbs and

body. The oculiferous tubercle is directed forwards, and ter-

_ minates in a little point directed backwards. Inner palpi of

the same length as the oculiferous tubercle; the outer longer

than the rostrum. Colour fine sienna to a pale straw.

This species has been found at the Channel Islands, the Isle

of Man, and upon the Durham coast. It is by no means un-

common from low tide to a few fathoms. Length ,7, of an

inch.

Achelia hispida (Hodge). PI. XIII. fig. 11.

Animal robust, hairy. Limbs long, first four joints much stouter

than the others. Thorax much produced in front. Inner

palpi large and stout, with a circlet of little spines at the

base and at the top of the first joint ; outer palpi longer than

the rostrum. Oculiferous tubercle scarcely reaching beyond

the origin of the inner palpi.

Several specimens from Polperro. Length +2; of an inch.

Achelia levis (Hodge). PI. XIII. fig. 12.

Animal robust. Limbs smooth and regular in form, with a few

small hairs scattered over them, principally on the femoral

and tarsal joints. Inner palpi rather long, slender; outer

palpi as long as the rostrum. Oculiferous tubercle small,

produced considerably behind the inner palpi.

Several specimens from Polperro. Length +, of an inch.

Phozxichilidium virescens (Hodge). Pl. XIII. figs. 13-15.

Rostrum stout, slightly thickened in the middle, truncate at the

apex. Footjaws slender, and closely approximated at their

origin, each finger with 6-8 teeth. Legs moderately long.

Colour pea-green.

Several specimens from Polperro. Length +4, of an inch.

This species might at first sight be mistaken for Phowichi-

lidium olivaceum (Gosse) ; but the closely approximated footjaws

at once show its distinct character.

116 Myr. G, Hodge on the British Pycnogonoidea.

Pallene pygmea (Hodge). Pl. XIII. figs. 16 & 17.

Thorax robust. Legs long and slender, constricted at the joints,

last joint falciform, with a strong toothed shoulder at the

base ; two strong spines on the sixth joint. Rostrum short,

stout. Footjaws closely approximated. Oculiferous tubercle

moderately long. Abdomen stout.

This species was taken by Mr. Spence Bate in the neighbour-

hood of Plymouth, so far back as 1853, and by him noticed in

a paper of that year, read before the British Association at Hull.

It was, however, neither named nor described, his remarks bear-

ing upon the larval stages of these animals. I have also taken

a single specimen upon the Durham coast. Length +4, of an

inch.

The three species new to Britain all belong to the genus

Nymphon. They were described by Kroyer in Gaimard’s Scan-

dinavian ‘ Voyage.’ One species (Nymphon Strdmii) has been

taken in Shetland by the Rev. A. M. Norman; the other two

(Nymphon miztum and N. longitarse) have been taken by myself

on the Durham coast.

The following list contains all the species at present recorded

as inhabiting the British seas :—

Nymphon, Fabricius. Achelia, Hodge.

gracile, Leach. — echinata, Hodge.

grossipes, Fabricius. —— hispida, Hodge.

— femoratum, Leach. levis, Hodge.

a pictum, Pallene, Johnston.

—— giganteum, Johnston. brevirostris, Johnston.

longitarse, Kroyer. circularis, Goodsir.

—— mixtum, Kroyer. —— pygmea, Hodge.

— Stromii, Kroyer. Phoxichilidium, M.-Edwards.

— hirtum, Fabricius. coccineum, Johnston.

brevitarse, Kroyer. globosum, Goodsir,

— J ohnstoni, Goodsir. olivaceum, Gosse.

> spinosum, Goodsir. —— petiolatum, Kréyer (Pallene

pellucidum, Goodsir. attenuata, Hodge).

simile, Goodsir. virescens, Hodge.

— minutum, Goodsir. Pasithoé, Goodsir.

brevirostre, Hodge. vesiculosa, Goodsir.

Ammothoa, Dana. Phoxichilus, Latreille.

—— brevipes, Hodge. spinosus, Montagu.

longipes, Hodge. Pycnogonum, Fabricius.

hittorale, Strom.

There can be little doubt that a careful examination of the

species found on various parts of our coast would add many new

forms to this list, especially amongst the smaller species.

"Whilst most departments of marine zoology have made rapid

ntvidiés within the last few years, our knowledge of the Pycnogons

has scarcely advanced. No doubt this is owing, in a great mea-

Capt. J. Mitchell on the Climbing Habits of Anabas scandens. 117

sure, to the difficulty of determining the species, in consequence

of there being no complete list. It is hoped that the foregoing

may in some degree supply this want, and lead to these animals

being better known and understood.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Piate XII,

Fig. 1. Ammothoa brevipes,

Fig. 2. Ditto, footjaw.

Fig. 3. Ditto, tarsus, &e.

Fig. 4. Ditto, side view.

Fig. 5. Ammothoa longipes.

Fig. 6. Ditto, tarsus, &e.

Fig. 7. Achelia echinata.

Fig. 8. Ditto, side view.

Fig. 9. Ditto, rostrum, palpi, and oculiferous tubercle,

Fig. 10. Ditto, tip of false foot of female.

PLaTe XIII,

Fig. 11. Achelia hispida.

Fig. 12. Achelia levis.

Fig. 13. Phoxichilidium virescens.

Fig. 14. Ditto, footjaws.

Fig. 15. Ditto, tarsus, &c.

Fig. 16. Pallene pygmea.,

Fig.17. Ditto, tarsus, &e.

XIV.—On the Climbing Habits of Anabas scandens. By Capt.

Jesse Mircne.t, of the Madras Government Central Mu-

seum.

Tue following remarks on the Anabas scandens will be found at

page 295, vol. ii., of the Rev. J. G. Wood’s ‘ Illustrated Natural

History,’ published by Messrs. Routledge & Co. last year :—

** Some writers say this fish is capable of climbing palm-trees

in search of the water that lodges between the bases of the dead

leaves and the stem; but this account is now held unworthy of

belief.”

My object in writing this paper is to show that this account

is not unworthy of belief, and that, however strange and unna-

tural it may appear, the Anabas scandens does in reality ascend

palm-trees; but I am not prepared to say that it goes in search

of water. Yet who knows? The fish may be enough of an

epicure to prefer the pure rain-water to the muddy water found

in the pools and streams after heavy monsoon rain ; for it is at

such times it is said to take this wonderful journey. But to my

evidence.

A short time ago I was putting up a few freshwater fish to be

118 Capt. J. Mitchell on the Climbing Habits of Anabas scandens,

sent to Dr. Giinther, of the British Museum, and among them were

some specimens of Anabas scandens. I had directed my assistant,

Mr, Rungasawmy Moodeliar, to prepare a list, giving only the

Tamil names of the fish, and leaving a column for remarks.

On examining this list, I observed opposite to ‘Panai yéri’

(the A. scandens) the entry—“ This fish climbs palm-trees.’” On

inquiring whence he had obtained this information, he replied

that he had himself seen the fish ascend the palm-tree, and he

described what he had witnessed. I asked him to put his state-

ment in writing, and (with a few verbal alterations, not touching

the facts) the following is his account :—

“This fish inhabits tanks or pools of water, and is called

Panai yéri, i.e. the fish that climbs Palmyra-trees.

“Where there are Palmyra-trees growing by the side of a

tank or pool, when heavy rain falls and the water runs profusely

down their trunks, this fish, by means of its opercula, which

move unlike those of other fish, crawls up the tree sideways to

a height of from 5 to 7 feet, and then drops down.

“Should this fish be thrown upon the ground, it runs or pro-

ceeds rapidly along in the same manner (sideways), so long as

the mucus on it remains.”

By “sideways” my informant means that the fish, when

climbing or moving on the ground, inclines the body consider-

ably from the vertical; and this seems necessary to enable it to

use the spines on the operculum to the best advantage.

I would here remark that the operculum of Anabas scandens

has greater mobility than that of any fish that I can remember;

and this was noticed by Cuvier (Histoire Naturelle des Poissons,

tome vil. p. 249 of the 4to edition). It can be raised or turned

outwards to nearly a right angle with the body; and when it is

in that position, the suboperculum descends a little; and it ap-

pears to me that it is chiefly by the spines of this latter piece

that the fish takes a purchase on the tree or on the ground. I

have ascertained by experiment that the mere closing of the

operculum when the spines are in contact with any surface,

even common glass, pulls an ordinary-sized fish forwards about

half an inch ; but it is probable that additional force is supplied

by the caudal and anal fins, both of which it is said are put in

use when climbing or advancing on the ground: the motion, in

fact, is described as a wriggling one.

One of my taxidermists has also informed me that in his

boyish days he had frequently seen the Panai yéri ascend

Palmyra-trees at Negapatam (now the terminus of the Southern

India Railway). I-should have said before, that Mr. Runga-

sawmy’s observations were made about six years ago, in the

neighbourhood of the Red Hills in the vicinity of Madras.

Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides. 119

For myself, I am perfectly satisfied with the evidence, both

verbal and written, that has been given to me. It will be seen

that it is substantially the same as that given by Daldorff and

John, who, however, did not notice (or, if they did, did not re-

cord) that the fish inclined its body to one side when advancing

by means of its opercula. To me, the fact that the negative evi-

dence of Buchanan Hamilton should have been considered of

more value than the positive evidence of two eye-witnesses (one

a highly respectable missionary, the other an officer in the

Danish service) is a thing more extraordinary by far than that

the Anabas scandens should ascend palm-trees, for which one

might almost say it is specially fitted by the unusual form of its

opercular pieces.

That Hamilton Buchanan never saw this fish climb a Palmyra-

tree is by no means surprising; for it is said only to do so

during the monsoon, when the trees are surrounded by water,

and the rain is descending their trunks—a time when, save by the

merest accident, no European, unless for some special reason, is

likely to be in such a situation. Buchanan Hamilton was from

Bengal, and in all probability knew nothing of the Tamil lan-

guage; if he had, it might have occurred to him that the com-

mon Tamil name of this fish must have been given for some

good reason.

Madras, Nov. 13, 1863.

XV.— Observations on Raphides. By Gzorcz Guuuiver, F.R.S.

; * [Continued from p. 43.]

Rubiacea.—We have seen how, in our native Flora, the plants

of this order may be characterized as raphis-bearers. Though

Prof. Babington retains the name of Rubiacez in his ‘ Manual of

British Botany,’ these weeds have been separated by very high

authority (see Lindley’s ‘ Vegetable Kingdom’) from the useful

and larger group of Cinchonacez ; so that Prof. Lindley’s order

Galiacee includes all the British species of Rubiacesw, and he

abolishes this last name altogether. Of Cinchonacee I am now

enabled, through the courtesy of Dr. Hooker, to give the following

results of a few examinations :—Jzora (fresh leaves of four spe-

cies); no raphides; but abounding in beautiful spheraphides,

each about +;;th of an inch in diameter. Gardenia (fresh

leaves of two species), no raphides; but loaded and somewhat

gritty with spheraphides, larger than those of Jvora, and well

seen in sections of the petioles. Manettia bicolor and Pentas

carnea (fresh leaves and interpetiolary stipules) abounding in

120 Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides.

bundles of raphides. Thus raphides are plentiful in the two

herbaceous species, and are replaced or represented by sphz-

raphides in the two shrubby plants. I have elsewhere (Quart.

Journ. Microsc. Se. for Jan. 1864) noticed the scarcity of ra-

phides and abundance of other crystals in trees and shrubs.

Aracee.—Prof. Balfour has for many years used the ovaries

of Arum for furnishing raphides to the pupils of his histo-

logical class, and Dr. Maclagan found these raphides to con-

sist of oxalate of lime. The question of the composition of

raphides is very important, and requires further research. They

have often been described as a form of phosphate of that earth.

Their abundance in the root of Smilacez led me to look for them

in the officinal extract of Sarsaparilla, in which no raphides could

be found, though it contained numerous minute square crystals,

some of which were distinctly seen to be such quadratic octa-

hedrons as are commonly formed of oxalate of lime. The dif-

ference between the raphis-cell and its surrounding cells is well

depicted in fig. 38 of Prof. Balfour’s ‘ Manual of Botany.’ Prof.

George Lawson, of Canada, informed me that while he acted as

histological demonstrator in Prof. Balfour’s class at Edinburgh,

several years before 1859, he was frequently in the habit of |

employing Lemna trisulca for the purpose of showing raphidian

cells*. :

Constancy of the Raphis-bearing character.—Raphides are

produced, as we have before shown, in all stages of the growth

of typical raphis-bearing plants, from the ovule to the seed-

leaves, thence through the ascending and descending axes, and

the appendages of the former and their modifications to the fruit.

So little effect has either the soil or the situation in which the spe-

cies flourishes on this important function of raphis-bearing, that

it will continue as regularly during the entire vigorous existence

of the plant as any common phenomenon of whatsoever kind in

the cell-hfe of that plant. But though these conclusions are

deduced from observations extending over the spring, summer,

and autumn of several years, and sometimes on plants from

various and dissimilar localities, the state of the raphides in the

winter season was seldom inquired into. Hence I have repeated

the examinations of such plants as could be easily procured be-

* T have recently learned that Prof. Balfour long since observed the

abundance of raphides in various Aracez, as Colocasia odora, Richardia

ethiopica, and Caladium viviparum. Prof. Douglas Maclagan discovered

the raphides in the ovary of Richardia, subjected them to chemical ana-

lysis, and found them to consist of oxalate of lime. He looked at those of

Arum, and concluded that they also are oxalate of lime (Trans. Bot. Soc.

1861; Edinb. New Phil. Journ, new ser. xvi. 300). The raphides of Lemna

trisulca, which Dr. Lawson was the first to use in the class demonstrations,

were noticed in Prof. Balfour’s ‘ Class-Book of Botany,’ ed. 1855, p. 41.

Prof. G, Gulliver on Raphides. ~ 121

tween the 13th and 31st of December last, and of which every

species had been proved by my former observations regularly to

abound in raphides during the genial months. The following

extracts from my note-book will be sufficient examples of several

others to the same effect :—“‘ucharidium grandiflorum, Godetia

vinosa, Clarkia elegans, and C, pulchella: raphides abundant in

the seed-leaves and other parts of young plants, also in the roots

and dead and living leaves and branches and capsule-valves of

exhausted and decaying plants. Epilobium hirsutum and two

other common species: raphides very abundant in the roots, in

the dead stems and pith, in the dead leaves and capsules, and

in the small living buds of the subterranean stems. Asperula

odorata: raphides in root and its fibrils, and in living and

dead stems and leaves; the root very rich in starch-cells full of

granules. Galiwnm Aparine (young growing seedlings) : raphides

small and tender throughout the plant, more abundant in the

seed-leaves, least so in the fibrous root; plentiful also, with

dotted vessels, in the dead, withered stems of old plants of last

season. Galium Mollugo: a few raphides in the dry fruit, and

bundles of them swarming in the liber of the creeping woody

root, but less abundant in its fibrils and in the young shoots

and leaves; the raphides in the old root larger and stronger

than those in the leaves and stem of the young shoots; central

part of root chiefly made up of dotted vessels, the dots thickly

studded, about =1,,th of an inch in diameter, and without the

least appearance of their being the remains of annular stripes;

no starch in the root. Tamus communis: raphides abounding

in the root and its buds, and in the pulp of the berry ; root

chiefly made up of starch. Asparagus officinalis: raphides

plentiful in the root. Lemna minor: raphides numerous.”

In short, my observations generally are to the effect that, when-

ever raphides afford a diagnostic, as I have proved they often do, it

is more fundamental and universal than any other single one yet

employed in botanical classification :; fundamental, because it is

an essential part of the nature of the plant from its very birth;

universal, because this character is so widely diffused that it will

be found, as above described, throughout the general system,

and during the whole life and after the death of that plant.

Thus, at any or every season and state of growth, either a

young fresh seed-leaf or a bit of a living or dead leaf or stem,

or root or berry-pulp, may be sufficient for the diagnosis in

question, between plants of two closely allied orders,

Edenbridge, January 1864,

[To be continued. }

122 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez.

XVI.—On the Menispermacez.

By Joun Mrnrs, F.R.S., F.L.S. &e.

[Continued from p. 15.]

Wirn the view of assisting the recognition of the plants of

this family, the following synopsis is offered of the distribution

of the genera,- which will be separately described in the same

order.

Synopsis GENERUM MENISPERMACEARUM,

Tribus 1. Hermrocuiniz&. Embryo fere rectus,

cotyledonibus foliaceis, divaricatis, intra locellos

albuminis copiosi hinc ruminati inclusis, radicula

parva, tereti, supera. Condylus diversiformis, in-

ternus, vel fere obsoletus.

Cotyledones irregul. laciniati; condyl. globos. 2-

CAMECTAL. cecccsccccscevcesceccevscccscccvccsesesecies

Cotyledones integri.

Stamina libera. :

Stam. 12 (6 inter. longiora); anthers in-

trorse ; condyl. umbiform. concay. .«.....

Stam. 6; anther. longit. dehisc.; condyl.

UMDIFOLM..CONCAV, .5..ccegererscccersecees eee

Stam. 6; anther. transv. dehisc.; condyl.

globos. 2-camerat. .........+006 woblscdeeasave

Stam. 6; filam. dilat. memb.; condyl. glo-

bos. 2-camerat...\issdsesqvessaasksenss oenasens

Stam. 6; filam. petal. coalit.; condyl. e plica

longit. valde Mtrus......+...scecssesecsesseee .

Stam. 6; filam. clavat. incurv.; condyl. e

sulco longit. obsolet. ........... Hi. dtieadé,.

Stam. 6 ; filam. brev. incrass. s..csssceceeereeee

Stamina monadelpha.

Antherze 15-40, recept. globos. sessil. coalit.;

condyl. globos. 2-camerat......... seesesese

Anthere 6, in caput. aggreg., filam. gracil.

suffult. ; condyl. umbiform. concav. ......

Antheree 6, peltat. affixee ; filam. columnar. ;

condyl. umbiform. obsolet. .........+0++++

Stamina 6; filam. ad medium coalit.; con-

dyl. umbiform. concav. .........sceecseeeees

Stamina ignota; putamen echinat.; condyl.

magn. scutiform. l-camerat. ...+s0.0csseeesees

Tribus 2. ANOMOSPERME&. Embryo tenuis, teres,

_ intra albumen copiosum undique ruminatum in-

clusus, cotyledonibus accumbentibus, incurvatis

aut fere rectis; radicula brevissima, ad summum

spectante. Condylus internus, verticalis, lamini-

- formis. Sepula estivatione valde imbricata.

—"

10.

. Coscinium.

Calycocarpum.

. Jateorhiza.

Tinospora.

Chasmanthera,

Fibraurea.

. Tinomiscium.

Burasaia.

Anamirta.

Parabena.

11. Aspidocarya,

. Odontocarya.

13.

Rhigiocarya*.

Petala 6,. stamina amplectentia ....+..-0esesese0e ws. 14, Anomospermum:

Tribus 3. TrL1acorEx. Embryo teres, tenuiter

elongatus, hippocrepice curvatus, intra albumen

copiosum undique ruminatum centralis, cotyledo-

* Rhigiocarya racemifera. Riv. Quorra (Barter, 3325). °

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee. 123

nibus teretibus, incumbentibus ; radicula tereti, iis

2-plo breviore, ad stylum fere basalem spectante.

Condylus internus, horizontaliter septiformis. Se-

pala aut subvalvata, aut subimbricata.

Petala 6. Sepala valvata. Stam. glabra. Drupe

3-12, stipitate et carpoph. long. suffult. ...... 15. Tiliacora.

Petala 0. Sepala valvata. Stam. glabra. Drupe

3, tomentos. brev. stipitat ...+.s..s.sseesseseseees 16. Abuta.

Petala 0. Sepala valvata. Stam. hirsut. Drupz ie

3, tomentos. brev. stipitat......... Sappasenpards «we 17. Batschia.

Petala 0. Sepala subimbric. Stam, glabra.

_ Drupe 3, glabree, brev. stipitat. ......s.s.00 18. Anelasma.

Tribus 4. Hyrpserrea. Embryo teres, tenuiter elon-

tus, intra albumen simplex cyclice eurvatus, coty-

edonibus accumbentibus, radicula iis equilonga,

ad stylum fere basalem spectante. Condylus ex-

ternus, subglobosus.

a ey inter. imbric. Petal. 5-6-8. Stam.

10; Ovaria 3-6 ........00...cccccceccovsbesss 19. Hypserpa.

Sep. 6-9, inter. valvat. Pet. 6. Stam.6. Ovar.3 20. Limacta.

Tribus 5. Leprocone#. Embryo teres, tenuiter

elongatus, intra albumen parcum simplex cyclice

‘eurvatus, cotyledonibus incumbentibus, radicula

iis zquilonga aut 2-plo longiore, ad stylum fere

basalem spectante. Condylus externus, globosus,

vel peltiformis, varie elaboratus. Sepala imbricata.

Subtribus 1. Menispermee. Stamina distincta

_ vel imperfecte monadelpha.

4 Petala 6 vel 0, Stam. 12-18, libera. 9 Pe-

tala 6 eececssesssestsseeereeeseseensnssenes 21. Menispermum.

3 Petala 6. Stam. 6, libera. 9? Petala 6,

Cuneato-auriculata sse...ssseseeeesereesees 22. Pericampylus.

@Petala 6. Stam. 6, basi coalita............ 23. Pselium.

Signot. 2 Petala 3.........scceceeeererseeres 24, Ileocarpus.

Signot. F Petala 4 ..........ccosrrrrrrererees 25. Homocnemia.

Subtribus 2. Cissampelidee. Stamen 1, centrale;

filamentum columnare; antherarum loculi

» peltatim affixi.

$Sepal. 1, campanul. Pet. 1, campan.

Anth. loc. 6, peltat. coalit. .........055:.. 26. Rhaptomeris.

$ Sepal. 4, libera. Pet. 1, poculif. Anth:

loc. 4-12, pelt. coalit. 2 Pet. 1 ...... 27. Cissampelos.

$ Sepal. 4, libera. Pet. 1, poculif. Anth.

loc. 4, pelt. coalit. 9 Pet. 2 ............ 28. Antizoma.

$ Sepal. 4, valvat. Pet. 4, valvat. Anth.

loc. 4-8, pelt. coalit..ce.......cceeeceecesees 29. Clypea.

3 Sepal. 6, libera. Pet.3. Anth. loc. 6,

pelt. coalit....... Spates cospantosagdecsesspaves 30, Stephania.

g Sepal. 6, libera. Pet.6. Anth: loc. 6,

tA Pelt. coalit. s.isicccsicccseesseessssess Seudée 31. Clambus*.

& Sepal. 8, libera. Pet.4. Anth. loc. 4,

COnglobats ...:.isscrrrcrcessecdeveadersecsees 32. Cyclea.

Tribus 6. PLaTyGoNnEs. Embryo intra albumen

pareum, simplex, hippoerepiformis aut cyclice

* Clambus araneosus, Mexico (Pavon).

curvatus, cotyledonibus foliaceis, incumbentibus,

radicula tereti, lis 2-10-plo breviore, ad stylum fere

basalem spectante. Condylus externus, aut septi-

formis, vel subglobosus. Sepala imbricata.

6 Petal. 6, emargin. imo involut. Stam. 6, di-

stinct. Condyl. globos. 2-camer. ext. perforat.

é Pet. 6, bifid. lacin. acutiss. Stam. 6, distinct.

Condy]. globos. 2-camer. ext. perforat. .

é Pet. 6, bifid. lacin. obtus, Stam. 6, distinct.

Condy). globos. 2-camer. ext. perforat. ..

3 Pet. 6, cuneat. auric. ap. dentat. Stam. 6, ‘di-

stinct. Condy]. septiform. ......++sescesssseees

Tribus 7. PacHyGoNE#&. Embryo exalbuniinosus,

hippocrepice vel cyclice curvatus, cotyledonibus

valde crassis, accumbentibus, radicula brevi, tereti,

adstylum fere basalem spectante. Condylusexternus,

septiformis, vel subglobosus, aut fere obsoletus.

$Petala6. 2 Ovar.3. Cotyled. hippocrep.

Monde). BEPtifOrw.... ..ccescsccccossssrasneviond

6 Petala6. 2 Ovar. 6. Cotyled. hippocrep.

Condyl. septiform, ...ssecsseesssseeeteeeeserees

é Petal. ignot. 9? Qvar. 3, Cotyled. hippocrep.

COMUTI. REDUHOTI on. cnneanncenssarenaviesonsene ¢

3 Petal. 6. 9 Ovar. 3. Seeds hippocrep.

Condyl. subpeltiform. ......secccssessecseesesves

3 Petal. 6. 9 Ovar. 6. Cotyled. cyclic. Con-

Gy]. UMDIFOLM. ......500.erecrecesseressescevceses

3 Petal. ignot. 9 Ovar.9. Cotyled. cyclic.

Condyl. umbiform, Carpoph. elong. ......

é Petal. 0, 9 Ovar. 3. Cotyled. incurv. radic.

gigant. Condyl. obsolet. ........scescseeeeeee

$ Petal. 6. 2 Ovar. 3. Cotyled. incury. radic,

minima, Condyl. obsolet. ........scsssecseeees

é Petal. ignot. 2 Ovar. 3. Cotyled, ignot.

Condyl, obsolet. © ...0.0sceceeees.sceecceee Asveage

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee.

. Cocculus.

. Nephroica,

. Holopeira.

. Diploclisia.

. Hyperbena.

38. Chondodendron.

. Hematocarpus.

. Pachygone,

. Pleogyne.

42. Sciadotenia.

45.

Genera incerte tribus (fructu ignoto).

Stamina monadelpha.

Sepal. 9-12. Petal.6. Stam. 3, ultra med. coalit.

Sepal. 6.. Petal.0. Stam. 3, ad med. coalit.

Shane ADEE, 3 .ci0s cen Socsveniyngaktunatineeaivs

Sepal. 4, imbric. Petal. 2. Stam.4, Anth.

L-lob. transv. hiant. ......sscscccceessevepoecesees

Sepal. 6, imbric. Petal. 6. Stam, 6. Anth.

2-lob. transv. hiant. ...ssesecsececsseveecsessecers

Sepal. 12, imbric. Petal. 6, Stam.6. Anth.

2-lob, connectiv. galeat.......0se.ssrsescsesecsesnes

Sepal. 9; 3 coalit. valv. Petal. 6. ;

3 lib. 6 monadelph. Anth. 2-lob.diagon. hiant.

Sepal. 9, imbric. Petal. 6. Stam. 6, Anth.

2-lob. Ovar. 3. Stigm. magn. ...crecccereeee

Sepal. 5. Petal. 5. Stam. 5

46,

47.

. Antitaxis.

. Triclisia,

. Pyenarrhena,

Sarcopetalum.

Detandra*,

Syrrhonemat.

49, Elissarrhena }.

50. Baterium§.

dl,

52.

53.

Synclisia.

Penianthus||. «

Quinium.

* Detandra latifolia et ovata, Both from Bahia (Blanchet. id. 3178).

{ Elissarrhena longipes.

ri Baterium validum. Khasya (Griffiths).

|| Penianthus longifolius.

Fernando Po (Mann, 194),

2),

t+ Syrrhonema fasciculatum. Fernando Po (Mann, 19

Rio Negro (Spruce, 1538),

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermaceze. 125

Genera dubia, vel ab ordine excludenda.

Adeliopsis, Bth. & Hook. (Gen. Pl. i. 436). In each of its three carpels

there are two superimposed ovules—a character quite foreign to Meni-

ermacee, and more in conformity with Schizandracee.

Spirospermum, Th. Although admitted in the new ‘ Genera Plantarum’

(i. 39), the genus cannot belong to this order: if the mode of develop-

ment of the ovary in Menispermacee be as I have described it (of

which little doubt can be entertained), no embryo by any possibility

could ever become “cylindricus, longissimus, spiraliter. convolutus.”

This structure recalls to our memory the Sapindaceous genera Ophio-

earyum, Llagunoa, and Guindilla (Valenzuelia), the latter a dicecious or

lygamous plant from the Andes of Chile, having three distinct uni-

a carpels, attached to a short slender gynobase, each containing an

exalbuminous seed with a spiral embryo. The position of Spirospermum

will more probably be found in Sapindacee or Ochnacee.

It may here be remarked that the Chondodendron of the new ‘ Genera

Plantarum’ (non R. & P.) is identical with my genus Odontocarya; and

that my Botryopsis is the same as Chondodendron, R. & P., which name

claims the preference. Microlicia of the same work is synonymous with

my Pleogyne. Sarcopetalum of the same authors belongs to the tribe

Pachygonee.

]. CosciniIum.

This genus was first proposed by Colebrook for a Ceylon

plant (the Veni-vel of the natives), the seed of which had been

figured by Gaertner as the Menispermum fenestratum (De Fruct.

i. 219, tab. 46. f.5). Colebrook’s account of the typical plant

is very incomplete, as he had not seen either the male or the

female flowers, all his data being founded on a short memoran-

dum of Dr. Roxburgh. Gaertner represents the cotyledons of

the embryo as being pierced with holes, whence his specific

name of fenestratum; but in this respect he was undoubtedly

mistaken: that excellent carpologist (perhaps from imperfect

specimens) quite misunderstood the whole seminal structure ;

his drawing shows the radicle in the usual position, diametrically

contrary to the base of the seed, instead of being directed to a

point near it; the cotyledons, though in different cells of the

albumen, are shown to be accumbently placed together, not

laterally divaricated, and to be pierced with holes, instead of

being deeply laciniated on their margins; while the extremely

gibbous form of the drupe is not noticed. The drupe is oval,

and transverse in regard to its. stipitate support, the remains of

the style being seen in one of its angles, at a point removed 30°

from the base ; but as the stipitate support stands at a right

angle with the axis of the pedicel, the longer diameter of the

fruit is parallel with that axis, so that the style, at the distance

mentioned, points towards it. The putamen is correspondingly

oval, somewhat flattened on the side of the stipitate support,

nearly opposite to which are seen two small collateral pervious

126 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez.

holes, opening into eavities of the internal condyle, which forms

a globular expansion on that side within the cell, and upon which

the hollow fungilliform seed is moulded. The embryo is situ-

ated on the opposite or dorsal side, beneath an extremely thin

coating of simple albumen, which is convex on that face, while

it is extremely concave, very.thick, and deeply cleft all over the

opposite side, the thin integuments entering into its numerous

anfractuosities. The embryo therefore partakes of the convexity

of the dorsal side, its small terete radicle pointing to that part

of the cell opposite to the style; while its large cotyledons, of

very delicate texture, are. divaricately separated on the same

plane, deeply laciniated all along their margins, and enclosed in

cells of the albumen of corresponding form. In analyzing this

seed, the greatest care is necessary in removing the thin plate

of albumen which covers the embryo; and it requires a previous

knowledge of its position in order to extract it entire, as the

force required to break away the albumen, which is solid be-

tween the sinuosities of the lacerations of the cotyledons, is

hkely to injure it,—a caution that is requisite in examining the

seeds of the whole of the’ Heterocliniea.

The authors of the ‘Flora Indica’ place this genus in a dis-

tinct tribe (Cosciniee), on the ground that its petals are larger

than the sepals, and that the structure of the seed is different

from that of the Heteroclinieg ; but in this they have considered

the three inner sepals as petals, and they have relied upon

Gaertner’s erroneous figure and description of the seed, not

‘choosing to place faith in my more accurate analysis, to which

they allude*. It will be seen that there is nothing in the strue-

ture at variance with all the other genera of the Heterocliniea,

except in the lacerated margins of the cotyledons: there are

therefore no grounds to justify the retention of the Coseimiee as

a distinct tribe, which view has been confirmed by the authors

of the ‘Genera Plantarum,’ who now reject it. The inner row

of sepals, considered as petals by the before-mentioned botanists,

differ in no respect in their form and appearance, except in size,

from the more external rows—a circumstance of uniform occur-

rence throughout the order. In Abuta we have exactly the same

number and arrangement of floral envelopes as in Coseinium,

and they have always been considered as sepals, which is proved

by the existence of the ordinary form of scale-like petals in Tilia-

cora, where all the other floral envelopes correspond with those

of Abuta. We may therefore conclude that in Coseinium, as in

* After the publication of the ‘ Flora Indica,’ I obtained, through the

kindness of Sir W. Hooker, fresh drupes of Coscinium, by which my

revious analysis of seeds given me by Prof. Lindley was completely con-

ed; .

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee. | 127

Abuta, Batschia, Anelasma, Triclisia, and Syrrhonema, the petals

are altogether wanting, as they are apparently deficient in Fi-

braurea, and also absent in the male flowers of Calycocarpum.

Coscinium is exclusively an Asian genus, generally inhabiting

the islands of the Indian Archipelago. Its species are all climb-

ing plants, with very large, thick, coriaceous, coarsely neryed

leaves, which are generally covered beneath with thick tomentum:

they are oblong, sometimes palate, in other cases peltate, and

supported by long and very strong petioles, which are tumid

and tortuous at both extremities.

Coscinium, Coleb. Pereira, Lindl.—Flores dioici. Mase. Se-

pala 9 (imo bracteis 2 donata) in ordine ternario alternatim

disposita, quorum 6 interiora majora, spathulato-ovata, valde

carnosa, intus glabra, extus sericea, xstivatione imbricata,

demum subrotatim expansa. Petala nulla. Stamina 6, bi-

serialia, androceo cylindrico affixa: filamenta carnosa, 3 exte-

riora libera, apice reflexa, 3 interiora alterna, erecta, ad me-

dium monadelpha, sepalis interioribus opposita: anthere ex-

teriorum introrse, 1-lobe; interiorum subextrorse, 2-lobz,

lobis sejunctis, utrinque lateralibus; omne apice filamenti

dorso affix, et semiimmerse, 2-locellate, 2-valvate, valvis

rima longitudinali hiantibus. Ovarii rudimentum nullum.

—Fem. Sepala maris; petala nulla; stamina 6, sterilia,

geceo affixa; ovaria 3, gibboso-ovata, gynzeceo columnari

insita, 1-locularia, l-ovulata. Stylus tenuis, brevis. Stigma

recurvum (sec. Roxb.). Drupe 3, vel abortu pauciores,

gibbosz, subovales v. globose, carnosx, tomentose, stipite

cerasso breyi suffultz, stylo in angulo versus basin notate, 1-

sperme: putamen ovatum, osseum, crassum, 1-loculare, dorso

convexius, sutura peripherica vix conspicua ; condylus internus,

yentralis, majusculus, globosus, in loculo longe protensus, 2-

cameratus, foraminibus 2 extus perforatus: semen loculo con-

forme, meniscoideo-globosum, facie ventrali valde cayum,

hine condylum amplectens, et ei raphe longitudinali affixum ;:

integumenta tenuiter membranacea, intra plicaturas albuminis

insinuata: embryo paulo convexus, intra albumen amplum

carnosum quasi 2-laminare inclusus, lamina externa tenui,

interna yalde crassa et in lobos plurimos convoluto-plicatos

undique profunde ruminata ; cotyledonibus tenuissime foliaceis,

valde expansis, undique profunde sinuato-laciniatis, lateraliter

divaricatis, et in locellis albuminis utrinque inclusis ; radicula

breyissima, tereti, ad stylum spectante.

Frutices scandentes, in India Orientali et insulis propinquis in-

digent : folia magna, longe petiolata, oblonga, peltata vel palata,

5-7-nervia, crasso-coriacea, supra glabra, subtus tomentosa :

128 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez.

racemus ¢ supra-axillaris, petiolo brevior ; flores miriuti, in

capitulis pedunculatis sessiles, et dense aggregati, omnino cano-

tomentost.

1. Coscinium fenestratum, Coleb. Linn. Trans. xiii. 51; Flor. Ind.

i. 178 ;—Menispermum fenestratum, Gaertner, Fr. i. 219,

tab. 46. £.5; Roxb. Fl. Ind. iii. 809; DC. Syst.i. 541, Prodr.

i. 103 ;—ramulis teretibus, striatis, ferrugineo-tomentosis ;

3 foliis palatis, rotundato-ovatis, imo truncatis et 2-sinuatis,

in lobo medio anguste cordatis, apice breviter et subito lineari-

attenuatis, ad marginem seepe acute ac breviter lobatis, 5-

nerviis, crasso-coriaceis, supra lucidis, planis, in nervis suleatis,

sub lente tenuissime reticulatis, subtus fulvo vel cano-tomen-

tosis ; nervis crassis extus ramosis venisque transversis promi-

nentibus ; petiolo longo, ferrugineo-tomentoso, imo tortuoso et

incrassato ; racemo supra-axillari, tomentoso, petioli tertia parte

longitudinis ; ramis plurimis, longis, divaricatis, apice capitu-

latis, capitulis e floribus sessilibus arcte aggregatis: 9 foliis

subpeltatis, deltoideo-ovatis, acutis, acumine lineari-attenuatis,

imo truncatis, aut vix cordatis, ad marginem plus minusve

lobatis, lobis rotundatis vel subito valde attenuatis, 5-nerviis

(preeter alios nervos 4 basales vix conspicuos), supra lucidis ;

racemo fructifero e pedunculo supraaxillari valido, petioli tertia

parte longitudinis, apice subumbellatim pedicellato ; pedicellis

elongatis, crassiusculis, drupas globosas 3-2-1 breviter stipi-

tatas gerentibus.—Ceylon, v. s. in herb. Mus. Brit. (Konig) ;

in herb. Lindl. ; in herb. Champ. 3 et 2.

In Konig’s specimen the leaves are 64 inches long, 4} inches

broad, the first pair of nerves running nearly parallel with the

margin to near the apex, the petiole measuring 4 inches. In

Prof. Lindley’s plant, the leaves are 7 inches long, 5% inches

broad, on a petiole 34 inches; here the first pair of nerves some-

times terminates in a short acute lobe. In Major Champion’s

6 plant, the leaves, though much broader and of similar shape

at base, are 64 inches long, 53 inches broad, on a petiole nearly

3 inches Jong: in the 9 plant, the leaves are distinctly peltate,

44-5 inches long, 4 inches broad at base, tapering gradually in

a sinuous line to an attenuated apex; here the second pair of

nerves are often extended into two acute, deep, nearly basal

lobes; the petiole is 8 inches long, twisted and tumid at base,

and inserted into the blade 2 or 3 lines within the basal margin.

In the male plant, the inflorescence is about 1 inch long, with

numerous branchlets extending at right angles about $ an inch

iong, each terminated by a globular head 2 or 3 lines in diam,

In the fructiferous plant the peduncle is strong, 1-2 inches long,

terminated. by several radiating pedicels 8-9 lines long, each

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermaces. 129

supporting nearly globular drupes, which are tomentose and

# inch diameter.

2. Coscinium Blumeanum, nob., Ann. Nat. Hist. 2 ser. vii. 37 ;

_ Fl. Ind. i. 79 ;—Cocculus Blumeanus, Wail. ;—ramis petiolis-

que brunneo velutinis ; foliis valde peltatis, lanceolato-oblongis,

basi orbicularibus vix cordatis, dehine gradatim angusti-

oribus, apice repente acutis, 10-nerviis, nervis 2 primis sub-

parallelis et fere ad apicem continuis, crasso-coriaceis, supra

nitidissimis, nervis venisque transversis sulcatis, istis subtus

valde prominentibus, cum pagina inferiore et petiolo longis-

simo imo apiceque valde tumefacto dense cano- vel gilvo-

tomentosis ; racemo supra-axillari petiolo subbreviore, floribus-

que sessilibus, dense aggregatis, gilvo-tomentosis ; ramis al-

ternis subbrevibus, apice globoso-capitatis; sepalis rotato-

‘expansis, superne glabris, flavescentibus, subtus murino-

tomentosis.—Penang, v. s. in herb. Soc. Linn. et Hook. 3

(Wall. Cat. No. 4971 a).

The branches of this very distinct species are clothed with

dense floccose tomentum, and are } inch diam., with internodes

3 inches apart; the leaves. above are very polished, very coria-

ceous, and below are covered with dense white or yellow tomen-

tum, mixed with a few brown silky hairs; they are 12 inches

long, or 103 inches from the insertion of the petiole, 43 to 74

inches broad below the middle, the petiole being nearly 7 inches

long, terete, barely a line in diam., but swollen for some length at

base to a diam. of 4 lines, and thickened at the apex; other

leaves are of the same length, with nearly parallel sides, about

34 inches broad, suddenly contracted on the margins opposite

the insertion of the petiole by a short hollow sinus, and are

thus somewhat panduriform, the petiole being 5 inches long.

The male raceme, originating at some distance from the petiole,

is simple, about 4 or 5 inches long, with ten or fifteen alternate

curving pedicels } inch long, bearing rounded heads, 4 lines

in diam., of crowded sessile flowers.

3. Coscinium Wallichianum, nob. loc. cit. p. 37 ;—C. fenestratum,

H. & L. in parte Fl. Ind. i. 178 ;—ramis petiolisque dense

fulvo-lanatis ; foliis oblongis, acutis, basi obtuse rotundatis et

subsinuatis, palaceis, 5-nerviis, crasso-coriaceis, supra omnino

glabris, nitentibus, in nervis sulcatis, subtus dense sulphureo-

tomentosis ; nervis crassis -venisque transversis valde reticu-

latis prominentibus ; petiolo imo tortuoso et valde incrassato.

—Singapoor, v.s. in herb. Soc. Linn., sine flore (Wall. Cat.

4971, sub “ Cocculus Blumeanus ”’).

The authors of the ‘Flora Indica’ have considered this to be

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xiii. 9

“180 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee.

identical with the typical species; Wallich, however, regarded it —

as distinct from that plant, making it a variety of C. Blume-

anum. It differs from the latter in its palate leaves and shorter

‘petioles, and from the former in their oblong and more pointed

form, with a different tomentum and shorter petioles. Its elaims —

to rank as a distinct species are strengthened by the considera-

tion of the far-distant country of its origin, and because the

two other species are quite local. Its branches are covered with

woolly fulvous tomentum, and its leaves, which are gradually

narrower from the middle to the apex, are 8} inches long, 6

‘inches broad, on a petiole 2? inches long.

2. CaLycocaRPUM.

This genus was established by Nuttall, in 1838, upon a plant

of the Western States of North America, the Menispermum Lyont

of Pursh. It is well figured in Gray’s ‘Genera of the United

States, but the details of the putamen and seed are incom-

plete. It is a slender climbing plant, having deeply cordate

5-lobed leaves, with sinuated margins, palately fixed upon a long

slender petiole; the inflorescence is an axillary, elongated, slen-

‘der, racemose panicle, nearly as long as the leaf and petiole.

‘It differs from all others of the Heterocliniee in having its male

flowers provided with six sepals, no petals, and 12 free stamens

in two series ; its female flower has six sepals, six small fleshy

petals, six sterile stamens, and three or four sessile ovaries, with

a very short thick style and a multilaciniated spreading stigma.

Its drupe contains a meniscoid, orbicular, thin, chartaceous pu-

tamen, globose on the dorsal side, with a sharp apical spine; it

is concave on the ventral face, furnished on its margin with a

number of soft sharp flattened teeth, and along the upper moiety

of the ventral face with a carinated longitudinal ridge similarly

toothed; the hollow of this face forms a concave scutiform con-

dyle, which protrudes into the centre of the cell, and from its

upper part is suspended, by a very short funicle, the deeply

meniscoid seed ; the embryo is enclosed in the middle of nearly

simple albumen, which is marked on the inner face by transverse ©

lines where it is obsoletely ruminated; the small radicle points

to the style near the vertex; the cotyledons are flat, foliaceous,

oval, greatly divaricated; they partly overlie each -other in the

upper part, but are widely separated in their lower portion, the

albumen being there correspondingly 2-celled to contain them.

The genus is therefore marked by very salient characters.

Carycocarrum, Nutt.—Flores dioici. Mase. Sepala 9, quorum

3 exteriora bracteiformia, 6 interiora multo majora, 2-serialia,

subeequalia, spathulato-oblonga, membranacea, sstivatione

Mr, J. Miers on the Menispermacee. 181

. imbricata. Petala nulla, Stamina 12, 4-serialia, libera,

quorum 6 sepalis opposita et breviora, 6 interiora longiora et

alterna, erecta, longitudine sepalorum ; filamenta lata, mem-

branacea ; anthere 2-lobex, lobis fere parallelis, dorso affixis,

rima longitudinali introrsum dehiscentibus ; ovarii vestigium

nullum.—Fam. Sepala 6, obovata. Petala 6, iis opposita, triplo

breviora, lineari-oblonga, carnosa, intus profunde canali-

formia. Stamina sterilia 6, petalis paulo longiora; anthere

glanduliformes, effoete. Ovaria 3 vel 4, libera, gynecio glo-

boso insita, gibboso-oblonga, glabra, 1-locularia; ovulo soli-

tario lateri ventrali appenso. Stylus brevis, crassus. Stigma

in lacinias plurimas acutas irregulares radiatas fissum.

Drupe 3, globoso-oblonge, styli vestigio paulo excentrico

apiculate, carnose, glabre; putamen tenuiter chartaceum,

meniscoideo-ovatum, dorso globosum, ventre concavum, mar-

gine chartaceo in dentes plurimos acutos irregulariter serrato,

apiceque spina obliqua armatum, et dehine carina brevi serrata

facie ventrali notatum, 1-loculare ; condylus subobsoletus, scu-

tiformis, extus concavus, intus valde convexus, et intra locu-

lum protensus ; semen loculo conforme, meniscoideum, funi-

culo brevi ex apice condyli suspensum; integumenta mem-

branacea, raphe longitudinali ventrali non procul ab apice ad

basin extensa; embryo in albumine fere simplici inclusus ;

radicula minima, supera ; cotyledones ovales, tenuiter foliacez,

stipitate, primo paulo imbricate, dein valde divaricate et in

locellis distinctis albuminis sepulte.

Frutex scandens Americe Septentrionalis ; folia longe petiolata,

profunde 5-loba, marginibus sinuata: panicule racemose, axil-

lares; 3 elongate, multiflore ; 2 breves, pauciflore.

1. Calycocarpum Lyoni, Nutt. in Torr. & Gr. Fl. N. Amer. i. 48 ;

A. Gray, Gen. Unit. St. i. 75, pl. 30 ;—Menispermum Lyoni,

Pursh, Fl. Bor. Am. ii. 371; DC. Syst. i. 541 ;—scandens,

ramulis teneribus, striatulis ; foliis profunde cordatis, palmato-

lobatis, lobis 3-5, subzequalibus, subellipticis, acuminatis,

margine irregulariter sinuato-dentatis, supra viridibus, subtus

flavido-opacis, utrinque sparsim pilosis; petiolo longissimo,

glabro, striato, imo tumidulo ; panicula racemosa, ¢ folium cum

petiolo subeequante ; ramis alternis e basi iterumque ramosis,

plurifloris; floribus parvis, iridescenti-albis, imo bracteola

donatis.—In Alabama, Tennessee, et Kentucky.

In the specimens I have seen, the branches are 14 line diam.,

the leaves 5} inches diam.; the deep lobes, with rounded sinus,

are 23-84 inches long, 14 inch broad; the petiole is 5 inches

long, 4 line thick, palately inserted ; the axillary panicle, in form

of a slender raceme, is 10 inches long, with branches varying

132 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermaces.

from 4 to 1} inch long, the ultimate pedicels being 1 line long.

In the female plant, the leaves are 7 inches diam., the lobes

3-4 inches long; the petiole is 74 inches long, slender, swollen

and tortuous at base; the fructiform raceme is 5 inches long,

with eight or nine simple alternate pedicels 3 lines long; drupe

10 lines long, 8 lines diam., semiglobose, obsoletely stipitated at

base; putamen as before described.

3. JATEORHIZA.

The root of the typical species on which this genus is founded

was known for a very long period in commerce under the name

of Calumba; but the plant that produced it remained quite in

obscurity until Sir William Hooker published his interesting

account of it in the ‘ Botanical Magazine,’ tab. 2970, 2971,

under the name of Cocculus palmatus. On the examination

of its male and female flowers, as well as of its seed, I found that

it constituted a new and valid genus, to which the name of

Jateorhiza was given, on account of the medicinal properties of

its root. In 1851, in my “ Notes on Menispermacee,” I gave a

very short outline of its leading characters, having two years

previously prepared a more ample diagnosis of the genus and

the characters of a new species, at the request of Dr. Hooker,

which he published in his ‘ Niger Flora” The plants of the

genus, natives of intertropical Africa, are all climbers, distin-

guished by a very peculiar habit, having very large deeply lobed

leaves, upon very long petioles, and clothed with long strigose

hairs; their inflorescence is in long slender racemes; the fruit

is a drupe containing a putamen much resembling that of Odon-

tocarya, and which in like manner is covered with a dense

hairy coating imbedded in the fleshy mesoderm. In the struc-

ture of its putamen, and the form of its embryo, imbedded in

partially ruminated albumen; it quite conforms with the other

genera of the Heterocliniee. The bitter and tonic qualities of

Calumba-root are supposed to be owing to the presence of a

peculiar principle allied to cinchonine, and called calumbine,

the exact nature of which is not fully ascertained.

JATEORHIZA, nob.—Flores dioici. Masc. Sepala 6, ovata, 2-

seriata, exteriora paulo minora, eestivatione imbricata. Pe-

tala 6, ovata, sepalis paulo breviora, apice truncata, lateribus

introflexis stamina tegentia. Stamina 6, petalis opposita et

subzequilonga ; filamenta carnosa, apice valde tumida ruguloso-

punctata subito refracta, et extrorsum antherifera; anthere

globoso-4-lobz, intus 4-locellate, rima horizontali 2-valvatim

hiantes. Ovaria rudimentaria 8, centralia, punctiformia.—

Fem. Sepala ut in mase. Petala cuneato-obovata, crassius-

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermaceze. 133

‘ eula, apice emarginata, lateribus introflexis stamina volventia.

Stamina 6, sterilia, petalis dimidio breviora; filamenta te-

nuiora, apice subclavata, glandulis 2 effcetis signata. Ovaria

_ 8, libera, erecta, oblonga, gibba, extus dense glanduloso-

pilosa, gynzecio sub-3-gono imposita, 1-locularia; ovulo unico

funiculo brevi ex angulo interno supra medium appenso,

Stylus brevis, crassus, subexcentricus. Stigma 3-partitum.

laciniis 2-3-fidis, reflexis. Drupe 3, abortu pauciores, ovate,

carnose, 1-spermz ; putamen ovatum, dorso convexum, tuber-

culatum, pilis fibrillosis creberrime indutum, ventre leve;

condylus ventralis, scutelliformis, ovalis, extus concavus, intus

convexus et paulo intrusus ; semen loculo conforme, menis-

coideum ; embryo intra albumen carnosum quasi 2-laminare

fere rectus, lamella exteriore simplici tenui, interiore crassiore

in fissuras plurimas transversales profunde ruminata; integu-

menta tenuia, intra plicas albuminis insinuata; cotyledones

membranaceo-foliaceze, spathulato-oblong, lateraliter divari-

catze, et in locellis distinctis albuminis sepulte, radicula su-

pera brevi tereti ad summum spectante 10-plo longiores.

Suffrutices Africe tropice, alte scandentes, setis rigidis vel pilis

setosis vestiti; folia alterna, magna, longe petiolata, cordata,

rotundata, palmatim 3-5-7-loba; racemi avzillares, elongati,

ramis lavis 3-7-floris; flores vagi, pro ordine majuscult,

bracteati, subsessiles, bracteis longissime setoso-ciliatis donati.

1. Jateorhiza palmata, nob., Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 2. vii. 38 ;—

Coceulus palmatus, DC. Syst. i. 522; Hook. Bot. Mag. tab.

2970, 2971 ;—Menispermum palmatum, Lam. Dict. iv. 99;

Calumba, Comm. ;—vamis striatis ; foliis palmatim 5-7-lobatis,

mucronato-apiculatis, sinibus acutis; lobis acuminatis, inte-

gris, basalibus profunde auriculatis et approximatis, supra

levigatis, nitidis, subtus pallidioribus, utrinque nervis venis-

que setis apice glandulosis sparsim hispidis, margine setoso-

ciliatis ; petiolo crasso, elongato, striato, basi incrassato, fere

glabro; racemo ¢ axillari, gracili, petiolo fere 2-plo longiore,

setis paucis retrorsis hispidulo, ramis laxis plurifloris; ra-

cemo 2 petiolo dimidio breviore, floribus densioribus, pedicel-

lis 1-floris—Mozambique (lat. 16° aust.), v.s. ¢ et 2 in herb.

Hook. (Bojer, a Telfairio in insul. Mauritian. cult.). Specim.

mag. juv. in herb. Soc. Linn., Wall. Cat. 4953 c.; Mauritius

(Telfair).

This species is very distinct from that cultivated in the Cal-

cutta Botanic Garden, the two having been confounded together.

The leaves are orbicular, 14 inches diam. ; the central lobe from

the insertion of the petiole is 10 inches long, the lateral lobes

134, Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez.

84 inches, the lower lobes 8 inches, the basal portions of which

are closely approximated and extend 34 inches below the inser-

tion of the petiole; the petiole is 62 inches long, and 2 lines

diam. The peduncle of the male raceme is 12 inches long,

slender, polished, of a reddish chestnut-colour, striated, and

furnished with a very few retrorse stiff hairs, which are some-

times glandular at the apex; its branchlets 2 lines apart are

bracteated, 6-8 lines long, with nearly sessile flowers ; the female

raceme is simple, 3 inches long, with a few distant 1-flowered

pedicels, 3 lines long.

2. Jateorhiza Calumba, nob. ;—Cocculus palmatus, Wall. (non

DC.) ;—Menispermum Columba, Roxb. Fl. Ind. iti. 807 (non

Comm.) ;—ramulis teretibus, angulato-striatis, breviter retror-

sum hispido-pilosis ; foliis late orbicularibus, sinuato-lobatis, si-

nibus rotundatis, lobis 5, late ovatis, acutis, apice mucronato-

- acuminatis, basalibus profunde divaricatis, et hinc late cordatis,

7—-9-nerviis, supra opacis, utrinque pilis brevibus adpressis

curvulis rufescentibus munitis, subtus pallidis, nervis venis-

que valde reticulatis prominentibus, in nervis longius et

patenter glanduloso-hispidulis ; petiolo subtenui, striato, imo

incrassato et tortuoso, patenter glanduloso-hispido; race-

_ mis axillaribus, solitariis vel plurimis, ¢ foliis longioribus,

imo nudis; rachi valde elongata, striata, patenter strigosa,

ramis elongatis, divaricatis, fere capillaribus, glabris, sub-

flexuosis, paucifloris, imo bractea lineari setoso-ciliata donatis;

floribus sessilibus, fere ebracteatis—In Africa Australi, ora

orientali inter Mozimba et Ibo (lat. 11° aust.), v. s. in herb.

Soc. Linn. (Wall. Cat. 4953), hort. Bot. Cale. cult.

I have nowhere seen native specimens of this species, the

male plant of which was introduced, many years ago, from the

locality above quoted into the Botanic Garden of Calcutta, where

it is still cultivated. A long account of it was published

by Dr. Berry, in the ‘ Asiatic Researches’ (x. 385, t. 5). Its

native place is 5° to the northward of Mozambique, where the

former species is found. Its branches are soft and of very lax

texture, of annual growth, seldom exceeding 3 inch diam. ; its

leaves are not so membranaceous as those of the former species,

and in no degree polished above, the reticulations being finer,

more numerous, and more prominent: in the former species the

incisures are acute; here they are wide and rounded; and the

basal lobes, which in the former are longer, more parallel, and

nearly overlapping one another, are here shorter and much di-

varicated : the petiole is not so densely pilose, and is only half

the thickness of that of the former. The inflorescence is very dif-

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermace. - 185

ferent, the flowers being larger, and the ciliated bracts at the base

of the branchlets far more conspicuous. The leaves are smaller

and broader in proportion, their total length, including the basal

lobes, being 7 inches, while their breadth is 9} inches, the

central lobe from the insertion of the petiole measuring 6 inches,

the lateral lobes 53 inches, the lower lobes 5 inches, the basal

portions of which are wide apart, and extend 1? inch below the

line of insertion of the petiole ; the petiole measures 53 inches,

and is 1 line diam. The male raceme is 18 inches long, its

rachis being sparsely pilose with spreading glandular reddish

hairs ; its branchlets are divaricated, filiform, flexuose, glabrous,

14 inch long, and 7-8-flowered; the flowers are sessile, gla-

brous, and 3 lines diam. when expanded.

8. Jateorhiza strigosa, nob., Hook. Fl. Nig. 212, pl. 18;—Coc-

* eulus macranthus, Hook. fil. in Hook. Icon. pl. 759 ;—foliis

rotundatis, sinuato-3-lobatis, basi profunde inciso-cordatis ;

lobis acute 3-angularibus, mucronatis, lateralibus imo in

auriculas basales profundas rotundatis, marginibus parallelis

fere approximatis,; submembranaceis, reticulatis, supra nitidis,

subtus pallidioribus, 7-nerviis, nervis utrinque setoso-strigosis,

setis adpressis rigidis rufulis longiusculis, margine dense

setoso-ciliatis; petiolo striato, auriculis 2-plo longiore, arcte

setoso-strigoso ; racemo axillari; floribus cruleo coloratis

(Smith), lutescenti-albis (Vogel).—In Africa, ora occidentali,

v. s. in herb. Mus. Brit., Congo et ins. Fernando Po (Exped.

- Tuckey) ; in herb. Hook. 3 et 2, Clarence Cove, Fernando

Po (Vogel).

This is a very distinct species. The leaves, including the

basal lobes, are 94 inches long, 9 inches broad; from the apex

to the insertion of the petiole is 7} inches; the lateral lobes,

with a broad intervening sinus or undulation, are 6 inches long;

the depth of the basal lobes is therefore 2} inches; the petiole

is 54 inches long. The raceme is 5 inches long, its branchlets

2-8 lines in length; its flowers are much smaller than those of

the preceding species, and about the size of those of the first-

mentioned typical plant, scarcely exceeding 2 lines diam. when

expanded. The above dimensions are from the specimen in the

British Museum: in those of Vogel’s Collection the leaves are

only 3-44 inches long, 4—6 inches broad, on a petiole 6—8 inches

long; the racemes are only 2—4 inches long.

[To be continued. |

1386 Mr. W, H. Benson on anew Genus of Auriculacea.

XVII.— Characters of Coilostele, an undescribed Genus of Auri- —

culacea (?), and of Species of Helix, Pupa, and Ancylus, from

India, West Africa, and Ceylon. By W. H. Bunson, Esq.

CorzosTEz, B., nov. gen.

Testa imperforata, elongato-cylindrica; axis columellaris interna

spire obsoleta. Apertura semiovata; margine columellari superne

oblique subspiraliter uniplicata.

Coilostele scalaris, B.

C. testa imperforata, elongato-cylindrica, leevi, hyalina, nitida; spira

elongata, gradatim scalariter attenuata, apice obtuso, sutura pro-

funda; anfractibus 6, convexiusculis, superne obtuse angulatis,

penultimo cylindraceo ; apertura subobliqua, semiovata, subpyri-

formi; peristomate tenui, recto, marginibus remotis, margine

columellari crassiusculo, plica spirali obliqua elongata superne

intrante munito. :

Long. 3, diam. vix 1 mill. Apert. %, lata 3 mill.

Habitat ad Humeerpore, Bundelkhund, prope ripas fluviorum Jumna

et Betwa.

I discovered this shell, in October 1826, in the sand of the

Betwa river, while searching for Achatina Balanus, of which I

had taken a specimen in the aperture of a derelict Helix; and

after a few days I took dead specimens, with the same minute

Achatina, among the clay-covered roots of a large tree which

had fallen in the peafowl jungle on the left bank of the Jumna

opposite to Humeerpore, and in a dried hollow near it, whither

those shells had been washed in the rains with Bulimus gracilis,

Hutton. In January 1839 I took, I believe, a single specimen

among the porphyritic and greenstone rocks of the singular

crater-like hill of Khaneen, sixteen miles south of Hansi, in the

Delhi district, but broke it before I could examine it under a

lens.

In a list published in the Calcutta ‘ Gleanings in Science?’ of

1829 I set this shell down as a minute Pupa; but on observing

that the spiral column was obsolete or absorbed, as in the genus

Pythia (Scarabus), I came to the conclusion that the form really

belongs to the family of Auriculacea. In the other inland

genus, Carychium, the spiral column is intact, except close to the

summit, although in the littorine genera Alewia, Auricula, Me-

lampus, and Cassidula I find the internal structure of the spire

similar to that of Cotlostele and Pythia.

In C. scalaris the aperture has some resemblance to that of

Jaminia, Say, a North-American marine operculate genus, which

Kiister included in the Auriculacea, but which is now referred

to the Pyramidellidee.

Shortly before 1853, Capt. T. Hutton collected specimens of

Mr. W. H. Benson on new Species of Helix. 137

C. scalaris in the exuvie of the River Ganges, probably in the

Do-ab portion of the stream.

With reference to the internal spiral formation of Pythia,

Pfeiffer observes :—‘ Testa ut plures Auriculaceorum sectiones

ea peculiaritate notabilis est quod septa interiora in anfractibus

superioribus desint, observante primo cl. Chemnitzio.” Kiister

also quotes Chemnitz’s observations on the same appearance in

the genus; but I can trace no record in Pfeiffer respecting the

other genera in which it has been observed. In Alexia the

animal cone runs up the hollow, and has evidently absorbed the

portion of the shell which it has displaced.

It is worthy of record that, about the year 1843, Capt. W. J.

Boys took specimens of Achatina Balanus at the Taj, near Agra,

in company with a minute Carychium, very similar to the Hima-

layan species C. indicum, B.; subsequently Capt. Hutton found

it in the exuvie of the River Ganges; and in 1857, Mr. W.

Theobald found the same Achatina at Gopnath, in Kattiwar,

These shells may have a still wider range, being overlooked in

consequence of their minute size.

Heliz palmaria, B.

H. testa perforata, subconica, spiraliter 7-lirata, striis filosis obliquis

confertissimis decussata, sub epidermide cornea albida; spira sub-

conica, apice obtusiusculo leevigato, sutura impressa; anfractibus

64, convexis, ultimo subtus convexiusculo, peritremate leviter ca-

rinato; apertura obliqua, late angulato-lunata, subsecuriformi ;

peristomate tenui, recto, margine columellari superne breviter ex-

pansiusculo.

Diam. major 83, minor 8, axis 6 mill.

Habitat ad montem Nundydroog in regione Mysoriana.

Two imperfect specimens were found by my son, Capt. C. A.

Benson, on the Fort Hill of Nundydroog, north of Bangalore,

in Mysore, and a single specimen (fully grown, but weathered)

by my daughter, Mrs. R. H. Sankey, at the same place, about

4000 feet above the level of the sea. It is very distinct from

the various lirate species described by the Messrs. Blanford

in the ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society’ for 1861, from the hill-

ranges of Southern India.

Heliz contracta, Hutton, MS.

H, testa late umbilicata, depressa, discoidea, oblique striatula,

leevigata, nitidula, albida, fascia rufescente supra angulum su-

periorem cincta; spira planata, apice vix elevatiore, sutura im-

pressa ; anfractibus 4, sensim accrescentibus, convexiusculis, ultimo

supra peripheriam compressiusculo subangulato, antice latiore

oblique descendente, subtus convexo, umbilicum mediocrem,

medio anguste excavatum, suturaque brevi profunda munitum

188 Mr. W. H. Benson on new Species of Pupa.

cireumstante ; apertura valde obliqua, lata, ovato-lunari; peristo-

mate non continuo, superne expansiusculo, subhorizontali, infra

reflexiusculo, marginibus conniventibus approximatis.

Diam. major 13, minor 10, alt. 4 mill. Apert. lata 54, alt. 4 mill.

Habitat prope Mhow, Malwa. Detexit Capt. T. Hutton.

This shell approaches H. Nilagirica, Pfr., but may at once be

distinguished by its narrower umbilicus, showing only one and

a half less convex whorls, by its flatter spire, different surface,

and less suddenly deflected last whorl, which is subangulate

and not rounded at the periphery, also by the non-continuous

peristome. It occupies an intermediate place between the

southern H. Nilagirica and the Bundelkhund H. asperella, Pfr.,

first taken by me in 1824, also taken at Mhow by Capt. Hutton.

It is worthy of remark that on the underside of H. Nilagirica

there is a tendency to granulation like that of H. asperella, but

that H. contracta presents no trace of it*.

Pupa Thibetica, B.

P. testa rimato-subperforata, oblongo-ovata, leevigata, translucente,

vitrea ; spira ovata, apice obtuso, sutura impressa ; anfractibus 5,

subconvexis, ultimo antice ascendente; apertura obovata, 6-pli-

cata, plica 1 parietali angulari, secunda inferiore profunda, denti-

bus 2 columellaribus duobusque palatalibus profundis munita ;

peristomate tenui, expansiusculo, margine columellari reflexiusculo.

Long. 2, diam. 1 mill.

Habitat ad Iskardo, Thibet. Detexit Dr. Thomson.

This shell, received some years ago through Mr. Woodward

of the British Museum, is nearly allied to P. Huttoniana, Bens.,

to which I erroneously referred it originally ; but, on close exa-

mination, perfect specimens exhibit two parietal plaits, one of

which is remotely seated, and in some positions is not easily

detected.

Pupa Gutta, B.

P. testa obsolete rimata, oblongo-ovata, levigata, tenui, pallide

cornea, translucente; spira obtuse ovata, sutura impressa ; anfrac-

tibus 43, convexiusculis, ultimo antice vix ascendente; apertura

obliqua, edentula, angulato-rotundata; peristomatis marginibus

remotis, dextro recto acuto, columellari expansiusculo.

Long. 13, diam. 1 mill.

Habitat in valle Spiti, Kunawurensi. Detexit W. Theobald.

A single specimen, apparently adult, was received from Mr.

* On referring to Capt. Hutton’s description of an unnamed Carocolla,

in page 520 of the ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal’ for 1834,

which was found by him between Nimuch and Mhow, I have come to the

conclusion that it is intended for the shell subsequently received from him

under the MS. name of Helix contracta. .

Mr. W.H. Benson on new Species of Pupa and Ancylus. 139

Theobald. Pupa Himalayana, Hutton (Annals, Dec. 1863), an

elongate and strongly sculptured shell, is the only edentate

species previously described from the Himalayan region.

Pupa Eurina, B.

P. testa perforata, ovato-cylindrica, solidiuscula, suboblique stria-

tula, rufo-castanea, nitidula; spira ovato-cylindrica, apice obtuso,

sutura impressa, submarginata ; anfractibus 7-74, convexis, ultimo

antice ascendente; apertura semiovata, subobliqua, edentula;

istomate expansiusculo, albido, margine dextro extus postice

incrassato.

Long. 24, diam. 1 mill.

Habitat ad Tribeni Ghat fluminis Gogra. Detexit W. Theobald.

This shell closely approaches the edentulate variety of P. mar-

ginata, Drap. (muscorum, L.), in form and aperture. It is much

larger than the British specimens of that species, and more

solid, and may easily be distinguished by its decided perforation,

instead of being merely rimate, and by the margination of the

suture. The specimens sent by Mr. Theobald were all derelict,

and some are deficient in colour.

Pupa Ofelia, B.

P. testa vix rimata, globoso-ovata, confertim striatula, albido-vitrea,

translucente, polita; spira subovata, superne convexa, apice ob-

tuso, sutura impressa ; anfractibus 4, convexis, ultimo antice non

ascendente; apertura vix obliqua, angulato-ovata, 4-dentata, plica

parietali mediana curvata duplici subdenticulata intrante, dente

columellari marginali magno crasso bicruri palatalibusque 2 mar-

ginalibus (superiore infra elongato, inferiore acuto) munita; peri-

_ stomate incrassato.

Long. 14, diam. 1 mill.

Habitat prope Liberiam Africe occidentalis.

This minute shell (long mislaid) has been several years in my

possession: it fell out of the interior of one of several shells

from Liberia, and appears to have been overlooked by collectors,

and not to have been obtained by the describers of species from

that part of Africa. The shell is in excellent condition, and its

animal had probably crept with it into the aperture of the de-

serted shell of another species. There is a bright red appearance

internally, which leads to the belicf that a portion of the animal

is scarlet, as in Ennea bicolor and several Mauritian Pupe.

Ancylus Ceylanicus, B.

A, testa suboblonge conoidea, antice convexa, postice concava, extus

tenuissime radiato-costulata, costis subremotis elevatioribus munita,

striis confertis concentricis decussata, viridescenti-cornea, margine

lato, lutescenti-cornea, apice submediano, subelongato, postice at-

140 Mr. A. Adams on some Molluscous Animals

tenuato, acutiusculo, ad dextram leviter verso; apertura subro-

tundato-ovata, intus albida nitente.

Long. 6, lat. 4, alt. 23 mill.

Habitat in regione Matelle Ceylanica.

Two specimens were procured by Mr. F. Layard from the

Lagalle division of the Matelle district. This is the first species

of the genus which has been found in Ceylon. It is related to

the European A. fluviatilis, but may at once be distinguished

by the elevated radiate ribs which occur at short intervals and,

equally with the depressed spaces, are marked longitudinally

with the minute ribs at their sides.

M. Bourguignat represents Ancylus Baconii as occurring in

Bengal. A. Verruca, Bens. (Annals for January 1855), taken

by me at Bhimtal, and by Dr. Bacon and myself in Rohilkhund,

and which was found by Mr. Theobald in Orissa, is the sole

Indian species decidedly known. I strongly suspect that M.

Bourguignat’s species is that which was taken by Dr. J. F. Bacon

at Henley Park, six miles from the Darling Range, in West

Australia.

Cheltenham, Dec. 26, 1863.

Erratum.—In ‘Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.’ for December 1863, p. 427,

line 11 from top, for “ parietal” read “‘ columellar.”

XVIII.—Notes on some Molluscous Animals from the Seas of

China and Japan. By Artuur Apams, F.L.S. &e.

“Tere is in shell-fish something more to consider than their

shells,” observes wise old Adanson ; and indeed we are all aware

that a knowledge of its testaceous envelope is not always suffi-

cient to determine the natural position or affinities of a mollusk.

I lately placed my genus Scaliola with the “ Wentletraps,” and

associated my Diala with Planaxis; Fenella also fared no

better, and was regarded by me as a Pyramidellid. On becoming

acquainted, however, with the animals of those genera, I have

been enabled, by means of the ‘ Annals,’ to refer them to their

natural families; and as any account of these molluscous crea-

tures, written down from careful observation on the spot, must

be of interest, I have thrown together some of my notes for in-

sertion in your Journal. The photographic art may some day

be applied to portray the forms of the Mollusca: in the mean-

time, accurate drawings should not be despised; and I trust at

some future period to be able to reproduce a few of mine of the

mollusks of Japan.

Photinula quesita, A. Ad.

P, testa orbiculato-conica, imperforata, spira elatiuscula, regione

from the Seas of China and Japan. 141

umbilicali valde impressa, umbilico callo albo obtecto; carneo-

rufescenti, ad suturas radiatim castaneo nebulosa, ad peripheriam

maculis obliquis albis castaneisque ornata; anfractibus 52, con-

vexis, transversim liratis, liris superioribus moniliformibus, infe-

ferioribus simplicibus ; anfractu ultimo ad peripheriam rotundato-

angulato ; apertura subcirculari, intus sulcata et vivide iridescente.

Lat. 9 lin., alt. 7 lin. ©

Hab. Aniwa Bay; 17 fathoms: Tatiyama: Kino-O-Sima.

This is a large and handsome species, with the upper thread-

like ridges of the whorls beaded, and the lower ones simple. It

is of a reddish flesh-colour, blotched and variegated with pale

chestnut at the sutures and periphery.

The animal has a large prominent muzzle, bearded at the end.

Head-lobes none. Tentacles prismatic, flat above, beset with

short cilia, and lineated with red-brown. Eyes on dull black

bulbs with small bright black pupils at the end of subtruncate

white swellings, supported on thick cylindrical white pedicels.

Neck-lappets large, the left white, plain-edged, notched near

the eye-pedicel, and involute ; the right also white, but festooned

and with the margin shortly ciliated. Lateral filaments with

short cilia, four on each side, each with a red-brown line down

the middle. Mantle-margin finely papillose, and shortly reflexed

over the front edge of the shell. Foot milky white, speckled

and reticulate with red-brown (the same colour as the markings

on the shell), very long, powerful, and thick, acuminate behind,

truncate in front, with two little slender tentacular filaments at

the angles, prismatic behind the operculum, where it is flat

above, with two prominent ridges at the angles; margin of sole

shortly ciliated.

The animal often greatly extends the foot, and uses it as a

lever to turn over and regain its original position.

Serpulus Adamsi, Morch.

The animal is pale pearl-white, minutely flecked with opake

white. The tentacles are flattened, short, and somewhat tri-

angular, bearing a minute sessile black eye at their outer bases,

just within the commencement of the neck-lobe. The under

edge of the tentacles and the neck-lobe are adorned with regular

rather distant yellow dots, forming the pupils of as many oliva-

ceous eye-like spots. The-head is green, sprinkled with white,

and with a vertical groove extending down the middle. The

head is very long, gradually growing narrower, and ending be-

hind in a tapering point, and in front in a short and rounded

muzzle.

The foot is large, fleshy, hollow at the sides, and spotted near

the fore part with olive-green. At the lower edge there is a

142 Mr. A, Adams on some Molluscous Animals

sharp prominent keel, articulated with white and dark green.

This angular ridge separates the hollow sides from the flat lower

portion, which is of a dull pinkish white. The sole, or small

anterior membranous portion situated in front of the head, is of

a pale white, and the broad circular expanded disk is marbled

with olivaceous, the edges being prettily spotted with dark

green and white.

A favourite attitude is one in which the position of the animal

in its tubular shell is reversed, and the disk of the foot applied

against the upper edge, the concave sides forming two hollow

channels to conduct the water to the gills, thus performing the

office of siphons. ‘This beautiful creature is common along the

shores of Manchuria and Japan, where it adheres to the tidal

rocks. My examples were obtained from 7 fathoms’ water at

Mososeki, in the Inland Sea or Seto-Uchi. The same species

has recently been described by Dr. Dunker, in his ‘ Mollusea

Japonica,’ as Serpulorbis imbricatus.

Pilidium commodum, Midd.

In a sandy bay of Saghaleen, near Cape Notoro, great masses

of Laminaria were thrown up in heaps on the beach after a tre-

mendous gale; and it was during an examination of the rich

stores of shipwrecked and stranded animal remains that I found

several specimens of what I believed to be an undescribed shell.

Being at the time unacquainted with Middendorff’s Pilidium

commodum, I named my shell Capulus depressus, under which

name it is published in the ‘ Annals’ for 1860. ~

According to Middendorff’s description, the animal does not

differ from that of Capulus ; but perhaps the extremely depressed

form of the shell may allow Pi/idium to remain as a subgenus

of Capulus. In the ‘Spitzbergen Mollusca’ of Otto Torrell

(p. 88) it is stated that Prof. Lovén has named this shell Piliscus

probus, altering the name Pilidiwm because Prof. E. Forbes had

used it for Jothia; though why he should have altered the spe-

cific name also is not stated. Pildium of Forbes, however, or

Tothia is the same as Lepeta of Gray; so that Pilidium of Mid-

dendorff should still be employed for this northern Capulus,

Hisinger, according to Torrell, described the same shell in his

‘Lethea Suecica’ as Capulus Hungaricus; and Torrell himself

proposes to call it Pzliscus commodus.

Eburna japonica, Reeve.

In this species the tentacles are ringed with red-brown, and

speckled with light yellow; and the siphon is spotted with yel-

lowish white, and irregularly banded with red-brown lines, The

foot (long, large, thick, and fleshy, like that of Buccinum) is

from the Seas of China and Japan. 143

transversely banded with irregular red-brown lines and minutely

spotted with pale yellow. The sole is also edged with pale

yellow. At the caudal extremity of the foot there is a single

conspicuous cylindrical terminal filament. I obtained living

specimens from 35 fathoms, off Tsu-saki, in Japan.

Cancellaria Spengleriana, Desh.

The latest account of the animal of Cancellaria I have seen

is given by Dr. Gray in his ‘Guide to Mollusca,’ It is very

vague and imperfect; but the true position, I believe, is there

suggested to be in close vicinity to Mitra.

In Cancellaria Spengleriana the tentacles are broad, flat, tri-

angularly subulate, wide apart, separated by the base of the

retractile proboscis. The eyes are small and black, and are

placed on slight tubercles at the outer bases of the tentacles.

The mantle is furnished with a small siphonal fold. The foot is

large, flat, truncate in front, with short side-angles, and acumi-

nate and produced behind. Operculum none.

The tentacles of this species are rendered dark nearly as far

as the eyes by close-set small red-brown dots; the siphonal fold

of the mantle is sparsely spotted with the same; both dorsum

and sole of the foot are reticulate with red-brown lines, and

dotted with the same colour.

The animal is very shy, rarely showing more than the tips of

the tentacles beyond the front edge of the shell. It has the

power of considerably extending the fore part of the foot, using

it as an exploring organ.

Turcica instricta, Gould.

I observed the animal of this shell at Satanomo-saki, where I

dredged living specimens from a depth of 55 fathoms. It is the

Trochus instrictus of Gould originally, then a Monodonta, after-

wards (Otia Conchologica, p. 245) a Euchelus. It has, however,

the tortuous columella and general characters of my genus Tur-

cica, founded in 1854: upon a large species from Australian seas.

My Monodonta angulifera, from the Philippines, is an allied but

quite distinct species; and I have recently described a few

others. These smaller Turcice with the outer lip sulcate have

been separated by my brother and myself, in our ‘ Genera,’ as a

subgenus of Kuchelus, under the name of Perrinia. It would,

however, have been more correct to have placed them under the

genus Turcica. .

In this animal the head, neck, and upper part of the body

are finely reticulate with light brown, and the tentacles and

siphon are minutely speckled with opake white. The tentacles

are long, white, and semipellucid ; the eyes are large and black,

144 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

at the tips of short stout pedicels. The head-lobes are small,

white, and pectinate. The foot is very small and narrow. Un-

fortunately, owing to a gale suddenly springing up and cap-

sizing my arrangements, I was unable to note any peculiarities

of the neck-lappets and lateral filaments.

Glyphis quadriradiata, Sow.

An examination of the animals of P. P. Carpenter’s group of

Fissurellids, which he has appropriately named Glyphis, on ac-

count of their beautiful sculpture, is the more important as they

cannot from their shells alone be distinguished from Lucapina

of Gray, with which, in our ‘Genera,’ my brother and myself

have associated them.

The animal of this species is semiopake, milk-white. Tenta-

cles moderate ; eyes large and black, on prominent tubercles at

their outer bases. Muzzle short and rounded. Mantle double-

edged, the outer or upper margin simple and plain, and just

turned over the edge of the shell, the lower forming an expanded

membranous curtain, fissured in front, extending considerably

beyond the shell, and overhanging the foot ; the margin plain,

simple. Sides with a row of short, opake-white, conical papillz

(nine on each side). Foot ovate, moderate, rather acuminate

behind. The species occurs in Japan; but my living animal

was dredged from 29 fathoms, stones and shingle, in a tide-race

at the extreme point of the Regent’s Sword.

XIX.—Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazon Valley.

CornorTerA: Loneicornes. By H. W. Barzs, Esq.

[Continued from p. 56.]

Genus SrRipuvs, nov. gen.

Body oblong-ovate, convex, setose. [Forehead and muzzle

short, as in the Leiopodine generally. Antenne elongated,

hair-like, setose both above and beneath. Thorax convex ; lateral

spines tuberculiform, and placed behind the middle. LElytra

free from tubercles and ridges, obtusely truncated. Legs mode-

rate; thighs clavate; basal joint of hind tarsi about equal to

the two following taken together.

3 Apical ventral segment obtusely rounded; dorsal sharply

truncated, with the angles distinct.

2 unknown.

The species which constitutes this genus would probably be

better placed in a section or subgenus of Sporetus. It differs

greatly from the Sporeti in colour, being of a rich changeable

silky-green hue. ”

of the Amazon Valley. 145

Seriphus viridis, n. sp.

8. supra viridi-sericeus, purpureo nitens, nigro setosus: thorace

postice macula, elytris plagis tribus cinereo-tomentosis. Long.

- $$ lin. CS.

Head minutely punctured, black; vertex silky green. An-

tennz black; base of the third joint and a broad ring on the

fourth grey. Thorax shagreened silky green, the middle of the

hind margin with a patch of ashy tomentum. Elytra briefly

truncated at the tip; surface thickly punctured towards the

base, and having besides many rows of setiferous punctures,

running from base to apex ; silky green, changing with the play

of light into dullish purple; a rounded spot of ashy tomentum

on the disk of each before the middle, and a similar common

spot over the suture near the apex. Legs shining black. Body

beneath black, clothed with scant ashy pile.

One example only of this peculiarly-coloured species occurred,

namely at Ega, on the Upper Amazons.

Genus (Epopeza, Serville.

Leiopus (§ Cidopeza), Serville, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. iv. p. 88.

This group was distinguished by Serville from Leiopus on

account of the singular dilatation of the basal joint of the

anterior tarsi, and the length of the basal joint of the hind

tarsi, which ‘“ equals the three following taken together.” The

enlargement of the anterior tarsi, which is peculiar to the males,

seems to be only a specific character, as several other species,

agreeing with Serville’s Cidopeza in shape of thorax and tarsi,

style of coloration, and other minor features, do not present this

peculiarity. The group seems to be distinguished from Trypa-

nidius, to which it is otherwise closely related, by the great

narrowness of the prosternum, the depressed mesosternum, and

the length of the hind tarsi. The thorax is convex, and widens

from the front to the tips of the lateral spines, which are conical

and placed a little behind the middle. The elytra are somewhat

uneven, with faint carine and centro-basal ridges; they are

sparsely setose in some species, naked in others. The terminal

ventral and dorsal plates in the ¢ are more or less emarginated ;

and the ovipositor of the ? with its sheath is elongated, the ven-

tral plate being truncated, and the dorsal pointed.

1. Cidopeza pogonocheroides, Serv.

Leiopus (Cidopeza) Pogonocheroides, Serv. J. c. p. 88.

This species is sufficiently well known through the description

of Serville. It is of a brown colour, tawny in some parts, and

marked behind the middle of the elytra with a black angulated

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xiii, 10

146 Mr. H. W. Bates onthe Longicorn Coleoptera

streak or spot, followed by an ashy club-shaped streak near the

suture, which reaches to the apex; the faint dorsal carine are

speckled with grey and black, and the antenne and feet are

spotted with brown and grey. The males are known by the

enlarged basal joint of the fore tarsi. . It varies much in the

markings of the elytra, the subapical black spot and the apical

ashy streak being both subject to become either enlarged in size

or diminished so as to be scarcely visible.

The species has a wide range, and the varieties do not appear

to be restricted to localities, specimens before me from Panama

not differing from others taken on the banks of the Tapajos and

the Upper Amazons. It is a common insect on felled trees in

new clearings throughout the Amazons region.

2. C&dopeza leucostigma, nu. sp.

@. oblongo-elongata, fulvo-brunnea, nigro alboque variegata : elytris

oblique sinuato-truncatis, ante medium macula suturali alba.

Long. 7 lin. 2. :

Head tawny, vertex with two black spots close to the inner

margin of the eyes. Antenne reddish brown, second to fifth

joints each with two whitish rings, the remaining joints (except

the second) each with one pale ring, Thorax uneven, tawny

varied with dusky, and marked with four short and crooked

black vitte. Elytra elongate-oblong, very long compared with

the thorax, apex of each briefly sinuate-truncate; surface pune-

tured, some of the punctures in rows, and these latter each covered

by a black spot, and emitting a short bristle ; the colour is tawny

brown; beyond the middle is an undulated blackish fascia,

and before the middle, on the suture, is a round white spot;

besides which there are a few white specks on the sites of the

faint dorsal carinee, and an irregular thin white fascia near the

apex. Body beneath clothed with fine silky iron-grey pile, the

sides of the abdomen spotted with tawny ashy. Legs reddish ;

thighs prettily variegated with grey ; tibie and tarsi ringed with

grey. Ovipositor of the female short.

One example only, taken on a fallen bough in the forest at

Ega. It seems to be closely allied to the South-Brazilian Try-

panidius litigtosus of collections, which is also an Cidopeza*.

* (Edopeza litigiosa. Oblongo-elongata, brunnea, nigro canoque varie-

gata. Caput obscure fulvum, vertice nigro bimaculato. Antenne

brunnez, articulis basi cinereis, primo cinereo annulato. Thorax supra

inzequalis, brunneus, disco nigro quadrimaculatus, lateribus maculis

nigris griseo cinctis. Elytra oblonga, postice attenuata, apice oblique

truncata; dorso passim irregulariter punctata haud setosa, brunnea,

maculis nigris sparsa quarum duabus majoribus pone medium sitis, et

strigis canis varia precipue apud medium et ante apicem. Corpus

subtus tomento tenui griseo vestitum, abdominis lateribus fulvo-griseo

of the Amazon Valley. 147

Genus Cosmoroma (Dej.), Blanchard.

Blanchard, Histoire des Insectes, ii. p. 155 (1845) (description very im-

perfect).

Syn. Beltista, Thoms. Classif. des Cérambycides, p. 16 (1860).

The present group differs from the neighbouring genera by a

multitude of characters; but the length and shape of the basal

joint of the antenne, besides many other minor features, leave

no doubt that its true position is in the Leiopodine group. The

chief peculiarities reside in the ornamentation of the antennee—

a feature that reappears here and there throughout the family

of Longicorns, in groups which have otherwise no resemblance—

the fourth joint in Cosmotoma having a thick brush of hairs

attached to its upper surface, and the second and third having

thin pencils of hairs at their tips, besides being clothed with a

few long hairs, like the remaining joints. The thorax has a thick

conical protuberance behind the middle, in the place of the

laterak spines, and its surface has two large obtuse tubercles.

The elytra are clothed with long hairs instead of sete, and the

centro-basal ridges, which are very thick and large, are also

maculatis. Pedes brunnei, griseo annulati. Maris segmento ventrali

apicali semicirculariter emarginato, dorsali profunde inciso ; tarsi an-

tice simplices. Long. 7 lin. ¢. Had. Rio Janeiro. Coll. Bakewell,

Bates, &c.

The two following belong also to this genus :—

Cidopeza guttigera. Oblonga, convexa, setosa, brunnea, nigro canoque

maculata. Caput cinereo-brunneum, vertice nigro quadrima¢ulato.

Antenne obscure ferruginez, articulis (duobus basalibus exceptis)

basi griseis. Thorax supra subinzqualis, spinis lateralibus magnis

acutis; dorso brunneo maculis obscurioribus; lateribus utrin-

Es ante spimam macula nigro velutina cinereo marginata notatis.

lytra oblonga, obtuse truncata; dorso leniter carinata, punctata,

setosa, setis e fasciculis setarum breviorum orientibus ; brunnea, ma-

culis liturisque nigris varia et guttulis canis (una majore utrinque

prope apicem) ornata ; lateribus medio griseis nigro punctatis. Corpus

subtus griseum, sericeum. Pedes nigricantes, griseo annulati; arti-

culo primo tarsorum posticorum elongato. Maris segmento ultimo

abdominali emarginato. Long. 5 lin. ¢. Hab. Mexico. Coll.

Pascoe.

Cidopeza apicalis. Oblonga, parum convexa, setosa, brunnea, sericea,

atro-purpureo variegata. Caput fuligimosum. Antenne robustze,

obscure ferrugineze. Thorax brunneus, supra vitta latissima dorsali

atro-purpurea sericea cinereo guttata; spinis lateralibus conicis.

Elytra oblonga, transverse late sinuato-truncata, breviter fulvo setosa,

= punctata, brunnea plaga magna scutellari maculis lateralibus

asalibus fasciaque pone medium atro-purpureis, apice utrinque macula

triangulari laterali nigro velutina. Corpus subtus griseo sericeum.

Pedes obscure ferruginei; articulo primo tarsorum posticorum elon-

to. Maris segmento ultimo abdominali sinuato-truncato, Long.

lm. ¢. Hab. Guatemala. Coll. Pascoe.

10*

148 “Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

crested with hairs, the rest of the surface being free from in-

equalities. The terminal abdominal segment is of normal size

and obtuse in both sexes, the female not having an exserted

ovipositor. The sterna, head, and muzzle are of the same shape

and structure as in the majority of the Leiopodine; but the

eyes are rather smaller and more pointed beneath than in many

of the foregoing genera; they resemble, however, very closely

the same organs in the restricted genus Leiopus.

1. Cosmotoma rubella, n. sp.

C. rufescens: thoracis lateribus obscurioribus: elytris tomento

argenteo strigosis, postice nigro fasciatis. Long. 23-34 lin. (6

exempl.)

Head dull red. Antenne red, the hairy clothing black.

Thorax dull red, the sides behind tinged with dusky, and the

under surface black. LElytra dull red, streaked with silvery

tomentum ; behind the middle is a broad black fascia, followed.

by a narrow silvery belt, the apex itself being dusky. Body

beneath dusky, with patches of grey pile. Legs reddish testa-

ceous.

A common insect on broken branches in the forest at Para

and on the banks of the Tapajos. I have received Cayenne

specimens from Paris as Cosmotoma venustulum of Dejean’s Cata-

logue; but, according to Chevrolat (Journal of Entomology,

vol. i. p. 188), the C. venustulum of Dejean’s Catalogue is the

species described by M. Thomson as Beltista adjuncta, which,

from the description given, cannot be the same as our C.

rubella.

2. Cosmotoma nigricollis, nu. sp.

C. rufescens: thorace nigro velutino: elytris tomento argenteo

strigosis, postice nigro fasciatis. Long. 33-4 lin. (5 exempl.)

Head dull black. Antenne red, the hairy clothing black.

Thorax deep velvety black. Elytra dull red, streaked with

silvery tomentum ; behind the middle is a broad black fascia,

followed by a narrow silvery belt, the apex itself being dusky.

Body beneath dusky, with patches of grey pile. Legs reddish

testaceous.

This form represents C. rubella on the Upper Amazons, being

as common an insect at Kga as its sister form is at Para. It is

possible that it may be the species described by Thomson as

Beltista adjuncta; but the following phrase in this author’s

diagnosis, “ prothorax et elytra extremitate nigra, illo versus

apicem maculis 2 albis nebulosis,” is quite unsuited to our C.

nigricollis, there being no white spots near the apex of the tho-

rax. The locality of Beltista adjuncta is given as San Domingo;

of the Amazon Valley. 149

but M. Chevrolat (J. c. p. 188) states that this is an error, the

species being from Cayenne, and identical with Cosmotoma ve-

nustulum of Dejean’s Catalogue.

Genus STENOLIS, nov. gen.

Body elongate, slightly convex, free from sete. Forehead

short. Antennz elongate, slender, furnished with short sete.

Thorax somewhat narrow; lateral spines existing as minute

tubercles at a distance from the hind angles. Elytra smooth,

truncated. Thighs clavate ; basal joint of the hind tarsi about

equal to the two following taken together. Apical abdominal

segment in the males (the only sex known) somewhat elongated,

rounded, and entire at the tip; the ventral plate with a longish

pencil of hairs on each side. ;

The single species constituting this genus cannot be included

in any of the allied genera, on account of its peculiarities in the

form of body and shape of the terminal apical segment of the

abdomen. In form it agrees pretty well with certain species of

Nyssodrys (N. guttula and allies), but differs from them in the

apical segment of its abdomen being entire. With Lepturges it

has in common the entire apical segment ; but the very different

shape of the body and thorax forbids its being included in that

group. The pencils of hairs at the tip of the abdomen may be

only a specific character.

Stenolis undulata, n. sp.

S. elongata, gracilis, cano-grisea: elytris fascia undulata pone

medium et maculis utrinque duabus lateralibus brunneis. Long.

3h lin. o.

- Forehead dark brown, inner margins of the eyes grey ; vertex

grey, with two blackish lines. Antenne furnished beneath with

short set, reddish, tips of joints dusky. Thorax gray. Elytra

elongate-ovate, apex obliquely subsinuate-truncate, the angles

slightly produced: surface even, finely punctured (except to-

wards the apex), hoary grey, with a clear dark-brown zigzag

fascia behind the middle, a curved line of the same colour near

the scutellum, and two lateral spots—one, large, before the

middle, and another, smaller, near the apex. Body beneath and

legs clothed with hoary-grey pile.

One example, taken at Ega.

Genus NyssopRrys, nov, gen.

Body free from sete, oblong-ovate or elongate. Forehead

and muzzle short ; eyes ample, their lower lobe subquadrate,

Antenne greatly elongated, sparingly furnished with sete

150 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

Thorax even on the surface ; lateral spines short, conical, placed

near to or distant from the hind angles. Elytra free from tu-

bercles, centro-basal ridges, and lateral carine, rarely having

_ faint dorsal carine, truncated at the apex. Legs moderate;

thighs clavate ; tarsi with the basal joint scarcely longer than

the two following taken together.

$ Apical dorsal plate of the abdomen entire or sinuated at

the tip, ventral notched. ee

2 Ovipositor elongated beyond apex of elytra; apical dorsal

plate pointed or obtuse, ventral truncated or (rarely) faintly

notched at the tip.

1. Nyssodrys sedata, un. sp.

N. oblongo-ovata, convexiuscula: thoracis spinis lateralibus conicis,

acutis, prope angulos posticos sitis: elytris sordide fulvis, punctis

plagisque brunneis, ante medium plaga communi transversa ob-

scure ceeruleo-grisea, pone medium fascia obliqua cana: femoribus

erassis. Long. 47 lin. ¢. (3 exempl.)

Head ashy brown. Antenne dull reddish, with brown pile;

tips of joints, from the third, black. Thorax widening from the

front to the tips of the lateral spines, which are conical and

placed near the hind angles, thence narrowed in an oblique line

to the base; surface dark brown, with tawny marks, four small

tawny spots being arranged in a quadrangle in the middle.

Elytra subovate, convex, apex briefly and obliquely truncated ;

surface punctured, tawny brown, with a number of small spots

and several larger patches dark brown ; across the suture before

the middle is a transverse bluish-grey patch, and behind the

middle on each elytron is a broadish, oblique, hoary-white fascia,

beginning on the lateral margin, but not reaching the suture.

Body beneath and legs ashy brown; thighs thickly clubbed.

6 Terminal dorsal plate of the abdomen obtuse; ventral

deeply notched.

This was a rather common insect at Ega, on dead boughs in

the forest.

2. Nyssodrys lentiginosa, n. sp.

N. oblongo-ovata, convexiuscula: thoracis spinis lateralibus conicis,

prope angulos posticos sitis: elytris brunneis, disco ceeruleo-

griseis brunneo maculatis, utrinque plagis irregularibus fulvis

plerisque subsuturalibus, una majore laterali: femoribus modice

clavatis. Long. 33-4 lin. 2. (3 exempl.)

Head tawny or ashy brown. Antenne reddish ; tips of joints,

from the third, black. Thorax widened from the front to the

tips of the lateral spines, which are conical and placed obliquely

near the hind angles, thence narrowed in an oblique line to the

base; surface dark brown, with scant ashy pile, and marked

of the Amazon Valley. 151

with four curved tawny spots arranged in a quadrangle on the disk,

and embracing in their curves so many dark-brown spots. Elytra

subovate, convex; apex briefly and obliquely truncated, outer

angle of the truncature slightly produced; surface punctured

towards the base, dark brown; disk and suture bluish grey,

speckled with brown; parallel to the suture is a row of small

tawny patches, and in the middle of the lateral margin a tri-

ons i patch of the same hue. Body beneath and legs clothed

with fine ashy pile; thighs not very thickly clubbed.

2 Ovipositor short, projecting very little beyond tips of ely-

tra; dorsal plate plane, and rounded at the tip, ventral trun-

Found both on the Upper and Lower Amazons, on dead

branches*.

“8. Nyssodrys cinerascens, n. sp.

N. oblongo-ovata, parum convexa, obscure brunnea, cinereo macu-

lata et conspersa : thoracis spinis lateralibus conicis, prope angulos

osticos sitis: elytris breviter oblique truncatis, angulis exteriori-

us productis. Long. 4—43 lin. ¢ 2. (6 exempl.)

Head black, with fine ashy pile. Antenne reddish, tips of

joints, from the third, black. Thorax widened from the front

to the tips of the lateral spines, which are conical and placed

near the hind angles, thence narrowed in a very oblique line to

the base; disk dark brown, with several ashy marks, four of

which form in the middle two subinterrupted vitte. LElytra

subovate, slightly convex; apex briefly and obliquely truncated,

outer angle of the truncature distinctly produced ; surface punc-

tured towards the base, dark brown, with patches of ashy-grey on

the disk, speckled with dark brown, and with a number of small

patches of ashy grey lying parallel to the suture. Body beneath

and legs black, clothed with fine ashy pile.

3 Terminal dorsal plate obtusely sinuated at the tip, ventral

rather deeply and semicircularly notehed.

2 Ovipositor projecting one-third of a line beyond the tips

of the elytra; dorsal plate tapering to the tip, but rounded,

ventral truncated.

Common at Para.

4. Nyssodrys corticalis, n. sp.

N. elliptica, convexa, sordide fulva, brunneo vittata: thoracis spinis

lateralibus conicis prope angulos posticos sitis: elytris oblique

truncatis, angulis (preecipue suturalibus) obtusis. Long. 4? lin. 92.

* There is an example of this species in Mr. Bakewell’s collection,

ticketed “‘ South America ” (probably from Cayenne), which has the tawny

marks very clear; but the four spots on the thorax are nearly straight, and

almost form two tawny. vitte.

152 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

Head tawny, vertex with three dusky vitte. Antenne dull

reddish, clothed with tawny-brown pile ; tips of joints, from the

third, dusky. Thorax widened from the front to the tips of the

lateral spines, which are obtusely conical and placed near the

hind angles, thence narrowed very obliquely to the base ; surface

dingy tawny ; disk with three dark brown vitte, the middle one

intersected by the pale dorsal line. Elytra convex, narrowed

curvilinearly from half the length to the apex, the latter very

obliquely truncated ; sutural angles of the truncature rounded

off, external ones obtuse; surface punctured, except near the

apex, tawny, streaked very irregularly with ashy and dark brown,

' the streaks short, longitudinal, and of unequal thickness, four,

thicker than the rest, lying parallel to the suture. Body beneath

and legs dingy light brown.

2 Ovipositor short, scarcely projecting beyond the tips of the

elytra; dorsal plate tapering and rounded at the tip.

Forests of the Tapajos. In markings this species much re-

sembles Leiopus contemptus (Chevrolat, MS.) from Mexico, which

is a Nyssodrys allied to N. corticalis*.

5. Nyssodrys spreta, n. sp.

N. oblongo-ovata, parum convexa, sordide fulvo-brunnea, cinereo

maculata: thoracis spinis lateralibus. conicis, subuncinatis, prope

* Nyssodrys contempta. Oblonga, convexiuscula, postice attenuata ( ¢ ).

Caput cinereo-fulvum, vertice fusco trimaculato. Antenne rufes-

centes, tomento cinereo vestite, articulis (duobus basalibus exceptis)

apice nigris. Thorax usque ad apices spinarum lateralium dilatatus ;

spinis brevibus, conicis, prope angulos posticos sitis; dorso cinereo,

fusco trivittato. Elytra apices versus paulo attenuata, subtransverse

sinuato-truncata, passim punctata, utrinque leviter bicostata ; sordide

fulva griseo canoque varia, utrinque plagis elongatis tribus fuscis no-

tata. Corpus subtus griseo vestitum. Pedes grisei, tibiis apice tar-

sisque supra nigricantibus. ¢ Segmento dorsali apicali obtuso, ven-

trali late emarginato. Long. 43 lin. 6. Hab. Mexico. Coll. Bates.

The following common South-Brazilian species also belongs to this part

of the genus Nyssodrys:—

Nyssodrys lignaria. Oblongo-ovata, convexiuscula. Caput cinereum.

Antenne rufescentes, cinereo vestitz, articulis (2 basalibus exceptis)

apice nigris. Thorax breviusculus usque ad apices spinarum latera-

lium dilatatus, spmis magnis conicis acutis, ab angulis posticis paulo

distantibus; dorso fusco-cinereo, medio maculis quatuor vel vittis

duabus fulvis. Elytra postice paulo attenuata (dé) vel oblongo-

ovata (2 ), subtransverse breviter truncata, utrinque leviter bicostata,

passim punctata ; sordide grisea vel brunnea fulvo fuscoque maculata,

utrinque plaga majore cana laterali. Corpus subtus cinereo vestitum.

Pedes nigricantes. ¢ Segmento dorsali apicali truncato, ventrali late

emarginato. Stylo brevissimo, segmento dorsali attenuato, apice

rotundato, ventrali truncato. Long. 4-43? lin. ¢ 9. Hab. Rio

Janeiro (D. Squires). Coll. Bakewell., Bates., &c.

of the Amazon Valley. 153

seca posticos sitis: elytris oblique truncatis. Long. 23

lin, o.

Head dingy brown. Antenne dull reddish, furnished with

very short setee above and beneath. Thorax moderately widened

from the front to the tips of the lateral spines, which are acutely

conical, placed obliquely, and separated from the base by a

sinuated space; surface dull ashy or tawny brown, with paler

marks forming two indistinct interrupted central vitte. Elytra

not broader than the thorax, oblong-ovate, apex rather obliquely

truncated, angles distinct; surface slightly convex, punctured

(except near the apex) partly in rows, dingy tawny or ashy

brown, with paler greyish or ashy specks, four of which (larger

than the rest) form an interrupted flexuous fascia beyond the

middle. Body beneath and legs blackish, clothed with dingy-

brown pile. o Terminal ventral segment faintly emarginated

at the apex.

One example, Santarem. The species is distinguished from

its nearest relatives by its narrower-oblong form and the sinuation

of the space between the spines and the base of the thorax.

6. Nyssodrys binoculata, n. sp.

N. parva, subovata, antice et postice attenuata; thoracis spinis late-

ralibus brevissimis: elytris convexis, valde transverse truncatis,

cinereis, fulvo fuscoque punctatis, apud medium utrinque macula

magna nigro velutina fulvo cincta. Long. 2} lin. ¢.

Head dingy tawny. Antenne red, apices of the joints (from

the third) blackish. Thorax convex, widened from the front to

the tips of the lateral spines, which are extremely short, thence

narrowed obliquely. to the base; surface brown, with curved

fulyous spots. Elytra convex, narrowed to the apex, broadly

and transversely truncated ; surface punctured towards the base,

grey, with numerous blackish specks; near the middle on each

side is a large round velvety-black spot, neatly margined with

fulvous, and touching the lateral margin; apex dusky brown,

with a central fulvous spot. Body beneath clothed with ashy-

yellow pile. Legs reddish.

¢ Terminal abdominal segment narrowed to the tip; both

dorsal and ventral plates slightly notched.

Santarem, on dead twigs. There is a closely allied species

found near Rio de Janeiro *,

* Nyssodrys dioptica. Subelongata, postice sensim attenuata (9), con-

vexa. Caput flavo-cinereum. Antenne rufescentes, articulis (duobus

basalibus exceptis) upice obscurioribus. Thorax usque ad spinas la-

terales leniter ampliatus, deinde paulo attenuatus, spinis longis acutis,

ante basin sitis; dorso fusco, medio maculis quatuor fulvis. Elytra

elongata, postice sensim attenuata, apice oblique truncata, angulo

154 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

7. Nyssodrys grisella, n. sp.

N. oblonga, parum convexa : thorace griseo, brunneo trivittato, spinis

lateralibus brevissimis acutis prope angulos posticos sitis: elytris

brunneis, griseo maculatis, apice peroblique sinuato-truncatis.

Long. 23 lin. ¢.

Head tawny grey, vertex with two dark brown spots. An-

tenn pitchy red. Thorax slightly widened from the front to

the tips of the lateral spines, the spines very small and conical

and placed near the hind angles; surface tawny grey; disk with

three dark brown vitte. Elytra rather narrow, apex ve

obliquely sinuate-truncate, surface sparingly punctured, dar

brown, with numerous tawny-grey spots and streaks, two, near

the base on each side, more elongate than the rest. Body be-

neath and legs dark brown, clothed with grey pile; abdomen

testaceous red.

d Apical ventral segment slightly emarginated.

Ega, on slender branches in the forest.

8. Nyssodrys fulminans, n. sp.

N. oblonga, parum convexa; thorace griseo, nigro bivittato, spinis

lateralibus brevissimis, paulo ante basin sitis: elytris nigricantibus

fasclis quatuor griseis fortiter undulatis, apice sinuato-truncatis.

~ Long. 2 lin. 5 Q.

Head dusky, with a grey line running from the top of the

forehead to the occiput. Antenne reddish, tips of joints dusky.

Thorax scarcely widened from the front to the tips of the spines,

which are extremely small and situated a short distance from

the hind angles, the space between them and the base being

very feebly narrowed ; surface grey, with two broad and clear

blackish dorsal vitte. Scutellum grey. Elytra oblong, sinuate

truncate, the outer angles of the truncature produced, feebly

convex; surface scantily punctured, brownish black, with four

thin grey. zigzag fascie, the space between the first and second

and between the third and fourth being darker grey; besides

these lines, there is a grey ring on the margin touching the

second fascia, and a dentated grey line continuing from the

fourth fascia along the suture to the apex. Body beneath and

legs dusky, clothed with silvery-grey pile.

¢ Terminal segment with both dorsal and ventral plates

distinctly notched.

externo producto, convexa, passim crebre punctata, sordide grisea,

fusco fulvoque conspersa, utrinque apud medium macula reniformi

nigro velutina fulvo cincta marginem lateralem haud attingente.

Corpus subtus obscure griseum. Pedes nigricantes. @ Stylo lon-

giusculo, segmento dorsali attenuato, apice obtuso. Long. 3 lin. 2.

Hab. Rio Janeiro (D. Squires). Coll. Bakewell.

of the Amazon Valley. < 155

2 Ovipositor projecting half a line beyond the elytra ; dorsal

plate ending in a blunt point.

I took many examples of this elegantly marked species in the

forest at Ega.

9. Nyssodrys bispecularis, White.

Leiopus bispecularis, White, Cat. Long. Col. Brit. Mus. vol. ii. p. 384.

* I. fusco-cinereus ; thorace medio vitta lata nigro-fusca: elytris sin-

gulis macula magna subovata obliqua suturam non attingente pal-

lidoque cincta, apice truncatis: antennis ferrugineis. Ega”

(White, /.c.) Long. 23-33 lin. ¢ Q.

This pretty species is of oblong shape, slightly convex and

depressed a little before the middle of the elytra. The thorax

is but little widened from the front, and the lateral spines are

searcely perceptible at the point where the thorax is broadest—

namely, a short distance from the hind angles. The apical

ventral segment in the ¢ is broadly notched, and the ovipositor

of the 2 projects but little beyond the tips of the elytra.

Common at Ega, on broken boughs and trunks of fallen trees,

10. Nyssodrys guttula, n. sp.

N. oblonga, subdepressa, brunnea, cinereo guttata: thoracis spinis

lateralibus brevibus conicis, ab angulis posticis distantibus : elytris

subtransverse truncatis: antennis albo quadriannulatis. Long.

32 lnm. ¢.

Head tawny, vertex black, with a central tawny line. An-

tenne black, base of second, third, fourth, and fifth joints with

a whitish ring. Thorax scarcely widened from the front to the

tips of the spines, which are obtusely conical and situated at a

distance from the hind angles; ashy tawny; surface dark brown,

with three ashy spots in the middle, and two longer ones near

each of the front angles. Elytra oblong, rather depressed, sub-

transversely and simply truncated, surface dark brown, sprinkled

throughout with little spots and patches of a tawny-ashy hue.

Body beneath and legs clothed with ashy-tawny pile. .

d Apical dorsal and ventral plates very slightly emarginated.

Forests of the Tapajos.

11. Nyssodrys incisa, n. sp.

N. oblonga, subdepressa, olivaceo-brunnea, cinereo guttata: thoracis

spinis lateralibus brevibus, conicis, ab angulis posticis distantibus :

elytris sinuato-truncatis : antennis albo annulatis. Long. 33 lin. 2.

Head blackish, vertex with a central ashy line. Antenne

black, base of second, third, fourth, and fifth joints with a whitish

ring. Thorax scarcely widened from the front to the tips of the

spines, which are obtusely conical and situated at a distance

from the hind angles; dingy ashy, sides each with two short

156 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

blackish stripes; disk dark olivaceous brown, with three small

ashy spots. Elytra oblong, rather depressed, apex sinuate-

‘truncate, with the angles prominent ; surface punctured towards

the base, dark olivaceous brown, silky, with a number of dingy

ashy specks and cross streaks, some of which unite to form a

fascia just before the apex, leaving a clear space before and after

it of the ground-colour of the elytra. Body beneath and legs

clothed with silky-grey pile; base of thighs testaceous.

2 Ovipositor slender, projecting about half a line beyond the

apices of the elytra; dorsal plate tapering, obtusely pointed.

Taken at Ega. :

12. Nyssodrys anceps, n. sp.

N. oblonga, subdepressa, olivaceo-brunnea : thoracis spinis lateralibus

brevibus, conicis, ab angulis posticis paulo distantibus: elytris

sinuato-truncatis, obscure cinereo-brunneis, dimidiis basalibus cee-

ruleo-griseis brunneo punctatis, apice fulvo-cinereo plagiatis:

antennis albo annulatis. Long. 33 lin. 9.

Head dusky, vertex with a pale line. Antenne rusty red, tips

of joints dusky, bases of second to fifth joints pallid. Thorax

scarcely widened from the front to the tips of the spines, which

are conical and situated at a distance from the hind angles;

sides ashy, streaked with dark brown; disk dark brown, with a

dingy ashy dorsal line, and a speck of the same colour on each

side of it. Elytra oblong, rather depressed, apex sinuate-trun-

cate, with the angles prominent ; surface punctured towards the

base, dark olivaceous brown, basal half bluish grey, with brown

specks and ashy-tawny patches, apex with a larger ashy-tawn

patch, indented with dark brown. Body beneath clothed wit

dingy-ashy pile. Legs ferruginous, apex of tibize dusky.

2 Ovipositor projecting a little beyond the tips of the elytra,

Santarem, on dead trees.

13. Nyssodrys stillata, n. sp.

N. oblonga, parum convexa, olivaceo-nigra, sericea: thorace supra

vittis tribus, elytris guttis numerosis distinctis, cinereis; foeminee

stylo elongato, fistuloso. Long. 4 lin. Q.

Head olivaceous black, a yellowish-ashy line from. the fore-

head to the occiput. Antenne slender, nearly three times the

length of the body (2), blackish, base of second to fifth joints

pallid. Thorax scarcely widened from the front; spines very

short and obtusely conical, space between them and the hind

angles indented ; surface olive black, with three dorsal and (on

each side) one lateral vitta yellowish ashy. . Elytra oblong-

oval, very slightly convex, apex obliquely sinuate-truncate ; sur-

face (except at the apex) punctured, olive-black, sprinkled with

smallish yellow-ashy spots, two near the apex transverse and

of the Amazon Valley. 157

larger than the rest; apices themselves margined with ashy.

Body beneath clothed with yellowish-ashy pile ; legs ringed with

ashy and black.

2 Ovipositor greatly elongated and tubular, projecting one

and a half line beyond the tips of the elytra; dorsal plate

narrowed to the tip and pointed, ventral truncated.

Ega, on trunks of felled trees.

14. Nyssodrys vitticollis, n. sp.

N. oblonga, robusta, subconvexa, atro-fusca, sericea: thorace vittis

quinque cinereis: elytris cinereo multiguttatis, apice transverse

sinuato-truncatis : antennis albo annulatis. Long. 4} lin. ¢.

Head black ; margins of the eyes and a central vitta, from the

middle of the forehead to the middle of the vertex, ashy. An-

tenne stout, scarcely twice the length of the body (¢), black,

base of third joint pallid, bases of fourth, fifth, and six joints

with a whitish ring. Thorax slightly widened from the front to

the tips of the lateral spines, which are prominent and conical,

the space between them and the hind angles being indented ;

surface blackish brown, with three clear ashy vitte on the disk

and one oneach side. Elytra oblong-oval, apex transversely sub-

sinuate-truncate, angles prominent; surface punctured, except

towards the apex, deep silky brownish black, sprinkled with a

large number of ashy spots. Body beneath clothed with yel-

lowish-grey pile. Legs stout, ringed with grey and black.

$ Apical ventral segment rather deeply and broadly notched.

S$. Paulo, Upper Amazons.

15. Nyssodrys caudata, n. sp.

N. oblongo-elongata, subdepressa, brunnea: elytris utrinque fasciis

tribus fortiter angulatis atro-brunneis (prima sdaetreipien} suturam

haud attingentibus cinereo cinctis, apice oblique sinuato-truncatis.

Long. 33-53. dQ. |

Head ashy brown. Antenne rusty red, tips of joints darker.

Thorax slightly widened from the front to the tips of the spines,

which are short and conical, the space between them and the

hind angles being indented or slightly sinuated ; surface light

brown, sometimes with greyish marks. Elytra elongate, slightly

narrowed towards the tips, scarcely convex, apex obliquely

sinuate-truncate (less obliquely and angles more prominent in

the 2 than in the ¢); surface with the basal half punctured,

light brown, each elytron with three zigzag or irregular trans-

verse spots or fasciee of a dark-brown hue encircled with ashy ;

the first of these, near the base, consists, on each elytron, of

two (sometimes three or even four) separated spots ; the second

is a zigzag belt, broad on the margin, but narrow on the disk

158 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

and terminating before reaching the suture; the third is an

oblique spot near the apex. The second and third fascie vary

much in form—both, in some examples, being reduced to spots

which do not touch the lateral margin. In well-developed in--

dividuals, the space between the second and third fascie is of

an ashy hue.. Body beneath and legs clothed with ashy pile ;

the legs sometimes reddish.

¢ Apical ventral segment triangularly notched at the apex.

2 Ovipositor elongated, projecting 14 line beyond the tips of

the elytra; dorsal plate pointed, ventral truncated. .

This is an extremely common species in the Amazonian forests,

on fallen trees. The varieties do not seem to be confined to parti-

cular localities, as I found extreme forms (as to the development

of the markings of the elytra) living together at Ega. It is

found also at Cayenne, and exists in French collections under

the name of Leiopus caudatus, Lacordaire, MS.

16. Nyssodrys signifera, n. sp.

N. oblonga-elongata, parum convexa, brunnea: elytris fasciis duabus

plagam magnam cineream includentibus maculaque parva subapicali

' nigro-brunneis, apice subtransverse truncatis: 9 segmento ventrali

ultimo breviter emarginato. Long. 44-5} lin. ¢ 9. (6 exempl.)

Head ashy brown. Antenne rusty red, tips of jomts dusky.

Thorax very slightly widened to the tips of the spines, the latter

short, but prominent, and placed nearer the middle than the

hind angles, the space between them and the base being mode-

rately narrowed ; surface silky brown. Elytra oblong, apex

scarcely obliquely. truncated in the 2, more obliquely in the g;

surface thickly punctured, except over the apical third (which is

very smooth), light brown, with two dark-brown fasciz on each

elytron, the basal one oblique, the second angulated at the

middle, neither touching the suture, the space between them

being of a light ashy colour; near the apex is a small rounded

dark-brown spot ; the disk on the apical portion is tinged with

ashy ; the sides are silky brown. Body beneath and legs clothed

with tawny-ashy pile.

¢ Apical ventral segment broadly emarginated.

Q Ovipositor projecting 14 line beyond the tips of the elytra;

dorsal plate obtusely pointed, ventral briefly emarginated at the

apex.

This elegant species is found throughout the Amazons region,

from Pard to Ega. I have seen it, in Parisian collections, under

the name Leiopus hieroglyphicus (Buquet), Dej. Cat.; but as the

following species also exists in the same collections under this

name, and no diagnosis has been published to guide us in de-

of the Amazon Valley. 159

ciding to which of the two it should be applied, I am obliged to

pass it over without further notice,

17. Nyssodrys propinqua, n. sp.

N. oblonga, subdepressa, brunnea: elytris fasciis duabus obscurioribus

plagam magnam cineream includentibus maculaque parvasubapicali,

apice oblique sinuato-truncatis, angulis prominentibus: 9 seg-

mento ventrali ultimo integro, truncato. Long. 3-4 lin. ¢ 9.

(7 exempl.)

Head ashy brown. Antenne rusty red, tips of joints dusky.

Thorax widened from the front to the tips of the spines, which

are short and conical, and placed nearer the middle than the hind

angles of the thorax, the space between them and the base being

moderately narrowed ; surface silky brown. Elytra oblong, apex

obliquely and rather strongly sinuate-truncate in both sexes,

angles prominent ; surface thickly punctured over the basal half,

dingy brown, with two dentated fascize of a darker shade on each

elytron,—the basal one anteriorly blending with the ground-

colour of the wing-case, the second more distinct and very broad

on the lateral margin, neither touching the suture, the space

between them being of a light ashy colour; near the apex is a

small rounded dark-brown spot, encircled with ashy, which in

many examples extends laterally towards the margin. Body

beneath and legs clothed with tawny-ashy pile.

¢ Apical ventral segment broadly emarginated.

2 Ovipositor rather short, extending only # of a line beyond

the tips of the elytra; dorsal plate acute, ventral truncated and

entire at the tip.

The present species is almost identical in markings with the

preceding, but it differs by its much smaller size, dingier colours,

more sinuated truncature of the elytra, and by the apical ventral

segment of the female being entire instead of notched at the

apex. It is a generally distributed species in the Amazons re-

gion, but occurs much more commonly than N. signifera. Spe-

cimens from Cayenne, under the name of Leiopus hieroglyphicus,

have been sent to me from Paris.

18. Nyssodrys simulata, n. sp.

N. oblonga, subdepressa, brunnea: elytris utrinque plaga canescente

fusco maculata ante medium, macula dentata laterali alteraque

arva subapicali fuscis, apice subtransverse sinuato-truncatis.

ph 4, lin. ¢ 2.

Head ashy brown. Antenne rusty red, tips of joints dusky.

Thorax widened from the front to the tips of the spines, which

are short and conical and placed nearer the middle than the

hind angles; surface light brown. Elytra oblong, apex in both

160 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

sexes scarcely obliquely sinuate-truncate; surface faintly punc-

tured towards the base, light brown, each elytron before the

middle with a large hoary-white patch sprinkled with clear dark-

brown spots, not corresponding with the punctures; behind this

white patch there is the usual angulated silky-brown lateral spot,

besides a subapical smaller spot on the disk. Body beneath

and legs clothed with lightish-brown pile.

d Apical dorsal plate feebly, ventral deeply notched.

2 Ovipositor projecting very little beyond the tips of the

elytra; dorsal plate obtusely pointed, ventral truncated.

Ega, Upper Amazons. It has also been found in the interior

of French Guiana by M. Bar. The species is readily distinguish-

able from the two preceding by the white patch of the elytra

being sprinkled with distinct dark-brown spots.

19. Nyssodrys efflicta, n. sp.

N. oblonga, parum convexa, brunnea: elytris utrinque plaga angu-

lata pone basin guttulisque numerosis griseis, apice oblique sinuato-

truncatis. Long. 43 lin. ¢ Q.

Head ashy brown. Antenne rusty red, tips of joints dusky.

Thorax widened slightly from the front to the tips of the lateral

spines, which are small and acutely conical and placed about as

near the middle as the hind angles; surface light brown, with

paler specks. Scutellum dark brown, with a central line ashy.

Elytra oblong, apex in both sexes obliquely sinuate-truncate ;

surface thickly punctured near the base, light brown, each with

an angulated greyish patch on the side before the middle, and

sprinkled with short greyish streaks or spots. Body beneath

and legs clothed with lightish-brown pile.

¢ Apical dorsal plate broadl; emarginated, ventral deeply

notched. on

2 Ovipositor projecting a line and a half beyond the tips of

the elytra; dorsal plate pointed, ventral slightly notched.

A common insect on branches of fallen trees in the forest,

both on the Upper and Lower Amazons, and at Para.

aye

20. Nyssodrys deleta, n. sp.

N. oblonga, parum convexa, brunnea, sericea ; scutello, plaga laterali

elytrorum seepe obsoleta maculaque subapicali cinereis: elytris

apice peroblique sinuato-truncatis, angulis externis fortiter pro-

ductis. Long. 3-5 lin. ¢ Q.

Head ashy brown. Antenne rusty red, tips of joints darker.

Thorax slightly widened from the front to the tips of the lateral

spines, which are small and acute and placed near to the hind

angles, the space between them and the base scarcely narrowed;

surface light brown. Scutellum ashy. Elytra elongate-oblong

of the Amazon Valley.. | 161

very obliquely sinuate-truncate, external angles of the truncature

strongly produced, almost mucronate; surface punctured near

the base, light brown, each with a large faint ashy patch on the

side before the middle, margined and spotted with dark brown,

and an ashy crescent near the apex enclosing a brown dot; the

patch obsolete in many examples, and the apical half of the ely-

tron having sometimes three or four ashy specks. Body beneath

and legs clothed with dingy brown pile.

¢ Apical dorsal plate broadly emarginated, ventral sharply

notched.

2 Ovipositor projecting the length of a line beyond the tips

of the elytra; dorsal plate pointed, ventral truncated.

This is an equally common species with N. caudata, being

found at all stations throughout the Amazons region, on dead

branches. I have seen it in some collections under the name of

Leiopus deletus.

21. Nyssodrys rodens, un. sp.

N. oblonga, subdepressa, postice sensim attenuata (d 2), nigro-

brunnea : thorace vittis quatuor vel sex, elytris lineolis confluen-

_ tibus suturaque cinereo-brunneis; his apice oblique sinuato-truu-

catis, angulis exterioribus valde productis. Long. 3}-4} lin. 5 9.

Head light brown, occiput blackish. Antenne rusty red, tips

of joints dusky. Thorax widened curvilinearly to the tips of the

spines, which are short and acute, and placed nearer the middle

than the hind angles; surface blackish brown, with four (some-

times six) light-brown vittz (the alternate ones sometimes grey),

besides a thin dorsal line, which is often absent. Seutellum

light brown. LElytra gradually narrowed from: base to apex, the

latter obliquely sinuate-trui “te, outer angles of the truncature

strongly produced, almost spiniform; surface blackish brown,

varied with several light-brown (partially grey) streaks of un-

equal length and very irregular in position, but always with an

- angulated one near the apex; suture greyish, Body beneath

and legs clothed with light-brown pile.

¢ Apical dorsal and ventral segments both notched.

2 Ovipositor short, projecting to the length of scarcely half

a line beyond the tips of the elytra; dorsal plate narrow and

pointed.

Found throughout the Amazons region, on slender branches

and twigs; beaten once out of a mango-tree.

22. Nyssodrys lineolata, un. sp.

NV. oblonga, robusta, subdepressa, nigro-brunnea: thorace vittis

septem plus minusve indistinctis, elytris fasciis duabus lineolarum

maculisque subapicalibus cinereo-brunneis; his .apice sinuato-

Ann, & Mag, N, Hist. Ser. 3, Vol, xiii, 11

162 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

eran angulis exterioribus modice productis: Long. 4¢-53

i « 3 2 .

Head ashy brown. Antenne rusty red, spotless. Thorax

widened from the front to the tips of the spines, which are coni-

cal and placed a short distance from the hind angles; surface

dark brown, with seven more or less incomplete light-brown or

ashy vitte. Scutellum ashy. Elytra tapering from base to apex

(3), or more oblong-ovate ( @ ), apex obliquely sinuate-truncate,

outer angles produced; surface shining dark brown, with two

broad fascize (interrupted at the suture) composed of a number

of short ashy longitudinal lines ; a few specks near the base and

apex and a short line along the outer point of the apex also of an

ashy colour. Body beneath and legs clothed with ashy-brown pile.

d Apical dorsal plate scarcely emarginated, ventral notched.

Q Ovipositor very short and broad; dorsal plate broad and

obtuse at the tip.

ga; rare. ,

23. Nyssodrys promeces, 0. sp.

N. angustata, parum convexa, nigro-brunnea: thorace elytrisque

vittis tribus fulvis, his oblique truncatis, angulis suturalibus ob-

tusis. Long. 32 lin. ¢.

Head ashy brown. Antenne four times the length of the

body, scantily furnished with short sete, black. Thorax scarcely

widened to the tips of the spines, which are conical and placed

nearer the middle than the hind angles ; surface blackish brown

with three tawny vitte. Elytra elongate, narrow, obliquely and

obtusely truncated at the apex; surface punctured, except near

the apex, blackish brown ; each elytron with three tawny vitte

terminating before reaching the apex, the sutural and central

ones having a shorter faint grey streak between them; the

apical part has two angular fulvous spots. Body beneath and

legs clothed with silky grey pile ; sides of sternum and abdomen

with a fulvous line.

d Apical dorsal plate truncated, ventral broadly notched.

This curious species approximates in length of antennee, shape,

and colours to the Hippopsine group of Lamiaires; but all

its essential features show that it is a true Acanthocinite of the

Leiopodine section, the basal joint of the antenne having a

waved outline beneath, the thorax and head having the shape

usual in the Leiopodine, and the sternums the same outline.

Its habits are those of a Hippopsis, clinging, like the species of

this and the neighbouring genera, to slender dead twigs; con-

sequently the claw-joints of the tarsi (especially of the middle

legs) are longer than is usual in the Acanthocinite, and have

some analogy. to those of the subtribe Onciderite to which the

of the Amazon Valley. 163

Hippopsine belong ; but the claws are not thickened and sub-

parallel, and the claw-joints of the fore tarsi not elongated—

characters which further distinguish the present species from

the Hippopsine. I do not think the slight elongation of the

middle and posterior claw-joints warrants the establishment of

a new genus for this species.

24. Nyssodrys ptericopta, n. sp.

N. elongata, postice sensim attenuata, fuliginosa, griseo obscure li-

neata: elytris pone medium cinereo biguttatis, apice oblique valde

truncatis. Long. 32 lin. ¢.

Head tawny yellow, forehead with two brown spots. Antenne

rusty red, basal joint darker. Thorax widened from the front to

the tips of the short conical spines, thence narrowed in a sinuated

line to the base ; surface sooty brown, with seven very indistinct

greyish lines. LElytra narrowed from base to apex, the latter

obliquely and broadly truncated, angles obtuse; surface punc-

tured towards the base, sooty brown, with several very indistinct

greyish lines, and on the disk of each elytron a rounded ashy

spot a little after the middle. Body beneath and legs clothed

with greyish pile.

$ Dorsal and ventral apical plates equally notched.

Banks of the Tapajos.

25. Nyssodrys ramea, n. sp.

N. oblonga, convexiuscula, grisea, fusco plagiata: thoracis spinis

lateralibus tuberculiformibus, mox pone medium sitis : elytris apice

truncatis, angulis distinctis. Long. 43-53 lin. ¢.

Head dingy brown, vertex grey. Antenne dusky; bases of

fourth to seventh joints pale. Thorax widened from the front

to the tips of the lateral spines, which are short and conical and

placed soon after the middle; surface greyish, with confluent

blackish patches. Elytra scarcely obliquely truncated at the

apex, angles distinct ; basal portion covered with large punc-

tures ; surface greyish, with blackish-brown spots and patches,

some of them confluent and forming near the middle a zigzag

fascia interrupted at the suture. Body beneath and legs clothed

with grey pile. i

¢ Apical dorsal segment faintly, ventral broadly emarginated.

Ega, rare. It has been since found also in the interior of

French Guiana by M. Bar.

26. Nyssodrys eacelsa, n. sp.

NV. oblonga, subconvexa, brunnea, sericea : thoracis spinis lateralibus

ab angulis posticis distantibus : elytris griseis, macula magna com-

11*

164 Bibliographical Notice.

~ muni basali alteraque laterali utrinque pone medium brunneis,

apice oblique truncatis, angulis distinctis. Long. 5} lin. Q. |

_ Head ashy brown. Antenne clothed with ashy-brown pile,

apices of the joints darker. Thorax widened from the front to

the tips of the lateral spines, which are conical and distinct and

placed nearer the middle than the hind angles. Elytra obliquely

truncated at the apex, angles distinct ; surface, except near the

apex, covered with large punctures, greyish ; a large patch in the

middle of the base and an oblique lateral spot or belt on each

side behind the middle light brown; the apical part has also a

faint brownish cloud. Body beneath and legs clothed with

greyish pile.

2 Ovipositor projecting to the length of a line beyond the

tips of the elytra ; dorsal plate narrow, pointed, ventral truncated.

Ega, rare.

27. Nyssodrys alboplagiata, White.

Leiopus alboplagiatus, White, Cat. Long. Coll. Brit. Mus. ii. p. 381.

** [. pallide fulvo-ochraceus, sericeus: elytris plaga magna laterali

alba, elytris punctatis : metathoracis lateribus albis. Ega.’’ Long.

6i lin. 5 QO.

This fine species is similar in shape to the two preceding, the

lateral spines of the thorax being conical, short, and nearer the

middle than the hind angles. The elytra are rather obliquely

truncated, with both angles slightly prominent.

& Both dorsal and ventral plates of the terminal segment

notched.

3 Ovipositor projecting to the length of nearly two lines

from the tips of the elytra.

Ega, closely adhering to slender branches of dead trees.

[To be continued. ]

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

A Manual Flora of Madeira. By R. T. Lown, M.A.

Part 3. London: Van Voorst, 1864.

WE are glad to receive another Part of Mr. Lowe’s valuable book :

it extends from page 263 to 377, and completes the description of

the Calycifore, which was commenced in Part 2. That portion of

the work was published just two years since, and Part 1 four years

and a half previously. How long, alas! may we have to wait for the

completion of a book of the utmost importance to botanists who are

interested in what is sometimes called the Atlantic Flora! It is

probably known that weak: health caused Mr. Lowe to establish him-

self at Madeira many years since, and that this book is the result of

Zoological Society. 165

at least six-and-twenty years of study of the vegetation of the island.

The. necessity even now of being absent from England during the

early part of each year is one cause of the small progress made with

his Flora; but another is the great care and caution exercised in the

preparation of every part of it. :

his instalment is of less interest to the English botanist than its

predecessors. It treats chiefly of plants belonging to a southern

type—Myrtacee, Cucurbitaceea, Mesembrianthemacee, Cactacee ;

and even when the orders are those of plants which inhabit Western

Europe, the species are usually different. This was not so much the

case in the former, and apparently will be less so in future Parts.

~ he elaborate account of the Cucurbitacee will be read with much

interest and advantage ; the account of the Cacti also is valuable.

But it is impossible to open the book without seeing proofs of the

accuracy and care of its author.

There are not many new species introduced; for most of those

found by Mr. Lowe were already described in his ‘ Primitize et

Novitize ;’ but in several instances he now furnishes valuable addi-

tional information concerning them: as an example, let the reader

turn to the revised and amplified account of the maguificent Monizia

edulis (pp. 365, 366).

Happily in this case we can dispense with the recognized privilege

of reviewers, and make only one complaint,—viz. againt the very

slow rate of publication. We fear that this delay in the issue of the

Parts is unavoidable; for Mr. Lowe has now again started for a

southern climate.

We sincerely hope that our recommendation of this book will lead

an extensive sale. No student of the botany of South-western, or

even Western, Europe ought to be without it.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

May 26th, 1863.—Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., in the Chair.

On THE Species or THE GENUS STERNOTHZERUS, WITH SOME

OBSERVATIONS ON Kinixys. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., etc.

The shell or thorax of the Sternotheri offer such different appear-

ances, according to the age or other special conditions under which

they have lived, that it is almost impossible to distinguish them ;

and the more specimens are received, the greater becomes the diffi-

culty. Under these circumstances, as the heads seem to present

some characters which, as far as I have been able to observe them

in the limited number of specimens which come under my exami-

nation, seem permanent, I have attempted to define the peculiari-

ties presented by the heads of the specimens in the Museum Col-

lection from different localities. The species were so difficult to

distinguish by means of the shell only, that, in.my ‘ Catalogue of

166 Zoological Society :—

Shield Reptiles in the British Museum,’ I stated that all the spe-

cies there noticed “perhaps may prove only to be varieties of the

same species, or dependent on age”’ (p. 52).

A larger series of specimens from the same locality has shown

that such characters as the shape and thickness of the shields, and

especially of the first vertebral shield, which have been hitherto to

some extent depended on for the separation of the species, are very

variable. Therefore the discovery of some other more permanent

characters seems important; and the form and disposition of the

shields on the head appear to furnish such characters.

Mr. Cope observes that S. Derbianus differs from S. sinuatus of

Smith “ mainly in the form of the upper mandible, which is ob-

tusely hooked in the former, bidentate in the latter.” I suspect he

must have been misled in these observations by figures or descriptions ;

for the jaws of the typical specimens of the two species are very similar.

It will be necessary to separate the genus into three sections, ac-

cording to the form of the head, premising that I only know the

species belonging to the third section from the descriptions of MM.

Duméril and Bibron, as all the specimens that have come under my

observation belong to the first or second section. These sections

may be thus characterized :—

I. Head short and broad; the upper jaw obscurely notched and

bidentate in front ; the crown shielded to a line even with the

back of the tympanum. Tanoa.

1. SteRNOTHARUS sInvATus, A, Smith, S. African Zool. t.

Head rather broad, depressed; jaws pale; the temporal plate

Head of S. sinwatus.

broad and short, only reaching to the front of the tympanum, and

with another rather smaller similar plate behind it over the ear; the

hinder vertebral plate of the adult as wide as long, not tubercular ;

the fore legs with small scales, and with some very wide, slender,

band-like shields on the inner side of the upper surface; the ster-

num with a narrow deep notch behind.

Sternotherus castaneus, part.; Gray, Cat. Shield Rept. B.M. p. 52.

Hab. S. Africa: Natal (Dr. Krauss). see

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Genus Sternothzrus. 167

In other specimens the front marginal shields are rather wide,

the middle one as long as broad; the front vertebral shield is elon-

gate, with straigyt sides.

' I think it better to retain the name given by Dr. Andrew Smith

to the Natal specimen for this species; for it is very doubtful to

which of the specimens the Emys castanea of Schweigger is refer-

able, and one of the specimens I described as S. castaneus is cer-

tainly S. Derbianus.

2. SrernotuzrRvs DERBIANUS.

Pentonyx gaboonensis, A. Duméril, Arch. du Mus. x. p. 164, t. 23.

f. 2 (young).

- The head very broad, depressed ; jaw dark, black-lined ; the tem-

poral plate single, broad and long, reaching to the back of the

tympanum ; the upper surface of the front leg with moderate-sized

seales, and with many larger, convex band scales on the inner side ;

the hinder edge of the fourth and the upper edge of the fifth verte-

bral plate tubercular ; the sternum with a deep rounded notch behind ;

the vertebral plate of the adult longer than broad.

Hab. W. Africa: Gaboon; Sierra Leone.

Our specimens offer several varieties, thus :—

1. Front marginal plates thick, convex, broader than long; the

front vertebral shield elongate urn-shaped.

_ 2, Front marginal plates as long as broad, flat; the front verte-

bral shield elongate urn-shaped.

3. Front marginal plates as long as broad, flat; the front verte-

bral shields elongate, with straight sides.

In one specimen of the first variety the vertebral shields are much

narrower than in the other.

The shield on the crown of the head in the two specimens which

have heads is more or less perfectly divided into three shields, viz.

one frontal and two occipital, but together they cover the whole top

of the head to a line with the back of the ears, and there are only

a few small shields between the hinder side of the hinder part of it

and the back edge of the temporal shields.

I think there can be very little doubt that the specimen which

M. Aubrey Lecomte sent to the Paris Museum from the Gaboon,

and which M. Auguste Duméril, in his very hasty and very incom-

plete and inaccurate paper ‘‘ On the Reptiles of Western Africa,” in

the ‘Archives du Muséum’ (vol. x. p. 165), has described and figured

under the name of Pentonyx gaboonensis, is only the young state

of this species. One is surprised that a herpetologist who must

have unrivalled opportunities of study should not have been led

by the breadth of the lobes of the sternum to doubt its being

a Pentonyx. However, it is well, as it gives their museum a re-

presentative of a species which they did not formerly possess. But,

what is more extraordinary still, M. A. Duméril, who is so ready with

and so bitter in his observations on the works of others, though his

figure shows that the horny plates consist almost entirely of the areolee

of the large shields, with only two or three rings of deposit .round

168 2% Zoological Society :-~

them, showing that the animal could not long have been hatched, yet

observes, ‘‘ L’aspect de la carapace et sa solidité comparée & celle de

la boite osseuse de jeunes Pentonyx du Cap semblent prouver que

notre individu est adulte” (p. 164). The example figured must be

that on which this observation is founded; for he remarks, “11 est

unique dans la collection.”

It is probable that Hmys Adansonii of Schweigger, the Pentonya,

and more lately the Sternotherus Adansonii of Duméril and Bibron,

described from a shell in the Paris Museum said to come from the

Cape de Verd, is only a half-grown specimen of this species, which

is the only Sternotherus I have seen from Western Africa.

The specimen in the British Museum from Sierra Leone, which

is described in the ‘ Catalogue of Shield Reptiles’ (p. 52) as Ster-

notherus castaneus, appears to belong to this species.

Il. The head rather short and broad ; the upper jaw truncated ; the

crown covered with an oblong shield (or three smaller shields),

with a number of smaller shields over the tympanum, between

the hinder outer edge of the crown-plate and the upper edge

of the large temporal shields. Notoa.

STERNOTHZRUS SUBNIGER.

S. castaneus, Dum. et Bibr. Erp. Gén. ii. p. 401, t. 20. f. 1.

Head depressed ; jaws pale; the upper surface of the fore legs

with small scales, and a few rather larger ones on the inner sides.

Hab. Madagascar.

MAD

LES Oo

Head of S. subniger.

The specimen in the British Museum, which was received from

Paris under the above name, and as coming from Madagascar, agrees

well with Duméril and Bibron’s description and figure; but they do

not describe the small shields on the head, and especially say that the

frontal plate is much developed, and that there are no occipital plates.

Now, in our specimen the sutures of the occipital plates are well seen,

and they are peculiar for being oblong and obliquely placed (so as to

leave the sides of the occiput to be covered with small shields), instead

of being large and trigonal (as they are in the two other species) and

covering all the space on the head to the margin of the temporal

shields.

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Genus Sternotherus. 169

Ill. ‘ Head elongate; upper jaw with a recurved crown, with a

moderate beak; frontal, two long nasal, and two large pa-

rietal plates.’ Anota.

SreRNOTHARUS NIGER, Dum. et Bibr. Erp. Gén. ii. p. 597 (not

t. 20. f. 1, as quoted).

Hab. Madagascar.

We have recently received from Western Africa several specimens

of the genus Kinixys, and they all tend to prove the distinctness of

the three species in the ‘ Catalogue of Shield Reptiles in the British

Museum,’ viz. 1. K. Belliana; 2. K. erosa; and 3. K. Homeana.

K. Belliana is easily separated from K. erosa (as well as by other

characters) by the small size of the gular plates. It would appear

that this species is common both to West and Eastern Africa, as

Mr. Whitfield brought it from the Gambia, Dr. Peters found it in

Mozambique, and Dr. Riippell at Shoa: so also is K. Homeana; for

Lieut. Friend found it at Cape Coast in West Africa, and Mr.

Berthold on the east coast of Africa.

The K. erosa seems to be common in several parts of West Africa.

It is abundant at the Gaboon, and seemingly not uncommon at the

Gambia. It is a very variable species, but always to be distinguished

by the reflexed and strongly dentated posterior margin, and the large

size of the gular plates. It varies inform. Some specimens are ob-

long-elongate, narrow, as wide before as behind (that is to say,

straight on the sides): these, as the older specimens have the

sternum concave, which we generally consider the peculiarity of

the male sex, are probably male. Others are ovate, much broader

compared with their length, and broader behind than before, and the

sides of the back are more convex: these are probably the shells of

females. The specimens of both these shapes are varied with yel-

low on the upper side of the costal plates, and have short irregular

yellow rays at the outer angle of the costal and vertebral shields ;

but the distinctness of these coloured rays varies in the different

specimens. The form of the gular plates also varies; they are always

rather large, and the front outer angles are rather produced forward,

leaving a deep angular notch; but in one specimen, which hasa concave

sternum, and is probably an old male, they are very much enlarged,

and produced beyond the upper edge of the thorax. They are longer

than broad, and truncated in front, so as to present a straight margin

without any notch, they are as long as the humeral plate at the inner

side, and the front margin of them is as broad as the length of the

outer side, which is concavely curved out. There seems, from M.

Auguste Duméril’s figure, to be only a thorax, without any sternum,

of this species in the Paris Museum.

The most natural division of this genus is the following :—

A. The front lobe of the sternum narrowed and tapering in front,

with a small truncated pair of gular shields; the sides of the

margin even; nuchal shield distinct. Kinothoraz.

Kinrxys BELLIANA.

170 Zoological Society :—

B. The front lobe of the sternum broad ; side curved outwards, with

a large pair of gular shields produced at the outer angles; the

sides and the margin strongly dentated. Kiniays.

1. Kinrxys grossa. The fifth vertebral plate rounded; nuchal

none.

2. Kinrxys Homrana. The fifth vertebral plate produced, an-

gular; nuchal plate distinct.

On THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE CETACEANS.

By Dr. Joun Epwarp Gray, F.R.S., etc.

In the part of the ‘ Zoology of the Erebus and Terror’ devoted to

the Cetacea I collected together all the materials within my reach, and

published an arrangement of the genera, and notes on all the species,

of these animals which were then known to me, either from the

examination of the specimens in different museums, or from the de-

scriptions and observations in various zoological and whaling works.

The first part of the ‘ Catalogue of the Specimens of Mammalia in

the Collection of the British Museum,’ which is devoted to the

Cetacea (published in 1850), may be considered as a revision of the

former essay, with the additional material that I had been able to

collect since it had been penned. During the thirteen years that

have elapsed since the publication of the Catalogue, 1 have not

allowed any opportunity to escape of examining and comparing the

different specimens which haye come under my observation, and I

have read with care all the papers and works that I have been able

to meet with bearing in any way on Whales and their allies. I am

now induced to lay the results, as far as the general arrangement of

the order is concerned, before the Society.

Some zoologists pay little regard to such re-arrangements of genera

and the division of them into groups; but this arises from the points

of view from which they regard them. If they look on them as

only artificial keys to discover the name of a genus, and thus arrive

at the name of a species, and if that is the object of the person who

forms them, then they are perhaps estimated at their right value.

But I have laboured at these and other arrangements which I have

suggested with a very different view. If it is considered desirable

to place the species in natural groups called genera, it is certainly

equally desirable that the genera so formed should be disposed in

the larger and larger groups in such an order as appears to the writer

most distinctly to exhibit the natural relations which the genera bear

to each other. If they are so disposed, then the name that is given

to a group of species is of little importance, a8 to whether the group

is called a genus or subgenus, a genus or subfamily, or a family.

They may be so regarded at the caprice or theory of the student, as,

whatever may be their nominal value, they are intended to represent

a natural group of species, arranged together so as best to represent,

according to the writer’s view, the natural relation of the species

to each other. -

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Arrangement of the Cetaceans. 171

If the arrangement of the species into genera requires mature deli-

beration and the study of the value of the different characters ob-

served as to their permanence and variability in each group (and the

variations in different organs are often of very different value in this

fespect in very nearly allied groups), then the arrangement of the

minor groups into larger and larger ones, according to my experi-

ence, and indeed as any one may 4 priori suppose, demands a greater

power of comparison and reasoning, since there are a greater number

of facts, of characters, and of resemblances or differences, and of varia-

tion or permanence, to be considered and reasoned on—that is to say, if

the constituents of the larger groups are conscientiously examined

and determined on, as they must be to render them of value for the

purposes above stated.

_ Iam aware that this is not the feeling of many zoologists, but I

believe this arises from most zoologists restraining themselves to the

study of a limited number of species or genera. This is proved by

the fact that many zoologists pay great attention as to who was the

first person who gave the name to a genus, though the genus may

have been restricted, or even extended, and its characters completely

altered since the name was first applied, but pay little or no atten-

tion to the first person who formed a group, or to the synonymy or

history of the changes which have taken place in the characters or

arrangement of the group or genera themselves. This is not the

ease with botanists, who are generally much better grounded in the

philosophy of science. They are careful in giving the synonyms of

the families and subfamilies, as may be seen in the works of DeCan-

dolle and others. And it is very desirable that the same attention

should be paid to the subject in zoological essays.

The order Cetacea must be divided into two suborders, viz. CeTE

and Sirenra. I have nothing to add to the arrangement of the

second suborder.

Suborder I. Crere.

Skin smooth, bald. Teats two, inguinal. Limbs clawless; the

fore limbs fin-shaped; hinder united, forming a forked horizontal

tail. Nostrils enlarged into blowers. Carnivorous,

I. The nostrils longitudinal, parallel or diverging, covered with a

valve, one often larger and more developed.

Fam. 1. BALZNIDz.

Head very large, depressed. Nostrils separate, nuchal. Teeth

not developed in the adult. Palate furnished with transverse horny

fringed plates of baleen or whalebone.

a. Dorsal fin none ; belly smooth ; baleen elongate, slender ; vertebra

of neck united ; pectoral broad, truncate at end.

1. Batawna. Pectoral fin moderate. Head one-third of the entire

length.

we. Zoological Society :—

b. Dorsal fin distinet ; belly plaited ; baleen short and broad ;

vertebre of neck more or less free; pectoral lanceolate.

2. Mecarrera. Pectoral fin elongate. Dorsal fin low, truncate.

3. BAL&NOPTERA. Pectoral fin moderate. Dorsal fin faleate,

two-thirds the entire length from nose. Vertebree 46 or 48.

4. Puysauus. Pectoral fin moderate. Dorsal fin faleate, three-

fourths the entire length from nose. Vertebree 54-64.

Fam. 2. CATODONTID&.

Head large, subcylindrical, blunt. Lower jaw narrow. Teeth

large, in the lower jaw only, fitting into pits in the gums of the

upper one. Nostrils separate, one often abortive. The hinder edge

of the maxillary elevated, forming a concavity on the forehead of

the skull. Pectoral broad, truncated.

* Head subcylindrical, truncated ; nostril in front of the truncated

head ; dorsal hump rounded.

1. Caropon. Head very large, one-third of the entire length of

the animal.

** Head depressed, rounded in front ; nostrils in the forehead ;

dorsal fin falcate. ‘

2. Puyserer. Head very large, one-third of the entire length of

the animal, rounded, convex above. Teeth conical, compressed.

Skull elongate ?

3. Kota = Euphyseter, Wall. Head short, very broad. Forehead

convex. Teeth conical, cylindrical. Skull very short and broad.

Fam. 3. PLATANISTID&.

Head small, long-beaked, beak compressed. Teeth in both jaws,

at first cylindrical, becoming compressed. Blowers linear, parallel,

over the eyes. The sides of the maxilla elevated, forming a vaulted

cavity over the forehead. Pectoral broad, truncated.

1. PLATANISTA.

Il. Nostrils united into a single transverse or crescent-shaped blower.

Head moderate, more or less beaked. Teeth in both jaws, often

deciduous. The pectoral fin lanceolate, tapering.

Fam. 4. IntAD&.

The head beaked, beak hairy. Teeth rugulose, crown with an

internal process. Back without any fin, keeled behind. Pectoral

fin large.

1, Intra.

Fam. 5. DeLPHINIp2.

Head more or less beaked, smooth. Teeth simple, cylindrical,

conical, smooth. Back rounded. Dorsal fin distinct, falcate, rarely

wanting.

Dr.J.E. Gray on the Arrangement of the Cetaceans. 178

A. Head more or less beaked ; beak of the skull as long as, or longer

than, the brain-cavity. Bottlenoses.

a. Pectoral fins moderate, lanceolate, far apart on the sides of the

chest ; teeth in both the jaws permanent. Delphinina.

1. Ponrororia. Beak of the skull rather compressed, high. Sym-

physis of the lower jaw very long. Dorsal medial.

2. Steno. Beak of the skull rather compressed, higher than broad.

Symphysis of the lower jaw rather elongate. Dorsal medial.

3. Detrurnus. Beak of the skull rather depressed, convex above.

Dorsal medial.

4, Dexpurnaptervs. Beak of the skull rather depressed, convex

above. Dorsal none.

5. Lacenoruyncuus. Beak of the skull depressed, expanded.

Head shelving in front. Dorsal rather posterior.

b. Pectoral jins small, low down, and rather close together on the

middle of the chest ; upper jaw toothless ; lower jaw with few

teeth, sometimes deciduous.

* Mazillary bones elevated into a crest on the sides behind; teeth

two or four, anterior conical. Hyperodontina.

6. Hyperovon. The crests of the maxillary bones:thin and wide

apart above. The beak of the skull descending downwards.

The hinder edge of the skull as high as the crest. Lower jaw

rather curved. Hyperodon rostratun.

7. LaGrenocetus. The crests of the maxillary bones very thick and

close together, especially above, where they are flat-topped.

The beak of the skull horizontal. The hinder edge of the skull

lower than the top of the crest. Lower jaw straight. Lage-

nocetus latifrons.

** Mazillary bones simple; teeth, on the sides of the lower jaw,

compressed, Ziphiina.

8. Berarpvus. Lower jaw gradually tapering in front. Teeth, two,

in the front of the jaw, large, conical.

9. Zipuivus. Lower jaw gradually tapering. Teeth on the sides of

the jaw, large, compressed.

10. DeLpHinoruyncuus. Lower jaw gradually tapering. Teeth

on the sides of the jaw, small, conical. (Perhaps the female of

the former.)

11. Diopropon. Lower jaw broad behind, suddenly tapering in

front. Teeth on the sides of the jaw, large, compressed. Di-

oplodon densirostris.

174 Zoological Society :—

B. Head rounded in front, not beaked; beak of the skull scarcely

as long as the brain-cavity.

a. Pectoral fins falcate, elongate, low down, near together on the

chest ; head much swollen; intermazillary bones very wide,

covering the maxilla above; teeth conical; side of mazilla

expanded horizontally. Globiocephalina. =

12. GLOBIOCEPHALUS.

b. Pectoral fins ovate, wide apart, lateral; intermazillary bones

moderate. _ Phoceenina.

t The lateral wing of the mazilla horizontally produced over the

orbit ; dorsal distinct ; teeth conical. ;

13, Orca. . Teeth large, acute, permanent. Intermaxillaries mo-

derately wide.

14. Grampvus. Teeth early deciduous. Intermaxillaries broad.

tt The lateral wings of the mawilla shelving down over the orbit.

* Teeth permanent, compressed, sharp-edged.

15. PHocana. Dorsal triangular, central.

16. Neomeris. Dorsal fin none.

** Teeth early deciduous, conical ; dorsal none,

17. Betvea. Teeth in both jaws early deciduous.

18. Monoceros. Teeth very early deciduous. Male with a pro-

jecting spiral tusk in the upper jaw.

The greatest desideratum of zoology is the power of examining

some specimens of the genus Physeter, or Blackfish, as it is called

by the whalers. There is not a bone, nor even a fragment of

a bone, nor any part which can be proved to have belonged to a

specimen of this gigantic animal to be seen in any museum in Eu-

rope. This is the more remarkable as the animal grows to the

length of more than fifty feet, is mentioned under the name of the

Blackfish in almost all the Whaling Voyages ; and two specimens

_of it were examined by Sibbald, having occurred on the coast of

Scotland. The only account which we have of the animal on which

zoologists can place any reliance is that furnished by Sibbald in his

‘ Little Tractate on Scotch Whales.’

Boyer, in the ‘Nova Acta Nature Curiosorum,’ describes a Whale

found at Nice which has been thought to be a Blackfish, on ae-

count of the position which he assigns to the blower; but the figure

which he gives is so much like a bad design of a Spermaceti Whale

(Catodon) in other respects, that it is doubtful to which genus it

properly belongs.

I am aware that in some catalogues of osteological specimens

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Eyes of the Emydide and Batrachia. 175

some conical or small worn-down Whale’s teeth are named as if they

belonged to this genus, or to the “ High-finned Cachalot,”’ as it is

called; but these teeth are not to be distinguished from the teeth

of the younger true Sperm Whales. Mr. Wall, in his account of

the Australian Sperm Whale, thinks the skeleton of the Whale at

Burton Constable is the skeleton of a Blackfish; but Anderson, in

his account of this animal, particularly says, ‘‘The nostrils were at

the end of the snout,’’ and the skeleton is that of a true Catodon, as

is proved by careful examination.

It is to be hoped that some whaler will preserve the skull, if not

some of the other bones, of the animal called the ‘‘ Blackfish,’

which, according to the account of Sibbald, must yield a good quan-

tity of spermaceti; for he mentions that four men were seen inside

the cavity of the cranium extracting the sperm, or, as he calls it,

‘the brain.’”’ Yet Beale, in his ‘ History of the Sperm Whale,’ spe-

cially says, after well describing the difference between the Sperm

Whale and the Blackfish, that the latter does not produce spermaceti

(p- 11). But I may observe that, according to Bennett and Nunn,

in the Pacific the name of Blackfish is given also to the large Dol-

phin described by me as Globiocephalus macrorhynchus.

On THE Eyes or THE EmMyp1p#& AND BarrRACcHIA.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., ere.

There is no character that an animal offers that is not worthy of

study; and my attention has lately been called to the eyes of the

freshwater Tortoises, and they have afforded me some information

which I believe tobe important. All the paludinal Terrapens which

I have been able to examine have a large square dark spot on each

side of the iris. This spot, with the pupil, forms a dark band across

the eyes. I have observed this to be the case in the species of

Emys, Pseudemys, and Chrysemys; and on looking at Holbrook’s

‘North American Herpetology,’ where the animals are all figured

with care from life, we find that he represents and describes all

the North American species of Hmydes as having this band across

the eye. I may observe that I have also seen it in a South American

Tortoise, which I have called Geoclemys annulata ; and I think it

is also found in Testudo scabra, another tropical American Terrapen

with separate toes. ‘These animals have been called Rhinoclemmys by

Fitzinger. They are probably a natural genus, characterized by this

peculiarity in the eyes. All the American species of Geoclemys,

the two species of Cistudo figured by Holbrook, the estuarian Ter-

rapen Malaclemys, the aquatic Box-Tortoises Kinosternon and Aro-

mochelys, and the Lacertine Terrapens Chelydra and Macroclemys,

have an annular iris without any interruption. It will be interesting

to observe the eyes of the Asiatic and European species; but this

can only be relied upon in living specimens, as the spot on the

angle of the eye is not to be observed in the specimens preserved

in spirits, where only the circular pupil is distinctly marked even in

the American Emydes.

P.S. When this paper was read, it was observed that the Tritons

176 Zoological Society :—

and Toad had the same peculiar spot on the sides of the iris, and that

it was common to the Batrachia. This is a mistake; the European

and North American species of Bufo, Rana, Hyla, and Hylodes have

an oblong-transverse pupil, with an oblong ring-like iris, the upper

portion of which is often differently or more brightly coloured than

the lower; but this form of pupil is not universal in the tailless

Batrachia; for, according to Dr. Holbrook, the genus Scaphiopus

has a small circular pupil, and the iris divided into four equal parts

by black radiating lines. According to the figures of the same

author, who had all the species figured from life, the North Ame-

rican Salamanders and Tritons, the Amphiuma, Menopoma, Siren,

and Menobranchus, all have small circular pupils, with an annular

iris. The Triton cristatus of England, T. marmoratus of Spain, and

T. alpestris of Germany, have a circular ring-like iris ; and the only

Batrachians which appear to have the spot on each side of the iris,

forming a band across the eyes, are the English Lophinus punctatus

and L. palmatus, the band on the eyes looking in these like a conti-

nuation of the dark streak on the side of the head. I may add that

the best character for the distinction of these two species, which are

often found in the same pond, is, that in LZ. punctatus the crest of

the male is scalloped on the edge, and high in front; while in L.

palmatus it is low in front, and higher behind, and has a smooth

straight upper edge. The tail of the latter is also always truncated,

and usually appendaged at the tip.

On THE SPECIES OF ZOSTEROPS INHABITING CHINA AND JAPAN,

WITH THE DescripTION OF A New Species. By Roserr

SwinuHoeg, F.Z.8., erc.

The genus Zosterops is represented in China by two species, one

inhabiting South China and the island of Formosa, the other North

China, from Shanghai northwards into Amoorland. The species pecu-

liar to Japan has been described by MM. Temminck and Schlegel in

the ‘ Fauna Japonica,’ and is allied to both the Chinese species, but

quite distinct from either. I proceed to characterize briefly the two

Chinese species.

ZOSTEROPS SIMPLEX, Swinhoe, Ibis, 1863, p. 294.

Similis Z. palpebrosee ew India, sed major; supra magis viridis ;

alis caudaque saturatioribus.

This species ranges in China from Canton to Foochow, and perhaps

a little higher; but not to Shanghai, where it is replaced by the fol-

lowing. In Formosa it is also an abundant resident. On its nesting

and habits I have already written much in the ‘ Ibis,’ and therefore

will not here repeat my.remarks. It has its nearest ally in Z. pal-

pebrosa of India, being, like it, light grey on the under parts. An

occasional specimen or two, however, may be picked out of my Amoy

series with a tinge of chestnut-brown on the under parts, showing

the tendency of the species towards the Japanese Z. japonica. Some

have the belly deeper grey than others. The yellow on the throat

Capt. R. H. Beddome on new Uropeltide. 177

and vent varies in intensity, as also does the green of the upper parts;

but these are chiefly distinctions of sex and age. I have one pale;

almost yellow variety, procured by Capt. Blakiston at Canton. All

the adults have the black lore- and eye-line peculiar to so many of this

oup. I have specimens from Hong Kong, Macao, Canton, Amoy,

Foochow, and Formosa; and they all agree in essential characters.

ZOSTEROPS ERYTHROPLEURA, Nl. Sp.

Z. chloronotus, v. Schrenck. (nec Gould).

Lateribus utrinque saturate castaneo-rujis.

Long. alee 23 poll., caudee 1°7.

The distribution of this species extends from Shanghai into Amoor- °

land. I had, until lately, confounded it with the Z. japonica of

Japan ; but while on a visit to M. Jules Verreaux at Paris, I had the

pleasure of examining for the first time a veritable Japanese specimen,

and of comparing it with North China skins. The difference in

the two birds isstriking. Both have, like the preceding, black mark-

ings on the lore- and partly round the white eye-ring. The under

parts of Z. japonica are a dull light brownish chestnut, while the

flanks of this species are of a deep rusty chestnut. This bird is

larger and longer-winged than our South China species, but is ex-

ceeded in both by the Japanese. I here exhibit two specimens from

Shanghai, kindly lent me by M. Jules Verreaux, and one from Tien-

tsin. The two former are much brighter on the flanks than the

latter ; but as they are both males, and our Tientsin bird is a female,

the difference may be only a sexual one, and not one of locality.

What could have induced M. v. Schrenck, in his ‘ Amoorland,’ to

confuse this species with the Z. chloronota, Gould, of Australia, I

cannot understand. Iam enabled to produce a specimen of this last

from M. Verreaux’s collection, the shape of the bill and head of

which, as well as the dull sordid colour of the plumage, show at once

a marked difference from the Chinese bird. Indeed there are many

species from Asia and Africa far more closely allied to our species

than is the Z. chloronota. For comparison with the two Chinese

species, I am enabled to bring before the Society the Z. palpebrosa,

Gray, of India, the Z. japonica, T. & S., and two Australian species,

Z. chloronota, Gould, and Z. cerulescens, Blyth. I think all prac-

tical ornithologists will agree with me in considering the three forms

of Eastern Asia as distinct inter se, and from all others of this nu-

merously represented group. As I have never met the North China

species alive, except as a cage-bird, I have nothing special to relate

regarding its habits.

June 9, 1863.—John Gould, Esq., F.R.S., in the Chair.

Descriptions or New Specises or THE Famity URoPELTIDZ

FROM SouTHERN INDIA, witH NOTES ON OTHER LITTLE-

KNOWN Species. By Captain R. H. Beppome.

Genus SILYBURA.

1. Strypura SHortii.

Head-plates as in S, drevis, but vertical, 6-sided, and occipitals

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xiii. 12

178 Zoological Society :—

pointed behind ; caudal disk very large and well-defined ; scales very

strongly 2-3-keeled ; terminal scale large, slightly bicuspid. Scales

of the body in 17 rows, on the neck in 19. Eye very large. Total

length 9 inches. Colour blackish, with large dull yellowish white

mottlings (the two colours nearly equally divided); tail beneath

black, with a yellowish band on each side. Abdominals 134 ; sub-

caudals 10.

Shevaroy Hills (4500 feet elevation). Forwarded to me by Dr.

Short.

2. SILYBURA OCELLATA.

Rostral pointed and much produced; nasal scutella meeting be-

hind the rostral, and separating it from the frontals ; eye very small,

obscure, in front of ocular shield ; other shields and labials as in the

genus; scales round the neck in 18 rows, round the trunk in 17 ;

caudal disk not very clearly defined; scales 2-5-keeled; terminal

shield entire, or slightly 2-3-pronged ; abdominals 199; subcaudals

8 or 10 pairs, some generally entire. Total length 14} inches.

Colour of the body of the male yellowish, becoming gradually brown

near the head and tail, of the female dull brownish, of the young

dark purplish brown ; all banded with transverse rows of four or five

black-edged white or yellow spots (like eyes), generally rather irre-

gularly placed. Sides of the belly with transverse, very irregular-

shaped, yellow or white blotches, rarely meeting over the abdominals,

and forming a transverse band.

Walaghat, on the western slopes of the Nilgherries, at an eleva-

tion of 3500 feet, in the dense moist forests. I procured three

specimens—male, female, and young,

3. SinyBuRA BREVIS, Giinther.

The specimen differs from the one described by Dr. Giinther in

having sixteen rows of scales instead of seventeen, and in the ter-

minal scale of the tail being entire and not bicuspid.

I procured this specimen on the Nilgherries ; the one described

by Dr. Giinther was found on the Anamallays.

4, SILYBURA NILGHERRIENSIS.

Scales in 17 rows; anal large, bifid; subcaudals 9 ; snout obtuse :

rostral far produced back between the nasals ; nasals just meeting

behind the rostral; vertical 6-sided, pointed in front and behind ;

eye rather large, in front of ocular shield ; caudal disk well defined :

scales very prominently 2—3-keeled ; terminal seale ending in two

points. Colour of the body of an indigo-hue, with small dull yellow

blotches; belly dull yellowish. Length 17 inches ; circumference

3 inches.

Ootacamund, Nilgherries, 7000 feet elevation.

This is by far the largest Earth-snake we have in Southern India.

It is possible that S. brevis may be the young of this species : they

are, however, found at different elevations ; and without intermediate

forms I cannot venture to unite them, that being the smallest Earth-

snake in our presidency, and this the largest. There is, however,

Capt. R. H. Beddome on new Uropeltide. 179

scarcely any difference in the shields of the head, though the head

of Silybura brevis is broader.

_ 5. Sirysura Beppomn, Giinther.

I have lately procured numerous specimens of this Snake on the

Shevaroys, elevation 4500 feet. I have also found it in the Mudu-

mallay Forest, elevation 3000 feet. The spots on the scales are

yellow, turning white in spirits.

Note.—Silybure brevis, nilgherriensis, Shortii, and macrolepis (a

Ceylonese species) have a well-defined head, with broad snout and a

large eye. Silybure Ellioti, Beddomii, and ocellata have a pointed

snout and a small eye (as in the genus Rhinophis).

6. RHINOPHIS SANGUINEUS.

Scales of the body large, in 15 rows; of the anterior portion of

the trunk sometimes in 17; rostral much produced, very sharp,

conical, horny, produced back, and covering the conjunction of the

nasals; nostril in front of nasal shield; eye very small and obscure,

in front of ocular shield ; four upper labials, 1st small, 2nd, 3rd, and

4th large; caudal disk nearly as long as tail, oblong, covered with

excrescences, a red streak down the centre and one on each side.

Colour of the body bluish black ; belly bright red, with blackish

mottlings; anal bifid; subcaudals of the male 9 or 10 pairs, each

with 4 to 6 keels, and some of the approximated ventral plates and

a few of the two lowest rows of scales also keeled; female subcau-

dals6 or7. Total length of large male 13 inches, female 10 inches ;

circumference 1 inch; abdominals 195.

The brilliant red colour of the abdomen fades in spirits.

I procured numerous specimens of this species at Cherambddy in

the Wynand (Malabar), elevation 3500 feet ; they were all dug up in

one spot. I have not met with it elsewhere.

7. RHINOPHIS MICROLEPIS.

Scales of the body small, in 15 rows ; of the anterior portion of the

trunk in 17, of the neck in 19. Caudal disk oblong, orbicular, one-

half the length of the tail, covered with excrescences, which are con-

fluent into streaks ; subcaudals 10; anal bifid; head-plates as in R.

mice fora but rostral less sharp. Colour of the body greyish black,

with indistinct dull yellowish white mottlings ; belly yellowish white,

with dark mottlings; tail beneath yellowish, with a broad black

spot. Abdominals very small, 199. Total length 6 inches; cir-

cumference 63 lines.

I procured this (a solitary specimen) in the Wynand, elevation

3500 feet.

Genus PLEcTRURUS.

* Hye rather large, with a supraorbital shield.

8. PLectrurvus Perrotreti, Gray, P. Z. 8. 1858, p. 265.

This is most abundant on the tops of the Nilgherries, 7000 te

8000 feet ; it is dug up in gardens, and found under the turf and

12*

180 Zoological Society :—

under stones. My largest specimen is 14 inches long; it rarely,

however, attains that size.

9. PLrectrurus GUENTHERI.

Scales of the neck in 17 rows; anterior portion of the trunk in 13

rows, of the rest of the body in 15 rows; head-shields as in P. Per-

rotteti, only the rostral is not produced so far back. All the scales of

the tail 5—6-keeled, and some of the approximated scales of the body

also keeled; terminal scale of the tail with four sharp points, and

covered with small tubercles; abdominals 172, and a bifid anal;

subcaudals 12. Total length 13 inches, circumference 13 inch. Co-

lour of the body a bright reddish purple; belly yellow, the yellow

colour rising up on the sides of the trunk into regular pyramid-

shaped markings, and the purple colour descending in the same way

down to the abdominals.

I procured this very fine species in the moist forests at Walaghat,

on the western slopes of the Nilgherries (3500 feet elevation). I

have great pleasure in naming it after Dr. Giinther.

** Hye small, no supraorbital shield.

10. PLECTRURUS WYNANDENSIS.

Scales round the body 15, round the neck 16 or 17; rostral

scarcely produced back between the nasals ; xo supraorbital ; muzzle

more obtuse than in P. Perrotteti; eye small; subcaudals 11 pairs ;

anal large, bifid; tail compressed ; scales smooth, terminal spinose,

tail ending in a single horny point.. Colour bluish black, with

broad white blotches on the belly, which become larger and more

numerous towards the tail; tail uniform bluish black.

Wynand, elevation 3500 feet.

11. PLECTRURUS PULNEYENSIS.

Rostral rather obtuse, produced back between the nasals, and

touching the frontals, nasals not meeting ; eye small, in front of the

ocular shield ; xo supraorbitals ; vertical 6-sided ; occipitals rounded

behind ; 4 upper labials. Scales round the neck 19, round the

body 17; subcaudals, male, about 12, female 6-8. Tail compressed,

ending in a small spinose keel, more or less bicuspid. Seales of the

tail all smooth. Colour uniform earthy brown ; a lateral bright yel-

low streak from the labials continued on each side of the trunk, about

1 inch or 14 inch in length; a few minute yellow specks on the

back ; belly with broad bright yellow transverse bands, very irregular

as to number and shape; yellow markings about the vent and tail.

Very abundant on the Pulney Hills, 7000 to 8000 feet, where it

takes the place of P. Perrottet: of the Nilgherries; in habits, &c.

exactly the same as P. Perrotteti.

The very brilliant yellow fades in spirits. -

These last two species differ from the typical form of this genus

in their much smaller size and in the absence of a supraorbital

shield. As, however, they have the same compressed tail, I prefer

keeping them in this genus to making a new genus for them.

Mr. E. D. Cope on a new Species of Vipera. 181

On A Spectres or VIPERA HITHERTO UNKNOWN.

By E. D. Corr.

VIPERA CONFLUENTA, Sp. Nov.

Head much longer than broad, covered with small scales, which

are more or less keeled as far anterior as the postfrontal region.

Superciliaries little developed, once or many times divided, Scales

of the upper surface of the muzzle larger; a well-developed supra-

nasal. Prenasal large, erect, undivided; postnasal developed in

front of, and narrowly superior to, the nostril. Three rows of scales

between the orbits and the superior labials. The latter are eleven in

number, the fourth longest, the first in contact with the prenasal.

Rostral higher than broad. Inferior labials fourteen, fifth largest.

Scales of the body in 25 rows, all keeled, never spiniferous. Gastro-

steges 180; urosteges 48. Length from muzzle to rictus 17 inch,

from muzzle to vent 303 inches, from vent to end of tail 42 inches.

General ground-colour brownish yellow; belly paler. A broad

undulating brown band, resembling a confluence of alternate rounded

spots, extends from the nape to the end of the tail. A dark brown

lateral streak, which is interrupted at regular intervals, extends

throughout the greater part of the length. Labial regions yellowish;

a brown band from orbit to angle of mouth; a brown spot below

orbit.

The habitat of this species is not known, but is probably Africa.

Its nearest ally is the V. Libitina, with which it forms a section of

the genus characterized by a superciliary plate more or less subdi-

vided, and leading off to Echidna. In the writer’s opinion, the genus

Vipera is to be separated from Echidna by its large prenasal plate,

and postnasal slightly developed above the nostril, which is always

182 Zoological Society.

lateral: in Echidna the prenasal is replaced by scales, and the post-

nasal is much developed above the nostril, which is usually vertical ;

in #. Atropos the nostril is vertico-lateral.

One specimen of this Vipera belongs to the Academy of Natural

Sciences of Philadelphia, and another is in the British Museum.

For an opportunity of examining and figuring the latter, my acknow-

ledgments are due to the distinguished officers of the institution,

Drs. Gray and Ginther.

Recorp OF THE PERIOD OF GESTATION OF CERTAIN RumtI-

NANTS WHICH BREED IN THE Society’s GARDENS. By P.

L. Scuater, M.A., Pu.D., F.R.S., erc., SecRETARY TO THE

Society.

The period of gestation of certain animals of the class of Rumi-

nants which habitually breed in the Society’s Menagerie has been

ascertained with tolerable exactness. Of course the period is slightly

variable ; but the times given in the following list are, on the average,

very faithfully adhered to.

Fam. Cervip&.

Wapiti Deer (Cervus canadensis). . )

Persian Deer (C. Wallichii)......

Barasingha Deer (C. Duvaucelii). .

Japanese Deer (C. sika) ........

Sambur Deer (C. Aristotelis) .... PS seen,

Rusa Deer (C. rusa)..........-.

Hog Deer (C. porcinus) ........

Axis Deer (C. axis) .........00. ~

Fam. CAMELIDZ.

Lama (Auchenia glama) ........ }

Alpaca (4. pacos)......++.++++ OF As pasion

Fam. CAMELOPARDID.

Giraffe (Camelopardalis giraffa) .. 15 months.

Fam. Bovip2.

Punjab Wild Sheep( Ovis cycloceros)

Mouftion Sheep (O. musimon).... A mpatha,

Leucoryx Antelope (Oryx leucoryz) 8 months.

Eland Antelope (Oreas canna) .. 9 months.

Nylghai Antelope (Portaz picta). Between 8 and 9 months.

The Hippopotamus has never bred with us ; but I may state that

the period of gestation in this animal is known to be short. The

female in the Amsterdam Gardens, which has twice produced young

in that establishment, went only 7 months and 16 days on the first

of these occasions, and 7 months 20 days on the second.

183

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Classification of the Gasteropodous Mollusca.

By M. Gourter.

A prviston of the Gasteropoda founded on the generative organs

presents this radical defect, that many species reputed to be herma-

phrodite are constantly being found to be unisexual, and further that

Mollusea evidently nearly allied, such as the Helices and Cyclo-

stomata, are necessarily separated on the consideration of their sexual

organs.

Therefore most authors have justly selected the respiratory ap-

paratus as the basis of classification, since the position of this

organ determines the position of the heart and generally that

of the anus. In the classifications generally followed, such as

that of Cuvier, however, orders are found to be established upon

various characters of unequal importance although generally derived

from the respiratory apparatus. Thus the Nudibranchs are gene-

rally characterized by their uncovered branchie, although with a

restriction for the separation of the Inferobranchs, which are really

also Nudibranchs. Elsewhere only the pectinated form of the organs is

considered, as in the Pectinibranchs, although in other divisions, such

as the Tectibranchs, this form of the branchize sometimes occurs.

The term Tectibranch also conveys to the mind the same sense as

Scutibranch. The expression Tubulibranch would seem to indicate

a tubular form of the branchie, when it only refers to the tubular

form of the animal. In the case of the Heteropoda the branchize

are set aside, and a character of subordinate value, the form of the

foot, is set on the same level as those of the preceding divisions.

The word Cyclobranch would perhaps be the most suitable, but for

the confusion between them and the Inferobranchs, if taken literally.

In fact, in the establishment of orders, the position and form of

the branchiz, the form of the foot, and the general form of the

animal have all been placed in the same rank, without assigning to

any one of them a marked preeminence over the others. To remedy

this defect the author proposes, taking the respiratory apparatus as

his basis, to select the most important of its characters, and to esta-

blish the primary divisions upon this. He considers the position of

the branchize to furnish the most important character. The bran-

chize can only occupy three positions : they are either

Completely external ;

Or completely internal, and then concealed in a cavity which is

itself covered by a shell which usually envelopes the animal ;

Or simply protected by an imperfect test, a condition intermediate

between the two preceding.

Hence, after the separation of the Pulmonata as a distinct sub-

class, we get three great divisions,—the Exobranchs, the Stegi-

branchs, and the Endobranchs.

I. The order of Exosprancus may be subdivided, according to

the point of the surface upon which the branchiz are inserted, into—

184 Miscellaneous.

Y; Sian which have them on the back (Doris, Glabellina,

oi,

2. Peribranchs, which have them round the mantle (7'ritonia,

Glaucus, Scyllea, Plocamocera, &c.). The Holide would be

allied to both the Epibranchs and Peribranchs.

3. Hypobranchs (the Inferobranchs of Cuvier). The Thetydes would

approximate all three Orders.

4. Pleurobranchs, which have the branchiz on the side (Pleuro-

branchus, Pleurobranchidium, Laniogera, &c.). The Pleuro-

branchs lead both to the Stegibranchs by their small test, and to

the bulk of the Endobranchs by the pectinated form of the

branchize.

II. The order of Sregiprancus (o7éyn, a roof) would include

four divisions :— .

1. Stegibranchs proper, corresponding to the Tectibranchs of Cuvier

(without the Pleurobranchs) and to the Scutibranchs of the same

author.

2. Cyclobranchs, corresponding with Cuvier’s group.

3. Heteropod Stegibranehs (Heteropoda of Cuvier), which, if we

take Carinaria as the type, have the heart and branchiee within a

small shell. The shelless Heteropoda must be left with Carinaria,

4. The Ianthine, which have their branchial laminze half concealed

by the shell, and which, like the Heteropoda, deserve to be sepa-

rated on account of their curious appendage. Their pectinated

branchize also form a transition from the Stegibranchs to the

Endobranchs.

III. The order of ENposRANcHs would correspond with the

Pectinibranchs and Tubulibranchs of Cuvier. They may be divided

into Turbinata and Tubulata.

1. The Turbinata (the old Pectinibranchs) might retain the old

Cuvierian subdivisions, or the much more natural division of De ~

Blainville into Siphonobranchs and Asiphonobranchs.

2. The Tudbulata are the old Tubulibranchs.

Comptes Rendus, Nov. 16, 1863, p. 826.

Fucus anceps, Ward & Harvey.

‘‘ Notwithstanding all that has been said pro and con, I have now

to inform you that the Kilkee Fucus is neither F’. distichus nor yet

F. fuscatus, nor yet any species known to Prof. Agardh, from whom

I have just received a specimen of the true F’. distichus of the elder

Agardh ; and so, being constrained to give it a name, I propose to

call it Fucus anceps, Ward & Harvey; and I request you to make

known this alias to all to whom you have (on my authority) given

the wrong name. This Fucus seems to combine the characters of

the ribbed and ribless species, and therefore it may with propriety

be named F, anceps.” —Prof. J. H. Harvey to Dr. Gray, Dec. 26,

1563. .

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES, |

No. 75. MARCH 1864,

XX.—On the Red Crag and its Relation to the Fluvio-marine

Crag, and on the Drift of the Eastern Counties. By S. V.

Woop, Jun.

{With a Map, Plate XVII.]

Some observations made during a visit to the Red-Crag beds

disclosed such peculiar conditions of structure that I was induced

_ to enter upon a careful and minute survey of the whole Red-Crag

area. The result of that survey, with the observations that I

have been enabled to make upon the Drift-beds of the counties

of Essex and Suffolk, form the subject of this paper; and they

have led me to the conclusion that in the Red Crag (once re-

garded as of Miocene age) we have the initiatory stage, in Eng-

land at least, of that series of events which, chiefly studied under

the term drift, began by the encroachment upon the land of

England of a bay of the Northern Ocean, progressed by the ex-

tension of that bay into what now forms the Eastern Counties,

and eventually involved a far more extensive area in a submer-

gence beneath the sea that furnished the ice-borne sediment and

detritus known as the northern Clay-Drift.

I have thought it more convenient to embody in an appendix

a list of the various sections of Red Crag examined by me.

They are taken from every part of the Red-Crag area, and

comprise, with the exception only of Felixstowe, almost every

Red-Crag exposure between the Alde and the Orwell, as well as

several south of that river.

It will be perceived, from the diverse shading upon the map

(Pl. XVII.) accompanying this paper*, that the Red Crag isdivided

* This map, in so far as concerns the division between the fifth-stage

Crag and the beach stages, must be taken as a very imperfect approxima-

tion, the chief part of the Crag area being hidden under the great heaths

formed of the lower-Drift beds ; the object is to show the features presented

by the two Crags in their mode of deposit. The district on the east of the

Deben, between Woodbridge and Ramsholt, may be taken as a tolerable

approximation to exactness.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xiii. 13

186 Mr. 8. V. Wood on the Red Crag

into two structural parts. These parts are respectively Crag pos-

sessing none of the characters of a deposit formed under water,

and Crag with the usual characters of a water-deposit. There are

to be observed in one pit at Hollesley (see woodeut infra) four

Pit near Hollesley.

North end of pit, looking N.W., fourth and fifth stages.

his section is in its true vertical position

relatively to the section below.]

ITO

South end of pit, looking N.E. Three Beach stages.

distinct stages of the first-mentioned Crag, one over the other,

covered partially by the Crag with the character of a water-

deposit ; and in consequence of that quintuple exposure, I shall,

for convenience, distinguish the one division as the beach stages

of Crag, and the other as the fifth or horizontal Crag.

Of these beach Crags the three inferior stages are not alto-

gether constant in their direction, although, where exposed, they

have for the most part a distinguishable uniformity of direction

in the inclination of their planes of stratification. There is only

one other section (that at Brockstead in Sutton) where so many

successive beach-stages are exposed. The less frequent exposure

of the more inferior stages, or at least of the two lowest, and

the extent to which they have suffered from the denudation

consequent upon the formation of each succeeding stage, render

it difficult satisfactorily to divide any of them, except the upper-

most, into stages capable of identification with each other at

every exposure. This, however, is not the case with the fourth

or uppermost of the beach stages. From the great thickness

often exhibited by this stage, and from the more partial denuda-

tion by a succeeding stage to which it has been subjected, this

fourth-stage Crag presents the means of accurate identification.

and on the Drift of the Eastern Counties. 187

The angle made with the horizon by the planes of stratification

of the fourth stage presents everywhere south of Hollesley a

remarkable uniformity, varying between 25° and 35°; and this

Crag also possesses a direction of inclination in its planes most

unvariable, being from N.N.E. to §.8S.W.; its surface, where

not covered by the fifth stage, is generally deeply eroded ; and

its thickness in some places, as at Newbourn, is not less than

20 feet. North of Hollesley, beach stages are exposed in several

sections in Butley and Sudbourn parishes, but, from the absence

of that uniformity of direction possessed by them in the more

southerly exposures, they do not present the same means of

identification.

No one who has, as I have done, measured the angles made

by the laminz with the horizon, in the sections presented by

the beach Crags, could suppose these Crags to have been depo-

sited under water ; the constancy of direction and the parallelism

of their planes precludes any idea of false bedding, so called—a

feature common enough in the horizontal or fifth-stage Crag

and in some parts of the overlying sands. In some places, as

at Trimley, these beach Crags contain no shells for a space, and

then the shelly lamine recur; but both have their lamine in-

clined alike in all respects.

The subjoined actual copies of some of the more characteristic

sections of beach Crags, at places selected for their great distance

from each other, will afford an idea of their characters.

Bluff in Bawdsey Cliff.

Fourth stage. Crag overlain by lower Drift.

N.B. The inclination of the lamin is here represented greater than it should be;

the inclination is about 35°.

13%

188 Mr. 8. V. Wood on the Red Crag

Pit at Crag Hall, Tattingstone.

Three Beach stages.

In one place only (with the exception of a bed peculiar to

Walton Naze, and presently referred to) could I find any indi-

cation of a water-deposit. This section is at Butley, near the

Abbey: a bed is there exposed, underlying a true beach stage,

more sandy, and stratified in a peculiar elliptical manner, resem-

bling the grain of wood where knots have been cut through ;

and it appears to me to afford indications of having been pro-

duced in a very shallow eddy. Nothing also is clearer than that

this inclined stratification, which at first sight resembles hori-

zontal strata tilted by upheaval, is due to no elevating action,

as, independently of the great area over which the fourth stage

extends being inconsistent (on such an hypothesis) with its

limited thickness, the inferior stages on which it rests often ex-

hibit a less inclination than does the overlying fourth stage.

At Walton Naze, however, underlying the fifth stage and

two subjacent beach stages, a bed of Red Crag occurs, lying

on the London Clay, which differs entirely from any other Red

Crag known. It is destitute of stratification, and is of a greyish-

brown colour. It alone, of all the Red-Crag beds, yields shells

in the condition in which they died—bivalves not unfrequently

and on the Drift of the Eastern Counties. 189

with both valves united, and univalves with the pullus unim-

paired. This bed, lying at the southernmost extremity of the

deposit, presents the only instance of Red Crag, other than that

of the fifth stage, which has been deposited under water; and

it is destitute of those derivative Coralline-Crag shells that so

largely contribute to make up the mass of the rest of the Red

Crag. The rest of the Red Crag, occupying as it does a hollow

between the Coralline Crag on the one side and the London-

Clay shore on the other, is largely composed of the degraded

material of the Coralline Crag, as well as having been in each

successive stage largely made up of the degraded material from

the preceding stages. ,

The fifth stage, or horizontal and water-deposited Crag, does

not uniformly cover the underlying beach stages; these, deeply

furrowed on their surface, are very frequently covered only by

the red sands of the lower Drift; while the manner in which

the fifth stage spreads up to and over the beach stages (almost

always the fourth) shows that it has been formed in channels

cut through the pre-existing beach, and afterwards silted up.

It is under this fifth-stage Crag alone that the workings of

phosphatic nodules, so far as I have seen them, occur*, I learn

from Mr. Colchester that this material has been obtained from

beneath the Coralline Crag; but not only have all the nodule-

workings in the Red Crag that I have visited been under this

stage, but wherever the beach stages are to be found resting

on the Clay, as at Bawdsey and Walton, the nodule-band does

not occur. This band, often of nearly a foot in thickness where

worked, and largely intermingled with rolled Pectunculi, thins

off gradually as the fifth-stage Crag leaves the Clay and rises

over the beach stages. I have traced it so rising in numerous

instances. At the watercourse near Methersgate Dock, Sutton,

it appears overlying beach stages, whence, going eastwards,

the extensive (but now discontinued) nodule-workings imme-

diately over the London Clay occur; and on quitting them, the

band rises again, on the eastern side, over beach stages. At

Bawdsey the band first occurs high up in the cliff, covering

beach stages, and descends to the southwards towards the river,

nearer to which, and inland, extensive workings have taken

place. At Tattingstone it occurs at the top of the section,

underlying fifth-stage and covering beach Crags, while at the

junction there of the beach Crag with the Coralline Crag it is

* At the base of the beach Crags small nodules may be found, forming

a thin band interspersed with Crag; but they are intermixed with pebbles

in such proportion that the pebbles are to the nodules as nearly 10 to 1.

There is no similarity whatever between these minute bands and the true

Pectunculus-vein of nodules.

190 Mr. 8. V. Wood on the Red Crag

absent. The portions of this band rich enough to work are

those resting on the clay, being the deeper parts of the channels

thus eroded through the older beach, the band becoming poorer

as it rises up the sloping sides formed of beach Crag. Many of

the sections of this fifth stage expose a thickness of not less than

20 feet of it; and one near Sutton Hall (now open) is a furlong

anda half in length, and full of the most intricate false bedding.

An interesting illustration of one of these channels is afforded

by the pits at Foxhall and Bucklesham. (See Section A.) The

Pectunculus-band with nodules invariably underlies the fifth

stage only where that stage rests on the clay; when the stage-

rises over the beach Crags, the nodule-band either becomes

feeble or disappears altogether. The Crag of the fifth stage

may always be detected at a glance, and distinguished from the

lower stages by its ‘horizontal stratification and the contrast it

presents to the underlying beach stages. The Crag of the fifth

stage, however, does not resemble the genuine deposit underly-

ing the beach stages at Walton Naze by containing shells in

the state in which they died; on the contrary, although mani-

festly water-deposited, the organic remains in it are as worn and

travelled in appearance as those in the beach stages, and show

their origin to have been mainly from the material of the older

beach stages through which the channels have been eroded.

While this seems to have been the mode of formation of the

fifth- stage Crag, that of the beach stages seems to have resulted

from a sea forcing itself backwards from the shore by the growth

of the beach that it heaped up, until, by a slight subsidence,

the sea, recovering its place, planed down the old beach into the

small thickness that we find the lowermost stages now present-

ing, and recommenced the process of beaching up and forcing

itself back.

The fifth stage, south and west of Chillesford, is everywhere

divided from the overlying red sands by aline of erosion, sometimes

very faint, but generally strongly marked, and often, like the surface

of the fourth stage where overlain only by the lower-Drift sands,

irregular and deeply cut in. At Chillesford, however, the fifth

stage (under which I could not detect the nodule-band) resting

upon a beach stage, passes up, without the slightest break or

line of erosion, into the micaceous sands and laminated clays

first noticed by Mr. Prestwich in 1849, and which have as their

characteristic fossil the Mya truncata in the position in which it

lived ; and these sands and clays, again, pass up in other places

(as at Iken and Aldbro’), without a break, into the extensively

developed sands of the lower Drift. At Chillesford (and it is

here alone that I have been able distinctly to recognize it) we

have the unbroken passage upwards of the fifth-stage Red Crag

and on the Drift of the Eastern Counties. 191

into beds that unquestionably underlie, and pass gradually into,

the great deposit of sands and gravels which cover the whole of

Suffolk and are extensively developed in Norfolk and Essex, and

which themselves pass upwards, without the least break, into

the more widely spread northern Clay drift.

. The geological conditions under which the peculiar formation

of beach Crags was accumulated demands a special considera-

tion, from the circumstance that it seems to afford a solution of

the question of the relationship between the Red and the Fluvio-

marine Crag. The latter, occurring at intervals from Norwich

to Thorpe, near Aldbro’, ceases almost at the place where the

Red Crag first appears. The absence of any superposition in

the two formations has hitherto left their relative ages in doubt;

and since fluvio-marine conditions obtain in the one, and purely

marine conditions in the other, inferences that might otherwise

be drawn from a comparison of their fauna are consequently of

less value.

The unvarying N.N.E. to 8.S.W. direction presented every-

where south of Hollesley, and from Melton and Bealings on the

west to Bawdsey Cliff on the east, is precisely that possessed by

the trend of the Coralline Crag, uncovered by any Red beach

Crag, from the point where it first comes to the surface north

of Aldbro’ to its termination at Gedgrave. This also is the

direction which was detected by Sir Charles Lyell in the cliff of

Coralline Crag buried in Red Crag at Sutton. According

to the view I take, it is, in reconstructing the bay of the Red

Crag, only necessary to assume the prolongation of that ridge

or barrier of Coralline Crag in the same direction from Gedgrave

southwards, over what is now covered by the sea. (See the con-

tinuation-line suggested on the map.) The production of this

ridge, composed as it is of the Bryozoon-bank of hard rock,

capable of resisting the waves, would give rise to a long tongue-

shaped bay running up between it and the shore-margin of soft

London Clay, in which these successive accumulations and de-

structions of beach-deposit might readily take place during

slight intervals of subsidence. The direction of beaching up,

then, would be determined by the particular contour of the bay

and the direction from which the sea had access to it. The evi-

dence available to show that the beach Crags never covered the

greater part of what now remains of this barrier, although ne-

cessarily only negative, is of the strongest character that such

evidence can afford. Firstly, it is along this line, and there only,

that the Coralline Crag occurs uncovered by the Red ; secondly,

the Coralline Crag consists of three parts,—the lower of sandy

beds, rich in Mollusca, preserved nearly as they lived; the middle

of the rocky Bryozoon-bank; and the upper of a thin bed, some

192 Mr.8. V. Wood on the Red Crag

3 or 4 feet thick, formed apparently of the disintegrated mate-

rial of the Bryozoon-bank, and destitute of perfect fossils; this

upper bed exhibits indications of having, during the period of its

formation, been beached up, somewhat similar to those afforded by

the lower stages of the Red Crag, suggesting comparisons with

the beach of decomposed coral fringing existing coral shores.

Now over this line, this thin and easily denuded upper part re-

mains intact, with the Chillesford beds in places resting upon it;

and it is almost inconceivable that so tranquil a sea as that de-

positing the Chillesford beds could have so evenly removed

every trace of Red Crag, and spared this perishable upper por-

tion of the Coralline Crag. It is also worthy of note that over

this area the lower beds of the Drift sands exhibit peculiar

oblique stratification not observable elsewhere, as though this

ridge were continued as a shoal in the Drift-sea and produced

a quasi-beaching of the sand over it at low water.

These arguments might be pursued further ; but those given,

I venture to think, justify me in the view I take that this ridge

shut in the Red-Crag bay during the whole of the deposit of the

beach Crags. The Chillesford Sands and Clays sweep round

the Coralline-Crag ridge, but do not cover every part of it:

their absence may be due to denudation taking place at the time

when the existing valley-system was formed; but I am inclined

to think that these beds even, although extensively overlapping

those of the Red Crag, as well of the fifth as of the beach stages,

did not quite cover the Coralline-Crag ridge; and, although I

have not ventured so to represent them in the section, they may

possibly be found, in some places, absent between the Drift

sands and the Coralline Crag.

I should have felt much hesitation in thus offering a section

so different from that given by Mr. Prestwich, in 1849*, as the

result of the investigation by himself, Mr. Austen, Mr. Morris,

and Mr. Tylor, but that I learn from Mr. Prestwich that he no

longer adheres to the section so given. That section represented

the Chillesford beds as resting unconformably on both the Red

and Coralline Crags, whereas it appears to me evident that these

Chillesford beds are but the continuation of the fifth or water-

deposited stage of the Red Crag.

These Chillesford beds do not occur in the southern part of

the Red-Crag area; the Drift sands there rest invariably on

the Red Crag of either the fifth or a beach stage. The line of

erosion everywhere dividing the fifth as well as the beach stages

of Crag from the overlying sands, shows that these channels,

after they had silted up, had become dry land; and keeping in

view, therefore, the very limited thickness of these laminated

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. v. p. 345.

and on the Drift of the Eastern Counties. 193

clay-beds, it is not improbable that they were formed in the

small interval between the close of the fifth-stage Crag and the

commencement of the deposit of the Drift sands, their sediment

being furnished by the discharge of the streams to the north-

ward, which, during the time when the Red Crag was accumu-

lating, deposited the Fluvio-marine Crag, but which streams, at

this subsequent period, under the effect of the recession at this

point of the coast-line, had ceased to produce fluvio-marine con-

ditions over this portion of the area. The base of the Drift sands,

where it rests on the Red Crag, is often much mixed with loam,

producing the flaky dark-red beds that immediately rest upon

the eroded Crag, and furnishing, where the denudation has

reached down to them, very rich lands. It appears, therefore,

to me that in these we may have the equivalents of at least the

laminated clays forming the upper portion of the Chillesford

beds.

Crossing the ridge of Coralline Crag never covered by Red,

we reach, at Thorpe, two miles north of Aldbro’, the true

Fluvio-marine or Norwich Crag. So far as I could learn, this

solitary pit at Thorpe constitutes the only exposure of Fluvio-

marine Crag south of Southwold Cliffs, a distance of eight miles

further north. This exposure seems to be due to a fault bring-

ing up the Fluvio-marine beds at this point through the over-

lying Drift sands which form the surrounding country *. The

pit is now nearly overgrown with grass; but the beds appear to

have been brought to the surface and denuded at the period of

the formation of the valley-system ; so that there are no means

afforded of testing their position relatively to the Chillesford

beds. The upper part of these Chillesford beds, composed of

the laminated grey clays, occurs at a brick-field between Thorpe

and Aldbro’,—at which place they are pierced in the well

down to a Crag which the workmen described as the yellow

Coralline Crag of the pit just below, about a furlong distant,

and nearer Aldbro’. The latter pit occurs at a lower level than

the brick-field, and is composed of Coralline Crag ; but the valley-

denudation has swept the top of the pit clear of all the overlying

Drift sands and of everything that may have occupied the in-

terval between it and these sands, with the exception of two or

three very minute traces of a Crag that resembles the Red, but

which is so comminuted as to be incapable of identification ;

* There is evidence of considerable displacement between Thorpe flag-

staff and Sizewell Gap; and at the latter place the displacement has been

great enough to bring down the upper Drift, that is otherwise quite denuded

over this area, by a sharp pitch into the midst of the lower-Drift sands.

(See Section B.) A pit there shows it inclined at a considerable angle,

resting on the lower Drift.

194, Mr. 8. V. Wood on the Red Crag

with those traces, however, is preserved more perfectly a band

of phosphatic nodules that I felt no hesitation in identifying

with the basement band of the fifth-stage Red Crag. I enter-

tain no doubt that this trace of Crag does not belong to any of

the beach stages; and the only question that presents itself to

me is whether it may be a remnant of the base of the Flavio-

marine Crag: that Crag, being water-deposited, may, like the

Coralline, have in places under it these nodules. The means of

ascertaining to which of these two this trace of Crag belongs

could only be afforded by an excavation in the Aldbro’

brick-field. In colour the Thorpe beds do not at all resemble

this trace of Crag, which is ferruginous; and the impression

I entertain is strong that the two are distinct. There can be

little doubt that this Crag with the nodule-band underlies the

clays forming the brick-field higher up the rise; and in that

respect their relative positions agree with those we find on the

opposite side of the Coralline-Crag ridge, where fifth-stage Crag

passes at Chillesford up into these beds without interruption.

The conclusion that I have formed from these observations is

that the Fluvio-marine Crag of Thorpe is inferior to the fifth-

stage Red Crag, and as old therefore, at least, as the uppermost

beach stage. It must be admitted that the evidence for such a

conclusion is very incomplete and unsatisfactory ; but the general

consideration of the geographical conditions of the period furnish,

to my mind, a support to the inference I have drawn. There

can be little doubt that the fifth-stage Crag was introduced by a

slight depression. That depression would ‘enable it to cover,

although very thinly and feebly, portions of the Coralline Crag

never covered by the beach stages. Since this faint trace of

Crag at Aldbro’ immediately underlies the laminated clays, it

must (if not the Fluvio-marine itself) be newer than the Fluvio-

marine Crag; or else the latter is newer than the laminated clays,

in which case we ought to find it overlying the clays; but such

is not the case—the clays passing, without a break, up into the

sands of the Drift. If, on the other hand, it be identical with

the trace of Crag at Aldbro’ underlying the clays, it must

be at least as old as the fifth-stage Crag, that underlies and

passes up into those clays. I can therefore come to no other

conclusion than that the Fluvio-marine Crag is as old as the Red

Crag, and most probably older than that part of it represented

by the fifth-stage or. water-deposited Crag.

The descriptions with which we have been furnished by

Messrs. Woodward and Gunn, and by Sir Charles Lyell, of the

beds occurring along the coast northwards from Southwold, have

not been of such nature as to afford any satisfactory comparison

with the formations I have been discussing. Nothing less than

and on the Drift of the Eastern Counties. 195

a close survey of the area would afford the means of testing how

far their horizons accord; the grouping, however, of the Drift

sands and gravels which, as I have to show in the case of Suffolk

and Essex, succeeded the Red Crag, goes to prove that there was

a gradual and continuous recession of the coast-line during the

period succeeding the Red Crag; so that, by the incoming of the

great northern Clay Drift, that coast had reached the western

side of those counties. This and other circumstances not within

the compass of this paper lead me to a belief that some of the

deposits of the north-east of Norfolk belong to an horizon at

least as old as the lowest beach stage of the Red Crag. The

view that I take of the direction of the coast-line prevailing

during the Red-Crag period is indicated by the easternmost

dotted line on the small map annexed to this paper.

The formation into which the Chillesford beds pass, and

which overlies in common those beds, the fifth stage, and the

beach stages of Red Crag, is one occupying a large area; and in

that respect, and in the thickness of its beds, it occupies a far

more important position than do any of the beds I have been

discussing. From its distinct character, both in the material

composing it and in the limited and definitely marked spread of

the deposit, as well as in the entirely different geographical

conditions under which it was formed, it appears desirable to

distinguish this deposit from the great overlying Clay drift

which has already received the designation of the Boulder or

Northern Clay Drift. I propose therefore to call it the Lower

Drift of the Eastern Counties. This formation is composed,

over the Red-Crag district, almost exclusively of sands which at

the bottom are loamy and rich and highly ferruginous, but

gradually become more siliceous in their upper parts. Although

where the valleys cut through the deposit down to its lower beds

and the Red Crag rich lands occur, yet the upper or siliceous

beds exposed as tablelands over large tracts form the barren

heaths or sheep-walks of Eastern Suffolk. These beds distinctly

pass under the Boulder-clay wherever the denudation has not

removed the latter: every river-valley of East Suffolk and

North-east Essex affords the means of testing this, as the whole

of the more seaward extremities of these valleys have been cut

through this formation, leaving the upper or Clay Drift as

cappings on the higher grounds, the mixed soils of these coun-

ties being formed by the overlying clays where denuded down

to a crust thin enough to mix with the underlying sands.

These sands gradually change to gravels as the formation extends

southwards, while they, after passing under the Clay or upper

Drift, reappear on the western sides of Suffolk and Norfolk,

forming the very extensive sand-tracts around Brandon. There

196 Mr. 8. V. Wood on the Red Crag

they repose on the Chalk, while in the south-eastern area they

repose, in the condition of gravels, on the London Clay. The

southern boundary of this formation may be indicated in some

parts with such precision that it can with certainty be averred

that this was the shore in this direction of the bay of the period.

Along the coast south of the Stour, the denudation has in many

places removed this formation, leaving the London Clay to form

the coast-line—the lower Drift appearing a few miles inland,

and furnishing outliers occasionally nearer the coast. Ranging

south as far as Chelmsford, its southern edge may be traced

crossing the railway-cutting a few furlongs south of Chelmsford-

Station, from which place it extends eastward to Danbury Hill,

where it forms an outlier, apparently nearly 100 feet in thickness,

resting on London Clay. Between those two points it occurs at

the villages of Badow and Sandon. West of Chelmsford, it passes

by Writtle, and, a mile north-west of that place, is lost under the

Boulder-clay, a deep section being exposed at that place about a

furlong only from its disappearance under the overlying Clay

Drift. From that point to Badow, the margin of the bay depo-

siting the beds may be indicated with certainty; but east of

Badow its boundary-line has been destroyed by the great denu-

dation that has removed the Bagshot gravels and the upper beds

of the London Clay. The precise margin alluded to is shown

in this way. At intervals over Southern Essex, the Bagshot

sands and gravels, that originally extended, for a thickness of

about 50 feet, continuously over the London Clay, now remain

as outliers on the summits of the higher hills, as at Raleigh,

Galleywood, Langdon, Stock, Margaretting, Warley, Shenfield,

South Weald, Epping Forest, &c., uncovered by any Drift-beds,

the upper or Clay Drift having been removed from them, while

the tablelands that range from Brentwood towards Epping on

the one hand, and towards Ongar and the Rothings on the other,

are capped by these Bagshot beds, covered with patches of the

upper or Clay Drift, without the faintest trace of anything re-

sembling the lower-Drift deposit between them.

These Bagshot beds possess so uniform a character, both in

their constituent material and thickness, and are so evenly and

uniformly covered by the Drift clay in immediate contact with

them, where that remains undenuded, that the idea of any ex-

tension of the lower Drift over this area, during the interval

between the two formations, is precluded. In addition to this,

the lower Drift, wherever it occurs, has invariably eroded the

whole of the Bagshot beds, so that it rests on the London Clay

only. This process is conspicuous near Chelmsford: there the

Drift gravels may be seen resting on the London Clay, while,

within the distance of a mile, the complete beds of the Bagshot

and on the Drift of the Eastern Counties. 197

series* cap Galleywood Common, the valley of the Chelmer having

been cut through the line of contact. The same feature may be

perceived all along this line between Badow and Writtle ; and in

_ Section C (Pl. XVII.), I have shown the original position of the

beds of the lower Drift at their southern extremity, and the mode

in which the valleys have been cut through the district. Consider-

able alterations of the relative levels have taken place here, as

over all the rest of East Anglia, by the formation of the valley-

system, so that the Danbury outlier is forced up far above the

corresponding level of the old shore of the bay which may be

represented by Galleywood, now much below the level of the

lower Drift of Danbury, The section, however, is drawn with-

out reference to any of these changes of level, in order that the

position originally occupied by the lower-Drift beds may be

better shown.

It is thus very obvious how the bay depositing this lower Drift

advanced inland by erosion as much as or more than by depres-

sion, Several examples of this advance by erosion occur. A

very interesting one is afforded by the section on the summit of

the Chalk inlier forced up at Claydon in Suffolk (see the

sketch below the map) : this section marks a stage when the bay

had advanced but a short distance inland from the Red-Crag

bay. Another example is afforded by the well-sinking at

Hasketon, near Woodbridge. The base of the London Clay is

brought up at Kyson, and the clay at that place has a thick-

ness of only some 50 feet between its base and the overlying

Crag; but at Hasketon a well-sinking for 120 feet failed to

pierce the London Clay, and was abandoned, while at a short

distance on one side of this sinking, at a few feet higher level,

the lower Drift was pierced for 60 feet; and on the other

side of the London-Clay boring, both upper and lower Drift

have been pierced for the usual thickness of the district. More-

over, on a third side, the upper or Clay Drift rests on this.

London Clay, and the valley has been cut through both

* In the Sections attached to the paper of Mr. Prestwich on the corre-

lation of the English and Belgian lower tertiaries (Quart. Journ. Geol.

Soc. vol. xi. p. 241), the middle and part of the lower Bagshot are repre-

sented as denuded from Langdon Hill. Whether the Essex beds represent

the middle as well as the lower Bagshot, or the lower only, they at any rate

are nearly complete on Langdon Hill. The Essex Bagshot consists of

about 30 feet of sand and 20 feet of pebble-beds overlying the sand, and

on these pebble-beds the boulder-clay, where not denuded, rests. It is the

nearly complete preservation of these uppermost pebble-beds, on the

yarious outliers where the Drift clay has been denuded, that shows that

the lower Drift never extended over them; the Bagshot pebble-beds may

be traced complete along the outliers until they pass under the Drift clay.

Nothing of the Bagshot series, beyond this sand and overlying pebble-bed,

was ever deposited in Essex.

198 Mr. 8. V. Wood on the Red Crag

clays. These variations occur within a radius of about a

quarter of a mile from the London-Clay boring, showing that

during the progress of the lower Drift the sea had eroded and

encompassed an island of London ‘Clay, by the sides of which it

deposited its sands, but the top of which was never covered by

that sea, but was overflowed when the great depression brought

in the upper Drift. The lower Drift is cut through by the

railway from London to Yarmouth, without any break, from the

point where it is lost under the upper Drift near the Norfolk

boundary of Suffolk to its termination at Chelmsford; and the

railway-cuttings afford a continuous section, and show the sands

that occupy the Crag-area and the country to the northward

gradually changing into gravels as the more southern portions

of the deposit are cut through.

I have indicated on the small map the outcrop of this forma-

tion from beneath the overlying Clay Drift along the eastern

side of it; but the western outcrop I have not ventured to de-

lineate, as it is some years since [ visited the extensive develop-

ment of the deposit around Brandon. The junction-line con-

necting the western side of that development of the deposit with

the emergence of the deposit from beneath the Clay at Writtle

(and forming between those places the western boundary of the

formation), being hidden by the overlying Clay Drift, is only to

be ascertained accurately by the well-borings: these I have not

yet been able to collect, but I have indicated on the map what

may be taken as an approximation to that line. North and

west of Brandon, the lower Drift has undergone a denudation

along the fen-border; and I have not had the means yet of

testing precisely where the boundary-line of the deposit, shown

by the upper Drift resting on the Secondaries, as in Lincolnshire

and Bedfordshire, without the occurrence between them of any

lower Drift, is to be drawn.

The thickness of the lower-Drift beds appears very uniform :

the well-sinkings above Woodbridge give from 60 to 70 feet.

Nearly the entire deposit is exposed at the scarp by Wilford

Bridge over the Deben, near Woodbridge, the Crag occurring

about 5 feet below the pit, and the upper or coarse gravel-beds

remaining undenuded ; the thickness there is between 60 and

70 feet. Danbury seems to show a greater thickness, but there

perhaps something may be deducted on account of a slight

bending of the beds over the hill.

The transition from the lower to the upper or Clay Drift,

although most abrupt, is unmarked by the slightest evidence of

violence ; the sands and gravels give place to the clay sharply,

passing, by a very thin band of loam, into each other. Sections

showing the passage are not so common as might, from the

and on the Drift of the Eastern Counties. 199

structure of the county, be expected; good sections, however,

showing the passage may be found in the pit behind Sizewell

Gap already alluded to, in a pit a mile west of Leiston, on the

Saxmundham road, and in a pit at Hoo, a mile on the Charsfield

side of the bridge over the Deben. Over Suffolk, the upper

part of the lower Drift is marked by beds of coarse gravel, the

stones being large and angular, and sparsely scattered in the

sand: they are unlike the gravels that occasionally, even in this

area, occur near the base of the deposit, the latter being more

rounded and thicker-bedded, while the former have the character

of being ice-borne, and much resemble the small boulders occur-

ring in the Drift clay. The characteristic pebble of the lower-

Drift beds is a pink quarizite, which I have identified more

nearly with a quartzite from Freyburg than with any other. It

is probable that the lower-Drift bay, of which only the lower and

western border touched England, extended across the north of

Europe to a great distance in the direction of Germany, and that

the gravels accumulated in it were largely supplied with detritus

carried from that country along the southern shore of the bay.

The depression that introduced the upper: Drift seems to

have been both sudden and uniform; and if the view be well

founded which I have taken as to the formation of the valley-

system* of Kastern England—that all the inequalities of surface

now exising there are of an origin later than the Drift—we may

conceive that a sudden, though moderate, depression would at

that time have submerged the very extensive area occupied by

the Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary strata: the materials of

these, and particularly the two former, it is well known, have

largely contributed to the upper Drift, the supply of which

appears to have been chiefly furnished from the British strata.

The thickness of this upper Drift over Suffolk and Essex does not,

where least denuded, exceed the maximum thickness of the lower

Drift ; and its deposition seems to have ceased before the spread-

ing of the great erratics of the northern counties commenced.

At any rate, the great erratics are generally absent over the

southern part of the eastern counties; and as no denudation

could well have removed them, but must have allowed them to

sink upon the uncovered beds, we may assume that the causes

giving rise to the erratic distribution of northern England did

not exist over these more southern counties. Probably before

the high lands of the northern part of England were submerged,

the great plain then formed by the strata newer than the Trias

had sunk to a depth beneath the sea too great to arrest icebergs

on their transit, if these were the means of spreading the erratics ;

on the other hand, the greater distance of these counties from

* Phil. Mag. ser. 4, vol. xxvii. p. 180.

200 Mr. 8, V. Wood on the Red Crag

the high lands of the north of England would exempt them from

any part that glaciers may have played in the distribution of the

great boulders of that part of England. a

Notwithstanding the confusion that has existed as to the rela-

tionship to the Drift borne by the freshwater formations of Grays,

Ilford, Clacton, Stutton, Copford, Lexden, Hoxne, &c., I take it to

be now well understood that these and similar formations in other

counties are altogether posterior to the Drift period, having been

deposited in the valleys that resulted from the upheaval of the bed

of the upper-Drift sea, and from the denudation that accompa-

nied such upheaval. Being limited for space, I have not referred

to these beds, but confined myself to marking into the map

of the Red Crag district the only deposit of this nature (that of

Stutton and Wrabness) occurring within it. It will be seen that

the Stutton and Wrabness beds rest on the London Clay, which

previously to their deposition had been laid bare by the denu-

dation of both Drifts, and which denudation accompanied those

symmetrical movements that elevated the upper-Drift sea-bed, and

gave rise to the inequalities of surface over the Hast of England

which form the subject of my paper on the valley-system before

alluded to. The other correlated freshwater deposits named

above are identical with that of Stutton in their position rela-

tively to the Drift, although they vary in the bed they rest upon,

according as the denudation has in a greater or less degree

eroded the valley previous to their deposit ; but, within the limit

of the period elapsed since the upheaval of the Drift sea-bed,

these deposits may to a small extent vary in age among them-

selves. The greater contiguity of the Thames valley to the

centres of upheaval producing the valley-system, but more par-

ticularly its greater contiguity to the great rectilinear upheavals

of the Weald and South of England which succeeded the gene-

ral upheaval producing the valley-system, has, as I conceive,

caused in that valley greater changes of level among its deposits

than is the case with the beds accumulated in the valleys of the

rivers of northern Essex. The precise correlation in age of the

valley-deposits of the respective areas is therefore, I think, to

be satisfactorily arrived at rather by close paleontological analy-

sis than by comparisons of level and physical structure.

APPENDIX.

Sections of Red Crag.

ALDERTON. On the Ramsholt road, three-quarters of a mile from Alder-

ton.—Fifth stage, laminated with red sands, and false-bedded.

No line of erosion visible. Traces of a beach stage at bottom.

Nodule-band occurs.

Bawpsey. Sea-cliff.—Fifth stage. Fourth and two other beach stages.

and on the Drift of the Eastern Counties, 201

Nodule-band visible high up in the cliff. (See woodcut of fourth

Beawines (Lirrie). Pit in a shrubbery of the residence of — Colvin,

-—Fourth and fifth stages.

Bentiey. Pit 100 yards from railway station.—Fifth stage. Nodule-

band and two beach stages. Diep line of erosion between fifth

stage and sand.

Buck.iesHAm. Pit south of Rectory.—Two feet of fifth stage, with

strong line of erosion between it and the sand.

Pit north-east of Rectory.—Fourth and fifth stages; line of

erosion between the latter and the sand.

Another pit in adjoining field, with the beds much shattered.

Butiey. Near the Oyster Inn.—Two stages visible.

Another pit near the mill.—Three stages visible.

Several large pits five furlongs south-west of church, contain-

ing three beach stages, the lowermost exhibiting traces of being

: ‘not true beach, but formed in shallow water.

CHILLEsForD. Below the church.—Fifth stage and a beach stage.

FoxHa.u. Pit near to and east of Foxhall Hall.—Fourth and fifth

ae stages. -

Nodule-working on hill 300 yards south of last pit.—All fifth-

stage Crag resting on London Clay, and overlain by red sands.

Another working, a quarter of a mile south of last pit, and five

furlongs north-west of Bucklesham.—Similar to last section.

Howiestey. A farm-yard nine furlongs south-west of church, beside

road to Shottisham.—Fifth stage and four beach stages. (See

woodcut.)

Pit 300 yards east of the last.—Fifth stage ; only faint line of

erosion between it and the sand.

Pit 200 yards south-east of church.—Two beach stages.

Pit close to and immediately north of church.—Fourth stage

_ composed of sands and gravels only, the planes dipping N.N.E. to

$.S.W. No shells.

Pit a quarter of a mile north-north-west of church.—Similar to

last pit.

Pit beside farm-house, three quarters of a mile north-north-

west of church.—Fifth stage only, brought up through the sand

by a fault.

Ipswicu. Side of road leading from Goldroods down to Belstead Bridge.

—Fourth stage..

ey ‘ Half a mile east of church.—Fifth stage. Line of erosion

visible.

Immediately south of church, on opposite side of road, a small

section of fifth stage.

MELTON. Pit on by-road five furlongs south-west of church.—Fourth

and lower beach stages. (See woodcut.)

Nacton. Nodule-working north side of road to Levington, and midway

between each place.—Fifth stage, resting on London Clay.

Newsourn. A quarter of a mile north by east of Bucklesham mill.—

Fourth stage, dipping N.N.E. to 8.S.W. Composed of sand

only.

re quarter of a mile north-east of church.—Fourth stage. A

thickness of 20 feet of beach is here exposed.

RamMsuHo.t. Bluffs by the Dock Inn.—A beach stage overlain by fifth

stage: faint line of erosion between the latter and the sand.

The beach-stage lamine here have an inclination of nearly 45°.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xiii. 14

202 ~ Mr.8. V. Wood on the Red Crag.

Pit a quarter of a mile west-north-west of church.—Beach

stage overlain by fifth stage. Nodule-band between them.

A nodule-working 50 yards south of the last.—Fifth stage,

resting on the Clay.

The cliff between Shottisham Creek and Church-farm.—The

fifth stage is visible; but the beach stages are probably obscured

ve Pon talus. The Coralline Crag occurs here at the base of the

cliff.

Supgpourn. Pit half a mile north of the village, corner of Tunstall Heath,

—Beach stage only.

Two pits are given by Mr. Prestwich (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe.

vol. vy. p. 352) of Red Crag on Coralline, north-north-east of

Sudbourn Church ; but I could not find them. There is probably

some clerical error in the directions.

SuottisHaM. Nodule-working a quarter of a mile north of Shottisham

Hall.— Fifth stage resting on London Clay.

oie) pit, nearer to Shottisham Hall.—Fifth-stage, Crag

exposed.

SuTTon. atercourse half a mile east of Methersgate Dock, on the

Deben.—Three beach stages and fifth stage. Nodule-band be-

tween the latter and beach stage.

South-east of the last are extensive abandoned nodule-work-

ings; and ~

Stil further east, leaving the workings, fifth stage appears over

beach stages, with nodule-band between them.

Nodule-working 150 yards west of Sutton Hall.—A very large

section of fifth stage resting on London vi

Pit opposite the Meeting-house at Brockstead.—Four beach

oe ry are visible, overlain at one corner only by fifth stage.

it half a mile south of Pettistree Hall.—Fifth stage much

washed up on the surface. Two Coralline-Crag pits occur to the

north-east of it.

TrimMLEy. Four pits occur here, from half to three-quarters of a mile

north-east of the churches. Two of them have fourth stage

overlain by fifth-stage Crag. Another contains fourth stage only

(no shells); and the other contains fourth stage and an under-

lying beach-stage.

TATTINGSTONE. Pit five furlongs north-north-west of church.—Fifth

stage, with nodule-band overlying two beach stages. :

Pit close to Tattingstone Hall farm.—Fifth stage underlain by

nodule-band and two beach stages. The Coralline Crag occurs

here; but the beds have been broken and shifted by faults.

Pit behind Crag Hall.—Three beach stages. (See woodcut,

page 188.) '

Watton Nazg. Sea-cliff.—A brown Crag, full of water, rests on the

Clay containing shells preserved as they died, overlain by two

beach stages and by fifth stage. Hi

- The Coralline-Crag pits not mentioned above are all at Sudbourn, Iken,

Orford, and Aldbro’. They are mostly enumerated by Mr. Prestwich in

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. v. p. 352.

The sections of Chillesford beds are also given by him in the same list ;

but, in addition to them, the following sections of these beds may be found

by reference to the Ordnance Map :— ft23

. Pit 200 yards north of road from Chillesford to Sudbourn,

three quarters of a mile east of the brick-field.

Prof. Allman on Amebiform Protoplasm in the Hydioida: 203°

: Pit by Iken Church.

7 Ditto half a mile south-west of Calton farm.

Brick-kiln one-mile north-north-west of Aldbro’.

_N.B. Coralline Crag has also been found in digging at Trimley (authority

of the late Mr. Acton).

XXI.—On the Occurrence of Amebiform Protoplasm, and the

Emission of Pseudopodia, among the Hydroida. By Professor

Auman, F.R.S.

[Plate XIV.]

Onze of the most striking peculiarities of the hydroids which

compose the family of the P/umulariade is the occurrence among’

all of them of certain singular bodies which are produced as’

buds at definite spots upon the hydrosoma. These bodies have:

been examined by Huxley* and also by Busk, who, from the

fact of their often containing clusters of large thread-cells, has’

named them “ nematophores” +.

The most important character, however, of the nematophores

has hitherto escaped notice; and yet it is one full of interest,

involving as it does the manifestation of phenomena whose

existence among the Hydroida has not as yet been suspected.

The species which I have had an opportunity of most tho-

roughly examining are Aglaophenia pluma (Plumularia cristata

of most authors) and Antennularia antennina; and I shall con-

fine the present paper to a description of the nematophores and:

their contents in these two hydroids.

1. Aglaophenia pluma.

In Aglaophenia pluma there are two sets of nematophores—a

mesial and a lateral (Pl. XIV. figs. 1-4), The mesial nemato-

phores (a a) are situated exactly in the mesial line, one being.

placed in front of every hydrotheca. These mesial nematophores

consist each of a chitinous tube with peculiar contents. The

tube springs from the base of the hydrotheca, and, thence con-

tinuing for the greater part of its length adnate to the front of.

the hydrotheca, terminates in a free tubular spine-like process a.

little below the orifice of the latter. It opens below into the

common tube of the chitinous periderm ; and just before its ter-.

mination its cavity communicates by a lateral orifice with that

of the hydrotheca, while its free end opens externally by a very

oblique aperture.

He Husley; * On the Anatomy and Affinities of the Medusz,”’ Phil. Trans.

1849, p. 427.

‘+ Busk, Hunterian Lectures (MS.), delivered at the Royal College of.

Surgeons, London, 1857. Raney

14*

204 Prof. Allman on the Occurrence of Amebiform Protoplasm,

The lateral nematophores (4) consist, like the mesial ones, of

tubular processes from the chitinous periderm, and of peculiar

contents ; but while the mesial nematophores are formed by a

set of azygous appendages, the lateral ones are, on the other

hand, arranged in pairs, each pair consisting of two processes,

which are given off, exactly opposite to one another, from the

sides of the branch, nearly on a level with the orifice of every

hydrotheca. The chitinous tubes communicate at their base

with the cavity of the tubular periderm of the branch, and open

by an oblique aperture at their free extremity. .

The contents of the nematophores consist, in both eases, of a

soft granular mass, which is continuous below with the ectoderm

of the coenosare, and, just behind the terminal aperture, ends in

a bulbous extremity (c), in which is immersed a cluster of large

fusiform thread-cells.

In those nematophores which lie along the mesial line, the

tubular sheath is furnished, as has just been said, not only with

a terminal aperture, but also with a lateral one, through which

its cavity communicates with that of the hydrotheca. Through

this aperture the soft granular mass which fills the tube of the

nematophore has the power of emitting very extensile and muta-

ble processes, which project into the cavity of the hydrotheca.

These processes (d’) consist of a finely granular substance, which

undergoes perpetual change of form, being at one time broad

lobe-like extensions, at another longer and more cylindrical,

sometimes more or less clavate, occasionally irregularly branched;

while, again, they can be entirely withdrawn (d), so as to leave no

apparent trace of their existence. In short, they comport them-

selves in every respect exactly like the ‘“pseudopodia” of an

Ameba, which they also resemble in their structure; for they

consist of a simple protoplasm composed of a transparent semi-

fluid basis, in which minute corpuscles are suspended.

Those nematophores which, instead of being situated on the

mesial line, are arranged along each side of the branch, have

their contents quite similar to the others, and send out from

their terminal aperture similar pseudopodial processes (e), which

are then projected freely into the surrounding water. I have

never witnessed the emission of pseudopodia from the terminal

apertures of the mesial nematophores. In no case do the thread-

- cells appear to be carried out in the pseudopodia.

It would thus seem that the contents of the nematophores in

Aglaophenia pluma consist of a true sarcode or protoplasm ; and,

except in the fact that this protoplasm contains a cluster of

thread-cells immersed in its substance, it appears in no re-.

spect to differ from that which constitutes the substance of an

Ameba.

and the Emission of Pseudopodia, among.the Hydroida. 205

2. Antennularia antennina.

In Antennularia, a genus possessing the closest affinities with

Plumularia, phenomena entirely similar to those just described

in Aglaophenia may be witnessed.

In Antennularia antennina (P|. XIV. fig. 5), a pair of conical

cup-shaped nematophores (4) spring from the hydrosoma on a

level with the mouth of every hydrotheca; while between every

two hydrothece there also occur three similar, but azygous,

nematophores (a), which are arranged mesially along the front

of the ramulus. The nematophores of Antennularia differ from

those of Aglaophenia in the fact of their being each attached to

the hydrosoma only by their narrow extremity, while from this

point they are free for their entire length. ‘They terminate at

their distal or wide extremity in a hemispherical cup-like de-

pression, whose bottom is formed by a chitinous membrane

constituting a diaphragm which separates the cavity of the cup

from that of the rest of the nematophore. This diaphragm,

however, is perforated by a circular aperture in its centre. The

nematophore is thus bi-thalamic, consisting of two chambers—

a proximal deeper and narrower one, and a distal wider and

shallower one, the two freely communicating through the per-

foration in the dividing diaphragm.

The whole nematophore is filled with a granular protoplasm,

which is continued from one chamber into the other through

the perforated diaphragm. In the distal chamber, it forms,

when in a state of repose, a little spherical mass (d) ; but there

does not occur in the nematophores of Antennularia any special

accumulation of large thread-cells, as in those of Aglaophenia

pluma, and only a few minute thread-cells may be seen scattered

through the protoplasm.

When a living branch of Antennularia antennina is examined

in a trough of sea-water under the microscope, the mass of

protoplasm which occupies the distal chamber may be seen, in

both sets of nematophores, to slowly elongate itself into a

variously shaped process (d’, e), exactly like the pseudopodium

of an dmeba. When this process meets the external surface of

the ramulus, it frequently runs in contact with it for some dis-

tance, and, while we continue to look, the whole will be again

slowly withdrawn, until it once more assumes the form of a

spherical mass filling the cup-like distal chamber of the nemato-

phore. The pseudopodial processes of the nematophores in

Antennularia antennina are usually simple ; in one instance only

did I witness what seemed to be a short irregular branch given

off from the finger-like pseudopodium.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV.

Figs. 1-4. Hydrotheca with polypite and neighbouring parts in Aglaophenia

206. Mr. A. Adams on the Species of Nesera

pluma. Fig. 1 exhibits the polypite exserted from the hydro-

- theca, and the pseudopodia withdrawn ; a a, mesial nematophore;

b, lateral nematophore;. c, bulbous termination of the proto-

plasmic contents of mesial nematophore, with a cluster of large

thread-cells immersed in the protoplasm ; d, point at which the

rotoplasm of the mesial nematophore may be projected im the

orm of a pseudopodium through the lateral aperture of the nema-

tophore into the cavity of the hydrotheca. The figure represents

the condition in which the pseudopodial process is entirely with-

t wn. .

Figs. 2-4. Polypite retracted and the pseudopodia in various states of

emission; d', pseudopodia projected into the cuit of the hydro-

theca through the lateral apperture in the mesial nematophore,

In fig. 4, the pseudopodium has become irregularly branched : e,

pseudopodia projected into the surrounding water from the sum-

mit of the lateral nematophore.

Fig. 5. Portion of a ramulus of Antennularia antennina with hydrotheca

and exserted polypite, and nematophores; a, azygous or mesial

nematophores ; 5, lateral nematophores in pairs; d, protoplasm

in a state of repose, forming a spherical mass in the distal chamber

of the nematophore ; d', protoplasm of the azygous nematophores

extended as a digitiform pseudopodium; e, similar extension of

the protoplasm of the lateral nematophores,

XXII.—On the Species of Nezra found in the Seas of Japan.

By Arruur Apams, F.LS. &c.

Tue species of Neera, properly so called, are less numerous than

is commonly imagined. Many shells formerly regarded as be-

longing to this genus-have already been distributed among other

tribes. For example, N. viridescens, Hinds, N. opalina, Hds.,

and N, Jata, Hds., have been properly referred to Theora, a genus

which I consider should be placed in Tellinide, in close proxi-

mity to Abra or Syndosmya. Then, again, N. lyrata, Hds.,

N. tenuis, Hds, and N. pulchella, Ad. & Ryve., have been removed

to Raéta, a genus of Mactride; and now I shall endeayour to

show, by an examination of the hinge-teeth and by other cha-

racters, that N. cochlearis, Hds., and N. adunca, Gould, consti-

tute two small groups in the immediate vicinity of Serobicularia.

The genus even then, when properly restricted, will exhibit

forms so dissimilar, or dentition so peculiar, as to require to be

thrown into three distinct groups.

Genus Nezra, Gray.

Shell inequivalve, Surface of valves lamellar. Hinge with a

rominent cup-like cartilage-pit, Right valve with a posterior

Seal tooth.

1. Neera elegans, Hinds,

N. elegans, Hds. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 76.

N. Moluccana, Ad. & Rve. Moll. Voy. Sam. pl. 23. f. 4.

Hab. Mino-Sima ;, 63 fathoms.

Found in the Seas of Japanw 207

2. Neera nobilis, A. Ad.

N. testa oblonga, ventricosa, albida, antice rotundata, postice valde

rostrata, concentrice plicata ; plicis salientibus, subconfertis, eequi-

distantibus, interstitiis concentrice striatis; rostro angulato, re-

_. curvato, ad apicem rotundato; margine yentrali arcuato, simplici.

Lat. 1 une, 7 lin,, alt. 1 unc,

' Hab. Mino-Sima; 63 fathoms: Quelpart ; 52 fathoms.

A fine species, most nearly resembling N. rostrata, Chemn., or

N. Chinensis, Gray. The outline of the shell, however, is very

different, the beak being broad and triangular, and the surface

of the valvés concentrically plicate.

8. Neera Hindsiana, A. Ad.

N, testa oblonga, ventricosa, albida, antice rotundata, postice ros-

‘ trata, concentrice lamellata ; lamellis pliciformibus, regularibus,

subdistantibus, interstitiis concentrice striatis; rostro angulato,

attenuato, corrugato, recurvato.

Lat. 10 lin., alt. 5 lin.

Hab. Gotto; 48 fathoms.

_ The form of this species is very similar to N. elegans, Hds. ;

but the lamellee of the valves are regularly concentric, the shell

is more elongate at the sides, and the beak is shorter and more

recurved.

4, Neera nasuta, A. Ad.

N. testa oblonga, obliqua, ventricosa, albida, antice rotundata, postice

longirostrata, concentrice striata, striis confertis irregularibus ;

rostro elongato, attenuato, deflexo, corrugato; margine ventrali

valde arcuato.

Lat. 11 lin., alt. 6 lin.

Hab.: Satanomosaki; 55 fathoms.

A yentricose oblique species, with the valves concentrically

striated, and the slender elongate beak bent downwards, giving

to the shell a very peculiar spoon-like appearance. —

Subgenus Rurnomya, A, Ad.

’ Surface of valves lamellar. Hinge with a small triangular

cartilage-pit and two lateral teeth in right valve.

1. Rhinomya Philippinensis, Hinds.

Neera Philippinensis, Hds. Proc, Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 78.

Hab. Kino-O-Sima; 25 fathoms: Uraga; 21 fathoms.

2. Rhinomya rugata, A. Ad.

R. testa oblonga, ventricosula, albida, concentrice confertim lirata ;

208 Mr. A. Adams on Species of Nesra from Japan.

liris corrugatis, subincrassatis ; antice rotundata, postice rostrata ;

rostro elongato, attenuato, apice truncato. a

Lat. 4 lin., alt. 23 lin.

Hab. Tabu-Sima ; 25 fathoms.

A small species, very much resembling in form N. Philippi-

nensis, Hds., but with the surface of the valves concentrically

rugosely striate.

Subgenus Carpiomya, A. Ad.

Shell inequivalve. Surface of the valves radiately ribbed.

Right valve with a prominent posterior lateral tooth.

Cardiomya Gouldiana, Hinds.

Neera Gouldiana, Hds. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 77.

Hab. Uraga, 21 fathoms; Gotto, 48 fathoms; Tsu-Sima,

25 fathoms,

Genus Lerromya, A. Ad.

Shell thin, ventricose, beaked posteriorly, Surface of valves

lamellar. Hinge with an oblique cartilage-pit in each valve.

Right valve with two anterior primary teeth; left valve with a

single primary tooth. Lateral teeth none. Pallial sinus deep.

~ This genus belongs to the family Tellinide, and is closely

allied to Scrobicularia.

1. Leptomya cochlearis, Hinds.

Neera cochlearis, Hds. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1844, p. 98.

Hab. Gotto; 48 fathoms: Seto-Uchi; 7 fathoms.

2. Leptomya adunca, Gould.

Scrobicularia (Capsa) adunca, Gld. Otia Conch. p. 167.

. Hab. Tsu-Sima; 30 fathoms.

Subgenus Leromya, A. Ad.

Shell thin, ventricose, hyaline, beaked posteriorly. Hinge

with an internal cartilage-pit in each valve. Right valve with

two anterior primary teeth ; left valve with a single primary

tooth. Lateral teeth two, strong, prominent.

Leiomya adunca, Gould.

‘Neera adunca, Gld. Otia Conch. p. 162.

Hab; Seto-Uchi; 7 fathoms: Hakodadi, 7 fathoms,

Genus Turora, H. & A. Ad.

Shell thin, smooth, pellucid, gaping at both sides. Hinge

Mr. W. H. Benson on new Species of Land-Shells. 209

with an oblique cartilage-pit in each valve ; primary teeth nones

Valves simple within.

The deep sinus of the pallial line, together with the pat of

the valves and the pellucid vitreous texture of the shell, clearly

show that this genus belongs to the Scrobiculariate division of the

Tellinide, and not very far from the Abra of Leach or Syndosmya

of Récluz.

1. Theora iridescens, Hinds.

Neera iridescens, Hds. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 78.

' Hab. Yobuko. :

2. Theora fragilis, A. Ad.

. Neera fragilis, A. Ad. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1855, p. 226.

Hab, Niegata; 7 fathoms.

3. Theora nitida, Gould.

Theora nitida, Gld. Otia Conch. p. 162.

Hab. Seto-Uchi: Simonoseki; 7 fathoms.

Subgenus Enpor.evura, A. Ad. |

Shell pellucid, gaping at both sides. Hinge with a bifid

primary tooth in front of the oblique cartilage-pit. . Valves with

an internal rib extending from the beaks obliquely towards the

anterior side.

Endopleura lubrica, Gould.

Theora lubrica, Gld. Otia Conch. p.

Hab. Hakodadi; 10 fathoms: Niegata, 7 fathoms.

XXIII.— Characters of new Land-Shells from the Mahabaleshwar

Hills in Western India, and from Agra in the North-west

Provinces. By W. H. Benson, Esq.

Achatina Arthuri, B.

A. testa ovato-conica, irregulariter plicato-striata, luteo-fulva, bolita,

translucente ; spira ovato-conica, apice obtuso, sutura impressa ;

- anfractibus 74, convexiusculis, prope suturam subcrenulatis ; aper-

tura subverticali, elliptico-ovata ; peristomate crassiusculo, callo

parietali infra albido ; margine columellari oblique truncato.

Long. 19, diam. 10, apert. long. 8 mill.

Habitat ad Neher (Malcolm Peth) montibus Mahabaleshwar dictis.

A single specimen, in a state too imperfect for description,

was taken by my son, Lieut. Arthur E. Benson, then in the

10th Hussars, at the hill-station in question, in 1853. I sent

a rough sketch to the Rev. S. B. Fairbank, who searched care-

fully for it, and has kindly furnished me with three living spe-

210 Mr. W.H. Benson on new Species of Land-Shells,

cimens, one of which exhibits the large dimensions recorded

above. :

? Helix Neherensis, B.

H, testa anguste et perspective umbilicata, depressa, lenticulari,

oblique striatula, lineis concentricis vix impressis, confertissimis,

“superne et infra decussata; spira convexiuscula, apice planato,

sutura marginata subcanaliculata; anfractibus 5, convexiusceulis,

ultimo ad peripheriam rotundato, subtus convexo, circa umbilicum

excavato; apertura obliqua, late lunata ; peristomate tenui, recto,

marginibus callo tenui minutissime granulato junctis ; columellari

subverticali, brevi, reflexiusculo. :

Diam. major 5, minor 4, axis 2 mill. ;

Habitat ad Neher, Mahabaleshwar. Detexit.S. B. Fairbank.

This peculiar little species, which I have, at the suggestion of

the discoverer, named after the place where it was found, appears

to have escaped the observation of Mr. W. 'T. Blanford, who

collected several new land-shells during a hurried search at the

same locality, which is noted for its abundant rainfall during

the monsoon. The delicate concentric lines are visible under

a lens. are

. Carychium Boysianum, B.

C. testa subrimata, elongato-cylindrica, sub lente oblique minutis-

sime striatula, translucente, nitida, albida ; spira elongata, grada-

tim attenuata, apice obtuso, sutura impressa; anfractibus 5, con-

vexiusculis, subplanulatis; apertura subverticali, + longitudinis

non eequante, oblonge ovato-acuta ; peristomate expanso, planu-

lato, nonnunquam subduplici, margine dextro-intus 1-tubereulato,

parietali plica 1, columellari altera obliqua munitis, callo parietali

expanso. Hoits

Alt. 2, diam. vix 2 mill. | :

Habitat prope urbem Agra, ad ripas fluminis Jumna. -Detexit Capt.

W..J. Boys.

This species, discovered at the Taj, near Agra, by the late

Capt. Boys, is closely allied to the Himalayan species C. Indicum,

B., but is distinguished by its more elongated cylindrical and

less rapidly attenuate form, and its flatter whorls, also by the

narrower and more acute aperture, the right lip being straighter

and less convex; and by the expanded parietal callus.

Mr. Fairbank sent me a rough variety of Ancylus Verruca, B.,

of the Lower Himalaya and Rohilkhund, with the small variety

of the Gangetic Planorbis nanus, which were taken by him in

the Mahabaleshwar waters, with the shell imperfectly described

by Mr. E. Layard, in the ‘ Proc. Zool. Soc,’ for 1854, as Ancue

lotus carinatus, which bears some resemblance to Mr. Anthony’s

North-American shell of the same name. I consider the Indian

species to be a Melania. They were accompanied by a new

Dr. A. Giinther on a new Labyrinthibranchiate Fish. 211

heliciform Vertigo and by a large Succinea, also. taken by Mr.

Blanford, who will probably describe them together with a large

Helix allied to H. Bajadera, Pfr.

Cheltenham, Feb: 5, 1864.

XXIV.—Description of a Labyrinthibranchiate Fish from the Nile.

By Dr. Atsext GUNTHER,

A very fine collection of fishes made on the Upper Nile,

at Chartoum and Gondokoro, by Consul John Petherick, con-

tained, among other novelties, a species of Labyrinthibranchiate

fish belonging to the genus Ctenopoma, Peters, species of which

have hitherto been found only in Southern and Eastern Africa,

where they represent the Hast-Indian Anabas,

Ctenopoma Petherict.

D. , or *, or =F A. “i. L, lat. 29. L. transy. ae

The height of the body is one-third, or a little more than

one-third, of the total length (without caudal); the maxillary

extends to below, or but slightly beyond, the anterior margin of

the eye. Teeth in the jaws and on the palate in narrow bands,

The dinmeter of the eye equals the extent of the snout. Five

series of scales between the orbit and the angle of the pre-

opereulum, the outer series covering the preopercular margin.

Operculum, inter-, and suboperculum strongly serrated. The

soft rays of the vertical fins covered with small scales. Brownish

olive; many scales with a brown central spot, these spots being

less distinct in old specimens than in young ones; a round

black spot, sometimes edged with whitish, on the root of the tail.

The largest specimen is 6} inches long.

. This species is more nearly allied to C. multispine than. to

C. microlepidotum, but may be readily distinguished by its

deeper body, by its narrower mouth, the maxillary extending to

below the middle of the eye in C. multispine, &c. : ;

The same collection contained examples of Ophiocephalus

obseurus, Gthr., described from West-African specimens, and a

complete series of Clarotes, showing that this genus has been

founded by Hyrtl and Kner on a deformed specimen, and that

the species has been long ago named Pimelodus laticeps by

Riippell, the development of the rays and of the spine of the

adipous fin being dependent on age. !

212 Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides,

’ XXV.—Observations on Raphides.

By Grorcr Guiuiver, F.R.S.

[Continued from p. 121.]

Historical Notice of Raphides as Natural Characters.—All\ th

microscopic crystals of plants have been too commonly in-

cluded under the name of raphides, and true raphides have long

been known in the different classes of Phanerogamia. Thus it

is stated, either in our most comprehensive botanical treatises

or special essays, that raphides abound in such Dicotyledones as

Urticacese, Cactacese, Geraniacez, and the roots of Umbellifere,

and in “ Monocotyledones generally,’ of which Araceze and the

* sepals of Orchidacese” are cited as particular examples; while

even Schleiden asserts that the needle-formed crystals, in bundles

of from twenty to thirty in a single cell, are present in almost all

plants, and that inorganic crystals are seldom met with in cells in

a full state of vitality. Hence such a vague impression has arisen

that raphides occur either with much frequency and irregularity,

or in connexion with the decay of the plant, that the attainment of

the truth becomes hopeless without a careful attention to the con-

text in books and a more earnest appeal to the reality in nature

than has yet been made. Notwithstanding the detached drawings

and descriptions of raphides among pollen and other parts of some

plants, from the time of the artist Bauer to the recent analysis

of the raphides in the ovary of Richardia by Maclagan, even the

fact (often shown in the course of the present observations) of

the constancy and universality of raphides through the greater

part of the healthy frame, from the seed-leaves and young buds

to the ovule and ripe fruit, of certain species has not been recog-

nized in our botanical treatises. No wonder, then, that the value

of raphides as natural characters has never been realized, and

that we find them neglected, both in the short diagnoses and

longer descriptions, in the latest systematic works of such

eminent botanists as Lindley, the Hookers, Balfour, Babington,

and others. But it may be hoped that more general attention

will soon be given to the subject; for it is so very extensive

that I have been able to do little more than show its importance.

Recurring to the orders above mentioned, quoted by authors

as affording raphides, if we examine such given specific exam-

ples as may be seen in the last edition of the excellent ‘ Micro-

graphic Dictionary,’ we shall soon learn that in the two latter

orders only are true raphides shown, and spheraphides merely

in the other orders. Thus one source of ambiguity will be dis-

pelled, while we realize a regular and characteristic difference

between the plants in question, shown by those very crystals

which have all been included under the same name. And we

shall soon see more light by the assistance of nature.

Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides. 213

Adopting Lord Bacon’s recommendation to review our know-

ledge and transplant it into the minds of others as it grew in

our own, it may be proper to mention here how the importance

of raphides as natural characters became evident tome. During

many years I have been making dissections under the micro-

scope, and notes of the results, of every native plant collected

in 7 country excursions. These researches were undertaken

mainly for the purpose of comparing the intimate structure of

plants and animals, and of learning incidentally what good

diagnoses might thus be found between nearly allied orders and

species. In the natural sciences, the study of difference or con

trast is more difficult and scarcely less important than the study

of resemblance or analogy ; and the complaint of Lord Bacon

(Works, 4to, vol. i. p. 68) of the comparative neglect of differ.

ence in anatomy is still applicable to modern science. Since

the discoveries of Schleiden and Schwann, important advances

have been made in both directions, including the valuable

characters afforded by the bone-cells and intimate structure of

the teeth of animals, as expounded by the late Prof. Quekett,

the late Mr. Nasmyth, and Mr. Tomes. And I have long ago

shown (Appendix to Gerber’s Anatomy, 1842) that there are

animals which may not only be distinguished by their red cor-

puscles alone from other species of the same order, but from those

of every other order, of the vertebrate subkingdom ; nay, that the

most universal single diagnostic between the two chief divisions -

of that subkingdom is in the blood; that is to say, while a

nucleus regularly exists in the red corpuscle of oviparous verte-

brates, that nucleus is as regularly wanting in the red cor

puscle of Mammalia: and hence the designations Vertebrata

Pyrenemata and Vertebrata Apyrenemata (Hunterian Oration,

1863, p. 20; and College Lectures, reported in ‘ Med. Times,’

- 1862-63).

Excepting the diagnoses of a few orders as Conifers, Orchi-

daceze, and Onagracez) by the woody tubes and pollen, we find

little use made, in systematic and descriptive botany, of the dis-

tinctions afforded by intimate structure between the subdivisions

of Vasculares. Hence the orders, genera, and species seemed

to require further research, especially as regards the characters

which might appear in modifications of size, form, structure,

and functions of the cells, and in the properties of the juices.

The latex (Annals, March 1862), hairs, pollen- and other cells were

sometimes found available in this way. But these observations

had not long been prosecuted before examples were often found

of the truth of Schleiden’s remarks as to how little hope there

is, without a study of the fundamental principles of develop-

ment, of much further aid to systematic botany. from mere ana-

214 Prof. G. Gulliver’ én ‘Raphides.

tomy and physiology. After a while, however, it was seen that

anatomy would occasionally, as was exemplified in Juncacee and

Hymenophyllez (Annals, Aug., Oct., and Dec. 1868), afford good

diagnoses. even between allied vascular plants ; and the value of

such characters in mosses had long been known. It was not before

a large accumulation of ‘my notes had been examined that erystals

were thought of in this point of view ; for they had not even been

particularly looked after, and were merely noted, whenever seen;

long before their significance as characters was suspected. But

when every one of those notes of raphides had been picked out, it

was very unexpectedly discovered that the plants in which they

occurred would sometimes come under certain orderly arrange-

ments. Thus, not a single species belonging to the orders Ona-

grace and Galiaceze was without a note of raphides, while in

no single instance were these acicular crystals noted in the

next. allied orders. And, conversely, a single order (Hydro-

charidacee, for instance) in which raphides were regularly want-

ing would be surrounded by orders in which raphides were as

constantly abounding. Then repeated experimental trials proved

that raphis-bearing is an essential and intrinsic, plain and cha-

racteristic phenomenon. throughout the life of certain species.

Accordingly the conviction arose that such observations, among

the infinite details of Nature, might add to our knowledge of the

affinities and contrasts of some plants and of their true position

‘in her system. So the inquiry was further pursued, with the

results already given in these communications, and to be conti-

nued in others awaiting publication. Among the most remark-

able of these results is the fact, that whenever raphides afford

a diagnostic between two plants, it will be so much more funda

mental and universal than any other single character yet in

use, that mere fragments of those plants, at any period of their

growth, may be sufficient to show the difference. And in this

sense only have these epithets been used by me in relation to

this subject.

Orchidacee.—We have already seen raphides abounding ge-

nerally throughout these plants in the only four British species

examined. Hence it appeared interesting to extend the inquiry

to the exotic species, and especially to the epiphytes of the order ;

which I have been enabled to do through the courtesy of Dr.

Hooker and Mr. De Carle Sowerby. The following are notes of

parts of fresh plants received on January 26 and February 6 :—

Isochilus linearis: raphides very scanty in leaves and stem, but

very plentiful in bundles in the fleshy root, without starch ; dotted

chains of cells in stem. Sobralia macrantha: raphides rather

numerous in the stem, leaves, and the parts of fructification.

Calanthe vestita: raphides abundant in scape, bracts, petals, and

Dr. G. C. Wallich on Strictural Variation in Rhizopods. 215

other parts of fructification (no leaf examined) ; hairs ‘of scape

jointless, and not. glandular. Dendrobium nobile: raphides

abundant in very young leaves, less so in old leaves and stem,

and very rarein theroot. D. pulchellum: bundles of raphides in

the stem and fleshy leaves, and very rare in the root. Leaf

of another Dendrobium: raphides rather scanty, but large

Leaf of Aérides odorata: several bundles of raphides, but not

abounding. Bit of leaf of Trichotosia (a section of Hria): bundles

of large raphides abundant in cells, and numberless smaller

raphides in the field of vision ; hairs of leaf red, smooth, jointless,

swollen at base, and not glandular. Schomburgkia crispa: bundles

of raphides abundant in swollen part of stem, scarcer in its thin

part and leaf; woody part of stem made up of dotted vessels.

Cattleya Mossie (leaf and swollen part of stem): rapbides abun-

dant. Phaius grandifolius: bundles of raphides swarming in

the leaves, bulb, and root-fibres; in the bulb, raphis-cells very

large and hyaline, also a profusion of beautiful, conical, large

starch-granules, average length >~4,th, and breadth =1;th of

an inch. Brassia (a bit of the leaf, as also in all the follow-

ing): raphides, but not very plentiful. Oncidium: very few

bundles of raphides. Megaclinium: raphides abundant, and a

beautiful subcuticular spheraphid tissue (Annals, Sept. 1863,

Pl. IV. fig. 13); the diameter of each of the spheraphides

regularly about +5,th of an inch. Ansellia: raphides rather

numerous. Bolbophyllum: raphides pretty numerous.

Aracee.—Among some fragments of plants to aid this inquiry,

which were obligingly supplied by Mr. Cox, the excellent super-

intendent of the Redleaf Gardens, is part of the leaf of Richardia

athiopica, which I find abounding in biforines, the raphides

escaping, under gentle pressure, regularly from both ends of the

oval cells.

Edenbridge, Feb. 12, 1864.

Erratum.—In the February Number, page 121, line 34, for “ classifi-

cation” read “ discrimination.” é

[To be continued.]

XXVI.—On the Extent, and some of the Principal Causes, of

Structural Variation among the Difflugian Rhizopods. By

' G. C, Watiicn, M.D., F.L.S., &c.

[Plates XV. & XVI]

Tue wide range of variation manifest in the external characters

of the non-testaceous Amcoeban and Actinophryan Rhizopods

has been already discussed by me in several papers which have

216. Dr.G.C. Wallich on the Extent and Causes of.

appeared in the: ‘ Annals’ during the course of the bygone year,

On the present occasion I propose to show that amongst the

testaceous genera of the same order (namely, the Proteina*) this

tendency to variation is no less marked, and that it is attribut-

able (as was stated to be the case in the non-testaceous genera)

rather to the ever-fluctuating conditions of the medium by which

the organisms are surrounded than to any special hereditary

idiosyncrasies by which certain characters become impressed upon

certain races of individuals. .

The primary points to be considered are, whether the degree.

of variation observable in the soft parts—or actual bodies of these

creatures—is at all commensurate with that which is traceable in

their tests; and whether there exists such an intimate relation

between the changes in figure, composition, size, and colour of

the tests, and of the sarcode-bodies over which they are formed,

as to indicate varying degrees of physiological advance or de-

gradation. For it cannot be too strongly urged that, on the

proper apprehension of these two questions must mainly depend

our ability to discriminate between characters that are, and those

that are not, of true specific value; and that every incautious

addition to our lists of species, whilst inevitably operating as

an obstacle in the path of those persons who are desirous of

studying the biological relations of the lower forms of organic

being, must also tend materially to augment the difficulties which

stand in the way of a natural and ‘easily available systematic

arrangement.

As stated by me in the ‘Annals’ for June last (p. 452),

it seems almost impossible to examine the sarcode-body of

Diffiugia and Arcella, on the one hand, and of Euglypha and

some allied forms, on the other, without perceiving that in

each case these organisms ought to be comprehended under a

single genus. Between the degree of differentiation attained by

the sarcode of Difflugia and Arcella there is nothing suggestive

of more than specific distinctness. Both these forms are Amebe

in the strictest sense ; that is to say, their bodies consist of sar-

code in which the degree of consolidation of the external layer

for the time being is so complete that the outline of the surface,

* Under this designation are united by me those Rhizopods which differ _

from the preceding orders (namely, the Herpnemata and Protodermata) in”

the possession both of a definite nucleus and contractile vesicle. They are

divisible into two primary families, the ‘““Amcebina”’ and “ Actinophryna,”

based principally on peculiarities presented by the sarcode-body.

The Difflugide constitute a subfamily of the Amebdina standing natu-

rally apart from the remaining testaceous forms which present the Actino-

phryan type of ectosarc and pseudopodia, and hence coustitute a subfamily

of the Actinophryna under the name of the Euglyphide. (See classifica-

tion of these subfamilies, at page 240).

Structural Variation among the Difflugian Rhizopods. 217

with the exception of a small area posteriorly, is devoid of granu-

larity, and possesses no adhesive power. Hence the pseudo-

ia do not coalesce unless during the inception of food.

Again, the bodies of Difflugia and Arcella, as is the case in

Ameba, exhibit a deternfinate anterior and posterior portion,

the projection of the lobate or finger-like pseudopodia taking

place only over the former region, whilst the latter serves,

through an increase of the adhesive power over a small area, to

furnish attachment to the fundus of the test interiorly. In

both, the nucleus and contractile vesicle or vesicles, after dis-

engagement from the test, are found to be identical in character,

and to exhibit the same tendency to subdivision, at certain pe-

riods of the creature’s history, that is witnessed on a larger scale

in the Ame@be proper. And, lastly, the reproductive process is

the same as regards every known essential particular*.

In the case of the freshwater Huglyphide, although the diffi-

culties of observation are somewhat increased in one direc-

tion, owing to their more minute size, these are more than

counterbalanced in another by their freedom from mineral

particles, which usually interfere with vision; and, with a little

care, we are enabled to perceive that an absolute identity in

the character of the soft parts pervades this group also. In-

deed this identity would seem to have been recognized, inasmuch

as the genera into which the species and their varieties have

been constituted by different observers are distinguished from

each other altogether by the shape, size, colour, and markings

of the tests. ‘Under a cautious examination of the sarcode-

mass, we are enabled to perceive that the Euglyphide differ

from the Amebe proper and Difflugide, inasmuch as their

ectosare is minutely granular, and possesses a decided degree of

adhesive viscidity throughout the entire body, whilst their

pseudopodia also exhibit a finely granular outline, are filiform,

* Even when the Difflugian tests are constructed of the most hyaline

materials, and specimens are obtained with the slightest intermixture of

extraneous matter, it is extremely difficult to trace out the appearances

So. by the organs they enclose, with any approach to certainty.

ndeed the attempt to do so is vain, unless we happen to meet with indi-

viduals the tests of which are constructed of mineral fragments flat enough

and thin enough not to interfere materially with the passage of the rays of

light. Under proper management, however, it is quite possible so to regu-

late the action of the compressor as to keep the soft parts more or less in situ

after extrusion from the test; whilst we may often assure ourselves that

objects within the test, supposed to be the nucleus, contractile vesicles, or

food-particles, are in reality so, by carefully watching their transit as they

escape under pressure,—bodies like the sarcoblasts and crystalloids, the

positions of which within the endosare are indeterminate, of course admit-

ting of an equally satisfactory scrutiny, whether seen without or within the

test.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xiii. 15

218 = Dr. G. C. Wallich on the Extent and Causes of >

tapering to some extent, radiate, and freely coalescent ; while,

coupled with and perhaps dependent on these characters, the

pseudopodia of this subfamily, as if to compensate for the re-

stricted power of locomotion possessed by them in comparison

with the Amwbe proper, are much fore active—the rapidity

with which they admit of being projected outwards or withdrawn

into the test being unequalled in any other form, and presenting

the most wonderful example of inherent contractility in an

amorphous animal substance that is to be met with in either

of the great organic kingdoms. It is hardly necessary to point

out, however, that, in the absence of other characters, this

peculiarity can no more be regarded as indicative of generic, or

even specific, distinctness than the difference in the speed of the

racer and cart-horse can be regarded as indicating their specific

separation.

But it is in the features presented by the tests of the Difflu-

gian group of freshwater Rhizopods that the tendency takes

place to the inordinate modification to which allusion has been -

made, and enables us to perceive that it is dependent on the

fluctuating condition of the water in which they live and of the

mineral ingredients peculiar to the soil of each locality. For, as

might naturally be expected from the protection afforded by the

tests, the soft parts are uninfluenced by many of those agencies

which produce changes in the external characters of the naked

genera; and hence we are enabled the more readily to assure

ourselves of the unity, in each case, of the generic type which

pervades the two groups into which these organisms appear to

me naturally to resolve themselves.

I propose, in the first place, to adduce the grounds on which I

base the opinion that, with the exception of a few permanent varie=

ties which exhibit a type capable of being hereditarily transmitted,

the whole of the varieties may be regarded as the result, 1st, of

modifications in figure, dependent in some instances on the inabi-

lity of the test to sustain its own weight, and in others on its

tendency to assume curvature or obliquity from the action of

running water ; 2ndly, of modifications in the materials of which

the tests are constructed, depending sometimes on the kind of

mineral substances procurable in particular localities, sometimes

on a hitherto unrecognized and very remarkable union between

the chitinoid basal substance (which is an exudation from the ani-

mal) and the mineral particles which that substance serves in the

first instance merely to cement together ; 3rdly, of modifications

in size, depending probably on the age, the perfect or imperfect

nutrition of the individual, and also on the capability of the test

to alter its form after having become consolidated to a certain

extent by the addition of mineral particles ; 4thly and lastly, of

Structural Variation among the Difflugian Rhizopods. 219

modifications in colour, arising partly from the nature of the food

that has been incepted by the animal, partly from the external

inerustation of organic or inorganic débris, and occasionally

from the depth of tint of the chitinoid basal substance.

Before proceeding, however, I may be permitted to state that

the whole of the forms about to be described in these pages

have not only been met with by me abroad, in the plains of

Lower Bengal, in the Himalayan Mountains, on the confines

of the Arctic Circle, in Labrador, and in Nova Scotia, but,

excepting the two or three extreme varietal forms encoun-

tered only in the most remote of these localities, the whole

are to be found abundantly in nearly every pool and streamlet

throughout England. It may also be mentioned that my con-

clusions have in no case been arrived at from the examination of

solitary specimens, but only after a laborious comparison of

those which have occurred in sufficient numbers and in sufficiently

varying stages of growth to guarantee the avoidance of excep-

tional examples *.

Taking the several kinds of varietal modification referred to

in the order of their importance, I have, in the first place, to

notice the one involving the shape of the test, or, as Dr. Car-

parr appropriately designates it, in speaking of the Foramini-

era, “their plan of growth.” For if, as he has urged, this fur-

nishes no natural basis for generic distinction in the family to

which he more especially refers, in which the structure of the

shell is at times highly complex, it is obvious that the plan of

growth cannot afford a trustworthy distinctive character in a

group of organisms the tests of which are of the simplest kind,

and hence more liable to come under the operation of varying

physical influences.

After having most carefully studied the several varieties of

. Difflugian test, and compared the characters of the whole series

with due regard to the local conditions under which they were

found, I have been irresistibly led to the conclusion that they

have sprung from one primary or larval form ; in other words, I

conceive that the whole are referable to a single specific type,

and that, whatever varietal figure the mature test assumes, such

figure may be the result of peculiarities in the external con-

ditions by which it is surrounded, and not the result of heredi-

tary transmission in each case. So that, supposing A to repre-

sent the prevailing form of the Difflugian test in its earliest

stage, under the varying conditions of the medium by which it

* The foreign materials to which I have just alluded still remaim in my

possession, in a mounted-as well as an unmounted state; whilst all the

specimens from which I have made my drawings are preserved for verifi-

cation by those naturalists who are engaged in the study of the Rhizopods.

15*

220 . Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Extent and Causes of

is surrounded it may ultimately assume the shape of either of

the varieties W, X, Y, or Z.

Of course, it is not only possible, but highly probable, that

the type of the mature variety may, in the greater number of

forms, be reproduced in the progeny; but, be this as it may,

there can be no doubt of the fact that, with a solitary exception,

specimens are to be found in every habitat, the characters of

which overlap, so to speak, those of the most closely allied va-

rieties to such a degree as to prove that there exist no true

specific limits between them; whilst it is interesting to observe

that the exceptional form referred to, namely, Difflugia spiralis

(Pl. XV. figs. 3,3 v & Pl. XVI. fig. 24)*, instead of disproving the

fact advanced, confirms it, as shall hereafter be shown, inasmuch

as the recurved shape assumed by the test would seem to be pro-

duced by a purely mechanical agency which is only able to exert

influence upon it when it approaches maturity.

It is also deserving of notice, as bearing upon the probable

existence of only a single distinct specific type in Difflugia, that

the number of mature tests in which the globular form prevails

falls immeasurably short of the number of young tests exhibiting

that shape+. This may, no doubt, be accounted for on the

supposition that the greater proportion of this the prevailing

form of young test may perish before they advance further in

growth. But there are no grounds for such an assumption,

since the minute tests occur wherever Difflugie are most abun-

dant and the conditions for existence may therefore be assumed

to be the most favourable; and, as already stated, every gradational

variety is traceable even from this early stage. It seems much

more likely, therefore, that the globular figure, as shown in

Plate XV. fig. 1{, is made to assume either of those represented

in the surrounding figures 2, 3, 4, & 5, according as the earliest

* When noticing this variety of Diffugia (Annals, June 1863, p. 451)

as having been observed by me in England for the first time, I was not

aware that it had been detected so long ago as the year 1815 by M. Leclere,

and accordingly gave it the provisional name of D. proteiformis, var. septi-

fera, in allusion to the dithalamous tendency evinced by its test. I am glad

to find that I am supported by Perty in the view that it is a “ monstrosity”

of the form named, and not a distinct specific type.

+ It may be mentioned that the most minute recognizable tests of Dif-

flugia measure about +;'z0th of an inch in diameter, whilst the sarcoblasts

of th's genus, when extruded under pressure from the test so as to be

examined separately, average about z;!;,th of an inch.

{ In order to make the ‘characters referted to in the text more readily

intelligible to my readers, all references connected with the subject of

varietal modification in shape are made to the outline-figures in Plate XV. ;

whilst those bearing on the composition and general outward features of

the tests are made to the detailed figures of the same forms given in

Plate XVI. Exceptional references will be expressly indicated,

Structural Variation among the Difflugian Rhizopods. 221

addition of mineral matter, if cemented to a point opposite the

aperture, may tend by its weight to depress the test in the di-

rection of its axis*, and thus give rise to the flattened series of

forms of which Difflugia aculeata is an example (fig. 44), and

Arecella vulgaris (Ehr.) = Diffiugia vulgaris (Wall.) is the extreme

limit ; or cause it to assume the elongated cylindrical outline of

the mitriform series, of which such varieties as D. acuminata and

D. mitriformis are mature examples, should the particles of

mineral matter first employed be attached at points intermediate

between the aperture and the apex of the test (figs. 2, 2 p, q, 3,

3a, b,c, &e.).

It is true that in Difflugia vulgaris (fig. 1 y) the test is nor-

mally depressed even in the entire absence of all foreign matter.

But it is also deserving of note that the most delicate and hyaline

tests of this species are those which present the greatest degree

of depression; whereas the stouter and more deeply coloured

mature tests are those in which the hemispherical shape is most

perfectly maintained. Here then it is quite evident that

strength of the basal chitinoid material, as compared with the

weight it has to support, constitutes a mechanical condition upon

which the modifications of figure are dependent, and hence

lends confirmation to the view advanced with reference to Dif-

jlugia, even admitting, for the sake of argument, that Arcella

and Difflugia are generically distinct.

Again, where the mineral matter is so uniformly distributed

over the young spherical test as to cause no deviation from its

normal outline, the globular or subglobular figure is maintained,

and attains its maximum development in such forms as are re-

presented by figs. 4 & 4.a-g.

In another set of cases, in which the axis of the test may be

rendered oblique by a preponderance of mineral particles taking

place on one side, or through the pressure of a stream flowing

in one direction and thus acting upon the young test whilst yet

unconsolidated, the oblique or pouch-shaped series of forms is

produced, of which the simplest example is devoid of horn-

like appendages (figs. 5 a, 5d); and a new variety, common in

many places, but most fully developed in Greenland, namely

D. cassis (figs. 5 b & 5c), may be taken as the extreme example.

I have already given what I regard as the only probable ex-

* By the axis of the test is meant the imaginary line which would pass

through the centre of the plane of the aperture and the apex. As the

me's 2 are invariably projected through the aperture, the extremity

at which it occurs is called the anterior, the opposite being the posterior,

aspect. The apex of the test is the point furthest removed from the axis

of the aperture, whether reference be made to the symmetrically or

asymmetrically formed series.

222 . Dr.G.C. Wallich on the Extent and Causes of —

planation of the entire absence of young tests presenting the

well-marked peculiarity of Difflugia spiralis, namely, that it is a

modification of form produced by mechanical causes which only

come into operation when the mitriform or acuminate test

(figs. 2p, 3c, 34) approaches maturity. This may, however,

be regarded as an exceptional case. But in D. corona, a vari

found in tolerable abundance on the borders of the Gangetic

Sunderbunds, and which is represented in figs. 40, 4c, I have,

in like manner, failed to discover young tests in which the cre-

nulated aperture is associated with the horn-like processes seen

when it is mature. Medium-sized globular tests oceur, how-

ever, in which the crenulate aperture is fully developed (fig. 4a) ;

and, on the other hand, mitriform specimens, such as those shown

in fig. 3, in which a varying number of crenulations around the

aperture is observable. Now there is nothing to distinguish the

globular form with the crenulate aperture (fig. 4a) from the

simple globular form without it (fig. 4h), which constitutes one

phase of D. proteiformis as given by Ehrenberg (Infusionsthier-

chen, taf. 9. fig. 16), but the feature referred to; whilst the cre-

nulate aperture occasionally reappears in the tuberculate variety

of the latter form (fig. 4g). Lastly, individuals are frequently

met with of the mature D. corona—that is, in which the horns

are fully developed,—but exhibiting a perfectly plain aperture. |

Three conclusions are deducible from these facts,—the first

being that neither the crenulation nor the cornua are constant

in the variety named D. corona, singularly distinct though it

appears if considered without reference to the osculant forms

by which it is surrounded; the second, that there is nothing

except the crenulation to distinguish the entire globular form

with the crenulation (fig. 4a) from the universally distributed

globular variety (fig. 4) ; and the third, that the crenulate mar-

gin of the aperture is not even confined to the globular series of

tests, but. is to be seen occasionally in the mitriform varieties ;

whilst neither in one set of forms nor in the other is there any-

thing like constancy in the number of the crenulations them-

selves.

If we turn to the series of mitriform tests, of which the

beautifully proportioned variety D. lageniformis (fig. 2c) would

seem to be the culminating point, we find that the characters

combining to make up this figure are gradually developed

through the whole of the mitriform series, which has heretofore

been subdivided, on the most trivial grounds, into four so-called

species, namely, D. proteiformis, D.oblonga, D. acuminata (Khr.),

and D. pyriformis (Perty). Thus, commencing from the earlier

mitriform test, as shown in fig. 2, there is an unbroken transi-

tion, both as regards extension in the. longitudinal and trans-

Structural Variation among the Difflugian Rhizopods. 228

verse axis of the test, to the broadly ovate shape shown in fig.2q,

and the almost cylindrical varieties which have been termed D.

oblonga or D. acuminata, as they happen to present the acumi-

nate or simply convex outline posteriorly (figs. 3 ¢ & 3d); whilst,

y a compromise, as it were, between such shapes as are depicted

in figs. 3 ¢ & 2q, we have the balloon-like or pear-shaped va-

rieties (figs. 2b & 8 s).

Again, taking the young test (fig. 2) as a starting-point, we

‘occasionally meet with what, at first sight, appears to be a well-

defined narrow but plain band surrounding the aperture, as

shown in fig. 2a. But this is by no means confined to one

form of test; it is to be seen now and then in the aperture of

such forms as figs. 29, 4h, 4g, and indeed in all the varieties

of the forms represented in figs. 2 7, 4, & 4g, and depends on

the eversion of the marginal border of the basal chitinoid layer

so that it overlaps the margin of the foreign particles impacted

on the outer surface of the test. In short, this is the rudiment

of the lip which becomes so largely developed in the extreme

variety of the series, namely, D. lageniformis (fig. 2c).

Now the crenulate margin of D. corona and the other varie-

ties that present this character is merely a modification of the

apertural band just referred to, in which the margin of the basal

chitinoid layer, instead of being unbroken, is formed into a series

of minute crenulations, the points of which alone reach the ex-

treme edge of the aperture, without apparent eversion, however.

We can hardly fail to perceive that this arrangement of the

apertural margin of the Difflugian test is evidently the best

fitted to admit of the easy projection and retraction of the glairy

pseudopodia. I believe it pervades the entire series of varieties,

although more readily, or at all events more generally, recogniz-

able in certain forms. In all we can perceive that the greatest

care seems to be lavished on the selection of minute mineral

particles for deposition immediately around the aperture; and,

as I shall presently show, that in those examples in which there

is no admixture of extraneous mineral matter, but the entire test

is made up of chitinoid substance, there is evidence of a like

degree of adaptative power. Were the evidence otherwise in-

complete, [conceive, however, that the structure of the beautifully

moulded lip of D. lageniformis would prove conclusive ; for in

it we find that whilst the mineral particles with which the rest

of the test is as it were tessellated extend to the commencement

of the everted portion, from that point they gradually dwindle

away, until at last it is only with considerable care in the ad-

justment of the light and focus that we are enabled to perceive

the almost hyaline margin of the overhanging lip.

Lastly, we arrive at the singular group of forms in which the

224 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Extent and Causes of

test is so far asymmetrical (and in this respect differs in cha-

racter from all those previously described, with the exception of

D. spiralis), that a section passing transversely through the

apertural plane would form two very unequal portions. Never-

theless it can be shown that even here there is no valid ground

for assuming specific distinctness, or that the figure of the test

is not determined by eatrinsic conditions.

I have already explained how readily the slightest inequality in

the distribution of the mineral particles in the earliest state of the

test may cause it to assume an oblique figure, and that such figure

may, without any improbability, be also imparted to it, in the

young state and (as will hereafter be seen) at subsequent periods of

its history, by the action of running water,—D. spiralis affording

a marked example, in which the latter agency would seem to pro-

duce the effect in the most signal degree*. Now, although I

have heretofore been unable to satisfy myself that in habitats

in which there is a current, and in those in which there is none,

the asymmetrically and symmetrically shaped tests respectively

predominate to such an extent as to leave no room for doubt as

to the efficacy of the second cause I have suggested, from such

observations as I have made on the character of the spots from

which I have obtained Diffugie, I cannot help believing that

this is the case. And whilst I confine myself, at present, to

stating the matter suggestively, I may mention that in three

localities very widely removed from each other, and in which

the nature of the land is itself evidence of the liability or other-

wise to a constantly running state of the water, this preponderance

seems at all events undeniable. Thus on the borders of the

Sunderbunds, where the whole country is a vast swamp, there

are pools perpetually fed with fresh supplies of water, but. only

subject to currents during the inundations occurring during

the rainy season. From such pools I obtained the most highly

developed varieties of the symmetrical Difflugian tests I have ever

seen, namely, D. corona and D. lageniformis (figs. 2.¢ and 4:c),—

the oblique series and even D. spiralis being, however, moderately

represented. At Goodhaab again, in West Greenland, I obtained

material from pools occurring along the course of somewhat

precipitous valleys, and accordingly under the constant action

of the mountain streams by which these waters were supplied.

* Fig. 30 gives the outline of a normal test of the pyriform variety

of Difflugia proteiformis, whilst the dotted outline represents an ideal view

of the same test made to assume a retort-shape by a force acting upon

it laterally and in one direction. It is an instructive fact that the semicir-

cular fold observable in the neck of this test and the neck of an ordinary

retort are precisely similar ; indeed the derivation of the word “ retort ”

explains the manner by which the curvature is effected in both cases. _

Structural Variation among the Difflugian Rhizopods. 225

In these the most highly developed forms were the oblique ones,

—D. cassis (which may be regarded as the limit of this series,

as I have already shown) attaining its extreme characters (figs.

5 b, 5c), and, what must be considered as equally significant,

the tests of the larger oblique varieties, and also of the common

mitriform series, being loaded to an extraordinary degree with

mineral matter, chiefly in the shape of diatoms, doubtless to

render their weight greater (Plate XVI. fig. 9).

_ Lastly, in a locality close at hand, namely Hampstead, in little

pools extending down the slopes and perpetually subject to a

dribbling stream, the oblique varieties are abundant, though

not attaiming the extreme characters of D. cassis—such varieties

as D. aculeata and D. spiralis being common; whilst the tests

of the mitriform series are frequently covered with masses of

mineral matter so large in proportion to the entire size of the

tests, and so irregular, as to render it far from improbable that

their weight and outline must exercise some power in enabling

them to hold their ground.

But, to revert to the varietal development of the series now

under notice, taking the globular young test once more as a

starting-point, we find an extremely gradual transition taking

place, first till we arrive at full-sized mature tests the spherical

outline of which is only disturbed to the extent of making the

aperture appear slightly excentric. This variety is represented

in fig. 4%. In the latter example, however, we perceive the hol-

low horn-like processes which have been regarded as indicating

the species to which the name of D. aculeata (Arcella aculeata,

Ehr.), has been given. Now there is not a single character to

distinguish a variety of this form without horns from the common

globular variety (fig.4), save this trifling obliquity or compres-

sion. On the other hand, there js nothing to separate the horned

variety (fig. 44) from D. corona when devoid of the crenulated

aperture, but this same obliquity ; for although the cornua are

generally distributed only over that half of the test furthest re-

moved from the aperture, this peculiarity is occasionally met on

the side of D. corona by a similar asymmetrical disposition of its

cornua; whilst specimens are now and then to be found of

D. aculeata in which the cornua really form a complete circlet,

but, owing to the tendency of the test to rest in a position per-

pendicular to the plane of the aperture, the part anterior to the

aperture prevents a certain portion from being easily seen. __

In the variety shown in figs. 5 a, d, & e, we have the transition

from the plain, small, oblique test (fig. 5) to the form of D. aculeata

shown in fig. 5m. But two slight peculiarities now make their

appearance,—the first being that the horns become longer and

identical with the broad-based apical horn sometimes seen in the

226 . Dr.G.C. Wallich on the Extent and Causes of

acuminate variety of D. mitriformis (fig. 3c) ; whilst the second

consists in a partial inversion of the apertural lip, instead of an

eversion, as occurs in D. lageniformis (fig. 2c). But the chain

of forms is rendered still more complete; for individuals are

now and then met with, of the mitriform series (D. acuminata),

with a couple of cornua placed on each side on the actual apex

of the test (Plate XVI. fig. 8); so that between the mitriform

and the oblique varieties under notice the compressed and oblique

figure and commencing inversion of the lip constitute the sole

difference.

Lastly, we arrive at the extreme limit of the oblique series, in

which, however, there are no cornua; but excentricity of the

aperture becomes greatest, and its entire margin is inverted so

as to constitute a short tube extending upwards into the cavity

of the test. This last character, singular as it appears, has its

counterpart in the Entosolenian group of the Lageniform Fora-

minifera; and I am glad of the opportunity of stating that the

generic separation of Entosolenia from Lagena is insisted on by

Professor T. R. Jones and Mr. Parker for the same reasons

that are here advanced, namely, that the character indicates

only varietal distinction (‘Introduction to the Study of the Fo-

raminifera,’ by Dr. Carpenter, pp. 157, 158).

The very singular helmet-shaped variety (figs. 5 b, 5 ¢), which

may be regarded as the antithesis to D. lageniformis, is repre-

sented as it occurs in the Greenland material. In it we merely

perceive, in its most exaggerated degree, the obliquity already

so marked in the variety shown in fig. 5 m, the depression of

the test, together with the inversion of the margin of the aper-

ture, occurring in the early form shown in figs. 5 & 5 m, clearly

proving how the latter connects D.cassis with the globular varieties.

One more transition in the Difflugian series remains to be

noticed before I conclude this section of my subject. It is an

important .one, however, since it seems clearly to indicate that,

whilst the animals of Difflugia and Arcella are generically iden-

tical, there is no such difference between their respective tests as

can constitute more than a swbspecific separation.

In the Diffiugian test we constantly witness a structure similar

to. that first pointed out by Messrs. Jones and Parker as per-

vading the group of Foraminifera to which they have assigned

the name of Lituolide. But we must bear in mind one point of

difference—namely, that whereas in the Lituoline group the mo-

dification of material employed in the construction of the shell

entirely supplants the normal calcareous material which is se-

creted by the animal, amongst the Difflugie there is no normal

mineral secretion to supplant*. I allude to the composition of

. * Tam aware that the word “secrete” expresses more than we have

Structural Variation among the Difflugian Rhizopods. 227

the test in Difflugia of arenaceous particles cemented together by

a chitinoid exudation from the animal, precisely after the same

fashion as the chitinoid and arenaceous elements of the shell

are cemented together in Litwola. Indeed in some specimens of

the more common varieties of Diffugia, in which the chitinoid

matter assumes a sienna-tint, it is extremely difficult, if not im-

possible, to say, on mere inspection of the broken-up wall of the

test, whether we have under our eyes a portion of a Difflugian

test or a Lituoline shell *.

In Arcella, on the other hand, the test is almost invariably

only chitinoid in its composition; and although we frequently

meet with tests nearly devoid of mineral particles, and closely

resembling that of Arcella in its hemispherical or depressed out-

line, central aperture, and inversion of the lip, a very small degree

of skill enables us to perceive that the object before our eyes does

not present the characteristic symmetrical reticulation of that

form, but is in reality an osculant variety from the side of

Diffiugia +.

If we now turn to the figure and plan of growth of the tests,

we shall, I think, perceive that these are analogous in the two

forms.

~ Commencing with the earliest state of the Arcelline test, (un-

less I am much mistaken) Arcella hyalina (Ehr.), Arcella

patens (Clapar. and Lach.), and several varieties of Orthosiran

or Melosiran discs have all been confounded more or less with

it. That this should have been the case is in nowise surprising

when we consider the minute and almost invisibly hyaline cha-

racter of the test of Arcella at this period. Without, however,

asserting positively that this has been the case, I may state that

minute forms answering precisely to the published characters

of the Rhizopods (not the Diatoms) mentioned above have been

here a warrant for assuming; but, keeping in view the fact that the calca-

reous or siliceous matters of which such structures as the shells of the

inifera and internal skeletons of the Polycystina are respectively

formed are eliminated from the water in one condition, and somehow or

other reproduced as an exudation from the animal in another, we certainl

i a the result by adopting the word, although the process by which it

is brought about may be regarded as exceptional.

. * The appearances presented under the microscope by the broken-up

test of one of these Difflugie, or a shell of Lituola, are very similar to those

visible, by the unaided eye, in the beautifully constructed cylindrical tubes

of Pectinaria; and they indicate a degree of adaptative skill which, however

wonderful it may be thought in the articulate animal, is doubly wonderful

in the Protozoan.

+ Such a yariety is referred to by Ehrenberg (Infusionsth. Taf. ix.

figs. a, ¢) as Arcella aculeata, showing how very closely Difflugia Arcella

(PL. XV. fig. 1 y) and the plain form of D. globularis resemble each other

228 _ Dr.G.C. Wallich on the Extent and Causes of

repeatedly observed by me, in which it was only by dint of ex-

treme care in manipulation of the light, the focus, and the spe-

cimens themselves, aided by the employment of high magnify-

ing power, that it became possible to perceive that, instead of

the test being a simple cup-shaped disc, it was shaped like the

mature Arcella—the plane surface being present, and at its

centre the minute aperture through which the pseudopodial

sarcode was protruded.

In somewhat older specimens, the figure of the Arcelline test

admits of no doubt ; but in these the convexity is generally very

trifling (probably, as before stated, in consequence of the still

extremely delicate texture), and the inversion of the margin of

the aperture is but slight. At this stage, barring the presence of

mineral particles in the test of the ordinary Difflugia, and the ab-

sence of obliquity in that of Arcella, there is nothing to distin-

guish one test from the other. The inversion of the lip is but

a repetition of what has already been shown to take place in

Difflugia; so is the depression of the test; whilst, lastly, the

variety of Arcella to which the name of A. angulata has been

given is nothing more than the common form of the mature

Arcelline test pulled inwards at various points of its convex

aspect by the action of the stolons, which are constantly seen ex-

tending from the posterior portion of the sarcode-body, and

enable the creature to carry its test on its back, just as a snail

carries its shell (Pl. XVI. fig. 36).

Under these circumstances, however convenient it might be

to retain the two generic appellations, simply because we have

become familiar with them, if we regard classification in its

only legitimate light, namely, as a guide in the interpretation

of the physiological differences prevailing through the organic

world, we must either consent to forego convenience by break-

ing down the fictitious generic boundary-line which has hitherto

been assumed to exist hetween <Arcella and Difflugia or per-

petuate a very serious error.

With regard to the means whereby the composite tests are

built up, it may be recollected that, in the ‘Annals’ for last

January (p. 78), I suggested the probability that in Diffugia the

external portion of the test receives fresh additions either of chi-

tinoid or mineral matter through an expansion of the sarcode-

substance reflected back from the main aperture, or formed by the

coalescence of sarcode-stolons which escape through one or

more pores distributed here and there over its surface. This

view appears to be substantiated in a great measure by the

fact that in the ordinary forms, whatever may be the mineral

composition of the superficial layer of the test, there is gene-

rally to be seen below this, and resting immediately upon the

Structural Variation among the Difflugian Rhizopods. 229

primary chitinoid wall of the chamber, a series of irregular

micaceous-looking plates. Indeed it is difficult to conceive

how additions could be made externally to the thickness of the

test by any other method than the one indicated;—the accumu-

lation of layer upon layer of mineral particles being, in some

cases, carried to such an extent that the wall of the test attains

considerable thickness and an outline so bold and rugged as to

present the appearance, under the microscope, of a mass of

coarse sandstone rather than a built-up chamber tenanted by

a living organism.

I have never succeeded in actually witnessing the process of

test-construction going on in Diffugia. But were the particles

of mineral matter conveyed to their resting-places by the pseudo-

podia, it seems hardly possible that it should have escaped

notice altogether ; and, on this account, Iam rather inclined to

think that, whilst the creature is enabled by means of these

organs to select such particles as are best fitted for its purpose,

they serve merely to drag the body towards the particles, and

eventually to bring that portion of the test upon which they are

destined to be lodged in contact with them.

No doubt this presupposes a selective power far in advance of

any faculty we should @ priori be inclined to attribute to organ-

isms of sorudimentary a type. But to deny this power is simply

to deny an established fact which can be accounted for in no

other way. We have only to examine such tests as are represented

in Plate XVI. figs. 9, 10, 16, 20, 22, &c., to satisfy ourselves that

the collection of mineral particles of certain dimensions, and of cer-

tain kinds, must necessarily have been effected with a view to serve

some particular purpose. But, wonderful in itself as this faculty

must appear, | beg to draw special attention to it, inasmuch as it

tends, in conjunction with other distinctions to which it is unne-

cessary for me at present to refer, to establish the impassable

boundary-line betwixt the animal and the plant—hbetween the

manifestation of vital, chemical, and physical agencies on the one

hand, and these combined with psychical agencies on the other.

And I venture to say that, however stubbornly we may ignore this

doctrine, simply on the score that it has heretofore defied our

comprehension, the day will assuredly come when, with the as-

sistance of a more perfect knowledge of organic life than we

as yet possess, its accuracy shall cease to be impugned.

The next series of varietal modifications, in the order of their

importance, is that involving the materials of which the Difflugian

test is constructed. .

I have, thoughout these observations, spoken of the exudation

from the animal which constitutes the basis of every Rhizopodal

test (and of which the test is exclusively made up in certain

230 .° Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Extent and Causes of

génera) as a chitinoid material. By this expression it is simply

intended to convey that the material referred to presents as close

an approach to the substance known as chitine as is determinable

from the optical characters of portions far too minute to admit

of chemical analysis ; and I believe I merely adopt a view very

generally entertained by competent observers, when I give it this

designation, But whatever may be the precise chemical composi-

tion of the substance, the name serves to indicate a well-known

part of the structures ; and, to say the least of it, this is a higher

quality than can be assigned to many of the scientific terms

which are now and then submitted to the public.

In the majority of the Difflugian tests, this chitinoid material

forms a continuous and smooth layer internally, it being on the

external surface alone that mineral particles are impacted. It

is also a most interesting fact, that no vegetable or extrinsically

derived animal substances are employed for the consolidation of

the test, and that the particles selected are, I believe invariably,

of mineral nature. On the other hand, it is manifest that the

selective power is carried to such an extent that colourless par-

ticles, sometimes quartzose,. sometimes felspathic, sometimes

micaceous, are always chosen* — the absence or presence of

angularity in these particles being of course dependent on the

condition of the sandy matter in each locality.

The particles would seem to be impacted into the chitinoid

matrix just in the same way that a brick is pressed into the

yielding mortar; and this too in so skilful a manner as to leave

the smallest possible amount of vacant area; whilst in the

specimens in which tabular or micaceous particles are used, these

are sometimes disposed with such nicety that there is no over-

lapping, but the small fragments are placed so as to occupy the

spaces left between the larger ones. Figs. 11, 15, 20, in Plate

XVI., are examples of this kind +.

It is curious that even in pools or streamlets in which the

deposits seem to consist almost exclusively of vegetable débris,

the Difflugie still manage to find mineral matter sufficient for

their purposes; whilst, as already stated, in those places where

they run a risk of being washed away by running water, they

reduce the chances of the catastrophe as far as possible by

loading their tests with the largest particles and the greatest

quantity of mineral matter.. Figs. 9 & 10, the one from Green-

land, the other from a little streamlet at Hampstead, are mode-

rate examples of this loading, which, it may be remarked, is

* In Indian specimens I have occasionally detected the siliceous spicules

of Spongilla.

+ Plate XVI. will now alone be referred to, unless the contrary be

expressly stated. kee :

Strictural Variation among the Difflugian' Rhizopods. 28%

more frequent in the mitriform than in the globular series.

It also takes place more frequently in certain varieties than in

others of the globular series, as will be seen on reference to figs.

17, 18, & 27 on the one hand, and figs. 19, 20, 22, & 23 on

the other.

But the selection of mineral particles is not confined to strictly

inorganic substances. The Diffugia seem to know that in

the valves of the’ Diatomacee are combined the properties best

suited to their wants—that is to say, transparency and forms capa-

ble of being easily arranged,—at the same time that the diatoms

occur as epiphytes on the aquatic plants upon which they them-

selves frequently find feeding-ground. And itis a remarkable cir-

cumstance that we can generally tell whether diatoms are or are

not plentiful in a given locality by observing the share taken by

them in the composition of the Difflugian tests. Thus, to cite an

example close at hand, in the Hampstead pools the predominant

diatoms are Pinnularia and Eunotia—the former of very large

size, the latter extremely minute *. Hence the first is but rarely

seen impacted into the tests, and when present it is of medium

size. The second, however, constantly occurs, and, in the curious

variety of test referred to as D. spiralis, and likewise in the glo-

bular and lageniform series, they often constitute a very large

percentage of the mineral matter (figs. 18, 18a, 246, & 32+).

_ In the Greenland mountain streamlets from which I obtained

some of my specimens, Eunotias occur very abundantly, and under

a remarkable variety of forms. In some tests they constitute the

entire mass of mineral matter, and, as in the Hampstead ma-

terial, pervade nearly every shape of test, though much less pre-

dominant in the depressed series (figs. 9 & 27).

- I have now to speak of several novel modifications in the out-

ward characters of the Difflugian tests which have heretofore been

observed by me, for the most part amongst the varieties of the

mitriform and lageniform series, and which I have been able, only

within the past few months, to trace as an unbroken chain from

the forms already described to those in which the chitinoid matrix

_ presents no appreciable admixture with mineral matter.

The first indication of this very remarkable and instructive

* This diatom would seem to have been hitherto undescribed. It is

stipitate, the valves being generally from 55/55 to yq55 of an inch in length,

and occurs in crowds around a filamentous “ frond,” appearing to be very

generally distributed. An extremely minute Navicula also occurs, but is

rarely employed in the construction of the test—thus affording another

wenn of selective power. :

_ + The two figures 24 & 24a are not intendéd to show these diatom-

valves; but certain ka a or, as I formerly called them (‘ Annals,’

June, p. 451), pellet-shaped cylinders, which will be more particularly re-

ferred to presently. . ; ;

232 Dr. G. C. Wallich on-the Extent and Causes of

series of forms was detected by me last autumn in the Hamp-

stead material, and described and figured in ‘The Annals? for

December 1863, under the name of Difflugia pyriformis, var.

symmetrica (loc. cit. p. 458, plate 8. fig. 16). For. facility. of -

reference, I have again figured this form in the plate illustrative

of the present section of my subject (figs. 26 a, b,c, & d). As pre-

viously stated, the test, instead of being built up of irregular mi-

neral particles so as to impart a rugged outline, is entirely made

up of hyaline rectangular plates, arranged with the greatest re-

gularity in consecutive transverse and longitudinal rows—the

smaller plates being thus disposed towards the extremities,

whilst the larger ones occupy the central and widest portion of

the structure. It was stated at the same time that the chemical

composition of these plates had not been ascertained by me (the

reason being that they do not occur in sufficient quantity to

render experiment practicable), but that there was ground for be-

lieving their nature to be crystalline and siliceous—firstly, be-

cause the plates resisted the effect of the heat employed in

mounting the specimens, and their angles were most perfect,

and secondly, because they presented no coloration when seen

with the aid of the. polarizer.

Since the date of my first examination of this form, I have

succeeded in procuring a considerable number of similar speci-

mens from the same locality ; but, beyond confirming my pre-

vious statement in every particular, I have nothing to add, save

that the test is more or less compressed laterally, whereby an

elliptical outline is given to the section and aperture (figs. ¢,

d, & 2).

The true nature of these rectangular plates will, I believe,

become manifest as I proceed with the description of the transi-

tional states which intervene between this, the most aberrant

kind of composite surface-configuration to be met with amongst

the tests of the Difflugia, and the least aberrant forms, which are

represented at figs. 30 & 31.

Fig. 27 represents the first form to be noticed. In this there

is an admixture of at least four apparently distinct sets of bodies

attached to the surface of the test. These are not arranged with

the symmetrical order observable in the rectangular plates ; but

this may be accounted for, inasmuch as the specimen (which in_

this instance is a solitary one) was mounted in balsam in the

material in which it occurred before I had become aware of its

existence ; and hence, in all probability, the pressure of the glass

cover of the slide caused a certain degree of displacement. Be

that as it may, it is quite manifest that we find associated toge-

ther in the same individual, first, rectangular plates, secondly,

others in which the plates are produced in one direction at the

Structural Variation among the Difflugian Rhizopods, 233

same time that one of the angles is truncated obliquely, thirdly,

lates approaching in outline rectangular prisms; and lastly,

dies in which the tendency to crystalline outline is lost and

_ they pass into oblong colloid discs somewhat depressed at their

centre.

We now come to the forms shown at figs. 28 & 29, in which

the surface of the tests is studded with the oblong bodies, some

of which, however (as is more manifest in the larger specimen),

exhibit a faint but nevertheless definite approach to elongated

hexagonal prisms*, These measure about ;);;th of an inch in

length. They are unmixed with any other bodies, and arranged

side by side with a certain degree of regularity. In these the

central depression is also distinct. The larger specimens (fig. 29)

are from Greenland. The smaller, in which the discs are not

more than about ;-,,th of an inch in length, are from Hamp-

stead.

In fig. 33, which also represents a tolerably frequent variety

of test, the discs attain their maximum of regularity as regards

shape: all are circular, or very nearly so, and exhibit the cen-

tral concavity in a very marked manner; indeed they resemble

blood dises in several particulars, but of course the resemblance

is merely apparent. They are of varying sizes, the largest

averaging about ~,1,,th, whilst the smallest are not more than

toovoth of an inch in diameter, the larger ones being generally

surrounded by groups of the smaller, although, as seen in a

number of specimens, there is evidently no particular order in

which they are arranged, beyond that resulting from their taking

up positions side by side, and all, without exception, resting on

their flat surfaces. -

But it is in the series of forms already referred to as built up

in a great measure of minute diatoms that we find the clue to the

origin of the colloid discs and rectangular plates. In figure 32

the diatoms, as will be seen, are interspersed amongst the circular

dises. The very important fact reveals itself, however, that

some of the diatom-valves are becoming gradually metamor-

phosed, that is to say, exhibiting a gradual passage from the

typical outline of the little Hunotia to one more closely ap-

proaching an irregular cylinder, the cylinder then passing into

the elongated disc, which is at times distinctly hexagonal, and

finally the elongated disc passing into the circular one. The

specimen figured is not so calculated to show the transitionary as

the unmetamorphosed state of the diatoms; but in some indivi-

duals, and more especially in crushed specimens of these tests,

every stage of transition may be clearly distinguished. As

* It is not improbable that the tendency to assume this hexagonal form

may result from pressure of the discs one upon the other.

Ann, & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xiii.

234 Dr. G. C, Wallich on the Eatent and Causes of —

already stated, the appearances just indicated are to be found not

only in the lageniform and mitriform, but also in the globular

series, and in the exceptional variety Difflugia spiralis.

Lastly, I may mention that in certain individuals (as for ex-

ample in figs. 13, 23, 24, & 24 a) the whole of the test is covered

with minute cylindrical rods evidently of similar origin. Some-

times these little cylinders are straight, sometimes irregularly

curved ; but, as in the former examples, they are arranged side

by side, and without any very distinct regularity *,

It has been already stated that no effect is produced by the

rectangular plates when seen by polarized light. When, how-

ever, the discs (which in common with the rectangular plates and

cylindrical bodies are themselves perfectly colourless) are seen by

polarized light, the alternating changes of tint are not only

distinctly visible over the test generally, but to the same extent

in each particular disc,—thus indicating that the effect is not due

to the presence of micaceous or other mineral films such as

usually underlie the external coarse layer of sandy particles—a

fact which is verified when such forms as those now under notice

are broken up under the microscope.

The inference which I draw from this singularly complete

series of transitionary forms is, that the chitinoid basal substance

of the test, or (as is quite possible when we take into considera-

tion the facts I shall presently adduce with regard to the mode

in which mineral particles are arranged by an external sarcode-

layer such as we see in Gromia) a portion of the viscid sarcode

mass, combines, under the law of “molecular coalescence”,

with the siliceous or other mineral elements, and thus serves to

produce all the transitionary colloid bodies which occur, from

the first alteration in shape of the mineral particles themselves,

to the development of the crystalline tablets which were first

described. One thing is quite manifest, namely, that the whole

series of bodies now under notice are derived in some way from

the animal, and no¢ directly from the medium in which it lives;

for none are traceable in a free condition in the material in

which the specimens occur. On the other hand, notwithstanding

the selective and adaptive faculty already shown to belong to the

Rhizopod, we are not warranted in assigning to it a special

formative power. The origin of the minute crystalloids, so

abundantly present in the Amceban and Difflugian forms gene-

rally, is thus also accounted for; and step by step we are

arriving at a knowledge of the mode in which the vital and

* These bodies were accurately described by me in the ‘ Annals’ for

December 1863, p. 456.

+ See Mr. Rainey’s valuable papers on “ Molecular Coalescence ” in

vols, vi. and vii. of the Journal of Microscopical Science.

Struetural Variation among the Difflugian Rhizopods. 285

physical forces combine, probably in every structure called or-

ganic, to build up the tissues of which the animal and vegetable

kingdoms are composed,

But another important fact bearing on the series of forms re-

presented in figs. 26-33 must now be noticed, In these the

tests are sometimes so compressed as to give the aperture, when

the structure rests on one side, the undulating appearance exhi-

bited more particularly in figs, 27, 29, & 30. But more fre-

quently, the tests are not compressed, and the aperture pre-

sents the ordinary circular or nearly circular outline. Whilst

endeayouring to gain a clear end-view of one of the undulating

apertures, namely the one shown in fig. 30, I found it to be closed

as shown in fig. 30, and, further, the sarcode-mass gathered

into a spherical mass, occupying the middle half only of the test,

the transparent texture of which, in the specimen referred to,

enabled me to discover that this mass was prevented from es-

caping by a well-defined membranous diaphragm which seemed

to be attached around the interior of the wall of the test a little in

front of its broadest portion, The true significance of the spherical

body would, however, probably have escaped me, but for the oc-

currence of a hyaline crescentic space between its anterior convex

part and the interior of the diaphragm, the convexity of which

was also directed outwards.

Here then it became evident that a process of encystation

precisely similar to that described by me as occurring in dmeba

(‘Annals,’ November 1863, p. 336) had taken place in a testa-

ceous form, and that the test is neither the analogue nor the re-

presentative of the cyst of the naked forms, but must be regarded

as an entirely distinct portion of the structure.

Now, how far the peculiar external features witnessed in the

series of tests aboye alluded to may be associated with the de-

crease of the ordinary process of nutrition incident on encysta-

tion, and may thus tend to render the chitinous material of the

test free to be acted on by purely chemical or physical forces, I

am at present unable to say. It must not be forgotten, however,

that the complete withdrawal of the body of the animal into the

interior of the test, and its envelopment by the cyst, would

necessarily prevent the diffusion of any portion of the sarcode-

substance over the external surface of the test, and hence ex-

ternal influences would act directly on the test. But the repeated

oceurrence of similar tests with open apertures, and with the

animal, at all eyents as yet, unimpeded by the cyst, seems clearly

to indicate that the one set of conditions is not necessarily in-

compatible with the other. On the other hand, I am able

to state that the singular characters presented by the tests

and the process of encystation referred to are not confined to a

236 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Extent and Causes of

single variety or series of varieties, but pervade the whole group,

inasmuch as I have met with tests of the mitriform series con-

taining the encysted animal, the posterior third of which was still

covered with large unmetamorphosed sandy particles, whilst the

anterior two-thirds were studded with the elongated dises of

figs. 28 & 29. In these tests the apertures were in every respect

similar to the one figured at fig. 30 6, thus proving the transition

from the common pyriform Difflugian test to that variety in

which all appreciable trace of mineral matter is lost. The above

facts also enable us to account for the very common and pro-

voking occurrence with which most persons who are acquainted

with the freshwater testaceous Rhizopods must be familiar,

namely, the frequent impossibility of getting the animal to

emerge from the ball into which it rolls itself in the interior of

the test.

These partially and wholly closed orifices are instructive, how-

ever, from another point of view, namely, from their proving

that, even in the most mature state of the Difflugian test, its out-

line is liable to change, and hence that the external mechanical

agencies to which I have adverted in the case of D. spiralis may

actually produce the duplicature of its test.

We now come to modifications in size. Were more cogent

reasons wanting why mere measurements of the tests of the

Diffluyie should cease to be regarded as affording a basis for

specific distinction, the facts already advanced to show how

largely the whole of the external characters of the tests are

influenced by outward conditions, which are themselves of the

most fluctuating nature, would, as I conceive, amply suffice for

the purpose. It is well known, however, that amongst the

freshwater testaceous Rhizopods, the actual bodies of the

animals occupy but a small and indeterminate portion of the

chamber in which they are encased; and I presume no one will

maintain the existence of a fixed ratio between the animal and

its test. Should fission occur in Difflugia, as we know it does in

Ameeba, the existence of any such determinate ratio becomes still

less admissible. It is therefore obvious that, in resorting to the

measurement of the test as a criterion of the dimensions of the

animal, the process must be altogether fallacious. But even

amongst the higher tribes of the animal and vegetable king-

doms, notwithstanding the facilities these offer for ascertaining

when the extreme limits are arrived at either in growth or age,

size is not accepted as a test of specific unity or distinctness,

unless it be accompanied by such structural or functional

changes as can be shown to have exerted an influence in modi-

fying it. But amongst the microscopic forms of life we have

hitherto entirely failed to trace any constant indication by means

Structural Variation among the Difflugian Rhizopods. 237

of which it is possible to determine whether a specimen under

examination be a mature or an immature one. The frequent

occurrence in the muddy deposits of effete tests of Difflugia and

other testaceous forms throws no light on this subject ; for there

are no means of knowing whether such tests have been shed,

according to a periodically recurring influence, or are merely

left after the death of the occupant at a certain stage of its

existence or through accident ; and until such an indication 1s

forthcoming, all specific distinctions based on mere size must

therefore be valueless. These remarks apply, however, only to

the measurements of such objects as the tests of the Difflugide or

other Rhizopods, and not to special organs, which, as they

rarely vary to any great extent, whether in young or old indivi-

duals, may hence be frequently recognized by their dimensions

alone. But evenin such cases the aid afforded by measurement

_ must continue to be counterbalanced so long as no uniform

seale is adopted both in descriptions and figures, and a certain

amount of calculation is necessary before we can arrive at the

fraction which expresses what we desire to ascertain.

Of one fact I have had abundant opportunity of satisfying

myself, namely, that the dimensions of the Difflugian tests, in

like manner with their plan of growth and external characters,

are modified to an extraordinary degree by the nature of the

localities in which they happen to be found,—still water, with an

abundance of food in the shape of minute Alge and Infusoria,

constituting the most favourable conditions; whilst variations

in climate would seem to influence their growth and increase

only in an indirect manner, namely, by increasing or diminish-

ing the quantities of sustenance.

As stated in an early portion of these observations, I have

met with representatives of every variety of the freshwater

testaceous Rhizopods in each of the remote regions of the globe

im which I have searched for them. It is well known that

Diatoms, a group of organisms holding a position in,the vege-

table kingdom probably parallel to that held by the Rhizopods

in the animal, are to be found in all climates. It is an interest-

ing fact, however, and one which was somewhat unlooked for,

that, under the conditions prevailing in high northern latitudes,

the long-continued congelation to which the whole of the lower

forms of life are annually subject seems to exercise no destruc-

tive effect ; for not only are the freshwater Diatoms and Desmi-

dians* very plentiful, but also the whole of the freshwater

* In one locality in West Greenland, at an elevation of probably about

1000 feet above the sea, I obtained no less than twenty-six species and va-

rieties of Desmidians. Had my object been to collect this kind of organ-

ism, the number might doubtless have been largely augmented.

238 © Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Extent and Causes of -

Rhizopods. Indeed, in point of number and variety, the latter

were quite as abundant in Greenland as in Bengal; whilst the

- dimensions of the Greenland specimens were only inferior to

those of some of the most highly developed varieties from the

Gangetic Sunderbunds, to which I have already drawn attention.

I have now to speak of the last and certainly the least im-

portant of the modifications, namely, colour. My remarks on

this head shall, therefore, be very brief.

Where the water in which the Difflugide occur is pure, and

the vegetable matter contained in it not undergoing decay, the

tests of these organisms, as might be inferred from the nature of

the materials of which they are composed, are colourless. Some-

times mud or disintegratmg organic matter adheres to the

tests, and imparts a tint; but it must be obvious that this bears

no relation to the animal or even to its test, and is therefore

as variable a character as it is accidental. The chitinoid sub-

stance, however, which constitutes the basis of the matrix of the

tests, generally speaking, exhibits a delicate sienna-tint; but

sometimes it assumes a darker shade, and hence imparts

a similar colour to the entire test. But, as this peculiarity

pervades the entire series of forms, it furnishes no distinctive

character. In some cases, as, for example, where Difflugide are

collected in the red muddy deposits met with at Hampstead and

elsewhere, the tint above referred to may be imparted from

without; and since we know that in D. Arcella the young

tests are colourless, whereas the mature ones gradually become

brown, it is reasonable to suppose that the effect depends on

age or exposure. But, for the reasons assigned, whilst the

deepening of the colour of the test in D. Arcella enables us to

form some estimate of the age of a specimen, in the other Dif

Jlugide the effect takes place to such a limited extent as to be

unavailable for this purpose. It only remains to be mentioned

that the colour of the animal within the tests varies, from the

pale gray of granular sarcode to green or yellow or brownish red ;

but, in my experience, I have invariably been able to trace all

the last-mentioned modifications of tint to the nature of the food

which the organism has incepted.

My present limits do not admit of more than a cursory allu-

sion to the Euglyphide. Indeed it would be impossible to give

a satisfactory outline of their characters and relations without

introducing several new and undescribed marine forms which

would obviously be out of place in the present memoir. I shall

confine myself, therefore, to stating that, since no doubts have

arisen concerning the identity of the animal in the several genera

and species into which the heretofore described members of this

group have been subdivided, and mere differences in the figure

Structural Variation among the Difflugian Rhizopods. 289.

or surface-markings of the test cannot be regarded as denoting

generic distinction, 1 am unable to perceive any valid ground

for separating Cyphoderia (Schlumb.), Difflugia Enchelys (Ehr.),

and Lagynis* (Schultze) from the typical genus Euglypha.

The case is different, however, when we find that the test of

one section of a subfamily is invariably chitinoid, and of another

as invariably siliceous. i accordingly deem it necessary to place

Cadium (Bailey)—a form I have met with in abundance, and

the true siliceous nature of whose test I can certify—in a distinct

genus, along with the marine forms to which reference has been

- made.

Under this view of the general affinities of the testaceous

freshwater Rhizopods, Difflugia Arcella may therefore be regarded

as the connecting link between the Difflugide and Euglyphide ;

whilst a very cursory examination of the forms of the latter sub-

family, in which the general axis of the test and of its aperture

are not coincident, will serve to show that this peculiarity is

merely the counterpart of the obliquity that has already been

shown to pervade the tests of the marsupiform series of the

Difflugide, and, lastly, that the apical appendage which fre-

quently makes its appearance in Luglypha margaritacea, and is

carried to such an extent in one of the new oceanic forms—

namely Cadium caudatum(W all.) —as to constitute a tail-like organ

several times the length of the body of the test, is in like manner

merely the homologue of the apical appendage of Difflugia acu-

minata and the horned varieties of the globular series.

But to conclude. Assuming from the facts which have been

advanced that the shape, material, size, and colour of the Dif-

flugian tests furnish characters so singularly prone to accidental

variation as to yield no trustworthy criterion of generic or even

true specific distinctness, and recalling to mind once more that

the animal is in every instance specifically the same, it appears

to me impossible to arrive at any other conclusion than that the

whole of the subspecies, as well as their intermediate varieties

(widely though some of these appear to differ from others

in external features), have not only been originally derived by

direct descent from a single progenitor, but do still continue

to be produced by direct descent from varieties which have

become permanent, and may, one and all, still be produced from

a common archetype under the varying conditions to which

these lower forms of animal life are universally subject.

* My knowledge of this Rhizopod is derived exclusively from the de-

scription and figures poe by its discoverer, Professor Schultze (Ueber

den Organismus der Polythalamien, p. 56, taf. 7 & 8); and, allowing due

weight to the difference of habitat, 1 can perceive no valid reasons for con-

sidering as only apparent the resemblance to Euglypha curvata (Perty) to

which allusion is made in the definition.

240 . Dr.G.C. Wallich on the Extent and Causes of

In accordance with the views advanced, the whole of the

Testaceous Proteina may be accordingly arranged as follows :—

é Species 2.

E. alveolata (Duj.).

Subspecies, EH. Ly elysD. Enchelys (Ehr.)

=Trinema acinus (Duj.).

E. margaritacea = vonadee mar: yaritacea

(Schlumb.).

| var.? E. baltica= Lagynis baltica (Schultze).

24 Species 1.

ACTINOPHRYNA.

Cadium caudatum (Wall.).

var. C. marinum (Bailey).

~ Cadium Huglypha (Dyj.)

(Bailey).

Species 1.

3 D. proteiformis (Ehr.).

Subspecies 1. D. mitriformis (Wall.).

var. . acuminata (Ehr.).

Pua» spiralis (Leclerc).

» y- D. pyriformis (Perty).

bet ae lageniformis (Wall.).

Subspecies 2. D. globularis (Duj.).

var, . tuberculata (Wall.).

re aculeata (Ehr.).

corona (Wall.).

Arcella (Ehr.).

marsupiformis (Wall.).

cassis (Wall.).

Families.

Order PROTEINA.

Subfamily.

Difiugide.

Genus |. Difflugia.

AMC:BINA.

SSSesesesssss

» YY:

Subspecies 3.

Subspecies 4.

& L @ var. &.

Genus Dirriueta (Leclerc).

Characters. Animal a testaceous Amceban. Pseudopodia

cylindrical or digitate. Test chitinoid, or chitinoid with addi-

tion of mineral matter.

Species 1. D. proteiformis.

Characters of test. Form of embryonic test subspherical,

from 3th to 4th of the diameter in one direction being trun-

cated and constituting the aperture. Form of mature test ex-

tremely variable.

Subspecies 1. D. mitriformis (Wall.).

Characters. Test mitre-shaped, more or less inflated at posterior

extremity, and without any fixed ratio between its length and breadth.

Var. #. D. acuminata. Apex of test acuminate.

Var. 8. D. spiralis. Anterior third of test bent back upon its body, so

as to present a retort-shape*.

Var. y. z blips Shape varying from the pear- to the balloon-

Var. 6. D. lazeniformis. The same as the last, but with a lip everted

in varying degrees. The most highly developed variety of this

form, and one that might pass for the archetype of the Roman

amphora.

* It is somewhat of a misnomer to call this form spiral: as already

stated, the turn does not extend further than that of a retort.

Structural Variation among the Difflugian Rhizopods. 241

Subspecies 2. D. globularis (Duj.).-

Characters. Test more or less globular, from 2th to jth being

truncated and forming the aperture. Margin of the latter plain or

crenulate. Test occasionally furnished with cornua, sometimes

arranged symmetrically, sometimes the reverse ; their number vari-

able. Test occasionally depressed vertically and excentrically.

’ Var. a. D. tuberculata. Surface of test covered with subhemispherical

_ nearly equal-sized elevations, which give it a mulberry-shape.

In some tests there are corresponding hollows on the interior

of the chitinoid wall.

Var. 8. D. aculeata. Test generally compressed excentrically, so that

the aperture is also excentric. Margin of aperture generally

inverted to some extent, but not always. Surface of test either

furnished with a varying number of finger-like cornua, or plain.

The cornua for the most part arranged in a halfcircle round

the posterior half of the test; but their position, as well as

shape, is very variable.

Var. y. D. corona. Test crown-shaped, furnished with from three to

* eight conical cornua placed around its posterior third. Margin

of aperture regularly crenulate; number of crenulations

variable.

Subspecies 3. D. arcella (Ehr.).

Characters. Test chitinoid, rarely if ever presenting mineral mat-

ter on its surface, which is studded with regular but very minute

hexagonal reticulations. Form presenting varying degrees of plano-

convexity, the convexity at times amounting to that of a hemisphere;

the aperture small, invariably occupying the centre of the plane sur-

face, and its margin being more or less inverted. .

Subspecies 4. D. marsupiformis (Wall.).

Characters. Test varying, in the side view, from that of a slightly

excentric and depressed hemisphere to the pyriform outline, but with

this peculiarity, that the aperture, as seen in this view, occupies a

position on one margin of the pyriform figure, and extends from the

centre to a point approaching the anterior or narrowest portion of

the test. In the front view, the test is pouch-shaped. Margin of

aperture markedly inverted. The mature test generally presents

from three to six cornua arranged over its posterior third.

Var. a. D. cassis (Wall.). Merely a small and extreme variety of the

marsupiform test, but rarely presenting the cornua.

On comparing the above arrangement and characters of

the Diffiugide with the figures in the accompanying plates to

which attention is directed, there will, I presume, be but little

difficulty in recognizing the points from which the predominant

groups of varieties take their origin, and in tracing the grada-

tions passed through by the most aberrant forms. I have

deemed it preferable to represent the groups as diverging from

242 Dr. G.C. Wallich on the Extent and Causes of

points equally distant from the common centre or archetype of

the whole than as clustering round those points, for reasons

which have been already given, but which it is perhaps desirable

now briefly to recapitulate.

As repeatedly stated, the entire series of Difflugian tests are

constructed by animals which, with no known exception, are

specifically identical. A priori, therefore, there is nothing im-

probable in the supposition that the entire series, in their earliest

condition—that is to say, when the chitinoid exudation, of which

the test is entirely composed at that period, first makes its ap-

pearance around the sarcoblast—are identical in form. But we

have no need to assume the fact, for observation would seem to

prove it. If this be granted, only one other condition is essential

to the establishment of the doctrine that the entire series, not

only in time past may have descended genetically from a single

progenitor, but, what is of far greater moment, that they may

still continue to be developed from a typical form common to all,

—this condition being that the chain of transitional varieties

should be so unbroken, and that there should be such a radiation

of characters at every step, as to render it impossible to detect a

character or set of characters which can be said to belong exclu-

sively to a solitary form.

Now this is precisely what observation teaches us when we

study forms obtained from a sufficiently wide geographical range,

For, as has been already shown, we not only then find that the

unimportant gaps sometimes discernible between contiguous

varieties are bridged over, but, if we note the differences in the

external conditions by which the organisms are surrounded, we

are able, generally speaking, to trace a relation between the

varietal form and the agencies which have affected it.

But, although there is good reason to believe that these con-

clusions are correct, we must never lose sight of the fact, that

under those peculiarities in the physical conditions which are

inherent in every geographical area, and must therefore be

regarded as constant in their operation, the repetition of certain

varietal forms, to the exclusion of others, must also be constant.

In this sense, but this sense only, can species and subspecies be

established amongst the Difflugide. The animal does not vary;

but it modifies the architecture of its habitation and the mineral

material of which that habitation is in a great measure constructed,

in obedience to local conditions, and in the manner best fitted to

meet its requirements.

It only remains for me to state that the universal distribution

of these organisms, the ease with which they are obtained, their

simplicity of structure, and the comparatively small number of

types into which they seem to resolve themselves render them

Structural Variation among the Difflugian Rhizopods. 2438

singularly fitted to throw light on the laws which regulate the

variation of species. For, however true it is that these lowest

animal forms are prone to variation in an unprecedented degree,

this cannot surely be advanced as a plea for assuming that the

laws which govern specific variation amongst the higher orders

of creation must necessarily be of a distinct nature.

Kensington, Feb. 19, 1864.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES,

PLATE XV,

This Plate is designed to show the order in which the four subspecies of

Difflugia proteiformis arrange themselves around a common archetypal or

embryonic centre; and their several varieties may be supposed to pass

transitionally from one subspecific type to the other. Itmay be mentioned

that none of the figures in either of these plates are diagrammatic, except

the dotted half of figure 3v in Plate XV.; and, with the exception of the

central figure (fig. 1) of Plate XV., which is magnified about 800 diameters,

that the whole of the other figures in both Plates are magnified from

200 to 300 diameters.

Fig. 1. Embryonic test of Diffugia from which the entire series take their

origin, its diameter being about ;/;>th of an inch, and the aper-

ture formed by the truncation of from th to ith of the diameter

in one direction.

Fig.2. The early state of the variety D. mitriformis, passing through

2p and 2q to the inflated form of the same variety, which then

pape into the globular series (4 h), and through such forms as

a and 2d to the extreme variety of this series, namely D. lageni-

formis (2c). In this form the eversion of the lip of the aperture

attains its maximum limit,

Fig.3. Another young test of the mitriform series, passing in one direc-

tion into D. spiralis (3 v), in another exhibiting the various forms

of D. acuminata (figs. 3a, 3b, 3c), and in fig. 3s merging into

the variety called D. pyriformis.

Fig. 4, Early stage of the globular series. Fig. 4 h represents the typical

subspecies D. globularis; fig. 4g, the allied variety D. tubercu-

lata; whilst fig. 4 a shows the occurrence of a crenulate aper-

ture in the typical form, and, hence, the transition to the horned

variety with the crenulate margin, D. corona. In this variety the

number of horns and also of crenulations varies considerably.

Finally, in fig. 44 we observe the incipient obliquity in the axis

of the globular form which suffices to render the position of the

aperture excentric, and the horns met with in D, corona, but

sire’: (as seen here) occupying only one-half of the test.

is is the form referred to by Ehrenberg as Arcella aculeata.

Fig. 5. Early state of the oblique series (subspecies) to which I have given

the name D. marsupiformis*. Figs. 5a, 5d, 5e are front and

side views of the plain variety, showing great excentricity of the

aperture, great vertical depression, et the iversion of the lip.

Fig. 5m, a horned variety of the same, closely spproaching the

aculeate variety of the globular series (4k). gs. 5b & 5c,

* Marsupium, a pouch.

244 Dr. G. C. Wallich on the Difflugian Rhizopods.

front and side views of the extreme variety, D. cassis*, in which

it will be seen that the characters of the marsupiform series attain

their maximum development. The well-marked inversion of the

lip and the extreme excentricity at once denote this form as being

the furthest removed from that in which the lip is everted, namely

D. lageniformis (2c).

Lastly, fig. 1 y represents D. Arcella as a subspecies springing

directly from the embryonic form. In it we perceive the reappear-

ance of the inverted lip, whereby it is allied to the marsupiform

series, and the vertical depression which, in some of the plain

globular forms, renders it so difficult to determine whether the

specimen presenting it is an aberrant D. Arcella or D. globularis ;

whilst at fig. 12 is given a member of the allied Actinophryan

subfamily, the Euglyphide, related to Difflugia Arcella both in

virtue of its purely chitinoid test and the nature of the surface-

awarking in one of the species (E. margaritacea). Difflugia Arcella

hence constitutes the connecting-link between the two subfamilies,

PLATE XVI.

Fig. 1. Side view of a young specimen of the subspecies D. globularis ;

1a, front view, showing aperture.

Fig. 2. Side view of somewhat advanced state of the same; 2a, front

view.

Jig. 3, Side view of the early stage of the oblique or marsupiform series ;

3a, front view.

Figs.4 & 4a. Same views of a still more advanced stage of the same.

Fig. 5. Side view of horned variety of D. marsupiformis ; 5 a, front view.

Fig. 6. D. cassis, side view; 6 a, front view.

Fig. 7. D. mitriformis, showing presence of the usual sandy granules on

the posterior four-fifths of the test, whereas the anterior fifth is

composed of chitinoid cylinders. (This form was figured by me,

but very imperfectly, in the ‘Annals’ for June 1863, Pl. 10. fig. 12.)

Fig. 8. Two-horned specimen of D. mitriformis.

Fig. 9. D. pyriformis, from Greenland, showing how completely the test

is made up of frustules and valves of diatoms (Hunotia and Ta-

bellaria).

Fig. 10. Common form of D. pyriformis, showing moderately large sandy

granules.

Fig.11. D. acuminata, made up of tabular mineral particles.

Figs. 12, 12 a, 126, 13a. Small specimens of mitriform and acuminate se-

ries. In fig. 12 a crystalline body has been added to the test.

Figs. 13 & 14. Oblong variety, showing the apertural band.

Fig. 15. D. lageniformis, showing incipient eversion of lip.

Fig. 16. D. lageniformis, mature specimen, showing hyaline everted margin

of the lip. rc

Fig.17. D. Slaketeke typical form, but made up of large sandy particles.

Fig. 18. D. tuberculata, mmeral matter consisting, in a great measure, of

minute diatoms. The test of this form is mulberry-shaped.

Fig. 19. D. corona, front view, showing crenulate margin of aperture; a

six-horned variety.

Fig. 20. A somewhat smaller four-horned variety; side view.

Fig. 21. D. globularis, from Greenland, chiefly made up of minute diatoms.

Fig. 22. Plain variety of D. aculeata, showing the transition from the

plain globular to the oblique form, and the incipient inversion of

the margin of the aperture.

* Cassis, a helmet.

Bibliographical Notices. 245

Fig. 23. Six-spined variety of D. aculeata.

ed 24, Front view of D. spiralis. Test composed of chitinoid cylinders.

44 24 a, side view of the same. 24 6, a portion of a test, showing

the intermixture, in some Cases, of minute diatoms.

Fig. 25. D. spiralis. In this specimen, the test is entirely made up of

ordinary mineral particles.

Fig. 26. D. symmetrica, showing the rectangular hyaline plates: a, form

of aperture; 5b, a more compressed specimen, in which the

aperture (e) is nearly closed; d, a few detached plates.

Fig. 27 to 33 represent the series ‘of forms exhibiting the transition

m the ordinary mineral and chitinoid elements of the test to

the evolution of the colloid discs. (See pages 231-234.)

Figs. 34 & 35. Varieties of D. Arcella.

Fig. 36. Puckered test of D. Arcella, which has hitherto been regarded as

a distinct species, under the name of D. angulata,

Fig. 37. Front view of D. Arcella. In all these specimens the inverted lip

- is seen. Fig. a shows the invariably hexagonal pitting or reticu-

lation of D. Arcella. (This can only be made out, however, in a

- mounted and crushed test, under a high power.)

Fig. 38. Young test of D. Arcella.

Fig. 39. This figure represents two Diffugie apparently united by their

orifices in the manner which has been regarded by some writers

as indicating “conjugation.” The remarkable feature in the

present example i is, that the supposed conjugative act is being

performed by individuals which, by the same writers, have been

regarded as constituting distinct species.

Fig. 40. In this case, a specimen of Amebda villosa was seen to seize the

pseudopodia of the Difflugia, and force the greater portion of its

own body into the Difflugian test. After a time it again emerged,

the villous organ, which had become concealed within the test,

being the last portion to leave it.

Figs. 41 to 45. Varieties of Euglypha.

Fig. 46 & 46a. Side and front views of Bm a Enchelys.

Fig. 47. Bengal variety of same.

Fig. 48. Euglypha margaritacea (Stony Sffatford). Fig. a, showing the

manner in which the test is made up of minute chitinoid discs, so

arranged that each one is united to those surrounding it by six

equidistant connecting bands. In Difiugia Arcella the test almost

invariably fractures through the hexagonal spaces, as seen in fig.

34a. In D. margaritacea, the line of fracture as invariably tra-

verses the spaces between the discs, proving that they are the

thickest and strongest portions of the structure.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

The Natural History of Tutbury. By Sir Oswaup Mostey, Bart.,

D.C.L., F.L.S. Vogether with the Fauna and Flora of the

District surrounding Tutbury and Burton-on-Trent. By Epw1n

Brown. London: John Van Voorst, 1863.

As Englishmen, we of course have a vested interest in all that con-

cerns “‘bitter beer,’ and accordingly, as English naturalists, the

physical peculiarities of the district around Burton-on-Trent, in

which the best of that blissful beverage is brewed, should have a

double interest to us. We must therefore briefly record our thanks

246 Bibliographical Notices.

to Sir Oswald Mosley and Mr. Edwin Brown for the volume before

us. Though we cannot accord it, notwithstanding the magnificence

with which it has been ‘got up,’’ a position in the highest class of

local faunas or floras, yet the work contains a good deal that is of

importance, and is on the whole most creditable to the worthy Staf-

fordshire Baronet and his coadjutor,

We should be sorry to say one word to discourage the appearance

of books of a character similar to this ; but at the same time we must —

state that, in perusing it, we are reminded of certain short-comings

which make igs a prominent in this ‘Natural History of Tut-

bury.’ One of the most remarkable features in the fauna of this

limited district is the herd of the so-called “wild cattle” which

still exists in the park at Chartley, where, it is stated, “the breed

has been carefully preserved.” Now the history of this herd,

together with those that roam under the like conditions in Chilling-

ham and other parks, deserves much more attention than our authors

seem to have paid to it. We are told that the breed ‘‘is still kept

in its original purity’’—an expression which is open to at least

two interpretations. Does it mean simply that common domestic

bulls and cows are prevented from mingling their blood with the

wild cattle’’? or does it mean that the careful preservation of the

breed “ in its original purity” is effected by the timely elimination

of any calves which show a tendency to “sport” from an assumed

standard of perfection? On neither of these points is any informa-

tion given us. If the former signification be the correct one, we

should have liked to know what remedy is provided against the cer-

tain evil consequences of breeding in-and-in among a limited number

of animals ; while, if the latter interpretation be attached to the ex-

pression, it would be of the greatest importance to naturalists to

learn what are the general tendencies of any variations that from

time to time may arise. That such variations were wont to occur in

the red-eared Chillingham herd we have good evidence for believing*;

and it is difficult not to suppose that the same may have been ob-

served in the black-eared animals so long cherished at Chartley. f

In the matter of birds, the most remarkable fact reeorded in the

present volume is that of the occurrence of a pair of the American

Red-eyed Flycatcher (Vireosylvia olivacea, Bonaparte)—the ‘* Whip-

Tom-Kelly” of our dis-united cousins—in May 1859, at Chellaston,

near Derby. Such notices are always worth mentioning, but we are

far from subscribing to the common opinion that accidental visitors

of this kind should be enrolled in our lists. One circumstance,

which, if Mr. Brown’s surmises are to be trusted, is, to say the least

of it, extremely curious, is the capture, on the bank of the canal near

Burton, in 1857, of a living specimen of the European Freshwater

Tortoise. It will be remembered that, in a paper read before the

* See the excellent paper by Mr. L. Hindmarsh in the first series of the

‘ Annals,’ vol. ii. pp. 274-284. For the convenience of those who interest

themselves in our British “ wild cattle,” we may take this opportunity of

referring to two other notices in the same series, yol. iii, pp, 241 & 356,

Bibliographical Notices. 247

Cambridge Philosophical Society*, and subsequently in this Maga-

zine, Mr. Alfred Newton recorded the discovery of the remains of

two individuals of Emys lutaria at Wretham in Norfolk (Annals,

Sept. 1862, p. 224), in a peat-bog, from which it may be concluded,

fairly enough, that this species, at an epoch by no means very remote,

inhabited England. Mr. Brown, in consequence, is inclined to think

that his ‘specimen may, after all, be truly indigenous,” suggesting

that it ‘‘ may be one of the last surviving, if not the last survivor, of

the British Chelonians.” We sincerely hope that some further traces

of the species may be found in the valley of the Trent, to the

exploration of which we are glad to hear Mr. Brown is especially

devoting himself, so as to justify the suspicions we have just

mentioned.

The ichthyology of the district presents nothing out of the com-

mon way, unless we mention the complete naturalization of the

Oyprinus auratus, which is stated to thrive and breed abundantly

in waters at Derby connected with some of the manufactory steam-

engines,” the increased temperature of which, combined with the

grease that escapes from the machinery, furnish the necessary re-

quirements of food and warmth.

Very long lists of the lower animals and of the plants make up

the chief bulk of the volume. In many orders ofthe former, and in

almost all of the latter, they are merely nominal, with the addition

of the localities (of which an index is meritoriously added) where the

species occur. In other cases some judicious remarks are inter-

spersed, showing Mr, Brown’s powers of acute observation. These

we must leave, only mentioning here the admirable paper in the

Appendix, by that gentleman, on the genus Acentropus. The nine

plates which illustrate the work are nicely executed, Mr. Wolf’s

bird and Mr. Ford’s reptile being of course entitled to special atten-

tion. And, to return to the subject with which we commenced this

article, we may mention that Sir Oswald gives (page 7) a satisfactory

reason for the excellence of Burton ale.

Homes without Hands ; being an Account of the Habitations con-

structed by various Animals, classed according to their principles

of Construction. By the Rev. J. G. Woon, M.A., F.LS.

London; Longman & Co. (In course of publication.)

Under the above-mentioned title that indefatigable compiler, the

Rey. J. G. Wood, is issuing a work of which we are bound to say

that the two Parts we have seen will not increase his credit as a

naturalist, We do not like hazarding such an assertion without

adducing something in support of our statement. What, then, are

we to think of a man who speaks (part 2. p. 63) of a bird of the

genus Puffinus as “allied” to the Puffin of English ornithology, the

Alea arctica of Linneus? While looking over Mr. Wood’s lucubra-

* On the Zoology of Ancient Europe. London & Cambridge, 1862 —

(Macmillan),

248 Zoological Society :—

tions, we feel like Garrick in Sir Joshua’s celebrated picture, and

hardly know whether to make choice of the tragic or the comic

muse in criticising them, It may therefore be as well to say no

more on the subject.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

June 9, 1863.—John Gould, Esq., F.R.S., in the Chair,

On a New Species or PARRAKEET FROM CENTRAL AUSTRALIA.

By Joun Goutp, F.R.S., ere.

The Board of Governors of the South Australian Institute having

liberally forwarded for my inspection a selection from the ornitholo-

gical collection made by Mr. Frederick G. Waterhouse during Mr.

Stuart’s late Exploratory Expedition into Central Australia, I have

thought the matter of sufficient interest to bring these birds under

the notice of the Society, the more so as it will enable me to make

known through our ‘ Proceedings’ a new and very beautiful species

of Parrakeet pertaining to the genus Polyteles, of which only two

have been hitherto known. Every ornithologist must be acquainted

with the elegant P. melanurus and P. Barrabandi, and I feel assured

that the acquisition of an additional species of this lovely form will

be hailed with pleasure. The specific appellation I would propose

for this novelty is Alexandre, in honour of that Princess who, we

may reasonably hope, is destined at some future time to be the queen

of these realms and their dependencies, of which Australia is by no

means the most inconspicuous.

PoLtyTELES ALEXANDR4&, Sp. Nov.

Forehead delicate light blue; lower part of the cheeks, chin, and

throat rose-pink ; head, nape, mantle, back, and scapularies olive-

green; lower part of the back and rump blue, of a somewhat deeper

tint than that of the crown ; shoulders and wing-coverts pale yellowish

green; spurious wing bluish green ; external webs of the principal

primaries dull blue, narrowly edged with greenish yellow, the re-

maining primaries olive-green, edged with greenish yellow; under

wing-coverts verditer-green ; breast and abdomen olive-grey, tinged

with vinous ; thighs rosy red ; upper tail-coverts olive, tinged with

blue; two centre tail-feathers bluish olive-green ; the two next on

each side olive-green on their outer webs and dark brown on the

inner ones ; the remaining tail-feathers tricoloured, the central por-

tion being black, the outer olive-grey, and the inner deep rosy red ;

under tail-coverts olive; bill coral-red; feet mealy brown.

Total length 14 inches; bill 3; wing 7; tail 9; tarsi [.

Habitat. Howell’s Ponds, Central Australia, 16° 54! 7" S. L.

Remark.—This is in every respect a typical Polyteles, having the

delicate bill and elegantly striped tail characteristic of that form. It

Dr. J. E. Gray on a new Lizard. 249

is of the same size as P. Barrabandi, but differs from that species

in having the crown blue and the lower part of the cheeks rose-pink

instead of yellow.

Description or A New Lizarp OBTAINED BY Mr. HENRY

CARTER ON THE SouTuH-rastT Coast or ARABIA. By Dr.

J. E. Gray, F.R.S., erc.

Mr. Carter, so well known for his researches on the Foraminifera,

Sponges, and Microscopic Vegetables of India, has lately sent us,

with a series of his different species of Spongilla of India, three dried

Lizards from the south-east coast of Arabia. One of these is a young

Uromastix ; the others belong to an aberrant form of Geckoid Lizards,

distantly allied to Phyllurus, which has not before occurred to me,

. and which we certainly have not in the Museum Collection. It is

peculiar for having its tail flattened horizontally, and fringed on

each side with linear elongated spreading scales. The scales of the

body are minute and uniform in size. I propose to call this genus

SPATALURA.

Head short, high. Nostrils oblong, transverse, on the upper sur-

face of the nose, just above the labial shields. The eyes large, with

a slightly projecting scaly ridge above, separated from the orbit, and

forming a kind of shade. Ears open, deep. Labial shields distinct,

few, about eight on each side ; the rostral formed of a pair of shields ;

the chin-shield single, like the rostrals. Head, body, and limbs

covered with uniform small granular scales; femoral and preanal

pores none. Limbs elongate, slender. Foot elongate. Toes elon-

gate, compressed, very slender; the upper side with distinct cross

plates ; the sole with granular scales. Tail slender, oblong, depressed,

not so long as the body, covered above and below with scales similar

to, but rather larger and more keeled than, those of the body, and

with a fringe on each side of crowded, elongated, slender, linear

scales, with some smaller ones at their base. ,

This genus differs from all the other naked slender-toed Geckoid

Lizards in the form of the tail ; and it is also remarkable among these

animals for the uniform granular character of the scales, the height

of the head, and the slenderness of its legs and feet, which give it

much the external appearance of some of the species of Anolis, which

are without any dorsal crest ; but it is easily known from them by

the large-sized open eyes, destitute of any eyelids.

SpATALURA CARTERI.

Pale grey (dry from spirits) above, whitish beneath ; belly of one

(male?) orange ; central part of the back, forearm, and shanks varied

with square white spots ; sides with numerous narrow, black-edged,

to streaks, which are closer together and more visible on the

inder part of the body.

Hab. Island of Massera, on the eastern coast of Arabia.

I have great pleasure in naming this beautiful species after Mr.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xiii. 17

250° Zoological Society :-—

Carter, who has laboured so successfully in extending our knowledge

of many obscure Indian animals and plants.

Mr. Carter observes, “The two Lizards of a lavender or light lead- _

colour, with nearly invisible brown spots or lines, were caught in the

island of Massera, which is about forty miles long, barren, and situated

close to the shore of the south-east coast of Arabia, towards its

easternmost end. :

“The tail of one has dropped off. To the best of my recollection,

it was not bushy or crested, like that of the one which remains on;

and that at the time made me think the latter was the male, and the

other the female of the species.

** It is just possible they may be new; for Massera is little known,

and I think we (the surveying people) were the first white men who

were ever on the island.”

Most probably the tail of the second specimen, which was lost,

might have been reproduced, and thus without the lateral fringe.

*“The channel on the inner side of the island swarms with the

Edible and Hawk’s-bill or Turtle-shell Turtle; and the island is be-

strewn with the bones of the former: for the inhabitants are all mere

brutes (Anthropophagi and Ichthyophagi).”’

This genus of Geckotide has many characters in common with

the Agamide. Like Eublepharis it has a large circular pupil to the

eye, and in this respect they form together an aberrant group of the

family. In both these genera the pupil is large as well as circular.

It is also peculiar, among the Geckoids, for the scales being all of a

uniform size and character; but this is found in a few other species,

such as Boltanea sublevis, where the minute sublenticular scales

are often almost entirely wanting.

“The Prickly-tailed Lizard, of a light-brown colour, was.caught

in or close to the town of Makulla, a port on the south-east coast of

Arabia. :

“I regard it as the young of a species just like it, which grow

to a foot or more in length, on the coast mentioned.”

This is very nearly allied to Uromastiz spinipes ; but unfortunately

the specimen is too young and not in a sufficiently good condition

to determine if it is absolutely the same.

OBSERVATIONS ON AUSTRALIAN TREE-FROGS LIVING IN THE

Society's MenaGeRIE. By Dr. A. Ginruer.

The only Australian Batrachian which, to my knowledge, has

until lately been exhibited in the Society’s menagerie is Pelodryas

ceruleus (Hyla caerulea, White), a specimen of which, almost

unobserved, lived there for two or three years. In the beginning of

the spring of this year, however, an opportunity was taken of pro-

curing eight specimens, which were imported by a collector from New

South Wales, and which belonged to four species, viz. to Pelodryas

ceruleus, Hyla Peronii, Hyla Krefftii, and to an apparently unde-

scribed form, which we shall name Hyla phyllochroa. Having had

an opportunity of observing these for some time in the Gardens in the

Dr. A. Giinther on Australian Tree-frogs. 251

Regent’s Park, as well as at my own house, I may make the following

remarks. In general, I was surprised to find a great similarity in their

habits with those of our common European Tree-frog. They sleep

during the day, squatting in a corner, generally selecting a place in

which they are hidden from view, but easily roused on the approach

of some insect, which they seize with their tongue. When the prey

is large, or when they have accidentally seized a small piece of wood,

&c., together with the insect, they use their fore foot to push the in-

sect into the mouth, or to remove the object which is unfit for food.

They never enter the water during the summer months, and tried

‘to escape from a tank when put into it. They leave their hiding-

_ places towards dusk, becoming very lively, apparently less with the

object of obtaining food (which they can only procure by quietly

remaining in wait for it) than with that of enjoying themselves ; and

Pelodryas ceruleus, which is endowed with a voice, indulged every

evening iu a musical performance. They became more quiet after

midnight, and at sunrise they had settled down at some resting-

place, sometimes one individual choosing the same place for several

consecutive days. They preferred bluebottle flies to every other

insect, and never touched ants or black beetles. Pelodryas ceruleus

feeds freely on meal-worms when other food is scarce; but they are

frequently vomited, and I doubt whether these frogs could be kept

in good health if restricted to this particular kind of food. In all

these points the Australian species mentioned agree with the Euro-

pean Tree-frog, and I need hardly say that they as easily climb

smooth surfaces, glass, &c., as the latter species.

Pelodryas ceruleus, White (Giinth. Batr. Sal. pl. 9. fig. B).—

The natural colour of this species is alight grass-green, which, when

the animal is kept in the dark or in a very wet place, changes into

dark sap-green ; roundish yellowish-white spots are sometimes scat-

tered on the sides. I have mentioned above that it has a voice, which

is a kind of grunting, somewhat resembling that of Rana esculenta,

but lower. I must remark, however, that the two examples in the

menagerie, a male and female, are evidently not full-grown; and I

was rather surprised to hear a voice at all from the male, as in Hyla

viridis the vocal sac and the voice are not developed before the indi-

vidual has attained to maturity and to its full size. The hind limbs

are comparatively short, and therefore this species cannot make such

wide jumps as the true Hy/e. I could not observe any secretion

from the parotid glands, which are so much developed in full-sized

individuals, but which are scarcely perceptible in our specimens.

These Frogs soon became familiar, especially the male, which, when

I went to feed them, used to approach and to watch the opening

through which I introduced the flies into their cage.

Hyla Peronit, Bibron.—This species is very remarkable on account

of the change of its colours. When awake, it is brownish olive,

covered all over with blackish-brown spots, between which small

green dots are scattered ; the anterior and posterior sides of the thigh

and the loin are bright yellow, with irregular reticulated black spots.

The pupil is open, horizontally elliptic, and crossed by a very distinct

17*

252 Zoological Society :—

blackish vertical band. When asleep, the dark spots disappear en-

tirely, the ground-colour becomes lighter, the green dots are very

indistinct, and the numerous tubercles with which the skin is covered

are whitish at the top. The pupil is contracted into a minute square

opening, from which four black lines radiate.

This species is very nimble in its motions, making great leaps

when pursued, and darting after flies from 8 to 10 inches distant ;

but it frequently misses its aim in these attempts. I have heard

it emit a sound, but only when it was caught, and which I cannot

otherwise describe than by comparing it with that emitted by Hyla

arborea under similar circumstances.

Hyla Krefftii.—A single specimen of this species, lately de-

scribed by myself*, being in the collection, I am enabled to give

a description of the natural colours. A broad brown band com-

mences between the eyes and extends to the vent, occupying the

back almost entirely ; it is lighter along the middle; another dark-

brown band descends obliquely from the eye to the humeral pit ;

the sides are light reddish olive, and covered with minute brown

dots, like the back. The hind part of the thigh is of a beautiful

purple colour. This species changes its colours but little; but they

appear darker and the markings more intense when the animal is

awake than when asleep. Our specimen is much less greedy and

less active than H. Peroni?, although it is not less slender, and makes

leaps as long as the other species; it selects its hiding-place on the

ground below some stones. I have not heard any voice from it ;

but I am not certain about its sex.

Hyla phyliochroa, n. sp.—Snout rather short, broad, with the

canthus rostralis angular. The vomerine teeth form two very small

groups, situated behind the level of the hinder edge of the inner

nostrils. Tympanum distinct, much smaller than the eye. Tongue

scarcely notched behind. Perfectly smooth above ; belly granular ;

a fold across the chest. Fingers one-fourth webbed ; the membrane

between the toes does not extend to the terminal disk. Uniform

green above, white below; a very narrow, slightly prominent black

line, edged with yellow superiorly, runs from the eye, above the

tympanum, to the side of the body, where it is lost.

Besides the living specimen in the Society’s menagerie, I have exa-

mined three others in the British Museum (two from Sydney, received

through Messrs. Cuming and Krefft, and one from Errumanga, new),

This species possesses the faculty of changing its colours only in a

slight degree; it is generally of a uniform light sap-green, which,

under certain circumstances, becomes darker. I have not heard a

voice from it. Those in the British Museum are females ; the largest

has the ovaria fully developed, and measures 17 lines from snout to

vent ; the hind leg 29 lines.

Notice or A New Species or BaTaGur FROM NORTH-WESTERN

Inpia. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., F.L.S., etc.

Sir Andrew Smith, M.D., lately sent to the British Museum,

* Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1863, xi. p. 28, pl. 4. fig. C.

Dr. J. E, Gray on a new Batagur and Geoclemys. 253

with some other interesting reptiles, a young specimen of Batagur

from the River Chenab, which seemed different from any that I had

hitherto seen; but I was disinclined to describe a species on a single

specimen in a young condition.

Dr. Giinther, the other day, found in a collection that was offered

for sale at Chatham a specimen of a Batagur, which he thought was

different to any that we had in the Museum ; and I have little doubt

that this specimen is an older and probably nearly adult specimen of

the same species as that sent to the Museum by Sir Andrew Smith.

I therefore proceed to give a short notice of them.

The species is intermediate in character between the sections Ka-

chuga and Pangshura. It has the elongated rhombic fourth verte-

bral plate of Pangshura; but the feet are very broad, the toes long,

the claws elongate; the back is evenly rounded, and the second ver-

tebral plate broad and six-sided, as in Kachuga.

BaTaGur SMIrTuHI!I.

Shell oblong above, rather wider and very slightly dentated be-

hind; the back regularly rounded, interruptedly and subnodosely

keeled. The three first vertebral shields oblong; the first rather

urceolate ; the second subhexangular, rather broader than long; the

third narrower, nearly twice as long as broad, with a prominent keel

on the hinder half; the fourth very long, tapering, and very narrow

‘in front, square, truncated, and keeled behind ; nuchal shield small ;

marginal shields broad, the sixth and tenth with the upper edge pro-

duced upwards ; the sternum flat, slightly keeled on the sides, white,

it and the underside of the marginal shields blotched with blackish ;

the gular plate triangular.

Hab. North-western India: Punjab; “River Chenab, 3rd De-

cember, 1848.”

The younger specimen is not so strongly keeled; the second and

third vertebral plate are rather broader compared with their length,

and the fourth is more nearly lozenge-shaped.

This species, which will be figured in Dr. Giinther’s ‘ Reptiles of

British India,’ which he is preparing for the Ray Society, may be

known from B. lineata, which it most resembles, by the shell being

more ovate, and by the form of the fourth vertebral plate, which is

so contracted in front that it is not wider than the keel of the third

vertebral shield.

I have named this species after my excellent friend Sir Andrew

Smith, the late Director-General of the Army Medical Board, an

encourager of science, and very accurate and industrious herpetolo-

gist and traveller.

DescriPTION oF A New GEOCLEMYS LATELY LIVING IN

THE GARDENS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL Society. By Dr. J.

E. Gray, F.R.S., F.L.S., ere.

Some time ago the British Museum received a Geoclemys from

the Zoological Society that had been living in the Gardens, which

we have preserved in spirits. Having occasion to examine it the

254 Zoological Society :--

other day, in connexion with some other Terrapens more lately re-

ceived, it appears to be distinct from any other that we have, and

from any that I can find described. Unfortunately it was not ac-

companied by any account whence it came, so that I cannot give

its habitat.

GEOCLEMYS CALLOCEPHALUS.

Shell oblong, convex, bluntly keeled ; dark blackish brown ; shields

thin, slightly ringed, the margin nearly entire ; vertebral shields about

as long as broad, the second and third rather longer; nuchal shield

short ; the marginal shields broad, the ninth rather higher than the

rest ; underside of these yellow, not spotted or ringed; the sternum

convex, rather bent up in front, broadly truncated before, and behind

pale yellow, more or less blackish on each side of the central line.

The upper part and side of the neck pale; the upper part of the legs

closely speckled with minute black dots; the front of the fore legs

pale, with some black spots on the edge of the large flat seales which

cover this part; the front toes short, coalesced nearly to the claws,

with a few rather narrow angular shields on the upper surface; the

palms covered with moderate scales, and with a cross row of five

large, nearly uniform-sized, squarish shields on the hinder part of the

wrist ; the hind legs covered with small scales ; the hind foot broad,

the toes short, and coalesced like the front one, but with rather larger

shields above the soles, with moderate-sized scales, and with some large

triangular shields at the hinder part of the heel, in two or three

series ; the chin and throat white, spotless ; the head rather flattened ;

the eyes lateral; upper jaw slightly notched in front; the crown of

the head (in spirits) pale, with three black-edged white broad streaks

concentric one within the other, and diverging parallelly towards the

occiput, where they are lost among the black specks; cheek with

five or six narrow black horizontal lines, the lower bending up to the

tip of the ears; there is an obscure black streak from the nose to

the middle of the orbit, and a narrow streak near the upper edge of

the upper jaw, and some black oblong spots on the lower side of the

ear and temple, which may be more distinct in the living specimen.

Hab. Unknown; perhaps China. ;

This species in several respects agrees in form and appearance with

Emys chinensis, of which, as is shown by the specimen brought by

Mr. Swinhoe to this country, the Tortoise described by me as Hmys

Bennetti is only the adult. It is at once known from E. chinensis

by the minutely speckled body and the bands on the head, and by

_ Mr. J. Y. Johnson on a new Species of Penzeus. 255

the under surface of the marginal shield being destitute of any rings

or spots. The head and neck of LZ. chinensis are covered with uni-

form narrow black lines, which on the chin and throat form circles.

E. chinensis, like FE. Bealei, is a true Emys, with slender, distinctly

developed toes and fingers, which are united by a web to the claw,—

Ei. chinensis having moderate-sized thick scales in the front of thie

fore legs, with some larger and broader scales, or small shields, scat-

tered among them, and #. Bealei small granular scales on the legs,

with three or four broad, thin, lunate, band-like shields across the

front of the fore legs.

In the black speck on the neck and body, and the ornamental

lines on the head, this species has some affinity to E. pulcherrima,

described and figured in my Catalogue from a very young specimen,

said to come from Mexico. But this habitat is doubtful, as some

other animals, procured from the same person and said to be from the

same habitat, have proved to be from other countries. This species

also, as far as can be judged from the dry state of the specimen, may

probably be a Geoclemys.

Description or A New Species or Macrurovus Decarop

CRUSTACEAN BELONGING TO THE GENUS PENZUS, FROM

THE Coast or PortruGau. By JAmres YATE JOHNSON,

Corr. Mem. Z.S.

Penzus BocaGel, sp. n.

The subcylindrical carapace is less than half the length of the ab-

domen, including the caudal segment, and is excavated at the middle

of the posterior margin. A median crest commences near the poste-

rior margin, and projects in front as the rostrum, which is more than

half the length of the carapace. This rostrum extends much beyond

the eyes, but not quite so far as the distal extremity of the peduncle

of the superior antenne. It has a slight sigmoid flexure, is com-

pressed, and is marked at each side with two low crests and two

grooves. Its lower edge is simple ; but its upper edge carries eight

small teeth, the first of which is over its base, and the last some little

distance from its anterior extremity. There is a fringe of hair at

the lower edge posteriorly. The median crest of the carapace carries

a single tooth, which is distant from the anterior margin about one-

third of the length of the carapace. At each side of the carapace, a

little in front of this tooth, there is a large tooth or small spine, in

the neighbourhood of which there is a depression. Above the spine

a narrow and somewhat sinuous groove extends nearly the whole

length of the carapace. A little behind each anterior angle of the

carapace there is another spine smaller than the one last mentioned.

The anterior margin of the carapace is deeply excavated at the base

of the inferior antennze, and between this excavation and the base of

the ocular peduncle there is a strong sharp tooth or spine; whilst

over the base of the eye-stalk there is a minute angular projection,

hardly to be called a tooth. The eye is large, being both broader

and longer than its stalk.

256 Zoological Society :—

The superior anteunee have the basal joint of the peduncle broad

and much hollowed to receive the eye, and its inner border carries a

short lamellar appendage. Each has two filaments with thickened

bases, of which one is nearly twice as long as the other, and the

longer has a length nearly equal to that of the carapace exclusive of

the rostrum. The basal joint of the inferior antennee is short and

thick, and it has a small emargination in front on the upper side.

Their palps are large, extending very nearly as far as the rostrum,

and they are shaped like the quarter of an elongated ellipse; but

the thick outer margin curves slightly inwards, and projects in front

as a short tooth. The inner margin is fringed with hair. The fila-

ment is longer than the total length of the Crustacean, including the

rostrum.

All the feet are slender, and the first three pairs are two-fingered,

with ovate hands, the rest being monodactyle: none are multiarticu-

late. The order of their length, commencing with the longest, is

5, 4=3, 2, 1; the third and fourth pairs reach beyond the eyes ;

the first pair has a fringe of hair at the under edges of all the joints,

and the second and third joints each carry a spine at the distal ex-

tremity of the underside. The first pair.of pedipalps is long, slender,

and pediform ; they extend beyond the eyes.

The abdomen is subcompressed in front, much compressed behind,

and the anterior five segments are furnished with large and promi-

nent false feet, each terminated by a pair of narrow flexible plates

fringed with hair, of which the outer one is longer; the basal joint

is shorter than either. All the segments have their inferior margins

fringed with hair. The fourth, fifth, and sixth segments possess a

median keel, which terminates posteriorly with a small sharp tooth ;

and the sixth segment has in addition a small tooth at each posterior

angle. The posterior margins of the fourth and fifth segments have

a small notch at the middle of each side. The seventh or caudal

segment is about as long as the sixth, which is longer than any of

the preceding segments ; it is narrow, terminates in a point, and is

armed with a small spine at each side near the posterior extremity.

The lateral plates are narrowly oval and fringed with hair; both

pairs extend beyond the seventh abdominal segment, but the outer

plates are larger than the inner, which latter have a longitudinal me-

dian groove on the upper surface between two low crests. There is

also a groove on the upper surface of the exterior plates; but it is

not in the median line, and it terminates at the outer margin not far

from the posterior extremity of the plate. At this place there is a

small sharp tooth, and here commences a low crest which crosses

the plate with a curve and divides it into two unequal portions. The

common basal joint of these plates has a small sharp tooth at its

postero-exterior angle.

Large quantities of this Peneus are taken at the mouth of the

Tagus during the spring and summer months; and it frequently

appears on the breakfast-tables of the hotels in Lisbon, where indeed

it first attracted my attention. It is known in the market under the

name of “ Camariio,”’ i.e. Prawn. The living Crustacean has a pale

Mr. J. Y. Johnson on a new Sponge. 257

red colour, which deepens on being boiled into the pinky red of our

Prawn. It may be readily distinguished from Peneus Caramote,

which has also been taken on the coast of Portugal, by the single

crest on the carapace, by the absence of teeth from the underside of

the rostrum, by the presence of a spine near the anterior lateral

angles of the carapace in addition to the spine between the bases of

the inferior antenne and the eye-stalks, by the much greater length

of the filaments of the superior antennze, which in P. Caramote are

not more than a fourth of the length of the carapace minus the

rostrum, by the absence of spines'from the two basal joiuts of the

second and third pairs of legs, and by the presence of a single spine,

in place of three, at each side of the caudal segment of the abdomen.

Examples having a total length, including the rostrum, of 57 inches,

and a carapace with a width of rather more than half an inch, are not

uncommon ; but the finest specimen I have seen was kindly pre-

sented to me by Dr. J. V. Barbosa de Bocage, Director of the Royal

Museum of Lisbon. This specimen, which is now in the British

Museum, has the following dimensions :—

inches.

Total length from tip of rostrum to end of caudal

plates rae a ee ee ae ee ees eee les aos

Sn: Mens leh oie aed Vinee wa elo 1}

Carapace, without rostrum, measured at the side, and

including the frontal spine .........-.. 00-005 Its

Carapace, width... 5.0.0... 0.0.4. Jee Giga awe AS +4

DN WOnNtby Oo. eps biased ee Eee teas 14

I Ailiaa 35 ich. poids ape nltslen cil: gat.

uter pedipalps, length.) /.2:. i. .s sees ieee 12,

DescripTion or A New Siniceous SPONGE FROM THE Coast

or Maperra. By James Yate Jounson, Corr. Mero. Z. 8.

Order SILICEA, Bowerbank.

DactTyLocaLyx, Bowerbank, Phil. Trans. 1862.

Skeleton siliceo-fibrous. Fibres solid, cylindrical. Reticulations

unsymmetrical.

DacryLtocatyx BowERBANKII, sp. n.

The skeleton of this sponge is composed of an inelastic network

of silex of a dense and irregular structure. Under a power of sixty

diameters a slice of it resembles the crumb of bread, without any

trace of the structure resembling spoked wheels, such as is exhibited

by a siliceous sponge preserved in the Museum at Paris under the

name of Iphiteon,—a similar structure being also seen in the pith of

some water-plants. The fibre is smooth, but somewhat nodulous.

The skeleton is covered with a rather thin crust, of a close texture,

without conspicuous orifices, and this crust abounds with large

spicula of the form denominated “ spiculated patento-ternate’’ by.

Dr. Bowerbank in his memoir read before the Royal Society in 1857 ;

and some of them are developed into the dichotomo-patento-ternate

258 Zoological Society :—

form, such as is represented in fig. 48 of plate 23 of the ‘ Philoso-

phical Transactions’ for that year. But in the sponge under de-

scription the shaft is not prolonged through the common base of the

triradiating branches, and the second division of these branches is

much longer than the first or third; the third division, or ultimate

branchlets, are pointed, and not in the same plane with each other

or with the preceding portion of the branch, just as in the case of

the spiculum represented in the figure already referred to. The

shafts of the spicula project into the reticulations of the skeleton.

In addition to the large spicula, the dermal membrane abounds with

minute elongato-stellate spicula having short stout cylindrical radii ;

and a very few of these are dispersed in the interstitial membranes

beneath the dermis. On the surface of the skeleton, immediately

beneath the dermis, there is an abundance of long acuate spicula, dis-

posed either singly or in fasciculi which are often parallel with each

other. These acuate spicula are not found in the deeper interstitial

portions of the sponge, but a few long, very slender, and flexuous

spicula are occasionally to be found there. No sexradiate spicula

could be detected, nor were any gemmules observed.

The single example of this sponge which has been obtained was

brought up from deep water off the coast of Madeira. It was at-

tached to a rock or stone by the middle portion of the underside.

Its colour is white; and although its texture even when fresh was

firm, the finger-nail easily made a permanent impression upon its

surface. The animal matter was in comparatively small quantity.

When a portion of the sponge was immersed in nitric acid it acquired

a yellow tinge. The shape is that of a concave disk or shallow cup,

with the border undulated into a few strong folds, some of which

rise two or three inches above the rest of thesurface. In one instance

the opposite sides of a fold have grown together. The general ap-

pearance calls to mind a large fungus such as is sometimes seen

attached to the trunk of an old tree. It measures fourteen inches

across in one direction, in another twelve inches, and it has a thick-

ness varying from half an inch to nearly an inch.

Dr. Gray has had the kindness to let me examine the half of a

siliceous sponge which came into his possession from Mr. Stutchbury,

who obtained it, I understand, from Barbadoes, and described it in

the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society,’ 1841, p. 86, under the

name of Dactylocalyx pumiceus, in these words :—*‘ Sponge fixed,

siliceous; incurrent canals uniform in size; excurrent canals large,

forming deep sinuosities in the outer surface, radiating from the root

to the outer cireumference.’’ Comparing the sponge now described

with Dr. Gray’s, I find in mine no well-marked system of incurrent

and excurrent canals with large orifices, as in the Barbadian sponge,

which latter is of a much more open and porous texture, and besides

exhibits in its present state not the slightest trace of a skin.

Dedicated to Dr. J. S. Bowerbank, F.R.S., who has devoted his

attention for many years to the Spongiadee, and who is now giving

to the scientific world, through the medium of the ‘ Philosophical

Transactions,’ the results of his important investigations.

Dr. G. Bennett on Didunculus strigirostris. 259

Noy. 10, 1863.—E. W. H. Holdsworth, Esq., F.Z.S., in the Chair.

The Secretary read several communications addressed to him by

Dr. George Bennett, F.Z.S., respecting the arrival of specimens of

Didunculus strigirostris in Sydney. The first of these, dated June

18th, 1863, contained the following notes on this subject :-—

“In the early part of June 1863 a living Didunculus was brought

to Sydney by Mr. J. Williams from Apia, Upolu, one of the group

of the Navigator Islands ; and on the 15th of June and the following

days I had several opportunities of examining the bird, At first it

seemed rather shy and wild, but afterwards it became more tame,

and I could examine it without its manifesting any fear. It is about

the size of a Nicobar Pigeon (Calenus nicobarica), but rather bulkier

and rounder in form. Its plumage was not in good condition, owing

to its having been recently confined in a cage on board ship, but it

appeared healthy. This specimen, I should say, was a young bird

with immature plumage, and the tooth of the lower mandible not

yet developed. When I first examined it, the bird showed its fear

by occasionally uttering some rapid ‘coos’ and by fluttering in its

cage, but it subsequently became quite tame. It was captured, on

the Island of Upolu, after being wounded in the wing, and was sold

by a native to Mr. Williams. It has now been in captivity about

nine months, and is kept in a cage, which is merely a box with rails

in front, like a hen-coop. Here it can run on the floor, or sit on a

low perch, or conceal itself in the corners, as it is particularly fond

of doing, where, with its dark-coloured plumage, it cannot readily

be distinguished. When disturbed, it would move gently and timidly

across the cage, affording an excellent opportunity to the observer

of examining it. It is a stupid-looking’ bird, and has no particular

attraction, except the anomalous and extraordinary form of the beak,

which cannot fail to excite the attention of the most ordinary spec-

tator. The only sound it utters is the quick ‘ Coo-coo-coo,’ to which

I have already alluded, the beak being always a little open when the

notes were emitted. The whole of its plumage is of a chocolate-red

colour, deeper in tint on the back, tail, and the primaries and secon-

daries of the wings, the throat, breast, and wing-coverts being barred

with light brown. The upper part of the head was rather bare,

from the feathers having been rubbed off; but what remained were

of a dark slate-colour. The base of the beak is orange-red, and the

rest of the mandibles of a yellowish hue. The tarsi are not fea-

thered ; and the legs and feet are of a bright orange-red, similar in

colour to those of the Kagu. The irides are dark reddish brown,

and the cere round the eyes is flesh-colour. The bird is fed upon

boiled rice, yams, and potatoes.”

Dr. Bennett’s second letter, dated July 18th, contained the fol-

lowing additional particulars :—

**T have to add to my account of the bird sent last mail that this

bird was captured within five miles of Apia, Island of Upolu; so

that the bird is not yet quite extinct in that island, as has been

260 Zoological Society.

supposed even by the resident missionaries. It is very fond of the

mountain-plantain, upon which it has often been found feeding in

its wild state.”

A third letter from Dr. Bennett (dated August 19th) contained

the gratifying intelligence that a second specimen of the Didunculus

had reached Sydney, and that Dr. Bennett, with his usual liberality,

had purchased the pair of birds, and was intending to send them

home to the Society the first convenient opportunity. The follow-

ing extracts were read from this last communication :— _

** Since my last letter another living specimen of the Didunculus

has been brought to Sydney, by the Rev. Mr. Rigg, who procured it

from a native on the Island of Savaii.. This I have reason to believe

is the identical bird that Mr. Trail, at the instigation of Mr. O’ Hea,

endeavoured to procure for me, as, in reply to Mr. Trail’s inquiries

respecting the bird, the native informed him it had just been sold to

a European on the other side of the island. On the day after the

arrival of the vessel, I went on board and saw the bird, which is a

much finer specimen than the one in the possession of Mr. Williams.

It appears to be fullgrown and in adult plumage, the head, neck,

breast, and upper parts of the back being of a glossy greenish black ;

back, wings, tail, and under tail-coverts a deep chocolate-red colour ;

but I consider that the bird has only recently been changing its

plumage, and that the present dark-green feathers will become more

brilliant, and the chocolate-red colour of a still brighter hue. The

legs and feet are of a bright red colour, and the claws yellowish white.

The mandibles are of an orange-red colour, shading off near the tips

to a light yellow. The cere round the eyes is also of a bright orange-

red colour; eyes brownish black. It is agreed by every one with

whom I have conversed, who have resided at the Navigators’ Islands,

that the Didunculus is nearly extinct, both from being eaten by the

natives as well as from the cats, rats, and other vermin, and that

most of the other Ground-Pigeons are following its fate from the

same causes. The possessor of the last bird says he has never ob-

served the bird to drink water since it has been in his possession.

Its food at that time consisted of boiled yams, but it will eat bana-

nas, apples, bread, and boiled potatoes. The lower mandible has the

tooth well developed. This bird was very tame, and was eating some

boiled yam very voraciously during the time I was inspecting it,

bolting down very large pieces.

“This morning I examined both birds. They are evidently

moulting, and the younger bird has grown very much since I last

saw it, and is becoming now a much larger bird than the last arrival ;

from this I am inclined to think, they may prove male and female.

I this afternoon purchased these birds, after some difficulty. It is

my intention to send them by Mr. Broughton of the ‘ La Hogue,’

unless some very good opportunity occurs in the mean time, which

is not probable. Our Acclimatization Society of New South Wales

are desirous of purchasing one or both, and to send them to your

Gardens in their name; and I have, at all events, secured them for

Miscellaneous. 261

myself at present, but will let you know how they are progressing

every mail. I hope these valuable birds will reach you alive; but

should they die, 1 shall arrange to have them preserved in spirits,

as the bodice: from their rarity, are also, I am aware, very valu-

able.

** We purchased last month a fine specimen of the ‘ Lyre-bird’

er superba), intending to send it to the Zoological Society.

t was captured in the [lawarra district, and was a male; and the

beautiful ‘lyre’-shaped tail was fully developed, and the whole of

the plumage in excellent condition. It only survived a few days,

showing how difficult it is to keep these birds in captivity.”

MISCELLANEOUS.

On a Function of Roots.

Henrici has made some ingenious and interesting observations on

the function of roots in supplying water to the plant, and on the

development, under certain conditions, of special roots destined for

this purpose. It is a matter of not infrequent occurrence that plants

send roots into wells, cisterns, drain-pipes, &c., where they exist in

continual contact with a body of water. In drain-pipes the roots of

plants usually considered to be free from aquatic tendencies, such

as rape (Brassica), sometimes accumulate to a surprising extent.

Henrici surmised that the roots which most cultivated plants send

down deep into the soil, even when the latter is by no means porous

or inviting, are designed especially to bring up water from the sub-

soil for the use of the plant. The following experiment was devised

for the purpose of establishing the truth of this view.

On the 13th of May, 1862, a young raspberry plant, having but

two leaves, was transplanted into a large glass funnel filled with

garden-soil, the throat of the funnel being closed with a paper filter.

The funnel was supported in the mouth of a large glass jar, and its

neck reached nearly to the bottom of the latter, where it just dipped

into a quantity of water. The soil in the funnel was at first kept

moderately moist by occasional waterings. The plant remained

fresh, and slowly grew, putting forth new leaves. After the lapse

of several weeks, four strong roots penetrated the filter and extended

down the empty funnel-neck, through which they emerged on the

21st of June, and thenceforward spread rapidly in the water of the

jar. From this time forward, the soil was not watered any more,

but care was taken to maintain the supply in the jar. The plant

continued to develope slowly ; its leaves, however, did not acquire

a vivid greén colour, but remained pale and yellowish ; they did not

wither until the usual time late in autumn. The roots continued

to grow, and filled the water more and more. Near the end of

December the plant had from seven to eight leaves, and a height of

8 inches. The water-roots were vigorous, very long, and beset with

262 Miscellaneous.

numerous fibrils and buds. In the funnel-tube the roots made a

perfect tissue of fibres. In the dry earth of the funnel the roots

were less extensively developed, yet exhibited some juicy buds.

The stem and the young axillary leaf-buds were also full of sap.

The water-roots being cut away, the plant was put into garden soil,

and placed in a conservatory, where it grew vigorously, and in May

bore two offshoots.

The experiment makes it quite certain that plants extend a por-

tion of their roots into the subsoil chiefly for the purpose of gather-

ing supplies of water.—Hennebery’s Journal fiir Landwirthschaft,

1863, p. 280 et seq.

On the Air of the Swimming-Bladder of Fishes.

By A. Moreau.

The author in the present paper describes the conditions under

which the amount of oxygen in the swimming-bladder of fishes may

be augmented. In the Physostomous fishes the duct of the swim-

ming-bladder enables the fishes to expel the air from the bladder, or

to take in air from the atmosphere by coming to the surface of the

water.

The process to which the author subjects these fishes is as follows :—

The fish is placed in a vessel of water under the bell of the air-pump ;

as the air becomes rarefied, bubbles escape from the mouth and oper-

cular apertures. When, from the quantity of air expelled and the:

descent of the barometer which measures the pressure within the

bell, it is supposed that nearly all the air is exhausted from the

swimming-bladder, atmospheric air is admitted into the bell ; and the

fish, which previously floated freely, immediately falls to the bottom

of the vessel, owing to the diminution in volume of the swimming-

bladder. The fish is then transferred (care being taken that he does

not get his head out of water) into a large vessel in which the water

is constantly renewed. The fish then lies at the bottom of this

vessel, creeping about rather than swimming; his efforts to rise to

the surface are rendered abortive by a partition placed below it. In

a few days, or, with some species, in a few hours, the fish begins to

swim with more facility, indicating that the swimming-bladder has

become filled with fresh air, which has not been derived from the

atmosphere. The fish is then killed by the section of the spinal

cord effected under water ; the duct is tied and the swimming-bladder

removed to the mercurial trough, in order that the air which it con-

tains may be collected and examined. The analysis of this air shows

an amount of oxygen far superior to that of the air expelled under

the action of the air-pump, and also to that contained in the air dis-

solved in the water.

Eight Tench were taken under the same conditions; seven were

killed, and the air of their swimming-bladders gave 8 per cent. of

oxygen. The eighth was treated as above, and killed in a fortnight ;

the air of its swimming-bladder gave 60 per cent. of oxygen.

Miscellaneous. 263

Of three Congers, taken under identical conditions, one killed at

once gave 30 per cent. of oxygen. - Another was subjected to the

action of the air-pump until the column of mercury descended to

20 centimetres (= 8 inches), and then placed in a basin of sea-water ;

in two days it gave 62 per cent. of oxygen. The third was subjected

to the air-pump at a pressure of 9 centimetres (= 3°6 inches) on

two consecutive days, then placed in the basin of sea-water, and

killed twenty-four hours afterwards ; the air in its swimming-bladder

gave 87 per cent. of oxygen.

These examples suffice to prove that, in Physostomous fishes placed

where they cannot obtain air from the atmosphere, the swimming-

bladder is soon refilled with new air remarkably rich in oxygen, and,

further, that this is the case even in species which do not possess the

vascular organs known as the red bodies.

In the case of fishes with a completely closed swimming-bladder,

the author punctured the bladder by means of a fine trocar, and

collected a portion of its air under water. The thickness of the

tissues penetrated prevents the access of water to the air-bladder

through the very narrow aperture made by the trocar, which closes

as the instrument is withdrawn.

Four Pereh, taken under the same circumstances, were punctured

under water. Their air contained from 19 to 25 per cent. of oxygen.

When killed, ten days afterwards, the amount of oxygen was from

40 to 65 per cent.

Two Gilt-heads (Sparus auratus) furnished, when punctured, an

air containing 16 to 17 per cent. of oxygen. When killed, two days

afterwards, they gave 58 and 59 per cent.

A Wrasse (Labrus varieyatus) gave on the first puncture 19 per

cent., and twenty-four hours afterwards 57 per cent. of oxygen.

Another Wrasse gave 18 and 85 per cent.

As the swimming-bladder cannot be completely emptied by the

above processes, and the remainder of the air, which is very rich in

nitrogen, is mixed with that which is finally obtained from the fish,

it would appear that, in some cases at least, pure oxygen must make

its appearance in the swimming-bladder.

In a previous communication the author stated that asphyxia is

the cause of diminution in the proportion of oxygen in the swimming-

bladder, and also that this proportion diminishes by degrees, and

only reaches zero in the last moments of the life of the fish. If the

complete disappearance of the oxygen be desired, the fish must be

asphyxiated, in a larger quantity of water in proportion as he is more

vigorous and contains air rich in oxygen in his swimming-bladder.

Those fishes in which the swimming-bladder possesses no red bodies,

present a comparatively slight diminution of oxygen when asphyxiated.

Carbonic acid exists in the air of the swimming-bladder; but in

most species examined by the author it was rarely present in a

larger proportion than 2 or 3 per cent. Asphyxiated fishes do not

exhibit an increase of this gas proportional to the diminution of

oxygen.

264 Miscellaneous.

The author sums up his results as follows :—The air of the swim-

ming-bladder presents a composition which may vary more or less,

relatively to the proportion of oxygen, under the following cireum-

stances :—

1. The oxygen diminishes and disappears in asphyxia and other

morbid conditions.

2. In the fishes with an open, as in those with a closed swimming-

bladder, the air is renewed without being derived from the atmo-

sphere, and the rapidity of this renewal is proportional to the vigour

of the fish.

3. The new air presents an amount of oxygen far superior to the

proportion of that gas usually contained in the air of the swimming-

bladder, and also far superior to that contained in the air dissolved

in the water.—Comptes Rendus, Nov. 16, 1863, p. 816.

On the Intercellular Substance and the Milk-Vessels in the Root of —

the common Dandelion. By Dr. Aucusr VoGu.

_ The root of the common Dandelion possesses a central woody body,

surrounded by a thick, fleshy, strongly milky rind. If fine sections

of the root be treated under the microscope with various chemical

reagents, it appears that the intercellular substance occurring in the

root consists chiefly of pectose—the same substance which occurs in

unripe fruits and in turnips and carrots. By this it is shown that

this substance is by no means a secretion, but a product of conver-

sion of the cellulose of the cell-membranes. This conversion is che-

mical in its nature, and proceeds from without inwards. The pro-

duction of the milk-vessels in the root of the Dandelion stands in

connexion with this pectinic metamorphosis. The milk-vessels

which occur in this plant are perhaps among the most ramified

which occur anywhere in plants. They form main stems, which,

united into bundles, pass through the bark in a direction parallel to

the axis of the root. These main stems throw out a quantity of

lateral shoots—sometimes as short transverse branches of intercom-

munication, sometimes as ceecal branches of greater or less length,

which are either inflated into a knob or drawn out to a hair-like

fineness at the extremity; the different bundles are connected in a

tangential direction, and thus form large reticulated systems around

the woody nucleus. On examining into their origin, it appears that

their main stems are produced by the amalgamation of the so-called

conducting cells ( Leitzellen, Siebzellen) which accompany the bundles

of milk-vessels, and probably constitute the organ for conducting

back the juices elaborated in the leaves. This fusion is induced by

the conversion into pectose of the membranes of the cells, consisting

at first more or less entirely of cellulose.—Bericht der kais. Akad.

der Wissenschaften in Wien ; Math.-naturw. Classe, Dec. 17, 1863,

p- 10.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES. ]

No. 76. APRIL 1864.

XXVII.—AHistological Researches on the Formation, Development,

and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. By Prof. H. Karsren*,

{Plates V., VI., VII.]

Historical Introduction.

Stvce the period when Malpighi, Grew, and Leeuwenhoek laid

the foundations of vegetable anatomy, and Moldenhauer, Mirbel,

Bernhardi, Treviranus, Rudolphi, Link, Meyen, Unger, Dumor-

tier, Mohl, and others demonstrated the tissue of plants to be

composed of distinct independent cells, the history of the deve-

lopment of the cell itself has formed an object of inquiry. As

yet, however, the researches made on this question have led to

no uniform and constant conclusions, as, indeed, from the very

nature of the inquiry, might have been anticipated.

On the one hand, Mohl, in 1835, maintained the hypothesis

of the multiplication of cells by fission of pre-existing cells,

effected by means of septa commencing as folds from the sides

of the cells and advancing until they met in the centre. On

the other hand, Schleiden seized on the fact of the frequent

presence of a nucleus, which Robert Brown had pointed out in

cells where an active process of development was going forward,

and employed it to construct a contrary doctrine of cell-pro-

duction.

_ Schleiden regarded this nucleus as the basis and builder of

the simple cell-wall that encloses it, by effecting a transforma-

tion of the mucilaginous substance around it into a gelatinous

envelope, which subsequently becomes the membranous wall.

Into the gelatinous vesicle so formed Schleiden supposed the

external fluid to pass on one side, and to distend it, so that the

mucous corpuscle is set free on one side, but adheres to the inner

wall on the other—and that then a second layer is produced on

* Translated by Dr. Arlidge from a separate impression kindly commu-

nicated by the Author.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xiii. 18

266 Prof, H. Karsten on the Formation,

its free surface, whereby the nucleus becomes involved in a

duplicature of the wall, or remains free, and is at length mostly

dissolved and lost to view.

_ The majority of naturalists are now agreed that, in the vege-

table kingdom, free cell-formation from a more or less completely

organized nucleus of a mother cell takes place, but is of rarer

occurrence than the production of cells by fission, according to

the views of Mohl.

In opposition to this hypothesis of a twofold type of cell-

formation, I sought, in 1843, in my dissertation ‘De Cella

vitali,’ to establish the fact that the development of organic

forms is subject to one single law, to the recognition of which

the observation of the phenomena of development both of vege-

table and animal tissues had led me, and of the truth of which I

remain convinced now, after twenty years’ study of this question,

alike important both for physiology and anatomy.

Since that brochure is little known, and has been in some

«measure misunderstood, I will reproduce here those conclusions

which relate to the question under notice :—

1. The formation of every cell within a living organism is

original: the cell is not divided into.two new individuals by

longitudinal or by transverse septa, or by proliferation. 2. The

evolution of a cell does not depend upon an antecedent forma-

tion of a solid nucleus. 3. In the first phase of its existence the

cell resembles a small vesicle, very like a mere point. 4. In the

organism the “cell of vegetation” does not exist in a simple form ;

for everywhere a secondary cell is present. Every elementary

part of the organism (the cell is deemed elementary) consists of

a system of endogenous cells; a member which is sometimes

interpolated in this system of cells is the “cell of secretion.”

5. In the secondary cell......a nucleus is found, which Schleiden

called the formative cytoblast of the cell, but which I regard as

a small tertiary cell retarded in its evolution. 6. In the interior

of a cell one or several cells are developed with greater or less

rapidity, evidently in the same manner. 7. An organism poten-

tially consists of one such system of cells, 2, e. a cell of reproduc-

tion ; actually of aggregated series, every one of which may be a

cell of reproduction ; never of a simple cell *.

* 1, Omnis celle formatio originaria est, intra vividum organismum ;

cella dissepimentis longitudinalibus et transversalibus aut prolifera-

tione in duo nova individua non disjungitur.

2. Celle evolutio non pendet ab antecedente solidi nuclei formatione.

' 3. In primo vite sue gradu cella parva, puncto simillima vesicula ap-

paret.

4. In organismo non exstat cella vegetationis simplex; ubique enim

secundaria cella adest. Queevis organismi pars elementaria (cella

q. d. elementaria) ex endogenarum cellerum serie constat; mem-

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 267

: By this work I hoped not only to convince histologists of the

compound structure of the elementary organs of vegetable tissue,

the youngest member of which is the nuclear corpuscle, but also

~ te prove to physiologists the intimate affinity of all the different

endogenous members of one and the same system of cells, as

well as the mutual action which takes place between the con-

stituent walls of the endogenous cells and their fluid and solid

contents—a mutual action from which not only the most material

changes of form of the original structureless cell-wall proceed,

but also the multiform and peculiar chemical combinations of its

organic material.

. The existence of a secondary cell in the tissue-cells of the

large class of Algze was proved by Kiitzing in the same year

with the appearance of my essay, probably without his having

any knowledge of the latter; and in the followmg year Mohl

announced this structure, as ascertained by me, to be common

to all plant-cells.

_ © One portion of my work therefore promised to be serviceable

immediately after its appearance,—the composite structure of

the elementary organs of plants being recognized by the most

experienced of histologists. But with respect to the functions

of the different elements of this microcosm, and their purpose, I

had not the good fortune to obtain Mohl’s acquiescence ; for

whilst I sought to establish a successive endogenous formation

of cells within one another, and was convinced of the continua-

tion of an assimilative process in their often thickened and

stratified walls, that illustrious observer adopted an opposite

theory, and assumed that the thin, still nitrogenous delicate

membrane which, at a certain stage in the development of most

tissue-eells of plants, forms a lining to an outer and ligneous

cell—the same membrane which I regarded as an endogenous

secondary cell, growing eventually ligneous itself—is the first in

origin (in Schleiden’s sense) around the nucleus, the primary

membrane of the whole system of layers found in the fully de-

veloped tissue-cell. He moreover implied that this cell-mem-

brane, which he called the “ primordial layer,” remains un-

am quod interdum huie cellarum seriei interjicitur, est secretionis

cella.

5. In secundaria cella....nucleus inyenitur....quem Schleiden céllam

: formantem cytoblastum....voeavit, equidem vero parvam céllam

tertiariam habeam, ab explicatione impeditam. .

6, In interiore celle parte citius tardiusve vel una vel plures novee cell

plane eodem modo nascuntur.

_ 7. Organismus potentia ex uno tali cellarum systemate, i.e. reproduc-

tionis cella,....actu e cellarum seriebus aggregatis (quarum unaque-

que ipsa reproductionis cella esse potest), nunquam ex simplici cella

constat,

18*

268 . Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

changed until the cellulose membranes are deposited upon its

outer and inner surfaces.

Again, Mohl, Schleiden, and their followers supposed that in

this way a long-unaltered envelope is formed around the con-

tents, which are kept in constant change by continual diffusion;

whilst to me the phenomena of development appeared to indicate

a simultaneous and continuous chemical alteration both of the

membrane and contents of the cell.

. Having illustrated in that essay the manifold phases of deve-

lopment of the membrane of the secondary cells, and fully de-

scribed elsewhere (Abhandl. der Berl. Akad. 1847, p. 111;

Botan., Zeitung, 1857, p. 314; Poggendorff’s Annalen, 1860,

No. 4) the various chemical metamorphoses of the outer and

primary cell-membrane, consisting, at a certain stage of develop-

ment, of cellulose—changes which have been more fully esta-

blished by Wigand (Desorganisation der Pflanzenzelle, 1862)—

I shall here endeavour again to prove that all cells of vegetable

tissue, as far as observation has yet gone, originate as minute .

free vesicles within the fluid contents of previously existing cells,

and attain their normal dimensions after undergoing many de-

terminate chemical changes; and, moreover, that the involution

of the parent cell to form septa, as far as is yet made out,

though it may accompany its multiplication, does not originate

or cause it.

Besides the tissue-cells which originate in the juices of the

cell, either singly for the maintenance of the individual, or

several together for the purpose of multiplication, there appear

in the cell-fluid generations of cells, originating and -disappear-

ing in manifold sequence, which are recognized as the producers

of the more composite organic compounds, and partly also as

the cause of the variety in the form. of the thickening layers of

the originally structureless membrane of the tissue-cells to which

they adhere.

- That these non-nucleated vesicles (starch, chlorophyll, &c.),

spoken of by mé as secretion-cells, are actual cell structures,

and not structureless corpuscles, is not merely a curious histo-

logical fact, as it was in a great measure regarded by the older

anatomists, but one of great importance to the physiologist ;

for if an anatomist of note, speaking of the constant tendency

of anatomy towards the investigation of the most minute con-

ditions of organization, has asserted that physiology will sub-

side into a subtle anatomy, experience will soon show, on the

contrary, that physiology will rather rise in a subtle anatomy.

_ In the following pages the nature of the origin and of the

growth of all the cells of the different tissues of the organism

cannot, necessarily, be demonstrated; for with many of them

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell, 269.

this would be scarcely possible, by reason of the peculiar condi-

tions of their development: with others I have performed this

task; and respecting the origin of the rest, I have assumed it to

be analogous.

Doubt has been thrown partly upon my observations, and

partly upon the conclusions drawn from them. In order to

complete the former by a detailed statement of the phenomena

which most appeared to stand in opposition to my view, I will

here especially demonstrate the free endogenous origin and

growth of cork- and pollen-cells, and of the tissue-cells of the

simple Algz, which have chiefly been cited as evidence of cell-

formation by constriction; and I shall then consider myself

justified in assuming that the same law applies also to the origin

and growth of other cells.

By the fuller elaboration and the solution of these questions,

the conviction will be arrived at that the vesicular structure

(which takes on at once the character of an active cell, and the

properties of which are dependent on the peculiar relative com-

position of its formative materials) progresses in a course of

development determined by continuous changes in the physical

and chemical condition of its membrane and cell-contents, therein

resembling the organism at large, in the effectual working of

which it has its own part assigned to it.

By this means physiology will acquire the necessary basis for

the right understanding both of the vegetative and animal func-

tions of the organism, which it is now attempted to explain, in

an equally one-sided and defective fashion, as the action of a few

or individual physico-chemical forces governing the evolution of

the cell.

§ I. Development of Cork-cells.

In Cecropia.—In Philodendron; in the cells of which they also develope

manifold.— Porous, thickened cork-cells.—Restoration of their original

spherical form by ammonia.— Absorption of their mother cells —Growth

of a cork-cell out of a cell into the neighbouring vessel.—Cork-cells in

erystal-cells.—Cork-cells not developed in lacteal vessels and branched

fibrous cells of the bark.—Cork-cells and callus-cells anatomically

equivalent.

The origin of cork-cells within those of the epidermis and

bark has hitherto been ascribed by the few anatomists who have

expressed a definite opinion upon this subject to the sudden

appearance of a partition dividing the mother cell into two parts.

This opinion has arisen from the circumstance that the investi-

gations upon which it is-based were made upon the cork-forma-

tion of the bark, which does not present a favourable example, ©

as in it the actual moment of the formation of new cells in the

bark may easily be missed.

we OC Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

The statement given by me as to the mode of production of cork;

in my investigation of Cecropia peltata, Linn. (Actad. Akad. dy

Naturf. xxiv. pt. 1. p, 86) has not been taken into consideration by

my successors. In this plant, in the outermost lamina of a collen-

chymatic tissue covered, by the epidermis, and at the commence-

ment of the second period of vegetation, I observed the forma-

tion of some small cells, filled with colourless fluid, in contiguity

with the chlorophyll-vesicles. These colourless cells develope

themselves, in the peripheral cells of the lamina in question, into

eork-cells simultaneously with the absorption of the chlorophyll,

and in those on the central aspect into parenchyma-cells of the

bark, in which cork-cells are subsequently formed in the same

manner. )

Less difficulty is experienced in the observation of the forma-

tion of cork-cells when this tissue is developed in the process of

cicatrization after an injury to a stem, by which the normal

functions have been suddenly arrested—a circumstance partially

studied by Mohl in his memoir on the process of cicatrization

in plants (Botanische Zeitung, 1849, sp. 641). Hitherto I have

been most successful in following up the history of the develop-

ment of cork-cells in all its stages-in the commonly cultivated

Philodendron pertusum, Kth.

If a stem of this plant be cut through at the middle of the

internodes, and the lower extremity of the piece cut off be stuck

in moist earth, as soon as the adventitious roots already formed

in the bark begin to be developed, very similar but not quite

identical alterations take place in the tissues contiguous to the

two cut surfaces. The organic constituents dissolved in the

evaporating nutritive fluid collect beneath the dried layer of

cells which soon covers the fresh-cut surface on exposure to the

atmosphere, and are partly assimilated by the cells of which the

various tissues of the mature stem of Philodendron are composed,

and partly coagulated and chemically altered in many ways

within the cell-membrane by the air which penetrates into the

wounded tissues.

On the end dried im the air the stratum of cells saturated with

nutritive fluid, but completely desiccated, is considerably thicker

than on the lower extremity, where it consists of one or a few

layers of cells; the vascular bundles also dry to a greater extent

inwards than even the cellular tissue, so that a dead portion of

these afterwards projects into the living tissue, and appears as

if the latter had grown over it.

Within the cells, rich in plasma, which lie next the withered

’ Jayer, nuclear cells, containing nuclear corpuscles, make their

appearance. These, however, do not acquire the size of the

parent cells, but become displaced by two cells originating and

“Development, und Siruetare-of the Vegutable Cell. S57

growing with them in the juice of the cell, and either nucleated

or non-nucleated according to the chemical constitution of the

plasma, or are enclosed between these during their growth, and

absorbed ; at any rate, they disappear.

_ The two newly formed and very thin-walled cells subdivide

within the cavity of the mother cell, and so completely occupy

it, and are so intimately moulded to its walls, its pores, rings,

and spiral windings that they can scarcely be distinguished

from its membranes. In the same way, the septum, which owes

its origin to the apposition of the two daughter cells within the

see cell, is of such great tetiuity as to appear like a single

mella. ;

The same new formation proceeds in the cells of the cortical

tissue next the epidermic layer; and in this region the newly

formed tissue extends from the cut surface almost as deeply

within the cell-tissue as the dead portion of the vascular bundles.

These newly formed pairs of cells are always arranged, in the

upper section exposed to the air, in a direction perpendicular to

the adjoining dry and air-containing cell-tissue, and more or less

indeed in the same peculiar manner as the cork-cells of the bark,

forming uninterrupted rows with the successively produced

young cells. These are united in the parenchyma in a plane pa-

rallel with the eut surface, and which, close to the epidermis and

round the vascular bundles, is turned inwards. By this means

the surfaces of the dead extremities of the vascular bundles pro-

jecting into the living parenchyma are invested by a sheath

formed by a stratum of cell-series standing perpendicularly to

their longitudinal axis.

This production of cork-cells is moreover found not only in

the cells of the parenchyma, but also in the cells and vessels of

the vascular bundles; so that even the latter become occupied by

a layer of cork-cells, and the undisturbed tissue of the internode

is separated by this intimately adherent layer of cork-cells from

the withered tissue, and also protected from the immediate in-

fluence of the atmospheric air.

The cork-cells do not always arise in pairs, but in larger

number sometimes in cells of greater length. In the elongated

cells of bast and wood, as well as in the vessels, there are usually

numerous cells, arranged in rows, beginning at the end to-

wards the cut surface, filling up the long cells more or less

completely. In the vessels, moreover, they still oftener give

origin to an irregular tissue.

The enlargement of the cells filled with transparent fluid,

produced together with the cell-nucleus, must take place with

extraordinary rapidity in the vicinity of the cut surface, in the

manner that may be directly observed in the tissue-cells of a

272 Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

species of Cidogonium which will hereafter be described. This

may explain why Mohl and Sanio did not observe it, and why I

only succeeded a few times in meeting with stages of develop-

ment corresponding with that shown in Pl. V. fig. 8,

The presence of a lamina of cork of some thickness retards,

on the one hand, the flow of nutritive juices and their concen-

tration by evaporation, and, on the other, restricts the action of

the atmosphere on the cells assimilating it ; the newly generated

cells then extend themselves more slowly, and even appear to

remain in a half-evolvyed condition; at least, in the line of de-

marcation between the cork and the unchanged cells of the

tissue, some of the latter are occasionally noticed to contain

delicately walled cells and vesicles, which possess the chemical

constitution of cork, and present all the intermediate stages to

that of the completely developed periderm, as is shown in Pl. V.

fig. 2 x, in the case of a thickened porous cell of the medullary

sheath, and, in fig. 5, in that of a vessel.

The most recently developed peridermic cells behave like cellu-

lose with a solution of iodine and chloride of zinc, but soon lose

the property of becoming blue on the addition of iodine and

corrosive reagents, which property they indeed do not possess in

the first period of development. Probably cell-nuclei oceur in

all cork-cells during a certain stage of development; and their

duration seems to depend on the quality of the nutritive fluid

absorbed by the cell-tissue, and on the chemical composition of

the plasma within the cells, as well as on the more or less im-

mediate access of atmospheric air.

The first-formed cork-cells contiguous to the withered cell-

layer mostly remain simple, whilst those subsequently produced

contain a further generation of two or more new cells. In this.

manner such a cork-cell becomes occupied by a complete cell-

tissue, the very delicate walls of which are in such close ap-

position that they leave no intercellular spaces between them,

and cannot be recognized as consisting of a double membrane.

Some layers of these cork-cells in the immediate vicinity of

the cut surface, soon after their evolution, acquire stratified

thickenings of their secondary cells, which are penetrated by a

few pore-canals.

On resolving the tissue containing the cork-cells into its sepa-

rate cells, by boiling it with nitric acid and chlorate of potash,

and on subjecting it to the action of ammonia, the cellulose

walls of the parenchyma become more or less greatly swollen, or

are entirely dissolved. In the latter case, the solution of am-

monia also acts upon the coherent groups of cork-cells derived

from the dissolved cells, and causes them to swell up, to assume

a spherical form, and to part asunder (figs. 14 & 15). In this

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell, 278

way the true nature of the apparently simple lamelle which

form the septa is placed beyond doubt.

The cork-cells which are found in the much-thickened fibrous

cells of the bark, furnished with deep porous canals (Pl. V.

figs. 1 & 19), exhibit with particular clearness the true impres-

sion of the cell-cavity which enclosed them (fig. 20). The same

fact is also displayed in the cork-cells of the very thickened

parenchyma-cells and spiral vessels (figs. 2, 8, & 4).

During the process of development of these endogenous cork-

cells, the substance of the walls of the parent tissue-cells becomes

entirely absorbed. And by means of this process of absorption

the various component tissues of the stalk are eventually re-

placed by a completely homogeneous layer of cork, in which the

outline of the original histological elements cannot be recog-

nized, as Moh] has shown in his researches on the normal cica-

trization of the stalk after the fall of the leaves and that of the

points of its terminal shoots.

The dissolution of the walls of the tissue-cells filled with cork-

cells commences with the external membrane of the primary

cells, and terminates with the inmost layer of the secondary cells;

so that the pores of the very thick porous cells of the medullary

sheath acquire large dimensions shortly before their final. dis-

appearance.

In the case of spiral vessels filled with cork-cells, the spiral

fibre is not unfrequently left; it then coils round the serially

appressed cork-cells, and may be untwisted from them (fig. 3).

This condition affords still more certain proof of the presence of

these endogenous cells within spiral vessels, and also of the fact

of their being free isolated cells which more or less completely

fill the cavity.

Sometimes, however, specimens are met with which prove that

the filling of a spiral vessel with cells has proceeded from the

neighbouring tissue-cells, the endogenous cells produced in and

entirely filling which have extended from them into the adjoining

9 vessel (fig. 4). Hence the supposition might be entertained

that the incompletely developed cork-cells found in porous vessels

and cells (figs. 2 & 5) have likewise not freely originated in them,

but have grown into them from neighbouring cells. Never-

theless, by causing the vessels set free by boiling with nitric acid

and chlorate of potash to rotate on their axes, we may positively

a that their contents are really perfectly isolated free

cells.

The cases in which the intrusion of a cork-cell into a spiral

vessel from an adjoining tissue-cell is observed are-uncommon ;

and such are, without doubt, due to a coalescence of the woody

cell with the vessel before the development of the periderm, as

274 Prof. H, Karsten on the Formation,

iri repeatedly observed, for example, in the wood of Cin-

chona,

Among the large cells of the vertically elongated parenchyma

of the stem of Philodendron, some scattered rounded cells are:

met with almost completely filled with a large crystalline mass

of oxalate of lime. In these cells also, when occurring in a mass

of cork-tissue, some young cells are seen to originate between

the crystalline mass and the parent cell, which, after having:

acquired their full dimensions, have a cellulose composition, and

‘ultimately become converted into cork. These cells so entirely

surround the crystalline mass that it appears to be enclosed.

within an envelope of small irregularly shaped cork-cells imter-

vening between it and the parent cell-wall (fig. 2 h).

Besides these kinds of cells, which all contribute to the cica-

trization of the cut surface by the formation of cork, two other

elementary organs are encountered in the tissue of Philodendron;

in these no cell-development takes place, but they become ab-

sorbed within the layer of cork-cells. The first of such organs

are the series of cells, united with fibres and filled with raphides,

which are found dispersed in the parenchyma of the bark and

of the medulla, and’ which in other Aroidee contain a milky

juice. The second kind are the branching fibrous cells found

only in the cortical tissue. Both these structures are, in all

probability, principally concerned in the process of secretion—

an opinion which I ‘expressed suppositively, in my ‘ Disserta-

tion,’ with regard to the thickened secondary membrane; I also.

specially mentioned the absorption of the fibrous cells of the

bark, in my Memoirs on the Palms and on the China-barks (Die

Vegetationsorgane der Palmen, 1847, p. 53, and Die med.

Chinarinden Neu-Granada’s, 1858). .

These fibrous cortical cells of the Philodendron have a remark-

ably raniified form, giving off from each side of the upper and

lower extremities of the parallelopipedal and horizontally ex-

tended cells two very long and thin branches, which lie free in

the comparatively wide intercellular spaces, and end in pointed

closed extremities. These long branches, standing out at right

angles from the cell, are not produced until after this has at-

tained its full size; and soon after the outgrowth of these pro-

cesses the entire cell-wall proceeds to increase in thickness. It

can indeed be distinctly made out that these cortical cells, as

well as the lacteal vessels, here occupied by raphides, originate

from cells, and not from intercellular spaces lined with cell~

material.

In my paper on tannic acid (Monatsbericht der Berl. Akad.

der Wissenschaften, 1857) I described the lacteal vessels of

Colocasia, Dieffenbachia, and other Aroidez through which a

Development, and Structure of the Vegetabje Cell. 275.

fluid containing tannic acid is diffused. These lacteal vessels

resemble the ramified fibrous cells of the bark, in sending off

branches into the intercellular spaces, the membranes of which,’

from their extreme tenuity, may be readily overlooked, and thus

give rise to the inference that the lacteal fluid circulates within

the intercellular spaces themselves. I believe I have proved in:

that memoir that the lacteal vessels do actually possess walls of

their own; they are therefore, with reference to their mode of

origin, analogous organs to the fibrous cells of the bark.

_ The processes which go on in the formation of the so-called

callus on the lower part inserted into moist earth are precisely:

similar to this formation of periderm ; and this was particularly

the case in cuttings of Philodendron when these were terminal

shoots, and had continued to develope themselves after their:

separation from the lower part of the stem.

Under these circumstances also, a layer of cork is first pro-

duced on the cut surface (which, owing to its being implanted

in the moist earth, scarcely undergoes any desiccation), to pro-.

tect the living tissues from the access of air. However, the

cork-lamina does not acquire the same proportion as in the pro-

cess of cicatrization in the air, nor does it penetrate so deeply

within the plant-tissue near the epidermis and vascular bundles;

and after the peridermie layer has attained a certain thickness,

the cells formed deeper within the tissue_are not cork-cells, but,

like the cambium-cells of the apex of the axis, become converted

into the most various histological elements.

Two cell-nuclei are frequently met with in one mother cell,

each containing either two nucleolar corpuscles or two vesicles

of a larger size and having each two nuclear‘ cells, whilst no

cell-nucleus belonging to the cell-system of the mother cell is

contemporaneous with them. of

Criiger, who first fully described (Botanische Zeitung, 1860,

p- 369) the changes in the cell-tissue during the formation of

callus, supposed that no new formation takes place in the cut

vessels. This, however, is an error ascribable without doubt to

the great tenuity of the walls of the endogenous cells, the

appearance of which is a counterpart of what has been already

described and figured (Pl. V. figs. 3-5), except that these cells

are still more hyaline and transparent, inasmuch as they are

defended from the contact of the air, and consequently not ren-

dered suberous (verkorkt).

I have found the vessels contiguous to the callus filled with

new cells, not only in endogenous but also in exogenous plants

—for example, besides Philodendron, in Zingiber, Dracena, Zamia,

Cycas, Ficus, Gesneria, &e. In all cases the fully developed

vessels have a much greater tendency to generate new cells in

276 Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

their interior than the ligneous cells themselves, and this even

without any wounding of the vessels. I removed a ring of bark

from a twig of Salix babylonica, and found, in the following

year, all the vessels of the peripheral lamina of the wood entirely

filled with cells, whilst the woody cells, on the contrary, remained

unaltered. The cells thus formed in the interior of vessels

may, under certain circumstances, be transformed into new

vascular cells, after the thickened wall of the parent vessel has

been absorbed, and may contribute to the lengthening of the

original vessel—a case which I have described and figured, in

my researches on the organs of vegetation of the Palms, with

regard to Lycopodium Springii (pp. 120 & 163, pl. 9. fig. 15),

the vascular bundle alone having been developed into a root-

fibre.

By the maceration in solution of potash of the cells which

make their appearance in the vessels during the formation of

callus, it may also be demonstrated that they are not produced —

by constriction, but as free vesicles in the fluid contents of the

cells and vessels, although the observation of the moment of

their production presents exactly the same difficulties here as in

the case of the suberous tissue. |

§ II. On Cell-formation in Gdogonium.

New joint-cells by evolution of endogenous cells.—Absorption of the

secretions of the mother cell, with contemporary formation in the

daughter cells.—Absorption of the nuclear cell.—Development and

growth of the nuclear cell.—Cellular contents of the developed joint-

cells.—Downward-prolonged annular folds of the primary cell-wall.—

Bary’s globules of decomposition contain animal parasites.

The peculiar behaviour of the mother cell, in the several spe-

cies of the genus (idogonium, during the formation of daughter

cells, has been most fully elucidated by Bary (Schriften der

Senkenberg’schen Gesellschaft, Band i. 1854-55). From his

investigations we know that, in the course of elongation of a

joint-cell, the primary cell-wall forms at its upper part an in-

growing annular fold, and that this fold, after the membranous

envelope covering the mother cells is torn through, suddenly

extrudes itself, and thus causes a considerable elongation of the

joint-cell.

The internal structure of the Cfdogonium-cells and the mode of

multiplication of the joint-cells have, however, not yet been ascer-

tained. The latter is, as usual, represented to be a consequence

of the formation of septa by constriction of the walls; and, ac-

cording to Bary, the septum is formed in the suddenly extended

cell within a colourless layer which divides the green mass of

contents into two parts, and not until this layer has issued from

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 277

the lower sheath-like portion of the circularly torn membranous

wall, in consequence of the gradual expansion of the inferior

mass of the cell-contents. Bary regards the lower of the two

new and simultaneously produced cells as the parent of the

upper.

The real process of cell-multiplication does not agree with

this description. The transverse cell-wall does not originate

only outside the enveloping membranous sheath, in accordance

eer the prevailing opinion, by the inward growth, from the

surrounding wall of the elongated mother cell, of a fold-like or

lamelliform horizontal septum ultimately meeting at the centre,

but, on the contrary, it is present and complete before the rup-

ture of the membranous wall and the occurrence of the abrupt

elongation of the mother cell.

The thickening, and not the formation of the transverse sep-

tum, follows after the changes described by Bary have taken

place in the mother cell when this escapes from the membranous

enveloping sheath, which until then encloses that portion of the

joint-cell in which the transverse septum arises, by the develop-

ment of daughter cells, in precisely the same way as the forma-

tion of cork-cells in Philodendron pertusum has already been

described.

The existence of the transverse septum in the joint-cells which

are not yet elongated, and indeed in those in the upper end of

which the fold of the mother cell is already produced, is parti-

cularly easy of demonstration in the species of the genus C£do-

gonium, as Hartig and others have indeed actually witnessed ;

but it is not so with respect to the mode of origin of the septum.

The great quantity of chlorophyll- and starch-corpuscles which

cover the inner surface of the cell-walls of these plants, when in

vigorous growth, renders it impossible to make out with any

certainty the development of new cells within these joint-cells.

In my researches I employed plants of Gidogonium grande

which had been raised from spores in pure water, and many of

whose cells were scantily occupied by chlorophyll, so that the

changes which took place in the other contents could be more

clearly examined.

In such plants it is possible to make out the true mode of

formation of the septum, which is thus effected :—two of the

many non-nucleated hyaline cells which occupy the interior of

the joint-cell acquire a greater size (Pl. V. figs. 21, 26, & 28),

and by their growth press the others to one side against the

wall of the mother cell (which is coated with chlorophyll, starch,

&c.), and eventually come into contact and by their mutual ap-

position form the septum, often obliquely nerd at first, and

completely fill up the cavity of the mother cell (figs. 27 & 29).

278 ; Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation, —

This process occupies some few minutes ; and in order to observe

it the eye must be fixed upon some one such cell containing but’

little chlorophyll, and in which the fold of the wall is fully

formed, though a septum be as yet not present in it,

After the septum has attained the characters of a complete

disk dividing the cell-cavity, an act of growth, or at least an

expansion of the cell-wall, still goes on, whereby the rather

obliquely placed septum acquires a horizontal direction, and a

certain amount of pressure is at the same time exerted upon the

cell-wall, which forces apart or extends the fold (above which

the enveloping membrane is torn through), and thus enlarges

by about one-third of its length the mother cell of the two

newly developed cells (figs. 22 & 23).

Contemporaneously with this sudden evolution of the mother

eell, the two endogenous cells undergo expansion. When both

these cells are not equally enlarged, it is, as a rule, the upper

one (usually the smaller of the two) which at first expands compa-

ratively more strongly, and at the same time downwards towards

the new septum, whilst the chlorophyll- and starch-vesicles, com-

pressed against the walls of the mother cell, do not at first

undergo very much displacement. This is the reason why,

at the first moment after the extension of the mother cell, the

new septum is usually found free from secretory vesicles, and

only bounded by a transparent watery fluid (Bary’s colourless

layer), as happens also with the inferior extremity of the lower

of the two daughter cells.

: This primary and abruptly accomplished enlargement of the

endogenous cells, after the laceration of the envelopmg mem-

brane, is, like that of the mother cell itself, only a mechanical

act,—not a process of growth, but merely the extension of the

cell-wall already enlarged by assimilation. The seeretion-cor- ”

puscles, however, gradually distribute themselves equally over

the whole surface—except that, quite at the upper end, at the

summit of the mother cell, a compact group of these secretion-

corpuscles remains, even in cells otherwise almost destitute of

such contents, whilst the lower extremities of the two young

daughter cells usually continue longest free from these sub-

stances, and appear colourless.

Nevertheless, this distribution of the secretion-material is not

so rigorously subjected to the rule just mentioned as not to

admit of exceptions. :

These relations are, however, it appears to me, worthy of

notice, because they may furnish data for arriving at conclusions

respecting the place of formation of the secretory material, the

direction of the cell-growth, and therefore the direction or course

of the nutritive matters distributed in the series of cells.

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 279

- Itwould appear that those materials which are subservient to the

h of the young cell-wall pass from the lower to the upper

portions of the plant, whilst chlorophyll is produced from com-

pounds which diffuse themselves from the upper into the lower

parts of the plant.

During the first period, which ensues upon the unfolding of

the annular fold and the extension of the cells, the upper young

joint-cell usually remains more or less unchanged; the lower

one, on the contrary, continues to enlarge, whereby the new and

still delicate transverse septum becomes pressed upwards, until

it at length projects from the opening in the lacerated mem-

branous sheath, and then it proceeds to increase in thickness.

(Pl. V. figs. 23, 24.)

- Bary asserts that he distinctly made out that the septum is pro-

duced by a gradual constriction and secretion of the primordial

layer, in various species of (édogonium, after the protrusion of

the clear lamina from the membranous sheath. In the treatise

quoted (at p. 42) he says:—“In any case, the septum is not

simultaneously formed in its entire surface; on the addition of

a solution of chloride of zine and iodine, the contracted primor-

dial layer is sometimes distinctly seen to pass through the

middle of an incompletely closed dissepiment.”

That this phenomenon, which I have figured in a, Spirogyra

(Pl. VII. fig. 67), and to which I shall hereafter revert in con-

nexion with Cladophora, furnishes no sufficient proof of the pro-

duction of 'the dissepiment by constriction, will be shown when

I come to speak of the latter genus.

Of the formation of a fold in the membrane of the mother

cell, after the two daughter cells (figs. 21, 26, 28) have become

mutually pressed together so as to form a complete septum

* (figs. 22, 27, 29), and of an eventual inward extension of this fold

betwixt the lamellz of the septum, which are thus again sepa-

rated, I have no knowledge; but the more distinct appearance

of the long-previously existing septum can, in my opinion, be

much more readily accounted for by the gradual thickening that

progresses in it from its circumference. That this thickening

of the septum always follows after its emergence from the enve-

loping sheath is in all probability to be attributed to the changes

im the nature and operation of the nutritive matters derived from

without, now only through the walls of one assimilating and

secreting system of cells.

In the mean while, the upper of the twin cells also begins to

ge vigorously, until at last it equals the lower one in length.

evertheless it not unfrequently remains somewhat shorter,

which is the cause of the irregularity seen in the structure of

CEdogonium.

280 Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

Nageli urges, in opposition to the notion of the formation of

free cells in the fluid contents of a cell laden with various solid

matters, that changes must have been observable in the solid

contents adhering to the wall of the mother cells, should these

become dissolved in the mother cell and afterwards organized

anew in the daughter cells.

Well founded as is this supposition of Nageli’s as to the meta-

morphosis, the notion that such a metamorphosis does not take

place is equally unfounded. Indeed, in my essay ‘De Cella

vitali’ (1843, p. 71), and elsewhere, I have maintained the oc-

currence of those conditions subsequently called in question by

Nageli, asserting, as a result of my observations, that the secre-

tion-material contained within the mother cell serves as nutritive

matter for the ensuing generation. A conviction of the entire

correctness of this statement, and of its high importance for the

right understanding of cell-life, may be most readily attained by

the examination of the species of Gidogonium, which, on account

of their remarkable tenacity of life (in which they almost equal

Conferva glomerata), are particularly well adapted for being

observed continuously under the microscope during the successive

stages of their process of growth.

Indeed the entire cell-contents of the joint-cell, which has been

recently divided in the manner described into two portions, are

now found interposed between the outer surface of the two

daughter cells and the inner aspect of the wall of the mother

cell. The large, thin-walled, non-nucleated cells (vesicles), filled

with transparent fluid, existing at the time of the growth of the

daughter cells, are at this period no longer present ; indeed they

disappear during the first stage of development of the young

daughter cells, to which they probably serve as nutritive matter.

On the contrary, the chlorophyll and the usually large starch-

granules met with in the different species of Gidogonium, in vari-

able quantity according to external vital conditions, are rather

rapidly dissolved during the growth and the thickening of the

membranous walls of the young joint-cells, in order to supply

nutritive material for the process of assimilation of the cell-walls

as well as for the new generation of cells and of secretion-vesi-

cles in process of formation within the two daughter cells. This

dissolution of the starch-corpuscles is completed in about twenty-

four hours.

The chlorophyll first undergoes this process of absorption,

and afterwards the large amylaceous corpuscles; and then they

progressively reappear, but in the opposite order, in the interior

of the newly formed joint-cells. In the first instance, small

starch-corpuscles make their appearance, then the chlorophyll-

vesicles, and, lastly, those large hyaline vesicles which, in the

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 281

normally developed and well-nourished cell, are for the most

part not perceptible externally, and which originate by the growth

of small yellowish-coloured vesicles, very similar to those of

sam in their earliest stage. In many cases also it may

be distinctly seen that a starch-corpuscle occupies the position

of a nucleus within mature chlorophyll-vesicles.

Bary’s idea that chlorophyll occurs in the external layer, and

starch more in the interior of the joint-cell, will not, therefore,

hold good. Indeed, in my researches on Vaucheria (Botan.

Zeitung, 1852), I showed that in that plant the starch was usually

to be found towards the exterior of the cells that contained

chlorophyll. The same obtains in Gidogonium, in those cells in

which new joint-cells have originated. The large, much-thick-

ened starch-corpuscles, when chlorophyll is not present with

them, are met with external to the cells which contain chloro-

phyll as well as delicately walled starch-vesicles. The explanation

of this relation is to be found in the successive development of

new endogenous cells within the joint-cell of the Gfdogonium.

As the phases of development of neighbouring joint-cells of

Cdogonium differ very much from each other, so also do the

joint-cells often present very different conditions in regard to

ny distribution of the secretory materials contained within

them.

_ The true nature of the functions of the nuclear cell (nucleus)

in relation to cell-formation in general, as well as to the multi-

plication of cells, in the case of Cidogonium, has not been

rightly understood. A cell-nucleus is frequently absent from

the cells of Gdogonium during the formation of new cells—

probably, indeed, more frequently absent than present; and

without doubt its existence, or rather its form, is dependent on

the conditions of nutrition and on the chemical composition of

the plasma. Besides, where the nucleus is present, it can be

shown that the origin of new cells, and still more the formation

of a septum, is quite independent of it.

In those cells wherein a nucleus of the ordinary form exists

at the time of the formation of new cells, it is found to lie often

on the wall of the mother cell (fig. 28), often in the median line,

sometimes at its centre, and at others nearer to one end; and,

in the course of the growth of the daughter cells, which do not

originate in contiguity with it, it becomes thrust to one side

along with the other contents, and pressed against the inner

wall of the mother cell. In this position it immediately begins

to undergo absorption—a process which seems to be frequently

preceded by a swelling-up of the nucleus. Mostly this act of |

absorption is speedily completed; and then only does a nucleus

make its appearance in each of the two new joint-cells, hitherto

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3, Vol. xiii. 19

geo. Prof, H. Karsten on the Formation, —

destitute of any solid contents, and prior to the origin of any of

the other varieties of secretion-vesicles (fig. 29).

In “ resting ” vegetative cells, 7... in those which for a long

time continue apparently unchanged, and which present no new

formation of cells for the purpose of multiplication (neither

vegetation- nor reproductive cells), there neyertheless occurs a

continuous, though a very tardy, regeneration of the cells them-

- selves, .

-- Whilst the external primary cell-membranes are being dis-

solved, and replaced by the thickening membranes of the se-

condary cells, nuclear cells, long persistent in an embryoni¢

condition, increase in size and assume the functions of secondary

cells. The secretory materials contained in these (consequently

exterior to the siuilodd cell) are dissolved during this develops

ment of the nucleus, and within the nuclear cell, which has

reached the dimensions of the mother cell, other similar secretory

vesicles become developed. ;

_ In consequence of this development of the nuclear cells, secre-

tion-vesicles are found not only on the outside of the two

daughter cells, but also of the secondary cells, of the Gidogoniwmn

joint-cells at certain stages of development. These secretion-

ells are usually starch-globules; for the chlorophyll was the first

displaced and lost. (PI. VII. fig. 63, as seen after the action of

a weak solution of glycerine.)

In many cells a weak aqueous solution of iodine shows the

presence of starch in solution betwixt the inner membranes of

the cell. Mohl mentions this circumstance, and describes this,

together with other allied structures, as a mucilaginous deposit”

around the primordial layer coloured blue by iodine (Botanische

Zeitung, 1855, p. 782). :

Before the application of the iodine, this layer has the appear*

ance of a turbid solution of gum or mucus, but afterwards forms

a clear transparent fluid: it therefore behaves like finely divided

starch,

The two newly formed jointecells, after the production of the

septum by their apposition, cannot again be separated by the

agency of endosmotic media, nor do they become detached

thereby from the enclosing secondary cells of the mother cell. -

If such cells are allowed to remain in saline or acid solutions,

or in glycerine, &c., the membrane of the secondary cells en»

‘closing the new cells and other contents loosens itself from the

- primary cell of the joint that is undergoing fission, and collects

into a mass along with the whole of the contents in the interior

. of the cell: in this condition it shows no cellulose reaction, _

It is not until after the further advance of the absorption of

‘the secretory matters which occur outside the young jointecells,

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. °288

after the thickening of their walls and of those of their mother

cell has commenced, coincidently with the more distinct protru-

sion of the dissepiment, that the application of solution of chlo-

ride of zinc and iodine produces a blue coloration of the external

membranes of the new joint-cells and of their now likewise

thickened and closely embracing mother cell; and this happens

contemporaneously with the detachment of a secondary cell,

which up to this period could not be isolated. ;

The difficulty, or perhaps, at present, more correctly speaking,

the impossibility, of effecting, by the agency of endosmosis, the

separation of the closely approximated membranes of the two

endogenous cells from their mother cell (the secondary membrane

of the joint-cell), or, before the thickening of their walls, from

the secondary cells within them, is owing in part to the nature

of the intercellular substance, and in part to their very similar

chemical and physical (diosmotic) properties.

The similarity or identity of these membranes is so great, ins

deed, that it is extremely difficult to determine whether the young

cells consist of a single or double cell-wall, and whether the en-

veloping secondary membrane of the mother cell is still present

or has been destroyed. It is moreover somewhat difficult to

make out with certainty the presence of the large vesicles filled

with colourless fluid amid the corpuscles of chlorophyll and

starch within the cavity of the cell. . ,

' In many species of the genus Spirogyra, and still more ot |

in Cladophora glomerata, we may ascertain, by cutting throug

_ their joint-cells under water, or by the action of different re-

agents, that these cells are filled with a delicately walled cellular

tissue. And we may sometimes be so fortunate as to witness

the complete extrusion of the new joint-cells (themselves also

oceupied by cellular contents) from the mother cell before theit

membranes are thickened.

In Gidogonium, the joint-cells of which acquire cellular con-

tents only after they have attained their full size, and simulta+

neously with the commencement of the thickening of their walls,

these are no longer protruded from their mother cell ; and in their

younger phases (in which, as they then only exhibit fluid con-

tents, they cannot be distinguished from the large neighbouring

secretion-cells) they are furnished with walls as delicate as those

of the latter, and are immediately dissolved by contact with

water. Indeed it is only when sections of such plants are made _

in a weak solution of gum-arabic, instead of water, that we can suc-

ceed in observing for any length of time the very delicately walled,

easily overlooked, endogenous, non-nucleated cells emerging

from their parent cell; and even then it is impossible, for rea-

sons already stated, to distinguish whether these are. only trans-

19*

284, Prof. H,. Karsten on the Formation,

itory secretion-cells or the early stages of development of new

joint-cells.

It has been satisfactorily shown by former observers, and

especially by Bary, that the thickened membranes of Gidogonium,

and particularly the extensile annular fold, behave with reagents

like cellulose. To these statements I can add that this annular

fold consists solely of cellulose, even before its extrusion.

In the ordinary course of development of Cidogonium, this

investigation is difficult, on account of the instantaneous rupture

of the membranous envelope, and the sudden extension of the

fully developed fold, on the application of the reagents necessary

for these experiments.

In specimens placed in the direct rays of the sun, in order to

excite them to more rapid development, but which had to sup-

port a temperature too high for their normal vegetative activity

(namely, 35° Réaumur), the membranes of the secondary cells

acquired considerable thickness whilst yet enclosed within the

ney cells, which still exhibit their annular folds, as shown in

g. 25.

In these cells it could be seen distinctly that the annular

constriction consists entirely of cellulose—that is to say, that it

exhibits the cellulose reaction with solution of iodine and chloride

of zinc—as the annular fold did not extend itself even on the

application of that reagent.

The contents of these unusually thickened cells consisted of

comparatively large hyaline non-nucleated cells, with pale-green

starch- and chlorophyll-corpuscles and reddish-coloured oil-_

drops (?) thinly scattered between them. A large accumulation

of chlorophyll was observed in the upper end of the cell.

These Cdogonia soon became quite colourless; the large

transparent vesicles disappeared ; and only the oil-particles, and

especially the decolorized starch-corpuscles, remained undis-

solved and unchanged in the dead membranes for any con-

siderable time; even the annular fold vanished by solution,

though the rest of the same cell-wall continued unaltered.

Similar individuals, with greatly thickened secondary cells, I

have observed now and then among normally developed forms.

In these also the annular fold had not expanded, though the

investing envelope, consisting of a double membrane (probably

the cuticle and the remainder of the membrane of a primitive

mother cell), was annularly torn through above it. Indeed, in

a few days, the fold was diaeattod in the water, and its former

existence evidenced only by an empty space. In these cells two

young joint-cells had been formed—one, the larger, occupying

the space below the annular fold, the other the small space of

the mother cell above that fold. Both these young cells were

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 285

filled with secretion-vesicles; and occasionally I succeeded, by

adding a thin endosmotic medium, in separating the two, not

only from the wall of the mother cell, but also from one another ;

they contained all the chlorophyll present ; and by the plan pur-

sued the two endogenous membranes of the mother cell also be-

came somewhat detached from each other.

Tn other joint-cells of the same individual, two young cells,

alike in dimensions and position to those above described, were

also present; but these could not be separated, by a similar

proceeding, from one another, nor could the two endogenous

membranes of the parent joint-cell be detached, or the existence

of two superimposed cells be any longer distinguished with

certainty. By the endosmotic current, however, a delicate

daughter cell was detached from the thickened membrane of

the new joint-cells, which was then recognized as the true

immediate envelope of the endogenous secretory material.

These joint-cells therefore constituted a somewhat more ad-

vanced phase of development, as indicated also by the incipient

thickening of their primary membrane.

As, in the cells just described, secretory matters occur not

within the now rather thickened primary cells, but, as usual,

only within the secondary cells, it might seem doubtful whether

the outer membrane which was in course of thickening does

actually represent an independently existing cell, or whether it

might not probably be only an external thickened layer, trans-

formed into cellulose, of the original cell-membrane, of which

the remaining portion constitutes the inner, delicate, and pro-

bably still nitrogenous membrane.

In opposition to this view, which is by no means destitute of

probability, and would give countenance to Mohl’s theory that

the inner secondary cell is of the nature of a primordial ve-

sicle, several conclusive facts may be adduced. In the first

place, it may be assumed, from the conditions of development

above described (p. 282) and represented in Pl. VII. fig. 63, after

treatment with glycerine, that here also the primary cell origin-

ally, or before the commencement of the thickening of its walls,

contained secretory materials, then perhaps only in a fluid state,

although these, at the time of observation, occurred within

the secondary cell. A still more valid argument, though cer-

tainly resting only on analogy, is furnished by another develop-

mental phase observed by me, wherein the primary cell-wall,

instead of growing inwards so as to form the well-known annular

fold, in the normal manner, produced (as seen in fig. 49) a fold

extending downwards between the cell-walls of the mother and

daughter cells.

This interesting condition was met with in several joint-cells

286: Prof. H. Karsten gn the Formation,

of filaments the other cells of which exhibited the normal annular

folds; and I only noticed it with clearness after the action of

solution of iodine and chloride of zinc upon the plant had tinted

the deeply penetrating fold of the cell of a dark blue colour,

By this means it was seen to extend very gradually and to out-

stretch itself, until it had fully emerged from the membranous

sheath and became no longer distinguishable from a cell which

had suddenly extended itself in the usual manner. The secondary

cell was contracted around its contents, as is exhibited in Pl. VII.

fig. 49; but sometimes also the chlorophyll and amylaceous

contents expanded themselves and filled the whole of the lower

space of the cell as far as the margin of the enveloping sheath,

This phenomenon I once observed taking place in several in-

dividuals of Gidogonium grande with great uniformity, and, as the

evolution took place very slowly, with great certainty ; but since

then I have looked for similar examples in vain, and can there-

fore, much to my regret, contribute nothing further respecting

the conditions under which this interesting act of fold-construe-

tion takes place. )

Nevertheless it furnishes a fresh proof against the view spoken

of—namely, that the cellulose membrane is the external thicken-

ing layer (or, as Mohl’s school would represent it, excretory

layer) of the secondary cell,—and can only be explained by the

developmental faculty of the independently assimilating cell-wall.

Moreover the opinion that the normal annular fold is simpl

an excretion from the primordial sac is completely hypotheteal

There is nothing to show that the secondary cell possesses in

the portion contiguous to the ring any other or stronger powers

‘of vegetation than in any other portions.

Besides the well-known and frequently described development

of spores and gonidia, I also observed other organs, the func-

tions of which are still unknown to me, but which, on account of

their aberrant and strange developmental phenomena, certainly

merit more general attention ; for which reason I do not think

I shall be accused of precipitancy for publishing here the little

that I have observed respecting them.

_ Bary indeed appears to have met with something similar;

for he has described and figured (Senckenberg Transactions,

yol. i.) certain “globules of decomposition” (Zersetzungskugeln),

which were produced from the joint-cells of dying specimens of

Cidogonium capillare, Ci. acrosporum, and C&. echinospermum.

Bary saw the aggregated mass of contents form into a globule,

and escape from longitudinal rents in a cell, commencing in the

still unthickened and soft membrane of the recently extended

annular fold. He more rarely noticed them escaping through

the old and firm cell-membrane.

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 28%

_ I have represented in Plate VII. the structures observed

by myself, and which correspond in character with these globules

of Bary. The phenomenon occurred in Cidogonium grande ;

the entire contents coalesced into a ball-like mass, which was

protruded through a circular aperture in the thick-walled joint-

cell, and formed on the outside a spore-like globule (Pl. VII,

fig. 50), Alongside the opening there was a small disk, the size

of the aperture, mostly adherent to one side of it, and which,

without doubt, had originally closed it before being thrust out

by the emerging cell-contents (fig. 50d). The extruded, glo.

bular, spore-like corpuscle consisted of several nested cells, the

two outer membranes of which frequently contained a single

layer of small starch-vesicles, whilst the third was filled with

chlorophyll and starch, and the fourth was occupied by reddish-

brown vesicles.

The globular corpuscle was enveloped within a delicate transpa-

rent cell as in a sac, which was fixed by its lower and somewhat

elongated extremity to the inner wall of the joint-cell near the

circular aperture. Solution of iodine and chloride of zine gave

a beautiful violet-blue tint both to the saccular envelope and to

the membrane of the globule. Bary did not remark this cellu-

lose reaction of the enveloping sac; and in fact it is difficult to

roduce the coloration in the older globules which have been

aos extruded from the mother cell. Yet, even under these

circumstances, the true membranes of the globule are readily

coloured blue. Ata later phase of their development the starch-

“corpuscles vanish, and their walls become thickened and reticu-

late, or slightly porous (fig. 52).

The globule enclosed within the sac exhibits a mucilaginous

peduncular body at its base, which is adherent, together with the

lower end of the envelope, to the inside of the joint-cell. It

appeared to me to be an inner enyelope, which, however, is not so

extended at this lower extremity as the outer one. The stem-

like prolongation is also coloured blue by the same reagents.

Bary considers the saccular envelope to be a young membrane

formed, probably at the time of extrusion, around the primordial

sac, and continuous with the innermost layer of the emptied

joint-cell. Consequently the outer membrane of the globule, or

the delicate covering which in all probability serves as a lining to

the sac and is prolonged into its pedicle, would be the secondary

cell of the joint-cell.

. For my own part, I have not witnessed the first act of coales-

eence of the cell-contents, but only the formation of. such

globules after they have begun to extrude from the circular

aperture, and therefore have no knowledge of the origin of the

different component membranes. ; sai

288 Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

Many of the globules enclosed within the sac, although con-

taining no starch, had somewhat stronger walls, not reticulate,

but uniformly thickened. The chlorophyll- and starch-corpuscles

enclosed within the third cell of the interior were present in

smaller quantity ; but, on the other hand, the mass of reddish-

brown vesicles and granular mucilage in the fourth of those cells

had increased, apparently at the cost of the secretory matters,

especially of the chlorophyll, of the next adjoining external cell; .

this substance was in other instances entirely absorbed, and only

the starch, in reduced quantity, left.

The red mass which occurs in the centre of the globule is

usually at first not distinguishable through the chlorophyll, and

probably is often altogether wanting, being only an accidental

constituent, as in fact the future development tends to prove.

Bary also describes the globules observed by him as brown, and

as at length becoming of a dingy carmine-red colour.

I am unable to offer any interpretation of the purpose of this

structure in plants. On account of the peculiar act of extrusion

from the mother cell by means of the little lid which is always

present, I am disposed to look upon the process as an indepen-

dent and normal act of development, which, however, I have not

been able to trace. On the other hand, I have noticed a ver

remarkable abnormal phenomenon in certain globules, the fourt

internal cell of which was filled with red matter, which had more

or less completely supplanted its vegetable secretory material.

I have frequently seen such globules, whilst still enclosed within

the sac and fixed to the joint-cell of the Gidogonium, become

slightly distended outwards at .a-particular point on one side,

and an opening form at a corresponding point in the thickened

outer envelope of the globule, as well as in the closely adherent

membrane of the sac, to give a passage to the enclosed red mass.

The body which escaped through this aperture was smooth and

amcebiform, and forthwith assumed a spherical figure, enveloped

by a colourless somewhat granular coat, from which long ciliary

processes proceeded ; these were not stiff, but moveable and

capable of shortening or lengthening themselves. The globular

body, apparently making use of these moveable ciliary processes

as organs of adhesion, rolled slowly about in various directions.

Fig. 53 shows a body of this kind, magnified 700 diameters.

In general, two or three such bodies emerged in succes-

sion from the opening in the globule, and I have often observed

them moving, in the manner above described, for hours after-

wards. The sac, with the thick adherent membrane of the

globule, either remained altogether empty, or some starch and

the second inner cell-membrane continued visible. The small

orifice through which the little amceba-like beings had escaped

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 289

was only indistinctly perceptible. On three occasions I saw two of

these globular ciliated bodies come into contact (fig. 54), adhere

to each other, coalesce at the point of contact, and form a single

motionless body. At the same time the whole of the cilia on

the free surface very rapidly shortened, leaving the periphery

completely smooth, whilst the granular colourless membrane

became transparent, and constituted a structureless and rather

thick envelope around the two coalesced bodies, which had now

become completely united into a single, rather irregular, oblong

body. :

After a time this structure became flattened on the under

surface; the red granular contents (of whose origin from two

distinct masses no trace could any longer be discerned) now again

underwent division into two portions, which were coated exter-

nally with red vesicles resembling oil-drops. Subsequently,

within each of these segments, two globules separated, and in

the place of these, again, numerous smaller ones made their ap-

pearance, a complete process of segmentation taking place, such

as occurs in ova after impregnation. In consequence of this

continued development of endogenous cell-generations, the ob-

ject of which is doubtless the production of higher organic

compounds, the thick-walled envelope, which is constantly un-

dergoing certain changes of form, becomes now filled with a great

number of small vesicles, which shimmer through the external

red layer, consisting apparently of oil-drops, which lie immediately

contiguous to the colourless membrane (PI. VII. fig. 55). In

the course of two days there is a distinct constriction of one

half of the contents into several portions, as in the formation of

an annulose animal (fig. 56). -

The further development of the larva beyond this stage has

mostly failed:in my hands: in only one instance did it proceed

to the third day ; and even in this the animal escaped from the

sac before its full form was visible (probably owing to the pres-

sure of the glass cover, in consequence of the evaporation of the

water around the object), in the shape and manner represented

in fig. 57.

Unfortunately this phase of development is still so mcomplete

that it is not “possible to determine accurately what animal it

was. I am disposed to regard it as one of the Rotifera, of the

genus Rattalus, specimens of which were abundant around.

Nevertheless the above marvellous metamorphosis, followed out

as it was for some time by myself, claims the attention of zoo-

logists. I have to add to the foregoing fact, that a reddish-

yellow-coloured Ameba is to be found living within the joint-

cells of @dogonium whilst still filled with chlorophyll, although

more or less diseased, and that this being seems capable of

200i Mr, J. Hogg on the Byblus-Rush. —

proetrating from one cell to another. As to any connexion

between this Ameba and that which emerges from an apparent

spore-capsule, and as to the nature and object of the ulterior

conjugation and metamorphosis of the globules, I will not now

hazard an hypothesis. The well-known large eggs of the Roti-

fera and Crustacea cannot be enclosed within these develop-

mental structures. Lastly, I have made no researches respecting

the construction of the lid-like covers of the apertures, which

would still be particularly deserving of notice even if the capsule

protruded from the joint-cell were found to be nothing more

than a diseased product induced by the operation of the parasitic

animal germ.

_ These researches were made in June and in the beginning of

July ; and I have been unable to verify them at a later period of

the year.

[To be continued. }

XXVIII.—WNotes on the Byblus-Rush and the Byblus-Bok.

By Joun Hoge, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S, &e.

In a paper “On Vessels made of the Papyrus,” which I eom-

municated to the ‘ Magazine of Natural History’ in 1829 (vol. 11.

p- 324, &c.), I gave a sketch (fig. 88) of an ancient vessel used

on the Nile in Egypt, taken from the famous Mosaic pavement

discoyered at Palestrina (Preneste), and which is constructed

with a high and long prow. A kind of boat, used on the large

Lake Nyanza, in Equatorial Africa, is shown in Capt, Speke’s

‘ Journal,’ p. 391, as having a prow somewhat similar in length,

and which he describes as “standing out like the neck of a

syphon or swan,”

This coincidence, then, is not unworthy of notice, as showing

that, in all probability, the Nyanza boat retains the early form

of that very ancient Nile vessel. Capt. Speke does not say of

what materials the boat is composed, and whether the Byblus-

rush, now abundant in that lake-district of Africa, is ever used.

in “filling up the jomts on the inside,” or for forming the

ordinary “sails,” as it was in the time of Herodotus (Euterpe,

cap. 96). .

The Bybhuscrush (BuBros of Herodotus, or the Papyrus anti-

uorum of Sprengel) was once so common on the banks of the

ile that Ovid assigned the epithet Papyrifer to that holy river..

Nor was the plant itself esteemed Jess holy, inasmuch as_it was

used by the Egyptian priests for the ornamentation of their

statues and temples, and for a frequent model of columns, and

as a representative in the ancient hieroglyphics, But of late

Mr. J, Hogg on the Byblus-Rush and the Byblus-Bok, 291.

rs travellers have not found any of it in the Lower Nile and

its adjacent waters; and thus have been confirmed these words

of Isaiah (xix. 7), which allude to the Nile: “ the paper-reeds

(translated mazrupos in the Septuagint) by the brooks......shall

wither, be driven away, and be no more.” So it was with great

pleasure that I recently read in Capt. Speke’s ‘Journal’ of its

vast abundance in the Upper or White Nile (the Bahr el Abiad),

and in the many lakes near the equator. It seems also com-

mon in the Island of Zanzibar on the east coast, and along some

of the rivers on the west side of Africa.

_ Capt. Speke (at p. 223) has well represented this noble and

graceful rush, with its large panicle or head, in his plate of the

“ Little Windermere Lake,” where its forest-like presence along

the shores bears testimony to the accuracy of Cassiodorus’s de-

scription of it (although hitherto considered by many scholars

as an imaginary account) in this passage:—*surgit Nilotica

sylva sine ramis, nemus sine frondibus, aquarum seges, paludum

pulchra czesaries”’ (lib. xi. cap. 38).

Signor Domenico Cyrillo published at Parma, in 1796, a

splendid monograph of this Papyrus plant, with some large

illustrations. When in Sicily, in May 1826, I saw it growing

in luxuriance (but, I concluded, only naturalized) in the fountain

of Cyane (La Pisma), which flows into the river Anapus to the

south-west.of Syracuse; and I understand it still flourishes in

the same clear water. I made inquiry for it in Calabria, where,

according to Linnzeus and Persoon, it was. mentioned as grow-

ing; but I could not ascertain the truth of its existence in that

province. Some old authorities also related that it was indige-

nous in Syria; and I find that this has lately been confirmed by

Dr. Hooker, who observed it a short time ago in the marshes

and along the margins of the Lake Samachonitis, now Bahr el

Huleh. .

For a fuller account of the Byblus, and of its many former

uses, I may refer the reader to my work on the “Classical

Plants of Sicily,” originally published in Sir William Hooker’s

‘ Botanical Journal,’ 1834.

In the same plate of Speke’s sketch, that excellent animal-

artist, Mr. Wolf, has given the figures of a fine Antelope, called

Nzoé, or “ Water-Bok.”” The male of this species bears a pair

of noble, long, twisted horns; and he is said to be “‘closely allied

to a Water-bok found by Dr. Livingstone on the Ngami Lake.”

It is an aquatic species ; and, from living in the moist element,

the hair of its coat is “long, and of such excellent quality that

the natives prize it for wearing almost more than any other of

the Antelope tribe.” Its chief food being the long filaments of

292 Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides and other Crystals.

the panicles of the Byblus-rush, in order to record this interesting

fact in connexion with so important an African plant as the

Papyrus or Byblus, I should prefer to call this new Antelope

Tragelaphus byblophagus instead of “ 7. Spekii,’ the name sug-

gested by Dr. P. L. Sclater. Another character of this animal

is very worthy of note—namely, the extreme length of the toes

or fore parts of the hoofs, so that “it could hardly walk on the

dry ground,” but of course most useful for traversing the mud

and marshy shores of the lakes. This provision of nature re-

minds me of the long toes of the Water-rail, Gallinule, and other

kinds of the family Macrodactyli of Cuvier, which he character-

izes as having “‘les doigts des pieds fort longs et propres & marcher

sur les herbes des marais ;” and in like manner, it adapts that:

Antelope to walking over, and being supported upon, the long

stems of the Byblus-rush and other fluviatile “ plants so densely

interwoven in the waters ”—or, in the exact words of the philo-

sopher Seneca (Nat. Queest. lib. vi. cap. 8), ‘ita implicite aquis

herbe ”—not only of the Upper Nile itself, but also of the

reservoir-lakes which feed that mighty and sacred river.

Feb. 19, 1864.

XXIX.— Observations on Raphides and other Crystals.

By Grorce Guuiiver, F.R.S,

[Continued from p. 215.]

Smilacee.—tThe following officinal drugs were obtained from

the authentic dispensary of the Society of Apothecaries, through

the courtesy of its worthy treasurer, Mr. Ward :—Red Jamaica

Sarza, Honduras Sarza, Guatemala Sarza, and solid extract of

Sarza, All the three roots abounded in raphides, generally seen

within oblong cells, which, in the Guatemala specimen, often

appeared as beautiful chains along the liber. This sample was

remarkable for the scantiness of its starch, scarcely a trace of

which could be detected ; while the Red Jamaica and Honduras

abounded in starch-granules and their cells. In the extract no

raphides could be found; but it contained numerous quadratic

octahedrons, about z,!;,th of an inch in diameter, and exactly

resembling those microscopic crystals which have been usually

regarded as composed of oxalate of lime. These crystals are

most easily found by diluting the extract with water, and then

letting them subside to the bottom for collection. The examina-

tion of the officinal American sort will be found noted under

Araliaceze.

Dioscoreacee.—In all the few species yet examined we have

Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides and other Crystals. 293

seen the abundance of raphides. And they are plentiful in the

root, stem, leaves, and decayed flowers of Testudinaria elephan-

tipes.

” Trilliace—Fresh and dried plants of Paris quadrifolia: bun-

dles of raphides plentiful in leaves, sepals and petals, anthers

and filaments, testa and berry-coat. Unexpanded flower of

Trillium grandiflorum: raphides scanty in ovule, but bundles of

them very numerous in ovary, styles, stamens, corolla, calyx, and

flower-stalk.

Zingiberacee.—Fresh leaves of Amomum (A. cinnamomum ?)

and of Hedychium Gardnerianum ; and dried Cardamoms of the

shops: no raphides; only a few minute lozenge crystals, like

those of Aurantiacez, in the leaves and dried capsules.

Marantaceea.—Leaves of Canna Indica and C. tridiflora: afew

of the lozenge crystals, but no raphides.

Iridacee.—To the plants before mentioned (‘ Annals,’ Sept.

1863) may be added Gladiolus insignis and Iris pumila as afford-

ing excellent examples of the crystal prisms. Most of these

crystals have four, and a few three, angles; their average length

is ;4th and their thickness =1,th of an inch; they abound in

the leaves of both species, and were seen in the roots of Jris

pumila.

Amaryllidaceea.—Clivia nobilis: raphides abundant and very

small near the base of the leaf, but very scarce in it elsewhere.

Narcissus poeticus, N. biflorus, and the garden Jonquil or Cam-

pernelle: leaves, bulbs, and roots abounding in raphides.

Liliaceea.—Leaves of Dracena terminalis, Muscari, sp., Tritoma

Uvaria,and T.media ; numerous raphides and larger crystal prisms,

Leaves of Lachenalia tricolor, L. pendula, and Asphodelus luteus :

raphides plentiful. Of the species of Allium, though I have ex-

amined several once and others repeatedly (viz. A. Ascalonicum,

A. Cepa, A. Porrum, A. sativum, A. Schenoprasum, A. angulosum,

A. magicum, A. Moly, and A. ursinum), true raphides were not

found in any one of these plants; but a section of the genus, as

observed in the above first four species, is characterized by an

abundance of crystals in the bulb-secales—right-angled four-sided

prisms, the ends either obtusely truncated or with very low four-

sided pyramids; mostly occurring singly, sometimes two, three,

or four stuck together, occasionally forming crosses; always

(unlike true raphides) difficult to detach from each other and

from the tissue in which they are imbedded ; commonly about

<toth of an inch long and ;3,th thick ; well seen in the peel

of the officinal Shallot, in which they are very plentiful, and

slightly larger than in the Onion, Garlic, and Leek.

Melanthacea.—In this order, also, some species are as con-

294 Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides and other Crystals.

stantly abundant raphis-bearers as others are not so. Veratrum

nigrum and V..album (roots and young leaf-buds): numerous

bundles of raphides in delicate hyaline cells; in the leaves also

a spheraphid tissue, each of the spheraphides about 41;th and

its cell =};th of an inch in diameter. Helonias bullata (leaf):

raphides very scanty. Colchicum autumnale and Bulbocodium

vernum ; leaves and bulbs destitute of raphides; but numerous

faint and minute raphis-like objects, about +;;th of an inch

long and z;4,cth thick, in roots; no crystals in. bulb-scales,

Tofieldia palustris and T. pubescens: no raphides in leaves or

roots, 4

_ Commelinacee.—Raphides abundant in the leaves of Trades«

cantia Virginica. j

' Butomacee.—Roots and subterranean buds of Butomus um-

bellatus: no raphides; tubers made up chiefly of starch, and

their pulp ropy and immiscible with water.

Araliacee.—Subterranean stems known as wild or Americat

Sarza (Aralia nudicaulis), obtained from Messrs. Butler and

M‘Culloch: was plentifully studded in the liber and pith with

spheraphides, averaging ;},th of an inch in diameter; but

neither starch nor raphides were seen. Hedera Helix: no ras

phides. . ;

’ Aurantiacee.—I have seen: no raphides in this order; but it

abourids in crystals about +;,th of an inch long and = -th

broad, as may be well seen in the leaves and petioles of Crtrus

vulgaris, C. decumana, C. Aurantium, and C. myrtifolia; the

crystals sometimes nearly square, but commonly lozenge-shaped,

single or double octahedrons, and more rarely twin-formed, like

the crystals which have been described in many other plants as

sulphate of lime.

To Mr. Ward, Mr. De Carle Sowerby, Mr. Gox, and Mr. W,

H. Baxter I am indebted for generous aid in the prosecution of

the observations in this paper. The results will be examined

when a survey is made of the whole series. Meanwhile it may

be noted that this portion shows different species of one order

(as Allium and Muscari) growing close together in the very same

soil of my garden, and yet the former plant as constantly devoid

of raphides as the latter is pregnant with them—the first three

orders of Monocotyledones abounding in raphides, which sud-

denly disappear in the fourth order (Hydrocharidaceze) to res

appear in the next succeeding one; and the equally curious

difference in sections of Melanthacee— Veratrum with its swarms

of raphides, and their deficiency in Colchicum, Bulbocodium, and

Tofieldia. Surely such facts are sufficient to show what a vast

and interesting field of plant-life lies barren to us from want of

Dr. P. M: Duncan on some Fossil Corals from. Sinde. 295

cultivation; the improvement of which, with the aid of the

chemist, might be expected to afford important results for botany

and physiology. |

Edenbridge, March 8, 1864.

[To be continued. ]

XXX.—.A Description of, and Remarks upon, some Fossil

Corals from Sinde. By P. Martin Duncan, M.B, Lond.,

F.G.8. &c. ,

: [Plates XVIII. & XIX.]

Ir must be evident to all who have studied the distribution of

the Corals of the Secondary and Tertiary formations, that the

Eocene Coral-Fauna is very poor in genera, and that it is‘much

less important than those of the lowerCretaceous and the Miocene

strata. The comparative scarcity of Eocene Corals rendéred

M. J. Haime’s description of seventeen species from the Num-

mulitic formation of Sinde of great interest, especially as several

of them were well known in the French and Savoyard Nummu-

litic strata, and also because a new genus was added to the

fauna*. Since the decease of this gifted naturalist, a part of

the Blagrove Collection belonging to the Geological Society of

London has remained undescribed}; and a very fine series of

Corals from Kurrachee, in. the. British. Museum,.also. I was

tempted to search for new, forms, and found.many. more than I

had anticipated ; but all of them are not of Eocene age. MM. -

d’Archiac and J. Haime appear to ignore the Miocene in the

great chain of hills which extends from the “ Salt range” almost

due south to Kurrachee; but the memoir written by Grant f,

and illustrated by Sowerby, strongly advocates the existence of

more than one Tertiary formation of marine origin. The dis-

covery of three fossils from Kurrachee identical in species with

comimon forms of the Nivajé shale of San Domingo leaves no

doubt in my mind that several of the species about to be noticed

ought to be separated from the Hocene Coral-fauna.

The following list embraces all the species as yet found in

Sinde ; and I have appended the other localities where they have

been observed. The species which came under M. J. Haime’s

observation are also noticed.

* Descrip. des Anim. Foss. du Groupe Nummul. de ’Inde, par MM.

d’Archiac et Jules Haime, 1853,

+ See my note on the Sindian Fossil Corals, ‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe.’

vol. Xx. 1864, p. 66. 4

-t Trans. Geol, Soc. ser. 2. vol. v. 1837.

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Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xiii.

298 .Dr. P.M. Duncan on some Fossil Corals ce Sinde.

1. Trochocyathus sinuosus, Edwards & Haime.

_A young specimen of this gigantic species is amongst the

Sinde Collection in the British Museum. Locality, Kurrachee.

European localities, La Palarea, Vicentin, Corbiéres (Kocene).

2. Oculina Halensis, n. sp. Pl. XVIII. fig. 1.

Corallum branching, the terminal branches being straight,

tapering, and cylindrical. The calices are very prominent, and

project obliquely ; they are arranged in four-parallel series, two

being on opposite sides of the corallum. ‘The calices of the

opposite series are on the same level, and those of the inter-

mediate pair are midway ; consequently there is more or less of

a spiral distribution. The calicular edges are rather sharp, and

the coste are continued down the projection, but not on to the

ccenenchyma, which is faintly granular. The septa are small,

and form six systems; there are three cycles generally. The

laminee are barely exsert, and the primary septa are stout. The

pali are very small, being appended to the first and second orders

of septa. The columella is small. Occasionally there is a fissi-

parous growth. Diameter of branches ;!;—% inch. Projection

of calices =!;—+!; inch; breadth of calices =1,—+}, ineh.

Locality, Sinde Tertiaries. Coll. Geol. Soc.

This species, from its granular coenenchyma and short costal

strie, is more closely allied to the Eocene Oculina conferta than

to any others of the genus; but the shape of the corallum and the

lateral and very prominent calices are sufficient. to distinguish

the new species from any other; but they bring it into alliance

with forms later than the Eocene. .

3. Phyllocenia conferta, n.sp. Pl. XVIII. fig. 2.

The corallum is flat, slightly convex above and gibbous below.

The corallites are short, distinct, crowded, occasionally deformed,

and generally variable in size. The calices are circular or ellip-

tical, and irregular in shape; they are barely exsert, are very

shallow, differ in size, but have well-developed cost, feebly de-

veloped septa, and rudimentary columelle. There is a small

amount of coenenchyma between some corallites. The costz are

close and crowded, a little inclinéd, not dentate, but simply

ridged ; and according to the paucity of septa in the corallites, so

are the cost unequal in size. In fully developed corallites the

coste are subequal; but in the majority the alternate coste are

the longest, although the intermediate, which correspond to

small septa, are often the thickest. The septa are more delicate

than the costz, are hardly exsert, but dip at once downwards

and inwards; they are generally alternately large and small,

Dr. P. M. Duncan on some Fossil Corals from Sinde, 299

the latter being often rudimentary. There are six systems and

three cycles, but many of the oval and irregular calices have

some orders of the fourth cycle in some systems. There is

either no columella or simply the rudiments of one. Diameter

of the calices <2,—-2; inch, of oval calices } inch.

’ From the Sinde Tertiaries, Kurrachee. Coll. Brit. Mus.

This species belongs to the Phyllocenie with crowded coste,

and is therefore cldsely allied to P. compressa and P. sculpta,

Its crowded ecalices distinguish it from the last species, and the

slightly exsert calices distinguish it from the first. The crowded

coste, close and slightly exsert calices, and the flat form together

distinguish this species from any of those already known,

4, Phylloceenia Lucasana, Edwards & Haime.

_ A specimen of this Coral is in the Coll. Geol. Soe. Locality,

Sinde Tertiaries.

_ The species is found in Europe at Castel Gomberto (Eocene),

5. Astroceenia Caillaudi, var., Edwards & Haime.

A magnificent specimen of this species is in the British

Museum. It simply differs from the type in its large calices

and general luxuriance of growth.

Locality, Sinde Tertiaries. Europe, at La Palarea and

Coustonge.

6. Dasyphyllia gemmans, n. sp. Pl. XVIII. fig. 3.

_ The corallites are long, slender, close, slightly compressed

and more or less flattened here and there. The “ frills” can be

traced inferiorly. The calices are compressed, rather deep, and

present a central and well-developed columella, The septa are

long, delicate, and numerous; there are four cycles, and the

third order of septa joins the second close to the columella. The

eoste, although much worn in the specimen, are subequal ; and

many are rudely spined, especially near the calices and exter.

nally. There are numerous lateral buds, and the corallites ap-

pear to be joined by extraneous matter and by offshoots of the

rudimentary epitheca. Height of corallites 8 inches. Length

of calice -8; inch ; breadth of the calice +5, inch.

Locality, Sinde Tertiaries, Coll. Geol. Soc. and Brit. Mus,

There are three species of this genus described by Edwards

and Haime—the recent D. echinulata of Singapore, the D. Mi.

chelotii of the Bormida Miocene, and the D. Taurinensis (Lobo.

phyllia contorta, Michelin) of the Turin Miocene,

The new species is closely allied to D, echinulata, differing

from it, however, in the height and flattened form of the coral-

lum, the slightly projecting and barely spinous coste, together

20*

300. Dr. P.M. Duncan on some Fossil Corals from Sinde.

with the numerous buds. It is distinct from the Miocene’

species.

. 7. Dasyphyllia , Sp.?

Several specimens of a species of this genus, with collared

eminences, are in the British Museum as well as in the Geol.

Soe. Coll.

8, Montlivaltia brevis, n. sp. Pl. XVIII. fig. 4.

The corallum is short, and has a large base, which equals the

calice in diameter. The calice is very nearly circular and very

shallow. The septa are crowded, thin, and long; and there are

five cycles of them, with occasional orders of a sixth; the higher

orders are small, and extend but a little way from the wall, while

the larger septa meet nearly in the centre of the calicinal space.

The septa are evidently not very exsert. The costz are distinct,

parallel, and generally equal: close to the calice they appear. to

have been dentate; but elsewhere, the presence, and the evi-

dences of the former existence, of an epitheca render them more

or less mdistinct. There are traces of an exotheca. Height of

corallum ;*,—+%, inch. Breadth of calice 2 inches.

From the Sinde Tertiaries. Coll. Geol. Soe.

This species is very closely allied to M. sessilis (Anthophyllum,

Goldfuss), and less so to M. detrita. .

9. Antillia plana, n.sp. Pl. XVIII. fig. 5.

The corallum is very short, and has a flat base, which equals

the calice in diameter. The calice approaches somewhat the

figure of 8, is stout at the margin, rather shallow, and presents

a prominent circular parietal columella. The septa are crowded

at the margin, but less so close to the columella ; the primary are

the largest, being not much larger, however, than the secondary ;

the tertiary are delicate, and reach, with those already noticed, to

the columella. The higher orders of septa are small, and in

some systems the highest are rudimentary. There are five cycles

of septa, in six systems. The costz are of two kinds—one sub-

equal and large, the other very small and only reaching a little

distance from the calicular margin. The columella is lax, large,

and occupies some space, being also nearly circular. The greatest

depth of the calice is a little external to the columella. The

epitheca is noticed here and there, but generally the distinct

and rather prominent plain cost are uncovered by it. Height

of coral 58, to =4; inch. Width of the calice +2 inch; length of

the calice +5 inch.

From the Sinde Tertiaries. Coll. Geol. Soc.

The shape and large fixed base distinguish this species. It is

allied to A. ponderosa.

Dr. P. M. Duncan on some Fossil Corals from Sinde. 301

10. Antillia dentata, var., nobis.

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xx. p. 29.

The coral has a broad base; the epitheca is well developed,

and the columella also.

From the Sinde Tertiaries, Kurrachee; also from Jamaica

(Miocene). Coll. Brit. Mus.

11. Antillia ponderosa, nobis.

Montlivaltia ponderosa, Edwards & Haime.

A small and worn specimen is in the British Museum.

Sinde. Jamaica, Guadaloupe, and San Domingo (Miocene).

12. Cladocora Haimei,n.sp. PI. XVIII. fig. 6.

Corallites long and very slightly flexuous: the buds are few,

and leave the parent singly at an acute angle, but often become

attached to it again. Calice circular. Septa small and delicate,

the larger being much smaller than their cost. Three cycles are

generally complete, and the septa of the third order are smaller

than the others. In one specimen the septa are crooked, most

probably from post-mortem pressure from without. Columella

small, and the pali also. Coste alternately large and very small,

there being twelve large and usually twelve small; the larger

are much produced. Width of calice and of large corallites

+25 inch.

The species is more closely allied to Cladocora mantpulata

and C. Michelottii, Edw. & Haime (both Miocene forms), than

to any others.

18. Hydnophora rudis, n. sp. Pl. XIX. fig. 1.

Corallum thick, its upper surface more convex in the middle

than at the sides, and covered by numerous monticules of many

shapes and sizes, whose base is usually flat, and whose upper

extremity is generally sharp, cristiform, and irregular in its

direction. The larger monticules are compressed, inclined, and

Sharp, whilst the smaller are conical. The septa are numerous,

very slightly projecting, equal, and usually enlarged at their in-

ferior extremity. The coste are seen on the under flat surface

of the corallum as faint parallel lines, and are alternately large

and small. Width of the valleys from }—3 inch; height —

3% inch; ten septa in} inch. Thickness of corallum ?—]1? inch.

The species is closely allied to the next, to H. plana, and to

the recent H. Demidoffi, Fischer.

Kurrachee. Coll. Brit. Mus.

14. Hydnophora Dane, n.sp. Pl. XIX. fig. 2.

The corallum is tall, very thick, and its upper surface is small

$02 Dr. P.M. Duncan on some Fossil Corals from Sinde,

and flat. The monticules are very small, and are much less

than the corallites ; they resemble small insects, are compressed

laterally, very slightly elevated, and are wide apart. The septa

are numerous, and the longest arise from the middle of the;

monticule; they are alternately very short and long, and are

often enlarged at the free extremity, but otherwise are straight,

and thin. Height of corallum 3} inches. Length of monticules

+'y inch, breadth 1, inch ; width of series -2,--2; inch.

Locality, Sinde Tertiaries. Coll: Geol. Soe.

The minute monticules, their compressed form, and septal

arrangement distinguish this species.

15. Hydnophora plana, n. sp. Pl. XIX. fig. 3.

Corallum foliaceous ; its upper surface level, and marked by

numerous conical monticules rather inclined and often in parallel

series, whilst the lower is indistinctly marked by faint coste.

The monticules are irregular in size, rarely thin above, often

compressed in the direction of the series, and varying in height.

The septa are distinct, and a large one is usually succeeded by

a smaller. Width of the valleys } inch, depth + inch; ten

large and ten small septa in } inch.

Locality, Sinde Tertiaries. Coll. Geol. Soe. )

This species is allied to two recent species, but has only a

generic affinity with the Eocene Hydnophora Bronni and with

the next form described. The alliance with H. Demidoffi and

H. exesa is close: they are both from the Indian Ocean.

16. Hydnophora hemispherica, n. sp. Pl. XIX. fig. 4.

Corallum irregularly hemispherical, concave below, and very

convex above. Monticules very irregular in size and shape: the

majority very small, and conical ; the rest either larger and conical,

or large and very long in the direction of the series, and all ap-

pearing to have been sharp at the summit, and rarely compressed.

The septa are numerous, delicate, alternately large and small,

and crowded. Width of valleys .3,-4%; inch. Height of monti-

cules 4 inch. Height of corallum, 1,8, inch.

Locality, Sinde Tertiaries. Coll. Geol. Soc. -

This species belongs to the same section as the Eocene H.

Bronni, but is readily distinguished from it: however, this is

the closest alliance it has.

17. Solenastrea, sp.

A rolled specimen of a new species of this genus in the British

Museum is too much worn for a correct diagnosis to be made. It

is easily distinguishable from S, Verhelsti. Locality, Sinde

Tertiaries, i

Dr. P. M. Duncan on some Fossil Corals from Sinde. 803°

* 18. Trochoseris aperta, n. sp. Pl. XIX. fig. 5.

The corallum is simple, conical, and short; it is circular and

nearly flat above, except at the fossa, but slightly pedunculated

inferiorly. The upper surface consists of a central, irregularly

circular, and deep fossula, surrounded by a subplane and wide

rim, which is marked by numerous and slightly exsert septal

prolongations. The external edge of the rim is sharp and is in

contact with the epitheca, which is marked slightly by the costal.

continuations of the septa of the rim. The fossula contains the

projecting primary septa, a small flat columella, and the numerous

small septa. The septa are in six systems; and in calculating

the cycles the horizontal septa of the rim must be considered,

although all of them do not reach the fossula. ‘The cycles are

irregular, and there are five, with several septa of the sixth.

The primary septa are the thickest, and project most into the

fossula ; but they and all the others are very slightly exsert, and.

the spaces between them are either closed (as on the rim) by a

horizontal floor which hides the numerous synapticule, or (as

in the fossula) by the synapticule. The primary septa, where

projecting, are granulated laterally. The secondary septa are

distinguishable within the fossula, but not on the rim. The

septa of the highest orders extend only a slight distance from the

external edge of the rim, and all are more or less dentate. The

costz are faint elevations covered with epitheca. The synapti-

culz are very numerous. Height of coral 1 inch. Width of

upper surface 1,%; inch., of the fossula 5%; inch ; depth of fossula

<5 inch.

From the Sinde Tertiaries, Kurrachee. Coll. Brit. Mus.

The form would resemble a large pedunculated calice of a

- Mycedium with a circular rim including the cost. I do not

_ consider, however, that it is the parent calice of a compound

species. It has only a slight affinity with Trochoseris distorta

of the French Eocene.

19. Cyathoseris Valmondoisiaca, var., Edwards & Haime.

The variety has a broader base and a greater disposition to

run into series as regards the calices than the type. The synap-

ticulee are numerous, and: the “collines” are well developed.

The species is found in the French Eocene at Auvert, Valmon-

dois, Assy, and Bouconvilliers. (See Michelin, Icon. Zooph.

p- 155 ; D’Orbigny, Prod. t. ii. p.426, 1850.) The variety, which

resembles a Manicina, is from the Blagrove Collection of the

Geological Society, and is found in the Hala Mountains.

20. Cyathoseris irregularis, n. sp. Pl. XIX. fig. 6.

The calices are separated by cristiform walls, and are large

304 Dr. P.M. Duncan on some Fossil Corals from Sinde.

and open in most cases. The outer part of the calice is more or

less separated from the inner, and the septa are wide apart, very

distinct, and more or less dentate. The costz on the plicated

external wall of the corallum are distinct, large and irregular in

size. The synapticule are wide apart and distinct. Peduncle

not wide. Height of coral 44 inch. Width of a calice +4 inch.

Locality, Sinde Tertiaries. Coll. Brit. Mus.

This species is readily distinguishable by its calices and large

irregular cost; and its calices resemble those of Trochoseris

aperta in many respects. When worn and deprived of its

“collines,” this species presents the appearance of a series of

cup-shaped depressions with wide interspaces. See specimen in

Coll. Geol. Soe. ; .

21. Cyathoseris magnifica, n.sp. Pl. XIX. fig. 7.

The corallum is large, convex, and irregularly rounded above,

and trochoid, with a small attachment below ; the wall is ranged

in rounded folds which do not much affect the calicular surface,

and itis very faintly costulated. The calicular surface is very

Astreean in its appearance ; the synapticule between the septa

determine the family, however. Calices unequal and irregular

in shape, simple, not in series, varying in depth, and all more

or less infundibuliform ; they are separated by a coenenchyma,

which is more or less marked by the coste, and they are im-

bedded and are not exsert. The septa are numerous above, but

are grouped in paliform masses in contact with the broad flat

columella. The wall is thick. Height of corallum 2-4, inches,

breadth 3,5; inches. Breadth of a calice =5,-;% inch.

Locality, Sinde Tertiaries, Kurrachee. Coll. Brit. Mus.

The convex upper surface, with its crowd of deep calices,

distinguishes this species, which is widely separated in its septal

arrangement from all the others.

22. Mycedium costatum,n.sp. Pl. XIX. fig. 8.

The corallum is in rather thick frondiform expansions, whose

under, surface is marked by long, parallel, straight, equal, and -

slightly prominent smooth costz, and whose upper surface pre-

sents calices more or less inclined, a little raised on one side,

often deep, separate generally, or occasionally!placed on mammil-

lated elevations.. The septa are thick at the calicular margin,

delicate within, and are continuous with long, parallel, distant,

subequal coste, which are regularly dentate. The columella is

very small, and there are two or three cycles of septa. The

blunt teeth of the costz are not restricted to the neighbourhood

of the calices.. Thickness of corallum =%,— +4; inch. Coste eight

in ;4; inch,

Dr. P. M. Duncan on some Fossil Corals from Sinde. 805

- From the Sinde Tertiaries. Coll. Geol. Soc. and Brit. Mus.

This is the first instance of a fossil Mycedium ; and the species

is more closely allied to the Mycedium Okeni (recent, habitat

unknown) than to any other. The parallel, nearly equal, and

dentate cost distinguish the fossil form.|

23. Pachyseris rugosa, Edwards & Haime.

Hist. Nat. des Corall. vol. iii. p. 85.

A fossil, tolerably well preserved, must be referred to this

species, which Michelotti is said to have found fossil on the

shore of Cuba, and which inhabits the South Seas.

Locality, Sinde Tertiaries. Coll. Geol. Soc.

24. Agaricia agaricites, Edwards & Haime.

_ The specimen in the British Museum cannot be distinguished

from one in the Coll. Geol. Soc., from the San Domingan Mio-

cene.

Locality, Sinde Tertiaries. West Indies, recent. San Do-

mingo, Miocene.

25. Porites incrustans, Edwards & Haime.

. Porites Collegniana, Michelin; Reuss.

A well-marked specimen of this species, which is found in the

European Miocene of Turin, Bordeaux, Dax, Carry, Vienna,

Hungary, and in the San Domingan shales, is amongst the

fossils from Kurrachee, Sinde. A worn specimen is in the Coll.

Geol. Soc.

26. Corallium pallidum, Michelotti.

The specimen of this species is of a pale rose-colour, and the

striz are very well developed. The species is hardly separable

from Corallium rubrum.

Locality, Sinde Tertiaries. In Europe, in the Turin Miocene.

Coll. Geol. Soe.

General Remarks.

The specimens in the Geological Society’s Museum and in the

national Collection are tolerably perfect, and present two forms

of mineralization, one of which is distinguished by its dark-red

colour, and the other by its paler tint. As a rule, the darker-

coloured corals are the oldest; but, as there are several excep-

tions to the rule, colour cannot be employed in distinguishing

the Eocene from the Miocene forms.

Amongst the species common to the Sindian and European

Eocene, and which were not noticed by M. J. Haime, Trocho-

306 Dr. P.M. Duncan on some Fossil Corals from Sinde.

cyathus sinuosus and Astrocenia Caillaudi are the most remark-

able: the first is subject to some variation in its form, like all

simple Corals, but the specimen from Sinde is, even in its mi-

neralization, undistinguishable from others found in the Mari-

time Alps of Europe; and the last is a gigantic specimen, with

very remarkable, thick inner terminations to its principal septa.

The specimen of Cyathoseris Valmondoisiaca is very like the

drawing of the French form by Michelin. ,

It must suffice to assert the strong probability of the new

species being of more than one Tertiary age, until careful col-

lectors transmit specimens with their localities marked on the

geological maps. The new Eocene species would appear to be :—

Phyllocenia conferta, Montlivaltia brevis, Hydnophora rudis, H.

. Dane, H. plana, H. hemispherica, Trochoseris aperta, Cyathoseris

irregularis, and C. magnifica. The Miocene species are probably

Dasyphyllia gemmans, Antillia dentata, A. plana, A. ponderosa,

Mycedium costatum, Agaricia agaricites, and Porites incrustans ;

and the Oculina Halensis, Cladocora Haimei, Pachyseris rugosa,

and Corallium pallidum are either of a late Miocene age or of a

still later geological epoch.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Puate XVIII.

Fig. 1. Oculina Halensis : a, terminal portion of a branch, natural size;

b, side of calice, magnified 6 diameters.

Fig. 2. Phyllocenia conferta: a, corallum, natural size; 8, calices, magni-

fied 6 diameters.

Fig. 3. Dasyphyllia gemmans: a, corallum, one-half the natural size;

b, part of corallum, natural size, showing the aborted branches

and the worn coste ; ¢, calice, natural size.

Fig. 4. Montlivaltia brevis: a, corallum, natural size; 6, side views of

portion of the corallum, showing the epitheca and coste, magni-

fied 2 diameters.

Fig. 5. Antillia plana: corallum, showing the columella, natural size.

Fig. 6. Cladocora Haimei: a, portions of a corallum, natural size ; 6, ca-

lice, magnified 6 diameters.

PLate XIX.

Fig. 1. Hydnophora rudis: a, part of calicular surface, natural size ;

6, monticules, magnified 2 diameters.

Fig. 2. Hydnophora Dane: side view of corallum, one-third the natural

size; a, monticule, magnified 4 diameters. -

Fig. 3. Hydnophora plana: a, part of calicular surface, natural size;

6, monticules, magnified 4 diameters.

Fig. 4. Hydnophora hemispherica: monticules magnified 4 diameters. .

Fig. 5. Trochoseris aperta: a, calicular surface ; 6, side view of corallum ;

both natural size.

Fig. 6. Cyathoseris irregularis : corallum, natural size,

Mr. A. Adams on some new Mollusca... 807°

Fig. 7. Cyathoseris magnifica: a, corallum, two-thirds the natural size ;

b, calice, magnified 2 diameters.

Fig. 8. Mycedium costatum: a, part of calicular surface, natural size 5.

, calice, magnified 3 diameters.

XXXI.—On some new Genera and Species of Mollusca from the:

Seas of China and Japan. By Antuur Apvams, F.LS. &c. |

Atreapy in the ‘ Annals’ I have made known some conchiferous

Mollusks which I believe to be peculiar types of form with

which we have hitherto not been acquainted. Such, I conceive,

is Sarepta among Nuculide, and Cyrilla, the affinities of which

seem to be with Limopsis. In this communication I have briefly

characterized two other forms which I am unable to refer to any

genera already established,—one of which appears to be allied to

Bucardia, and the other to Montacuta. The new species described

below are also of great interest on account of their beauty or

singularity of construction.

Genus Cattocarptia, A. Adams.

Testa cordata, tenuis, levis, inflata; umbonibus parvis, subspirali-

bus, approximatis. Cardo (in valva sinistra) dentibus duobus in-

eequalibus, cum foveola angusta arcuata interposita, munitus ; dente

antico valde prominente, in medio angulatim flexo cum fossula antica

et postica instructo, margine quadricuspidato ; dente postico obliquo,

arcuato, angusto, elongato, margine denticulis duobus vix elevatis

instructo ; dentibus lateralibus nullis. Pallii linea simplex ; impres-

siones musculares semilunares.

This genus is proposed for the reception of a beautiful shell,

of which, unfortunately, I possess but a single valve, which in

general appearance most nearly resembles a Bucardia. The

surface of the valve is simple, as in B, cor, but it is not covered

with an epidermis. The complicated nature of what I have

termed the anterior cardinal tooth, which is furnished with four

prominent cusps, and is angularly bent on itself in the middle,.

with a triangular pit on each side, together with the absence

of lateral teeth, will distinguish Callocardia from the Isocardia

of Lamarck. The genus Anisocardia of M. Munier-Chalmas,

founded on a fossil shell from the Kimmeridge Clay of Havre,

appears to bear some resemblance to my proposed genus; but

in that form the surface of the valves is radiately grooved, the

anterior muscular scar projects as in Cucullea, and the disposi--

tion of the hinge-teeth seems to be very different.

Callocardia guttata, A. Ad.

C. testa cordata, inflata, levi, nitida, alba, maculis irregularibus

_ aurantiacis conspersis pulcherrime guttata, superficie lineis incre-

308 Mr. A. Adams on new Genera and Species of

menti concentricis ad marginibus validioribus instructa, latere’

postico vix flexuoso; lunula linea impressa circumcincta.

Alt. 8 lin., lat. 9 lin.

Hab. Off Quelpaart, 48 fathoms.

The valve from which the above description is taken is fresh

and in fine condition. It is white, spotted irregularly with pale

orange, and the surface is smooth and shining.

Genus Iacra, H. & A. Adams.

Shell ovate, thin, pellucid, closed at both sides; valves with

the surface divaricately sculptured. Hinge with an oblique

spoon-shaped cartilage-pit and a small anterior primary tooth in

each valve. Lateral teeth two, stronger in right valve.

Tacra Japonica, A. Ad.

I. testa ovata, inzequilaterali, tenui, pellucida, nitida, convexa, latere

antico latiore rotundato, postico angustiore et subproducto ; valvis

utrinque concentrice ‘striatis, medio sulcis radiantibus obliquis or-

natis, margine ventrali arcuato, integro ; sinu palliali magno, lato,

profundo.

Hab. Kino-O-Sima.

- Smaller, more vitreous and pellucid, and with coarser seulp-

ture, than J. Seychellarum, A. Ad.

Genus Turcoponta, A. Adams.

Testa oblonga, sequivalvis, valde inzequilateralis, concentrice sulcata,

latere antico breviore, postico longiore. Cardo (in valva sinistra)

dentibus duobus divaricatis, cum dente theceeformi prominente inter-

posito, munitus; dente antico crasso, arcuato, antice tuberculiformi ;

dente postico lamelliformi, tenui; dente laterali antico nullo, postico

conspicuo elongato. Pallii linea simplex, valde impressa et radiatim

sulcata; cicatricula musculari antica triangulari profunda, postica

elongato-ovata.

In form and general character this genus seems to approach

the fossil genus Goodalliopsis lately proposed by MM. Raincourt

and Munier-Chalmas for a shell from the “ Calcaire grossier ”

of Fercourt. In that genus, however, there is simply a trian-

gular space between the cardinal teeth, and the teeth themselves

are nearly similar; while in Thecodonta there is a cup-like fold

projecting into the cavity of the shell, and the primary teeth

are very dissimilar, the anterior being of a semilunar form, with

a tubercular head at the theciform process, and the posterior

being lamelliform and nearly parallel with the hinge-margin.

There is only one lateral tooth, which is situated posteriorly. I

have drawn up my description from left valves only, so that

further information is required concerning the genus, especially

Mollusca from the Seas of China and Japan. 309°

with regard to the-position of the cartilage. I believe the place

of the genus to be in Laseide.

Thecodonta Sieboldi, A. Ad. :

T. testa oblonga, obliqua, valde inzequilaterali, convexiuscula, sub-

incrassata, alba, concentrice sulcata, sulcis subdistantibus ; umbo-

nibus parvis, latere antico breviore rotundato, postico longiore

-rotundato; margine ventrali simplici.

Alt. 14 lin., lat, 24 lin.

Hab. Gotto Islands; 71 fathoms.

Two left valves only were obtained, one of them in very good

condition. The pallial line is thickened and impressed with

radiating grooves, and the anterior muscular scar is very strongly

marked.

Bucardia (Meiocardia) Cumingi, A. Ad.

B. testa transversa cordata, obliqua, cereo-alba, immaculata, concen-

trice plicata, plicis validis, regularibus, zequalibus, angulatis, super

carinam terminantibus; latere antico brevissimo ; umbonibus par-

vis; latere postico subacuminato, elongato, earinato; area postica

tenuiter striata. '

Hab. China Seas.

In form this species very much resembles Jsocardia Lamarckii,

Reeve ; but the whorls are of a pure waxy white, the concentric

plicee are more conspicuous and angular, and the beaks are

smaller, closer together, and not quite so much intorted.

Eucharis Recluzi, A. Ad.

E. testa subquadrato-elliptica, subcompressa, alba; umbonibus par-

vis, antrorsum vix inflexis; valvis hispidis, concentrice striato-

rugosis, ab apice ad marginem posticum vix angulatis ; latere pos-

tico dilatato, rotundato.

Lat. 6} lin., alt, 4 lin.

Hab. Yobuko.

A compressed species, subquadrately ovate, with the beaks

small and somewhat angulate, and with the posterior side dilated

and rounded.

Eucharis Gouldi, A. Ad.

E. testa trigonali-elliptica, convexa, alba; umbonibus antrorsum

valde inflexis; valvis hispidis, concentrice rugoso-striatis, ab apice

ad marginem posticum rotundatis; latere postico declivo, sub-

angulato.

Lat. 54 lin., alt, 34 lin.

Hab. Inland Sea, Mososeki.

A somewhat trigonal species, with the beaks strongly inflexed,

and the posterior area of the whorls rounded.

810 . Mr, A. Adams on some new Mollusca.

Eucharis Stimpsoni, A. Ad. sate

E. testa subquadrato-elliptica, compressa, alba; umbonibus par

acutis, antrorsum subinflexis ; valvis hispidis, concentrice rugoso-

striatis, ab apice-ad marginem posticum valde angulatis ; latere

- postico elongato, rotundato.

Lat. 6 lin., alt. 4 lin,

Hab. Inland Sea, Akasi.

A transversely ovate species, with the beaks sharp and inflexed,

and with the posterior area of the whorls plata and acutely

angulate,

Leptoconchus rostratus, A. Ad.

L, testa ovato-pyriformi, tenui; spira obtusa, alba, longitudinaliter

- lamellosa ; lamellis confertis, undulosis; apertura ovato-trigonali,

antice in rostrum acutum desinente ; labio leevi; labro antice mar-

gine sinuato; anfractu ultimo liris transversis instructo.

Hab. Kino-O-Sima ; in Madrepores.

This species differs from L. serratus, Riipp., in the lamelle

not being serrulate ; and from L. ellipticus, Sow., in the fore part

of the last whorl being produced into an acute beak, and in its

pyriform shape.

Opalia exquisita, A. Ad, ©

O. testa pyramidali, imperforata, acuminata ; anfractibus 8, planatis,

suturis canaliculatis ; varicibus permultis, crassis, oblique punctato-

striatis, ad angulum anfractuum aculeato-angulatis, interstitiis

transversim liratis; basi carina cincta; apertura circulari, varice

antice subangulato, postice acuminato.

Hab. Gotto Islands; 71 fathoms.

The only species at all resembling this is Scalaria porrecta,

Hinds, from the Straits of Malacca. In the species pis

above, the varices are produced into sharp points at the sutures

in a very. elegant manner, and are obliquely striato-punctate,

with the spaces between them conspicuously lirate. It belongs

to the group with a basal ridge, and which has received the

name of Opalia.

Smaragdinella Sieboldi, A. Ad.

S. testa ovato-oblonga, vix involuta, aperta, tenui, glauca, pellucida, dorso

longitudinaliter striata ; labio lamella spirali vix dilatata instructo.

Hab. Takano-Sima; between tide-marks.

This species differs remarkably from the other species of the

genus in the breadth of the spiral lamella which winds round

the inner lip. In S. viridis, S. glauca, and S. minor the lamella

is so broad that it forms, when it winds, a cup-shaped appendage.

In S. Sieboldi, however, the lamella is so narrow that a spiral

ridge only is visible,

Dr. P. P. Carpenter on new Forms of Mollusks. 811

XXXII.— Diagnoses of new Forms of Mollusks collected at Cape

' St. Lucas by Mr. J. Xantus. By Puiu P. Carpenter,

B.A., Ph.D. |

Tue specimens here described belong to the Museum of the

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. The first available

duplicates will be found in the British Museum or in the

Cumingian Collection. An account of the labours of Mr, Xantus

will appear in the forthcoming volume of British Association

Reports; and detailed notes on the species may be consulted in

the American scientific periodicals for the current year.

Genus ASTHENOTHERUS*,

* Testa extus “Thracie” similis: intus cardine edentulo, haud

spathulato ; cartilagine infra umbones sita.

1. Asthenotherus villosior.

A, testa inzequivalvi, ineequilaterali, umbonibus ad trientem lon-

' gitudinis sitis ; tenuissima, alba, (sub lente) omnino minutissime

et creberrime pustulosa ; rugis incrementi obtusissimis, irregulari-

bus, maxime t. juniore, ornata; epidermide tenui, pallide olivacea

induta ; parte postica truncata, parum hiante ; antica valde rotun-

data; marginibus dorsalibus et ventrali parum excurvatis ; um-

bonibus angustissimis; regionibus lunulari et nymphali subcari-

natis: intus, margine cardinali utriusque valvee acuto; ligamento

inconspicuo ; cartilagine subspongiosa, satis elongata, postice de-

flecta; fovea haud indentata; cicatricibus adductorum parvis,

subrotundatis; sinu pallii majore, ovali, ad dimidium interspatii

porrecto. Long. *38, lat. °26, alt. °14 poll.

2. Solemya valvulus.

S. testa minore, tenuissima, diaphana, vix testacea, cornea, pallidiore,

lineis tenuibus, distantibus, fuscis, radiatim ornata; postice tenui-

ter radiatim striata; tumente, satis elongata, marginibus antico et

postico regulariter excurvatis ; umbonibus vix conspicuis ; lineis

anticis divaricantibus, extus parentibus, intus lacunam cartila-

gineam definientibus ; cardine edentulo; ligamento postice elon-

, antice curto, latiore, bifurcato; cicatricibus adductorum

subrotundatis. Long. ‘85, lat. °25, alt. °14 poll.

8. Tellina (Peroneoderma) ochracea.

T. testa majore, parum ineequilaterali, tenui, satis planata; carneo-

ochracea, intus intensiore; levi, nitida, marginem versus striis

incrementi; postice vix radiatim striatula; ventraliter antice

valde excurvata, postice vix angulata; marginibus dorsalibus ob-

* *AaOerjs, weak; Oatpds, hinge.

+ The measures of length are taken from the anterior to the posterior

_margins.

312 Dr. P. P. Carpenter on new Forms of Mollusks

tuse angulatis, umbonibus conspicuis; ligamento tenui et cartila-

gine subinternis ; nymphis intortis : dent. card. utriusque valve ii.,

quarum i. bifidus ; dent. lat. valvee dextree ii.; sinu pallii irregula-

riter ovali, per duos trientes interstitii porrecto ; cicatr. adduct.

subovatis, nitidissimis. Long. 1-9, lat. 14, alt. :44 poll.

4, Psammobia (? Amphichena) regularis.

P. testa minore, regulariter ovali, subsequilaterali; violacea, plus

minusve radiata seu maculata; levi, striolis incrementi ornata ;

epidermide tenui, flavido-olivacea induta, postice rugulosa; mar-

ginibus undique regulariter excurvatis ; umbonibus vix projectis ;

ligamento conspicuo : intus dent. card. ii.-i., haud bifidis; cicatr.

adduct. postica rotundata, antica ovali; sinu pallii elongato, haud

incurvato, per duos trientes interstitii porrecto. Long. 1°05, lat. °5,

alt. °26 poll.

5. Callista pollicaris.

C. testa magna, ventricosa, solidiore ; epidermide tenuissima induta ;

sordide albida, umbonibus rufo-fuscis ; (t. adolescente) punctulis

crebris rufo-fuscis, et teeniis paucis circa nymphas ornata; leevi,

striis incrementi exceptis ; postice, et paululum antice, quasi pol-

lice impresso notata ; latiore, antice producta, sed haud angulata ;

postice unda depressa, supra nymphas radiante, inter costas duas

obsoletas sinuante,; margine subtruncato; marginibus ventrali

regulariter excurvato, dorsali rectiore ; lunula elongata, linea im-

pressa definita, medio tumente, postice flaccida: intus candida ;

dent. card. normalibus; dente laterali valvee dextree postico, valvee

sinistree antico, usque ad extremitatem lunule porrecto; cicatr.

adduct. subrotundatis; sinu pallii magno, rotundato, usque ad

medium interstitii porrecto. Long. 2°58, lat. 2°25, alt. 1°43 poll.

Figured by Mr. Reeve (Conch. f. 45) as “ Dione prora, var.”

The above diagnosis proves it to be a distinct and (considering

the general similarity of the thin, colourless, inflated group) a

well-marked species.

6. Callista (? pannosa, var.) puella.

C. testa “C. pannose”’ simili, sed multo minore, tenuiore, plerum-

que latiore ; sinu pallii majore, eleganter incurvato; dent. card.

multo tenuioribus, lat. ant. magis elongato; lamina cardinali um-

bones versus sinuata: colore ‘maxime variante; nonnunquam ut

in C. pannosa triangulariter maculata; plerumque ut in Tapete

virginea notata ; interdum albida, seu aurantia, seu fusca, haud

maculata ; rarius ut in Tapete fuscolineata penicillata ; rarissimie

paucistrigata, seu maculis paucissimis. Long. ‘66, lat. *5, alt. -32

oll. ' 4, wat 1 j

Variat t. transversa. Variat quoque t. subtrigona, et formis inter-

mediis.

- Quoted by Mr. Reeve, under Dione pannosa, as “ D, puella,

Cpr.”; but the name was only given in MS. in accordance with

collected at Cape St. Lucas. : 313

Mr. Cuming’s assertion that it was distinct. The colourless sub-

trigonal shells were regarded by Mr. Reeve as a separate species ;

but he did not allude to them in his monograph.

7. Levicardium apicinum,

L. testa subtrigona, parva, tenuissima, nitidissima, subcompressa,

epidermide tenui induta; radiis seu striis radiantibus nullis ; striis

concentricis satis regularibus, subobsoletis, t. jun. magis extanti-

bus; umbonibus angustis, parum incurvatis; margine ventrali

satis excurvato, antico parum producto, postico subtruncato,

dorsalibus obtuse angulatis: colore valde variante; plerumque

gad viridi-cinereo, rufo-fusco seu angulatim teeniato seu macu-

to seu punctato; regione umbonali plerumque pallida, interdum

rufo-fusca seu aurantiaca; parte postica haud intensiore: intus

plerumque citrina, hepatico varie penicillata: dent. card. et lat.

acutis, tenuibus; margine minutissime subobsoletim crenulato,

Long. °55, lat. °5, alt. °3 poll. |

Variat t. latiore. Variat quoque colore fere omnino hepatico, seu

carneo, seu pallide aurantiaco, seu pallide cinereo, seu albido :

rarissime ut in Tapete fuscolineata ornata.

8. Lucina lingualis.

L. testa solida, linguiformi, valde prolongata ; plerumque aurantiaco-

earnea, intus intensiore ; lirulis concentricis obtusis crebre ornata ;

marginibus undique excurvatis ; lunula minima, altissime excavata ;

parte postica obscure biangulata, seu subrotundata ; umbonibus

anticis, incurvatis ; ligamento subinterno, lamina valida; dent.

card. et lat. normalibus, validis; cicatr. adduct. posticis subovali-

bus, anticis satis elongatis ; linea pallii lata, rugosa ; margine in-

terno crenulato. Long. ‘88, lat. *92, alt. -4 poll.

Variat t. minus prolongata. Variat quoque t. pallide viridi, seu pal-

lide carnea, seu alba.

9. ?Crenella inflata.

20. testa valde inflata, minuta, albida, subrhomboideo-orbiculari ;

diagonaliter parum producta; marginibus subquadrangulatim ro-

tundatis; umbonibus prominentibus, valde antice intortis ; tota

superficie ut in C. decussata sculpta, costulis crebris radiantibus

equidistantibus, hic et illic aliis intercalatis; lirulis concen-

tricis decussantibus: intus margine dorsali brevissimo, arcuato,

dentato ; ligamento curtissimo, in fossa omnino interna, celata, la-

mina definiente, sito; lamina cardinali sub umbonibus intus por-

recta, dentibus validis instructa; marginibus internis omnino cre-

natis ; cicatr. adduct. subeequalibus, ventraliter sitis. Long. °1,

lat. *12, alt. ‘09 poll.

Located provisionally in Crenella from its likeness to C. de-

cussata, but with peculiarities of hinge and adductors which

approach Nuculina on one side and Cardilia on another.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3, Vol, xiii. 21

‘814 Dr. P.P. Carpenter on new Forms of Mollusks.

Genus Bryopuita*.

Animal Aviculidseum, viviparum : inter algas, etc., habitans.

Testa Pinnzeformis, extus prismatica, intus subnacrea : ligamentum

solidum : umbones extantes, terminales, intus concavi.

10. Bryophila setosa.

B, testa parva, regulari; cinerea, salmoneo seu chocolateo, intus sub-

nacreo, exquisite tincta; t. juniore planata, semirotundata, dor-

saliter recta, eequilaterali, conspicue punctata : t. adolescente sub-

diaphana: t, adulta solidiore; umbonibus rectis, terminalibus,

intus alte excavatis ; marg. dorsali breviore, recto; antico recto ;

ventrali et postico late rotundatis: extus epidermide subspongiosa

vestita, radiis setarum subdistantibus, marginibus eleganter pecti-

natis: intus ligamento solido dorsaliter producto ; ‘inte allii

eequaliter prope marginem decurrente ; cicatr. adduct. submediana,

inconspicua ; postice hiante; antice propter byssum tenuem si-

nuata. Long. °13, lat. +2, alt. +1 poll.

Like a minute Pinna, or a transverse Margaritiphora without

ears, or an Jsognomon without pits. Differs from the other

Aviculids in being viviparous, like some other minute bivalves.

11. ? Atys casta,

°4, testa elongata, tenui, subdiaphana, albida; antrorsum paulum

tumidiore ; spira celata, lacunata, (t. adultee) haud umbilicata ;

columella paulum intorta, effusa; umbilico antico minimo ; labro

postion producto, obtuse angulato ; tota superficie subtiliter spira-

iter striatula. Long. *4, lat, *18 poll.

On the confines of the genus, related to Cylichna.

12, Ischnochiton parallelus.

I, testa ovata, subelevata (ad angulum 120°); rufo-fusea, olivaceo

tincta; valvis latis, marginibus parum rotundatis, interstitiis par-

vis ; valvis intermediis valde insculptis; areis lateralibus seriebus

granulorum a jugo radiantibus circiter vi.; interdum irregularibus,

granis rotundatis, separatis, extantibus; areis centralibus clathris

creberrimis, jugo parallelis, horridis, extantibus, interdum granu-

losis, ornatis; valvis terminalibus seriebus granulorum, circ. xx.,

interdum bifurcantibus, ut in areis lateralibus, ornatis; mucrone

vix conspicuo ; limbo pallii angusto, pilulis furvicaceis creberrimis

minutis conferto; lobis valvarum bifidis, terminalibus fissuris

circ. xi. a parte externa simplici disjunctis. Long. *7, lat, 48,

alt. *16 poll,

Belongs to the group with minute setose scales.

13. Ischnochiton (? var.) prasinatus.

I. testa I. parallelo forma et indole simili, sed vivide viridi; ar.

diag. seriebus bullularum irregulariter ornatis; ar. centr. clathris

* Bpvov, sea-moss; idros, loving.

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacese, 315:

valde extantibus, acutis, jugo obtuso parallelis, utroque latere

cire. xvi-; valv. term, seriebus bullularum circ. xvili.; mucrone

submediano, inconspicuo ; umbonibus haud prominentibiis; tota

superficie minutissime granulosa: intus valvarum lobis mediarum.

i.- term. circiter x.-fissis; sinu lato, planato; suturis planatis ;

limbo pallii angusto, minutissime squamulis furvicaceis creberrime

instructo; interdum pilulis intercalatis. Long. ‘8, lat. °4 poll.,

div. 125°,

14. Ischnochiton serratus.

T. testa parva, cinerea, olivaceo hic et illic, preecipue ad suturas,.

punctata, interdum sanguineo maculata; ovali, subdepressa, suturis

indistinctis ; tota superficie minutissime granulata ; ar. diag. valde

distinctis, costis latissimis obtusis ii.-v. munitis, interstitiis nullis;

marginibus posticis eleganter serratis; ar. centr. costis acutis,

parallelis, utroque latere cire. xii. ; jugo obtuso, haud umbonato ;

costis transversis, subradiantibus, fenestrantibus, interstitiis im-

pressis : mucrone mediano, obtuso; valv, term, costis obtusis, ut -

in ar. diag., circ. xx.: intus valvarum mediarum lobis bifissis,

terminalium circ, ix.-fissis ; lobis suturalibus magnis : limbo pallii

squamis majoribus, imbricatis, vix striatulis. Long, *34, lat, *2 poll.,

div, 115°,

Differs from Elenensis in the sculpture of the terminal valves.

[To be continued. }

XXXIII.—On the Menispermaceez.

By Joun Miners, F.R.S,, F.L.S, &e.

{Continued from p. 135.]

4, TINOSPORA.

Tue first outline of this genus was given in my “ Remarks on

Menispermacee;” in 1851 (Ann, Nat. Hist.). It comprises a

group of Asian and African plants, all of climbing growth, the

type of which is the Cocculus cordifolius, DC.: the stems

have a lax, splitting, membranaceous bark, often furnished with

verrucose tubercles, Colebrook and Roxburgh relate, concern-

ing some of the species mentioned below, that when any portion

of their stems becomes severed, it sends out, even from the

greatest height, a sprout which lengthens downwards till it

reaches the ground, when it takes root, by which the severed

portion continues to maintain its flourishing growth; and they

have seen radicant shoots of this description, 30 feet long, not

thicker than a pack-thread. The plants have all roundish cor-

date leaves, more or less membranaceous, generally glabrous,

upon slender petioles; their inflorescence is an elongated supra-

axillary raceme, with small glabrous flowers; their somewhat

globular fleshy drupes contain a spherical, smooth or tubereu-

316 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee.

lated, subosseous putamen, having a globular, hollow, internal

condyle, on the ventral face, with a small external aperture :

round this condyle the meniscus-shaped seed, which fills the

cell of the putamen, is moulded, and attached by the longitudinal

line of the raphe. The embryo (as in all the rest of the Hetero-

clinieg) has a superior terete radicle and large divaricating folia-

ceous cotyledons, imbedded in distinct cells of a copious rumi-

nated albumen.

Tinospora, nob.—Flores dioici. Masc. Sepala 6, biseriata,

exteriora minora, obovata, glabra, submembranacea, margine

eroso-crenulata; vestivatione imbricata. Petala 6, minuta,

sepalis opposita, imo subunguiculata, apicem versus 3-loba,

lobis lateralibus inflexis, stamina amplectentibus. Sta-

mina 6, libera, divaricato-patentia, petalis opposita: filamenta

longiuscula, apice clavato-incrassata ; anthere 2-lobe, sub-

extrorsze, lobis oblongis, apice conniventibus, imo divaricatis,

utrinque lateraliter semi-immersis, rima obliqua fere marginali

' longitudinaliter dehiscentibus. Ovaria rudimentaria nulla.—

Fem. Sepala ut in masc. Petala minuta, spathulato-oblonga,

erecta. Stamina sterilia, 6, petalis opposita, breviora et cum

illis imo gynecii affixa: antheris effoetis. Ovaria 3, gibboso-

oblonga, libera, supra gynecium cylindricum imposita, erecta,

1-locularia; ovu/o unico anatropo supra medium loculi ex

angulo interno funiculo brevi appenso. Stylus brevis,

crassus. Stigma subliguliformi-peltatum, subcavum, mar-

gine sinuatum, aut profunde 3-laciniatum, laciniis inequa-

libus rotundatis. Drupe 3, vel abortu pauciores, globose,

gibbosulz, carnosee, breviter stipitate, stigmate persistente

subexcentrico apiculate: putamen osseo-pergamineum, com-

presso-subglobosum, dorso convexius, hie seepe tuberculatum,

sutura peripherica, sub-2-valvare, ventre subplanum, hine

intus condylo magno cavo globoso usque ad medium loculi

protenso, meatu externo lineari perforato instructum. Semen

loculo conforme, meniscoideum, ad faciem ventralem valde

cavum: integumenta tenuissima, intra fissuras albuminis pli-

cata, raphe ventrali longitudinali signata: embryo intra albu-

men 2-laminare inclusus, lamina dorsali tenui, simplici,

ventrali crassiore, in rugas plurimas transversas profunde ru-

minata; cotyledonibus tenuissime foliaceis, ovatis, 3-nerviis,

valde divaricatis, in locellis sejunctis utrinque absconditis,

radicula supera tereti multo longioribus.

Frutices alte scandentes, Asia, Australasia, et Africe intertropice :

folia petiolata, cordata, submembranacea, 38—5-nervia: racemi

simplices, extra-axillares ; ramis plurimis, imo bracteatis, 1-4-

floris ; flores aggregati, flavi.

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee. 317

1. Tinospora cordifolia, nob., Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 2. vii. 38 ;

Hook. & Th. Fl. Ind. i. 184 ;—Cocculus cordifolius, DC. Syst.

i. 518, Prodr. i. 97; Rheede, Hort. Mal. vii. 39, tab. 21;

W. & A. Fl. Ind.i. 12; Wight, Icon. ii. tab. 485, 486 ; Colebr.

Linn. Trans. xiii. 62 ;—Cocculus convolvulaceus, DC. Syst. i.

518, Prodr. i. 97;—Cocculus verrucosus, Wall. Cat. (partim);

—Menispermum cordifolium, Willd. iv. 826; Roxb. Fl. Ind.

iii. 811 ;—ramulis teretibus, striatis, cortice laxo, nitente,

tuberculato ; foliis suborbicularibus, late cordatis, acutis aut

repente tenuiter acuminatis, glaberrimis, submembranaceis,

7-nerviis, subtus subglaucis; petiolo limbo breviore aut sub-

zequilongo ; racemis in axillis solitariis, simplicibus, glabris,

d folio brevioribus, 2 folio longioribus ; floribus ¢ fasciculatis,

9 solitariis ; drupis rubris, cerasiformibus, siccitate pisi magni-

tudine.—In India orientali, v. s. in herb. Soc. Linn., Mungger

(Wall. Cat. 4955), Ava (Wall. Cat. 4966 B, sub Coc. verru-

cosus) ; in herb. Mus. Brit. et Hook. (Wight, 44), &c.

This species appears to have an extensive range all over the

peninsula of India, extending even to Ceylon: the length of

the leaves is 2-4 inches, their breadth is the same, or more;

the petiole is 14-24 inches long; on their under surface, at the

junction of the nerves (which, however, are not connected by a

membrane), an oblong brown spot is usually seen between them;

the ¢ raceme is 24 inches, the Q 5 inches long. C. cordi-

folius, DC., seems to be the ¢, and C. convolvulaceus, DC., the

2 plant. In the male flower, the petals are 3-lobed, and their

inflected lobes embrace the filaments; in the female, the petals

are cuneately oblong, with entire margins, which are not inflected:

the inner sepals scarcely exceed a line in length.

2. Tinospora palminervis, nob. ;—Cocculus verrucosus, Wall.

partim);—cortice laxo, verrucoso ; ramulis junioribus subangu-

latis, glabris, lenticellis parvis signatis ; foliis remotis, deltoideo-

oblongis, acuminatis, marginibus integris vel repando-sinuatis,

imo cordatis, sinu subangulato, 5—7-nerviis, membranaceis,

glaberrimis, supra pallidis, subtus glaucis, hinc nervis ad con-

cursum basalem membranula ligatis ; petiolo limbo fere 3-plo

breviore ; racemis ¢ geminis vel solitariis, supra-axillaribus,

gracilibus, folio vix longioribus ; floribus 2-3, in ramis brevi-

bus pedicellatis—In Birma, »v. s. in herb. Soc. Linn., Fluv.

Irawaddi (Wall. Cat. 4966).

In its general features this species approaches the preceding,

both having cordate, glabrous, pale, membranaceous leaves upon

very slender petioles, which seldom exceed half the length of the

blade ;. they have a similar verrucose bark; but the leaves are

deltoidly oblong, acute, with sinuose margins, and the basal

318 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez.

nerves beneath are united by web-shaped membrane, leaving

hollow spaces beneath them, while the corresponding portion of

the upper surface shows a large brown spot, as in 7. cordifolia.

The leaves are 24-4 inches long, with a broad angular sinus

4 inch deep; they are 2~3} inches broad, on a very slender pe-

tiole 1-14 inch long. The male slender racemes are 34-8 tidhcs

long, with alternate branches }~# inch long, bracteolated at

base, and bearing two or three flowers on very short pedicels.

3. Tinospora Malabarica, nob. l. c.; Hook. & Th. /. c. 183 ;—Coe-

culus Malabaricus, DC. Syst. i. 518, Prodr.i.97; Rheede,

Hort. Mal. vii. t. 19, 20 ;—Menispermum Malabaricum, Lam.

Dict. iv.96; Willd. Syst. iv. 826 ;—ramulis tortuosis, tereti-

bus, verruculosis, pilis albidis adspersis; foliis sparsis, obo-

vatis, acutis, apice acuminatis, imo profunde cordatis, sinu

rotundato, 7-nerviis, reticulatis, pallide membranaceis, supra

pilosulis, subtus pubescentibus ; petiolo tereti, basi incrassato,

piloso, limbo fere-dimidio breviore ; racemis supra-axillaribus,

tomentosis, ¢ folii longitudine, @ simplicibus, petiolo bre-

vioribus; floribus viridibus ; drupis cerasiformibus, pallide ru-

bris.—In Malabar, v. s. in herb. Soc. Linn. (Wall. Cat. 4969),

In this distinct species the leaves are about 52 inches long

from the bottom of the basal lobes, or 43 inches from the inser-

tion of the. petiole to the apex, 4 inches broad, on a petiole

8 inches long; the fructiferous raceme is 2 inches long, the

alternate pedicels about 3 lines long ; the drupes, of a bright-red

colour, are stipitated; the putamen, about 3 lines long, marked

externally by many sharp-pointed tubercles arranged in longitu-

dinal interrupted lines.

Var. scabridula;—foliis remotis, longe petiolatis, suborbicula-

ribus, gradatim angustioribus, apice repente cuSpidato-at-

tenuatis, imo profunde ac late cordatis, pallidis, supra rugu-

loso-scabris, subtus tomento sparso pubescentibus, nervis pro-

minentibus, et ad basin membranula ligatis; petiolo limbo

subeequilongo, imo incrassato et torto, puberulo.—Khasia et

Chittagong, v. s. in herb. Hook.

Its leaves are 54 inches long (or 43 from the basal sinus to

the apex), 43 inches broad ; petiole 44-43 inches long.

4, Tinospora tomentosa, nob. 1. c.; Hook. & Th. J. c. 182 ;—Coc-

culus tomentosus, Coleb. Linn. Trans. xiii. 59;—Menispermum

tomentosum, Rowb. Fl. Ind. iii. 8138 ;—ramulis striatis, cortice

rimoso, piloso, tuberculis minutis exasperatis; foliis orbiculato-

ovatis, basi in sinum latissimum cordatis, apice rotundato-ob-

. tusis, retusis, margine sinuatis, 7-nerviis, valde membranaceis,

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee. 819

- pallidis, supra pubescentibus, subtus cano-tomentosis ; petiolo

limbo paulo breviore; racemis supra-axillaribus, simplicibus ;

- floribus paucis, aggregatis, sepalis expansis, petalis subin-

. tegris, drupis aurantiacis—In Bengalia et Ava, v.s. sine flore

aut fructu, in herb. Soc. Linn. (Wall. Cat. 4956 a, 8).

Colebrook states that its leaves are from 8 to 6 inches long,

and about the same breadth, with a petiole of nearly equal

length. In Wallich’s specimen they are 4 inches long, 3} inches

broad, sinuated near the summit; the apex is obtusely narrowed

deeply emarginated, the petiole being 3 inches long. In

Roxburgh’s specimen, the sinuated margins are almost obsolete,

while the summit has a deep emargination, with a mucronate

point : it is 4 inches long, 3} inches broad, the petiole, thickened

at its base, being 24 inches long. The drupes are said to be

orange-red, the size of a large pea, enclosing a tuberculated

putamen.

5. Tinospora glauca, nob. ;—Cocculus glaucus, DC. Syst. i. 521,

Prodr. i. 97 ;—Menispermum glaucum, Lam. Dict. iv. 100;

Rumph. Amb. v. 40, t. 25. f. 1 ;—ramulis teneribus, teretibus,

pilosis ; foliis vagis, orbiculari-cordatis, acuminatis, imo ma-

cula purpurascente notatis, et hinc 5-nerviis, supra flavescen-

tibus, subtus glaucis et pubescentibus; petiolo rigido, imo

recuryo, folio fere dimidio breviore ; racemis paniculatis, pe-

tiolo brevioribus, drupis purpureo-nigricantibus, parvis.—

In Amboyna.

This is described as a climber, with distant leaves, 3-4 inches

long, and of equal breadth. ‘Lamarck considered this species

to be distinguished from the preceding ones by its much shorter

racemes and its much smaller drupes of a blackish hue, scarcely

as large as a peppercorn; its putamen is somewhat compressed

and tuberculated.

6. Tinospora crispa, nob., Hook. & Th. /. c. 188 ;—Cocculus

erispus, DC. Syst. i. 521, Prodr. i. 97; Colebr. 1. c. p. 60,

tab. 5. f. 3 ;—Menispermum crispum, Linn. ;—Menispermum

tuberculatum, Lam. Dict. iv. 96 ;—Menispermum verrucosum,

Roxb. Fl. Ind. iii, 808 ;—ramis glaberrimis, cortice nitido,

laxo, brunnescente, striato-corrugato, remotiuscule verrucosis ;

foliis interdum crebriter approximatis, longissime petiolatis,

suborbicularibus, imo late 2-sinuato-cordatis, apice subito ac

breviter acutis, valde membranaceis, 5—7-nerviis, sub lente

rugoso-punctulatis, utrinque glaberrimis, glauco-pallidis, ner-

vis subtenuibus paulo prominulis et rufulis; petiolo limbo

multo longiore, compresso, sulcato-striato, imo incrassato

820 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee.

et tortuoso, flavide pruinoso ; racemo fructifero petiolo 3-plo

breviore, pedicellis alternis, patentibus; drupis majoribus,

subglobosis, uviformibus, flavescenti-puberulis vel pruinosis.

—In India Orientali, v. s. in herb. Hook. Assam (Griffiths)

et Sandoway (Capt. Margrave).

_ This species is said by different botanists to be common in

Sumatra, the Molucca Islands, and Sylhet, and ought therefore

to occur frequently in collections ; but it is strange that this is

the first specimen I have seen in any herbarium that corresponds

with the written descriptions of it, among which Colebrook’s is

fullest in details ; but he says the leaves are remote,which seems

at variance with the specimen in question. Whether this plant

truly represents the Cocculus crispus, DC., time must show.

The branchlets, 4 lines in diam., have a thin lax bark, of peculiar

appearance: it is longitudinally corrugated or crispated, with

numerous raised cup-shaped cicatrices, that leave no impression

upon the wood beneath—a character that distinguishes it from

most other species: these cicatrices are placed promiscuously all

round the stem of the branch, at intervals of 1—} inch apart,

presenting a very different appearance from the verrucosities of

the bark of other species, which are caused by the swelling

of the lenticels, and usually appear as minute bead-like promi-

nences round a punctiform centre. In the specimen above

cited six or seven petioles are entangled together by their

tortuous bases, just as they have fallen off in a heap from the

stem ; and on a new branchlet a number of young leaves are

to be seen crowded together in a similar manner. The

leaves are 43 inches long, the depth of the basal attenua-

tion and corresponding sinus on each side being 3 lines; they

are 4 inches broad, the petiole being of the unusual length of

54 inches and # line in diam., which is three times as long as, and

stouter in proportion to the size of the blade than in 7. palmi-

nervis, which plant I was at first inclined to refer to T. crispa:

the axils of the secondary nervures, and the five principal nerves

at their confluence with the petiole, are extended by a web-

shaped membrane. The fructiferous raceme is 2} inches Jong,

the pedicels rigid, much divaricated, # inch Jong; the drupes

8 lines long, 6 lines in diam. when dry ; the putamen, 63 lines

long, has a scrobiculated surface covered with a white pruinose

down. Colebrook (/. c.) gives a tolerably correct analysis of the

fruit and seed.

Var. nitidiuscula ;—foliis -oblongo-ovatis, profunde et late cor-

datis, e medio sensim angustioribus, apice subito acuminatis,

utrinque glaberrimis, subtus preesertim nitentibus, hinc nervis

5, ad concursum membranula conspicua connexis; petiolo

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermaceze: 321

_ limbo fere zequilongo.—Khasia, in herb. Hook. (Hook. & Th.),

sine flore.

This is probably a distinct species; but I have placed it here

till better evidence is obtained: it differs from all others in the

peculiar texture of the leaves and the remarkably shining appear-

ance of their under surface ; its branchlets are 1 line in diam.,

with internodes of 34 inches, the leaves are 41-44 inches

from the bottom of the rounded basal sinus to the apex, or

41-51 inches from the bottom of the basal lobes, and 33-33

inches broad, on a petiole 4 inches long.

7. Tinospora uliginosa, nob. ;—ramulis teretibus, glabris, lenti-

cellis parvis 4-lobulatis signatis ; foliis remotis, oblongis, cor-

datis, marginibus subpandurato-sinuatis, apice acuminatis,

subcoriaceis, glaberrimis, 5-nerviis, subtus pallidis, nervis

venisque valde reticulatis prominentibus ; petiolo tenui,

imo incrassato et tortuoso, limbo subzquilongo vel dimidio

breviore ; racemis axillaribus, glaberrimis, folio longioribus ;

rachi tenui, simpliciter pedicellato, pedicellis 1-floris, floribus

viridibus, pro mole majoribus.—In Java et Borneo, v. s. in

herb. Hook.; 3 Java (Zollinger, 568); ? Barmassing, Borneo

(Motley, 716).

The authors of the ‘ Flora Indica,’ though evidently with some

doubt, have considered this plant as identical with 7. crispa: it

agrees with it far less in general habit than with many others;

but it differs in its leaves, which are smaller, more oblong, less

cordate, more coriaceous, and rigid in texture, and they have a

more elongated raceme. The leaves are 23-3? inches long,

14-2 inches broad ; the petiole 1-2 inches long. The d raceme

is 4—8 inches long, its flowers larger, its inner sepals being 2 lines

long, which is twice the size of those in the typical species. In

the Borneo specimen, which I have considered identical, the

leaves are smaller, the petiole and raceme shorter : it is described

as a climbing plant, growing in marshy places; the ovaries are

supported by a long cylindrical gyneecium.

8. Tinospora reticulata, nob.;—scandens; ramulis teneribus,

teretibus, glabris, remote lenticellatis; foliis ovatis aut ob-

longis, basi truncatis et 2-sinuatis, vix cordatis, circa petiolum

attenuatis, apice repente acuminatis, et hinc canaliculato-

recurvis, imo 5-nerviis, reticulatis, vix membranaceis, glaber-

rimis, utrinque pallidis et subnitidis ; racemo axillari, petiolo

4-plo longiore, basi foliifero.—tIn ins, Philippinis, v. s. in herd.

vartis (Cuming. 1286).

_ This plant has the peculiarity, seen in all the following species

rom Africa and Australia, of bearing rudimentary, and often

322 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermaces.

deciduous, petiolated leaflets in the lower axils of the racemes,

which in 7. Bakis are largely developed. The branchlets are

slender, quite glabrous, dull, and striated with a few raised len-

ticels, the internodes being of 2 inches; the leaves are 3-4

inches long, 2-24 inches broad, with a petiole 1-14 inch long;

the racemes are 4—6 inches long, the three lowermost flowerless

axils 1 inch apart, bearing alternate leaflets similar in form,

1 inch long, % inch broad, on a petiole 3 inch long; the pedicels

are 2 lines long, 2-3 lines apart, bracteated at base, all very

glabrous ; the flowers are somewhat large, the inner sepals being

fully 14 line long.

9. Tinospora Bakis, nob. ;—Cocculus Bakis, A. Rich. in Guill. et

Perott. Fl. Seneg. i. 12, tab. 4:;—ramulis teretibus, subsube-

rosis, glabris, striatis, cortice pallido rimoso verruculoso tectis;

foliis oblongis, profunde cordatis, lobis basalibus rotundatis,

apice longe acuminatis et mucronatis, canaliculato-recurvis, et

hinc subconduplicatis, submembranaceis, glaberrimis, 5—7-

nerviis, nervis supra immersis, subtus prominulis ; pedunculis

axillaribus, 1-3-floris, vel in ramulis novellis apice aphyllis

racemum terminalem glaberrimum efformantibus; racemis 2

folio brevioribus.—In Africa tropica septentrionali, v. s. in herb.

DC., Senegambia ¢ (Perottet) ; in herb. Delessert (Heudelot) ;

in herb. Hook., Nubia, ad Fazokel, ¢ (Kotschky, 421); Cor-

dofan, 2 (Kotschky, 244).

T have considered the latter specimens as specifically identical

with the former, which is the typical plant of Perottet’s collec-

tion, the only difference being that in the former the leaves have

a broad sinus at the base, while in the latter the basal lobes are

separated by a more acute sinus. The leaves are 2-3 inches

long, 2-24 inches broad, on a petiole 1-1} inch long; the axil-

lary raceme is almost filiform, 4—6 inches long, often, but not

always, leaf-bearing at its base, as in the preceding species, the

leaves there being 14—14 inch long, 14-14 inch broad, on a petiole

4 lines long; the alternate pedicels, bracteated at base, are

1 line long; the flower expanded, 3 lines in diam.

10. Tinospora tenera, nob.;—glaberrima, ramulis tenerrimis,

teretibus, striatis, verruculoso-tuberculatis ; foliis rotundato-

ovatis, imo cordatis, sinu acuto, lobis basalibus rotundatis, e

medio gradatim acutioribus, apice recurvis et breviter atte-

nuatis, vix membranaceis, 5-nerviis, nervis teneribus, supra

rugoso-punctatis, punctis nigris, subtus pallidioribus, nervis

yenisque reticulatis paulo prominentibus; petiolo sublongo,

tenerrimo, subito deflexo ; racemis solitariis, supra-axillaribus,

glaberrimis, valde elongatis; rachi filiformi ; pedicellis brevis-

On the Contemporaneity of Man with the Reindeer in France. 823

simis, 1-floris—In Africa orientali, v. s. in herb. Hook., Lower

Shire Valley, Zambesi (Dr. Kirk).

A climbing plant, collected during Dr. Livingstone’s explora-

tions up the River Zambesi, having slender branches 3-1 line

in diam., with internodes of 14-24 inches; leaves 2-22 inches

from the end of the basal lobes to the apex, or 13~—22 inches

long from the basal sinus, 13-2} inches broad, with a petiole

14 inch long ; the punctate raised dots on the upper surface of

the leaves are not at all scabrid; the raceme is 5-7 inches long.

11. Tinospora Smilacina, Bth. Proc. Linn. Soc. v. Suppl. 52 ;—

glabra; ramulis subcoriaceis ; foliis deltoideo-ovatis, profunde

cordatis, sinu subangulato, lobis basalibus intus rectis, extus

rotundatis, apice acutis et acuminatis, imo 5-nerviis, utrinque

glabris et pallidis, nervis supra immersis, subtus prominulis,

reticulatis; petiolo tenui limbo dimidio breviore; racemis

axillaribus, simplicibus, petiolo paulo longioribus, imo foliolis

minimis petiolatis donatis ; floribus parvis viridulis—In Aus-

tralia centrali, v. s. in herb. Hook., Plains of Promise (Dr.

Moore).

This is a slender climbing plant, with internodes of 1-14

inch ; its leaves, from the basal lobes to the apex, 24~33 lines

long, or from the basal sinus 19-25 lines long, 26 lines broad,

with a petiole 10-12 lines long. The ¢ raceme is 18 lines long,

pedicels 1 line long, with petiolated bracts at base 2 lines long;

the three inner sepals are ovate, 1 line long, the membranaceous

obovate petals 4 line long; its drupes are ovate, 8 lines long.

[To be continued. ]

XXXIV.—New Observations on the Existence of Man in Central

France at a period when that Country was inhabited by the

Reindeer and other Animals which are now extinct there. By

MM. Larger and Curisry, in a Letter from M. Larter to

Prof. Milne-Edwards ; communicated by him to the Academy

of Sciences in Paris*,

In support of the remarks made by you, at one of the recent

meetings of the Academy, with regard to the figures of animals

engraved on bones found in the cavern of Bruniquel, I have, in

my own name and that of Mr. H. Christy, F.G.S., to inform you

of several other facts of the same nature. We shall, however,

limit ourselves for the present to mentioning the discoveries

made by us, during the last five months of the year 1868, in that

part of the old province of Périgord which now forms the arron-

* Translated by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., from the ‘Comptes Rendus,’

February 29, 1864,

824 MM. Lartet ‘and Christy on the Existence of Man

dissement of Sarlat. One of the grottos of this region (that of Les

Eyzies, in the commune of Tayac) has presented us, in a breccia

covering the soil in the form of a continuous floor, with an ag-

gregation of broken bones, ashes, fragments of charcoal, chips

and flakes of flint worked in different modes, but always in

definite and frequently repeated forms, associated with other

utensils and weapons manufactured of the bones or horns of the

Reindeer. The whole of these things must have been fixed-and

consolidated into a breccia in the original state of the deposit,

and before any re-arrangement, as series of several vertebre of

the Reindeer, and some assemblages of articulations consisting

of several pieces, occur precisely in their anatomical connexion ;

the long bones with medullary cavities only have been detached,

and split or broken in a uniform manner—that is to say, evi-

dently with the object of extracting the marrow from them.

What we now advance may, moreover, be proved by any com-

petent observer, as we have taken care to have this breccia ex-

tracted in large slabs; and, after depositing the finest specimens

in the museum at Périgueux and in the collection.of the Jardin

des Plantes at Paris, we have sent to various museums in France

and elsewhere blocks of sufficient size to allow the verification of

the observations of which we here give the details.

This grotto of Les Eyzies, the mouth of which is situate

thirty-five metres above the level of the nearest watercourse, the

Beune, also contained many pebbles and fragments of rocks

foreign to the basin of that little river, and which must have

been introduced there by man. Some of these rather large

pebbles, chiefly those of granite, are flattened on one side, -

rounded in their outline, and hollowed above by a cavity of

greater or less depth, which bears traces of repeated friction.

In the grotto there were also numerous fragments of a schis-_

tose rock, of considerable hardness ; and upon two slabs of this

rock we have been able to discern partial representations of ani-

mal forms engraved in profile. These are, we presume, the first

examples observed of engraving on stone, at this ancient phase

of the human period, when the Reindeer still inhabited what

are now the temperate regions of Europe *.

* Figures of animals, dating from this same epoch, were reproduced by

one of us in 186] (Ann. Sc. Nat. sér. 4, Zool. tom. xv. pl. 13); but one

of these figures, readily recognizable as the head of a bear, is engraved

upon the horn of a deer. The other also is engraved upon the bone of a

Ruminant : it represents two complete animals, which have been thought

to resemble the Reindeer. The latter specimen, which was obtained from

the grotto of Chaffaut, in the commune of Savigné (Vienne), has been de~

posited in the Cluny Museum by M. Mérimay, in the name of M. Joli Le

Terme, architect at Saumur. It is accompanied by worked flints and

reindeer-bones from the same locality.

contemporaneously with the Reindeer, in France. 325

Upon one of these slabs, which has reached us in an incom-

plete state in consequence of an ancient fracture, we can distin-

guish the fore quarters of a probably herbivorous quadruped,

of which the head must have been armed with horns, as far as

ean be judged by the uncertain lines, which enter but slightly

into this rather hard rock. In the other slab we recognize more

readily a head, with the nostrils clearly marked, and the mouth

half open, but which has its profile-lines interrupted in the

frontal region by a sort of obliteration resulting from an appa-

rently artificial friction posterior to the preparation of the en-

graving. A little in front upon the same slab there is the

design of a large antler, which, if it really belongs to this head,

would lead us, as you were the first to suggest, to refer it to

the Elk.

Besides the ossiferous deposits of the interior of caves, which

are so numerous in the Périgord district, we may also investi-

gate there the analogous accumulations of organic débris which

rest against the great escarpments of the eretaceous rocks in

that region, and are sometimes sheltered merely by more or less

overhanging projections of the rock. These exterior deposits

likewise abound in worked flints and in fractured bones of ani-

mals (horse, ox, ibex, chamois, reindeer, birds, fishes, &c.),

which have evidently served as food for the mdigenous popula-

tions at this ancient period of the age of stone. The remains

of the common stag are very rare, as are also those of the wild

boar and the hare. We have found some isolated teeth of the

gigantic Irish deer (Megaceros hibernicus), and some detached

plates of the molars of the Mammoth (E. primigenius), exactly as

we observed them in the hearth of the’ funeral feasts of the an-

cient burying-place of Aurignac, without being able to explain

for what useful purpose these dentary laminz were preserved

thus isolated*.

- It is likewise in these exterior stations that we have collected

the finest. worked flints, particularly at that of Laugerie-Haute,

where there seems to have been established a manufactory of

the fine lance-heads worked with little chips upon the two faces,

and with the margins slightly undulated. But we have probably

found only the refuse of this manufactory, as very few specimens

were entire amongst more than a hundred fragments which we

obtained.

* This reminds us that, in the grotto of Les Eyzies, we have found a part

of the cortical portion of an elephant’s tusk bearing traces of human work.

We also collected there a metacarpal bone of the small digit of a young

Felis of great size (Felis spelea?), on which are seen small cuts and nume-

rous scratches, produced by a cutting-tool, exactly like those which are

observed upon the bones of reindeer or horses which have been eaten by

men.

326 MM, Lartet and Christy on the Existence of Man

At Laugerie-Basse, about a third of a mile lower down, but

still upon the banks of the Vezére, there was probably another

factory of weapons and tools in reindeer-horns, if we may judge

from the enormous quantity of the remains of horns of this ani-

mal accumulated there, nearly all of which bear traces of sawing,

by means of which the pieces intended to be worked up were

detached, It is there especially that we have procured, besides

arrows and barbed harpoons (such as occur in nearly all the

stations of this age), that great variety of utensils, some of which

are adorned with elegant sculptures, the workmanship of which

is truly astonishing when we consider the means of execution

which could be possessed by these people, who were ignorant of

the use of metals. Amongst them are some needles of reindeer’s

horn, finely pointed at one extremity, and pierced at the other

with a hole or eye for the reception of a thread of some kind.

There are also some tools furnished at their extremity with

obtuse notches, which would lead one to suspect that they were

employed in the manufacture of nets. Teeth of various animals

(wolf, ox), perforated at the root, must have served as ornaments,

as also some other objects fashioned like ear-drops, sometimes

of the ivory-like part of the ear-bones of the horse and ox,

Another object, previously found by one of us at the burying-

place of Aurignac, and upon which he thought it as well to sa

nothing (distrusting the value of an observation still unique),

has occurred both at Laugerie and in the grotto of Les Hyzies,

It is a first phalanx, which is hollow in certain ruminants, and

which is here pierced artificially beneath, a little in front of its

metatarsal or metacarpal articulation. By placing the lower lip

in the posterior articular cavity, and blowing into the hole, a

sharp sound, like that given by a key-pipe of moderate size, is

produced, ‘This was, no doubt, a call-whistle, in common use

amongst these tribes of hunters; for we have now four speci-

mens, of which three are made of phalanges of the reindeer, and

the fourth of a phalanx of the chamois. :

At Laugerie-Basse, also, thanks to the intelligent supervision

and minute precautions of M. A, Laganne, who had the manage-

ment of our diggings, we have obtained portions of reindeer-

horn which, notwithstanding the alteration that they have

undergone by age, still retain very distinct representations of

animal forms. Some of them are simply engraved in outline,

upon the palmature or terminal expansion of the frontal antlers

of the reindeer; others are regularly sculptured, either in bas-

relief or even in complete relief, upon portions of the horn of

the same animal prepared for this purpose.

One of these palmations, of which an ancient fracture has

caused the loss of a portion of the design, still presents us with

contemporaneously with the Reindeer, in France, 827

the exact outline, traced with a firm hand, of the hind-quarters

of a large herbivorous animal, The slenderness of the tail, the

small flexure of the knees, and especially the very forward posi-

tion of the indication of the male sex, show that this is not a

horse: we rather recognize in it a bovine form; and the sudden

elevation of the dorsal line towards the withers would appear to

lead us to the Aurochs. Unfortunately, the interruption of the

design by the fracture of the specimen comes exactly at the

point where the tufted mane, characteristic of the subgenus

Bison, ought to commence.

In a second and more widely dilated palm, we find another

evidently bovine form, judging from the knees and the small

hoofs placed behind the cloven hoof. In this, the thicker tail,

the more horizontal direction of the line of the back, and the

presence of a smooth pendant dewlap between the anterior legs

indicate a tendency towards the true ox (Bos primigenius ?) ; but

a fracture has caused the loss of the region of the head to which

the horns were attached ; and the artist, in order to utilize the

divisions of the palmature, has given the animal a distorted atti-

tude, which injures the general effect of the design.

A third palmature, in which the engraved design has been

preserved nearly entire, exhibits an animal of which the head is

armed with two horns rising at first vertically and then bending

back towards their point; behind these horns we see a less dis-

tinct indication of the ears, and beneath the chin that of a tuft

of hair or beard—peculiarities which would lead us to regard it

as a female Ibex, if they were not contradicted by the peculiar

form of the face and by a swelling behind the ears. In this

figure, moreover, the designer, with no apparent necessity for

so doing, has bent up the hinder limbs beneath the belly of the

animal in such a manner that the distinctly cloven hoofs touch

the abdomen.

Among the sculptured pieces obtained from this same locality

of Laugerie-Basse, we shall mention a rounded staff made of the

stem of a reindeer-horn, and terminated at one end in a lance-

point with a recurrent lateral hook. Was this a tool, a weapon,

or a sign of authority ? We cannot tell. Immediately above the

hook, we see sculptured in half-relief upon three of its faces a

horse’s head, with the ears laid down, and rather long for the

species, although not sufficiently so to lead one to attribute

this figure to the ass. In front, and still upon the continuity

of the staff, there is a second head, with a slender muzzle, and

armed with branching horns. The basilar antlers are sculptured

in front upon the horizontal prolongation of the staff, whilst, the

main stem and the palmature are thrown backwards : the slender

form of the head, which shows no indication of a muffle, the

328 MM. Lartet and Christy on the Existence of Man

apparent dilatation of one of the basilar antlers, and the whole

physiognomy of this figure would lead us to refer it rather to:

the reindeer than to the common stag. In front of the muzzle

of this head there is another figure, simply engraved in outline,

which may be easily taken for a form of fish.

There is another excellent specimen in which the art-sentiment

is especially revealed by the clever manner in which the artist

has been led to bend animal forms, without too much violence,

to suit the necessities of a useful purpose. It is a poignard or

short sword of reindeer-horn, of which the entire handle is

formed by the body of an animal: the hind legs are laid in the

direction of the blade; the fore legs are bent back, without

effort, beneath the belly; the head, which has its muzzle ele-

vated, forms with the back and the crupper a concavity designed

to facilitate the grasping of this weapon by a hand which must

have been much smaller than those of our European races. The

head is armed with branched horns, which are closely applied to

the sides of the neck without in any way hindering prehension ;

but the basilar antlers have necessarily been suppressed. The

ear is smaller than that of the stag, and is also, in its position,

more in agreement with that of the reindeer; lastly, the artist

has left beneath the neck a projection, in the form of a thin

plate notched at its edge, which sufficiently resembles the tuft of

hair often found at this point in the male Reindeer. It is to be

regretted that this specimen has reached us in the condition of

a mere sketch, as may be judged from the unfinished workman-

ship of the blade, and from certain details of the sculpture being

scarcely indicated. :

If it were necessary to add fresh evidence to that already fur-

nished in proof of the contemporaneity of man and the reindeer

in those regions which have become the southern and central

France of the present day, we might mention numerous horns

of that animal at the base of which may be distinguished cuts

made in detaching the skin from them. We should also call

attention to other transverse cuts which are frequently observed

at the bottom of the cannon-bones of our reindeer of the caves,

produced during the cutting of the tendons, performed (as among

the Esquimaux of the present day) with the intention of splitting

them up and dividing them into threads which serve for sewing

together the skins of animals and also for the formation of cords

of great strength.

Lastly, we can also show a lumbar vertebra of the Reindeer

pierced from side to side by a flint weapon, which has remained

fixed in the bone, where it is further retained by a calcareous

incrustation.

As an archeological fact characteristic of the period of the

contemporaneously with the Reindeer, in France. 329

Reindeer in France, we shall only mention that, out of seventeen

stations where we have ascertained the presence of that animal

in a state of subjection to the action of man, there is not one

in which we have observed traces of polishing upon the stone

weapons ; nevertheless the worked flints have been collected

by thousands, in every variety of type, and passing through all

degrées of perfection of workmanship, from the roughly sketched

form of the haches from the diluvium of Abbeville and Saint-

Acheul, up to the lance-heads with numerous facets and with

elegantly undulated margins of the best time of the stone age

in Denmark. .

As to the epoch when the Reindeer ceased to inhabit what is

now temperate Europe, we have no positive historical or chrono-

logical data. The Reindeer was never seen or clearly described

by any author of antiquity. Cesar speaks of it only from hear-

say, and as an animal still existing somewhere in a forest, of

which the extreme limits were not reached even after a march of

sixty days. We have not recognized the Reindeer among the

animals figured upon the ancient coins of Gaul. Its bones have

not been found in the dolmens (tumuli) and other burying-

places regarded as Celtic, in which the remains of wild and

domestic animals are frequently associated, and in which we

have even twice observed bones of the beaver in the vicinity of

Paris. The Reindeer has not yet, so far as we know, been found

in the French turbaries; nor have MM. Garrigou and Filhol

indicated its presence in certain caverns of the Ariége, which

they have justly assimilated, from their zoological characters and

also from the presence of instruments of polished stones, with

the most ancient lacustrine habitations of Switzerland. We

know that the Reindeer is still wanting to the fauna of these

lacustrine pile-works; and yet we have been able to examine its

remains, derived from a neighbouring cave (that of Mont-Saléve),

in which the association of simply worked flints and of mammals

belonging to the same period occurs under the same conditions

as in our grottos of Périgord.

Thus, whether the disappearance of the Reindeer from tem-

perate Europe be the result of a regional extinction of this spe-

cies, or of its expulsion by the progressive development of

human societies, or of its gradual and spontaneous retirement

in consequence of changes in climatic conditions, it is not the

less probable that this disappearance took place at a phase of

prehistoric time anterior to the introduction of the domestic

races and to the use of metals in western Europe.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xiii. 22

330 Zoological Society :—

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

Flora Belfastiensis. The Plants round Belfast ; with their Geo-

graphical and Geological Distribution. By Rateu Tare, F.G.S.

24mo. Belfast: G. Phillips & Sons. 1863.

Tus little book is well suited for the object contemplated by its

author, viz. to be an assistance to the amateur botanists of Belfast.

an are glad to learn by its publication that that is a numerous class

there.

The district is interesting, and is shown by this list to be rich in

plants. The number of geological formations is large, and the range

in height extends from the level of the sea to the top of Black

Mountain, at an elevation of 1272 feet. Excluding such plants as

have small claim to be regarded as native, this little Flora records

602 species within a circle of from ten to fifteen miles’ radius from

Belfast. It is probable that its publication will cause some increase

in that number, but we may doubt if it admits of much extension ;

for the author and his friends have apparently searched the country

- with acute and discriminating eyes. We should like to know what

their Papaver dubium, Viola canina, and Arenaria serpillifolia

really are. :

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Nov. 10, 1863.—E. W. H. Holdsworth, Esq., F.Z.S., in the Chair.

Notes ON THE SEBASTOID FIisHES OCCURRING ON THE COAST

or CatirorniA, U.S.A. By Wn. O. Ayres, M.D., C.M.Z.S.

A remarkable feature in the ichthyic fauna of the coast of Cali-

fornia is the occurrence of a large number of species belonging to the

old genus Sebastes. They are taken in great quantities, and, being

all of excellent quality for the table, they furnish a large proportion

of the fresh fish sold in the markets of San Francisco. The different

forms aré readily distinguished by the fishmongers, though they sell:

them all under the absurd name of ‘ Rock Cod.” Their ichthyo-

logical history may be thus recorded.

In August 1854, Sebastes auriculatus, Girard, S. rosaceus, Gir.,

and S. fasciatus, Gir., were published in the ‘ Proceedings of the

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.’ A few weeks later (in

September), before the Philadelphia publication reached California,

S. nebulosus, Ayres, S. paucispinis, Ayres, S. ruber, Ayres, and 8.

ruber, var. parvus, Ayres, were named in the ‘ Proceedings of the

California Academy of Natural Sciences ;’ and in the same paper I

indicated another species as perhaps S. variabilis, Cuv. Of these,

S. nebulosus is identical with S. fasciatus, Gir. (but as the name fas-

ciatus had been preoccupied by Dr. Storer for a species of Massa-

chusetts Bay, nebulosus must be retained for the Californian species) ;

S. ruber, var. parvus, is S. auriculatus, Gir. In November 1854, 8S.

Dr. W. O. Ayres on the Sebastoid Fishes of California. 331

nebulosus, S. paucispinis, S. ruber, and S. variabilis were mentioned

again by me in the ‘ Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural

History.’ In 1856 the species referred to by me under Cuvier’s

name variabilis was described by Girard as S. melanops (Proc. Acad.

Nat. Sci. Phil. viii. p. 135). In 1858, in the tenth volume of the

* Pacific Railroad Reports,’ Girard described all the species as he

then understood them, giving my S. ruber as a synonym of his S.

rosaceus,—an error on his part, since the two species are entirely

distinct. In October 1859, S. nigrocinctus, S. helvomaculatus, and

S. elongatus were described by me in the ‘ Proceedings of the Cali-

fornia Academy of Natural Sciences.’ Of these, S. helvomaculatus

is considered by Mr. Theodore Gill (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil.,

June 1862) as merely a synonym of S. ocellatus, Cuv. In 1861, Mr.

Gill (Proc. Acad, Nat. Sci. Phil., July 1861) proposed to separate

Sebastes paucispinis from the other species, under a new generic

name, Sebastodes. In 1862 (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., June 1862)

the same author proposed to include all the other Californian species

in a new genus, to he desiguated Sebastichthys. In January 1863

(Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci. ii. p. 209) 1 described two new species,

Sebastodes flavidus and S. ovalis. At the same date (op. cit. p. 211)

I gave a brief sketch of what I believed to be the correct synonymy

of the species now known on the coast of California.

Such has been, in brief, the series of notices and publications re-

lating to these fishes. We have thus eleven species, all of which

were (or would have been) until recently designated as Sebastes. A

careful investigation of them all, with examination of very numerous

specimens, has, however, convinced me that they must be arranged

in two generic groups; and inasmuch as two generic names have, as

above stated, been proposed for them by Mr. Gill, it is well to consider

whether these names truly represent the two groups as seen in nature.

Of Sebastodes he gives the following diagnosis :—‘ This genus is

framed for the Sebastes paucispinis of Ayres. It has a very different

facies from Sebastes, and is readily distinguished by the longer body,

the very protuberant lower jaw (which has a symphysial swelling

beneath), the minute scales, the form and armature of the head, the

deep emargination of the dorsal fin, and the emarginated caudal.”

Such a grouping of characters as this belongs only to the single spe-

cies, S. paucispinis. In the ratio of depth to length we have every

step, from the “longer body’’. of S. paucispinis and S. elongatus

(which two are of about equal slenderness, though in other respects

they differ widely) to S. ovalis and S. nigrocinetus. And I may here

take occasion to remark that the practice, in describing fishes, of giving

the ratio of depth to length with such minuteness as is the custom of

some writers, has no warrant in nature, since different individuals of

the same species vary widely in their relative depth; and not only

so, but the same individual varies widely at different times, accord-

ing to the abundance or scarcity of food, and from other causes.

The “emargination of the dorsal fin’’ is most decided in S. flavidus,

while the least emargination of all occurs in S. elongatus, and the next

to that is in S. ovalis, which latter, however, is most closely allied to

22%

332 Zoological Society :—

S. flavidus. The ‘‘emarginated caudal” is a feature so slightly marked

at the best, and disappears so gradually from one species to another,

as to be of very little value. It is greatest in S. paucispinis and S.

elongatus, and becomes less through S. ovalis, 8. flavidus, S. mela-

nops, S. rosaceus, and §. helvomaculatus; in S. ruber and S. auri-

culatus the fin is about even, and in S. nedbulosus and S. nigrocinctus

it is slightly rounded. The “‘ protuberant lower jaw” and its “sym-

physial swelling beneath” are of greater value as generic features ;

they are common to five of our species. These five have the lower

jaw (which is knobbed at its extremity) continuing nearly the line

of extension of the top of the head; in these five the top of the

head is smooth and unarmed. In the remaining six species the two

jaws are but little unequal, and the lower is blunt and does not con-

tinue the line of extension of the top of the head; in these six the

top of the head is strongly ridged and spinous. But when we look

at the species of other waters, we find that the relative development

of the jaws can scarcely hold such rank as our groups here would

seem to indicate. Sebastes viviparus, for instance, with the surface

of the head very rough and spinous, has the knobbed projection of

the lower jaw strikingly developed. The ‘“ minute scales” belong

only to S. paucispinis. It does not seem possible, therefore, that

Sebastodes can be retained with such limits as were assigned to it

by Mr. Gill.

Let us now turn to his definition of Sebastichthys. He assigns

as its characters “eleven to twelve (XI.+I.—XII.+1I.) spines in

the first dorsal fin, palatine teeth, and the physiognomy of Sebastes

(norvegicus). But all of our species, S. paucispinis included, have

the same number of spines in the first dorsal fin—thirteen, or, if a

division is preferred, XII.+I.; and all are furnished with teeth

on the palatines. Neither can the “ physiognomy” be deemed of

value, inasmuch as forms so very unlike are here gathered into one

group: the rough, blunt-headed S. nigrocinctus has little kindred in

features to the smooth, sharp-nosed S.melanops. And as S.norvegicus

itself is provided with palatine teeth, the.only character remaining

to separate Sebastichthys is the number of first dorsal spines. This,

unsupported, does not appear sufficient.

The divisions of our Californian species, therefore, which have

been proposed by Mr. Gill I cannot adopt, though one of his names

may be retained with a different limitation.

Of the two groups which, as before stated, I find to exist in our

waters, one has the top of the head rough, the other has it smooth.

The former I refer without hesitation to the genus of which the

common species of Massachusetts Bay, S. viviparus, is a member ;

and, since Cuvier in his original diagnosis separates Sebastes from

Scorpena in consequence of the absence of fleshy filaments on the

head, it seems most natural in making a division of his genus that the

name Sebastes should be retained for those which, like Scorpena,

have the top of the head rough with ridges; and I propose thus to

restrict it. For the other group (those with the head smooth) a

distinct generic name is needed ; and since the appellation Sebastodes

Dr. W. O. Ayres on the Sebastoid Fishes of California. 333

has been proposed for one of the well-marked species, it seems better

to apply that to the entire group than to introduce a new term. I

suggest, therefore, the following arrangement :—

Gen. Sesastes.—With the characters of Sebastes as given by

Cuvier, except that the top of the head is always marked by spinous

ridges, the orbits being commonly crested, so as to leave a depression

between them.

Gen. Sesastoprs.— With the characters of the typical Sebastes,

except that the top of the head is always smooth, the spinous ridges

being so little developed as to be barely discernible, the orbits not

elevated.

In what manner the-species of other waters should be distributed

under this division I do not purpose at present to specify. The

means of reference to original authorities are here, unfortunately, so

small as to make the attempt useless. The Californian species,

however, hitherto discovered may be arranged and designated thus: —

1, SEBASTES NIGROCINCTUS, Ayres, Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci.

ii. p. 25, and p. 217, fig. 67.

Sebastichthys nigrocinctus, Gill, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci. 1862,

p- 278.

This is more strongly marked in the generic features than any

other of our species. The spines of the top of the head are very

prominent; the nasal spines strong, while nearly continuous from

them are a pair of slender interorbital ridges ; the supraorbital crest

sometimes a single ridge, and sometimes a series of spines or tuber-

cles; posterior to these a row of blunt tubercles, extending across

the top of the head, varying in number from two to five or six;

posterior to these the occipital ridges, very high, and commonly not

terminating in a spine. The posterior suborbital terminates in a

distinct spme. The preopercular spines are less prominent than in

most of the species, consisting of two, or at most three, on the pos-

terior border, with one or two rounded but not spinous projections

334 Zoological Society :—

beneath. The humeral suprascapular and two opercular spines are

of moderate development. The spinous and soft dorsals are about

equal in height, the spinous rays quite stout. The second anal spine

is higher and stronger than the third.

The colours in this species are entirely characteristic, and very

strongly marked. The fish is of a plain reddish yellow, crossed b:

five to six very distinct, nearly vertical, broad, dark bands, with

commonly two or three similar bands from the eye, one upward and

backward, and the others downward and backward. These bands

in my original description were said to be black, and the specific

name was given with that understanding. But I have since that

time seen specimens in which the bands were of a dark reddish

brown when fresh from the water, and became black only on the

drying of the surface or on immersion in alcohol.

S. nigrocinctus is not at all common in our waters, many months

often passing without a specimen being taken. It seldom exceeds

two pounds in weight.

2. Sesasres NeBULosvs, Ayres, Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci. i. p.5.

S. fasciatus, Gir. Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci. 1854, p. 146, and

P. R. Rep. x. p. 79, pl. 22 (non 8. fasciatus, Storer, Proc. Bost. Soc.

Nat. Hist. v. p. 31).

Sebastichthys nebulosus, Gill, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci. 1862,

p- 278.

In this species the spines of the top of the head are less prominent

than in S.xzgrocinetus. The nasal and anterior supraorbital are sharp,

rather strong; the posterior supraorbital a smooth prominent ridge,

ending in a strong spine; the intraorbital space smooth, not ridged

as in S. nigrocinctus; postorbital spine sharp and strong; occipital

spine a long smooth ridge, prominent, but not near so high as in 8.

nigrocinctus, and ending in a sharp spine; no spines on the subor-

bitals ; humeral, scapular, and opercular spines flat, and not promi-

nent ; preopercular five, well developed, rather sharp, the two on

the lower border more blunted. Spinous dorsal much higher than

the soft; second anal spine higher and stouter than the third.

The colours are sufficiently well stated by Girard (loc. cit.). 8.

nebulosus is by no means rare, and is found in the markets of San

Francisco at all seasons, seldom exceeding two pounds in weight.

3. SEBASTES AURICULATUS, Gir. Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci. 1854,

and P. R. Rep. x. p. 80.

S. ruber, var. parvus, Ayres, Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci. 1854, i.

p. 7.

Sebastichthys auriculatus, Gill, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci. 1862,

p-. 278.

Sebastes auriculatus,.Ayres, Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci. ii. p. 218,

fig. 68.

All the spines of the top of the head regular, smooth, strongly

marked, but not very prominent. Nasal stout and sharp; anterior

Dr. W. O. Ayres on the Sebastoid Fishes of California. 385

and posterior supraorbitals strong and sharp, but not so elevated as

to make much depth to the intraorbital fossa; intraorbital ridges

just discernible; postorbital spine slender, very sharp; occipital

ridge smooth, somewhat prominent, not spined. Upper two pre-

opercular spines sharp, next two flattened and serrated or edged,

anterior one blunt. Humeral, scapular, and two opercular spines

flat, not prominent; lower angle of operculum serrated. Spinous

dorsal a little higher than the soft portion, or sometimes only equal.

Second anal spine as high as the third, and stouter.

The colours are stated with sufficient accuracy by Girard (Joc. cit.).

S. auriculatus is perhaps the most common species we have, and is

almost the only one taken about the wharves of the city. The exam-

ples for the most part small, seldom exceeding half to three-quarters

of a pound in weight, though those brought in by the fishermen

from the deep water are much larger; the heaviest I have seen was

20 inches long, with a weight of six pounds. In the large specimens

the black spot of the operculum becomes almost obsolete.

The typical specimens of S. nebulosus and S. auriculatus are quite

widely distinct ; but so many intermediate forms occur, that not un-

frequently it is actually very difficult to decide to which of the two

certain individuals should be referred. The spines and ridges of the

pats I have found more reliable as means of diagnosis than any other

eatures.

4, SEBASTES RUBER, Ayres, Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci. i. p. 7,

and ii. p. 208, fig. 63 (non S. rosaceus, Gir. P. R. Rep. x. p. 78).

Top of the head quite rough, the ridges being thinner and more

irregular on their edge than in the other species. Nasal spine sharp

and rather strong; supraorbital crest consisting of an anterior spine

which is distinct and regular, and then an elongated irregularly ser-

rated ridge, not ending in any very distinct spine ; postorbital spine

not large, but quite sharp, distinct, and regular ; intraorbital pair of

386 Zoological Society :—

ridges low and not much crested, but quite discernible; occipital

ridge long, about as high as in S. nebulosus, irregularly serrated, and

not ending in any very distinct spine; the upper two preopercular

spines rather sharp, the next two flattened and serrated on the end,

the anterior one blunt ; opercular spines flat ; humeral and scapular

small. Second and third anal spines about equal in height and size.

Spinous dorsal higher than the soft portion. ~ Posterior margin of

a agg nearly even. Colour nearly uniform light crimson, lighter

eneath.

This is the species described by me in 1854 (Joc. cit.), but is not

the one to which the name is referred by Girard (P. R. Rep. x.

p- 78) as a synonym of S. rosaceus. The two have little close re-

semblance, except in colour. The points of difference will be given

when speaking of Sebastodes rosaceus. '

S. ruder is not at all rare. It grows to decidedly a greater size

than any. of the other species, reaching occasionally a weight of

twenty-five pounds, and, as the fishermen assert, even greater still,

while those of from ten to twelve pounds are quite common.

5. SEBASTES HELVOMACULATUS, Ayres, Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat.

Sci. 1859, ii. p. 26, fig. 8.

S. ocellatus’?, Cuv. (fide Gill, Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci. 1862, °

p- 278).

Sebastichthys ocellatus, Gill (loc. cit.).

Upper surface of the head quite strongly ridged. Nasal and an-

terior supraorbital spines sharp, quite prominent; posterior supra-

orbital forming a crest, which ends in commonly two prominent

sharp spines ; intraorbital fossa well marked, with two intraorbital

ridges ; postorbital spine appearing like a continuation of the poste-

rior supraorbital, prominent, very sharp; occipital ridge somewhat

Dr. W. O. Ayres on the Sebastoid Fishes of California. 337

elevated, ending in a free spine; of the preopercular spines, the

upper two are well developed, not very sharp, the lower three form-

ing blunt projections; two opercular spines sharp, not very long.

Humeral and scapular somewhat prominent. Spinous dorsal a little

higher than the soft portion. Second anal spine higher than the

third, and much stouter.

Colour pale red, becoming lighter beneath, with several light-pink -

spots on the upper parts of the sides. These spots are commonly

three, though occasionally one or two additional irregular ones are

seen. Sometimes in the largest specimens the light red of the

ground-colour is variegated with numerous minute whitish specks.

The outline figure (given above) represents the projection of the

lower jaw a little more strongly marked than it should be ; and shows

also but the lower of the two opercular spines, giving instead one too

many on the preeoperculum. Otherwise, though rough, it is tole-

rably characteristic.

S. helvomaculatus is not by any means rare, being brought to the

markets of San Francisco in some numbers. They are commonly

- small, not exceeding a pound in weight, though specimens weighing

three to four pounds are sometimes seen. This species has been

referred by Mr. Gill (/oc. cit.) to the South American form described

by Cuvier, S. ocellatus. The identification may perhaps be correct,

for the two doubtless approach each other closely; but the differ-

ence in proportions, in the spines of the head, and in the colouring of

the fins, and the wide separation in localities, together with the fact

that no specimens have been brought to me among numerous col-

lections made on this coast south of Point Conception, have induced

me to retain, at least for the present, the name given to our north-

ern species,

338 Zoological Society :-—

6. Sesastes ELoNGaTusS, Ayres, Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci. ii.

p- 26, fig. 9.

Nasal spine sharp, quite prominent; anterior supraorbital well

marked, sharp ; -posterior supraorbital forming a crest quite sufficient

to leave an intraorbital fossa, and terminating in a sharp spine;

postorbital just discernible ; occipital ridge smooth, low, with a free

point. Opercular, preopercular, humeral, and scapular spines pro-

minent and sharp. Inferior angle of operculum and posterior angle

of suboperculum spinous. Second anal spine higher and much

stouter than the third. Spinous dorsal about equal in height with

the soft portion.

S. elongatus is readily distinguished from all the other species of

true Sebastes by its extreme slenderness, in which respect it closely

resembles Sebastodes paucispinis, sometimes even surpassing it. The

proportion of depth to length varies from about one-fifth to nearly

one-fourth. The figure (given herewith) represents the first speci-

men found, which was as slender as any I have seen. In the figure

a spine is inadvertently shown on the lower part of the operculum,

while the scapular is omitted; the knobbed projection of the lower

jaw is not sufficiently indicated. The colours are well stated in the

original description.

The species appears to be not at all common, few being brought

to the markets. They seldom exceed a pound in weight.

SEBASTODES.

In the species of this division no diagnostic characters can be

drawn from the spines of the head, as so little difference is found in

them. In all, the nasal, supraorbital, and occipital spines are barely

discernible, or cannot be traced at all; the five preopercular are

quite strongly developed, smooth, and sharp (except that in S. pauci-

spinis the lower one is a blunt projection, with one, and sometimes

two sharp points) ; the opercular two are long and sharp; the hu-

Dr. W. O. Ayres on the Sebastoid Fishes of California. 339

meral and scapular are almost concealed. The specific distinctions,

therefore must be drawn from other features. The species may be

arranged and defined as follows :—

1. SEBASTODES PAUCISPINIS.

Sebastes paucispinis, Ayres, Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci. i. p. 6;

Gir. P. R. Rep. x. p. 83, pl. 22 a.

Sebastodes paucispinis, Gill, Proc, Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci. 1861,

p. 165. ’

This species is quite elongated in form, its depth being about one-

fourth of its length. The spinous dorsal is arched in outline, the

emargination between it and the soft portion being very distinct,

though less strongly marked than in S. flavidus or S. melanops.

The head is longer than in most species, constituting fully one-third

of the entire length. But the feature by which S. paucispinis is at

once recognized is the ‘‘ small scales.” They are relatively less than

in any other known species, and are accompanied by a general soft-

ness of flesh, which causes the fish to be less esteemed for the table

than any other of the group found in our waters. The description

and figure given by Girard are tolerably accurate.

S. paucispinis is not by any means common in this vicinity. It

is taken in company with the other species; but no more than a

single specimen at long intervals is seen in the markets. It attains

a length of 25 to 28 inches.

2. SepastopEs ovauis, Ayres, Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci. ii.

p- 209, fig. 65.

This species is much stouter than S. paucispinis, its depth being

nearly one-third of its length. Its closest alliances are with S.

Se eeneil

flavidus, Ayres, and 8. melanops, Gir. The spinous dorsal decreases

but little in height posteriorly, leaving of course but a slight emargi-

nation between it and the soft portion, which latter is low, its height

340 Zoological Society :—

being less than half its length. The pectoral fins are large, their

height being about one-fourth the length of the fish. Of the three

spines of the anal fin, the second is the highest and stoutest, equalling

the height of the soft portion of the fin. In colour the fish is of a

dark greenish brown above, becoming yellowish green on the sides,

and still lighter beneath. In regard to the softness of the scales it

comes nearer than any other species to S. paucispinis, though they

are relatively much larger than in the latter.

S. ovalis appears to be quite rare, only a few specimens having

been seen. None have exceeded three pounds in weight.

3. SEBASTODES FLAvIDUS, Ayres, Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci. ii.

p- 209, fig. 64.

This species is so closely allied to S. melanops, Gir., as scarcely to

be distinguished from it, except by its colours. S. melanops is nearly

black above, lighter on the sides and beneath; while S. favidus is

like S. ovalis, “dark greenish brown above, becoming yellowish green

on the sides, and still lighter beneath.” ;

S. flavidus is by no means uncommon, being brought to the mar-

kets in abundance. It seldom exceeds two pounds in weight.

4, SEBASTODES MELANOPS, Gir.

Sebastes melanops, Gir. Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci. viii. p. 135 ;

and P. R. Rep. x. p. 81. i

Sebastes variabilis, Ayres (non Cuvier), Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci.

1854, i. p. 7.

Sebastodes melanops, Ayres, Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci. ii. p. 211,

fig. 66.

This species is sufficiently well described by Girard (Joe. cit.) ; but

inasmuch as no figure is given by him, reference may be made to the

outline illustration given herewith (p. 341), which is accurately

reliable.

Dr. W.O. Ayres on the Sebastoid Fishes of California. 341

S. melanops is quite common here, and is brought to the markets

in large numbers. It is generally small, not exceeding a pound in

—_——

-—

weight, though it occasionally attains a weight of three or four

pounds.

5. SEBASTODES ROSACEUS, Gir.

Sebastes rosaceus, Gir. Proc. Phil. Acad. Nat. Sci. viii. p. 146;

and P. R. Rep. x. p. 78, pl. 21 (non Sebastes ruber, Ayres, Proc.

Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci. i. p. 7).

: Sebastodes rosaceus, Ayres, Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sci. ii. p. 206,

g. 62.

342 Zoological ‘Society.

This is the species originally described by Girard (Joc. cit.) under

the name rosaceus, and again quite correctly in the tenth volume of

the ‘Pacific Railroad Reports.’ In this latter publication he incor-

rectly refers my Sebastes ruber to it as a synonym. ‘The two are

widely distinct : S. ruber has the top of the head strongly ridged and

spinous, as already stated in this present communication ; 8. rosaceus,

as its generic affinities indicate, has the same region almost entirely

smooth, the nasal and occipital spines being barely discernible: in 8.

ruber the preopercular spines are blunt, almost truncated ; in 8. rosa-

ceus the same spines are long and very sharp: in S. ruber the anal fin

is small and rounded, its height being only about one-eighth of the

length of the fish, while the second and third spines of the fin are

nearly as high as the soft portion ; in 8. rosaceus the same fin is much

larger and pointed, its height being more than one-sixth of the length

of the fish, while the third anal spine (which is higher than the

second) is only about half as high as the soft portion. Many other

points might be noticed, but these are sufficient. The outline figures

show very clearly the relations of the two species.

Sebastodes rosaceus is quite common. It is a smaller fish than

Sebastes ruber, seldom exceeding five or six pounds in weight.

The eleven species thus indicated are brought to the markets of

San Francisco at all times of the year, the fishery being little affected

by the seasons. They are taken with the hook, in the open sea, near

the Bay of San Francisco, wherever rocky bottom is found. One

species only, Sebastes auriculatus, is caught about the wharves of the

city. The spawning-season is from March to June; and in all the

species the development of the young takes place within the body of

the mother, but to what degree I have not yet the means of stating

with absolute accuracy. I have traced them to such a stage of ad-

vancement that the mouth, the intestinal canal, the vertebral divi-

sions, and the vertical fins were all plainly discernible, and of course

the eyes strongly marked and prominent, the embryo on being re-

moved from the egg being fully half an inch in length.

Nores on THE Kacu. By Dr. Georce Bennett, F.Z.S.

On the 13th of June 1863, I received from New Caledonia, by

H. 1. M. Schooner ‘ La Calédonienne,’ a pair of Kagus (Rhinochetus

jubatus), male and female—one presented to me by Dr. Segol, the

surgeon of the vessel, and the other obtained and sent to me by the

kind exertions of M. Ferdinand Joubert, now residing in New Cale-

donia. Both these gentlemen have been indefatigable in endeavour-

ing to procure living specimens, the value of which is much raised

by the increased scarcity of Kagus on the island. The day following

their arrival I placed them in the aviary in the Botanical Gardens.

The female is a fine bird, and the largest specimen of the Kagu I

have yet seen. It is graceful and elegant in appearance, active and

lively in its habits, and its plumage in excellent condition. It is

distinguishable from the male bird by its much larger size, and by

the light colour of its plumage, also of its bill, feet, and legs. She

has besides a peculiar habit of crouching on the ground and covering

herself with her wings, by throwing them over together in a concave

Miscellaneous. 343

form, completely concealing the head and body. The male bird, on

the contrary, throws up his wings alternately, as if using them as

shields, and displays much pugnacity. The latter differs in colour

from the female, his plumage being dark brown, with bars of a lighter

shade; the primaries and secondaries of the wings are very dark

brown, barred with black; the crest is also of a much darker shade

of grey than in the female; the bill and legs are of a bright orange-

red colour.. When seen together, the male appears small compared

with the female. The latter utters a growling kind of scream ; while

the male makes a noise between a bark and a laugh, which is difficult to

express in words, terminating in the oft-repeated note of 60, 66, 00, 60.

The male bird is very lively, and readily attacks its aggressors.

The Kagu is becoming very scarce in New Caledonia,—one cause

of its rarity being that numbers have been shot for the table,

these birds being excellent eating. It is now difficult to procure

them dead, and still more so to take them alive. They are only

found in one part of the island, about ten miles distant from the set-

tlement of Port de France, where a gentleman told me he offered a

large reward to the natives to procure one to take with him to France,

but without success. .The birds sent to me had been in the posses-

sion of private individuals for some time. The Kagus are easily

domesticated, and, when captured, are placed in the poultry-yard

with the fowls, where they soon become tame ; but, as a matter of

precaution, one of their wings is usually clipped. These birds are

only met with about small marshes or ponds, feeding on worms,

slugs, &c. The nest and eggs have not yet been discovered, although

every exertion has been and is still being made by some of my resi-

dent friends in-New Caledonia for that purpose.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On Alternate Generation in the Annelida, and the Embryology of

Autolytus cornutus. By A. AGassiz.

From the works of Oersted, Grube, J. Miller, Max Miiller, and

Keferstein, it appears that 4utolytus presents the rare peculiarity

among Annelides of a striking polymorphism, the males being indeed

so different from the females that the two sexes have been described

as belonging to distinct genera. There exists also in each species a

third form, namely, the asexual form, which produces the sexual

individuals by gemmation at its posterior extremity—the alternation

of generations in these worms being now well established.

Mr. A. Agassiz has found in the harbour of Boston the Autolytus

of which the males were described by Oersted, in 1843, under the

name of Polybostrichus setosus, from Greenland. He has likewise

observed, in the same locality, another species, to which he gives the

name of Autolytus cornutus—a species which appears to be nearly

related to the European Autolytus (Sacconereis) Helgolandie. The

differences between the individuals of the two sexes are of the same

nature as in the European species. The females, at the moment of

their detachment from the organic individuals, possess no ovigerous

344 Miscellaneous.

sac. This sac is soon formed, and the ova are deposited in its

interior. The embryos are rapidly developed, and their escape from

the sac appears to cause the death of the female; at least, Mr.

Agassiz has never met with females after their embryos have escaped.

The embryos at the moment of issuing from the sac have a triangular

outline, their body diminishing rapidly towards the posterior ex-

tremity. The development of these embryos presents an example of

the most simple evolution observed among the Polychgetic Anne-

lides.—Journ. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. viii. p. 392.

Note on the Reproduction of the Larve of Insects.

By Professor Nicouas Wagener, of Kasan.

Professor N. Wagner has discovered a fact in the natural history

of insects which at first sight appears incredible; but, as it is sup-

ported by preparations, the inspection of which by Prof. de Filippi

completely convinced him of the truth of Prof. Wagner’s observa-

tions, a short notice of the singular results arrived at by the latter

cannot but be acceptable to our readers.

In June 1861 Prof. Wagner found, under the bark of a dead elm

in the vicinity of Kasan, some whitish apodal worms, the organization

of which proved them to be larvee of insects. Each of these larvee

was filled with smaller larvee. This was nothing remarkable, as cases

of parasitism are well known to be exceedingly frequent among in-

sects. But Prof. Wagner was justly struck by the fact that the in-

cluded larvee were perfectly identical, even to the smallest details, with

the enveloping larvee. By this identity he was led to assume that

the included larvee represented a second generation produced by the

enveloping larvae. This would therefore be a case of alternation of

generations even more surprising than that of the Aphides.

Improbable as this interpretation may appear at the first glance, it

has several circumstances in its favour. Amongst these the principal

are the following :—

1. It seems impossible to assume that a parasitic larva can pre-

sent an organization perfectly identical with that of the organism

which nourishes it.

2. The parasites which deposit their eggs in a single insect, de-

posit the whole at once, and these eggs are simultaneously developed.

But Prof. Wagner found in one and the same enveloping larva in-

cluded larvee presenting the most various phases of development.

3. Parasitism is an accidental phenomenon, whilst all the larvee

observed presented included larvee at a certain degree of development.

4. The size of the eggs of a given species is constant, whilst the

reproductive bodies which here play the part of eggs exhibit very

considerable variations of size.

5. In the interior of the larvee of the second generation a third

generation is produced, precisely similar to the first two.

Professor Wagner has observed three other species of the same

genus, all presenting this singular mode of reproduction. The per-

fect insects are still unknown. From the appearance of the larvee,

they seem to belong to the order Diptera.—Siebold und Kolliker’s

Zeitschrift, 1863, p. 544.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES.]

No. 77. MAY 1864.

XXXV.—On the Construction and Limitation of Genera among

the Hydroida. By Prof. Aruman, F.R.S.

Ir will assuredly seem strange that those principles of classifi-

cation which have been acknowledged as the only sound ones,

and which have been our guide in the study of every other group

of the animal kingdom, should be almost entirely ignored in our

attempts at a systematic arrangement of the Hyprorpa.

The cause of this, however, is sufficiently obvious. The indi-

vidual Hydroid frequently presents itself in disconnected parts,

which are very different from one another ; and it is only recently

that the researches of zoologists have shown the mutual relation

of these parts, and have demonstrated that organisms now en-

joying an independent life may have been at one time united in

a single individual, and are at all times necessary for an adequate

conception of it. So long, however, had the practice prevailed

of regarding these component elements of the zoological indivi-

dual as if they were entirely independent of one another, that

even still we find it more convenient to treat them as such, to

assign to them separate places in our systems, and record them

under distinct generic and specific names.

Yet this is totally at variance with the first principles of na-

tural classification and of a scientific nomenclature; and the

sooner we get rid of it the better for the harmony of biological

method, and the progress of that department of zoology in which

it has prevailed.

For many years it has been known that a considerable num-

ber of the fixed Hydroida give origin to buds which detach

themselves from the fixed stock, and henceforward lead an in-

dependent life in the open sea as free gymnophthalmic Meduse.

The first who entertained, or at least gave definite expression to,

the true relation between these two sets of elements in the

Hydroid seems to have been Dujardin, when he compared the

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3, Vol, xiii. 28

346 Prof. Allman on the Construction and

polypoid portion to the vegetative mycelium of a mushroom, and

the medusoid portion to the reproductive hymenium, with its ~

protecting parts*. The polypoid and medusoid elements, how-

ever, still continued to be treated as primarily independent or-

ganisms, receiying each separate generic and specific names ;

and indeed the time had not yet come when any other plan was

practicable ; for the number of free Medusa-forms which had been

traced to fixed polypoid forms was far too small to render possible

any more philosophic system.

Observations, however, gradually accumulated, and at length

we became aware of a sufficient number of cases in which the

connexion between the polypoid and medusoid elements was

apparent to justify an attempt at combining the two im our

classification.

Accordingly we find, in an excellent and conscientious paper

by M‘Crady+, an attempt made to combine the two elements

in his arrangement of the so-called Gymnophthalmic Meduse.

M‘Crady, however, gives a disproportionate prominence to the

medusoid element, and in his nomenclature shows a tendency

to adopt a more recent name by which the Medusa may have

been known, rather than the older one under which the polypoid

element has become familiar to us.

Agassiz, in the fourth volume of his ‘Contributions to the

Natural History of the United States,’ also shows himself im-

pressed with the necessity of combining both elements, in order

to allow of our forming an adequate conception of the Hydroid,

while he gives no undue prominence to one of these elements

over the other, and sees the justice of adopting for the entire

Hydroid the name by which it was first systematically described

whether under the form of the free Medusa or of the fixe

Polypite-colony, He has thus been frequently compelled to a

dismemberment and a redistribution of existing generic groups,

as well as to the construction of several new ones. Agassiz has

here largely extended our knowledge of the Hyprorpa, and has

made an important advance to a philosophic classification of the

group; but I cannot admit that he has always made a correct

estimate of the yalue of the characters which he employs in the

construction of his genera, while he more than once overlooks

the just claims of existing names to adoption.

The necessity of combining the two elements in our coneep-

tion, description, and classification of the Hydroida is also main-

tained in a series of excellent papers published in the ‘ Natural

* Dujardin in Ann. des Se. Nat. 1845. ;

+ M‘Crady, Gymnophthalmata of Charleston Harbour,” im the Pro-

ceedings of the Elliott Society of Natural History of Charleston, South

Carolina, 1859.

Limitation of Genera among the Hydroida. 347

History Reyiew’ (1861-63), where they appear under the form

of a reyiew of the work of Agassiz just referred to—papers in

which there is no difficulty in recognizing the pen of an accom-

plished zoologist who holds a chair in an Irish University, and

is already well known by his valuable contributions to the lite-

rature of the Calenterata.

I believe that henceforth no classification of the Hyprorpa

will be admitted by the zoologist which does not include in the

conception of every Hydroid both those parts which are destined

for the nutrition of the colony and those which are destined for

the sexual perpetuation of the species, whether these last are in

the form of fixed saes or of free locomotive Medusze.

It must be borne in mind that every Hydroid whose life-

history has come fully before us consists (with only a single

positively proved exception*) of two sets of zooids. One of

these is destined for the nutrition of the colony, and has nothing

to do with true generation; while the other is, on the con-

trary, destined for true generation, and has nothing to do with

the nutrition of the colony. For the whole assemblage of the

former I have elsewhere} proposed the term “trophosome,” and

for that of the latter the term “ gonosome ;” and whether the

gonosome remains permanently attached to the trophosome or

becomes in whole or in part free, attaining thereby an indepen-

dent existence, it is equally necessary that it should take its

place in our diagnosis of genera and species. An adequate con-

ception of the Hydroid can thus only be obtained by regarding

it as the product of two factors, one of them finding its expres-

sion in the trophosome, and the other in the gonosome,

Now the characters to which we shall be justified in assigning

a generic yalue will be found in both of these factors, The

trophosome will present them chiefly in the form of the poly-

pite, including the arrangement and structure of the tentacles

(whether these be scattered or in one or more verticils, or whether

they be filiform or capitate), in the solitary or associated condi-

tion of the polypites, and in the nature and extent of the chiti-

nous periderm. In the gonosome, characters of generic value

will be found in the mode of origin of the gonophores and in

their general form—whether they be in the condition of a fixed

sac (adelocodonic) or of a developed Medusa (phanerocodonic) ;

while each of these forms of gonophore may itself present dif-

ferences which will afford characters of value in the limitation

of our genera, It is true that among the adelocodonic forms it

it is rare to meet with any differences so well marked as to be-

* See my “Report on the Reproductive System of the Hydroida,” in

the Report of the Newcastle Meeting of the British Association, 1863,

Loe. cit.

23*

848 Prof, Allman on the Construction and

come of generic value; but among the phanerocodonic forms

the differences are numerous and important—differences which,

though they are fully recognized so long as we regard the Me-

dusz as independent organisms, are yet usually ignored when we

see in the Medusa only the sexual bud of a polypoid trophosome.

They will be found in the form of the umbrella, in the form and

development of the manubrium, in the situation of the generative

elements, in the number and distribution of the radiating canals,

in the structure of the marginal tentacles, and even in their

number when we have reason to regard this number as perma-

nent and not merely as the result of an immature condition,

and, finally, in the presence or absence of lithocysts, and even in

the position which these bodies hold on the umbrella-margin,—

all which characters, either singly or combined, will afford valid

grounds for the construction of our generic groups.

The classification of the Hyprorpa would be a comparatively

simple task if, as has been erroneously asserted, generically

identical medusoids always arose from generically identical poly-

poids, and, on the other hand, that generically identical polypoids

always gave origin to generically identical medusoids.

This, however, is far from being the case; and the history of

the Hydroida renders us acquainted with two phenomena which

signally break the uniformity assumed in the above propositions.

The phenomena to which I refer are, (1) the association of

similar gonosomes with dissimilar trophosomes (isogonism) ; and

(2) the association of dissimilar gonosomes with similar tropho-

somes (heterogonism). ‘The difficulties which these phenomena

throw in the way of a natural classification of the Hydroida

may be compared to those which the mineralogist meets with

when he finds isomorphism and dimorphism interfering with the

uniformity of his mineralogical system.

But the great difficulty, after all, in the application of the

method here advocated is found in the fact that, the Medusa at

the time of its liberation is still in an immature state, and may

be destined to undergo important changes before arriving at its

adult condition. In such cases, unless we have succeeded in

following the Medusa to its ultimate form, our determination of

its type must be regarded as only approximative. Analogy,

however, will greatly aid us in this determination, by pointing

out what are the parts most liable to change, and what the

direction in which this change is likely to take place.

From these considerations we learn that the number of mar-

ginal tentacles in the recently liberated Medusa must be accepted

with great caution as affording valid systematic characters, these

organs being especially liable to an increase in number as the

Medusa advances towards maturity. In some cases, however,

Limitation of Genera among the Hydroida. 349

we may fairly assume the number presented by the marginal

tentacles in the young Medusa as representing their permanent

condition, as, for example, in the single long tentacle of the

Medusa in Corymorpha, where we find, by going back to the

early stages of the development of this Medusa, that the pecu-

liar asymmetrical form which, in a later stage, finds its expres-

sion so decidedly in the great development of a single tentacle

is quite apparent before any trace of a tentacle can be detected.

With regard to nomenclature, I am convinced that, except in

certain special cases, we must give to our Hydroid the name

under which it was first described, whether this name may have

been originally given to the trophosome or to the gonosome.

The fact of our giving as a generic name to the complete Hy-

droid that by which the Medusa had been previously known

needs not prevent our employing the same name for all those

similar Medusz whose trophosome has not yet been discovered ;

but we must keep in mind that the name, when used in this

sense, is purely provisional, and liable to be changed when the

discovery of the trophosome shall determine the true genus of

our then no longer complete Hydroid.

It is upon the principles here urged that I have drawn up the

following synopsis of the genera and species of the Tubularian

and Campanularian Hydroids. I have confined myself, how-

ever, entirely to those forms in which the trophosome is known,

the numerous free Medusz which have not been traced to a

trophosome, or been proved to originate by direct development

from the egg, holding places in our system which must for the

present be regarded as altogether provisional.

In the generic descriptions I have adopted as far as possible a

uniformity in the selection of characters and in the order in

which these characters are noted; and I have further, by availing

myself of terms already in use, and by introducing one or two

new ones, been able to avoid tedious circumlocution, and to

condense the descriptions without sacrificing their precision.

In order that the synopsis may be more easily followed, it

will be well to give here definitions of the principal terms used,

while for a fuller exposition of the terminology of the Hydroida

I must refer to Prof. Huxley’s ‘Oceanic Hydrozoa,’ published

by the Ray Society, and to some papers of my own, more espe-

cially a paper “On the Structure and Terminology of the

Reproductive System in the Corynide and Sertulariade,” pub-

lished in the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ for

July 1860, and a “ Report on the Reproductive System of the

Hydroida,” in the Report of the Newcastle Meeting of the

British Association, 1863.

The terms “ trophosome” and “ gonosome” have been already

850 Prof, Allman on the Construction and

defined in the present paper; the “ coonosare” is the common

connecting basis of the colony, and is more or less completely

invested by a chitinous “periderm” excreted from its surface ;

the “ hydrorhiza” (Huxley) is the root-like proximal termination

of the ccenosare by which the Hydroid attaches itself to foreign

bodies; the “hydrocaulus” is the free or (in certain ereeping

forms) more or less adherent portion of the cosnosarc, which

intervenes between the hydrorhiza and the polypites ; the “ meta-

stome” is that portion of the polypite which intervenes between

the mouth and the most distal set of tentacles; the “hydro-

theca” (Huxley) is the cup-like receptacle into which the polypites

are retractile in the Campanularian and Sertularian Hydroids;

the “ gonophore” is the proper generative bud, either in the

form of a sac or of a locomotive Medusa, upon which devolves

the function of giving origin directly or indirectly to the gene-

rative elements; the “ gonangium”’ is the capsule or receptacle

in which the gonophores are contained in the Campanularian

and Sertularian Hydroids; the “ gonoblastidium ” (Huxley) is a

more or less developed column which exists in certain Hydroids,

and is destined to give origin to the gonophores, which aré pro-

duced as buds from its sides; “adelocodonic”’ gonophores are

those which are constructed on the plan of the “sporosac”—

that is; in which the umbrella is never developed so as to pre-

sent a wide orifice or “ codonostome,” and never becomes capa-

ble of acting as a locomotive organ ; “ phanerocodonic” gono-=

phores are those which present the type of the developed Me-

dusa in which the umbrella presents a wide orifice, and may in

almost every case act as an organ of locomotion.

Synopsis of the Genera and Species of Tubularian Hydroids

whose trophosomes are known.

Clavide.

1. Ciava, Gimelin.

Trophosome.—Ccenosare consisting mainly of a filiform hydro-

rhiza entirely invested by a chitinous periderm; h drocaulus

rudimental, and consisting of very short, simple, tubular pro-

cesses from the free surface of the hydrorhiza, invested, like the

hydrorhiza, by a periderm, and carrying the polypites on their

summit: Polypites claviform, with scattered filiform tentacula.

osome.—Gonophores adelocodonie, sessile or on very short

peduncles, borne on the body of the polypite at the proximal

side of the tentacles. .

Clava multicornis, Forskal (sp.), = Hydra multicornis, Forskal.

Clava repens, Wright; = Clava discreta; Allm.

Limitation of Genera among the Hydroida. 851

Clava leptostyla, Agass.

Clava diffusa, Allm.

Clava cornea, Wright.

Clava membranacea, Wright.

Clava nodosa, Wright.

Though the three species, C. cornea, CO. membranacea; and C.

nodosa are described as Scottish, I have not seen any specimens of

them, and I here give them on the authority of Dr. Wright.

2. Tusrcnava, Allman.

Trophosome.—Ccenosare consisting of a well-developed hydro-

caults in the form of simple or branched stems; which are given

off at intervals from a creeping filiform hydrorhiza, the whole

invested by a chitinous periderm. Polypites borne on the

summit of the hydrocaulus, claviform, with scattered filiform

tentacula.

- Gonosome:—Gonophores adelocodonic, consisting of clusters

of sporosacs sessile on the body of the polypite at the proximal

side of the tentacula.

From the above definition the Tubiclava cornucopia of Nofman * is

excluded, this Hydroid being, in my opinion, the type of a new

genus, which is distinguished from Tudiclava by having its gotio-

a borne on distinct gonoblastidia, and which, I believe; Mr.

orman will himself shortly characterize.

Tubiclava lucerna; Allm. ;

8. CampaniciavAt, Allman, nov. gen:

Trophosome.—Ccenosare a creeping, filiform, ramified hydro-

rhiza invested by a periderm; hydrocaulus undeveloped. Poly-

pites sessile on the hydrorhiza, claviform, with scattered filiform

tentacula.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonie, sessile on the ¢reep-

ing hydrorhiza. Umbrella at the time of its liberation deep bell-

shaped ; manubrium simple-mouthed, shorter than the heiglit of

the bell-cavity ; radiating canals four; marginal tentacles two,

continuous with two opposite radiating ean, and having bul-

bous bases without distinct ocellus; two intervening smaller

bulbs corresponding to the termination of the other two radiating

canals in the circular canal.

_There can be no doubt that the Medusa here described undergoes

further changes before arriving at maturity: It is; at least; almost

certain that two additional marginal tentaclés becoihe developed,

* See Norman in Ann. aiid Mag. Nat. Hist. Jan. 1864.

+ Campana, a bell, and Clava, the name of a genus of Hydroids.

352 Prof. Allman on the Construction and

one from each of the intermediate bulbs, as the observations of

Gegenbaur on this Hydroid go to prove.

Campaniclava Cleodore, Gegenb. (sp.),= Syncoryne Cleodore,

Gegenb.

4, Turris, Lesson.

Trophosome.—Coenosarc invested by a periderm, and consisting

of a creeping filiform hydrorhiza, with a rudimental hydrocaulus,

which forms very short tubular processes supported on the free

surface of the hydrorhiza, and carrying the polypites on their

summits. Polypites claviform, with scattered filiform tentacula.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic. The mature Medusa

has a subcylindrical umbrella, with four or eight longitudinal

bands ; manubrium massive, with a four-lipped mouth ; radiating

canals four; marginal tentacles numerous, each with a bulbous

base having a distinct ocellus.

The trophosome of Turris was discovered by Gosse, who traced

its development from the eggs of Turris neglecta, Forbes. It was

afterwards observed by Dr. Strethill Wright, who carried its develop-

ment still further, and named it Clavula Gossii.

We do not yet know anything as to the part of the trophosome

from which the gonophores are developed, nor of the condition of

the Medusee at the time of their liberation.

Turris neglecta, Forbes. Trophosome = Clavula Gossii,

Wright.

5. CorpyLopHora, Allman.

Trophosome.—Ceenosare a creeping filiform hydrorhiza sup-

porting a well-developed branching hydrocaulus, the whole in-

vested by a chitinous periderm. _ Polypites fusiform, developed

from the extremities of the branches; tentacula filiform, scat-

tered on the body of the polypite.

Gonosome.—Gonophores adelocodonic, borne on the hydro-

caulus, never on the polypite.

Cordylophora lacustris, Allm.

Cordylophora albicola, Kirchenpauer.

6. CorypenpRIvum, Van Beneden.

Trophosome.—Ccenosare consisting of a rooted and branching

hydrocaulus invested by a periderm. Polypites developed from

the extremities of the branches, fusiform, with scattered filiform

tentacula.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, developed from the

ceenosarc. Form of Medusa unknown.’

Corydendrium parasiticum, Van Ben., = Syncoryne parasitica,

Ehrenb., = Sertularia parasitica, Cavolini.

Limitation of Genera among the Hydroida. 858 3

Podocorynide.

1, Srytactis*, Allman, nov. gen.

Trophosome.—Ceenosare mainly composed of a retiform hy-

drorhiza, which consists of anastomosing tubes invested by a

periderm; hydrocaulus rudimental (or absent?). Polypites

claviform, with a single verticil of filiform tentacles surrounding

the base of a conical metastome.

. Gonosome.—Gonophores adelocodonic, borne on the body of

the polypite at the proximal side of the tentacles.

Stylactis fucicola, Sars (sp.),= Podocoryne fucicola, Sars.

Stylactis Sarsti, Allm.,=Podocoryne carnea, Sars.

I have given the name of S. Sarsii to a Hydroid which Sars re-

garded as a form of his Podocoryne carnea with sporosacs instead of

Medusze (Fauna Lit. Norv. p. 7, pl. 2. fig. 5). It is, however, no form

of Podocoryne carnea, and must be withdrawn even from the genus.

2. Popocoryng, Sars (in part).

Trophosome.—Ccenosare invested by a periderm, and com-

posed of a creeping retiform hydrorhiza, with a rudimental hy-

drocaulus consisting of very short, simple, tubular processes

from the free surface of the hydrorhiza, and having the polypites

developed from their extremities. Polypites with a single ver-

ticil of filiform tentacula placed round the base of a conical

metastome.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, borne on the body

of the polypite at the proximal side of the tentacles+. Medusa

with a deep bell-shaped umbrella, a small four-lipped manu-

brium, four radiating canals, and eight marginal tentacles, with

bulbous bases, but destitute of ocelli.

Podocoryne carnea, Sars.

Podocoryne(?) aculeata, Wagner (sp.), = Coryne aculeata, Wag.

3. Corynopsts {, Allman, nov. gen.

Trophosome.—Hydrorhiza ramified and creeping ; hydrocaulus

rudimental or absent. Polypites claviform, with a single verticil

of filiform tentacula surrounding the base of a conical meta-

stome.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, borne on the body

of the polypite at the proximal side of the tentacular verticil.

* From oridos, a column, and dxris, a ray.

T In every known instance the polypites which carry gonophores in the

genus Podocoryne are more or less arrested in their development, appa-

rently by the exhaustion caused by their burden; but they never present

the condition of true gonoblastidia. ;

} From kopivn, a pany and dys, face (resemblance).

854, Prof, Allman on the Construction and

Medusa at the time of liberation deep bell-shaped; manubrium

not reaching the orifice of the bell, and having its mouth sur-

rounded by four short tentacles ; radiating canals four, each

terminating distally in a bulb, from which are developed two

tentacles, each with a distinct ocellus at its base.

Corynopsis Alderi; Hodge (sp.),= Podocoryne Alderi, Hodge.

The genus Corynopsis has been constituted for the Podocoryne

Alderi of Mr. Hodge—a Hydroid; however; whose gonosome will at

once separate it from the true Pudocoryne. It will be noticed that

the Medusa, at the time of its liberation, is not to be distinguished

from that of Bowgainvillia at the same stage of its development.

The further progress of the Medusa of Corynopsis has not been

traced ; but it is highly probable that we have here a true ease of

isogonism with Bougainvillia,

4; Dirtura; Greene; MS.

Trophosome.—Polypite supported on the summit of a simple

hydrocaulus, with a branched and creeping (?) hydrorhiza;

periderm?; tentacles filiform, in a single verticil (?) near the

distal extremity of the body.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, on simple peduncles,

which arise in a verticil from the body of the polypite at the

proximal side of the tentacles: Medusa deep bell-shaped, with

moderate-sized manubrium; radiating canals four, each termi-

nating in a bulbous expansion at the point of intersection with

the circular canal: from one of these marginal bulbs two long

tentacles are developed; the rest of the margin is destitute of

tentacles.

The genus Diplura was originally, under the name of Diplonema,

established by Prof. J. Reay Greene for a Hydroid of which the Me-

dusa was alone known to him. (Nat. Hist: Rev: 1857, vol: iv.); The

name of Diplonema; however, happened to be preoccupied by the

botanist, and Prof. Greene has since substituted for it that of Di-

plura. The Medusa thus named he found free in the open sea near

Dublin; and it is undoubtedly congeneric with that described by

Steenstrup as the Medisa of a Hydroid trophosome, which he names

Coryne fritillaria, Steenstrup’s Hydroid, however, is certainly not ‘

a Coryne in the sense in which we must now understand this genus ;

and though his description and figure are insufficient for an entirely

satisfactory diagnosis, they compel us to regard his Hydroid as the

representative of a distinct generic type; to which the name pro-

posed by Prof. Greene for the Medusa, whose relation to Steenstrup’s

form he recognized at the time of its discovery, must now be oe

_ Agassiz refers it to Steenstrupia (Contr. Nat. Hist. U. 8. vol. iv.) ;

but the genus Steenstrupia was founded by Forbes for a Medusa of

an entirely different type, though possessing unmistakeable affinities

with Diplura.

Limitation of Genera among the Hydroida. 855

Hydractinide.

1. HypractiniA, Van Beneden.

Trophosome. — Ccenosare forming a continuous expansion

whose free stirface is destittite of peridetm, but whose deéper

arts consist of an areola¥ mass of freely intercommunicating

ubes, which are each invested by a distinct periderm, and are

adnate to one another. Polypites claviform, developed at inter-

yals from the free naked surface of the ccenosare; tentacles fili-

form, approximated into a single verticil round the base of a

very contractile and mutable metastome.

Gonosome.—Sporosacs supported on gonoblastidia, which

arise, like the polypites, from the naked free surface of the co-

nosare, are destitute of tentacles, and terminated by spherical

clusters of thread-cells. ;

Hydractinia echinata, Flem. (sp.); 3 ,=-Hydractinia lactea, Van

Ben., 2,= Hydractinia rosea, Van Ben., = Synhydra parasites,

Quatref., =?Dysmorphosa conchicola, Philippi.

Hydractinea polyclina, Agass.

2. Ruizociine*, Allman, nov, gen.

Trophosome.—Ccenosare forming an adherent strattim sup-

ported by “a solid chitinous expansion” +. Polypites developed

at intervals from the free surface of the coenosarc; tentacles

filiform, in a single verticil round the base of a conical meta-

stome.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, sessile on the free

surface of the coenosarc. Umbrella, at the time of liberation,

deep bell-shaped; manubrium large, with a fowi-lipped mouth,

but not extending beyond the margin of the umbrella; four

radiating canals continued distally by four marginal tentacles

with bulbotis bases; three shorter tentacles developed in éach

interradial space.

Rhizocline areolata, Alder (sp.),=Hydractinia areolata, Alder.

Laride.

1. Lar, Gosse.

Trophosome.—Ceenosare a creeping, filiform, and anastomosing

hydrorhiza, on which sessile polypites are developed at intervals ;

* From pifa, a root, and Kirn, a bed.

+ Mr. Alder describes the attached base of the Hydroid for which I have

found it necessary to constitute the present genus as “ consisting of a solid

chitinous expansion, from which arise simple linear spines in regular groups

having areolar spaces between them.” There pects, no doubt, however,

that, with specimens favourable for observation, he would have diseovered

a fleshy ccenosarc in connexion with the chitinous basis.

856 Prof. Allman on the Construction and

periderm (?). Polypites fusiform, with two tentacula situated

at the base of a two-lipped metastome.

Gonosome not known.

The remarkable and aberrant form described by Gosse under the

name of Lar Sabellarum will need further investigation before it

will be possible to determine its true affinities. I have retained it

here, however, as a legitimate genus, and the type of a distinct family,

though, with our present knowledge of it, we are almost tempted to

regard it ‘as an abnormal condition of some other form.

Lar sabellarum, Gosse.

Corynidz,

1. Coryne, Gartner.

Trophosome.—Ccenosare consisting of a simple or branching

hydrocaulus rooted by a creeping filiform hydrorhiza, the whole

invested by a chitinous periderm. Polypites developed from the

summits of the hydrocaulus, clavate; tentacles capitate, scat-

tered on the body of the polypite.

Gonosome.—Gonophores adelocodonic, developed from the

body of the polypite.

Coryne pusilla, Gart., = Coryne pusilla, Johnst., nec Van

Beneden.

Coryne ramosa, Sars.

Coryne fruticosa, Hincks.

- Coryne vaginata, Hincks, = Coryne ramosa, Johust.,= Coryne,

sp., Lister.

Doubtful species.

Coryne sessilis, Gosse.

2. Syncoryne, Ehrenberg (in part).

Trophosome.—Ccenosare composed of a simple or branching

hydrocaulus rooted by a creeping filiform hydrorhiza, and the

whole invested by a chitinous periderm. Polypites claviform,

developed from the summits of the hydrocaulus; tentacles

capitate, scattered upon the body of the polypite.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, developed upon the

body of the polypite. Umbrella, at time of liberation, deep bell-

shaped ; manubrium moderately large, not reaching the mouth

of the bell*, destitute of oral tentacles; radiating canals four ;

marginal tentacles four, with bulbous bases, generally furnished

with an ocellus. In some cases the gonophores, though phane-

* It is to be kept in mind that the characters here given are those of

the Medusa at the time when it becomes free; it is probable, however,

that it ultimately assumes the type of Sarsia, with its greatly developed

and extensile manubrium. See Agassiz on Coryne mirabilis, in the fourth

vol. of Cont. Nat. Hist. U.S.

~ Limitation of Genera among the Hydroida. 357

rocodonic, never become free, and the marginal tentacles then

remain in an imperfectly developed state.

Syncoryne Sarsii, Lovén, = Syncoryne decipiens, Dujardin.

Syncoryne ramosa, Lovén.

Syncoryne (sp.), Désor.

Syncoryne turricula, M‘Crady (sp.), = Sarsia turricula, M‘Crady.

M‘Crady figures and describes the Medusa of this species; but

his description of the trophosome is not full enough for a satisfactory

diagnosis.

Syncoryne mirabilis, Agass. (sp.),= Coryne mirabilis, Agass.

Syncoryne eximia, Allm. (sp.), = Coryne eximia, Allm. in Ann.

Nat. Hist. 1859.

Syncoryne gravata, Wright (sp.), = Coryne gravata, Wright.

Provisional and Doubtful Species.

Syncoryne bryoides, Ehr.,= Tubularia muscoides, Linn.

Syncoryne Lasteri, Van Ben.

3. Zanciyna, Gegenbaur.

Trophosome.—Ccenosare consisting of a simple or branching

ne et rooted by a filiform anastomosing hydrorhiza, the

whole invested by a periderm. Polypites claviform, developed

from the summits of the hydrocaulus; tentacles capitate, scat-

tered over the body of the polypite.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, developed from the

body of the polypite. Medusa, at the time of its liberation from

the trophosome, nearly spherical ; manubrium simple-mouthed,

not reaching the margin of the umbrella; radiating canals four ;

marginal tentacles two, developed from the distal extremities of

two opposite radiating canals; two intermediate bulbous dilata-

tions at the intersections of the two other radiating canals with

the circular canal ; the tentacles commence with a large bulbous

_ dilatation destitute of distinct ocellus, and are for the remainder

of their extent closely set along their external sides with pedun-

culated sacs filled with thread-cells; from the bases of the ten-

tacula and intermediate bulbs a cecal claviform tube filled with

thread-cells extends in the walls of the umbrella near its external

surface and parallel to the corresponding radiating canal.

It is almost certain that the Medusa here described is destined to

undergo considerable change before reaching its adult state, when its

characters will, in all probability, be those assigned by Gegenbaur to

his genus Zanclea. A Medusa captured by M‘Crady in the open

sea, and regarded by him (Gymnophthalmata of Charleston Har-

bour) as a young state of a species of Zanclea, is almost identical

with that just described.

Zancleaimplexa, Alder (sp.), = Coryne implexa, Alder, = Coryne

Briareus, Allman, in Aun, Nat, Hist, 1859,

358 Prof, Allman on the Construction and

4, Corynizis, M‘Crady,

Trophosome.—Polypites springing from an adherent base* ;

tentacles capitate, scattered over the body of the polypitet.

Gonosome.— Gonophores phanerocodonic, borne upon the

body of the polypite. Umbrella deep bell-shaped, thiek-walled,

with clusters of thread-cells imbedded in its walls, and with the

roof of its cayity rising in four overarched spaces between the

radiating canals; manubrium massive; radiating canals four;

marginal tentacles four, club-shaped, with basal bulbs, each

furnished with an ocellus. ;

Oorynitis Agassizi, M‘Crady t.

5. CanpeLasrom, De Blainville.

Trophosome.—Polypites clavate, springing from a tubular

adherent hydrorhiza, which is invested by a periderm; tentacles

wart-like, scattered over the body of the polypite. —

Gonosome.—Gonophores adelocodonic (?), on gonoblastidia

which are clustered round the base of the polypite.

Candelabrum is De Blainville’s name for the Lucernaria Phrygia

of Fabricius, which Agassiz has shown to be identical with the

Myriothela of Sars, and to which he has accordingly restored the

original name given by De Blainville.

Candelabrum Phrygia, Fabricius (sp.), = Lucernaria Phrygia,

Fabricius.

Candelabrum arcticum, Sars (sp.),= Myriothela arctica, Sars.

Pennaride,

1. Vorticiaya, Alder.

Trophosome,—Polypites solitary, borne on the summit of a

simple hydrocaulus, which is attached by a simple conical (?)

hydrorhiza; periderm a delicate transparent film inyesting the

hydrocaulus and the hydrorhiza ; tentacles in two yerticils, those

composing the proximal verticil long and filiform, those eom-

posing the distal verticil short and capitate,

Gonosome unknown.

Vorticlava humilis, Alder.

Vorticlava Proteus, Wright.

* The nature of this base has not been described: it is probably a

tubular reticulated hydrorhiza invested by a periderm.

+ The trophosome of this genus has been described and figured by

Agassiz under the name of Halocharis (Cont. Nat, Hist. U.S. yol. iy.

p- 239), but has been since (op. cit. p, 340) referred by him to the genus

Corynitis.

= ‘The Halocharis (Corynitis) spiralis of Agassiz, op. cit. p. 239, may con-

stitute a second species of Corynitis; but there is no mention of its gono-

some, and it is not clear whether Agassiz does or does not regard it as di-

stinct from Corynitis Agassizi.

Limitation of Genera among the Hydroida. 359

2. AcuarnapRiA, Strethill Wright.

Trophosome.—Hydrocaulus branched, with a well-developed

periderm ; hydrorhiza (?). Polypites with two verticils of tenta-

cula, those composing the proximal yerticil long and filiform,

those composing the distal verticil short and capitate,

Gonosome unknown.

Acharadria larynx, Wright.

3. Hereractis*, Allman, nov. gen.

Trophosome.—Polypite solitary, borne on the summit of a

simple rooted hydrocaulus ; two verticils of tentacles, a proximal

and a distal,—the tentacles composing the proximal verticil long

and “annulated”’ (Sars), those composing the distal verticil short

and capitate.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, borne upon pedun-

cles, which arise from the body of the polypite at the distal side

of the proximal verticil of tentacles. Umbrella in the form of a

shallow bell, with four radiating canals, one large marginal

tentacle, and three rudimental ones. |

The genus Heteractis is constructed for the Corymorpha annuli-

cornis of Sars, which is certainly not a Corymorpha, as indeed Sars

himself suspects; it may possibly belong to the genus Vorticlava, Alder,

as already suggested by Hincks; but, from our present knowledge

of it, and the absence of all knowledge of the gonosome in Vorti-

elava, we should hardly yet be justified in associating the two forms in

a common genus.

Heteractis annulicornis, Sars (sp.),= Corymorpha? annulicornis,

Sars.

4, Srauripium, Dujardin.

Trophosome,—Ceenosare consisting of a branched or simple

hydrocaulus arising from a creeping filiform hydrorhiza, the

whole invested by a periderm. Polypites borne on the summits

of the hydrocaulus, clavate, with two yerticils of tentacles, each

yerticil consisting of four tentacles arranged in a cross; the

tentacles of the proximal verticil filiform, those of the distal

verticil capitate.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, developed from the

body of the polypite. Umbrella deep bell-shaped ; manubrium

not reaching the margin of the bell; mouth simple; radiating

canals four; marginal tentacles four, nodulated with clusters of

thread-cells, and with a distinct ocellus on the basal buibt.

The name Stauridium is the same as ‘Stauridie” of Dujardin,

* From érepos, dissimilar, and aris, a ray.

+ Hincks has pointed out the identiny in every respect of the gonophore

of Stauridium productum with that of Coryne (Syncoryne) eximia.

860 ‘Prof. Allman. on the Construction and

only with its termination altered so as to adapt it to the ordinary

form of zoological nomenclature—a form in which Dujardin’s name

has been used by most subsequent writers, as Krohn (Miiller’s Arch.

1853) and Gegenbaur (Zeit. f. w. Z. 1857, p. 230).

Dujardin and the writers who have followed him have given this

name to a Hydroid whose trophosome is distinguished by the cha-

racters here enumerated ; but as it has been shown by Hincks (Ann.

Nat. Hist. Dec. 1862) that this form of trophosome may have two

very different forms of gonosome, it is necessary to break up Dujar-

din’s genus into two, one of which may retain his original name for

the trophosome, while to the other we may give the name of Clado-

nema, that employed by Dujardin for the only form of Medusa which

he succeeded in tracing to a Stauridioid trophosome.

Stauridium productum, Wright.

5. Craponema, Dujardin.

Trophosome.—Ceenosare consisting of a branching or simple

hydrocaulus arising from a creeping filiform hydrorhiza, the

whole invested by a chitinous periderm. Polypites borne on the

summits of the hydrocaulus, clavate, with two verticils of tenta-

cles, each verticil consisting of four tentacles disposed in a cross,

—the tentacles of the proximal verticil filiform, those of the

distal verticil capitate *.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, developed from the

body of the polypite. Umbrella deep bell-shaped; manubrium

large, with simple mouth ; radiating canals eight, each continued

at the margin of the umbrella into a branching tentacle with a

bulbous base provided with an ocellus.

Cladonema radiatum, Dujardin.

6. Pennarta, Goldfuss.

Trophosome.—Ccenosare composed of a symmetrically ramified

hydrocaulns, rooted by a creeping filiform hydrorhiza, the whole

invested by a chitinous periderm. Polypites borne on the sum-

mits of the branches, oviform, with two sets of tentacles—a

proximal set filiform and arranged in a single verticil round the

base of the polypite, and a distal set capitate and scattered on

the body of the polypite.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, developed between

the proximal and distal set of tentacles. Umbrella deeply ovate ;

manubrium large, but not passing beyond the orifice of the

* Tt will be noticed that the above description of the trophosome of

Cladonema is identical with that of the trophosome of Stawridium. The

differences between the two genera are confined to the gonosome, where

they are well marked.

Limitation of Genera among the Hydroida. 361

umbrella; radiating canals four; four rudimental, papilliform

marginal tentacles*.

Pennaria distycha, Goldf., = Pennaria Cavolini, Ehrenb., =

Sertularia pennaria, Cavolini.

Pennaria gibbosa, Agassiz.

7. Guopicers, Ayres.

Trophosome.—Ccenosare rooted, symmetrically branched, and

invested by a chitinous periderm. Polypites claviform, with two

sets of tentacles—a proximal set filiform and arranged in a single

verticil round the base of the polypite, and a distal set capitate

and arranged in one or more verticils, never scattered.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, developed between

the proximal and distal sets of tentacles. Umbrella deeply ovate,

with large manubrium; four radiating canals, and four rudi-

mental, papilliform marginal tentacula.

Globiceps tiarella, Ayres, = Eucoryne elegans, Leidy, = Pen-

naria tiarella, M‘Crady.

Clavatellide.

1, Cravate ta, Hincks.

Trophosome.—Ccenosare composed of a filiform branching

hydrorhiza, with a hydrocaulus consisting of very short simple

stems, which arise from the free surface of the hydrorhiza, the

whole invested by a periderm. Polypites developed from the

summit of the hydrocaulus, and having a single verticil of

capitate tentacula surrounding the base of a conical metastome.

Gonosome.—Gonophores consisting of naked ambulatory Me-

dusz, which are developed in clusters from the polypite near its

proximal extremity. Umbrella not extended into a bell or disc

fitted for natation ; marginal tentacles six, bifurcated, the outer

branch of the bifurcation terminated by a capitulum of large

thread-cells, the inner by a claviform enlargement which carries

a suctorial disk of attachment; an ocellus at the root of each

tentacle; no lithocysts.

Clavatella, though it comes very near to the Eleutheria of Quatre-

fages, is nevertheless generically distinct from it.

Clavatella prolifera, Hincks.

* Agassiz describes, but not without doubt, the generative elements as

produced upon the radiating canals. I entirely participate in Agassiz’s

doubts on this point. From Cavolini’s description, it is plain that in his

species the generative elements were produced in the walls of the manu-

brium, as in all other known cases among the Tabularian hydroids,

Ann, & Mag, N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xiii. 24

$62 . Prof. Allman on the Construction and

Eudendrida.

1, Evprnprivm, Ehrenberg (in part).

Trophosome.—Ccenosare consisting of a well-developed branch-

ing hydrocaulus, rooted by a creeping filiform hydrorhiza, the

whole invested by a chitinous periderm. Polypites developed

from the summits of the branches, vasiform or oval, with the

metastome contracted at its proximal and expanded at its distal

extremity so as to be more or less trumpet-shaped ; tentacles

filiform, in a single verticil just behind the metastome.

Gonosome.—Gonophores adelocodonic, developed from the

body of the polypite at the proximal side of the tentacles, or

from the hydrocaulus*; female sporosacs monothalamic; male

sporosacs polythalamic.

Eudendrium ramosum, Linn. (sp.), = Tubularia ramosa, Linn.,

=Small ramified tubular Coralline, Ellis, = Tubularia trichoides,

Pallas, =? Sertularia racemosa, Cavolini, = Eudendrium ramosum,

Ehrenb. | ; :

Eudendrium rameum, Pallas (sp.),= Tubularia ramea, Pallas, =

Eudendrium rameum, Johnst. el

Eudendrium capillare, Alder,=Corymbogonium capillare, Allm.

Eudendrium arbuscula, Wright.

Eudendrium insigne, Hincks.

Eudendrium humile, Allm.

Eudendrium dispar, Agass.

Eudendrium annulatum, Norman.

Eudendrium cingulatum+, Stimpson.

Eudendrium vaginatum, Allm.

Eudendrium pusillum, Sars.

2. Atracty is, Strethill Wright (in part).

Trophosome.—Ccenosare consisting of a hydrocaulus in the

form‘ of simple funnel-shaped stems, which are developed at

intervals from a creeping filiform hydrorhiza, the whole invested

by a chitinous periderm. Polypites emerging from the summits

of the hydrocaulus, into which they are retractile, fusiform, with

filiform tentacula placed in a single verticil round the base of a

conical metastome.

Gonosome.—Gonophores adelocodonic, carried on the sides of

the hydrocaulus.

* The polypite occasionally, from the exhaustion consequent on the

growth of the gonophores, becomes arrested, loses its tentacles, and is

converted into a false gonoblastidium. _ 4 ;

+ Stimpson’s short description of this species (Marine Invertebrata of

Grand Manan), unaccompanied as it is by a figure, is hardly sufficient for

a satisfactory diagnosis.

Limitation of Genera among the Hydroida. 363

The genus Afractylis, as originally defined by Dr. T. Strethill

Wright, was made to include all those forms of the older genus

Sadlendiviecn which are characterized by a fusiform shape of the

polypite and a conical metastome, the greater number of the species

moreover presenting a more or less complete retractility within the

summit of the hydrocaulus, though nothing like a proper hydrotheca

is ever developed.

Among the forms, however, which Dr. Wright has included under

his genus A¢tractylis are more than one generic type. One of these

types had already been characterized under the name of Perigo-

nimus by Sars, who described both the trophosome and the gono-

some; while another had, under the name of Bougainvillia, been

long ago described by Lesson, who, however, was only acquainted

with the Medusa. That the Bougainvillia of Lesson is the Medusa

of a Hydroid form of which the Zudendrinm ramosum of Van Beneden

(= Atractylis ramosa of Wright) may be taken as the type, has been

shown by Dalyell, and confirmed by Wright and others. To this

Hydroid and its allied species the name of Bougainvillia must ac-

cordingly be restored ; and indeed we find Agassiz already arranging

them partly under Lesson’s name, and partly under that of Mar-

gelis, Steenstrup’s name for a Medusa which can scarcely be regarded

as different from the Bougainvillia of Lesson. There thus remains

only one form of Wright’s genus Atractylis which had not already

received a distinguishing generic desiguation,—that, namely, which

is represented by the Atractylis arenosa of Alder, whose gonosome

has been recently so well described by Dr. Wright (Micr. Journ.

n. 8. vol. iii.). To this form, therefore, it will be necessary hence-

forth to restrict the name Atractylis.

Atractylis arenosa, Alder.

The following species cannot be regarded as otherwise than

provisionally referred to the genus Aéractylis. Two of them

will probably turn out, when the gonophores shall have ‘been

observed, to belong really to the genus Perigonimus; while a

third is undoubtedly the type of an entirely new genus.

Atractylis coccinea, Wright.

Atractylis miniata, Wright.

Atractylis margarica, Hincks.

The <Atractylis margarica has been described by Mr. Hincks

in the ‘Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ for January 1863. It is cer-

tainly not an Atractylis, but is the type of an entirely new genus.

I refrain, however, from giving here a definite form and name to the

genus which I know must be constituted for it, preferring to leave

this duty in the hands of its discoverer, Mr. Hincks, who, I have

little doubt, will take the same view in his forthcoming work on the

Hydroida.

3. Brmerta, Strethill Wright.

Trophosome consisting of a branching rooted ccenosare ine

24%

364 Prof. Allman on the Construction and

vested by a chitinous periderm. Polypites developed from the

summits of the branches, “ vase-shaped, destitute of proboscis ”

(metastome), and having the tentacles in a single verticil round

the margin of the distal end of the vase-shaped body. “ Coral-

lum (periderm) body, mouth, and lower half of each of the tenta-

cles clothed in an opake brown membrane.” (Dr. T. S. Wright.)

Gonosome.—Gonophores adelocodonic, developed from the

coenosare.

Some years ago (Ann. Nat. Hist. July 1859) I constituted a genus,

under the name of Manicella, for a singular Hydroid which I had

discovered in the Firth of Forth. Simultaneously with the publica-

tion of Manicella, Dr. Strethill Wright published his genus Bimeria

for a Hydroid which he had previously described and characterized

as a new genus under this name at a meeting of the Royal Physical

Society of Edinburgh, but of which no published account existed.

On seeing Dr. Wright’s description of his Bimeria, I was at first

disposed to regard the two genera as identical, and to believe that we

had been, independently and unknown to one another, describing the

same form. Further consideration, however, of Dr. Wright’s deserip-

tion of Bimeria has shown me that, besides differing in some minor

points, this description is in one very important point quite inappli-

eable to Manicella ; for while Manicella possesses a well-developed

metastome, it is stated by Dr. Wright that there is no metastome in

Bimeria.

_ Lhave had no opportunity of inspecting authentic specimens of

Dr.Wright’s Hydroid. It is quite possible that the metastome of

Bimeria may have been overlooked; this question can be decided

only by further examination. Until, however, the absence of a

metastome in Bimeria be confirmed, I should hesitate to give Mani-

cella the position of an established genus; and I shall therefore for

the present retain it as entirely provisional.

Bimeria vestita, Wright.

4, GARVEIA, Strethill Wright.

Trophosome.—Ccenosare invested by a periderm, and con-

sisting of a branching hydrocaulus, which is rooted by a filiform

hydrorhiza, and towards its base composed of aggregated tubes.

Polypites fusiform, developed on the summits of the branches,

and having the tentacles in a single verticil round the base of a

long conical metastome.

Gonosome.—Gonophores adelocodonic, borne on the summits

of short branches, which spring from the sides of the hydro-

caulus,

Garveia nutans, Wright, = Eudendrium (Corythamnium) bacci-

Serum, Allm.

Limitation of Genera among the Hydroida. 365

5. Herrrocorpyte*, Allman, nov. gen.

Trophosome.—Cecenosare consisting of a simple or branched

hydrocaulus, which arises from a creeping, filiform and anasto-

mosing hydrorhiza, the whole invested by a chitinous periderm.

Polypites fusiform, with a single verticil of filiform tentacula

round the base of a conical metastome.

Gonosome.—Gonophores adelocodonic, borne by gonoblastidia,

which are developed (solely ?) from the hydrorhiza; sporosacs of

the ordinary kind, destitute of tentacles and cilia, and incapable

of locomotion.

Heterocordyle Conybearei, Allm.

6. Pertconimus, Sars.

Trophosome.—Ccenosare invested by a periderm, and consist-

ing of a branching or simple hydrocaulus rooted by a filiform

hydrorhiza. Polypites borne on the summits of the hydro-

caulus, fusiform, with a single verticil of filiform tentacula, which

surround the base of a conical metastome.

‘ Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, developed from the

ecenosarc. Umbrella at the time of liberation deep bell-shaped,

with a manubrium which is shorter than the height of the bell-

cavity, and has a mouth which is simple or with four shallow

lips ; radiating canals four; marginal tentacles two or four, with

bulbous bases, which are not furnished with distinct ocelli.

The changes which occur as the Medusa advances towards matu-

rity are to be chiefly sought for in an increase in the number of

marginal tentacles, the new tentacles being intercalated at the middle

point between every two older ones.

Perigonimus muscoides, Sars.

Perigonimus repens, Wright (sp.), =Atractylis repens, Wright.

Perigonimus sessilis, Wright (sp.),= Atractylis sessilis, Wright.

Perigonimus palliatus, Wright (sp.),= Atractylis palliata, Wret.

Perigonimus? linearis, Alder (sp.), = Atractylis linearis, Alder +.

Perigonimus serpens, Allman.

Perigonimus minutus, Allman.

Perigonimus pusillus, Wright (sp.), == Eudendrium pusillum,

Wright.

7. BovGaINvILiiA, Lesson.

Trophosome.—Ccenosare consisting of a branching hydro-

* From €repos, dissimilar, and xopdvXn, a club.

t It is with some doubt that I place this species in the genus Perigoni-

mus, the Medusa having been apparently examined in imperfect specimens,

and consequently not determinable with sufficient certainty from Mr. Alder’s

figure and description ; but it seems to come nearer to the type which is

characteristic of Perigonimus than to anything else.

866 Prof, Allman on the Construction and -

caulus rooted by a filiform hydrorhiza, the whole invested bya

periderm. Polypites developed from the summits of the branches,

fusiform, with a conical metastome ; tentacles filiform, in a single

verticil round the base of the metastome.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, developed from the

coenosarc. Medusz, at the time of liberation, with a deep bell-

shaped umbrella; manubrium shorter than the height of the

bell-cavity, with four oral tentacles ; radiating canals four, each

terminating, at its intersection with the circular canal, in a bulb,

from which two tentacles are developed, each with an ocellus at

its base.

Before attaining maturity, the oral tentacles become dichoto-

mously branched, and the bulbs upon the margin of the umbrella

carry each a fasciculus of numerous tentacles, every tentacle

having an ocellus at its base.

Bougainvillia ramosa, Van Beneden (sp.), = Eudendrium ra-

mosum, Van Ben., = Tubularia ramosa, Dalyell, = Atraetylis ra-

mosa, Wright, = Margelis ramosa, Agassiz.

Bougainvillia fruticosa, Allm.

Bougainvillia muscus, Allm.

Dicorynide.

1. Dicorynz, Allman.

Trophosome.—Cecenosare consisting of a branched or simple

hydrocaulus, which arises from a creeping, filiform and anasto-

mosing hydrorhiza, the whole invested by a periderm. Polypites

fusiform, with a single verticil of tentacula surrounding the base

of a conical metastome.

Gonosome.—Gonophores adelocodonic, developed upon gono-

blastidia which are borne either upon the hydrocaulus or the

hydrorhiza. Sporosacs natatory, ciliated over their whole sur-

face, and having two filiform tentacula diverging from the proxi-

mal end,

Dicoryne conferta, Alder (sp.).

Tubularide.

1. Tuspuzarta, Linn. (in part).

Trophosome.—Ccenosare invested by a chitinous periderm, and

consisting of a simple or branched hydrocaulus rooted by a fili-

form hydrorhiza. Polypites flask-shaped ; tentacles filiform, in

two verticils, those composing the proximal verticil longer than

those composing the distal; distal verticil surrounding the base

of a conical metastome. :

Gonosome.—Gonophores adelocodonic, developed upon ra-

Limitation of Genera among the Hydroida. . 367

cemiform peduncles, which spring from the body of the polypite

between the proximal and distal verticil of tentacles.

The genus Tubularia of modern authors has been broken up by

age into four separate genera, for one of which he retains the

older name Tubularia, while he designates the three others respect-

ively Parypha, Thamnocnidia, and Ectopleura (Cont. Nat. Hist.

U. 8S. vol. iv.). He gives no technical diagnosis fof any of these

enera; but, from my own knowledge of the European species which

ie separates from T'ubularia, as well as from the very detailed

descriptions and beautiful figures of the American species which he

now for the first time describes and refers to his new genera, I can

find only in one of these forms (namely, the Tubularia Dumortiert

of Van Beneden) characters which would, in my opinion, justify the

proposed dismemberment. For Tubularia Dumortiert Agassiz con-

stitutes a new genus under the name of Hetopleura, and in this I

willingly follow him ; but the only character of importance by which

Parypha and Thamnoenidia are separated from Tubularia is the

non-development of gastro-vascular canals in the sporosacs of the

species referred by Agassiz to these genera, while they are found in

the sporosac of Tubularia indivisa.

Now I cannot admit that the presence or absence of these canals

in a sporosac, so long as they do not bring with them the develop-

ment of an open contractile umbrella capable, when detached, of

acting as a swimming-organ, can be regarded as affording a character

of hc value, even though we leave out of view the great difficulty

of detecting it, which is a practical rather than a scientific objection.

Again, between Parypha and Thamnoenidia the only difference

alleged is in the structure of the tentacula-like tubercles which occur

upon the summit of the sporosac. I believe, however, that there is

here no important difference. I have carefully examined the sporo-

sacs of Tubularia coronata, Abildg., a species which Agassiz refers

to his genus Thamnocnidia, and 1 can find no essential difference

between the tentacular tubercles which crown the sporosac in this

species and those described by Agassiz as characteristic of his genus

Parypha.

Tubularia indivisa, Linn., = Tubularia calamaris, Pallas.

Tubularia Couthoyi, Agass.

Tubularia coronata, Abild., = ? Tubularia gracilis, Harvey, =

Thamnocnidia coronata, Agass.

Tubularia spectabilis, Agass. (sp.), = Thamnocnidia spectabilis,

Agass.

Tubularia tenella, Agass. (sp.), = Thamnocnidia tenella, Agass.

Tubularia cristata, M‘Crady,=Parypha cristata, Agass.

Tubularia crocea, Agass. (sp.),== Parypha crocea, Agass.

Tubularia bellis, Allm.

Tubularia attenuata, Allm.

Tubularia larynx, Ellis & Soland.

Tubularia simplex, Alder.

? Tubularia calamaris, Van Ben.

368 rol Alina) on thd Conbtrusitonaied:

2. Ecrorteura, Agassiz.

Trophosome.—Ccenosare invested by a chitinous periderm,

and consisting of a simple or branched hydrocaulus springing

from a filiform (?) hydrorhiza. Polypites flask-shaped, with

filiform tentacula arranged in two verticils, the proximal verticil

composed of tentacles which are longer than those forming the

distal verticil.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, on branched pedun-

cles, which are borne upon the body of the polypite, between the

proximal and distal verticils of tentacles. Medusa, at the time of

liberation, with a nearly spherical umbrella; a manubrium with a

simple mouth, and shorter than the height of the umbrella-

cavity; four radiating canals, and four marginal tentacles ; no

distinct ocelli; the umbrella furnished with eight prominent

longitudinal ribs formed of linear series of thread-cells.

To his genus Ectopleura Agassiz, as has been already said, refers

the Tubularia Dumortieri of Van Beneden. In thus separating

Van Beneden’s Tubularidan from the true Tubularie, Agassiz seems

to me to be fully justified ; but I cannot so easily assent to the cor-

rectness of associating with it in the same genus the Sarsia pulchella

of Forbes, the Sarsia turricula of M‘Crady, and the Sarsia nodosa

of Busch. (See Contr. Nat. Hist. U.S. vol. iv. p. 343.) These

naked-eyed Medusee are very different from the Meduse of Van

Beneden’s Tubularia Dumortieri, while one of them (Sarsia turricula)

has been traced by M‘Crady, if not with absolute certainty, at least

with high probability, to a Coryniform trophosome.

Ectopleura Dumortieri, Van Ben. (sp.), = Tubularia Dumor-

tieri, Van Ben.

3. Hyzocopon, Agassiz.

Trophosome.—Ccenosare invested by a chitinous periderm,

and consisting of a simple (or branched ?) hydrocaulus rooted

by a filiform hydrorhiza. Polypites flask-shaped, with the ten-

tacles arranged in two sets,—the proximal set long, and forming

a single verticil, the distal short, and arranged in two verticils.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, springing directly

from the body of the polypite between the proximal and distal

sets of tentacles*. Medusa, at the time of liberation, with a

deep-belled umbrella, a moderate-sized, simple-mouthed manu-

brium, four radiating canals, and with the distal extremity of

* In Hybocodon prolifer, the only described species, “ the first Medusa

arises directly from the actinal area of the disc, while from the marginal

termination of one of the radiating tubes of this Medusa numerous similar

Medusz are developed, the latter again giving rise to other Medusze in the

same manner, and from a corresponding place on their margin.” (Agassiz.)

Limitation of Genera among the Hydroida. 369

one of the canals prolonged into a single marginal tentacle with

a bulbous base, but without distinct ocellus.

Hybocodon prolifer, Agass.

4, CorymorrHa, Sars (in part).

Trophosome.—Polypite solitary, borne on the summit of a

simple hydrocaulus, which terminates proximally in a conical

hydrorhiza ; both hydrocaulus and hydrorhiza invested by a very

delicate, transparent, filmy periderm. Polypites flask-shaped,

with two sets of filiform tentacles, a proximal and a distal, the

proximal imperfectly contractile, longer and thicker than the

distal, and arranged in a single verticil near the base of the

polypite; the distal set very contractile, forming several closely

placed, alternate, more or less perfect verticils behind a conical

metastome.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, borne ‘on branched

peduncles, which spring from the body of the polypite at the

distal side of the proximal set of tentacles. The Medusa, at the

time of its liberation, has a deep-belled umbrella, a well-developed

simple-mouthed manubrium, four radiating canals, and a single

marginal tentacle; each of the radiating canals terminates, at

its junction with the circular canal, in a bulbous expansion

without distinct ocellus: one of these bulbs is larger than the

other, and from this alone the solitary tentacle is developed.

Judging from Corymorpha nutans, it would seem that the further

changes undergone by the Medusa before arriving at maturity are of

little importance: it is especially to be noticed that the marginal

tentacle always remains solitary.

Corymorpha nutans, Sars.

Corymorpha nana, Alder.

5. Amattura, O. Schmidt.

Trophosome.—Polypites solitary, with two sets of filiform

tentacles, a proximal and a distal,—the proximal set very long

and placed in a single verticil, the distal set very short, numerous,

and scattered.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, borne upon pedun-

cles which arise between the proximal and distal sets of tenta-—

cles. Medusz with a deep bell-shaped umbrella, four radiating

canals, and four equal marginal tentacles with bulbous bases.

Amalthea uvifera, O. Schmidt, = Corymorpha uvifera, Sars.

Amalthea Sarsti, Steenstrup (sp.), = Corymorpha Sarsii, Steen-

strup.

Amalthea Januari, Steenstrup (sp.), = Corymorpha Januarii,

Steenstrup.

870 Prof. Allman on the Construction and

6. Monocavxos*, Allman, nov. gen.

Trophosome.—Polypite solitary, borne on the summit of a

simple rooted hydrocaulus; both hydrocaulus and hydrorhiza

invested by a very delicate periderm; polypites flask-shaped,

with two sets of filiform tentacles,—a proximal set longer and

thicker, and arranged in a single verticil near the base of the

polypite, and a distal set shorter and thinner, and scattered over

a zone close to the summit of the polypite.

Gonosome.—Gonophores adelocodonic, on simple or branched

peduncles, which spring from the body of the polypite at the

distal side of the longer tentacles.

Monocaulos glacialis, Sars (sp.), = Corymorpha glacialis, Sars.

Monocaulos pendula, Agass. (sp.),= Corymorpha pendula, Agass,

7. Nemopsis, Agassiz.

Trophosome.—Polypite free, conical, with two verticils of fili-

form tentacula—a proximal near the base, and a distal near the

apex; periderm absent.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, on short simple

peduncles which spring from the body of the polypite between

the two verticils of tentacula. Umbrella deep bell-shaped; ma-

nubrium of moderate size, and furnished with four dichotomously

branched oral tentacles ; radiating canals four, each terminating

in a marginal bulb, while from every marginal bulb a tuft of

tentacles is given off, two of the tentacles in each tuft being

clavate and but slightly contractile, the rest filiform and very

contractile, every tentacle carrying a distinct ocellus at its base.

The generative elements are developed in four lobse, which

spring from the base of the manubrium and thence extend for

some distance along the course of the radiating canals.

Nemopsis Gibbesii, M‘Crady.

8. Acavxis, Stimpson.

Trophosome.—The entire trophosome consists of a solitary,

free, subfusiform polypite, which, at a later period, becomes at-

tached by its proximal extremity; tentacles of two kinds,—one

filiform, forming a single verticil near the proximal extremity,

and subsequently disappearing—the other?capitate, and scat-

tered on the body of the polypite towards its distal extremity ;

periderm absent.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic, springing from the

body of the polypite between the filiform and capitate tentacula.

Form of the Medusa unknown.

Acaulis primarius, Stimpson.

* From pévos, single, and xavdés, a stalk.

Limitation of Genera among the Hydroida. 371

II.

Synopsis of the Genera and Species of Campanularian Hydroids

with known trophosomes.

Campanularidz.

1. CampanvtariA, Lamarck (in part).

Trophosome.—Hydrocaulus simple or branching, rooted by

a creeping filiform hydrorhiza ; hydrothece bell-shaped, with an

entire or serrated margin, and destitute of an operculum ; tenta-

cles surrounding the base of a large, very contractile metastome.

- Gonosome.—Gonangium seated either on the hydrorhiza or

hydrocaulus, and containing phanerocodonic gonophores. Um-

brella, at the time of liberation, deep bell-shaped; manubrium

of moderate size, with the mouth provided with four shallow

lips, or simple; radiating canals four; marginal tentacles four,

with bulbous bases, destitute of ocelli; lithocysts eight, two in

each interradial space, and never developed upon the base of a

tentacle; generative elements developed in special sporosacs,

which are borne as buds on the radiating canals.

As the Medusa advances towards maturity, the marginal ten-

tacles increase in number, and the oral lobes of the manubrium

become more decided.

The name of Campanularia was originally applied by Lamarck to

certain Hydroids which had been a short time previously distributed

: Py Lamouroux under two generic names, Clytia and Laomedea.

he genera Clytia and Laomedea, as defined by Lamouroux, were

constructed on insufficient and imperfectly comprehended characters,

and cannot stand; while, at the same time, Lamarck’s genus Cam-

panularia involves two distinct generic types. For one of these

types the name of Campanularia ought to be retained, while for the

’ other we may choose between Clytia and Laomedea of Lamouroux.

Laomedea, however, has been in more general use among authors,

and it will therefore be convenient to retain it; while Clytia, which

includes only forms referable to Campanularia or to Laomedea, must

accordingly be suppressed.

The Medusa of Campanularia, as this genus is here defined, is

referable to a part of Gegenbaur’s genus Eucope. The Medusz in-

cluded by Gegenbaur under this name belong to two distinct types,

—one distinguished, in its mature state, by its deep bell-shaped

umbrella, its comparatively small number of marginal tentacles, and

the position of the lithocysts in the centre of the interval between

two tentacula ; the other by its shallow, almost disc-shaped umbrella,

its very numerous tentacula, with reentrant bases, and the position .

of the lithocysts—each on the inner side of the base of a tentacle.

This latter group comprises the forms to which Péron and Lesueur

had long ago given the name of Odelia; while, if Zucope be retained

as a generic appellation, it must be confined to the former.

372 Prof. Allman on the Construction and

Campanularia Johnstoni, Alder (sp.), = Campanularia volu-

' bilis, Johust.,= Clytia Johnstoni, Agass.

rn Campanularia noliformis, M‘Crady (sp.), = Clytia noliformis,

gass.

Campanularia cylindrica, Agass. (sp.),=Platypyzis cylindrica,

Agass.

Campanularia Gegenbaurii, Sars.

Campanularia dichotoma, Kolliker.

The following species are placed provisionally in this genus,

the gonophores not having -yet been observed in any of them.

Further research will doubtless cause their distribution among

two or more genera :—

Campanularia volubilis, Linn.

Campanularia verticillata, Linn,

Campanularia Hincksii, Alder.

Campanularia integra, Macgillivray.

Campanularia raridentata*, Alder.

Campanularia breviscyphia, Sars.

Campanularia bicophora, Agass. (sp.), = Clytia bicophora,Agass.

2. Osexia, Péron & Lesueur.

Trophosome.—Hydrocaulus_ branching, rooted by a creeping

filiform hydrorhiza ; hydrothecee bell-shaped, with an entire or

serrated margin, and destitute of operculum; tentacula sur-

rounding the base of a very contractile, conical, clavate, or

trumpet-shaped metastome.

Gonosome.—Gonangia developed from the hydrocaulus, and

containing phanerocodonic gonophores. Medusz-very flat, so

as to approach the form of a disc, with a short four-lipped ma-

nubrium ; radiating canals four; marginal tentacles numerous,

with their roots prolonged in the form of short ceecal continua-

tions into the walls of the umbrella; lithocysts two in each inter-

radial space, each lithocyst placed upon the base of a tentacle at

its inner side. ;

The changes undergone by the Medusa in its progress towards

maturity consist chiefly in an increase in the number of mar-

ginal tentacula.

Obelia dichotoma, Linn. (sp.), = Laomedea dichotoma, var. a,

Johnst., = Campanularia gelatinosa, Van Ben.

Obelia geniculata, Linn. (sp.), = Laomedea geniculata, Johnst.

Obelia commissuralis, M‘Crady.

- Obelia diaphana, Agass. (sp.), =Eucope,diaphana, Agass.

* Judging from an observation of Wright (Mic. Journ. n. s. vol. ii.),

it is quite possible that the Campanularia raridentata of Alder may belong

to the genus Thauntuntias. See below p. 377.

Limitation of Genera among the Hydroida. 373

8. LaomepEa, Lamouroux (in part).

Trophosome.—Hydrocaulus simple or branched, rooted by a

ereeping filiform hydrorhiza; hydrothece bell-shaped, with the

margin entire or serrated, but without an operculum ; tentacular

yerticil surrounding the base of a very contractile, conical or

trumpet-shaped metastome.

Gonosome.—Gonangia developed on the hydrorhiza or hydro-

eaulus, and containing adelocodonic gonophores, which never

leave the cavity of the gonangium.

English authors generally include under Laomedea those species

of Campanularide which are furnished with a branching hydrocaulus,

while they refer to Campanularia those in which the hydrocaulus is

simple. No generic distinction, however, can be based on this cha-

racter—a character really unimportant, and frequently so little com-

prehensive that we may find the two conditions combined in the

same species, thus rendering caution necessary in the employment of

this character, even for the purposes of specific diagnosis.

It will be at once apparent from the diagnoses here given of Cam-_

panularia, Obelia, and Laomedea, that the differences in the gono-

somes afford excellent characters by which we can distribute between

three perfectly natural genera numerous forms of Campanularide

which would otherwise defy our attempts at a satisfactory classifica-

tion.

* Hydrocaulus mostly branched.

Laomedea flexuosa, Hincks (sp.),—= Laomedea gelatinosa, var. a,

Johnst.

Laomedea neglecta, Alder.

Laomedea angulata, Hincks.

Laomedea amphora, Agass.

Laomedea exigua, Sars.

Laomedea decipiens, Wright.

** Hydrocaulus mostly simple.

Laomedea volubiliformis, Sars (sp.), = Campanularia volubili-

formis, Sars.

Laomedea poterium, Agass. (sp.), = Clytia poterium, Agass.

Laomedea caliculata, Hincks (sp.),= Campanularia caliculata,

Hincks.

4. Hincxsra, Agassiz.

Trophosome.—Hydrorhiza: a creeping network of filiform

tubes, from which a short simple hydrocaulus is emitted at in-

tervals; hydrothece bell-shaped, destitute of operculum. Po-

lypites ? |

Gonosome.—Gonangia borne on the hydrorhiza, and consist-

ing of large, subcordate, pedunculated capsules with a small

terminal aperture, transversely ribbed on one side, smooth on

the other.

(874 Prof. Allman on the Construction and

The genus Hincksia has been constituted by Agassiz for an Austra-

lian Hydroid described by Mr. Hincks from the dried periderm.

Though there may be considerable doubt as to the justice of attri-

buting a generic value to the characters assumed by Agassiz as the

distinguishing mark of Hincksia, I have here retained the genus,

with the expectation that the examination of the living Hydroid will

confirm its title to a distinct generic rank.

Hincksia tincta, Agass. (gen.), = Campanularia tincta, Hincks.

5. Gonotnyr#a*, Allman, nov. gen. .

Trophosome.—Hydrocaulus branching, rooted by a filiform

hydrorhiza ; hydrotheca bell-shaped, with entire or serrated

margin, and destitute of operculum ; tentacula surrounding the

base of a large, very contractile metastome.

Gonosome.—Gonophores adelocodonic.. Sporosacs in the form

of imperfect Medusz (meconidia), carrying round the rudi-

mental codonostome a circle of filiform tentacula, and, when

mature, supported on the summit of the gonangium, where

they lie entirely external to its cavity.

Gonothyrea Lovéni, Allm., = Campanularia geniculata, Lister,

Lovén, Schultze, = Laomedea Lovéni, Allm.

Gonothyrea gracilis, Sars (sp.), = Laomedea gracilis, Sars.

6. Tricuypra, Strethill Wright.

Trophosome.—Hydrorhiza a branched and creeping thread,

which sends off at intervals a rudimental hydrocaulus in the

form of very short, tubular, cell-like processes, into which the

polypites are retractile. Polypites very slender and cylindrical,

carrying a single verticil of filiform tentacula round the base of

a short conical metastome.

Gonosome unknown.

The genus 7richydra has been constituted by Dr. Wright for a

Hydroid whose most important characters I have endeavoured to

combine in the above diagnosis. I am by no means sure, however,

of its being a well-established genus: it forcibly suggests the imma-

ture condition of some other form; and until its gonosome be dis-

covered, we must continue to regard it as doubtful. It is true that

Dr. Wright is of opinion that a Medusa of the type which we find

in Perigonimus, and which he met with in a vase containing speci-

mens of his Trichydra, may have been given off by this Hydroid ;

but it seems to me that the evidence is by no means in favour of

this view, and indeed Dr. Wright does not himself insist upon it.

It must be borne in mind that no trace of a gonosome was visible in

any of the specimens ; and I cannot avoid the belief that the Medusa

found in the vase was accidentally present there. The great exten-

* From yévos, offspring, and Oupaios, outside the door.

Limitation of Genera among the Hydroida. 875

sibility of the polypites, and their power of complete retraction into

hydrotheca-like receptacles, would seem to indicate that the affinities

of Trichydra are rather with the Campanularian than with the

Tubularian Hydroids.

Trichydra pudica, Wright.

7. Catycretia, Hincks.

Trophosome.—Hydrocaulus erect, and rooted by a filiform

hydrorhiza, or creeping and adherent ; hydrothece tubular or -

conical, and provided with an operculum which is formed of

converging lanceolate segments. Polypites cylindrical, with the

tentacular verticil surrounding the base of a conical metastome.

Gonosome.—Gonophores adelocodonic. Sporosacs of female

ultimately delivering their contents into an acrocyst.

The genus Calycella was founded by Hincks (Ann. Nat. Hist.

Oct. 1861) with the intention of including under it certain Hydroids

previously placed under Campanularia and Laomedea. Calycella,

however, as constructed by Hincks, really involves two distinct types,

one of these being represented by Calycella dumosa, Hincks (gen.),

and the other by Calycella syringa, Hincks (gen.).

Now the C. dumosa belongs to a form which had been already

defined by Lamouroux under the name of Lafoea, a name, therefore,

which the rule of priority obliges us to leave undisturbed; and the

name of Calycella must accordingly be retained for the remaining

type alone—that represented by the Campanularia syringa of au-

thors, and by the Campanularia lacerata of Johnston.

Calycella syringa, Linn. (sp.),= Campanularia syringa, Lamk.,

= Clytia syringa, Lamx., = Campanularia syringa, Van Ben., =

Wrightia syringa, Agass.

Calycella lacerata, Johnst. (sp.), = Campanularia lacerata,

Johnst., = Wrightia lacerata, Agass.

Calycella? humilis, Hincks.

8. CAMPANULINA, Van Beneden.

Trophosome.—Hydrocaulus branching or simple, attached by

a creeping filiform hydrorhiza ; hydrothece with their margin

continued by a delicate collapsible membrane [or else provided

with a true operculum formed by converging lanceolate seg-

ments]. Polypites cylindrical ; tentacula connected by a mem-

branous web at their base.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic. Medusa, at the time

of liberation, deep bell-shaped, with moderate-sized four-lipped

manubrium ; radiating canals four, each terminating distally in

anon-ocellated bulb ; marginal tentacles two, developed from two

opposite bulbs [or four, every bulb then carrying a tentacle] ;

lithocysts eight, two in each interradial marginal space.

376 Prof. Allman on the Construction and

The genus Campanulina was constructed by Van Beneden (Bull.

Ac. Roy. Brux. 1847) for a delicate Campanularian Hydroid whose

most striking character: appeared to the Belgian naturalist to be the

broad membranous web by which the bases of the tentacles wére

united to one another. He named the Hydroid which he thus took

as the type-species of the genus Campanulina tenuis. ;

Mr. Alder, from an examination of authentic specimens of Van

Beneden’s Hydroid, has since determined its identity with the spe-

cies which had been described by himself under the name of Lao-

medea acuminata. As Van Beneden, however, has given us no de-

finite specific diagnosis, while Alder has given us a very full and

complete one, and as Alder’s specific name has thereby become ge-

nerally adopted, it will be more convenient to retain the name of

acuminata rather than that of tenuis, and the rules of priority will

hardly be so stringently interpreted as to offer any valid objection to

this course.

In drawing up the diagnosis which I have given above for the

genus Campanulina, I have deemed it better to make it sufficiently

comprehensive to include Campanulina repens, Allm., a Hydroid

discovered by myself, and which, with undoubted affinities to Campa-

nularia acuminata, may possibly be regarded as presenting a separate

generic form. It differs from C. acuminata in the fact of the hydro-

thecee being provided with a true operculum formed of converging

lanceolate segments, instead of having the undivided membranous

termination which these receptacles exhibit in C. acuminata, and in

the web which connects the bases of the tentacles being so slightly

developed as to be nearly obsolete.

Besides this, the Medusa escapes from the gonangium with four

well-developed marginal tentacles—a feature, however, which may

only indicate a more advanced stage of development at the time of

liberation, and not such as can be employed as a generic character,

unless the difference in this respect between the two Medusze can,

by further observation, be shown to be permanent. I have recorded

this Hydroid in my note-book under the generic name of Hypsoro-

phus (inpdpodos, high-roofed), in allusion to the high conical operculum

by which the hydrotheca is closed on the retreat of the polypite ;

but I prefer to keep this name as provisional, dependent on further

observation proving that the difference between the Meduse at the

time of their liberation is persistent—a character which may then,

when combined with the difference between the hydrothecee, be re-

garded as truly generic.

Campanulina acuminata, Alder (sp.), = Campanulina tenuis,

Van Ben., = Laomedea acuminata, Alder, = Wrightia acuminata,

Agass, .

Campanulina? repens, Allm.

Aquoride,

1. Zycopactyta, Brandt.

Trophosome.—Hydrocaulus simple (or branched ?), rooted by

Limitation of Genera among the Hydroida. 377

a creeping filiform hydrorhiza; hydrothece with an operculum

formed of converging lanceolate segments. Polypites cylindri-

cal, with a verticil of filiform tentacula connected at their bases

by a broad membranous web.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic. Meduse with a

broad, shallow umbrella and wide and short manubrium whose

lips are prolonged into’ numerous arm-like lobes; radiating

canals very numerous ; marginal tentacles very numerous, radial

and interradial, each developed from a bulbous base; margin of

umbrella with lithocysts; generative elements developed along

the course of the radiating canals.

_ We are indebted to Dr. T. S. Wright for the important observation

by which he has shown that the ova of Aquorea vitrina, Gosse, become

developed into polypoid trophosomes having the characters enume-

rated above. The quorea vitrina of Gosse, however, is not a true

Aiquorea, but, as Agassiz has pointed out, belongs rather to Zygodac-

tyla of Brandt; and Zygodactyla vitrina thus becomes one of the

few Hydroids in which the development of the trophosome from the

ova of the free Medusa has been observed. The characters of the

trophosome here given are those presented by this part of the Hy-

droid in the most advanced state to which it had been traced by

Dr. Wright; but it must not be lost sight of, that it probably un-

dergoes further changes before arriving at its completely developed

condition. _

Zygodactyla vitrina, Gosse (sp.) = Afquorea vitrina, Gosse.

-Thaumantide.

1. THaumanttas, Eschscholtz.

Trophosome.—Hydrocaulus rooted by a creeping filiform hy-

drorhiza ; hydrothece destitute of an operculum. Polypites with

the tentacular verticil surrounding the base of a trumpet-shaped

metastome.

Gonosome.—Gonophores_ phanerocodonic. Mature Medusa

with a hemispherical umbrella and short manubrium with lobed

mouth-margin ; radiating canals four; marginal tentacles nu-

merous ; lithocysts absent; generative sacs band-like along the

course of the radiating canals *.

We are indebted to an observation of Dr. T. S. Wright for our

knowledge of the trophosome of Thaumantias, Dr. Wright having

seen developed from the ova of Thaumantias inconspicua, Forbes, a

_* The genus Thaumantias is here defined in accordance with the limits

assigned to it by Gegenbaur, who restricts it to such Medusz as possess the

characters given above. Thaumantias as thus limited will include the T.

inconspicua of Forbes, so far as it is possible to judge from the description

if ra Medusa given in the “ Monograph of the British Naked-eyed

Medusz.”

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xiii. 25

378 Prof. Allman on the Construction and

minute polypoid trophosome, which he describes as bearing a close’

resemblance to the Campanularia raridentata, Alder. See Wright

in Micr, Journ. n. s. vol. ii. Ee

Thaumantias inconspicua, Forbes.

Leptoscyphide.

1, Lerroscyrnus*, Allman, nov. gen.

Trophosome.—Hydrocaulus simple or branching, attached by

a creeping filiform hydrorhiza; hydrothece with an operculum

composed of converging lanceolate segments. Polypites cylin-

drical when extended; tentacula surrounding the base of a

conical metastome.

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic. Umbrella, at the

time of liberation, deep bell-shaped or conical ; manubrium

pendent from a conical projection from the roof of the umbrella,

of moderate size, with the mouth surrounded by four short capi-

tate tentacula; radiating canals four, each terminating distally

in a bulb, without evident ocellus, each bulb giving origin to a

cluster of two or three tentacles; a single marginal tentacle

with a bulbous base is also developed from the centre of each

interradial space.

I constitute the genus Leptoscyphus for a very minute Hydroid

which I discovered some years ago in Orkney, where it occurs rather

abundantly, creeping over the fronds of Laminaria digitata. 1 have

already described it (Ann. Nat. Hist. Nov. 1859) under the name of

Laomedea tenuis ; but its remarkable Medusa, as well as the general

characters of the trophosome, must certainly separate it from that

genus. t will be noticed that the Medusa belongs to the type which

is destitute of lithocysts, and has its generative elements developed in.

the walls of the manubrium, thus affording one of the two known

exceptions to the rule that the Meduse of the Campanularian Hy-

droids are of the type which carry lithocysts on the margin of the

umbrella, and have their generative elements developed in special

sexual buds which arise from the radiating canals,—the other excep-

tion occurring in the Medusa which Agassiz has referred to Lafoéa

cornuta, Lamx.t

It will also be seen that the Medusa of Leptoscyphus resembles in

all essential points the form for which Forbes has constructed his

genus Lizzia; and I have little doubt that, wher mature, its charac-

ters would entirely correspond with this medusal type. I should

accordingly have had no hesitation in assigning to the present Hy-

droid the name of Lizzia, instead of constituting for it a new genus,

were it not that Claparéde has found, in an undoubted Lizzia, that

* From Aerros, delicate, and oxvdos, a cup.

- + Thaumantias, though a Campanularian, is destitute of lithocysts, but

its sexual buds are developed from the radiating canals.

Limitation of Genera among the Hydroida. 379

the Medusa is produced directly from the egg without the interven-.

tion of a polypoid trophosome*.

The absence of a trophosome affords a differential character of

much importance ; and the name of Lizzia must accordingly be con-

fined to such Medusz as, with the form of Lizzia, are directly deve-

loped from the egg, while it may be provisionally used for such as

resemble them, but have not yet had the other terms of their life-

series discovered ; the detection of these will determine the genus,

Lizzia or Leptoscyphus, or possibly some other still, to which the

provisionally named Hydroid may belong. ;

Leptoscyphus tenuis, Allm.

2. Laroza, Lamouroux.

- Trophosome.—Hydrocaulus creeping and adherent, or erect

and rooted by a filiform hydrorhiza; hydrothece sessile on the

hydrocaulus, or pedunculated, tubular, destitute of an opercu-

lum. Polypites cylindrical, with the tentacular verticil surround-

ing the base of a spherico-conical metastome. |

Gonosome.—Gonophores phanerocodonic. Medusee deep bell-

shaped, with short manubrium, four radiating canals, and four

marginal tentacles with bulbous bases, destitute of ocelli; tenta-

cles alternately long and short ; lithocysts not present,

I have described the Medusa on the authority of Agassiz. It was

observed by Mr. A. Agassiz on a Hydroid which his father refers to

the Lafoéa cornuta of Lamouroux. In this observation we have thus

a second example of the production among the Campanularida of

Medusze belonging to the type which is destitute of lithocysts and

developes its generative elements in the walls of the manubrium.

The first recorded instance was described by myself some years ago

in Leptoscyphus tenuis.

Lafoéa dumosa, Linn. (sp.), = Campanularia dumosa, Fleming,

Johnst., = Calycella dumosa, Hincks.

Lafoéa cornuta, Lamx.

Lafoéa fruticosa, Sars, = Campanularia gracillima, Alder.

Lafoéa plicatilis, Sars.

Lineolaridz.

1. Lingoraris, Hincks.

Trophosome.—Hydrocaulus a creeping and adherent tube

carrying the hydrothece from distance to distance along its

length ; hydrothece sessile on the hydrocaulus, tubular, with

the orifice subtriangular and armed with an earlike projection

on each side. Polypites not known.

Gonosome.—Gonangia large, oviform, and adherent, sessile on

the creeping hydrocaulus. Gonophores not known.

The genus Lineolaria was constituted by Hincks for a remarkable

* See Claparéde in Zeitschr. f. wissens, Zool. Band x. 1860.

25%

380 . Rev. T. A. Marshall on new Genera

Australian Hydroid, of which, however, he possessed specimens of

only the dried periderm. It would seem to offer one of the connect-

ing forms by which the Campanularian pass into the Sertularian

Hydroids through Coppinia, Reticularia, and Grammaria; but, in

the absence of all knowledge of the living animal, it is impossible to

speak with decision as to its affinities.

- Lineolaria spinulosa, Hincks.

XXXVI.—Descriptions of new Genera and Species of Eumolpide

from the Collection of the Rev. Hamlet Clark. By the Rev.

T. A. MarsHaLu.

Tux time has not yet arrived when a satisfactory arrangement

of this interesting yet difficult group can be hoped for by ento-

mologists. The literature of the subject is in so confused and

imperfect a state, and the undescribed forms are so numerous,

that the materials for generalization are yet wanting, and much

time must elapse before a sufficient groundwork for the system-

atist can be established. The existing materials require to be

thoroughly sifted, and several hundreds of undescribed species

to be defined, before the work of organization ean begin. To

the former of these tasks, with a view to attempting the two

latter, the present writer has been led to direct his attention;

he is therefore enabled to speak with some certainty of the na-

ture of the difficulties to be encountered. With respect to the

hitherto published genera and species, it is perhaps not too much

to say that one-half are insufficiently characterized, and rather

impede. than facilitate future labours. The writers in whose

widely scattered works these descriptions are to be found vary

much, as may be supposed, in their style and accuracy: a few

only have performed their task in a perspicuous and permanent

manner. Foremost among these is Mr. Baly, whose labours in

this department are beyond all praise for minute accuracy and

clearness. The descriptions of Prof. Boheman, of Blanchard,

Germar, Thomson, Say, Lucas, Gerstiacker, Leconte, and a few

others are easy of verification. It is to be regretted that most

of the other authors whose names are attached to described

species have contented themselves for the most part with a brief

and insufficient diagnosis, and often a mere indication. A few

only of the genera can be regarded as permanently established :

even the well-known Colaspis, as at present defined, will not

exclude a number of forms obviously distinct. The uncharac-

terized genera of Dejean’s Catalogue embrace for the most part

apparently natural groups, or at least they may be made to do

so by a system of judicious exclusion. We will therefore first

direct our attention to them, from a conviction that the conver-

and Species of Eumolpide. 381

sion of any one of these from a mere nominis umbra to a sub-

stantial reality will be a step in the right direction.

The following list will show which of Dejean’s or Chevrolat’s

genera have been described; an asterisk prefixed denotes that

they are only described imperfectly. We have also prepared a

catalogue of described species of the entire group of the Eumol-

pidee, which is far too long for insertion here; but, as it is ne-

cessarily in a state of progressive improvement, its publication

may well be delayed to a future occasion. In the following list,

small capital letters indicate the name now adopted : references to

the descriptions are added, as their insertion may be of some

utility.

*Coxaspis, /’'ab.—Laporte, Silb. Rev. i. 21.

*Pleuraulaca, Chevr., now CoLaspoipEs.—Laporte, ibid.

Nopa, Chevr.—Blanchard, in Gay’s Hist. de Chile, t. v. p. 546.

*Acis, Chevr., now Cotasrosoma.—Laporte, Silb. Rev.

Dia, Dej., now Couaspipea.—Laporte, ibid., and Redt. Fn. Austr.

Fip1a, Dej.—Baly, Journ. Ent. vol. ii. (1863) p. 153. .

*Mrtracuroma, Chevr.—Leconte, Proc. Acad. Philad. 1858, p. 85.

*TypopuHorus, Chevr.—Erichs. Archiv, Consp. Fn. Peruv. (1847),

p- 163.

Bromivs, Ohevr.—Redt. Fn. Austr.—Partly Apoxus, Kby. Fn.

B. Am. p. 209, and Baly, Journ. Ent. ii. (1863) p. 149.

Eumo.pvus, Kugelan.—Weber, Obs. Entom. p. 28.

Platycorynus, Chevr., now CoryNnopes, Hope, Manual, pt. 3.

p- 162, and Gersticker in Peters’s Reise nach Mossambique,

p. 335.

Curysocaus, Chevr.—Redt. Fn. Austr.

Euryorer, Dalman, Ephem. Entom. p. 17.

*Hereraspis, Chevr.—Leconte, Coleopt. of Kansas and East New

Mexico, p. 23, in Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,

vol. xi. 1860.

*GuiypTosce.is, Chevr.—Leconte, Proc. Acad. Philad. 1859, p. 81.

Eubrachys, Dej., now Psevpocotaspis, Laporte, Silb. Rev. 1. 23.

Myocurous, Chevr.—Blanchard, in Gay’s Hist. de Chile, t. v.

p- 543.

Pacunepnorvs, Chevr.—Redt. Fn. Austr.

Colaphus is omitted, as not belonging to the Eumolpidz.

Bromius will probably have to be retained (as only partly syno-

nymous with Adoxus of Kirby and Baly) for the reception of

B. hirtus, Fab., and its allies, which are excluded by Mr. Baly

from the genus Adoxus. Bromius (one of the names of the god

of wine) was adopted with special reference to the habits of B.

vitis, Fab., which destroys the vines in Southern Europe. It

would have been better therefore to have preserved the name

Bromius than Kirby’s Adoxus. That writer proposed, it would

seem, to discard Humolpus altogether, inventing the two names

882 Rev. T. A. Marshall on new Genera

Adozus (inglorious) and Hudoxus (glorious) instead. The former

appellation he applies to the small dark species of Europe, and

proposes the latter for Humolpus ignitus, Fab., and its congeners,

the large gorgeous beetles of South America. Such inconsisten-

cies, however, involving the mere propriety of names, are of little

moment.

It will be seen, then, that of the 59 genera proposed in De-

epi Catalogue only 19 have any real existence, leaving us a

alance of 40 to describe or reject, as the groups indicated may

seem to require. Hardly any of these genera can be regarded

as unnecessary, or wholly superseded by the described genera of

more modern authors. So great is the diversity of the species

they have been forced to include,that the old names may still in

most cases be utilized. For example, Mr. Baly’s genus Geloptera

has hitherto been included under Edusa, chiefly, it would seem,

because the forms are all Australian. These two genera are now

sufficiently distinct ;-and the true Hdusa only needs characteriza-

tion to make it a good genus. No valid reason can be given

why names long known to collectors, and recognized as con-

venient expressions, should be suffered to fall into oblivion. As

a matter of convenience, they should rather, when possible, be

described and perpetuated; thus the collector will find that,

instead of having to learn a new name, the old idea fixed in his

mind has, to his great advantage, assumed a real and permanent

existence. For the future, it is to be hoped that every inventor

of MS. names will meet with the treatment due to so silly and

reprehensible a practice.

I proceed to describe the first uncharacterized genus of De-

jean’s Catalogue, Metaxyonycha, Chevr., separated by him from

Colaspis upon slight, although perhaps sufficient, grounds.

Fourteen species are before me, presenting considerable diver-

sity of appearance. I have indicated the group or subgenus to

which each appears to belong, under each species. I purposely

abstain from making these subdivisions until the remainder of

the species shall have become known to me. The differences to

which I refer concern chiefly the strie of the elytra, the con-

vexity of the thorax, and other details, none of which appear to

be of sufficient value to justify the multiplication of genera.

Genus Mretraxyonycua*, Chev., D’Orb. Dict.

Colaspis, Fab. Colaspis (pars), De}. Cat.

Caput verticale, thoraci haud ad oculos usque insertum, inter oculos

* T have spelt this name correctly for the first time. The derivation

(wera&d and dvvé) is given by Chevrolat in D’Orbigny’s Dict. s. v. Meta-

zyonycha. Cf. a similar mistake in Lozotenia, Lozogramma, for Lozot.,

‘Loxogr. (Lepidoptera), &e.

and Species of Eumolpide. 383

impressum ; oculis rotundatis, plus minus prominulis, rarius

emarginatis.

Antenne intra oculos inserte, filiformes, tenues, corpore dimidio

longiores: articulus primus oblongus, robustus ; secundus

quadruplo minor; tertius duobus primis conjunctim visis

eequalis, quarto longior, gracilis; quintus ad undecimum

sequales ; ultimus brevissimus, gracilior, obtuse conicus.

Labrum oblongum, convexum, angulis anticis rotundatis : mandibule

bidentate.

Palporum mazillarium, articulus ultimus elongatus, apice obtusus,

articulo secundo eequalis ; sequentes apicem versus incrassati ;

tertius dimidio brevior preecedente et sequente.

Thorax transyersus, subquadratus, levis, angulis anticis subito de-

- flexis, acutiusculis; lateribus marginatis, medio obsoletius

bidentatis vel bisinuatis vel denique muticis; basi truncatus,

seepe utrinque foveolatus.

Scutellum parvum, triangulare, apice obtuso, leve, rarius punctu-

latum, interdum elytris non concolor.

Antepectoris segmentum antero-laterale triquetrum, thoracis angu-

lum non attingens. :

Prosternum postice attenuatum, superficie fere equata; in Colaspide

idem medio proéminet. :

Mesosternum antice bisinuatum, angulis anticis rotundatis, posticis

acutiusculis.

Elytra thorace latiora, plus quadruplo longiora, oblonga, parallela,

dorso convexa, posterius lente declivia (in M. chlorophana &c.

deplanata, apice subito clausa) ; punctato-striata, intervallis

plus * aaa costatis (in M. chlorophana haud costatis) ; alis

amplis.

Pedes dicen graciles, femoribus (preesertim posticis) nonnihil in-

crassatis ; tibiis intermediis extus ante apicem plus minus

emarginatis ;. tarsorum articulo primo sequentibus duobus

zequali; unguiculis simplicibus, intus ad normam hujus fa-

milize appendiculatis.

Type of the genus, Colaspis quadrimaculata, Oliv.

The characters of this genus, taken separately, are almost

identical with those of Colaspis; but the different facies, repre-

senting the aggregate of numerous small discrepancies, is suffi-

cient to separate the two. The middle of the prosternum is

more or less protuberant in Colaspis; in the present genus it is

almost plane. The intermediate tibie are not emarginate in

Colaspis. The head and thorax of Metaxyonycha are smaller in

proportion, and the latter less profoundly punctured, more obso-

letely dentated at the sides, more convex anteriorly, and more

rapidly deflexed towards the anterior angles. The antenne and

legs are longer and more slender.

Some of the species are the largest of the group, and all are

natives of tropical America. The typical colour is testaceous,

384 Rev..T. A. Marshall on new Genera

with or without cyaneous blotches or black dots, usually four in

number, upon the elytra, which, in a few instances, are wholly

cyaneous. The thorax is always testaceous.

Four species have hitherto been described—4-maculata, Oliv.,

granulata and chloroptera, Germ., and testacea, Fab. Chevrolat

(D’Orbigny’s Dict. s. v. Metazyonycha) gives Humolpus pictus,

Perty, as appertaining to the genus. I have a specimen of this

insect before me, from the Marquis la Ferté’s collection, where

it stands as Endocephalus pulchellus, De}. It belongs to a widely

different group, and will probably form a new genus, allied to

Endocephalus.

Highteen or twenty undescribed species appear to exist in

collections. Those which I have before me may be thus tabu-

lated :—

I. Elytra testacea.

A. Immaculata, costata.

a. costis alternis altius elevatis ..........0.+. granulata, Germ.

B. costis omnibus zequalibus; antennis

* LERtAECIS, MOGIO DIGTIO ~ 5.652 seo ano ss wie testacea, Fab.

MY MigTis, WNEI 1OMLACOIS 5s oes ch ne ask a cee Tejucana, ined.

B. Maculata.

#, maculis magnis cyaneis.

* maculis 2 Maxims). 051. cides waeaw coat ees connexa, ined.

** maculis 4-6; tarsis

SP UUEIEE 6 oa. titre bie Aidan alk acerauetene ake crucifera, med.

Tt testaceis; antenn. artic. 8°°.

GS POORMOON 6c 45 vikw, sivin Moines She 478 Pokwlg 4-maculata, Oliv.

§$§ nigro; antennee

{ graciles, colore

J fusco, basi testaceze ........000. chlorospilota, med.

WJ] totee testacese ...- 0... cece wees humilis, ined.

tt hoe in genere crassiuscule........ 4-notata, Dej., ined.

8. punctis 4 nigris; punctis anterioribus sitis

Pani -Callo DuMePAlL Ga 'ss.55 bind ss 4 humeralis, ined.

** medio inter marginem et suturam ...... tetrasticta, ined.

II. Elytra cyanea v. viridia.

a. costata, costis completis..........eeeeeees tricolor, Perty.

B. striatopunctata, costis apicalibus; margine

laterali

T TROD ings 5d ck hae: caer «seh eck bea chloroptera, Germ.

** concolore.......... pea is Re eens ees amasia, ined.

Metaxyonycha connexa, sp. ined.

M. oblonga, convexa, testacea; antennarum articulis 4—12 nigris ;

thorace nitido, parce punctato : elytris costatis, punctatis, punctis

inter costas gemellatis ; singulis macula magna oblonga cyanea,

medio intus emarginata.

Long. lin. 54, lat. hum. 2 lin.

Head very finely punctured, more strongly in the interocular

fovea: eyes small, eneous; mandibles tipped with black. First

and Species of Erinolpide. ~ 385

three joints of the antennz testaceous, the rest fuscous. Thorax

faintly emarginate at the sides, without denticulation: disk

smooth, shining, with irregular punctures, much larger than

those of the head; in the middle an impunctate space. Scu-

tellum shining, impunctate. Each elytron with eight smooth

costze (exclusive of the sutural and lateral margins) ; the first,

next the suture, continued to the apex; the second and eighth

branching from a common stem near the apex, and including

within their fork the third to the seventh. The fourth and sixth

likewise originate from a common stem, which unites with the

second near the apex. ‘The interstices punctate-striate, the

punctures geminated. Each elytron with a large, oblong cya-

neous blotch extending four-fifths of its length, bordered all

round with testaceous, and emarginate in the middle of its in-

terior edge. Extreme tips of the tibie and the whole tarsi red-

dish brown ; the rest entirely bright testaceous, deeper on the

head and thorax.

Brought from Tejuca, Brazil, by the Rev. H. Clark.

Metaxyonycha crucifera, sp. ined.

M. testacea, antennarum articulis 4-12 nigris; thorace elytris multo

angustiore, lateribus medio indistincte subbidentatis ; elytris haud

costatis, fortiter confertim subseriatim punctatis, singulis plagis

duabus magnis cyaneis.

Long. lin. 4, lat. hum. 1? lin.

Very similar to M. connexa, but distinguished by having the

thorax much narrower in proportion, and very obsoletely biden-

ticulate at the middle on each side. Elytra punctate-striate, the

strie indistinctly geminated ; the interstices between each pair

smooth, slightly raised, but not costate as in M. connexa. Each

elytron with a large cyaneous blotch, bisected at right angles

by a narrow testaceous stripe, forming four cyaneous spots upon

the back; the two anterior spots quadrangular, rounded in.

front ; the two posterior triangular, nearly reaching the apex.

The testaceous suture and the transverse stripe form together

a Roman cross, from which the species is named. In other

respects similar to M. connexa.

Hab. Mexico. From Thomson’s collection.

Metaxyonycha chlorospilota, sp. ined.

-M. testacea, subnitida, antennarum articulis 6-12 nigris; thorace

parce punctulato, lateribus medio edentatis: elytris subcostatis,

punctato-striatis, punctis inter strias gemellatis; singulis maculis

duabus cyaneis, altera humerali, altera pone medium laterali.

Long. lin. 43, lat. hum. 14 lin.

Similar to the two preceding, but subnitidous and. more

886 Rey. T. A. Marshall on new Genera

faintly punctured ; the less glossy appearance is due to a very

minute aciculation, visible under a strong lens everywhere be-

tween the punctures, and especially on the thorax. Elytra each

with eight smooth, subelevated, somewhat indistinct coste (ex-

clusive of the sutural and lateral margins) ; the first and eighth,

the second and seventh, and the third and sixth united at their

apices. Interstices moderately punctured, the punctures of the

second and following striz geminated. Tach elytron with two

cyaneous spots, irregularly rounded,—the anterior covering the

humeral angle, and projected for a short space into the deflexed

lateral margin, reaching along the anterior margin nearly to the

scutellum, and terminating posteriorly at one-fourth of the

length of the elytron: its hinder interior angle truncated. The

posterior spot is situated just behind the middle, equal in size

to the anterior, slightly infringing upon the deflexed lateral

margin, not touching the suture, and terminating posteriorly at

five-sixths of the length of the elytron. Tarsi testacéous. The

other characters are common to this and the two preceding

species.

Hab. South America? From Thomson’s collection.

Metaxyonycha humilis, sp. ined.

M. testacea, parallela, cylindrica; antennis testaceis; capite basi et

post oculos infuscato ; elytris thorace parum latioribus, hoc late-

ribus muticis, illis subseriatim punctatis, apicem versus costatis ;

utroque maculis binis baseos et fascia pone medium, postice emar

ginata, extus apicem versus producta, nigris.

Long. lin. 33, lat. hum. 1} lin.

Head smooth, shining, with a large punctured fovea between

the eyes, and three impressed lines, forming a bisected triangle,

of which the apex enters the fovea. Eyes large, black, and pro-

minent. - Mandibles tipped with black. Occiput dark brown,

black behind the eyes; the dark tint extending forwards in the

middle indeterminately. Thorax convex, subcylindrical, mode-

rately rounded at the edentate sides, nearly as broad as the elytra,

punctured, and, with the scutellum, reddish testaceous, Elytra

paler testaceous, thickly but finely punctured, the punctures

indistinctly arranged in strie; the suture costate, and several

smooth costz visible near the apex. Each elytron with two ob-

long black basal spots, the outer one lunate, and including the

humeral callus. An irregular black transverse fascia just be-

hind the middle, touching the sutural margin, but not reaching

the deflexed outer margin of the elytron; emarginate behind,

and with its outer angle narrowly produced for a short dis-

tance towards the apex. Under surface and legs entirely testa-

ceous. . ;

and Species of Eumolpide. 387

This insect, by its cylindrical form and the smaller size of its

spots, approaches M. humeralis and M. tetrasticta; and the

pte with M. testacea, Fab., and others, form a group of allied

species.

Brought from the Amazons by H. W. Bates, Esq.

Metaxyonycha quadrinotata, sp. ined.

M. testacea, antennarum articulis 4-12, nigris ; thorace elytris angus-

tiore, lateribus medio bisinuatis ; elytris confertim, prope suturam

_ seriatim punctatis, apicem versus costatis, costis leevibus ; in singulo

elytro maculz duze magne fusco-ceeruleze ; antennee crassiusculee ;

tarsi subinfuscati,

Long. lin. 43-5, lat. hum. 13-2 lin.

Closely allied to M. crucifera (of which it may be a permanent

local variety), but separated (1) by the thick antennee, (2) by the

punctuation of the elytra, (3) by the brownish-blue tint of the

dorsal blotches. Head and thorax smooth, shining, with scat-

tered punctures. A single punctured stria next the suture,

followed, after a wide smooth interval, by a line of doubled

punctures ; the rest of the elytra hardly striato-punctate, except

at the apex, where the usual eight smooth cost become visible,

their interstices punctured. Otherwise like M. crucifera.

Hab. Brazil. From Thomson’s collection.

Metaxyonycha humeralis, sp. ined.

M. oblongo-ovata, subcylindrica, nitida, scite punctulata, testacea,

oculis nigris; elytris punctato-striatis, cujusque strive punctis ge-

minatis, interstitiis levibus, postice elevatis. Elytron utrumque

maculis binis, parvis, rotundis, nigro-czeruleis, quarum altera major

in ipso callo humerali sita, altera infra medium minima.

Long. lin. 4, lat. hum. 14 lin.

Front with three small fovee, arranged in an arc above the

antennz and between the eyes. Thorax finely margined at the

sides and base, with a scarcely visible sinus in the middle of

each side; like the head, irregularly punctured and shining.

Scutellum impunctate, shining, and, with the head and thorax,

pale reddish testaceous. LElytra paler, broader at the base than

the thorax, parallel for three-fourths of their length, thence

to the apex conjointly attenuated and rounded, and in an equal

degree deflexed from above: punctate-striate, the punctures

geminated, the interstices shining, elevated posteriorly into four

smooth costz next the suture, and, after a wider interval, three

more, of which the first is continued from the base to the apex,

and connects the two cyaneous spots on their outer edges. On

the humeral callus is a round cyaneous spot, angulated poste-

riorly, and behind the middle a much smaller discal dot.

Brought from the Amazons by H. W. Bates, Esq.

388 Rey. T. A. Marshall on new Eumolpide.

Metaxyonycha tetrasticta, sp. ined.

M. elongata, cylindrica, testacea; oculis, antennarum articulis 3-12,

tarsis, maculis in utroque elytro binis rotundis nigris.

Long. lin. 44, lat. hum. 14 lin.

More elongate and cylindrical than the preceding, the elytra

less convex, parallel for four-fifths of their length, more broadly

rounded, and less suddenly deflexed posteriorly. Punctuation

similar, but somewhat coarser; the interstices less conspicuous,

except towards the costated apex. yes large and prominent.

Uniformly reddish testaceous, the elytra paler and yellowish.

Each elytron with two circular black spots, the anterior and

larger situated near the base, equidistant from the suture and

the outer margin; the other behind the middle, at the distance

of two-thirds from the exterior margin, and one-third from the

suture.

Hab. Brazil. Common in collections.

Metaxyonycha Tejucana, sp. ined.

M. maxima, castanea; oculis, mandibulis apice, antennarum articulis

4-12, tibiis extremis, tarsis nigris: oculis intus emarginatis;

thorace mutico ; elytris 8-costatis, inter costas seriatim punctatis;.

tibiis intermediis fortiter emarginatis.

Long. lin. 7, lat. hum. 2% lin.

Cognate with M. tricolor: front marked as in that species,

with the addition of an impressed line upon the vertex, reaching

the interocular fovea. Head and thorax with scattered punc-

tures ; the latter subquadrate, as broad in front as behind, mo-

derately rounded at the sides, where it is broadly margined ;

only slightly convex, truncate anteriorly and at the base. Elytra

broader than the thorax, more than four times its length, with

eight smooth coste visible from the base to the apex. The

humeral callus shining and prominent. The fifth, sixth, and

eighth cost reach the callus, the seventh is abbreviated ante-

riorly. All the costz are more distinct towards the sides and

apex. Interstices punctate-striate, the punctures in single rows

near the suture, afterwards doubled, tripled, and finally confused

in the lateral spaces. Entirely castaneous, beneath paler ; tibize

darker, blackish at the apex.

It strongly resembles Colaspis acuminipennis, Blanch., figured

in D’Orbigny’s ‘ Voyage,’ pl. 24. fig. 10.

Brought from Tejuca, Brazil, by the Rev. H. Clark.

Metaxyonycha amasia, sp. ined.

M. testacea, elytris leete ceeruleis, nitidis, confertim subseriatim pune-

tatis, apicem versus costatis; thorace lateribus bisinuato ; oculis,

Dr. T. R. Fraser on the Moth of the Ordeal-Bean. 389°

antennarum articulo quinto apice et sexto ad ultimum obscuris ;

_ tibiis intermediis vix leviter emarginatis.

Long. lin. 32, lat. hum. 14 lin.

_ Facies of M. chloroptera, Germ., but only one-third of its size,

and without the testaceous limb of the elytra. Elongate cylin-

drical, subdepressed ; elytra parallel nearly to their apex, and

then suddenly rounded. Front with a stellate fovea, above which

it is broadly canaliculate. Head and thorax bright testaceous,

thickly but not coarsely punctured ; the latter subquadrate, as

broad before as behind, subtridentate or bisinuated at the sides,

Scutellum testaceous, impunctate. Elytra densely punctate-

striate, the interstices irregular; somewhat rugose transversely

on the disk, costate at the apex; the third, fourth, and fifth

cost springing from a common stem near the apex. Under-

side and legs clear testaceous.

Hab. Costa Rica. From Thomson’s collection.

[To be continued. ]

XXXVII.—On the Moth of the Esere, or Ordeal-Bean of Old

Calabar. By Tuomas R. Fraser, M.D. Edin., Assistant to

the Professor of Materia Medica in the University of Edin-

burgh.

Tue Rev. Joun Bariure, of Old Calabar, recently presented

me with a parcel containing about eighty seeds of Physo-

stigma venenosum, which had been collected because of their

showing indications of the attacks of an insect. In a paper on

the Esere, or Ordeal-Bean of Calabar *, it is stated by me that

“the bean has been always received remarkably free from all

disease,” only one form of slight and unimportant abnormality

having been met with. It is therefore a source of gratification,

to me to have the first opportunity of modifying this expression.

These beans had been collected upwards of three months be-

fore they came into my possession. They were contained in a

covering of thick soft paper, which was found to be riddled by

numerous nearly circular holes, about the sixth of an inch in

diameter; and it was evident that these perforations had been

caused by an insect. On opening the parcel, the beans were

found adhering together by means of an abundance of silky

threads. They were easily disconnected, and, on separation, a

number of caterpillars were seen (generally alive, though slug-

gish in their movements), and a large quantity of what was

evidently their excrement. The greater number of the cater-

* “On the Characters, Actions, and Therapeutic Uses of the Ordeal-

Bean of Calabar,” in ‘Edinburgh Medical Journal,’ July, August, and

September 1863.

390 . Dr. T. R. Fraser on the Moth of the Esere,

pillars were enclosed in cocoons, formed in the spaces between

either contiguous beans or beans and the enclosing paper.

Fifty out of the eighty beans were found with holes—a few with

only one, but the majority with various numbers from two to

eight. The holes were usually of a round-oval form; they ex-:

tended through the spermoderm ; they were situated on almost

any part of the surface of the bean, though generally on the

sulcus, towards its broad extremity; they had an average dia-.

meter of jth of an inch; and they had protruding through

them, from the interior of the bean, a quantity of excrement,

loosely connected into adhering masses by the silky threads

already mentioned.

On breaking the spermoderm, the place of the kernel was.

found to be more or less occupied by excrement, cocoons or their

broken-up remains, and caterpillars. In the majority of affected

beans, the kernel was entirely absent; in others, portions of va-

rious sizes were left, having often eroded margins and other

symptoms of the attacks of the caterpillar, and being sometimes

fantastically irregular in their outlines. In a few instances, and

generally in such beans as had only one or two perforations.

through the sulcus, the kernel was entire, and a small quantity

of entangled excrement only was found in the intercotyledonary

spaces. These beans had probably been occupied, at some

period, by only temporary boarders.

The excrement occurred in large quantity in proportion to the

number of caterpillars. It consisted of little, dry, stone-grey

irregular cylinders, from +1;th to =3;ths of an inch in length, and

about ;;nd of an inch in diameter, and it was always connected

in loose bundles by the adhesive thready secretion of the cater-

pillar. The microscopic examination of this excrement showed

two principal structures—starch-granules, generally broken up,

having the characteristic appearance of these bodies in the

kernel of the seed of Physostigma, and occupying about one-

third of the field, with circular bodies about =,,,th of an inch

in diameter, having large nuclei and granular contents, and

occupying the remainder of the field. Chemical examination

proved the presence of large quantities of uric acid and starch,

and of a little ammonia. The uric acid, when precipitated by

acetic acid from a solution in potash, assumed the form of

perfect, very minute crystals of either detached or clustered

rhombs.

One or two caterpillars were generally found within each bean;

only in one bean as many as six were seen, all of whom were

alive and active. They are of a pale yellow colour, about ?ths

of an inch in length and 4th in greatest thickness, and have

six pectoral, eight abdominal, and two anal feet.

or Ordeal-Bean of Old Calabar. 391

- The pupae belong to the class Incased of Burmeister, are

about 3ths of an inch in length, and of a yellowish-brown co-

lour. The cocoons are greyish white, and always covered with

entangled excrement. Sometimes one pupa only occurs in a

bean, at others as many as four. In a few instances, cocoons

were found with perfect pups; in general they contained only

the cases of the developed imago.

We have thus the changes of the complete metamorphosis of

an insect unequivocally traced; and, through the kindness of

my friend the Rev. John Baillie, the perfect and several imper-

fect forms of the imago of this insect have been put in my pos-

session. All of these were derived in a manner which com-

pletely precludes the chance of any error. From the same lot

of affected beans that are described above, a number of cater-

pillars were selected at Old Calabar, and placed in a box along

with several perforated beans. Cocoons were observed to be

rapidly formed, and in a few days four or five live moths were

obtained. I am indebted to my friend Dr. John Anderson, of

this city, for the identification of this moth. Specimens of the

caterpillar, cocoons, and imago were kindly sent by him to the

British Museum, and were pronounced by the authorities of the

Insect Department to be the Deiopeia pulchella (order Lepido-

ptera, fam. Tineide, Leach). The description and figure given

in the fourth volume of Curtis’s ‘ British Entomology’ appear to

correspond accurately with the imago in my possession. .

Little beyond conjecture can be advanced on the method of the

introduction of this insect into the Calabar beans. The holes

in the spermoderm have always a sharply defined margin, which

opposes the idea of a deposit by the ovipositor of the imago into

the unripe and growing kernel; and the distance from the

exterior of the mature pod to the seeds renders it still more

improbable that the imago could reach the ripe beans for such a

purpose. The most probable view is that the ovum is deposited

in the cellular texture beneath the soft exterior of the young

pod, that it is there hatched, and that thence the caterpillar makes

its own way to the interior of the bean. It is perfectly able to

perforate the hard spermoderm of the ripe seed, and has been

observed to do so; indeed it has been known to make holes of

considerable depth into a hard wooden board.

The Ordeal-bean of Calabar is a poison of extreme activity :

hitherto no living being had been known to be able to resist its

action ; and, from my knowledge of its properties, I confess to

having been sceptical of the existence of any animal form which

could be fairly subjected to its influence and still retain its hold

on life. It appeared of importance to determine, as exactly as

possible, the connexion between this caterpillar and the kernel of

392 Dr. T.R..Fraser on the Moth of the Ordeal-Bean.

the bean, as, supposing the kernel to be received into its ali-

mentary system, the existence of a special assimilative selection

might be shown, or it could be determined if the caterpillar

were proof against this deadly poison. | |

That the kernel is received into the digestive system is evinced

by the presence of the characteristic starch-granules in the ex-

crement, and is rendered certain by the following experiment.

(Exp. 1.) A small piece of kernel, weighing exactly 7 grains,

was placed in a porcelain vessel with six active caterpillars. At

the end of forty-eight hours, the kernel was found to have lost

one grain in weight, and to have two holes (almost perforations)

on its inner surface, of nearly the same form and size as those

which occur through the spermoderm. The caterpillars were

active and lively, and continued so six days after. A quan-

tity of excrement was found in the dish, with the characters

already described.

That the starch-granules of the kernel were not received into

the alimentary system separated in any way from the poisonous

principle was shown by the following experiments with the

excrement. This was carefully separated from the numerous

aggregations found outside the bean, to avoid as far as possible

any admixture with broken-up kernel.

(Exp. 2.) One detached fragment was washed, then tritu-

rated with a little water, and a drop of this applied to the con-

junctiva of a rabbit. In six minutes, it caused a contraction of

the pupil, which became extreme in ten.

(Lap. 3.) Half a grain of the detached cylinders of exere-

ment was triturated, moistened, and formed into a small pill,

which was placed in the pharynx of a linnet. Perfect paralysis

of the legs was caused in four minutes, together with marked

contraction of the pupils (from =4;th to j,nd of an inch in diam.),

defecation and lachrymation. In seven minutes, life was extinct.

The post-mortem appearances showed that death had occurred

by syncope.

From these experiments it was evident that no bad conse-

quences resulted from the presence of the active principle of the

bean in the alimentary canal of the caterpillar. To determine

the result of an introduction into the vascular system, experi-

ments 4 and 5 were tried.

_ (Exp. 4.) An incision was made through the epidermis of a

lively caterpillar, and a little of the active principle of the bean

(the alkaloid eserinia) was introduced. No evident effect was

produced, and the caterpillar was quite active four days after-

wards.

(Exp. 5.) With Wood’s hypodermic syringe, half a minim of a

solution of eserinia (a grain to 8 minims of distilled water) was

On the Belgian Equivalents of the Eastern-Counties Drift. 393

injected beneath the epidermis of two caterpillars, and into a

third the same quantity of distilled water. They were all swelled

out, and suffered apparently from the distention, but equally,

and in forty-eight hours were all equally recovered.

(Ezp. 6.) Several caterpillars were subjected in various ways

to the action of hydrocyanic acid, and all quickly died. From

this it was proved that this caterpillar possesses no mithridate,

no universal panacea against all poisons.

It may be fairly inferred, from the preceding experiments,

that

(1.) The caterpillar of Deiopeia pulchella feeds on the virulent

poison contained in the kernel of the seed of Physostigma ve-

nenosum ; and that

(2.) This caterpillar is unaffected by the poisonous principle

of the kernel—eserinia.

The bearing of the second result on our ideas of vital action

should not be overlooked. A somewhat analogous case is fur-

nished by the Anthonomus druparum, which feeds on the kernel

of Prunus cerasus*; and the poisonous properties of this kernel

are well known to depend on the hydrocyanic acid it containst.

Here, then, our difficulties are increased: Deéiopeia pulchella is

unaffected by one poison, but is rapidly killed by hydrocyanic

acid ; and this latter occurs in the food of another insect, Antho-

nomus druparum. If life be “the sum total of the functions

which resist death,” we have in these examples two organisms,

each furnished with an exceptional potency of one or more of

these death-repelling functions, or having bestowed on each, for

a necessary purpose, a special, almost unrecognized, and cer-

tainly uninvestigated alexipharmic. Unfortunately, we have no

knowledge of those intimate and primary structural changes

which accompany every vital action, and our acquaintance with

the perversions of such changes is quite as unsatisfactory.

Edinburgh University, April 1864.

XXXVIII.—On the Belgian Equivalents of the Upper and Lower

Drift of the Eastern Counties. By 8. V. Woop, Jun.

In describing the lower-Drift sands and gravels that occupy

the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, and of Essex north of

Chelmsford, and which, at varying distances from the coast,

pass under the Boulder-clay or upper Drift, and reappear at the

surface from the denudation of the latter on the western side of

* A Manual of Entomology, translated from the German of Dr. Her-

mann Burmeister by W. E. Shuckard, M.E.S., 1836, p. 356. —

t 7 Treatise on Poisons, by Robert Christison, M.D., &c. &c., 1845,

p- .

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xiii. 26

394, Mr. S. V. Wood on the Belgian Equivalents of

Norfolk *, I showed that this lower Drift was but the deposit of a

bay which, subsequent to the accumulation of the Red-Crag beds,

advanced inland more by erosion than by depression. I also

attempted to show that by the time this bay had thus reached,

on the west, the western side of Suffolk, and on the south-west,

the centre of Essex, a general submergence of the country

terminated this accumulation of sands and gravels, and caused

the precipitation, alike over those beds and over the older forma-

tions forming the terrestrial surface of the period, of the mud

or clay that now occurs more or less continuously over so large

a portion of the British islands, and is commonly known as the

Boulder-clay. I also adverted to the probable great extension of

this lower-Drift bay in an eastwardly direction over the north of

Europe, from which direction the abundant pebbles of quartzite

occurring in the gravels appear to have been derived.

My object is now to endeavour to show that in the Loess of

Belgium and the Rhine we have the extension of the upper drift

that in the British isles is represented by the Boulder-clay, and

that in the Campinian sands, spread over all the north of Bel-

gium, and enveloping beds of rolled stones, described by more

than one continental geologist, we have the precise equivalent

of the English sands and gravels described by me under the

term “ lower Drift.”

The relationship of the Loess to the Boulder-clay seems to have

attracted the attention of Sir Charles Lyell ; for, in his memoir on

the Belgian Tertiaries+, he observes: —“In regard to the relative

ages of the loess and the northern drift with its erratics, the

only positive information which I obtained during this tour was

on crossing the Meuse from Maestricht to the right bank of that

river, opposite the city. Here, in company with M.van Rymsdyck,

I observed that the sands of the Limburg tertiary series were co-

vered by a bed of quartzose gravel with erratics, and this again by

loess 30 feet thick. The locality alluded to is the tableland of

Rassburg, near Geulem, which is about 300 feet above the Meuse,

and about 450 feet above the level of the sea. The erratics are

some of them very angular and more than 2 feet in diameter, con-

sisting of quartzose slate, similar to that of the Ardennes, from

which they are believed to have been transported. Such an in-

stance of the superposition of loess to a certain class of erratics

will not justify the conclusion that the origin of the loess gene-

rally was of later date than the northern drift. I should rather

infer from the fact here mentioned, that the transportation by

ice of large blocks was still going on when a part of the Belgian

loess was deposited ; in other words, the glacial epoch coincided,

* Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xiii. p. 185.

+ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. viii. p. 281.

the Upper and Lower Drift of the Eastern Counties. 395

in part at least, with the epoch of the formation of the loess.

I conceive that the more intense cold had passed away or re-

ceded northwards before the principal mass of the Loess was

In his late work on the ‘ Antiquity of Man’+, Sir Charles

reverts very fully to the subject of the Loess; but he does not

express any further opinion as to the relationship borne by it to

the Boulder-clay, and seems disposed to correlate it with the

limon des plateaux of the Somme Valley.

This superposition of the Loess to the Campinian sands enve-

* In the table annexed to the paper, Sir Charles places the Loess on the

same horizon as the “ Brick-earth and Drift”’ of England, and classes it as

postpliocene or pleistocene. The Brick-earth, however, I regard as of later

date than the Boulder-clay, being a formation deposited in the valleys which

were formed by the forces that upheaved the bed of the Boulder-sea, when

extensive denudations took place, by which not only the Boulder-clay, but

the lower Tertiaries skirting the Thames Valley were denuded, the Brick-

earth and associated gravels having afterwards been deposited on the de-

nuded surfaces. The term Drift has been used to designate beds of so many

distinct ages, that it is impossible to say, on a correlation of deposits, what

precise meaning is to be attached toit. It has been used to designate not

merely the boreal deposits accumulated before the valleys existing in the

newer secondary and the tertiary strata were formed, but also those accu-

mulated since the formation of the principal part of those valleys. The

terms pleistocene (or postpliocene) and quarternary are equally the subjects

of confusion, as both have been used in reference, not only to deposits

newer than the valleys, but also to deposits, such as the Loess and Campi-

nian sands, that are older than the valleys, and between which latter beds

and the upper Tertiaries I believe no physical break whatever to exist. I

have attempted to show (Phil. Mag. s.4. vol. xxvii. p. 180) that the whole of

the valleys that in England exist in strata newer than the Trias originated

in series of circular movements that elevated the bed of the Boulder-clay

sea, and as to such of them as are south of the Thames, or immediately

adjoin that river on the north, by the additional action of rectilinear

movements that supervened on the circular; and I hope in a future

communication to show the origin of the valleys in similar strata of

North France and Belgium to be due to the same and other contempo-

raneous circular movements. In this respect I regard the great physical

break, caused by these circular movements at the close of the glacial epoch,

as a dividing horizon, above or below which the newer deposits of this

area (although differing but little between themselves, as far as concerns

their organic contents,) group themselves; for though in point of time the

division between either group is insignificant, yet in point of change of sur-

face arising from subterranean convulsion, all that took place over this area

since the commencement of the Jurassic period is, I believe, as nothing

in ae been with the complete break-up of the surface ensuing at the

close of the glacial epoch. In referring, therefore, to a deposit as “ drift,”

except when quoting from others, I may be understood as referring to deposits

older than the valleys formed by the circular movements ; at it would, I

conceive, tend to obviate confusion if the terms pleistocene, or post-

pliocene, and quarternary were in like manuer confined to deposits newer

than the valleys thus formed.

+ London, 1863.

26*

396 Mr. 8. V. Wood on the Belgian Equivalents of

loping quartzite erratics, which seems to have induced Sir Charles

to hesitate in referring it to the horizon of the Boulder-clay, and

disposed him to place it as of somewhat later date, affords, how-

ever, to me the most satisfactory evidence that I can find of the

absolute identity between the Boulder-clay and the Loess, as well

as between the lower Drift of the Eastern counties and the Cam-

pinian sands of Belgium *.

The extension of the lower Drift over Essex and Suffolk, and

the sharp though uninterrupted transition from it to the Boulder-

clay, having been described by me in the paper before referred

to, I cannot better show the position of the Campinian sands

relatively to the Loess, and the extension of both of these depo-

sits over Belgium, than by giving the substance of the deserip-

tion of M. d’Archiac in the ‘ Histoire des Progrés de Géologie.’

M. d’Archiac +, after referring to the “ Geest,” which he de-

scribes as underlying the turf-beds and marsh clays of Holland,

as the only deposit in that country which, by its extent and

continuity, seems to belong to an earlier epoch, and to be the

result of a more general cause, quotes the description given by

M. Elie de Beaumont of the “ Geest,” as a vast deposit of

quartzose sand, sometimes slightly argillaceous, in a great part

of which occur small erratics, consisting both of chalk flints and

of fragments of crystalline rocks—a deposit occupying the sur-

face all over the countries of Liége, Juliers, Brabant, Gueldre,

Over Yssel, Westphalia, and Lower Saxony, forming extensive

heaths, and reaching to the border of the sea or to the edge of

the alluvial deposits of the low countries. M. d’Archiac then,

after observing that the “Geest” attaches itself in Belgium to

the sables de Campine, so widely spread in that country, hesitates

to express any opinion as to the age of the deposit, by reason of

the absence of sufficient evidence upon which one could be

based; and he then proceeds with the description given by

M. de Beaumont of the sands of North Germany, in which he

indicates them as extending from North Germany westward

without interruption past the Rhine, as far as the environs of

* With respect to the erratics underlying the Boulder-clay, it may pre-

vent misapprehension if I observe that the terms upper and lower Drift,

that I have adopted to distinguish respectively the Boulder-clay and the

thick deposit of underlying sands and gravels, in no way represent the terms

“ upper and lower erratics ” adopted by the late Mr. Trimmer. The lower

erratics of that gentleman were the Boulder-clay (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.

vol. vii. p. 21), and the upper erratics (/oc. cit.) gravel-beds described by him

as resting in places on the Boulder-clay. It would seem from the observations

of Sir Charles Lyell, which I have quoted, that this order of succession

weighed with him in forming an opmion as to the relationship between

the Boulder-clay and the Loess.

+ Vol. ii. pp. 141, 142.

the Upper and Lower Drift of the Eastern Counties. 397

Maestricht, and thence into the Campine of Belgium. Here, he

adds, the sand of which the deposit is formed did not probably

come from any great distance, being to all appearance derived

from the degradation of the sands of the older Tertiaries, upon

which it rests, both at Maestricht and in part of the Campine ;

while included in it are an abundance of flints, intermixed with

a proportion of erratics, derived from the Ardennes and from the

mountains skirting the Rhine.

In describing this deposit as covering the plateau of St.

Peter’s Mount at Maestricht, M. d’Archiac observes that its

included erratics consist mostly of quartzites, of sizes varying

from that of the fist to that of a walnut; and he adds that he

regards the deposit as of the same age as the erratic beds, con-

taining mammalian remains, which occur at the bottom of the

valleys, and even on their sides, and on some of the surrounding

plateaux, from the Rhine to the Channel, and which on the

English side crown nearly all the chalk cliffs and detached ter-

tiaries that overlie them.

Along the road from Tongres to Maestricht, adds M. d’Ar-

ehiac, this diluvium disappears under another Drift-deposit of

yellow sandy clay, true Lehm or ancient alluvium which envelopes

the country like a mantle to a thickness of from eight to ten

metres,

He then extracts from the ‘Coup d’(il sur la Géologie de la

Belgique,’ of M. d’Omalius d’Halloy, the description of that

geologist, given in almost similar terms to those adopted by M.

Elie de Beaumont,—the distinction between the overlying Loess

or ancient alluvium, and the underlying sandy beds with erratics,

being particularly shown.

Although, according to the view I take of the division that

exists between deposits that are older and those that are newer

than the valleys, there is in M. d’Archiac’s identification of the

Campinian sand with the gravels that cap the deposits along

the coast of England a confusion of beds of different ages *,

yet it is apparent from the description of the Belgian beds

given by himself, as well as from those of the eminent geologists

quoted by him, that the Campinian sands, with their associated

and included beds of rolled stones, pass under the Loess, but are

distinctly divided from it in the same manner as I have shown

to be the case with the lower Drift and Boulder-clay. The elabo-

* The lower-Drift sands and gravels capping the Tertiaries of East Anglia,

and which underlie the Boulder-clay, are, like that deposit, according to my

views, older than the valleys; but the gravels and other accumulations of

débris along the south coast, that sometimes cap the Chalk and sometimes

the Tertiaries, are newer than the valleys of East Anglia, and even, as I

believe, to a certain extent differ in age among themselves.

398 Mr. 8. V. Wood on the Belgian Equivalents of

rate geological map of Belgium, by the late M. Dumont, indicates

in a still clearer manner the area occupied by the Campinian

sands and rolled stones, and by the overlying Loess, as well as

the relative positions of the two beds* ; and in the following

woodcut map | have reproduced, as well as the small seale will

allow, the destribution of the two beds, as shown on the map of

M. Dumont, adding to it the area of the eastern border of Eng-

land, for the purpose of enabling a comparison to be made of

the distribution and position there of the Boulder-clay (A) and

underlying lower Drift (g), with the Loess and Campinian beds of

the Continent. In Belgium the grouping of the two deposits

shows that the valleys have been in some cases cut through the

Loess down to the Campinian sands, where that deposit underlies

the Loess, as, for instance, in the neighbourhood of Brussels and

of Bilsen ; but in this respect the grouping of the beds is much less

striking than in the case of the eastern counties of England. The

coincidence between the valleys cut through the Loess and those

of England, in point of time and mode of origin, is shown in a

way that the limits of this paper do not permit me satisfactorily

to enter upon. In the paper on the formation of the valleys,

before referred to, I attempted to show that the valleys of the

east of England, which cut through the upper and lower Drift

of that region, resulted from the denudation having been regu-

lated by the disturbance of the floor of the sea of the upper Drift,

which took place in the form of a series of circular movements.

The more important of these movements affecting that part of

England originated in three centres, one of which was near

Canterbury, another immediately south of the Isle of Wight,

and another in the North Sea, off Flamborough Head +.

So far as I have been hitherto able to trace them, the circular

movements emerging from these three centres, with others of

similar character and simultaneous origin emerging from centres

on the Continent, appear wholly to have formed the valleys which

* The three deposits are by him placed in the followimg descending order:

Loess (limon Hesbayen) ;

Sables Campiniens ;

Cailloux roulés.

+ Although these three series form the principal valleys of this part of

England, a close investigation of the Ordnance Sheets appears to disclose

otherinequalities of surface, that are parts of circles originating at much more

remote centres, and whose effect has, from distance, become proportionately

feeble. I hope at a future day to show the whole grouping of these circular

phenomena, and the effect of their reciprocal pressure in France and Bel-

gium, as well as in England, and the manner in which, in the south of this

country, subsequent but more localized and powerful movements have su-

pervened on them. The short notice of them published in the ‘ Phil. Mag.’

is very incomplete, and in some respects imperfect.

399

the Upper and Lower Drift of the Eastern Counties.

“£eq gJliqq@-doaoy oy} Jo gruup Apaoygnos posoddus oyy soyworpul ourly Ueyorq oY,

-ssoory 4q sqavd ur urepaoao ‘orypdioureyopy 10 o1ozoeeg syueserdea Surpeys youtq oy, ‘mantanye AoyeA “ar

sarct aeddn 4 (8580) uokeqsey{ UOUTT *,Y -(suerurdue, soyqes) unisjog jo lacy tamoy °F ‘SvlQ poy Oy} UVYy AopTO solzeysay, “9

we a ‘Aepo-lopynog *y ‘puvpsuy jo ytaq aamoy “6 “awpuoosg *”

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vano'T pun hinij-sepnog ay} fo pun wubjag fo pung unvadung pup ssaory ay? fo uoynguysig ay; bumoys dopy

400 Mr. 8. V. Wood on the Belgian Equivalents of

cut through or exist in the Loess itself. If, therefore, the Boulder-

clay or upper Drift of England has been acted upon by move-

ments which have similarly affected the Loess of Belgium, it

follows that both deposits had been thrown down before these

movements began. It can be shown that these movements

have not affected the postpliocene gravels that rest on surfaces

from which the upper Drift has been denuded *, so that they

must have originated prior to these gravels having been depo-

sited ; and since, from the great area over which the denudation

has extended, we can attribute it to nothing but the action of

the sea, we must assume either that it resulted during an emer-

gence of the bed of the upper-Drift sea, or that a second general

submergence and elevation took place. Although the evidence

collected by geologists appears to me to indicate that parts of the

south of England and of the north of France have been sub-

merged (and that violently), and still further denuded, subse-

quently to the general disturbance and denudation produced by

these circular phenomena, and subsequently to the area having

been converted into land, yet there is no trace of any second

general subsidence and elevation. It therefore seems to me

that we have no alternative than to infer that these circular move-

ments originated under the upper-Drift sea; and in that case, as

the Loess is disturbed by those movements, it must have been ~

deposited prior to the elevation of the bed of that sea.

In describing the lower Drift of the Eastern Counties, I dwelt

upon the mode in which the position occupied by it relatively to

the lower tertiaries indicated that the bay depositing it advanced

inland by erosion as much as or more than by depression— differ-

ing entirely in this respect from the overlying Boulder-clay.

The latter in the east of England, where not denuded, spreads

evenly over the Eocene tertiaries which the lower Drift had not

reached, and over the cretaceous and oolitic deposits where they

come out from under the Eocene by original relationship of

deposit. In this respect the Boulder-clay fully resembles the

Loess, although in the eastern counties of England there

were at the time of its deposit no eminences that, rising above

the sea, escaped its envelope, as did the higher ridges of the

Ardennes.

On the other hand, we have, in a section given by Sir Chas.

Lyell in his paper on Belgium before referred to, a parallel, in the

case of the Campinian sands, to the erosive action exerted by the

sea of the lower Drift. The section is that at Dieghem, seven

miles north-east of Brussels. Sir Charles describes sands at that

* The postpliocene gravels of the Thames valley have, however, been

powerfully disturbed by the movements subsequent to those of the circular

character.

the Upper and Lower Drift of the Eastern Counties. 401

place as lying upon the deeply eroded face of the Eocene tertia-

ries; but, bemg unfossiliferous, he does not identify them. A

reference, however, on M. Dumont’s map to the place where

this section occurs leaves no doubt that the covering sands

shown in the section are those mapped by M. Dumont as the

sables campiniens. A short distance south of this place the

sands pass beneath the Loess that, according to M. Dumont,

caps the heights on either side of the valley at Brussels.

The precise margin of the lower-Drift bay, which, as I have

shown, can be detected accurately at one part of Essex, appears

to be obscured in Belgium beneath the Loess. By analogy and

by assuming a uniformity of depression over either area to have

taken place on the introduction of the upper Drift, we may infer

that the margin of this bay in Belgium passed along the northern

flank of the Ardennes, from which it derived the quartzites that

constitute so considerable a proportion of its included pebbles,

the Loess spreading over this margin and concealing it, as is the

case with the western margin, that, in Essex, passes under and is

hidden by the Boulder-clay.

In another section, given by Sir Charles Lyell, he shows the

Loess at Tournay to rest upon the lower beds of the Eocene series,

which there crop out, at their original margin of deposit, without

(so far as the section represents) any intervening bed of sand or

rolled stones. It would thus appear that the margin of the

lower- Drift bay passed to the north of Tournay. In another

section at Dileghem, two miles N.N.W. of Brussels, Sir Charles

shows the Loess resting upon a bed of sand, which, although un-

fossiliferous, he refers, from similarity of appearance, to the same

sands as those described by him at Cassel as belonging to the

Diest group.. The Diest sands, however, are not indicated by

M. Dumont anywhere west or south of a point about ten miles

north-east of Brussels—a still greater distance from Cassel.

Dileghem, where this section occurs, is represented by M. Du-

mont as at the margin of the Loess and the Campinian sands,

where the latter pass under the former. It would seem, there-

fore, that the unfossiliferous sands of Dileghem, upon which the

Loess rests, belong to the Campinian series, the more especially

so as we have seen that at Dieghem, a few miles only N.E. of the

former place, the Campinian sands shown to occur there by M.

Dumont agree with Sir Charles’s section of that place. If, there-

fore, the Loess at Dileghem is underlain by the Campinian sands,

the margin of the lower-Drift bay would pass somewhere be-

tween that place and Tournay ; but if otherwise, it would pass

between Dieghem and Dileghem. I, however, for the reasons

stated, strongly incline to the former alternative, and I have

adopted it in the hypothetical extension of the boundary given

402 Mr. 8. V. Wood on the Belgian Equivalents of

in the woodeut map *.. The great extent of the lower-Drift ba

in the direction of the north of Germany, and even further still

to the eastward, becomes, I think, demonstrable; but, as I

observed in the description of the beds in the Eastern Counties

(‘ Annals’ for March 1864, p. 199), only a small portion of that

bay impinged upon England. In the map accompanying that

description, I did not draw the line indicating the probable

boundary of the bay in England further north than the western

side of Norfolk, in consequence of not having been able to make

the necessary observations along that border to enable me to

indicate the boundaries in that direction ; I, however, believe

that the boundary, after crossing the south-east of Lincolnshire,

skirts the east of that county and runs northwards by Hull

towards Bridlington ; but for the present I defer any remark as

to that extremity of the deposit.

The descriptions of M. d’Archiac, of the extension of the

ancient diluvium over the north-east of France, do not enable

one to form an opinion as to how far the conditions that pre-

vailed during the Drift period on the northern side of the

Ardennes existed also on the southern. It would seem from

the descriptions of the French geologists, that the upper Drift

(2. e. the Loess, or limon Hesbayen) occurs in the north-east

provinces of France, south of the Ardennes; but to what extent,

if at all, the lower-Drift beds may be there represented, these

descriptions do not enable me to form any clear opinion. M.

d’Archiac draws no distinction, such as I believe does exist,

between gravels that are older than the valleys formed m the

cretaceous and tertiary strata, and those that are newer than

those valleys, as is evident from his identification of the

Maestricht sand containing rolled quartzites (and which he

describes as passing under the Loess towards Tongres) with the

* Sir Charles points out the difficulty of distinguishing between the

sandy base of the Loess and the Eocene sands upon which it rests, by

reason of the occurrence of a large number of derivative fossils im the

former, washed out of the latter. This fully bears out the statement quoted

from M. Elie de Beaumont, as to the source from which the Campinian

sands have been supplied with their material. SirCharles also instances cases

in which M. Dumont, from this presence of derivative fossils, regarded

as of Loess (Campinian) age beds which he (Sir Charles) was inclined to

refer to the Eocene; and it would seem, from the grouping on M,

Dumont’s map of the Campinian and Loess beds, that this divergence of view

is the cause of the discrepancy I have been discussing in the representa-

tions at Dileghem and Dieghem. As the Campinian beds thin out to-

wards their margin, near the Ardennes, their distinction from the sub-

jacent Eocene becomes probably more obscure than it is further to the

north, where, from their greater thickness and from the presence of their

included erratics, a general concurrence of opinion exists as to their exis-

tence beneath the Loess.

the Upper and Lower Drift of the Eastern Counties. 403

gravel-beds overlying the chalk, and also the detached Tertiaries

on the English side of the British Channel—beds which I regard

as wholly of newer date than the valleys, and consequently of

newer date than either of the beds forming the subject of this

paper. Of the lowermost of the latter beds, I have shown that

its margin crossed the centre of Essex; but that portion of the

upper Drift which in England is known as the Boulder-clay, I

believe, originally extended continuously over the area south of

the Thames, and was the more oceanic portion of that part of

the upper Drift which formed the Loess of Belgium—and

that the same formation spread over northern France. No

remnant, however, of this upper bed, south of that at Muswell

Hill, six miles north of London *, has, so far as is yet known,

survived the denudation, which removed not only that bed, but

large areas of the Eocene beds also; so that the gravel-deposits

crowning the surface of the denuded Chalk and Tertiary on the

English side of the Channel are in no way connected with either

of the beds which form the subject of this paper.

In this uncertainty attending the spread of the upper Drift

over France, I have not attempted to pursue the correlation

of the deposits beyond Belgium; but it is apparent, from the

views I take, that I regard the limon des plateaux which caps the

chalk heights overlooking the valley of the Somme, and which

Sir Charles Lyell seems inclined to refer to the Loess, as of a

later date than that deposit, although I believe it to differ in age,

as Sir Charles justly points out, from the deposits filling the

Somme valley. According to my views, the whole mass of the

Eocene tertiaries that spread from Mons en Pevéle, on the

north, to Beauvais on the south, were denuded from the chalk

forming the heights of the Somme, subsequent to the deposit of

the Boulder-clay over those Tertiaries, and before this limon

des plateaux had settled upon the surface of the chalk thus

exposed.

The Boulder-clay of the east of England has hitherto, so far as

* Over the London Clay north of the Thames, and particularly over

the south-east of Essex, stones occur not unfrequently on the surface of

the soil, that never came from the wreck of the Eocene tertiaries, but well

agree with those included in the Boulder-clay: these I believe to have

come from that deposit, and, having escaped the transporting agencies in

operation at the time of the denudation, to have settled on the denuded

surface of the London Clay, and in that way now convey a faint indica-

tion of the former existence of the Boulder-clay over the area where they

are distributed. A boulder of crystalline rock, water-worn, containing

several cubic feet, exists at Grays, and another at Benfleet ; but as they

may possibly have been brought by ship, it would be unsafe to rely on them

as evidence of the Boulder-clay having extended, as I believe it did ex-

tend, over those places.

404: Mr. 8. V. Wood on the Belgian Equivalents of

I know, yielded no proper fossils, its included organic remains

being wholly derivative*. In Belgium, the only fossils obtained —

fromthe Loess appear tobe of fluviatile, or rather terrestrial habitat;

and it is the presence of these latter, doubtless, that has chiefly

contributed to deter geologists from referring the Loess to the ho-

rizon of the Boulder-clay. Speculations on the agencies producing

these discordant features have not much to rest upon; but we

may not unreasonably take into account the influence of the arctic

conditions of the period as either causing or contributing to this

result. The views of geologists have already been expressed in

favour of a great freshwater discharge down the valley of the Rhine

as the cause of the deposit of the Loess, although they have dif-

fered as to the mode in which the fresh water was distributed.

It appears to me, however, that in the gorge of the Rhine we

should, under arctic conditions, have one of those deep fiords,

described by Dr. Sutherland} as so fertile in glacier produc-

tion, that now indent Baffin’s Bay, with the added condition of

its being the outlet of the drainage of a considerable tract of land.

If a great difference between the temperature of summer and

that of winter prevailed during the Loess period, more resembling

the climate at the mouth of the Mackenzie and Coppermine Rivers

than those of the eastern side of America, very extensive floods

of fresh water would be poured down the valley of the Rhine

during summer, and spread over a considerable area at its

mouth. Whether this periodical disturbance of the distribu-

tion of fresh and salt water over the region near the point of

discharge would render the area unsuited alike for the habita-

tion of marine, of fluvio-marine, and freshwater mollusks is

uncertain: a better knowledge than is yet possessed of what

now obtains, under circumstances presenting the nearest analogy

at the present day, is required before a satisfactory reply can be

given ; but it has occurred to me as not improbable that, since

the included Mollusca of the Loess are of that habitat that they

may well have been carried down from swamps or rills exist-

ing high up the Rhenish country, or among the higher eleva-

tions of the Ardennes, and sparsely distributed with the muddy

sediment over the Loess area, such a state of things might

furnish an explanation of the absence of either fluvio-marine or

of purely marine Mollusca. The intermittent volume of the

freshwater discharge would, I conceive, produce conditions

quite different from those ordinarily understood as fluvio-marine,

* I am permitted by Mr. J. G. Jeffreys to state that he has recently

obtained marine molluscous remains from what he regards as undoubted

Boulder-clay of the Yorkshire coast.

+ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. ix. p. 30.

the Upper and Lower Drift of the Eastern Counties. 405

which result from the regular and constant intermixture of the

fresh water of rivers with the sea-water. This conjecture also

receives some support from the circumstance that the included

shells of the Loess appear to become rarer as the distance from

the Rhine increases, and from the fact that the Hesbayan mud,

argillaceo-sandy in Belgium, becomes on the extreme east of

Suffolk more clayey, but yet less so than further to the west, and

its included chalk débris are there but scanty; while as we go west-

ward, and approach the region of the oolitic clays, from which so

much of the argillaceous material of the Boulder-clay of the east

of England has been derived, the clayey character of the deposit

becomes more decided. Approaching the Chalk region, as

well as over it, the extensive intermixture of chalk-detritus

shows that the adjacent material largely contributed to the

sediment, and that little or nothing was derived from the Hes-

bayan area. Over the Eastern Counties also the Boulder-clay

is destitute, so far as hitherto observed, of fossils; so that it

would seem to form a sort of neutral ground between the Loess

with its included land-shells, and the Boulder-clay of the north

with its deposits of marine shells.

I have not been able to find any description of the upper

Crag of Antwerp calculated to throw any light on the relation-

ship borne by that deposit to the Campinian sands, or showing

whether the transition that exists in Suffolk between the Red

Crag and the lower Drift obtains also in Belgium ; and, indeed,

it would seem that the level state of the country around Ant-

werp forms an obstacle to a satisfactory investigation of that

question.

* * * * ** aS

In the paper on the “ Red Crag and Drift ” (‘ Annals,’ March,

p- 185) I observed, in reference to the passage-beds between the

Red Crag and Drift, that I understood from Mr. Prestwich that

he no longer adhered to the section of that place published by him

in the Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. (vol.v. p. 345). I, however,

should have said that it was his interpretation of some parts

of that section, and not the order of superposition, to which

Mr. Prestwich does not now adhere. It will be seen, by a

comparison of the two sections, that, in point of superposition,

there is no material difference between them. It was in respect

of the unconformability of these beds to the Red Crag that

my views differed from those expressed by Mr. Prestwich in

1849.

406 Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides and other Crystals.

XXXIX.—Observations on Raphides and other Crystals.

By Grorce Guiiiver, F.R.S,

[Continued from p. 295. ]

Crassulacee, Ficoidee, and Cactacee.—In former examinations

of a few of these plants, raphides were always found in Ficoidez,

and never in Crassulacez and Cactacee. Of these three orders

parts (leaves when not otherwise noted) of different species have

since been obtained, chiefly through the kindness of Mr. J.

De Carle Sowerby, Mr. W. H. Baxter, and Mr. Cox, of which

the examinations will now be given. Crassula tetragona: a few

oblong-cubic or prismatic crystals in liber or alburnum of stem,

C. (perfossa?) : a few short, abruptly truncated prisms. Bryo-

phyllum calycinum: some spheraphides and detached minute

square crystals. Monanthes polyphylla (stem and leaf), Sedum

populifolium (woody stem and leaf-buds), S. dentatum, S.-

kamskatkicum (root and leaf-buds), Sempervivum rubricaule, 8.

arachnoideum, S. anomalum, 8S. hirtum, Echeveria secunda, E.

pumila, E. papillosa, E. bracteosa, Pachyphytum bracteosum, Co-

tyledon? arborescens, C. umbilicus, Rochea falcata, and Tillea

muscosa: no raphides, and other crystals very scanty. Cereus

hexagonus, C. flagelliformis, Rhipsalis paradoxa, protuberances

and spines of seven species of Mammillaria, four species of

Epiphyllum, and two of Opuntia were also all devoid of raphides.

But in E. speciosum were numerous coarse spheraphides, a sort

of crystallme grit, from which abruptly truncated prisms ra-

diated; and O. nigricans and fruit of O. vulgaris were thickly

studded with spheraphides, about ;1,th of an inch in diameter,

especially in the outer part of the rind; while in its inner part

and parenchyma the spheraphides were less numerous, more

irregular in size, and so much larger that their mean diameter

was not less than ;3,th of an inch. Of the fifteen species re-

ceived of Mesembryanthemum, every one abounded in raphides,

commonly in bundles; and many larger crystal prisms were

seen in these plants: the raphis-cells were generally of a short

oval form, by no means so elongated as in many other orders,

and in the centre frequently appeared black from the accu-

mulation of raphides. This was well seen in the leaves of M.

vaginatum, M. densum, and M. caninum, and also in the paren-

chyma and pith of the stems of M. barbatum, M. (tortuosum?),

and M. perfoliatum.

In Prof. Balfour’s ‘Manual of Botany,’ these orders stand

thus :—90, Crassulacee. 91, Ficoides. 92, Cactacee. And now

all the above observations show raphides constantly present in

the section Mesembryez of the central order, and as constantly

absent in the two other orders. Still, that this remarkable

Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides and other Crystals. 407

difference exists throughout the whole of these orders seems so

unlikely, that nothing short of a complete examination of them

would be sufficient to establish the truth of this question.

Meanwhile it may be added that I have found this raphidian

diagnosis never-failing, so far as regards three species of Mesem-

bryeze and ten of Crassulaceze and Cactacez, being all the plants

of these orders growing in my garden and in the windows of

the neighbouring town. A satisfactory examination of the

other sections of Ficoideze would be very interesting. In dried

fragments of Tetragonia, Aizoon, and Sesuvium | saw no ra-

phides.

Rubiacee.—The following officinal articles were obtained, by

the kindness of Mr. Ward, from the most authentic sources :—

Root of Cephaélis Ipecacuanha ; five sorts of Cinchona-bark, to

wit, Red, Yellow, Yellow Petago, Pale, Yellow Carthagena ;

berries of East-Indian, Plantation, and Mocha Coffee. After

careful examinations, no raphides were found in any of these,

except in the Ipecacuanha: this root contained a few raphides ;

and they were seen more plentifully in a fresh leaf of the plant,

kindly sent by Mr. Moore, the excellent Curator of Chelsea

Gardens. The officinal root was remarkable (especially its outer

fleshy part) for an abundance of starch; in the central woody

part were many long cells full of starch-granules, and it was

chiefly made up of dotted ducts, like those of Galium Mollugo.

Of the Cinchonz, the pale was the only one consisting of all the

layers of the bark, and it contained more starch than the others.

Mr. Moore also favoured me with leaves of Coffea arabica and

Cinchona calisaya, in neither of which could raphides be found ;

nor in a twig of Cinchona micrantha, kindly sent, with other

contributions towards this inquiry, by Mr. Baxter.

_ Inthe British Flora, we have before shown that Rubiacee,

consisting entirely of herbaceous species, stands as a raphis-

bearing order closely surrounded by orders devoid of. this func-

tion; while of eight exotic plants, of the section Cinchonacez,

raphides abound in two herbaceous species, and could not be

found at all in six woody ones, though sphzraphides in Zaion

and Gardenia are numerous and beautiful. Subsequently, I

have examined a few species, both native and foreign, belonging

to the three orders standing, in Prof. Balfour’s ‘Manual,’ on

either side of Rubiacez, and failed to find raphides in any one

of these plants, among which were fragments of six species of

the order Loranthacee and two of Calyceracer, obligingly sup-

plied, in compliance with my request, by the eminent botanist

Dr. Hooker. Thus the presence of raphides in the herbaceous

species and their absence from the woody ones further appear ;

and hence arises, in this wide and novel subject of the value of

408 Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides and other Crystals.

raphides as natural characters, another of those interesting

questions which can only be settled by further observations.

Musacea.—Bit of midrib and blade of leaf of Musa teatilis,

from Mr. Baxter: raphides scanty; but abundance of minute

crystals, like those of Citrus (‘Annals,’ April last, p. 294), be-

sides some hexagonal forms. Heliconia aurantiaca (leaf from

Mr. Moore) : petiole and blade with swarms of raphis-cells.

Tridacee and Liliacee.—Such fine examples of crystal prisms,

about =1;th of an inch long and ;4,nd thick, are afforded by

the officinal Orris-root (ris Florentina), and of raphides, about

z';th of an inch long and +,';>th thick, by the officinal Squill,

that the difference between these crystals may be examined at

any time. There are also in the Squill numerous, smaller ra-

phides; and in the fresh bulb the raphides may be seen es-

caping from the rounded ends of the soft, ropy and mucus-like

cells. I have before noticed the raphides-in the leaves of Ruseus.

Though always rather scanty, they are constant; and many

bundles of them occur regularly in the perianth. The remark-

able scarcity of raphides in our native shrubs and trees gives an

interest to this little British shrub as a raphis-bearer. Raphides

abound in the twigs and leaves of R. Hypoglossum from Mr.

Sowerby.

Burmanniacee and Hemodoracee.—Dried leaves, from Mr.

Baxter, of Burmannia, sp., and Anigozanthus, sp.: raphides not

found in the first, but abundantly in the last, and often in

bundles. aes

Amaryllidacee.—A good example of the constancy of the raphis-

bearing character is afforded by Narcissus pseudo- Narcissus, as

I have found after many examinations, during different months

and years, of wild plants in Derbyshire, Middlesex, Essex, Kent,

Ireland and Scotland. Though the raphides are so abundant

in its leaves, scape, and ovary-coat, they are not remarkable in

the ovules. It is curious to observe the difference between the

bulb-scales either of this plant or Endymion nutans and of some

Alliese and Colchicaceze: bundles of raphides in the first two,

short prisms in the third, and no crystals in the last.

Hypoxidacee.—Bundles of raphides numerous in a dried leaf

of Hypozis, sp., from Mr. Baxter.

Bromeliacee.—Leaf of Bonapartea juncea: a profusion of

bundles of raphides, and of single, larger, four-sided prisms,

flattened at the ends like a mason’s chisel. Leaves, from Mr.

Baxter, of Ananassa sativa, Aichmea discolor, Dyckia rariflora,

Tillandsia acaulis, T. zebrina, and T. sp.: all abounding in

raphides, which are also numerous in the stamens and perianth

of an immature flower of this last species.

Pontederiaceea.—Bit of dry leaf-stalk of Pontederia azurea

Prof. H. Karsten on the Vegetable Cell. 409

and of fresh leaf of P. crassipes, from Mr. Baxter : abundance of

raphis-cells, and of crystal prisms, especially in the pith.

Xyridacee and Juncacee.—Bits of dried leaves of the three

following, from Mr. Baxter :—Xyris laxifolia and X. subulata:

no raphides. Philydrum lanuginosum (Xyridacee ?): numerous

acicular crystals lying singly along the leaf, the margin of which

consists of prosenchyma, its transparent fusiform cells as long as

in many sorts of woody pleurenchyma. Raphides were not seen

in any of the few species examined of the British Juncacez.

~ Palmacee.—Cocoa-nut (Cocos nucifera), Palm-nut (Elais gui-

neensis), Betel-nut (Areca Catecu), and Date-fruit (Pheniz),

from shops: no raphides. Of the following, portions of leaves

merely, when not otherwise noted, from Mr. Ward’s fern-house,

and from Mr. Moore, Mr. Sowerby, and Mr. Baxter :—Rhapis

flabelliformis, R. Sierotzik, Elais guineensis, Latania borbonica,

Phenix leonensis, P. dactylifera (root, stalk, and leat), P. farini-

fera, P. sylvestris, P. humilis, Elate sylvestris, Seaforthia elegans,

Chamerops, two sp., C. humilis (bits of root and leaf), Corypha _

australis, Areca alba and A. rubra: rvaphides either not present

or very scanty. A. crenata, Thrinax parviflora, Chamedorea, sp.,

and C. Scheediana: a few raphides. Areca sapida, Sabal um-

braculifera, Ceroxylon Andicola, and Caryota urens: many bun-

dles of raphides. :

- Pandanacee.—Leaves, from Mr. Moore and Mr. Sowerby, of

Pandanus utilis, P. spiralis, and Carludovica purpurata: a pro-

fusion of raphides, the bundles of which are much shorter than

their delicate translucent cells. Of this order, Prof. Balfour long

since observed, “their spermoderm has numerous raphides.”

Edenbridge, April 7, 1864.

[To be continued. ]

XL.—Histological Researches on the Formation, Development, and

Structure of the Vegetable Cell. By Prof. H. Karsten,

[Continued from p. 290.]

§ III. On the Polarity of the Joint-cells of Cladophora

glomerata.

Tn an investigation of cell-development, Cladophora glomerata

cannot be passed over, as its course of development furnished

the foundation for the first theory of cell-formation, Mohl having

employed it in his important and suggestive researches upon this

subject—researches which have been repeated by all succeeding

vegetable anatomists, who, almost without exception, have con-

firmed the results obtained by that highly esteemed observer.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser.3. Vol. xiii. 27

410 Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

If, notwithstanding, I now find, after the repeated and most

careful examination of this interesting plant, that the law of

development laid down by me is followed also in the formation

of the cells of its tissue, particular difficulties must indeed have

been thrown in the way of the recognition of the true phenomena

by the structural conditions of this plant.

And it is undeniable that such hindrances do exist in the mode

of development of the cells of this plant,—dependent, in the first

place, upon the existence ofa large number of secretion-cells in

the vegetation-cells concealing their youngest phases and render-

ing observation difficult; secondly, upon the fact that in the

tissue-cells the youngest joints do not, as is commonly the case,

remain a long time undeveloped and exhibit their characteristic

nucleus ; and thirdly, upon the circumstance that the successive

endogenous development in this plant proceeds in a high degree

even in the secretion-cells, whereby the distinctive characters of

the vegetation- and of the secretion-cell become confused and lost.

It is partly by these circumstances that the recognition of the

true developmental processes in this plant has been rendered

difficult (as indeed Jessen has shown by the communication of

his observations on various Algz), but partly also by the method

of investigation, in which chemical reagents have been employed —

as physical aids.

In the following account I shall relate my observations in the

order dictated to me by the opportunities I had of making them

upon the developing plants.

It has been noticed, in the case of several Algz, that individual

cells detach themselves from the cell-tissue of the organism, be-

come free like gonidia or the buds of more complex plants, and

at length produce perfect individuals. This phenomenon (which

takes place in nature under certain, though as yet not fully un-

derstood, conditions) may be artificially produced in the Clado-

phora glomerata, and probably also in the other Conferve allied

to it.

On cutting a Cladophora glomerata longitudinally into small

pieces, so that a cell remains in each portion uninjured between

two cut ones, and on placing such sections in water (PI. VI.

figs. 80 & 48), a portion 6f the mucilaginous granular contents

is seen to escape from the cut ends of the cells, whilst another

portion will become progressively changed and dissolved by the

intruding water. The single uncut cell, however, resists the

action of the water at its internal transverse septa, now ee

exposed, as well as at the cuticle clothing its lateral walls, whic

does not permit diosmosis to take place in sufficient amount to

exert an injurious action upon the assimilative activity of the

enclosed cell, The cell thus isolated proceeds in its development,

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 411

although at first slowly and in an altered form ; for from it, just

as from a germ-cell, a perfect individual is produced. .

The first perceptible change in the cell is a state of tension of

each of its free transverse walls or septa. These transverse

septa present, in the normal uninjured state of the Conferva, a

flat disk; but after the section of the neighbouring cells, they

become somewhat expanded and pressed outwards from the ends

of the uncut cell, so that they present a concavity towards the

interior of this cell (Pl. VI. figs. 30,31).

This extension, which is at first exerted equally on both walls,

soon acts only upon one of them, and this is always the one

which is naturally the lower one—a circumstance which can be

best verified in such sections as have a cell branching from

them (figs. 30, 31, 42). The enlarging uninjured cell now

usually first of all pushes the original lower septum further down-

wards, within the cut cylindrical lateral wall, the diameter of this

cylinder being generally not entirely occupied, by which circum-

stance the progress of the enlarged transverse septum may be

distinguished far downwards. This inferior prolongation of the

cell gradually becomes smaller in diameter and thinner than

its upper portion (figs. 33, 34, 35), and it is also frequently not

so thickly occupied with chlorophyll (figs. 42, 45) as are the

normal joint-cells of the plant. At the same time the inferior

extremity of this prolongation usually affixes itself to some dead

or living organic body, it may be to a living cell of its own spe-

cies, extends itself upon this in thin ramifications, and adheres

closely to it (Pl. VI. figs. 43, 44, 45), by becoming intimately

amalgamated, without, however, exerting any perceptible influ-

ence upon its vital activity. This direct inferior prolongation

of the Conferva-cell thus becomes its radical extremity.

The upper end of the same cell follows an entirely different

course. At first, indeed, the septum exhibits a certain degree

of extension like the lower one, but I have never distinctly made

out a direct elongation of the apex of the cell upwards into the

empty cell above; but when an act of growth is established in

the upper extremity of the cell (an event commonly subsequent

to the extension of the lower end), this expends itself laterally

below the transverse septum so as to produce a branch,—the

proceeding resembling that whereby ramifications are normally

produced in uninjured Conferve.

The branch therefore is developed within and under cover of

the original enveloping membrane of the entire plant, whilst, on

the contrary, the organ which represents the root of the higher

plants is not covered by this general integument, but, so soon as

it has emerged from the surrounding walls of the cut cell, con-

tinues to elongate itself in the water quite free and unclothed.

412 Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

We here find, therefore, in the development of these two phy

siologically different organs, a similar phenomenon to that which

obtains in compound plants; for all those parts of vascular

plants which belong to the ascending axis are clothed during

their development by the epidermis; whereas this covering is

wanting to the root, whose divisions are invested with a layer of

tissue analogous in many respects to cork, even at their growing

extremities. .

The normal phenomenon of root-formation from the origina

lower extremity of the cell of the Conferva, isolated in the manner

described, and that of the production of a branch from its original

upper end (exceptions to which rule are extremely rare) render

it evident that in each of these cells there is a physiological dif-

ference between the two extremities. Moreover, in the case of

the swarm-spores and gonidia of Algze, which consist of only one

system of endogenous cells, and are provided on one side with

vibratile cilia, a similar pre-existent polarity may be recognized;

for, in these, one side, and indeed that which is clothed with

cilia, will always grow downwards into the root of attachment,

whilst the opposite extremity of the spore, invested by the

thickened mother cell, grows upwards to form the stem. This

separation of the regions of the cell by reason of their endow-

ment with different functions, which is already established by

development in the parent plant, forms the basis of the dissimi-

larity in the arrangement of the organs of the developed plant. '

In part it is the mode of nourishment of the spores and ger-

minal cells, dependent on their position in the mother cell and

in the parent plant, which engrafts upon the cell, simultaneously

with its production and development, the dissimilarity in the

functions of its different regions.

In part, also, this heterologous activity at the opposite poles

of many germinating spores of Algz and of the phanerogamic

embryo in course of development, is probably founded in the

anatomical difference of these poles—the extremity of the young

organism which takes on the function of a root breaking through

the mother cell which continues to envelope the opposite ex-

tremity as an enclosing membrane, or at least envelopes its

youngest parts until the complete evolution of the normal form.

We may further look upon the vibratile cilia with which the

germinal corpuscles are furnished as in part a cause of their

polarity; for the cilia themselves, being extended hair-like

secretion-cells (Bot. Zeitung, 1852), constitute the first simple

organs of nutrition of the embryonic organism. Filled with a

liquid which causes the taking-up of matters from the surround-

ing medium, these organs doubtless prepare the first nutritive

matter for the cell upon which they are seated ; and this matter

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 418

will be applied, especially during the dissolution of the ciliary

membranes, so as to promote or produce in the adjoining region

the predisposition to take on the function of a root.

Those germ-cells (gonidia) which are clothed with a uniform

ciliary epithelium, as, for example, those of the genus Vaucheria,

display no such polar tendency at their opposite ends.

On the other hand, similar conditions are encountered in

the developing germ-cells of the complex organization of pha-

nerogamous plants. In these also the mystery of the nor-

mal position of the radicle of the young plant with regard to

the micropyle (independently of the mode of attachment of the

ovule to the placenta, from which it receives its nourishment)

will undoubtedly find its partial solution in the fact that the first

impulse to the assumption of the typical form of the mature

organism, which is innate in the fertilized cell, is derived from

the contents of the pollen-sac, which penetrates into the ovule

through the micropyle and determines the polar property of the

indifferent germ-cell.

In the filiform Conferve, this polar property of the germ-

cell, when once set up, propagates itself to every cell, in series,

throughout the organism, and is equally stamped upon every

single cell in it ; and the same thing takes place in the Phanero-

gamous plants which are composed of various kinds of tissues,

by which we may explain the predisposition to polar activity

inherent in every fragment of the stem or leaf, which manifests

itself in the normal development of new roots at the originally

inferior extremity of the organic fragment.

The desire to make this phenomenon dependent. on the pre-

sence of vessels which are endowed with functions analogous to

those of animals (which, curiously enough, has been quite recently

again put forward) arises from a complete misconception of the

structure of the tissues of plants.

gv.

The joint-cells of Cladophora are at a certain period filled with a tissue

composed of secretion-cells, which arise along the middle of the cells

and extend themselves to the periphery, where they dissolve.—Some of

these secretion-cells have their membranes thickened.

According to the opinion now generally received, most of the

tissue-cells of plants consist, at a certain period of their life, of

an external membrane, a primordial utricle (second cell-wall

inwards), a nucleus containing a nucleolus (the third and fourth

inner cell-walls), and between the nucleus and primordial utricle

a considerable amount of cloudy, granular, mucilaginous fluid—

the protoplasm, plasma, or cell-juice. In this last, during the

enlargement of the two outer cell-walls, irregularly disposed

414 Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

cavities or vacuoles are formed, which separate the rest of the

granular mucilaginous contents into two portions,—namely, a

central portion surrounding the nucleus, and a peripheral one,

lining the inner surface of the primordial sac; but the two are

united by simple or branching fibres extending between them.

In the cells of Cladophora no nucleus is visible. Their plasma

is described as mucilaginous, of greater density at the surface

contiguous to the second inner cell, where it contains much

chlorophyll and starch (and, according to Niageli, hardens to

form the inner sac [Innenschlauch]). The state of matters in

this instance, however, is somewhat different; and a thorough

discussion is necessary to enable us rightly to estimate the

organization of these cellular plants, as also that of the plant-cell

generally.

The contents of Cladophora glomerata, which escape when a

section of the plant is made under water, are for the most part

readily destroyed by the action of the water, so that only the

corpuscles of chlorophyll and starch, and, at a later period, only

those of the latter, can be discerned. These starch-vesicles

frequently constitute the nuclei of the chlorophyll-grains, and

advance in growth within them during the liquefaction of their

substance. Further observation of the exuded substance of the

wounded joint of the Conferva, whilst submitted to the action of

water, will show that this apparently mucilaginous fluid consists

of hyaline vesicles and cells, which are filled with a transparent

liquid, either quite colourless or in part coloured by a greenish

matter. The latter, where present, adheres like a green mucilage

to the surfaces of the very delicate envelope of the cells, coats them

externally or internally, and often entirely fills their cavity. The

size of these vesicles varies from the most minute to others whose

diameter ‘considerably exceeds the transverse diameter of the

Conferva. However, the determination of their original dimen-

sions is very difficult ; for all of them, at the moment the section

of the Conferva is made, and upon coming into contact with the

water, undergo an extraordinarily rapid and considerable disten-

tion, and mostly soon rupture. By causing movements in the

water, the escaped delicate and yet unruptured cells may be

made to roll and demonstrate the resistance to water which their

membrane enables them for some time to maintain. Moreover

similar delicate cells may be observed in the emptying portion

of the cut joint-cell, adhering here and there to the inner surface

of the secondary membrane. The central cavity of the joint-cell

becomes eventually filled with water, or, it may be, with air, if

the latter has been allowed to enter during the making of the

section.

Several small vesicles and thin-walled cells, of the same sort,

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 415

are very commonly met with enclosed within a larger and equally

delicate common cell-membrane. This outer wall, which lies at

first in close apposition with the inner cells, becomes, by the

imbibition of water, much removed from them, and, by the

longer operation of endosmose, gets so much stretched that it

becomes ruptured at some point, whereupon the hitherto smooth

and structureless membrane suddenly collapses, appears granular,

and proceeds to dissolve, commencing from the gaping margins

of the fissure.

The vesicles and cells imbedded in colourless or greenish

mucus, set free by the dissolution of the mother cell, are now

likewise exposed to the action of the water, to which they yield

in just the same manner as the others, usually bursting in the

course of ten or fifteen minutes. If the water be only in small

quantity, the expanded membrane is preserved in the surround-

ing mucilage for some time longer.

Former observers have remarked similar phenomena: as, for

example, Meyen, in the case of the gonidia extruded from joint-

cells; Saulier, in those of Derbesia; Unger, in Achlya prolifera;

Itzigsohn and Hartig, the latter in Vaucheria dichotoma. Never-

theless they have all taken a different view of these insufficiently

noticed facts; for they have looked upon the mother cell cast off

from the daughter cells in the course of endosmosis (following

the hypothesis of Mirbel) as originally a secreted layer precipi-

tated around them.

Hartig says that, upon cutting through a Vaucheria, cell-vesi-

cles may be seen emerging and separating themselves from it by

constriction, presently bursting and emptying a portion of their

fluid matter, and then, by the contraction of their integument,

closing again, and swelling up anew. Moreover he affirms that

two or more sacs which have been cut through may coalesce by

a sort of conjugation into a single vesicle. ~

By repeated investigations respecting these phenomena, I have

convinced myself that these apparent detachments, contractions,

and repeated dilatations are nothing else than the successive

‘expansion and dissolution of an endogenous system of cells.

Those vesicles which have once burst or been cut through never

unite with one another or become again distended by endos-

mosis, as Hartig believed he had seen them do; but they undergo

a continuous breaking up. The uninjured superimposed cells

in close contact with each other are with difficulty recognizable,

on account of the great delicacy of their membranes, when their

contents are uncoloured, and consequently they appear to form

only a single cavity. By adding to the water in which the

cellular contents of the Conferva are lying a watery solution

of iodine or tannin, the phenomena of distention and bursting

416 Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation, —

take place much more rapidly in the colourless endogenous cells,

especially with the latter solution, whilst their contents remain

uncoloured and readily mingle with the fluid.

Sometimes, immediately on cutting through a Conferva in

water, a large thin-walled cell, of half the length of the joint-cell

and equal to it in diameter, may be seen to emerge gradually :

it is filled with other vesicles, partly clear and transparent, and

partly coloured green and containing chlorophyll- and starch-

corpuscles. It looks, in fact, as if an entire young joint-cell

were thrust out from the cell of the Conferva. After a short

time, the outer wall (the mother cell of all these enclosed cells)

dissolves in the water, and either suddenly vanishes in its whole

circumference or its solution proceeds from one extremity and

advances throughout its entire extent, when all the enclosed

corpuscles, previously recognizable only by the flattening of their

contiguous walls, project more or less above the surface of the

conglomeration, and, expanding continually, at last burst and

suddenly disappear. .

The phenomena are different when the section of the Alga is

effected in a solution of gum arabic instead of under water.

Then, as the fluid penetrates into the cut Algal cell, no green

cells, and scarcely any but perfectly limpid cells, make their ap-

pearance; and these present a more deceptive resemblance to

drops than even in water. They may be seen to exude in suc-

cession from the interior of the Conferva joint-cell in great

abundance and of very various dimensions, and, as they approach

the aperture, to increase in size, and soon entirely stop it up.

Sometimes they are coated with a green slime; sometimes this

is collected into a larger mass, which is surrounded by the trans-

parent cells, and in which they are imbedded.

On gradually adding water to the solution of gum, these

hyaline cells, usually called vacuoles, are seen to swell up gradu-

ally until they collapse suddenly, when their contents mix with

the water, and their membrane shrivels up, but for the most

part is not dissolved. The green mucilaginous masses hkewise

now begin to swell, and it can be distinctly perceived that these

are the vesicles filled with green mucus which collapsed in the

solution of gum, whilst their membranes enveloping the green

slime are now again distended in the water.

The membranes of the cells filled with a colourless strongly

endosmotic fluid, which have burst in the water, may be treated

with corrosive reagents without being immediately dissolved.

On submitting them to an aqueous or alcoholic solution of

iodine, it is found that that reagent does not perceptibly colour

either the contents or the membrane of these cells. The same

holds true, in the main, when the solution of chloride of zine

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 417

and iodine is employed, when the shrivelled membrane is scarcely

- coloured pale yellow.

Moreover these phenomena are modified not only by the

stage of development of the plant, but probably also by variations

in the conditions of nutrition, as the researches on Spirogyra,

hereafter to be described, have further shown.

- From the foregoing remarks it follows that the joint-cells of

Cladophora glomerata do not contain at all periods of their de-

velopment a mucilaginous, granular, viscid fluid—the “ goni-

mical contents” of Kiitzing or the “ protoplasm” of Mohl; but

that, at certain periods, they are entirely filled, as if occupied

by a perfect cellular tissue, with thin-walled strongly diosmotic

cells, which, on the one hand, enlarge in water with extraordi-

nary rapidity, and, on the other, shrivel up in solution of gum.

he nature of these endogenous cells is twofold. Thus some

of them contain, besides a colourless watery fluid, often also

without this, a larger or smaller quantity of a green mucilaginous

matter (both materials being very probably enveloped in special

cell-membranes), and, floating freely in the latter substance,

either small vesicles of starch and chlorophyll (the latter frequently

containing a starchy nuclear vesicle) or smaller and larger cells,

in which these bodies are then contained. Their membrane is

distended, and soon becomes liquefied in water.

The cells of the second description are filled only with a clear

transparent liquid, and very rapidly absorb water until they are

burst and destroyed by it. They are therefore difficult of ob-

servation, unless the water is duly mixed with gum, so as to

retard the distention of the diosmotic membrane, when it be-

comes possible. at times to demonstrate that the membrane of

many of these cells is corroded, but not dissolved, by water and

solution of chloride of zinc and iodine.

Between these two kinds of cells intermediate forms’ occur,

showing that the two forms are not of an entirely different

nature, but only different stages of development of one and the

same kind of cell.

The phenomena observed during the action of fluids on the

cut joint-cells and on the expanding endogenous cells which

issue from them, as also the position of the latter in the unin-

jured and normally grown joint-cells, indicate that the cells

consisting of watery contents and more resistent membranes

occupy the median line of the cylindrical joint-cell of the Con-

ferva, whilst those filled with chlorophyll, and whose membranes

are soluble in water, occur nearer to the surface than this central

tissue.

- Moreover, at the extremities of the joint-cells of perfectly

normally developed plants, the limpid cells—pressed together

418 Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

until they assume polyhedral forms, which occupy the central

space of the joint-cells—are seen (as in fig. 31 z) pushing for-

wards beneath the cells filled with chlorophyll which occur on

the surface.

During the period of the multiplication of the joint-cells,

either the larger of these endogenous cells filled with secretory

matter are, as it would seem, entirely absent, or else those are

chiefly present which enclose in their readily soluble membranes

the smaller ones containing chlorophyll and starch. These can

then only be recognized in the vicinity of large endogenous cells

which are no doubt developed into new joint-cells.

The relative proportion in which these two forms of endo-

genous cells are present, and their consequent position in the

joint-cell of the Confervee, cause the wide range in form which

prevails in these plants.

As the mode of development and distribution of the endo-

genous cells is dependent upon the nutrition of the plant, and

consequently upon the chemical composition of the fluid in which

it grows, the cultivation of Cladophora glomerata will furnish

important materials for a revision of the systematic value of

those forms.

The great tendency to the diffusion of fluid which the trans-

parent cells exhibit causes these cells, when the uninjured plant

is placed in a solution of tannic acid, to expand greatly and to

become visible on the surface after some time has been allowed

for the reagent to act. This reagent will frequently bring to

light the presence of cells within joint-cells, even although be-

fore quite invisible, the whole substance looking like an unor-

ganized mucilage. This is well seen in the case of the colourless

contents of the joint-cells of Mougeotia, in the median line of

which the single mass of chlorophyll appears to float freely,

surrounded by a colourless homogeneous fluid. This latter,

however, is found to consist of a mass of closely placed, rather

elongated, or often somewhat cubical cells, by the expansion of

which in a spiral direction the twisted form which the chloro-

phyll often exhibits is produced.

These cells likewise usually become very distinct in the joint-

cells undergoing enlargement alongside wounded joint-cells, after

they have remained for some time in pure water, and thus give

the surface of the plant a largely cellular reticulate aspect.

In Pl. VI. fig. 39, an instance is figured of the expansion of

one of these endogenous cells to half the dimensions of the

joint-cell, without having new cells formed within its cavity.

The great delicacy of the walls of the endogenously stratified

(nested) system of these cells is an obstacle to the recognition

of the plan of their arrangement and of the course of their de-

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 419

velopment in uninjured plants; whilst their extreme fragility

when separated from their organic connexions renders it impos-

sible to ascertain, with regard to the tissue-cells, whether the

binary combination obtains with them as the external pheno-

mena of development render probable.

It would appear, as before observed, that the cells filled with

colourless fluid occupy the median space of the joint-cell, and

that, towards the outside, these pass into the series containing

chlorophyll, probably becoming converted into them. This

mode of development would not be in favour of the prevalence

of the binary type, if we did not know that most of these cells

only exercise the function of secretion-cells, and that they be-

come overgrown (that is to say, pushed aside and dissolved) by

one or more cells becoming developed into tissue-cells : first

their proper membrane, then the nitrogenous vesicle enveloped

by them, and finally the secretion-vesicles, rich in carbonaceous

compounds, are absorbed.

In a thick-walled form of Cladophora, I repeatedly observed

(Vegetationsorgane der Palmen, 1847, p. 30) that, in somewhat

diseased cells, a number of these endogenous thin-walled cells

containing chlorophyll acquired walls as thick as those of the

joint-cell itself; and in Cladophora glomerata small interposed

joints are not unfrequently met with (as shown in fig. 30 a),

which I look upon as separated secretion-cells which have ex-

ceptionally acquired thick walls and passed into the series of

tissue-cells, instead of having been absorbed by the vegetation-

cells in course of normal development.

In diseased and withering joint-cells of Confervaceze we fre-

quently meet with individual examples of these endogenous

cells, which contain only starch or are completely empty.

| g V.

Mode of development of the radical extremity of the cell of Cladophora.—

Formation of folds in the coats of the adjoiming withered cells.—Joint-

cells of the root-cell.—Independent growth of their cell-membrane.—

Folds in the assimilating membrane of the joint-cell, and their causes.

During the previously described downward growth of the

joint-cell of Cladophora, not only its proper membrane, so far as

this forms a septum, but also the immediately contiguous wall

of the neighbouring cell, extends itself in the direction of the

eut surface. The latter is seen thrust backward within its own

cavity as the former is extended into this (Pl. VI. figs. 31 & 33).

Very soon, however, this backward-pushed wall of the cut cell,

which is at first somewhat swollen and thickened, as in the un-

‘injured condition, becomes lost to view at the extremity of the

advancing growth from the neighbouring cell (figs. 35, 37, 38,

420 Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

& 39). It is only at the spot where it formed an annular fold,

in consequence of its depression, that it is any longer visible,

very strongly thickened, often in layers.

In the course of the further development and outgrowth of

the adjoining living cell, this membrane of the inverted cell,

which thus serves the: living cell as an external envelope com-

parable to a cuticle, is absorbed in the same way as the inter-

mediate substance and cortical tissue which is dissipated before

an adventitious root. (See my account of the Organs of Vegeta-

tion of the Palms, pl. 4. fig. 8.)

This absorption of the inverted septum (figs. 37, 38, 39, &

42 a, 6) proceeds from below upwards (from the centre towards

the periphery), in such a manner that the rather thick fold is, at

a certain phase of development, the sole indication of the dis-

placed septal wall; it then surrounds and somewhat constricts

the daughter cell, in the form of an annular fibre, within the

enveloping membrane (fig.42 a; the immediately preceding stage

of this fold is represented at 0).

This structural condition occurs not only in the course of

artificial preparations, but also very frequently as a consequence

of injuries in the course of the natural growth of the plant.

These annular folds, when their origin is not recognized, may

easily be mistaken for those others which have been regarded

as incipient and suppressed septal structures.

The remaining cylindrical dead wall of the cut joint-cell

sometimes presents a delicate, though very definite, longitudinal

striation (figs. 31, 33, 35).

_ Not unfrequently, moreover, a cell is prolonged, in the manner

described, through two or more adjoining cells, on account of

circumstances operating prejudicially on their vitality; and we

then find on the surface of these long joint-cells scveral annular

folds situated at distances determined by the length of th

original cells. ;

It is the general, but not universal rule, that the development

of isolated joint-cells proceeds in the manner illustrated in figs.

33, 34, & 85, the adjoining dead cell-wall being regularly and

equally invaded by the growing cell, and apparently expanded

passively. At times one side or one portion of the septum ap-

pears to offer greater resistance than the rest, or else the vegeta-

tive energy of the extending cell is more considerable on one

side than in the median line; and the consequence is the pro-

duction of irregular forms of the annular rings, as exhibited in’

figs. 37 & 39a.

It also now and then happens that the growing cell, when it

has just advanced into the cavity of the cut cell, does not thrust

the whole area of the septum downwards before it, but, as shown

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 421

in figs. 36 & 38, only the central and less thickened or entirely

unthickened portion of it, inflating it at first in a globular form,

and subsequently occupying more or less completely the entire

space of the lower cell.

In the normally developing septum the increase of volume of

the assimilating and growing cell-membrane (fig. 40a), which

manifests itself as a thickening, commences at the periphery,

and advances hence in the cylindrical part of the membrane to-

wards the ends of the two cells, in accordance with the growth

of their mother cell ; in the septum itself the advance is towards

its central point.

If, by the stronger endosmotie distention of the neighbouring

uninjured cells, a greater pressure is exerted, soon after the

cutting of the cell, upon a septum of this kind which has not

long become liquefied, the septum is not grown through as

above described, but it is suddenly ruptured, and the contents

of the neighbouring and previously uninjured cells are pressed

out through the opening.

A similar laceration of the new septal wall and escape of the

contents of a cell into the neighbouring cells, after the operation

of endosmotic fluids, takes place also in uninjured cells, and

appears to have furnished earlier investigators with support for

the idea of a septal formation by the growing in of a fold of the

parietal part of the membrane of the mother cell as far as its

middle line.

Sometimes the downward-growing lower end of the upper cell

does not thrust the transverse wall before it in the median line,

but to one side, so that its lengthening extremity presents on

one side a very narrow, and on the opposite a much wider, an-

nular fold as the remnant of the original septal wall (figs. 37

& 39a).

I have more frequently observed instances where the down-

ward growing cell has not prolonged itself within the next dead

or cut.cell beneath, but has thrust this entirely to one side, so

that the two cells appear in apposition, longitudinally, like two

wedges lying in opposite directions.

Sometimes connected Conferva-filaments are met with in

which some single cell has become diseased and withered, and

then the immediately superior cell has grown in the form of a

root-cell into the cavity of the diseased cell, down to its bottom,

forming the next lower septum. ‘This portion which has grown

down then begins to enlarge, until it entirely fills the cavity of the

diseased cell, and its lower extremity forms a perfectly normal

septum with the neighbouring cell.

The very long joint-cells thus formed become, just as in the

case of the root-like cells produced from injured Conferva-cells,

422 Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

subsequently divided into joints (sections) by the formation of

endogenous cells.

The first indication of young joint-cells in the root-cells, both

in their extreme points immediately within the enveloping mem-

brane (fig. 32) and in the interior of the joint-cells already pre-

sent, consists in the appearance of a continually enlarging cell,

which at first shimmers through the chlorophyll, but afterwards

becomes free in its median part by the displacement of the

chlorophyll, and exhibits in its interior small vesicles, the

rudiments of new cells. I have not completely traced in one

and the same root-cell the entire absorption of the chlorophyll,

starch, &c. which at first separate the daughter cells of the

second order; but I have seen, in different individuals, all the

transition-forms up to states in which there were no longer an

organized bodies between the two new joint-cells of the root-cell,

but only an apparently gelatinous, unorganized, intercellular

substance, as represented in fig. 32.

The membrane of the endogenous cells of the root-cell always

appears to be thicker at the lower than at the upper end; there-

fore where two cells are in immediate contact, the portion of the

lower cell entering into the structure of the septum is easily

overlooked, especially as it is here not only a very thin mem-

brane, but also somewhat thrust backward by the convex ex-

tremity of the contiguous thickened cell.

At the extremities of the stem and of the branches the oppo-

site conditions are met with. We indeed equally find at times

the contents of the last joint-cells composed of several thin-

walled cells, as seen in Pl. VI. fig. 42 a, where the contents are

distinctly divided into three segments, each enclosed by a deli-

cate membrane. The upper extremity of the lowest cell here

projects somewhat within the lower and concave end of that

next above it; consequently the septa of these young cells (dis-

coverable with the greatest difficulty) are not flat, but. conical..

The uppermost little cell discernible at the summit of a branch

is filled with vesicles as yet scarcely coloured green. Similar

vesicles are found at the extreme ends of root-cells: this serves

to contradict the erroneous supposition that this Alga has no

terminal growth. I have also observed a similar phenomenon

in Vaucheria (op. cit. p. 90, pl. 2. fig. 2).

The apex of the root-cell, which is usually thinner (fig. 42)

and ramified at its extreme end, where it is adherent to other

bodies, generally of organic nature (figs. 43 & 44), shows a very

remarkable independence in the growth of its outermost cell-

membrane, which encloses the whole root just as the cuticle

does the up-growing stem, This cell-membrane, independently

of that of the enclosed cells, emits branches which become much

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 428

thickened, frequently in layers (fig. 45), just as the cuticle is

nodosely thickened sometimes in the same plant at the apices of

the branches, and, in phanerogamous plants, frequently above

each epidermal cell, apparently independently of the contents of

the latter.

An independent growth similar to this of the cuticle, which

grows out into knots, folds, and branches, is exhibited by the

membranes of the joint-cells of Cladophora glomerata, which

form inwardly annular folds, sometimes presenting a great re-

semblance to those already described as produced in consequence

of penetration (figs. 88, 39); nevertheless they are readily dis-

tinguished, by the disposition of their parietal prolongations,

from the latter, which are quite different from them.

The origin of these folds (fig. 40 b) of the integument of the

secondary cells was observed both simultaneously with the com-

mencing thickening of the membranes of the endogenous joint-

cells, which come into contact in the normal septum (fig. 40 a),

and also in those cells not undergoing the act of multiplication.

After the thickening and the chemical transformations asso-

ciated with it have commenced in the cell-membrane, a progres-

sive increase in thickness, but no elongation, is to be seen in

these folds. Not unfrequently they encroach so far into the

cavity of the cell as almost to reach the median line and nearly

to divide the constricted cell-contents; nevertheless the still

existing connexion between the two segments of the cell thus

drawn apart continues unchanged.

Contemporaneously with the thickening in the membranes,

there appears to exist in these cells, as long as this formation of

folds is taking place, a tendency to expansion, the volume of the

mother cell and enveloping membrane remaining the same, by

which means the expanding daughter cell is compelled to grow

into the cell-cayity in the form of a fold: this also occurs in the

septa of many Spirogyre. ;

The cause of the production of these folds of endogenous cells

appears therefore different in nature from that which separates

the daughter cells of the root-cell from one another (fig. 32).

The mother cell of the root-cell developes its membrane

(cuticle) (which, as it were, takes on the function of the spon-

gioles of vascular plants) predominantly in proportion as the

included daughter cells expand themselves; whilst in the pro-

duction of folds in the cells of the stem and branches the mem-

branes of the daughter cells especially become enlarged, and are

in this way productive of the folds, different forms of which occur

in the other Confervaceze.

The joint-cells engaged in this process of fold-construction

(fig. 40 6) always seem to exercise a certain degree of pressure

424 Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

upon the neighbouring cells, which involves some impediment

to their extension, | | | 120

In the normal production of septa (fig. 40 a) no such tension

exists in the subdividing cell. :

Mohl, indeed, observed these folds, which he represented as

originating in a disturbance of the process of constriction of the

primordial utricle during continuous formation of membrane.

Moh! saw these structures in specimens of Cladophora glomerata

that had been kept for some time in fresh water. .

I likewise found these folds frequently in cultivated specimens

of this plant, but have no explanation to offer respecting the

special cause of their production. In a specimen of C. glomerata

which has been growing. for a year in a very small vessel filled

with distilled water, both these folds and septa of the normal

form occur; and indeed the latter are the more frequent. In

various other specimens, however, preserved also for a long time,

though not so long as the former, in river-water, in plants co-

vered with Desmidiew, the normal septal development rarely

occurs; still the multiplication of joint-cells has proceeded in

these plants, though their differences in length are very marked.

The production of folds has here (fig. 404) occurred very

largely, and in all forms ; so that the idea suggested is that these

inwardly growing folds are the commencement of septa. Still

this is not the fact; for, as before stated, the folds, when once

formed, undergo no ulterior change.

§ VI.

Formation of septa in the joint-cells of Cladophora by means of endogenous

. cells. The cell-membrane is rendered thicker in the vicinity of the an-

nular folds by superposition.—Thickening of the membrane, in the ab-

sence of annular folds, by the superposition of extremely thin-walled

cells.—Means of separating the superimposed cells of the thickened

cell-wall by diosmotic fluids.—Action of these reagents upon new joint-

cells.

In many stages of development of these infolded Cladophora-

cells, we may convince ourselves, by slight pressure exercised

upon a joint-cell engaged in the act of folding (as, for instance,

during the gradual drying-up of the surrounding water, or

during the sudden accession of fresh water in place of that which

has been withdrawn), that its contents on either side of the fold

are in direct communication, and traverse freely from one part

to the other, which is not the case when a true septum is pro-

duced. eg

This phenomenon shows that no actual, complete septum,

however delicate, is ever established in connexion with this fold ;

and it also indicates that the secretion-cells, which usually oceupy

the joint-cells, had here probably terminated their cycle of de-

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 425

‘velopment, and left only their final and most highly developed

products, in the shape of small vesicles freely moving within the

Juices of the cell, and destined for the nutrition of new joint-

cells.

If such joint-cells, furnished with annular folds (fig. 40 4),

be examined for some time, progressive, though very gradual,

changes are observed to take place in the position of the secre-

tion-vesicles. Here and there in the vicinity of the annular fold

the sharp outline of a cell, apparently filled with colourless fluid,

will make its appearance among the mass of secretion-material

which occupies the joint-cell. This enlarges, and progressively

advances towards the middle line of the fold. A similar process

may be frequently witnessed going on simultaneously on the

other side of the fold.

Lastly, the entire and somewhat rounded end of the cell may

be observed free from chlorophyll close to the fold; the mem-

brane, as compared with that of other young cells, is thick, but

of a gelatinous aspect, whilst the contiguous thick membrane of

the fold resembles that of woody tissue.

_ The two endogenous cells at last approach so closely together

in the middle line of the fold, that, by their mutual pressure,

they form a septum which, to those who have not followed its

development, would appear as if it had been forcibly separated

at its periphery by the annular fold.

In other cases, a cell arises on one side only of the fold, and

continues to elongate itself beyond this, until it reaches the next

septum.

The membrane of the fold appears, during the subsequent

existence of the endogenous cells, to become absorbed ; for we

find that where these latter have thick walls, the former is thinner

than when those cells were newly formed.

This mode of formation of septa by tolerably thick-walled

endogenous cells, readily observable during their slow growth,

is, however, of comparatively rare occurrence in Cladophora

glomerata. Usually, in this plant, the commencement of thick-

ening first calls attention to a pre-existent and fully developed

although very delicate septum, this having been previously con-

cealed from observation by the great quantity of secretion.

materials with. which it is covered.

In my account of the structure of Vaucheria, I showed that

this so-called unicellular plant consisted of a composite system

of endogenous cells, the innermost of which develope themselves

and enclose organized secretory materials simultaneously with

the absorption of the mother cells with their contents, but that

the membranes of all these joint-cells do not become thickened,

and therefore may easily be overlooked.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xiii. 28

426. _ Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

In Cladophora glomerata, whose endogenous cells have just

been considered, a thickening of the originally very delicate

membrane of certain endogenous cells occurs regularly, but only

when these have acquired their normal size and by their contact

and pressure concur in the formation of a transverse septum

whilst, at the same time, the secretion-cells in their vicinity un-

dergo absorption.

The more rarely occurring conditions of development described

in the last section seem to me also to elucidate sufficiently the

normal process, the essential relations of which can with diffi- —

culty be followed in the joint-cells when completely filled with

chlorophyll and other secretion-materials.

Fig. 46 shows one of the joint-cells of Cladophora poor in

chlorophyll and filled with the large colourless cells, such as are

produced by cultivation in pure distilled water, especially when

the plant has been ‘cut into short pieces. The specimen has

been subjected for a short time to the action of dilute glycerine,

in order to detach the endogenous cells from the membrane of

the mother cell. The membranes of these cells, though sepa-

rated by a delicate septum, were not perceptibly thickened; by

the action of exosmose they were contracted and also detached

from each other at the septum (x), without leaving a layer of

deposit between them. This happens also in the case of ido-

gonium, as above described (p. 283), but appears to be of un-

usual occurrence.

The conviction is thus arrived at of the actual presence of

free cells and of the origin of a septum by the mutual contact

of their walls, even before any appreciable thickening, and with-

out the agency of any involution or folding of the mother cell.

Nageli, indeed, noticed these phenomena, but nevertheless be-

lieved in the existence of inward-growing walls, which might be

invisible either on account of their tenuity or of their containing

a great amount of water.

One of the two thin-walled daughter cells represented in

fig. 46 is seen at g to be again divided by a distinguishable

septum, in all respects similar to the septum displayed in Gido-

gonium, as observed at its origin and represented in figs. 21-29,

and described at p. 277. This delicate septum would not be

distinguishable if the inner wall of the mother cell were, as

usual, coated with secretion-vesicles, until these were absorbed,

and the later process of thickening set up in it. In the present

case, the observation of this young joint-cell, which had been

rapidly expanded in consequence of the injury done to the

neighbouring cells, was rendered possible by the less degree of

aggregation of the secretion-materials.

The cells that make their appearance on the section of a joint-

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 427

cell of C. glomerata render it highly probable that these septa

originate from the mutual contact of endogenous cells, just as is

observed in the above-described annular folds and in Gédogonium,

and that the septum which gradually becomes visible through

the dense layer of chlorophyll, extending from the periphery to

the eentre of the joint-cell, is not then for the first time pro-

duced, but that its becoming visible only indicates the increasing

thickness of the walls of the cells concerned in its formation by

their apposition, just as has been fully described in Gidogonium.

In Gédogonium it may be distinctly demonstrated that the

absorption of the secretion-matter contained in the cells in pro-

cess of multiplication does not take place until after the enlarge-

ment of the endogenous daughter cells, and subsequently to the

construction of the septum by their contact.

In C. glomerata, in the course of normal septum-formation

(fig. 40 a), the largest portion of the secretion-matter situated

externally to the two enlarging new joint-cells undergoes more

or less complete absorption when these endogenous cells have

so far advanced in growth as to constitute a new septum by

the apposition of their walls, the nitrogenous compounds being

the first to dissolve.

The absorption of the secretion-materials contained in the

mother cell is concurrent with a new formation of them within

the young joint-cells ; therefore in @idogonium this new produc-

tion only takes place after the completion of the septum, whilst

in Cladophora, on the contrary, it happens simultaneously with,

or even before, this period.

If sulphuric acid, or a solution of chloride of zinc or of chlo-

ride of calcium, be allowed to act for some time upon a specimen

of Cladophora glomerata, and a solution of iodine be then applied

to it, a cloudy violet-coloured slimy layer, looking like finely

divided iodide of starch, makes its appearance between the pri-

mary and secondary cells, resembling the lamina sometimes

observed in the same locality in Gidogonium (p. 282) after the

simple application of a solution of iodine to its tissues. Whether

this material is the remains of the secretion-matter, as in C£do-

gonium, or is analogous to those other conditions to be discussed

- Spirogyra, are questions requiring further research to answer

them.

The examination of Vaucheria convinced me that the cell

developed as a branch is formed within the stem-cell, and only

projects from the surface simultaneously with the production of

a branch-like process from the enveloping membrane. The same

fact may be observed also in certain stages of the development of _

C. glomerata. The septum produced by the enlargement of two

endogenous cells is not completed and does not become thickened

28*

428 Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

before one of the two cells has extended itself more or Jess com-

pletely from the cylindrical cavity of the mother cell in the form

of a branch. It might be imagined that it is so forced out by

the contemporaneous predominant growth of the sister cell.

This regular course of branch-formation is not, however, always

thoroughly carried out ; the lower extremity of the branch-cell

frequently remains within the mother cell, and aids to form

along with its sister cell'a septum in the form of an oblique or

horizontal thickened lamina.

The externally visible phenomena which accompany the pro-

cesses of normal septum-formation in C. glomerata may readily

mislead one into regarding the explanation given of them by

Mohl as the natural one. .

Having, however, ascertained that in the joint-cells of C. glome-

rata there is generally concealed beneath the superficial layer of

secretion-cells a complete tissue of endogenous cell-systems—a

' tissue which certainly does not cohere, like the cellular tissue of

more highly organized plants, by intercellular substance, or at

least not by such as is insoluble in water and which consists,

not of persistent tissue-cells, but almost entirely of transitory

secretion-cells (for large mother cells may be seen, filled with cells

of nearly half the size of a joint-cell, to swell forth from the cut

joint of the Conferva),—having ascertained that the flat horizontal

septum produced by the mutual apposition of these endogenous

cells occurs already formed (fig. 46 g) in the secondary cell be-

fore this has become thickened, and having been able in certain

cases, by means of endosmotie fluids, to divide this septum and

to recognize its composition out of parts of two neighbouring

cells (fig. 46 z),—having, further, even in C. glomerata, excep-

tionally seen septa normally formed by the mutual apposition

of two cells originally separate (p. 419, fig. 32) and even belong-

ing to different generations,—we shall feel called upon to submit

the normal process of septum-formation in this plant to another

examination in order to try to refer it to the general law of cell-

formation.

Fig. 40a (Pl. VI.) exhibits the phenomenon first witnessed

by Dumortier (Nova Act. Leop.-Carol. 1832) and described in

detail by Mohl, which is regarded by him and his followers as a

folding of the walls of the joint-cells of C. glomerata in process

of multiplication, and as the type of “ cell-formation by fission.”

- Mohl (Vermischte Schriften, 1845, p. 623; Veget. Zell. 1851,

p- 212; Botanische Zeitung, 1855, p. 689) supposed that the in-

ternal surface of the secondary cell (primordial layer) is overlaid

with a granular mucoid protoplasm, the chlorophyll-layer, which

gives way at the same time or nearly so that the involution (fold)

of. the walls, formed by the primordial layer and the youngest

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 429

lamina of deposit (thickening layer), advances into the cavity of

the cell and unites at its centre.

_ Between the secondary cell and the chlorophyll-layer a colour-

less mucous fiuid collects during this process. This fluid is held

by Dippel (Vegetabilische Zellenbildung, 1858, p. 32) to be

plasma, which originates in this situation on account of the

active generation of tissue going on in it, and which forces the

green contents towards the interior as a consequence of its ac-

cumulation. Not unfrequently, when this plasma is first seen,

there is no perceptible trace of the septum, which subsequently

makes its appearance, commencing from the periphery in such a

manner that, as it has been described, it seems to be a product

of crystallization. But that the delicate walls of the daughter

cells may be here actually present, though hidden in the mucoid

plasma, the previously recorded action of solution of tannin upon

the mucous contents of the cells of Mougeotia afford sufficient

evidence.

Concurrently with the first indications of the presence of a

septum (at times, indeed, previously), the mass of chlorophyll re-

cedes towards the middle line of the cell : it seems as if the green

contents were separated all round by the colourless plasma and

on each side by the narrow lamina from the neighbouring walls

of the joint-cell, and pressed towards the middle line of the

latter,—not divided, but for the present constricted (fig. 40).

- In this case, however, the constriction or compression of the

chlorophyll-mass is only apparent; for a closer examination of

this condition shows that the vesicles which form the chlorophyll-

layer do not actually withdraw, but have become colourless in

the spot occupied by them, whilst the adjoining septum makes

its appearance more distinctly. Sometimes a green vesicle re-

mains somewhat longer in the colourless mass, and may be

distinctly seen to grow progressively more and more colourless.

The mode of deposition of the elongated starch- and chloro-

phyll-vesicles in the so-called constriction (fig. 40 a) often gives

rise to an appearance as if these corpuscles were deposited on

the wall of a tube, continually constricted at that part, and

particularly so in the last stages of thickening of the septum,

where they stand at right angles to it; nevertheless it may be

observed, especially in wide cells, that here also at their centre

there exists a lighter cavity elongated in the direction of the

septum which is undergoing alteration,—a cylindrical body, a

cell which exerts its influence upon the deposition of the chloro-

phyll during absorption.

However, this arrangement of the secretion-vesicles is liable

to very great variation: the condition represented in fig. 40 a,

and previously described, is very often met with; frequently, in

4380. Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

this stage, no chlorophyll-vesicles are to be seen outside the

endogenous cell undergoing enlargement ; but almost as often

secretion-vesicles are distinctly visible in abundance externally to

the central cell which has been arrested in its development, and

not uncommonly so dispersed and irregularly arranged and

mingled among the colourless and distended vesicles, that the -

impression, at first sight, is that they are not enclosed within a

special membrane.

_ It would appear that the secretory material of the chlorophyll-

layer in process of absorption serves, on the one hand, for the

thickening, and on the other for the enlargement, of the neigh-

bouring cell-walls (p. 427).

- The nature of the cell which probably exists in the interior,

and becomes enlarged simultaneously with the thickening of the

septum, has not been ascertained.

Conditions like that shown in fig. 46 q render it probable that

the next younger pair of joint-cells is already developed and

undergoes division in the cavity of the joint-cell that is just

making its appearance, from the walls of which they are sepa-

rated only by a small quantity of chlorophyll and starch-vesicles,

which are subsequently dissolved gradually.

In the unthickened septum itself, even when it is visible in

this state, as in the example represented in fig. 46 q, it is very

seldom that, with the reagents hitherto employed, the two cell-

membranes of which it was composed (fig. 46 #) can be demon-

strated. Still less can it be decided by observation whether the

membrane of these cells in this stage of development belongs to

two cells nested one within the other.

Those septa, on the other hand, in which thickening has

commenced are capable, in proportion to the extent to which

this process has advanced, of being resolved into the different

cell-membranes of which they are composed by the action both

of endosmotic fluids and of solvents of the recently thickened

membrane.

Transitory endosmotic phenomena are produced in many Con-

ferva-cells even by the action of different kinds of water met with

naturally, such as spring-, river-, or rain-water, and indeed some-

times by pure distilled water in the case of plants previousl

grown in other water. Water containing carbonic acid, an

other mineral waters, are more energetic.

The action of concentrated carbonic-acid water upon many

Confervacez (for instance, on Spirogyra) is of a complex nature ;

for, besides diosmosis, a change in the constitution of the cell-

membrane takes place: in this plant it causes a swelling up of

the young, and an increase of the ligneous condition of the older,

cell-membranes. i

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 481

Endosmotic fluids of more potency, saline solutions, acids,

sugar, alcohol, &c., which detach the several adherent mem-

branes of the superposed cells from one another, have an exos-

motic as well as an endosmotic action.

Hence the membranes of the secondary cells become contracted

and separated from the primary cells with which they were pre-

viously in immediate contact, by the action of these reagents ;

and indeed they detach themselves all round from the external

membrane, the separation of these membranes of the two cells

not being perfect until the chemical change has commenced but

not been completed in one wall. In this case, the membranes

continue united where the thickening of the contiguous primary

cell-walls has not yet taken place. In the transverse walls or

septa this happens, therefore, at the centre, inasmuch as their

lignification advances from the periphery, or centripetally. The

young joint-cells consequently continue to adhere closely toge-

ther, apparently wedged into the central opening of the per-

forated discoid septum, as is exhibited in the case of Spirogyra,

in Plate VII. fig. 67.

This phenomenon has especially contributed to support the

notion that the adjoining daughter cells constituted originally

only one single cell, which has become divided by the thickened

portion of the septum.

In Gidogonium we may convince ourselves, by direct obserya-

tion, that, notwithstanding these results with reagents, which

might serve as arguments for the constriction-theory, there is

present a perfect, though it may be an extremely delicate, septum,

The delusion is still greater if, in this condition (fig. 67), a

pressure fromi one side be exercised on the young septum

(whether effected by the one-sided operation of endosmotic fluids

or by a change of tension caused by the cutting of a cell in the

immediate vicinity of the septum), and chemical reagents be

then applied to dissolve the cell-membrane which is undergoing

a change in its chemical constitution.

That many newly formed cell-membranes, or such as are in

course of development, are soluble in water, and still more

readily in acetic acid, I have already shown in my above-men-

tioned memoir on Conferva fontinalis. The cell-membrane, in

process of thickening, which occupies the central layer of the

septum, is dissolved by ammonia and iodine as well as by

acetic acid.

Of the above-mentioned solvents of the newly thickened cell-

membrane, ammonia appears to have the weakest action; its

effect, however, is probably the less striking because it acts

endosmotically, and not exosmotically, upon the contents of the

secondary daughter cells. However, after the operation of am-

432 Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

monia on the septum, when in course of thickening, and while

apparently still simple, the limits of the two daughter cells

forming it are distinctly seen; in other words, its construction

out of two lamellz is demonstrated. Iodine, when applied in a

concentrated state, has a more energetic solvent action upon the

recently thickened primary cell-membrane; and when its solu-

tion is diluted, it is at the same time exosmotic in its action on

the contents of the secondary cells.

If these solvents be allowed to act for a time upon hale

lignified septa, the different component cell-membranes of which

have been separated from each other as much as possible by

means of diosmotic fluids, the newly lignified septum thus set

free is eroded at the centre, and finally more or less dissolved,

whilst the two contracted and mutually adherent daughter

cells float freely in the cavity of the parent cell. Examples

such as that represented in fig. 67, of a Spirogyra treated

with glycerine and afterwards with a solution of iodine, should

therefore be ve acess used in elucidation of the mode of origin

of a septum.

In this experiment it now and then happens that one young

joint-cell (as shown in Pl. VII. fig. 67) which is adherent by one

extremity to its neighbouring sister cell, and with it detached

on every side from the mother cell, is at the same time still

attached to the opposite end of its mother cell, by which a con-

siderable tension of the young cell in its long diameter is pro-

duced, and being transferred to the neighbouring septum, is

exerted chiefly on the delicate young wall in process of lignifica-

tion. This is consequently somewhat drawn into the cavity of

the extended cell until it becomes lacerated at its point of union

with it, whereupon it again assumes its flat form, and the second

daughter cell is drawn through the circular central opening so

formed in the septum into the adjoining cell-cavity.

At times the lignified portion of the septum is so delicate

that, after the operation of a solution of glycerine, only a very

slender annular thread is visible on the inner surface of the

mother cell; and it might be supposed that the two adherent

contracted secondary daughter cells floated freely in the centre

of the mother cell. Upon the addition of a diluted watery solu-

tion of iodine, which is greedily taken up by the fluid contents

of the primary cell, it is perceived, by the movements thereby

induced within the two contracted and coherent daughter cells,

that these do not float freely in the centre, but are fixed in their

position by the thread-like annular septum, which, from the

cloudiness of the cell-fluid, caused by the solution of iodine,

appears like an extremely thin clear lamina, and exhibits slight

movements corresponding with those of the daughter cells.

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 433

The constricted line of union between the two’ connected

daughter cells is not unfrequently colourless; nevertheless it

cannot be positively ascertained whether, as appears upon alter-

ing the focal distance, and as would correspond with my notion

of the origin of the septum, the circularly torn thickened septum

is continued as a delicate membrane throughout this uniting

band, or whether a fluid constitutes the stratum of separation

between the coloured secretion-matter contained in the two

daughter cells.

In most instances, even this connective band is concealed by

the coloured contents, which are pressed into the median line

by the contracted membranes of the secondary cells ; and in these

circumstances the scar of the lacerated septum exhibits the

appearance of a notch in this lamina in the mass of chlorophyll.

The appearances in cells where new septa are in course of

lignification are altogether different when rather stronger dios-

motie agents are brought into contact with them. In such cases

one of the young joint-cells is frequently more strongly con-

tracted than its neighbour; the delicate septum perceptible be-

tween them, which usually, in its youngest and unthickened

condition, protrudes in a convex form into the upper cell (PI. VI.

fig. 42 a), does so, under the’ condition in question, to a greater

degree ; the contiguous secretion-vesicles likewise gradually re-

cede into the less extended. cell, until at length the septum can

no longer withstand the constantly increasing pressure, but

gives way before it, and allows a sudden rush of the chlorophyll-

and starch-corpuscles from their cavity into the neighbouring

one. These phenomena may be readily witnessed in the vicinity

of the cut portions of the joint-cells (p. 421).

This translation of the chlorophyll- and starch-corpuscles from

one side of the septum to the other, within the expanding cell,

and which may especially be seen for a considerable time after

the rupture of the septum, might lead those who do not take

into consideration the great extensibility of the unthickened

eell-wall, and who may not have observed the ultimate rupture

of the young septum, to the erroneous belief that no septum

existed betwixt the two closely approximated and contracted

daughter cells.

However, if, after extension has proceeded for a time, the

abrupt and forcible movement of the chlorophyll-vesicles, &e.

be. first observed, followed by a more gentle one, the opera-

tion of diosmosis remaining unchanged, no other inference can

be drawn than that an existing obstacle has been suddenly re-

moved, and evidence thereby afforded of the previous existence

of a septum, overlaid by those secretion-vesicles, at the spot

where the movement occurred. :

484 - Prof. H. Karsten on the Vegetable Cell.

When the above-mentioned solvents for a cell-membrane

engaged in chemical metamorphosis for the purpose of lignifica-

tion are allowed to act upon a septum in process of thickening

(fig. 40 a), and a stronger contraction is then induced in one of

the two adjoining and adherent daughter cells by the agency of

exosmotic fluids, the central and unthickened portion of the

septum is torn through, whilst the peripheral walls of the two

adherent sister cells remain connected, as indeed was observed

although differently interpreted by Mohl (Vermischte Schriften,

xili. 8, 9).

The chemical and physical actions of the above-mentioned

commonly employed reagents upon the substance of plants has,

however, been by no means sufficiently studied to enable us,

from the changes which they produce upon vegetable tissues, to

arrive at any certain conclusions as to the structure of the latter.

And our knowledge of the mode of action of these reagents

upon the membranes of assimilant cells is especially imperfect,

because it is different in each new stage of development of the

cell, which is in a constant process of change.

The intimate knowledge of the anatomical changes which

take place in the cell in the course of development must there-

fore precede, or at least go hand in hand with, that investigation,

the results of which consequently, as yet, are of subordinate

value in the appreciation of anatomical conditions.

The mutual adherence of the constituent cell-membranes of

the septum (p. 283), which stands so much in the way of a

correct recognition of its true nature, appears to be still more

inexplicable, under certain circumstances, in fully developed

cells. In such cells the still delicate daughter cells are com-

monly separated with great facility from the parent cell by the

action of diosmotic fluids. But if a specimen of Conferva glo-

merata be allowed to lie for some time in a dilute aqueous solu-

tion of tannin or of ammonia, and an aqueous solution of iodine

be then brought in contact with it, not only are the membranes

of the secondary cells loosened from those of the primary, but

these last also are partially separated from the mother cell, and

the enveloping membrane from the included joint-cells even to

the very extremity (fig. 41). All the thickened membranes

moreover show very clearly the thickening layers, which are

either imperceptible: or very imperfectly recognizable in the

living plant: this is the case especially after their penetration

by a solution of gum arabic. The delicate membranes of the

secondary cells are not, however, detached at both extremities,

as in normal states, from the primary cell, but maintain their

position as exhibited in fig. 47; and as they become contracted

by exosmosis, they drag the primary membrane, which lies

. On the Occurrence of Mithras paradoxus in England. 485

loosely in its mother cell, after them at both ends, so that the

surfaces formed by the septum occur at the base of the retracted,

extremities of the sac.

_. This condition consequently shows that, though the two cells

concerned in the construction of a septum may, as a rule, not

be recognizable prior to its thickening, there is no cause to doubt

the presence of those membranes, which is indeed justly deduced

from other circumstances.

The stronger cohesion of the two cell-membranes at their

extremities indicates a dissimilar chemical constitution in their

different regions—a circumstance that also obtains among some

cells of the complex tissues of more highly organized plants.

From all the foregoing facts it follows without doubt, that the

folds of the joint-cells of Conferva glomerata, so far as they can

be certainly recognized, have no connexion with the multiplica-

tion of cells by fission, and indeed exert no demonstrable direct

influence upon cell-multiplication. On the contrary, it has been

ascertained that, in Cladophora, in certain cases, the septa ori-

ginate by the growth and mutual contact of the membranes of

free endogenous cells ; and upon this ground we may perhaps be

justified in explaining, by analogy with other instances, the pro-

cess of normal septum-formation in this plant, which, on account

of peculiar complications, cannot generally be recognized with

the same distinctness.

[To be continued. }

XLI.—Notice of the Capture of Mithras paradoxus in England.

By Joun Buackxwaut, F.L.S.

In the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ (ser. 3. vol. ix.

p- 375), I have stated my belief that, on a careful inspection of

Mithras paradoxus, it would be found to be provided with four

pairs of spinners, and a calamistrum situated on the superior

surface of the metatarsus of each posterior leg. An oppor-

tunity of establishing the accuracy of this opinion has recently

been supplied by my friend Mr. R. H. Meade, who kindly for-

warded to me a fine specimen of an adult female of this species

that had been taken in the lake district of Cumberland, in the

summer of 1863. The capture of this spider, which is now first

recorded as indigenous to Britain, is a circumstance of peculiar

interest ; for, having placed beyond all doubt the fact that it

possesses eight spinners and calamistra, every difficulty that has

hitherto been experienced relative to assigning it an appropriate

position in the systematic arrangement of the Araneidea is

thereby removed. By its well-marked organic characters, it is

436 - Bibliographical Notice.

evident that. Mithras paradowus, together with its congeners M.

Jlavidus and M. dubius, should occupy a place in the famil

Ciniflonide, immediately after the genus Veleda. .

The foregoing discovery necessitates a modification, as sub-

joined, of the characteristics of the

Genus MitTHras.

Eyes eight, unequal in size, and disposed on the sides and ante-

rior part of the cephalothorax in two transverse, curved

rows ; those of the posterior row, which is much the longer,

and has its convexity directed forwards, are larger than

those of the anterior row, the lateral eyes, which are seated

on bold conical tubercles, being rather the largest ;. the

eyes of the anterior row, whose convexity is directed up-

wards, are situated above the prominent frontal margin;

the two intermediate ones are placed near to each other on

a minute tubercle, and the lateral ones are not very con-

spicuous, being the smallest and lightest-coloured of the

eight ; the lateral eyes of both rows are separated by a wide

interval.

Mazille short, straight, powerful, and greatly enlarged at the

extremity.

Lip triangular or somewhat oval.

Legs robust, of variable relative length in different species, each

metatarsus of the posterior pair having a calamistrum on

its superior surface.

- Spinners eight ; those of the inferior pair, which are the shortest,

consist of a single joint each, and are united throughout

their entire length. |

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

An Elementary Text-book of the Microscope ; including a deserip-

tion of the Methods of preparing and mounting Objects, Fe. By

J. W. Grirrira, M.D., F.L.S. 12mo. Van Voorst, London, 1864,

NotrwitrHstTaNDING the numerous books of various kinds which have

been published as guides in the employment of the microscope, Dr.

Griffith appears to us to have justly come to the conclusion that there

was room for one more; and the mode of treatment which he has

adopted in the little work now before us places it, in some respects

at least, not only apart from, but in a superior position to most of

its predecessors and competitors. It is, in fact, rather as an ele-

mentary course of microscopic research than as a ‘ Text-book of the

Microscope’ that we welcome its appearance, by far the greater

portion of its pages being devoted to the description of the most

characteristic objects for microscopic examination derived from the

animal and vegetable kingdoms. By a judicious arrangement of

Miscellaneous. 437

his materials, and a careful selection of examples, Dr. Griffith has

rendered his work at once a manual of vegetable and animal ana-

tomy and physiology and a guide to the general classification of

organized bodies ; and there is no doubt that the student who will

take it as a guide, and, in accordance with the author’s evident in-

tention, work carefully through the series of easily obtained exam-

les of animal and vegetable structures described in it, will find

himself at the end of his course of study, already in possession of a

very considerable amount of information, and quite prepared to fol-

low out any particular line of investigation upon his own account.

It is, indeed, manifestly with a view to the latter point that Dr. Grif-

fith has prepared this Text-book, and in this he seems to us to have

been eminently successful : we are acquainted with no work so well

adapted to set the reader in the way of independent microscopic

research. The amount of valuable information compressed into the

pages of this little volume is perfectly astonishing, as is also the

quantity of beautiful and characteristic coloured figures which the

author has succeeded in bringing together in the twelve plates with

which the work is illustrated.

To the practical consideration of the microscope itself Dr. Grif-

fith does not devote much space, and he altogether avoids the dis-

cussion of the comparative merits of different makers and of different

modes of construction, confining himself to a brief description of the

essential structure of the instrument and of the uses of its different

parts. In his concluding chapter, however, he enters upon the con-

sideration of the scientific principles involved in the construction of

the microscope, including the phenomena of refraction and reflexion,

the nature and effects of lenses, achromatism, and polarization of

light ; and we have seldom, if ever, seen these somewhat difficult

matters so simply and perspicuously treated.

With regard to the preparation and mounting of microscopic

objects, special details are scattered throughout the work, indicating

the particular treatment best adapted for the successful preservation

of certain groups of objects—the general plans to be adopted in any

case being very shortly and simply described in the second chapter.

Small as is the space devoted to this important subject, the methods

recommended (which indeed are those most commonly in use among

microscopists) are thoroughly well described; and perhaps it is

better for the beginner to have one good set of methods laid before

him, than to be left to select those which may hit his fancy from a

collection of all the processes adopted by various microscopists.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Dredgings in the Freshwater Lakes of Norway.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GenTLEMEN,—I believe the following extract from Mr. G. O. Sars’s

account (given in the ‘Nyt Magazin,’ Christiania, for 1862) of his

dredgings in some of the freshwater lakes of Norway has not ap-

438 Miscellaneous.

peared in English. I send it to you as being likely to interest

naturalists in this country.

35 Royal Terrace, Edinburgh. I am, yours faithfully,

April 22, 1864. Rospert B, Watson.

The dredgings were made in a little freshwater loch in the island

of Christiansund, in Norway, by G. O. Sars, son of Professor Sars.

The loch is fed from a peat-moss. In the deeper parts of the loch

were found great numbers of Diaptomus Castor, of a blue colour,

along with Daphnella brachyura, Polyphemus Pediculus, and a spe-

cies of Bosmina (B. obtusirostris). Near the shore, among grass

and Nympheas, were Sida crystallina and two Lynceides, with

numerous examples of Acantholeberis curvirostris.

He then says that from the deepest part of the loch he got w

some of the mud, and adds, “I found this, to my astonishment, fi

of a small red Copepode, in which I at once recognized the salt-water

species Harpacticus chelifer described by Lilljeborg. The presence

of this Copepode was so unexpected that, in spite of the freshwater

forms which I had found, I was obliged to satisfy myself by tasti

the water, to be sure it was not brackish. It was perfectly fresh

and pleasant to the taste.

_ “We thus have here, though on a different scale, an interesting

analogy to what has quite recently been observed in some of the

great inland lakes, such as the Venern and Vettern*, in Sweden,—

. viz. that true inhabitants of the sea can, in certain circumstances,

gradually accustom themselves to live in thoroughly fresh water.

Here, however, the agency of change has not been great, alterations

of physical conditions operating throughout thousands of years. The

time in this instance has been much shorter. Apparently some very

high flood or a furious storm from the west has driven the sea up

on some occasion into the loch, which lies close to the coast. Other

salt-water species have probably been carried into the loch at the

same time, and perished by degrees as the water lost its saltness,

while this little Copepode alone was able to survive after every trace

of salt had disappeared. It is also interesting to observe the in-

fluence which its residence in a foreign medium has had on its mode

of life. While, in ordinary circumstances, it is almost exclusively to

be found in the very shallowest pools, I found it here, as I have

said, in the deepest part of the water, sunk in the mud; and the

same is the case with many of the salt-water forms found in the in-

land lakes of Sweden (such as Idothea entomon, Gammarus loricatus,

Pontoporeia affinis). This fact seems to indicate a certain tendency

in these forms, when cut off from their proper habitat, to keep

themselves isolated from the true freshwater Crustaceans.”

Further on, in dredging the Mjdsen Lake, one of the very largest

in Norway, through which flows an immense river, he says :—

«‘ But my most interesting discovery here was a Crustacean which

* See Lovén, on certain Crustaceans found in the Lakes Venern and

Vettern, ‘Ofversigt af Vetenskabens Akademiens Forhandlingar’ for

1861. i

Miscellaneous. 439

belongs exclusively to the salt water, Mysis relicta of Lovén, one of

those extraordinary relics of the glacial period whose presence in

some of the great inland lakes of Sweden has lately excited so much

interest. I found it in small numbers at Stigersand, below Skreifjeld,

in from 8-10 fathoms, just in the corner where a sandbank slopes

steeply up from the deeper water beyond.

* Associated with it, I found numerous examples of a species of

Gammarus which at the very first glance differed markedly from the

form I had previously noticed, and which seems to be the Gammarus

cancelloides of Gerstfeldt, which was first discovered in the Seas of

Baikal and of Angara, and which has lately been also found in

Sweden, and which Lovén likewise considers originally to have

belonged to the sea.”

On the Expulsion of the Carbonie Acid from the Blood during

Respiration. By Dr. Lupwie. .

As less carbonic acid is present in arterial than in venous blood, the

elimination of this carbonic acid during respiration must be ascribed

either to the oxygen or to the tissue of the lungs. For the decision

of this question a series of experiments was undertaken, in which this

gas was collected from unaltered venous blood, and also from venous

blood which had been agitated with air containing oxygen. The

blood agitated with oxygen was found to have lost its carbonic acid

to such an extent that its amount of this gas was only equal to that

contained in arterial blood. There is consequently no reason for

regarding the pulmonary tissue as the cause of the evolution of

carbonic acid. ;

When the unaltered venous blood was left for twenty-four hours in

ice-cold water and then analyzed, it appeared that in this case also, the

amount of carbonic acid was diminished. The same process therefore

takes place in blood poor in oxygen as in that which contains oxygen

in abundance, but with this difference, that what takes place very

completely and in a short time in blood rich in oxygen is effected

very gradually in that which is poor in that element.

To determine whether the evolution of carbonic acid is effected

directly by the oxygen, or only by the intervention of the blood-

corpuscles, the purest possible serum, which, as is well known, con-

tains much carbonic acid, was employed—and, for the sake of com-

parison, both unaltered serum and such as had been agitated with

oxygen. In these experiments the same quantity of combined

carbonic acid was found in every case, and consequently only that

portion of the oxygen which has passed into the corpuscles acts in

the evolution of carbonic acid.

As arterial blood may thus be prepared artificially from venous

blood, it was natural to try whether the reverse of this process could

be effected. This, however, appears to be impossible. For when the

oxygen was pumped out of arterial blood and replaced by a quantity

of carbonic acid equal to that which usually occurs in venous blood,

the amount of combined carbonic acid in the blood could not be

increased. Hence it follows that carbonic acid is furnished in the

ate

40 Miscellaneous. i

combined form by the tissues which prepare venous blood. This

fact also leads to certain conclusions as to the manner in which the

carbonic acid is combined in the blood and expelled by the corpuscles.

When the blood is completely deprived of gas, a portion of its

disks is decomposed into a colourless stroma and a coloured fluid.

The same phenomenon is observed, although in a less degree, when

only the oxygen is removed from the blood, whether by pumping

or by suffocation. On the other hand, the attempt to render the

blood perfectly free from carbonic acid by the introduction of

oxygen was unsuccessful. Even after the long-continued action of

air containing oxygen, but free from carbonic acid, about 4 volumes

per cent. of carbonic acid always remain, and these can only be got

rid of after the removal of the oxygen. Blood so treated showed no

changed corpuscles.—Sitzungsber. der hais. Akad. der Wiss. in

Wien, 8 January, 1864, p. 3.

“« New Forms of Mollusks ?”

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—May I be permitted, as a constant reader of your

excellent Magazine, to record my humble protest against the un-

scientific practice (now very much on the increase) of describing, in

portentous detail, varieties of well-known species of shells as “ New

Forms of Mollusks?’’ I ought not, perhaps, to cavil at Dr. P. P.

Carpenter giving the new name of Callista pollicaris to a shell which

I had minutely examined and declared to be a variety of Dione prora

(Callista prora, Carpenter), because it involves a question of opinion;

but I may be allowed to object to his printing, as a statement of my

views, a hasty conversational concurrence with an opinion to which,

when I came to print my monograph, I refrained from giving pub-

licity. What can be the object of describing as a new species a shell

which the deseriber, in the same sentence, denotes as being probably

not a new species? Dr. P. P. Carpenter brought me some shells,

showing that he had named them Callista puella. I told him that

they were simply varieties of Dione pannosa (Callista pannosa, Car-

penter), But his name of puel/a was not then published : it appears

in your last Number (p. 312), printed thus :—“ Callista (? pannosa)

puella.” Dr. P. P. Carpenter gives the shell a new name while at

the same time denoting his fear that it may be a variety of one

named already ; and he goes on to remark, with reference to some

white specimens of it, ‘The colourless subtrigonal shells were re-

garded by Mr. Reeve as a separate species, but he did not allude to

them in his monograph.” The reason of my not alluding to them

is obvious. Should even the soft parts of the shells under considera-

tion ever come into Dr. P. P. Carpenter’s hands, I venture to predict

that he will find difficulty in showing them to be ‘‘ New Forms of

Mollusks.”’ I am, Gentlemen,

Your obedient Servant,

Sutton, Hounslow, Lovet. REEVE.

April 7, 1863.

malas (

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES, }

No. 78. JUNE 1864.

XLII.—On the Classification of the Cyclostomacea of Eastern

Asia. By Wivxiam T. Branrorp, A.R.S.M., F.G.S.

Tue most generally received system of classification for the

various forms of operculated land-shells is, I believe, that of

Dr. Pfeiffer, as amended in the supplement, published in 1858,

to his invaluable work, the ‘ Monographia Pneumonopomorum

viventium.’ The additions which have since been made to the

genera belonging to the group in most cases fall naturally into

the several divisions proposed.

My own observations have been limited to the land-shells

inhabiting India and Burma; but a close comparison of a large

number of these, together with the examination, in many genera,

of the animals, has induced me to believe that several slight

alterations and one or two important changes are requisite in

Dr. Pfeiffer’s classification, in order to bring it into accordance

with the natural affinities of the forms included. I propose,

therefore, in the present paper, briefly to review tle various

admitted genera and subgenera, to propose a few additions, and

to add some remarks upon the distribution and mutual affinities

of several of the species.

_ Too much stress appears to me to have been placed upon the

structure of the operculum. In some instances the characters

of genera, or even of subfamilies, mainly based upon this portion

of the animal, only apply to a minority of the species or genera

included. So long as an examination of the animal was im-

practicable, it was only natural that much importance should be

attached to the structure of the operculum; and doubtless it is

in general a valuable indication of the affinities of different

species. But there are many cases in which its structure alone

is insufficient to establish the relations of the animal. One re-

markable instance may be quoted : Cyclostoma semistriatum, Sow.,

and C. filocinctum, Bens., both have a concentric, multispiral,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xiii. 29

44.2 Mr, W.T. Blanford on the Classification of

and duplex operculum, horny internally and testaceous exter-

nally, with a raised, shelly, lamellar edge to the whorls, the only

essential distinction being in the degree of development of that

lamellar edge. These two species were both classed with Cyelotus;

yet, as I shall have occasion to show, they really belong to dis-

tinct families.

Dr. Pfeiffer’s classification is the following, the Eastern genera

alone being enumerated :— .

Order PNEUMONOPOMA.

Suborder Opisthophthalma.

Family I. Aciculide. (Truncatella.)

Fam. II. Diplommatinide. (Diplommatina, ?Pazillus.)

Suborder Eetophthalma.

“Family I. Cyclostomidz.

Subfamily 1. Cycrotin. (Cyclotus, Opisthoporus, Pterocyclos,

Alyceeus.)

Subfam. 2, Cyctornorina. (Aulopoma, Cyclophorus, Lepto-

poma, Dermatocera.)

Subfam. 3. Purrninaz. (Megalomastoma, Cataulus, Raphaulus,

Streptaulus, Pupinella, Pupina, Registoma, Callia.)

Subfam. 4. Licininaz. (No Asiatic representatives.)

Subfam. 5. Cyctostominaz. (Otopoma, Cyclostomus*.)

Subfam. 6. Cistutina. (No Asiatic representatives.)

Subfam. 7. Pomartastnaz. (Pomatias.)

Subfam. 8. Reatina. (Hydrocena.)

Family II. Helicinide+. (Helicina.)

Of the above genera, those in italics are not known to occur

within the area to which the following remarks especially apply.

This area comprises Hindustai, with the Himalayas, Ceylon,

Assam, and the Burmese provinces, both British and indepen-

dent,

The additional genera to which I shall refer are Opisthostoma,

H.Blanf., Spiraculum, Pearson, Rhiostoma, Bens., Clostophis, Bens.,

Hybocystis, Bens., Cyathopoma, W. Blanf., Jerdonia, W. Biant.,

and one or two new generic or subgeneric groups.

The principal amendments which I shall propose are in the

* (. trochlea, Bens., was assigned to this genus by Dr. Pfeiffer, but in

error. The restricted genus Cyclostoma or Cyclostomus is really without

Asiatic representatives. :

+ Dr. Pfeiffer’s terminations for the names of families and subfamilies

are rather different. I have preferred using those commonly employed in

English works.

the Cyclostomacea of Eastern Asta, 4.43

position of Diplommatina, of all the Cyclotine, and of the Indian

forms ascribed to Hydrocena.

“43 1, TruncaTE.ia, Risso,

~ Only a@ single species of this genus (7. Ceylanica, Pfr.) is

known to inhabit Ceylon, and none have as yet been met with

elsewhere in India. The species, so far as I am aware, presents

no peculiarities.

2. Diptommatina, Bens.

Dr. Pfeiffer, in his monograph, placed this genus between

Alyceus and Megalomastoma; in the Supplement, he makes it

the type of a totally distinct family, of the suborder Opisthoph-

thalma, which is characterized by the eyes being placed above

the base of the tentacles. I have never seen living specimens of

any of the Aciculide; but, judging from the plates in Adams’s

‘Gen. Rec. Moll.,’ the position of the eyes is very similar to that

seen in the Auriculacea. This is by no means the case in Di-

plommatina, in which genus the eyes, although higher in position

than in other Cyclostomaceous genera, are rather at the side of

the head than above it; and there is no trace of the long pro-

boscis of Truncatella. The operculum also is concentrie and

horny ; but, from the minute size of the species, and the manner

in which the operculum is withdrawn far within the shell, it is,

in most cases, difficult to examine it. In some species, as in

D. Nilgirica, W. & H. Blanf., the spiral structure is obsolete.

~The Indian Diplommatine may be divided into two groups,

with distinct geographical distribution. The more numerous

type inhabits the Eastern Himalayas and Burma, and comprises

the following species :—

D. pachycheilus, Bens. Sikkim.

D. pullula, Bens. Sikkim.

D. Blanfordiana, Bens. Sikkim.

D. diplocheilus, Bens. Khasi Hills.

D. polypleuris, Bens. Khasi Hills.

D. exilis, W. Blanf. Ava.

D. Pappensis, W. Blanf. Ava.

D. sperata, W. Blanf. Pegu;

and two other species from Pegu as yet undescribed, These are

all characterized by a continuous peristome (the upper portion

being broadly appressed on the penultimate whorl), the presence

of a columellar tooth, and by strong transverse (vertical) costu-

lation on the whorls. The antepenultimate whorl is far broader

than the rest, and the spire above it is more or less acuminate,

_ The two species from the peninsula of India described by m

brother and myself, viz. D, Nilgirica from the Nilgiri Hills, and

29%

444, Mr. W.T. Blanford on the Classification of

D. Kingiana from the Kolamully Hills, are distinguished by

their cylindrically-ovate form, smooth whorls, continuous cir-

cular peristome not expanded into a callus upon the penultimate

whorl, by the absence of a columellar tooth, and by the regular

convexity of the sides of the spire. The earliest described spe-

cies, D. folliculus, Bens., and its congeners in the Western Hi-

malayas, D. costulata, Bens., and the sinistral D. Huttoni, Pfr.,

are to some extent intermediate between the two types; but

they approach less nearly, in their costulated whorls, more acu-

minate spire, and less circular mouth, to the Peninsular forms

than to those of the Eastern Himalaya*. |

I have lately found, in the Western Ghats near Bombay, a

very peculiar minute species, belonging to the Peninsular type,

but distinguished from every other form in the genus by pos-

sessing spiral sculpture.

3. Orrstnostoma, H. Blanf.

Since the discovery of the minute O. Nilgiricum, described by

my brother, Mr. H. F. Blanford, in the ‘Journal of the Asiatic

Society of Bengal’ for 1860, no additional form of this most

remarkable genus has been met with, nor do any more specimens

appear to have been collected.

In the ‘ Malakozoologische Blatter’ for the present year (p.39),

Dr. Dohrn, reviewing our papers, considers this form as probably

belonging to the Pupinide, and remarks especially on its resem-

blance to the Philippine Arinia, This tends to confirm our

belief in its Cyclostomaceous affinities, of which, indeed, there

can be little doubt; but the position of Arinia itself is far from

being satisfactorily determined, and it is classed by many writers

(e.g. Pfeiffer and Adams) with Diplommatina. It appears pro-

bable that, in all the characters which tend to connect Opzistho-

stoma with Arinia, the former shell approaches equally to certain

forms of Diplommatina, partly te the Indian forms, and also in

some respects to the sinistral group of Australia. In its costu-

lation and minute size, Opisthostoma certainly approaches Di-

plommatina, and differs from the Pupinide, which are mostly

characterized by the absence of sculpture. The last whorl in

many species of Diplommatina rises so far in front of the shell

as almost to touch the antepenultimate; so that it is easy to

understand the connexion with the singular distortion of the

last whorl of Opisthostoma, which, on the other hand, has no-

thing approaching to the peculiar slits and tubes characterizing

the aperture of most of the Pupinide.

‘* This is by no means the only instance in which the land-shells of the

Western Himalaya are more nearly allied to those of India proper than

are the species inhabiting the same mountains further east.

the Cyclostomacea of Eastern Asia. ~ 445

Mr. Benson suggested to us, some years since, that the cause

of our being unable to detect the operculum in the perfectly

fresh specimens obtained was, that it was retracted far within the

aperture as in Diplommatina. Taking all the characters into

consideration, there appears good reason to believe that this

genus must be classed as an abnormal member of the Diplom-

matina group.

4. Criostopuis, Bens.

' A single specimen of this genus, in which the last whorl

descends freely, was obtained by Mr. Benson from Molmain. I

have never had an opportunity of seeing the specimen, and

know it by the description alone. Judging from that, and

taking into consideration the abnormal character of the last

whorl, which appears to present in its peculiarities the converse

of Opisthostoma, there appears reason to believe that this

minute form will also prove to belong to the Diplommatina

group. | 3

Doubtless numerous species of these very minute genera have

escaped the notice of collectors; for, unless most careful and

special search is made for them, they will certainly remain un-

observed, more especially if large and handsome forms occur in

the same locality, and attract attention.

Subfamily CycLorinz.

I have long had reason to doubt the correctness of uniting

the genera Cyclotus, Pterocyclos, and Alyceus into one sub-

family. The Indian forms of the first genus always appeared to

me to possess 4 considerable resemblance to Cyclostoma and

Otopoma. Péerocyclos, on the other hand, is very closely allied

to Cyclophorus; while Alycaus has no close affinity with any

other genus, but appears to possess some slight points of agree-

ment with certain Pupinine. The characters of the subfamily,

moreover, as given by Dr. Pfeiffer, derived from the operculum

alone, are only applicable to some of the genera included. These

characters are :—‘‘Operculum crassum, e duabus laminis com-

positum (exteriore plerumque calcarea, interiore cornea, ambabus

sulco marginali separatis) orbiculare, arctispirum, nucleo cen-

trali.” Now the operculum in all the species of A/yceus which

I have examined (twenty at least) is thin, composed of a single

lamina, and without any marginal sulcation. In Pterocyclos

there is no duplication nor marginal sulcation ; and the opercu-

lum in many species (e.g. P. Cumingi, Pfr., P. rupestris, B.,)

cannot be said to be orbicular. For these several reasons I be-

lieve that the genera united under this subfamily must be re-

distributed. |

446 Mr: W. T. Blanford on the Classification of

5. Cycrorus, Guilding.

To this genus five Indian species have been referred, viz. :—

C. semistriatus, Sow.

C. subdiscoideus, Sow.

C. spurcus, Grat.

C. montanus, Pfr.

C. filocinctus, Bens.

The last I shall refer to presently as the type of the genus

Cyathopoma. With C. spurcus and C. montanus I am unac-

quainted. I have a large number of specimens of C. subdiscoideus,

from Orissa, and C. semistriatus, from Poona, lying before me,

and Iam unable to observe any constant character by which

they can be distinguished,—the slight expansion of the peri-

stome occurring in specimens of both, and the spiral sculpture

and height of spire being to some extent variable characters.

My specimens do not suffice to prove an absolute passage, al-

though they indicate its probability. :

I have referred to the resemblance of the shells of these spe-

cies to certain forms of Cyclostoma ; but the concentric character

of the operculum would have induced me to class them with

Cyclophorus; and I was somewhat surprised, on examining the

animal of C. semistriatus, to find that it possessed the long

looping muzzle, longitudinally cleft foot, and peculiar mode of

reptation of Cyclostoma (e. g. C. elegans). There can therefore

be no longer any doubt that this species and its allies must be

classed near Otopoma; and the question arises whether the

whole of the forms arranged by Dr. Pfeiffer and others in the

genus Cyclotus have similar affinities. I suspect not. The

genus may be divided into several sections, which I will briefly

note.

I. The American species, which have little in common with

those of Asia and the Asiatic islands, but which, probably, like

C. semistriatus, should be classed with Cyclostoma. They have

been distinguished as Aperostoma and Cyrtotoma. I am not

aware if the animals of these shells have been examined ; but it

is not very probable that either they or the American forms

ascribed to Cyclophorus and Megalomastoma are really congeneri¢

with the oriental species. They more probably represent them,

just as the Sesara section of Nanina does the Tridopsis division

of Helix, the shells in this case being so similar that they would

certainly be classed together but for essential distinctions in the

animal.

II. C. filocinctus and its allies.

III. The typical forms. The types of the genus Cyclotus, as

established by Swainson, are stated by Pfeiffer (Mon. Pneum,

the Cyclostomacea of Eastern Asia. 447

Viv. p. 16) * to be C. variegatus, Swains., and C. planorbulus, Lam.,

both from the Philippines. These shells possess a closely wound,

thick operculum, membranaceous internally and subtestaceous

without, very similar indeed to that of Opisthoporus, except that

the latter is hollow within—a distinction the importance of

which may be over-estimated. There is a deep sulcation round

the margin, and considerable concavity externally. The shell is

smooth or nearly so, very depressed, subdiscoidal, with a thick

epidermis, and is generally precisely similar to the discoidal

forms of Cyclophorus (e. g. C. stenostomus, Sow.), and especially

to certain Burmese species (as C. calyx, Bens.), to which the

Cycloti are doubtless very closely allied. The other Philippine

species (C. mucronatus, Sow., C. pusillus, Sow., C. scalaris, Pfr.,

C. substriatus, Sow.) will be classed in the restricted genus,

which doubtless comprises also the three Chinese species, as

well as those of Cochin-China, Java, Borneo, &c., and several

from the Moluccas, lately described by Dr. von Martens in the

* Malakoz. Blatter.’ The nearest allies of the genus thus re-

stricted being apparently amongst the species of Cyclophorus,

Cyclotus must be referred to the same subfamily as that genus.

IV. C. Macgillivrayi, Pfr., from the New Hebrides, may very

penny be a depressed form of the type for which Dr. Gould

as proposed the generic name Ostodes. The operculum is

subtestaceous, but otherwise in no respect different from that of

some Cyclophori. C. daucinus, Pfr., and C. Recluzianus, Pfr.,

from the Solomon Islands, may be related; but these species are

only known to me by description.

V. Omitting a few dubious species, there only remain the

four Indian forms, and C. conoideus, Pfr., from the Seychelles

and Mauritius, which very probably belongs to the same type as

C. semistriatus. These species are nearly affined to Lithidion,

but differ in their concentric operculum, and, being well distin-

guished from all known genera, must be classed by themselves.

[ propose to call them

Cycnoropsis, n. g.

Testa late umbilicata, depressa v. turbinato-depressa, spiraliter

lirata; apertura subcirculari. Operculum concentricum, multi-

spirum, duplex, interne membranaceum, externe testaceum, margini-

bus anfractuum externis elevatis.

Animal Cyclostomatis, haud Cyclophori.

Type, C. semistriatus, Sow.

‘This genus will be classed as a subgenus of Cyclostoma by all

who consider Otopoma and Lithidion as such. It may, as above

suggested, be related to Aperostoma. In the raised margins of

* I have not access to the original work at present.

448 Mr. W. T. Blanford on the Classification of

the whorls of the operculum there is some resemblance to the

West-Indian Choanopoma ; but the shells are very different. It

forms an additional link between the Indian fauna and that of

Africa and South-western Asia*.

6. Jerponta, W. Blanf.

Testa umbilicata, pyramidata, cornea. Operc. concentricum,

arctispirum, sulco marginali circumdatum, duplex; interne mem-

branaceum, externe testaceum, et ex anfractibus vitteeformibus com-

positum, quoque proximi interioris marginem externum tegente.

Type, J. trochlea, Bens., sp..

Although I proposed this genus two years ago (Journ. Asiat.

Soc. Bengal for 1861, vol. xxx. p. 351), I have never published

the characters in full. The species upon which it is founded is

a peculiar minute, pyramidal, horny, tricarinated shell inhabiting

the Nilgiri Hills,and which, in the absence of the operculum,

was referred by Dr. Pfeiffer (Mon. Pneum. Viv. Supplement,

p- 116) to Cyclostoma. The operculum I obtained in 1859,

and it proved to have the peculiar structure described abovert.

It bears no inconsiderable resemblance to that of Cyclotus varie-

gatus, Sw., differing mainly in the inner edge of each whorl

resting upon the outer edge of the next, whereas in Cyclotus,

and in general throughout the Cyclophoride, the reverse is seen.

The position of this peculiar shell is still somewhat obscure ;

but as the operculum is, despite its singular structure, more

nearly allied to that of Cyclotus than to any other, it may, in

default of a knowledge of the animal, be classed with the Cyclo-

phorine, and may possibly be related to the next genus.

In the paper above referred to as published in the ‘ Journ.

Asiat. Soc. of Bengal,’ I was disposed to refer a second species,

from the Kolamully Hills of South India to this genus. Fur-

ther examination of this form, the operculum and animal of

* Throughout the fauna of the Indian peninsula there is a blending of

Africano- Asiatic and of Malayan forms. In the Mammalia, amongst the

Carnivora are found species of the African Lion and Hyena, and the Cauca-

sian Wolf, Fox, and Jackal, with the Malayan Tiger, Paradoxure, &c. ; and

in the Ruminantia, the African types in the Indian forms of Antelope,

with the Malayan Rusa- and Axis-deer and Bos gaurus. Amongst the

birds the same is seen,—species of the Malayan Jungle-fowl and Peacock

co-existing with those of the African Sand-grouse and Francolin. In the

land-shells, Malayan types of Nanina, Cyclophorus, &c., accompany

African forms of Bulimus, Otopoma, &c. As might be expected, the

African representatives predominate in the west of the pan Malayan

in the east; and the former frequently occur on the plains, the latter on

the hills, the fauna of which often resembles the Malayan types of the

Himalayas.

+ It is figured in the illustrations to the paper in the ‘ Journ. As. Soe.

Bengal’ above referred to.

the Cyclostomacea of Eastern Asia. 449

which are unknown, induces me to class it with Cyathopoma.

It is probable, however, that, as in other cases, representative

forms of Jerdonia may hereafter be found on the other hill-

groups of the Indian peninsula or of Ceylon.

7. Cyatrnopoma, W. Blanf.

‘Testa umbilicata, turbinata v. turbinato-depressa, epidermide

crassa, seepe hispidula induta, plerumque spiraliter lirata. Oper-

culum truncate conoideum, concentricum, multispirum, e duabus

laminis compositum ; interna membranacea, externa testacea per-

concaya; anfractuum marginibus externis in lamellam testaceam,

yersus medium incurvatam, interdum pulchre sculptam, elevatis.

Animal Cyclophori.

Type, C. filocinctum, Bens., sp.

The forms comprised in this genus of minute shells (the

targest known is only 3 millimetres in diameter) are all peculiar

to the hills of the Indian peninsula. Two, belonging to distinct

sections, have been found on the Nilgiris, one on the Kalryen-

mully Hills, near Salem, and a fourth on the Western Ghats,

near Bombay. A somewhat similar form has lately been found

in the Andaman Islands by Mr. Theobald, who has kindly sent

me a specimen. It differs, however, in several minor characters

of the shell, and in wanting the very peculiar operculum of

Cyathopoma, and appears more nearly allied to a section of Cyclo-

phorus peculiar, so far as is known, to Burma.

~ The animal of Cyathopoma is white, with a short oval foot,

undivided beneath, and has small black tentacles, with eyes at

the base. ,

The known species are the following :—

1. Spirally lirate.

C. filocinctum, Bens.

C. Kalryenense, H. Blanf.

C. , n. sp. (undescribed). Western Ghats near Bombay.

2. Smooth.

C. Malabaricum, W. Blanf. Nilgiri Hills.

C. Kolamulliense, W. Blanf. Kolamully Hills.

8. Prrerocyctios, Bens.

This is one of the best-marked types of the Cyclophoroid

group, so far as regards its Indian (and typical) representatives ;

but, in Burma, it passes almost imperceptibly into forms of Cy-

clophorus. 1 have alluded in a previous paper (Ann. & Mag.

Nat. Hist. for July 1863) to the relations of the incision in the

inner and cowl-shaped process of the outer lip of the peristome

450 Mr. W.T. Blanford on the Classification of

to the tubes in other genera of the Cyclophoride. There ean

be no doubt that the “wing” in Pterocyclos is a rudimentary

tube, although no portion of the animal has been observed to

correspond with it. '

The species of this genus may well be distinguished into two

sections.

_ist. Those inhabiting the Indian peninsula and Ceylon,

VIZ. :— ’

P. rupestris, Bens. Bengal, Behar, Orissa. y

P. bilabiatus, Bens. Hills of South India (base).

P. nanus, Bens. Nilgiri Hills.

P. Cumingi*, Pfr. Ceylon.

These are all characterized by their very convex opercula.

2nd. The Burmese forms—

P. parvus, Pearson. Assam and Arakant.

P. pullatus, Bens. Pegu.

Fe ,n.sp. Thayet Myo, Pegu.

Also, probably, P. cetra, Bens., from Molmain, and P. Albersi,

Pfr., from the Khasi Hills. In these the operculum is nearly

flat, while the wing of the peristome is much less developed

than in the forms of the Indian peninsula. No species have as

yet been obtained from the Himalaya. It is worthy of note

that the Indian species with the least-convex operculum and

smallest wing is the Nilgiri P. nanus, Bens., thus affording an-

* Tam doubtful whether P. Cingalensis, Bens., be more than a variety of

P. Cumingi, Pfr. The duplication of the peristome is frequently a character

depending upon the age of the shell, which, of course, may vary in speci-

mens collected at different periods of the year. Moreover, which of the

Cingalese species is P. Troscheli, Bens.? Probably P. Cumingi or P. bifrons,

Pfr., which may possibly be only varieties of one species. P. Troscheli was

described from a drawing, at a time when the fauna of Ceylon was almost

completely unknown. This has changed, and the land-Mollusca of Ceylon

are now far better known, and have been much more largely collected than

those of many parts of India; and it is very improbable that the species

has been overlooked. Descriptions of species from drawings, unless those

drawings have been made by persons intimately acquainted with the critical

distinctions of allied species, are never satisfactory ; and when, as in this

case, three or four other species have been subsequently described from

the same geographical area, differing from that first named and from each

other in minute characters which would infallibly be overlooked by an

ordinary observer, it is very improbable that all are really distinct. It is

to be hoped that some of the numerous collectors of Ceylon shells may

possess specimens of a Pterocyclos from Trincomalee, which would go far

towards deciding the question.

+ Specimens of a Pterocyclos which I found in Arakan, at Akyab, and

of which a flatter variety occurred further south, near Tongoop, agree

generally with the description of P. parvus. The operculum is plano-

concave within (the central boss being very slightly prominent) and nearly

flat without, with free lamellar edges to the whorls. ;

the Cyclostomacea of Eastern Asia. 451

other instance of the affinity of the hill-fauna of Southern India

to Malayan types.

9. SprracuiuM, Pearson; and 10. OrisrHororvs, Bens.

The genus Spiraculum, distinguished by the possession of a

retroverted sutural tube open at both ends, and by a modification

of the form of the mantle corresponding to the same, has, I

think, better claims to generic distinction from Pterocyclos than

even Rhiostoma. Its claim to separation from Pterocyclos I

believe equal to that of Opisthoporus from Cyclotus ; and I should

be inclined to class Opisthoporus as a subgenus of Spiraculum, as

_ LT have little doubt that the animal of the former genus, when

examined, will be found to be similar in structure to that of the

latter.

Mr. Benson has lately described, under the name of Opistho-

yorus Gordoni, a species from Molmain, in Burma, which may,

I think, very possibly prove to be a Spiraculum, when the oper-

culum is obtained, as the known geographical range of forms

belonging to that genus approaches far nearer to Molmain than

that of Opisthoporus. To whatever type it may belong, it serves

admirably to illustrate the extremely close affinity between them,

since there is no character possessed by it which may not be

found in one or the other form of each genus. S. Avanum, W.

Blanf., has a duplicate lip and a smooth surface ; while an un-

described species occurring in Assam has the last whorl free for

a longer distance than in any known species of Opisthoporus ;

_ and it has also a more prominent projection from the upper

portion of the peristome. The sole difference between the two

genera is in the structure of the operculum.

11. Rurostroma, Bens.

The projection from the upper portion of the peristome in this

species differs from that in Spiraculum and Opisthoporus in being

accompanied by a deep incision in the inner peristome, clearly

showing that it is the homologue of both wing and incision in

Pterocyclos, and of both projection and sutural tube in the first-

mentioned genera. In R. Housei, Pfr., the projection indeed

forms a perfect tube. Rhiostoma is doubtless a good type,

although species may very probably be met with connecting it

with Pterocyclos more closely than is now the case. A single

species (R. Haughtoni, Bens.) is found at Molmain; all others

are Malayan.

12. Autoroma, Troschel.

I have no especial remark to offer upon this genus, which has

not hitherto been met with out of Ceylon.

452 Mr. W. T. Blanford on the Classification of

13. Cyc.oruorvus, Montfort.

Within the area to which these observations especially apply

there exist several distinct series of forms of this well-known

and important genus, some of them differing from the type at

least as widely as Leptopoma does. These should be separated

as subgenera.

I. Of the several groups classed under Cyclophorus, one of the

most distinct is that for which the following appellation was, a

few years ago, suggested by Mr. Theobald. It may be thus

characterized :—

Lacocuettus, Theobald, MS.

Testa anguste umbilicata, turbinato-conica, parva, spiraliter lirata,

epidermide fusca (in exemplis junioribus seepe hispidula) induta.

Peristoma incrassatum, superne ad angulam rima transversa bre-

viter incisum. Operculum planum, tenue, albidum.

_ Type, C. scissimargo, Bens., from Tenasserim.

The other species (all from Burma) are

C. tomotrema, Bens. Khasi Hills.

,n. sp. Pegu.

_ The animal of the last species has a longitudinal groove above

the posterior end of the foot, somewhat as in the Auriculoid

genus Melampus.

The shells are all about the same size as C. halophilus, Bens.,

and its allies, but easily distinguished by their thickened lip,

greater solidity, and the peculiar slit at the angle of the upper

margin of the peristome. To this section the little species

found by Mr. Theobald in the Andamans, and previously re-

ferred to, appears to, belong.

II. The next group* comprises certain discoidal shells, also

Burmese, as a type of which C. calyx, Bens., may be selected.

The operculum is thicker than in other Cyclophori, and has free

and rough margins to its whorls, so as to be absolutely identical

with that of Pterocyclos pullatus and it allies. In C. calyz, also,

there is a slight expansion of the outer peristome at the suture

corresponding to the wing in Péerocyclos. A similar slight

expansion is seen in C. phenotopicus, Bens., from the Hima-

layas, which, however, has a thin operculum. I consider, there-

fore, that in these forms and in the Burmese species of Ptero-

cyclos we have that almost complete passage from one genus

into the other, to which I have already referred, and clear evi-

dence of their close natural affinity. There can be little doubt

that Pterocyclos belongs to the same subfamily as Cyclophorus ;

* For this section I proposed, in a paper printed in the ‘ Journal of the

Asiatic Society of Bengal’ for 1863 (p. 322), the name Scabrina. Further

study of the genus has led me to the conclusions expressed above,

the Cyclostomacea of Eastern Asia. 453.

and its associated genera, Rhiostoma, Spiraculum, &c., must fall

into the same group.

This little section, the species of which also agree in their

velvety epidermis, when in good condition, appears to coincide

in so many points with the subgenus Myzxostoma of Troschel,

that it may probably be classed with that section. The charac-

ters of the Burmese species are

Testa late umbilicata, depressa, subdiscoidea, epidermide fusca

hispidula induta; anfractibus rotundatis. Apertura circularis,

peristomate incrassato. Operculum crassum, corneum, anfractuum

marginibus lamellatim elevatis.

The species included are—

C. pinnulifer, Bens. Khasi Hills.

C. calyx, Bens. Molmain*.

C. hispidulus, W. Blanf. Ava.

III. The discoidal species of India and Ceylon, with thin

opercula. These are—

C. phenotopicus, Bens. Darjiling.

C. ravidus, Bens. Nilgiri Hills and Ceylon.

C. stenostomus, Sow. | Nilgiri Hills.

C. deplanatus, Pfr. Nilgiri Hills.

C. annulatus, Trosch. Ceylon.

C. Bairdu, Pfr. Ceylon;

and one or two Ceylonese species with which I am unacquainted,

C. Bairdii, C. stenostomus, and C. deplanatus are so closely

allied as to be scarcely more than local varieties; and the same

is the case with C. ravidus and C. annulatus.

IV. A group of shells arranged by Pfeiffer under Leptopoma,

but differing from the species of that genus in the non-expanded

peristome, in the rounder whorls, more globose forms, slower

increase in the size of the whorls, and consequent comparative

smallness of the mouth, and in the tendency to a rapid and

irregular descent of the last whorl in aged specimens. The

species are peculiar to Ceylon and Southern India, and comprise

the following :—

C. celoconus, Bens. Southern India.

C. malleatus, W. Blanf. Shevroy and Nilgini Hills.

C. halophilus, Bens. Ceylon.

C. orophilus, Bens. Ceylon;

and three or four other Ceylonese species, the differences be-

tween which and the two last mentioned are very minute,

* The locality is, I believe, erroneously given as Akoutoung, Pegu. I

have collected largely and repeatedly at that locality, but never met with

a specimen; whereas the shell is abundant at Molmain.

454 Mr..W. T. Blanford on the Classification of

V. But a solitary species is known, of another type, as yet

only found upon the Nilgiri Hills—C. cuspidatus, Bens. I have

been enabled to examine the operculum of a specimen belonging

to the Madras Museum, through the kindness of Capt. Mitchell.

It differs. widely from that of any Cyclophorus, being far more

closely wound. The thick dark epidermis, forming a fringe

round the carination of the last whorl, the peculiar acuminate

form, and the concave sides of the spire form a combination of

characters which entitle this species to at least subgeneric di-

stinction, It may be called

CRASPEDOTROPIS, noy. subg.

Testa acuminato-conoidea, carinata, epidermide fusca crassa fim-

briam carinze preebente induta. Operculum arctissime spiratum.

It is very probable that, as in the case of Cyathopoma, other

species may be found to inhabit the other hill-groups of the

peninsula or of Ceylon. Should they show no passage into

Cyclophorus, this may fairly be ranged as a distinct genus. '

VI. The typical species, e. g. C. involvulus, Mill., C. Indicus,

Desh., C. Aurora, Bens., C. fulguratus, Pfr., C. aurantiacus,

Schum., &c. These species are in many cases so variable, and

at the same time are distinguished from each other by such very

minute and unimportant characters, that a revision of the whole

group is most desirable. I regret very much that I have not

the materials at hand for the work. A very large weeding-out

of dubious species and of varieties is required ; but, in order that

this may be effectual, access to a greater number of the types of

described species than I can examine at present is requisite,

14, Lerroroma, Pfr.

Omitting the Ceylonese and South-Indian group already

mentioned, which certainly belongs to Cyclophorus, and passes

through C. celoconus into the depressed section of that genus

comprising C. stenostomus and its allies (No. II. of the preceding

classification), there are no Leptopomata described from the Indian

peninsula*; but two are attributed to Ceylon, and three to

Burma. The two Ceylonese species (L. semiclausum, Pfr., and

L. apicatum, Bens.) I have never seen; they may be a modified

form of the group of Cyclophorus halophilus, Bens.,with thickened

peristomes. They do not appear to be true Leptopomata, The

Burmese species are

L. Cybeus, Bens. Khasi Hills.

L. Burmanum, Pfr. Tenasserim.

L. aspirans, Bens. Tenasserim.

* L. vitreum, Sow., is quoted from the Nilgiris; but it is very impro-

bable that it has really been found at that locality.

the Cyclostomacea of Eastern Asia. ; 455

Of these, L. Cybeus I consider a Cyclophorus, probably only

adolescent ; and my impression, derived from a comparison of

the type-specimens in Mr. Theobald’s cabinet, and of some fine

and fresh examples of C. zebrinus, Bens., from the same locality,

was that the former were merely a variety, perhaps immature, of

the latter. I would, however, wish to repeat the observation

before expressing a definite opinion, and merely suggest the idea

as probable. dal

L. Burmanum, Pfr., I have not seen; but it also appears,

from the description, to be very probably an immature Cyclo-

phorus, many young shells of that genus having very thin and

membranaceous opercula. In this, as in so many other cases,

the characters of the operculum alone are insufficient for generic

distinction.

The sole remaining species, L. aspirans, Bens., is a true Lepto-

poma, with the peculiar form, peristome, and texture of shell

characteristic of the genus. It has a wide range, being found

in the Tenasserim provinces, near Bassein in Pegu, and through-

out Arakan as far north as Akyab.

It is only by confining the name Leptopoma to the peculiar

and well-marked type, species of which are so numerous in the

Indian Archipelago and the Philippine Islands, that it can be

considered to have claims even to subgeneric distinction. At

the best it appears to have no better claim to be separated from

Cyclophorus than has Myxostoma or Lagocheilus ; and its proper

position is probably as a subgenus.

15. Atycaus, Gray.

This genus was founded on a solitary species from Cochin

China, and only three forms were enumerated in Dr. Pfeiffer’s

monograph published in 1852. In 1858 the number had in-

creased to fourteen, almost all the additional species being from

the Indian area. I now possess no less than thirty-five species,

being all the described Indian forms with the exception of A.

Andamania, Bens., and all others, so far as I am aware, except

A, gibbus, Fér., and A. pilula, Gould.

The known forms from the Indian and Burmese area amount

to thirty-one, of which one has not yet been described. No

type in the whole order is better characterized nor more distinct

from all others, no approach to a passage into any other genus

being yet known. I have already referred to the broad distine-

tion between Alyceus and Cyclotus; the former is equally dis-

tinct from Cyclophorus, despite the similarity of the operculum.

But the singular and anomalous form of the shell induces me

to believe that it can best be classed in a subfamily by itself;

and this view is borne out by the peculiar texture of the shell,

456 Mr. W.T. Blanford on the Classification of

by its sculpture, which is distinct in general from that of any

other of the Cyclostomacea, except Diplommatina, and in the:

absence of any tendency to coloured zigzag markings—a cha-

racter which may not appear of much value at first, but which

is nevertheless singularly constant throughout the genera Cyclo-

phorus, Pterocyelos, Opisthoporus, Cyclotus, &c.—in fact, nearly

all the Cyclophorine. The animal is similar to that of Pupina,

having short, black tentacles, and differs in no essential point

from Cyclophorus.

The large addition to the number of species renders it possible

to define more exactly the generic characters ; and the following

may be suggested :—

Testa perforata v. umbilicata, conica, turbinata, globosa vel de-

pressa, unicolor, albido- v. succineo-cornea, rarius rubella. Anfractus

convexi, ultimus ad latus tumidus (spatio inflato sculptura confertiore

plerumque ornato); deinde prope aperturam constrictus, tubulo su-

turali externo, pone stricturam oriente, antice in anfractu aperto,

cum spatio inflato longitudine concordante, postice clauso munitus.

Peristoma circulare, plerumque incrassatum vel reflexum. Operculum

corneum (rare subtestaceum?), multispirum, nucleo centrali interno |

prominente seepe munitum.

In the ‘ Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.’ for March 1859, Mr. Benson

suggested the division of the genus into a typical section and

two subgenera, which he named Charax and Dioryz, distinguish-

ing the three sections by the characters of the constriction, the

typical group embracing such species as have “ the last whorl

constricted somewhat remotely behind the aperture, tumid on

both sides of the constriction.” In the section Charaz, the

constriction is “ broad, contiguous to the aperture, and divided

more or less remotely from it, across the whorl, by a ridge,

which is hollow internally.” In Dioryx the constriction is

“narrow and immediately behind the aperture.”

This distinction appeared at the time to be good, with the

exception that one of the species referred to Dioryx (A. crenu-

latus, Bens.) was more closely allied in most of its characters to

a form of Charaz than to the members of its own section. But

there was evidently, after the removal of this species, a much

closer alliance between Charax and the typical group than be-

tween either of those types and Dioryx. ‘To this Mr. Benson

referred in his paper, and also to the fact that the Western

Himalayan species, A. strangulatus, Hutt., showed a tendency to

a passage from Charazx to the typical section. Since the publi-

eation of Mr. Benson’s observations, some other species have

been discovered, especially A. Theobaldi, W. Blanf., and A. poly-

gonoma, W. Blanf., which are also intermediate in the characters

of the constriction ; and it may be doubted whether the form of

the Cyclostomacea of Eastern Asia. 457

- his one portion of the shell is sufficient for a division of the

us.

The section Dioryx, however, as proposed (provided the de-

ressly turbinate and strongly sculptured species A. crenulatus

a omitted) consists of a very natural and well-marked group of

forms, all of a somewhat globose shape, with a short sudden

constriction close to the peristome, and smooth (or, at the most,

striated), while nearly all other species are more or less strongly

costulated, at the inflated portion of the last whorl. There may

perhaps be some slight affinity between these peculiar globose

forms and the tubulated genera of the Pupinine, especially

Raphaulus.

The subgenus Dioryz, as thus defined and restricted, embraces

the following species :—

A. amphora, Bens. Molmain, Burma.

A. urnula, Bens. Darjiling, Sikkim.

A. distortus, Haines. Siam and Cambodia, Himalayas.

?A. pilula, Gould. Hong-Kong, China;

and a fifth species from Cambodia, obtained by M. Mouhot, of

which I have not learned the name.

It will be observed that this group prevails to the eastward,

only one solitary representative being found on the Himalayas.

Doubtless other species, in considerable numbers, of all sections

of the genus Alyceus may yet be found in the unexplored Malay

and Chinese countries and in some of the large islands of the

archipelago*,

The description of A. pilula is very imperfect, and I have never

seen the species ; but it may possibly belong to Dioryz, as no

transverse sculpture is mentioned as occurring on the whorls.

The spiral striation is peculiar.

The remaining species of Alyceus are, for the most part, very

difficult to distinguish by any one special character, though they

may easily be grouped round different typical species. In this

way we may obtain seven more or less well-marked sections,

which may be briefly described.

I. Type, A. gibbus, Fér. Shell perforated, subpyramidal ;

constriction remote from the aperture; sculpture fine; sutural

tube elongated.

A, gibbus, Fér. Cochin China.

A. pyramidalis, Bens. Tenasserim, Burma.

* The great proportion of large shells to small amongst the species

described from the Philippine Islands, and the different ratio found else-

where, where the minute forms have been carefully sought for, renders it

probable that the Molluscan land-fauna even of those islands has only as

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xiii. 30

‘458 Mr. W. T. Blanford on the Classification of

«II. Type, 4. constrictus, Bens. Shell perforated, ovately co-

nical; sculpture consisting of very few ribs on the inflated por-

tion of the shell ; sutural tube very short.

A. constrictus, Bens. Darjiling.

A. bembex, Bens. Darijiling.

A. otiphorus, Bens. Darjiling.

A. graphicus, W. Blanf. Arakan Hills, Burma.

III. Type, A. polygonoma, W. Blanf. Shell subturbinate,

narrowly umbilicated, with the peristome more or less crenulated;

sculpture fine,

' A. polygonoma, W. Blanf. Arakan Hills, Pegu.

A. succineus, W. Blanf. Arakan Hills, Pegu.

A. Vulcani, W. Blanf. Puppa Hill, in the kingdom of Ava.

IV. Type, A. crenulatus, Bens. Shell turbinately depressed,

solid, costulated.

a. Peristome fimbriated.

A. crenulatus, Bens. Darjiling.

A, plectocheilus, Bens. Darjiling.

b, Aberrant ; peristome not fimbriated.

A, vestitus, W. Blanf. Arakan Hills.

. V. Type, A. sculptilis, Bens. Shell perforated, subtrochiform,

costulated, compressed at the periphery.

A, sculptilis, Bens. Pegu.

A. Rechthofeni, W. Blanf. Molmain.

A, Jagori, Von Martens. Java?

VI. Type, A. wumbonalis, Bens. Shell depressed, solid, strongly

costulated ; constriction remote, simple.

A. umbonalis, Bens. Pegu.

A. Ingrami, W. Blanf. Arakan. E

A. Andamanie, Bens. Andaman Islands.

A, physis, Bens. Darjiling.

A. prosectus, Bens. Khasi Hills.

A. armillatus, Bens. Thayet Myo, Pegu.

A. humilis, W. Blanf. Akoutoung, Pegu.

A. ,n.sp. Arakan.

VIL. Type, A. strangulatus, Hutt. Shell depressed or de-

pressly turbinate, costulated ; constriction broad, crossed by a

ridge or swelling. (Charaz, Bens.)

a. Ridge crossing the constriction not recurved ; shell depressed.

A. strangulatus, Hutt. Western Himalayas.

yet been very partially explored. It is remarkable that Dr. von Martens

should not have met with either this genus or Diplommatina in the

Moluccas.

' the Cyclostomacea of Eastern Asia. “459

A. expatriatus, W. Blanf. Nilgiri and Shevroy Hills, South

India.

A, Footei, W. Blanf. Kolamully Hills, South India.

A, Theobaldi, W. Blanf. Khasi Hills.

A, Ave, W. Blanf. Ava.

A. stylifer, Bens. Daryjiling.

_. A, spiracillum, A. Adams & Reeve. Borneo and Japan !

b. Ridge recurved ; shell depressed, turbinate.

A. hebes, Bens. Khasi Hills.

A. gemmula, Bens. Darjiling.

A, nitidus, W. Blanf. Arakan.

It will be noticed that many of these sections are restricted in

their geographical distribution.

16. Rapnavuus, Pfr.

In a previous paper (Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. for July 1863,

vol. xii. p. 55) I have described the peculiar structure of the

animal in R. chrysallis, Pfr., the only Burmese species of this

genus. The other two known species are from Penang and

Borneo. The shell is remarkable as forming a link between the

various genera of Pupinine. It possesses the general form of

Pupina and Registoma, and the tube is the homologue of the

incisions in the peristome of those species; at the same time, it

resembles Hybocystis in the ventral flattening of the last whorl,

and Megalomastoma and Cataulus in its sculpture.

17. Srrepravtus, Bens.

This genus appears to represent, in the Himalayas of Sikkim,

the Raphauli and Pupine of Burma, Malacca, and Borneo, It

was described by Mr. Benson (Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. for 1857,

yol. xix. p. 201) as intermediate between Raphaulus and Alyceus,

on account of the characters of the sutural tube. In this view

of its affinities I cannot coincide. The tube in Streptaulus, as

in Raphaulus, opens inside the body-whorl, at the suture, a few

millimetres within the peristome. Thence it runs internally,

also as in Raphaulus, forwards to the aperture ; and in the normal

variety it passes out through the top of the lip, and runs back.

wards for a short distance along the suture, being open at the

extremity ; the external portion is somewhat irregular, thin, and

liable to decay. The course is precisely similar to that in R,

chrysallis, except that the tube, after emerging from the body-

whorl, runs backwards instead of upwards. It is quite distinct

from the-course in A/yceus, in which the tube is never internal,

and is, moreover, closed externally. But this is not all: in two

species of Raphaulus (R. bombycinus, Pfr., and R. Lorraini, Pfr.)

30*

460 Mr. W. T. Blanford on the Classification of

the tube opens externally in the peristome itself. Now, there is

a small variety of Streptaulus Blanfordi (which perhaps has

claims to specific distinction) in which precisely the same takes

place, the tube not running backwards along the suture, but

opening in the peristome. In no character of the shell can

Streptaulus be considered to agree with Alyceus; nor, I think,

can a generic separation from Raphaulus be founded upon the

very slight variation in the sutural tube, in the course of which

there is quite as great a diversity between R. chrysallis and R.

bombycinus as between either of these and Streptaulus; and if

the distinction be preserved; it must be founded upon another

character. Such a character is presented by the form of Strep-

taulus, which, in place of being flattened ventrally, and having

the upper whorls distorted as in Raphaulus, has all regular as

in Pupina. But I doubt if this character alone be of more than

subgeneric value, and I should therefore conclude that the pre-

sent type is a subgenus of Raphaulus, and that it tends to con-

nect that genus, not with Alyceus, but with Pupina.

I regret that I have not noted the animal of Streptaulus. It

is probably similar to that of Raphaulus. Should the soft tube

leading to the air-chamber prove to be wanting, there will be

better grounds for generic distinction.

18. Purina, Vign.

Only four species of this form are known from Burma and

the neighbouring countries, viz. :—

P. imbricifera, Bens. Khasi Hills.

P. artata, Bens.’ Molmain.

P. arula, Bens. Molmain.

P. Peguensis, Bens. Eastern Pegu.

P. artata also occurs in Arakan and throughout the Irrawaddy

valley as far north as Ava. It is a somewhat variable shell—one

variety, from the neighbourhood of Prome and Thayet Myo,

being somewhat more globose than the type, and having a rich

orange peristome.

No member of this genus has yet been found upon the Hima-

layas, where Streptaulus alone represents the group, the mem-

bers of which diminish greatly in number towards the north.

The animal possesses no peculiarities. It is almost colourless,

with short tentacles and distinct black eyes at the base, a mode-

rate oval foot with the sole undivided, and short proboscis. It

differs from Cyclophorus and its allies only in the shorter and

less subulate tentacles and rounder foot.

19. Hysocysrtis, Bens.

The animal of H. gravida, Bens., is similar to that of Pupina;

the Cyclostomacea of Eastern Asia. — 461

the general form of the shell resembles Raphaulus. There is no

trace of a sutural tube, or of any modification of it. The oper-

culum is very peculiar, and unlike that of any other genus

amongst the ‘Gyelophoridee*.

A second species of this genus, very closely allied to H. gravida,

was obtained from the Laos Mountains, Cambodia, by M. Mouhot.

I am indebted to Mr. Hugh Cuming for specimens both of this

species and of the Alycai from the same locality. )

20. Mrcatomastoma, Guilding. 5

Three species from India and Burma have been assigned to

this genus, viz. :—

M. funiculatum, Bens. Darjiling.

M. pauperculum, Sow. Bhotan.

M. sectilabre, Gould. Tenasserim.

A fourth very closely allied species is found in Borneo.

I have very little doubt that M. pauperculum is merely a

variety of M. funiculatum. The latter species is common at

Darjiling, at 6000 to 7000 feet elevation. Above this elevation

a variety occurs in which the basal keel is less pronounced, the

shell somewhat thicker, and the colour of the epidermis oliva-

ceous; and this I believe to be the form to which the name of

pauperculum was given. There is a complete passage between

the two varieties, the smaller of which formerly abounded on the

top of Sinchul, a mountain near Darjiling, between 8000 and

9000 feet high.

M. funiculatum is peculiarly interesting, as showing in a rudi-

mentary form the basal keel which is typical of the Ceylonese

genus Cataulus.

Dr. Gould has suggested for the Asiatic species of Megalo.

mastoma the generic appellation of Coptocheilus, stating that,

with the exception of M. Antillarum, all the West-Indian species

differ greatly in form from the East Indian. This is true; but

the exception vitiates the distinction. I have very little doubt

indeed that Dr. Gould’s surmise of the distinctness of the

two types will prove to be correct, and that the oriental and

occidental species must be separated from each other; but I do

not think that they have as yet been satisfactorily shown to have

generic distinctions. The animals of the Eastern forms are allied

to Pupina and Cyclophorus, having subulate contractile tentacles

of moderate length, with the eyes at the side of their bases, a

moderate proboscis, and a rather long undivided foot. The

lingual ribbon has not been examined. It is desirable to ascer-

* I have not been able to compare the lingual ribbons of these various

forms, although I obtained several of them.

462 Mr. W. T. Blanford on the Classification of

tain whether the animals of the West-Indian species differ in

any particular. .

21. Catautus, Pfr,

The rather numerous known species of this genus are, with

two exceptions, confined to the island of Ceylon, these exceptions

being one species, of abnormal form, from the Nicobar Islands,

and a second, recently discovered in the Anamully Hills of South

India, and specimens of which are amongst Mr. Hugh Cuming’s

rich collection.

I have already mentioned that the nearest approach to this

genus is in a Himalayan species of Megalomastoma*. The

species of these two genera agree so well amongst themselves in

form, and differ so much from the other Pupinine, that they may

fairly claim to be formed into a distinct subfamily, differing

from the typical Pupinine not only in shape, but in their thick

epidermis and sculpture, and, in general, their solidity and opa-

* This alliance of the Ceylonese hill-fauna to that of the Himalayas,

with its marked Malayan affinities (the counexion being, in most cases,

through the hill-fauna of Southern India) is a much more rational expla-

nation of any similarity which may exist between the animals inhabiting

Ceylon and Sumatra than Sir Emerson Tennent’s very startling suggestion

of a former continuity of land between the two islands (Nat. Hist. Ceylon,

Pp. 60-67), an hypothesis in favour of which there is no geological evidence

whatever. It would require too much space to enter into the matter at

full length; and Dr. Falconer has amply refuted Sir Emerson Tennent’s

strongest argument (Nat. Hist. Review, vol. iii. p.95). It is notorious

that the fauna of the plains of Ceylon, by far the greater portion of the

island, is identical with that of the plains of Southern India; the sole

distinctions are founded on the species of animals inhabiting the isolated

mass of hills in Southern Ceylon. But, the elephant-fallacy having been

disposed of by Dr. Falconer, a comparison of lists of the known animals

inhabiting Ceylon, Sumatra, and the hills of Southern India respectively

would soon settle the question. i

The fact is that the similarity of the Ceylon and South-Indian fauna is

very marked, but that while Ceylon has enjoyed the advantage of a con-

siderable European population scattered widely over its surface, and the

presence of an unusual number of naturalists, there are few accessible

parts of the world the natural history of which has been more neglected

than the hills of Southern India. With the exception of the Nilgiris,

scarcely anything is known concerning them. The Anamullies, exceeding

the Nilgiris in height, and nearer to Ceylon, have only at rare intervals

been visited, and then chiefly by sportsmen; and of the ranges further

south the very names are unknown to naturalists. So ignorant have we

been of their Molluscan fauna that the largest land-shell in India, Helix

basileus, Bens., was undiscovered until six years ago, although it abounds

at the foot of the Anamullies. Later still, species of Tanalia and Cataulus,

genera hitherto supposed to be peculiar to Ceylon, have been obtained

from the same neighbourhood. Helix basileus also belongs to a Ceylonese

(and perhaps Malay?) type not previously met with in the Indian penin-

sula; and there can be no rational doubt that, with the further exploration

of the South-Indian hills, the claims of those of Ceylon to be considered

a distinct zoological province will vanish completely.

the Cyclostomacea of Eastern Asia, 463

city,—all which contrast strongly with the polished unbroken

surface and delicate translucent shells of the Pupina group.

But, as above mentioned, the genus Raphaulus shows, in some

of these characters, a tendency to a passage.

22. Pomarras, Studer.

Two species of Indian shells have been described by Mr. Ben-

son, and attributed to this South-European genus, viz. :—

P. Himalaya, Bens., from near Darjiling.

P. (Bulimus) pleurophorus, Bens. Khasi Hills.

A third species has recently been obtained by Mr. Theobald

from Arakan.

These species agree well in general form and in sculpture

with the European members of the genus. Some slight differ-

ences, however, in the characters of the peristome and of the

operculum may be sufficient to entitle the Indian forms to sec-

tional or even subgeneric distinction,

23. Hyprocena, Parreyss.

Several minute forms from the Khasi Hills and Burma have

been described by Mr. Benson as belonging to this genus. They,

however, prove, on examination of the animal and operculum,

to differ so widely from the type, that I propose to distinguish

them as a new genus, probably belonging to a distinct family.

GEORISSA, nov. gen.

Testa imperforata v. vix perforata, minima, conica, succinea v.

rubella, plerumque spiraliter sulcata v. striata.

Opere. semiovale, sine ullo yestigio structure spiralis, excentrice

striatum, testaceum, transparens.

Animal parvum, lobis hemispheericis in loco tentaculorum munitum.

Oculi normales. Pes brevis, rotundatus.

Type, G. pyzis, Bens., sp.

The species of which I have examined the animal is the little

G. pyzis, Bens., from the neighbourhood of Thayet Myo in Pegu,

where it abounds, adhering to limestone rocks. It is found, in

similar localities, throughout the region of Pegu west of the

Irrawaddy. All the other species, so far as I am aware, also

occur in the neighbourhood of limestone; G. frustillum, Bens.,

from the vicinity of Ava, certainly does so. The operculum of

the last-mentioned species I have also examined, and found it to

be precisely similar to that of G. pyzis.

The other species which may be referred to this genus are

G. illex *, Bens. Tenasserim.

* The operculum of Hydrocena illew is described as paucispiral. In

these very minute shells it is so, difficult to. examine the opercula, that very

464 Mr. W. T. Blanford on the Classification of

G. Rawesiana, Bens. Molmain.

G. sarrita, Bens. Khasi Hills.

“And perhaps

Hydrocena milium, Bens. Khasi Hills.

H. tersa, Bens. Khasi Hills.

As regards the position to be assigned to this genus amongst

the operculated land-shells, it will be observed that it differs

widely, in the important character of the form of the tentacles,

from all other genera belonging to the Cyclostomacea ; while its

operculum agrees with that of the Helicinide in the absence of

spiral structure and of form. It must evidently be separated

widely from Hydrocena and Omphalotropis, which have the

normal tentacles of the Cyclophoride and a paucispiral oper-

culum. For the present it may perhaps be best classed as a

subfamily of the Helicinide equivalent perhaps to Stoastoma and

its allies.

24, Ororoma, Gray.

A solitary species of this genus is found in Western India, in

‘Kattiawar, in a climate which shows a slight approximation to

that of Persia and North-east Africa, being on the verge of the

area of the periodical rains of India and South-east Asia. This

species has been assigned to O. clausum, Sow., of Socotra and

Arabia; but a comparison of specimens from Kattiawar with

the original types of that shell in Mr. Cuming’s collection has

convinced me that they are distinct. The Indian form is much

‘smoother, with a less excavated umbilical region, and a higher

spire ; and I propose to distinguish it as O. Hinduorum.

* [had long supposed that this species was the only representa-

tive of the Cyclostomide known to occur in India. O. blennus,

‘Bens., from Molmain, has been since shown by its describer, Mr.

Benson, to have been founded in error; and O. spurcum, Grat.,

is doubtless a species of Cyclotopsis. The discovery of the true

‘character of Cyclotopsis semistriata, Sow., proves that repre-

sentatives of the family are found throughout India, but only in

the peninsula, and none are known to occur in Burma.

25. Henicina, Lamarck.

A species of this genus is found as far north as Ramri Island,

on the coast of Arakan. It is very closely allied to H. Anda-

manica, Bens., from the Andamans, and more remotely to the

Tenasserim H. Merguiensis, Pfr., and is the most westerly repre-

sentative of the genus yet met with in Asia.

ossibly the excentrie striation has been taken for paucispiral structure.

Fave not been able to examine H. #lex lately. ;

the Cyclostomacea of Eastern Asia. 465

The following is a summary of the classification which I be-

lieve to be in accordance with the natural affinities of the various

forms mentioned, and the reasons for the adoption of which I

have given in the preceding pages. Believing that the several

characters of the generative organs, of various parts of the

mouth, of the tentacles, the universal presence of an operculum,

and the form of the mantle, taken together, far outweigh those

of the membranous sac which constitutes the breathing-organ,

I agree with those naturalists who class the order Cyclostomacea

with the Prosobranchiate Gasteropods, and not with the Pulmo-

nifera. I also believe that the characters of the animal serve

quite as fully to distinguish Cyclophorus and its allies from Cyclo-

stoma as those of the operculum do to separate either from

Helicina ; and that if Helicina be considered the type of a dis-

tinct family, Cyclostoma must take an equal rank.

I have preserved the style of classification employed by Dr.

Pfeiffer. My own prepossessions would be in favour of reducing

the rank of the several divisions, and of ranging the subfamilies,

with a few additions, as genera, and the genera as subgenera ;

but the question is rather one of convenience than of importance.

List of the Genera of Operculated Land-Shells inhabiting India

; and Burma.

I. CYCLOSTOMIDZ. 3. PUPININA.

Cyclotopsis. Raphaulus.

Otopoma. Streptaulus.

II. CYCLOPHORIDZ. Pupina.

1, CycLoPHORINE. | Hybocystis.

Cyclophorus. 4, MEGALOMASTOMIN&.

Leptopoma. Megalomastoma (Copto-

Lagocheilus. cheilus, Gould).

Craspedotropis. Cataulus.

Aulopoma. 5. PoMATIASINZ.

Pterocyclos. Pomatias.

Rhiostoma. 6. DipLOMMATININ#,

Spiraculum. Diplommatina.

Opisthoporus. Opisthostoma.

Cyclotus. Clostophis.

Cyathopoma, III. HELICINIDZ.

Jerdonia. 1, Hevicinin 2.

2. ALYCKINZE, Helicina.

Alyceeus. 2. GKORISSIN&,

Dioryz. Georissa.

IV. ACICULIDA.

Truncatella.

466 Prof. R, L. Edgeworth on Irish Vespide,

XLIII.—Notes on Irish Vespide, By Ricuarp Lestock

Epeeworty, of Trinity College, Dublin*,

Tux subject which I have the honour of bringing before the

notice of the Dublin Natural History Society this evening is

one of peculiar interest—both because we possess no memoir

on the Irish Vespide, and because the internal economy of the

Vespida, as of all the higher Hymenoptera, cannot but command

our unqualified admiration, Of the seven species of British

wasps described by Mr. Smith we possess only five :—three

ground-wasps—the Vespa vulgaris, V. Germanica, V. rufa; and

two tree-wasps—the V. Britannica and V. holsatica or sylvestris.

The Vespa borealis (a species originally discovered by Mr. Smith)

and the V, Crabro, as far as I am aware, have not been yet

noticed in Ireland.

Before I proceed to the consideration of the details of each

species, it is necessary to allude to the estimate of wasps in a

populous community, originally made by Réaumur, and since

repeated by many naturalists. Réaumur assumed that there

were 10,000 cells, and that each cell produced during the sea-

son three wasps, thus producing 30,000 wasps. That Réaumur’s

calculation is erroneous is proved by the fact that 30,000 wasps

could not be contained in any average nest. For, assuming,

according to Mr. Smith, that each wasp is in length seven lines,

and in depth and breadth respectively two lines, the space which

each wasp must occupy will be 0:0162 of a cubic inch ; there-

fore 30,000. wasps will almost occupy the entire contents of a

sphere whose diameter is 10 inches. Nowa nest of such di-

mensions as this is seldom to be met with in these countries. I

have therefore shown that the 30,000 wasps which Réaumur

postulates would occupy the solid contents of the largest known

nest. But two-thirds of each nest is occupied with cells ; there-

fore in a nest of 10 inches in diameter there could not be more

than 10,000 wasps in the closest possible juxtaposition. Now

it is reasonable te suppose that each wasp requires at least three

times its own space; therefore even a nest of 10 inches in dia-

meter could not contain more than 3000 wasps,

Again, I shall show that those phenomena are not presented

which we should expect from the presence of 30,000 wasps.

I. find by observation that each wasp occupies about twenty

minutes in each journey, and remains about twenty minutes in

the nest after he has come in, and therefore each wasp passes

the entrance of the nest three times an hour; therefore the

number of wasps in a nest is a third of the sum of exits and en-

* Communicated by E. Perceval Wright, M.D., F.L.S., Professor of

Zoology, University of Dublin.

Prof, R. L. Edgeworth on Irish Vespide. 467

trances observed in an hour; or, conversely, the sum of exits and

entrances is three times the number of wasps. Accordingly, in

a nest of 30,000, the number of exits and entrances would be

90,000 per hour, or 1500 per minute; and such a nest, I be-

lieve, has not yet been observed. I should also add that I have

seldom seen a nest which contained 2000 wasps. Mr. Smith

has seen one with 2590; but it is very possible that climate

may affect the size of wasps’ nests yery considerably, The nests

of wasps vary in size very much, according to the favourableness

of the weather. In dry seasons they are generally larger. The

mildness of April and May, not so much as the number of

queens seen in the spring, or the quantity of nests the preceding

year, seems to affect the number of nests for the present year.

Wasps are very delicate animals, and peculiarly subject to the

influence of the weather; but the severity and wet of winter

itself do not appear to affect their number the following summer.

It is impossible, at least from such circumstances, to predict the

number or the paucity of wasps. Such, at least, is my expe-

rience, confirmed by carefully comparing the various notices in

the ‘ Zoologist,’ which form valuable statistics on this point.

The Vespa Germanica seems to be almost a variety of the V,

vulgaris ; at any rate, the habits of the two are so similar that

one description will answer for both. The Vespa vulgaris is the

common wasp of Ireland; but in the county Down Mr. Haliday

assures me that V. rufa is more common. I give no description

of this or any other wasp, as Mr. Smith has already completely

exhausted the subject ; but it is worth while remarking that the

colour and size of this insect seem to depend very much upon

the locality in which its nest is situated. I have observed that

nests which face the sun generally produce small, bright yellow,

very active wasps, whereas the wasps from nests in dark and

shady places appear larger, darker, and lazier. The same phe-

nomenon is to be seen among ants—some being lighter and

some darker than others, without any other very apparent cause

than that suggested by the situation of their nest. It has also

been remarked that each individual wasp as it grows older alters

considerably in size and cofour.

Logality selected for Building.—The situation in which each

wasp builds is generally very characteristic of the species, and

therefore it is a matter of some importance to endeavour to as-

certain the usual locality selected by each different wasp. The

nests of V. vulgaris are generally formed in dry banks, in the

roots of decayed trees, and occasionally in the thatch of cottages

or other similar places, but may occur almost anywhere. Mr,

Smith says he has seen one in a pump. In the ‘ Transactions

of the Ashmolean Society’ (xx. 3), a nest was found in a loaf of

468 Prof. R. L. Edgeworth on Irish Vespide.

sugar, the shell being partly composed of the surrounding thin

paper. I have seen nests in a turf-stack under a window-sill,

and in the bottom of a barrel of brown sugar. All the larger

nests are to be found in dry sunny spots, but the wasps always

seem to like water near them; they also generally build near

houses, or at least in cultivated places ; and I have seldom found

a nest in any exposed situation. It is also a most singular and

remarkable fact, which I do not remember having seen noticed,

that the Vespa vulgaris invariably builds beside the nest of a

wild bee, either the Bombus terrestris or agrestis. In about 90

per cent. of nests I find this to be the. case, and the only ex-

ceptions to this rule seem to be those nests situated im such ano-

malous positions as pumps and sugar-loaves. It is often, how-

ever, very difficnlt to find the nest of the wild bee, which fre-

quently consists of.only a dozen individuals. On examining the

combs of these wild bees, there does not seem to me less honey

than there ought to be, though the wasps may be often seen

going in and out familiarly.

Wasps, if possible, choose a sloping place in which to build,

so that the earth they have been mining may easily roll out of

the hole, so much so that at the entrance of their nest a quan-

tity of loose earth is generally to be seen, as if a mouse had been

burrowing. Sometimes V. vulgaris builds under the thick ta-

pestry of moss that drapes our old banks ; but, as a rule, it bur-

rows deeper in the earth than any other species of wasp. Réau-

mur states that the holes of wasps’ nests are generally curved ;

this, however, seems to me to be the exception, and the largest

nests generally have short straight holes. It is, moreover, rea-

sonable that this should be so, as the wasps have less distance

to carry out the earth they excavate.

Habits——To observe the habits and domestic manners of

wasps, I found it necessary that the nests should be conveniently

near the house. Any nest may be removed in the following

manner, which I have always employed and found easy and effi-

cacious :—Having found a nest about the middle of July, stop

up the mouth of the hole with wet mud, so that the wasps can-

not go in or out. As each wasp returns to the mouth of the

hole, knock him down with a leafy branch and then quickly seize

him and put him into a glass tumbler, with a piece of board

over it for a lid. When all the returning wasps are thus secured,

with a small stick bore a hole in the soft mud large enough to

emit a wasp, and, as each of the wasps inside issues through this

narrow passage, catch and put him into the tumbler. When all

the inhabitants are thus captured, remove the earth from the

cells and gently lift them into a wash-hand basin ; then carry

them home, and place them wherever you choose, in a hole six

Prof. R. L. Edgeworth on Irish Vespide. 469

inches deep and as much broad, with some dry moss under

them. Let a piece of stick be fixed over the cells, to which the

wasps may attach their nest. Place a piece of board over the

cells, and bore a slanting hole in the ground for the wasps to go

in and out; and, last of all, empty the tumbler of wasps into

the cells. It seems to be immaterial whether the queen be pre-

sent or not. Some sugar should be placed near, that they may

feed themselves easily during the first twenty-four hours. Next

‘morning they invariably commence to repair the injuries which

the nest has sustained. Their first care is to fasten their combs

by a strong pillar to the transverse stick, which, I mentioned

before, should be placed contiguous to the cells. Without

something to which they may attach their nest, they will not

build; because if it cannot be suspended, it must inevitably be

destroyed by the damp which exudes from the surrounding

ground. Few animals are so cleanly in their internal ceconomy

as wasps, and their first care after transplantation is to clean

their nest from any dirt, &c., which may have fallen into it.

This duty is in a measure consigned to the males. These males

may constantly be seen flying out of the nest, carrying away dead

grubs; and often when these are too large to be carried, I have

seen the insect drag his load along the grass after him.

It has often been stated that wasps keep a sentinel. I am

inclined to think that V. vulgaris does not. V. vulgaris is very

particular, at least in a flourishing nest, that the entrance should

commerce may not be interrupted; and there is often a worker

employed in cutting down these blades of grass, who might pos-

sibly be mistaken for a sentinel. At one time I had nine nests,

which I had removed to within a few yards of the house for con-

venience of observation, and in none of these could I say that

there was a sentinel continually on duty. Each wasp takes only

ten minutes, or at most a quarter of an hour, in collecting wood

or food. This is easily proved by stopping the entrance of the

hole, and by killing all the wasps which return, and in about

twenty minutes all will have returned except a few stragglers.

ae wasp, on an average, appears to perform two journeys in an

our.

There is a popular story originated by Réaumur, and sanctioned

by Messrs. Kirby and Spence, and others, that at the first cold

of winter wasps lose all the love for their young for which they

were once so celebrated, and that, dragging their unoffending

victims from their cells, they scatter their immolated bodies

round the entrance of their nest. This statement appears to me

to be entirely wrong. Possibly the grubs, in some rare cases,

may have been killed by an early frost, and from the number of

470 Prof. R. L. Edgeworth on Irish Vespide.

the dead it might have been conjectured that they were inten:

tionally slain. But it should be recollected that all the wasps

are hatched before the cold weather commences, and about the

end of October no grubs will be found in the nest. I have

carefully watched many times to observe this tragical dénowe-

ment, but have hitherto been always quite unsuccessful.

The love which wasps display both for their young and for

the place of their birth is very remarkable. I have seen them

linger for upwards of twenty days around some fragment of

their cells when the nest itself had been carried away. Wasps

very soon become familiarized with any animal or with man. I

was only once stung, by all my wasps; and then it was because —

I went in the dark : and they were not in the least disturbed

by my presence, or by my taking the glass cover off their nest.

I remember, also, once having seen a field-mouse and a nest of

wasps share a common hole, and the mouse used to go in and

out with perfect impunity. Moreover the presence of other

wasps does not disturb their equanimity. On one occasion I

planted four colonies of wasps together, each in a separate com-

partment, but with four minor holes opening into one large one,

like four doors opening into a lobby. They all flourished mag-

nificently; the wasps of each nest never mistook their own hole;

and the most perfect equanimity and goodwill prevailed. Again,

I once bisected two nests and put the two halves of the dissimi-

lar nests together, and both halves were soon surrounded with a

common shell and amalgamated into one nest. j

Mode of constructing the Nest.—The nest is originally con-

structed by one wasp, the queen, who, about the middle of April;

having selected a suitable spot, commences her labour thus :—

From a fibre or stone she builds down a short pillar, to the end

of which are attached two or three ill-shaped cells; and this is

surrounded by a single envelope of paper. I once had the

good fortune to seea nest in this state. This nest is constantly

enlarged by adding new layers to the outside, and by cutting

away the inner layers. All ground-wasps attach their nest to a

fibre or some solid thing ; aud in this respect their nest resembles

that of a tree-wasp, in being suspended from a single point, and

not being touched by the surrounding earth. Moreover the

concave surrounding walls of earth are always lined with a pa-

rietal layer of paper independent of the covering of the nest, so

that the nest can be taken out quite perfect, leaving this behind.

The material of which the nest is built varies, and is, in point of

fact, very characteristic of each species of wasp. V. vulgaris

generally uses very rotten wood, and, as far as my observation

goes, practically and microscopically, generally coniferous. I

have frequently observed the workers cutting wood or palings,

Prof. R, L. Edgeworth on Irish Vespide. 471

and found they always selected the bark of larch or fir. The

workers collect in about twelve minutes little bundles of these

ligneous fibres, which seem frequently to be mingled with

structures of a fungoid nature, and then, returning to the nest

in about three minutes, roll out the little ball with their hind

legs, and, moistening it with a viscid secretion, spread it into

er. Each wasp seems to have no definite place for working,

but commences where his predecessor ceased. When making

paper, they are often so occupied that they seem scarcely dis-

turbed by being touched. In some nests, from which I had re-

moved the outer covering, I found that a whole shell for a nest

six inches in diameter was built in two days. The nest of V.

vulgaris in its natural state is extremely beautiful. It is not

composed of envelopes of paper, but of small pieces of brittle

substance, placed over each other, as Réaumur says, like inverted

cockle-shells. This is obviously a provision against damp, to

which, from the deep-seated situation of these nests, they are

peculiarly exposed, and is not to be found in the covering of V.

rufa, which builds superficially in a drier situation. When bur-

rowing, if stones too large to ihe rolled or carried out of the nest

are met with, they are ingeniously excavated under. Having

dropped large stones into several nests, I invariably found this

to be the case.

Food.—The food of V. vulgaris appears to be very various ;

indeed this insect seems to be able to eat almost anything. In

the early months of the year, whilst they are still rapacious,

their diet seems to be nearly exclusively animal; but in the later

months a vegetable fare seems more grateful to their effeminated

‘natures. They are said to be very fond of bees. They devour

raw meat, fish, sweet things of every sort, flies, butterflies,

spiders ; and they have been observed even to kill dragon-flies.

I have also several times seen them carry off the grubs from an

ants’ nest which had been disturbed.

Towards the autumn I have observed a most remarkable phe-

nomenon, that early in the morning our groves—especially

beech, fir, larch, and sycamore—actually swarm with wasps.

They chiefly infest the top of the trees; and the immense num-

bers in which they are occasionally present is most amazing.

What their object is, I do not know; but it may be to collect the

defeecations of the various flies which have swarmed there the

day before, or it may be to collect the honey-dew, the secretion

of certain aphides, which is at that time peculiarly abundant.

This latter view is probably the correct one, as Mr. Curtis

(Trans. Linn. Soc., 1802, p. 82), when experimenting on aphides,

found that their secretions “ were devoured by bees, wasps, and

ants as quickly as produced.”

472 Prof. R. L. Edgeworth on Irish Vespide.

Vespa rufa.—At Edgeworthstown this is a very rare wasp. V.

rufa differs in every respect—in appearance, in size, in habits,

and in disposition—from V. vulgaris. What the humble-bee is

to the hive-bee, that the V. rufa is to the V. vulgaris. He is

essentially a stupid wasp. I believe that he is innocuous to

man, not stinging without great provocation, being seldom

found in the house, and not devouring fruit and groceries,

But the great difference, as far as I know, between the habits of

V. vulgaris and V. rufa is, that V. rufa makes paper like the

tree-wasps, and V. vulgaris does not. Moreover the nest of the

V. vulgaris is spherical, whereas that of the V. rufa is consider-

ably flattened at the poles. Again, the V. rufa differs essentially

from V. vulgaris in not being a burrowing wasp. Its nest is

generally situated quite superficially under the thick moss of

dry banks or in some cavity near the surface already excavated.

Occasionally V. rufa builds out of the ground, and I have once

or twice found its nest under a window-sill or in the decayed

wood-work round old outhouses.

The interior of the nest is most remarkable; for considerabl

more than two-thirds of the cells are for queens and males.

Now this is a most curious fact. The consequence of this is,

that in the autumn the number of queens and males vastly ex-

ceeds that of the workers, and that the interior of the nest pre-

sents a very formidable but grand and imposing appearance

from the number of these huge insects everywhere moving about.

It is also worth remarking, that, though the females are so nu-

merous, this wasp does not seem to increase by any means

rapidly, as we should naturally have expected.

There is still another most remarkable fact in the history of

this wasp yet to be mentioned ; and this is, that whereas the nest

of V. vulgaris is inhabited till late in November, that of V. rufa

is almost totally abandoned by the end of September by its

queens and all its inhabitants.

V. rufa feeds on small aphides, on honey, which it sucks like

a bee from flowers, and on various vegetable products. I gave

sugar to some wasps of this species, and found that it quite

enervated them from active work, and they presented all the ap-

pearances of intoxication. V. rufa is a peculiarly delicate wasp,

and, if its nest is at all molested, has not the energy to repair the~

injuries inflicted. The nest of V. rufa is composed of various

vegetable tissues. I exhibited at a meeting of the Microscopical

Club of Dublin a specimen of the paper of this wasp; but no

definite conclusion was formed as to the component structures,

although it was suggested that the tissue resembled that of the

Urtica urens.

Vespa Britannica (Common Tree-Wasp).—The Vespa Britan-

Prof. R. L. Edgeworth on Irish Vespide. 473

nica is very common in Ireland. Its nest is generally to be

found on some branch near the ground. It is particularly fond

of building under the branches of young fir trees or in hawthorn-

hedges. Of the peculiar situations in which this wasp is some-

times to be found I give examples. I have twice seen it build

in a Wren’s nest. Mr. Shuckard has found it in a Sparrow’s

nest; and from various communications to the ‘ Naturalist,’

made at different times, it seems that it is not uncommon for it

to build inside a heehive, the nest being suspended from the

combs. In all these cases the hive-bees were finally overcome,

though they continued sedulously collecting honey to the last.

The nest of this insect is very beautiful. It is pear-shaped, of

a bluish colour, with a few leaves occasionally attached to the

outside to screen it from observation. The paper of which the

nest is composed is of a very coarse structure.

There is little very peculiar, as far as we as yet know, in the

habits of this species. Dr. Ormerod, in an interesting paper in

the ‘ Zoologist,’ distinctly proves that these wasps always keep

a sentinel on duty. He observed that the oldest and most crip-

pled of the wasps were appointed for this arduous post. Seve-

ral years ago I suspended a nest of this species to the ceiling in

my room, leaving the upper part of the window open, so that

the wasps might have free access to the open air. Though there

were few wasps at first, yet in a few days they became very nu-

merous; but such is the power which familiarity has in render-

ing these animals tame, that I was never stung. These wasps

used to go to sleep as soon as the sun set, and were up at the

first dawn of light. When taking this nest from its original

position, I shook most of the wasps out, and two or three days

afterwards I found that they had built a new nest for themselves

in the same position. This new nest contained no cells, and

was simply a round globe, composed of thick walls of paper.

Four times I destroyed the posthumous nest, and four times

they rebuilt it. Now, though V. vulgaris will obstinately cling

to the spot where its cells were, yet I have never known it to

attempt to restore its nest.

V. sylvestris, or the Campanular Wasp, is, I believe, pretty

common in many parts of this country. The appearance

of the nest is very distinctive, being of a pale colour and of

small size. The folds of paper cover each other very evenly,

like flounces. It builds under dense masses of foliage and

under the thatch of houses, or, in point of fact, in any well-pro-

tected situation. There is very little remarkable about its habits,

except that it stings with extreme severity when disturbed.

Such is the imperfect outline of the history of the Irish Ves-

pide. The subject is full of the deepest interest. Our know-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xiii. 31

474 Dr. P. P. Carpenter on new Forms of Mollusks

ledge of the habits of these insects is still in its infancy. The

few facts we know are perhaps crude and imperfect; and it is

much to be desired that many of the members of this society,

who are so well qualified for the task, would turn their serious

attention to a branch of natural history where so much that is

new and interesting remains to be carefully learned and inves-

tigated.

XLIV.—Diagnoses of new Forms* of Mollusks collected at Cape

St. Lucas by Mr, J. Xantus. By Purr P. Carpenter,

B.A., Ph.D.

[Continued from p. 315.]

15. Nacella peltoides.

NV. testa parva, levi, cornea, subdiaphana, ancyliformi, apice eleyato,

valde ineequilaterali, strigis pallide castaneis radiata ; intus niti-

dissima, subaurantia. Long. °14, lat. ‘11, alt. :05 poll.

= Nacella, sp. ind., Maz. Cat. no. 262, p. 202.

16. Acmea (? var.) atrata.

A. testa solida, rugosa, conica, apice paulum antrorsum sito; extus

costis erebris rotundatis irregularibus, hic et illic majoribus

seulpta, haud apicem versus discordanter corrugatis; interstitiis

minimis; intus alba, castaneo et nigro varie maculata; margine

latiore, nigro tessellato. Long. 173, lat. 1°0, alt. -5 poll.

Variat margine nigro-punctato, punctis plerumque bifidis. Variat

quoque costis parvis, creberrimis ; margine nigro.

Intermediate between “ P. discors,” Phil., and “ P. floecata,”

Reeve.

17. Acmea strigatella,

A. testa A. mesoleuce simili, sed minore, haud viridi; striolis mini-

mis, confertissimis, plerumque erosis tenuissime sculpta; albida,

* As this expression appears to have been misunderstood, I beg to state

the reason for its adoption. It is no longer believed on all hands that

every object in nature belongs to some genus or species sharply defined.

As a working naturalist, I find many intermediate forms which are constant

in certain characters, and which (for the sake of reference) it is desirable

to name. I do not choose to profess certainty where I do not feel it, and

have therefore adopted the formula “ A. (? b. var.) ¢”—thus leaving it to

the judgment of others, or to the certainty obtained by further research,

to decide whether c be a variety of 6 or a distinct species. I have found

* detail ” (not necessarily “ portentous”’) far more useful than those loose

descriptions which may include many widely dissimilar forms, my rule

always being so to describe that I may recognize the shell at a future time

without access to the original specimen. Though I cannot acknowledge

the accuracy of some of the statements in Mr. Reeve’s letter (p. 440), I do

not wish to encumber the valuable pages of the ‘Annals’ by a discussion

_ of them.—P. P. C. -

collected at Cape St. Lucas. 475

strigis olivaceo-fuscis, pleruamque radiantibus, interdum confluen-

tibus picta ; apice seepius nigro; intus albida, margine satis lato,

strigis tessellato. Long. °9, lat. *74, alt. °3 poll.

Variat colore hic et illic aurantiaco tincto : strigis omnino tessellatis.

According to Darwin, this might be regarded as a cross be-

tween the northern forms A. pelta and A. patina, about to change

into the Gulf species, A. mesoleuca. The dark variety resembles

A. cantharus, but the very delicate crowded striz well distin-

guish it when not abraded.

: 18. Glyphis saturnalis.

G. testa G. inequali simili, sed minore, latiore, altiore, tenuissime

cancellata; striis radiantibus plus minusve propinquis, plus mi-

nusve nodulosis ; fissura prope trientem longitudinis sita, minima,

lineari, medio lobata ; intus callositate albida, truncata. Long. °38,

lat. +24, alt. °18 poll.

The minute hole resembles the telescopic appearance of Saturn

when the rings are reduced to a line.

Subgenus Evcosm1a*.

Testa solida, nitida, variegata, haud nacrea: apertura et anfractus

rotundati: conspicue umbilicata: peritrema vix continuum, haud

callosum.

The shells here grouped are like small, round-mouthed, per-

forated Phasianelle. The animal and operculum of the Cape

St. Lucas species are unknown. The Phasianella striulata, Maz.

Cat. no. 283 b (= Turbo phasianella, C. B. Ad. Pan. Sh. no. 282),

and even the Lunatia tenuilirata, Maz. Cat. no. 572, are perhaps

congeneric.

19. Eucosmia variegata.

H. testa parva, levi, turbinoidea, nitente, marginibus spire valde

excurvatis ; rosaceo et rufo-fusco varie maculata; anfr. nucleosis

regularibus, vertice mamillato ; normalibus iv., valde tumentibus,

rapide augentibus, suturis impressis ; anfr. ultimo antice producto;

basi rotundata ; umbilico carinato ; apertura vix a pariete inden-

tata; peritremate pene continuo, acuto. Long. 1, long. spir. 05,

lat. °07 poll., div. 70°.

Variat interdum rugulis incrementi ornata.

20. Eucosmia (? variegata, var.) substriata.

E. testa EL. variegate simillima, sed anfr. circa basin et supra spiram

(nisi in anfr. nucl. leevibus), interdum tota superficie tenuiter et

crebre striatis ; striis anfr. penult. circ. x.

21. Eucosmia punctata.

E. testa H. variegate simili, sed multo majore, multo magis elon-

* Th. ed, well; xooyia, adorned.

31*

476 Dr. P. P. Carpenter on new Forms of Mollusks

gata, angustiore, Phasianelloidea; plerumque fusco creberrime

punctata; umbilico parvo. Long. *22, long. spir. ‘11, lat. 15 poll.,

div. 50°. :

22. Eucosmia cyclostoma.

E. testa parva, valde obtusa, lata, regulari, valvatoidea ; marginibus

spiree vix excurvatis; pallide cinerea, fusco-olivaceo dense pune-

tata seu maculata; anfr. nucleosis pallidis, mamillatis; normali-

bus iii., valde tumentibus, suturis valde impressis; apertura vix a

pariete indentata ; umbilico magno, subspirali. Long. *05, long.

spir. °025, lat. 05 poll., div. 90°.

Curiously like a small depressed Valvata obtusa, but with the

texture of Phasianella.

Genus HapLococH.iss*.

Testa Colloniam simulans, sed haud margaritacea: apertura circu-

laris, varicosa: columella haud callosa.

The animal and operculum are unknown. Its affinities may

_ be with Ethalia.

23. Haplocochlias cyclophoreus.

H. testa compacta, parva, solidiore; albida, seu pallide aurantiaca ;

anfr. v., rapide augentibus, suturis impressis ; tota superficie mi-

nutissime spiraliter striolata, nitida; apertura rotundata; peri-

tremate continuo, incrassato, extus varicoso ; labio distincto; axi

t. jun. umbilicata, adulte lacunata. Long. °19, long. spir. 06,

lat. 2 poll., div. 100°.

When laid on its base, this shell resembles Helicina; but the

mouth is more like Cyclophorus. The young shell is semi-

transparent, and resembles a Vitrinella with thickened lip.

24, Narica aperta.

N. testa parva, inflata, tenui, alba; anfr. nucl. ?....3 norm. rapide

augentibus, lirulis crebris spiralibus, in spira hic et illie majori-

bus, a striolis creberrimis radiantibus minutissime decussatis ;

suturis valde impressis ; apertura subcirculari ; umbilico maximo,

carinato, anfractus intus monstrante. Long. *28, long. spir. *08,

lat. *3 poll., div. 110°.

25. Fossarus parcipictus.

F. testa parva, solidiore, spira plus minusve elevata; albida, rufo-

fusco varie maculata; carinulis spiralibus acutioribus, quarum

circ. vi. majores, striolisque crebris cincta ; anfr. ultimo tumidiore ;

labro acuto, haud intus incrassato ; umbilico satis magno, ad mar-

ginem carinato: operculo normali. Long. °24, long. spir. 06,

lat. *2 poll., div. 90°.

The few specimens found are very variable in outline.

* Th. dmdods, unadorned ; koxAéas, snail.

collected at Cape St. Lucas. 477

26. Fossarus purus.

F. testa F. angulato simili, sed alba, subdiaphana; anfr. nucl. ii.,

fuscis, ut in I’. tuberoso cancellatis ; norm. ii. et dimidio, altis,

valde tumentibus, carinatis; carinis iv., validissimis, acutissimis,

quarum ii. in spira monstrantur; carinulis aliis antice et postice

plus minusve expressis ; tota superficie minute spiraliter striata ;

carinularam basalium interstitiis subobsolete decussatis; apertura

late semilunata; labro a carinis valde indentato; labio recto, an-

gusto; umbilico magno, carinato; operculo fusco, valde pauci-

spirali, minutissime ruguloso, nucleo antico. Long. -08, long.

spir. *03, lat. 08 poll., div. 90°.

27. Litorina pullata.

L. testa parva, solidiore, luctuosa; spira satis exserta ; nigrescente,

seu livido-fusco tincta, lineis spiralibus exilissimis pallidioribus or-

nata; interdum obscure tessellata; anfr. v., subplanatis, suturis

arum impressis; subleevi, striolis spiralibus tenuiter insculpta ; co-

umella intus incrassata; pariete haud excavato. Long. *4, long.

spir. *18, lat. *29 poll., div. 60°.

== Litorina, sp. ind., Maz. Cat. no. 399, p. 350.

28. Litorina (Philippit, var.) penicillata.

L. Ph. testa parva, lineis radiantibus, variantibus, delicatulis, rarius

ziczacformibus, et cingulis duobus spiralibus, quorum unum in

spira monstratur, elegantissime penicillata. Long. °33, long.

spir. *14, lat. +2 poll., div. 50°.

Closely resembling the West-Indian L. ziczac, var. lineata,

D’Orb. Intermediate specimens, however, clearly connect it

with the common Mazatlan form.

29. Rissoa albolirata.

R. testa parva, alba, crystallina, normali; marginibus spire undatis;

anfr. nucl. iii., levibus, mamillatis; norm. iv., medio subconvexis,

ae supra suturas planatis; basi subplanata, effusa, haud um-

ilicata ; lirulis spiralibus crebris, obtusis, quarum circ. x. in spira

monstrantur ; apertura subovata, peritremate continuo; labro

arcuato, vix antice et postice sinuato, calloso; labio valido.

Long. °1, long. spir. *08, lat. -04 poll., div. 25°.

30. Fenella crystallina.

F. testa alba, subdiaphana, turrita, rudiore ; marginibus spire rectis,

parum divergentibus; anfr. nucl.?... (decollatis); norm. v., valde

rotundatis, suturis impressis ; costis radiantibus cire. xvi., valde

rotundatis, haud extantibus, interstitiis latis; striis spiralibus

regularibus, in anfr. penult. xvi.; apertura rotundata; basi ro-

tundata; peritremate continuo; labro extus varicoso ; labio cal-

loso. Long. °14, long. spir. *11, lat. °05 poll., div. 20°.

478 Dr. P.P. Carpenter on new Forms of Mollusks.

31. ? Hydrobia compacta.

_ 1H. testa levi, curta, compacta, latiore; marginibus spiree vix ex-

curvatis ; anfr. nucl. normalibus, apice mamillato; norm. iv., tu-

midis, suturis distinctis ; spira curtiore ; basi rotundata ; apertura

subovata; peritremate continuo ; labio definito. Long. -04, long.

spir. 702, lat. 03 poll., div. 70°.

This unique shell may be a Barleeia.

32. Hyala rotundata,

H. testa (quoad genus) magna, tenui, alba, diaphana; anfr. nucl.

normalibus, apice mamillato; norm. iv., globosis, rapide augenti-

bus, suturis valde impressis ; basi rotundata; apertura subrotun-

data, ad suturam subangulata; peritremate continuo; labio a

pariete separato, rimulam umbilicalem formante ; columella valde

arcuata. Long. *18, long. spir. ‘09, lat. 1} poll., div. 40°.

A unique shell, resembling a marine Bithinia.

33. ?Diala electrina.

?D. testa subdiaphana, rufo-cornea, nitida; marginibus spiree parum

excurvatis ; vertice nucleoso, helicoideo ; anfr. iii., tumidis, suturis

haud impressis, apice magno mamillato; anfr. norm. iii., sebplanatis,

suturis distinctis ; sculptura haud expressa; tota superficie cos-

tulis obscuris, latis, spiralibus, quarum vi.—viii. in spira monstran-

tur, et iii.-v. circa basim rotundatam, interdum obsoletis, cincta ;

costulis radiantibus circ. xviii., subobsoletis; apertura regulariter

ovata, ad suturam angulata, peritremate continuo; basi haud um-

bilicata; columella regulariter arcuata. Long. ‘09, long. spir. *07,

lat. °03 poll., div. 30°.

34. Acirsa Menesthoides.

A, testa nitida, turrita, majore, solidiore, pallide fusca ; anfr. nucl.

leevibus; norm. vi., subplanatis, suturis distinctis ; lineis crebris

spiralibus insculpta, quarum circ. viii. in spira monstrantur ; testa

adolescente lirulis radiantibus obsoletis decussata; apertura sub-

ovali; columella solida, imperforata. Long. 42, long. spir. °3,

lat. °16 poll., div. 25°.

35. Cythnia asteriaphila.

C. testa C. fumenti simillima, sed umbilico minore, haud carinato ;

tenuissima, diaphana ; anfr. iv., tumidis ; vert. nucl. normali, haud

stylineo, apice mamillato : operculo tenuissimo, elementis concen-

tricis, nucleo submediano sinistrorsum sito. Long. -03, long.

spir. "015, lat. 025 poll., div. 60°.

A solitary specimen was found by Dr. Stimpson, imbedded in

a star-fish, like Stylina ; from which genus the vertex and oper-

culum distinguish it,

36. Bittium nitens.

B. testa regulari, rufo-fusca, hic et illic pallida, maxime nitente ;

Prof. H. Karsten on the Vegetable Cell. 479

anfr. nucl. iii., levibus, tumidis, apice submamillato, subdeclivi ;

norm. vi., tumidis, suturis impressis ; costis radiantibus cire. xiv.,

haud contiguis, angustis, interstitiis undatis ; costulis rotundatis,

spiralibus, in spira iv., quarum postica multo minor, supercur-

rentibus, ad intersectiones subnodosis ; costulis circa basim sub-

rotundatam iv., haud decussatis ; apertura subquadrata ; columella

haud truncata, obtuse angulata ; labro acuto, a costulis indentato ;

labio inconspicuo. Long. ‘21, long. spir. +16, lat. -06 poll., div. 20%

[To be continued. }

XLV.—Histological Researches on the Formation, Development,

and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. By Prof. H. Karsten,

[Continued from p. 435. ]

§ VII.

The Development of Pollen.—Historical notes.—Origin of pollen, in

Althea rosea, from endogenous free cells with prolongations inwards of

the thickened walls of the mother cell.—Development of aculei on the

surface of pollen-grains.

THERE is starcely a vegetable tissue whose development has

been more frequently investigated than pollen. Adolphe

Brongniart (Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 1827 ; Génération

et Développement de ’Embryon, 1827) was the first to observe

that, in the congeries of cells in the anthers of Cobea, the pollen«

cells originated in fours. Mirbel made a more special study of

the development of the pollen of Cucurbita (Recherches sur la

Marchantia, 1833). He found that the granular contents of the

mother cell of the pollen became divided into four portions by

the inward growth of ridges from the sides of the ¢ell towards

the centre, and that subsequently the outer surface of each seg-

ment became hardened so as to form a smooth skin, within

which a second membrane was in process of time produced.

The very similar construction of spores and their development

occupied the attention of Mohl the same year (Entwickelung und

Bau der Sporen der kryptogam. Gew., Flora, 1833). The first

appearance of the spores of Riccia and Anthoceros was recog-

nized by Mohi under the form of four small collections of gran-

ules, each of which became enveloped by a delicate membrane.

These four masses contained in each cell assumed by mutual

pressure a three-sided, obtusely pyramidal form, whilst their

fourth side, lying in contact with the parent cell-wall, acquired

a convex outline.

Subsequently, Nageli (Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des Pol-

lens, 1842) having extended and tested the application of

Schleiden’s theory of cell-formation to the development of the

pollen-cell, and Unger (Ueber merismatische Zellenbildung bei

480 Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

der Entw. des Pollens, 1844) having published his observa-

tions upon the formation of the pollen-cells, Mohl felt himself

compelled, as a result of his repeated investigations of cell-

formation, to assume, like Mirbel and Unger, that, in the deve-

lopment of spores and pollen-cells, the division of the cell by

constriction is combined with free-cell-formation (Vegetab. Zelle,

1851, p. 220).

In my investigations on the organic cell I included the deve-

lopment of the pollen-cells of plants of different families; and

the results arrived at differed from all others in these material

points :—that the pollen-cell, which consists of a complex system

of endogenous cells, is developed freely within the pollen mother

cell; that the membranes of the numerous cell-nuclei and

nuclear corpuscles contained in the pollen mother cells become

themselves extended as the coverings of the pollen-cell, a new

vesicle, which enlarges to form the nucleus, being formed in

them, and in this again the nuclear corpuscle makes its appear-

ance as a microscopic vesicle ; so that the origin of the nuclear

corpuscles does not precede the formation of the membrane of

the nuclear cell, nor is the production of the pollen-cells de-

pendent upon an antecedently formed cell-nucleus. (De Cella

vitali, 1843, p. 37, tab. 1 a-i.)

However, I was not at that time prepared to encounter the

various scruples and objections which these opinions called

forth; consequently the brief statement then put forth, and the

simple nature of the illustrations given, did not suffice to meet

those objections.

Indeed it is a very difficult matter to deduce the law of cell-

formation from the history of the development of pollen, inas-

much as these cells, in the course of their development, are

more filled than others with opake material, and consequently

their growth cannot be made the subject of direct observation,

but the course of development must be gathered from a com-

parison of many specimens. Hence it is that the observer is in

this case more exposed to error than with the simple cellular

plants.

Still it seems to me that we must not pass over this much-

debated and still imperfectly elucidated subject; and I will

rather endeavour to prove, from what seems to me the most

difficult object of investigation (which indeed most illusively

represents the phenomena of constriction and fold-formation),

that even the processes here taking place may be explained in

accordance with the general law of free-cell-formation. I refer

to those pollen-cells of Dicotyledonous plants whose primary

cells (special mother cells of Nageli), as also the membranes of

their mother cells, become much thickened and often laminated

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 481

during the earlier development of the secondary and subsequent

enerations of the true pollen-cells.

Of these I select the Althea rosea as the best-known example :

its June buds, in rapid evolution, before the opening of the first

flowers, furnished me with my best material. The later flower-

buds, which vegetate more languidly, and perhaps scarcely

attain their complete development, are not suited for this inves- _

tigation. The buds, when taken from the plant, must be ex-

amined immediately.

The figures given in Plate V. may be appealed to in illustra-

tion, and save description. Figure 13 exhibits the eight large

thick-walled cells which occupy the median line of each of the

two compartments of the young anther of Althea rosea. Tach

of these large cells was invested with a double membrane, and

its cavity was filled with a granular mucilaginous fluid, in which

a nucleus containing one nuclear corpuscle could be detected.

(The two uppermost cells were emptied in making the preparation.)

Around the central nucleus, at a certain stage of development,

were four, or more rarely two, spherical clear spaces, of larger

or smaller size (13.z). Now and then, also, in the interior of

these clear spaces, a central vesicle, indicative of their cellular

nature, was visible.

When these endogenous cells do not yet shimmer through the

turbid granular plasma, they may not unfrequently be recog-

nized during the gradual action of water upon their mother

cells, especially when the latter are still enclosed (as in fig. 13)

in their common mother cell. This action of the water consists

not so much in a solution of the plasma as in an extension of

the membranes of the enclosed cells, by which means the con-

trast between their cavities filled with turbid mucilaginous fluid

and the surrounding granular plasma is rendered more striking.

After this cambial cell-mass has been acted upon by the

water for some time, and the cavities within the mother cells

have thereby acquired increasing clearness of outline, they sud-

denly vanish, usually all four at the same instant, and rarely

one later than the rest and after acquiring still more distinct-

ness. ‘To all appearance, the tension of the cell-membranes by

endosmosis attains its maximum, and then the cells collapse

and disappear, their contents intermingling with those of the

mother cell.

That these clear spaces, which are seen to enlarge by imbibi-

tion of water under the eye of the observer, do actually possess

membranous walls, and constitute actual cells capable of endos-

mosis, is the less doubtful, as a cell-nucleus is sometimes ob-

served in them. And that they may be four-cell-nuclei inca-

pable of alteration in the normal course of growth, is disproved

482 Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

by the different size of these cells in different mother cells, even

in the same anther. By the agency of diosmotic fluids, the

secondary pollen-cell detaches itself from the primary cell, and

contracts imto an irregularly shaped or lobed body upon the

granularly cellular contents.

It is at a somewhat later stage of development that these

large mother cells of the pollen-cells detach themselves singly

' from their compartment (fig. 9). The central nucleus is then

still recognizable; but its nuclear corpuscle is seen no longer,

or with difficulty. The nucleus is situated between four deli-

cate-walled cells, the peripheral portions of the membranes of

which are closely applied to the mother cell.

The membrane of the mother cell is more thickened, rather

unequally and in lamine; at that part above the septal wall of

the two endogenous cells it is rather thicker, and at a later

period its thickness becomes still more decidedly pronounced.

By means of solutions of salts, of sugar, &c., it is possible,

even at this stage of development, to separate the contents of

the daughter cells from the still delicate primary membrane.

The contents of each cell separately form a more or less spherical

and smooth mass, whilst the four together constitute a lobed

body seen within the centre of the mother-cell, which is divided

mto compartments by very delicate membranes. These four

daughter cells behave, when treated with reagents, in an appa-

rently similar or identical manner with those of Cladophora

already described. Here also the four daughter cells coherent

in the centre may be isolated by the partial solution of their

primary cell-walls by reagents; and if the mother cells were in-

jured by cutting, they are, although but rarely, pressed out

from it, nearly in the form in which Mohl represented this

‘Vegetable Cell’ (taf. i. fig. 10).

The granular contents of the secondary pollen mother cells

external to the daughter cells either vanish entirely, or a mu-

cilaginous-looking material appears in their stead around these

cells, in which case the delicate envelopes of the daughter cells

look like the inner contour of a thick-walled cell. In conse-

quence of these changes the pollen mother cell acquires a great

similarity to the next phase of development, in which, instead of

the central nucleus, a gelatinous mass occupies the centre of the

cell betwixt the four daughter cells (fig. 11). .This breaking-up

of the regenerating nucleus of the cell (nuclear eell) is a sign of

the termination of the individual development of the mother

cell. The contiguous walls interposed between the four endo-

genous and much-distended cells form between them apparently

simple and very delicate laminz, which appear to subdivide the

cavity of the mother cell then filled with opalescent mucous fluid.

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 483

_ Itis this state of things which especially caught the attention

of former observers, and which they represented as constituting

the first indications of the special pollen-cells.

Unger (Merismatische Zellenbildung bei der Entwickelung

des Pollens, 1844) thus refers to the subject :—‘“‘ At first some

thin delicate striz make their appearance within the mother cell,

which can, by making the cell revolve, be proved to be nothing

else than transparent walls which divide the granular mass into

several portions. They are so fragile that they dissolve in

water.”

These statements of Unger are entirely correct, supposing

that the word “first” applies to the ready formed septa; but

even in this condition the delicate membranes appeared to me

in the end to yield to the solvent energy of the water.

And in fact, if we will not call in the aid of analogy in the

interpretation of the phenomena, it seems impossible to prove

that those free cells enveloped by the plasma within the pollen-

mother cell and apparently soluble in water, and which may be

recognized of different sizes within the unequally developed

pollen mother cells of the same anther, form, by the mutual ap-

position of their enlarged membranes simultaneously with the

assimilation of the plasma, the line-like and exceedingly deli-

cate septa (whose double nature can very rarely be detected), by

which, in a subsequent stage of development, the turbid cell-

juice of the pollen mother cell is subdivided.

The conditions here prevailing do not allow, as in Gédogonium,

of the actual and continuous observation of the growth of the free

endogenous cells, the assimilation of the cell-juice enveloping

them, and the formation and increase of their contents. Never-

theless I consider that we are perfectly justified in inferring,

from a certainly recognized fact, the occurrence of another

similar one, although the latter cannot be observed with the

same certainty; and I therefore assume that even the delicate

septa, which at a certain stage of development divide the pollen

mother cells, are the walls of those free cells which may be de-

tected in them in other similar and earlier states,

This opinion coincides with that of Mohl as expressed in his

first-quoted essay on the development of spores.

Moreover in spores, just as in pollen mother cells, four free

cells are present, by the expansion of which so as to fully occupy

the mother cell the septa in all probability originate,

That these septa are not simple, as supposed by Unger (be-

eause even in this very young state they cannot be split by the

application of diosmotic fluids), but that they consist of two

membranes belonging to two approximated special mother cells

of the pollen, was maintained even by Nageli, although he did not

484, Prof. H. Karsten on the Formation,

see the gradual growth of these cells, but, on the contrary, sup-

posed, like Mirbel, that the membrane is produced by the solidi-

fication of the peripheral layer of the four portions into which

the contents of the’ mother cell are divided.

In anthers of a rather greater age, the thickening of the

membranes of the daughter cells forming the septa commences

after the secondary membrane of the mother cell has become

considerably thickened and acquired seam-like elevations, like

those of the cells of collenchyma, between the pollen-cells which

are extending themselves peripherally.

This thickening is first seen at the periphery, where they and

the mother cells are in contact, and in the next place at the

centre, where the cell-nucleus was replaced by the mucoid mass.

The boundary-line is at first difficult of detection, owing, with-

out doubt, to the presence of fluid occupying the intercellular

spaces. This is probably the reason why Mirbel considered this

portion of the thickened primary pollen-cells as the wall of the

pollen mother cell itself (fig. 12).

When the thickening has further advanced, so as to occupy

the entire extent of the cell-membrane, the boundary-line of the

contiguous thickened membranes again becomes visible. The

origin and the growth of the secondary and succeeding cells of

the pollen-cell cannot be traced with certainty.

The gristly thickened membranes of the pollen mother cell,

together with those primary ones of the pollen-cell connected

with them (Pl. V. fig. 7), become absorbed in the future course

of the formation of the pollen. When exposed for some time to

the action of water in the state of greatest thickening, and

therefore probably at the commencement of resorption, they are

burst asunder by the pollen-cells, which then swell forth at those

points where the thickening is least,—that is to say, upon the

peripheral vertical lines of the pollen-cells.

The primary cartilaginous thickened cells of the pollen-cells

then remain behind, in connexion with the similarly collenchy-

matose-looking membranes of the mother cell, in the shape of

empty envelopes (fig. 10).

The still very thin-walled membrane of the pollen-cells, thrust

out in this manner (the secondary cells representing in situation

the primary membrane), extrudes from the often comparatively

small rent, and, by the continuous imbibition of water, attains

eventually double its original diameter. The great elasticity of

the young and unthickened cell-membrane is displayed in a re-

markable manner during this expansion: it is often squeezed

through an aperture scarcely one-fourth its own diameter ; but,

after having effected its escape, it resumes its dimensions and

globular form. In immediate contact with its inner wall there

Development, and Structure of the Vegetable Cell. 485

is a layer of minute vesicles, which are rendered more evident

by the action of a dilute solution of chloride of calcium. If a

rather more concentrated solution of this salt be employed, the

entire layer of vesicles, together with a delicate membrane by

which it is enveloped, and which lines the somewhat thicker

external cell-wall, is separated from the latter, which then ap-

pears nearly smooth and structureless, or marked with small

paler points, which appear to be the impressions of the vesicles

previously closely applied to it (fig. 18).

In a rather younger state, these vesicles are so small that no

— is discernible within thém. By endosmotic action, these

vesicles, along with the cell-membrane surrounding them, be-

come detached from the outer wall (figs. 10 & 11), which is

then seen to be completely structureless and homogeneous. In

somewhat older conditions, on the contrary, the membrane of

the secondary cell, with the layer of vesicles adherent on its

inner surface, are no longer separable by any such means from

the mother cell, nor are the vesicles themselves expansible by

endosmotic action. These latter, indeed, appear in intimate

union with the two superimposed cell-membranes, and exhibit

themselves on the surface of the mother cell in the form of small

warts or tubercles; and these again, in cells still more mature,

asstime the character of prickles, such as are seen distributed

over the surface of the pollen-cells of Althea and of other Mal-

vaceze (fig. 17). Simultaneously with this outgrowth of prickles,

the collenchymatically thickened wall of the mother and primitive

mother cells are absorbed.. These, therefore, resemble in this

respect the thickened membranes of the true collenchyma-cells,

like which also they have the function of collecting nutriment

for the younger endogenous cells.

At the period when the tubercles first make their appearance

on the surface, the membrane of the mother cell (originally the

secondary cell) is coloured blue by iodine after contact for some

time with chloride of calcium, but not at an earlier or later

stage of growth.

‘The existence of free daughter cells within the pollen mother

cells, and the origin of septa by the coming into contact of their

enlarging primary cell-membranes, are more readily observed

in Monocotyledons than in the Malvacee, the mucilaginous

juices of which render examination difficult.

The pollen of Fuchsia is especially interesting, and the history

of its development easily followed out. Moreover the nature

of the interposed corpuscles, as I have stated in my essay on the

Sexual Life of Plants (p. 25 et seq.), can be made out in it, owing

to frequent aberrations in structure under manifold forms.

[To be continued. }

486 Mr. J, Miers on the Menispermaces.

XLVI.—On the Menispermacez.

By Joun Mrzrs, F.R.S., F.L.S. &e.

[Continued from p. 323.]

5. CHASMANTHERA.

The typical species collected by Schimper in Abyssinia was

named Chasmanthera dependens by Hochstetter, who gave an im-

_ perfect description of the genus in the ‘ Ratisbon Flora’ for 1848.

This plant has a very peculiar habit, having large orbicular cordate

hairy leaves, on long petioles, and a very elongated slender

simple raceme. It belongs to the tribe Heterocliniee, as shown

by the structure of its fruit: its putamen is oval, compressed,

and 3-dentate, as in Odontocarya; but its condyle is internal,

globular, and hollow, with an external linear foramen, as in

Tinospora. Its sepals and petals have the usual ternary disposi-

tion, and its 6 central stamens are monadelphous for half their

length. Some of the specimens have male flowers, the others

are in fruit; although the drupes are not sufficiently matured

to distinguish the embryo, the structure of the putamen, with

its seed, is quite evident. I have added a second species from

western tropical Africa.

CuasmMantuera, Hochs.—Char. reform. Flores dioici. Mase.

Sepala 6, alternatim 2-serialia, 3 exteriora linearia, acuminata,

extus hirsuta, setis longis ciliata, 3 interiora rotundato-ob-

longa, margine eroso-denticulata, basi cuneata, concava, te-

nuiter membranacea, 3-nervia, dorso hirsutiuseula. Petala

6, biserialia, sepalis paulo breviora, carnosa, oblonga, obtusa,

imo breviter unguiculata, marginibus vix inflexis, intus linea

loriformi prominente signata. Stamina 6, petalis opposita,

erecta, connata ; filamenta petalis equilonga, e basi ultra me-

dium in cylindrum crassum monodelphum coalita, superne

libera ; anthere basifixee, subcordate, 2-lobe, lobis. oblongis,

collateralibus, connectivo angusto adnatis, rima marginali

dehiscentibus. Ovaria rudimentaria vel nulla.—Fem. ignote.

Drupe 3, ovate, carnose, erectz, sessiles, apice stylo subex-

centrico apiculate: putamen ovatum, compressum, osseum,

extus convexum, carina dorsali in apiculum terminata, ventre

planum ; condylus hinc internus, ovato-globosus, cavus, meatu

externo longitudinal perforatus: cetera ignota.

Frutices Africani scandentes, ramulis longissimis, dependentibus ;

folia majuscula, late orbiculata, reniformi-cordata, subsinuato-

lobata, 7-9-nervia, tenuia, reticulata, utrinque pubescentia, lon-

gissime petiolata: racemi azillares, stmplices, petiolo longiores ;

flores breviter pedicellati, bracteatt.

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee. 487

1. Chasmanthera dependens, Hochst. ;—Abyssinia (Schimper) ;

River Quorra (Baxter).

2. Chasmanthera nervosa, nob.;— Africa occident.; Bagroo

River (Mann, 888).

The details of these species are given in the third vol. of the

‘Contributions to Botany.’

6. FrpRAUREA.

This genus, proposed by Loureiro in 1793, was not acknow-

ledged by botanists till I pointed out its validity in 1851: the

authors of the ‘ Flora Indica’ have recognized the justice of this

claim, but they have not fully comprehended its true nature. I

had rightly arranged the genus in the Heterocliniee, but Drs.

Hooker and Thomson placed it in the Pachygonee, under the

conviction that a plant collected by them in the Khasya hills,

which they named Fibraurea hematocarpa, belonged to the

genus; in this conclusion they were undoubtedly mistaken, as

their plant forms the type of a new genus (Haematocarpus), near

Pachygone. There can be no mistake in regard to Loureiro’s

typical plant, for that exists in the British Museum, but unfor-

tunately it has neither flower nor fruit; these desiderata, how-

ever, are found in other plants from Penang, Malacca, and

Borneo. Although the fruit in one of these specimens is not

quite matured, there is sufficient evidence to show that the

genus is near Jinomiscium: it has an oblong drupe, with the

style on its apex; its putamen is quite thin and smooth, flat on

the ventral face, where the condylar process is an internal narrow

longitudinal carinal projection, running from the base to the apex,

to which the seed is attached near its summit. In its imperfect

state, the enclosed seed is oval, nearly flat (by compression in

drying), the albumen is not fully grown, but the incomplete

embryo, with divaricated cotyledons, is sufficiently perceptible

to show the nature of the structure. The above-mentioned

authors repudiate the notion that the petals are agglutinated to

the stamens, and say they have searched in vain for a confirma-

tion of the fact ; but how can we otherwise explain the nature of

the projecting frill-lke appendage, apparently part of a mem-

brane that surrounds and seems to embrace the filaments; it

is easy to insinuate a point some way down between that ap-

pendage and the anther-cells which it partly conceals. In

Anomospermum each filament is enclosed within a free fleshy

petal that entirely embraces it, leaving only the anther visible ;

and if we conceive these to be agglutinated together, we shall

have precisely such a stamen as we find in Fibraurea: it cer-

tainly is not an established fact, although it is a fair inference,

and we may expett to meet with the proof at some future time.

488 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee.

All the plants I have referred to this genus coincide with

Loureiro’s specimen in a very peculiar feature: the two principal

nerves which spring from the base are connate with the midrib,

sometimes for half an inch in length, so that, technically speak-

ing, they are triplinerved: the leaves are rather large, oblong,

generally very coriaceous, the nervures are scarcely prominent

on either side, the reticulated veins being wholly immersed, and

hardly distinguishable, the petiole is rigid, very tumid at its

apex, and still more swollen and tortuous at its base. The in-

florescence is axillary, and in the male forms a very lax, wide-

spreading panicle, as long as, or three times the length of the

petiole ; but in the female the panicle is compounded only to

the second degree, is more than twelve times the length of the

petiole, with elongated patent branches, and rather long, distant,

1-flowered pedicels.

Fisravrea, Lour.—Flores dioici. Mase. Sepala 9, interdum

12, in ordine ternario imbricatim disposita, exteriora bractei-

formia, 6; interiora multo majora, ovata vel oblonga, medio

crassiuscula, margine membranacea et denticulato-erosa. Pe-

tala nulla (nisi 6 carnosula filamenta amplectentia et iis arcte

accreta). Stamina 6, inter se libera, centralia, fasciculata ;

filamenta crassa, subcompressa, subincurvata, infra antheram

linea prominente transversali cincta, carinaque antica notata

(an petala accreta?) : anthere oblong, coriacee, 2-lobe, lobis

paulo divaricatis, connectivo subimmersis, rima marginali

utrinque dehiscentibus. Ovaria rudimentaria nulla. Fem.

Petala aut stamina sterilia 6, lineari-oblonga, obtusa, car-

nosula, ad basin gynzcii columnaris affixa, eo paulo longiora,

sepalis 2-3-plo minora, erecta. Ovaria 3, summo gynecii

insita, gibboso-ovata, erecta: stylus nullus; stigma subexcen-

tricum, e punctis globosis minutis sessile. Drupe 3, oblongo-

ovate, subcompresse, carnose, leves: putamen oblongum,

compressum, dorso convexiusculum, ventre planius, et hine

sulco profundo longitudinali notatum, 1-loculare, 1-spermum ;

condylus e sulci duplicatura in carinam linearem fere ad

centrum loculi protensam internus, et longitudinalis: semen

loculo conforme: integumenta tenuia, linea longitudinali

ventrali incrassata et hime ad condylum adherentia: embryo

(e fructu immaturo* adhuc vix plane visus) cotyledonibus

foliaceis divaricatis, in albumine carnoso inclusus.

Frutices scandentes, in Asia intertropica, presertim in insulis

vigentes ; folia ovata aut oblonga, acuminata, coriacea, gla-

berrima, triplinervia, longe petiolata; panicula azillaris, laxe

et latissime expansa, 2 longissima; drupe flave.

1. Fibraurea tinctoria, Lour. ;—China. :

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee. 489

2. Fibraurea chioroleuca, nob. ;—Malacca and Borneo.

3. —— laza, nob. ;—Borneo.

4. fasciculata, nob. ;—Penang.

The particulars of these species are given in the ‘ Contribu-

tions to Botany,’ vol. iii.

7, TINOMISCIUM.

When I proposed this genus in 1851, it was placed by me

among the genera of doubtful position, because its male flowers

alone were known; but I suggested the probability of its belong-

ing to the Heterocliniee, on account of its habit. The authors

of the ‘Flora Indica’ (p. 205) adopted a similar view, and, though

retaining it among the “ genera dubiz sedis,” remarked that a

plant in fruit from Assam, of Griffiths’s collection, described by

them (in p. 179), probably belonged to the genus. This I had

long before ascertained from a specimen in fruit shown to me

by the late Dr. Lemann, where the seeds showed clearly that

the genus belongs to the Heterocliniee, as I had supposed. The

drupe is more than an inch in length, with a nearly apical style ;

its thin rugose putamen has a broad, shallow, longitudinal

groove on the flattened ventral face ; and from this (the condyle)

the seed is suspended, or rather is attached to it within the cell :

from the immaturity of the nucleus, the precise form of the

embryo could not be ascertained; but its thin foliaceous coty-

ledons were evident in the half-grown albumen, and in these

respects it nearly accords with the fruit of Fibraurea. The species

are all climbers; and the inflorescence consists of elongated slender

simple racemes, either single or fasciculated, in the axils of the

leaves.

Trnomiscrum, nob.—Filores dioici. Masc. Sepala 9-12 in ordine

ternario alternatim disposita, quorum 6 interiora, oblonga,

extus scabrido-pruinosa, estivatione imbricata. Petala 6, ob-

longa, sepalis paulo breviora, submembranacea, marginibus

involutis. Stamina 6, petalis opposita, subeequilonga, et iis

(in alabastro) amplecta, demum libera; filamenta gradatim

incrassata, aut apice dilatata; anthere introrse, 2-lobe, lobis

oblongis, immersis, parallele adnatis, aut divergentibus, rima

obliqua dehiscentibus. Ovaria rudimentaria 3, centralia, punc-

tiformia.—Feem. ignoti. Drupe'3 vel abortu pauciores, ovali-

oblong, compressz, styli vestigio apiculate: putamen ob=

longum, valde compressum, scrobiculato-tuberculatum, cori-

aceo-testaceum, dorso convexius, et hine carina subobsoleta

notatum, ventre planius, sulco longitudinali late canaliculatum,

l1-loculare, 1-spermum; condylus internus, obsoletus, aut

potius in striam sulcatam longitudinalem reductus; integu-

Ann. & Mag, N, Hist, Ser. 3. Vol. xiii. 32

490 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez.

menta tenuia, ventre linea longitudinali inerassata signata,

et hine in striam insinuata: embryo (e fructu immaturo ad-

huc vix distinguendus) in albumine carnoso inclusus.

Frutices scandentes, in Asia tropica, presertim in insulis, vigentes ;

folia magna, ovata, acuminata, coriacea, 3-nervia, sepius glabra,

longe petiolata: racemi plurimi vel solitarii, supra-azillares,

simplices ; flores breviter pedicellati.

1. Tinomiscium petiolare, nob. ;—Penang.

2. —— Javanicum, nob. ;—Java.

These are fully deseribed in the ‘Contributions to Botany,’

vol. iil.

8. Burasata.

This genus, proposed by Du Petit Thouars in 1806 for some

Madagascar plants, was included with much hesitation in the

Lardizabalacee by Prof. Decaisne, in his excellent monograph of

that family, his doubts being founded on the minute size of its

flowers, the absence of sterile ovaria in the male plant, its introrse

anthers, its fertile ovaries having only a single ovule, the coty-

ledons of its embryo being large, foliaceous, and divasieanaly

placed in distinct cells of the albumen, characters quite opposed

to Lardizabalacee ; but the consideration of its distinctly 3-

foliolate leaves, and of the seed being invested by a papillose vis-

cous envelope, preponderated in favour of its position in the

former family. I believe I was the first to determine its true

affinity, in my ‘ Notes on Menispermacee,’ in 1851, when it was

placed in my tribe Heterocliniee. Lately, however, the authors

of the new ‘ Genera Plantarum ’ have removed it from that tribe

without stating their reasons, and with seeming contradiction

have placed it in a doubtful position at the tail of the Pachy-

gonee, acknowledging at the same time the conformity of its em-

bryo with that of the Heterocliniee! After the publication of my

“remarks” above stated, I had an opportunity of examining the

typical specimen in the Paris herbarium ; and though it has only

male flowers, the parts accord so well with those of the Hetero-

cliniee, that, having regard also to the details of Du Petit Thouars

and Decaisne respecting the structure of the fruit and seed, I

have no hesitation whatever in retaining the genus in the position

I had long ago assigned to it. The careful examination of the

specimen of another species in the British Museum has since

confirmed this decision. The genus is certainly singular in

having 3-foliolate leaves; but it must be remembered that through-

out the family they are most frequently 3-nerved, and that the

leaves of Jateorhiza and Calycocarpum offer a near approach to

those of Burasaia in being deeply 3-5-lobed: we know that

similar grades of division are common in many families.

Mr. W. H. Benson on new Species of Helix. 491

papillose viscous covering that enwraps the putamen is evidently

analogous to the short tomentum imbedded in a pulpy meso-

carp, as seen in Jateorhiza, Odontocarya, and Hematocarpus, and

the fleshy envelope in Anomospermum. The description given of

the form of its embryo is precisely that found only in the Hetero-

cliniee. From the evidence dcflested from all sources, which

appears to me undeniable, the following generic character has

been formed.

Burasata, Thouars.—Flores dioici. Masc. Sepala 6, ovalia,

concava, 2-serialia, 3 exteriora minora. Petala 6, oblongo-

ovata, breviter unguiculata, carnosa, 2-serialia, exteriora paulo

majora, apice eroso-denticulata. Stamina 6, petalis opposita :

jilamenta carnosa, subbrevia, gradatim incrassata, apice geni-

culato-clavata: anthere oblonge, introrsz, 2-lobe, lobis ad-

natis, imo paulo divaricatis et subimmersis, horizontalibus,

rima laterali utrinque dehiscentibus. Ovaria rudimentaria

nulla.— Fem. (char. ex cl. Decne.) sepala et petala ut in mase.

Stamina abortiva 6. Ovaria 3, gibbosa, 1-locularia, ovulo

unico angulo ventrali appenso. Stigma sessile, truncatum.

Drupe 3, carnose, supra gynecium auctum insite, ovate :

putamen papillis tectum, mesocarpio viscoso indutum, ovatum,

plano-convexum, 1-loculare, condylo concavo in loculo pro-

tenso: embryo intra albumen copiosum fere rectus, cotyledoni

bus planis, foliaceis, in locellis distinctis divaricatis, radicula

supera, stigma spectante.

Frutices Madagascarienses, glabri, cortice rimoso ; folia longe pe-

tiolata, palmatim 3-foliolata, foliolis ovatis, lanceolatisve, inte-

gerrimis, coriaceis ; racemi pauci, axillares, fasciculati, floribus

parvis, breviter pedicellatis.

1. Burasaia Madagascariensis, P. Th. ;—Madagascar.

2. gracilis, Dene. ;—Madagascar.

3. congesta, Dene. ;—Madagascar.

Deseriptions of these species are given in the ‘ Contributions

to Botany,’ vol. iii.

[To be continued. }

XLVII.—Descriptions of new Species of Helix and Pupa from the

Colony of the Cape of Good Hope. By W. H. Benson, Esq.

Tue following species were chiefly received from Mr. Edgar

Layard, who has been assisted in collecting shells by several

correspondents in distant parts of the colony.

1. Helix Arnotti, B., n. sp.

H. testa obtecte perforata, subconoideo-depressa, irregulariter oblique

32*

492 Mr. W. H. Benson on new Species of Helix

' striatula, subleevigata, superne non nitente, lineis confertissimis.

vix impressis, sub lente decussata, infra polita, translucente, viri-

descenti-cornea; spira subconoidea, sutura impressa, a

marginata, apice obtuso; anfractibus 4, gradatim accrescentibus,

convexiusculis, ultimo versus peripheriam obtusam depressiusculo,

subtus convexo; apertura obliqua, suborbiculato-lunata; peristo-

mate tenui, recto, acuto ; margine columellari oblique descendente,

superne breviter calloso-reflexo, perforationem obtegente.

Diam. major 153, minor 13, axis 9 mill.

Habitat prope Colesberg. Detexit D. Arnott.

2. Helix Phytostylus, B., n. sp.

H. testa imperforata, turbinato-subglobosa, tenui, irregulariter oblique

striatula, lineis minutissimis confertissimis spiralibus decussata,

albida, opaca, strigis obliquis, angustis, luteo-fuscis, translucenti-

bus, politis ornata, periomphalo, peristomate aperturaque intus

colore eodem tinctis; spira convexa, conoidea, sutura impressa,

apice obtuso; anfractibus 5, convexiusculis, ultimo rotundato,

subtus convexo, periomphalo anguste excavato ; apertura obliqua,

rotundato-lunari; peristomate tenui, acuto; margine columellari

bitorto, superne intrante, circulariter subexcavato, medio angulato-

dentato, setate calloso, aurantiaco.

Diam. major 16, minor 14, axis 12 mill.

Habitat ad Colesberg, et prope Riversdale.

A single specimen from Colesberg was sent for examination

by Mr. E. Layard. Subsequently, I received from Riversdale,

in the east part of Swellendam, specimens in various stages of

growth, collected by a relative, Mrs. J. F. Hudson. The younger

shells are more translucent, and the twisted columella has a

thinner and less angularly projecting laminar tooth, the base of

which, in adult specimens, has a resemblance to the truncation

observable in Achatina.

Some specimens are marked with irregular, grey or translu

cent corneous spots. The hydrophanous colouring reminds the’

observer of the banded white and corneous brown species, H.

Cotyledonis, B., which I discovered near Simonstown, and which

is evidently a near ally of H. Phytostylus, from the tendency to

a callous twist apparent at the upper part of the similarly

entering columella.

3. Helix Capsula, B., n. sp.

H. testa imperforata, subconoideo-depressa, tenui, oblique striatula,

sub lente minutissime obsolete decussata, translucente, polita,

viridescenti-cornea ; spira convexiuscula, sutura impressa, sub-

marginata, apice vix elevato, obtuso; anfractibus 4, rapide accres-

centibus, convexiusculis, ultimo antice majore, subtus convexo,

medio excayato, peripheria rotundata ; apertura obliqua, orbiculato-

from the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope. 493

lunata, intus margaritacea, peristomate acuto; margine columellari

arcuato, superne vix incrassato.

Diam. major 13, minor 10, axis 6 mill.

Habitat prope Simon’s Bay.

Occurs in a ravine behind the Admiralty House, Simonstown.

Mr. Layard reports the animal to be beautifully marked with

black, white, and grey in spots and bands.

4. Helix Hudsonia, B., n. sp.

#1. testa minutissime obtecte perforata, globoso-depressa, tenuissima,

leevigata, striatula, lineis minutissimis confertissimis spiralibus

superne decussata, prope umbilicum polita, cornea, translucente,

prope suturam linea angusta rufescente ornata; spira depresso-

conoidea, sutura submarginata, apice obtuso; anfractibus 33,

rapide accrescentibus, convexiusculis, ultimo lato, ad peripheriam

rotundato, subtus convexo;. apertura obliqua, globoso-lunata,

marginibus subconniventibus; peristomate tenui, acuto; margine

_ columellari superne breviter reflexo, perforationem obtegente.

Diam. major 123, minor 103, axis 7 mill.

Habitat ad Riversdale.

A single full-grown specimen, with the young, was received

from Mrs. J. F. Hudson, with H. Phytostylus. The shell has a

Vitrinoid appearance ; but the sculpture, perforation, and suture,

as well as the character of a portion of the animal remaining in

the shell, prove it to be a Helix.

5. Helia Prionacis, B., n. sp.

#. testa umbilicata, conoideo-depressa, superne et infra fortiter

oblique plicata, plicis remotioribus, albidis, albido-cornea, superne

hic illic maculis fuscis ornata; spira conoidea, sutura impressa,

apice obtusiusculo ; anfractibus 5, convexiusculis, angustis, ultimo

compresse carinato, subtus convexo ; apertura late lunulata, securi-

formi; peristomate tenui, acuto; margine columellari expanso,

superne dilatato.

Diam. major 6, minor 5, axis 3 mill.

Habitat prope Bredasdorp.

A single specimen was sent by Mr. E. Layard for examination.

It has some relation to the following species, H. Browningii.

6. Helia Browningii, B., n. sp.

H, testa anguste umbilicata, conoideo-depressa, tenui, superne et

subtus prope carinam solum plicis albidis confertim oblique pli-

cata, versus umbilicum leevigata, albido-cornea, strigis obliquis

rufis superne subtusque oblique ornata; spira conoidea, sutura

impressa, apice obtusiusculo; anfractibus 5, convexiusculis, supe-

rioribus convexis, ultimo angulato, subcarinato, subtus subcon-

494, Mr. W. H. Benson on new Species of Helix and

vexo; apertura late securiformi-lunulata; peristomate tenui, acuto ;

margine columellari expansiusculo,

Diam. major 5, minor 4, axis 3 mill.

Habitat prope Cape Point.

This shell was discovered by Mr. George Wing Browning,

magistrate at Simonstown, a zealous collector in natural history.

T examined two specimens in the collection of Mr. J. Sydney

Hawkins, by whom they were brought from the Cape. The

species is smaller than H. Prionacis, with the same number of

whorls; the plication is closer, less deep, and more regular, and

extends only just below the angulate periphery, instead of to the

umbilicus, which is wider in H. Prionacis. In the latter species

the periphery is more compressed, the rufous-brown markings

are more disposed to be spotted than strigate, and do not extend

to the lower side as in H. Browningii.

7. Helix Omphalion, B., n. sp.

H. testa umbilicata, subgloboso-depressa, superne confertim oblique —

plicata, subtus striata, lucida, polita, viridescenti-cornea; spira

subconvexa, sutura’ subprofunda, apice obtuso; anfractibus 33,

convexis, ultimo rotundato; apertura obliqua, rotundato-lunata ;

peristomate tenui, acuto; margine columellari.verticaliter descen-

dente, late reflexo ; umbilico angusto, profundo,

Diam. major 43, minor 4, axis 2} mill.

Habitat prope Simonstown. Teste J. S. Hawkins.

A more minute, darkly coloured species, and with a narrower

umbilicus, than H. dumeticola, B., which I took in the same

neighbourhood, and more nearly approaching to, but quite dis-

tinct from, the large Natal form H. vernicosa, Krauss.

An immature specimen of Pfeiffer’s fine typical Helix Schdrfia,

from Bredasbosch, figured in pl. 2. figs. 2 & 3 ‘ Malak. Blatter’

for 1861, was received from Mr. E. Layard. It occurred at

Oudebosch, near Gnadendal, in the same quarter whence Dr.

Pfeiffer’s specimens were procured. Mr. Layard also sent a

smaller whitish variety from Swellendam, and another variety

(white, with chestnut bands) from Bredasdorp, to the north-

east, of Cape Lagulhas. Mr, Layard reports that the eyes of

those varieties are situated at the upper and inner side of a

lengthened knob turning down from the summits of the upper

tentacula. The foot, when the animal is withdrawn into the

shell, looks like a piece of raw meat; and the animal greedily

devours other living Mollusca confined with it, but in the bush

is attracted in numbers by pieces of water-melons placed as a

bait. He also sent’a single imperfect specimen of H. Hartvigiana,

Pfr., received from Oudebosch, and a large variety of H. bi-

seulpta, B., 11 mill. in diameter, which oceurs at Bredasdorp.

_ Pupa from the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope. 495

8. Pupa Fryana, B., n. sp.

P. testa sinistrorsa, profundissime umbilicata, elongate ovato-conica,

' oblique plicato-striata, striis confertissimis spiralibus decussata,

lilacino-albida, versus apicem rufescente, anfractu ultimo fascia

fuscescente infra peripheriam ornato ; spira subcylindraceo-conica,

sutura impressa; apice obtusiusculo ; anfractibus 12, angustis, con-

vexis, ultimo antice ascendente, pone aperturam compresso, longi-

tudinaliter lineis 2 impressis signato, superne pone aperturam

foveato, crista obtusa utrinque munito, basi circa umbilicum com-

_ presse carinata; apertura verticali, soluta, triangulari-obovata ;

peristomate tenui, undique expanso, reflexiusculo, margine palatali

superne profunde sinuato, plicis 2 longe intrantibus inferiore

egg basali 1 columellaribusque 2 profundis, parietalibus 2

onge intrantibus inferiore profunda, denteque versus angulum

columellarem munito.

Long. 8, diam. 4, supra aperturam 3 mill.

Habitat ad Bredasdorp. Detexit J. Fry.

“This sinistrorse species is very peculiar, with reference to its

deep umbilicus running up to the summit, as in the unique

Chinese P. regalis, B., its carinate base, and handsome sculpture.

In some respects it exhibits a relation to the imperforate P. La-

yardi, especially with reference to the imperfect tube at the top

of the aperture, formed by the connivent palatal and parietal

plaits. It was discovered at Bredasdorp, at the southern shore

of Swellendam, by Mr. John Fry. Mr. Layard reports that the

animal is fae ilack. very short and thin, the shell being carried

on one aide, or tilted up if in a line with the animal.

9. Pupa Pamphorodon, B., n. sp.

P. testa sinistrorsa, rimato-umbilicata, oblonge conico-ovata, oblique

striata, sub lente lineis obsoletis spiralibus (infra magis conspicuis)

impressis decussata, castanea; spira cylindrico-conica, apice ob-

tuso, sutura impressa, submarginata; anfractibus 10, convexius-

culis, ultimo subtus margine umbilicali juxta aperturam compresso;

apertura verticali; peristomate tenui, expanso, aurantiaco ; margini-

_ bus conniventibus, palatali denticulo 1 superiore plicisque 3 pro-

fundis intrantibus tortis, parietalibus 2 inferiore remotiuscula,

columellarique 1 profunde intrante intus subduplicata, omnibus

albis munitis.

Long. 9, diam. 4 mill.

Habitat prope Simonstown.

Mr. E. om reports this pretty species as found in the

ravine behind the Admiralty House.

10. Pupa Dadion, B., n. sp.

P. testa rimato-umbilicata, ovato-conica, subcylindracea, oblique

striatula, micante, translucida, olivaceo-cornea; spira conoideo-

cylindracea, sutura impressa, apice obtuso ; anfractibus 6, con-

496 Mr. W.H. Benson on some Shells of Southern India.

vexis, ultimo circa umbilicum compresso; apertura vix obliqua,

angulato-ovata ; peristomate reflexiusculo, albido; margine colu-

mellari expanso, intus profundo, parietali plica albida intrante

superne munito.

Long. 33, diam. 2 mill.

Habitat ad latus orientale montis “‘ Table Mountain”’ dicti, necnon

prope Simonstown.

This pretty little Bulimoid species was found by Mr.E. Layard

under moss on large stones at Paradise, a conspicuous primitive

wood high up the faee of Table Mountain—a spot which I con-

sidered likely to afford shelter to new species, but which I was

unable to reach. I requested friends to search for shells there

in 1846; but they were not successful. It also occurs in the

ravine behind the Admiralty House, near Simons Bay, with

Helix Capsula.

In the ‘Annals’ for December 1856, I described a Cape-Point

Pupa as P. Layardi, from an injured specimen received from

Mr. E. Layard. On his return from the Cape, in 1862, Mr. J.,

Sydney Hawkins favoured me with another imperfect specimen

from the same locality, but with the spire intact. Fresh speci-

mens of a smaller variety from Bredasdorp, sent to me by Mr.

Layard, with a coloured epidermis, and in a perfect state, I was

at first disposed to regard as a distinct species, with reference to

the smaller number of whorls and to a remote denticle inter-

vening between the second parietal plait and the columellar one;

but in the second Cape-Point specimen this denticle is present,

although obsolete in the original example. The colouring

of the smaller variety, not observable in the weathered Cape-

Point specimens, will doubtless be found in the perfect shell.

The following correction will complete the original description :—

Pupa Layardi.—Apice obtusiusculo; anfractibus 9, superioribus

convexiusculis, prope apicem convexis ; margine parietali denticulo

remoto inter plicam parietalem inferiorem et columellarem munito.

Long. 8 mill.

Var. minor.—Castaneo-cornea, translucente; apertura aurantiaco-

albida; anfractibus 8.

Long. 53-7, lat. 2-3 mill.

Habitat ad, Bredasdorp.

Cheltenham, April 16, 1864.

Note on some Shells of Southern India.

In the ‘Annals’ for February 1861, I described, as Helix

Basileus, a gigantic shell found by Lieut. G. W. Cox in the

hills near Trichoor, and, as I subsequently learned, taken at

Nellyampatly, in a thick wood situated in an undulating country

8800 feet above the level of the sea, and fifty miles due east of

M. F. Sumichrast on the Habits of some Mexican Reptiles. 497

Trichoor. A larger specimen, from the more southern part of

the Travancore range, was reported in the ‘ Annals’ for Decem-

ber 1862. The original site proves to be a portion of the

Anamullay Hills, which Mr. W. T. Blanford describes, in p: 374

of the ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society’ for 1861, as the highest

range in Southern India, lying south-west of Coimbatore and of

the Nilgiris, where Mr. King made a collection which he after-

wards lost. Mr. Blanford informed me that one of the shells

taken was evidently H. Basileus. Ina short paper by Dr. Pfeiffer,

published in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ for 1862,

p- 117, a large Helix, 68 mill. in diameter (4 mill. less than my

original specimen), is described under the name of H. Titanica,

as taken in the Anamullay forest. It is evidently the same

species as H. Basileus. Dr. Pfeiffer must have overlooked the

description which I forwarded to him in May 1861.

Another Heliz, 30 mill. in greatest diameter, 25 mill. in the

lesser, and axis 17 mill., taken, with smaller varieties, by Lieut.

Cox in the same quarter, agrees with H. leta, Pfr. (not H. leta of

Gould), the habitat of which was unknown. From the south

part of the Travancore range I have received an imperfect speci-

men of a Helix which is apparently H. Isabellina, Pfr., previously

known from Ceylon. This is an interesting circumstance in

connexion with Dr. Pfeiffer’s description, in p. 116 of the ‘ Proce.

Zool. Soc.’ for 1862, of a Cataulus (C. recurvatus) from the

Anamullay forest.

In October 1860, I described a small Cyrena from Quilon as

C. Quilonica; and in December 1862, I noted it as a Batissa,

from a thore mature specimen. I have since obtained the shell

fully grown from Cochin, and find that it was described in the

‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ for 1858, by Mr. Sylvanus Hanley, as Cyrena

(Batissa) Cochinensis, which name will be retained on the ground

of priority to that of Quilonica.—W. H. B.

XLVIII.—Note on the Habits of some Mexican Reptiles.

By F. Sumicunast*.

I. Family Varanide.

Genus HeLoperma, Wagler.

Heloderma horridum, Wagler, Wiegm.

‘ Escorpion’ of the Creoles}. ‘Tala-chini’ of the Zapotec

Indians.

Turs singular Saurian, the sole American representative of the

* Translated by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., from the ‘ Bibliothéque Univer-

selle,’ 1864, Arch. des Sci. Phys. et Nat. p. 45.

+ The name of Escorpion is generally applied in Mexico to all the

Saurians whose bite is considered venomous,

498 M.F.Sumichrast on the Habits of some Mexican Reptiles.

family Varanidz, inhabits exclusively the hot. zone which extends

from the western slope of the Cordilleras to the shores of the

Pacific: it has never been met with, to my knowledge, on the

side of the Gulf of Mexico. Its conditions of existence confine

it to hot and dry localities, such as the districts of Jamiltepec,

Juchitan, and Tehuantepec.

The observation of the habits of the Heloderma is the more

difficult, as this animal, from the sedentary mode of life imposed

upon it by its semi-nocturnal habits, eludes continuous inyesti-

gation. Moreover the extreme terror which it inspires in the

natives has contributed not a little to leave its history in obseus

rity. The gait of this reptile is exceedingly slow and clumsy,

which is explained by the shortness and relative thickness of its~

limbs, as also by the want of flexibility in the articulations. In

very old individuals, or in the females before oviposition, the

belly acquires a great lateral development, and drags upon the

ground—a deformity which adds still further to the repulsive

aspect of this curious creature.

It is usually in holes of greater or less depth, dug at the roots

of trees or under a mass of vegetable débris, that the Heloderma

takes up its abode. Here it remains, during the greater part of

the day, rolled up in a state of almost complete immobility. It

rarely issues from this state of torpor, except early in the morn-

ing, before day, or in the evening, at the times when the terri-

colous insects are creeping upon the pathways in the woods,

As might be expected from the constraint and slowness of its

, movements, the Heloderma can only attack an easy prey. Its

food consists essentially of apterous insects, earth-worms, Myria-

pods, and small species of Batrachia, and sometimes even of

putrefying animal matters. It is fond of the eggs of Iguanas ;

and it is not unusual to meet with it roaming about near the

holes dug in the sand, in which these eggs have been left to the

action of the rays of the sun.

The Heloderma is a terrestrial animal in the full acceptation

of the term, and its organization is in intimate relation with its

serve it as an instrument of natation, and its short, thick toes

could not enable it to climb trees. Hence it is not in the im-

mediate vicinity of rivers or in the depths of the thick forests

that this reptile must be sought, but rather in dry spots on

the margins of the woods, or in old clearings, the soil of which

is covered with vegetable débris, with rotten trunks and grasses.

Without having any positive evidence upon this point, I am

much inclined to think that this Saurian remains for a longer or

shorter time in a sort of e@stival lethargy, analogous to that which

has been observed in the Alligators in some distriets of America.

M. F, Sumichrast on the Habits of some Mexican Reptiles. 499

I am led to this supposition (in which, moreover, I am supported

by what I have heard from the natives) by the fact that, during

the dry season, from November to June, this reptile is very rarely

met with, and it is only seen pretty frequently during the rainy

season.

The body of the Heloderma usually exhales a strong and nau-

seous odour, the intensity of which increases at the period when

the two sexes seek each other for the purpose of copulation.

When the animal is irritated, there escapes from its throat a

whitish glutinous fluid, secreted by very large salivary glands.

If it be struck during this angry movement, it finally throws it-

self upon its back, which has led the Indians to say, as a precept

to be followed under such circumstances, that the scorpion must

always be attacked in front, because it stings behind. This singular

manceuvre, which the Heloderma repeats whenever it is menaced,

is accompanied by deep breathings and by an abundant secretion

of the glutinous saliva already mentioned.

The natives consider the bite of the Heloderma to be exceed-

ingly dangerous, and dread it as much as that of the most

venomous serpents, such as the Tepoxo (Bothrops atrox) or the

Mazacoatl (Atropos mexicanus*). In support of this pretended

malignity, 1 have been told of a great number of cases in which

ill effects were produced by the bite of the animal, or by eating

its flesh in mistake for that of the Iguana. I wished to make

some conclusive experiments on this point; but, unfortunately,

all the specimens of the Heloderma which I could procure during

‘my stay in the countries inhabited by it were so much injured

‘that it was impossible to do so. Without giving the least credit

to the statements of the natives, I am not absolutely disinclined

to believe that the viscous saliva which flows from the mouth of

the animal in moments of excitement may be endowed with such

acridity that, when introduced into the system, it might occasion

gm the gravity of which, no doubt, has been exag-

rated.

o The thickness of the integuments which protect the body of

the Heloderma, and the hardness of the scaly tubercles with

which they are covered, render it almost insensible to the hardest

blows; and its instant death is caused only by deep wounds pro-

duced by a cutting imstrument or a gun-shot. The muscular

* The Tepozo, or Tepocho, is tolerably common in most of the subalpine

regions of Mexico; the species is subject to a great number of variations.

The name Mazacoatl signifies Stag-snake (from Mazalt, stag, and Coat,

serpent): it has been given to this species on account of the scales turned

up in the form of small horns, which fringe the upper margin of the eye-

lids. This Ophidian, which is less common than the preceding one, in-

habits the warm and temperate as well as the colder regions.

500 M.F.Sumichrast on the Habits of some Mexican Reptiles.

movement persists for a long time after death in this reptile;

and if we may believe the relations of the Indians, it is prolonged

for forty-eight hours or more in the head after its separation

from the body.

The colour of the spots scattered over the body and limbs of

Heloderma horridum is subject to variations, due to age or to —

difference of locality. These spots pass from whitish yellow to

reddish brown, through a series of intermediate shades; their

arrangement, which is far from constant, cannot furnish precise

descriptive characters. Age likewise produces great changes in

the size: some individuals attain a length of nearly 5 feet.

II. Family Iguanide.

Genus Iavana, Laur.

Iguana rhinolopha, Wiegm.

‘Iguana verde’ of the Creoles. ‘ Guchachi-guéla’* of the

Zapotec Indians.

Genus Cyciura, Harlan.

Cyclura acanthura, Wiegm.

‘Iguana negra’ of the Creoles. ‘ Guchachi-chévé’ * of the

Zapotec Indians.

Although the two species of Jguanide of which the above is

the synonymy. belong to different genera, I have thought it

best to combine the facts which have collected upon their his-

tory in a single article, in order to give prominence to the prin-

cipal points in their organization and habits which have induced

the separation of the genera Jguana and Cyclura.

Representatives of these two genera of reptiles are found over

a great part of the territory of the Mexican republic—that is to

say, in all that zone which stretches along the shores of the two

oceans, and is known under the name of the Tierras calientes.

The true Iguanas are more diffused than the Cyclure upon the

eastern side—a circumstance which is easily explained by the

fact that this part of the country, being furrowed with water-

courses and small lakes (/agunas) and covered with a luxuriant

vegetation, presents biological conditions the most favourable to

the animals, which prefer the vicinity of water. The Pacific

coast, on the contrary, is dry and sandy—a condition which

suits well with the more terrestrial habits of the Cyclura, and

favours their multiplication.

* These native names are literal translations of the Spanish terms

Iguana verde and I. negra. The Zapotec name of the Iguana is Guchachi;

guéla means green, and chévé, black. :

M.F. Sumichrast on the Habits of some Mexican Reptiles. 501

The green Iguana (J. rhinolopha, Wiegm.) resembles in size,

form, and colours the J. tuberculata of Brazil: like the latter, it

has the sides of the neck sprinkled with conical tubercles, a large

scale under the tympanum, and a crest upon the back and the

neck ; but it is distinguished from that species by the presence

' of three or four raised scales upon the muzzle. The general

colour of the body is a darker or lighter green, with broad,

irregular transverse bands of a dark colour; the lower parts are

ellowish. In very old individuals, the tail acquires a fine

lood-red tint.

The maxillary teeth of the Iguanas are finely serrated on

their margins: this structure is connected in these reptiles with

an exclusively herbivorous, or, properly speaking, phyllophagous

diet. In the stomachs of the individuals which I have prepared

I have never found anything but leaves or the remains of. soft

berries, such as those of the Goula-beri*. The intestinal sac

sometimes attains an extraordinary development, in consequence

of the quantity of leaves which are packed into it.

The Black Iguana (Cyclura acanthura, Wiegm.) varies much

in the number and intensity of the spots or bands with which

the ground-colour is marked. The following description, taken

from a fresh specimen, may give an exact idea of the typical

coloration of this species.

Male.—The general colour is a clear silvery grey, brighter on

the upper and lateral parts of the body, where the spots are

more distant, and almost disappearing under the numerous

confluent dark spots which cover the limbs. The upper part of

the head, the throat, and the lower part of the legs are sprinkled

with small irregular blackish spots; the rostral scales are en-

tirely of this colour. From the posterior margin of the tympanic

aperture a long and large spot, formed by the agglomeration of

numerous small ones, covers the shoulder as far as behind the

anterior legs. From this spot to the origin of the tail there are

six black transverse bands, formed, on the flanks, of confluent

spots; these, after separating each into two branches, unite, on

the median line of the back, with those of the opposite side.

On the upper part of the chest is a large spot of a fine black

colour, which occupies nearly the whole space between the fore

legs. As has been said, the limbs are so much occupied above

by the black spots as to appear of the latter colour, with a few

uregular rings formed of light spots. The contrary is the case

* This shrub, which is very abundant in the western parts of Mexico,

produces berries, of a saccharine taste and of a viscous consistency, which

are employed in the manufacture of indigo (anil), for the purpose of acce-

lerating the fermentation of the plant and the precipitation of the colouring

matter.

502 M.F.Sumichrast on the Habits of some Mexican Reptiles.

with their lower surface. The tail, of the ground-colour, is

traversed by ten or twelve broad and indistinctly limited blackish- -

brown rings. The raised and compressed seal which form the

dorsal crest are alternately grey and black, in accordance with

the arrangement of the lateral bands. which terminate at them.

The dimensions of the body are very different according to

the age of the individuals. That from which the preceding de-

scription was taken was an adult, and gave the following mea-

surements :—Total length 30 inches (m. 0°75); from the anus

to the chin 18°8 inches (0°27); from the rostral to the first

scales of the dorsal crest 2°8 inches (0°07). I should add that

these dimensions are those of a Cyclura of middle size, and that

they very often exceed the numbers above given.

The maxillary teeth of the Cyclura are three-lobed at their

apex, and the lateral margins are destitute of that fine denticu-

lation which is observed in those of the true Iguanas. By

means of this peculiarity they are rendered capable of triturating

harder substances; and, in fact, berries with hard kernels, and

even insects, are found in the stomach of the Cyclura. I have

also been assured that, in the vicinity of inhabited places, these

reptiles do not disdain to feed upon human excrements.

The Jguane are more: inhabitants of the neighbourhood of

water than the Cyclure, as indeed is proved by the simple com-

parison of the organs of these two genera of Saurians. The tail

of the Cyclura, which is rounded and covered with spines, would

embarrass rather than assist them in the act of swimming, for

which, on the contrary, that of the Iguana, which is long,

slender, ‘and flattened laterally, is admirably adapted. From

this difference it results that, whilst the Iguane invariably dwell

near water, the Cyclure can depart far from it, without the con-

ditions of their existence being thereby altered. _

In traversing the low forests which extend as far as the eye

can see on the vast plains of Western Mexico, glades are met

with from time to time in which the bare and cracked soil indi-

cates that these bottoms have been covered with water in the

rainy season. A few stunted trees, the feet of which still bear

the traces of the mud which has bathed them, form the sole

vegetation of these wild spots. It is here that, during the season

of Lent, the Indians seek the Cyclura, the flesh of which is

regarded by them as a royal dish. Arrived at the open glade,

they carefully examine all the holes and clefts of the trunks;

and it is rarely that their piercing sight fails speedily to dis-

cover some of the poor animals, the objects of their avidity,

buried in these cavities. The great difficulty, however, consists

in getting the animal to issue from its prison, in which it is

literally incrusted. When the trunk is not too thick, a few

M. F.Sumichrast on the Habits of some Mexican Reptiles. 503

blows of a machete (a kind of sword) suffice to do the business ;

in the opposite case, the Indian, with the patience characteristic

of his race, will endeavour to gain possession of the unwilling

animal by drawing it out gradually by the end of its tail. When

once seized by the neck, the unfortunate Cyclura undergoes an

operation which must deprive it of all power of resistance or

hope of flight. With the point of a knife, the hunter cuts the

skin of its cheeks along the upper jaw, and passes through this

aperture the slender and flexible twig of a liana, which he then

unites firmly beneath the chin, so as to prevent any movement

of the lower jaw. This done, he half pulls off the last joint of

the toes on both the fore feet, attaches one to the other by

means of the tendon which is thus laid bare, and passes them

behind the head. The same operation is repeated with the hind

feet, which are also crossed upon the back. Thus garotted, the

animal is unable to bite, scratch, or make its escape.

The Iguane are also hunted either by the assistance of dogs

trained to their pursuit, or by placing at the entrance of the

holes into which they retire running loops attached to the

flexible branch of a tree, which seize the animal by its neck as

it issues from its burrow.

In the western part of the isthmus of Tehuantepec, where I

collected most of the facts detailed in these notes, only the eggs

of the green Iguana are sought as food; the hunters, therefore,

never capture the males of this species, to which they give the

name of Garobos. The flesh of the Cyclura, on the contrary, is

regarded as an excellent dish, and its eggs are much prized by

the native gourmands. These eggs are nearly of the same size

and form as those of the J. rhinolopha; their greatest diameter

is about an inch and a quarter, and their smaller diameter four-

fifths of an inch. In several females of the Cyclura which I

dissected between the 15th and 20th of March, I found from

thirty-two to thirty-four eggs, completely developed and placed

end to end in the double oviduct which descends from the ovary

to the cloaca, The ovary contained, besides, a nearly equal

number of other eggs in a less advanced state; some of these

were of an orange-yellow colour and of a flattened ellipsoidal

form, presenting a lenticular inflation at the centre ; others were

spherical, larger, and transparent, like those of frogs.

During a voyage upon the river Goazacoaleos, I witnessed a

singular operation performed upon afemale Iguana. One of the

Indians who had the management of the canoe, having succeeded

in capturing this reptile, opened its belly, carefully removed the

eggs, and having sewn up the wound, let the animal go, “in the

hope,” as he said, “of finding it again some day.” At the

middle of March the green Iguanas begin depositing their eggs,

504 M.F.Sumichrast on the Habits of some Mexican Reptiles.

in large holes dug in the sand. A single excavation sometimes

contains as many as ten dozen of these eggs, deposited in it by

several females. The same thing is observed in the Cyclura,

with this difference, that the number of eggs thus deposited in

a common hatching-place does not exceed six or seven dozen.

When taken young, the Iguana is easily tamed, and becomes

perfectly familiar with the person who takes care of it; the

adults, on the contrary, never lose in captivity their natural

wildness. These animals endure a long abstinence without any

sensible diminution in weight; in many places, the natives,

taking advantage of this peculiarity, keep the Iguanas as provi-

sion for Lent for more than a month, after having sewn up the

mouth and attached the feet.

The green Iguana does not seem to dread the vicinity of the

alligators (4. ducius, Cuvier) which usually abound on the shores

which it prefers for its habitation. The black Iguana, on the

contrary, appears to have much fear of them. In one of my

expeditions on the Rio Chicapa, I took one alive, and attached

it to the prow of the canoe; the animal, having succeeded in

freeing itself from its bonds, immediately threw itself into the

water, in order to gain the shore; but, at the moment of its

arrival, perceiving an alligator stretched in the sun on a small

sandy beach, it returned towards the boat with signs of the

most lively fear. On this same occasion I had most striking

ocular proof of the tenacity of life and the muscular power of

the Iguanas. Several of those which I shot, although literally

riddled with large shot, still retained sufficient strength to run

to the river and plunge into it, after having tumbled down from

the tops of the trees on which they were stretched in the sun,

a height of twenty or thirty feet.

Genus Bastuiscus, Latreille.

Basiliscus vittatus, Wiegm.

‘ Pasarios’ of the Mexicans. ‘ Zumbichi’ of the Zapotecs.

This charming animal, which does not in any way resemble

in its habits the fabulous creature to which the ancients gave

the name of Basilisk, is common on the margins of nearly all

the rivers of the warm and temperate regions of Mexico. It is

in the spring, in the breeding-season, that its observation is

most easy; and it is then also that the male especially attracts

attention, on account of the elegance of his form, the vivacity of

his colours, and the grace of his movements. As soon as the

sun has warmed the air, he quits his nocturnal retreat, and

commences the pursuit of his prey. If the dry trunk of a tree

rises from the margin of the water, we may be almost certain of

M. F. Sumichrast on the Habits of some Mexican Reptiles. 505

finding upon it, during the hot hours of the day, a Basilisk

acting the part of a sentinel. With his body voluptuously ex-

tended, as if to absorb as much as possible of the solar heat, he

remains in a state of perfect quietness ; but if some noise attracts

his attention, he raises his head, inflates his throat, and rapidl

agitates the membranous crest with which his occiput is phi

His piercing eye, with its dull-yellow iris spangled with gold,

glances inquisitively on every side; if the danger be imminent,

his body, previously flaccid and soft, draws together like a spring,

and, leaping with the rapidity of lightning, he throws himself

into the water. In swimming, he raises the head and breast ;

his fore feet strike the water as oars, whilst his long tail furrows

it like a rudder. From this habit the animal has received its

name of Pasarios (passe-ruisseauxz), which is also applied, al-

though erroneously, to a species of an allied genus, Corythophanes

chameleopsis.

At the end of April or the beginning of May, the female

deposits from twelve to eighteen eggs in a hole at the base of a

stump or trunk of a tree, where she leaves them to be hatched

by the heat of the sun. These eggs, which in form and colour

are identical with those of the Iguanas, measure four-fifths of an

inch in their long diameter, and about half an inch in their

shorter. The young reptiles which issue from them in the

course of a few days are very different from the adults in their

colours.

The food of the Basilisk consists essentially of insects, which

it captures with much dexterity when they settle upon the low

branches overhanging the brooks, near the spot where it is on

the watch.

Age and sex induce some modifications in the colour of. dif-

ferent individuals. The occipital membrane and the tail, which

in the females and young are of an olive-yellow colour, are

tinted with a fine blood-red in the old males.

Genus CoryTHoPpHANEs, Boié.

Corythophanes chameleopsis, Dum.

Chameleopsis Hernandezii, Gray.

Chameleo mexicanus, Hernandez.

If the kind of osseous casque which characterizes this reptile

were not of a very different nature from that which adorns the

head of the Basilisk, one would be tempted, at the first glance,

to refer the Corythophanes to the same genus as the latter, so

much do they resemble each other in the form of the body.

But in the Basilisk the occipital prominence only consists of a

membranous hood, supported internally by a greatly developed

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xiii. 33

506 M.F, Sumichrast on the Habits of some Mexican Reptiles.

sagittal crest,-which becomes cartilaginous at its extremity;

whilst in Corythophanes it is formed entirely by an abnormal

expansion of the bones of the cranium. The facies of the species

under consideration also presents some features of resemblance

to that of the African Chameleon, which led Hernandez to give

it the name of Chameleo mexicanus.

The colours of the Corythophanes do not present those brilliant

green, yellow, or reddish tints which are observable in the coat

of the Basilisk, but a mixture of brown, fulvous, black, and

white, which, however, is not unpleasing. I have observed that

these tints are not indifferent to the action of light: one of

these reptiles, which I kept alive for more than a month, pre-

sented this peculiarity :—its throat, which was white during the

day, acquired a darker tint at night, as did also all the lighter

regions of the body. Although very lively by nature, this little

animal allowed itself to be taken and caressed. If I passed m

hand several times over the flank, it lay down immediately as if

magnetized by this touching. If I repeated the same manceuvre

upon the belly, it crossed its fore feet in the attitude of prayer,

and fell into a state of perfect immobility. It became so tame

that it would run towards me to take from my hand the flies

and other insects of which it was fond.

The Corythophanes is not a shore animal, like the Iguanas and

the Basilisks. It lives scarcely anywhere but im the woods

among the rocks, and delights especially in the oak-forests,

where the sombre coloration of its body, which harmonizes with

that of the dry-leaves, enables it to make successful ambuscades

for the capture of the insects which constitute its prey. It is

exceedingly active, and, when it can take to flight, its capture,

except by shooting it, becomes very difficult. In running, it

raises:the front of the body almost vertically, at the same time

lashing the ground with its tail, by which its appearance at

such times is rendered very singular.

The credulity of the Indians has not. failed to ascribe extra-

ordinary qualities to this little creature, which is at once so

pretty and so odd, At the same time that they greatly dread

the inoffensive pricking of the spines which are observed on the

sides of its head, they extol the virtues of its body, when dried

and carried as an amulet, against the evil eye (e/ aire) and that

multitude of supernatural ills which are born of their sombre

and superstitious imaginations,

The Corythophanes are nowhere common ; but the species

which forms the subject of this note inhabits both slopes of the

Cordillera at very distant points. Thus I have met with it near

the Haciendas of the Mirador and the Potrero (in the depart-

ment of Vera Cruz), in the grottoes of the Cerro de Santo Do-

M. F. Sumichrast on the Habits of some Mexican Reptiles. 507

mingo (isthmus of Tehuantepec), and in the forests of Gineta

(department of Chiapas). All the specimens which I procured

in these different localities were absolutely identical.

’

Genus Purynosoma, Wagler.

Phrynosoma orbiculare, Wiegm.

‘ Caméléon’ of the Mexicans.

This little Saurian, which is equally curious-both in its appear-

ance and habits, owes to this circumstance its having been known

to the first observers who traversed Mexico, and also its having

been shifted, in the different herpetological classifications, from

one family to another, until at last it has come to take up its

natural position in the neighbourhood of Tropidolepis.

The Phrynosoma, which is peculiar to the cold and dry regions

of the Mexican plateau, inhabits sandy spots exposed to the sun,

such as the margins of roads and the arid ridges, where the

earthy colour of its body easily conceals it from observation.

Ill formed for running, it has none of that lizard-like vivacity

which has become proverbial; its gait is slow and awkward.

On seeing it making its way painfully over the sand, we at once

perceive that the poor devil must have no little trouble in pro-

curing its daily bread. Its thick tongue, fastened to the palate,

cannot be darted, like the Chameleon’s, at the insects which pass

within its reach; its large and dragging belly prevents it from

seizing a prey by running in the manner of the slender lizards,

or capturing a fly on the wing like the impetuous Anolides. In

order that it may dine, one of the heavy beetles of the sands,

as ill organized as itself for locomotion, must, so to speak, come

to tickle the teeth of this melancholy hunter. This forced abs-

tinence of the Phrynosoma has obtained for it, among the

natives, the reputation of living upon air.

Destitute of means of defence, it allows itself to be taken

without even attempting to bite the hand that has seized it. I

have several times kept one of these inoffensive animals alive:

_ they usually remained squatting in a corner of my room; and

whenever they disappeared, I was certain soon to find them

again in my shoes or in the pockets of my clothes.

On several occasions when I have put females of Phrynosoma

orbiculare into alcohol, I have seen the young immediately issue

from the cloaca, to the number of ten or twelve. I have made

the same observation with regard to a species of an allied genus,

Tropidolepis formosa; and | have reason to believe that most of

the Mexican species of Tropidolepis, or at least those of the colder

regions, are likewise ovo-viviparous.

33*

508 Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides.

XLIX.—Observations on Raphides.

By Grorce Guiuiver, F.R.S.

[Continued from p. 409.]

Their Chemical Composition.—Since the observations of Ras-

pail and Edwin Quekett, raphides have generally been regarded

as composed of phosphate of lime, and many spheraphides as

oxalate of that earth. But, in the ‘Trans. Edin. Bot. Soc.’ for

1861, Prof. Douglas Maclagan gave an analysis of the raphides

of Richardia, from which it results that these are composed of

the oxalate. Hence further observations seemed so desirable on

the subject, that Dr. Davy kindly undertook, at my request, the

examination of several specimens which I sent to him ; and, with

his permission, the following notes of his experiments are here

published :-—

“ Owing to the minute quantity of matter in the raphides or

other crystals (minute even in relation to the quantity of ash

afforded by the leaf or other vegetable structure), there is diffi-

culty in coming to more than a proximate conclusion as to their

composition. It is not improbable that, in some instances, it

is composite, consisting, for example, of oxalate of lime and

magnesia. Possibly vegetable matter may influence the reagents.

In the scales of the onion, I found the precipitate from an acid

solution, by ammonia in excess, in the form only of minute

well-defined crystalline globules. Raphides may generally con-

tain a little vegetable matter, in consequence of which their

forms, though somewhat altered, remain after the matter which

is soluble in an acid (such as phosphate of lime), or is in part

fixed after combustion (such as the lime of the oxalate), is re-

moved.

“1. Officinal Iris Florentina contains a good deal of lime. Its

white ash consists chiefly of lime, and, strongly heated, emits a

brilliant white light. The ash contains a small proportion of

phosphate of lime, but a much larger of carbonate. From the

crystals resisting the action of dilute acetic acid, I infer that

they are of oxalate of lime. They are rapidly dissolved by strong

nitric acid, and some by acetic acid, without effervescence.

“2. Mesembryanthemum muricatum is readily incinerated (the

leaves more readily than the stalk) ; it yields a good deal of

white ash, retaining the form of the leaf, but shrunken. Ignited,

it shines with a bright yellow light, that of the stalk with a red

light. The raphides, I infer, are composed chiefly of oxalate of

lime and magnesia, with perhaps a little silica, the magnesia in

rather larger proportion than the lime. They are not dissolved in

dilute acetic acid. The leaves, under the action of dilute muriatie

acid, give up the greater portion of their saline and earthy

Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides. 509

matter: incinerated afterwards, the little ash left is chiefly

silica.

“3, Leaf of Colocasia antiquorum.—Burnt, it leaves a good deal

of white ash, which, before the blowpipe, shines with a bright

white light. The ash consists principally of lime, with a trace of

phosphate of lime. The raphides, | infer, consist of oxalate of

lime: they are not dissolved by dilute acetic acid.

4. Officinal Veratrum album.—The central or pithy part seems

to contain but few raphides, but many large starch-granules ; the

outer, firmer (liber ?), contains more raphides, but not numerous;

the starch-granules there are very small; the black cortex con-

tains very few indeed of the former, and none of the latter. A

portion of the whole yields but little ash: the ash shines with a

red light when strongly heated. It contains a little phosphate of

lime, and lime, and a trace of iron: the iron, | believe, imparts

colour to the bark. It contains also a little magnesia. The

raphides, I delieve, consist of oxalate of lime ; the numbers being

smaJ], and phosphate of lime in minute quantity being present,

it is not easy to speak with any certainty of their composition.

“5. Bulb-scale of Shallot.—Burnt, it leaves a white ash,

retaining the form of the scale, shrunken, in which the crystals

may be seen, their form being unaltered. The ash effervesces

with acid, and almost entirely dissolves, a trace of silica only

remaining. ‘The crystals (4-sided prisms) appear to consist of

oxalate of lime and magnesia.

“6. Leaf of Heliconia aurantiaca.—It yields, when burnt, a

small quantity of fusible ash: the fused ash is a hard glass,

resisting the action of muriatic acid. Besides the raphides,

there are a few minute prisms in the leaf. The leaf, digested in

dilute muriatic acid, affords a solution which is precipitated by

ammonia, as if it contained oxalate of lime, and afterwards by

phosphate of soda. Perhaps the prisms consist of oxalate of

lime, and the raphides of oxalate of lime and magnesia.

white ash, which emits a bright white light when strongly heated.

The ash consists chiefly of lime, with a little magnesia and a trace

of phosphate of lime. The raphides, I infer from the slow action

of acetic acid on them, and from their solution being precipitated

by ammonia, consist principally of oxalate of lime.

“ Roots of Galium Mollugo and officinal Jamaica and Guate-

mala Sarze.—The raphides appear to consist of phosphate of

lime, judging from their ready solubility in dilute acetic acid,

and from the composition of the ash, in which, besides phos-

phate of lime, there is some lime and magnesia.”

The results obtained by this eminent physiologist, including

his examination of Epilobium (‘ Annals,’ May 1861, p. 423),

510 Prof. G. Gulliver on Raphides.

are important. They show that true raphides may consist either

of phosphate of lime, of oxalate of lime, or of oxalate of lime

and magnesia, and that a minute portion of vegetable matter

probably forms a part of the raphis : besides, they tend to con-

firm the accuracy of Prof. D. Maclagan’s analysis of the raphides

of Richardia ; for this plant belongs to Aracee, and now Dr.

Davy, quite independently, finds that the raphides of Colocasia,

another plant of the same order, are also composed of oxalate

of lime. As to the exact relation of the vegetable to the mineral

part of the raphis, whether forming the intertexture and frame

of its substance, like the animal cartilage of bone, or a mere

pellicle, according to Payen and others, or an appearance only,

produced by contact of the plant-juice with the saline crystal,

further observations would be very interesting.

Nyctayinacee.—Raphides in the seed-leaves and spermoderm,

and very numerous in the tap-root and leaves, of Mirabilis.

Smilacee.— Fresh sprig and leaf of Smilax Sarsaparilla, and

leafless twig of S. aspera, from Mr. Sowerby: the former abound-

ing in raphides; and the latter with numerous bundles of them

in the young leaf-buds and a few in the liber. Thus, as was

expected from the quantity of raphides in the officinal root, they

abound in other parts of Smilax*.

Commelinaceea.— Raphides abundant in the roots and leaves of

Commelina celestis and Tradescantia virginica, though not to be

found in the British species of Alisma and Butomus belonging

to the orders next following Commelinaceee. Thus, though the

external appearance of the tubers of Commelina and Butomus is

similar, they may be immediately distinguished; and the viscid

juice of the latter, when let out, being coagulable by and im-

miscible with water, is another remarkable difference.

Aracee.—Raphides abounding in the green part and pale

spots of the leaf of Dieffenbachia maculata, and in the leaf of

Colocasia antiquorum. In these plants the raphis-cells are elon-

gated and pointed at the ends, quite unlike the short neighbour-

ing cells—thus also unlike the raphidian cells of C. odora, figured

by Prof. Balfour, though projecting, as shown by that eminent

botanist, into the central intercellular spaces of the petiole.

Acorus Calamus: this is not a raphis-bearing plant.

Persistency of the raphis-bearing character.—We have before

* As Dr. Davy finds the raphides of the root to consist of phosphate

of lime, and considering the profusion also of starch in the Jamaica and

Honduras samples from Apothecaries’ Hall, no wonder that a course of

such Sarzz should be so efficacious in certain cachexies, while it might be

rationally suggested that the same drug would likewise be useful in those

sad and intractable diseases of infants which are connected with imperfect

nutrition and a deficiency of phosphate of lime in the bones.

Bibliographical Notices. 511

given many proofs of the value and constancy of this character

(‘ Annals,’ Jan. and March ; and Journ. Micr. Soc. Jan. 1864) ;

but as they were chiefly drawn from Kentish plants, it seemed

desirable to extend the inquiry to species grown in different

localities. Accordingly Mr. W. H. Baxter, taking an intelligent

interest in the subject, supplied me with fragments, from an old

herbarium, calculated to afford a further test as to the raphidian

character of British Galiaceew. Some of these were marked

“probably poisoned,” and others “probably not poisoned ;”

and their names here follow on the excellent authority of that

botanist :—Caprirotiacem: Lonicera Periclymenum, L. Capri-

folium, L. Xylosteum, Sambucus niger, S. Ebulus, and Viburnum

Lantana. Gawtacem: Galium saccharatum, G. spurium, G. pa-

risiense, G. montanum, G. sylvestre, G. tricorne, G. erectum,

G. saxatile, G. uliginosum, and Asperula cynanchica. VALERIA-

NacE#: Valeriana dioica, Centranthus ruber, and Fedia dentata.

These three orders are here placed as they stand together in the

natural classification. After careful examinations, raphides were

found in every one of the specimens of Galiaceze, but could not

be detected in any one of the two other orders. And this is the

more remarkable, not only from the state of the dried fragments,

but from the fact that the raphides of Galiacez are regularly

smaller and Jess abundant than in many other plants (Onagracez,

for example), as was well seen in comparing the small and scanty

raphides of G. saxatile and G. uliginosum with the larger and

more numerous raphides of other dried portions of several spe-

cies of Epilobium. But such is the persistency of raphides, that

I have regularly found them in dead stems, leaves, or roots of

Onagracez and Mesembryanthacez which had been fully exposed

to the destructive effects of the whole winter and spring; so that

even these decayed fragments may thus be surely distinguished

from others of allied orders. .

Edenbridge, May 9, 1864.

[To be continued. ]

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

* The Birds of India, ec. By T. C. Jervon, Surgeon-Major, Ma-

dras Army, Author of ‘Illustrations of Indian Ornithology.’

Vol. I. and Vol. II. Part 1. Calcutta: 1862, 1863. (London:

Smith and Elder.)

We have to apologize to Dr. Jerdon for having so long delayed to

notice the valuable work he has published. But, in truth, it is not

one to be hurriedly reviewed ; for such a proceeding on our part

would justly lay us open to the charge of insufficiently recognizing

512 Bibliographical Notices.

its importance. It is now a considerable time since our expectations

were excited by the news that, after our countrymen had for more

than a century securely established themselves on ‘the shores of

Ind,’ and for many years had pervaded the whole region lying between

the Himalaya Mountains and Cape Comorin, we were at length to

possess a concise manual of one portion of the fauna of Hindostan.

The words of promise are being fulfilled, and there remains now but

one more part to complete this useful work. The naturalist, how-

ever, can never afford to “rest and be thankful.”’ Knowledge to

him, of all men, is infinite, and its acquisition is “ never ending, still

beginning.” Though we do most heartily congratulate our author

on the successful issue of his laborious undertaking—or, at least,

on having got the worst part of it over,—it is because we regard this

book as furnishing a sure basis for future operations that we deem

it one of such transcendent merit. The student who wished to be-

come acquainted with the particulars of Indian ornithology had

aforetime to hunt up sporadic papers scattered throughout the pub-

lications or reports of we know not how many learned bodies either

in Europe or Asia, most of these papers difficult of access, and

some, we believe, utterly withdrawn from sight, except at the chief

seats of government in the Indian peninsula or here in London.

Now all this is changed. When the present work is completed, the

‘collector of Boggleywollah,” if he be so inclined, will be able to

start off to his up-country station with three not very thick octavos

in his bullock-trunks, and the assurance that he has therein a com-

pendium of all that has been already written on the subject. But

on this point we must let Dr. Jerdon speak for himself, which he

does with remarkable modesty as regards his own labours, and in

cordial and most gratifying terms towards those of one who might

almost have been considered a rival instead of a fellow-worker in the

same field. Here are the opening paragraphs of his Preface :—

‘The present work is the first of a series of manuals which the

author proposes to bring out, if his health be spared, on the Natural

History of the Vertebrated Animals of India. The want of such

books has long been greatly felt in this country ; and the increasing

attention now paid to natural history calls, more imperatively, for

the fulfilment of this desideratum.

“The author’s uninterrupted residence for above a quarter of a

century in India, during which period he has diligently examined

the faunee of the different districts in which he has been a resident

or a traveller, has enabled him to give in detail, from personal ob-

servation, the geographic distribution and limits of most of the

animals of this country ; for, with the exception of the North-West

Provinces, the Punjab, and Sindh, he has traversed and retraversed

the length and breadth of the continent of India, and has also visited

Burmah.

“This experience, and an earnest wish to be of use to naturalists

and travellers in India, are the author’s chief claims for attempting

such an ambitious task ; and, had others better qualified come forward,

he would have relinquished, however unwillingly, what to him has

Bibliographical Notices. 513

been a labour of love. He has, however, had the inestimable ad-

vantage of constant correspondence, and, in latter years, of personal

intercourse, with Mr. Blyth, of the Asiatic Society’s Museum, than

whom no one would have been better qualified to write such a work,

had his health been good and his time his own. But the constant

drudgery of his unassisted labours, and above twenty-one years’ resi-

dence in Calcutta, have so far injured his health as to preclude the

present hope of his publishing a separate work. His voluminous wri-

tings, however—reports, notices, monographs, &c.—scattered through

twenty volumes of the ‘ Journal of the Asiatic Society ’ and in various

English scientific periodicals, are permaneut proofs of his great talents

and industry; and were it not for those writings and the fine col-

lection he has been the chief means of making in Calcutta, the

present work would be much more imperfect than it now is.”

Of the manner in which Dr. Jerdon has performed his task we

must speak in terms of high praise. The scheme of the book is

exactly what we think it ought to be—‘‘A Manual of Ornithology

specially adapted for India,” as it is announced on the title-page,

which, as being somewhat redundant, we have taken the liberty to

curtail above. To this end the Surgeon- Major prefixes an “ Intro-

duction,” containing nearly fifty pages of well-digested generalizations,

or, as we might almost term them, a summary of the first principles

of ornithology. These serve to show, if, indeed, it were necessary,

that our author has turned to good account the specific knowledge

of which the body of the book proves him to be possessed—know-

ledge of a kind which so many naturalists, unfortunately, seem to be

incapable of applying to higher purposes. But the utility of the

** Introduction ”’ is not merely confined to the demonstration of this

fact. It is unquestionable, we think, that a book like the present,

though long demanded by advanced naturalists thoughout the world,

has been most needed by a multitude of persons in our mighty pro-

consulate—persons who know little of ornithology, though they love

it much, amateurs who with the aid thus opportunely afforded them

will ripen into ornithologists. Welcome, then, as the rains in their

season, will be the ‘ Birds of India’ to men with such tastes, thirsting

for information on the subject, for lack of which many of them must

have seen their aspirations wither like vegetation in a time of

drought.

Our space will not admit of our going into details. We must beg

our readers to take our word for it that we have tested the accuracy,

so far as we have been able, of a good many of Dr. Jerdon’s descrip-

tions and diagnostic characters, and we find they stand the trial ex-

tremely well. Much of the book consists of matter the truth of

which ew necessitate we cannot test, seeing that it embodies the

results of the anthor’s personal experience, and we lay no claim to a

special knowledge of Indian ornithology. But Dr. Jerdon is ob-

viously an observer so carefully trained that we willingly accept

upon trust his statements respecting the habits, the movements,

in a word, all that is really meant by the /istory of the birds of

India. The greatest fault we have to find with the book (and we

514 Bibliographical Notices.

must say we think it amounts to a serious fault) is the unnecessary

multiplication of genera. It is perfectly true, as Dr. Jerdon states

(Introd. p. xxxiv), that “in practice, and till the whole realm of

ornithology is presided over by a master hand, no distinction [be-

tween genera and subgenera] can be satisfactorily pointed out, or

acted upon.” But on this very ground surely it would have been

the more simple as well as the more convenient plan not to have ac-

quiesced in the minute subdivisions which it has become the fashion

of so many writers now-a-days to make. They cannot fail to be

perplexing, if, indeed, they are not actually repugnant, to beginners.

In justice, however, to Dr. Jerdon we are bound to say, and we say

it with pleasure, that none of the subdivisions we complain of seem

to be of his invention.

From what has been said at the beginning of this notice, it will

be seen that we regard this work as the foundation of a new edifice

to be raised on Indian soil by builders as yet unknown to fame. It

can scarcely be seriously doubted, indeed, that its publication will be

an effectual incentive to the study of ornithology in that country,

and the results cannot fail to be gratifying to all promoters of the

science. But from another point of view Dr. Jerdon’s arduous

labours merit great praise. The friends of the new system whereby

the Indian Civil Service is replenished ought to hail our author as a

benefactor to those who under it obtain government appointments.

What can be worse for a young man, as highly educated as the suc-

cessful candidates for these much-coveted offices are said to be, than

to be banished to a remote post, far from the society of his country-

men, and with no rational employment whatever to occupy his mind

after the daily routine of work is finished? He has not the stout

bodily constitution, it is alleged, which generally distinguished the

uncrammed cadet of the ancient order of things. No wonder then

that the “‘competition- Wallah”” succumbs under the enervating in-

fluence of a tropical climate, and flies to “‘ brandy-pawnee,” or other

things worse, as a refuge against the attacks of dull care. Dr. Jer-

don has now placed within his reach the means of prosecuting a

recreative occupation, healthful alike to mind and body, with the

consciousness that in the enjoyment of it he may be able to swell—

it matters not to how small an extent—the great and always increasing

amount of human knowledge. This fact seems to have been ap-

preciated by the last two enlightened rulers of India, Lords Canning

and Elgin, under whose auspices these volumes have been undertaken

and elaborated ; and we learn with pleasure that the first of them,

during his ever-memorable viceroyalty, placed the author “on

special duty, with a view to the publication of the present work, thus

giving him full leisure to devote to the completion of his researches

and to the progress of the book through the press.’’ We regret,

however, to hear that of late Dr. Jerdon has been ordered by a sub-

ordinate official to return to his professional avocations ; and what-

ever success may attend that gentleman’s other measures, we feel

sure that this step will prove to be a very short-sighted one, if it

prevents the completion of the remaining manuals of the series which

Bibliographical Notices. 515

the Surgeon-Major has promised us, merely (from a misguided motive

of economy) to save a few rupees to the Indian treasury.

It only remains for us to say that the book, which has been printed

in Calcutta, is most creditably got up*, and that we strongly recom-

mend it to our readers.

A Flora of Ulster, and Botanists Guide to the North of Ireland.

By G. Dickie, M.D., Prof. of Botany, Aberdeen. 12mo. Belfast,

1864. London: Reeve & Co.

We little thought, when noticing Mr. Tate’s ‘ Flora Belfastiensis’ in

our April Number, to receive so soon another book treating upon the

botany of the same part of Ireland, but extending its range con-

siderably further. It might have been well if the authors had

each known of the other’s intention, as one book would have had

more chance of success than two.

Dr. Dickie was resident for some years at Belfast, and then took

notes of all the plants of which he ascertained the existence in the

north of Ireland, by which he means that part of the island lying to

the north of the 54th degree of latitude. In so defining his district

we think that he has not been wise. It would have been better to

confine himself to Ulster, and include the whole of that; for he has

now omitted a small piece of two counties, Monaghan and Cavan.

He would then have had a well-defined field in which to work: and

if in this field he had divided his localities into groups, according to

the three botanical provinces—28. Erne, 29. Donegal, and 30. Ulster

Coast (which are laid down in the ‘Proceedings of the Dublin

University Zoological and Botanical Association,’ i. 246, and the ori-

inal ‘Natural History Review,’ vi. pt. 2. 533)—he would have

acilitated the compilation of the much-wanted ‘ Cybele Hibernica.’

It is true that we may arrange the localities for ourselves, if we

think fit so to do; but there are many plants stated to be “ frequent,”

of which it is impossible to learn, from the information given by

Dr. Dickie, whether that frequency extends throughout Ulster or is

more limited in extent. Certainly we do rather wonder that Dr.

Dickie, who has shown the interest which he takes in the geography

of plants by his most valuable remarks upon the altitude at which

they occur, should have neglected to subdivide his country into dis-

tricts, both here and in the ‘ Botanist’s Guide to Aberdeen, &c.,’

after the mode which has been found so useful in the more recent

English local floras. We consider this a serious omission; and

there is another deficiency which forcibly strikes us. Dr. Dickie

manifestly takes no interest in what are called “critical” plants.

It is the distribution of that class of ‘‘ species”’ which we especially

desire to learn; and there is nothing in this book to convey informa-

tion on that subject.

* One clever gentleman of our own craft takes credit to himself for the

discovery that Dr. Jerdon has, at page 16 of Volume I., made the mistake

of calling the Condor Sarcorhamphus papa, and the King-Vulture S. gry-

phus, without acknowledging that this mistake is corrected in the author’s

own list of “ Errata”’ prefixed to the volume!

516 Bibliographical Notices.

But we have done fault-finding, and have much pleasure in praising

the book in other respects. The Introduction is a valuable contri-

bution to our knowledge of the range in altitude of Irish plants.

We are not aware that any accurate data previously existed on that

subject, which the peculiar climate of Ireland renders of more than

ordinary interest. It is remarkable that there is a decided fall in the

upper limits of some plants in Ireland when compared with those to

which they attain in Scotland. Dr. Dickie mentions the following

instances :—

Euphrasia officinalis in North-east Scotland attains 3400 feet ; in

North-east Ireland, 2400; in Mayo, only 1700. The corresponding

numbers for Melampyrum pratense are 3000, 2200, 1900; for

Pinguicula vulgaris, 2800, 2000, and 800; Orchis maculata, 3000,

1950, 1800; and Carex binervis, 3000, 2000, 1800. This is the

more remarkable when we remember that the climate is believed to

rise in temperature as we proceed from South-east Scotland by Ulster

to Mayo. May we attribute the superior range in Scotland to the

direct sunlight, of which there certainly is much less in cloudy and

rainy Mayo than in Ulster, and especially than in Aberdeenshire?

We have stated our belief that the book is not improved by the

addition of an imperfect list of the plants of a small part of northern

Mayo, and nearly the whole of Sligo; for as a Flora of Ulster it

may justly claim to be tolerably complete (according to its author’

views of species), but as treating of the whole north coast of Ireland

it cannot have any such claim. We are far from wishing the

western plants to have remained unrecorded ; but it would have been

more convenient to have found the list of them placed as an appendix

to the Ulster list. There is very much still to be done before we

shall know accurately the plants of the far west. Who has examined

the wild mountains in the interior of Erris, called the Nepbin Beg

range? or who, except the present writer, has botanized in the

Mullet? If these districts have been explored, we know of no pub-

lished account of the results. Both lie to the north of the 54th degree.

Let us now turn to the species, and place side by side the Floras

of Tate and Dickie. We have already remarked that the latter

seems to care nothing about critical plants: here, therefore, we at

once meet with a marked difference between the books. One ex-

ample will suffice, and we will take the first. Tate records Ranun-

culus peltatus, R. Drouetii, R. Baudotii, R. circinatus, and R. he-

deraceus. In place of these, Dickie gives for the same district R.

aquatilis, R. tripartitus, and R. hederaceus. Here R. aquatilis of

course includes the first three of Tate’s species; but what has be-

‘come of R. circinatus, which no botanist who has paid any attention

to it can doubt being distinct ; and what is R. ¢ripartitus? Surely

the latter is not the true plant. The former appears, in Dr. Dickie’s

Supplement, as a plant about which some doubt may be entertained;

but Mr. Tate and Mr. Stewart have both gathered it. This instance

will suffice to show that Tate’s Flora is necessary, in addition to

Dickie’s, if we require complete information of what is known about

the plants of Ulster. .

517

MISCELLANEOUS.

On Scientific Nomenclature. By Professor Asa Gray.

_ The propositions for the improvement of zoological nomenclature

made to the British Association at its twelfth meeting, in 1842, by

an influential committee, are well known. They were essentially

limited to zoology mainly for the reason, which is undoubtedly true,

that botanical nomenclature stands in much less need of distinct

enactment than zoological. At the recent Newcastle meeting the

committee on this subject was reconstituted, and instructed ‘to

report on the changes which they may consider it desirable to make,

if any, in the rules of nomenclature drawn up at the instance of the

Association by Mr. Strickland and others, with power to reprint these

rules, and to correspond with foreign naturalists and others on the

best means of insuring their general adoption.” ‘‘ Accordingly the

rules, as originally circulated, are now reprinted, and zoologists are re-

quested to examine them carefully, and to communicate any suggestions

for alteration or improvement, on or before the Ist of June, 1864.”

As most of the propositions are from their nature equally appli-

eable to botany, and as the new committee comprises the names of

four botanists, extremely well selected, it is obvious that the im-

provement of nomenclature of genera and species in natural history

in general is contemplated. We feel free, therefore, to make any

suggestions that may occur to us from the botanical point of view.

First, we would recommend that “the admirable code proposed

in the ‘ Philosophica Botanica’ of Linneeus ”—to which ‘‘if zoolo-

gists had paid more attention .... the present attempt at reform

would perhaps have been unnecessary’’—be reprinted, with indica-

tions of the rules which in the lapse of time have become inoperative,

or were from the first over-nice (ea. gr. 222, 224, 225, 227, 228,

229, 230, &c., most of which are recommendations rather than laws).

The British Association’s Committee has properly divided its code

into two parts, 1. Rules for rectifying the present nomenclature ;

2. Recommendations for improving the nomenclature in future.

The laws all resolve themselves into, or are consequences of, the

fundamental law of priority, ‘‘ the only effectual and just one.”

Proposing here to comment only upon the few propositions which

seem to us open to doubt, we venture to suggest that “§ 2. The

binomial nomenclature having originated with Linneus, the law of

priority in respect of that nomenclature is not to extend to the

writings of antecedent authors,” is perhaps somewhat too broadly

stated. The essential thing done by Linneeus in the establishment

of the binomial nomenclature was, that he added the specific name to

the generic. Healso reformed genera and generic names; but he did

not pretend to be the inventor or establisher of either, at least in

botany. This merit he assigns to Tournefort, in words which we

have already cited in Silliman’s Journal (vol. xxv. p. 134); and he re-

spected accordingly the genera of Tournefort, Plumier, &c., taking

only the liberties which fairly pertained to him as a systematic

reformer. While, therefore, it is quite out of question to supersede

518 Miscellaneous.

established Linnzean names by Tournefortian, we think it only right

that Tournefortian genera, adopted as such by Linneus, should

continue to be cited as of Tournefort. So, as did Linneeus, we pre-

fer to write Jasminum, Tourn., Circea, Tourn., Rosmarinus, Tourn.,

Tamarindus, Tourn., &c. Indeed, it is not fair to Linneeus to father

upon him generic names, such as the last two and many more, which

Linneeus specially objects to, as not made according to rule. Specific

names, of course, cannot antedate Linnzeus, even if the descriptive

phrase of the elders were of a single and fit word.

*§ 10. A name should be changed which has before been proposed

Jor some other genus in zoology or botany, or for some other species

in the same genus, when still retained for such yenus or species.”

The first part of this rule is intended, we presume, to be the equiva-

lent of No. 230 of the ‘ Philosophia Botanica:’ ‘‘ Nomina generica

plantarum, cum zoologorum et lithologorum nomenclaturis communia,

si a botanicis postea assumta, ad ipsos remittenda sunt.’ We

submit that this rule, however proper in its day, is now inapplicable.

Endlicher, who in a few cases endeavoured to apply it, will probably

be the last general writer to change generic names in botany because

they are established in zoology. It is quite enough if botanists and,

perhaps more than can practically be effected, if zoologists will see

that the same generic name is used but once in each respective

kingdom of nature.

*§ 12. d name which has never been clearly defined in some

published work should be changed for the earliest name by which the

object shall have been so defined.’ Very well. And the good of

science demands that unpublished descriptions, and manuscript

names in collections, however public, should assert no claim as

against properly published names. But suppose the author of the

latter well knew of the earlier manuscript or unpublished name, and

had met with it in public collections, such name being unobjection-

able, may he wilfully disregard it? And as to names without cha-

racters, may not the affixing of a name to a sufficient specimen in

distributed collections (a common way in botany) more surely identify

the genus or species than might a brief published description? Now

the remarks of the Committee, prefixed to § 12, while they state the

legal rule of priority, do not state, or in any way intimate, that a

wilful disregard of unpublished names, especially of those in public

or distributed collections, is injurious, dishonourable, and morally

wrong. In the brotherhood of botanists, it should be added, custom

and courtesy and scientific convenience in this respect have the

practical force of law, the wilful violation of which would not long be

tolerated ; and the distribution of named specimens, where and as far

as they go, is held to be tantamount to publication.

As to the recommendations for the future improvement of nomen-

clature, in passing under review the “ Classes of objectionable names,”

we wonder that geographical specific names should have been objected

to : we find them very convenient in botany, and, next to characteristic

names, about as good as any. Comparative specific names in oides

and inea, &c., are much used by botanists, and are often particularly

Miscellaneous. 519

characteristic. Specific names derived from persons, used with

diseretion, and as far as possible restricted to those who have had to

do with the species, as discoverer, describer, &c., are surely unobjec-

tionable. Generic names derived from persons are, we agree, best

restricted to botany, where, when appropriately applied, they are in

good taste, if not too cacophonous. As to closely resembling names,

in large genera it may sometimes be best to “call a species virens or

virescens’ when there is already a viridis. Anagrams, like puns, if

not cautiously handled and particularly well made, are intolerable.

But what can be prettier, among unmeaning names, than R. Brown’s

Tellima’ Botanists will hardly agree that a good generic name which

has been effectually superseded by the law of priority should never

afterwards be bestowed upon some other genus of some other order.

**It has sometimes been the practice, in subdividing an old genus, to

give to the lesser genera so formed the names of their respective

typical species.” The Committee objects to this usage because the

promotion calls for new specific names. To us it seems a natural

and pr course when the name of the species in question is

substantive and otherwise fitting,—most proper when (to take a not

uncommon case) one used generically in the first place by ante-

Linnzean naturalists or herbalists.

But the objection of the Committee is probably connected with a

peculiar view which they have adopted as to the way of citing species

which have been transferred to some other than the original genus.

Here many zoologists, and a few botanists, have been giving them-

selves much trouble and perplexity, as it seems to us, to little purpose.

Take for illustration our Blue Cohosh, originally Leontice thalictroides

of Linnzeus, but afterwards, in Michaux’s Flora, taken as the type of

a new genus, and therefore appearing as Caulophyllum thalictroides.

Now if we adopt the view of Linnzeus, to which he would probably

authority thus :—

Leontice thalictroides, Linn.

(Syn. Caulophyllum thalictroides, Michx.)

The abbreviated names of the authors appended stand in place of the

reference, e. gr. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1, p. 448, and Michx. Fl. Bor.-Am.

I, p. 205, tab. 21. If the other view be adopted, it stands; in fact,

Caulophyllum thalictroides, Michx.

(Syn. Leontice thalictroides, Linn.)

But, fearful lest the original describer should be robbed of his due

credit, it has been proposed to write,

Caulophyllum thalictroides, Linn.

This is not only an anachronism of half a century, but an imposi-

tion upon Linneeus of a view which he had not and perhaps would

not have adopted. To avoid such fatal objections, it has been pro-

posed to write Caulophyllum (Michx.) thalictroides, Linn., which is

not only “too lengthy and inconvenient to be used with ease and

rapidity,’ but too cumbrous and uncouth to be used at all. And

finally, the Committee propose to write,

Caulophyllum thalictroides (Linn.) (sp.),

520 Miscellaneous.

which is scarcely shorter, or even to leave out the (sp.). The reader

is thus to note that Linneeus originally gave the specific name thalic-

troides, but not the generic. Who did, must be otherwise ascer-

tained. A pretty long experience convinces us that much confusion

is risked or trouble expended, and nothing worth while secured by

these endeavours to put forward the original rather than the actual

application of a specific name. Ante-Linneean nomenclature broke

down in the attempt to combine specific appellation with description.

Here the attempt is to connect it with the history of its origin, which,

after all, can be rightly told only in the synonymy. The natural

remedy for the supposed evil which this mode of citation was to cure

is to consider (as is simply the fact) that the appended authority

does not indicate the origin, but only the application at the time

being, of the particular name; and so no one is thus robbed of his

due. The instructed naturalist very well knows the bibliography of

species, or where to look for it; the tyro can learn.

*§ C. Specific names should “always be written with a small initial

letter, even when derived from persons or places’’—on the ground

that proper names written with a capital letter are liable to be mis-

taken for generic. (But no naturalist would be apt to write the name

of a species without that of the genus, or its initial, preceding.) Also,

“that all species are equal, and should therefore be written all alike.”

The question is one of convenience, taste, and usage. As to the re

we do not think a strong case is made out. If mere uniformit

the leading consideration, it might be well to follow the ee of

the American author who corrected Ranunculus Flammula, Linn.,

and R. Cymbalaria, Pursh, into R. flammulus and R. cymbalarius!

As to taste and usage, we suppose there would be a vast preponderance

against the innovation, so far as respects personal names and those

substantive names which Linnzeus delighted to gather from the old

herbalists, &c., and turn to specific use, e. g., Ranunculus Flammula,

R. Lingua, R. Thora, R. Ficaria, and the like. Adjective names of

places and countries Linnzeus printed with a small initial, e. g.,

R. lapponicus, &e. DeCandolle writes such names with a capital

letter; and this best accords with English analogy, but has not been

universally adopted, and probably will not be.

“§ F. Etis recommended that,in subdividing an old genus in future,

the names given to the subdivisions should agree in gender with that

of the original group.” The practical objection to this is, that old

names should be revived for these genera or subgenera, if there be

any applicable ones, which is likely to be the case in a.

Silliman’s American Journal, March 1864, p. 278.

On the Roman Imperial and Crested Eagles. By Joun Hoee, Esq.,

M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., &.*

I purpose in the present paper to make a few brief remarks on

the Crested or Crowned Eagles, and the usual Roman Eagle.

This last bird, which is generally termed the Imperial Eagle, is

* This paper was read to the Section D of the British Association at

Newcastle-on-Tyne, on August 28, 1863.

Miscellaneous. 521

represented with its head plain, that is to say, not crested; it is

in appearance the same as the attendant bird of the “ King of

Gods and Men,”’ and is generally represented as standing at the foot

of his throne, or sometimes as the bearer of his thunder and light-

ning. Indeed he also often appears perched on the top of his

sceptre. He is always considered as the attribute or emblem of

* Father Jove.”

So likewise the same noble bird is the attendant on Jupiter’s cup-

bearer, Ganymedes ; for, according to the well-known fable, that

great god sent his eagle to carry off the youth Ganymedes in his

claws from earth to the celestial regions.

A good copy of this bird of Jupiter, called by Virgil and Ovid

*‘ Jovis armiger,”’ from an antique group, representing the Hagle

and Ganymedes, may be seen in Bell’s ‘Pantheon,’ vol. i. Also

“a small bronze eagle, the ensign of a Roman legion,” is given in

Duppa’s ‘ Travels’ (in Sicily, &c., 2nd edition, 1829), tab. 4. That

traveller states that the original bronze figure is preserved in the

museum of the “Convent of St. Nicholas (d’Arena) at Catania.”

This convent is now called ‘‘ Convento di S. Benedetto,’’ accord-

ing to Mr. G. Dennis, in his ‘ Handbook of Sicily,’ published by

Murray: at p. 399, he thus mentions this ensign as ‘‘a Roman

Legionary Eagle in excellent preservation.”’ From the second

century before Christ, the Eagle is said to have become the sole

military ensign; and it was mostly small in size, because Florus

(lib. iv. cap. 12) relates that an ensign-bearer, in the wars of Julius

Ceesar, in order to prevent the enemy from taking it, pulled off the

from the top of the gilt pole, and hid it, by placing it under

cover of his belt :—“‘ tertiam (aquilam) signifer prius, quam in manus

hostium veniret, evulsit ; mersamque intra baltei sui latebras gerens,

in craenta palude sic latuit.”’

In later times, the eagle was borne with the legion, which, indeed,

occasionally took its name, ‘“ Aquila.”

This Eagle, which was also adopted by the Roman emperors for

their imperial symbol, is considered to be the Aquila heliaca of Sa-

vigny, which greatly resembles our Golden Eagle (4. chrysaétos)

in * pet though of a darker brown. It inhabits North Africa

‘and Palestine, and is but rarely found in Europe. A living speci-

men may now be seen in the Zoological Gardens, in Regent’s Park.

Next as regards the Crested Eagles.

Being lately engaged on a memoir on Baalbec, the ancient He-

liopolis, or “Sun City” of Syria, I was desirous, if possible, of

ascertaining whether the Crested Eagle, which is well sculptured

on the soffit of a door in the Temple of Apollo or the Sun, could

be accounted a real species, or only an imaginary one carved after

a fancied design of the sculptor. The bird is engraven in Pococke’s

‘Description of the East’ (vol. ii. plate 16), and is described as

24 feet in height, and 11 feet in extent. from the tips of the out-

spread wings. The same sculptured bird is also given, on a some-

what larger scale in plate 34 of Wood’s ‘ Baalbec.’ Moreover,

on the soffit of the door of the cella of the Temple of the Sun,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xiii. 34

522 Miscellaneous.

at Palmyra, in Syria, a like Eagle is sculptured. (See fig. H. in

plate 18 of Wood’s ‘ Palmyra.’) iy

In my work on Baalbec, I have stated, “in both” the sculptures

at Baalbec and Palmyra ‘‘the Eagles differ from that represented

as the attendant bird of Jupiter, by bearing a crest, which may

possibly allude to the radiated orb or rays of the sun.’ (Trans.

Roy. Soc. of Literature, vol. vii. p. 300.)

I will now point out four or five Eagles having a crest or crown,

and from one or two of which the sculptured birds at Baalbee and

Palmyra may have been designed by the Roman artists.

Upon the whole, the species which seems to agree well with he

sculptures is the Aquila Desmursii. This fine bird is well drawn

and beautifully coloured in tab. 77 of vol. iv. ‘Trans. Zool. Society ;’

but in Hartlaub’s work on the Ornithology of West Africa, it is

incorrectly written Desmurii (of Jules Verreaux). It occurs at

Bissao, in Western Africa, and is called by the natives Socolas; it is

also met with in Abyssinia and Nubia, and along the banks of the

White River (Bahr el Abiad). Dr. Hartlaub, however, makes no

mention of its crest. It is much like both 4. pennata and A. nevia.

It is subject to many changes in its plumage at various ages, although

its usual plumage presents a rich chocolate-colour ; its tail and the

extremities of its wings are black. A well-marked “ distinction,”

Mr. Gurney says, ‘in Aquila Desmursii is a well-defined though

small occipital crest, consisting of from eight to nine pointed feathers,

the longest of which are fully an inch and a half in length”

(p. 365, vol. iv. Trans. Zool. Society).

This bird especially resembles Wood’s representation of the Eagle

at Palmyra, both in the size and form of the crest; but it differs

from it in having the tarsi hairy to the toes. Being an inhabitant

of parts of Africa, in particular of the west coast, we may reasonably

' conclude that the Romans might have been acquainted with it.

Another noble Crested Eagle is given in the woodcut published

in the ‘Field’ newspaper, on May 23, 1863. It has recently been

brought to this country; and I visited the living specimen in June,

last year, at the Zoological Gardens in the Regent’s Park, where it

had then been about four months; I have also seen the stuffed,

specimen in the British Museum. It was named Harpyhaliaétus

coronatus by Temminck, and appeared to be shy. The general

colour of its plumage is a lead-coloured grey, and its fine long crest,

of a dark grey, becomes nearly black at the end. In this cha-

racter it agrees with the two sculptured Eagles, and likewise in its

legs or ¢arsi being bare to the toes. In both of these characters it

might answer to the sculptured figures at Baalbec and Palmyra; but

being a native of the New World, in Brazil and Paraguay, we

cannot suppose that it could have formed the model for the sculp-

tors or architects of these superb temnles, which were erected

during the Roman Empire.

I further noticed a more powerful Eagle among the stuffed birds

in the British Museum, which bore a /arger and more developed

crest; but, as it inhabits ‘*South America and British Guiana,”

it cannot, for the reason which I have just stated, be referred to

Miscellaneous. 523

the sculptured Eagles. It is called Thrasattus harpyia, or ‘Crested

le ”

Either one of the two following species, also preserved in the

collection of the British Museum, is not unlikely to have presented

the type of a Crested Eagle to those sculptors, namely, first, Spi-

zaétus cirrhatus, or the “Crested Indian Eagle,” with its legs

feathered to the toes; inhabiting Nepal and India, it might have

been known to the Romans. :

And the second species, Spizaétus coronatus, is a truly fine bird,

bearing a large and long crest: it is found in Southern Africa.

Although this, like the preceding species, has its tarsi feathered,

still this character, being very difficult for the sculptor to represent

in stone, may have been purposely omitted.

I may then add, in concluding, that either this last-named

«Crowned Eagle”’ (S. coronatus) or the 4. Desmursii may have been

the representative of the Palmyra and Baalbec Eagles; for I can

by no means think that the sculptors executed those admirably

finished Crested Eagles in the splendid Temples of the Sun in both of

those cities, from their own imagination, and without the aid of an

existing natural species to direct them in their measurements of

the stone figures, and more especially since that sun-bird was the

sacred symbol of the Great Deity in those cities, where the chief

worship of Baal, or Apollo, or the Sun had for so many ages pre-

vailed, and even become renowned throughout the Roman world.

Climbing Habits of the Anabas scandens.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—The February Number of the ‘Annals of Natural

History’ contained an article on the climbing habits of the Anabas

scandens, written by Capt. Mitchell, of the Madras Government

Central Museum ; and the following extract from a private letter

just received from him may be of interest to your readers as tending

to confirm the views stated in the paper referred to.

ap Mitchell says in his letter :—

“ Rungasawmy brought to the library, two days ago, three live

specimens of the Anabas scandens, to show me how it progressed.

It was really most amusing to see these creatures scudding along the

rattan mat. The great motive agent was evidently the operculum,

which they opened and shut with great rapidity, moving first on

one side and then on the other. The pectoral fin appeared also to

be used ; but I could not see that the tail was of much assistance.

So long as the direction of movement was across the rattans, pro-

gress seemed tolerably easy; but one fellow got on the line of the

rattans, and seemed much bothered until he changed his direction

by a ‘right shoulders forward.’ I have the three fish in my aqua-

rium, where they seem quite at home. They do not appear to breathe

like other fish: I have watched one for some minutes without per-

ceiving any motion of the lips or operculum,”

Your very obedient Servant,

London, May 13, 1864. A. C. Brispane NEILL.

524

INDEX to VOL. XIII.

——— <

Acantu OCYSTIS, new species of, 36.

Achatina, new species of, 209.

Achelia, new British species of, 115.

Acirsa, new species of, 478.

Acmeea, new species of, 474.

Actinophrys, new species of, 34.

Actinozoa, on new British, 84.

Adams, A., on the animal and affini-

ties of Fenella, 39; on some mol-

luscous animals from the seas of

China and Japan, 140, 206, 307.

Agassiz, A., on alternate generation

in the Annelida and thé embryology

of Autolytus cornutus, 343.

Aglaophenia pluma, on the structure

of, 203.

Allman, Prof., on the oecurrence of

Ameebiform protoplasm and the

emission of pseudopodia among

the Hydroida, 203; on the con-

struction and limitation of genera

among the Hydroida, 345.

Ammothoa, new British species of,

114.

Amceba, new species of, 21.

Anabas scandens, on the climbing

habits of, 117, 523.

Ancyclus, new species of, 139.

Animals, on the law of production of

the sexes in, 68.

Annelida, on alternate generation in

the, 343.

Antennularia antennina, on the ana-

tomy of, 205.

Antillia, new species of, 300.

Asthenotherus, new species of, 311.

Atrypanius, description of the new

genus, 46

Atys, new species of, 314.

Autolytus cornutus, on the embryo-

logy of, 343,

Ayres, Dr., on the Sebastoid Fishes

of California, 330.

Baird, Dr. W., on new species of An-

nelida, 96.

Baryssinus, description of the new

genus, 43.

Basiliseus vittatus, on the habits of,

504,

Batagur, new species of, 252.

Bates, H. W., on the Longicorns of

the Amazon Valley, 43, 144.

Batrachia, on the eyes of the, 175.

Beddome, Capt. R. H., on new Uro-

peltidz, 177.

Bennett, Dr. G., on Didunculus stri-

girostris, 259; on the Kagu, 342.

Benson, W. H., on new Land-shells

from Western India, 136, 209, 491.

Bittium, new species of, 478.

Blackwall, J., on the capture of Mitras

paradoxus in England, 435.

Blanford, W. T., on the classification

of the Cyclostomacea of Eastern

Asia, 441.

Blood, on the expulsion of the car-

bonic acid from the, during resp*ra-

tion, 439.

Books, new: — Brewer’s Flora of

Surrey, 90; Lowe’s Flora of Ma-

deira, 164; Mosley’s Natural His-

tory of Tutbury, 245; Wood’s

Homes without Hands, 247 ; Tate’s

Flora Belfastiensis, 330; Griffith’s

Text-book of the Microscope, 436;

Jerdon’s Birds of India, 511;

Dickie’s Flora of Ulster, 515.

Brady, G.S., on new British species

of Ostracoda, 59.

Bryophila, new species of, 314.

Bucardia, new species of, 309.

Burasaia, characters of the genus,

490.

Callista, new species of, 312, 440.

Calliste, new species of, 104.

Callocardia, description of the new

genus, 307

Calycocarpum, on the species of, 130.

Campaniclava, characters of the ge-

nus,

Cancellaria Spengleriana, notes on

the animal of, 143.

Candona, new British species of, 61.

Carpenter, Dr. P. P., on new forms of

mollusks, 311, 474.

Carter, H. J., on freshwater Rhizo-

poda of England and India, 18.

Carychium, new species of, 210.

INDEX.

Ceeropia, on the development of cork-

cells in, 269.

Cell, on the formation, development,

and structure of the vegetable, 265,

409, 479.

a on the arrangement of the,

Cheetanes, description of the new

genus, 45.

Chasmanthera, characters of the ge-

nus, 486.

Christy, Mr., on the existence of man

tem] ly with the rein-

deer in France, 323.

Cistoclemmys, new species of, 107.

Cistudine, observations on the ar-

rangement of the, 105.

Cladocora, new species of, 301.

Cladophora glomerata, on the polarity

of the joint-cells of, 409.

— description of the genus,

Cope, E. D., on a new species of

Vipera, 181.

Corals, on some fossil from Sinde,

295

Cork-cells, on the development of,

_ 269.

Corynopsis, characters of the genus,

Corythophanes chameleopsis, on the

habits of, 505.

Coscinium, on the species of, 125.

Cosmotoma, new species of, 148.

Crenella, new species of, 313.

Crustacea, on the homologies of, 16.

Ctenopoma, new species of, 211.

Cyathopoma, characters of the ge-

nus, 449.

Cyathoseris, new species of, 303.

Cyclemys, new species of, 109.

Cyclostomacea, on the classification

of the, 441.

Cyclotopsis, characters of the new

genus, 447.

Cyclotus, on the species of, 446.

Cypris, new British species of, 59.

Cythnia, new species of, 478.

Dactylocalyx, new species of, 257.

Dana, J. D., on the homologies of

the Insectean and Crustacean types,

16.

Dandelion, on the intercellular sub-

stance and the milk-vessels in the

root of the, 264.

Dasyphyllia, new species of, 299.

525

Diala, new species of, 478.

—. new British species of,

Didunculus strigirostris, on the ha-

bits of, 259.

Difflugia, new species of, 22.

cto eT on some species of,

Dredgings in the freshwater lakes of

Norway, account of, 437.

Duncan, Dr. P. M., on some fossil

corals from Sinde, 295.

Eagles, on the Roman Imperial and

Crested, 520.

Eburna japonica, notes on the animal

of, 142.

Edgeworth, Prof. R. L., on the Irish

Vespide, 466.

Emydide, on the eyes of the, 175.

Eucharis, new species of, 309.

Eucosmia, new species of, 475.

Eudendrium, new British species of,

83.

Euglypha, new species of, 32.

re new genera and species

or,

Fenella, on the animal and affinities

of, 39; new species of, 477.

Fiber, new species of, 95.

eee characters of the genus,

487.

Fishes, on the air of the swimming-

bladder of, 262.

Foraminifera of the Crag, on the, 64.

Fossarus, new species of, 476.

Fraser, Dr. T. R., on the moth of the

ordeal-bean of Old Calabar, 389.

Fucus anceps, note on, 184.

Gasteropoda, on the classification of

the, 183.

Geoclemys, new species of, 253.

Georissa, characters of the new ge-

nus, 463.

Glycera, new species of, 98.

Glyphis, new species of, 475.

Glyphis quadriradiata, notes on the

animal of, 144.

Gonothyrea, characters of the genus,

74.

Gould, J., on a new species of Parra-

keet, 248.

Gouriet, M., on the classification of

the Gasteropodous Mollusca, 183.

Gray, Dr. J. E., on new genera of

lizards, 101 ; on the Box Tortoises,

105; on Pustularia rosea and Hya-

526

lonema, 111; on the species of

Sternotheerus, 165 ; on the arrange-

ment of the Cetaceans, 170; on

the eyes of the Emydidz and Ba-

trachia, 175; on a new lizard, 249;

on a new species of Batagur, 252 ;

on a new Geoclemys, 253.

Gray, Prof. A., on scientific nomen-

clature, 517. ‘

Giinther, Dr. A., on a new labyrinthi-

branchiate fish, 211; on Australian

tree-frogs, 250.

Gulliver, G., on raphides, 41, 119,

212, 292, 406, 508.

Haplocochlias, characters of the ge-

nus, 476.

Harvey, Prof. J. H., on Fucus anceps,

184.

Helix, new species of, 137, 210, 491.

Heloderma horridum, on the habits

of, 497.

Henrici, M., on a function of the roots

of plants, 261.

Heteractis, characters of the genus,

359.

Heterocordyle, characters of the ge-

nus, 365,

Hodge, G., on the British Pyenogo-

noidea, with descriptions of new

species, 113.

Hogg, J., on the Byblus-rush and the

Byblus-Bok, 290 ; on the Roman

Imperial and Crested Eagles, 520.

Holaspis, characters of the new ge-

nus, 102

Hyezena, on a new species of, fromthe

Red Crag of Suffolk, 56. j

Hyala, new species of, 478.

Hyalonema, note on, 111.

Hydnophora, new species of. 301.

Hydrobia, new species of, 478.

Hydroida, on the occurrence of amee-

biform protoplasm, and the emis-

sion of pseudopodia, among the,

203 ; on the construction and limi-

tation of genera among the, 345.

Hydrozoa, on new British, 82.

Iacra, new species of, 308.

Iguanas, on the habits of the, 500.

Insects, on the homologies of, 16;

on the reproduction. of the larve

of, 344.

Ischnochiton, new species of, 315.

Jateorhiza, on the species of, 132.

Jerdonia, characters of the genus,

448.

INDEX.

Johnson, J. Y., on a new species of

Penzus, 255; on a new siliceous

sponge, 257. - :

Jones, Prof.T. R., on the Foraminifera

of the Crag, 64. ;

Kagu, notes on the, 342.

Karsten, Prof. H., on the formation,

development, and structure of the

vegetable cell, 265, 409, 479.

Lagocheilus, characters of the new

genus, 452. :

Lagomys, new species of, 95.

Lankester, E. R., on a new species of

Hyena from the Red Crag of Suf-

folk, 56.

Lartet, M., on the existence of man

contemporaneously with the rein-

deer in France, 323. i

Lepidonotus, new species of, 96.

Lepralia, new British species of,

84.

Leptoconchus, new species of, 310.

Leptomya, on the species of, 208.

Leptoscyphus, characters of the ge-

nus, 378

Levicardium, new species of, 313.

Litorina, new species of, 477.

Longicorns of the Amazon Valley, on

the, 43, 144.

Lord, J. K., on two new species of

mammals, 93.

Lucina, new species of, 313.

Ludwig, Dr., on the expulsion of the

carbonic acid from the blood during

respiration, 439.

Man, on the existence of, contempo-

raneously with the reindeer in

France, 323.

Marshall, Rev. T. A., on new genera

and species of Eumolpide, 380.

Membranipora, new British species

of, 8

Menispermacee, on the, 1, 122, 315,

486.

Metaxyonycha, new species of, 384.

Miers, J., on the Menispermacee, 1,

122, 315, 486.

Mitchell, Capt. J., on the climbing ha-

bits of Anabas scandens, 117, 523.

Mithras paradoxus, on the capture of,

in England, 435.

Mollusca, new genera and species of,

307, 311, 474.

Monocaulos, characters of the genus,

370.

Montlivaltia, new species of, 300.

INDEX.

Moreau, A., on the air of the swim-

ming-bladder of Fishes, 262.

Moth of the ordeal-bean, on the, 389.

Mycedium, new species of, 304.

Nacella, new species of, 474.

Narica, new species of, 476.

wey on the Japanese species of,

Nereis, new species of, 98.

Newton, A., on the dispersion of seeds

by birds, 99

Norman, Rev. A. M., on undescribed

. British Hydrozoa, Actinozoa, and

Polyzoa, 82.

—— characters of the genus,

Oculina, new species of, 298.

—— on cell-formation in,

276.

(Edopeza, new species of, 146.

Opalia, new species of, 310.

Ophiolepis gracilis, note on, 111.

Os on new British species of,

Oxathres, description of the new ge-

nus, 50

Pallene, new British species of, 116.

Parker, W. K., on the Foraminifera

of the Crag, 64.

Penzus, new species of, 255.

Philodendron, on the development of

cork-cells in, 270

Photinula, new species of, 140.

Phoxichilidium, new British species

of, 115.

Phrynosoma orbiculare, on the habits

of, 507.

Phylloccenia, new species of, 298.

Pilidium commodum, notes on the

animal of, 142.

Plants, on the law of production of

the sexes in, 68.

Plectrurus, new species of, 180.

ee on the development of the,

479.

Polyteles, new species of, 248.

Polyzoa, on new British, 84.

Poriodogaster, description of the new

genus,

Probatius, new species of, 47.

Psammobia, new species of, 312.

Pupa, new species of, 138, 495.

Pustularia rosea, note on, 111.

Pycnogonoidea, new British, 113.

Raphides, observations on, 41, 119,

12, 292, 406, 508.

527

Red Crag, on the relation of the, to

the fluvio-marine Crag, 185.

Reptiles, Mexican, on the habits of

some, 497.

Rhinophis, new species of, 179.

Rhizocline, characters of the genus,

Rhizopods of England and India, on

the freshwater, 18; on the process

of mineral deposit in the, 72; on

the extent and causes of structural

variation among the, 215

Rhizoxenia, new British species of,

84,

Rissoa, new species of, 477.

Roots, on a function of, 261.

Ruminants, on the period of gestation

of certain, 182.

Sabellaria, new species of, 99.

Salvin, O., on a new species of Cal-

liste, 104.

Sars, G. O., on some dredgings in the

freshwater lakes of Norway, 438.

Sebastes, on the Californian species

of, 333.

Seeds, on the dispersion of, by birds,

Seriphus, description of the genus,

Serpulus Adamsi, notes on the animal

of, 141.

Shells of Southern India, notes on

some, 496.

Silybura, new species of, 177.

Smaragdinella, new species of, 310.

Solemya, new species of, 311.

Spatalura, new species of, 249.

Sponges, on the process of mineral

deposit in the, 72.

Sporetus, description of the new ge-

nus, 54.

Stenolis, description of the genus,

140

Sternothzerus, on the species of, 165.

Stylactis, characters of the genus,

353

Sumichrast, F., on the habits of some

Mexican reptiles, 497.

Swinhoe, R., on a new species of

Zosterops, 176.

Tellina, new species of, 311.

Thecodonta, description of the new

genus, 308

Thury, Prof., on the law of produc-

tion of the sexes in plants, animals,

and man, 68.

528

Tinomiscium, characters of the genus,

Tinospora, on the species of, 315.

Tree-frogs, Australian, observations

on, 250.

Trichonius, description of the new

genus, 52.

Trochoseris, new species of, 303.

Tubiclava, new British species of, 82.

Turcica instricta, notes on the animal

of, 143.

Uropeltidee, new species of, 177.

Vespide, notes on Irish, 466.

Vipera, new species of, 181.

Vogl, Dr. A., on the intercellular sub-

stance and the milk-vessels in the

root of the Dandelion, 264.

INDEX.

Wagner, Prof. N., on the reproduc-

tion of the larvae of insects, 344.

Walker, R.,on Ophiolepis gracilis, 111.

Wallich, Dr. G. C., on the process of

mineral deposit in the Rhizopods

and Sponges, 72; on the extent

and causes of structural variation

smone the Difflugian Rhizopods,

Wood, S. V., on the red Crag, and

on the Drift of the Eastern Coun-

ties, 185; on the Belgian equiva-

lents of the upper and lower Drift

of the Eastern Countida 393.

Zoological Society, proceedings of

the, 93, 165, 248, 330.

Zosterops, new species of, 176.

END OF THE THIRTEENTH VOLUME.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,

RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.