THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,

INCLUDING

ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY.

(BEING A CONTINUATION OF THE ‘ ANNALS’ COMBINED WITH LOUDON AND

CHARLESWORTH ’S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. )

CONDUCTED BY

PRIDEAUX JOHN SELBY, Ese., F.L.S.,

CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Ese., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,

JOHN EDWARD GRAY, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.LS., V.P.Z.S. &e.,

AND

WILLIAM FRANCIS, Ph.D., F.L.S.

— — — — eeaeeeeeeeaEeaEeaEeEeee \

VOL. XVIIl.—THIRD SER

Oo ee

tit, mak

“% \

Lational Museo F

LONDON: =

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS.

SOLD BY LONGMANS, GREEN, READER, AND DYER; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO.,

KENT AND CO.,; BAILLIERE, REGENT STREET, AND PARIS:

MACLACHLAN AND STEWART, EDINBURGH :

HODGES AND SMITH, DUBLIN: AND ASHER, BERLIN.

1866.

«¢Omnes res create sunt divine sapientiz et potenti testes, divitie felicitatis

humane :—ex harum usu bonitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini;

ex ceconomia in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis elucet.

Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibirelictis semper zstimata; a veré eruditis

et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper inimica fuit.’””—

LINNZUS.

* Quel que soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut qu’ouvrir les yeux pour voir

qu'elle est le chef-d’ceuvre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rapportent

toutes ses opérations.”—BrucKNER, Théorie du Systeme Animal, Leyden, 1767.

nies) nace nen < /-) omenecEsyivanupowers

Obey our summons ; from their deepest dells

The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild

And odorous branches at our feet ; the Nymphs

That press with nimble step the mountain-thyme

And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed,

But scatter round ten thousand forms minute

Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock

Or rifted oak or cavern deep: the Naiads too

Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face

They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush

That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles,

Where peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread,

The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne,

All, all to us unlock their secret stores

And pay their cheerful tribute.

J. Taytor, Norwich, 1818.

CONTENTS OF VOL. XVII.

[THIRD SERIES. |

NUMBER XCVII.

I. On the Classification of the Amnelides. By A. DE QUATRE-

II. Carcinological Gleanings. No. II. By C. Spence BATE,

F.R.S. (Plate ID.) ..scsscaseeesseeenseeereneeeeees np abaidiadc batieaabie tans eens

IIL. Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazons Valley.

CoLeoprera: Loneicornes. By H.W. Bares, Esq. «..+-++--++

IV. On the Terrestrial and Fluviatile Mollusca of Trinidad. B

R. J. LecuMEreE Guppy, Civil Service, Trinidad..........-...+++ Seeees

V. Notice of some new Species of Callithria in the Collection of

the British Museum. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &. oseeeeeeeeeeees

VI. Notule Lichenologice. No.I. By the Rev. W. A. LeicutTon,

B.A., F.LS. ..ccecerseoseeeees scat wasp equediaiden epausave eaueisasssnipeaees-emene

VII. Notule Lichenologice. No. II. By the Rev. W. A. Lereu-

TON, B.A., F.LAS. .ccccceceeeeseenseeseneenenes ssafiewes Sensenneenehinesec cers ides

New Books :—Manual of Geology, by the Rev. Samuel Haughton,

M.D., Fellow of Trinity College, Professor of Geology in the

University of Dublin.—Essay on the Trees and Shrubs of the

Ancients ; being the Substance of four Lectures delivered before

the University of Oxford, by C. Daubeny, M.D., Professor of

Botany and Rural Economy.—The Record of Zoological Litera-

ture (1864), Vol. I., edited by Albert C. L. G. Giinther, M.A.,

Page

M.D., Ph.D., F.Z.S. &. ....sssseeeeeeeee seaneuateeuscenehecensitmasas 65—73

Notice of two new Species of Colobus from Western Africa, by Dr. J.

E. Gray; On Purifying the Water for the purpose of Fish-

hatching, by W. H, Ransom, M.D.; On a Fossil Lizard in Copal,

iv CONTENTS.

On the Chevreulius callensis of Lacaze-Duthiers, by Joshua Alder ;

On the Extension of certain marine Fishes to the freshwater

Rivers of India, by T. C. Jerdon, Surgeon-Major ; On the Amphi-

poda of the Adriatic, by Camil Heller ; on a new mode of Para-

sitism observed in an undescribed Animal, by M. Lacaze-Duthiers;

On the Development of the Axolotl (Stredon mexicanus vel Hum-

boldtit), by A. Duméril; On the Multiplicity and Termination

of the Nerves in the Mollusca, by M. Lacaze-Duthiers; On

a new Kind of Illumination for Opaque Objects under High

Page

by Prof. Peters; On the Spawn of the Perch, by W. H. Ransom,

M.D.; On the Vital Resistance of Encysted Colpode, by M.

WietarsMennier Sccr<ccosc2<+.5.ccoodenecateeenee Oeseeee Seudasawsages 77—79

NUMBER XCVIII.

VIII. Conchological Gleanings. By Dr. E. von MARTENS ...... 81

IX. Synopsis of the Genera of Vespertilionide and Noctilionide.

Byer cd. ts: GRAY, ERS avi Lassreces escscs ssscdeseccaateancateremens 89

X. Preliminary Account of a new Cetacean captured on the Shore

at Buenos Ayres. By Dr. HERMANN BurmMetster. (Plate III.) ... 94

XI. Description of some new Species of Butterflies belonging to

the Genus Athyma in the Collection of the British Museum. By

ArtHurR G. Burtier, F.Z.8., Assistant, Zoological Department,

British: Musenmmitsescstcecses-+-secee papadagasonngasadnddconodgeboobeqqsoCcoOdeDES 98

XII. Remarks on M. de Quatrefages’s ‘‘ Note on the Classification

of the Annelides.” By E. CLAPAREDE ......200....cecceeeee sHeanoonabs 100

XIII. On the Classification of the Annelides. By A. DE QuATRE-

FAGES eeocesees Renae acts enenchisins acc aecias Sonia w contacto Sema eaite tomers eassecneiren 107

_ XIV. A Synopsis of the Species of the Genus Collocalia, with

Descriptions of new Species. By GrorcE RoperrT Gray, F.R.S.,

BD LS GOcOoet atc nenarcne tee aeaantwiis asso stis en aaucalsaidoaanassctoceetalceneacapease 118

XV. On the Menispermacee. By Joun Miers, F.R.S., F.L.S. &c. 128

XVI. On the Muscular Force of Insects. By Fé&L1x PLareav... 139

XVII. Descriptions of several Species of Trichopterygide found

by Dr. H. Schaum in various parts of North America and Brazil.

By the Rev. A. MATTHEWS. (Plate V.) ssoccscccescecsessesesceres scoot

“XVIII. Notice of a Japanese Pheasant. By Joun Gou tp, Ksq.,

BUR Su. Scespeesteecaspaneera sta cens smn’ seemarits steeececidenaies coseicaeeneaacete ee... 150

New Book :—The Natural History of the Tineina, by H. T. Stainton,

Wools VU GM ones ceive: omteoesteeGnci te tacacbicanote-secornt eer meauaee 151

CONTENTS. Vv

Page

Powers, by Messrs. Smith, Beck, and Beck; Observations on

some Lepidosirens (Protopterus annectens, Owen) which have

lived in the Menagerie of Reptiles in Paris, and formed their

Cocoon there, by A. Duméril .....ssecesseeeereseeceersensenes 152—160

NUMBER XCIX.

XIX. On the Asexual Reproduction of Cecidomyide Larve. By

Dr he muUcmARtT | (Plate L,)) (ceseerevsseoncencrsseccadegessasassiqeaear 161

XX. Notice of Torynocrinus and other new and little-known Fossils

from the Upper Greensand of Hunstanton, commonly called the

Hunstanton Red Rock. By Harry SEExey, Esq., F.G.S. ......... 173

XXI. Notule Lichenologice. No. HI. By the Rev. W. A.

TIRTGH TON Dele, Dclusy erenasccsseessscaelec-bonscaecssaqasseedsessseseancen 183

XXII. Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazons Valley.

CoLEopTERA: Loncicornges. By H. W. Bates, Esq. ..........+. 191

XXIII. Conchological Gleanings. By Dr. E. von Martens ... 202

XXIV. On Phthiriasis, and on the Structure of the Mouth in

Pediculus. By Professor J. C. SCHIODTE ...+ee.ssseeeeeseneeneescetenees 213

XXV. On the Tubulation of the Valves of Rhynchopora Geinitziana,

De Verneuil. By Professor W. KING ...ssssesessesecseeeenccecneeeeneees 230

New Books :—Catalogue of the Coleopterous Insects of the Canaries

in the Collection of the British Museum, by T. Vernon Wollaston,

M.A., F.L.S.—Coleoptera Atlantidum ; bemg an Enumeration

of the Coleopterous Insects of the Madeiras, Salvages, and Cana-

ries, by T. Vernon Wollaston, M.A., F.L.S. ..scccseseseeseeeneeeees 233

Naturalization of Zosterops dorsalis in New Zealand, by Dr. J. E.

Gray, F.R.S. &e.; The Boar Fish (Capros aper), by Dr. J. E.

Gray, F.R.S. &e.; On the Occurrence of Paludicella Ehrenbergi

in Shropshire, by the Rev. W. Houghton ; General Considerations

on the Circulation of the Lower Animals, by M. Lacaze-Duthiers

237, 238

NUMBER C.

XXVI. On Germination at different Degrees of Constant Tempera-

ture. By M. ALPH. DE CANDOLLE. (Plate IV.) ........00+ ss aati 241

XXVII. On the Menispermacee. By Joun Mrers, F.RS., F.L.S.

Qe eaten ae canara ahaa ener etwas accra danaea ss terssess madaiempaianenvedceeswensni 265

XXVIII. Notule Lichenologice. No. IV. By the Rev. W. A.

vi CONTENTS.

Page

LercuTon, B.A., F.L.S.—Prof. Gibelli on the Reproductive Organs

OLMEDO VETLTUCUT1 Oita ciicnnepiscaasen casas sc tosessecten descecaneae nec ctewote ene eeeee 270

XXIX. On the Pleistocene Fossils collected by Col. E. Jewett at

Sta. Barbara (California); with Descriptions of new Species. By

Paviie PACsnPeNTER, B.A., Ph.D). ...0.0+ssoceeseeeeane b ithigiccsGbinwmaine 274

XXX. On the Float of the lanihine. By Dr. H. Lacazs-

DUMPED RS rec occ coc seco cdeccesecect ae seleecesemsnanaacenecate Semen en coeecaee 278

XXXI. Descriptions of some new Species of Diurnal Lepidoptera

in the Collection of the British Museum. By A. G. Bur.er, F.Z.S.,

Assistant, Zoological Department, British Museum ...........seeeeeeeee 285

XXXII. Some Account of a new Species of Fern (Polystichum

Maderense) recently discovered in the Island of Madeira. By James

NOAH OEINS ONG COL MeL stuscacneidececisceccenansiecserse aes hsee tants 287

XXXIILI. Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazons Valley.

CoLrorTERA: Loncicornes. By H. W. BATss, Esq. ........... 288

XXXIV. Additional Observations on Ziphiorrhynchus. By Dr.

H. Burmeister. (Plate VI.) ...... atlesentoanile ceecaomnaassins cocaeen sie 303

XXXV. On Rhynchonella Geinitziana. By W. B. CARPENTER,

AVES Hass, Pe 1s1S gE Gr Se. gncees rca sescas nevinscascmeacsiss acseienaeaeaenme 306

XXXVI. Notes on some Peculiarities in the Eye of the Mackerel.

By Roserr Dyce, M.D., F.R.S. Edin., Professor of Midwifery,

University of Aberdeen. (Plate VIL.) ....csssssssesseseeeeeeseneeeeerene 307

Note on the Genera Amphipeplea and Assiminea, by J. Gwyn Jeffreys,

Esq., F.R.S.; On the Existence of a Third Membrane in the

Anther, by A. Chatin; New Fishes from the Iberian Peninsula,

and from South America, by Dr. Steindachner; The White-

beaked Bottlenose ; Domesticated Whales ; Capture of a Ribbon-

fish; Note on the Genus Chevreulius of Lacaze-Duthiers, by

Dr. O. A. L. Moérch; On the Functions of the Air-cells, and the

Mechanism of Respiration, in Birds, by Dr. Drosier; On the

Organs of Parturition in the Kangaroos, by Edmond Alix;

Descriptions of Twenty-one new Fishes from Port Jackson, and

One from Port Natal, by Dr. F. Stemdachner; On the probable

Existence of Accessory Eyes in a Fish, by Prof. R. Leuckart

; 309—320

NUMBER CI.

XXXVII. An Epitome of the Evidence that Pterodactyles are not

Reptiles, but a new Subclass of Vertebrate Animals allied to Birds

(Saurornia). By Harry SEELEY, Esq., F.G.S. ......seseeeeeeeeeeenees 321

XXXVIII. On the Developmental History of the Nematode Worms.

By RupoLeH LEUCKART «eeeeeseeeeeeee peeeiiae wieclnshiss .ssshitdnitles omer R ee = 331

CONTENTS. Vil

Page

XXXIX. Notule Lichenologice. No. V. By the Rev. W. A.

Letenton, B.A., F.L.S.—Dr. W. Nylander on New British Lichens. 348

XL. On the Morphological Structure and the Motory Phenomena

of the Contractile Substance of the Polythalamia (Gromia oviformis).

Big Eaten CORED saiavis S cacnsasels ceed derseineseitleidnisisulaaslen'e Cu eanioueioat sine nee 351

XLI. On a new Species of Astacus. By Dr. E. von Martens... 359

XLII. On the various Modes of Coloration of Feathers. By M.

Mine mae Ap irl savenni2s <asiads ded Stteeeidan va Sai dcliatnlccnds tossccnetonsedaactens 361

XLIII. Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazons Valley.

Co.ErorreRA Lonaicornes. By H. W. Barns, Esq. ..........000- 367

New Book ;—Our Reptiles: a plain and easy Account of the Lizards,

Snakes, Newts, Toads, Frogs, and Tortoises indigenous to Great

Erigariy by Mey Cx COOKE fst. :: aoesececncucaescmannee dare earencecmebans 373

Proceedings of the Royal Institution :—

Sir Jonn Lussock on the Metamorphoses of Insects............ 375

On the Parturition of the Marsupials, by Professor R. Owen ; New

Fluid for preserving Natural-History Specimens, by A. E. Verrill;

On the Urticating Capsules of some Polypes and Acalephs, by

Karl Mobius; On the Swimming-Bladder and Sexual Organs of

the Murenoid Fishes, by Prof. Kner; Annelida and Turbellaria

of Guernsey, by E. Ray Lankester; On the “Capture of a

Ribbonfish,”” by John Hogg, F.L.S.; Notes on the Dactylethre,

by J. P. Mansell Veale ; On the Occurrence of Bones of Marmots

near Graz, by Professor Oscar Schmidt ; Researches upon Hy-

drobiine and allied Forms, by Dr. William Stimpson; The Pla-

centoid, a new Organ of Anthers, by M. Chatin ; On the Method

of Flight of the Flyingfish, by Horace Mann; On some Marsu-

pial Fishes, by L. Agassiz; On the Occurrence of an Internal

Convoluted Plate within the Body of certain Species of Crinoidea,

by James Hall; On the Fossil British Oxen—Part I. Bos Urus,

Cesar, by W. Boyd Dawkins, Esq., M.A., F.G.S.; Note on the

Presence of Teeth on the Maxille of Spiders, by Miss Staveley

382—399

NUMBER CII.

XLIV. On the Anatomy and Physiology of the Vorticellidan Para-

site (Trichodina pediculus, Ehr.) of Hydra. By Prof. H. JamzEs-

CruAne, A: Ba BS. (Plates! VIID./S& 1X.) 0.0: See cecianh ere soe 401

XLV. Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazons Valley.

CoLropTERA : Loncicornes. By H. W. Bares, Esq. ...........« 425

gia yees 2s

Vili CONTENTS.

Page

XLVI. Note on the Identity of certain Species of Diurnal Lepido-

ptera. By ARTHUR GARDINER BUTLER, F.Z.S........ceccscnseceeseees 435

XLVII. Notule Lichenologice. No VI. By the Rev. W. A.

LeicutTon, B.A., F.L.S.—Dr. Ernst Stizenberger on the Saxicolar

SPECIES OL OPEGTODNG —....ceodncenesenicacasmonenoniaeeeieaaeenmhs vscsmmdesewaess 437

XLVIII. Observations on the ‘‘ Prodrome of a Monograph of the

Pinnipedes, by Theodore Gill.” By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S. 444

XLIX. On the Developmental History of the Nematode Worms.

BYR UDOLPH: UBUCKART 4 <0. c0ediyccenetasascce-«-fcer tes teepanss eae 447

L. Note on some new Facts in Botanical Geography. By EpMonp

IBOTES DUR © ions ctccse sorcdosenednermencs-t-i-setakh oath seek auauriseeerciee dae 464

New Book :—The Geology and Scenery of the North of Scotland;

being Two Lectures given at the Philosophical Institution, Edin-

burgh. With Notes and an Appendix. By James Nicol,

ARIS AES PAGS. 805. 0 ocecesnosinas+>eecenenent smaseteuscnsoansanenenees 467

Greyhounds run Wild; On the Perforating Bryozoa of the Family

Terebriporidz, by P. Fischer; On the Systematic Position of the

Lepidosirens, by Professor W. Peters ; Remarks on some Bones

of the Dodo (Didus ineptus) recently collected in the Mauritius,

hyeAlph; Milne-Pidwards i. c205% «scsscrcesucedaguissasaeeanenne 47\—473

PLATES IN VOL. XVII.

Piate I. Asexual Reproduction of Cecidomyide Larve.

II. New British Species of Caradina. Sphzroma vastator.

III. Ziphiorrhynchus eryptodon.

IV. Germination-curves at different Degrees of Constant Tempera-

ture.

V. New Species of Trichopterygide.

VI. Ziphiorrhynchus cryptodon.

VII. Structure of the Eye of the Mackerel.

VIN | Anatomy and physiology of Trichodina pediculus.

Erratum :—In page 286, for Euodia read Enodia.

a OS

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES. ]

SSiorasnctesatwesses per litora spargite muscum,

Naiades, et circdm vitreos considite fontes :

Pollice virgineo teneros hic carpite flores :

Floribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum.

At vos, 0 Nymphe Craterides, ite sub undas ;

Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco

Vellite muscosis e rupibus, ct mihi conchas

Ferte, Dez pelagi, et pingui conchylia succo,””

N. Parthenii Gianncettasii Ecl.1.

No. 97. JANUARY 1866.

].—On the Classification of the Annelides.

By A. pe Quatreraces*.

Act naturalists know what Linnzeus and his immediate successors

understood by the word Vermes; they also know that Cuvier was

the first to disentangle the chaos in which the want of precise

knowledge had long left this mass of Invertebrata, and that in

consequence of the division of the animal kingdom into four

sections (embranchements), the expression Vermes ceased for a long

time to be applied to any group of the animals of which it had

formerly been the common designation. Without enumerating

here the numerous endeavours made for the purpose of perfection-

ating the first conceptions of the great reformer of zoology, I

shall merely remind the reader that M. Milne-Edwards proposed

to divide the Articulata of Cuvier into two subsections ; that one

of these divisions has received the name of Vermes, which ap-

peared to be finally struck out of our scientific catalogues ; and

that this view has been accepted by a great number of natural-

ists. For my part, I believe it to be fully justified.

The subsection Vermes being thus established, it remains to

*Translated by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., from the ‘ Annales des Sciences

Naturelles,’ 1865, Zoologie, p.253. This memoir includes a reply to some

remarks by M. Claparéde on M. Quatrefages’ system ; of the latter a transla-

tion will appear in a future Number.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvii. 1

2 M.A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides.

divide it into subordinate groups. Many attempts have been

made in this direction: I myself, as early as 1849, proposed a

distribution which, dividing the Vermes into two series com-

posed of corresponding terms, allows us to appreciate and dis-

tinguish the relations of analogy and the relations of affinty*.

This mode of conception of this embarrassing group, which every-

thing seems to me to justify more and more, led me from that

period to separate from the class of Annelida two great groups

which had been united therewith by Cuvier, Lamarck, and their

successors, namely the Lumbricina and the Hirudinea, which to

me constitute two distinct classes, that of the Erythrema and that

of Bdellea.

Thus reduced, the class of Annelida, as I understand it, no

longer contains either the armed Gephyrea, which have been

placed among the Cheetopod Annelides by several naturalists, or

the Leeches and Lumbricina. It 1s composed entirely of the

Annélides dorsibranches and Annélides tubicoles of Cuvier (A. né-

réidées and A. serpulées of Savigny ; A. errantes and A. tubicoles

of Audouin and Milne-Edwards, and of most authors ; Rapacia,

Limivora, and Gymnocopa of Grube).

As by most of my predecessors, the totality of species here to

be arranged is divided by me into two orders ; but the conside-

rations which have led me to this result differ from those which

have generally been followed. Hence result considerable differ-

ences in the formation of the orders themselves and of the sub-

orders, and in the number and arrangement of the families.

The latter first occupied my attention. In my eyes they con-

stitute the fundamental element of every systematic classification.

Essentially they are only the Linneean genera better understood

and better defined. The species once distributed into really

natural families, their grouping in divisions of a higher order

pecomes at once easier and more certain, and in any case we

must pretty nearly get correct aud distinct notions upon the.

totality of the class.

It is because I am deeply convinced of the truth of the pre-

ceding statements that I set myself especially, and in the first

place, to limit my families strictly, not placing in them any but

% here reproduce the table which I published in the * Institut’ (No-

816) :— .

Dic:cIOoUS WORMS. Monccious WORMS.

Annélides. Eryihrémes.

Rotateurs.

Géphyriens.

Malacobdelles. Bdelles.

Myocaleés. Turlellariés.

Neématoides.

Cestoides.

M. A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides. 8

those genera whose relationship was indisputable, and their affi-

nities easily grasped. Now the class of Annelides, in conse-

quence of its very great variability of type, presents a great num-

ber of genera which, although composed of very well-known

species, do not present this double character. In such cases I

have not hesitated to isolate them—to place them, so to speak,

outside the series—depending on the investigations of my succes-

sors to assign them sooner or later a definitive place. Systematic

minds, those who always require absolute conclusions, will pro-

bably blame me for having acted thus ; but those naturalists who

prefer certainty to rapidity of progress will, I hope, approve my

course. I have also, of course, placed among the zncert@ sedis

those species and genera upon which we are in want of sufficient

data ; but I have endeavoured to determine at least the family

to which they should be referred, and I believe I have succeeded in

the great majority of cases.

Another consequence of the precision which I have endea-

voured to introduce in the establishment of the families has

been that 1 have been led to increase their number more than

had been done by any of my predecessors. Savigny only

reckoned seven, which is due to the small number of species

known in his day. Johnston increased this number to fifteen,

Grube to nineteen, and Schmarda to twenty-one. Although I

place Grube’s entire family Amitidea among the incerte sedis, I

have thought it necessary to divide the class into twenty-six

families.

This multiplication of fundamental groups will not, however,

at all surprise those who take account of the progress made

since the publication of the ‘Systéme des Annélides’ (1820).

Savigny only admitted twenty-six genera. Mulne-Edwards, in

the second edition of Lamarck’s work (1880), admitted forty-

nine. At the time of the publication of his ‘ Familien der Anne-

liden’? (1851) Grube classified eighty-six genera. In 1861

Schmarda, in his ‘ Neue wirbellose Thiere,’ admits ninety-seven.

Now, by adding to the labours of my predecessors the results of

my own investigations, either on the sea-shore or in the magni-

ficent collections of the museum, I have arrived at the number

of 245 genera, of which 181 have been able to be placed in a

systematic series, and 64 still remain incerte sedis for reasons

which I have just indicated.

I do not, however, think that I have allowed myself to be

betrayed into an exaggerated multiplication of these elementary

groups. The number of constituent species has never appeared

to me to be a real reason for effecting a breaking up which

would not have reposed upon a totality of precise characters.

This exigency has even led me to reject several genera established

4 M.A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides.

by my predecessors. In every case where, in a collection of

species, the differences have appeared to me to depend solely

upon the more or less marked development of one or several

characters, I have united them in a single generic group,

confining myself to the establishment in the latter of tribes and

sections fitted to facilitate investigation. Thus the genus

Polynoé, for example, contaming seventy-seven species, has

been ‘divided into two tribes and ten sections.

In return, whenever I have noticed very distinct characters,

I have not hesitated to establish a genus, even should it contain

only a single species. This circumstance has occurred several

times in the family of the Syllidea. ere the confusion of the

two parts of the head, and the consequent non-distinction of

the antennee and tentacles, had often caused the union of spe-

cies which, when once the nature of these parts and organs was

recognized, evidently required to be separated.

The families once determined, it remained to group them in

orders and suborders. ‘This distribution, attempted at different

times, had led my predecessors to results which sometimes

differed considerably. Without dwelling upon purely historical

details, I shall confine myself here ‘a the indication of the

course followed by me.

If there be a group in which the employment of aux the

characters is not only useful but necessary in the appreciation

of zoological relations, it is most certainly the group of Annelides,

and this in consequence of the extreme variability by which it

is distinguished. But the more we attempt to grasp the

characters, the more indispensable does it become to arrange

them in the order of their importance. Now to judge of this

importance the naturalist must choose between two modes of

action which are very different, although often confounded—

that of Cuvier and that of Jussieu.

The former places himself at the physiological point of view.

He seeks the dominating characters in the organs charged with

the function which appears to him to be of the highest value.

This mode of appreciation presupposes that each function is

performed by means of a special organ. Now at the present

day we know that this is by no means the case in a great

number of Invertebrata. The method of Cuvier therefore re-

poses on an @ priori which is true for the Vertebrata and for

some groups of Invertebrata, but incorrect for the rest. The

Annelides present frequent examples of this inexactitude, and,

indeed, precisely in the order of the anatomical arrangements

belongmg to one of the most important functions, to one of

those which Cuvier placed in the foremost rank—that of respi-

ration. It is scarcely necessary to refer to the fact that, in this

M. A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides. 5

class, certain groups have well-developed branchie, whilst other

groups, sometimes very nearly allied to the former, do not

present the least trace of special respiratory organs. Cuvier’s

principle, and the rules which he deduced from it, are therefore

inapplicable to this class.

Jussieu kept strictly to observation. With him the most

essential character is that which persists in the largest number

of species and groups. This rational and wise manner of

appreciating the value of characters is that which I have thought

it necessary to adopt.

It has led me to recognize that one of the fundamental

principles taught by Blainville had in this case a very decided

value, and that it was in the modifications of the external form

that we should seek for the bases of the distribution of the

families.

Thus the Annelides are essentially dicecious animals, com-

posed of segments which repeat themselves, and bear on each

side a perfectly characteristic organ—a foot armed with exsertile

and retractile sete.

It was natural enough to think that the modifications bearing

on this general type must have a great value in relation to the

present matter. In particular, every exception to the law of

repetition appeared necessarily to take a place in the first rank,

and to be the more important in proportion as it reached a

greater number of secondary groups.

In fact, when we examine the Annelides from this point of

view, we find that they divide at once into two groups. In one

of these the same parts are repeated from one extremity of the

body to the other. Hence the animals present no distinct re-

gions. ‘This group constitutes our first order, that of the AN-

NELIDE ERRATICA. It is composed almost entirely of species

belonging to the Dorsibranches of Cuvier, the Hrrantes of MM.

Audouin and Milne-Edwards, and the Rapacia of Grube; I

have only added to them the Chloremea and the Polyoph-

thalmea.

In the second group the law of repetition of parts is suddenly

interrupted in particular places, and the body is thus composed

of distinct regions, in each of which the segments resemble

each other, whilst they differ from one region to the other. This

constitutes is for me the order of the A. sypENTARIA. It includes

all the Tubicoles of Cuvier and of Audouin and Milne-Edwards—

that is to say, the Serpulées of Savigny, the Limivora of Grube.

I also place with them a certain number of the Hrrantes of the

former, some Rapacia of the latter of these naturalists, and the

Tomopterides (Gymnocopa, Gr.).

Each of these two orders is divided into two suborders by

6 M.A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelid

means of considerations of the same nature, and derived like-

wise from exceptions presented to the law of repetition.

Thus in the first order (A. erratice) the greatest number of

the species are entirely composed of similar segments ; in other

words, the repetition is manifested from segment to segment.

In some others the repetition only takes place from pair to pair

of segments, at least on the greater part of the body. The

former constitute for me the suborder of Erratice proprie; the

latter that of the Hrratice aberrantes.

In the same way, among the Sedentariz, a very small group,

including only the Chetopterea, shows us the law of repetition

failmg in the segments of a single region; it constitutes for

me the suborder of Sedentarie aberrantes. In the second sub-

order of this division the law of repetition is observed in the

different regions of the body; it includes the S. propria.

As a matter of course, in the establishment of the families, I

have taken into account anatomical and physiological as well as

external characters. But in the table which I have the honour

to place before the reader, I have had recourse solely to the

latter, in order to facilitate the zoological study of the species.

The armature of the mouth, the absence or presence of branchie,

the position and form of the latter, the absence or the presence

of certain appendages of the head or of the feet, the modifica-

tions of these latter, &c., have been employed successively in

the order just indicated. This order itself was the consequence

of the principle of the relative constancy of the characters.

It has enabled me to characterize each family with precision,

and to group them in such a manner as to bring into relief a

certain number of general results, well fitted, it appears to me,

to justify the method followed.

Thus, on glancing at the accompanying table, every natu-

ralist will perceive that the divisions resulting from considera-

tions derived solely from external characters are equally homo-

geneous from an anatomical point of view. He will also perceive

that the totality of the families in the two orders subdivides into

secondary groups corresponding to so many more or less im-

portant subtypes, of which the representatives are united ; and,

lastly, that the exceptional or aberrant types are also quite na-

turally brought to the notice of the reader. I may be permitted

to dwell a little upon these considerations.

Leaving out of consideration for the present the Suborders I.

and III., including the general aberrant types of the two great

fundamental divisions, there remain, as composing the Frratice

propria, thirteen families, and ten for the Sedentarie propria.

Let us first notice the former.

The presence of cephalic rotatory apparatus serving for loco-

M. A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides. 7

motion, in the first place sets completely on one side the very

exceptional type of the Polyophthalmea. The remaining twelve

families represent the type of the A. erratice in all essential

points.

These twelve families are themselves divided into two groups,

remarkably distinct in many respects, although the table only

indicates one difference, that presented by the armature of the

mouth. The Hunicea and Lumbrinerea on the one hand, and

on the other the ten other families, present, from an anato-

mical point of view, such marked contrasts, that it will probably

some day be necessary to represent them in the classification

itself, by forming a separate suborder with the two families

just mentioned. Thus, to cite only a very striking fact, I will

mention that, according to investigations of my own already of

an old date, the stomatogastrie nervous system originates upon

the cerebrum itself in the Hunicea and Lumbrinerea, whilst it

issues from the connective in the Neretdea, the Nephthydea, the

Phyllodocea, the Glycerea, &c. The digestive apparatus pre-

sents equally remarkable differences, extending not only to the

armature, but even to the organization of the trunk.

The ten families with the buccal armature simple, or none, also

divide into some well-marked secondary groups. Of these,

the Glycerea alone form one. In them the head seems to at-

tempt a repetition of the body on a small scale, and in the

opposite direction. It is composed of more or less numerous

segments, and thus departs completely from the ordinary type.

It may be remarked that this morphological modification hke-

wise coincides with very interesting anatomical peculiarities,

among which I shall limit myself to citing the presence of dis-

tinct globules in the blood, the existence of branchize of an ex-

ceptional structure, the almost complete absence of inter-

annular diaphragms, &c.

The Glycerea set on one side, we find two groups very dis-

tinctly characterized by the presence and absence of branchi.

A perfectly similar fact had already presented itself in the group

of Krraticee with the buccal armature complicated. But, in the

the latter, the disappearance of the branchize may be regarded

as a simple fact of organic simplification coincident with others

bearing especially upon the vascular apparatus. The type,

moreover, remains the same in the arrangement of the nervous

system and digestive apparatus. In point of fact, the Lwm-

brinerea are degraded Eunicea. It is otherwise with the Er-

raticee with a simple buccal armature. We cannot, for ex-

ample, regard the type of the Nereidea as derived by degrada-

tion from the type Nephthys ; for the former, in all respects equal

to the latter, is superior to it in some particulars (such as the

8 M.A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides.

development of the trunk and of the stomatogastric nervous

apparatus). Still less can we refer the Neretdea to the Nerinea

or the Cirratulea by considerations of the same nature. We

are even led to see that, whilst in the Erraticze with a com-

plicated buccal armature the superiority belongs incontestably

to the branchiate family, in those with a simple buccal arma-

ture the superiority reverts, on the contrary, to one at least of

the abranchiate families (Nerezdea). Nevertheless, in both di-

visions, the branchiate and abranchiate species very evidently

occupy the position of mutually corresponding terms, if we place

ourselves at the systematic point of view of respiration.

From what has just been said, it follows that the Erratic with

a complicated buccal armature form a remarkably natural divi-

sion, inasmuch as the type, remaining the same, presents itself

to the naturalist sometimes as being realized very completely,

sometimes as degraded. The two families resulting from these

different conditions are, moreover, very homogeneous. In the

first, that of the Hunicea, which possesses branchiz, these vary

as regards their form and complication, without its being possi-

ble, however, to separate the gencra from each other. The same

intimate relations exist between the genera belonging to the

abranchiate family (Lumbrinerea).

Nothing of this kind occurs among the Erraticee with a sim-

ple buccal armature. Here, in the branchiate species, the least

variation in the respiratory organ coincides with other modifica-

tions of sufficient importance for the multiplication and distinet

separation of the families, and these modifications affect even the

most central organs, the nervous system. The composition of

the cerebrum and the mode of distribution of the nervous trunks

are quite exceptional in the Nephthydes, which, in other respects,

would closely approach the Neretdea and the Phyllodocea; the

Nerinea have the abdominal chain double, and in this respect

resemble the best-characterized Sedentariz (Serpule and Sabelle);

the Cirratuli, on the contrary, present abdominal ganglia which

appear as if fused into a ribbon, which, again, reminds us of what

exists in other Sedentarize (C/ymene). All these facts, and many

others, indicate the existence of several distinct secondary types

in this totality of branchiate Erraticee with the buccal armature

simple.

We find rather more heterogencity in the species of the same

division which are destitute of branchiee. Here the Neretdea may

be regarded to a certain extent as the highest expression of a

type to which belong the Sy/idea, the Hesionea, and the Phyllo-

docea. Nevertheless the resemblance is not strongly marked,

either internally or externally.

The Syllidea, a great number of which would perhaps depart

M.A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides. 9

less widely from the family with which they have been so long

united, are, however, well distinguished by a striking degrada-

tion both internal and external. Moreover, in proportion as we

are acquainted with it, this family of Sy/lidea acquires more and

more the physiognomy of a little world apart, in which organic

variability is displayed within still more extended limits than in

the rest of the class, and which of itself presents examples of

some of the most interesting physiological phenomena. I refer

to the facts of geneagenesis which have hitherto only been ob-

served in this family and in some small species of Sedentari of

which we cannot make a distinct family.

To sum up, of the fifteen families which compose the order

Erraticze, seven possess branchie, and eight are destitute of those

organs. The advantage in favour of the latter increases consi-

derably when we descend to the details of specics and genera.

To the abranchiate types belong all those genera which are dis-

tinguished by the number of their specics (such as Polynoé,

seventy- seven species, Nereis, cighty-one specics). If we exa-

mine the order Sedentarize from this point of view, we find that

it is in quite a different case. Here, of eleven families, three only

are deprived of branchial organs; eight possess well-marked

branchie. Moreover, of the three abranchiate families (Cheto-

pterea, Tomopteridea, Clymenea), there are two which together

only include three genera with very few species; whilst among

the branchiate families we find the richest in genera and species

(Terebellea and Serpulea*). From this comparison we may con-

clude that among the Erratic Annelides the type tends up toa

certain point to be realized without special respiratory organs ;

whilst among the Sedentary Annelides the opposite’ tendency is

most distinctly manifested.

In both orders we meet with species bearing branchiz on the

head, and others bearing them on the body. But in the Erra-

ticee the former form only a single family, composed of a small

number of genera and species (Chloremeat); in the Sedentariz,

on the contrary, the family which presents this peculiarity is

much richer in genera and species (Serpulea). Moreover the

Chloremea, by the totality of their organization, and especially

by the entirely exceptional arrangement of their ‘digestive appa-

ratus, constitute a truly aberrant group in the midst of the other

families of the order. On the contrary, the Sedentarie with

cephalic branchiz probably present the most complete realization

of the type of the order to which they belong.

If we were better acquainted with the organization of the Seden-

tariz with abdominal somatic branchie, we might probably be

* The Sabelle and allied genera belong, in my opinion, to this family.

+ With me the buccal ring forms part ‘of the head.

10 M.A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides.

able to show that the converse is equally true. But here the

most important type, that of the Ariciea, is wanting, and our

data are sufficient only as regards the Arenicolea. Now, to judge

from this example, we may say that the species which present

this peculiarity depart in certain respects from the general type

of the class, and are sufficiently removed from the type of the

order to have led to their having been often removed from it.

Savigny placed the Aricie among his Néréidés (Erratice).

He has been imitated by Cuvier, Blainville, Audouin and

Edwards, Grube, &e. Most of these authors have referred the

Arenicole and the Ophelie to the same type. On the other

hand, the Siphostomata, the Pheruse, &c., species of the family

Chloremea, have generally been placed by the side of species

which enter into our order of Sedentariz as established here.

Whilst acting otherwise than my predecessors, I can easily

understand how they were led to the conclusions which I dis-

pute. It is impossible to deny the resemblances which ally the

Chloremea to the best-characterized Sedentariz. On the other

hand, the Arenicole, the Ophelia, and especially the Aricie, have

certainly something which approximates them to the Erratice.

But these relations in both eases are due to analogies, and not to

affinities. The Chloremea are the representatives of the type of

the Sedentarie in the midst of the true Erraticee. The Opheliea,

the Arenicole, and the Aricie in the same way are the repre-

sentatives of the Erratice among the Sedentarie. There is,

so to speak, reciprocity between the two orders—each of them

having in the other some species which recall it to mind.

These species, up to a certain point, are reciprocal terms of one

another. *

The preceding examples perhaps will not suffice to lead all

naturalists to admit the fact, here of fundamental importance, of

this reciprocity of representation, and the consequences which

flow from it for the appreciation of true relations of affinity. The

following is another and a more conclusive one, because it bears

in both orders upon families as well marked as possible, because

the inverse modifications bearing upon the same organs are at

once very simple and very striking, and because, whilst influ-

encing one of the most essential characters of the order, they do

not authorize the formation even of new families, but only of

tribes.

The family of Neretdea as circumscribed by me is certainly one

of the most natural and best defined. Hssentially it includes only

the genera Lycastis and Nerets of the old writers. rsted in

describing the Heteronercides, and Blainville in founding the

genus Neretlepas, effected mere dismemberments relatively to

Savigny. But from the point of view which has served me for

M. A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides. 11

the division of the Annelides in general, it will be seen that

these two genera form, in reality, a small and very remarkable

separate group. In fact, the law of repetition so generally ap-

plied in the Erratic, and so manifest in the Nerezdes proper,

here undergoes a striking exception. In the Heteroneretdes

especially, the foot, that fundamental organ, changes its form

rapidly posteriorly in such a manner that the body presents two

perfectly well-marked regions. Here, then, the essential cha-

racter of the Sedentariz makes its appearance. Is it possible

from this fact alone to transport the Heteroneretdes to that order?

Or should we even isolate them from the Nerevdes? A more

careful examination shows that both these conclusions would be

equally unjustified.

Thus anteriorly the Heteronereides are in all respects true

Nereitdes, both externally and internally. The feet in particular

are exactly the ordinary feet of the Neretdes, to their very least

details; and these feet are essentially arranged for walking.

Posteriorly the body itself presents no change; it remains the

body of a Nerews. ‘The feet alone are modified so as to become

powerful organs of natation. But while becoming adapted to

this new function, they still retain their original type. We find

in them all the elements of the anterior feet, occupying the same

position under slightly different forms, and complicated only by

a small number of accessory parts.

The differences between the anterior and posterior regions are

therefore more apparent than real; but the division of the body

into two distinct parts exists none the less. There is here evi-

dently as it were a reflexion of the type of the Sedentarize

making its appearance in the midst of one of the families most

clearly belonging to the Erratice.

The Terebellea and the Serpulea present us with the exact réci-

proque of the preceding fact. In both we find a certain number

of species which, as regards the two anterior regions (the head

and thorax), completely realize the type of their family, but in

which the posterior region of the abdomen no longer presents in

its rami and sete those changes which characterize it in the

normal Sedentariz, in the Serpulea proper. In these exceptional

species the abdominal feet remain similar to those of the thorax,

so that from one extremity of the body to the other we find no

more distinct regions than in the Erratic. Nevertheless, in all

other respects these species remain faithful to their types.

Thus these abnormal Sedentariz are true Terebellea, or true

Serpulea in their anterior portion, as the Heteronereides are true

Nereidea in the same part of the body. In the posterior region

the Heteroterebellea and Heteroserpulea approach the Erratice, as

the Heteronereides approach the Sedentariz in the same region.

12 M. A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides.

In the latter the resemblance is produced by the appearance of

an exceptionally distinct region ; in the former bythe disappearance

of anormally distinct region. In all it is in the feet that the unusual

characters are manifested. Lastly, however striking these charac-

ters may be, they are the result of modifications which are really

very simple, and which in no respect alter the special type of

the organs affected.

It seems to me impossible to imagine a more complete fact of

reciprocity, or one better fitted to ‘illustrate the nature of the

relations resulting from modifications of this kind. It is evi-

dent that we cannot place the Heteroneretdes among the Seden-

tari, any more than we can arrange a Heterotercbelea among the

Erratice. We cannot even isolate the former from the family

of the Neretdea, or the second from that of the Terebellea, with-

out the rupture of the most evident affinities. But these affini-

ties are here complicated by relations of analogy. In the case

before us the latter are much less marked than the affinities, and

no one will hesitate as to the place belonging to the species under

consideration. On the other hand, the analogies become stronger,

and the affinitics less marked in the <Arenicole, Aricie, and

Ophelia; and this has has led to the confounding of these two

sorts of relations, and to the placing of these three last genera

among the Hrraticze, whilst the Siphustomata (Chloremea) were

removed to the Sedentariz.

The reader will now understand, I hope, what I mean by the

words reciprocal terms, and the nature of the relations which

these terms present either with the group to which they some-

times seem to belong, or with that to which they belong in

reality. I believe that the investigation of facts of the same

kind must, in certain cases, be of considerable importance, and

that such will be discovered elsewhere than among the Annelides

—for example, among the Acephalous Mollusca.

It is not uninteresting to inquire which of the two orders into

which the Annelides are divided makes the most efforts, so to

speak, to establish these relations of reciprocity. The share is,

in fact, very unequal: among the Erratice a single family

betrays in its entirety certain characters which place it in the

category of groups of which we are now speaking (Chloremea).

Among the Sedentariz we find three (Arenicolea, Ariciea, and

Serpulea), and perhaps a fourth (Leucodorea). In the first order

a single family must be divided into tribes, in consequence of

modifications which this type undergoes in the direction now

under consideration (Nereidea). We find two of these in the

second (Terebellea, Serpulea); moreover, in both of them the

number of heteromorphous genera is much greater than in the

lVereidea.

M.A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides. 13

It will be seen, I hope, from what precedes, that the reciprocal

terms are very distinct from corresponding terms, although the

existence of the latter depends equally upon considerations de-

rived from analogy, and not from affinity. There is correspondence

when, in two great groups more or less remote, we find similar

and not inverse modifications being produced. For example, the

branchiate and abranchiate Sedentariz are in a general way and

in certain respects the corresponding terms of the branchiate and

abranchiate Erraticee. Nevertheless in this case the organic and

morphological differences are sometimes great enough at least to

dissemble these analogies. And yet, on close examination, it is

difficult not to be struck by the fact that in both orders the

respiratory organs present extremely similar modifications. Thus,

at the first glance, the cephalic branchie of the Chloremea

resemble those of certain low Sedentariz* ; the arborescent so-

matic branchie of certain Amphinomea evidently correspond with

the branchiz situated in the same region of the body, and pre-

senting the same form, in the Arenicolea; and I may say the

same of the branchize of the Nephthydea and Nerinea as com-

pared with those of the Ariciea and Hermellea.

But it is especially in the details of certain families, and when

the genera become numerous, that we see numerous correspond-

ing terms make their appearance. We may judge of this by a

mere glance at the table of Syllidea. Here the number of well-

characterized genera rises to thirty-one, and from group to group

we see repeated the absence or the presence of frontal lobes, the

same number of antenne, tentacles, eyes, &c. These groups

and genera are, in every acceptation of the word, the analogues,

or the corresponding terms of each other.

The frequency of this kind of relations results from a remark-

able fact, presented by no class of the animal kingdom in so

marked a manner as by the Annelides. In them the immense

variety of secondary characters is obtained in the most simple

manner, by modifications of the same nature, or even very often

completely identical, repeating themselves in groups which are

otherwise distinguished by well-marked differences, in such a

manner that a very considerable number of results is usually ob-

tained with a truly marvellous economy of processes. The

Syllidea, the Terebellea, and the Serpulea offer us remarkable

examples of this fact. In the Zeredel/ea in particular, the three

known heteromorphous genera are the exact repetition of three

normal genera, and are distinguished only because they have in

common the kind of modifications which I have indicated above.

* These resemblances are, however, more apparent than real; for the

branchize of the Chloremea issue from the buccal ring, and not from the

head properly so called.

14 M. A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides.

Nowhere, I think, can we point out so complete a manifestation

of the law of economy upon which M. Milne-Edwards has very

justly insisted in his ‘ Essai de Zoologie générale.’

Reciprocal terms also often make their appearance in the fami-

lies, and from tribe to tribe; but it will be understood that ex-

amples of them are rare, precisely because, the families being very

natural, there are but few that I have been obliged to subdivide.

Indeed, properly speaking, I only know of one truly worthy of

attention, namely that presented by the family Serpulea. Here

the small group of Sabellea with a caleareous tube, compared

with the other representatives of the Sabella-type, presents a

remarkable exception, which assimilates it to the true Serpulea,

all of which have tubes of this nature. Hence many authors

have arranged the Protule by the side of the latter and far from

the Sabelle, with which they have such evident relations in their

organization. On the other hand, the genus Filigrana, although

composed of species which inhabit a calcareous tube, does not

possess true opercula, and is related in other respects to the

Sabellea. Although not so evident as in the cases previously

cited, the reciprocity cannot be overlooked here.

It may be remarked that, as regards the form and arrange-

ment of the branchiz, the Protule and the Psygmobranchi (Sa-

bellea with calcareous tubes) precisely repeat the two arrange-

ments presented by the Serpule, the Vermilia, and the Cymospire

(true Serpulea), so that they play the double part of reciprocal

and corresponding terms.

In glancing over the various tables of the families, the reader

will easily remark that the characters placed in the first rank

are far from being always derived from the same organs. Most

frequently the feet, or the totality of the body, have served me as

a starting-point ; but sometimes the cephalic appendages, some-

times the number and arrangement of the branchie, &c., the

proboscis, or even the eyes have furnished me with the most

general characters. This is because, in fact, in the class of An-

nelides as in the animal kingdom in general, the same apparatus

does not retain throughout an identical and constant value as a

means of characterization. It is evident, for example, that when

in the whole of a family, as in the Hunicea, the feet are uni-

formly uniramose, furnished with two cirri, and armed with

setee modelled on the same type, we cannot find in them the

characters of groups. or genera; at the utmost they will serve

for the distinction of the species. On the contrary, in the Sy/-

lidea, in which the same organs become progressively degraded

until they only present a small setigerous mamilla, the natura-

list finds excellent characters in their successive modifications

affecting one of the most essential parts of the body.

M. A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides. 15

I will terminate these generalities by a last observation. The

simple statement of the preceding facts would suffice to enable

us to conclude with certainty that the relations existing between

the different groups of the class of Annelides are extremely mul-

tifarious. Even if we confine ourselves to the families, it must

be evident that any linear classification is absolutely incapable

of giving a real idea of these relations; and a glance at the fol-

lowing Table places this conclusion beyond a doubt. We can-

not arrange these twenty-six families either in a single or in

several series without the interruption of zoological relations

more or less intimate. The arrangement on a single plane

attempted by Grube is equally mcapable of giving even an ap-

proximate idea of these relations. To arrive at this, it would be

indispensable to have recourse to the muitiple superposed planes

so justly proposed by M. Chevreul.

The consequence to be drawn from this fact is, that there

always enters a certain arbitrary element into the relative posi-

tion of the groups which the necessities of nomenclature compel

us to arrange in a series. J can therefore easily understand that

some of my confréres may find fault with the order that I have

adopted; nevertheless I think I may say that an arrangement

which enables us to ascertain, even by a very rapid examination,

the principal general facts above indicated, must at least present

some advantages.

Class ANNELIDA.

(2 Orders, 4: Suborders, 26 Families.)

Order I. Errarica.

Regions of the body similar.

Po Serments dissimilar 0... éen.scscaonacossene Suborder I. KE. ABERRANTES.

PRONE CLV GEAR dere tater sarees endesskcisesdeeseavese sans 1. Aphroditea.

ep Wathout clytra: a. tetecsswe xo resdeassenceesaswaseondes 2. Palmyrea.

II. Segments similar or subsimilar........... Suborder II. E. propria.

A. No rotatory apparatus.

a. Buccal armature complex.

PAGER DESUCN SE! cia tic) cieud danacew ec srs onset 3. Eunicea.

jTmWathout branchicas se aaciesis ie cs cele 4, Lumbrinerea.

b. Buccal armature simple or none.

* ead of ordinary form.

#. With true branchie.

a. Branchiz somatic.

** Branchie arborescent............... 5. Amphinomea.

Tt Branchiee cirriform, short.

woe. No-true tentacles iey<s ose veesunaes 6. Nephthydea.

BB. With true tentacles ............006 7. Nerinea.

§§ Branchie cirriform, elongated ...... 8. Cirratulea.

Da. Branchize CGP RRC seas sccscasensitesvenes 9. Chloremea.

B. No true branchie.

a. One pair of jaws and some denticles... 10, Nereidea.

16 M.A de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides.

b. Jaws scarcely ever present, sometimes

denticles, never both together.

** Cirri simple.

Le Trank Mot Exsertile <5 00 wie sie 11. Syllidea.

2. Pronk €xsertile’ [ye sie. an Pees as 12. Hesionea.

lp Cairn lamella eprckemcks seen tteenee 13. Phyllodocea.

tT Head conical and composed of distinct seg- ;

PO GWES Aeon cta.c, ss biel ovinainad Ablala See 14. Glycerea.

IB ASLOLMbOnY APPATAGUS 2. cis = + jae naiyi «04 wales 15. Polyophthalmea.

Order II. Seprentarin.

Regions of the body dissimilar.

I, Segments of one or more regions very dissimilar

HOKCAEN OCHEE Sy, acini al aint siete Suborder III. S. ABERRANTES.

16. Chetopterea.

II. Segments of the different regions always similar

or subsimilar to each other ............ Suborder IV. S. PROPRIA,

A. No branchize.

aamvousete on thedeet) (Wane actee cline sae .... 17. Tomopteridea.

b. With setze on all or nearly all the fect ..... . 18, Clymenea.

B. With branchiz.

a. Branchiz somatic.

* Branchiz abdominal or abdominal and tho-

racic.

We ranc bie AHOrescentieaiys ses osx ons ae 19, Arenicolea.

8. Branchiz cirriform or laciniate.

a. With no prehensile cirri or tentacles.

*+% Rami not very distinct ........+% 20. Opheliea.

+f Rami very distinctly marked...... 21. Ariciea.

b. Without prehensile cirri, but with ten-

PACIES Here uone Gh oe Eta ite, mete 22. Leucodorea.

= With! prehensile Curtis sep a6 peas a 23. Hermellea.

+ Branchiz exclusively thoracic.

a. Operculum formed of sctee............ 24. Pectinarea.

[erg Islorrayorer gon in Gs Annie a Ot.or nen 25. Terebellea.

ib; branchice cep mali. wii ieee vi tellin ete ees 26. Serpulea.

Family 1. Aphroditea. (15 genera.)

I. Elytra only dorsal.

A. Elytra confined to a portion of the feet.

Mea NOMGOISA CIEL rscc cists wer niophicn ke <p Ganeee 1, Pholoé.

b. With dorsal cirri.

* Dorsal cirri alternating with the elytra.

a. Jaws none or rudimentary.

a. With hairs on the feet ..... 0.000% 2. Aphrodite.

b. No hairs on the feet.

HSV ANGENNC. aie a-sora see eee tea ele ee 3. Hermione.

slats 2: aliberim se seyetsterscciniatci mie wih wie ..e 4, Milnesia.

8B. Jaws corneous.

G24. ANCENM. wenn oes sveuaeevse Of Polyodontes.

b. 3 antennie

** With pseudobranchial tubercles .. 6. Acoétes.

Tf With no pseudobranchial tubercles.

1, Elytra all along the body ...... 7. Polynoé,

M. A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides. 17

2. Elytra leaving the posterior part

of the body naked.......... .» 8. Lepidonotus.

> 2 AMLOD AEG i 6, 0 vino, 0% » ses a iheew aire te ee Oe LD RIONes

+ Dorsal cirri on all the feet.

a. Elytra covering the whole body.

PP SPAMECMAG ss gee ec upelns ss te ase 10, Sthenelais.

RAUALCIAEY (oic'tc'a'y oie are lelee vie cae 8 11. Sigalion.

CaP AMPED co's ees wise ig ciciindeiaiees 66 12. Psammolyce.

8. Elytra leaving the posterior part naked.. 13. Hemilepidia.

He Dorsaleirr) on all the feet) .... ccs keer e 14, Pelogenia.

II. Elytra dorsal and abdominal .............44. 15. Gastrolepidia,

GENERA INCERT& SEDIS 2: Hermenia, Eumolphe,

Family II. Palmyrea (4 genera).

I. Segments not numerous.

A. Feet biramose.

Hep AGH sheers yarns ek ove ute ok ames oe 1. Palmyra.

DeORDLOGR AG eis ico s aca ear ha hes acest 2. Chrysopetalon.

PERE MITTOMIGSS an. oie) 0 n5ig nce 0 bins 68 awiatas 3. Paleanotus.

BE SCR METS BUMCLOUS.< sane elein'e oielsciaie jf aisieis #4, seks 4, Bhawania.

Family III. Eunicea (4 genera).

I. Antenne 5

PAV VATE GENCACIOS) 4:5 .d5: a1 2 neve dine ele ce ast mien ete nore 1, Eunice.

Be WAEHOMG HENEACIES << 5..c.ererivwesvascden sees « 2. Marphysa.

If. Antenne 7.

PMG NGCCMLACLOS ge Seiieits clei ciceies vo cune ee 3. Diopatra.

Be WdGnOUt SEMEACIOS igs sine s elev de os name metens 4, Onuphis.

Family IV. Lumbrinerea (8 genera).

TI, Antenne wanting.

A. No dorsal cirrus ..... eS rrk Pee CR SIO 1, Lombrinereis*,

BS eWathvaxGorsaliCirrus:. 6 <.a/ao.cie'em ins aoe cies phe ee 2. Notocirrus.

II. Antenna single.

A. No dorsal cirrus ....... Oe gas wade 3. Blainvillea.

B. With a dorsal cirrus .......cces at Mavonhertkehtre 4. Nematonereis.

NPIS Amtennse 22 yee ssc chase o eco Pcie widikdixexcdotnn areal aaa 5. Usnone.

IV. Antennz 3.

AS ead freee ods ss ees Se ira(aitwlawe aa aeere canecee, Op bayoiadsce,

B. Head concealed .......... Patton wals crm . 7. Aglaura.

SVAPALONTIPCRO Met itera ete cries io ierecdascohavise cornervenbekeretors . 8. Plhioceras.

GENUS INCERT SEDIS: Zygolobus,

Family V. Amphinomea (7 genera).

- I, Feet biramose.

A, With antennz and tentacles.

ao oranchigs PiIANABHE. oi... s cee ys bee's voles’ 1. Chloé.

by Branchise anhorescenty, 40.6 isi. es esas oe ees 2. Amphinome,

pp ML ASNCTEEIEGTEE 5 oo) 3s 'u. ca acle' 6 ayer ace oe . 3, Linophera.

BIN Nee Sill ARCEMIS isles diet. ute sled» Rinletoee wie’ 4, Euphrosyne.

* Lumbriconereis, Blainville.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xvii. 2

18 M.A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides.

II. Feet uniramose.

A. With antennee and tentacles...........0008 . 5, Hipponoé.

B. Antenne and tentacles wanting. . :

a; Branchite AN TOWS: «61.65 <c as anes PUES ...+ 6, Lophonota.

b. Branchiz in groups........ (eves De cea 7. Didymobranchus.

_ GENERA INCERT# SEDIS 2; Aristenta, Cryptonotus.

Family VI. Nephthydea (3 genera).

I. Head bearing antenne.

JAGR Ga Srsial OGM ae aree nee thane Zi 1. Nephthys.

Br Antenn gs 2a Pen eve ee ee oa ee See 2. Portelia.

II. Antenne wanting ........ oth coro Pe ecaty terio Bans 3, Diplobranchus.

Family VII. Nerinea (6 genera).

I, Feet biramose.

A, Feet without cirri.

PP ORMME Marine e sae veces a eam 1. Nerine.

b Une present ait iiss. sees sees ae. 2. Uncinia.

B. Feet bearing cirri.

Da bMteriar CHT ONLY. sire iss: ra gies ted tuck sua ge 3. Aonis.

b. Inferior and. superior cirri.

PINQIOVES Mercwitine enti aic are ogra eeete Gar a you iene 4, Malacocera.

T Lyes PReSt myaror Gnas antes apel astants 5. Colobranchus.

1 LY Sere 0 a7: 007 CfcTs rar eR ee ee 6. Pygospio.

GENERA INCERT# SEDIS 2: Pygophyllum, Clytia.

Family VIII. Cirratulea (6 genera).

I. Branchie on nearly all the segments.

A. Branchize both pedal and dorsal.

a. The two sorts of branchis. appearing at the

SAMO HME . ic cssctersrergesecreresivas 1. Cirratulus.

b. Pedal branchize preceding ‘the dorsal ...... 2, Audouinia.

B. Branchite pedal only «00:50 2c0eecesesees cows 3. Ctrrinereis.

II. Branchize only on the first segments. :

A. No tentadles: 5. cscsescgrcnsncecee dedeanons 4, Dodecacerea.

BAOne pairot tentacles >... s..uewe nae meet 5. Heterocirrus.

C. Three pairs of tentacles... ..2.0.. peareee sso. 6, Nagaranseta.

Family IX. Chloremea (2 tribes, 5 genera).

I. Body covered with hairs (Tribe Chloremea prop.) 1. Chlorema.

II. Body without hairs, or with very short -hairs.

(Tribe Chloremea nuda).

A. Head protected by sete.

a, All the feet-biramose.

Se Peut Very GISHNOE! isc. 0< apc sles wate 2. Stphostomeon.

TERCHC IN GUSLID Ctl... ay dante ea a einen 3. Pherusa.

bh, Only the first feet biramose ...5.......505 4, Lophiocephala:

Are Coa ean 5. Brada.

GENERA INCERT# SEDIS 4: Spinther, Flenungia, Siylaroides,

Tecturella,

B. Head entirely uncovered

M. A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides. 19

Family X. Nereidea (2 tribes, 4 genera).

I. Body forming one region (Tribe Neretdea prop.).

A. Feet uniramose

B. Feet biramose

II. Body forming two regions (ibe Heteronereidea).

A. All the sete like those OLIVET eISNa eee nan

B. Part or the whole of the setze reniform

GENERA INCERTZ SEDIS 2

Family XI. Syllidea (31 genera).

I, Feet moveable.

A. With dorsal and abdominal cirri.

a. No tubercles on the body.

* Gizzard armed.

a. 4 antenne.

a. 12 tentacles

6. No tentacles

B. 3 antennee

+ Gizzard unarmed.

a. Head and buccal segment distinct.

a. With frontal lobes.

#** Antenne 5

+T Antennee 4.

§§ Antenne 3.

1. Tentacles 8

2. Tentacles 4.

@ (08 01.6) ela teue! e eliwie) © e).e) aime) eee

Pe ee

3. Tentacles 0

ie RCM Set Seas Leese st eee

b. No frontal lobes.

#* Antennee 4,

1. Tentacles 16

2. Tentacles 0

++ Antenne 3.

1. Tentacles 4.

@)/0] 0/66) 0) 6 ©) ee 90) (e108 (G1 @) 0) 18 1e

ene eer eee erase ere sas

Wie .e) 66) «1p, 0 \6| Bi 6) @\e 6: cei 18) 6) e188 6

2. Tentacles 2°

3, BR GrTLClesiO): 8 tan were atte shee one

B. Head and buccal ségment confounded. '

a. With frontal lobes.

** 3 antenne and 4 tentacles determi-

CACO ORG LO.ONCO, CeO memo o OO

MLD] Oye ave ater Sastnnie seers. ele esunters

She hy aarbran

++ Antenne and tentacles ws'| 6 wre ateuaia a

indeterminable 1: A osch eaten

b. No frontal lobes; antennee (7........

and ‘tentacles indeter- 45........

minable ! Onctedeiss2

b. With tubercles on the body ...........+.

B. No abdominal cirri.

as With frontalilobés Fics fer Pisces badiae ce:

Lycastis.

Nereis.

Nercilepas.

ITeteronereis.

: Micronereis, Zothea.

. Syllidia.

. Prionognathus.

. Gnathosyllis,

. Pterosyllis.

. Brana.

. Procoma.

Syilis.

. Ehlersia.

. Exogone.

. Grubea.

. Kefersteinia.

. Lucerastes.

- Autolytus.

. Trichosyllis.

. Heterosyllis.

. Gossia.

17. Claparedia.

. Cystonereis.

. Spherosyllis.

. Oophylax.

. Tsosyllis.

. Thylaciphora.

3. Ambhosyllis.

. Tetraglena.

. Lurysyllis.

», Sylline.

20 M.A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides.

b. No frontal lobes.

* Antenne 3.

ce ML eMtACleS A. cia sain « acviannede:iatayel sy speteuage 27. Myrianida.

(BebemtacheseDeiie raises cai scecae cue cette 28. Loida.

f Antenne 2...... Ay acs, eaeroricite ee wrat vite eeeteeiete 29, Mycrosyllis.

C. Neither dorsal nor abdominal cirri .......... 30. Schmardia.

HIE Beet amimiovea ley ys. bic tance a's oe iapeltpteer aera eater 31. Dujardinia.

GENERA INCERT® sEpIs 17: Polybostricus, Sacconereis, Polynice, Diplo-

cerca, Photocharis, Macrocheta, Syllia, Crithida, Anisoceras, Stauro-

cephalus, Stgambra, Diplotis, Ephesia, Spherodorum, Pollicita, Apero-

syllis, Cirroceros.

Family XII. Hesionea (10 genera).

I. Feet uniramose.

A. Size comparatively large.

a, Segments very numerous ....... een 1. Myriana.

b. Segments few.

SONI Ua 7 Bea hata Roy aT DCL aha nL tea 2. Hesione.

sip TE TRTI CO S271) 5.5) see tation Sete notes nud aemteeenens 3. Fallacia.

B. Size small.

a. Antennee 4.

eS Theives IZ OPA Par Bran ihn ainty waa Ss Oedo 4, Peribea.

dentAcleseswartnca. cata wieateic.s caer 5. Psamathe.

SMlemiacleriGien.6 Sets Stee bods hae Staaten: 6. Lopadorhynchus.

b. Antenne 5.

MME Tua CLE Su mentee, cnaste rerereeetavarclessee: Arne erect Gee 7. Podarcus.

qeebentacl soll gn ashanti Sir aroma n heh. a es 8. Mania.

II. Feet biramose.

PASH AUNE OTERO) See assy ataie hits a.'v see ae oi Relate ae 9, Pseudosyllis,

TB yale ey dW) 24 iA ror cal eC Oo nIOk: 10. Castalia.

GENERA INCERTH& SEDIS 5: Pistone, Oxydromus, Halimede,

Cirrosyllis, Orseis.

Family XIII. Phyllodocea (2 tribes, 12 genera).

I, Eyes of ordinary size (Tribe Phyllodocea prop.).

A. Feet uniramose.

a. Antennie 5.

me Mentacles MOS eh ave b4.«.citacs + be dues whens . 1. Kinbergia.

{ Wentacles Sacweeeeuseeaaekores poabeonee 25 Latte

§ Tentacles 6...... rg eicashiss Beg Wears we =o} HLracia.

b. Antennee 4,

* Tentacles 8.1.1. sac ch sips Glaus RU cD OMS le 4, Phyllodoce.

ip RentaclesiG 7 cic c cee eteoney: alee eee 5. Carobia.

NeLONteCleS Airtcs cca ee edenis PRD OO 6 6. Eteone.

He Temtaeles Diss otf 6 ke aot oat eies « eidemeenen 7. Lugia.

EL MUONREe: 2 Poe yews wee gs sap en omens 8. Macrophyllum.

Brertibiramose ss. Syn i.) tok d cares oc aeeee 9, Notophyllun.

II. Eyes very large (Tribe Phyllodocea Alciopea).

A. Feet bearing two glandular organs .......... 10. Alctope.

B. Feet with a single glandular organ.

SAA TMUOTITINO GED) Linn psi sch ated wily nek pc eee eee ll. Krohnia,

Isl oF 22) 2502 Rani AAR erat re rah Pics iS i 12. Torrea,

GENERA INCERTH SEDIS 2; Eumenia, Liocope,

M. A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides. 21

Family XIV. Glycerea (3 genera).

I. Feet biramose.

A. Rami approximate... 6... sce ee eee eee nes 1. Glycera,

RGAE REM ws sien inte 01 g'0) Scere Site nore vis sie 8 eS 2. Goniada.

TE, Heh MMIRAMOSO So ies Oe cle oe ae sie cca ne meetns 3. Hemipoda.

GENERA INCERT# SEDIS 2: Gilycinide, Proboscidia.

Family XV. Polyophthalmea (1 genus, Polyophthalmus).

Family XVI. Chetopterea (1 genus, Chetopterus).

GENUS INCERT SEDIS: Sprochetopterus.

Family XVII. Tomopteridea (1 genus, Tomopteris).

Family XVIII. Clymenea (2 tribes, 10 genera).

I. Body in three regions (Tribe Clymeénea prop.).

A. With an anal funnel.

a. No respiratory ceca.

* Cephalic plate developed. ...........e. 1. Clymene.

+ Cephalic plate wanting or rudimentary.... 2. Lezocephalus.

b. Respiratory czeca present ~........020s aces 3. Johnstonia.

B. With an anal plate.

a. With a cephalic plate ........... eens ees 4, Maldane.

Ib, Noicephalie plate. \..c6sicccirwsts = or00 a eae wa 5. Petaloproctus.

eC Neither plate nor tunnel asi. eee teas « 6. Ammochares.

II. Body in two regions (Tribe Clymenca degrad.).

28 O18 EEE cI (COY PGR UA EO ena ack eee ee 7. Clymenidia.

B. Head not truncate.

a. Head acute.

* Posterior region with simple sete ........ 8. Arenia.

+ Posterior region with only uncini ........ 9. Ancistria.

ng PleaelaW abe stent teele ate ase 12s mein 5, sors 10. Clymenia.

GENERA INCERT# SEDIS 3: Capitella, Notomastus, Dasybranchus.

Family XIX. Arenicolea (2 genera).

I. Branchiferous feet consecutive ............6+.- 1. Arenicola.

II. Branchiferous feet separated by abranchiate ones 2. Chorizobranchus.

GENERA INCERT SEDIS 2: Scalibregma, Polyphysia.

Family XX. Opheliea (3 genera).

J. Feet with a single branchia.

ee On-thevmuiddle Tepton sy vere a werem slerew'sj a wieccae y= 1. Ophelia.

B. Nearly on the whole body............002005 2. Travisia.

II. Feet with several branchiz ........-..+20005- 3. Branchoscolex.

GENERA INCERT SEDIS 3: Ophelina, Ammotripane, Sclerocheilus.

Family XXI. Ariciea (5 genera).

I. Trunk of ordinary form.

A. Lower ramus of anterior feet bearing uncini.

a. No antenn® ...ccsessseccsess erent « I. Arica:

b. With antenmee ..eeeseeecseees Be esewes swe 2. Orbinia,

22 M.A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of ihe Annelides,

B. Lower ramus of anterior feet with simple sete.

Bh, MNO OETMCIG 21s )ata ie elses «sie sets fe Seesevas Os SROlABI OR

Dp OaRUnCle PRESEN a Naas py css hiots Merb) el eat 4, Porcva.

Il. Trunk divided into foliaceous lobes..... Fae eats 5. Anthostomum.

GENERA INCERTZ sEDIS 4: Magelona, Gisela, Theodisca, Hermandura. -

Family XXII. Leucodorea (5 genera).

I. Feet different.

A. Feet biramose.

aewlocamehizo Superior...) o-< yyue ius = we .1+« 1, Leucodore.

b. Branchiz inferior.

* Third segment abnormal .............005 2. Disoma.

7 Butth segment abnormal’ 7,2. .:>......56: 3. Polydora.

iB. Beep mmiramase (25 sisye i e+ ea93 Cite ciel ake 4. Spione.

JJing JDS8Ns Sree Ay cs eo aeons anenotaclnts he Ih 5. Spiophanes.

GENUS INCERT# SEDIS: Spio.

Family XXIII. Hermellea (3 genera).

I. Body in 3 regions.

A. Operculum with 3 ranges of setz.........++5 1. Hermella.

B. Operculum with 2 ranges of set#............ 2. Pallasia.

DE, sod 7 Wise ane ONGOIAA ots ate sta alefavaietaress ataraaets aoa 3. Centrocorone.

GENERA INCERTZ SEDIS 2: Branchiosabella, Uncinocheta.

Family XXIV. Pectinarea (2 genera).

NMiteniehies Depats acter saw 0's eevee se a ekg ae aus 1. Pectinaria.

PE Branehigiea Als. .5 5% 66 + 5 tise ase taielanereaaet 2. Scalis.

Family XXV. Terebellea (3 tribes, 11 genera).

I. Body in 2 regions ( Terebellea prop.).

A. With dorsal branchiz (Tribe 7. branchiata).

5 pairs 1. Terebella.

a. Dorsal branchi arborescent 4 2 pairs 2. Physelia.

Lpar .... 3. ddaha,

b. Dorsal branchize pectinated, median,....... . Terebellides.

c. Dorsal branchis cirriform.

PPUCCACIPEMSIMPIG 20.4 5.s.74 near 5. Phenacia.

TAUGeal-GiErl PMMA e anc. hangidchgue end: 6. Sabellidis.

d. Dorsal branchiz cirriform and pinnate...... 7. Isolda.

B. No dorsal branchie (Tribe 7. abranchiata).... 8. Apneumea.

II. Body in one region (Tribe Heteroterebellea).

A. Dorsal branchize arborescent 3 POTS one q eee 0. Heteroter ‘ebella.

2 aS was asia 10, Heterophyselia.

Ap eg xBRT GNU CHETEOEIN Ws 1) aeons oie ws Pees Mepranas ll. Heterophenacia.

GENERA INCERT# SEDIS 7: Lthytoccphalus, Amphicteis, Polycirrus,

Sabellina, Anisomelas, Piratesa, Lwmara.

Family XXVI. Serpulea (3 tribes, 21 genera).

I. Head without an operculum.

A. Regions distinct (Tribe S, Sabellea).

a. Tube membranous.

* Branchiz with a circular base.

a. Cirri free. ty oe

ie Wo caudal eyes. icicccvseccceasess0 he Mahella.

M. A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides. 23

b. Caudal eyes.

1. Antenne present.

Vib COLE: “sarees s nina en acare ee ee

Wiathnowollutiens: necence ees net i 38

Se No antennba ia oeednts-¢ eos Sones 5 ee haa

Sebranchial cirri umibedess saws ae 66s 5

+ Branchize with a spiral base.

a. A single bvanchia in ee Bar ere rerceas eens 6

8. Both branchie in Spiral ys’ sgaree e oba 7

~b. Tube calcareous.

* Branchise with a spiral base ............ 8

+ Branchize with a circular base............

B. Regions indistinct (Tribe S. Heterosabellea).

a. With feet.

* Branchial cirri free.

EN NELE WaT DIES sit) .minlore alts slat siahelsraera's axe 10

GraNio ar Dulegitia cae gta in clskoveat o arate sie 11

jebranchial Cirm UNILed +c occa ee cee cece « 1

b. Without feet.

* Branchis with barbules .......+..-..-+ 1d.

+ Branchiwe without barbules.............. 14,

II. Head with an operculum (Tribe Serpadea prop.).

A. Two or more false opercula

B. With true opercula.

a. Tube completely rolled up

b. Tube more or less sinuous.

* Two symmetrical opercula

+ One operculum.

See AGG 2. ayenp axes) tarp anengaared |

B. Tube attached.

a. Branchiz with a circular base.

9, Minis seule Be oes) eats

TE, Operculum corneous 3....2..2.+.: 19

2. Operculum corneo-calcareous...... 20.

b. Branchiz with a spiral base ........ 21.

Oria.

. Amphiglena.

. Fabricia.

. Chonea.

. Spirographa.

. Distylia.

. Protula.

9. Psygmobranchus.

. Anamebea

. Amphicorine.

2. Myxicola.

Gymnosoma.

Phorons.

5, Filigrana.

. Spiror bis.

. Codonytes.

. Ditrupa.

. Serpula.

Vermilia.

Cymospira.

GENERA INCERT# SEDIS 5: Spiramella, Apomatus, Spiroglypha,

Stoa, Vermiculum.

Class GEPHYREA.

(2 Orders, 7 Families.)

Deod ybearine: hetay ty: Fis Sais ss he aor cetera as

A. Several anterior bundles

B. Two simple anterior sete.

a. With posterior sete. ..... 6s. cece cece eens

b. No posterior BOtCO eee ee ie ae ee

II. Body not bearing setze

A. Anus terminal.

a. With external posterior branchiw..........

b. No external posterior branchie

B. Anus dorsal.

a. Scutes present

b. No scutes

Deo Dace (AON Ceo cei rec

a} (8) (Bau (e/teueie) @46) sib” @ 16)(e) 60 66), b 1a

Oe) 0 Cerca Ono .r]

aie 6 3 hia) A) eo) abbot a, Gls) a) whe hh se) ate we) e

Order I, G. ARMATA.

1. Sternaspidea.

2, Echiurea.

3. Bonellea.

4, Priapulea.

5. Lovosiphonea.

6. Aspidosiphonea.

7. Stpunculea.

Family I. Sternaspidea (genus Sternaspis).

Family I]. Echiurea (genus Hehiurus).

24 Mr. C. Spence Bate on Achzus Cranchii.

Family III. Bonellea (2 genera).

I. Cephalic appendage simple...............000 . 1. Thalassema.

II. Cephalic appendage bifurcate .............00. 2. Bonellia.

GENERA INCERT SEDIS 3: Ochetostoma, Lesinia, Halicryptus.

Family 1V. Priapulea (3 genera).

. ; ber: 1. Priapulus.

I. Branchize supported on a stem Ra ace Ohtndexana.

U. Branchiz borne on a prolongation of the body .. 3. Trypanius.

Family V. Loxosiphonea (2 genera).

Pe ody eating LSEUGE i ards <2 sae aw nia. eQA. oops . 1. Loxosiphon.

DY Badly bearing. ZiSCULCS a4 <5 es dinw males sisis mines 2. Diesingia.

Family VI. Aspidosiphonea (genus Aspidosiphon).

Family VII. Sipunculea (2 genera).

ie Buceniteresinple Ps ee res Pe es a 1. Stpunculus.

If, Buceal cirri pinnate or ramified .............. 2. Dendrostomuma. -

GENERZ INCERTZX SEDIS 2: Ascosoma, Anoplosomatum.

[To be continued. |

Il.—Carcinological Gleanings.—No. II.

By C. Spence Bate.

[ Plate II. ]

BRACHYURA.

Acheus Cranchii.

This species is spoken of by Bell as being rare, two specimens

only having been recorded—one from Falmouth, the second

from the south coast of Ireland. Certainly this little Crab is

by no means uncommon off the coast of South Devon, in depths

of from 6 to 20 fathoms of water, as we have taken it with the

dredge in Plymouth Sound, and frequently had it brought in

by the trawlers.

Among the specimens that we dredged, two were taken from

about 6 fathoms of water, near the Knap buoy, off the western

end of the Plymouth Breakwater, which appear to belong to a

very distinct variety. Our attention was first drawn to it from

observing a peculiarity in its habit, differing from that of the

known species, which is that it covers itself with weed, as we

know is commonly done by animals of the allied genus Pisa.

Certainly in Pisa this is no accidental circumstance, since all

the spines are sharp-pointed and curved, thus forming strong

hooks, on which hang the various kinds of weed.

Mr. C. Spence Bate on British Species of Pagurus. 23

My friend Mr. Hamilton Whiteford informed me some time

since that he had in his aquarium a crab of this genus, which,

having cast its skin in confinement, he observed to gather pieces

of weed from the surrounding rocks, and with its claws place

them on the spines, so decorating itself that to a very great

extent it destroyed its natural appearance.

Some who have written on this habit have imagined this

clothing of itself to be the result of an instinctive love of

artificial decoration, innate in the creature. I am more inclined

to believe that it arises from a sense of danger, and a consequent

desire of the animal to conceal itself beneath such things as

appear to hide and therefore protect it, than from any natural

coxcombry inherent in the animal.

In the typical form of Acheus Cranchii the spimes are straight

—a circumstance that gives the animal generally a hairy appear-

ance. In this variety the spines are all curved, and lie so close

to the surface of the animal, that, to unassisted vision, the body

and legs appear quite smooth ; but closer inspection shows that

these spines are all hooked, as in the genus Pisa. Careful ob-

servation of these two varieties of A. Cranchii fails, however, to

detect, beyond the form of the spines, any very marked dis-

similarity of form or structure sufficient to warrant their being

arranged as specifically distinct.

ANOMURA.

Of the interesting genus of Soldier Crabs (Pagurus) six or

~ seven species exist on the south coast of Devon, viz. :—

Pagurus Bernhardus. Pagurus levis.

Prideauxit. ulidianus.

cuanensis. —— Dillwyni.

—— Hyndmanii.

Of the species known as Pagurus ulidianus, Mr. Bell, in his

work on the British Crustacea, remarks “that it is extremely

like the young of P. Bernhardus ;” and certainly, until we can

capture a specimen carrying ova, there is every reason to believe

that the two are but different stages in the growth of the same

animal.

Of Pagurus Dillwynii no specimen has hitherto been recorded

since the one originally described in the ‘ Annals of Nat. Hist.’

(1851), from a specimen taken on the coast of South Wales,

near the Worms Head, Glamorganshire. So long a period has

elapsed, that on more than one occasion we have thought it

prudent to have a peep at the original specimen, to assure our-

selves that we had not committed a mistake.

During this present summer, while on a visit at Teignmouth,

26 - Mr. C. Spence Bate on the Genus Palinurus.

observing a woman shrimping on the sandy beach, we requested

to have a look at the contents of her bag, and were delighted to

find, amongst a small catch of the common Shrimp, numerous

specimens of Pagurus Dillwynit. After purchasing her entire

stock, we hastened to the beach, and, within the margin of the

incoming tide, took numerous specimens, which we kept alive

for a short time. This, the prettiest of all the pretty genus, has

the habit of burrowing in the sand; and it is probably owing to

this circumstance that the animal has not been met with more

frequently. But, curious to relate, since it has been found at

Teignmouth, we have dredged it, in about 4 fathoms of water,

in Bigberry Bay, and also taken a single specimen, in about

6 fathoms, as near to Plymouth as the mouth of the river

Yealm.

An interesting point in the history of the development of this

genus we have been enabled to make out : it is about the last

week of April or the first of May that the larva appear most

abundantly to quit the ova. arly in June we were enabled to

capture many specimens of the young animal in various degrees

of progressive development—a circumstance that has enabled us

to determine that the genus Glaucothoé, founded on G. Peroni,

and described by Prof. Milne-Edwards in the ‘Ann. des Se.

Nat.’ for March 1830, is none other than an immature stage of

the genus Pagurus, at which period the little creature possesses

all the characters of a Macrurous Decapod, and swims freely in

the ocean, until, obliged by increasing age to take refuge in the

cast-off shell of a univalve Mollusk, it smks to the bottom, and -

commences life as a Hermit Crab.

Macrura.

In the genus Palinurus exists a curious and interesting struc-

tural condition of the mferior pair of antennz, which, I believe,

has never been pointed out.

In all Macrurous Decapoda the inferior pair of antennz is

furnished with a scale or articulated process (scaphocérite of

Milne-Edwards), which is invariably situated at the distal ex-

tremity of the third joint of the peduncle. Now, in Palinurus

this scale or squamiferous appendage is so incorporated with

the wall of the peduncle as to exhibit its form on the surface

only, thus demonstrating that the third and fourth joints of

the peduncle are fused together; and the lateral scale is incor-

porated with it also. PI. II. fig. 3¢.

Crangon.

In the elaborate memoir of the late Prof. Kinahan on the

genus Crangon (Trans. Royal Irish Acad. vol. xxiv. p. 46) we think

_ Mr. C. Spence Bate on the Genus Caradina. 27

that either he has erroneously figured the common Shrimp (C.

vulgaris), or the common Shrimp of the Irish coasts differs from

the edible Shrimp of the English markets.

~ The small and delicate second pair of pereiopoda that Prof.

Bell has described as being “nearly as long as the third,” and

figures rather shorter than the first pair, Dr. Kimahan has figured

as long again as the first pair: the animal is also drawn more

slender generally than is the common Shrimp. Neither can we

see the desirability or convenience of the generic separation of

those species that possess the second pair of pereiopoda short,

from those that have the same appendages of somewhat greater

length.

Caradina.

In adding this genus for the first time to the list of the British

Crustacea, we do so merely in words, since it has, we believe,

been long known under the name of Hippolyte varians of Leach.

It is remarkable that this species should have so long remained

misinterpreted, since it is recorded as abundant along the south

coast of England, from Cornwall to Poole Harbour, as well as

having been found extensively round the Irish coast.

Though the colour of the animal generally is a pale transpa-

rent green, having a darker line along the prima via, we have

not unfrequently taken it of a deep claret-red. This variation

in colour 1 am inclined to believe is due to the weed on which

it has been recently feeding; for indubitably the colouring-

matter is due to the fluids in circulation, and not to any pig-

ment existing in the dermal tissues. It is probably from this

variability of colour that the species has received its distinguish-

ing name. We have occasionally taken this species when

dredging at Plymouth, but never so abundantly as of late, in

rather deeper water just outside the breakwater.

We _ had previously observed the pecuhar robust-looking

first pair of pereiopoda; but it was not until very recently that

we discovered they had the structure which has been described

as the character of the genus Caradina, in which the propodos

articulates with the carpus, not centrally, but at the infero-

anterior angle, and thus appears as a partially dislocated joint.

There is a second form, that appears to us to be specifically

distinct from the preceding. It is more slender generally, and

has the rostrum long and narrow, having two teeth above, one

near the base, flanked by a lateral tooth on each side just above

the orbit, and one near the apical extremity of the rostrum,

which corresponds with one on the under side immediately be-

neath it; and in one specimen we saw a second tooth also, pos-

terior to this last. To this species we give the name of

28 Mr. C. Spence Bate on a new Species of Spheroma.

Caradina tenuis. FP. II. fig. 1.

The distinction between this and the preceding species

consists in the more slender proportions generally of the latter,

and in the position of the teeth on the rostrum, which in

C. varians has the basal tooth on the dorsal surface further

from its base, and the infero-subapical tooth a little poste-

rior to the supero-subapical tooth, whereas the tooth that is

situated near the base of the inferior surface of the rostrum

is in C. tenuis placed but little posterior to the SUBIR BL

tooth.

In all other respects the two species agree; so that we think it

not at all improbable that they may be but the two sexes of one

species. To this supposition strength is given from the circum-

stance that, while we took numerous specimens of C. varians,

most of which were carrying ova, none of the few specimens

of C. tenuis were so. But to this negative evidence we have to

oppose another of a negative character also, which 1s that we

have no experience of any species of Prawns that bear such

sexual distinction, both as to size and form. The length of C.

varians is an inch, that of C. tenuis half an inch.

Isorpopa.

Some time since, Dr. Fritz Miller sent us some specimens

of an Isopod which he has named Spheroma terebrans, pro-

cured from timber that had been immersed in the sea; since

which we have received, through Mr. Brisbane Neill, some very

similar specimens from Capt. Mitchell, of the Madras Museum.

A close examination is required to distinguish a specific charac-

ter separating these from the Brazilian specimens; and I think

that the only one that can be relied upon is, that the pointed

and hook-shaped termination of the appendage of the mandible

in Miiller’s specimens, is represented in those from Madras

by a flat broad joint. I therefore think that, minor variations

being taken into consideration, together with the distance of

the two habitats, we do not err in considering the following a

distinct species from that found by Fritz Miiller. We therefore

propose for it the name of

Spheroma vastator. Pl. I. fig. 4

The animal is of a long oval shape, without any distinct coxee,

and furnished with four longitudinal parallel rows of tubercles

or blunt teeth on the three posterior somites of the pereion and

the anterior portion of the pleon.

The eyes are round and prominent. The superior antenne

have the first joint of the peduncle broader than the second,

Mr. C. Spence Bate on a new Species of Spheroma. 29

which is very short and round; the third is twice as long as the

second, but much shorter than the first, and the flagellum gra-

dually tapers to an obtuse point, and is formed of several arti-

culi, of which the first is much the longest. The inferior an-

tenn are subequal with the superior, being perhaps slightly

longer.

The mandibles are robust, and furnished with strong pointed

incisor teeth as well as a powerful molar tubercle, between

which exists a process armed with six or seven strong, equal-

lengthed, serrated spines, which are probably used in the tearing

down of the wood into which the animal burrows. The se-

condary appendage to this organ is short and three-jointed; the

third joint is the shortest and is nearly as broad as long; it

is ciliated upon the flexile margin with hairs, which gradually

increase in length towards the apex of the appendage.

The maxilliped, or third siagonopod, consists of five joints,

of which the basal is longest and broadest, and carries the other

four as an appendage, in this somewhat resembling the form of

the second pair of gnathopoda in the Crabs.

The two pairs of gnathopoda and the first pair of pereiopoda

resemble each other in form and size. They are slender and

comparatively feeble appendages, and furnished on the anterior

margin with long plumose hairs—suggesting, from their simi-

larity of feature with the same appendages in Arcturus, that the

latter is not such an anomalous Isopod as some carcinologists

have supposed ; the coxa is fused with the dorsal portion of the

somite, and forms an overhanging lateral plate-like process;

the basis and ischium are long and slender, and the latter is

furnished with a thick row of plumose hairs on the anterior

margin, which stands at right angles with the joint; the meros

is short, anteriorly produced to a point, and furnished with a

row of plumose hairs similar to the preceding; the carpus and

propodos are short, slender, and furnished with short cilia on

both anterior and posterior margins; the dactylos is short,

curved, unguiculated, and armed with a small subapical tooth

or secondary unguis.

The last four pairs of pereiopoda resemble each other in ge-

neral form; they are very robust and strong, and are furnished

on the anterior and posterior margins with rows of stout bushy

hairs, which appear to increase in number and strength poste-

riorly, and some of which take a spinous character in the last

two pairs, as on the distal extremity of the propodos, where they

become spines with serrated margins.

The first three pairs of pleopoda consist of a broad basal

supporting an inner and an outer plate, the former of which is

broadest at the base and ciliated at the apex; the latter is pear-

80 Mr. C. Spence Bate on a new Species of Spheroma.

shaped, being largest near the apex, and furnished with a row

of plumose cilia along the outer margin.

The fourth and fifth pairs of pleopoda have the mner and

posterior plates converted into branchial organs, consisting of

five or six foliaceous plates overlying one another. The poste-

rior pair is marginal, and consists of a single branch on a.strong

and fixed peduncle, which is produced to a point directed

inwardly; to the under surface of this, near the middle,

articulates the solitary ramus; this is slightly curved and

produced to a pointed apex, and is furnished with five or six

sharp teeth on the outer margin; the inner margin is smooth,

and so is the inferior, both of which last are furnished with

short fine cilia, in this offering perhaps the readiest distinguish-

ing feature from the South American species, which has this

appendage fringed with long and coarse hairs.

According to Capt. Mitchell, this animal was procured “ from

a piece of wood which had formed part of a railway bridge over

one of the backwaters on the west coast of the Indian penin-

sula. The wood was honeycombed with cylindrical holes, from

about —1,th to ;2,ths of an inch im diameter, placed close toge-

ther. In many of these holes the animal was rolled up like a

ball.”

The colour of the animal, as it appeared when it arrived in

England in spirits, is not to be depended on as resembling that

of the living creature; but it was a subdued sage-green. Its

length is about 4rd of an inch, while its breadth is about half

as much. Certainly these two closely allied species are among

the largest and most powerful wood-destroyers that we know.

Many things have been tried to protect submarme wood from

the ravages of its many excavators; but the only things that

appear to have any success are the red oxide of iron and creo-

sote. The works at Portland, which have been built with wood

saturated with the latter, are, we are informed, entirely free from

the depredations of these creatures.

Mahogany and probably teak wood, as well as the hemlock-

tree of North America (which last, however, is, we believe, useless

for most purposes), are, we are informed, exempt from their

depredations.

We think that there can be little doubt that these and pro-

bably all wood-borers make the excavations for the purpose of

food, preferring those trees that have sappy or innocuous juices

to those of a hard or baneful nature. The mouth appears well

adapted in this species for the purpose: the mandibles are strong

and powerful appendages, and furnished with a rasping organ,

while the strong posterior pairs of pleopoda are well adapted for

the purpose of pressing the animal forward in its cavity; the

Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorns of the Amazons Valley. 31

posterior pair of pleopoda must be very effective organs also, by

the leverage that may be attained through them for assisting

the animal to turn easily in its narrow cave.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

Fig. 1. Caradina tenuis: 1", rostrum.

Fig. 2", Caradina varians, rostrum ; 2 h, first pair of pereiopoda.

Fig. 3¢. Palinurus vulgaris, second pair of antenne ; c*, scaphocerite.

Fig. 4. Spheroma vastator: c, cephalon; 6, superior antenna; c, inferior

antenna; d, mandible; d’, mandibular appendage; f, second

siagonopod ; g, third siagonopod; h, 2, gnathopoda; &, first pair

of pereiopoda; /, second pair; m, third pair; 2, o, fourth and fifth

pairs; p, 4,7, first three pairs of pleopoda; s, fourth pair; ¢, fifth

pair ; v, posterior pair of pleopoda.

Fig. 5. Spheroma terebrans (Fr. Miiller): d", mandibular appendage ;

v, posterior pair of pleopoda.

I1I.—Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazons Valley.

CoLtrorrers: Lonercornes. By H.W. Barus, Esq.

[Continued from vol. xvi. p. 314.]

Genus Cacosto1a (Dej. Cat.), Fairmaire.

Fairm. Aun. Soc. Ent. Fr. (1859), p. 532.

This genus, imperfectly characterized by M. Fairmaire, com-

prises a number of small-sized lmear msects, closely allied to

Hesycha and Trestonia, but distinguished by their narrow forms,

obscure coloration, and especially by their much shorter heads,

the muzzle being very little prolonged beyond the lower margin

of the eyes. The antenne are moderately distant at their bases,

their supporting tubercles having a conical projection on their

inner sides; they are slender, filiform, naked, and very little

longer than the body; their first jomt forms a smooth club,

their third jomt is m some species curved, and their terminal

joint is at least as long as the preceding. The thorax is short

and cylindrical, with a scarcely perceptible prominence in the

middle of each side, and the surface punctured, not wrinkled

transversely. The elytra are linear, obtusely rounded at their

apices, and their surface is free from ridges and tubercles. The

legs are short, the thighs clavate, and the claw-joint of the tarsi

longer than the remainder taken together. The sterna are

narrow, the pro- and mesosterna of equal width, and simple.

The species are found, like the Trestonie, clinging to slender

decaying branches of trees.

1. Cacostola simplex, Pascoe.

Pachypeza simplex, Pascoe, Trans. Ent. Soc. n.s.v. pt. 1. p. 44.

C. linearis, griseo-fusca; thorace elytrorumque lateribus grisco

32 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

lineatis; capite latiusculo; antennis articulo tertio subrecto.

Long. 43-5 lin. 5 Q.

Head moderately broad; forehead uneven, and, with the

vertex, punctured, tawny-grey. Antenne distant at the base,

supporting tubercles with their inner edges prominent ; filiform,

but somewhat tapering to the extremity, dark brown, bases of

joints grey; third joint scarce perceptibly curved. Thorax of

the same width as the head, cylindrical, scarcely longer than

broad; lateral tubercle inconspicuous; surface coarsely but

sparingly punctured, greyish brown, dorsal line and two obscure

lateral streaks grey. Klytra linear, coarsely punctured (more

thickly so towards the base), and with faint longitudinal eleva-

tions on the disk, brown, sides in some examples paler; disk

with one or more oblique grey vittee. Body beneath and legs

greyish brown; abdomen variegated with brown and grey.

Tapajos and Upper Amazons, also Cayenne. Examples from

Cayenne and the T'apajos are much darker than those from the

Upper Amazons.

2. Cacostola flexicornis, n. sp.

C. linearis, castaneo-fusca, obscura ; capite angustiore ; thorace brevi;

elytris creberrime WORE AS antennis tenuibus, articulo tertio

valde curvato. Long. 3tlin. 3 Q.

Head small; forehead with a deeply impressed longitudinal

line, punctured, coarsely pubescent ; vertex coarsely punctured;

antenniferous tubercles with a small conical projection on their

inner sides. Antenne rather slender, dark brown, with the

bases of the joints pale testaceous; third joint strongly bent ;

terminal joint in the male half as long again as the preceding.

Thorax short, lateral prominences conspicuous, surface closely

punctured, dark rusty brown. Elytra linear, very closely and

equally punctured from base to apex, dark rusty brown. Body

beneath and legs dingy ashy; abdomen variegated.

Slender dead twigs, Santarem.

Genus AMPHICN IA, nov. gen.

Body small, linear. Head very short, vertically ; upper por-

tion of the eyes encircling the base of the antenne; but the

reniform lobe of considerable width, and not attenuated as

in the eyes of the genus Dorcasta*; lower lobe convex,

prominent; forehead convex. Antenniferous tubercles very

short, oblique, and unarmed: antennee filiform, stout, clothed

* The upper, reniform portion of the eyes in Dorcasta is very narrow,

and, in the middle, attenuated. This is a step towards the total disappear-

ance of the upper lobe, which is a distinguishing feature of Spalacopsis,

Newm., a genus closely allied to Dorcasta.

of the Amazons Valley. 30

with short hairs, the joints beneath fringed with long and

straight hairs; first joint moderately short, thickened nearly

from the base; third joint straight. Thorax cylindrical, sides

without tubercles, surface punctured. LElytra linear, apex

rounded, surface punctured throughout. Legs moderately

elongated; thighs clavate; claw-joint of tarsi about as long as

the three remaining joints taken together. Sterna narrow,

simple.

This genus forms a portion of a small group—including Dor-

casta, Aprosopus, and Spalacopsis (= Eutheia, Guér.)—which

differs from all the foregoing in the form of the head and in the

shortness of the antenniferous tubercles.

1. Amphicneia lineata, n. sp.

A. brevis, sublinearis, fusco-nigra, thoracis vittis tribus, scutello et

elytrorum vittis duabus lateralibus griseis ; elytris longe setosis,

crebre punctatis, apice subobtuse rotundatis. Long. 25 lin.

Head very short in front ; forehead thickly punctured through-

out. Antenne filiform, rather thick, black. Thorax very thickly

punctured, convex; dorsal line and a lateral vitta on each side

greyish. Scutellum grey. Elytra sublinear, moderately nar-

rowed towards the apex, and rounded at the tips ; surface thickly

punctured thronghout, and clothed with longish stiff hairs ;

blackish brown, with two tawny-ashy vittee on each side approxi-

mating towards the base. Body beneath and legs rusty, shining,

thinly clothed with greyish pile.

Ega; common on dead twigs.

2. Amphicneia pusilla, n. sp.

A, minuta, testaceo-fusca ; thorace punctato, griseo trivittato ; ely-

tris setosis, punctatis, testaceo-fuscis, sutura lateribusque obscu-

rioribus ; antennis pedibusque ferrugineis. Long. 13 lin.

Head rusty brown, forehead punctured, vertex and occiput

thickly punctured. Antenne rusty red, sparingly setose, basal

joint rather thick, forming an ovate club. Thorax evenly punc-

tured throughout, rusty brown, the dorsal line and a broadish

vitta on each side grey. Scutellum grey. Elytra linear, punc-

tured throughout, testaceous, suture and sides rusty brown.

Body beneath and legs pale ferruginous.

Santarem.

Closely allied to A. lineata, but distinguished by its smaller

size and different coloration*.

* A third species occurs at Rio Janeiro, in South Brazil :—

A, lyctoides. Linearis, fusco-ferruginea; corpore supra. crebre passim

: Beas 5 eens

punctato. Antenne infra sparsin hirsuta. Elytra linearia, glabra,

punctis sublineatim ordinatis. Corpus subtus et pedes fusco-ferruginea,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvii. 3

34 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

Genus ALETRETIA, noy. gen.

Body elongate-elliptical. Head short, vertically; forehead

convex ; eyes not prominent; upper or reniform lobe moderately

broad and reaching the centre of the crown, so that the eyes

above are separated only by the longitudinal line of the vertex.

Antenniferous tubercles short, unarmed : antenne stout, a little

longer than the body, and tapering towards the apex, fringed

beneath with long and fine hairs; basal joimt moderately short

and thickened almost from the base. Thorax cylindrical, lateral

tubercles very small. Elytra narrowed towards the apex, the

tips obliquely and briefly truncated. Legs moderately elongated,

tarsi narrow, claw-joint stout and as long as the three remaining

joints taken together.

The form and clothing of the antenne, shape of claw-joint,

and general habit show this genus to be closely allied to the

preceding, notwithstanding the numerous points of difference.

Aletretia inscripta, n. sp.

A. elongato-elliptica, nigra; thorace vittis quinque, elytris utrinque

vittis quatuor (juxta basin et pone medium interruptis) fulvo-

griseis, spatio nigro mediano elytrorum lineola transversa fulvo-

grisea. Long. 33-43 lin. ¢ 9.

Head clothed with greyish or tawny pile, not visibly punc-

tured; central line deeply impressed; eyes nearly touching on

the vertex. Antenne one-third longer than the body, dark

brown, pubescent, fringed with long fine hairs beneath. Thorax

cylindrical, rather broader in the middle, and having on each

side a minute tubercle; surface punctured throughout, black,

clothed with fine grey pile, and marked with five greyish-tawny

vittee. Scutellum tawny grey. Elytra narrowed towards the

apex, the tip briefly and squarely truncate, with the outer angle

prominent ; surface deeply but sparsely punctured towards the

base, faintly so and glossy towards the apex, black, the basal

half with four light-brown vitte (the second one from the suture

alone reaching the base), and the apical part with a number of

short streaks of the same colour, the intermediate black space

having on each elytron a transverse wedge-shaped line. Body

beneath and legs clothed with light-brown pile.

Upper and Lower Amazons; on dead twigs.

Genus Dorcasta, Pascoe.

Pascoe, Trans. Ent. Soe. n. s. iv. p. 264.

In this genus the body is much more elongated than in any

glabra; episternis, pectore segmentisque abdominalibus medio grosse

punctatis. Long. 1} lin. Had. in Rio Janeiro.

of the Amazons Valley. ‘35

of the preceding, being narrow and linear, but tapering towards

the apex of the elytra. The head has an elongated crown, or,

in other words, is prolonged horizontally ; and the forehead in

the typical species is directed obliquely towards the edge of the

prosternum. The upper reniform lobe of the eyes is very nar-

row. The antenne are not longer than the body, and are closely

approximated at their bases ; but the antenniferous tubercles are

not elevated or armed; the antennal joints are short, thick, and

setose, the bristles on the under surface being longest; the

basal joint is thickened from the base, and of equal breadth

thence to the apex. The legs are short and stout, and the claw-

joint of the tarsi is about equal in length to the remaining joints

taken together. The elytra are briefly sinuate-truncate, and

dentate at the apex.

1. Dorcasta oryx, Pascoe.

Dorcasta oryx, Pase. Trans. Ent. Soe. n. s. iv. p. 264.

D. sublinearis vel attenuato-elliptica, fusca, griseo tomentosa ; capite

thoraceque vitta laterali lineaque dorsali fulvis; elytris utrinque

fulvo trilineatis, apice oblique sinuato-truncatis, angulis acutis ;

corpore toto setoso ; capite elongato, infra valde retracto. Long.

33 lin. la

Abundant on dry twigs in hedges, Santarem. The Hippopsis

dasycera of Evichson (Schomburgk’s Reise in Brit. Guiana,

yol. iii.) is evidently a Dorcasta closely allied to D. oryz, if not

the same species.

2. Dorcasta lignea, un. sp.

D. linearis, grisea, capite thoraceque lineis duabus dorsalibus, regione

scutellari et elytrorum vitta lata curvata fusco-nigris ; capite elon-

gato, infra retracto; elytris striato-punctatis, subcostatis, apice

oblique sinuato-truncatis, angulis externis valde productis crassis

obtusis: corpore haud setoso. Long. 4 lin.

Head prolonged above and retracted beneath, as in D. oryz ;

forehead clothed with tawny-grey pile; vertex and occiput dingy

tawny, lineated with black; upper reniform lobe of the eyes

extremely attenuated in the middle; vertex punctured. An-

tennz about as long as the body, clothed with short sete ; basal

joint oblong, angular; colour blackish, bases of joints greyish.

Thorax convex in front ; surface punctured, dingy tawny; sides

each with a light-grey line; centre with two flexuous blackish

lines extending to the head and meeting on the crown. LElytra

free from setz, slightly tapering from base to apex, the latter

obliquely sinuate-truncate, with the outer angles produced into

vertically thickened lobes; surface with coarse punctures ar-

ranged in lines, some of the interstices subcostate ; colour dingy

grey ; the scutellar area and a broad streak, curving from each

36 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

shoulder to the suture and subapical margin, dark brown. Body

beneath and legs dingy brown.

Dry twigs, Santarem.

3. Dorcasta occulta, n. sp.

D. cylindrica, postice subobtusa, grisescens, brunneo variegata, re-

gione scutellari fusco-nigra; elytris juxta apices abrupte declivi-

bus, apice breviter suboblique sinuato-truncatis, angulis acutis ;

capite infra minus retracto. Long. 2? lin.

Head less elongated and less retracted beneath than in the

typical species, clothed with dingy greyish tomentum ; central

line deeply impressed ; upper lobe of eyes attenuated. Antenne

thick, filiform, sparsely clothed with short bristles, longer under-

neath; basal jomt oblong, angular. Thorax convex, sparingly

punctured, tawny grey, with whitish streaks on the sides. Ely-

tra cylindrical, subobtuse and abruptly declivous near the apex,

the latter briefly sinuate-truncate, both angles slightly produced

and acute ; surface free from bristles, coarsely punctured, partly

in lines, dingy grey-tawny, with brownish spots, a large patch

over the scutellar area, and sometimes a curved spot on each side,

in the middle, dark brown. Body beneath and legs tawny ashy.

Santarem, on dry twigs.

4. Dorcasta cenosa, n. sp.

D. cylindrica, postice subobtusa, griseo-fusca; thoracis lateribus et

elytrorum maculis cinereis; elytris apice oblique sinuato-trun-

catis, angulis prominulis acutis; capite infra minus retracto.

Long. 1 lin.

Head less elongated and retracted beneath than in the typical

species, rusty-brown, clothed with dingy-grey tomentum ; central

line deeply impressed; upper lobe of eyes attenuated in the

middle, the extremity, on the crown, raised. Antenne filiform,

clothed throughout with short sete; basal joint thickened

abruptly from the base, oblong: colour dingy brown. Thorax

subcylindrical, slightly tumid in the middle; surface punctured,

rusty grey-brown, sides pale ashy. LHlytra linear, narrowed a

little before the apex, the latter obliquely sinuate-truncate, with

both angles acute; surface coarsely punctured, greyish rusty

brown, with an ashy streak near each shoulder, and a discoidal

ashy line divided into spots by brown specks. Body beneath

and legs rusty brown.

Santarem, on dried twigs.

Group Hippopsine.

Genus Mrcacera, Serville.

Serv. Ann. Soc, Ent. Fr. iv. p. 43.

Megacera agrees with Hippopsis in the greatly elongated form

of the Amazons Valley. 37

of body, and in the long setiform antenne, more than twice the

length of the body, and fringed with fine bristles or hairs be-

neath. It differs, according to Serville, im the vertical instead

of retracted inclination of the face, and in the elytra being

squarely instead of obliquely truncated or pointed at the apex.

I find, on the examination of a series of species, that these two

characters do not go together, some species having the head of

a Megacera with the elytra of an Hippopsis. One of the following

species described under Meyacera (M. prelata) has, however, a

facies quite distinct from Hippopsis, owing to the greatly swollen

posterior orbits of the eyes and absence of lineation in the co-

lours of the thorax and elytra. In general form it much re-

sembles M., vittata of Serville, the type of the genus.

1. Megacera prelata, n. sp.

M. linearis, parallelogrammica, olivaceo-cinerea; capite, thorace, ely-

trorum basi. et antennis cbscurioribus; antennis longissimis ;

capite verticali, orbitu oculorum incrassato; thorace transversim

valde rugoso ; elytris sinuato-truncatis, angulis prominulis acutis.

Long. corp. 9 lin., antenn. 28 lin.

Head with vertex moderately elongated and subconvex, punc-

tured ; face short, nearly vertical, clothed with dark olive-ashy

tomentum ; posterior orbit of eyes thickened and prominent.

Antenne more than three times the length of the body, blackish,

scantily clothed with olivaceous tomentum. Thorax cylindrical,

anterior and posterior transverse sulcus well marked, the inter-

mediate part of the dorsal surface covered with coarse transverse

rugee; dark olivaceous. Elytra lear, very slightly narrowed

close to the apex, the latter transversely sinuate-truncate, both

angles faintly prominent ; surface finely punctured towards the

base, light olivaceous ashy, smooth, base a little darker. Body

beneath and legs clothed with smooth olivaceous-ashy tomentum.

One example on a slender branch in the forest, Ega.

2. Megacera apicalis, un. sp.

M. linearis, postice perparum angustata, griseo-nigra; capite pone

oculos tumidulo, lateribus lineisque duabus verticis antice con-

vergentibus fulvis ; thorace et elytris utrinque fulvo trivittatis,

vitta interiore elytrorum juxta basin attenuata, vittis omnibus ante

apicem in fasciam griseo-fulvam terminatis, ipso apice nigro,

sinuato-truncato, angulis acutis. Long. 5-7 lin.

Head with vertex moderately prolonged ; face short, slightly

retracted ; black, clothed with thin grey pile, sides and two coronal

vittze converging in front tawny; vertex coarsely but sparingly

punctured; sides somewhat tumid behind the eyes. Antenne

nearly three times the length of the body, basal joints densely

38 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

fringed beneath ; colour blackish, thinly clothed with grey pile:

Thorax cylindrical, a little narrowed in front, surface coarsely

punctured, the punctures here and there running into ruge ;

greyish black, with six tawny vitte. Elytra linear, very slightly

narrowed from base to apex, the latter transversely sinuate-

truncate, both angles acute ; surface thickly punctured, except

near the apex, greyish black ; each elytron marked with three

tawny vitte, the “‘nermost one of which is very narrow near

the base, and all terminate in a broad, subapical, tawny-ashy

pelt, which is succeeded by a black belt occupying the apex.

Body beneath and legs grey; sides of breast with two tawny

streaks.

Ega, on slender branches.

3, Megacera rigidula, 0. sp.

M. linearis tenuis, postice sensim attenuata, griseo-nigra ; capite

lateribus vittisque duabus verticis cinereo-fulvis; thorace grosse

sparsim punctato, vittis sex, et elytris utrinque vittis tribus cmereo-

fulvis, vittis duabus lateralibus elytrorum ante apicem terminatis.

Long. 43 lin.

Head with vertex moderately prolonged, face short, slightly

retracted ; black, clothed with grey pile, eovered with large

punctures; sides and two convergent vitte on the vertex ashy

tawny. Antenne rust-coloured. Thorax cylindrical, covered

with large scattered punctures, some of which are confluent, and

marked with six tawny-ashy vitte. Elytra slender, eradually

narrowed from base to apex, the latter sinuate-truncate, with

both angles produced and acute, the external one most so; sur-

face coarsely punctate-striate to the apex, greyish rusty black,

each elytron with three ashy-tawny vittee, all thickest towards

the base (the lateral one furcate), and the two lateral ones ter-

minating before the apex in an ashy spot. Body beneath and

legs grey, the tomentum more dense on the sides of the body.

Santarem.

Genus H1ipporsis, Serville.

Serville, Encyel. Méthod. x. p. 336.

As already observed in the remarks under the head of Megacera,

this genus 1s remarkable for the very elon eated narrow form of

pody, and equally elongated hair-like antenne, which are fringed

with fine hairs beneath, at least the basal joits. The body is not

linear, as in Megacera, but is gradually attenuated posteriorly, the

elytra having their apices prolonged into a point. The degree to

which this prolongation of the elytral tips 1s carried varies in the

different species, and offers a good mark for distinguishing some

of them. In some, namely those which approach Megacera, the

elytra are simply very obliquely sinuate-truncate at the apex,

of the Amazons Valleg. 39

both angles of the truncature being acute, but the external one

greatly prolonged. In others the external angle is still further

prolonged, and the sutural one only just perceptible. This

feature is carried out to greater lengths in other species, in

which the truncature is so extremely oblique as to be imper-

ceptible, the elytra then appearing to be terminated each in a

long, fine point.

The species of Hippopsis, like all other Oncideritz, are para-

sitic on the slender branches of trees. They choose, however,

the most slender twigs, and cling to them so closely by their

short stout legs and elongated claws as to be difficult of detec-

tion. All that I have seen possess the same style of coloration

—a ground-colour black or brown, clothed with extremely fine

grey pile, and marked with tawny or dingy grey stripes extend-

ing over head, thorax, and elytra, the diversities of which some-

times form good specific characters.

1. Hippopsis truncatella, n. sp.

H. linearis, fusca, capite, thorace et elytris utrinque vittis tribus

testaceo-griseis ; capite thorace latiore, pone oculos sensim angus-

tato; elytris paulo ante apices attenuatis, apice utrinque oblique

sinuato-truncatis, angulo interiore prominulo acuto, exteriore late

producto, vittis griseis duabus intertoribus ante apicem conjunctis.

Long. 43 lin.

Head broader than the thorax, curvilinearly narrowed behind

the eyes; face strongly retracted; eyes prominent ; brown, face

clothed with thick greyish pile; vertex coarsely punctured, and,

with the sides, marked with six greyish vitte, the two central

ones of which gradually converge on the crown, and the four

others traverse the deflexed sides of the neck and cheeks.

Antenne slender, basal jomt gradually thickened from base to

apex; colour rusty brown. ‘Thorax narrower than the head or

elytra, cylindrical, coarsely punctured, brown, marked on each

side with three greyish vittee, the lowermost of which is con-

tinuous along the sides of the breast. Elytra scarcely percep-

tibly narrowed from the shoulders to near the apex, thence

rapidly narrowed; the apex truncated a little obliquely, the

truncature incurved near the sutural angle, which is produced

and acute, the outer angle being broad and also acute, but

moderately produced ; surface thickly punctured, partly in lines,

brown, and marked on each elytron with three broad, greyish

vittee, the two inner ones of which unite before the apex, and

the lateral one interrupted at the shoulder, under which is a

small grey streak. Body beneath and legs clothed with fine

greyish tomentum.

Para and Lower Amazons.

40 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

2. Hippopsis griseola, n. sp.

H. linearis, fusca griseo-suffusa; thorace elytrisque utrinque vittis

tribus, collo vitta lata, vertice lineis duabus parallelis testaceo-

cinereis; capite pone oculos tumidulo, deinde angustato, vittis

ely trorum omnibus ante apicem commixtis; elytris apice acumi-

natis, divaricatis. Long. 4# lin.

Head a little broader than the thorax, tumid behind the eyes,

then rather abruptly narrowed; face strongly retracted ; brown,

rather thickly clothed with grey pile, side of the neck with a

broad ashy vitta, vertex with two narrower vitte parallel up to

the eyes. Antenne rusty brown, basal joint gradually thickened

from base to apex. Thorax cylindrical, surface having very

large confluent punctures, brown, clothed with fine grey pile, and

marked with six testaceous-ashy vitte. Elytra linear to near

the apex, thence gradually narrowed, each elytron ending ma

point, the sutural side of which is nearly straight, the outer side

a little incurved, hence giving an outward turn to the pointed

apices ; surface punctured, partly in lines, punctures fainter near

the apex, brown, clothed with grey tomentum, and marked on

each elytron with three testaceous-ashy vitte, all of which

coalesce at a distance from the apex. Body beneath and legs

thinly clothed with greyish pile, sides of breast and abdomen

streaked with denscr tomentum.

Santarem.

3. Hippopsis clavigera, n. sp.

H. linearis, tenuis, fusca, vertice vittis quatuor geminatis, thorace et

elytris utrinque vittis tribus griseis ; corpore toto grosse punctato;

antennis articulo basali apice clavato. Long. 2# lin.

Head broader than the thorax, gradually narrowed behind

the eyes, beneath strongly retracted ; forehead elevated at the

summit a little above the level of the crown; antenniferous tu-

bercles suborbicular and prominent; eyes lateral, nearly round,

slightly emarginated near the base of the antennze, but not ex-

tending in a reniform lobe upon the vertex; the latter closely

punctured, marked with four greyish stripes united in pairs

posteriorly ; face clothed with greyish hairs. Antenne very

slender, capilliform, scantily fringed with long hairs ; basal jomt

slender, somewhat abruptly clavate towards the apex. Thorax

cylindrical, evenly and thickly punctured; brown, marked with

six greyish vitte. Elytra hnear, gradually tapering, more

quickly so nearer the apex, which is moderately prolonged and

pointed, without truncature; surface closely punctured from

base to apex, brown, marked with three broad greyish stripes.

Body beneath coarsely but evenly punctured throughout, and,

with the legs, thinly clothed with greyish pile.

of the Amazons Valley. 41

This singular little species occurred only at Santarem, on the

Lower Amazons.

4, Hippopsis prona, n. sp.

HT, linearis, elongata, fusca, nitida, collo vitta lata laterali, vertice

lineis duabus, therace et elytris utrinque vittis tribus testaceo-

griseis; capite infra valde retracto, supra quadrato ; elytris leviter

oblique truncatis, acutissimis. Long. 5 lin.

Head above quadrate, the lateral outline behind the eyes

being nearly straight ; face elongated and very strongly retracted,

tending towards the horizontal position, clothed with greyish

hairs, and deeply impressed on the summit between the an-

tenne; vertex coarsely punctured, having a shining, raised

dorsal line, brown; sides each with a broad vitta, and vertex

with two stripes, greyish. Antenne piceous, finely and densely

fringed, basal joint gradually thickened from base to apex.

Thorax cylindrical, covered with large even punctures; rusty

brown, marked with six tawny-grey stripes. Elytra much elon-

gated, four and a half times the length of the thorax, linear,

gradually narrowed, and near the apex more quickly narrowed ;

the latter prolonged into an acute point, the inner side of the

prolongation formed by an oblique truncature, the sutural angle

of which is distinct ; surface punctured in distinct rows, punc-

tures indistinct towards the apex, brown, shining, marked on

each elytron with three testaceous-grey stripes, the inner two of

which unite at the apex; the middle stripe is famter and greyer

than the other two, and is interrupted towards the base. Body

beneath faintly punctured, piccous, and, with the legs, clothed

with thin, grey pile.

S. Paulo, Upper Amazons.

5. Hippopsis fractilinea, n. sp.

H. elongato-fusiformis, fusco-nigra, collo vitta laterali, vertice lineis

duabus, thorace et elytris utrinque vittis duabus fulvis, vitta in-

teriore elytrorum mox pone medium fracta; thorace supra trans-

verse ruguloso ; elytris valde acuminatis. Long. 5-10 lin.

Head narrower than the middle part of the thorax, and con-

stricted midway between the eyes and the hind margin; face

very short, moderately retracted, clothed with fulvous pile, cen-

tral line deeply impressed; antenniferous tubercles with their

mner margin dentate; vertex having a few large punctures in

the middle, and a shining central line impressed posteriorly ;

dark brown, sides each with a stripe, vertex with two narrow

converging lines fulvous. Antenne greatly elongated, black.

Thorax narrowed in front, and constricted near its hind margin,

surface transversely punctate-rugose ; brownish black, shining,

surface with two tawny lines, sides each with one similar line

42 Mr. R. J. L. Guppy on the Terrestrial and

continuous with a streak on the side of the breast. Elytra

tapering from base to apex, each elytron ending in a straight

point, the sutural edge being also nearly straight; surface

shining brown-black, punctured (except towards the apex), and

marked on each with two tawny vittee, the ner one of which is

severed after the middle, the severed ends oblique and running

parallel for a short distance; suture towards the base and disk

marked with faint silky grey lines. Body beneath shining

black, clothed with fine silky greyish pile; abdomen with three

tawny stripes. Legs black, clothed with silky tawny pile.

Common on dead branches of trees at Kga.

[To be continued. |

IV.—On the Terrestrial and Fluviatile Mollusca of Trinidad.

By R. J. Lecumere Gurry, Civil Service, Trinidad.

THE most complete list of the terrestrial Mollusca of Trinidad

which I have seen is that contained in a paper by Mr. Bland,

“On the Geographical Distribution of the West-India Land-

Shells”*. In this list are given thirteen land-shells; and men-

tion is made, in the same paper, of two freshwater Mollusca.

Of the thirteen land-shells enumerated by Mr. Bland I have

only found eleven; but, besides these, I have found thirteen

other terrestrial Gasteropoda; and in addition to the two fresh-

water Mollusca, I have found five fluviatile Gasteropoda and

one Conchifer, making a total number of thirty-two species of

terrestrial and fluviatile Mollusca.

In the ‘Annals and Magazine of Natural History’ for October

1864+ I described some species of operculate Mollusca of the

land and fresh waters of Trinidad. I now propose to complete

and correct the list of the Operculata, and to give some account

of the Inoperculata, so as to bring under view in one memoir

the whole of the terrestrial and fluviatile molluscan fauna of the

island.

With regard to classification, I have done the best I could

under the circumstances. There is so much confusion respect-

ing some of the genera (e.g. Orthalicus, Subulina, Opeas, and

others made from the old genus Bulimus), that 1 see no way of

escaping the difficulties attendant on assigning the proper place

to the species of those groups ; and until the classification of the

Helicide shall be remodelled by competent authority, generic

names must in some cases go for very little. I have therefore

in this paper included one or two species in the genus Bulimus

* Ann. Lyceum Nat. Hist. New York, vol. vii.

t+ Ser. 3: vol. xiv. p. 243.

Fluviatile Mollusca of Trinidad. 43

which, I am of opinion, ought to be separated therefrom. I think

that the peculiar animal of B. oblongus may entitle it to generic

distinction, though it remains to be seen if any of the most

nearly allied forms have similar animals. Then Bulimus octo-

noides and B. earacasensis seem also to deserve separate places.

Pfeiffer, Beck, Albers, Chenu, and many others have adopted

and devised genera for the reception of similar forms; but, as

each author appears to have his own peculiar views as to what

species shall be included in each particular genus, and as in the

majority of cases I feel myself unable to subscribe to those views,

it seems to me that the only course left open is the one I have

adopted.

Neritina, Lamarck.

Neritina microstoma, D’Orb.

The Trinidad examples agree with specimens from Cuba, and

also with D’Orbigny’s description and figures in the ‘ Moll.

de Cuba ;? but they do not accord so well with the examples in

the British Museum. Some of the specimens of N. virginea

strongly resemble the Trinidad shell.

Parupestrina, D’Orbigny.

Paludestrina spiralis, Guppy.

Bithinia spiralis, Guppy, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xiv. p. 244.

Further observation has enabled me to refer this mollusk to

D’Orbigny’s genus, and to add the following remarks :—

The operculum is thin and paucispiral, its nucleus subcentral.

The eyes are on bosses on the outer and hinder sides of the

tentacles. The animal strongly resembles that of Skenea. It is

viviparous, and about November it contains eggs and young in

every stage of development. The young shell is depressed and

umbilicate, and resembles Skenea planorbis. Before birth the

young mollusk is already furnished with an operculum.

Lingual teeth 3.1.3: central with a triangular, reflexed,

serrate edge ; first lateral small, serrate; second transverse, ser-

rate on the reflexed edge; third slender, claw-shaped, serrate.

This dentition, though not altogether unlike that of some of the

Melaniadz, presents considerable resemblance to that of certain

of the Calyptraeadee.

AMPULLARIA, Lamarck.

Ampullaria urceus, Miller. (A. rugosa, Lam.)

The animal is black, and the left siphon, when fully protruded,

is longer than the shell. The right siphon is short. The head

is produced into two lobes, which are extended into acute tenta-

cular processes. ‘The eyes are well developed, and hard, like

Ad. Mr. Rh. J. L. Guppy on the Terrestrial and

those of a fish; they are placed on stout pedicels joimed to the

outer and hinder side of the tentacles, which are acutely pointed

and of moderate length. The jaws are large, smooth, and almost

shelly. The lingual teeth are 3.1.8: central broad, sub-

quadrate, with a strong apical point, on each side of which are

two smaller dentations ; first lateral broad, obtusely pointed,

with a dentation on the inner edge; two outer laterals similar,

simply claw-shaped. The dental membrane is supported on

two large triangular cartilages, to which are attached strong

muscles.

This species inhabits the larger rivers and swamps, burying

itself in the mud during the dry season. |

Var. purpurascens (A. purpurascens, Guppy, Ann. & Mag.

Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xiv. p. 243). 1 described this form as a

distinct species, but I have since seen reason to believe it only

a variety of A. urceus.

Ampullaria effusa, Chemn. (A. glauca, Linn.)

This shell is rather variable, both as to colour and shape. I

have described a variety, for which I propose the name conica,

in the ‘ Annals’ (doc. cit.), and I have also there described the

eggs and young shell of A. effusa. Another variety of A. effusa

I propose to distinguish by the name ¢ristis. In this variety

the spire is rather more elevated than in the type, the peristome

more prominent, and the colour-bands are either altogether ab-

sent or externally indistinct, the shell being of a dark horn-

colour. These varieties would probably be regarded as distinct

species by many naturalists; but my acquaintance with the

habits of the species enables me to affirm that the differences

are not specific.

This species, like A. wrceus, buries itself during the continu-

ance of drought. It can exist for months in a torpid state.

The typical form is found in rapid streams, while the varieties

conica and tristis occur in slow-running water and in ponds,

I think it probable that A. crocostoma, Phil., a Venezuelan

shell, is only another variety of this species; and there may be

other forms which ought in strictness to come under the same

specific appellation.

Marisa, Gray.

Marisa cornu-arietis, Linn., sp.

M. Knorrii, Phil.; Ceratodes fasciatus, Guilding.

The animal is grey, mottled and streaked with brown and

black. The muzzle is produced into two acute tentaculiform

lobes. The left siphon, as well as the right one, is rudimentary

Fluviatile Mollusca of Trinidad. 45

and scarcely closed, and consists merely of an extended fold of

the neck-lappet.

A smaller variety occurs in some places. While in the type

the spire is depressed below the level of the last whorl, in the

variety the apex is slightly above that level. I propose to call

this variety Swiftz, after Mr. Swift, of St. Thomas, who, amongst

many other valuable hints, pointed out to me the differences in

these shells.

Marisa cornu-arietis prefers ponds and the more quiet streams,

as might be inferred from the shape of its shell, which does not

enable the animal to resist a strong current so well as the

globular shells of the Ampullarie. It is therefore less common

in mountain-streams. Its capability of resisting drought is also

very much less than that of A. urceus and A. effusa.

The lingual dentition is 3.1.3, as in Ampullaria. The

central tooth has three dentations on each side of the strong,

acute apical point. The mandibles are similar to those of Am-

pullaria effusa, but thinner and weaker. The eggs are deposited

in jelly-like masses on twigs, &c., in the water. The young:

mollusks, when hatched, are imperforate and subglobose, very

similar to the young of A. e/ffusa.

ADAMSIELLA, Pfeiffer.

Adamsiella aripensis, Guppy.

(Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xiv. p. 246.)

This mollusk lives principally among the dead leaves on the

ground in the forests. It frequently suspends itself by two or

three glutinous threads from branches on the under surface of

leaves at a height of one or two feet from the earth.

Cyctorus, Guilding.

In my former account* of the two species of this genus in-

habiting Trinidad I did not give a full description of the animal,

because I was under the impression that naturalists were suffi-

ciently acquainted with the general characters of the genus.

But I find that Mr. W. T. Blanford+, observing that certain

Indian species have a divided foot like Cyclostoma, has pro-

posed for them the generic name of Cyclotopsis. He is also of

opinion that the American species should be classed with Cyclo-

stoma.

The animal of Cyclotus translucidus, Sow., is of a pinkish

colour, light about the body and foot, but deep on the tentacles ;

the foot is broad, undivided, and obtusely pointed behind; the

tentacles subulate ; the eyes small, black, and sessile at the bases

* Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xiv. p. 245.

+ Ibid. vol. xui. p. 446.

46 Mr. R. J. L. Guppy on the Terrestrial and

of the tentacles ; the head is prolonged into an obtuse undivided

muzzle, which scarcely extends forward beyond the foot; the ¢

organ is large and subulate, situate medially on the back of the

neck. The animal resembles generally Cyclophorus, and not

Cyclostoma*.

The animal of C. rugatus does not differ remarkably from the

preceding ; and I feel confident that the animals of the allied

West-Indian and American forms will be found on examination

to be similar also. The lingual dentition fully bears out these

remarks. The teeth of the Cyclophoride are 3.1.8, while

those of the Cyclostomide are 2.1.2 or 00.2.1.2.00. The

Trinidad Cycloti have the former dentition.

From these considerations I do not think it probable that,

in the present state of our knowledge, a new genus need be

constituted for theAmerican (including the West-Indian) species.

Cyclotus translucidus, Sow., sp.

C. trinitensis, Guppy, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xiv. p. 245.

Though I was at first led to consider the Trinidad shell to be

distinct, I am now of opinion that it cannot be separated from

the Venezuélan species.

This and the following species are found among dead leaves

in forests, on calcareous soils.

Cyclotus rugatus, Guppy.

(Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xiv. p. 246.)

This shell is closely allied to C. stramineus, Reeve, from which

it is readily to be distinguished by the fine fold-like striz being

oblique and rising diagonally forward in C. stramineus. These

striz are also continued to the aperture in that species; but in

C. rugatus the striz run in zigzags, and coincide in general

direction with the lines of growth, resembling in this respect

the Jamaica species C. corrugatus and C.jamaicensis. C. rugatus

is distinguished from these latter forms by its general shape and

by the absence of any ridge round the umbilicus. In C. rugatus

the angularly wrinkled strize become nearly obsolete at the

aperture. C'. stramineus has a spire of half a whorl more than

C. rugatus. Again, specimens of the latter shell are generally

easily distinguished by their dark reddish-brown colour.

Henicina, Lamarck.

Helicina nemoralis, Guppy.

Helicina zonata, Guppy, Aun. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xiv. p. 247.

This shell is very like H. jamaicensis, from which it may most

* D’Orbigny has given figures of the animal of C. inca (Voy. Amér.

Mérid. Mollusques, pl. 46. figs. 21-23). The figure given by Chenu (Man.

de Conch. vol. i. p. 2. f. 11) is probably copied from D’Orbigny, and also

that in Mrs. Gray’s ‘ Figures of Mollusca.’

Fluviatile Mollusca of Trinidad. 47

readily be distinguished by the coloration and by the band of

chestnut above the suture in the present species. There are

some minor differences.

As the specific name zonata had been previously applied by

Lesson to a Helicina, | am under the necessity of giving a new

name to this species. I therefore propose to call it H. nemoralis.

It is found on the leaves of trees in the forests.

Helicina barbata, Guppy.

(Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xiv. p. 247.)

This shell is so nearly allied to H. Dysoni, Pf., of Honduras

(and perhaps also to H. foveata, Pf., of the Antilles) that it is

possible they are no more than varieties of one species.

Puysa, Draparnaud.

Physa rivalis, Maton & Rackett.

The mantle is ornamented with stripes and undulating bands,

which, during the life of the animal, seem to be on the shell.

The dental band is broad, and covered with numerous minute

teeth, which are simple, slender, and slightly curved. They are

arranged in fifty or sixty divergent curved rows of about 250 or

300 each.

The Trinidad shell does not attain so large a size as that of

Cuba (P. Sowerbiana, D’Orb.) and the Antilles; but, owing to

the close resemblance in all other respects, I feel unable to sepa-

rate it as a species.

Pianorsts, Guettard.

Planorbis terversanus, D’Orbigny.

The greatest breadth of the Trinidad examples is about

0-4 inch.

The lingual teeth are numerous, tricuspid, with a broad base.

The central tooth has two strong, prominent, acute cusps, with

a small intermediate point. The laterals are somewhat tri-

angular, the outer cusp being strongly developed, the two inner

ones merely small points. Outside of the fifth row of laterals

the teeth become much smaller.

Vacinuus, Férussac.

Vaginulus Sloanei, Fér.

The dental band is broad, the teeth numerous, simple, similar;

the median row small. In its dentition this species resembles

the Helicide more than Testacellus.

The eggs are oval-oblong, transparent, gelatinous, about + inch

long, and united in chains of ten or twelve.

48 Mr. R.J.L. Guppy on the Terrestrial and

Succinua, Draparnaud.

Succinea approzimans, Shuttleworth.

This shell resembles S. propinqua, Drouet, which may possibly

prove to be a variety.

The animal is speckled and streaked with black. The lower

pair of tentacles are small. It is found in moist places, but

never in water. The lingual teeth are numerous, in straight

rows, on subquadrate bases, edges reflexed ; central with one

strong rounded point, and a malice one on each side; laterals

bidentate, inner cusp largest, with an obsolete toothlet on its

inner edge,

Buuimus, Scopoli.

Bulimus oblongus, Miller, sp.

The peculiar conformation of the head of this mollusk was

noticed by D’Orbigny, and figured by him*. On each side of

the head is a flattened appendage, which is divided into eight

short, obtuse tentacular processes, each about 75th of an inch

in length. These probably aid in enabling the animal to burrow

in the soil, and perhaps even in discriminating food,

The sexes are separate ; the genital orifice is large and situate

beneath the upper tentacle on the right side, near the junction

of the above-described appendages with the body. The ¢ organ

is about 2 inches long, club-shaped, furnished internally with a

long stout cartilage. The lingual band is broad, and covered

with numerous similar teeth in straight rows ; the cusps simple,

rather obtuse. The dental membrane is folded over a strong

cartilage. There are two mandibles, somewhat as in the Cepha-

lopods, the upper one rather horseshoe-shaped, the lower one

tongue-like and triangular, occupying the cavity of the throat.

Bulimus zebra, Miiller.

D’Orbigny, in the ‘Moll. de Cuba,’ makes B. wndatus a

synonym of B. zebra, and gives the preference to the latter name

on account of priority. I have followed him, though I am aware

that many naturalists consider these to be distinct s species. Beck

(Index) makes the West-Indian shell Orthalicus undatus, and

the South-American one O. zebra; but having compared all the

specimens and figures within my reach, I am unable to perceive

any constant differences. These shells, as well as B. phlogerus,

D’Orb., seem to me to belong to one species ; and B. regina, Fér.,

may possibly be a reversed variety of the same.

‘The lingual band is very large, covered with numerous similar

subquadrate teeth, in somewhat divergent rows.

* Voy. Amer. Mérid. p. 297, pl. 37. f.1,2. There is a figure also in

Mrs. Gray’s ‘ Figures of Mollusca.’

Fluviatile Mollusca of Trinidad. 49

Bulimus multifasciatus, Lam.

The body of the animal is brown. The five bands of chestnut

on the shell, which are also represented on the mantle, are occa-

sionally so much interrupted as to form rows of rather distant

square spots. The shell is somewhat variable as to size.

Lingual teeth numerous, similar; median with an apical

toothlet, and a smaller point on each side of it; laterals in

diverging rows, each with an oblique, broadly reflexed cutting-

edge. Mandible semicircular, corrugate.

I propose to describe, as a variety of this species, a form found

in the southern parts of the island :—

Var. imperfectus. Shell subperforate, oblong-conic, thin, fragile,

subpellucid, shining, striated by fine longitudinal lines of

growth, and zoned with five chestnut bands, of which the

fourth is the broadest, and the second the smallest; whorls

5-6, scarcely convex; peristome simple, acute. Height

0-6 inch, breadth 0°3 inch; height of aperture 0°25 inch.

This variety is much like the young of the typical form. Its

peristome is more complete than in the young shell of the type,

but never expanded as in the adults. In the southern parts of

the island, where this variety occurs, I have never met with a

single example of the type form. The B. rufolineatus of Drouct,

probably a variety of the B. pecilus of D’Orbigny, somewhat

resembles this variety ; but that species seems to have only 3—4

bands of colour, while its whorls are a little more convex and its

aperture larger.

Bulimus immaculatus, C. B. Adams.

B. flavidus, Menke; B. stramineus, Guilding, part.

This shell is not to be confounded with the true B. stramineus.

B. immaculatus is similar in shape and size to B. multifasciatus.

It wants the bands of colour which adorn the latter, and it is

usually of a white colour, tinged more or less with yellow, espe-

cially near the aperture. The animal is whitish, more or less

deeply tinged with yellow. Lingual dentition as in B, multi-

fasciatus.

This and the two foregoing and the following species are en-

tirely arboreal in their habits.

Bulimus aureolus, 1. sp.

Shell subperforate, ovate-conic, rather acuminate, thin, yellow,

shining, translucid, finely striated by minute and close longi-

tudinal lines of growth, crossed by finer decussating striz ;

whorls 5, scarcely convex, except the last, which is somewhat

carinate ; aperture ovate; peristome simple, acute. Height

0-6 inch, breadth 0°3 inch ; height of aperture 0°32 inch.

Ann & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvi. ds

50 Mr. R. J. L. Guppy on the Terrestrial and

The animal has a bright yellow mantle, the vascular system

of which is beautifully displayed through the transparent yellow

shell. Along the middle of the last whorl runs a vessel, from

which branches are given off to each side. The pulsation of the

heart can be very distinctly seen in this species.

The lingual teeth are numerous; medians tricuspid; laterals

with an oblique, reflexed cutting-edge, and with two short,

rounded toothlets. Mandible semicircular, corrugate.

Bulimus fraterculus, Fér.

The Trinidad examples of this species are smaller than those

of the Antilles, and seem to me to resemble somewhat B. ortho-

doxus, Drouet, a Guiana species. The dimensions of the largest

example I have found are as follows :—height 0-7 inch, greatest

breadth 0:3 inch.

Bulimus octonoides, Adams.

A shell somewhat like Stenogyra octona at first sight, but dis-

tinguished by the form of the whorls and of the aperture, and

by the columella not being truncate. Perhaps B. subula, Pf.,

belongs to this species.

Bulimus caracasensis, Reeve.

B. micra, D’Orb.*, and B. oryza, Brug., seem to belong to

this species. If this should prove to be the case, the latter

name would be preferable.

Lingual teeth numerous, on a very small dental band ; medians

minute, simple, acute; laterals symmetrical, with three rounded ©

cusps, of which the middle one is the most prominent.

This and the preceding are terrestrial in their habits.

SrenoeyrRA, Shuttleworth.

Shell subulate, whorls numerous, columella truncate.

Stenogyra octona, Linn., sp.

This species is very common in gardens and cultivations,

where it lives on the ground, generally preferring to pass the

day under leaves, pieces of wood, flower-pots, &ce. At night, in

damp weather, it creeps out to attack the shoots and the bases

of the stems of young and tender plants, doing thereby much

mischief. The eggs, which are subspherical, and have a white

testaceous envelope, often remain in the shell, whose aperture

they nearly fill, and hatch after the death of the parent.

* The examples of this species in D’Orbigny’s collection in the British

Museum are labelled “ B. camba.” It may be difficult to ascertain what

the latter species really is, as D’Orbigny, in his plates in the ‘ Voyage,’

gives the name to two different specics; and in the index he refers to a

third plate, on which that name does not appear.

Fluviatile Mollusca of Trinidad. 51

Lingual teeth numerous; medians minute, simple ; laterals

symmetrical, tricuspid, central cusp much the largest.

I cannot separate this species from S. ¢erebraster, Lam.

TORNATELLINA, Shuttleworth.

Tornatellina lamellata, Pot. & Mich.

Leptinaria antillarum, Shuttleworth.

This species is viviparous. In July and August it is found

full of young shells. It is terrestrial, beg found chiefly among

decaying wood and vegetable matter.

Lingual teeth numerous; medians small, simple; laterals

with a single, long, acute, pellucid cusp, and two obsolete denta-

tions on the outer side. The mandible is somewhat horseshoe-

shaped, apparently composed of a number of pentagonal prisms

laid obliquely, resembling the shell-structure of Brachiopoda.

PLEeKocHEILvs, Guiding.

Plekocheilus auris-sciuri, 0. sp.

Shell vimate, oblong-conie, solid, silky-shining, with longitudinal

lines of growth which become somewhat smoothly squamose

on the last whorl; wholly white, or more often marbled,

spotted, or striped longitudinally with fuscous or chestnut

on a whitish, yellowish, or pinkish ground; whorls 6, rather

convex, the last one compressed near the aperture; suture

followed by an impressed line, which is more distinct on the

last whorl ; aperture constricted, angularly suboval ; peristome

white, expanded and reflected, much thickened, especially in

the middle of the outer margin; inner margin sinuate, thick-

ened and reflected over the umbilical fissure, bearing an obso-

lete tooth at its termination on the penultimate whorl; margins

joined by a thin callus extending into the interior, under

which is usually a stripe of chestnut-colour ; columella with

a strong fold. Height 1:65 inch, greatest breadth 0-7 inch ;

height of aperture 0°65 inch.

This very peculiar type of shell is represented in St. Vincent

by P. undulatus, a species allied to the present, from which it

may be distinguished by P. auris-sciurt being generally smaller

and very considerably narrower in proportion to its height.

The aperture is more angular and more produced anteriorly.

P. auris-sciuri is therefore of the two the form that shows the

greatest divergence from Bulimus. P. distortus, Brug., a Ve-

nezuelan shell, shows a still greater divergence from the type-

forms of Bulimus. P. distortus is a longer and larger shell than

the Trinidad species, and it is much narrower in proportion to

its length. P. auris-sciuri has its whorls more couvex, and the

4r*

52 Mr. R.J.L. Guppy on the Terrestrial and

columellar tooth is considerably less developed than in P. dis-

tortus. P. auris-sciuri is thus intermediate between the Vene-

zuelan species and that of St. Vincent.

The young shell is thin, and resembles a Succinea-shaped

Bulimus. The animal has plain head-lobes. Lingual teeth—

central with a single long acute cusp, base produced on both

sides; laterals with a rather square point, on each side of

which is an obsolete toothlet, base produced outwardly. Man-

dible semicircular, with distant coarse striz.

This species is arboreal. In Bland’s list it is given as P.

glaber, from which it is evidently distinct.

Ennea, H. & A. Adams.

Ennea bicolor, Hutton.

This species reminds one somewhat of shells of the genus

Carychium. It seems to be very rare in Trinidad ; for IL have

only seen four examples, of which only two were alive. It m-

habits the crevices of rocks in damp places near streams.

The tentacles (four) of Enea bicolor are bright pink, the foot

pale yellow. The lingual membrane is long and narrow ; teeth

slender, somewhat hooked. The dentition does not resemble

that of the typical Pupe (e. g. P. chrysalis, P. striatella, &ec.).

Pupa striatella has teeth resembling those of some of the

Bulimi.

Vertico, Miller.

Vertigo Eyriesi, Drouct.

Pupa Eyriesii, Drouet, Moll. Guy. Frang. p. 71, pl. 2. f. 16, 17.

The two examples which have occurred to me in Trinidad are

somewhat larger than the dimensions given by Drouet. They

are 0:07 inch high, and 0:035 inch in extreme width. They

were found on ferns.

CyLInDRELLA, Pfeiffer.

Cylindrelia trinitaria, Pfeiffer.

The animal is ashy-grey, becoming nearly black about the

head and tentacles. Foot elongate, narrow; tentacles (4) slen-

der. Lingual ribbon very long and narrow; teeth 3.1.3;

medians narrow, bicuspid, with two tubercles on the base ; first

and second laterals with simple round cusps; outer lateral in-

conspicuous, rather claw-shaped.

The mollusk is rarely seen in motion, except when it is actually

raining. The steep and overhanging sides of the small rocks of

rugged limestone in the woods on the Laventille Hills, near

Port-of-Spain, are frequently decorated with dozens of these

little shells attached by their apertures to the rock.

Fluviatile Mollusca of Trinidad. 53

STREPTAXIS, Gray.

Streptaxis deformis, Fér., sp.

The animal is of a delicate pink or yellow colour; and it is

found both on trees and on the ground m the woods. _ Lingual

teeth 10.0.10, aculeate. Judging by the teeth, no Jess than

by the form of the immature shell, Séreptawis would be classed

nearer to Zonites than to Helix. The teeth are all simple, like

those on the lateral portion of the dental membrane of Zonites

cellarius; but in Streptaxis deformis they are longer, and have

narrower hases.

Simputorsts, Beck.

Simpulopsis corrugatus, n. sp.

Shell imperforate, subglobose, very thin, membranaceous, some-

what flexible, greenish hyaline, corrugated by stout, rather

irregular, longitudinal ribs; suture linear; spire small, con-

vex ; whorls 4, convex, rapidly increasing, the last one forming

the greater portion of the shell; aperture large, rather oblique,

rounded; peristome simple; columella arcuate. Height

0:38 inch, greatest breadth 0°47 inch; height of aperture

03 inch, breadth of aperture 0°25 inch.

Animal gyveyish-brown ; tentacles four; eyes on the upper

pair. Mantle-edge narrowly reflexed over the peristome. I

regret having been unable to examine the teeth of this mollusk,

the only three examples I found having decomposed before I

had an opportunity of preserving the soft parts.

This species comes nearest to S. brasiliensis. The aperture is

more nearly orbicular, and the ribs larger than in S. rufovirens.

The shell is less Swecinea-shaped than that of S. braszliensis.

Conutus, Moquin-Tandon.

Conulus vacans, n. sp.

Shell small, trochiform-depressed, subperforate, thin, fragile,

pellucid, shining, brownish horn-coloured ; whorls 5, carinate,

flattened and obliquely striate above, closely covered with fine,

longitudinal, rather wavy striz, visible under a lens, and most

distinct on the polished under surface ; spire conoidal; aper-

ture lunate; peristome simple, acute; columellar margin

slightly reflected. Greatest diameter 0°18 inch, height

0:12 inch.

The animal has four stout tentacles. Mantle filling the aper-

ture and projecting, but not reflected over any part of the shell.

Foot narrow, truncate, with a small retractile appendage on the

truncate tail. g organ stout, on the right side, below and a

little behind the upper pair of tentacles. The foot has a median

54: Mr. R. J. L. Guppy on the Terrestrial and

band separated by a fine line or groove from the lateral portions

on each side.

Lingual teeth about 30.5.0.5.30, broad, subequal:

central obsolete; first five laterals symmetrical, with a larger

rounded cusp having a smaller cusp of similar shape on each

side ; outer laterals bicuspid, resembling the teeth of Testacedlus.

Conulus vacans lives on epiphytal orchids, and also on the

roots and stems of ferns. It is viviparous; and in the wet sea-

son individuals are found containing ten or twelve young, in

different stages. When excluded, the young shell has two

whorls, and is about one-tenth of the diameter of the full-grown

shell.

Anopon, Cuvier.

Anodon Leotaudi, n. sp.

Shell transverse, oval-oblong, very inequilateral, somewhat folded

posteriorly, striated by numerous concentric lines of growth,

which become rather subrugose towards the margins, and

which are crossed by numerous inconspicuous radiating striz ;

valves moderately thick; umbones somewhat tumid; epi-

dermis shining, dark olive-brown, passing into black; hinge-

line long, slightly curved and forming an angle with the

rounded anterior end; posterior end with a steep oblique

slope, scarcely truncate; interior brilliantly iridescent, m-

clining to rose-colour. Length 3:3 inches, height 1°8 inch,

thickness 1:2 inch; length of hinge-line 2°3 inches.

The nearest species to this is perhaps 4. amazonensis, Lea*,

from which this species may be distinguished by its longer

hinge-line, its steeper posterior slope, and the more abrupt

angle formed by the hinge-line with the anterior end. Similar

characters separate it from 4. ¢rigena, Spix, than which it is

more transverse.

I have much pleasure in dedicating this shell to my friend

Dr. Leotaud, the learned ornithologist of Trinidad, in acknow-

ledgment of his having presented me with the first example I

had seen of the species.

Cyclostomus citrinus, Sow., is recorded as a Trinidad shell. I

have never found any mollusk answering to the description of

that species; and I should not be surprised if the true habitat

turned out to be Trinidad de Cuba.

Helix perplexa, Fév. (H. granifera, Gray). This is stated to

be a Trinidad species; but I believe the true locality to be

Grenada.

Helix discolor, Fé. Also reported as a Trinidad species ; but

I have not found it in the island. Of H. Jsabella, Fér., 1 once

* Observations on Unio, &c. vol. x. pl. 46.

Fluviatile Mollusca of Trinidad. 55

found a single derelict example near the shore, which might

have come on drift-wood or otherwise from some other island.

Valvata agglutinans. In my former communication in the

‘Annals’ I described a shell under this name. It seems, how-

ever, to be similar to the Thelidomus brasiliensis of Swainson.

It is not a mollusk, but the larva-case of a species of Phryganea.

Melampus coffea exists in abundance on the northern and

eastern coasts, where MW. puszl/us and Pedipes afra will probably

also be found. But as these shells never occur beyond the in-

fluence of salt water, and as their geographical distribution is

similar to that of the marine Mollusca, I have not ineluded them

in this list.

Of Neritina we have two marine species, viz. NV. viridis and

N. meleagris. The latter will live where there is a considerable

admixture of fresh water*.

Distribution.

The island of Trinidad is divided into two divisions, northern

and southern. The former consists in great part of ancient

formations, of uncertain date, chiefly of mica-schist, compact

and crystalline limestones, and a few associated shales. These

rocks form a high range of hills, some of which attain eleva-

tions of 2500 to 3000 feet. A wide tract of stratified detritus,

through which flows the river Caroni, runs from west to east for

the greater part of the distance across the island, separating the

northern district from the southern. This separation is con-

tinued to the Atlantic, on the eastern side, by barren sandy

and siliceous strata, upon which, as upon the stratified detritus

before mentioned, no terrestrial mollusk lives. It is rather cu-

rious that this division has been sufficient to cause a noticeable

difference in the molluscan fauna of each district. In the table

I have drawn up to exhibit the distribution of the species, I

have inserted columns to show how far this is the case. From

this table it will be seen that the molluscan fauna of the northern

division has a greater number of species identical with or allied to

those of Venezuela and the Antilles than that of the southern ;

while that of the latter has a greater affinity to the fauna of the

Guianas. This fact may not go for much, it is true, and it is

possible that some of the species may ultimately be found to

have a wider range; but I thought the pomt worth noting.

Where I have deemed the species peculiar, I have taken an

allied form for the purpose of carrying out the comparison.

* Some living land-shells from the Antilles (Bulimus ewxilis, B. virgu-

latus, a species of Cistula, and Macroceramus signatus) escaped from my

vivarium on one occasion. Should these be hereafter found in Trinidad,

they should not be confounded with the aboriginal Mollusca.

56 Mr. R.J.L. Guppy on the Mollusca of Trinidad.

It will be seen by the table that scarcely more than one-third

(12) of the whole Aaa (33+) of species found in the island

are peculiar to it. Of the remainder, sixteen are found in the

Antilles and thirteen in South America, eight being common to

the Antilles and the continent.

Examples of all the peculiar species, and of most of the other

shells mentioned in this communication, have been deposited in

the British Museum.

Table showing the Distribution of the Terrestrial and Fluviatile Mollusca

of Trinidad.

| North South Allied Species, where the Hoenig stfonnie a nnrre

Division.| Division. species is peculiar. allied Species. y

Neritina microstoma ..| * Bead cr in es a enters

Paludestrina spiralis ..| .. |P. candeana...... |S. America.

Ampullaria urceus ....| * ciel Wiles shenaseishs islets nt WEMEZDELA.

Ti CMMSD, Goisilsecars sil OF * oN 6 ote a 0 Sines ae ae ealse A ELEPICH

Marisa cornu-arietis .. * be Fh Thea eevane opeutaneeve S. Amer.; St.Vincent.

Adamsiella aripensis ..| * rena xanthostoma, &e. ‘Jamaica.

Cyciotus translucidus..) + Wiis cs oceans ....- |Venezuela.

TUGACUS joe selsiie | .. |C. stramineus ....|Venezuela.

Helicina nemoralis....) * * H. jamaicensis .... |Jamaica.

Ibarbatar vec... s. | ea! ek pees .....-./|Honduras.

Physamivalis oe 3.30 ei) Bea git Oe faire Antilles. |

Planorbis terversanus..| * * Soden ODOC .-.- (Cuba.

Vaginulus Sloanei ....) Fo roo ...+.. |Jamaica; Cuba.

Succinea approximans... * adit isibe cca cad as .... |Antilles.

Bulimus oblongus ....) * Be? Wid. iake sereoaetiae ..+++. |S. America; Antilles

ZED bun cdectele ete 2k $6 eS a skew ..... |Antilles; S. America.

fraterculus ......| * * DH OG0 00 ve ..+++. |S. America; Antilles.

immaculatus # veeeeee o-+ee+e. (Antilles.

multifasciatus. . * Boo Gocinolgio ofc S. America; Antilles.

var. imperfectust, : Srl

aureolus ........ ircree * (B. limpidus ...... |S. America.

octonoides ......| + diy Reet ets Keke .... {Antilles.

caracasensis....../ od ell tees hdiogs 6 ...... |Wenezuela; Antilles. |

Sten ae A ele cl tdi lee MNCUIATHS so. 0 Sho Va CEMt

Plekocheilus auris-sciuri * | * { ip aecearene "| oO eWeneeaie

Tornatellina lamellata..) MO Tale situ Fsenthoee .... |S. America; Antilles. |

| Stenogyra octona...... hel es cS allies brtacrOmer ceca, Sev ocr S. America ; Antilles.

Ennea bicolor ........| + 36 cove svees ces sew [Ste bOmas, indies,

Vertigo Eyriesi ...... id eS At ice eats shod > o'6 Guiana. |

Cylindrella trinitaria ..| —* -. |C.collaris......... -|Antiles. |

Streptaxis deformis....| cP | WRIA .. |S. America.

Simpulopsis corrugatus.| .. * |S. brasiliensis ..../S. America,

Conulus vacans ......| * * |C.semen-lini ..../S. America.

Anodon Leotaudi ....) .. * |A. amazonensis.. ../S. America.

+ Including one marked variety.

+ This variety has been included in this list principally on‘account of its distribution.

40 Upper Baker Street, N.W., Nov. 28, 1865,

Dr. J. i. Gray on new Species of Callithrix. 57

V.—Notice of some new Species of Callithrix in the Collection of

the British Museum. By Dr. J. HE. Gray, F.R.S. &e.

THERE 1s perhaps no genus of American Monkeys that appears

more difficult to distinguish than the beautiful group of small

Monkeys named Callithriz. There is a large series of them in

the British Museum, and among them there are two specics

which do not as yet appear to have been noticed in the Cata-

logues.

Count Hoffmansegg described two species many years ago.

Spix has figured five ; but two of the figures are so badly coloured

that, if it were not for the description, one might doubt which

species they were intended to represent. M. I. Geoffroy has

figured two; but his figures have the defect of over-brightness,

as Spix’s have that of dulness.

The species in the British Museum may be thus arranged :—

1. The fur soft, with abundant, elongated, stiffer hairs.

a. The hands and feet red. 1. C. cuprea, Spix, t.17 = C.

discors, Geoff.

b. The hands and feet whitish. 2. C. donacophila, D’Orb.;

3. C. Moloch, Hoffm.; 4. C. ornata, n. sp.

c. The hands white, the. feet black. 5. C. amicta, Geoff. ;

6. C. torquata, Hoffm.

d. The hands and feet black. 7. C. personata, Geoff.; 8. C.

nigrifrons, Spix, t.15; 9. C. castaneoventris, n. sp.

The second series consists of the species which have only a

soft woolly fur and the hands and feet black—as (10) C. melano-

chir, Geoff. Paris Mus. Cat., (11) C. gigo, Spix, t. 18: but of this

group unfortunately there is not any specimen in the Museum ;

and they cannot be the young of the other species, as there are

several young specimens of the first group in the Museum, and

they have the longer bristly hairs of the adult animal.

This separation of the species by the colour of the hands

may appear to be very artificial; but the hands of the different

specimens from the same locality do not vary, while there is

often a considerable variation in the depth of the colour in the

other parts of the fur.

Callithrix ornata, n. sp.

Fur black and grey, punctulated; forehead and ears white ;

temple, cheeks, throat, underside of the body, and mner side of

the legs bright red chestnut; hands and feet grey; tail black,

grey-washed; hair of tail pale, with a broad subterminal

ring.

Hab. New Granada.

Received from M. Verreaux as C. discolor of I. Geoffroy; but

58 On the Reaction of Iodine in Lichens and Fungi.

that species has red-chestnut hands. It is more like C. Moloch,

and may be a variety of it; but it differs greatly from Geoffroy

and Dahlbom’s description.

Callithriz castaneoventris, n. sp.

Fur dark blackish grey, minutely punctulated with grey ; out-

side of the limbs reddish-washed; forehead, hands, and feet

black ; whiskers, throat, chest, belly, and inside of the limbs

dark-red chestnut; tail black, tip washed with white; hair of

tail black the whole length, except near the end, where the tips

of the hairs are white.

Hab. Brazils.

VI.—Notule Lichenologice. No. I.

By the Rev. W. A. Letcuron, B.A., F.L.S.

On the Reaction of Iodine in Lichens and Fungi.

In his earliest writings on Lichens, and down to the present

time, Dr. W. Nylander, one of the most accurate and learned of

European lichenologists, has shown that the application of an

aqueous solution: of iodine affords a very useful aid in the exa-

mination and determination of Lichens, especially the inferior

ones. By a chemical reaction the solution produces a change of

colour either in the gelatina hymenea, or the spores, or the

thecze, or the thallus. This reaction is a coloration of these

parts, either of a blue colour or of a vinous red (as in Agyrium

rufum, Fr.); or if at first a blue is produced, it almost immediately

changes in some instances into a vinous red. If the reaction

does not take place, the parts remain simply colourless or be-

come of a yellow tinge, similar to the colour of the solution it-

self. This reaction is constant ; and although no reliance can be

placed on it in the way of an isolated character, still it is highly

useful as a valuable and unfailing confirmatory one, when com-

bined with others, either external or internal. Such a chemical

difference, however, indicates an organic difference worthy of

investigation, and which might be otherwise overlooked.

This chemical reaction occurs just the same, whether the

specimen of the lichen be recently or long since gathered.

But the same is not always the case in Fungi; for Dr. Nylan-

der gathered near Helsingfors, in Finland, a specimen of Peziza

Polytrichii, Schun., which perfectly agreed with the figure in

‘Fl. Dan.’ t. 1916. fig. 1, in which the gelatina hymenea in a

living state became intensely blue with the solution of iodine.

But on examining the same specimen two years afterwards, the

iodine produced no reaction, the gelatina hymenea remaining

Dr. Nylander on new British Lichens. 59

colourless, or only becoming yellowish. Such a singular differ-

ence arising from desiccation Dr. Nylander has never observed

before or elsewhere, nor can he assign any reason why, in a

dried and aged state, the chemical nature of the thalamium

should become changed.

In many species of the genus Peziza the gelatina hymenea

becomes blue with iodine. In P. cochleata, Huds., and P. vio-

lacea, Pers., it does so, and the thecze more intensely so at their

extreme apices. In other species the thece alone, especially at

the apices, are turned blue, as in P. firma, Pers., P. plumbea, Fr.,

P. juncigena, Nyl., P. undella, Fr., P. cerea, Sow., P. repanda,

Wahlenb., and in many others,—thus manifesting that the na-

ture of Fungi differs from that of Lichens. [Summaried from

the ‘ Flora’ of Oct. 10, 1865.]

In a letter recently received from Dr. Nylander, he has kindly

furnished the proper formula for the solution, viz. :—

Iodine, gr. j.

Iodide of potash, gr. ii).

Dissolve these in 6 oz. of distilled water, and filter for use.

The solution should be kept from the light in a black glass

bottle, or in one covered with paper. In using it, it is sufficient

to apply a drop to the edge of the thin glass covering the dis-

section, under which it will diffuse itself in the water containing

the object.

VIl.—Notule Lichenologice. No. Il.

By the Rev. W. A. Lricuron, B.A., F.L.S.

Duorine the past year Dr. Wm. Nylander has named and cha-

racterized the following new British Lichens, in the ‘ Flora’ of

January 18th, March 29th, May 6th, and July 29th, 1865.

1. Collema furfureum, Ny].

Thallus fusco-niger (vel niger), statu humido rubricose nigricans

(sub microscopio lamina tenui extus rubricose rufescente) ;

apothecia fere urceolariformia; spore simplices, ellipsoide.

Gelatina hymenea iodo vinose rubens.

Discovered by Admiral Jones, on rocks of Ben Lawers, Scot-

land.

Allied to Collema granuliforme, Ny].

2. Leptogium rhyparodes, Nyl.

Thallus fuscus vel seepe fusco-nigrescens, furfwrosus, tenuis, aut

subgranulosus, diffusus ; apothecia concoloria vel rarius (magis

60 Dr. Nylander on new British Lichens.

evoluta) rufescentia, parva (latit. 0:2-0-4 millim.), deinde

planiuscula et denique biatorina; sporze (formee maxime solite in

hoc genere)ovoidez(apice infero aut utroque attenuate), submu-

rali-divisee ; longit. 0°020—0:030, crassit. 0'011—0:014 millim.;

paraphyses gracilescentes. Gelatina hymenea iodo cerulescens,

Discovered by Admiral Jones, on the micaceo-schistose rocks

of Ben Lawers, Scotland.

The thallus, when moistened with the aqueous solution of

iodine, becomes of a vinous-red tinge.

3. Pyrenidium actinellum, Ny).

Thallus sordide vel obscure olivaceus, adnatus, maculas parvas

(latit. vulgo 1-2 milli.) sistens, tenuiter “stellato-divisus,

radiis vix nisi apicibus attenuatis diseretis; apothecia pyre-

nodea, im centro thalli parce obvia, prominula, perithecio in-

tegre nigro (latit. 0°30-0°35 millim. ); spore 4"*, fuscee vel

fuscescentes, oblongze, 3-septatee, longit. 0:020-0-024 millim.,

crassit. 0‘008-0:010 millim.; paraphyses graciles, parce vel

obsolete.

Discovered by Admiral Jones, on the chalk of Bexley Hill,

Kent.

Lichen est quam maxime paradoxus. Apothecis pyrenocarpis

et sporis infuscatis distat a Collemeis, sed textura thalli accedit

ad Leptogium. In centro fere cujusvis thalli apothecia mveni ;

divisiones hujus variant adscendentes vel erectiusculze (crassit.

0:03-0:09 millim.). Thallus iodo vinose rubescens.

4. Calicium trajectum, Ny).

Thallus vix ullus distinctus; apothecia sicut in C. eusporo, sed

breviora et nonnihil validiora; spore (ut m Physctis melano-

carpis) oblongo-fusiformes, biloculares (vel 4-loculares), longit.

0:052-0:060 millim., crassit. 0°016—0:021 millim.

Discovered by Rev. T. Salwey, on trees in the New Forest,

Hampshire.

5, Lecanora poriniformis, Nyl.

Thallus cinereus vel pallide cmereus, firmus, sat tenuis, rimoso-

diffractus ; apothecia in verrucis convexis (Pertusarie facie),

prominulis (latit. 0°5-1:2 millim., altit. 0-6-1-2 mill.), mnata,

pallida, epithecio (pallido) punctiformi-contracto 1 vel 8-4

m quavis verruca; spore 6—8"®, incolores, ellipsoidez, longit.

0:070-0:080, crassit. 0°034-0:050 millim., paraphyses gracile-

scentes. Gelatina hymenea iodo cerulescens, deinde lutescens.

Discovered by Admiral Jones, on the micaceous schist of Ben

Lawers, Scotland.

Dr. Nylander on new British Lichens. 61

Differing from Pertusaria by the hymenium, thecz, and spores.

The verrucze are often pale above. The aspect is altogether that

of a Pertusaria, but its systematic place is near L. verrucosa

(stirps Lecanore cinerea).

6. Pertusaria gyrocheila, Nyl.

Thallus cinerascens, subgranuloso-inequalis, rimoso-diffractus,

mediocris (crass. fere 0°5 mill.) ; apothecia in tuberculis (altit.

fere 2 millim., vulgo latit. 3-5 millim.) thelotremoidea, sim-

plicia aut demum supra subgyrosis e margine thallino crasso

subgyroso, epitheciis glypholecine compositis, hymenio pal-

lido; sporze 8"®, incolores, ellipsoidez, longit. circiter 0-068-

0-070, crassit.0°036—0-050 millim. Gelatina hymenea et thecz

iodo czerulescentes.

Discovered by Isaac Carroll, Esq., 1864, near the summit of

Ben Lawers.

A very singular species, the verruce of the apothecia being

crateriform.

7. Pertusaria ophthalmiza, Ny].

Sporis usque longit. 0°160-0:205, crassit. 0'080-0:100 millim.

E Discovered by Admiral Jones and Mr. I. Carroll, on Pine,

Glenfalloch, Scotland.

8. Lecidea diducens, Nyl.

Thallus vix ullus; apothecia nigra, mediocria, plana, marginata

(margine szepius flexuoso), intus obscura ; spore 8"®, incolores,

ellipsoideze vel oblong, longit. 0'008-0:009, crassit. 0°0035—

0:0045 millim. ; hypothecium fuscum ; paraphyses crasse, di-

stinctze (crass. circiter 0:0035 millim.), apice clavato, nigro vel

nigricante. Gelatina hymenea iodo cerulescens.

Discovered on felspathic rocks in Jersey, by Charles Larba-

lestier, Esq.

The aggregate apothecia, absence of thallus, small spores, and

thick paraphyses keep this species distinct.

9. Lecidea rhizobola, Nyl.

Thallus castaneo-fuscus vel lurido-fuscescens, squamosus, squamis

rigidis, rotundatis vel rotundato-difformibus (latit. 4-7 mil-

lim.), margine crenatis, subtus pallidis vel albidis, meequalibus,

centroque longe radicatis; apothecia nigricantia, mediocria,

intus albido-pallida ; spor 8", oblongo-ellipsoidez, simplices,

longit. 0-012—0:016, crassit. 0°006-0:007 millim. ; paraphyses

haud bene discretae. Gelatina hymenea iodo vinose rubens.

Discovered by Admiral Jones, on Ben Lawers, Scotland.

Allied to Lecidea globifera, Ach., and conspicuous by the hori-

zontal thalline scales having long and divided roots.

62 Dr. Nylander on new British Lichens.

10. Lecidea luteella, Nyt.

Thallus albus, tenuissimus vel macula alba indicatus; apothecia

lutea (pallido-lutescentia), parva, marginata (vel submarginata,

juvenilia gyalectoidea), intus incoloria; spore 8°®, oblong

vel oblongo-fusiformes, 1-septatz, longit. 0°016-0-023, crassit.

0-006-0-007 millim. ; thecze apice szepius crasse solide ; para-

physes graciles.

Discovered by Admiral Jones, on calcareous stones in Ireland.

Its systematic place is after L. erysiboides, Nyl.

11. Lecidea contristans, Ny).

Thallus fuscus vel fusco-nigricans, tenuis, granulosus ; apothecia

nigra (latit. 0°6-0-9 millim.), convexiuscula, immarginata,

intus obscura; spore 8", incolores, ellipsoidez vel oblongze,

1-septatee, longit.0°-010-0-014, crassit.0-0045-0-0065 millim. ;

paraphyses haud discretz; epithecium nigricans; hypothectum

sordide tinctum. Gelatina hymenea iodo cerulescens, dem

sordide lutescens.

Discovered by Isaac Carroll, Esq. (1864), on decaying Andree

on the summit of Ben Lawers.

Systematically near L. melena, Ny).

12. Lecidea premneoides, Ach.

Thallus pallido-virescensvel cineraceo-virescens, tenuiter leprosus,

effusus; apothecia nigra, mediocria, marginata, plana, epi-

thecio interdum subvirescenti-suffuso ; spore 8"”, incolores,

oblong (obsolete vel tenuiter 3-septatz), longit. 0-019-0-025,

crassit. 0°007—0°008 millim.; paraphyses gracilescentes ; hy-

pothecium nigrum. Gelatina hymenea iodo vinose rubens.

Discovered on walls in the island of Jersey, by Charles Larba-

lestier, Esq.

Allied to L. aromatica, Ach., and ZL. granosa, Tuck (thallus

albidus vel albido-cinerascens, apothecia minora, &c.), but with

the aspect of L. premnea, Ach.

13. Opegrapha lentiginosula, Nyl.

Thallus vix ullus; apothecia minutula (longit. 0°25 millim.),

ellipsoidea (vel raro semel divisa), epithecio rimiformi; spore

fuscee, ovoideze, 1-septatze (ad septum constrictiuscule), longit.

0:020-0:023, ecrassit. 0°010-0°011 muillim.; paraphyses vix

ulle ; hypothecium in color. Gelatina hymenea iodo vix vel

obsolete czerulescens.

Discovered by Isaac Carroll, Esq. (1864), on pine-bark at

Glenfalloch, Scotland.

Dr. Nylander on new British Lichens. 63

Like O. lentiginosa, Lyell, but smaller, though with larger

spores.

14. Verrucaria tristicula, Nyl.

Thallus fuscus, tenuiter granulosus, effusus; apothecia nigra,

perithecio (sensu altitudinis ellipsoideo, latit. 0-4—0-5 millim.)

integre nigro firmo ruguloso subconice prominulo, epithecio

punctiformi-impresso ; thecze vulgo monosporee ; spore fuscee,

murali-divisee, oblonge, longit. 0°070-0°120, crassit. 0°023-

0:036 millim.; paraphyses nulle. Gelatina hymenea iodo

vinose rubens.

Discovered by Admiral Jones, on mosses (Weisia) in Aber-

deenshire, Scotland.

A remarkable species, approaching V. gelatiosa, Ach.

15. Verrucaria nigritella, Ny).

Thallus niger, magmoideus (forte non proprius, initiis algologicis

compositus) ; apothecia nigra, sat parva (latit. 0°L7—0°25 mil-

lim.), perithecio integre nigro, nonnihil prominulo, epithecio

vix impresso ;_ sporee fuscee, ellipsoideze vel oblongo-ellipsoidez,

varie divise, longit. 0°021—0-036, crass. 0°009-0'014 millim. ;

paraphyses nulle. Gelatina hymenea iodo vinose rubescens

vel fulvescens.

Discovered by Isaac Carroll, Esq. (1864), between the scales

of the thallus of V. tephroides, Ach., on the earth at the top of

Ben Lawers.

The spores are nearly similar to those of Urceolaria scruposa,

Ach., and are much smaller than those of V. nigrata, Nyl.

16. Verrucaria leptotera, Nyl.

Thallus obscure olivaceus vel olivaceo-nigrescens, levis, sub-

nitidiusculus, indeterminatus, sat tenuis; apothecia nigra,

minuta, subinnata; spore incolores, oblong, 1-septatz (al-

tero apice paullo crassiores), longit. 0°016—0-018, crassit. fere

0:005 ; paraphyses nulle.

Discovered by Charles Larbalestier, Esq., on maritime rocks

in the island of Jersey.

Externally very similar to Verrucaria mucosa, Ach. Possibly

only a variety of V. consequens, Nyl. (in ‘ Flora, 1864, p. 357),

differing by the smaller apothecia and narrower spores.

17. Verrucaria innata, Nyl.

In thallo Lecidee Hookerii, Scher., innata, minuta, perithecio

integre nigro ; spore 8"®, incolores, ovoideze, 1-septatz, longit.

0:018—-0-028, crass. 0-°008-0°011 millim. ; paraphyses parce,

64 Dr. Nylander on new British Lichens.

irregulares, vel vix ulle. Gelatina hymenea iodo haud tincta

(lutescens).

Discovered by Admiral Jones, on the earth of Ben Hey

growing with V. nigrata, Nyl.

An hue pertineat Spheria Schereri, Mass. Sulla Lec. Hook.

p. 82? Sporas multoties minores indicat.

18. Verrucaria superposita, Nyl.

Thallus forte nullus Breueiss apothecia nigra, turgidula, peri-

thecio (latit. O°20—-0°25 millim.) integre nigro, epithecio i im-

presso; spore 8"*, incolores, ovoider, i -septatee, longit.

0:017-0°:019, crass. 0:007-0-008 millim. ; paraphyses nulle.

Gelatina hymenea iodo vinose rubens.

Discovered by Admiral Jones and Isaac Carroll, Esq., grow-

ing on the thallus and hypothallus of V. theleodes, Smrf.; also

upon a thin, whitish, opake, granulate thallus, which may be

possibly its own.

19. Verrucaria allogena, Ny).

Apothecia demum prominula (latit. 0°25 muillim.), perithecio

dimidiatim nigro, parte immersa (vel infera ejusdem) sub-

incolore (vel interdum leviter fuscescente) ; sporee incolores,

l-septatee (forme sicut in V. epidermidis, Ach.), longit.

0:023-0°027, crass. 0'008-0:009 millim. (paraphyses fere ut

in var. fallax, Nyl.).

Discovered by Isaac Carroll, Esq. (1864), on micaceo-schis-

tose rocks on the summit of Ben Lawers, growing on the thallus

of Lecidea excentrica, Ach.

Only a variety of V. epidermidis, Ach.

20. Verrucaria subintegra, Nyl.

Thallus pallide cinereo-virescens, tenuis, rimulosus, mdetermi-

natus; apothecia mediocria, convexula, prominula, perithecio

integre vel subintegre nigro; spore fusiformes, 3-septatze,

longit. 0°020-0:027 millim., crassit. 0-°006-0:007 mill.

Discovered by Charles Larbalestier, Esq., on granitic rocks in

the island of Jersey.

Scarcely specifically distinct from V. chlorotica, Ach.

21. Verrucaria dubiella, Nyl.

Thallus cinerascens, cartilagineus, granulato-insequalis, sub-

crenatus (an proprius?) ; apothecia nigra, parvula (latit.

0:2 millim. vel minora), perithecio integre nigro; spore 8"®,

incolores, oblongze vel ovoideo-oblongz, longit. 0: 016-0:021,

crassit. 0-005—0-007 millim. ; paraphyses null. Gelatina hy-

menea iodo vinose rubens.

Bibliographical Notices. 65

Discovered by Isaac Carroll, Esq. (1854), on mosses in the

Scottish mountains, Lochna-Cat.

A species well distinguished by its small 3-septate spores.

It is probably parasitic.

22. Verrucaria endococcoidea, N yl.

Thallus proprius nullus ; apothecia nigra, minuta, endococcoidea,

perithecio parte immersa tenui fusca (latit. 0° 12—0°16 millim.),

parte supera (extus visibili) convexula; spore 8"*, incolores,

oblongo - ellipsoidee, 3-septatz, longit. 0:016—0:018, crass.

0:006-0:007 millim.; paraphyses nullz. Gelatina hymenea

iodo vinose rubens; spore dilute ceerulescentes.

Discovered by Admiral Jones growing parasitically on the

thallus of Lecidea excentrica, Ach., near the summit of Ben

Lawers, Scotland.

Apparently allied to V. dubiella, Nyl. From others it scarcely

differs in the spores becoming blue with iodine,

23. Verrucaria platypyrenia, Nyl.

Late effusa ; apotheciis planis vel planiusculis (latit. 0°5 millim.),

primo hypophleeodeis opacis; spor incolores (vel demum

vetustate fuscescentes), oblouge, 3—5-septatz, longit. 0-023—

0-030, crassit. 0-009-0:011 millim.; paraphyses molles, irre-

gulares, vel non distinctee.

On bark near Cork, Ireland. Discovered by Isaac Carroll, Esq.

Probably only a variety of V. epidermidis, Ach.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

Manual of Geology. By The Rev. Samuri Havucuron, M.D.,

F.R.S., Fellow of Trinity College, Professor of Geology in the

University of Dublin. London: Longman & Co., 1865. 8vo.

pp- 360, with sixty-six woodcuts.

Wuar is Geology? And what is a Manual of Geology? Some

think that they have mastered the science when they know some-

thing about the materials of the crust of the earth (Mineralogy and

Lithology), about their order of position (Stratification), about the me-

thods and agents of their arrangement (Geological Dynamics), about

the fossils representing former animals and plants (Paleontology),

about the various distribution of old seas and lands and the succes-

sive faunze and floree (Theoretical Geology), and about the practical

uses of geological knowledge. To get thus far they provide them-

selves with as limited an acquaintance with chemistry, physics, and

biology as is compatible with their task (or such only as they

happen to pick up), and take for granted very much of both the

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvit. 5

66 Bibliographical Notices.

observational and hypothetical bases of the science from their

teachers and text-books.

But really they have not even then the whole range of the science

before them; for they have been studying the earth’s crust and

surface, not the earth as a whole. What is known of the earth’s

phenomena as a planet has been gathered by astronomers and geo-

detical surveyors, but it does not the less belong to the observational

part of geology (Geognosy). What is known of this planet’s history

is the combined result of astronomical, physical, chemical, and minera-

logical research, and belongs to theoretical geology ; for it illustrates

the history of the earth in early times. Does any manual, gunide-

book, class-book, or elementary treatise on geology supply a concise

résumé of what is known on all the above-mentioned departments of

geological science, so that the Student can see what he has to learn

and how to learn it, and the Expert feel that he has a real aide-

mémoire, complete, with additions and corrections to the latest date?

The Rey. Dr. Haughton has added another to the many good

geological treatises (by Naumann, Vogt, D’Halloy, Beudant, De la

Beche, Phillips, Lyell, Jukes, Hitchcock, Dana, Ansted, Page, and

others) already existing; but they are either too special and partial,

too diffuse and yet too imperfect, or otherwise ill adapted for ordinary

students, Naumann’s comprehensive and well-planned ‘ Lehrbuch’

is three-volumed, and much too large for general students. Dana’s

is a model manual, but it is avowedly systematized on American

geology. Thus the student, not training for special or professional

geology, but working up a general knowledge of the earth and its

history, feels the want of a concise, clear, and trustworthy guide-

book for the many-branched science of geology, leading him away

from the slough of popular notions and lapsing hypotheses, through

the rocky paths of experiment and observation, to the higher ranges

commanding a good general view of his subject, without waste of

time by devious wanderings into the unknown, or hobby-ridings in

the bypaths of an author’s favourite fields.

In the book before us Dr. Haughton publishes fifteen Lectures

delivered in 1862, and relating chiefly to Paleontology, or the history

of the earth’s inhabitants. He first treats of the origin of the globe,

and the physical conditions necessary to be established on the earth

before it could have had any inhabitants at all. First he refers to

his acceptation of Laplace’s nebular hypothesis, as a basis, in some

former lectures on geology, and adopting Durocher’s hypothesis of

a difference of materials in the first and second incandescent layers

under the crust of the cooling globe(the outer, acid or granitic magma,

and the second, basic or trappean magma), arranged by specific gra-

vity, dependent on chemical constitutién, ehanged by oxidation in

course of time, and forced out in succession through fissures during

the contraction of the earth’s crust. The formation of the atmo-

sphere, the salinity of the sea, and some other points complete the

subjects of the first Lecture. This has two valuable Appendices. 1.

A translation of Durocher’s Essay on Comparative Petrology ; and

2. Notes on the Origin of Granite, by the author.

Bibliographical Notices. 67

Sandstones, schists, and limestones, as types of the aqueous or

stratified rocks, their modes of formation, their characters and classi-

fication, occupy Lecture II.

Concretions or nodules (including rocksalt and gypsum) in strata

are next studied, and, together with modes of fossilization, form the

third Lecture. The fourth considers geological time, tests of age in

rocks stratified and unstratified (namely, relative position, mineral

composition, and characteristic fossils), the thickness of strata, and

its relation to time and to the development of organic life (a greater

number of species accompanying a given thickness of stratified

material at later than at older periods). Appendices on the theories

of solar heat, and the calculation of geological time based thereon,

accompany Lecture IV. The rate of production of species of crus-

tacea, fishes, reptiles, and mammals in past time, and their relative

zoological importance and chronological development, are tabulated

and shown by diagrams in Lecture V., which also treats of the classi-

fication of animals by Aristotle, Linné, Cuvier, and Lamarck. Dr,

Haughton then concisely defines—1. The Spondylozoa ( Vertebrates);

2. The Entomozoa (Annulose animals); 3. The Malacozoa (Mol-

lusks); 4. The Echinozoa (Echinoderms); 5. The Celenterozoa

(Corals, &c.); and, 6. The Protozoa. .The Appendices give details

of classificatory arrangements by Moses, Aristotle, Linné, and Cuvier.

Lecture VI. has the Azoic and Palzeozoic rocks for its subject. In

1862 most metamorphic rocks were commonly regarded as being

« Azoic;”? now, however, more of them are known to be fossili-

ferous, and nearly all (leaving still some granitic masses to be ex-

plained, perhaps by Durocher’s theory) are referred to some series

or other of the known stratified rocks, the oldest groups having, of

course, the largest proportion of altered rocks. The classification

of rocks (based on succession in time and difference of formation)

by Linné and Werner, and Hutton’s correction of Wernerian no-

tions, are given. The great granitic and gneissose tracts (now

regarded mainly as belonging to the Laurentian system) are briefly

described. The Lower Paleeozoic strata are then referred to—first, as

being badly provided with divisional names ; secondly, as character-

ized in the lower group by Mollusks and Crustaceans (‘ Malacozoic”’ ),

and in the upper by Fishes (“‘Ichthyozoic”). ;

The wide range of species, not only in Paleozoic but in Mesozoic

rocks, and the increase of difficulties in regard to the contemporaneity

or non-contemporaneity of strata containing similar fossils, are also

treated of in this chapter; and the author seems to think that when

Ammonites and Ichthyosaurs lived in a warm climate at what are

now the Arctic Regions, the equatorial heat must have been un-

bearable; that as the globe cooled creatures migrated towards the

equator from high latitudes to find a congenial temperature, new

forms replacing them; and that, hence, strata in different latitudes

bearing similar or characteristic fossils are not strictly contempora-

neous, but subdivisible into representatives of many periods of

time. This last idea, already handled by Dela Beche, Forbes, and

Huxley, and illustrated by Jenkins, Duncan, and others, seems true

68 Bibliographical Notices.

enough, whether the climates were influenced by the internal heat

of the globe (which we thought to have been disproved by Hopkins),

or by steam and carbonic acid of the atmosphere keeping the earth

warm in early days: and now we speak of Homotaxis (‘‘same ar-

rangement”’), and of the Homotaxeous relationship of strata, instead

of hypothetical and possibly false contemporaneity. In the Appen-

dices to this chapter we have, first, Linné’s theory of the formation

of rocks; and secondly, the author’s views as to the formation of

continents and mountain-chains, already known as a bold and inge-

nious theory, full of worth.

Lecture VII. is preliminary to the study of fossils, being devoted

to the explanation of the value of different kinds of symmetry in in-

organic and organic nature, more particularly to the geologist, who

has rarely anything but the hard parts of a creature to deal with.

There is the symmetry of minerals, of plants, and of animals. The

first is purely geometrical ; and the lower the creature in the scale

of organization the more perfect is its subjection to geometrical laws.

In the highest development of the animal kingdom “ we have the

symmetry of form reduced to its simplest condition, that of a

bilateral symmetry with reference to a plane, all symmetry with re-

ference to a line having been abandoned.” The consideration of

this subject, which seems to be a favourite with the author, leads

him to treat at length of the cells of bees, and of the opinions of

Pappus, Maraldi, Reaumur, and Darwin thereon, the last-named

getting but little credit.

The eighth Lecture commences the history of the creatures that

lived at various times on the earth’s surface, and premises “ that

there is a general progress in complexity of organization as we follow

the history of the globe from the oldest to the newest strata, although

there are many exceptions.” The Protozoa, Celenterozoa, and Ln-

tomozoa are comprised in this lecture. Belonging to the first, the

Foraminifera are spoken of; but the classification given for them at

p- 174 is quite obsolete and superseded by Carpenter’s. Nummulina

is chiefly referred to, and the range of the Nummulitic strata. J?e-

ceptaculites is also also brought forward, and, with Orditolites,

shows the geometrical symmetry of the ‘Spiral of Archimedes.”

Polycystines and Sponges are also briefly treated of ; but even that

little might be greatly improved. The Corals (Hydrozoa and Acti-

nozoa) come next; and their symmetry being related to a line, whilst

that of Echinoderms is related to a plane, is pointed out as one of

the reasons for separating the latter, as a higher group, from the

Ceelenterates. ‘The Corals are better treated than the Protozoans,

as to definition and classification. The Hntomozoa or Articulata

(Insects, Myriapods, Arachnids, Crustaceans, and Worms) are then

noticed, more especially the Crustacea, including the Cirripedes,

which, however, are not true Crustaceans, and among which cer-

tainly Aptychus has no place. With reference to paleontological

laws, the Rev. Dr. Haughton prefers to say “that the Neozoic

Crustaceans were superior in organization to the Paleeozoic” than

* that the Crustaceans progressed as the world grew older.”

Bibliographical Notices. 69

Fossil fishes occupy Lecture IX. They characterized the Upper

Paleozoic (or Ichthyozoic) period. ‘There can be little doubt,’

says the author, “ that the Paleeozoic fishes approach the reptilian

type more closely than the Neozoic fishes, and that they are entitled,

if on this account alone, to be regarded as possessing a higher

organization.”

Lecture X. takes in the ‘‘ Phytozoic Period’’ (seemingly the same

as the “Ichthyozoic”’), treating of fossil Plants, especially Conifers

and Acrogens, Carboniferous plants, Sigillariz and Lepidodendra,

Calamites and Ferns, and giving special and general remarks thereon.

The Appendix contains the author’s elaboration of “the Phyllo-

taxis of Whorls.”’

Lecture XI. begins the Neozoic Period, and takes up the fossil

Reptiles, so abundant as to characterize the “Saurozoic Period.”

We have a classification of Reptiles; and notes on the Chelonians,

Saurians, Pterodactyles, Enaliosaurians (including a limbless tadpole

Ichthyosaur! to be seen at Trinity College, Dublin), Labyrin-

thodonts, Ophidians, and Batrachians, in succession, form a brief

history of the group. The monstrous restoration (at p. 275)

of Cheirotherium Anglorum (why attributed to the English we

do not know) is enough to frighten even naturalists themselves.

We saw it once figuring in some book of popular geology, and

shut the book at once. Birds appear in Lecture XII., as far, at

least, as the Connecticut foot-prints and the Moa are concerned—

not much for 1862, seeing that bird-bones had then been recognized

in the Trias (North Carolina), the Stonesfield Oolite, the Wealden,

the Upper Greensand, and many Tertiary beds. We must correct

two statements made, at p. 252: first, the great fossil foot-prints at

Hastings are Reptilian and not Ornithic; secondly, Dr. Mantell

found only one or two Wealden bird-bones, not ‘‘ many.’ The

LEchinozoa then have a few pages of classification and useful remarks,

the Lecture ending with a wholesome caution to those who are fond

of theorizing instead of collecting facts; and this seems to be offered

by the author especially to those who see any evidence of the pro-

gression theory in the early appearance of the fixed Crinoids and the

later predominance of the free Asteroids and Hcehinoids. Students

will be glad of Lecture XIII. with its classificatory notices of Cepha-

lopods and Bivalves, short as they are. Oldhamia, classed with Po-

lyzoa on little or no evidence (it is either a Seaweed or a Sertularian),

has more cuts than text; and Graptolithus (most probably a Sertu-

larian) is grouped with them, and has but short shrift.

Lecture XIV., on fossil Mammals, has their classification for its

basis. The ‘‘ Mastozoic Epoch” of the author seems to have ex-

tended from the so-called Miocene to the Glacial period (Dinotherium

and Sivatherium, the Mammoth and Megaceros, being some of

the characteristic mammals). The next epoch is his “ Anthropo-

zoic;” and he says that the connecting links between these two

epochs ‘are nowhere to be found.” Surely the Camel and Giraffe

are fossil in the Sivalik Hills with the Dimothere and Sivathere ;

surely Man and his works were contemporaneous with the old Ele-

70 Bibliographical Notices.

phant and the Irish Elk. Dr. H. Falconer has said that fossil

Man will yet be found in Nature’s great Sivalik cemetery, and at

other places where, together with the great apes, he could exist,

whether in Miocene or even earlier times, under tropical or sub-

tropical conditions. We must wait. Alas that philosophers cannot

profit by the cautions they give to others! Here our author defi-

nitely limits Man’s existence to the post-Tertiary period, accept-

ing negative evidence, too impatient to wait for coming facts, and

more easily impressed with the “ vague analogy ” of Greek succeeding

Assyrian, or the Roman the Hebrew, than willing to see that, as

Mammals existed before his ‘‘ Mastozoic Epoch,” so remains of Man

may well be looked for in strata older than those of his ‘‘ Anthropo-

zoic Epoch.”

The last Lecture is an honest and “ conservative” exposition of the

author’s views of the history of life on the globe; he compares

Combe’s ‘Vestiges of Creation’ with the philosophy of Lamarck

and Darwin, and he rejects them all, preferring to ‘‘remain con-

tented with the very old-fashioned, but very simple and very satisfac-

tory, hypothesis of a Creator.”

Altogether this is a remarkable book, good for geologists to read ;

by no means a “ Manual,” it is really a valuable series of Lectures on

Paleontology, preceded by some on Geognosy, and enriched with

the results of Prof. Haughton’s labours in chemical geology, his

masterly thoughts on cosmical subjects, his earnest philosophy, his

clever mathematical researches, his genuine classical knowledge, and

his pains-taking acknowledgment of what is due to the patriarchs of

science. There are graces and virtues here which are rare enough in

the majority of geological treatises, and which outweigh the deterio-

rating effect of rather too much egotism. It must have been a strong

belief in the value of these lectures, in a philosophic point of view,

that induced the author to present them, for the use of students,

without even a footnote or an appendix to tell them of the three

years’ added knowledge. There is no note of the disentanglemeunt

of the Metamorphic or so-called “‘ Azoic”’ rocks, and of the conse-

quent disappearance of the “systems” of slates and gneiss from the

geological class-room,no mention of Archeopteryzx (the reptilian bird),

nor any account of fossil works of man; and there are several short-

comings in the author’s knowledge of natural history and geology.

That additions might have been made, the introduction of the curious,

but extremely doubtful, marsupialism of the Dinothere, at p. 333,

makes evident ; and appendices might have been still added. Possibly

a new edition will take a new shape; and, incorporating and correct-

ing, it will certainly form a highly valuable treatise, not so compre-

hensive as a real manual, not so cosmopolitan and independent of

party principles; but, based on good ideas, and imbued with the

author’s own style of thought, it will treat of the globe as Haughton

will have taught us to think of it,—it will treat of life on the globe as

represented by the myriads of mingled created forms, distinct and

yet united, independent portions of one great whole, related by ana-

logies and homologies, separable in their degrees of symmetry and of

Bibliographical Notices. 71

complexity, of vital power, of instinct, and of intelligence, and all

pointing to one Creative System, by whatever form of words we may

try to define it.

Essay on the Trees and Shrubs of the Ancients ; being the substance

of four Lectures delivered before the University of Oxford. By

C. Dauseny, M.D., Professor of Botany and Rural Economy.

Oxford, 1865.

The subject to which these lectures were devoted has long excited

the curiosity of botanists, from its historical interest and also from

its difficulty. The unscientific reader of the classical authors has

probably no idea that the identification of the plants there named

with those of our own or other northern countries is, to say the least,

uncertain and unsatisfactory.

The fruit-trees have perhaps been determined with tolerable cor-

rectness, and their names properly translated by the ordinary lexico-

graphers; for they are mostly (as we learn from Pliny) introduced

plants even in Italy: the Peach from Persia, the Quince from Crete,

the Damson from Damascus, and so on. Even the Cherry is stated

by him to have come from Pontus. In most of these cases, doubt-

less he was correct; aud perhaps even the cultivated Cherry may

have been introduced, just as the cultivated Hop is in England, the

wild Cherry and the wild Hop having in both cases escaped the un-

observant people of the periods recorded for their introduction into

the respective countries.

Dr. Daubeny seems to think that the only fruits indigenous to

Italy were the Mulberry, Apple, Pear, Plum, and Sorb.

It is even more difficult properly to apply the classical names to the

forest-trees than to the fruit-trees. Let us take the Fagus or Beech as

anexample. Itis stated by Caesar not to inhabit Britain ; and, indeed,

Dr. Daubeny seems to consider it to have been introduced to our

country not earlier than the Norman conquest; but surely he must

have forgotten the extensive woods formed of this tree which now or

recently existed in the chalky parts of the country. It is quite

likely that Caesar did not see the Beech in Britain, for he does not

seem to have penetrated to the districts wooded by it; and there is

also the confusion between the @yyés of Theophrastus and Fagus of

Pliny to be remembered. ‘The former may have been the Quercus

esculus; the latter correspond with the df of Theophrastus.

The following extract will show the elaborate and exhaustive

manner in which these curious questions are treated in the present

book. On the tribe of Firs stated by Pliny to be pitch-bearing

Dr. Daubeny says :—

“These Pliny divides into 4dies and Pinus: and modern botanists,

having separated the Adbietine into two groups—namely, the one with

leaves solitary or in two ranks, the other in clusters of two, three, or

five each—place the former under the head of Adies, and the latter

under that of Pinus.

72 Bibliographical Notices.

* But we must not suppose that Pliny contemplated any such di-

vision. Qn the contrary, the Spruce Fir, which stands as the very

type of the genus Adies, is not indigenous either in Italy or Greece.

Loudon, therefore, and other botanical writers are in error when

they regard the Abies of the Latins as the Spruce Fir of Northern

nations.

‘Tn order to ascertain what kind of tree Pliny meant by the term

Abies, and Theophrastus by the corresponding one éAdrn, our best

method will be to inquire, in the first instance, what are the species

indigenous in Greece and Italy.

“In Greece Sibthorp enumerated the following :—

1, Pinus sylvestris, Scotch Fir, which he states to be found in

the mountains of Bithynia. As this, however, has not been con-

firmed by succeeding travellers, it seems doubtful whether he may

not have confounded with it the Corsican Pine, P. Laricio, which,

though omitted by him, is recognized by other botanists (Lambert,

‘Genus Pinus,’ Gussone, ‘ Flora Sicula ’) as existing in all the southern

parts of Europe.

“2, Pinus pinea, Stone Pine, zirvs of Dioscorides (i. 86), met

with on the sandy shores of Western Peloponnesus.

“3. Pinus maritima, Maritime Pine, zeixn of Dioscorides, found

everywhere in the sandy flats of Greece, and especially in Elis. It is

probably the same as P. halepensis, which Sibthorp omits, but which

is stated by other writers as the commonest Fir in Greece, from the

sea-shore to a height of about 3000 feet above it.

“ P, nicea, or Abies pectinata, the Silver Fir of modern botanists,

and the éAdry of Theophrastus, which is met with commonly on

the loftier mountains of Greece.

“Tn Italy the same species occur, and, in addition to them, the

P. pinaster, or Cluster Pine, is abundant as far south as Genoa,

where it gives place to the Pinus halepensis already noticed, and,

according to Tenore (Flora Neap.) to three others, namely P. brutia,

pumilio, and uncinata.

“Tn the Alps, too, and the south of France the Pinus Mugho or

uncinata and Cembra are abundant ; ; so that the Roman writers may

have had in their eye five more species of Fir than those occurring

in Greece.

“Now, in order to prove which of the species above assigned is

the one designated by Pliny under the name of Ades, and by the

Greeks under that of éddz», let us consider the properties assigned

to that tree.

“1. It was especially useful in ship-building. Hence in Euripides

(Pheen. 208) éAdry is used for a ship.

«2. It grows chiefly on the summits of mountains.

«3. It resembles in form the P. picea.

“4, It is chiefly used for beams, and other purposes for which

solidity is requisite.

«5. It gives out so much resin that the quality of the wood is

often impaired by the quantity emitted, even the warmth of the sun

being sufficient to cause an exudation; whereas the same process is

even serviceable in the case of the Picea.

Bibliographical Notices. 75

«6, Lastly, it is inferior in the quality of its timber to the last-

named species.

‘Now of the Pinuses above enumerated as existing in southern

Europe, the Abies pectinata is the one which seems best to accord

with the above description, especially when we add that Pliny (lib. xvi.

c. 38) describes it as having its leaves indented like the teeth of a

comb, which may be regarded as expressive of one of the generic

distinctions between the Adies and Pinus of modern botanists.

‘But we must not expect from this author, or indeed from any

of those of antiquity, the same precision as is demanded from modern

botanists in such matters. Probably the two lines in Virgil’s 7th

Eclogue, v. 65—

‘ Fraxinus in silvis pulcherrima, Pinus in hortis,

Populus in fluviis, Abies in montibus altis,’—

expressed the amount of discrimination which the Romans exercised

in such matters ; so that not only the ddies pectinata, but any other

resinous tree, with narrow pointed leaves, growing in mountainous

places, attaining to a great height, and serviceable for timber, would

have been included by them under the name of Adies.”

The whole volume consists of similar discussions, and therefore

does not admit of extract. It is sure to attract the attention of all

who take any interest in the identification of ancient trees with those

at present known, and must tend to correct many of the mistaken

views now held by scholars concerning them.

The Record of Zoological Literature. 1864. Vol. 1. Edited by

Ausert C. L. G. Gtwrner, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.Z.8., &c.

Van Voorst, 1865.

The difficulties which the naturalist has to encounter who is

anxious to ascertain what has already been written on any special

subject are continually becoming greater. Each year adds enor-

mously to the aggregate of zoological literature ; and from the work

before us we learn that not less than 25,000 pages were, during the

year 1864, devoted to the history of recent Zoology alone. Can we

be surprised that genera and species have often again and again been

redescribed, and that the lists of synonyms are often so long, when

we bear in mind that naturalists engaged in identical pursuits are

continually publishing their supposed discoveries in almost every

language and every country in the world, and that the descriptions

of species are, for the most part, not in monographs of particular

sections of Zoology, but in the proceedings of some learned society,

or the pages of some little-known periodical. Every zoologist must

have frequently felt the great want of some guide, the references in

which should act as fingerposts to point to him the directions in which

he would be likely to obtain information respecting the object of his

inquiry. ‘True he has not been without some such guides; but they

have been but inefficient. Engelmann’s ‘ Bibliotheca Historico-

Naturalis’ and Carus’s and Engelmann’s ‘ Bibliotheca Zoologica,’

as well as Agassiz’s ‘ Bibliographia Zoologize et Geologie,’ have

been and must remain of great value ; but they none of them bring

74, Bibliographical Notices.

the bibliography down to the present time, and, moreover, they only

give the titles of books and papers, and, as a general rule, give

little or no idea of the contents. The thing which every student

must have felt the want of is a synopsis of zoological publications,

which should be issued frequently, so as continually to keep pace

with the progress of science. Attempts have been made in this

direction. The ‘ Reports on the Progress of Zoology,’ at one time

published by the Ray Society ; the ‘* Notices of Serial Publications,”

in the first series of the ‘ Natural History Review,’ and the ‘ Zoolo-

gical Bibliography ”’ of the second series of the same work, and, last

but not least, the annual “ Bericht’? in the ‘ Archiv fiir Natur-

geschichte,’ have all been of greater or less use, but have fallen very

short of what was required. At length, however, the desideratum is

supplied, and most heartily do we welcome the first volume of ‘ The

Record of Zoological Literature.’

Dr. Giinther is so well known, and the care and aecuracy which

characterize all his writings are so fully acknowledged, that the very

mention of his name as Editor of the ‘ Record’ wil] be a sufficient

guarantee to our readers that the work will be energetically and ably

conducted. ‘The object of the ‘Record,’”’ as given in Dr. Giin-

ther’s own words, “is to give, in an annual volume, reports on, abs-

tracts of, and an index to, the various zoological publications which

have appeared in the preceding year; to acquaint zoologists with the

progress of every branch of their science in all parts of the globe ;

and to form a repertory which will retain its value for the student

in future years.” The editor is aided in the work which he has

undertaken by an able staff of coadjutors, each of whom is well

versed in that branch of Zoology which is more especially entrusted

to his care. The several classes are thus apportioned among the

contributors.

The Epiror himself reports on the Mammalia, the Reptilia, and

the Pisces.

ALFRED Newton, M.A., F.L.S., &c., takes charge of the Aves.

Epuarp von Martens, M.D., C.M_Z.S., the Mollusca.

J. Reay Greens, B.A., the Molluscoida, Rotitera, Annelida, and

Echinodermata.

C. Spence Bate, F.R.S., the Crustacea.

W.S. Dauxas, F.L.S., &c., the Arachnida, Myriopoda, and Insecta.

T. Spencer Cospso pn, F.R.S., the Helminthes.

The gentleman to whom was iutrusted the Record of the Ccelen-

terata and Protozoa failed to keep his engagement; and the report,

therefore, on these classes has been, we find, unfortunately deferred

to the second volume.

A few rules have been drawn up for the guidance of the contri-

butors, in order to secure a near approach to uniformity in the Re-

cords; and as these will further elucidate the aim and scope of the

work, we give them here entire.

“1, To commence each Record with a list of the various publica-

tions, arranged chronologically, systematically, or alphabetically,

with such remarks on their object, extent, and nature as cannot well

be embodied in the special part of the Record. The student should

Bibliographical Notices. 75

be fully informed what he may expect to find in the work or memoir,

and the Recorder may add any critical remarks which he thinks

necessary for the object in view.

** 2. To arrange the contents of all the publications systematically

in the second, special part of the Record. This part will con-

tain almost all the abstracts of memoirs and papers, new systematic

arrangements, and discoveries. Papers difficult of access to the

generality of zoologists to be given more in detail than others.

“© 3. Of new genera short diagnoses are to be given, if, in the opi-

nion of the Recorder, such genera are likely to take a place in the

system, whilst the names only of subgeneric divisions’’—those abor-

tions of science !—‘‘are mentioned. All species described as new,

with their habitats, and emended descriptions of known ones, are to

be enumerated, with exact references to the several works and

mention of accompanying illustrations. Diagnoses of new species

to be given only when they are described in a journal or work diffi-

cult of access.

“4. The titles of anatomical papers to be given; but only those

to be more specially treated which have a direct bearing on the classi-

fication, specific definition, or the life-history of an animal.

*©5. The boundary-line between popular and scientific literature

having become of late rather indefinite, such popular publications to

be mentioned as deserve attention by their tendency to promote

scientific knowledge, directly or indirectly.”

The result of the joint labours of the contributors is a thick octavo

volume of more than 600 pages, containing an immense amount of

well-digested matter. It astonishes us to find the progress which is

now being made in the investigation and description of the entire ani-

mal kingdom throughout the world. We have skimmed through the

pages of this volume for the purpose of ascertaining the number of

genera which have been described in the year 1864, and we find

that they amount to 948. This immense addition to the generic

nomenclature is thus distributed among the primary divisions of

Zoology :—

Mammalia. j2d2. e583 +s 26 | Inseeta :—

INVES Gute Soin ey dc bd ht5; boas 2) Coleoptera); ash ss +. 285

Miepiia. 4 is.s4 58 aes e es 33 Hymenoptera. . 0.3 i: 13

PIECES ¢. hig.c a ke Bide 43 Lepidoptera <<. . isc: 216

Mia SGaile-. 2a’ wR tas see A] | Diptera .ca so bso +s 123

Molluseoida .......... 4 Neuraptera 4 cigs: 4 6 7

GrushaG@ed,.4:0.2/< a a0« esis, 25 Orthoptera. <0. 5425 13

PTACHIMNGS «ci 55 6 605 Sek 2 10 Rhynchota ........ 49

Merriopedans 0 ic0cei < o8 6 ;

706

PRGtierst te te ce Sat eee eo 0

AMIN) Met Ne te Ae oe ih See 20

leliminthes: , si.c aacistttw enieleits bn shee: 0

MEROErOAth .. pfs seek as se 8 6

Where all have so well executed the charge taken in hand, we are

unwilling to say anything either of praise or blame respecting the in-

76 . Bibliographical Notices.

dividual work of the contributors. We feel bound, however, to sug-

gest that Dr. von Martens should be kept better informed in future

as to what has been published on the Mollusca in Great Britain. No

allusion whatever is made in his report to the second volume of

Jeffreys’s ‘ British Conchology’*, nor to the elaborate ‘“ Report of the

Mollusca of the West Coast of North America,” by Mr. P. Carpenter,

published in the ‘ Reports of the British Association.’ Moreover

Messrs. Alder and Hancock’s anatomical and descriptive account of the

** Nudibranchiate Mollusca of India,”’ which is most carefully worked

out and beautifully illustrated (Trans. Linn. Soc.), is passed by

without a comment; and the reader would suppose, from appended

observations, that a much less important paper of Angas and Crosse

“On the Nudibranchiata of Port Jackson” was the more valuable con-

tribution to science. We are at a loss, moreover, in Dr. von Mar-

tens’s report, to know which of the species mentioned are new to

science and which are not so.

In undertaking a report on the Insecta, Mr. Dallas bent his back

to a giant’s labour, and well he has borne it. No less than 256 pages

are occupied by his report, and yet uo portion of the volume gives

evidence of greater care, has its matter in more closely condensed form,

or, we may add, is more methodically and clearly analyzed andarranged.

We look upon the production of the present volume as of the very

highest importance. It is an honour to the country in which it is

published. It reflects still greater honour upon Dr. Gunther and

his brother labourers who have originated the ‘ Record.’ Let our

readers bear in mind that such ode as this is cannot be carried on

unless it has a large sale. We do not think that we shall be stating

the case too strongly if we say that every one interested in the pro-

gress of our science ought to be a purchaser of the ‘ Zoological

Record: as a matter of duty, even if it should not be to Agnes it

can scarcely fail to be—a matter of self-interest.

Dr. Giinther requests in his preface ‘‘ suggestions which may tend

to the improvement and perfection of the ‘ Record ;’” here, then,

are one or two trifles :—

1. That the exact date—that is, the month and day—when a

paper is read or published should, where practicable, be given. This

has been done by some of the contributors, but not by all.

2. That the names of new genera should be printed in a distinctive

type, and should always commence a sentence, and not be for the

first time introduced in the middle of a paragraph—for example,

compare pages 308 and 408.

3. That an index be given of all the new genera described during

the year. This would be of great use for the student who wishes

to ascertain whether a name which he is about to propose is preoc-

cupied or not.

The Rev. W. A. Leighton, F. L.S., is preparing for publication

a Synopsis of British Lichens.

* We have since noticed that this volume, which was published in the

middle of the year 1864, nevertheless bears the date 1863 on the title-

page. This circumstance may perhaps have misled Dr. von Martens.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Notice of two New Species of Colobus from Western Africa.

By Dr. J. E. Gray.

Tue British Museum some time ago received two skins from West.

Africa with some skins of Colobi: one is in a perfect state, with the

skull, &c., and is doubtless a Colobus; the other, being a flat skin,

without head, hands, or feet, can only be referred to that genus with

great doubt; but if a Colobus or any other genus of Monkey, it is

the skin of an animal that has not before occurred to me.

1. Colobus cristatus.

Crown of head with short reflexed hair, with two whorls on the

forehead, and a narrow, linear, compressed, longitudinal crest behind;

fur yellow-brown ; front part of body, shoulders, and outside of fore

legs greyer; throat, chest, belly, and inside of the limbs and the feet

greyish white.

Hab. West Africa. Brit. Mus.

2. Colobus?? chrysurus.

Fur soft, blackish, brown-washed on the middle of the back;

stripe down outside of the fore legs and along the middle of the

upper side of the base of the tail, narrow at the base, but dilated at

the end so as to cover the end of the tail, yellow-brown; hair on

the sides of the body elongate; the sides of the throat and belly

nakedish ; hair of the back forming a whorl between the shoulders.

Hab. West Africa. Skin received with furriers’ skins of Colobi

from West Africa.

On Purifying the Water for the purpose of Fish-hatching.

By W. H. Ransom, M.D.

It must have been noticed by every one who has attempted to

hatch fish-spawn, that the great risk to the young fry is at the last

moment, when the egg-covering should burst and the young fish

escape. This spring, while hatching some spawn of Perch in asmall

dish, the water of which was changed daily, I lost a great number

just as the young fish began to escape. The cause of the great

number of deaths at that particular moment seemed to be the decom-

position of those of the eggs which had not been fertilized; these

making the surrounding water impure just when the embryos required

most vigorously to respire. As I could not pour off the water to

change it, for fear of losing the young ones, I added, night and

morning, a few drops of a weak solution of permanganate of lime;

this had at once the effect of sweetening the water and of supplying

oxygen. I lost no more, and for many days I continued to add daily

doses to the water in the dish without changing it. The young fry

remained healthy, and seemed, although they could not have any

food, as vigorous as were those from another batch of the same age

78 Miscellaneous.

which had been hatched in an old actively working aquarium. This

fact may be of service to those engaged in fish-culture and in send-

ing Salmon to Australia.—Transactions of the Midland Scientific

Association.

A Fossil Lizard in Copal. By Prof. Peters.

M. W. Peters presented to the Academy a Gecko ( Hemidactylus),

enclosed in fossil copal-resin, from Zanzibar.

Under the name of copal, various resins occur in commerce, some

of which are derived from America, others from the East Indies, New

Zealand, and the tropical regions of East and West Africa. The

American copal is obtained from Rhus copallina and other species

of this genus; the Indian or oriental from Kloecarpus copalifera ;

and on the east coast of Africa fresh copal is procured from a tree

(Trachylobium mossambicense) which I discovered there, and which

has been accurately described and figured by Klotasch*.

Besides this fresh copal, which is prepared principally by the

Chinese, according to an unknown method, and is used for lacquering,

there is found on the eastern coast of Africa fossil or subfossil copal,

which is much dearer, and used for the best varnishes ; it occurs, in

larger or smaller beds. in the earth, not far from the coastf.

Mr. F. O’Swald, who remained several years in Zanzibar, has

brought home a collection of pieces of this fossil or subfossil copal

containing animals and plants enclosed within them, the former of

which he sent me for examinationt. Most of them belong to the

articulate animals. Among them are not only representatives of

all the orders of insects, but also Arachnida; and the species,

according to M. Gerstacker’s determination, are unknown, but all

referable to genera belonging to the present period §. A single piece

only had contained a small lizard, of which, as shown by examination, .

no trace was left—the impression of its outer surface enclosing a per-

fectly empty space, on which the entire external figure and the form

of the individual parts of the body and scales were so distinctly im-

pressed, that it was easily recognized as belonging to the genus

Hemidactylus. And, what appears to me to be of special interest,

* M. Peters, Naturwissensch, Reise nach Mossambique, Botanik, p. 21,

taf. 2.

+ See R. F. Burton, ‘The Lake Regions of Central Africa,’ vol. ii.

p- 403.

{ According to Mr. O’Swald, this copal is procured from tracts which

are at present treeless, occurring from 3 to 9 feet under the surface of the

ground. That the tree which has afforded this fossil copal agrees with

Trachylobium has been proved by a large portion of a leaf bemg found

in it.

§ The accurate determination of these species will be more especially

interesting, because the locality from which the species of copal were

obtained is known, while the origin of the insects described by J. W.

Dalman (Kgl. Vetenskaps Akad. Handlingar for dr 1825, Stockholm, 1826,

p. 375) was unknown.

Miscellaneous. 79

it agrees, omitting the paler colour, so accurately with a still living

species, which was found by A. Smith at the Cape of Good Hope

and by me near Cape Delgado (hence very near this layer of copal),

that I see no reason why it should be separated from it. This

species is Hemidactylus capensis, described and figured by A. Smith

(Illustrations of the Zoology of South Africa: Reptiles, pl. 75. fig. 3),

and which Dr. J. E. Gray has lately* described as a distinct genus,

Lygodactylus strigatus.—Monatsbericht d. Preuss. Akad. Aug.1865.

On the Spawn of the Perch. By W. H. Ransom, M.D.

The spawn of the Perch is well known as a gelatinous band, but it

is less generally known to be a flattened tube, composed of cohering

ova arranged in a network, not unlike a long bead purse. Some

highly interesting observations by the late Johann Miiller, on the

structure of the covering of the eggs, led me to examine them with

especial reference to the micropyle, which had not only escaped the

scrutiny of that eminent anatomist, but also the search for it after-

wards made by Reichert. After finding it I was induced to observe

if it had any special relation to the network which the mass of ova

forms, and I ascertained that in all cases it is regularly placed facing

towards the cavity of the tube, so that by this regularity of the

arrangement of the eggs none of them can have the micropyle oc-

cluded by their mutual cohesion. It is a matter of interest, and of

some difficulty, to conceive how the sperms find their way along this

mass of ova, nearly always to the right spot, for in nature very few of

the eggs escape impregnation.—Transactions of the Midland Scien-

tific Association.

On the Vital Resistance of Encysted Colpodee.

By M. Vicror MEunIER.

When, in July 1864, M. Coste made known his researches upon

the development of ciliated Infusoria in an infusion of hay, M. Milne-

Edwards expressed the opinion that the property possessed by

encysted animalcules of returning to life in contact with water

may throw fresh light upon certain cases of supposed spontaneous

generation in infusions which had been boiled. Thus, if the cysts

were but slightly permeable to water, the animalcules might remain

dry in the midst of that liquid, so that, when boiled, they would be

exposed to precisely the same test as if subjected to a dry temperature

of 212° F. These remarks of M. Milne-Edwards led the author

to make some direct experiments bearing on this point, of which he

communicates the results in the following words.

He says, “The dust which is given off by hay when shaken furnished

* Proceedings of the Zool. Soc. London, 1864, p.59. Homodactylus

Turneri, which is also there described as a new genus and species, 1s iden-

tical with A. Smith’s Pachydactylus Bibronii (1.c. pl. 50. fig. 1), as anyone

may easily convince himself by comparing the figures (pl. 9. fig. 2).

80 Miscellaneous.

the cysts necessary for my researches. This dust examined under

the microscope presented,—l. particles of mineral matters (espe-

cially silica) and soot; 2. filaments of cotton, fragments of Diatoms,

débris of vegetable epidermis, of cellular and ligneous tissue, and of

simple or septate hairs, glumes and glumellze of Agrostis and Poa,

pollen-grains (especially of gramineous plants), spores, starch, and

yeast ; 3. filaments of wool and silk, scales of Lepidopterous insects,

Acari of various ages and more or less shrivelled, dead individuals of

Anguillula, large, contracted Rotifera, and, lastly, numerous cysts of

ciliated Microzoa, especially Colpoda, some shrivelled and dead, others

capable of resuming active life in contact with water, although at the

period when I observed them I had already kept the hay which

furnished me with them for fourteen months.

« My plan of investigation consisting in subjecting the specimens

of the dust at my disposal to the action of various temperatures, I

had a previous question to solve, namely,whether the cysts were so uni-

formly diffused through the dust that, when the latter was divided

into portions of the same weight, it might be regarded as certain that

every one of these portions would contain encysted Microzoa. To

ascertain this, having divided the dust into portions of 50 centi-

grammes, I put thirteen of these portions, taken at hazard, into the

same number of test-glasses, each of which then received 40 cubic

centimetres of filtered water. In less than two hours these thirteen

macerations were populated with Colpode. It seemed to me that

this trial authorized me to assume that all the portions still in my

possession, if placed in the same conditions as the preceding, would,

like them, have furnished revivified Colpode ; and I held it as certain

that if the dust was barren under changed conditions, its sterility

must be attributed to the conditions in which I should have

placed it.

‘In all the following experiments there were used, as in the pre-

ceding trial, 50 centigrammes of dust, and 40 cubic centimetrestof

water. The dust and water having been placed in a mattrass for the

experiments at 212° F., and in a test-tube suspended in a vessel

full of water for those below 212° F., the mattrass or the tube, con-

taining a mercurial thermometer, was immediately subjected to the

action of heat. As soon as the desired calorific effect was produced,

the tube was removed from the bath, or the mattrass from the fire,

and, after cooling, the maceration was poured into a test-glass.

«My experiments were forty-one in number, and in fourteen of

them the portions of dust were boiled. In the latter, two mattrasses

were kept at 212° F. for ten minutes, eight were kept at 212° F. for

five minutes, two were kept at 212° F. for two minutes ; lastly, two

mattrasses were removed from the fire the moment that temperature

was attained. All these experiments prove that the encysted Col-

pode are killed by boiling.”’—Comptes Rendus, December 4, 1865,

p-. 991.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES.]

No. 98. FEBRUARY 1866.

VIII.—Conchological Gleanings.

By Dr. E. von Martens.

I. On the Subdivisions of the genus Pinna.

Cuemnitz, in his well-known work ‘Conchylien-Cabinet ’

(vol. viii. 1785, p. 197), represents the inside of two species of

Pinna, in order to show, as he expresses himself, the shape of

the muscular impressions and the singular outlines of stripes

(sonderbare Zeichnung von Streifen) which are to be seen

in some species on the inside of the apices. In the one, fig. A,

Pinna incurva, Gmel., a median straight line is to be seen;

in the other, fig. B, P. nigrina, Lam., no trace of it.

Lamarck observed in a fossil species, which he therefore

named P. subguadrivalvis, that the median line of each valve is

elevated into an edge and cleft (“ valvarum angulo dorsali longi-

tudinaliter fisso’’).

Dr. J. E. Gray established, as early as 1840, the genus Atrina

for P. nigrina, in the ‘Synopsis of the Contents of the British

Museum,’ but without stating anything about the characters of

the new genus.

Mérch (Catalogue of the Collection of Yoldi, 1853, p. 51)

distinguished four genera—Pinna, Cyrtopinna, Pennaria, and

Atrina—also without any indication of the characters.

H. & A. Adams (Genera of recent Mollusca, vol. 1. 1858,

p- 529) mention, in the general description of Pinna, that the

“apical portions are sometimes longitudinally fissured, and the

fissure filled up with cartilage ;” they admit Aérina as a sub-

genus, and define it in the following words: ‘Shell with the

apical portions of the valves entire.’ Consequently they seem

to regard the fissure as characteristic of the subdivision of the

true Pinne.

My attention was drawn to this subject by Mr. Sadebeck,

assistant at the Paleontological Collection at Berlin, who showed

me a fossil Pinna from the Jura formation (P. granulata) in

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvii. 6

82 Dr. E. von Martens on the Subdivisions of Pinna.

which a part of the fibrous layer, the only one preserved,

formed a very striking tongue-like process, pointing towards

the apices, and easily to be traced by the lines of growth. He

inquired if anything like it was known in the recent species ;

and on examination of those contained in the Berlin Zoological

Museum, we found that in a considerable number of them the

nacreous layer is divided in the middle line of each valve by

a much narrower, but very distinct, line exhibiting the same ap-

pearance as the fibrous layer of the posterior part of the inside.

This line is often prolonged very nearly to the apices, but never

reaches them; its end gives clear evidence of becoming gra-

dually covered with the same nacreous layer which on both

sides of it extends to a much greater distance from the apices.

As the described line forms a sinus incurving into the space oc-

cupied by the nacreous portion, and beginning just at the side

of the large muscular impression, and as the border of the na-

creous part itself seems to be the line of slight adherence of

the mantle to the shell, corresponding to the pallial line of other

bivalves, the above-mentioned incurrent line may be compared

to the pallial sinus of the Veneride (especially that of Artemis)

and other familes, and may hence be called simply a sinus.

In some specimens of Pinna preserved in spirits there is to be

found a corresponding line in the mantle itself; but I am not

prepared to state whether it may be a muscular organ, nor do I

find any satisfactory explanation of it in Poli’s detailed anatomy

of Pinna, where, however, the sinus of the inside of the shell is

very well figured. u

In most specimens provided with this interior sinus, there is

to be seen outside near the apices the longitudinal fissure sisted

upon by the brothers Adams ; nor did I tind any specimen pro-

vided with this outside fissure wanting the interior sinus. The

fissure seems to begin at the apices, and becomes more and

more obsolete as its distance increases, 7. e. during the further

growth of the shell. Its situation is outside, just opposite to the

internal sinus, or to the prolongation of it towards the apices.

The matter which fills up the outside fissure has quite the ap-

pearance of the fibrous portion of the shell; and I satisfied my-

self, by the application of a dilute acid, that it contains car-

bonate of lime, as also the other constituents of the shell ; there-

fore it should not be named cartilage.

There can be no doubt, I think, about the causal connexion

between the imside sinus and the outside fissure, or, rather, a

common cause of both, from which results that for some time

no nacreous matter is deposited in the middle line of each valve.

Taking into consideration all these circumstances, it seems not

improbable that the external fissure is nothing else than the

Dr. E. von Martens on the Subdivisions of Pinna. 83

inside sinus rendered visible by the destruction of the more

external strata of the shell. I have never seen any of these

fissured Pinne in which the apices were not worn off to a greater

or less extent ; so that nothing can be stated about the apical

beginning of the fissure. By the gradual destruction of the

shell near the apices, externally, during life, and by the per-

manent deposition of fresh nacreous matter inside, a stratum

must become visible outside which has been formed inside, and

must then show what has been the appearance of the inner face

at some previous time, when this stratum was inside. This seems

to be the explanation of the fact, striking at first, that the out-

side fissure approaches much nearer to the apices than the inside

sinus, and disappears much sooner in the opposite direction. In

each individual at each stage of growth there must be observable,

therefore, three regions :—

1. A continuous region of fibrous matter, constituting (a)

alone the abapical or later part of each valve, visible at the inner

and outer face; (b) the outside or older strata of another part of

the shell nearer to the apices, but entirely worn off still nearer

to them.

2. A region of nacreous matter on each side divided by the

sinus of fibrous matter. This region is visible in the middle

part of the imner face and in the apical part of the outer face of

the shell, which is explained by the above consideration.

3. A region of continuous nacreous deposition, visible in the

apical part of the inner face, worn off generally on the outer face.

All these regions expand with the advancement of growth on

the imner face, the following covering the preceding.

The fibrous matter of the sinus seems not only to be a part

of the preexisting continuous fibrous layer not covered by

nacre, but fibrous matter seems to be deposited here also con-

temporarily with the nacre on both sides: this is to be concluded

from the fibrous matter being on the same level with the nacre,

as is clearly shown in the worn-off outside (the fibrous matter

filling up the fissure), and fu. ner by the lines of growth dis-

cernible in the fossil species with a broad sinus, these lines fol-

lowing the outlines of the sinus. Hence it becomes probable

that the above line in the mantle, corresponding to the sinus, is

is not quite inactive, but secretes fibrous matter instead of

nacre, just as the marginal region of the mantle.

The chief difference between this sinus of Pinna and the

pallial sinus of the Veneride, &c., seems to be this,—that in

Pinna the shelly matter deposited within the pallial line is.

nacreous ; that deposited without, fibrous ; whereas in the other

bivalves the matter deposited within and without is of the same

nature. The pallial sinus, therefore, in changing its place suc-

84. Dr. E. von Martens on the Subdivisions of Pinna.

cessively with the imcrement of the whole animal, leaves, in the

other bivalves, no trace behind; but in Pinna the difference of

the shelly matter indicates its position in all preceding stages

of growth, as far as the matter formed in this stage is not quite

worn off.

There is a difficulty which I am at present unable to explain :

in some specimens the outside fissure is visible not only in the

denuded nacreous matter, but extends also over a part of the

outer fibrous strata. I have seen only few of such specimens,

but among them one of extraordinary size and thickness, be-

longing to Pinna rugosa, Sow.

The presence or absence of a sinus is constant, so far as I

could ascertain, in all specimens of the same species. Species

nearly resembling each other in other characters and in the

whole habit, agree also in most cases in respect to the sinus.

The external sculpture and the outlines of the whole valve

being changed often with age, the sinus remains in each stage

of growth. It is visible at first sight at the inside; and in

most cases its presence may inferred from the outside of the

apical region. I therefore consider it a good character for the

systematic arrangement of the species ; and such an arrangement

will prove a natural one. The species provided with a sinus

may be called Pinne fisse, and are illustrated by Chemnitz’s

above-cited fig. A, by Poli’s nobilis, Lamarck’s fossil Pinna sub-

quadrivalvis, and the figures 8, 9, 20, 25, 26, 31, 50 of Reeve’s

monograph. The species without sinus, Pinne integre (see

Chemnitz’s fig. B), correspond to Adams’s definition of Atrina ;

but in the list of species given in the ‘Genera’ either one or

two species provided with a sinus have crept in, or the specific

names are applied to others than those in Reeve’s subsequent

monograph. In some of the Pinne integre the limitation of the

nacreous portion forms a nearly straight line, as in P. sub-

viridis ; 11 many others it forms an obtuse angle near the inner

side of the muscular impression—a first step to the sinus of the

other section (P. truncata, P. vexillum, &c.).

Pinna saccata, L., so remarkable for its twisted form, differing

in each individual, constitutes a third section, the nacre being

very reduced, occupying only the muscular impressions and a

small region between the larger muscle and the ligamental

(dorsal) margin of the valve, while it is almost entirely absent

on the opposite (ventral) part of the valve. But as the fibrous

portion in this species is more smooth and more glossy than in

the rest of the genus, the difference between both 1s at first

sight not so striking. There is no fissure on the outside, and

the apices are generally not worn off. While the other Pinne

stand erect upon the ground, the apices being imbedded in

Dr. BE. von Martens on the Subdivisions of Pinna. 85

gravel, sand, or mud, as is generally known among the fisher-

men of the Mediterranean, Pinna saccata is attached to the

sides of rocks or stones, like Mytilus or some species of Arca ;

this is stated by Rumph, and confirmed by the relative preserva-

tion of the apices, as well as by the twisted form being repeated

in some species of Arca and Mytilus.

In the Pinne integra the limitation of the nacre and the posi-

tion of the larger adductor muscle is generally at a greater re-

lative distance from the apices than in the Pinne fisse ; and in

P. saccata this distance is smallest in proportion to the size of

the whole valve.

The fossil Trichites seem to unite the irregular twisted form

and waved sculpture of Pinna saccata with the size and thick-

ness of the living P. rugosa, Sow. A specimen of the latter in

the Berlin Museum, 382 millims. long, has a thickness amount-

ing to 12 millims., and each valve weighs about 2 lbs.

The attempt to arrive at a fixed opimion as to the specific value

of some forms of Pinne known only from single museum specl-

mens, or from the figures of Reeve, would be an almost hopeless

task. In the following list, therefore, the several forms which

have received specific names are placed near each other, as much

as possible, according to their apparent natural affinity; and

where the specific value seems to be open to doubt, they are

connected by —~4. Every one who has had occasion to exa-

mine a number of individuals of Pinna collected at the same

locality will have found that there is some amount of variation

in sculpture and in the general outlines of the shape, indivi-

dually as well as according to the stages of age; but this seems to

be greater in some species (for example, P. veaillum, P. nobilis)

than in others.

In both the larger sections some subordinate groups may be

distinguished, according to the prevailing outlines and colouring

of the whole shell; but these groups are closely connected to

each other by intermediate species.

The species marked with an asterisk (*) I have had occasion

to examine myself with regard to the sinus.

I. Pinne integre.

(a.) Of pale colour and rather trapezoidal form. (Pennaria, Mérch.)

( pectinata, auct. (Linn.?), Reeve, Conchol. Icon. vol. xi. fig. 42;

pectinata, var. 6, Lam. Encycl. Méth. pl. 200. f.5. P. rudis,

Poli, Test. utr. Sic. 33.3; Jeffreys, Brit. Conchol. vol. il.

frontisp. Europe.

| *truncata, Philippi, Enum. Moll. Sicil. ii. 16.1; Gualt. 79 A;

Reeve, 35. Mediterranean.

| ingens, Pennant, Reeve, 53. Britain.

86 Dr. E. von Martens on the Subdivisions of Pinna.

Hanleyi, Reeve, 15; pectinata, Chemnitz, vol. vii. fig. 770.

Coromandel, Amboyna.

*japonica, Hanley (see below, Note 1). Japan.

penna, Reeve, 39. Philippines.

serra, Reeve, 43. Moreton Bay, Australia.

serrata, Solander, Reeve, 65. West Indies.

*Chemnitzii, Hanley, Reeve, 1 & 55. Philippines.

assimilis, Hanley, Reeve, 59. ‘Torres Straits.

lanceolata, Sow., Reeve, 58. Pacific coast of Central America.

*ramulosa, Reeve, 52 ; nobilis (non L.), Chemnitz, 775. Pennaria

muricata, Morch. West Indies.

Orbignyi, Hanley, Reeve, 49. West Indies.

papyracea, Chemnitz (?), Reeve.

lurida, Reeve, 24. Philippines.

*seminuda, Lam. Encycl. Méth. 199. 4; Reeve, 2 (South Caro-

lina) ; ¢nflata, Chemnitz, 771; Reeve, 5 (Nicobar and Philip-

pine islands); Zeelandica, Gray, Reeve, 13 (New Zealand).

This species forms, by its dark colour, a passage to the next

group.

(b.) Of blackish colour and more triangular form. (Atrina, Gray.)

*adusta, Chemn. 782; exusta, Gmel. Indian Ocean.

Gouldii, Reeve, 21.

*rigida, Dillwyn, Reeve, 7. Red Sea. (Ehrenberg.)

tuberculosa, Sow., Reeve, 48. Panama.

fimbriatula, Reeve, 62. Japan.

alta, Sow., Reeve, 11. Honduras.

Cumingii, Hanley, Reeve 29. Australia.

*subviridis, Reeve, 32. South Carolina.

{ carolinensis, Hanley, Reeve, 66. South Carolina.

*nigrina, Lam. (see Note 2), Rumph. 46 L.?; Gualtieri, pl. 81 ;

Chemn. 774, Encycl. Méth. 199.1; Reeve, 4. Red Sea

(Indian Ocean ?).

deltodes, Menke, Reeve, 40. West coast of New Holland.

*vyevillum, Born, Mus. Ces. Vind. 7,8; Chemn. 783; Reeve, 36.

Moluccas.

Strangei, Hanley, Reeve, 52. Moreton Bay.

Il. Pinne fisse.

(a.) Of red colour and rather lanceolate form.

( *rudis, L., Chemn. 773, Encycl. 199.3; Reeve 19. West Indies

| (and Guinea ?).

*yaricosa, Lam.; 6bullata, Swains., Reeve, 16. West Indies.

(See Note 3.)

pernula, Chemn. 785; Reeve, 22. West Indies; Canarian

| islands.

Dr. E. von Martens on the Subdivisions of Pinna. 87

*nobilis, L., Poli, 34. 1, 35.5; Gualt. 78 A; Chem. 787 = ro-

tundata, Gmel. Encycl. 200. 2 = squamosa, Lam. Medi-

terranean.

aculeatosquamosa, Chemn. 777; nobilis, Lam. Encycl. Méth.

200. 1; Reeve, 10 & 57. P. muricata, Poli, 33. 4. Medi-

terranean.

*obeliseus, Chemn. 784 = squamosa, Gmel., rotundata, Reeve, 3.

Mediterranean.

electrina, Reeve, 25. Moluccas.

(b.) Of elongate triangular form, both long sides being nearly

equal.

flabellum, Lam., Reeve, 18. P. haud ignobilis, Chemn. 769

(? earnea, Gmel., Desh.). West Indies.

*muricata, L., Reeve, 23 (Chemn. 1817). West Indies.

semicostata, Reeve, 30. Philippines.

*hystrix, Reeve, 60 ; saccata, Chemnitz, 779 (non L.). Amboyna.

angustana, Lam., Reeve, 51.

Sumata, Hanley, Reeve, 27 (287). Philippines.

*rugosa, Sow., Reeve, 50. Panama.

( virgata, Menke, Reeve, 45. Philippines.

Philippensis, Reeve, 20. Philippines. (See Note 3.)

*atropurpurea, Reeve, 41.

regia, Reeve, 56. Amboyna. (See Note 3.)

vespertina, Reeve, 44. (See Note 3.)

Menkei, Reeve, 34.

*euglypta, Hanley, Reeve, 37, 38. Amboyna.

} Zebuensis, Reeve, 26. Philippines.

The last forms a close passage to the next group.

(c.) Of elongated arcuated form. (Cyrtopinna, Morch.)

*Licolor, Chemn. 780; Reeve, 17; dolabrata, Lam., Encycl.

Méth. 200. 3. Malacca.

madida, Reeve, 31. Port Essington.

*incurva, Gmel., Gualt. 80 ; Chemn. 778 (see Note 2) ; Reeve, 8.

Indian Ocean.

Rumphii, Hanley, Reeve, 9. Moluccas.

Philippinarum, Hanley, Reeve, 20. Philippines.

attenuata, Reeve, 46. Moluccas.

{ Stutchburyi, Reeve, 64. Moreton Bay.

Ill. Pinne contorte.

*saccata, L., Rumph, 46 N., Encycl. 200.4; Reeve, 6. Red

Sea, Moluccas, Philippines.

elongata, Conrad, Reeve, 6”. Sandwich Islands.

The following nominal species seem to be founded on young

88 Dr. E. von Martens on the Subdivisions of Pinna.

specimens, the adult states of which are either unknown or de-

scribed under other names :—P. bullata, Gmel.= P. marginata,

Lam., Gualt.79C; P. sanguinea, Gmel., Gualt. 79 B; P. vitrea,

Gmel.; P. papyracea, Chemn. 786; P. sanguinea, Reeve, 62.

Note 1.—The specimen figured by Reeve (probably the same as

that upon which the species was based) seems to be the young of

a larger species very near to P. truncata, which I obtained in Japan

and deposited in the Berlin Museum. The greater part of the out-

side is smooth, the radiating striee of the young shell disappearing

totally in the later parts of the shell; but the concentric striz of

growth are repeated throughout very distinctly. The ligamental

(dorsal) margin is nearly straight, the opposite one near the apices

concave, then convex, the margin opposite to the apices nearly

straight. The colour of the shell is a dull greenish grey; some

yellow black-edged spots, visible at the outside, prove, by in-

spection of the inside, to be caused by an abnormal deposit of shelly

matter, containing holes, and oceasioned probably by the intrusion

of some parasite. Length 300, breadth 150 millims.

Note 2.—Some recent authors name this species P. nigra, Chemn.

Chemnitz himself, however, called it P. nigra fumigata (the “ black

smoked ham”’), in opposition to his “red ham” (P. rudis, L.). It

‘ought to be remembered that Chemnitz uses names agreeing with

the Linnean rules only for a part of his species, chiefly in the later

volumes ; but for others he uses names of three or four words, which

cannot be admitted in our nomenclature. It is true that the name

and the diagnosis are generally united by him in one body ; but one

can almost in every case recognize what he intended to be the name

and what the diagnosis,—first, by the first comma being placed be-

tween the last word of the name and the first of the diagnosis ; se-

condly, by the list of species, preceding for each genus the descrip-

tions of the single species and repeating the names but not the dia-

gnoses of them. The same remarks apply to Pinna incurva, which

was named originally by Chemnitz P. cncurvata glabra, for which

Gmelin substituted the simple word zncurva.

Note 3.—The margin opposite tothe apices seems to bevery different

in the figures placed here together ; but it is not improbable that in the

originals of some of them, especially those which appear transversely

truncated, the margin is not entire, but was broken and has been

quasi reintegrated by application of the file ; at least there are many

specimens treated in this manner in old collections. The first glance

at the lines of growth will always detect this artifice in a specimen,

but not always in a figure.

[To be continued. |

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Genera of Vespertilionide. 89

IX.—Synopsis of the Genera of Vespertilionide and Noctilionide.

By Dr. J. H. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.8. &c.

THE Insectivorous Bats without any nose-leaf may be divided

into two families by the shape of the intermaxillary bones and

the position of the upper cutting-teeth.

The skulls of these Bats have generally a well-developed inter-

maxillary separating the upper canines by a well-marked space.

In Noctilionide the intermaxillary bones are united to the

front, and the upper cutting-teeth are on the sides of the cen-

tral suture, in the middle of the space between the canines. In

Vespertilionide the intermaxillaries are separated by a notch in

front, and the cutting-teeth are separated into two groups by

this notch, and placed more or less near to the canines.

These Bats have three grinders in each jaw on each side, and

from one to three false grinders; the fore ones are often very

small and rudimentary, and the front one is often placed behind

the canines, within the tooth-line, so that it cannot be seen from

the outside. The genus Vespertilio has been divided, accord-

ing to the number of these false grinders, into sections, and

M. Gervais and Dr. Peters have formed several genera on the

number of these false grinders. Thus, for example, three spe-

cies of Plecotus have been formed into three genera, and placed

in different sections of the family, on these characters; and the

two species of North American Lasiuri differ in the number of

these teeth, and ought, according to this system, to be similarly

separated.

I can only regard such characters as of secondary importance ;

and I believe that the form of the tragus and antitragus would

even form better characters for the separation of the species of

the genus into sections.

Dr. Peters, in the ‘ Proceedings of the Berlin Academy’ for

1865, has published a list of the genera of Bats ; but he does not

give any characters either for the tribes or the genera.

Family Vespertilionide.

Face simple. Nostrils on the front of the nose, simple. The

cutting-teeth separated in the middle by a space, and placed

near the canines. Grinders acutely tubercular, three on each

side in each jaw, the hinder one short and broad; with one,

two, or three false grinders in front of them. Intermaxillaries

separate from one another in the front of the palate, leaving a

notch between the cutting-teeth.

I. Tail elongate, enclosed, and extended to the end of the elongated

and produced inter femoral membrane.

1. Ears separate, lateral ; the face short, broad, nearly bald ; fore-

90 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Genera of Vespertilionide.

head flat ; skull thick ; brain-case oblong, scarcely raised above

the face.

(1.) Scotophilina. The nostrils simple, pierced in the front

of the nose, with a very short groove behind them.

* Upper cutting-teeth close together towards the canines.

Pp g g

1. Scorornitus. Wings to the ankles; interfemoral mem-

brane nearly bald.

Upper cutting-teeth 2.2; false grinders 4.4. Scotophilus.

Upper cutting-teeth 2.2; false grinders 3. Vesperugo.

Upper cutting-teeth 1.1; false grinders 3. Philocryptus.

2. AraLapHa. Wings to the ankles; interfemoral membrane

very hairy above. Upper cutting-teeth 1.1.

Upper cutting-teeth 1.1; false grinders $. Lasiurus.

Upper cutting-teeth 1.1; false grinders 3. Atalapha.

3. Vesperus. Wings to the base of the toes.

Upper cutting-teeth 2.2; false grinders +. Vesperus.

Upper cutting-teeth 2.2; false grinders a Pipistrellus.

Upper cutting-teeth 1.1; false grinders }. Nyeticejus.

** Upper cutting-teeth separate from the canines and also in front.

‘Pp g ep

4. Pacnuyomus. Scotophilus pachyomus, Tomes.

(2.) Romiciana. Nostrils in front of long, simple-edged

grooves, which converge and unite behind on the centre of

the nose between the swollen cheeks.

5. Romicta.

2. Ears separate, lateral; face elongate, narrow, hairy ; forehead

convea, hairy ; skull with a swollen brain-case and narrow face.

(3.) Vespertilionina. Cutting-teeth close to the canines.

6. Traxatitius. Wings to the upper part of ankles; feet

large, free. Upper cutting-teeth 2.2; false grinders 3.

Interfemoral membrane nearly bald. Tralatitius.

Interfemoral membrane very hairy. Capaccinus.

7. VesPERTILIO. Wings to the base of the toes; feet bald.

Upper cutting-teeth 2.2; false grinders 3.

8. HarpyrocePHatus. Wings to the base of the toes ; feet and

interfemoral membrane hairy; nostrils rather produced; false

grinders 4 adult, 3 young.

9. Keritvouta. Wings to the base of the toes; feet hairy

above. Upper cutting-teeth 2.2; false grinders 3.

10. Murina. Wings to the tips of the toes; nostrils rather

prominent. Upper cutting-teeth 2.2; false grinders 2.

(4.) Natalinia. Upper cutting-teeth in pairs, separated from

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Genera of Vespertilionide. 91

the canines by a space. Palate of skull not reaching beyond

the last molar.

1]. Naratus. Wings to upper part of ankles. Upper cutting-

teeth 2.2; false grinders?

12. Minropreris. Wings to upper part of ankles. False

grinders 3.

13. FurreLLa. Wings to ankles ; heel-bone very long. Upper

cutting-teeth 2.2; false grinders 3. (Furia, Temm., Furi-

pterus, Tomes, not Bonap.)

14, Tuyrortera. Wings to the end of the toes; thumbs

and toes with suctorial disks = Hyonycteris, Tomes.

(5.) ? Nycticellina. ‘Upper cutting-teeth separate, equidis-

tant. Palate without any notch in front.” An aberrant form.

15. Nycticeuvus, Gervais.

3. Ears close together, in front, elongate, often united ; face elon-

gate, narrow, hairy ; forehead convex ; nose with a naked space ;

skull with a swollen brain-case, and narrow face.

(6.) Plecotina. Nostrils with a short lunate groove behind

them; the forehead with a bald longitudinal line.

16. Barpastexius. Ears large, broad, quadrate, folded down

on the forehead ; bald space on forehead broad.

17. Precorus. Ears very large, elongate; tragus very long,

bald frontal streak linear.

Upper cutting-teeth 2.2; grinders 2.3. Plecotus.

Upper cutting-teeth 2.2; grinders #.4. Histiotus.

Upper cutting-teeth 1.1; grinders +. #4. Otonycteris.

(7.) Nyctophilina. Nostrils in front of lunate grooves united

together behind by a membranaceous crest extending across the

forehead ; forehead with a bare, central, longitudinal furrow with

inflexed edges.

18. NycropHiLvs.

Artrozous of Allen seems to be nearly allied to this genus.

(8.) Nyctericina. Nostrils in front of a groove; forehead

with a large, deep, naked groove, covered over with the subspiral

edges of its sides ; tail-end forked.

19. Nycreris. Ears united in front on the forehead.

20. Prratia. Lars close, not united.

Il. Tail short, enclosed in the base of the large interfemoral mem-

brane, with the tip on the upper surface.

(9.) Furipterina. Face short, broad; forehead very convex ;

92 Dr. J. E. Gray on the Genera of Noctilionide.

skull thin; brain-case large, swollen; orbital pit narrow, with-

out postorbital process ; face suddenly narrow and bent up.

21. Furriprervs, Bonap. and Gervais, not Tomes = Mosia,

Gray, Furia, F. Cuv.

(10.) Emballonurina. Face conical, hairy ; forehead convex;

skull solid; forehead flattish ; face short, broad, swollen at the

sides, with a prominent postarbital process.

* Upper cutting-teeth distinct. Interfemoral membrane produced.

22. Centronycreris. Upper cutting-teeth 2.2. Inter-

femoral membrane conical, produced.

** Upper cutting-teeth distinct. Interfemoral membrane truncated.

23. EmpaLitonura. Upper cutting-teeth 1.1. Wings simple.

24. Saccopreryx. Upper cutting-teeth 2.2. Wings with

a pouch at the inside of the arm-bones.

25. ProposcipEA. Nose produced, truncated obliquely.

Upper cutting-teeth 1.1; “side of the face swollen ; postorbital

process very prominent.”

*** Upper cutting-teeth none. Interfemoral membrane truncated.

26. Urocryrrus. Upper cutting-teeth none. Forehead flat.

Wings simple.

27. TarHozous. Forehead with a deep concavity ; chin with-

out any large transverse fold.

28. Saccotaimus. Forehead with a deep concavity; chin

with a large transverse fold.

(11.) Diclidurina. Face short, broad, hairy; forehead flat.

Tail with last joint valvular. Wings broad.

29. DicLtipuRUs.

Family Noctilionide.

The nostrils on the sides of the nose. The cutting-teeth in

the middle of the interspace between the canine teeth. Canines

wide apart in front. The grinders acutely tubercular, three in

each jaw on each side, the hinder upper short and broad, with

one or two small false grinders in front of them. Skull thick ;

forehead flat ; intermaxillaries small, close in front.

I. Tail short, enclosed in the large truncated interfemoral mem-

brane, with the tip in the upper surface.

(1.) Noctilionina. Face simple. Tail simple.

1. Nocrit1o. Face conical, tubercular ; upper lip dependent.

Cutting-teeth large, conical.

Dr. J. E. Gray on the Genera of Noctilionide. 93

2. Mysracina. Face conical, hairy; nose rather produced.

Upper cutting-teeth large, conical; lower truncated.

(2.) Mormopsina. Face and chin ornamented with erect

membranaceous ridges. Wings large; ears large.

3. Mormops.

II. Tail elongate to the edge of the large truncated inter femoral

membrane ; heel-bone elongate.

(3.) Phyllodiana. Interfemoral membrane truncated; nose

crested ; chin with one or two membranaceous ridges.

4. Puytiopia. Nose with a fleshy elevation above; chin

with a single cross fold. Wings from sides.

5. Cuitonycterts. Nose fringed on the edge; chin with two

cross folds. Wings from sides.

6. Preronotus. Nose fringed on the edge; chin with two

cross folds. Wings from the middle of the back.

(4.) ?Spectrellina. ‘ Interfemoral membrane produced ; chin

and nose simple.”

7, SPECTRELLUM.

ILI. Tail elongate, thick, enclosed in and produced beyond the

transversely folded interfemoral membrane.

(5.) Molossina.

* Ears lateral, separate. Cutting-teeth 3.

8. Myopreris. Muzzle blunt.

9. Currrome tes. Muzzle obliquely truncated.

** Ears close, folded down on forehead.

10. Nycrrnomus. Muzzle oblique, truncated; lips trans-

versely grooved. Grinders 2; cutting-teeth % or 2.

Lower cutting-teeth 4. Nyctinomus.

Lower cutting-teeth 6. Tadarida.

11. Moxossus. Muzzle rounded ; lips swollen, hairy.

False grinders 4; cutting-teeth 3. Molossus.

False grinders 4; cutting-teeth 3. Mormopterus.

False grinders 4 ; cutting-teeth %. Promops.

Is Aéllo, Leach, separate from this genus? But it is described

as having a short tail ; may it not have been partially withdrawn ?

94 Dr. H. Burmeister on a new Cetacean.

X.—Preliminary Account of a new Cetacean captured on the shore

at Buenos Ayres. By Dr. Hermann BuRMEISTER*.

[Plate III. ]

On the 8th of August of the present year, at 9 o’clock in the

morning, a large whale was observed by the boatmen of Sefor

D. Juan Antonio Nufez, near the Custom-House Wharf. It

was seen near the shore, raising itself from time to time out of

the water and then disappearing for some moments, during which

it spouted a stream of water with much vehemence. The men

approached this animal in a boat and fired two shots at it, which

appeared to take no effect; however, urged by curiosity, they

came so near that a son of Sefior Nufiez was able to give the

animal two stabs in the throat. On this it spouted a violent

stream of blood, and died after struggling for two hours.

Dragging it first to their ship, the men afterwards took it to the

wharf, where it was landed by the steamboat-crane, put into a

cart, and transported to the Museum, being generously presented

to that establishment by Sefior Nunez.

The scientific study of this animal, which I immediately com-

menced, showed me that it belongs to a new group of the Dolphins,

very near the genus Ziphius of Cuvier (Delphinorhynchus of

Blainville and Dumortier), but differmg in the position of the

large teeth of the lower jaw, placed, not in the centre of each

side of the jaw, but at the very point, as in the genus Hyperoodont.

The animal, belonging thus to a group intermediate between

Hyperoodon and Ziphius, { propose should be named Ziphiorrhyn-

chus cryptodon, placing it, in the natural classification, before

Ziphius and after Hyperoodon. I subjoin a general description

in order to acquaint the scientific public with its special and

distinctive characteristics.

Ziphiorrhynchus cryptodon, Pl. III.

The general external form of the animal exactly resembles that

of Ziphius ; the head not much raised in front, the belly rather

thick, the fins small, and the snout sharply pointed; but the

form of the tail, inclined with the point backwards, is remarkable

and very singular for this group of Dolphins.

The animal measures 3°95 metres in length, and 2 metres

in circumference at the middle of the body. The snout is short,

* Communicated by Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.

+ {This animal is evidently allied to Epiodon cavirostris of the Medi-

terranean and Petrorhynchus capensis of the Cape seas. Figures of the

skulls of these animals have been sent to Dr. Burmeister for comparison.—

J. E. Gray. ]

Dr. H. Burmeister on a new Cetacean. 95

alittle curved backwards ; the mouth on each side is 21 centime-

tres in length, and the small eye is 22 centimetres distant from

the posterior angle of the mouth. The ear is a very small open-

ing, 1 millim. in breadth, situated 10°5 centim. behind the eye ;

the aperture of the nose is a transverse arched fissure, 10°5 centim.

in breadth, on the top of the head, 45 centim. distant from the

point of the snout. There are two remarkable diverging plaits,

24 centim. long, on the throat ; two small fins, 35 centim. long, on

each side of the breast, about half a metre distant from the eye ;

and another smaller, of a curved shape and 17 centim. high in the

posterior part of the back, about 2 metres distant from the

nostril. To this fin corresponds, in the under part of the body,

the position of the posterior openings, the sexual aperture being

a little before the fin, and the anal aperture a little behind it.

Both are longitudinal fissures, the first 16 centim. broad and

the second 9; at the commencement of the second are seen two

other small fissures of 3 centim., one on each side, which indicate

the teats. As far as these apertures and as the posterior fin the

body is round; but beyond them, where the tail begins, its

shape changes to a compressed lamina with sharp edge above as

well as below. Thus the tail diminishes quickly, descending at

first, and afterwards ascending in a direction inclined backwards

until the point, where there is a large horizontal fin of a metre in

breadth, semilunar in shape, but without incision in the middle,

this part being little more prominent than those on either side,

near the central portion of the tail. This is aremarkable feature

in the animal, as likewise the upward inclination of the tail. The

whole body is ofa clear grey colour, a little yellowish, but darker

on the back and lighter on the stomach; the fins are darker,

almost black, and the large fin of the tail has an irregular white

spot underneath.

In studying the internal parts I began with the mouth, seeking

for teeth, but not meeting with any; the gum consisted of a

narrow callus, a little raised on each side of the mandible, rather

wider in the lower one, especially at the point of the mandible.

Opening this callus with my anatomical knife, I was much

surprised to find, inside of the gum, a large number of very smal!

teeth, each enclosed in a little bag, to which it was fastened at

its two points, as well above as below. These teeth are about 3

to 5 millim. long, of conical shape, and slightly enlarged at the

upper part. I counted 25 teeth in the gum on each side of the

upper mandible, and from 30 to 32 in the lower. There are

besides two very large teeth at the point of the lower jaw, of

very pointed conical shape, also imbedded in the gum. These

two teeth are found in the same manner in the genus Hyperoodon,

as well as those in the gums; but as the skull is without the

96 Dr. H. Burmeister on a new Cetacean.

elevated crests at each side of the snout in the bones of the

upper jaw, it does not seem possible to unite this species with

Hyperoodon, the shape of the head being exactly that of Ziphius.

However, Ziphius (at least in the male) has two large teeth

visible in the middle of the lower jaw; and as the specimen

examined by me is also a male and has not these teeth, but wider

ones, as in Hyperoodon, at the tip of the mandible, I am obliged

to make a new genus for the animal here described. In dis-

secting it the other day I examined all its internal structure

and made drawings of the principal parts, in order to describe

its organization afterwards in the Annals of our Museum. I give

here a preliminary description from the examination made.

The tongue is flat, of elliptic shape, and attached to the man-

dible, having no free motion; there are 26 papille, placed in two

rows on the back of the tongue. The pharynx has a rather small

opening inclined backwards where it joins the larynx, which has

an epiglottis much prolonged above, like a curved cone, which

enters the posterior aperture of the nose. The trachea is rather

short, 26 centim. long and 8 broad, and has a third bronchus on

the right side, smaller, and placed more behind, before its final

division into the two regular bronchi.

There are three principal parts in the lungs—one on the left

side of the body, and two, very unequal, on the right. The heart

is tolerably large, but broader and flatter than in the terrestrial

Mammalia. The internal structure is not different from the

general type, but the distribution of the nutritive veins on the

whole surface is very remarkable. There is a single opening

of the nutritive vein in the right auricle, whence issues a large

vein which descends in the lower longitudinal furrow as far as

the tip of the heart, forming there a rather broad sac, from which

issues, on the other side, another vein, ascending in the upper

longitudinal furrow to the base of the ventricle.

As to the digestive viscera, the cesophagus is internally covered

with many folds; these folds descend into the first stomach,

which is very large, of a remarkable sinuous shape, and in two

unequal parts, of which the second part is the smallest and of

a coarser and more muscular texture. Behind the first stomach

there are seven others, of which the last is the largest, larger

even than the first; the other six are very small, particularly

the second, third, sixth, and seventh; the eighth is 34 centim.

long, and the first 29 centim. The duodenum is very narrow,

hardly 2°5 centim. wide, and the ilium very long, measuring

17°5 metres. Its interior surface is covered with many folds,

which form small bags at the sides. The colon is of twice the

width, but much shorter, hardly 2 metres long; its internal

surface has not so many folds and bags as the duodenum and

Dr. H. Burmeister on a new Cetacean. . 97

ilium. There is no cecum, as is always the case in the true

Cetaceans.

No food of any kind was found in the intestines, only a

mucous yellow fluid in the small intestine, and a fluid of a black

colour, like pitch, in the large one. Probably the animal had

fasted for a long time; and there is no doubt that the heavy

storm from which Montevideo had suffered two days before had

forced him to take refuge in the mouth of the Rio de la Plata.

The liver is situated on the right side of the last stomach,

covering it with its lower part, which is the smoother of the two

into which it is divided. There is no gall-bladder, but a wide

duct entering the duodenum by the side of the pancreatic

duct. The pancreas is large and of regular construction,

situated between the curvatures of the eight stomachs. The

spleen is a thin mass, small, of triangular shape, behind the first

stomach, and closely attached to its upper part. The kidneys

are large, 40 centim. long, spindle-shaped, fastened to the centre

of the belly above the other intestines, and composed of nume-

rous divisions, of the shape and size of a large nut. The urinary

channel is a metre, more or less, long; the bladder very large

and of thick substance.

The sexual organs are not perfected—proving, as does the

soft and spongy texture of the bones, that the animal was still

young.

The body consists of a large mass of very dark, almost black,

flesh, and over this, covering the whole surface, a layer of

whitish fat, of 5 centim. thick. The skin is thin, closely united

to the fat, and is composed of two layers, the inner one soft and

black, the outer hard and grey. Over this skin extends a fine

but hard and very smooth epidermis, which gives a shining

appearance to the animal. It is said that the inner skin of the

Anarnae (Hyperoodon) is considered a delicacy by the inhabi-

tants of Greenland and Iceland, in the seas of which these

animals abound.

I cannot enter into a detailed description of the skeleton,

since its preparation has not been concluded. I can only give

afew general details of the shape of the skull and of the number

of the vertebre and ribs. The skull is exactly similar to that in

the genus Ziphius, and has not the smallest resemblance to that

of Hyperoodon. ‘The upper part, with the opening of the nose,

is much arched, and the right side is much larger than the

left. The zygomatic bones are extremely thin, and are free

behind, and the os petrosum is united to the skull very

firmly. Of the seven vertebra of the neck, the first three are

united in one piece, the others are free. There are ten dorsal

vertebrae, with ten pairs of ribs, of which six are directly joined

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3, Vol. xvii.

98 Mr. A. G. Butler on new Species of Butterflies

with the sternum. The number of the lumbar vertebre is

twelve, and of the vertebra of the tail twenty-five, of which the

first eleven have large inferior spines between them, the first

spine being incomplete and composed of two parts entirely sepa-

rate. In the pectoral fins all the bones are well formed, as well

as the little bones of the carpus, which are not cartilaginous ;

only the last phalanges of the fingers are formed of this

substance.

XI.— Description of some new Species of Butterflies belonging

to the Genus Athyma in the Collection of the British Museum.

By Artuour G. Butter, F.Z.8., Assistant, Zoological Depart-

ment, British Museum.

1. Athyma lactaria, n. sp.

Upperside—front wings dark olive-brown ; the discoidal streak

broadly divided into three parts, white; two small white spots

near the costa, placed obliquely halfway between the cell and the

apex; a large white spot between the end of the cell and the anal

angle, divided by the second median branch ; a submarginal row

of five small white spots, the three upper ones subapical, placed

obliquely : hind wings dark olive-brown ; costa and inner margin

paler, a broad transverse central white band broadest between the

discoidal nervules, narrowest at the inner margin ; a submargi-

nal row of eight small white spots, equidistant except at the anal

angle.

Underside—front wings olive-brown; the discoidal streak as

above but better defined ; three oblique subapical rows of elon-

gate white spots, the two outer rows approximating, the outermost

row sometimes continued along the outer margin; a large white

spot between the end of the cell and the anal angle; three sub-

marginal white spots along the anal outer margin, the lowest one

obscure, the centre one large, oblong: hind wings white ; base

~ and front margin dark olive-brown ; a white spot at the base,a

second similar-spot near the base of the cell, and an elongate blu-

ish white streak above the cell ; outer margin olive-brown, with

a very narrow submarginal white line and a row of eight large

white spots.

Body brown ; palpi, two lateral streaks on the abdomen, and

coxee pale ochreous.

Expanse of wings 23-2 inches.

Hab. Aru Islands.

Alhed to A. Venilia, Linn. (Oceania), but the markings of the

upperside more nearly resemble those of Neptis Jumbah, Moore.

belonging to the Genus Athyma. 99

la. A. lactaria, var. with a narrower band on the hind wings.

Hapanse of wings 24°. ches.

Hab. Dory.

2. Athyma Astrea, un. sp.

Upperside brownish black: front wings with two obliquely-

placed large subapical white spots; two larger spots on the mid-

dle of the disk; an elongate white spot with a small streak above

it on the interior margin ; a submarginal row of small white spots ;

a second outer very indistinct row, pale brown: hind wings with

a broad white transverse band from beyond the middle of the

interior to the middle of the abdominal margin ; three dark-

brown marginal bands increasing in width towards the middle

of the wing.

Underside brown, glossed with pink: front wings—inner

margin pale olive-brown ; base of costal margin orange ; a narrow

discoidal streak indistinctly divided in its centre and broadly

near its outer termination ; spots on the disk as above but larger ;

outer margin with four submarginal white bands, the third from

the margin broad and almost divided ito spots at the ner-

vures: hind wings—base of costal margin white; an indistinct

white streak from the base to near the middle of the costal ner-

vure ; central band as above but broader; hind margin with four

submarginal white bands, the three outer ones approximating, the

innermost one indistinct, lunulate ; a brown dash across the sub-

marginal bands above the middle of the disk.

Body brown; legs, palpi, and abdomen pale.

Expanse of wings 23-24 inches.

Hab. Aru Islands.

Allied to A. Kasa, Moore (Philippine Islands), but, on the

upperside, closely resembling Neptis Shepherdi, Moore, excepting

in the absence of the discoidal streak.

3. Athyma Cerne, n. sp.

Upperside brownish black: /ront wings with a pale green

spot in the centre and a similar larger spot at the end of the cell ;

two large greenish, oblong, obliquely-placed subapical spots; a

large spot, divided above the middle by the second median branch,

on the middle of the disk ; two small obliquely-placed submargi-

nal spots near the apex: Aind wings with a central transverse

greenish band tinted with pmk at each end, interrupted by the

nervures ; two pale brown submarginal bands near the outer

margin.

Body brown ; antenri tipped with orange.

Underside paler brown: front wings as above, except that

all the large spots are white, and the hind margin has two sub-

100 M.&. Claparéde on M. de Quatrefages’s

marginal bands of pinkish spots: hind wings with central band

as above; costa dark brown; hind margin dark brown, with two

submarginal lines and an inner submarginal row of oblong spots

pinkish.

Body brown ; abdomen with a central yellow streak ; palpi and

tibize pale greenish.

Expanse of wings 23-24 inches.

Hab. Amboina.

Allied to the preceding species.

4. Athyma Badoura 9, un. sp.

Upperside black, markings ferruginous: front wings with

a long discoidal streak extending to beyond the middle of the

first median nervule, divided in the middle and broadest be-

yond the middle, tapering at both extremities; a black ring

upon the streak at the middle of the cell; an oblique band from

the front to near the middle of the outer margin, and joining a

band of four irregular spots between the median nervules near

the outer margin ; an oblique narrow subapical band, beginning

at the costa, recurved and tapering at its lower end; an outer

row of three small subapical spots near the margin ; a large spot

below the middle of the disk, and an cblique band running to the

middle of the interior margin; a submarginal pale brown line

along the outer margin: hind wings with a transverse band near

the base and a similar band near the hind margin; a central and

a submarginal band narrow, pale brown.

Body brown, a greenish collar and a pale ferruginous band

across the base of abdomen ; antenne tipped with orange.

Underside reddish ochreous, with central black patches be-

tween the nervures except near the outer margins; all the ferru-

ginous markings superseded by white ones.

Body pale ochreous ; antennz ferruginous.

Expanse of wings 33 inches.

Hab. Celebes.

Allied to A. Cama 2 , Moore (North India).

XII.— Remarks on M. de Quatrefages’s “ Note on the Classifica-

tion of the Annelides.” By H. Craparnpe*,

AFrer a series of varied anatomical investigations upon nume-

rous types of the class of Annelides, M. de Quatrefages was

probably in a better position than any one else for attempting a

revision of the classification of those worms. The last systematic

* Translated by W. 8S. Dallas, F.L.S. &c., from the ‘ Bibliothéque

Universelle,’ tome xxii., Bull, Scient. pp. 346-355, April 20, 1865,

A RS

* Note on the Classification of the Annelides.” 101

work upon this class, that of M. Grube, is dated as far back as

1851; and numerous investigations have since come to enrich

our knowledge of the group; the work of the French savant

will therefore fill a sensible gap in our zoological literature. At

present we only possess an insufficient summary of this impor-

tant work. The book is in the press, and its author has pub-

lished in advance the table of the orders, families, and genera

adopted by him, in order, as he himself says, to elicit from his

confréres some observations of which he may be able to make use.

This kind of appeal to the public authorizes us to present,

without any previous apology, some remarks on the classifi-

cation of M. de Quatrefages, even before the publication of the

work announced by him. ‘This publication will, no doubt,

nullify some of our criticisms; but others will perhaps be sus-

tained, or even find favour with the illustrious academician,

As in 1859, the author continues to eliminate from the class

of Annelides the Hirudinea, the Gephyrea, and the Oligocheta

(Erythrémes, Quatref.). This elimination, made at a time when

other authors are endeavouring, on the contrary, to place the

Gephyrea among the Annelides, from which they have been so

long excluded, appears to be justifiable for, at least, a portion of

these animals, but can hardly be extended to the Olgocheta.

These worms are certainly true Annelides, and differ much less

from most of the families left in the class by M. Quatrefages

than Phoronis, Wright (Crepina, Ben.) ; and yet the author

assigns this singular form a place among the Serpulacea.

The reason, moreover, which leads M. Quatrefages to exclude

the Oligocheta from the class of Annelides is of comparatively

little weight. This naturalist distinguishes im the division

Vermes two series of classes—one dieecious, the other monee-

cious. The moncecious classes are the Oligocheia, the Bdeilea,

the Turbellaria, and the Cestoidea; the dicecious classes are the

Annelida, the Rotatoria, the Gephyrea, the Malacobdellea, the

Myocelea, and the Nematoda. Now the character of androgyny,

or of the separation of the sexes, is a secondary character, which

cannot serve for the distinction of classes. Several genera of

Serpulacea include moncecious species, and M. Quatrefages does

not any the less on this account assign them a place among his

dicecious Annelides. Nor does he exclude the hermaphrodite

Nematoda from his dicecious class Nematoda any more than the

dicecious Planarie from his moneecious class Turbellaria, or cer-

tain dicecious Cestode worms from his moneecious class Cestoida.

At every step in other divisions of the animal kingdom we find

moneecia and dicecia side by side in the same class, the same

family, and sometimes in the same genus. We therefore do not

hesitate to think that M. Quatrefages attaches too much impor-

102 M. E. Claparéde on M. de Quatrefages’s"

tance to the character of the distribution of the sexes in his

division of the Vermes into classes. The Oligocheta, setting

their moneeciousness on one side, are Annelides in every respect,

and they will remain in that class notwithstanding their monce-

cious character. On the other hand, the Branchiobdellea are

identical with the Oligochzta in so many respects, that the re-

union of the whole series of the Bdellea (7. e. the Hirudinea)

with the class of Annelida appears to become a desideratum of

science.

Having restricted the class Annelida to the group of Annelida

Polycheta of Grube, M. Quatrefages, like Audouin and Milne-

Edwards, subdivides them into two orders—the Annelida

errantia and A. sedentaria. In their general features these two

orders are very natural; for, under different names, they have

been admitted by all authors. But the manner in which M.

Quatrefages characterizes them will give rise to criticisms, be-

cause it leads to some consequences which are evidently forced.

Thus he arranges the family Nerinea among the Hrrantia, and

the Leucodorea among the Sedentaria. Now these two families

contain worms so closely related to each other that they evidently

form a single natural family. This is so true, that this family

has already been established by Sars, who has characterized it

with much care under the name of Spiodea. The celebrated

Norwegian naturalist, in the establishment of this family, has

certainly furnished a fresh proof of the truth of his zoological

intuition, which has been so often experienced. In a general way

it is to him that we are indebted for the best recent works on

the classification of the Annelides,—works which, it is to be

noped, M. Quatrefages will take more notice of in his work

than would be supposed from the note which we have before us.

The best evidence that the distinction between the two families

Nerinea and Leucodorea rests upon an artificial foundation is

that the author places Nerine in one and Spvo in the other, er at

least in an appendix to the other. Now these two genera are

identical, as has been shown by Sars. That M. Quatrefages had

good grounds for effecting a separation in the family Ariciea, m

which Grube placed the Leucodore and the Nerine, few will

absolutely dispute. But this separation had already been made

in a very judicious manner. ‘The true distinction to be made is

that between the Ariciea and the Leucodorea or Spiodea; but

then we must place in the latter family the genera Spio, Pygo-

spio, Nerine, and the other Nerinea of M. Quatrefages, including

the genus donis, which, it may be remarked in passing, appears

to be founded only on some Nerine with the antenne torn off*.

* The genus Polydore of Bosc, admitted by Quatrefages, is synonymous

with Leucodore.

** Note on the Classification of the Annelides.” 108

The position assigned to the Tomopteridea among the Seden-

tary Annelides also appears fitted to call up some objections.

The name in any case is ill applied to the Tomopterides, which,

with the Amphinomea, are, as regards their mode of life, the

errant Annelides par eacellence. Wowever, the Tomopteridea

constitute so anomalous and degraded a type that they agree

but ill with any of the orders of Annelides, although still re-

maing incontestably Annelides.

With the exceptions just indicated, the division of the Anne-

lides into twenty-six families proposed by M. Quatrefages leads

to natural groups; nevertheless there exists a great number of

genera, often sufficiently well known, which the author has not

been able to bring into any of the divisions of his classification.

Ife enumerates these in appendices to the families with which

the genera in question seem to him to have most affinity, under

the name of “genera incerte sedis.” The number of these

genera of uncertain position is considerable: there are 64 out

of a total number of 245. It is evident that M. Quatrefages

deserves praise for the prudence with which he has proceeded,

preferring to leave an open question (garder protocole ouvert) in

all cases of uncertainty than to assign, as is generally done, an

arbitrary position to anomalous genera. There are, however,

cases in which the author’s uncertainty seems to arise from an

insufficient acquaintance with the animals in question.

We may cite a few examples ‘of this. The genus Zygolobus

of Grube, as to the position of which the author is uncertain, is

as typical a Lumbrinerean as possible, in the sense that M. Qua-

trefages gives to that family*. The Spiones are beyond any

doubt Leucodorea; the Magelone (placed at the end of the

Ariciea, no doubt by mistake) are also Leucodorea; the Poly-

cirrt are degraded Terebellea, probably identical with the genus

Apneumea of M. Quatrefages ; the Halimede of Rathke are true

Hesionea, generically identical with Psamathe, Johnst., which

the author places without hesitation in that family, &c. &e.

Sometimes we seem to remark in M. Quatrefages’s table errors

of synonymy combined with astonishing approximations. Thus

the author places Spinther, Johnst., as a genus incerte sedis at

the end of the Chloremea, and Cryptonotus, Stimps., also as

incerte sedis, at the conclusion of the Amphinomea. Now these

two genera are synonymous with each other and also with the

genus Oniscosoma, Sars, which the author has for some reason

left out of his nomenclature. Moreover the investigations of

* We may say, in passing, that we doubt whether the separation of the

family Hunicea, as hitherto understood, into two distinct families, accord-

ing to the presence (Eunicea) or absence (Lumbrinerea) of branchiz, is

always practically applicable.

104 M.E. Claparéde on M. de Quatrefages’s

Mr. Stimpson, and especially the very detailed researches of M.

Sars, have taught us that Spinther is very nearly related to

Luphrosyne, and consequently enters the family of the Amphi-

nomea.

M. Quatrefages places the genus Eumenia, CErst., at the end

(tncerte sedis) of the Phyllodocea. We can, however, scarcely

doubt, especially after the investigations of M. Sars, that the

natural place of this genus is in the family Arenicolea. To make

up for this, M. Quatrefages leaves the genus Dasybranchus in the

family Arenicolea, where Grube originally placed it, whilst he

enumerates the genera Capitella, Blainv., and Notomastus, Sars,

among the genera incerte sedis at the end of the Clymenea.

Now the favour with which the family Capitellacea, formed at a

later period by M. Grube (for the genera Capitella, Notomastus,

and Dasybranchus), has been generally received is sufficient evi-

dence that this family cannot be rejected without good reasons.

We believe that there are few families of Annelides so natural

as that of the Capitellacea. The very exceptional characters of

the subulate sete, which are very different (in all the rows) in

the anterior region and in the following segments, joined to a

disappearance of the vessels as complete as in the Glycera, and

the appearance of coloured blood-globules in the perivisceral

cavity, are sufficient to prove the relationship of these three

genera. The mutual affinities of these three genera are, more-

over, manifested in a multitude of other points. When M.Qua-

trefages removes the Dasybranchi with ventral branchic from

the abranchiate Capitelle and Notomasti, to approximate them to

the Arenicole with dorsal branchize, he seems to attach an ex-

aggerated importance to the existence of branchie. One might

remind him that he himself has found in the genus Glycere

abranchiate species and species provided with branchiz. More-

over dorsal branchiz into which vessels pass (Arenicola) can-

not be the hoinologues of ventral branchiz destitute of vessels

(Dasybranchus).

The family to the study of which M. Quatrefages has certainly

devoted the most care is that of the Syllidea. Who has not in

mind his beautiful investigations on the reproduction of those

animals? The number of new genera established in this family

is also considerable. We may remark, however, that the cha-

racters employed by the author are not always very certain,—

such as the number of eye-spots, which is often variable in the

same species. Other characters, on the contrary, are excellent ;

thus M. Quatrefages justly groups the genera according as their

gizzard is armed or unarmed. But, curiously enough, his appli-

cation does not always appear to be in conformity with his prin-

ciple. Thus several genera (Syllis, Exogone, Autolytus, Sphero-

** Note on the Classification of the Annelides.” 105

syllis) enumerated by the side of genera with the gizzard really

unarmed (Tetraglene ?) as furnished with an unarmed gizzard,

have the gizzard really armed. One of them (Autolytus) even

presents perhaps the most formidable armature to be found

among the Syllidea. The genus Heterosyllis is enumerated

twice, first among the Syllidea with the gizzard armed, and then

among those with an unarmed gizzard. No doubt we may here

suspect a dapsus calami, which has led in one case to the intro-

duction of the name Heterosyllis in place of some other.

But the greatest reproach that can be made against the clas-

sification of the Syllidea by M. Quatrefages is that of admitting

a certain number of genera which, in the present state of

science, must undoubtedly be cancelled. It is well known, and

M. Quatrefages was one of the first to demonstrate the fact, that

certain Syllidea present an alternation of generations—that is to

say, a regular alternation of sexual and asexual generations.

The asexual generations appear always to have an “armed Ve

zard*, and the sexual generations an unarmed one ; or rather, to

speak more accurately, the latter have no gizzard.

Hence for a long time the sexual generations have been re-

ferred to other genera than the asexual generations. In the

list of genera adopted by M. Quatrefages we remark the gencra

Tetraglene, Ioida, Polybostrichus, Sacconerets, and Dipleceraa

(perhaps also Macrochata and Polynice), which are formed by

sexual generations; the others (at least those with which we are

acquainted) represent asexual generations. The admission of all

these genera consequently necessitates that a single species may

be cited under three different names. ‘Thus the asexual form of

such a species will belong to the genus 4uwtolytus, the male

sexual form to the genus Polybostrichus, and the female sexual

form to Sacconereis. If necessary, we might assign to this

species a fourth place, as the genus Diploceraa of Grube appears

to be synonymous with Polybostrichus, Hirst. Finally, this in-

convenience becomes extreme when M. Quatrefages places among

the Hestonea the genus Pseudosyliis, Grube, consisting of asexual

worms of which ‘the sexual a7 (the genus Tetraglene, Grube)

is placed by him in the family Sydlidea.

* We here borrow the terminology of M. Quatrefages. By many authors

the name gizzard is used in quite a different sense. It is there applied,

not to the anterior part of the digestive tube, which is armed with teeth,

but to the glandular vesicle which follows this. Perhaps, however, the

inconsistencies in the application of the principle to which we have ¢ ad-

verted above may be owing to M. Quatrefages considering all those giz

zards to be unarmed which have not a pair of jaws properly so called. i

this case he would take no account of the formidable armature of teeth

which is presented by certain genera, and which furnishes excellent cha-

racters for classification.

106 On the Classification of the Annelides.

If M. Quatrefages has introduced into his table a considerable

number of new genera, which we shall not know until the pub-

lication of the work itself, he has omitted a great number of

others. In most cases, no doubt, he has been perfectly right.

He appears to us to have systematically eliminated nearly all the

names of M. Kinberg. The genera Aphrogenia, Halosydna,

Antinoé, Harmothoé, and Hermadion do not figure in the family

Aphroditea any more than the genera Eupompe, Panthalis, and

Leanira. The genera added by M. Kinberg to the family of the

Amphinomea—such as Lirione, Hermodice, and Eurythoé—are

likewise eliminated. We repeat, M. Quatrefages has, no doubt,

in the majority of cases, been right in uniting these genera to

others; and he might even, in our opinion, have still further

simplified his classification in some instances, as, for example,

by uniting Polynoé and Lepidonotus, which pass insensibly into

one another. Nevertheless the suppression of some genera has

surprised us. Thus, among the genera which we have just enu-

merated, Hurythoé appears to have more right to existence than

the others. Dasychone, Sars, among the Serpulea, and Ophio-

dromus, Sars, among the Phyllodocea, also appear to be good

genera. ‘The same is perhaps true of Phyllochetopterus, Grube.

No genus of Syllidea appears to be so clearly characterized as

Pterosyllis, which is not even mentioned. Thysanoplea, Schm.,

and Drilidium, F. Miill., are nowhere named; but it is true that

M. Quatrefages may not perhaps include them in the class of

Annelides, the limits of which he restricts as much as possible.

All these gaps are, no doubt, only apparent, and will be explained

on the publication of the complete work. It is possible, indeed,

that certain names, the absence of which has struck us, may

have been eliminated for sufficient reasons, and may be replaced

by one or other of the numerous new denominations which

figure in the table.

The work of M. Quatrefages will not be restricted to the An-

nelides, in the sense which the author attaches to that word.

It will also include a revision of the Gephyrea. One thing has

particularly struck us in the portion of the table relating to the

latter worms. In the family Sipunculea the author distinguishes

only two genera—Sipunculus, with simple buccal cirri, and Den-

drostomum, with ramified or pinnate cirri. It would appear,

therefore, that the author, rejecting the generic name Phascolo-

soma of Leuckart, replaces it with that of Szpunculus, and that

he unites to the genus Dendrostomum, Grube, all the Sipuncult

of modern zoology. We can hardly understand by what argu-

ments this revolution can be justified. The complete work will,

we hope, furnish sufficient reasons in its support.

* * * * ** *

M. A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides. 107

XILI.—On the Classification of the Annelides.

By A. pE QuaTREFAGEs.

[Concluded from p. 24. |

THE appeal which I addressed to my brother naturalists when

I published in the ‘Comptes Rendus’ the tables here reproduced,

has brought me, from M. Claparéde, some written observations,

accompanied by his ‘ Glanures Zootomiques ’ and an article pub-

lished in the ‘ Bibliotheque Universelle de Genéve.’ I received

these important documents at the very moment when I was cor-

recting the proofs of the present notice. Pressed for time and

by imperative occupations, I have been unable to devote myself

to the studies which would have been required to enable me to

appreciate all their value, and to introduce into the present pub-

lication the modifications to which they will perhaps give rise.

The ‘Glanures Zootomiques’ in particular contain a great number

of new facts of which I must take careful account, and in my

book I shall certainly give this important work the place which

of right belongs to it. The article from the ‘ Bibliotheque Uni-

verselle’ is especially a work of criticism. The author has

rapidly appreciated my general ideas, as also the application

which I have made of them, and has added some remarks on a

certain number of special points. Itis to this that I would here

reply in a few words.

I am sorry to see that on many points I am but little in

accord with M.Claparéde. Perhaps these differences of opinion

may be due in part, as he himself indicates, to the fact that the

tables isolated from the text, of which they are a summary, may

lead to mistakes, and in any case show no trace of the reasons

which have led me to certain conclusions. But still there are

some questions as to which no doubt can remain, and with re-

spect to which I cannot, to my great regret, adopt the views of

my learned confrére, although he is far from always standing

alone in his opinions, and I find side by side with him men who

have deservedly the highest authority in zoology.

Such is the question of the union in a single class of the

Annelides with the Lumbrict and allied groups (Oligocheta,

Erythrémes, Quatr.) and the Bdellea (Hirudinea). “The Oli-

gocheta,” says M. Claparéde, “are certainly true Annelides.”

And further on he adds, “The Oligocheta, apart from their

moneecious character, are Annelides in every respect.” I must

declare that I cannot subscribe to these propositions ; and the

more I have reflected upon this question, the more difficult has

it seemed to me to maintain this union.

Let us first of all say a word about the monceciousness to

which M. Claparéde attaches no value. What I have previously

108 M.A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelies.

said of reciprocal terms will perhaps some day explain some of

the facts upon which the Genevese philosopher depends for the

support of his opinion. Perhaps, also, in other groups than

those with which we have to do here, we must definitively

admit that the union or separation of the sexes has really no

ereat importance with regard to affinities.

But the value of characters is very far from being constantly

the same in the animal series, as I have already remarked ; and in

this case the moncecious or dicecious character appears to me to

be in relation to so many other facts, that it seems impossible

not to give it great weight. We do not yet, I believe, know any

Erythreematous worm with the sexes separate; and only three

exceptions to the diceciousness of the Annelides have been indi-

cated: these three exceptions have been observed in groups

which are still very imperfectly known, and which every consi-

deration leads me to regard as exceptional in many other rc-

spects. In a group with so variable a type as that of the Anne-

lides, to find variations even in the characters of the class is far

less extraordinary than elsewhere. But none the less does this

fact appear to me more important than that presented by the

species of Phoronis (Crepina, Van Ben.). These, which M.

Claparéde regards as further removed from the Annelides than

the Erythremata in general, are, in my eyes, evidently only

Sabellea—very degraded, no doubt, but in which the general

type of the Annelides is recognized at the first glance ; and this

M. Van Beneden has not failed to perceive.

The discovery of the segmental organ (Williams) in the Anne-

lides has certainly established an additional relation between

them and the Erythremata. But I do not know how far the

presence of this organ is constant in the former of the two classes.

Ehlers and Claparéde have found it in Sy/lis; but their descrip-

tions, always very succinct and often not very complete, and their

figures, which leave scarcely less to be desired, although adding

to what the English savant has taught us on this subject, still

leave room, it seems to me, for well-grounded doubts. In any

case it appears from them that this apparatus in the Annelides

has neither the development nor the constancy which it presents

in the Erythremata.

On the other hand, no Annelide possesses a ¢yphlosolis; and

although I found upon the anterior vascular trunks of certain

Arenicole (and in the Arenicole alone) something resembling

the chloragogena, I was at the same time able to prove that in

this case there was only a similitude of aspect.

* In the introduction to my book I have only mentioned the fact disco-

vered by Huxley. The observations of Pagenstecher had escaped me, and

M. Claparéde had not yet discovered his Amphiglene.

M. A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides. 109

Again, as far as I know, we never find in an Erythreematous

worm the foot, which is so characteristic of the Annelides. Their

setee indeed resemble those of certain Sedentaria; they are

set in motion by an analogous mechanism, and they are deve-

loped nearly in the same way. But here the resemblance ends.

The foot, as a well-marked and distinct organ, never makes its

appearance.

No Erythrematous worm has ever presented true branchiz

comparable, even distantly, with those presented by so many

Annelides.

If we compare the nervous system of the Lwmbrict with that

of the Annelides, selecting species in which it is at once most

developed and best known, we ascertain considerable typical

differences in the stomatogastric portion of these apparatus. As

to the ventral chain, it cannot but present much similarity in

Annulosa which continue faithful to the general type.

To tell the truth, I can only find the vascular apparatus which

can be seriously adduced in support of the proposed approxima-

tion, although, indeed, there must be some resemblances between

the two groups, as otherwise no one would have dreamed of

confounding them.

Thus we have genuine resemblances upon some points and

profound differences upon others; and this, in sum, is what is

presented by the Annelides and the Erythraemata when we take

as terms of comparison their highest and most perfect represen-

tatives. This apparent contradiction seems to me to be a

general and decisive argument in favour of my opinion, which

may be summed as follows :—the differences between the two

groups depend on a want of real affinities; the resemblances

spring from analogies; the class of Erythraemata and that of An-

nelida are the corresponding terms or analogues of each other in

two distinct series.

That these two groups approach still more closely by some

inferior derivative types, by some degraded species, I am far from

denying. But do we not observe this even among the Verte-

brata ?

So much for the Erythremata. But M.Claparéde goes further,

and would have the Hirudinea also placed in the class of Anne-

lides. He is not the only person, as is well known, who holds

this opimion. But in this case my opinion seems to me to be

still more easy to defend. I shall only remind the reader that the

resemblances existing between the Annelides and the Erythre-

mata, as regards the vascular and nervous apparatus, disappear

when we come to the Leeches. Nothing in the Annelides answers

to the great lateral trunks of the latter; and the stomatogastric

nervous system of the Leeches resembles that of the Insects rather

110 M.A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides.

than that of the other Vermes. Apart from the question of

moneeciousness or diceciousness, the Hirudinea must, in any case,

it appears to me, form a distinct class.

I have discussed in haste, but at some length, this portion of

M. Claparéde’s article, because it relates to a general question.

I shall be very brief upon some points of detail, to which, how-

ever, I think it necessary to reply. Being pressed for time, |

ask permission to examine them in the same order in which the

author has presented his remarks.

1. M. Claparéde rather severely criticises the manner in which

I have regarded the relations existing between the genera Nerine,

Leucodore, Polydore, and Spio. As regards the last, there will

be found in my book a short discussion, giving the reasons for

its place among the incerte sedis. The second and third, which

M. Claparéde declares only form one genus; are certainly very

distinct. The table itself indicates a character which appears to me

to be very prominent, and which is in accordance with others.

As to the approximation of Nerine and Leucodore, it is abso-

lutely impossible for me to accept it. I have studied these two

types in the living state, and they are completely different. The

law of repetition of segments is very exactly observed in all the

Nerinea; it is very little followed in the Leucodorea. By itself

this character justifies, in my eyes, the position which I have

assigned to the two groups. There are plenty of other differ-

ences which I cannot detail here; but this, it appears to me,

suffices in any case to prevent the union of two such different

types in the same family. Notwithstanding the high authority

of Sars, I shall therefore persist in my opinion, and must beg

my confréres to delay their judgment until they have before them

the necessary evidence—that is to say, my book and my plates.

2. Contrary to the opinion of M. Claparéde, the Aonides,

which I have been able to observe in the living and perfect state

since the publication of my first note upon them, in the ‘ Magasin

de Zoologie,’ 1843, are very distinct from Nerine, although

furnished with the large tentacles which appear to characterize

the family, and which alone may perhaps give them some resem-

blance to the Leucodorea.

3. I agree with M. Claparéde in the objections which might

be raised against the place which I assign to Tomopteris, and I

have taken care to state this im my text. This position is pro-

bably only provisional ; but in the present state of science I do

not very well know where we can place these species, belonging

to a type in the highest degree aberrant. Moreover, M. Clapa-

réde in criticising my opinion, has not made known his own.

4. M. Claparéde attributes my uncertainty, and the course

that I have frequently taken of putting a certain number of

——

M. A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides. 111

genera among the incerte sedis, to an insufficient knowledge of the

animals in question. I do not for a moment hesitate to admit

the justice of this observation. When the zoological relations

did not appear clear to me, I thought it my duty not to dissemble

my doubts. Now this has frequently happened, as I have

already stated, even with well-known species. In this case I have

not placed them. With still better reason I have acted in the

same way when it seemed to me that some important character

was imperfectly described, or that its very existence was not per-

fectly demonstrated. This is the case with the genus Zygolobus

(Grube), which M. Claparéde cites as a blameable example of my

mode of acting. With me, as with him, this genus belongs in-

contestably to the family of the Lumbrinerea. But my learned

critic seems not to have remarked that, from the description of

Grube, it appears to follow that here the feet are biramose (“ Pinne

glewaas lobis obtusis duobus, posteriore longiore, digitiformi”’). If

this be the case, the genus Zygolubus would constitute a unique

exception in the family, and among all the representatives of the

Eunice type. Such a fact seems to me to require more exact

details. Moreover Grube says nothing about the dorsal cirri,

the presence or absence of which has served me for characterizing

certain genera. For these two principal reasons I have left the

genus Zygolobus among the incerte sedis, adding, “I think this

species requires to be reexamined.” But I have placed it in the

family Lumbrinerea, where it will certainly remain. I think that

in this way I have acted more wisely than if I had at once ad-

mitted the existence of a Lumbrinerean with biramose feet,

when it may very well be that a simple transformation of one of

the two cirri has produced the appearance indicated by Grube.

From this example it will be seen what has been my mode of

proceeding ; and what I have just said may excuse me from

dwelling upon some analogous criticisms addressed to me by my

learned confrére.

5. A little further on, M. Claparéde says that one seems to

remark, in my table, errors of synonymy combined with surprising

approximations. He cites, as an example, that I have placed

Spinther of Johnston among the incerte sedis of the family Chlo-

remea, and Cryptonota (M. Claparéde writes Cryptonotus) of

Stimpson also in the incerte sedis of the family Amphinomea.

According to him, these two genera are synonymous.

In this particular I can hardly understand the opinion put

forth by M. Claparéde. To unite Cryptonota and Spinther in a

single genus seems to me to be impossible. Stimpson, in cha-

racterizing the former, speaks of its branchie, adding that they

are undoubtedly similar to those of Euphrosyne. Johnston does

not even mention the word branchiz, and his figures present no

112 M.A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides.

trace of such organs. The Cryptonote have the back covered

with long sete, which cross each other almost in the median

line; the Spintheres, on the contrary, have the back entirely

naked, ridged transversely by thirty little edges, roughened

by bristles which scarcely pass beyond the surface of the skin—

characters which are presented by some Chloremea. The feet

are biramose wm Cryptoncta; in Spinther they are uniramose.

Far from presenting, in the latter, sete long and numerous

enough to cover the entire back with the exception of a narrow

median line, they have only short and straight sete; among

these sete there are some which terminate in an appendage com-

pletely resembling that of some Chloremea; finally, they are

coated with an albuminous matter as in the true Chloremea;

and this is a very exceptional character, of which Stimpson says

nothing in connexion with his Cryptonota.

These contrasts are sufficient, I think, to enable my readers

to judge between M. Claparede and me. They have seen what

is the opinion of my learned opponent. Mine may be summed

up in few words.

The Cryptonote are incontestably Amphinomea; but is the

genus to be retained or combined with Huphrosyne, which Stimp-

son himself recognized as very nearly allied to it? I cannot

answer this question, for want of sufficient details. Stimpson

states that he had only a single specimen of his C. citrina, and

that he could not describe it with all the details desirable. I

have therefore left the genus among the zncerte sedis.

To determine the position belonging to Spinther is by no

means so easy. Johnston makes it an Aphroditean, although

recognizing its want of the most essential characters of the

family. Grube, although leaving it in that family, states that he

thinks it more nearly allied to Amphinome or Siphostomum

(Chloremea). Everything seems to me to be in favour of the

latter collocation. ‘Thus the form of the composite setze, the ex-

istence of an apparently mucous matter on the feet, and the very

short hairs with which the back is roughened, were three characters

which at least established some relationship between this type

and some Chloremea. But the exceptional form of the inferior

appendages of the feet, and the absence of many details, prevented

me from assigning it a place in the systematic series of the family.

I therefore left it among the zcerte sedis, whilst placing it in

the group from which it appeared to me to depart the least.

6. I believe I have justified my course in this particular case.

Ts this to say that I absolutely repel the charge of having com-

mitted errors of synonymy? By no means. On the contrary,

I have a too painful conviction that, in spite of all my efforts,

more than one must have escaped me. I must here confine my-

M. A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides. 118

self to an appeal for the indulgence of those of my brother natu-

ralists who have essayed the difficult task of coordinating in a

general work that immense mass of frequently very heteroge-

neous materials which results from the isolated labour of a great

number of naturalists.

7. The observations addressed to me in a letter by M. Clapa-

rede, and a rapid examination of his ‘Glanures,’ had already called

my attention to the family of the Capitellacea. The new facts

which I thus learnt, and especially the positive confirmation of

the position and nature of the branchiz, the absence of blood-

vessels, &c., lead me to remove the Dasybranchi from the family

Arenicolea, and to accept their collocation with the Capitelle and

Notomasti. But can the family Capitellacea be at once placed in

the systematic framework of the class? Can we understand its

affinities? M. Claparéde tells us nothing on this subject; and,

for my part, I do not believe we can. I shall therefore leave

this smgular family among the mcerte sedis; for I cannot yet

form a distinct idea of its relations with the other groups, which

is perhaps due to my not having myself studied any of its repre-

sentatives.

8. The family Sylidea has really engaged much of my atten-

tion, as M. Claparede supposes. But during my visits to the

sea-shore, I had scarcely ever looked at it from the point of view

of a classification of the species. I merely studied in detail cer-

tain types, especially from an anatomical point of view. The

proof of this will, I hope, be found in my book. When I had

to seek to unite all the species described by different authors, I

found a great difficulty, which will be understood by every one

who has attempted to do the same. The generic denominations,

here more than elsewhere perhaps, were not founded upon any

uniform rule; the nature and the value of the characters adopted

presented nothing fixed. I have sought to introduce as much

precision as possible into their appreciation, and it is true that I

have taken much trouble to find a method which enables the

genera and species to be characterized without much trouble. I.

thought I had succeeded by distinguishing, as far as it could be

done, the tentacles from the antenne and tentacular cirri, three

sorts of appendages which have been habitually confounded, and

then by ascribing a generic value to the number of these differ-

ent appendages. The modifications of the foot have likewise

furnished me with characters of the first importance. By thus

adding fresh data to those already employed by my predecessors,

I believe I have succeeded in preparing a very natural series, in

which the new species may take their places without violence.

The essays which I have had to make since the period (already

distant) when this table was first prepared by me authorize me,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvii. 8

114 M.A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides.

I think, to adhere to my opinion. It is, however, very natural

that M. Claparéde should prefer the classification which he has

published in his ‘Glanures.?,_ When one has dwelt for a certain

time upon a collection of ideas, such as that which is summarized

in a classification, it is very difficult to substitute another sud-

denly for it. I cannot but be in this position myself; and our

confréres alone can judge between us.

It is certain that M. Claparéde and myself have been guided

by very different considerations in the establishment of our

genera. I have generally confined myself to the employment, for

their characterization, of considerations derived from the external

forms. The only exception that I have made has been the ar-

mature of the gizzard, to which | shall return presently.

M. Claparéde, on the contrary, has had recourse to various

anatomical considerations, such as the length of the trunk, the

absence or presence of the glands which I have called salivary

glands, the armature of the pharynx, &c. He has even character-

ized his genera by the mode of reproduction—that is to say, by

essentially temporary physiological phenomena, which are con-

sequently impossible to ascertain at certain seasons of the year.

I see serious inconveniences in this course.

On the other hand, my honourable critic seems to me to have

sometimes given too much importance to certain details in con-

sidermg them generic characters. Thus, in his opinion, the

mode of union of the frontal lobes is a generic character. It

seems to me to be only specific. I shall say as much, and with

still more reason, of the following character ascribed to his genus

Pterosyllis :—(char. emend.) “Ventral cirri pimniform, except

those of the penultimate segments, which are moniliform.” For

my own part, I should not hesitate to arrange in the genus in

question every Syllidian which had all the other characters of

Pterosyllis, but of which the penultimate segment had a pinni-

form ventral segment like the preceding ones.

I know that criticism is easy ; and moreover, in this case, I am

judge in my own cause. I would not, therefore, dwell too parti-

cularly upon the present question. Nevetheless I believe I may

indicate that my table gives prominence to a certain number of

general results which do not appear to me to follow so clearly

from M. Claparéde’s table. I think, moreover, that I can ad-

duce a consideration which, I believe, would have been decisive

for any naturalist placed in my position.

M. Claparéde in arranging his table has given his particular

attention to the species which he knew thoroughly from having

well studied them. For my part, J had to take into account all

the species described by my various confréres, past or present.

Now a very great number of these are known to us only by

M.A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides. 115

summary descriptions and imperfect figures. If I had attached

as much importance as M. Claparéde to the armature of the

anterior portion of the trunk (pharynz), I should have run the

risk of not knowing where to place many species to which their

external characters, as far as they are known to us, allow a place

to be assigned. Still more should I have found myself in this

position if, like my honourable critic, I had placed the existence

or absence of alternant generations among the number of generic

characters. 5

9. Ihave yet another remark to make with regard to the

observations of M. Claparéde upon the Sy/llidea. The Genevese

savant thinks that I have given the name of gizzard to the ante-

rior region of the trunk ; but in this he has mistaken me. With

me, as with my predecessors and with M. Claparede himself,

the gizzard is the median, inflated portion which is so charac-

teristic in the Sy/lidea. The anterior portion I call the pharynx

or the pharyngeal region. It is the armature of the gizzard, a

region of the trunk which is here almost constantly unarmed,

that it has seemed to me useful to introduce into the list of cha-

racters. As to the denticles, styles, &c., which so frequently

arm the pharynz, I have mentioned them in the description of

the species, but could not ascribe to them the same value as

M. Claparéde, for the reason just indicated.

However, if I had been placed in the same position as M.

Claparéde, I should perhaps the more casily have been led to

ascribe a value to the pharyngeal armature, which will probably

be conferred upon it hereafter, as this armature itself appears

to me something very exceptional. Upon this point, again, I

regret that I cannot agree with my learned confrére. Indeed, in

his ‘Glanures,’ to justify the importance which he attaches to

this character, M. Claparéde adds, “In this I only follow the

rule generally applied in the other families of Annelides, in

which the pharyngeal armature is regarded as of great value

even as a generic character.”

These expressions evidently suppose that the armature in |

question is situated in the same region of the trunk in the Sy/-

lidea and in the Neretdes or Eunice. Now it is impossible for

me to accept this conclusion, so far as it relates to the styles and

denticles which arm the anterior portion of the trunk of the

Syllidea. It is evident that they cannot be the representatives

of the jaws placed in the median region of the trunk in the Ne-

reides and Eunice.

The distinction which I here establish between the different

regions of the trunk is by no means artificial. I may refer to

the fact that it rests not only upon the general form of the

organ, the distribution of the muscular masses, &c., but also

116 M.A de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annelides.

upon a minute investigation of the nervous system in the Neretdes

and allied genera*.

What the 8 yllidea present which is very remarkable from the

point of view here under consideration is, that in them the arma-

ture usually belongs precisely to a portion of the trunk which

is unarmed almost “everywhere else, and that the median portion,

the essentially dentary portion in the best-armed Annelides, is,

on the contrary, unarmed in them, with the exception of the few

species indicated in my table.

10. Moreover, and I have taken care to insist upon this con-

sideration in my general remarks on the family Syllidea, my work

relative to this group can only be regarded as provisional on

many points. We have here a complete little special world, in

which the variability of characters increases more than anywhere

else, which appears to obey certain physiological laws which

manifest themselves very rarely in the class, and always in very

small species and in groups which are exceptional in other

respects,—distinction of sexes, geneagenesis. I long for the

moment when some naturalist will make a special study of this

little world; and notwithstanding what M. Claparéde has lately

written to me, I like to hope that he will fulfil this difficult task,

for which no living naturalist appears to me so well qualified as

the author of the ‘ Beobachtungen ’ and ‘ Glanures.’

11. [have still to reply toa serious observation of my learned

critic. M.Claparéde thinks that I have retained with the same

value all the genera the representatives of which have been for

some years recognized as being only different forms of one and

the same species. ‘The perusal of my book will absolve me on

this pot. I have taken account of all the discoveries of this

kind known to me, and especially of the work of A. Agassiz upon

Autolytus; but I did not think it was yet time to come to a

conclusion. We have here (at least in my opinion) an entire

series of facts which science has only as yet touched upon, and

which still require numerous and probably patient investiga-

tion. I have my doubts as to some of the results announced

with most certainty; but even if all that has been said upon

this subject were correct, this all is still very little. It therefore

appeared to me to be wiser to postpone conclusions which facts

may contradict to-morrow; and I have accordingly, in general,

left these genera among the incerte sedis and in the quality of

mere indications, as several of them will no doubt have to dis-

appear, while some will perhaps remain to science.

12. But I have not, as M. Clapareéde thinks, gone so far as

to place one form in one family, and another form of the same

* “Mémoire sur le systeme nerveux des Annélides”’ (Ann, des Sci. Nat.

3° sér, tome 1x.),

M. A. de Quatrefages on the Classification of the Annclides. 117

species in another family. The example cited by the Genevese

savant, that of Tetraglene and Pseudosyllis, is due to a misun-

derstanding easy to explain.

Grube had described in the same work, and figured on the

same plate, the asexual and sexual forms of a Syllidean. To

the former he gave the name of Pseudosyllis, to the second that

of Tetraglene. Ehlers, justly uniting the two forms under a

common name, chose the expression Tetraglene. I have acted

like him. The name Pseudosyllis consequently remained wnem-

ployed, and, as I thought it a very good one, I applied it to a

small genus, not indeed of Syllidea, but of Hestonea.

This is what has caused a misunderstanding between M. Cla-

paréde and myself, for which my honourable confrére has already

testified his regret. Perhaps I might be reproached for having

adopted a name proposed by another author, giving it a new

signification. If this is an error, I have fallen into it more than

once in my book. He who passes in review the whole of a tota-

lity of works frequently has, by this means, data which were

wanting to the authors of isolated researches ; he looks at many

questions from a different point of view. The characterization,

the limitation, and the distribution of genera sometimes seem

to him to require some modifications. Shall he therefore pro-

ceed to abolish the names proposed by his, fellow labourers? — I

have not thought it necessary to act thus. As far as possible,

I have retained the old denominations, and I have avoided intre-

ducing new ones. A few words of explanation suffice in such

cases to prevent confusion. In the present case mistake was

less to be dreaded, it scems to me, as two different families were

in question, and, apart from all other indications, the bzramose

feet and the number of e7ght antenne indicated in the table would

forbid any one to suppose that I meant to speak of Pseudosylls,

Grube, which has the feet uniramose and only three antenne

on the head.

13. M. Claparéde calls attention to the fact that the genus

Heterosyllis figures twice in wy table. To complete his obser-

vation, he might have added that the genus Pterosyllis is not

named. ‘This is the double result of a printer’s error, which I

should have avoided by correcting my proofs better, but which,

fortunately, does not recur in the table forming part of my

book.

14. The observations of M. Claparéde relate principally to

the Annelides; he says but little of my table of the Gephyrea,

and confines himself to the assertion of an opinion which is not

well founded. I thought it right to suppress as a genus the

group Phascolosoma, as to the characters of which authors did

not seem to me to be agreed (see, among others, the works of

118 Mr. G. R. Gray on the Species

Leuckart, Alder, Diesing, and Keferstein); but I have distributed

its species in the sections of the great genus Sipunculus. I

admit, however, that the latter must be sooner or later broken

up ; but, in the present state of science, I do not yet know exactly

what organs would furnish readily appreciable characters for

this division. This is the smallest portion of the task which I

leave for my successors.

XIV.—A Synopsis of the Species of the Genus Collocalia, with

Descriptions of new Species. By Grorce Roserr Gray,

F.R.S., F.LS. &e.

THE object of this synopsis is to exhibit the number of the

species at present known, and at the same time to show their

relative position in a geographical point of view.

a. Matay Grour. India.

Collocalia nidifica.

Hirundo esculenta (Osbeck ?), Horsf.

fuciphaga, Thunb.

esculenta, var., Lath.

Collocalia nidifica, G. R. Gyr.

Suciphaga, Bp.

Top of head, wings, and tail greenish metallic fuscous black ;

back deep bronzy brown, slightly lighter on rump; beneath the

body and sides of the neck brownish mouse-colour, tinted with

rusty ; tail rather forked, and immaculate.

Length 4” 10", wings 4” 9", tail 2" 3!".

Java, Sumatra, and other islands of the Eastern Archipelago.

It is probably the nest of this species that was noticed by

Bontius in 1568, Kempfer in 1712, Osbeck im 1750, and

Hoogman in 1780, as it is much employed for culinary purposes.

Var. a. With the rump of a lighter colour; beneath the body

greyish mouse-colour.

Length 5", wings 4" 6! to 4! 9", tail 2" 3",

Hirundo brevirostris, M‘Clell.

unicolor, Jerd.

Cypselus unicolor, Jerd.

concolor, Bl.

Cotyle brevirostris, Boie.

concolor, Boie.

Collocalia brevirostris, Strickl.

nidifica, p., Bl.

fuciphaga, p., Bp.

Neilgherries, Himalaya, Sikkim, Assam, Ceylon, and western

coast of the Indian peninsula, &c.

of {the Genus Collocalia. 119

The nest represented by Olearius in 1674 was found in Coro-

mandel, and probably belonged to this variety.

Var. 6. Smaller, with the rump scarcely lighter than the back.

Length 4! 3", wings 4! 7", tail 2".

Borneo.

It is probably the nest of this variety that was referred to by

Beeckman in 1718.

Collocalia Linch.

Hirundo fuciphaga, Horsf.

Collocalia fuciphaga, G.R. Gr.

Linchi, Horsf.

Cypselus (Collocalia) esculenta, Bernstein.

Hemiprocne fucivora, Streub. !

Upper surface metallic black ; throat, cheeks, sides of neck and

breast brownish fuliginous, with each feather slightly margined

with white; abdomen white; tail metallic black and immacu-

late; under tail-coverts metallic black, with the smaller ones

margined with white.

Length 3” 6”, wings 3! 11", tail 1” 6”.

Java, Malacca, Nicobar Islands, Archipelago of Mergui, &e.

The nest of this species, like that of the former, is much used

for culinary purposes.

b. PHiLtrPpPINE GROUP.

Collocalia troglodytes.

Collocalia troglodytes, G. R. Gr.

Upper surface bronzy black; beneath the body fuliginous,

with the feathers of the throat, abdomen, and vent broadly mar-

gined with greyish white ; a narrow transverse band of white on

the rump, with the shaft and a patch at the tip of each feather

fuseous black ; tail and upper tail-coverts black, with the former

rather pale at the base ; under tail-coverts fuscous black.

Length 3” 3!", wings 3" 11", tail 1” 6”.

Philippine Islands.

The edible nest of the Philippine Islands was noticed by

Camel in 1702, and may probably be referred to this species.

c. Papuan Group. Celebes?

Collocalia nidifica, var.

Collocalia nidifica, var., G. R. Gr.

Var. c. Beneath the body very pale brownish mouse-colour,

especially on the throat.

Length 5”, wings 4” 10”, tail 2” 3”.

Louisiade Islands; Celebes ?

120 Mr. G. R. Gray on the Species

Collocalia hypoleuca.

Collocalia hypoleuca, G. R. Gr.

esculenta, p., Wall.

Upper surface metallic black ; sides of head, throat, and breast

fuscous black, with the feathers margined with white; abdomen

pure white; tail metallic black, with a prominent white space on

the inner web of each lateral feather near the base; under tail-

coverts metallic black, with the smaller ones broadly margined

with white.

Length 4”, wings 4” 1’”, tail 1” 9”.

Aru Islands, island of Mysol, coast of New Guinea, and

Celebes ?

The Mysol specimens exhibit the white space on the first three

tail-feathers, and a spot only on the fourth. This latter spot I

am unable to find in the Aru example, as the tail is imperfect.

It may be observed that the white space on the tail-feathers

of the Celebes specimen appears to be further removed from the

tip of the feather ; but the tail is imperfect in the single speci-

men contained in Mr. Wallace’s collection. When lent to me

on a former occasion, I had remarked that it differed from the

Aru example, and I had therefore written on the label “n. sp.

viridinitens ;” but I did not adopt it at the time, as I thought it

might be better to await the arrival of other examples before

describing it. At present I have placed it, with a doubt, with

the Aru example.

d. Moutucca Grovr.

Collocala nidifica, vay.

Upper surface darker, especially on top of head, with a pur-

plish tint; and altogether of a smaller size than any of the

other varieties.

Length 4” 5’, wings 4, tail 2”.

Morty Islands.

Collocalia spilura.

Collocaha hypoleuca, p., G. R. Gr.

esculenta, Wall. (nec L.).

spilura, GR. Gr.

Upper surface metallic black ; cheek, sides of neck, and throat

deep fuliginous; breast and beneath the body fuliginous, with

the feathers broadly margined with greyish white; tail metallic

black, with a white spot on each of the lateral feathers near

the middle of the inner web, that on the outer feather very

small; under tail-coverts metallic black, the smaller ones mar-

gined with white.

Length 3” 6”, wings 3” 9", tail 1” 9".

of the Genus Collocalia. 121

Batchian, and probably on the other Molucca Islands.

The spot on the first and fourth feathers is not so prominent

as that on the second and third. Sometimes it is hardly visible

on the first feather.

e. Timor Group.

Collocalia nidifica, var.

Upper surface like that of C. nidifica, but the lower surface

appears to be of a greyish colour.

Length 4” 9”, wings 4” 3”, tail 2” 3’.

Timor (Coupang).

Collocalia neglecta*.

Hirundo esculenta, var., Less.

Collocalia esculenta, Bp.

5 pes: Wall.

neglecta, G. R. Gr.

Upper surface zneous plumbeous, with the shafts of the

feathers darker; feathers of the rump narrowly margined with

white; upper tail-coverts metallic black; throat and cheeks

fuliginous; breast and abdomen white, especially the latter;

tail metallic black, with a lengthened white space at the base

of the inner web of each lateral feather; under tail-coverts

metallic black, with the smaller ones white, having the shafts

black.

Length 4”, wings 3” 10”, tail 1” 8”.

East Timor.

* Mr. Wallace having, since the above characters of the three small

species C. hypoleuca, C. spilura, and C. neglecta were drawn up, kindly

lent me his specimens of this interesting group, I have been enabled to

verify the correctness of the views I had formed on the four specimens

from three localities that I had the opportunity of examining, viz. that the

white extends in a lengthened form on the inner web of the lateral tail-

feathers, in the Aru, Mysol, and Timor (and it is also the case in that of

Celebes) examples, while the white forms only a small spot on the inner

web of the lateral feathers, somewhat removed from the base, in those

of Batchian and Matabello, and probably also of the other Molucca

Islands.

The specimens of Mr. Wallace also exhibit the same characters, proving

I was right in considering that there existed at least two, if not three, spe-

cies, and I am therefore still induced to refrain from following him in

placing all the examples from various localities (Celebes, Timor, Moluccas,

and Aru Islands) under what I consider to be the erroneous name of

esculenta.

Mr. Wallace’s example of the Timor bird is like in all points to the two

specimens previously examined. In its upper surface it is totally different

from those of the other localities, and it is also of a more pure white on

the under surface.

122 Mr. G. R. Gray on the Species

f. Mascarnnuas Groupe. Madagascar?

Collocalia francica.

Hirundo francica, Gmel.

Collocalia francica, G. R. Gr. & Bp.

Hirundo virescens, Vieill.

Cotyle francica, Boie.

Collocalia spodiopygia, p.? Cass.

fuciphaga, p., Wall.

Top of head, wings, and tail shining neous black ; upper

part of back deep bronzy brown; rump with a broad band of

brownish white; beneath the body pale mouse-colour, growimg

lighter on the abdomen ; sides of head and back of neck dark

geneous brown; under tail-coverts pale zneous brown.

Length 4” 6”, wing 4” 5, tail 2” 1’”.

Isle of France ; Madagascar.

g. FrrsEE AND SaMoAN Groups.

Collocalia spodiopygia.

Macropteryx spodiopygius, Peale.

Collocalia spodiopygius, Cass.

Hirundo francica, Cass.?

Cypselus spodiopygius, Bp.

Upper surface zeneous black ; cheeks and sides of neck fuli-

ginous ; mentum fuliginous, with the feathers slightly margined

with white; rump very pale brownish mouse-colour, slightly

varied with white, and with the shafts of the feathers fuliginous

black ; beneath the body pale greyish mouse-colour, lighter on

the abdomen; under tail-coverts dark mouse-colour, slightly

margined with greyish white.

Length 4” 7’, wings 4” 6", tail 1” 1".

Feejee and Samoan Islands.

This species appears to be represented in Ellis’s unpublished

‘Tcones,’ 96 (which were made during the third voyage of

Capt. Cook, between the years 1776 and 1779), from an example

obtained at the Friendly Islands.

h. New-Catzponia Grove.

Collocalia leucopygia.

Collocalia Linchi, Verr. & Murs.

troglodytes, Bp.

leucopygia, Wall.

Upper surface black, with the top of head, wings, and tail

shining zeneous black; a broad band of white across the rump,

with the shaft of each feather fuscous black; throat and sides

of neck fuscous; beneath the body ashy white, with a fuscous

of the Genus Collocalia. 123

line down the shaft of each feather; under tail-coverts fuscous,

margined with white.

Length 4, wings 4” 6’, tail 1” 9”.

New Caledonia.

i. Santa-Cruz GRovr.

? Collocalia vanikorensis.

Hirundo vanikorensis, Quoy & Gaim.

Cotyle vanikorensis, Boie.

Atticoria? vanikorensis, G. R. Gr.

Collocalia fuciphaga, p.? Bp.

vanikorensis, G. R. Gr.

Black, with the throat greyish brown; abdomen fuliginous.

Length 5” (wings 4!" 5”, tail 2” 1’ ex fig.).

Santa Cruz Islands (Vanikoro).

I only know this bird by the above specific description and

figure, which induce me to suppose that it must be distinct from

any of the other species of Collocalia, in which genus it was first

placed by Prince Bonaparte.

The figure in the ‘ Voyage de l’Astrolabe’ represents the bird

as fuliginous, with the head, upper part of back, wings, and tail

shining metallic black. The habits of this bird and the forma-

tion of its nest are unknown, which is also the case with the

next three species.

j. New-Husrives Grovr.

Collocalia uropygialis.

Collocalia leucopygia, p., Wall.

uropygialis, G.R. Gr. |

Upper surface metallic black, with a broad band of pure white

on the rump; throat and breast greyish white ; abdomen pure

white; under tail-coverts greenish metallic black, with the

smaller ones margined with white ; quills and tail-feathers above

ereenish metallic black, the latter with a white spot on the

inner web of each of the three lateral feathers, that on the first

and third less in size, sometimes only found on the second and

third lateral feathers; under wing-coverts greenish metallic

black, with the larger ones margined with white.

Length 4”, wings 3” 9’, tail 1” 9'".

New Hebrides (Aneiteum, where it is called by the natives

‘‘Nahawpgap”). It is perfectly distinct from the species named

leucopygia.

k. Socrety Group.

?Collocalia Forstert.

Hirundo peruviana, p., Forst.

cinerea, p., Gmel.

124 Mr. G. R. Gray on the Species

Hirundo cinerea, Licht.

Herse peruviana, Hartl.

Forsteri, Hartl.

Salangana fuciphaga, p., Bp.

Upper surface shining black; beneath the body and rump

ashy fuliginous; quills and tail-feathers tipped with obscure

white; tail rather bifid.

Length 4” 9'”, wings 4” 6’”, tail 2” 6”.

Otaheite, where it is called “‘ Hopéa,” while in the Marquesas

it is known as “ Kopeha.”

The above specific description is taken from Forster’s ‘ De-

scriptions ;? otherwise I am unacquainted with the bird. It

differs materially from the following description of Mr. Peale.

?Collocalia leucophea.

Macropteryx leucopheus, Peale.

Collocalia cinerea, Cass.

Cypselus leucopheus, Bp.

Collocalia fuciphaga, p., Wall.

Upper surface pale soot-colour, beneath lighter ; crown, wings,

and tail darkest ; webs of the greater wing-coverts undulated ;

tail slightly forked.

Length 5,4, wings 5-5,, tail 245 inches.

Island of Tahiti (Otaheite).

Until specimens are obtained, it is difficult to say whether

these two specific descriptions can refer to the same Otaheitan

bird. Prince Bonaparte and Mr. Wallace considered the species

of this locality to be the same as C. nidifica ( fuciphaga) ; but I

think this idea wants further confirmation before it can be

adopted.

Distribution of the Species of Collocalia.

Indian regions .........06 Collocalia nidifica, var.

(brevirostris, M‘Cl.)

Malay TeSions)<5....<.ccecsns Collocalia nidifica

(gelatinosa, Streub.??)

Collocalia Linchi.

(malaisia, Streub.??)

Philippine group ......... Collocalia troglodytes.

( philippina, Streub.??)

Gelebes se esa-eaemeceaceraee | Collocalia nidifica, vay.

hypoleuca?

Molucca group ...cseeeeeee —— nidifica, var.

spilura,

Papuan 4, deecareenenrers — nidifica, var.

— hypoleuca.

Timor by - istaptaaarear sedan nidifica, var.

neglecta.

of the Genus Collocalia. 125

Distribution of the Species of Collocalia (continued).

Micropolynesian regions.

Caroline Islands ............ Collocalia nidifica? (apud

Garnot).

(ualensis, Streub.? 2)

Marianne Island............ Collocalia nidifica? (apud

Freycinet).

Polynesian regions.

Santa-Cruz group «.....++ Collocalia vanikorensis.

New-Hebrides group ...... uropygialis.

New-Caledonia ,, ...... leucopygia.

Beeiee) SOUP ie. .ces<-2.o.-= spodiopygia.

SAMOaM, ss.) sccleaccsacescwe —— B

DOCIELY ETOUP ..scccrsscceees Forster.

Marwiesas: j59).07' /oicecese. leucophea.

Mascarenhas group...... Collocalia francica.

A species is also said to be found in the Sooloo archipelago

(apud Forster).

This table shows that they are chiefly found within the tropics,

except in North India and Madagascar.

Ihave refrained from adopting the specific name of esculenta

for any of the preceding species, as has been proposed by some

authors ; and I subjoin the following history of this specific name

in explanation of my reasons for its non-adoption.

It is to be observed, in the first place, that the name of Hirundo

esculenta was only founded (as was pointed out by the late Mr.

Strickland) by Osbeck in 1750 on an edible nest obtained in

China, to which country they are generally taken from the Malay

Islands.

The name was also employed by Linnzeus in the 10th edition

of the ‘Systema Nature,’ published in 1758. He refers to the

works of Bontius (1568), Olearius (1674), and Rumphius (1750).

The first authors described the nest only, while the last re-

ferred both to a bird and nest.

It appears that Linneus overlooked the first published de-

scription and figure of the Swallow and edible nest, which were

given by Valentyn in 1726, in his ‘Oud en nieuw Oost-Indien’

il. Diel, p. 328, pl. opp. p. 800, f. W. This author speaks of a

bird between 4 and 5 inches in length; of an entirely bluish

black, with the tail of a lighter colour, and having a white

spot before the eye as large as the eye itself. He further tells

us that it was obtained at Ternate; but he refers to other

126 Mr. G. R. Gray on the Species

localities for similar birds, as Gilolo, Celebes, and Oma in Am-

boina.

In 1750, Burman’s edition of Rumphius contains the nest and

a rather more defined account of the bird than that which was

published in Valentyn’s work. He says, in reference to the bird,

“Tpsarum color plerumque niger et cum ceruleo fulgore, sique

caudee plume separantur, in quavis penna alba conspicitur macula.

Pectus et albo et nigro colore variegatus et maculatus est.”

This author enters much into the general history of the Edible

Swallows, and he records many more localities for this kind of

bird than does Valentyn, viz. Java, Madura, Baley, Borneo,

islands of Sean and Sanger, Siam, Cambodia, Cochinchina,

China; and he also refers to Ternate, Amboina, and Ceram*.

If we are to regard the remark which Thunberg made in 1772

as well-founded, there seems to be some confusion between the

description just quoted and the figure given in the same work.

He says that the former meant esculenta, and that Rumphius’s

son, who drew the figure, had fuciphaga for his pattern.

Dr. Horsfield observes “ that the only authority for the specific

character of Linnzeus was that of Rumphius,” which one might

easily suppose if we take into consideration that it was the only

work referred to by Linnzeus that contained tlie description of a

bird in conjunction with the edible nest.

Mr. Wallace, in 1863, adopts Dr. Horsfield’s view, and endea-

vours to show that Rumphius’s description and the characters of

Linneeus refer to one and the same bird; and he further states,

they “are so clear and precise that there can be no doubt

whatever about the identification of the species.” But I cannot

agree that this identification of the description with any of the

known species is as yet “so satisfactorily determined,” because

Rumphius speaks of the concealed white spots on the tail-feathers

* Tt will be seen by this arrangement of habitats that Rumphius does not

imply that his bird was from Ternate (as Valentyn does), nor, in fact, does

he give any peculiar locality, but rather seems to record a number of places

as the abode of this kind of Swallow. He appears to give the preference

to the Malay Islands, &e:, and then after them he records three of the

Molucea Islands. Now the small bird of the Malay Islands is not furnished

with spots, as is mentioned in the description, but has a uniform-coloured

tail. It is probable, therefore, that Rumphius may have had in view that

of the Moluccas, as spots are only found on the tails of those birds ob-

tained from the last three localities mentioned by him.

Though Valentyn states that his example was obtained at Ternate, yet

he appears to have overlooked the spots; for they are not mentioned in his

description.

With regard to the other localities mentioned, I believe it may be right

to state that the birds have not been recorded of late as found im Siam,

Cambodia, Cochinchina, and China, but that the nests have been carried

to those places from the Malay Islands as an article of commerce.

of the Genus Collocalia. 127

as if there were one on each ; and the same conclusion is exempli-

fied by the characters promulgated in the ‘Systema Nature,’ viz.

“yectricibus omnibus macula alba notatis;” while in every one

of the known species of Collocalia which have white spots on the

tail-feathers, they exist only on the /ateral feathers, the central

feathers being without any sign of them. We may therefore

safely conclude that the supposed ‘long-lost bird” which was

laid before the Zoological Society was not in reality the Hirundo

esculenta of Linnzeus.

On the other hand, I may remark that Brisson in 1760 gave

a description and figure of a bird (from a drawing of M. Poivre)

that has been considered by some writers equally to be the

Hirundo esculenta of Linnzus. In this figure ail the tail-feathers

are spotted (at the top) with white, thus agreeing with that

author’s characters. But Brisson’s description and figure could

not have been the one referred to, as it was not published until

two years after the 10th edition of the ‘ Systema Nature’ had ap-

peared. It was in the 12th edition, which appeared in 1766, that

Linneus first referred to Brisson’s work. Yet we find Thunberg

in 1772, Latham in 1783 and 1823, Boie in 1844, and other

authors regarding Brisson’s description and figure as the typical

representation of the Linnean species. Latham, however, notices

that the figure in Brisson “ represents the ends of wings reaching

but a little further than the rump ;” and we also find that the

late Mr. Strickland considered this figure “to belong to some

other family than the Swifts or Swallows, or to be grossly inaccu-

rate;” and lately Mr. Wallace has pronounced decidedly “that the

figure is not a Collocalia at all, not even a Swift or a Swallow.”

In 1855 the late Prince Bonaparte applied the specific name

of esculenta to the bird obtained at Timor and the more remote

oceanic islands; while in 1857 Bernstein, in an interesting

anatomical paper on Collocalia, says of C. esculenta et C. nidifica

(=fuciphaga) “op Java gevonden worden.” We may suppose, I

think, from this remark, that he refers the first name to the

species called C. Linchi by the late Dr. Horsfield.

After the various opinions expressed, I may still venture to con-

sider the Hirundo esculenta of Linneeus to be enveloped in much

doubt as to its typical representative among the known species

of Collocalia; and therefore I think myself justified in not

employing this name (first used by Osbeck) for any of the species

noticed in this synopsis, and right in bestowing the new name

hypoleuca on one of the species, which bird, or even the other

allied examples, cannot certainly be reconciled with any of the

descriptions published by the older authors.

I may observe before closing these remarks, that the name of

esculenta has been changed by Streubel into that of salangana,

128 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee.

as it isnot the bird, but the nest, that is applied to culinary

purposes. Some part of the description that he gives, however,

of his salangana (which he implies is equal to the H. esculenta of

Linneus) conveys a doubt as to the bird described by him being

really a Collocalia, on the very same ground as Brisson’s bird,

viz. the shortness of its wings, as M. Streubel remarks

that ‘the wings almost overreach the extremity of the tail.”

This character alone makes it difficult to reconcile it with

what is thought to be the C. esculenta, or indeed with any of the

species mentioned i in the foregoing Synopsis.

XV.—On the Menispermaceee.

By Joun Miers, F.R.S., F.L.S. &c.

Tyee from vol. xiv. p. 374.]

. CISsAMPELOS.

This extensive and fees eenus is one of the oldest of

the Menispermacee. ‘he plants, for the most part, are slender

climbers, with woody branches ; but among the South American

species there are several low shrubs with erect stems, scarcely more

than 1 or 2 feet high, covered with imbricated leaves. The leaves

seldom exceed a mediocre size, and are sometimes small; they

are generally more or less orbicular, often reniformly cordate,

and are either peltate or palate, rarely quite glabrous, with petioles

either elongated or very short. The male infloresence is usually

in slender axillary panicles, variously divided, often 3 or 4 fascicu-

lated im each axil,where they are frequently accompanied by an

elongated raceme with alternate axils, each bearing similar, but

much shorter, fasciculated panicles, and bare of leaves, or having

only a minute bract in their place: this raceme-like development

is, properly speaking, a young florifercus branch with abortive

leaves, as is proved by the frequent presence of regular leaves

diminishing gradually to the size of minute bracts. The female

raceme is elongated, generally solitary, or geminate in each axil,

with a number of approximated large orbicular bracts (appearing

like young leaves as they really are ), each bearing in its axil from

three to ten fasciculated pedicellated flowers ; sometimes, however,

these leaflets are wanting, when their place is supplied by diminu-

tive bracteoles. The male flowers, always minute in size, consist

of four, rarely five or six, oblong sepals, a single cup- -shaped petal,

anda single stamen in the centre , with its anther usually 4-lobed, or

where the lobes are constricted and 2-celled it appears 8- lobed, or

by suppression of some of them 5—6-lobed, all the lobes fixed on

the margin of a peltiform connective supported on a short slender

5 . . .

filament. The female flower, also minute in size, has only one

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermace. 129

oblong sepal, with a shorter petal attached to its claw, both fixed

extrorsely at the base of a solitary ovary, which grows into a

small fleshy drupe. The species are numerous and often difficult

to determine; for, owing to the extreme simplicity of the floral

parts and their minute size, they afford few discriminating cha-

racters ; the principal differential features therefore rest chiefly on

the habit of the plant, on the form of the leaves, the comparative

leneth of the petiole, the point of its insertion, and on the in-

florescence : these offer many good and constant characters.

The authors of the ‘ Flora Indica’ (p. 200), in their attempt to

determine the Indian species of Cissampelos, came to the extra-

ordinary conclusion that all the Asiatic, most of the African,

and nearly all those belonging to the New World constitute one

single species, and they fix upon Cissampelos Pareira of Linneus,

a native of the Antilles, as the representative of this common

type. In their view it does not signify whether the leaves be deeply

or only slightly peltate or whether the petiole be inserted on

the margin of the blade—whether they be cordate, or otherwise ;

let them be acute, round, or elongated, whether upon very long

petioles or nearly sessile, however various be the form or extent

of the inflorescence, whether bracts be present or absent—all these

differences, which are regarded as of great specific importance

-by botanists in general, are of no value whatever in their consi-

deration. Such an unprecedented annihilation of about fifty dis-

similar kinds of Cissampelos, which have long been recognized in

various botanical works, and to which distinct characters have

been assigned, ought to be viewed with distrust, in the absence

of good reasons ; a repudiation of such vast extent, even on the part

of botanists of deservedly high repute, will induce most botanists

to pause before they assent to so sweeping a conclusion, and must

diminish the reliance that would otherwise be placed in the value

of their decisions where, as I have shown, they have endeavoured

to nullify not only good species, but valid genera. Messrs.

Bentham and Hooker, in their ‘Genera Plantarum,’ do not go

quite the length of the authors of the ‘ Flora Indica’ in regard

to Cissampelos ; but, as might be expected, they indorse their de-

cision to a great extent; for they recognize only twelve species as

belonging to tropical America, five African (including those of

Antizoma in the number), and only another solitary species,

which, according to their view, is widely distributed over the rest

of the world, and known to botanists under names which they

regard only as synonyms of Cissampelos Pareira. Wowever

convenient this method may be for the easy determination and

laconic description of plants, it tends to force back the science of

botany to the state in which it existed in the time of Linnzus,

when it was ruled that any diversified number of plants which re-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvii.

130 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez.

sponded to a short diagnosis comprised within twelve words should

be held to form a single species. If this method were again

adopted, as now attempted in Cissampelos, it would nullify the

great aim of modern botanists, who seek for the greatest number

of differential characters in the determination of each individual;

and it would restrict us to the employment of two or three leading

features, in the discrimination of a species, that might perhaps be

common to a great many different kinds.

Nothing in the shape of sustainable evidence has been offered

to prove that the fifty or more described species of this genus are

descended from Cissampelos Pareira ; it is not an inference drawn

from facts, but an assumption in direct contradiction to all the

simple truths which nature discloses. Nevertheless, suppose we

grant for an instant that, in an immeasurable course of time,

and under the influence of “ natural selection,” the imagined type

has undergone the modifications and preserved the varieties of

form now exhibited, the inference to be drawn from this admis-

sion is, that if such modifications be now permanent, each con-

fined within a limited range of distribution, and we can assign to

them severally constant and determinable characters, then clearly,

according to the rules of science, they ought to be considered

distinct and valid species. In determining different kinds of

plants the practical botanist should not be guided by any theory:

of the distant “ origin of species,” but should regard them in

their present forms. Under this conviction I have opposed the

the doctrine in question, and have diligently attempted to fix cer-

tain characters to upwards of seventy species of Cissampelos. The

specific characters I shall give are long, but not longer than is

necessary in the first instance to particularize each species; for it

must not be forgotten that this preliminary labour is chiefly in-

tended to collect the materials for future monographers of this

difficult family. It is not unlikely that I may have erred in

some instances, especially where the loan of specimens to com-

pare with others has been impossible ; the only plan within my

reach has been to make careful tracings of every specimen in the

different herbaria within my reach, marking each feature, examin-

ing the flowers, and preserving drawings of their analyses: by

this method the elaboration of Cissampelos alone has demanded

more than twelve months of continued investigation. In vindica-

tion of those botanists who have renounced in utter despair a task

like this, it is right to mention the hopeless confusion that exists

in all herbaria that I have seen, especially among Asiatic plants

of this genus. Specimens of the same species are there referred

to different names and numbers, or the same names and numbers

are given to dissimilar plants; and different species, sometimes

with plants of other genera, are fixed on the same sheet as being

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermaceee. 131

identical ; in short, an almost inextricable perplexity exists. In

addition to this, the want of good typical specimens and the

imperfect short diagnoses on record have rendered it difficult

to recognize any plant with precision ; so that when a predis-

position has existed to annihilate existing species, the oppor-

tunity has been very favourable for that purpose. I confess that

I have often been disheartened by this perplexity; and it has only

been by renewed exertion and a large amount of patience that

I have been able to arrive at the conclusions now brought

together.

In this issue, I regret to find myself at variance with botanists

of the highest repute, whose opinions, from the extent of their

labours and the amount of their knowledge, deservedly command

universal respect ; but, after many years of study, I cannot re-

nounce the strong belief that the very extreme views they have

entertained, not only in regard to Cissampelos, but to other

genera of the Menispermacee, cannot hold ground against the

body of evidence I have been able to bring together.

It is to be deeply regretted that, in a work of such great im-

portance as the ‘ Flora Brasiliana’ of Prof. von Martius, Dr.

Eichler, the erudite author of the monograph upon Brazilian

Menispermacee, should have been so fascinated by the extreme

views of the learned authors of the ‘ Flora Indica’ and the ‘ Genera

Plantarum’ as to have followed their example. I cannot believe

that a botanist of such acknowledged merit would have adopted

this course if he had carefully worked out his materials. In regard

to Cissampelos, it will be seen that he has embodied all the erect

shrubs, together with some climbing plants, amounting to fourteen

species, into C. ovalifolia, and has amalgamated no less than thirty-

six of the other published species of the genus, belonging to the

Old and New World, as synonyms of C. Pareira, acknowledging

only five old and two new species, all Brazilian ; but why he should

have selected these five Brazilian cases only, in two of which he

has mistaken their identity, and why he pzssed over others, which

are equally remarkable for the differential characters they oppose

to his type, it is very difficult to conceive. Jam glad to have

the opportunity of remarking that the plates in the work above

mentioned, mostly from drawings by Dr. Kichler, are beautifully

executed ; his review of the family, and his observations on its

general structure and the economic uses of its plants, are deser-

ving of high commendation.

It is worthy of remark that, with very few exceptions, each ge-

nus of the Menispermacee is confined to a comparatively limited

range; and it is a singular coincidence that, out of fifty known

genera, only three original ones, Cissampelos, Cocculus, and Meni-

spermum, occur in both hemispheres. The area of distribution of

132 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacec.

each of the many species of Cissampelos here enumerated is

very limited, so that they may be said to be nearly local—a cha-

racter which almost universally prevails throughout the family.

The species here collated have been divided into three groups,

American, African, and Asian: these again are subdivided into

peltate, subpeltate, and palate sections, according to the differ-

ent modes of insertion of the petiole upon the blade of the leaf.

This plan, though arbitrary, happens to agree with the local

distribution of the species, and has been adopted solely with the

view of affording facility to others in studying the species and

in the more easy determination of the individuals. When the

results here obtained have been examined and confirmed, it will

be easy to arrange the species methodically into groups and

sections marked by separate characters which will tend greatly

to abbreviate the respective diagnoses.

The plants throughout the genus are dicecious, the sexes

being always distinct in different plants, except in two or three in-

stances where moncecious flowers occur: in one the sexes are found

in distinct racemes in the same individual; in another male and

female flowers are seen in the same raceme; but, as they accord

in the usual number of their floral parts, these exceptions have

(like those in Ttdiacora) been retained in the genus; on the

other hand, where a different number and disposition of the floral

parts occur which, from their constancy, cannot be attributed to

metamorphism, the species have been excluded, in order to pre-

serve the uniformity and universality of the characters of Cissam-

pelos. Thus, following the example of Cyclea, Clypea, Antizoma,

&c., where this uniformity i is disturbed I have formed the genus

Dissopetalum, in which two petals are always present in the fe-

male flower, and also Peraphora, where the petal in the same sex

is sometimes wanting, and where the floral envelopes are two deep

bursiform sepals, and the putamen is echinated in a manner dif-

ferent from that of Cissampelos. Clambus is also constituted asa

genus distinct from Cissampelos, not only because it has six sepals

and six petals in the male flower, but on account of the very

different habit of its species, and the peculiar mode of venation

of their leaves.

CissamMPELos, Linn.— Flores dioici, rarius monoici. Mase.

Sepala 4, rarius 5 vel 6, spathulato-obovata, vel sublanceo-

lata, submembranacea, seepe eroso-denticulata et extus pilosa,

patula, zstivatione imbricata. Petalwm unicum, cyathiforme,

iterdum poculiforme, margine crenato, 4-lobum, carnosulum

aut membranaceum. Stamen unicum, centrale; filamentum

breve, filiforme, apice connectivum plus minusve disciforme pel-

tatum margine antheriferum fulciens ; anthera e cellulis 4 vel

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispcermacec. 133

pluribus in annulum circumcingentem coalitis, rima horizon-

tali bivalvatim hiantibus—Fwm. Sepalum unicum, ovatum

vel oblongum, subconcavum. Petalum unicum, sepalo ante-

positum et multo minus. S¢amina nulla. Ovarium solitarium,

gibbum, 1l-loculare, ovwlo unico ad angulum ventralem appenso ;

stylus brevis, excentricus ; stigma tripartitum, laciniis ariste-

formibus, divaricatis, seepe uncinatis. Drupa ovata, carnosula,

stylo persistente ad hilum proximo notata; putamen obovatum,

compressum, l-loculare, loculo hippocrepiforme, extus liris plu-

rimis interstitiisque sulcatis radiatim crenato, intus semini con-

forme ; condylus loculo circumdatus, excentricus, disciformis,

extus utrinque subconvexus, intus ad hilum marginalem pro

introitu vasorum tantum pervius. Semen hippocrepiforme vel

lunatum, compressum ; inéegumentum tenue, linea longitudi-

nali in fissuram condyli infixa ; embryo in albumine simplici car-

noso, hippocrepiformis, teres, tenuiter elongatus, cotyledonibus

incumbentibus, radicula supera, tereti, lis equilonga et equilata,

ad stylum spectante.

Frutices aut suffrutices sepius alte scandentes, interdum repentes,

rarius erectt, plerumque inter tropicos totius orbis crescentes ;

folia alterna, integra, sepius cordato-orbicularia, petiolata, petiolo

rarius palatim, sepius plus minusve intra marginem inserto : pa-

nicule ¢ avillares, composite ramose, sepe cymosa, multiflore,

vel e ramulo novello aphyllo aut bracteato plurime, hoc modo

racemum floriferum efformantes ; flores minuti: racemi 9 azil-

lares, longiusculi, sepe ramiformes ; bracteis plurimis, sepius

majusculis, foliolosis, suborbicularibus, alternatim approximatis

aut imbricaiis ; flores minimi, pedicellati, plurimi, in avillis

bractearum fasciculati et absconditi.

The characters of all the following species are fully detailed in

the third volume of the ‘ Contributions to Botany :’—

Div. 1. AMERICANA.

* Folia peltata; frutices scandentes.

1. Cissampelos tropaolifolia, DC. ;—v. s. in hb. Boissier. ¢& ? ,

Cuchero (Pavon); in hb. DC. ¢, Bahia (Blanchet, 290) ;

in hb. Mus. Brit. ¢, Crato (Gardner, 1444); in hb. Hook.

3, Peru (Matthews, 2057); Antioquia (Jervise).

glaberrima, St. Hil.;—C. clematidea, Pres/.—v. v. et

sic. in hb. meo, ¢ & $, mont. Organ. et Valenca; in hb.

Mus. Brit. et Hook. 9, Pernambuco (Gardner); in hb.

Hook., Brazil (hb. Vienn. 1303).

3. grandifolia, Tr. & Pl.;—v.s.in hb. Hook. ¢, Maumer

(Hayes, 168); 9, La Paila (Holton, 667).

A. sympodialis, Kichl. ;—v. s. in hb. Mus. Brit. et Hook.

184 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermaccee.

& & 2, Traipu (Gardner, 1233-1284); 9, Paranagua

(Gardner, 2472-2474).

5. Cissampelos fluminensis, Kich]l.—Amazonas.

6. -errabunda, nob.;—v. s. in hb. Hook. g, Brasilia

(Swainson).

ie longipes, nob. ;—v.s. in hb. Mus. Brit. ¢, Martinica

(Rohr, 158); in hb. Lindl. et Hook. ¢ & 2, Surmam

(Hostmann, 19); in hb. Hook., Venezuela (Fendler, 14).

8. Pareira, Linn. ;—v. s.in hb. DC. ¢ & 2, San Domingo

(Poiteau); in hb. Lindl, Trinidad; in hb. Hook., inter

multis aliis, Panama (Seemann, 313); Jalapa (Linden, 926) ;

g§ & 3,8. Vincent. (Guilding) ; im hb. Mus. Brit. nonnulla

e varils locis.

acuta, Tr. & Pl. ;—Triana, v. s. in hb. Boissier., Peru

(Pavon).

10. orinocensis, H. B. K.;—v. s. in hb. Lindley., Coro del

Tigre (Oelbe, 1882).

its testudinaria, nob. ;—yv. s. in hb. Hook. ¢ & 3, Gala-

pagos (Darwin, 239).

12. limbata, nob.;—v. s. in hb. DC. @ & 2, Cuchero

(Pavon) ; in hb. Hook. ¢, Mexico (Beechey); 92, Ibague,

Nov. Granada (Holton, 668), Chagres, Panama (Fendler,

4), Minas Geraés (Claussen).

** Folia subpeltata; frutices scandentes.

18. —— Benthamiana, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook. et aliore @&

?, Mexico (Hartwegg, 445).

14. heterophylla, DC.;—v. s. in hb. meo, 4, Jamaica

(Heward); in hb. Hook. ¢, Jamaica (Distan), ? , Trinidad

(Schach).

scutigera, Tr. & Pl.;—Bogota; v. s. in hb. Hook.,

? , Panama (Hayes, 186).

16. ittoralis, St. Hil. ;—v.s. in hb. meo, Piauhy (Gard-

ner, 2475); ¢& 2, Brasilia (hb. Vienn. 1302).

17: gracilis, St. Hil. ;—v. s. in hb. Soc. Reg. Hort. 9, San

Paulo (Weir, 420).

18. microcarpa, DC. ;—v.s. in hb. DC. ? , Cuba (Sagra) ;

in hb. Lindl. ¢, Cuba (Wright, 22); in hb. Hook. @& 3,

Cuba (Wright, 21, 22); g & 2, Jamaica (Marsh, 19);

do, Venezuela (Fendler, 13).

Henckeana, Presl ;—-v.s. in hb. Boissier., ¢& 2 , Cu-

chero (Pavon).

hirsutissima, Pres! ;—v. s. in hb. DC. et Boissier.,

3d & 2, Icanozo (Goudot); ¢, Peru (Pavon).

21. tomentosa, DC.;—v.s. in hb. DC. 3, Cuba (Linden,

1809) ; in hb. Mus, Brit., Jamaica (Shakespeare).

15.

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez. 135

22. Cissampelos canescens, Miq. ;—v. s.in hb. Hook. et Lindl. ¢ ,

Zimapan (Coulter, 659); in hb. Lindl. g, Orizaba (Bro-

tero, 569).

23. glaucescens, Tr. & Pl. ;—v.s. in hb. DC. 3, Chiquitos

(D’Orbigny, 774), Brazil (Claussen) ; in hb. Hook., Eeua-

dor (Horton).

24. guayaquilensis, H. B. K.;—v. s. in hb. Mus. Brit. et

Hook. ¢, Guayaquil (Jameson, 335); ¢ &?, Guayaquil

(Spruce, 6322); in hb. DC. ¢, Mexico (Pavon), Cuba

(Poppig).

25 tamoides, DC. ;— ¢ , Minas Geraés (St. Hil.) ; v.s. in

hb. Hook. @, ins. S. Catherina (Tweedie).

26. australis, St. Hil. ;—v.s. in hb. Lindl. g, Uruguay

(Tweedie); 9 , Uruguay (Tweedie, 1278).

27. monoica, St. Hil. ;—Curitiba, Brazil (St. Hil.).

28. myriocarpa, Tr. & Pl.;—v.s.in hb. Hook. ? , Mesitas

Ecuador (Triana).

29. auriculata, nob.;—v. s. in hb. Hook. ¢ & ?, Entre

Rios (Tweedie).

30. hederacea, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook., Prov. Argentinas

(Tweedie).

Ol. argentea, H. B. K. ;—Rio Magdalena.

32 subreniformis, Tr. & Pl. ;—Ecuador (Triana) ; v. s. in

hb. Mus. Brit. ¢, Goyaz (Gardner, 3002).

33. andromorpha, DC. (non Eichler) ;—C. denudata, nob. ;

C. fasciculata, Benth. ;—C. caapeba, Vell. (non Linn.) ;—

v.v. ¢ in mont. Organens.; v. s. in hb. DC. g, Bahia

(Blanchet, 3947); in hb. Lindley, ¢& ? , Bahia (Salzmann);

in hb. Hook., RioJaneiro (M‘Gillivray,297); g& 9 , Guiana

Brit. (Schomb. 677), Guian. Gall. (Sagot, 18); ¢, Obidos

et Santarem (Spruce), Veraguas (Seemann, 1156).

34. ramiflora, nob. ;—C. andromorpha, Hichl. (non DC.) ;

—y.s. inhb.variis ¢, Rio Casiquiare (Spruce, 3165), Pa-

nuré (Spruce, 2463), San Gabriel (Spruce, 2166).

35. floribunda, nob. ;—v.s. in hb. DC. ¢, Peru (P6ppig).

*k Folia palata; frutices scandentes.

36. Catpeba, Linn. ;—C. eriocarpa, Tr. & Pl. ;—v.s. in

hb. DC. 3g, Peru (Péppig, 1293); 9°, Mexico? (Pavon) ; in

hb. Hook. et alior. ¢, Tarapota (Spruce, 4409); 9, Cho-

nana, Guayaquil (Spruce, 6538).

Var. biloba, nob. ;—in hb. Boissier., Guayaquil (Pavon) ; in

hb. Hook. Guayaquil (Pavon).

consociata, nob. ;—v.s. in hb. Hook. ¢ & 3 , Jamaica

(Wilson).

37.

136 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacce.

88. Cissampelos diffusa, nob.;—vy. s. in hb. Hook., Antilles

(Gouan), Jamaica (Wilson); ¢& 2, Jamaica (Marsh, 18).

*k«k Frutices humiles, erecti; folia palata aut rarius

subpeltata.

39. crenata, DC.;—C. ovalifolia, Hichl. (non DC.) ;—v. s.

in hb. vars ¢& ?, Guiana Brit. (Schomb. 124).

40. mallophylla, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. DC. g& ?, America

tropica.

41. ovalifolia, DC. ;—Minas Geraés (St. Hil.) ; v. s. in hb.

DC. ¢ & ?, Cuyaba; in hb. meo ¢, Ceara (Gardner,

1445); in hb. Hook. ¢, Entre Rios (Tweedie).

42 communis, St. Hil.; ¢& 9, prov. S. Paulo.

43 velutina, St. Hil.;—v.s. in hb. Mus. Brit. ¢, Minas

Geraés (Claussen); in hb. Hook. ¢, Venezuela (Iendler,

1890) ; in hb. meo, Caraccas.

44 vestita, Tr. & Pl. ;—v. s.in hb. Hook. ¢ & 93, Tovar

(Funcke, 171); ¢, Sa. Martha (Purdie).

A5 suborbicularis, St. Hil. ;—C. assimilis, nob.;—C. ebrac-

teata, St. Hil. ;—v.s. in hb. variis ¢, Amazonas (Spruce) ;

in hb. Hook. ¢, Goyaz (Gardner, 2999), Ceara (Gardner,

1445 bis).

46. amazonica, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. variis ¢& 3 , Santarem

(Spruce).

Div. 2. AFRICANA.

* Folia peltata; frutices scandentes.

47. owariensis, Beauv. ;—v. s. in hb. Mus. Brit. ¢, Cape

Coast (Brass); in hb. Lindley. 9, Owaree (Beauv.); in

hb. Hook. ? , Niger (Baxter, 3345), Lagos (Baxter, 20156),

Fernando Po (Mann, 180).

48, insolita, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook. g, Corisco Bay

(Mann, 1870).

49. hirta, nob. ;—v.s. in hb. Mus. Brit. ¢ & 9, Congo

(C. Smith).

*k Folia subpeltata; frutices scandentes.

50.

zawrensis, nob. ;—v. s.in hb. Mus. Brit. ¢& 2? , Congo

(C. Smith).

51 madagascariensis, nob. ;—v.s. in hb. Mus. Brit., Ma-

dagascar (Thompson); in hb. DC. ¢, Bourbon (ex. hb.

Linn. fil.) ; in hb. Boiss., Bourbon (e Mus. Paris.) ; in hb.

Hook. ¢ & 2, Madagascar (Blackburn).

59 Bojertana, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Lindl. @, Mauritius

ex hb. Lambert.) ; in hb. Hook. ¢, Mauritius (Bouton).

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacce. 137

58. Cissampelos mucronata, A. Rich. ;—C. apiculata, Hochst. ;—

C. Vogelii, nob. ;—C. comata, nob. ;—C. cordifolia, Bojer ;

—yv.s. in hb. Mus. Brit. Hook. et Lindley., ¢ & 2, Fazokel,

Abyssinia (Kotschky, 504) ; in hb. Hook., Walo, Senegambia

(Heudelot); g¢& 9%, Attah and Dagore (Vogel), Shupanga,

Zambesi (Kirk), Riv. Luabo (Kirk) ; in hb. Lindl. g, Natal

(Gueinsius, 165); in hb. Mus. Brit. et Hook. ¢, Natal

(Krauss, 252); ¢& 2, Mauritius (Wallich).

nephrophylla, Bo}. ;—v.s. in hb. Hook. g, Madagascar

(Bojer) ; ?, Madagascar (Lyall, 89), Senegal (Romer).

5A.

** Folia palata aut obsolete subpeltata ; frutices scandentes

aut subproni ramosi, ramis rarius erectis.

55.

tamnifolia, nob. ;—v.s. in hb. Lindl. g¢, Delagoa Bay

(Forbes, 11).

torulosa, K. Mey.;—Menispermum capense, Linn. ;—

v. s. in hb. Hook. g, Uitenhage (Harvey, 679), Adow,

Algoa Bay, Brit. Caffraria (Cooper, 120), Natal (Saunder-

son, 393), Norambello, lat. 14° 19! (Kirk), Krysna (Bowie),

D’ Urban (Macken, 644); 9, Katrivier, Cafferland (Drége).

capensis, Thunb. ;—C. fruticosa, Thunb. ;—C. humilis,

Poiret ;—v.s. in hb, variis ¢&¢. In colonia Capensi.

56.

57.

Div. 3. ASIATICA.

* Folia peltata; frutices scandentes.

58. diversa, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook. ?, Khasya (Hook.

& Th.).

59. elata, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. DC., Nepal (Wallich) ; in

hb. Mus. Brit., ims. Honimon (Smith); in hb. Hook. 3g,

Nepal (Wallich); ¢, Simla (Dalhousie); Buschir, Sutlej

(Jacquemont, 1093); ¢, Soane River (Burelli); g, Gur-

wahl (Falconer, 90).

grallatoria, nob. ;—v. s. m hb. Soe. Linn. g & 9,

Goyalpoor (Wall. Cat. 4979 B,a; 4977 A,b); G&9, Se-

gain, Prome (Wall. Cat. 4977G); in hb. DC. g&9,

Prome (Wallich, 1291, in parte) ; in hb. Lemann. ¢ & 9,

Bhootan (Griffiths, 17830); 9, Himalaya (Griffiths) ; in hb.

Hook. ¢& 2, Khasya (Hook. & Th.); 9, Punjab; 9, Sik-

him (Hook. & Th.); 9, Bengal (Griffiths); ¢, Assam

(Griffiths).

Cumingiana, nob.;—in hb. variis ¢& ¢?, ins. Philipp.

(Cuming, 691); ¢, ins. Malay. (Cuming, 1613).

hirsuta, Buchan. ;—v.s. in hb. Mus. Brit. ¢, Sembu,

Nepal (Buchanan) ; in hb. Mus. Brit. et Lindl. 9, Neil-

60.

61.

62.

138 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermaceze.

gherry (Hook. & Th.); in hb. Hook. 2, Almora, Kumaon

(Stach. & Wint.); in hb. meo ?, Coimbatore (Gardner).

63. Cissampelos discolor, DC. ;—C. cardiophylla, A. Gray ;—-v. s.

; in hb. Mus. Brit. et alior. ¢, ins. Philipp. (Cuming, 1440) ;

3S, Moulmein (Wallich, 1291, in parte).

eriantha, nob.;—v. s. in hb. Lindl., Ind. Penins.

(Wight, 39); in hb. Soc. Linn. ¢, Kumaon (Wall. Cat.

4979 G, a, 4977 C); in hb. Hook. g, Jainia, Himalaya

(Hook. & Th.); in hb. Mus. Brit., Punjab (Hook. & Th.).

obtecta, Wall.;—v. s. in hb. Soc. Linn. g , Nepal (Wall.

Cat. 4981 A, non B,C; id. 4980 A,c); 9 (id. 4979G, d);

2, Ladak, Moorcroft (Wall. Cat. 4979 D); in hb. Mus.

Brit. ¢, Nepal (Wallich).

convolvulacea, Willd. ;—C. tetrandra, Roxvb.;—C. mau-

ritiana, Wall. (non Thouars) ;—C. pareiroides, DC. ;—C.

septemnervis, Wall.;—v.s. in hb. Soc. Linn. @, Ind. or.

(Wall. Cat. 4979 B, a; id. 4979 D, 6); 9? cult. Calcutta

(id. 4979), Dendygal (id. 4979 et 4979 B, b), Ragmohl

(id. 4979 H), Mungyar (id. 4979 J, in parte) ; in hb. Mus.

Brit. 9, Cale. cult. (Wallich), Ind. or. (K6nig), Fort

Victoria (Hove), Ind. or. (Wight, 39); in hb. Hook. plu-

rima e variis locis.

subpeltata, Thwaites ;—v. s. in hb. Mus. Brit., Ind. or.

(Soc. Fratr.); 9, Kandy (Konig, 146); in hb. Mus. Brit. et

Hook. ¢& 2, Ceylon (Thwaites, 168); ¢@& 9, ib. (Thw.

169) ; in hb. Hook. ¢, Ceylon (Gardner, 34); 9, Ceylon

(Walker); in hb. Lindl., Kandy (Macrae, 113) ; m hb. DC.

3, Cotallam (Leschenault) ; in hb. Soc. Linn., Mungyar

(Wall. Cat. 4979 J, in parte).

64.

65.

66.

67.

** Folia palata aut vix subpeltata; frutices scandentes.

orbiculata, DC. ;—C. Caiipéba, Roxb. (non Willd.) ;—

C. convolvulacea, Wall. in parte (non Willd.) ;—Coceu-

lus orbiculatus, DC. ;—Batta Valle, Rheede ;—v.s. in hb.

Soc. Linn. ¢ & 9, Sylhet (Wall. Cat. 4979), Dendygal

(id. 4979 A, a; id. 4979 B); ¢, Madras (id. 4979 F) ;s

?, Nepal (id. 4977 G 6,1), Nepal (id. 4981 A, d), Syl-

het (id. 4981 B), Oude (id. 4981 C) ; in hb. Lindley.,

Moulmein; in hb. Hook., Madras (Hunter), Punjab

(Hook. & Th.); 9, Assam (Griffiths, 569), Rangoon

(M‘Clelland).

delicatula, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook. ¢ & 3, Kurg

(Madras Coll. 60); @, Ind. or. (sub Clypea Wightii,

No. 37); in hb. Soc. Linn. ¢, Hatowdah, Nepal (Wall.

Cat. 4981 A, d); in hb. Heward., Ceylon.

(To be continued. J

68.

69.

M. F. Plateau on the Muscular Force of Insects. 139

XVI.—On the Muscular Force of Insects.

By Fexix Piateau*.

Tue measurement of the strength of invertebrate animals, and

especially of Insects, appears never to have been the object

of any investigations ; and yet, as will be seen hereafter, how

much does this strength, compared with the weight of the

animal, exceed that of Man and the Mammalia. Here and there

only, in the writings of some authors, we find indications which

prove that this extraordinary strength has not completely

escaped observation. In this respect I shall cite two sentences

of Phny. In the first place, speaking of insects im general, he

says, “In his tam parvis atque tam nullis, que ratio, quanta

vis, quam inextricabilis perfectio!” and again, with regard to

the ants, “ac si quis comparet onera corporibus earum, fateatur

nullis, portione vires esse majores.” Lastly, I find the follow-

ing passage in one of Sir Walter Scott’s novels (Peveril of the

Peak, chap. xxxv.) :—“ Hence the smallest creatures are fre-

quently the strongest. Place a beetle under a tall candlestick,

and the insect will move it by its efforts to get out ; which is,

in point of comparative strength, as if one of us should shake

his Majesty’s prison of Newgate by similar struggles.”

What, relatively to the weight of the animal, is the muscular

force in different species of insects ? how many grammes, on an

average, can one of these species move by traction, or pushing,

or during flight ? and is this force subject to any law? Such

are the various questions that I have sought to solve by expe-

riments, which are certainly very simple, but the results of

which cannot but be interesting when compared with those

furnished by researches of the same kind made upon the human

subject and the horse.

Before proceeding further, I will sum up in a few words the

processes which I have employed. I ascertained the force of

traction by making an insect draw horizontally a thread pass-

ing over a pulley and having at its other extremity a pan con-

taining weights, which are increased up to the maximum that

the insect can move.

Pushing is effected by burrowing insects on one of the extre-

mities of a horizontal lever moving upon a vertical axis, the

other extremity of which raises weights by means of a thread

passing over a pulley as in the preceding case.

Lastly, the force developed in flight is measured by attach-

ing to the two posterior legs of the msect a small mass of wax,

* Bullet. de Acad. de Belgique, 2me sér. tom. xx. Communicated by

the author.

140 M.F. Plateau on the Muscular Force of Insects.

which is at first too large for it to move, and is then dimi-

nished until the insect can barely support it m the air by the

movement of its wings.

In these three kinds of experiments the muscular force of

a species is represented by the relation between the mean maxi-

mum weight moved individually by a certain number of insects

of the species in question and the mean weight of the insects.

The deductions which I draw from the results taken in their

totality are as follows :—

1. Leaving flight out of consideration, insects have, relatively to

their weight, an enormous strength in comparison with Verte-

brata. Thus, from experiments made with draught-horses,

these animals, the average weight of which is about 600 kilo-

grammes, can only exert for a few moments a force of traction

equivalent to 400 kilogrammes, that is to say, two-thirds of

their own weight; but I have found that the common Cock-

chafer (Melolontha vulgaris) and Donacia nymphee exert a force

equal respectively to fourteen times and forty-two times their

own weight.

The pushing led to analogous results; but, in general, the

weights raised by insects during flight are much less, which

might be expected, as these little animals have never to trans-

port considerable burdens through the air, as is done especially

by the Rapacious Birds*.

2. The weight of insects and the ratios representing their mus-

cular force are connected by what appears to be a general law,

at least according to the numerous experiments that I have made.

The following is the law, which is clearly manifested both in

the case of flight, and in those of traction and pushing :—Jf in

the same group (family or tribe) of insects we examine two species

which differ considerably in weight, the smallest and lightest will

exhibit the greatest force ; in other words, in the same group the

force, always measured by the relation of the weight moved

to that of the animal, varies from species to species in an in-

verse ratio to the latter weight.

In connexion with this I will give a few examples taken from

the tables of my memoir. These tables contain for each spe-

cies, besides the mean ratios expressing the force of that

species, the maximum of the isolated ratios furnished by the

different individuals experimented on; and the law is manifested

therein, not only in the mean ratios, but also in the individual

maximum just mentioned,

[* M. Plateau seems here to have forgotten the Sand-Wasps, many of

which carry caterpillars of comparatively large size to their burrows.—

W.S. Do]

Rev. A. Matthews on Species of Trichopterygide. 141

Mean Mean Mean _ | Individual

weights of} weights | ).j:,, | maximum

species. moved, eee ratios.

ae | Pees Se ee |

TRACTION.

Melolontha vulgaris ....| 0°940 gr. | 15-456 er. 14:3 232

Anomala Frischii ...... Oba: 452 |ov2l 24:3 66-4

PUSHING.

Oryctes nasicornis ...... 2-117 gr. | 6°702 er. 3-2 4-2

Geotrupes stercorarius ..| 0°492 ,, 8-298 ,, 16-9 28°4

Onthophagus nuchicornis 0:056 ,, | 4457 ,, 796 92:9

FLIGHT.

Bombus terrestris ...... 0:214 er, | 0:154 gr. 0:63 0.87

| Apis INGUIAER isle cinie vss 0:083: ,5|..0:066.<;, 0-78 | 1:00

The comparative examination of the locomotive limbs in most

of the species experimented on has shown me that the volume

of the muscles of these organs appears in general to decrease

more rapidly in proportion than the weight; it seems, there-

fore, that we must attribute the greater strength of the small

species to a greater muscular activity or energy. The reason

of this difference in favour of insects of small size is, perhaps,

beside all anatomical or physiological considerations: thus the

hardness of the ground in the case of burrowing insects, the

objects which impede their progress in simple locomotion, and

the inertia of the air in flight, form resistances to be overcome

which are the same for the large and small species; now to

avoid giving a useless excess of force to the former, or fatally

depriving the latter, nature must endow the smaller species with

a greater muscular energy. Considerations of the same kind

may, in my opinion, be applied to the first of the principal

facts deduced from my investigations, namely the enormous

strength of insects in comparison with vertebrate animals ; for if

the reasoning appears just when applied to two insects of dif-

ferent sizes and weights, it must be admitted, I think, with

still more reason, when an insect is compared with a mammal.

XVII.— Descriptions of several Species of Trichopterygidee found

by Dr. H. Schaum in various parts of North America and

Brazil. By the Rev. A. Matruews.

[Plate V.]

Tue insects described in the following pages were collected in

various parts of North America and in Brazil by Dr. Schaum, of

Berlin, to whose kindness I am indebted both for the privilege

of thus introducing them to the notice of entomologists, and

142 ‘Rev. A. Matthews on Species of Trichopterygide

also for his liberal donation cf examples of every species, in-

cluding even those of which but one specimen has yet been

found.

In investigating the nomenclature of these insects I have been

much impeded by the difficulty of obtaiming reference to a paper

published by Mr. Haldeman in the ‘Journal of the Natural

History Society of Philadelphia,’ in which he has described six

American species of this family. After searching in vain for

this publication m the Library of the British Museum, and in

other places both in this country and on the Continent, I met

with it at last, threugh the kind assistance of Dr. Power, in the

University Library at Cambridge.

All the species described by Mr. Haldeman appear to be re-

presented among the captures of Dr. Schaum. But I regret to

say that his descriptions are so extremely vague that I much

doubt whether some of the references which I have made are

really correct. If they are correct, it becomes necessary to alter

two of Mr. Haldeman’s names, viz. T. rotundata and T. fusci-

pennis, since the former of these was previously used by M. von

Motschulsky for another species of the same genus described by

him in the ‘ Bulletin de la Soc. Imp. de Moscon, in 1845, and

the latter (7. fuscipennis) by Gillmeister, also in 1845, in Sturm’s

‘Deutschlands Fauna,’ to designate what he supposed to be a

variety of 7. atomaria. For the sake of avoiding confusion, I

have therefore substituted other names for these two species.

The first I have called 7. glabricollis, as indicative of a specific

difference ; and to the other I have assigned the name of cursi-

tans, used by M. Nietner for a species of Trichopteryx taken in

Ceylon, and described in these ‘ Annals’ for 1856. With this

description, and also with types received from M. Nietner,

Dr. Schaum’s insects agree in every particular. The same re-

mark is equally true with regard to Ptenidiwm macrocephalum,

another species found by M. Nietner in Ceylon, and also by

Dr. Schaum in America. Of the remaining four described by

Mr. Haldeman, 7. discolor and T. aspera appear to be distinct

and well-marked species; 7. abrupta seems to be identical with

T. fascicularis, Herbst ; and Ptenidium terminale, according to

his description, agrees in every point with P. apicale, Erichson.

Three of the species taken by Dr. Schaum are new and un-

described, all of them distinct and very interesting, especially

the one which I have called 7. Schaumz in honour of its captor;

this insect bears a considerable resemblance to the curious Asta-

topteryx laticollis of M. Perris in the excessive development of

its thorax. The other seven approach so closely to Kuropean

forms already well known, that I have assigned to them the

names now in use. Although some of these differ slightly from

from North America and Brazil. 143

the European type in size or intensity of colour, yet I do not

consider the difference sufficient to justify their separation,

especially since the superficial sculpture (so important in deter-

mining the species of this family) remains the same.

Trichopteryx Schaumii, n.sp. Pl. V. fig. 1.

T. rufo-castanea, nitidissima, convexa, pilis brevibus sparse vestita,

tuberculis nullis; pronoto validissime dilato ; elytris brevibus,

valde attenuatis; abdomine elongato. Long. corp. 3 lin.

Caput modicum, sat elongatum, leviter remoteque punctatum,

nitidissimum, palpis atque antennis flavis, his ad apices fusces-

centibus.

Pronotum validissime dilatatum, elytris permulto latius ; angulis

anticis productis, acutis; margine posteriore arcuatao, angulis

latis, valde elongatis, partem quartam elytrorum amplexis ; ni-

tidissimum, punctis minutis, longe segregatis notatum, margini-

bus lateralibus atque angulis posticis dilutiortbus.

Scutellum magnum, triangulare, elongatum, fortiter punctatum, aut

potius asperatum.

Elytra brevia, validissime attenuata, fortius ac seriatim punctata

vel asperata, apicibus rectis; lete rufo-castanea, ad suturam

dilutiora.

Abdomen elongatum, valde attenuatum, segmentis sex apertis, mo-

dice punctatum.

Pedes \zte flavi.

Subtus castanea; ore, coxis atque segmentis ultimis abdominis

flavis.

Habitat Americam septentrionalem, exemplo unico in Louisiana

capto.

Species preeclara, distinctissima, ab omnibus facillime cognita.

Trichopteryx glabricollis, Matthews. PI. V. fig. 2.

Trichopteryx rotundata, Haldeman.

T. nigra, nitida, elytris rufo-piceis, brevis, lata, valde convexa, tu-

berculis nullis, pilis pallidis sparse vestita. Long. corp. vix

2 lin.

Caput magnum, latum, indistincte leviter punctatum, nigrum; an-

tennis pallide flavis, ad apices fuscescentibus.

Pronotum latum, quam convexissinum, levissime punctatum, pos-

tice sat dilatatum, angulis valde productis elytrorum humeros

tenaciter amplexis ; nigrum, angulis posticis piceis.

Scutellum magnum, triangulare, nigrum, profunde asperatum.

Elytra brevia, quadrata, fortius asperata, rufo-picea, sutura dilutiore.

Abdomen \ongius exsertum, rufo-piceum.

Pedes pallide flavi.

Subtus castanea; ore, coxis atque apice abdominis flavis.

Habitat Americam septentrionalem, in provincia New York capta.

Heec species forma rotundata, convexissima differt ab omnibus

144 Rev. A. Matthews on Species of Trichopterygide

hujusce generis nisi 7’. Matthewsii, Wollaston (Cat. Col. Can. p. 103),

ab hac facile potest distingui antennis multo brevioribus, atque capite

et pronoto glabris, nitidis, dum partes edem alterius tuberculis ele-

vatis atque lineis reticulatis ornate sint.

Nomen “rotundata”’ in hoe genere prius usitatum fuit a D.

Motschulsky, Bull. Moscou, 1845.

Trichopteryx cursitans, Nietner. PI. V. fig. 3.

Trichopteryx fuscipennis, Haldeman.

T. sat convexa, nigra, nitida, elytris rufo-fuscis, tuberculis parvis,

fere seriatim dispositis, interstitiisque alutaceis obtecta, pube

densa valde sericea per totum corpus vestita. Long. corp.

3-1 lin.

Caput breve, latum ; antennis modicis, testaceis, ad apices fusces-

centibus.

Pronotum ad modum 7’. atomarie dilatatum, margine posteriore

sinuato, angulis sat productis elytrorum humeros amplexis,

disco plus minusve denudato; nigrum, angulis posticis late

testaceis.

Scutellum modicum, triangulare.

Elytra pronoto angustiora, leviter confertissime asperata, sat de-

pressa, parum attenuata, apicibus parum rotundatis; rufo-fusca,

lateribus atque sutura in nonnullis nigrescentibus.

Abdomen nigrum, sat exsertum.

Pedes testacei.

Subtus picea ; ore, coxis, metasterno, atque apice abdominis flavis.

Habitat Americam septentrionalem, in provincia New York capta.

Obs. In loco “fuscipennis,”’? seepe a D. Motschulsky atque aliis

usitatee, nomen “ cursitans’’ adhibendum censeo.

Trichopteryx crassicollis, n. sp. Pl. V. fig. 4.

T. nigra, oblonga, convexior, tuberculis sat magnis ornata, inter-

stitiis rugosis, pilis brevibus fulvis vestita. Long. corp. 3 lin.

Caput magnum, prominulum ; antennis leete flavis.

Pronotum \atum, convyexissimum, vix postice dilatatum, lateribus

valde rotundatis, tuberculis sat magnis fere transverse seriatim

dispositis ornatum; margine posteriore depresso, leviter mar-

ginato, sinuato, angulis parum productis.

Scutellum magnum, triangulare, fortiter asperatum.

Elytra oblonga, haud postice attenuata; piceo-nigra, apicibus dilu-

tioribus, fere rectis.

Abdomen sat exsertum.

Pedes l\ete flavi.

Subtus nigra; ore, coxis atque apicibus metasterni et abdominis

flavis.

Habitat Americam septentrionalem, in Louisiana exemplo unico

capto.

Differt a 7. grandicolli forma oblonga, setis erectis nullis, elytris

longioribus, atque colore obscuro-nigro.

from North America and Brazil. 145

Trichopteryx fascicularis, Herbst. Pl. V. fig. 5.

Trichopteryx intermedia, Gill. T. abrupta, Haldeman ?

7’, nigra, sat lata, pilis brevibus pallidis vestita, tuberculis elevatis

interstitiisque alutaceis ornata. Long. corp. 3? lin.

Caput sat breve, latum, parvum ; antennis flavis, ad apices fusces-

centibus.

Pronotum postice dilatatum, lateribus parum rotundatis, tuberculis

parvis, interstitiis profunde alutaceis, ornatum ; margine pos-

teriore sinuato, angulis valde productis, elytroruam humeros

tenaciter amplexis.

Scutellum magnum, triangulare, asperatum.

Elytra subquadrata, in maribus parum attenuata, alutacea, con-

fertim asperata, apicibus aliquantum rotundatis, anguste pallidis.

Abdomen parum exsertum.

Pedes \eete flavi.

Subtus nigra, alutacea, coxis piceo-testaceis.

Habitat Americam septentrionalem.

Hance speciem sub nomine 7’. abrupta a D. Haldeman descriptam

esse opinor, sed e descriptione tam curta et imperfecta quomodo

adjudicare haud sciam. Certum est, quod descriptio illius ad 7. fas-

cicularem omnino referre videtur.

Trichopteryx discolor, Haldeman. . PI. V. fig. 6.

T. nigra, haud nitida, elytris pallide testaceis, depressa, subparallela,

tuberculis sat magnis, aliquantum remotis ornata, interstitiis

profunde alutaceis, pilis quam brevissimis vestita; pronoto

minime dilatato. Long. corp. 2—+ lin.

Caput magnum, latum ; antennis longioribus, pallidis, ad apices

fuscescentibus.

Pronotum ad basin parum dilatatum, lateribus valde deflexis, an-

gulis posticis productis ; nigrum, angulis posticis dilutioribus.

Scuéellum magnum, triangulare, nigrum.

Elytra depressa, oblonga, testacea, lateribus atque angulis apicali-

bus externis plus minusve nigrescentibus.

Abdomen nigro-piceum, sat exsertum.

Pedes pallide testacei.

Subtus picea, ore et coxis testaceis.

Habitat Brasilias.

Trichopteryx sericans, Heer. PI. V. fig. 7.

T. nigra, haud nitida, oblonga, aliquantum depressa, pilis fulvis ves-

tita, tuberculis elevatis, interstitiis profunde alutaceis, ornata.

Long. corp. 2-3 lin.

Caput modicum ; oculis vix prominentibus ; antennis piceis.

Pronotum postice latius, margine posteriore leviter sinuato, levissime

reflexo, angulis aliquantum productis.

Scutellum magnum, triangulare, asperatum.

Elytra quadrata, sat depressa, capite atque pronoto parum longiora,

Amn. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xvii. 10

146 Rey. A. Matthews on Species of Trichopterygide

confertim asperata, obscure nigra, apicibus dilutioribus, fere

rectis.

Abdomen parum exsertum, nigrum.

Pedes \ete flavi.

Subtus nigro-picea.

Habitat Americam septentrionalem.

Exempla Europea antennas fere nigras habent, sed ab illis insecta

prope lacum Superiorem capta haud aliter differunt.

Trichopteryx Montandonii, Allibert. Pl. V. fig. 8.

Trichopteryx similis, Gillmeister.

T. nigra, nitida, convexa, oblonga, sparse et levissime tuberculata,

interstitiis alutaceis, pilis griseis vestita. Long. corp. 3 lin.

Caput magnum, latum; oculis sat magnis, haud prominentibus ;

palpis atque antennis flavis, his ad apices fuscescentibus.

Pronotum parum postice latius, valde convexum ; margine posteriore

sinuato, levissime marginato, angulis sat productis.

Scutellum magnum, triangulare, sat profunde asperatum.

Elytra oblonga, capite atque pronoto parum longiora, multo pro-

fundius ac distincte seriatim asperata, piceo-nigra, ad suturam

dilutiora, apicibus summis albidis, parum rotundatis.

Abdomen sat exsertum.

Pedes flavi.

Subtus nigra, coxis flavis.

Habitat Brasilias, exemplo unico capto.

Trichopteryx ambigua, Matthews, Ent. Mag. 1865.

BIV aie:

T. fusca, convexa, latior, tuberculis distinctis interstitiisque pro-

funde alutaceis ornata, pilis longioribus pallidis vestita; pedi-

bus atque antennis robustis. Long. corp. @ lin.

Caput magnum, breve, latum ; oculis modicis, haud prominentibus ;

antennis nigro-piceis.

Pronotum haud postice dilatatum, lateribus aliquantum rotundatis;

margine posteriore leviter sinuato, leviter marginato, angulis

minime productis; in maribus ad basin aliquantum con-

tractum.

Scutellum magnum, triangulare, confertim asperatum.

Elytra quadrata, haud postice attenuata, confertim asperata, aut

potius tuberculata, interstitiis distincte alutaceis ; apicibus mi-

nime rotundatis.

Abdomen sat exsertum.

Pedes quam robustissimi, leete flavi, femoribus obscuratis.

Subtus fusca, coxis flavis.

Habitat Americam septentrionalem, exemplis multis in provincia

New York captis.

Hee species cum multis aliis sub nomine 7’. pumila comprehendi

from North America and Brazil. 147

videtur: quamquam D, Erichson ait, quod 7. pumila tarsos anticos

dilatatos habet, atque D. Gillmeister 7. simili eam comparat, nihilo-

minus exempla hujusce speciei cum 7’. simili aliisque nonnullis in

una, 7’. pumila, seepissime miscentur.

Trichopteryx aspera, Haldeman. PI. V. fig. 10.

T. nigra, obscura, pilis brevibus griseis vestita, tuberculis sat ele-

vatis dense obtecta, interstitiis fortissime alutaceis. Long. corp.

—2 lin.

Caput breve, latissimum, latitudini pronoti fere squale; oculis

magnis, prominulis ; antennis nigro-piceis.

Pronotum transversum, postice parum dilatatum, lateribus sat

rotundatis, confertim tuberculatum, tuberculis oblique seriatim

dispositis ; margine posteriore leviter sinuato, angulis vix pro-

ductis.

Scutellum modicum, triangulare, fortissime asperatum.

Elytra longiora, postice parum dilatata, transverse seriatim confer-

tissime asperata, apicibus extremis albidis, parum rotundatis.

Abdomen longius exsertum.

Pedes flavi.

Subtus nigro-picea ; ore, coxis atque apice abdominis dilutioribus.

Habitat Americam septentrionalem, in provincia New York non-

nullis captis.

Differt ab omnibus magnitudine minore ac forma singulari pronoti

atque etiam sculptura rugosa corporis.

Hee insecta ad T. asperam, Haldeman, referenda rugosum corpus

indicat, sed descriptio ejus adeo imperfecta est, quod nescio, annon

ad eam re vera pertineant.

Micrus filicornis, Fairmaire. PI. V. fig. 11.

M. nigro-piceus, angustus, elongatus, tuberculis parvis confertim

obtectus, pilis longioribus albidis vestitus. Long. corp. 3—} lin.

Caput magnum, pronoti latitudini fere zequale ; “antennis flavis,

elongatis.

Pronotum antice dilatatum, pone medium contractum, ad basin

iterum parum dilatatum, lateribus ac basi leviter marginatis ;

margine anteriore et posteriore fere rectis, angulis anticis obtusis,

posticis acutis.

Scutellum parvum, triangulare, asperatum.

Elytra longiora, lateribus subparallelis, truncata, apicibus minime

rotundatis, margine summo albido, transverso ordine leviter

confertimque asperata, capite et pronoto parum dilutiora.

Abdomen elongatum, valde obtusum.

Pedes \ongiores, leete flavi.

Subtus piceo-niger ; ore, coxis atque apice abdominis dilutioribus,

femoribus obscuratis.

Habitat Americam septentrionalem, etiam in Brasiliis captus.

Rarissima in Europa, in America communis species videtur.

10*

148 Rev. A. Matthews on Species of Trichopterygide

Nephanes leviusculus, n. sp. Pl. V. fig. 12.

N. fusco-castaneus, nitidus, in capite ac pronoto annulis minutis,

distinctis, umbilicatis, seriatim ornatus, pilis albidis vestitus.

Long. corp. 33; lin.

Caput magnum, longitudini et latitudini pronoti fere eequale ; oculis

magnis, prominentibus ; antennis piceis, ad basin flavis, arti-

culo ultimo elongato-acuminato.

Pronotum transversum, lateribus minime rotundatis ; margine pos-

teriore recto, angulis obtusis.

Scutellum modicum, triangulare, leviter asperatum.

Elytra \ongitudini capitis atque pronoti fere equalia, profundius

asperata, ad apices dilatata, apicibus sat rectis, angulis externis

obtusis.

Abdomen sat exsertum, castaneum.

Pedes flavi.

Subtus pallide castaneus.

Habitat Americam septentrionalem, in Louisiana exemplo unico

capto.

Differt a N. abbreviatello magnitudine majore, sculptura eximia,

pronoto minus rotundato, elytris multo longioribus, atque articulo

ultimo antennarum elongato acuminato.

Ptilium Bollani, Mannerhem. PI. V. fig. 13.

Ptenidium Canadense, Le Conte.

P. oblongum, nigrum, haud nitidum, alte confertimque verrucatum

sive tuberculatum, pilis albidis vestitum. Long. corp. vix

+3; lin.

Caput magnum, fronte rotundata; ore sat producto ; oculis magnis,

prominentibus ; antennis piceo-nigris.

Pronotum transversum, vix capite longius, parum postice latius,

lateribus parum rotundatis ; margine posteriore sinuato, angulis

obtusis.

Scutellum sat magnum, triangulare, profunde verrucatum.

Elytra ovata, pronoto vix latiora, capite atque pronoto sesqui lon-

giora, profunde verrucata, apicibus summis obtusis, aliquantum

dilutioribus.

Abdomen haud exsertum.

Pedes fusco-testacel.

Subtus nigrum, ore testaceo.

Habitat Americam septentrionalem, prope lacum Superiorem

captum.

Ptenidium macrocephalum, Nietner. PI. V. fig. 14.

P. lete castaneum, valde convexum, nitidissimum, foveis quatuor

ingentibus ad basin pronoti profundissime impressum. Long.

corp. 3 lin.

Caput magnum, latum, punctura sat parva prope oculos utrinque

impressum ; antennis flavis, clava fuscescente ; oculis sat magnis.

Pronotum longitudini et latitudini capitis fere zequale, ante medium

from North America and Brazil. 149

latissimum, lateribus rotundatis, fortiter marginatis, angulis

posticis ferme rectis; foveis quatuor ad basin valde profundis,

latissimis, rotundatis, inter se atque latera pari modo distan-

tibus, atque alia profunda difformi utrinque ad angulum posti-

cum, atque etiam punctis duobus minoribus ad medium marginis

anterioris impressum ; disco nitidissimo.

Scutellum modicum, triangulare, apice producto, acuto.

Elytra ovata, brevia, ante medium latissima, sat lata, apicibus an-

gustioribus, acutis, alte marginata, leviter remoteque punctata,

pilis brevibus sparse vestita, capite et pronoto dilutiora.

Pedes \ete flavi, tibiis parum dilatatis.

Subtus piceum ; ore, coxis atque segmentis ultimis abdominis flavis.

Habitat Americam septentrionalem, in provincia New York captum.

Hee species pulcherrima, foveis ingentibus pronoti, atque lateribus

marginatis facillime cognosci potest.

Ptenidium apicale, Erichson. PI. V. fig. 15.

Ptenidium terminale, Haldeman ?

P. nigrum, convexum, nitidissimum, sparse punctatum, pilis rariori-

bus indutum, elytrorum apicibus late rufo-piceis. Long. corp.

3 lin.

Caput magnum, latitudini pronoti fere equale ; oculis sat parvis,

prominulis ; antennis lete flavis, ad apices paulum fuscescen-

tibus.

Pronotum pone medium latissimum, lateribus rotundatis ; margine

posteriore recto, angulis obtusis, impressione indistincta trans-

versa ad angulos posticos.

Scutellum modicum, triangulare.

Elytra capite atque pronoto fere duplo longiora, atque etiam pro-

fundius punctata, punctis in striis dispositis; medio dilatata,

apicibus obtusis, rufo-piceis.

Pedes \eete flavi.

Subtus nigrum, ore et coxis testaceis.

Habitat Americam septentrionalem, prope Baltimore captum.

Videtur mihi, quod P. ¢terminale, Hald., ad hance speciem referri

debeat.

P.S.—Since this paper has been in the hands of the printer,

entomology has lost one of its brightest ornaments by the death

of my lamented friend Dr. Schaum. It may be long before the

gap which his masterly intellect has left in the literature of our

favourite science can be repaired; it must be long before ento-

mologists can forget the energetic leader and kind friend to

whose memory I now humbly offer this short testimony of my

regard.

150 Mr. J. Gould on a Japanese Pheasant.

XVIII.—Notice of a Japanese Pheasant.

By Joun Govup, Esq., F.R.S. &e.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

Like other little-explored countries, the distant island of

Japan now and then affords the ornithologist an opportunity

of describing a new species pertaining to his favourite science ;

and that it will continue to do so for some time to come is, I

think, more than probable. With this brief remark I beg to

record in your ‘ Annals’ a short notice of a bird which I think

may hereafter be regarded as an additional species of the family

Phasianidee.

In affinity it is very closely related to the P. Semmeringi

(Graphophasianus Semmeringiit of Reichenbach and Bonaparte :

see the latter’s “Tableaux paralléliques de l’ Ordre des Gallinacés,”

in the ‘Comptes rendus de |’Académie des Sciences’ for 1856),

is of the same size and form, but is far more beautiful than

any of the examples of that species I have seen. The dif-

ferences, which are very striking, consist in the feathers of

the back, rump, and upper tail-coverts being broadly margined

with white, while the brilliant crimson which occupies the

centre of the tip is far more fiery; in the flank feathers and

greater wing-coverts being bordered with greyish white, in

the ground-colour of the tail being cinnamon-brown, and the

narrow bars, which are deep buff in P. Semmeringii, being

greyish white and communicating a very marked appearance

to the tail when spread. Some specimens are of the same size

as P. Semmeringii, while others are rather smaller. That the

peculiar features I have pointed out are not due to age, there

can be no doubt; for I have examples of both birds which have

long spurs—an evidence of their being mature.

If this bird should prove to be a new species, 1 would pro-

pose for it the name of Phasianus (Graphophasianus) seintillans ;

if it should not, a notice of its remarkable differential features

is worthy of record in the ‘ Annals.’

I beg to remain,

Gentlemen,

Yours faithfully,

Joun GouLp.

26 Charlotte St., Bedford Square, W.C.

Jan. 24, 1866.

151

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

The Natural History of the Tineina. By H. T. Stainton.

Vols. VIII. and IX. 8vo. London: Van Voorst, 1864-1865.

We have already repeatedly had occasion to notice, in terms of high

praise, the appearance of the previous volumes of this excellent work;

and we can hardly say more in favour of the two volumes which have

appeared in the last two years, than that in every respect they main-

tain the reputation gained by their predecessors. As he approaches

the end of the first stage of his journey (his first series of ten volumes),

Mr. Stainton continues to devote to his task an unflagging zeal and in-

dustry which prove it to be to him a labour of love; and although,

from the vastness of the design, we hardly dare hope that the au-

thor’s energies will last long enough to enable him to complete the

‘Natural History of the Tineina’ on its present scale, every fresh

volume that he issues will form one stone the more towards the con-

struction of a monument which will preserve and adorn his memory

for many years. And although we trust it may be long before his

friends will need to be reminded by such a monument of his life and

labours, we cannot but hope that the consideration thrown out above

may at least serve as some inducement to him to persevere in the pub-

lication of the present work, each new volume of which (notwith-

standing certain defects in its arrangement to which we have already

more than once called attention) cannot but be received with pleasure

by every entomologist. Independently of the exquisite beauty of

the illustrations, it is no small gratification, in these days of slovenly

work, to have to do with an author who honestly endeavours to tell

us all about his subject, or at least to make his history of each object

that comes under his treatment as complete as the existing state of

knowledge will permit.

The first of the two volumes indicated at the head of this article

contains the descriptions and natural history of fifteen species of

Gracilaria and nine species of the allied genus Orniz, which with

Coriscium, the distinctness of which from Gracilaria is doubted by

Mr. Stainton, constitute the subfamily Gracilariide. Of the first-

mentioned genus, Gracilaria, the author gives a list of forty-three

known species, five of which inhabit North America, five have been

brought from the neighbourhood of Calcutta, and three from Moreton

Bay. The remaining thirty are European species ; and of these, fifteen

species are undoubtedly inhabitants of Britain. Of the latter, twelve

are described and figured by Mr. Stainton in the volume before us.

The larvee of those whose transformations are known, twenty-two in

number, feed upon plants belonging to a great variety of natural orders,

among which, however, the Aceraceze, Leguminosze, and Amentiferze

are most conspicuous.

This is singularly in contrast with the state of matters in this re-

spect in the genus Ornix, notwithstanding a close similarity both in

the characters of the insects forming the two genera, and in the general

habits of the larvee. Here, out of twenty-two known species, the

152 Miscellaneous.

larvee of no fewer than seventeen have been discovered; and the food-

plants of these belong exclusively to the two natural orders Rosaceze

and Amentiferze, the former nourishing ten species, and the latter fur-

nishing food for seven or eight. Of the twenty-two species, four are

North American, the remainder are European ; and of these, nine (or,

again, exactly one half) are known to occur in Britain. Hight of the

British species are treated of in the present volume, which thus in-

cludes the natural history of nearly the whole of the native forms of

the two genera.

In his ninth volume Mr. Stainton enters upon the hardest portion

of his task, namely the description of the enormous genus Gelechia,

the most numerous in species of all the Tineina. The number of

British species described by the author in the ‘ Insecta Britannica ’

was no less than ninety-five, and several have since been added to our

native list ; the European and exotic species are also very numerous.

Under these circumstances, and considering the difficulty attendant on

the grouping of sucha multitude of nearly related forms, we can

hardly wonder that Mr. Stainton has postponed his general consi-

derations on Gelechia to his next volume, which, like the one now

before us, will contain twenty-four species of the genus.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Chevreulius callensis of Lacaze-Duthiers.

By JosHua ALDER.

In the ‘Annales des Sciences Naturelles’ for November last, M.

Lacaze-Duthiers has given an interesting account of an Ascidian of

a very peculiar structure, forming, in some respects, a connecting

link between the Tunicata and the Lamellibranchiata. This animal

the distinguished author conceives to be new and unique, and has

therefore constituted for it a new genus under the name of Chev-

reulius. Of the great interest attached to this genus there can be no

doubt ; but M. Lacaze-Duthiers is mistaken in supposing that it is

new to science, as it was described upwards of ten years ago (in Jul

1855), by Professor Stimpson, in the ‘ Proceedings of the Philadelphia

Academy of Sciences,’ under the name of Schizascus, and two species

characterized, which he had met with in the Chinese seas. A

specimen of one of these, 8. papillosus, was kindly sent to me by

that eminent naturalist. It bears a great resemblance to the figures

given by M. Lacaze-Duthiers, differing principally in the papillose or

echinated character of the valvular opening. A species apparently

of the same genus was obtained in the Indian Ocean by Dr. Macdonald,

who has also characterized it as a new genus, under the name of

Peroides. This I only know through a paper of his in the ‘ Trans-

actions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh’ (vol. xxii. p. 176),

where it is stated to have ‘‘two apertures on the same plane, pro-

tected by a D-shaped opercular fold of the test common to both.” It

Miscellaneous. 153

would thus appear that three generic appellations have been given to

this curious genus, that of Professor Stimpson having the precedence.

Naturalists are indebted, however, to M. Lacaze-Duthiers for the

detailed account he has now given of its structure.

On the Extension of certain marine Fishes to the freshwater Rivers

of India.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN.—Dr. Giinther, in reply to my note impugning his

statement regarding the extension of certain genera of marine fishes

to Nepal, states that he has received information that several species

of Therapon are exclusively inhabitants of fresh water. Now, with-

out denying this statement, I must say that it is quite opposed to

my own experience. No doubt some species of Therapon frequent

streams of fresh water near the sea, as well as tidal rivers and back-

waters, as I many years ago pointed out, stating that I had caught

one species of Therapon, with fly, in small streams on the Malabar

coast; but I doubt if any species extends, in non-tidal rivers, more

than a very few miles from the sea.

2. This, however it may be, does not affect my refutation of its ex-

tension to Nepal, which I emphatically deny, as well as that of the

other marine genera of fishes mentioned by Giinther as extending to

Nepal. I have not his paper at hand, but, writing from memory,

aided by a Catalogue of Hodgson’s collections, I believe that, besides

Therapon and Scatophagus, he makes a Serranus, two Diagramma,

Sillago, and Trachinotus all extend to the rivers of Nepal, which, I

need hardly again say, is perfectly erroneous. The only marine genera

that I know which extend beyond the influence of the tides in India

are Coroina, Mugil, and one or two Clupeoid fishes, including the

celebrated Hilsa fish (dlosa tlisha), which, however, does not extend

nearly so far as the mountain-streams of Nepal.

3. With regard to Dr. Gunther’s rejection of my generic name

Pristolepis, because he was unable to recognize it, I can only state

that a much less experienced ichthyologist, Dr. Day, in a copy of his

‘ Fishes of Cochin,’ quite recently received by me, though forwarded

last July, gives a footnote to Catopra malabarica (in manuscript), in

which he states that in his large work with illustrations he shall

give it as his opinion that Pristolepis must be preferred to Catopra.

4. The assumption by any one individual, however learned, to re-

ject a genus or species because he states that he himself finds it im-

possible to recognize it, is certainly not authorized in the rules re-

garding nomenclature laid down in the Proceedings of the British

Association,

I am, Gentlemen,

Yours obediently,

T. C. JERDON,

Camp, Muzuffurnuggur, Surgeon- Major.

December 6, 1865.

154, Miscellaneous.

On the Amphipoda of the Adriatic. By Camit HELLER.

Whilst the Amphipoda of the northern seas, especially those of the

Scandinavian and English coasts, have been treated of in works of de-

tail, this cannot be said of those of the Southern European seas.

The only work which treats the Amphipoda of the Mediterranean

with some completeness is that of A. Costa. But scarcely anything

has been hitherto known of the Amphipoda of the Adriatic. Pro-

fessor Grube was the first to make us acquainted with some forms

occurring at Quarnero. Professor Heller has now directed his par-

ticular attention to this group of animals, and obtained an abundance

of materials during his repeated visits to the Adriatic; and these have

subsequently been increased by specimens sent him from various places.

In this way he has been enabled to obtain a tolerably complete view

of the Amphipodan fauna of the east coast of the Adriatic. In all,

100 species have been observed by Grube and himself—namely,

89 true Amphipoda, and 11 Lemodipoda; whilst, according to

Costa, only 62 species are known from the Mediterranean, and,

according to Bruzelius, only 77 frem the northern seas. This

number, however, forms an unfavourable contrast to the British

Amphipod-fauna, of which Spence Bate cites more than 200 species.

The species observed by the author and characterized in his memoir

are as follows :—

A. AMPHIPODA GENUINA.

I. Orchestide.

Orchestia mediter- Nicea plumosa, x. sp. Nicea macronyx, 2. sp.

ranea. fasciculata, 2. sp. ——- camptonyx,n.sp.

Deshayesii. — Buichichi, x. sp. crassipes, ”. sp.

litorea. —— nudicornis, 2. sp. rudis, 2. sp.

—- Montagui. ——— Nilssoni: Schmidtii, nz. sp.

II, Gammaride.

Proboliam mega- Anonyx Nardonis, | Gammarella brevi-

cheles, 7. sp. n. Sp. caudata.

marinum. tumidus. Melita palmata.

Lysianassa spinicornis. Callisoma Hopel. gladiosa.

loricata. Ampelisca Gaimardi. Coroninii, 2. sp.

-—— longicornis. Iszea Montagui. Meera grossimana.

pilicornis, x. sp. Iphimedia obesa. scissimana.

Costae. Eblane. integrimana, 7.

carinata, 2. sp. sp.

Ichnopus affinis, 7. sp.

-—— calceolatus, x.sp. Decamine spinosa. erythrophthalma.

Anonyx Schmarde, spiniventris. —— Donatoi, n. sp.

N. Sp. Atylus Coste, x. sp. .—— brevicaudata.

—— filicornis, x. sp. Eusirus bidens, x. sp. ——- orchestiipes.

gulosus. Leucothoé denticulata. Gammarus marinus.

—— minutus. Protomedia hirsuti- _—— locusta.

—— nanus. mana. —- tenuimanus.

Miscellaneous. 155

III. Corophide.

Amphithoé penicillata, Podocerus longicornis, Cyrtophium glabrum,

bicuspis, 2. sp. nN. Sp. N. Sp.

Brusine. Microdeutopus gryllo- Cratippus pusillus.

Podocerus pulchellus. __ talpa. crassipes, 2. sp.

monodon, 2. sp. Titii, 2. sp. Corophium longicorne.

—— Ocius. Cerapus abditus. acherusicum.

largimanus, 7.sp. Chelura terebrans.

B. LAXMODIPODA.

Caprella phasma. Caprella armata, x. sp. Caprella leptonyx,

acutifrons. monacantha, n. Sp.

obtusa, 2. sp. n. Sp. aspera, 2. sp.

Sitzungsber. der Kais. Akad. der Wiss. in Wien, November 4, 1865.

On a new mode of Parasitism observed in an undescribed Animal.

By M. Lacazr-DuTHIERs.

The author detected on the Antipatharian Coral described by him

under the name of Gerardia some small, flat, reniform bodies, which

were immersed in the soft tissues of the polypary. On opening some

of these, he saw escaping from them a swarm of small Crustacean

embryos. The enclosing capsule proved to be the parent animal.

M. Lacaze-Duthiers compares this parasite to a small lobster, at

the utmost 1-2 centimetres (millim.?*) in length, having the thoracic

portion disproportionately extended and forming a large. flattened sac

opening only by a pore situated near the middle of its free border.

The true body of the animal is suspended by its back within this

greatly developed carapace, which attains a diameter of 3 or 4 centim.

(millim.?). The body is strongly curved, and the head is very small.

The abdomen consists of articulated segments, and bears six regular

and symmetrical pairs of feet ; it contains only a large yellowish diges-

tive tube, of which the orifices are nearly obliterated. This curious

Crustacean forms a new genus, to which the author gives the name

of Laura; the species he denominates L. Gerardia. As it lives within

the tissues of the Gerardia, M. Lacaze-Duthiers believes that its

nourishment is obtained by direct absorption from the latter, rather

than by digestion.

The walls of the utricular carapace are nearly cartilaginous in tex-

ture, are pierced by an immense number of pores, from which ex-

cessively delicate tubes radiate into the surrounding sarcosoma ; and

through these the fluids of the polypary pass directly into the venous

lacunee of the parasite. The circulatory apparatus is very rudimen-

tary, and there are no special organs of respiration. The nervous

system is also very little developed.

The reproduction of the animal is equally curious with its mode of

parasitism. It is hermaphrodite. The female glands occur with

the liver in the substance of the integuments of the utricle, and open

* The measurements given by the author seem to be erroneous; they

would make the body of the animal from 2 to # inch in length, and the

diameter of the carapace 1! to 12 inch.

156 Miscellaneous.

in a singular position. ‘The legs, which resemble those of the lower

Crustacea in their general characters, present at the base behind a

sort of process, at the apex of which are the genital orifices.

Those of the first pair are much slenderer than the rest, and it is in

them that the oviducts terminate.

The male glands are lodged within the legs, and open upon the

processes by as many apertures as there are spermatogenous capsules.

Thus the ten posterior legs are male, and the two anterior female.

Hence fecundation must take place within the pouch in which the

body is suspended, and the utricle serves at once for absorption by

its outer surface and for reproduction by its inner surface, as a true

incubation takes place in its cavity. The author has observed all the

details of the embryogeny of this singular parasite.

He also remarks upon the great development of the liver, and its

position in the midst of the venous network of the carapace, which

directly receives the nutritive fluid from without. Bile is secreted

in great quantities, although scarcely any digestion can be said to

take place; hence he infers that the liver must be regarded as a

purifier or modifier of the fluids intended for nutrition, and that its

function in digestion in the higher animals is probably to be regarded

as a secondary one.—Comptes Rendus, Nov. 13th, 1865, p. 838.

On the Development of the Axolotl (Siredon mexicanus vel Hum-

boldtii). By A. Dumérit.

On the 17th April last, M. Duméril communicated to the Aca-

demy of Sciences some observations on the development of young

Axolotls from ova deposited in the Menagerie at the Muséum d’ His-

toire Naturelle ; and from that date to the month of September the

development of these animals continued without presenting any phe-

nomena calling for special notice. The animals having then attained

a length of 0:21 metre, nearly equal to that of their parents (0°25 m.),

one of them, which had not been particularly observed for a fort-

night, suddenly attracted attention by presenting an aspect quite

different from that of the other specimens of the same age. It no

longer possessed branchial tufts, or only retained traces of them ;

the membranous crests of the back and tail had disappeared ; the

form of the head was slightly modified ; and there appeared on the

body and limbs numerous yellowish-white spots, which contrasted

strikingly with the general blackish colour. On the 28th September

a second individual had undergone the same change, and on the 7th

October a third presented it in a less advanced form.

On the 10th October M. Duméril was enabled to observe this

metamorphosis from its commencement. On this day some yellowish-

white points made their appearance on the limbs of a specimen, and

the portion of the crest nearest to the head was effaced. Between

this day and the 25th October the crest disappeared throughout its

whole extent, the branchial lamelle and subsequently the appendages

supporting them gradually diminished in length, until on the 6th

November there were only three little projections, scarcely apparent

above the skin, on the sides of the neck. The head had decreased

Miscellaneous. baz

0:005 m. in breadth at the level of the anterior branchiz. The

crests had entirely disappeared.

These external metamorphoses are accompanied by imternal modi-

fications comparable with those observed in the Urodelous Batrachia

when passing from the larval to the adult state. The anatomical

examination of the hyo-branchial apparatus in the second metamor-

phosed Axolotl (28th September) proved that the three inner

branchial arches had disappeared, the external arch only remaining ;

and this, deprived of its membranous denticulations and united by

an articulation with the thyroid cornu, formed the posterior joint of

the latter. Outside this piece the anterior branch of the hyoid is to

be seen on each side. The basi-hyal was much developed, and in it,

as in the other portions of the hyoid, ossification had commenced.

These unexpected facts would almost lead one to suppose, with

Cuvier, that the Axolotls, hitherto regarded as perennibranchiate

Batrachia, may be the larvee of species destined hereafter to take a

place in the group of those which undergo a metamorphosis and lose

their branchie. If this be the case, the individuals with long external

branchial tufts which have lived for nearly two years in Paris, and

from which these young animals were procured, would only be larve,

notwithstanding their power of reproduction*. But if this suppo-

sition be accepted, how are we to explain the rapid metamorphosis of

these animals of eight months old, when the individuals brought to

France from Mexico in 1863 have undergone no change except an

increase in size ’— Comptes Rendus, November 6, 1865, pp. 775-778.

On the Multiplicity and Termination of the Nerves in the Mollusca.

By M. Lacaze-Duruiers.

Few animals are so richly provided with nerves as the Mollusca ;

hence, when they are studied anatomically, it is difficult to under-

stand the name of Apathique which Lamarck gave to the general

group in which he placed them.

I take Thetys leporina as an anatomical and histological type. This

species presents in its tissues an abundance of nerves surpassing

anything that could be imagined from what exists in the higher

animals. In a general investigation of its organization I shall indi-

cate in detail the very peculiar arrangement presented by its central

nervous system. The only object of the present memoir is to make

known the distribution of the nerves in the buccal veil, and their

mode of termination in the barbules which fringe the margins of

that organ.

It is well known that, around the mouth, the lips of which are

produced into a trunk, the Thetys has a large funnel-shaped mem-

* M. de’ Filippi has found spermatozoids and mature ova in individuals

of Triton alpestris, which, from the persistence of the external branchial

tufts and the imperfection of their palatine dental system, appeared to be

still in the larval or tadpole state (Archivio per la Zoologia, tom. u.

pp. 206-211).

158 Miscellaneous.

branous expansion, bordered by a fringe composed of innumerable

tentacular barbules. This veil receives large nerves, which, after

issuing from the subcesophageal ganglia or from the cerebrum, divide

and subdivide so as to distribute themselves throughout its whole

extent. The branches of these nerves at first anastomose in arches,

then, having arrived beneath the tentacular filaments of the marginal

fringe, they form lozenge-shaped networks or plexuses of inconceiv-

able richness. Delle Chiaje saw these and figured them in part, but

very coarsely.

In the angles of union of the anastomoses we most commonly find

a ganglionic swelling destined to reinforce the nerves, which would

otherwise soon exhaust themselves by their infinite divisions.

Upon the meshes of the network, perpendicularly to the surface,

nerves arise which penetrate directly into the tentacular barbules.

A very remarkable fact is observed in the distribution of these nerves.

In proportion as they advance into the tentacle, their subdivisions

increase in number, until, in approaching the extremities, the trans-

parency of the tissues is obscured by the quantity of their ramifica-

tions ; and at the very apex of the tentacle the nervous trunks and

their anastomoses become so voluminous and so considerable that

observation by transmitted light, without preparation, is very diffi-

cult, and the end of the tentacle itself appears blackish.

Greatly multiplied collateral anastomotic branches detach them-

selves from the central trunk which occupies the axis of the tentacle,

unite with each other, forming arches, and often become so slender

that it is difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish them in the midst

of the fine strize produced by the cellular fibrille.

It would be supposed that the nearer a nerve approached its termi-

nation, the more delicate would its branches become. Here quite

the contrary is the case, the anastomotic loops are more numerous

and thicker towards the extremity, and in this part of the filaments

we find hardly any delicate fibres. All the secondary nerves are

nearly as thick as the trunk of the principal nerve at its origin. It

is true that from place to place, and at nearly all the angles of ana-

stomoses, there are dilatations, or ganglia of reinforcement, in the

structure of which nervous cells and ganglionic corpuscles are re-

cognized.

The termination is extremely simple. From the surface of those

terminal networks of which the meshes are formed by the large

ramifications just mentioned, there rise, towards the extremity, some

processes in the form of rounded clubs, which come quite cluse to the

outer surface, and are only separated from it by a thin layer of the

fibrous framework of the barbule and an external epithelial layer.

When we examine the nerves of the tentacles, we find that they

are formed of a pellicular envelope, and that their contents are a

mixture of molecular corpuscles, fine granulations, sometimes small

cells, and a gelatinous fluid, forming by their union the medullar

ortion.

The central masses present very remarkable peculiarities which I

cannot indicate here. The nervous cells and elements are enclosed

Miscellaneous. 159

in pyriform sacs, appended on all sides to a comparatively small

central part, from which the trunks of the nerves originate. The

cerebrum and the other ganglia, like those of the great sympathetic

nerve, present the appearance of small racemes; and if we wish to

ascertain the origin of the nerves, it is in the midst of these masses

of granules that we must seek it, notwithstanding the difficulty which

this presents.—Comptes Rendus, Nov. 20, 1865, p. 906.

On a new Kind of Illumination for Opaque Objects under High

Powers. By Messrs. Smiru, Becx, and Beck.

This method of illumination has been recently introduced by Mr.

Smith, of Kenyon College, U.S.*; the best effect may, however,

be obtained by the following exceedingly simple plan :-—

Fig. 2.

A piece of thin glass (4), attached to a small brass milled head

(fig. 3), fits into the side of an adapter (fig. 1); and when in po-

sition, as in figs. 1 and 2, the light coming through a small circular

aperture (a) may be reflected down and through the object-glass by

the thin glass, which makes no obstruction to the rays of light passing

upwards again from the object-glass to the eye-piece, nor even affects

the definition to any perceptible degree.

The adapter (fig. 1) is used, as shown in section (fig. 2), between

the nose-piece (c) and the object-glass (d); it has a rotating fitting

at the milled ring; and this movement, in combination with that of

the small milled head to which the thin glass is attached, is sufficient

for the nicest adjustment of the illumination. By means of a slot

(e, fig. 1) in the side of the adapter, the thin glass may be readily

removed for the purpose of being wiped, as its perfect freedom from

dust or smear is most essential.

* Silliman’s Journal, September 1865.

160 Miscellaneous.

When using this piece of apparatus, the light should be opposite

to the small aperture (a), and in a position at right angles to the body

of the microscope. When the lamp is used alone, an image of its

flame will be seen upon the object ; but the whole field of view may

be illuminated, or unilateral light may be obtained, by placing a

small condenser in different positions before the lamp.

Under this method of illumination, which is available with the

highest powers, the appearances presented by objects are very re-

markable, and they vary exceedingly according to the character and

condition of the specimen. It is in all cases best to have the object

uncovered. The subject is of great importance and interest, and re-

quires thorough investigation; but this, from the moderate cost of the

piece of apparatus (10s. 6d.), is within the reach of every microscopist.

Observations on some Lepidosirens (Protopterus annectens, Owen)

which have lived inthe Menagerie of Reptiles in Paris, and formed

their Cocoon there. By A. DuMERIL.

M. A. Duméril has observed the formation of the cocoon by two

specimens of Lepidosiren living in the Menagerie at the Jardin des

Plantes. About the 20th February last, these two animals showed

indications of a desire to shelter themselves in the soft soil at the

bottom of the aquarium ; and as previous specimens had died, owing

to the necessary change of conditions not being realized for them,

the water was nearly all drawn off from the aquarium, so as to leave

the mud at its bottom as nearly as possible in the same condition as

the rice-fields inhabited by the Lepidosiren at the approach of the

dry season. In three weeks the ground gradually hardened, forming

a mass with fissures in several parts; no trace of the animals was to

be detected.

The fissures in the mass of dried mud enabled portions of it

to be removed; and the two Lepidosirens were found, about eleven

weeks after their disappearance, enveloped in regular cocoons. The

block of dried mud, which is preserved in the museum, exhibits a

cavity moulded upon the cocoon, with the walls perfectly smooth

and lined with a strongly adherent portion of the cocoon.

This cocoon is produced by a mucous secretion. Its brown

colour might lead to the supposition that it is formed of dried leaves ;

but when examined by Professor Decaisne, it presented no trace of

vegetable structure ; and when burnt, it diffused the characteristic

odour of animal substances.

The Lepidosirens, when desirous of burying themselves, emit an

abundant mucosity from the surface of the body. This coats and

agglutinates the portions of the soil which they traverse, so that the

walls of the subterranean canal made by each animal and remaining

open after desiccation are smooth and appear polished ; then when the «

animal stops, this exudation acquires the consistency of amembranous “|,

envelope. The Lepidosirens when examined by M. Duméril were

still alive, as was proved by their slight movements when touched ;

they have since died.— Comptes Rendus, January 8, 1866, p. 97.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES.]

No. 99. MARCH 1866.

XIX.—On the Asexual Reproduction of Cecidomyide Larve,

By Dr. R. Leuckarr*.

{Plate I]

Axour a year and a half ago we received, through a communi-

cation to the Academy of St. Petersburg, the surprising intelli-

gence that Nicolas Wagner, Professor of Zoology at Kasan, had

observed an asexual reproduction in the larvee of a fly belonging

to the genus Cecidomyiat. This reproduction was said to com-

mence in autumn, to continue through the winter and spring,

giving origin during the whole of this peried to a series of suc-

cessive generations of larvae, until finally,in June, the last of them

were developed into perfect and sexually mature animals. The

flies then, as usual, after copulation, lay eggs, and thus recom-

mence the developmental cycle just described.

A few menths afterwards the ‘Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche

Zoologie’ (Band xi. p. 512) furnished us with a detailed memoir,

illustrated with numerous beautiful figures, on the same subject,

which had been sent by Wagner two years previously to the

editors for publication, but had been kept back by them because

the observations described in it appeared tobe “almost ineredible.”

But this incredible has completely verified itself; and it even ap-

pears probable, from the confirmatory observations of Meinertt in

Copenhagen, and Pagenstecher§$ in Heidelberg, that the mode

of reproduction discovered by Wagner is still more widely dif-

* Translated by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., from Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1865,

p- 286.

+ K.E. von Baer, “ Bericht itber eine neue von Prof. Wagner in Kasan

an Dipteren beobachteten abweichende Propagationstorm,” Bull. Acad.

St. Petersb. 1863, pt. vi. p. 239. (As early as 1861, however, Wagner had

incorporated a short notice of his observations m the ‘Journal of the

University of Kasan,’ which is published in the Russian language ; but, as

far as | am aware, this has remained unknown out of the country.)

t Zeitsehr. fiir wiss. Zool. Bd. xiv. p. 392. § Ibid. p. 400.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xvii. 11

162 Dr. R. Leuckart on the Aseaual Reproduction

fused among the Cecidomyia, and possibly occurs very generally

in that group of flies.

What I purpose communicating in the following pages is only

suited to support this opinion, as it chiefly relates to a new case

of the reproduction in question.

The larvee on which I made my observations were found by me

during the first days of the present year, in considerable numbers,

under the bark of a half-dead apple-tree attacked by fungi.

They most closely resembled the form observed by Pagenste-

cher in the beet-root refuse, with which they agreed especially in

the number (two) of stigmata, and in the presence of pomts on

the ventral surface ; but, from the somewhat larger size and the

much more slender form of the body of my larva, as also from

some other smaller differences, I believe I must regard it for the

present as the representative of a distinet species.

Unfortunately I have not yet sueceeded m studying the entire

developmental history of my larva. Almost all my larvae had

very recently escaped from the dead envelopes of their parents

(3 millims.), which lay sometimes singly, sometimes grouped toge-

ther under the bark, or were still enclosed in them although otber-

wise perfectly developed. The largest individuals that I found

living measured about 2 millims.,nearly twice the length possessed

by the animals on eseaping from the skin of their dead parents.

The body-cavity of these larger individuals usually contained, be-

sides a number of small germs, from three to five larger, elongate

oval masses up to 0°28 millim. in length ; but, on closer examina-

tion, these masses all proved to be eae an d sige Their contents

were broken up into a granular substance, which gradually became

darker towards the centre, and generally enclosed one or several

oil-drops, sometimes of very considerable dimensions.

The following communication, therefore, relates less to the em-

bryonic development of the Cecidomyide larvee, the investigation

of which I postpone to a more favourable season, than to the ques-

tion of the origin and nature of the germs, which move about

freely in the body- -cavity and become new larvee.

I cannot, however, publish my investigations on this subject

without mentioning the assistance which I was so fortunate as to

receive inthem from M. Mecaznikoff of Charkow. The following

pages probably conta but few facts which this talented young

zoologist had not likewise observed, and which he was not about

to publish.

According to Wagner’s representation, the germs (Hmbryo-

naltheile, Wagn.) are produced from the fatty body of the larva,

the contents of this, with a simultaneous change in its appearance,

becoming massed together in portions, and broken up into the

form of round balls after the separation of its enveloping mem-

of Cecidomyide Larva, 163

brane. Sometimes several of these balls are scen united in a

common group. They haveat first a granular texture, but pretty

quickly develope a number of cells, and finally, whilst the exter-

nal form becomes gradually extended and the size constantly in-

creases, are filled with a granular vitelline mass, which undergoes

a segmentation, and then produces the embryo in its iterior.

The latter, surrounded by a stratum of peripheral vitelline sub-

stance, remains in its envelope until it has arrived at its full

development.

Meinert also adopts the notion of the production of the germs

from the fatty body, and remarks, in its justification, that the

latter, as the residue of the original formative material, might

just as well be employed for the generation of a new brood as

for the further development of the insect.

As, however, Meinert, to all appearance, has not specially ex-

amined into this question (his investigations were particularly

directed to the later stages ef the development of the larva), we

cannot lay any great stress on his acquiescence, especially as

Pagenstecher in the course of his description repeatedly states

expressly that the young germs (“ Her,” Pag.) possessed no true

resemblance to the balls of the fatty body, and were never con-

nected therewith. Pagenstecher therefore believes in the exis-

tence of a proper germ-stock, although he songht in vain for any

such structure, and found himself confined to mere suppositions

with regard to the origin of the germs. He especially notices

the possibility that these may have separated from the subcu-

ticular cellular layer (the “hypoderma” of Weismann), and calls

attention to the great development presented by these cells in

the last segments of the body of our larve. The rectum also,

below the opening of the Malpighian vessels, is surrounded by a

group of cells which may perhaps likewise function as the place

of origin of the germs. Certainly, he adds, “ the whole matter

requires a further controlling examination.”

As has been said, I have, in conjunction with Mecznikoff,

turned my particular attention to this point, and I rejoice to be

able to furnish the proof that the Cecidomyide larve really, as

Pagenstecher supposed, possess a germ-stock.

When the larvee just escaped from the skin of their parent’s

body are examined underthe microscope with a moderate pressure,

we see, in the posterior half of the tenth (or, including the head,

the eleventh) segment, two clear roundish balls, which are situ-

ated at the back, between the cords of the fatty body, here

rather widely separated, and possess a diameter of 0:034-0-04

millim. (PI.I.fig.1). These are the more easily discovered, because

they lie almost immediately beneath the outer integument, and,

during the contractions of the muscular apparatus, are moved up

164 Dr. R. Leuckart on the Asexual Reproduction

and down in the cavity of the body with the neighbourmg organs.

In general these balls are pretty symmetrically arranged, and

placed at the same level; but sometimes one or the other of

them is more approximated to the median line, or placed a little

forward. ‘

When the body of the larva is torn up, we soon ascertain that

these balls do not float freely in the body-cavity like the germs

which sueceed them, but are affixed to two Malpighian vessels,

by means of a pair of longer or shorter, thin ligamentous cords.

In general the point of attachment is not far from the msertions

of the vessels, and indeed usually rather higher on one side than

on the other. Sometimes a thin filament is seen passing back-

ward from it.

Under a higher power(fig. 2) we may distinguish in the balls a

delicate structureless env eloping membrane, and a number of clear

vesicular cells of 0°01—0°017 millim. in diameter, which lie in a

finely granular pale protoplasm, and according to their size en-

close one or more (three to five) likewise vesicular nuclei

(0-006 millim.).

When the investigation 1s extended to a greater number of

larvee, those being especially selected which have already quitted

their origimal dwelling-place, it 1s soon discovered that these

structures do not ali possess the same constitution. Not only do

they gradually increase and change their form to an oval, but,

further, at a certain size (length 0:067, breadth 0°042 millim.)

they are repeatedly and irregularly constricted and acquire a

form (fig. 3) by which one is involuntarily reminded of the ap-

pearance of a lobate embryonic kidney. The lobes which are

separated by the constrictions prove on closer examination to be

the peripheral segments of balls, which are flattened on their

contiguous surfaces, but otherwise have a globular form and a

diameter of 0-02-0:025 millim.

In their interior these contain according to their diameter a

larger or smaller number of vesicular nuclei (of 0°007 millim.).

In the largest balls as many as from sixteen to twenty of these

nuclei may be counted; and here we may also further ascertain

that each of them bears a clear superficial layer more or less dis-

tinctly defined, and has thus become the central point of an in-

dividual cell (fig. 3).

On comparison with the previous stages of formation, it appears

beyond a doubt that these balls represent a further development

of the vesicular cells formerly described. By displacement of the

mtercellular substance originally present, these cells have gradu-

ally mereased and become mother cells by formation of brood

cells in their interior. The original cell-membrane persists, in

the form of a structureless bounding membrane, which has only

of Cecidomyide Larve. 165

acquired a somewhat tougher consistence, and is still covered by

the common tunica propria.

I need hardly state expressly that the organs here described

are nothing but the germ-stocks of our larve. The certain con-

viction of the correctness of this assertion is indeed attained only

by their subsequent behaviour when we see that the individual

balls gradually become more sharply and independently separated

from each other, and finally (fig. 4) break loose in order to pass

through their embryonal development in the body-cavity.

In general, however, the mass of the germ-stocks does not

break up at once into its constituent balls, but gradually; so that

its remains are sometimes found in individuals in whieh the free

germs have already grown to a considerable size and show indi-

cations of the embryonic structure. In this way the fact noticed

by previous observers, that the germs of our larve are by no

means always met with at the same stage of development, may

also be explained.

The balls when ready for separation are about 0:028-0-03

millim. in diameter. They have (Pl. I. fig. 4) a perfectly glo-

bular form, and exhibit, beneath the structureless clear and

transparent enveloping membrane, two different kinds of cells.

Some of these are small (0-0063 millim.) and sharply defined,

and are united to form an epithelium which clothes the mner sur-

face of the above-mentioned membrane ; whilst the others, which

fill the interior space of the ball, are of much larger size, and so

imperfectly discriminated from each other that they almost pre-

sent the appearance of a coherent mass of protoplasm in which

numerous vesicular nuclei (0°007 millim.) are imbedded. The

contexture of these central cells reminds us of the behaviour of

the primitive germ-stock, only that here the protoplasm is less

massive and is destitute of the small, strongly refractive oil-

globules which are deposited in larger or smaller quantities round

the individual nuclei.

The genetic relations of these mature germ-balls to the previous

stages of development are easily understood. The cells which

we met with in the latter, although then without any differences,

have become, by gradual differentiation, partly converted into

epithelial cells and partly into structures which, by their histo-

logical nature, sufficiently show that they have still to pass through

a further development.

After separation, however, the germ-balls for a time retain the

structure just described*. They grow to a diameter of 0:04 or

* For comparison we may here cite Pagenstecher’s description of the

youngest germs observed by him. ‘‘'Phey consist,” says our author, “of

a peripheral layer of small clear globules, in which neither membranes nor

nuclei are distinct, and of an interior space enclosed by these, in the hemo-

166 Dr. R. Leuckart on the Asexual Reproduction

90-045 millim. without giving any signs of further development

(fig. 5), unless we regard as such the enlargement of the central

nuclei (to 0-01 and 0-014 millim.) and the more distinet ap-

pearance of a clear vesicular nucleolus.

' But when the germ-ball has attained the size just mentioned,

we observe that one of the eight or ten clear nuclei contained in

it surrounds itself with a strong accumulation of coarsely gra-

nular protoplasmic mass, and inflates the peripheral envelope of

the ball like a hump (fig. 6). At first only of meonsiderable size,

this hump gradually becomes larger with’ the increasing growth

of the granular mass, so that the ball loses its globular form and

gradually acquires a pyriform aud oval shape (figs. 7&8). The

mass of granules situated in the interior of the smaller pole, and

filling this entirely, becomes more and more sharply discrimi-

nated from the other contents of the ball, and gradually grows

into an independent body, the previous relations of which one

could hardly indicate without a knowledge of its development.

The increase of this body takes place so rapidly that in a germ-

ball of 0-077 millim. in length (0-042 millim. in breadth) it

already measures 0-03 millim., and therefore has almost attained

the size of the whole of the rest of the contents (fig. 8), although

a little while before (in balls of 0:06 millim. in length and 0-038

millim. in breadth, fig. 7) it had scarcely more than half this

diameter (0-018 millim.). And this increase of size is the more

remarkable, becanse it depends solely on the growth of the gra-

nular peripheral mass, the vesicular nucleus still measuring not

more than 0:014 millim. The latter has, however, so far un-

dergone a change, that the nucleolus contained in it has become

smaller (down to 0-004 millim.) and acquired a sharper outline.

Although, from the dark and opaque texture of the granular

mass, the processes here described readily attract the attention of

the observer, they have been as good as completely overlooked by

previous investigators*—a fact which can only be explained on

the supposition that they were more interested in the subsequent

fate of the germ-balls than in their earlier states.

Notwithstanding their neglect on the part of former observers,

these processes are now of great significance, inasmuch as they

throw an unexpected light upon the nature of the germ-balls,

and the relations of the present mode of increase to the ordinary

reproduction of insects.

geneous mass of which some strongly defined and rather angular oil-

granules and vesicular vacuoles appear.”

* The only indication of them is a figure of Wagner’s (J. ¢. tab. 36.

fig. 25), which is explained as representing ‘‘two anomalously united

germs (Hmbryonaltheile),” of which one is filled with a turbid fluid, whilst

cells are already formed in the clear contents of the other.

of Cecidomyide Larve. 167

Every one whois acquainted with the developmental history

of insects, or who consults the existing observations on that sub-

ject by Stein*, myselft+, Lubbock t, Claus§, and others, will agree

with me when Lassert that the ¢ germ-balls of our larvee with their

contents precisely reproduce the conditions of one of the so-called

germ-chambers from the ovarian tubes of a female insect. This

is perhaps most striking on comparison with Melophagus||, the

germ-chambers of which are united to each other ouly by a thin

cord, and consequently represent structures almost as indepen-

dent as the germ-balls of our Cecidomyie.

In both cases we have a structureless proper membrane, con-

taining in its interior, besides an epithelial layer, two different

kinds of cell-formations. One of these cell-forms is present only

singly, and situated at the originally narrower pole of the germ-

chamber. It is the future Ga, which consists of a eranular ball,

constantly increasing im size, and a vesicular riiiClORSs the so-

called verminal [cael wiles the other cells, which, with their

likewise vesicular nuclei and often incompletely discriminated

protoplasm, fill all the rest of the interior space of the chamber

aud play a part in the separation of the yelk, are usually described

as formative cells of the vitellus4.

The agreement of the germ-balls with egg- chambers is so com-

plete, that it applies not only to the later. stages, but also to the

development, as is sufficiently proved by the accurate investi-

vations of Claus, which I can fully confirm. The egg, the

formative cells of the vitellus, and the epithelial cells, indeed

everything is developed 1 in the ovarian chambers exactly i in the

same way as is described above for the germ-balls, by differenti-

ation from an originally quite homogenous cell-mass. liven as

regards time these processes present precisely the same conditions

in both structures.

The germ-balls of the Cecidomyide larve are therefore neither

“embryonal particles” (Hmbryonaltheile, Wagner) nor “ova”

(Pagenstecher), but germ-chambers which produce a reproductive

* Vergl. Anat. und Physiol. der Insekten, 1847, p. 46.

+ Art. “ Zeugung,” in Wagner’s Handworterbuch, Bd. iv. 1852, p. 802;

Zur Fortpflanzung und Entwickelung der Pupiparen, 1859; Zur Kennt-

niss des Generationswechsels und der Parthenogenesis bei fen Insekten,

1858, p. 48.

~ “On the Ova and Pseudova of Insects,”? Linn. Trans. 1859.

§ ** Beobachtungen iiber die Bildung des Insekteneies,”’ Zeitschr. fiir

wiss. Zool. Bd. xiv. p. 42.

|| Leuckart, Fortpflanzung der Pupiparen, taf. 1. figs. 6 & 7.

q Weienune (Entwickelung der Dipteren. p. 208) is decidedly in error

when he denies, in Musca, the: distinction between the egg and the forma-

tive cells of the vitellus, and represents the entire contents of the germ-

chamber, with its many nuclei, as passing directly into the egg.

168 Dr. R. Leuckart on the Asexual Reproduction

body in their interior in aceordance with the type of egg-forima-

tion.

It is certainly the best proof of the correctness of this view,

that by the investigation of the later stages of development we

attain directly to the conviction that the embryo is produced

from that part of the germ-chamber which we have just referred

to as the reproductive body on account of its morphological re-

lations. And this conviction must force itself upon every one

who has even once had an opportunity of observing the pro-

cesses of embryonic development in these animals.

According to my observations, these processes commence in

germ-chambers of about 0°12 millim. in length and 0-05 millim.

in breadth, by the surface of the granular ball becoming sur-

rounded by a germinal membrane, exactly in the same way as in

the fecundated ovum (figs. 9 & 10)*.

The granular mass, or yelk, as we may therefore cal it with

perfect justice, has by this time filled up about two-thirds of the

germ-chamber, and inflated this in such a manner that the

former pointed pole which contains the yelk-mass has now be-

come the thickest. The opposite or anterior end is filled with

the formative cells of the vitellus, which, as before, persist im

their entire quantity, but have lost their former protoplasm almost

entirely, and are consequently reduced essentially to the clear

nuclei (between 0:01 and 0-019 millim. in diameter), all of

which now show a large but not very distinet nucleolus (fig. 9).

From analogy with the formation of the ovum, we might

perhaps have expected that the embryonic development would

only begin when the vitelline mass had overgrown the entire

germ-chamber and the formative cells of the vitellus had dis-

appeared, with the exception of a small residue (Stein’s corpus

luteum). But our germs comport themselves so far differently,

that, even before the conelusion of their individual develop-

ment, they commence the discrimination of the embryo, exactly

as is the case with the so-called germ-grains of the Aphides.

There is also another agreement between these two asexual re-

productive bodies—the so-called chorion never being formed in

either of them, so that the vitellus remains without that enve-

lope which has so remarkable and peculiar a development in the

true eggs of Insects.

* See Weismann, /.c. taf. xii. fig. 2. (The analogy here indicated is also

probably referred to in the assertion made by the reporter to the St. Peters-

burgh Academy, K. E. von Baer, in opposition to Wagner’s supposition that

the germs of the Cecidomyi@ originate from the fatty body,—namely, “I

should rather give the name of yelk-masses to the masses from which the

daughter larvee are developed. They closely resemble the yelk-masses of

other Diptera, especially those of Chironomus as described by Dr. Weis-

mann.”’)

of Cecidomyide Larve. 169

Whether the appearance of a germinal membrane in our

Cecidomyide larve is preceded by the separation of a structure-

less peripheral layer, as has been proved by Weismann to be the

case in the eggs of Chironomus and other Diptera, must be left

undecided by me, from a deficiency of material for observation.

Nor can I say how the germinal membrane is formed ; but there

cannot be the least Hoan that it exists, and, as in true eggs,

induces the series of embryonic developmental processes.

The cells of which this germinal membrane is composed lie

close together in a stratum, and have, as in Chironomus, an ex-

tremely strong refractive power, so that it is difficult to detect a

nucleus in their interior. At the posterior pole the cells are

largest (0007 millim.), perhaps twice as large as at the oppo-

site anterior end of the yelk—a difference which of course

affects the thickness of the germinal membrane, move especially

as from appearances it would seem that the posterior cells are

arranged in a double layer (fig. 9).

In somewhat larger germ-chambers (0°14 millim. in length,

and 0:056 millim. in breadth) this difference is no longer per-

ceived upon the yelk, which now measures 071] millim. Both

before and behind, the cells now have exactly the same elongated

form (fig. 10), and are of equal size; but even here the germinal

membrane on the hinder part of the yelk is apparently composed

of two superimposed layers of cells*

The formative cells of the vitellus are reduced to three or four

vesicular structures at the anterior pole of the yelk, although

the form of the germ-chamber presents so far a certain amount

of change, that the transverse section of the anterior seg-

ment is but little less than that of the hinder one. In this

condition I found the epithelial ling of the germ-chamber

constantly converted into a granular layer. Whether this cha-

racter is normal, I cannot say; but perhaps the circumstance

that the later developmental stages of my larvee all died off and

became transformed into a homogeneous granular mass might

be connected with it. This supposition appears to me to be the

more probable, as I some time since observed in the posterior

half of the ovarium of a sterile queen bee, where the epi-

thelium of the egg-chambers had undergone a perfectly similar

change, that the ova were decomposed, and finally broke up into

little fragments, instead of being further developed.

In particular cases, however, the destruction of the contents

seemed only to have commenced at a later period, as was shown

not only by the greater size of the germ, but also by the cireum-

* Tab. 36. fig. 31 of Wagner’s memoir must, I think, be referred to

a chamber with a germina] membrane; only it appears as if the formative

cells of the vitellus had already completely disappeared.

170 Dr. R. Leuckart on the Asexual Reproduction

stance that it exhibited a clear band along one of its sides, which

I am the more inclined to regard as a residue of the primitive

band, because it sometimes had a repeatedly undulated course,

as if a division into so-called primitive segments had already

taken place. These were stages which might correspond with

fig. 33 of Wagner’s memoir.

Wagner's statement that the embryo is developed, not in the

periphery, but m the interior of the yelk, is undoubtedly an

error, probably induced only by the incomplete analysis of the

parts situated in the interior of the germ-chamber. What

Wagner calls the peripheral yelk is probal oly nothing but the

epithelium of the germ-chamber, or the granular layer proceed-

fo)

ing therefrom, of which mention has already been made, in the

ro)

periphery of the germinal membrane. The “segmentation ”

figured by Wagner (fig. 82) also evidently pertains to this epi-

thelial layer, and might possibly serve as evidence that, as above

surmised, its cells in “the normal state persist much longer than

I observed them in my specimens.

Imperfect as are my observations upon the fate of the Ceci-

domyide germs, they enable us at least to assert that the pro-

cesses of embryo-formation agree in all essential points with the

ordinary phenomena of development in a fecundated egg, ex-

actly as has been proved (by Huxley) to be the case in the

Aphides.

According to the preceding investigations, the asexual propa-

gation of the Cecidomyie unmistakeably approaches the*pheno-

mena long known to take place in the Aphides (since the time

of De Geer and Réaumur). The only difference consists in the

germ-chambers of the Cecidomyide larvee separating from the

germ-stock, and moving about freely in the cavity of the body,

whilst in the dphides they remam permanently attached, and

constitute an apparatus which, in its form and arrangement,

reproduces the conditions of the female organs.

That the germ-stock of the Cecidomyide larvee likewise pre-

sents us with an analogue of the sexual glands seems to be the

less doubtful, because we find it precisely on the spot where we

should expect the first traces of these structures, and see it in a

form which is at first very generally proper to the sexual glands

in Insects. The appendicular filament running backward is

evidently to be regarded as a rudimentary efferent duct.

Hence the asexual reproduction of the Cecidomyide larvee

not only shows a close agreement with the similar reproduction

of the Aphides, but even approaches much more closely to

sexual reproduction than previously appeared to be the case.

The germ-stock of the viviparous larvee is to a certain extent a

second tonal af sexual apparatus ; and its reproductive bodies so

of Cecidomyide Larve. 171

completely correspond with eggs, as regards their general mor-

phological relations, that we might, with a certain amount of

justice, regard them as a second form of eggs, as, indeed, Claus

has recently done in the case of the Aphides. In all probability,

the larvee of the sexually mature Cecidomyia, at the first appear-

ance of the genitalia, present so little difference from the earlier

states of the viviparous larve, that it might be supposed that

the subsequent fate of those organs, and at the same time that

of the animal to which they belong, may be determined, as in

the Aphides, by certain external conditions—in other words,

that it may depend upon certain external conditions whether the

larva shall be developed into a sexual animal or a viviparous

individual.

With every inclination to recognize the morphological relations

to eggs presented by the reproductive bodies in the detached

germ-chambers of the Cecidomyiea, I cannot quite determine to

describe them as eggs and thus characterize the reproduction

of the Cecidomyide larvee as a parthenogenesis. Just as the

larval forms of an animal cannot be placed on the same level as

the fully developed creatures, and regarded as such, so we must

not transfer the denomination “eggs” to structures which have

only their first stages of development in common with eggs.

The existence of an egg in all cases presupposes sexual maturity;

but our larve are (much more strikingly than the viviparous

Aphides) marked out as immature animals by their develop-

mental form, and, from the condition of their genitalia (their

conversion into germ-stocks), are to be described as sexually

indifferent, or rather as asexual.

An egg, according to the ordinary conception of its conditions,

must, at least in its structure, present the possibility of fecunda-

tion; where this possibility is absolutely wanting, we have cer-

tamly not to do with an egg, but rather with an asexual repro-

ductive body.

Hitherto we have been accustomed to characterize structures

of this kind, produced freely in the body of the parent, as germ-

grains or spores, in opposition to eggs; if this name be regarded

as inapplicable in the present case (as in that of the Aphides),

from its being too general and morphologically unmeaning

(farblos), the name pscudovum might perhaps be recommended

for adoption—a name which has been employed by Huxley,

although certainly in a different and scarcely justifiable manner

(for the true eggs which are capable of spontaneous develop-

ment).

After the preceding statements, I need scarcely state expressly

that in the reproductive history of the Cecidomyie I see a case

of alternation of generations, approaching in the closest manner

172 Dr. R. Leuckart on Asexual Reproduction.

to the alternation of generations in the Aphides, but distinguished

from the usual forms of this mode of reproduction with larviform

nurses by the circumstance that the sexual individuals do not

from the first possess their ultimate form, but only acquire this

by a supplementary metamorphosis. The alternation of genera-

tions in the Distoma, however, presents us with an approxima-

tion to these conditions, inasmuch as in this case also the newly

born sexual animal (Cer caria) represents a creature which only

becomes matured into the definitive form after undergoing cer-

tain transformations.

Addition.

Since the preceding was written (in the middle of January 1865)

the viviparous Cecidomyide larvee have been uninterruptedly ob-

served by us. The larvee conveyed into a warm room thrive ad-

mirably, grow, and produce germs, the development of which

proceeds in a normal manner, whilst in the open air, as above

described, they are sooner or later destroyed by fatty degeneration.

In our climate, therefore, the propagation of the larvee must be

usually interrupted by the winter, to recommence as soon as the

warm weather sets in.

The abundant material for observation (even of the later stages

of development) now before us has gradually given us a tolerably

completeinsight intotheembryonic development of the pseudovum,

as will appear from the forthcoming memoir by M. Mecanikoff,

to whom I have handed over the material for further investigation.

Of this I will only anticipate one point—namely, that the large

balls which lie upen the embryonal yelk (with a blastoderm)

described by me above as the remains of the formative cells of

the vitellus, have proved to be so-called polar cells, which belong

to the hinder end of the germ-chamber, and, according to the

interesting discovery of M. Meczmkoff, which I can fully con-

firm, finally pass into the germ-stock of the young larva. The

formative cells of the vitellas have already disappeared in the

stages with a developed blastoderm (which alone were previously

observed by me), but are still present when the formation of the

latter commences. This error might have been avoided, if the

first processes of embryonic development had come earlier under

my observation. However, this has no influence on the concep-

tion of the conditions in general; in this respect I could only

now repeat, word for word, what I wrote at the time.

For the characterization of the larva, I may also state that it

has only two stigmata in the earlier phases of its existence, but

afterwards acquires a greater number (five pairs). In this later

condition, moreover, the granulation of the ventral plates is

somewhat different, and the first segment of the body is coalescent

eae

— oa ie

Mr. H. Seeley on Torynocrinus. 173

with the second, so that the accordance of the off-shoot with its

parent (at least in the Giessen larve) by no means appears to

be so complete as was affirmed by previous observers and also quite

recently by Von Siebold*, who has received a number of the larvae

for examination from Meinert.

The species to which the larva belongs can only be determined

hereafter, when we have the sexual animal before us. For the

present we can only say that it is different from Wagnev’s species

(with which, according to Siebold’s statements, Meinert’s species

is 1dentical).

XX.—WNotice of Torynocrinus and other new and little-known

Fossils from the Upper Greensand of Hunstanton, commonly

called the Hunstanton Red Rock. By Harry Sre ey, Ksq.,

F.G.S.

THE curious new crinoid genus here described was one of the

first found of the Red-Rock fossils. One species, chiefly known

from the separated joints of the column, is the Apiocrinite of old

writers onthe Hunstanton section; while the other, rarer and

more obscure, with a column fused into a rod, has passed unno-

ticed. This latter, which is the type species, commonly occurs

as short fragments of a slender cylindrical stem of uniform

thickness, and broken at both ends. But in the Woodwardian

Museum there may be seen three examples of the head, several

of the base, one of a dichotomous stem, and some showing the

coluinn to consist of thick joints. On these data the genus is

founded.

The calyz, like the column, is soldered into one mass, and is

inseparable from the stem, on the side of which it 1s placed, exactly

like the bowl of a ladle, at right angles to the usual position,

instead of being at the summit of the column. It is relatively

small, hemispherical exteriorly, smooth, and, as in Millericrinus,

appears to be made by two circles of five plates each (with the

addition, I think, of five interradials). The cup is relatively large,

with well-marked radiating vascular impressions. In each of

the five compartments of the narrow brachial margin there

are, on the inner part of the plate, two articular facets for arms.

In one example, three of these compartments are confluent

and regular, but the other two are irregular and separated by

calcareous interspaces. In Hugeniacrinus the calyx is some-

times set obliquely on the column, but in no other crinoid except

the Paleeozoie Cheirocrinus has it the singular spoon-like position

shown in the specimens described.

* Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zool. Bd. xv. p. 115.

174 Mr. H. Seeley on new and little-known Fossils

The column, which is about half the diameter of the calyx,

slightly enlarges for four or more times the length of the cup,

and, then contracting a little, terminates in a hollow cone. There

is also one reinarkable specimen, unfortunately imperfect, which

appears to show a branching division in the column.

The dase varies; but in all specimens it expands near the bot-

tom as it descends, either conically or into a thin plate like the

base of a Gorgonia. The upper columnar end, at a variable length,

seems to terminate in a conical cavity like that of the headpiece,

with which the cylindrical stem corresponds in diameter. In

this cavity I notice a circlet of twenty-five granules. The ordi-

nary plates of the column are twice as wide as high, but near

the articular end get deeper. There is nothing to indicate how

the two parts were connected, or how the dichotomous part of the

column came on.

On the whole it seems most nearly related to Millericrinus.

The species may be marked Torynocrinus canon. It is the

Koninckocrinus Agassizi, mihi, of my list in the ‘Annals’ for

Oct. 1864.

Another species from Hunstanton, which is doubtfully placed

in the same genus, should be named ?Zorynocrinus variolarius.

It is the Apiocrinus of authors, the Bourguetocrinus ellipticus

(Mill.) of Mr. Rose [Ann. Phil. 1836], Bourguetocrinus rugosus

(D’Orb.) of Mr. Wiltshire [Geologist, 1859], and the K. rugosus

of my list [Ann. Nat. Hist. 1864].

Of this 1 only know the base and parts of the column. The

base is an expanded plate contracting conically to the size of

the thick cylindrical cheese-like pieces forming the column.

These vary in thickness, but are rarely more than half as high

as wide. The articular surfaces are ornamented with concentric

rows of pustules, generally very close together; the outer sur-

face is smooth.

Ammonites ochetonotus (Seeley).

A compressed shell with subparallel sides, a back widely chan-

nelled, and moderate umbilicus. It is often a foot in diameter.

The umbilicus is as high as the mouth is wide, moderately deep,

varying with the variety, flat at the periphery and oblique,

making an obtuse angle with the side. It commonly shows at its

outer limit a few large tubercles, in which in the young state the

close, rounded, flexuous ribs which then ornamented it were

knotted.

The ratio in which the height of the side increases, taken at

each half whorl, is 15: 2:8; and the whorls are coiled nearly

parallel to the back. In large specimens the sides are smooth,

gently inflated, shghtly converging, and round rapidly on nearing

the back.

from the Upper Greensand of Hunstanton. 175

The back is hollow—not ploughed, to use a carpenter’s term,

as in A. faleatus, but with a central concave channel, shallow and

wide, occupying a third of the width. In some varieties it is

margined with distant slightly elevated tubercles.

Specimens in which the mouth is wide have the ribs more

strongly marked, and continued to a larger diameter. About five

appear to collect in each tubercle, and one or two between, all

dying off insensibly towards both back and umbilicus. In these

thicker forms the sides converge more rapidly near the back. It

is essentially an inflated form of Ammonites lautus in which the

ribs and tubercles are obliterated.

In the more inflated varieties the umbilicus becomes very large,

and the sides round into it. In these the base of the side is mar-

gined by eight or nine rather sharp large tubercles. In a young

state there were on the sides many close straight nbs, but they

disappear with a diameter of 2 inches.

The septa are complicated. The upper lateral lobe is much

notched and digitated, and divided by a five-fingered branch into

two parts, of which the outer one is the longer. The lateral

saddle, in the middle of the side, is large, has one major branch

on each side much digitated, and behind it two or three minor

branches, which probably vary with age: it terminates in a large

central branch, with three or four fingers on each side and one

in the middle, all well notched. There are two inferior lateral

lobes and an inferior saddle.

Diameter 6 in.; greatest height of mouth 22in., height of side

24 in., height of umbilicus 2? in., height of whorl opposite

mouth 27in. The back has no real limit, but may be stated as

an inch wide.

I am not acquainted with any Cretaceous Ammonite having a

channeled back and smooth sides. Hence this is readily distin-

guished from all described species. A. solenonotus, mihi, of my

list in the ‘ Annals,’ Oct. 1864, was the name then used for the

inflated, ribbed, tubercled variety of this species.

Ammonites spherotus (Seeley).

A compressed shell with flat converging sides, a round back,

and small umbilicus; devoid of ornament. Height 4 inches,

height of mouth 24 inches, greatest height of umbilicus 2 inch ;

width of base of mouth 154, inch, width of back 2 inch.

The small umbilicus is bordered by a flat and but slightly in-

clined periphery, which makes a sharp angle with the side. Tbe

inner halves of the sides are nearly parallel, and converge

slightly, but the outer halves converge more rapidly. The width

of the base of the mouth, where the shell is half a whorl smaller,

is 11 inch, and the back is relatively wider than at the larger

176 Mr. UH. Seeley on new and little-known Fossils

diameter. There are on the sides of a whorl about cight or nine

narrow flexuous ribs but little elevated and only appearing on the

outer or converging parts of the sides. The back is perfectly

rounded into the ches so that it cannot be said to have a limit.

The septa are complicated, apparently with many saddles and

lobes.

I suppose this shell to be that hitherto included in Hunstanton

lists as A. complanatus (Mant.), with which it has no near affinity,

rather recalling the A. bicurvatus of Michelin ; but its nearest re-

lations appear to be with A. Austini (Sharpe), pl. 12, Paleont.

Cret. Moll., from which it is distinguished by its small umbilicus,

compressed form, and smooth shell, which at the utmost separate

: asa variety. The A. alternatus of S. Woodward had a round

ack.

Ammonites proboscideus (Sow.).

The species is given by Morris as from the Gault of Cambridge.

I have neither found nor heard of it there. One specimen has

been obtained from the Gault in the Ely pit.

Nautilus simplex (Sow.).

I only know this fossil by the figure of a cast in the ‘Min.

Conch.;’ and with that this very beautiful Hunstanton fossil agrees

in the straight distant septa and the size of the umbilicus. It cor-

responds well, too, with Ooster’s figure. Externally it is much like

N. Bouchardianus, for which recent figures of it might well pass.

The two species are probably varieties of each other.

Plicatula minuta (Seeley).

A small shell attached by the umbo, with an oblique axis ;

oue valve flat and the other convex.

Length } inch ; width =, inch.

Form ovate, lower valve moderately inflated. It is ornamented

with numerous fine ribs, which radiate from the umbo, are some-

times dichotomous, and vary greatly in the degree of their eleva-

tion and continuity, occasionally appearing as pseudo-spines laid

flat on the shell. The attached Es is generally small, and | have

never seen it equal to a third of the length of the shell ; in the

upper valve it produces a corresponding ‘elevation, which is gene-

rally worn off, giving specimens the look of Anomic. The upper

valve is flat or a little cone: we, sometimes very finely marked

with radiating striz, otherwise imbricated.

It might be supposed that this is the young of Plicatula in-

flata; but the fact that specimens im the Cambridge Greensand,

where it is not rare, all occur of the same size and quite resem-

bling this of Hunstanton, seems to point conclusively to these

being adult shells.

from the Upper Greensand of Hunstanton. 177

Mantell’s Plicatula spinosa, which is the young of P. inflata, is

a very different shell. Woodward’s Plicatula sigillina is attached

by the entire lower valve, and is of a different form.

Spondylus gibbosus (D’Orb.).

This may be described as an attached form of Lima obesa.

In the early state the shell was attached, but afterwards became

free. It is symmetrical, about two-thirds as wide as long. The

upper valve is remarkable for a degree of inflation unusual in

the genus, its height being equal to about half thelength. From

the apex it expands in a wedge-form for three-fifths of its length,

and then contracts semicircularly. The ribs are small, close,

without spines, and seemingly one elevated and one depressed

alternately ; but as the surface of the shell is not well preserved,

this is not certain. Length 1 inch. It may be regarded as a

variety of S. gibbosus (D’Orb.). The same shell occurs in the

Cambridge Greensand.

Ostrea vesicularis (Lam.).

A small shell, quite flat, attached to a Perna.

Ostrea curvirostris (Nills.).

This shell differs a little from Upper-Chalk forms in being

broader and less round posteriorly, but it is matched exactly with

specimens from the Lowest Chalk of Burwell.

Exogyra conica (D’Orb.).

This is the shell figured in ‘ T. Crétacés,’ pl. 478. figs. 5-8. I

fail to see the advantage of associating it with Sowerby’s shell.

It is the fossil mentioned as #. conica in my list of Greensand

Bivalves, and is not uncommon in the Cambridge Greensand.

Exogyra Rauliniana (D’Orb.), var. arcula.

This may be described as an Hxogyra with the mode of growth

of Ostrea hippopodium. The shell is a broad ellipse, with the

spire slightly coiled in, and the free valve increasing in growth

at its base, the lines being curves, which extend from the apex

round by the base for nearly half the circumference. The at-

tached valve increases by a nearly equal amount of growth all

round, and projects above the upper valve. Attached by the

whole of the base. It wants both the ridging and folding of

E. laciniata, and in the regular growth of the side resembles L.

Rauliniana. Similar shells occur in the Cambridge Greensand,

and differ from HK. Rauliniana sufficiently to make a distinct

name a convenience.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvi. 12

178 Mr. H. Seeley on new and little-known Fossils

Hinnites trilinearis (Seeley), var.

An irregular shell, about 6 inches long and nearly as wide,which

has the convex valve very moderately inflated, the other valve

flat or coneave; so that the shell has a compressed aspect. In

the young state it nearly resembled Cambridge examples of H.

trilinearis in the aspect of the convex valve; but the ribs begin

to disappear before the shell is half grown, so that the greater

part of it is nearly smooth, being marked with the eccentric hnes

of growth and faint prolongations of the mbs. The concave

valve resembles the flat valve of H. trilinearis im having the ribs

with which it is ornamented much more dense than on the large

valve; they are rather more dense than in Cambridge speci-

mens, and, instead of getting wider apart with age, get rather

closer ; they extend to the margin of the shell.

Hinnites Salteri (Seeley).

Another large species of this genus is known by a convex valve

of growth more regular than usual, measuring 4 inches in each

diameter. Itis about as much inflated as the large valve of Pecten

maximus, and ornamented by a large number of (about twenty-five)

primary ribs, which radiate from the umbo, are little raised, and-

sharp. Commonly between each two ribs there is another in

the middle of the iniercostal space, much less elevated ; and on

each side of this are frequently seen one or two tertiary ribs. The

whole intercostal space is densely marked with fine radiating

strie. H, trilinearis is the species to which it comes nearest.

Perna sulcata (Sow.).

Two distinct varieties occur—one the common typical form, the

other that partly suleated shell cccurring in the Grés Vert, which

in its young state is quite smooth. I suspect that the shell de-

scribed from the Cambridge Greensand as Arca sulcata may be a

dwarf race of this species.

Perna lissa (Seeley).

Fragmentary valves, indicating a very peculiar species about

four inches long. Both valves are moderately convex, about as

much so as in P. Crispi ; the right valve seemingly most inflated.

The anterior side of the shell is truncated. Its axis is oblique,

like that of an Avicula. It is gradually more compressed pos-

teriorly, and quite smooth, or only marked with a few regular im-

brications of growth like those in the Chalk shell Perna striata.

Its affinities are with P. ¢enuwis on the one hand, and with P.

transversa on the other.

from the Upper Greensand of Hunstanton. 179

Perna transversa (Seeley).

Had this shell occurred in the Oolites there would have been a

strong temptation to refer it to Myacites. It is transversely ob-

long, with the two pairs of sides subparallel. The umbo on the

anterior margin is recurved. ‘The anterior side is short and in-

flected ; the hinge-line is at right angles with it. The posterior

side is moderately compressed. The thin shell, which is not

quite regular in its growth, is only ornamented with regular im-

bricated lines, which, at distances of about four of these, have a

tendency to thicken into ridges. Itis 2 inches long, and 1? inch

deep.

Avicula cuneata (Seeley).

A small species, with an anterior ear. Anterior side straight 5

hinge-line short ; posterior side depressed, lunate; seemingly

traces of a small posterior ear; base round. Smooth, being

only marked by faint lines of growth. Length} inch ; width

rather more than + inch. From the middle the shell narrows

to the apex.

Terebratula biplcata (Brocchi, Sow.).

There probably does not exist in the kingdom such materials

for the study of this species as may be found in the boxes of

Messrs. Westmoreland and Hammond, the keepers of the light-

house at Hunstanton (March 1863). My largest specimen is 2

inches long and 1? inch wide.

Kingena lima (Def.).

The largest specimen is 14 inch long, ? inch wide, and 2 inch

thick. It shows the pustules well; they are distant and arranged

in lines of growth. The fossil is not rare, and is perhaps more

variable than in any other locality.

Cardiaster suborbicularis (Def.).

Of this fossil, besides the typical form, two very marked varieties

occur.

8. In this the length is 12 inch, and width the same. The

outline of the side is more orbicular. The apex is nearer the

middle of the shell, and consequently the anterior sulcus is a

little longer. The shell is more depressed, and a transverse sec-

tion 1s a large curve ; so that the sides are more inflated, and there

is no apical prominence. It much resembles C. granulosus.

y. The other variety reminds me of Epiaster gibbus. The apex

is just behind the anterior third of the shell ; and from it the up-

per surface slopes down in every direction, conically. In trans-

verse section the sides make more than a right angle and in

. 12*

180 Mr. H. Seeley on new and little-known Fossils

longitudinal section an angle of 130°. It is as wide as long,

widest at the anterior third, Posterior side short. Height 1-5,

inch ; length 143 inch, and as wide. Another example gives

1/4 long, and as wide ; height 1;inch. In this latter the apex is

more anterior. Having examined about sixty specimens, I believe

these three varieties may be traced into each other; but it is ne-

cessary to have the means of distinguishing any part of the

series.

Salenia (Hyposalenia) Wiltshirti (Seeley).

Round, moderately depressed ; disk small and convex; anus

protuberant, oval; mouth deeply sunk.

The disk is smooth, punctate, graven with short lines, and

notched round the circumference.

An ocular plate is nearly semicircular, marked on its outer

margin by two small notches (one on each side of the ambulacral

granules), and separated from the genital plates by deep narrow

notches, which are in a line with the interambulacral tubercles

and terminate in a large puncture. At the inner apex of the

plate, in a line with the ambulacra, is a large puncture, which di-

vides the semicircular margin of the plate into quadrants, each of

which is crossed in the middle at right-angles by a short narrow

slit. The inner halves of these quadrants 3 are again divided by a

mesial puncture, which is just as distant from ne shit as the punc-

ture on its other side terminating the sutural notch. The trans-

verse slits mentioned are so arranged that they radiate opposite

to each other in fives round the genital openings, which are in

the centre of the genital plates.

There are six tubercles in each of the two interambulacral rows,

of which three large ones are on the side and three small ones on

the base. The plates of each row are confluent, not being sepa-

rated by granules; but the rows are separated from each other

by a sinuous double row of very large granules, between which ap-

pears to be another double row much more minute. There are

also a few large granules on the ambulacral border of the plates.

The bosses of the tubercles are not greatly larger than

these large granules; they are placed on elevated conical bases,

the tops of which are crenulate. Ambulacra very narrow and

straight, consisting of two rows of twenty dense granules, rather

smaller than those between the ambulacra.

Width 1 inch; height 3 inch, height to the margin of disk

44 inch ; width of disk nearly ? inch.

I have named this beautiful species in honour of the excellent

Secretary of the Paleeontographical Society, who, in 1859, was

the first to make known the fossil wealth of the Red Rock.

from the Upper Greensand of Hunstanton. 181

Bernericea contracta (Seeley).

This species nearly resembles B. Clementina (D’Orb.), of which

it is a good variety. It is attached, orbicular, and has the cells

arranged like an expanded fan; they are very distinct and

narrow, being about twice as long in proportion to their width as

in B. Clementina, and contract from the point where they first

appear to the aperture, which is very small. This tapering cha-

racter of the cells suffices to distinguish it from all other forms.

Proboscina dilatata (D’Orb.), var.

This fossil is about intermediate between D’Orbigny’s figures

of Idmonea dilatata and I. virgula, being nearer to the former.

It appears to differ a little, too, im having the mouths more con-

tracted.

Cellulipora sulcata (Seeley).

The form of the colony in this species is similar to that in C.

spongiosa, with which it is most nearly related. It is similarly

composed of undulating bosses and depressions. Each sub-

colony is placed on a boss, from which the cells, which are de-

pressed, not very distinct, rather wide, and contracted at the

mouth, radiate. The intermediate spaces, which are thus in

most cases depressed, and never elevated, are smooth, being formed

of abortive cells. Diastopora Sowerbia (Lonsd.) belongs to this

genus, and is nearly related and may even be this species ; but,

from the important characters being overlooked in the description

and figure, I cannot determine the point.

Reptomulticava.

A form nearly related to R. collis and R. mamilla, but irregular

in growth, twice as high as wide, and twice the size of those

species, more resembling D’ Orbigny’s Ceriopora digitata. The

cells are more dense than in collis, and generally separated by

walls so thin as to be hexagonal except at the contracted top,

where they are distant, round, and protuberant. It is a common

fossil, and may be marked R. favus.

Chenendopora expansa (Benett), var.

This fossil differs much from Miss Benett’s figure, being an

elongated cone the cup of which extends nearly to the base; but I

have Warminster specimens intermediate between the type and

this fossil, which, I suppose, bears to it much the same relation

as those lobed varieties of Hallirhoa which are united under the

specific name costata (Lamx.) do to each other.

Scyphia tessellata (Seeley).

In form and general characters this species resembles S. er7-

182 Mr. H. Seeley on new and little-known Hunstanton Fossils.

brosa (Phil.) and S. Zeppei (Reuss). It is tall, subcylindrical,

tapering slightly basewards, more or less irregular, occasionally

contracting, sometimes expanding. Ornamented by cell-hke

apertures, which are-nearly square, being higher than wide, ar-

ranged in longitudinal lines, and also necessarily forming circles.

As it increases in size these longitudinal columns give off at

intervals lateral branches, so that the cell does not increase in

size very rapidly. At a diameter of ? inch one example has

twenty-eight columns of pores.

Grinding a specimen down, it is seen to be a hollow tube, the

walls keeping about an even thickness from base upwards, at a

diameter of 2 inch being nearly } inch thick. The pores on the

outside pass through the walls and open on the inside. _Inter-

tubular tissue extremely fine and reticulated. A specimen from

Hunstanton bed no. 2 is 4 inches long and nearly an inch and a

quarter wide. It is not rare in the Cambridge Greensand.

Edaphodus Huczleyi of my list (Annals, Oct. 1864) is only 4.

Sedgwicki (Ag.). The other new fossils from Hunstanton are

eminently Cambridge species, and will appear in the ‘ Catalogue

of Cretaceous Invertebrata in the Woodwardian Museum.’

With these descriptions ends the series of papers in which I

have attempted to illustrate the literature, the rock, and the

fossils of the Red Limestone of Hunstanton. The considerations

on which I have chiefly relied in determining its place among

rocks are the following:—To the north of Cambridgeshire, be-

tween the Chalk and the Kimmeridge Clay, there are but two

formations instead of three. Hunstanton Red Rock and Speeton

Clay in Yorkshire, and Hunstanton Red Rock and Carstone in

Norfolk, correspond to Greensand, Gault, and Shanklin Sands

in Cambridgeshire and the south. ‘he rocks are divided dif-

ferently, and are clearly the result of two very different series of

causes acting in distinct geographical areas. And as the changes

of level in which the geological periods terminated were on so

grand a scale as to change the rock-making material and to

cause the immigration, emigration, and partial extinction of life

in what was then the sea of much of Europe, it is almost

certain that even this little area of the Wolds must have parti-

cipated to some extent in such vast heaving undulations. And

therefore the Hunstanton Rock, graduating into both of tbe

deposits on which it rests, and into that one (the Chalk) which is

over it, is far more likely to have been parted from the beds below

by one of those great changes of level which made the Green-

sand and the Gault than by any independent oscillation, which

would have been exactly confined to its own little area. There-

fore it follows that the Carstone formation will be the equivalent

On the Verrucarie found in Lombardy. 183

of the Speeton Clay*, and either that this latter bed in its

newest part represents the Shanklin Sands, while the Red Rock

represents the Gault and Upper Greensand, or that the Red Rock

is Upper Greensand, and that the upper part of the Speeton

Clay is Gault. There is no other alternative. Now, as the Clay

deposit was (as is admitted on all hands) continued through the

Shanklin-Sands period at Speeton, very much more would it be

continued through the Gault period, which was but a return to

the geographical conditions of the Kimmeridge Clay. So the

Speeton Clay must, in its upper part, be Shanklin Sands and

Gault ; and the Red Rock can only be Upper Greensand, as its

fossils indicated.

I had hoped to give some indications of the subsequent his-

tory of these fossil species after they disappeared before the en-

croaching Chalk ; but as soon as may be those remarks willappear,

in a lecture given before the Yorkshire Philosophical Society in

December 1864, “On the Origin of the Superposition and

Sequence of British Strata, and the Laws which have determined

the Distribution of Life in Space, through Time, up to actual

Nature.”

XXI.—Notule Lichenologice. No. III.

By the Rev. W. A. Leicuron, B.A., F.L.S.

By the generous liberality of Prof. Santo Garovaglio of Pavia,

Italy, I have been favoured with a copy of his‘ Tentamen Disposi-

tionis Methodicee Lichenum in Longobardia nascentium,’ 4to,

Mediol., 1865. Of this elaborate work only a portion has been

as yet published, containing the unilocular and bilocular spored

Verrucarie. It is the result of a very comprehensive examination

of specimens ina living state and in their native localities, and also

of allthe published collections since the time of Acharius, as well

as of extensive collections in his own herbarium and those of many

continental lichenologists. The work is illustrated with five

large plates of microscopical details most carefully prepared by

his learned coadjutor, Dr. Joseph Gibelli, and is to be accompanied

with actual specimens so far as practicable.

The Professor limits his genus Verrucaria to those angiocarpous

Lichens which have a simple homogeneous nucleus, with a car-

bonaceous black epithecium and a crustaceous thallus, thus exclu-

ding all those whose thallus is foliaceous or squamose, which have

been comprised in the genus by the celebrated Dr. W. Nylander

and others.

He regards the spore and the number of its cells as furnishing the

* Geological Magazine, No. 12, p. 262, &e.

184 Prof. Santo Garovaglio on the Species of

most valuable characters for constituting sections of the genus.

The presence or absence of paraphyses, the situation of the male

organs (spermogonta and spermatocalia) the figure of the ascus,with

the arrangement of the spores in its interior, and sometimes also

the variations of the thallus, position of the apothecia, and size of

the spores are made available for the characters of the secondary

divisions, termed cohortes; whilst the multiplied modes in which

the exterior and interior organs combine themselves form the

basis of his definition of the species. The chemical reaction of

iodine, form of the pyenides, and the sterigmata and spermatia

are rejected as furnishing no available characters.

The author rejects all the interminable subtle and minute

divisions into innumerable genera of the Massalongian school,

and holds a middle course between that and the collective or

ageregate school.

The genus, thus limited, comprises no less than thirty-five ge-

nera of the Massalongians : viz. Acrocordia, Mass., Amphoridium,

Mass., Arthopyrenia, Mass., Blastodesmia, Mass., Bunodea, Mass.,

Campylacia, Mass., Geisleria, Nitschke, Gongylia, Korb., Lep-

torhaphis, Korb., Lithoicea, Mass., Lithospheria, Beck, Korb.,

Microthelia, K6rb., Paraphysorma, Mass., Polyblastia, Mass.,

Porphyriospora, Mass., Pyrenula, auct. plur., Sagedia, auct. plur.

p- p-» Seyestrella, Fries, Korb., Spheromphale, Reich., Korb.,

Sporodictyon, Mass., Staurothele, Norm., Stigmatomma, Korb.,

Sychnogonia, Kirb., Thelidium, Mass., Thelotrema, Hepp. (non

Ach.), Tichothecium, Flot., Thr ombium, Wallr., Verrucaria, auct.

plur., We iene. Gry &e., saul more than 200 of their

species, and is thus characterized :—

VERRUCARIA.

Apothecium verruceforme, primo clausum, deinceps poro per-

tusum, duplici instructum excipulo proprio; interius nu-

cleum solitarium obvolvens, ceraceo-membranaceum, molle,

primitus hyalinum, vel pallide coloratum, desuperne pede-

tentim nigrescens; exterius durum, fragile, mox aterrimum,

fere corneo-carbonaceum, rarissime paral majorem mi-

noremyve apothecii superioris partem tegens. Spore varie.

Sterigmata simplicia.

Each species is described at length, its synonymy amply

developed, and valuable adnotationes as to prominent characters

and allied plants appended.

Space only permits us here to give the arrangement of the

species, with references to such figures and Exsiccati as are

generally in the possession of or accessible to British licheno-

logists.

Verrucaria found in Lombardy. 185

Secrio I.

Verrucarie uniloculares. (Kuverrucariz.)

Omnes saxicole et hermaphrodite (i. e. spermatocalia una

cum sporis in eodem nucleo) ; paraphyses nullze vel obsolete ;

asci substantia mucilaginoso-floccosa, interdum in fila subtiliora

producti, obvallati, 8-spori; spore normales incolorate, uni-

loculares, rarissime una alterave biplurilocularis, per etatem

passim fuscescentes. Thallus varius. Hypothallus distinctus

modo, modo obliteratus.

Cohors I.

Thallo mucoso-gelatinoso, continuo ; apotheciis parvulis, emersis,

nudis; epithecio dimidiato vel subintegro; sporis magnitu-

dine admodum variis.

1. V. aberrans, Garov.= V. chlorotica, Leight. Exs. 34; Anzi,

Lich. rar. Long. 245 (non Scher, Exs. 253, neque Heppe, 93,

94, 4:35).

Very distinct from V. ethiobola, V. hydrela, and V. submersa,

on account of the spores being variable in size.

2. V. ethiobola, Ach.! L. Univ. 292.

Graphica Acharii descriptio V. ethivbole adeo bene nostre

respondet, ut nullomodo dubitare queam de recta speciei appel-

latione. (Non V. Leighton, Heppe, 95, neque V. margacea,

Anzai, Lich. rar. Long. 287.)

Cohors Il.

Thallo tartareo-areolato, crassiusculo; apotheciis parvis, omnino

demersis, velamine thallodico destitutis, superficieque thallo

adzquata ; epithecio integro vel dimidiato, tunic concolori

arcte heerente; sporis magnitudine varus.

3. V. plumbea, Ach.=Scher. Exs. 102? Leight. Ang. Lich.

t.19.f.5; Heppe, 223; Scher. Exs. 643.

4. V. glaucina, Ach.= V. lecidioides, Heppe, 682, 683 ; Anzi,

Lich. rar. Long. 366. V. spherospora, ibid. 240.

5. V. fuscella, Ach.=Heppe, 426, 427; Leight. Ang. Lich.

t. 7. f. 2 (haud bona). V. glaucina, Heppe, 90.

6. V. Anziana, Garov. = V. margacea, Wahl. (teste Anzio) ;

Anzi, Lich. rar. Long. 287. V. pretermissa, Anzai, ibid. 243.

(Non V. Leightonit, Heppe, 95.)

Cohors ILI.

Thallo ab initio gelatinoso-membranaceo, dein tartareo-areolato;

apotheciis yelamine obductis thallodico continuo, vix unquam

186 Prof. Santo Garovaglio on the Species of

in furfurem soluto, ad lentem subdiaphano ; epithecio integro,

rarius dimidiato; sporis magnitudine varus.

7. V. hydrela, Ach.= Moug. & Nest. 952; Scher. Exs. 521;

Anzi, Lich. rar. Ven. 153. V. levata, Leight. Ang. Lich. t. 19.

fol.

Subspecies :—V. submersa, Scher. (non V. submersa, Borr.

teste Leightonio Ang. Lich. p. 62). V. papillosa, Rabenh. Exs.

572. V. chlorotica, Hepp. 94. V. hydrela, Gwackh. 29a. V.

submersa, Hepp. 93. V. eleeina, Scher. Exs. 590. V. acro-

telloides, Mass. 23. V. mucosa, Lieb. Ard. 317. Pyrenula

Funckii, Funck, Crypt. 658. —Lithoicea eleomelena, Rab. 333 ;

Anazi, Lich. rar. Ven. 153.

Cohors IV.

Thallo jam primitus tartareo-areolato, subsquamosulo, crassius-

culo; apotheciis junioribus velamine thallodico, mox detrito,

tandem in furfurem soluto evanidove, magis minusve obductis ;

epithecio integro vel dimidiato, interdum juxta basin a tunica

sejuncto; sporis magnitudine variis.

&. Wi mgrescens,, Vers. — Weight: Ang. Iich-yt. 27. tole

Hepp. 433 & 434; Moug. & Nestl. 1065; Scher. Exs. 439 &

284; Massal. Exs. 172 & 21; Leight. Ang. Lich. t. 23. f. 2?

Anzi, Lich. rar. Ven. 158.

A most variable ing,

submersa, and, on the other, into V. macrostoma.

V. maura, Wahl., has an affinity with V. nigrescens, but is dis-

tinguished by the epithecium being thick and coalescent at the

base.

V. Leightonii, Hepp, n. 95, though a remarkable plant, yet

seems scarcely distinct from a var. of V. nigrescens.

Subspecies 1. V. collematodes, Garov. Thallo tartareo, orbi-

culari-determinato vel subeffuso, rimoso-areolato, subsquainaceo,

areolis crassiusculis, m sicco planis, discretis, sordade castaneo-

fuscis, madore in massam contiguam, verrucoso-rugulosam, fere

eelatinosam turgescentibus, coloris olivaceo- renin ee apotheciis

infrequentibus, vix perspicuis ; epithecio tunic concolori arcte

herente, et subtus nucleum producto; sporis 0°0171 usque

0:0185 millim. longis, 0-°0071-0:0085 latis.

On the stones of breakwaters.

Subspecies 2. V. macrostoma, Duf.=Leight. Ang. Lich. t. 21.

f. 4; Mass. Exs. 194 a, B, 21 & 195; Anzi, Lich. rar. Venet.

159 & 160; Leight. Lich. Brit. Exs. 229; Ang. Lich. t. 21.

9. V. tristis, Kremp.= Mass. Ale. Lich. t. 4. f. 12-16; Anzai,

Lich. rar. Long. 241.

Verrucaria found in Lombardy. 187

Cohors V.

Thallo farinoso, tenui, erimuloso, passim obliterato ; apotheciis

mox nudis et sessilibus; epithecio subintegro vel dimidiato ;

sporis medize magnitudinis vel parvulis.

10. V. Dufourer, DC.=Moug. & Nestl. 953; Hepp. 436 ;

Anzi, Lich. rar. Ven. 152. V. concinna, Borr. apud Leight.

Ang. Lich. t. 22. f.3? (excl. V. Dufourei, Leight. Ang. Lich.

t. 22./f. 4),

11. V. decussata, Garov.= Anzi, Lich. rar. Ven. 151, 148, 155;

Leight. Ang. Lich. t. 24. f.3? Mass. Exs. 212; Hepp. 429.

Cohors VI.

Thallo tartareo-farmoso (interdum rimoso vel verrucoso), passim

evanido ; apotheciorum hemispheerio altero innato, altero per

eetatem soluto et elabente ; epithecio vario, plerumque dimi-

diato ; nucleo parvo, sphzrico ; sporis mediam magnitudinem

eequantibus, aut superantibus.

12. V. epipolea, Ach. = Scher. Exs. 441; Anzi, Lich. rar.

Long. 247; Leight. Ang. Lich. t. 25. f. 4? Hepp. 221.

13. V. cinereo-rufa, Scher.! Spicil. 338. In habit near to

V. epipolea, but distinguished readily by the size and disposition

of the spores.

Cohors VII.

Thallo tartareo-amylaceo, effuso vel determinato, in verrucas sive

pustulas elevato, passim subeequali et farinoso ; apotheciis ip-

sius thalli verrucis omnino inclusis vel magis minusve extan-

tibus; epithecio vario; nucleo amplissimo, in forma am-

pulle, amphore vel sphere; sporis maximis 0:0256-0:0327

millim. long., 0°0156—0:0199 millim. latis.

14, V. papularis, Fr.!= Mass. Exs. 250? Leight. Ang. Lich.

t.19.f.3? Leight. Lich. Brit. Exs. 140!

15. V. Hochstetteri, Pr.!= Hepp. 432 ; Anzi, Lich. rar. Long.

409; Scher. Exs. 292; Mass. Exs. 251.

Cohors VIII.

Thallo tartareo, maculari, cum matrice plerumque confuso ; apo-

theciis saxi scrobibus plane immersis, solo apice extante, tan-

dem elabentibus ; epithecio brevi, vario; nucleo mediocri, in

forma spherg, amphore vel ampulle ; sporis grandiusculis.

16. V. purpurascens, Hoffm. P). Lich. t. 15. f. 1=Scher. Exs.

440 ; Anzi, Lich. rar. Long. 246; Mass. Exs. 207; Heppe, 431.

17. V. calciseda, DC. = Hepp. 428, 691; Hoffm. Pl. Lich.

188 Prof. Santo Garovaglio on the Species of

t. 12. f. 2-4; Leight. Lich. Brit. Exs. 30! Scher. Exs. 104,

103 ; Moug. & Nestl. 951; Anzi, Lich. rar. Long. 865? Mass.

Exs. 9; Anzi, Lich. rar. Venet. 146, 185, 150?, 147.

Srecrio II.

Verrucariea biloculares.

Saxicol vel corticole ; hermaphrodite, monoice vel dioicee ;

epithecium plerumque dimidiatum, raro integrum ; paraphyses

null, obsolete vel distincte, simplices vel ramosze, Immo tra-

beculate ; asci clavati, ventricosi vel cylindrici; spore intra

ascos alterna vice ad lineam oblique superposite, vel duplici

triplave serie absque certo ordine distribute, fere semper bilocu-

lares, rarissime una alterave uni- triloculares, loculis amplis

vel angustatis. Thallus varius. Hypothallus distinctus modo,

modo obliteratus.

Cohors I.

Paraphysibus nullis; ascis elongato-ventricosis obovatisve, fuga-

cibus, octosporis ; sporis in duplicem seriem, turbato ordine,

dispositis, plerumque bilocularibus, interdum in eadem specie

uni- bi- trilocularibus, loculis anguste conicis. (Species omnes

saxicole, hermaphrodite.)

18. V. Pertusatii, Garov. Thallo effuso, primum mucoso-

eelatinoso, dein subtartareo, erimuloso, tenui, fusco-nigro ; apo-

theciis minutis, omnino superficialibus, sphericis, atris ; epithecio

valido, ultra dimidiam nuclei partem producto, infra a tunica

soluto, flexoque deorsum ; paraphysibus obsoletis ; sporis bilo-

cularibus, 0°0285-0:0356 millim. longis, 0°0142-0-0185 millim.

latis.

On subalpine moist granitic or micaceous rocks.

19. V. olivacea, Fr.=Scher. Exs. 642; Hepp. 226; Anzi,

Lich. rar. Long. 408.

20. V. Ungeri, Flot.= Leight. Ang. Lich. t. 22. f. 4; Hepp.

441; Anzi, Lich. rar. Long. 238; E. Bot. Suppl. 2791.

[Prof. Garovaglio claims to be the discoverer of this species,

which he communicated to Flotow, Scherer, &c., in 1846-48,

It is but just to remark that the plate of V. Dufoura (K. Bot,

Suppl. 2791) is dated Aug. 1, 1884; and in the letterpress

Mr. Borrer states that the plant was discovered at Chedder in

1833. ]

21. V. heterospora, Garov. Thallo maculari-determinato,

tartareo-farinoso, continuo, minute rugoso-verrucoso ; apotheciis

parvulis, globoso-conoideis, ad apicem umbilicato-depressis,

tandem pertusis; ascis citissime evanidis; sporis uni- bi- tri-

Verrucaria found in Lombardy. 189

locularibus, maximis 0:0360-0:0444 millim. long., 0°0085-

0-0099 latis.

Ad saxa calearea.

Hepp. 699, 692, & 440 approach this species.

92. V. scrobicularis, Garov. = Leight. Ang. Lich. t. 25. fi 25

Anzi, Lich. rar. Ven. 134; Hepp. 698.

Cohors II.

Paraphysibus ramosis, persistentibus ; ascis cylindricis, elongatis,

octosporis ; sporis alterna vice ad lineam oblique superpositis,

pilocularibus, loculis late conicis. (Species saxicole vel corti-

cole, monoice.)

Saxicole.

93. V. conoidea, Fr. = Leight. Ang. Lich. t. 26. f. 2; Lich.

Brit. Exs. 31; Mass. Exs. 319, 280; Anzi, Lich. rar. Long. 339;

Hepp. 697.

Corticole.

24. V. gemmata, Ach.=Moug. & Nestl. 1064; Leight. Ang.

Lich, t. 18. f. 4&5; Exs. 136; Hepp. 104; Anzi, Lich. rar.

Ven. 1382.

25. V. biformis, Borr.=E. Bot. Suppl. t. 2617. f.1; Leight.

Ang. Lich. t. 16. f. 25 Exs. 100.

Cohors X11.

Paraphysibus filiformibus vel articulatis ; ascis elongato-clavatis,

ventricosis ; sporis in duplicem seriem intra ascos distributis,

pilocularibus, loculis conico-elongatis, duplo ad minus lon-

gioribus quam in ima basi latis. (Species omnes corticolee,

monoice vel dioice *)

26. V. confusa, Garov. = Lembidium polycarpum, Flork, Ra-

benh. Exs. 483. Thallo effuso, rimuloso-verruculoso, vel fari-

noso-leproso, lurido, opaco, fusco-cinereo, passim evanido ; apo-

theciis sat grandibus, primum cruste immersis, dein illam magis

minusve supereminentibus, opacis, exterius intusque atris; epl-

thecio integro, crasso, cum tunica confuso; ascis elongato-

clavatis ; sporis 0:0313-0:0342 millim. long., 0:0128-0:0142

lat., bilocularibus, loculis conico-elongatis.

97. V. micula, Flot.= Hepp. 108 ; Leight. Ang. Lich. t. 18.

f.2; Anzi, Lich. rar. Ven. 124,

Spore ipse mox fuliginosee ab omnibus varietatibus V7. epi-

dermidis perbelle distinguunt.

190 Reaction of Iodine in Lichens.

28. V. epidermidis, Fr. et auct.

A. Var. Frazini, Garov.= Mass. Exs. 298 & 299.

Subvar. diminuta, Garov. = Hepp. 458, 454; Leight. Exs,

288; Anzai, Lich. rar. Ven. 127.

Subvar. afomaria, Garov.= Hepp. 456; Leight. Exs. 344.

B. Var. analepta, Garov.

Subvar. spectabilis, Garov.

Subvar. Lapponina, Garov.=Anzi, Lich. rar. Long. 347.

Subvar. vulgaris, Garov. = Scher. Exs. 287; Moug. &

Nestl. 364; Mass. Exs. 185, 186; Hepp. 451 & 452;

Leight. Exs. 29?

Subvar. diminuta, Garov.= Mass. Exs. 258.

Subvar. Jetule, Garov.=Scher. Exs. 107, 108; Moug. &

Nestl. 363 & 364e; Heppe, 450.

C. Var. cinereo-pruinosa, Garov. = Hepp. 105, 106, 107;

Leight. Exs. 197; Mass. Exs. 203; Anzi, Lich. rar. Ven.

129.

Subvar. st7gmatella, Garov.= Mass. Exs. 197, 198; Hepp.

455, 456.

D. Var. Lauri, Garov.= Leight. Ang. Lich. t. 17. f.5?

Appendix.

The following have not been found as yet in Lombardy, but

deserve mention :—

Pyrenula muscorum, var. faginea, Rab. 623 (non Hepp. 708).

(Corticola, sporis bilocularibus.)

Arthropyrenia saxicola, Mass. Eixs. 348. (Saxicola, sporis bi-

locularibus).

Verrucaria margacea, Leight. Brit. Lich. Exs. 319. (Saxicola,

sporis bilocularibus).

Thelidium Nylanderi, Rab. 594 (non Hepp. 440). (Saxicola,

sporis bilocularibus. )

Reaction of Iodine in Lichens.

Owing to the misreading of the formula given in ‘Not. Lich.’

No. I. (p. 59 of this volume) by the chemist to whom it was

entrusted for preparation of the solution, a very important and

serious error has been committed respecting the quantity of

water to be used. The proper quantities are therefore here

given :—

Iodine, gr. }.

Iodide of potash, gr. ii.

Distilled water, 4 oz.

Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorns of the Amazons Valley. 191

XXII.— Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazons Valley.

CoxeorrerA: Lonaicornes. By H. W. Barss, Esq.

[Continued from p. 42.]

Subtribe DesMIPHORIT#.

Group Hwocentrine.

Genus Exocentrus, Mulsant.

Mulsant, Coléopt. de France, Longicornes, p. 152.

Exocentrus is a well-known genus of wide distribution, and

comprising a number of small Lamiaires, of ovate or oblong form

of body with thorax armed on each side with a distinct acute spine.

The antennz are not much longer than the body in the most slen-

der species, and are generally setose ; the basal joint is of moderate

length, forming an elongate club thickened almost from the base.

The claw-joints of the tarsi are elongated but slender, and the

claws are widely divergent. The genus may be known from all

the genera of Acanthocinite by thesockets of the anterior thighs

being open or angulated on their outer edges.

1. Ezocentrus striatus, n. sp.

E. oblongus, convexus, fusco-ferrugineus, griseo sparsim pubescens ;

antennis corpore paulo longioribus, pubescentibus ; oculis magnis,

supra fere contiguis; thorace pone medium spina valida longa

armato; elytris striato-punctatis ; pedibus testaceo-ferrugineis,

femorum clavis fuscis. Long. 37 ln.

Head rather narrow; sides occupied by the voluminous eyes,

which also almost meet on the vertex; muzzle below the eyes

short but rectangular; rusty brown, clothed with hoary pile.

Antenne filiform, a little longer than the body, clothed with laid

pubescence, rusty brown, bases of joints reddish ; basal joint of

nearly equal thickness throughout, eradually narrowed near the

base. Thorax subquadrate, very little narrowed behind, each

side, behind the middle, armed with a long, stout, slightly curved

spine ; surface thickly punctured and sparsely clothed with re-

cumbent shining hoary pile. Elytra oblong, convex, a little nar-

rowed towards the apex, the latter rounded ; surface punctured im

rows, except about the suture near the base, where they are very

closely punctured ; the scant hoary pile lies in lines along the

interstices; colour rusty brown. Body beneath rusty brown,

thinly clothed with shining hoary pile. Legs moderately elon-

gate, pale reddish ; thighs strongly clavate, clubbed part blackish.

Santarem, on slender dry twigs.

2. Exocentrus nitidulus, n. sp.

E. oblongus, convexus, fusco-ferrugineus, nitidulus, pube sparsa

192 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

brevissima cinerea vestitus ; antennis corpore dimidio longioribus,

thorace utrinque spina recta armato, supra postice linea transversa

impresso ; elytris punctatis, punctis apud discum sublineatim or-

dinatis. Long. 2-2? lin.

Head convex in front; central line deeply impressed ; muzzle

narrowed below the eyes; the latter moderately large, distant on

the vertex ; rusty brown, clothed with ashy pubescence. Antenne

half as long again as the body, nearly naked, ferruginous.

Thorax subquadrate, constricted behind the spines, the latter stout,

very acute, and straight; surface closely punctured, dark rusty,

scantily clothed with ashy pubescence. Elytra oblong-ovate, con-

vex, very thinly clothed with short, shining, cinereous hairs,

thickly punctured, the punctures on the disk partly arranged in

rows; colour rusty, in some examples with a brassy tinge. Body

beneath dark rusty, scantily clothed with ashy hairs. Legs dark

rusty, thighs abruptly clavate.

Santarem, on slender dry twigs.

Genus BLABICENTRUS, nov. gen.

Body oblong-ovate, convex, clothed with longish stiff hairs.

Head small ; muzzle narrowed below the eyes ; the latter large and

nearly approximating on the vertex. Antenne filiform or seta-

ceous, a little longer than the body, clothed with stiff hairs ; basal

joint narrowed towards the base. Thorax tumid on each side in

the middle, but quite destitute of spine. Elytra oblong-ovate,

convex, rounded or briefly and obliquely truncated at the apex.

Legs moderately elongated ; thighs abruptly clavate ; tarsi rather

narrow and shorter than the tibize even im the hind legs; claw-

joint elongated, claws divergent.

1. Blabicentrus hirsutulus, n. sp.

B. oblongo-ovatus, convexus, undique setosus, brunneus, nitidulus ;

elytris maculis elongatis griseis lineatim ordinatis, apice rotundatis.

Long. 3 lin.

Head dingy brown, clothed with coarse light-brown pubescence

and with longish stiff hairs; central line faintly impressed ; eyes

simple. Antenne very little longer than the body (? ? ), rusty

red, scantily clothed with longish stiff hairs. Thorax equal in

width to the head, much narrower than the elytra, convex above,

very slightly tumid on the side in the place of the missing lateral

spine, faintly constricted posteriorly; rusty brown, shining,

sparsely pubescent, and clothed with a few longish stiff hairs. Ely-

tra elongate-ovate, rounded at the tip ; surface punctured in rows

and bristly with dark-coloured hairs, brown, pubescence greyish

except near the base, and forming several rows of short linear spots

of the Amazons Valley. 193

separated by dark-brown specks. Body beneath and legs dark

brown, the latter clothed with long, stiff hairs.

Banks of the Tapajos, on dead twigs.

2. Blabicentrus angustatus, n. sp.

B. angustatus, ellipticus, minus convexus, fusco-ferrugineus ; thorace

medio utrinque distincte tumido, deinde angustato ; antennis ely-

trisque setosis, his apice cblique breviter subobtuse truncatis.

Long. 23 lin.

Ilead rusty brown, impunctate, scantily clothed with greyish

pubescence ; eyes moderate, distant ou the vertex. Antenne se-

taccous, half as long again as the body (? ¢ ), scantily clothed

with fine bristles, rusty brown. Thorax broader than the head

in the middle, thence sinuate-angustate to the base; surface very

slightly convex, smooth, rusty brown, shining, scantily clothed

with very fine pubescence. Elytra scarcely broader than the

middle part of the thorax, narrowed towards the apex, which is

briefly and obliquely truncated ; surface very slightly convex,

marked witha few scattered punctures, and clothed throughout with

longish and rather fine erect hairs, rusty brown, with fine greyish

pubescence arranged in lines. Body beneath and legs rusty

brown, the latter partially clothed with fine hairs.

Santarem, on dead twigs.

Genus ERIopsiLus, nov. gen.

Body elongate-oblong or sublinear, clothed throughout with

long woolly hairs. Face short and rather broad; muzzle a little

dilated below the eyes; eyes small, widely distant on the vertex ;

crown broad and not depressed between the antenniferous tuber-

cles, the latter scarcely prominent. Antenne scarcely so long

as the body, filiform ; basal joint short and thick, attenuated at

the base ; third and fourth joints together as long as all the suc-

ceeding joints, which are each very short. Thorax subquadrate,

each side armed in the middle with a short conical tubercle.

Elytra elongate-oblong, rounded at the apex. Legs short ; thighs

clavate ; tarsi short and broad, basal joint triangular; claw-joint

elongated, slender, claws widely divergent and simple.

Eriopsilus nigrinus, n. sp.

E. elongato-oblongus, fuliginosus, nitidus, capillis longis ubique ves-

titus, supra grosse punctatus. Long. 3 lin,

Head broad, forehead closely and finely punctured and with

an impressed central line, vertex coarsely punctured, black

shining. Antenne a little shorter than the body, thickly clothed

throughout with long and fine woolly hairs of a blackish colour ;

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xvi. 13

194 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

second and third joints elongated and equalling in length the

succeeding joints taken together ‘Thorax sooty black, shining,

coarsely punctured, and clothed with long blackish hairs. Elytra

elongate-oblong, rounded at the tip, coarsely punctured, the

punctures becoming shallower towards the apex, sooty black,

shining, clothed with long blackish hairs. Body beneath punc-

tured, black, clothed with dark-greyish hairs. Legs black, thickly

clothed with dark hairs.

S. Paulo, Upper Amazons.

Genus Omosarortes, Pascoe.

Pascoe, Journal of Entomology, vol. 1. p. 131.

The remarkable insect which constitutes this genus is much

more elongated in form even than the preceding (Hriopsilus) ; yet

its essential characters show that its true place is amongst the

series of genera composing the Exocentrine group—a position

already accorded to it by Mr. Pascoe (Trans. Ent. Soc. 3rd ser.

vol. ii. p. 55). In the form of the head it does not differ much

from Eriopsilus or even Ezocentrus, the face being moderately

broad and the muzzle slightly dilated and quadrate below the

eyes ; but the antenniferous tubercles are more conspicuously de-

veloped and the vertex depressed between them. The antenne

are nearly as long as the body ; the basal joint forms a smooth,

elongate-pyriform club, the third and fourth joints are much

elongated, and the succeeding joints abbreviated, the fifth being

only half the length of the fourth; but what is remarkable in

them is their clothing, the long fine hairs which exist scantily

on the joints bemg changed into very long and rather stiff bris-

tles at the apices of the joints; the third joint is thickened to-

wards the apex, beneath. The thorax is oblong, very convex

and almost gibbous in the middle, and constricted before and

behind ; in the middle of each side is a very distinct and sharp

tubercle. The elytra are scarcely longer than the head and

thorax taken together, and are remarkable for a very long pencil

of hairs surmounting the prominent centro-basal ridges, besides

an acute carina extending from the prominent shoulders half-

way down the sides of each elytron, The legs are rather elon-

gated, the thighs clavate, and the tarsi very short. The insect

in general form and colour resembles certain species of Mallocera

or Jéidion in the Cerambycide section of Longicornes.

Omosarotes singularis, Pascoe.

Omosarotes singularis, Pase. Journal of Entomol. vol. i. p. 131, pl. 8. f. 5.

O. elongatus, niger, autennis pedibusque nigro hirsutis ; capite et

thorace subtiliter strigosis, hoe antice griseo-sericeo ; elytris pube

of the Amazons Valley. 195

tenuissima griseo-sericea vestitis, lateribus fasciaque pone medium

nigerrimis, pedibus piceo-rufis. Long. 43 lin.

I met with two examples of this insect, namely on a slender

branch of a tree in the forest at S. Paulo, Upper Amazons.

Genus Scopapus, Pascoe,

Pascoe, Trans. Ent. Soe. n. s. vol. iv. p. 100.

This genus resembles Omosaroées in its elongate shape and

Cerambycideous aspect; but its antenne are much elongated,

filiform to their apex, and nearly naked. The groove of the an-

terior tibiz, which is the invariable character of the Lamiaires, is

scarcely perceptible, so that, were it not for the vertical face,

square muzzle, and pointed palpi, it might be doubted whether

the genus would not have its true place amongst the Ceramby-

cide ; the groove, however, on careful examination, is seen to be

present. The legs are elongated ; the thighs very abruptly club-

bed, the tibize slender and linear, and the tarsi short, with the

basal joint triangular. The anterior and middle coxe are glo-

bular, the sterna very narrow, and the anterior sockets angulated

on their outer side. As in Omosarotes, the elytra have raised

centro-basal ridges surmounted by a pencil of hairs; on the

outer side of each ridge lies an oblique linear depression, ex-

tending from the inner side of the prominent shoulder to the

middle of the suture.

Scopadus ciliatus, Pascoe.

Scopadus ciliatus, Pasc. Trans. Ent. Soe. n.s. iv. p. 100, pl. 22. f. 5.

Se. elongato-oblongus, rufescens, capite et pronoto nigris opacis,

elytris dimidio apicali purpureo-nigro velutino ; thorace supra con-

vexo tuberoso lateribus utrinque tuberculo acuto armatis. Long.

5 lin.

On stem of dead tree, Ega; three examples.

Genus Esmra, Pascoe.

Pascoe, Trans. Ent. Soe. n. s. vol. 1. p. 44.

Like the three preceding genera, the present has an elongate

form of body. The antennz are a little longer than the body,

and have the basal joint and the third and basal half of the fourth

joints thickened and densely clothed with hairs ; the fifth joint

has also a dense patch of hairs on its upper surface; the third

and fourth joints are greatly elongated ; the rest of the antenne,

body, and legs are clothed less densely with shorter hairs. The

front of the head is vertical, and the muzzle quadrate. The

thorax is short, subquadrate, and armed on each side with a tu-

13*

196 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

bercle. The legs are moderately short, the tarsi short and rather

broad, the claws divergent.

Esmia turbata, Pascoe.

Esmia turbata, Pascoe, Trans. Ent. Soc. n.s. vol. i. p. 44.

F. sublinearis, saturate castanea, subnitida, breviter hirsuta, punctata,

linea laterali totius corporis, altera per thoracem et suturam elytrorum

extensa lineolisque discoidalibus elytrorum flavis. Long. 33 lin.

Kga, on slender branches ; rare.

Group Tapeinine *.

Genus Tapreina, Serville.

Serville, Enecyel. Méthod. x. p. 545.

Body oblong, extremely depressed, clothed with erect hairs.

Head broad and short, the lower part not being prolonged be-

low the eyes, and the front edge of the crown in the female

either forming a transverse ridge a little above the labrum or

sloping to the epistome, and in the male elongated laterally into

projections of various forms according to the species. Antenne

longer than the body, stout, setaceous. Thorax transverse oval.

Elytra rounded at the tip. Legs moderately short; thighs

clavate ; tarsi short and broad ; claws divergent.

The species forming this curious genus are found underneath

close-fitting bark of trees, after they have been felled or uprooted

in the forest. They share this peculiar habitat with the flattened

Cucujidze, Nitidulids, Histeride, and others, all of which form

together a somewhat extensive insect-fauna suited to these con-

fined habitations.

1. Tapeina dispar, Serville.

Tapeina dispar, Serv. Encycl. Méthod. x. p. 546.

bicolor, id. ( 2 ).

—— dispar, Thomson, Archives Entomolog. i. p. 42, pl. 7. fig. 4 a, d.

T. castaneo-rufa, capite thoraceque supra nigris nitidissimis, antennis

nigris; armatura fron‘ali maris elongata transversa, plana, apice

utripque obtuso truncato, margine superiore medio dentato. Long.

eB thee

33-4 lin. ¢ Q.

Generally distributed in the forests of the Amazons.

2. Tapeina erectifrons, Thomson.

Tapeina erectifrons, Thoms. Archives Entomol. i. p. 43, pl. 7. f. 2 a.

T. nigra, nitida; armatura frontali maris elongata transversa, angus-

* This group was placed provisionally under the Saperdite, in the

synopsis previously given of the Lamiaires. A more accurate examination

has convinced me that it has closer affinities with the members of the

Desmiphorite. ‘The Tapeinz, in fact, appear to be abnormally flattened

forms of Exocentrine.

of the Amazons Valley. 197

tata, concava, apice utrinque rotundato, margine superiore sub-

recto, margine inferiore utrinque angulato-dilatato. Long. 4-43

lin. Qi:

Generally distributed throughout the forests of the Amazons.

Group Compsosomine.

Genus CompsosoMa, Serville.

Serville, Ann. Soe. Ent. 1835, p. 55.

This well-known and handsome genus of Lamiaires, by its

compact, thick, oval forms, reminds one of the Anisocerine and

Hypsiome. The group has been placed in the neighbourhood

of the Hypselominz by Mr. Pascoe, and M. Thomson sees a re-

semblance between the genus Arenea (belonging to the Comp-

sosomine) and Gymnocerus. Compsosoma and its associated

genera, however, differ from the Anisocerine by the tarsal claws,

which are scarcely divergent, and from the Hypselominee by the

shortness of the claw-jomt. The hairy clothing of body and an-

tenn, and the form of the head, eradually rounded off or slo-

ping from the occiput to the epistome, are also characters which

distinguish the Compsosomine from the Anisocerine and the

Onciderite, to which Hypsioma and Hypselomus belong. Although

the lower part of the head, or muzzle, of some species resem-

bles, in its square form, that of the Anisocerine group, yet this is

evidently an inconstant character in the Compsosomine; for other

species (e. g. Compsosoma Mniszechii) have almost precisely the

same form of muzzle as the Desmiphorite, to which group I con-

sider, notwithstanding the difference in the general form of the

body, the Compsosominze belong. This form of head is utterly

foreign to the Anisocerine and the Oncideritze.

1. Compsosoma Mniszechii, Thomson.

Compsosoma Mniszechii, Thoms. Archiv. Entom. i. p. 74, pl. 9. f. 4.

C. oblongo-ovatum, crassum, convexum, hirsutum, grosse punctatum,

elytris nigro-tuberculatis; thorace fuliginoso, vitta lata cinereo-fulva;

elytris humeris rotundatis, plaga humerali fuliginosa (fulvo tincta),

deinde utrinque vitta lata obliqua cinereo-fulva, parte postica fuli-

ginosa, medio fulvo-sericea, suturaque cinerea; pectore utrinque

plaga cretacea ; antennis filiformibus, hirsutis. Long. 7 lin.

I founda few examples only of this fine species, on the slender

stem of a young tree, in the forest at Kga, Upper Amazons. The

lower part of the face is extremely short, scarcely extending

below the eyes; the latter are large and convex.

2. Compsosoma terrenum, Pascoe.

ZBrenea terrena, Pascoe, Trans. Ent. Soc. n. s. vol. i. p. 25.

C. parvum, ovatum, obscure fulvum, undique breviter setosum ; capite

198 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

parvo, infra oculos brevissimo, contracto ; antennis grossis, filifor-

mibus, corpore paulo brevioribus, fuscis; elytris humeris subfalcatis,

maculis duabus nigris utrinque basalibus ; abdomine plagis duabus

basalibus nigris. Long. 3 lin.

S. Paulo, Upper Amazons.

Genus TrssARECPHORA, Thomson.

Thoms. Archiv. Entom. i. p. 77.

The chief differences which M. Thomson assigns as distinguish-

ing this genus from Compsosoma are the swollen and densely

hirsute third and fourth joints of the antenne, and the elevated

shoulders and centro-basal ridges of the elytra. To them may

be added the convexity of the front part of the head, and the

extension of the lower part considerably below the narrow, oblong

and scarcely convex eyes. The Compsosome, so far as at present

observed, are found in their perfect state only on woody stems

or trunks of trees; Tessarecphora arachnoides I found only on

the foliage of Mimosa trees.

Tessarecphora arachnotdes, Thomson.

Tessarecphora arachnoides, Thoms. Arch. Entom.1. p. TT es Mig! eRe

T. ovata, nigra, nitida; capite coriaceo, opaco; antennis articulis 6°-7™

albis et albo hirsutis, 8°-11™ fere nudis ; thorace et elytris lineolis

reticulatis cinereis, his carinis centrobasalibus conico-elevatis et

longe penicillatis, humeris faleatis et valde oblique elevatis. Long.

4 lin. :

- I found this exquisite little insect only in the forest of Obydos,

in the month of March, on the foliage of Mimosa trees.

Genus AURENEA, Thomson.

Thomson, Archives Entom. i. p. 298.

This genus is closely allied to Compsosoma, but differs in

several points, admitting of clear definition. The antennz are

destitute of the dense fringe which exists in Compsosoma, and

are furnished with scattered hairs. The face is broad and plane,

and the muzzle quadrate and prolonged below the eyes. The

mesosternum has a conical horizontal projection in front; and

the prosternum is longitudinally convex or keeled, and sometimes

vertical on the posterior face. The general form of body and

the structure of the legs and tarsi are very similar to the same

features in Compsosoma. ;

1. Afrenea albilarvata, n. sp.

AE. breviter ovata, fulvo-brunnea, fronte fascia lata cinerea albo

marginata, thorace lateribus castaneo-fuscis, elytris prope apicem

fascia lata curvata grisea; antennze parce breviter setosze arti-

Sinkaces kee

———

of the Amazons Valley. 199

culo basali clavato, articulis tertio et quarto longitudine eequalibus ;

elytris pedibusque breviter setosis. Long. 43 lin.

Head broad, upper part of the forehead with a curved im-

pressed line on each side besides the central longitudinal line, face

plane and broad ; colour tawny ; the face crossed by a broad belt

of milky-white tomentum, margined with lines of denser white,

and extending up the face of each antenniferous tubercle. An-

tenne a little longer than the body, sparingly clothed with short

bristles, tawny brown ; basal joint forming an oblong pyriform

club; third and fourth joints about equal i in length. Thorax

quadrate, convex and tubercular above, and meneed with a few

punctures, tawny; sides dark chestnut-brown. Elytra short, ovate,

shoulders obtusely rounded but slightly falcate; surface punc-

tured and beset with short bristles; tawny, basal margin edged

with dark bruwn ; a broad curved grey fascia on each at a short

distance from the apex. Body beneath and legs reddish, clothed

with greyish-tawny pile.

Forests of the Tapajos.

2. Atrenea cognata, Pascoe.

Atrenea cognata, Pascoe, Trans. Ent. Soc. n. s. vol. i. p. 25.

4i. ovata, breviter griseo setosa, purpureo-brunnea, fronte plana,

griseo tomentosa; antennis rufescentibus, fere nudis; thorace

supra tuberoso et cum occipite fulvo; scutello fulvo ; elytris bre-

vibus, convexis, punctatis, humeris faleatis, purpureo-brunneis,

marginibus fateralibus fulvis, fasciaque obliqua grisea; pedibus

testaceo-rufis, cinereo variegatis; abdomine piceo-nigro, nitido.

Long. 6 lin.

ga ; Upper Amazons.

Group Desmiphorine.

Genus DresmrrHora, Serville.

Serville, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. iv. 62.

Desmiphora is distinguished from the neighbouring genera by

the numerous tufts of hair ar ising from the thorax and elytra,

and the long hairy clothing of its body and limbs. The body is

elongate-oblong or linear, “with the apex of the elytra obtusely

rounded. The head is small and retracted, with sloping crown

very short face and muzzle, and large eyes. The antenne:

are stout, about as long as the body, tapering to a point,

with short thick basal joint narrowed at the base, elongated

second and third joints, and progressively abbreviated remaining

jomts. The thorax has an acute prominent tubercle on each

side in the middle. The legs are stout, thighs not clavate ; tarsi

with short triangular joints, and fine divergent claws.

200 Mr. H, W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

The Desmiphore are found clinging to slender decaying branches

of trees, and are numerous in species in Tropical America.

Some of them resemble, in their colours and tufted forms, decayed

fragments of wood covered with minute cryptogamic plants.

1. Desmiphora fasciculata, Oliv.

Lamia fasciculata, Olivier, Ins. p.67, t. 17. f. 131; Fab. Ent. Syst. 1. 2. 284.

268; SIRE El. n. 299.

D. oblongo-elongata, fusco-nigra, capite, thorace articulisque basalibus

antennarum fulvo hirsutis et penicillatis, articulo tertio apice infra

dilatato ; elytris utringne pone medium fulvo plagiatis, basin et

apicem versus nigro penicillatis, undique breviter setosis, et griseo

hirsutis ; pedibus nigris, fulve variegatis; tibiis extus dense se-

tosis; corpore subtus nigro nitido; abdomine utrinque fulvo

plagiato. Long. 8-9 lin. ¢ Q.

Ega ; Upper Amazons.

2. Desmiphora cirrosa, Erichs.

Desmiphora cirrosa, Evichs. Consp. Ins. Col. Peruan. p. 147.

D. oblongo-elongata, brunnea, capite fuseo, vertice fusco bipenicil-

lato; antennis fulvo-brunneis, hirsutis ; thorace supra plaga magna,

postica brunnea, parte antica et lateribus sordide albis albo peui-

cillatis ; elytris utrinque prope basin fusco penicillatis, postice et

abdomine albo strigatis et penicillatis. Long. 6 lin. ¢ Q.

Generally distributed throughout the forests of the Amazons ;

also found in South Brazil near Rio Janeiro.

3. Desmiphora senicula, n. sp.

D. cylindrica, brunnea, griseo hirsuta, vertice bipenicillato ; antennis

obscuris ; thorace disco cristis duabus elongatis parallelis fulvo-

brunneis ; elytris antice simplicibus, postice sordide albo strigatis

et fasciculatis; abdomine cinereo-fulvo lanuginoso ; pedibus ru-

fescentibus, cinereo dense hirsutis. Long. 4 lin.

Head dark-brown, coarsely pubescent, vertex with two short

erect pencils of dark-brown hair. Antenne blackish brown,

densely pubescent, and clothed besides with long, coarse, brown

hairs. Thorax brown; disk with two parallel lines of tawny-

brown hairs. Elytra moderately punctured, dingy brown, pubes-

cent, and clothed with long hairs ; base with one or two short tu-

bereles on each side, but without tufts of long hairs ; apical part

ashy and marked with whitish streaks and tufts of whitish hairs.

Body beneath and especially the ab\lomen densely clothed with

woolly tawny pile; legs reddish and clothed with woolly pubes-

cence.

Forests of the Tapajos.

of the Amazons Valley. 201

4. Desmiphora elegantula, White.

Desmiphora elegantula, White, Cat. Longic. Brit. Mus. 1. p. 401.

D. cylindrica, ferrugineo-castanea, longe hirsuta, nitida; thorace et

elytris grossissime punctatis, illo disco cristis duabus parallelis et

lateribus fulvis, his utrinque prope basin unipenicillatis, apice albo

Strigatis et penicillatis ; corpore subtus tenuiter cinereo pubes-

cente. Long. 2?—3 lin.

Forests of the Tapajos.

5. Desmiphora multicristata, n. sp.

D. elongato-oblonga, fulvo-testacea, undique longe hirsuta; antennis

gracilibus ; thorace convexo, crebre punctato, tripenicillato; ely-

tris grosse punctatis, utrinque prope basin cristis tribus densis

elongatis parallelis, prope apicem penicillis tribus, testaceo-fulvis ;

corpore subtus subnudo; pectore abdomineque lateribus nigrican-

tibus. Long. 432 lin.

Head coarsely punctured, brown, clothed with pale-tawny pu-

bescence, the forehead and vertex having numerous long and

erect pale hairs. Antenne rather longer than the body, slender,

the joints being much longer and thinner than in the other

species; third joint rather strongly curved ; fourth less curved; all

the joints pale testaceous tawny, shining, and clothed through-

out with long pale hairs. Thorax convex, surface even, coarsely

punctured, tawny-pubescent, and clothed with erect hairs; disk

on each side and front margin each with a thin pencil of hairs.

Elytra oblong, coarsely punctured, especially towards the base,

tawny testaceous, shining; each elytron towards the base with

three rather long parallel crests of dense hairs all of equal height,

and towards the apex with three thin pencils of similar hairs ar-

ranged in a row across the elytron. Body beneath and legs pale,

tawny testaceous, shining, clothed with long pale hairs ; sides of

breast and basal segments of abdomen black*.

Forests of Obydos, Lower Amazons.

[To be continued. |

* The following new species, sent from South Brazil by Mr. Squires,

belong also to this genus :—

Desmiphora ornata. E\ongato-oblonga, fulvo-ochracea, nigro lineata et

variegata. Caput grosse punctatum, fulvo hirsutum, vertice nigro

bipenicillato. Antenne corpore breviores, robustz, hirsute, dimidio

basali rufo, apicali nigricante. Thorax fulvo-ochraceus, lateribus

utrinque ‘igro trilimeatis, disco postice brunneo; juxta marginem

anticum penicillis tribus porrectis quarum una antica fusca, alters

due postice fulvo-ochracew. Elytra grosse_ punctata, fulvo-

ochracea, pone medium annulo communi nigro, fasciaque subapicali

alba; singulis cristis setosis parum elevatis, una prope basin, altera

longe ante apicem. Corpus subtus fulvo villosum, pectore nigro.

202. Dr. E. von Martens on some Species of Assiminea.

XXIII.—Conchological Gleanings.

By Dr. E. von Martens.

[Continued from p. 88.]

II. On some Species of Assiminea.

Tuts genus, so well characterized among all operculated Gas-

teropoda by the position of the eyes near the tip of the tentacles,

was proposed as early as 1819 (Leach’s manuscript), and has never

since been seriously opposed; but up to the present time some

species of it have not been recognized as such, but have been,

described under the generic name of Realia, Hydrocena, Ompha-

lotropis, Paludina, Melania, or Paludinella. Realia seems to be,

and Omphalotropis is, if we take Cyclostema rubens, Quoy and

Gaimard, as its representative, a true land-shell with two long

slender tentacles bearing .the eyes on the outside near the base.

There is no objection to placing these two genera in the family

of Cyclostemidz, and supposing, therefore, the radula (still un-

known, as far as I am aware) to belong to the type of the

Tenoglossa. The genus Hydrocena was founded on a sub-

marine shell from Dalmatia, H. cattaroénsis, uniting the umbi-

lical callus and general shape of Helicina with the opercular

apophysis of Neritina, and agreeing with both in the conformation

of the radula (Rhipidoglossa), (see Kiister in the ‘ Continuation

of Chemnitz,’ genus Paludina, pl. 13. figs. 28, 33; and Troschel

‘ Gebiss der Schnecken,’ vol. 1. pl. 6. fig. 1). The name Hydrocena

can henceforth be applied only to shells showing the said charac-

ters, or,as long as their radula and operculum are not known, sup-

posed to do so. Paludina and Melania are, as everyone knows,

freshwater shells belonging to the Ctenobranchia teenioglossa.

The genus Paludinella was founded by Pfeiffer in 1841 (Wieg-

mann’s Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte), for the so-called Zruncatella

itorea of Philippi, a littoral shell from the Mediterranean, whose

natural position is not yet clear; the name has been transferred

by many authors wrongly to the small freshwater Paludina with

spiral operculum, for which exists the older name Hydrobia, Hart-

Pedes fulvo-testacei. Long. 4; in. Hab. in Rio Janeiro, a Dom.

Squires lecta. |

Desmiphora venosa. Elongata. Caput fuscum, fulvo hirtum, punctatum,

Antenne robust, pilose, fulvo-brunneze, articulis supra nigris. Tho-

rax niger, nitidus, crebre foveolatus, lateribus fulvo plagiatis, dorso

fusco bipenicillato. Elytris juxta basin et latera crebre foveolata,

fusca, medio plana vix punctata, cinereo-brunnea, apice fusco macu-

lata; singulis penicillis grossis fuscis, deeumbentibus, una prope basin,

altera apicem versus, lateribus et parte postica lineis flexuosis elevatis

cinereo tomentosis. Corpus subtus et pedes testacea, cmereo villosa.

Long. 33 lm. Hab. in Rio Janeiro, a Dom. Squires lecta.

Dr. E. von Martens on some Species of Assiminea. 203

mann. Whether Assiminea is rightly supposed to be an air-

breathing (pulmonate) mollusk I am not prepared to decide ; the

Teenioglossan conformation of its radula is affirmed by Troschel,

i. c. pl. 7. figs. 138 & 14.

All the species of Assiminea which I have observed alive dwelt

in brackish water, on the muddy banks of rivers, channels, or in-

lets very near to the sea, never in fresh water, never on the open

sea-shore, neither on rocks and stones, nor on plants, but simply

on the muddy flat itself, near high-water mark, during the ebb,

surrounded by the air; but I cannot affirm that in every case they

were covered at flood-time by the water. I have found them in

such situations in China, Siam, and Singapore; and the same I

suppose, after consulting various English authors, to be the case

with the British species A. Grayana.

The species I have observed are the following: —

1. Assiminea carinata, Lea, Proc. Acad. N. Se. Philadelphia,

1856, p. 111.

Omphalotropis maculata, m., Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 11.

Siam, on the muddy banks of the channels of the Menam

river, below Bangkok.

Resembles in size and outline the Bengal A. Francisct, but is

distinguished by a sharp keel round the umbilicus and by some

rows of dark spots and a dark basal band. I was myself mis-

taken, before starting with the Prussian Expedition for Eastern

Asia, in describing a specimen of this shell, collected by the

late M. Mouhot and examined in the British Museum, as an

Omphalotropis. During my stay m Siam I found it alive, and

recognized the true characters of the mollusk ; this I stated, in

the ‘Malakozoologische Blatter, edited by Dr. Pfeiffer, vol. x.

(1863) p. 120; nevertheless the editor himself, in his ‘Second

Supplement to the Monograph of Pneumonopoma,’ 1865, p. 176,

enumerates it among the Cyclostomacea, and near it the Hydro-

cena fasciolata, Crosse & Fischer, and H. fulvida, Pfr. (Journ.

Cench. vi. & x.), which are evidently later names for the same

species.

2. Assiminea pinguis, m.

A. testa globoso-ovata, vix rimata, oleoso nitente, linea impressa infra

suturam notata, fusco-aurantiaca, unicolore ; spira conica, acutius-

cula; anfr. 5, paulum convexi, ultimus infra rotundatus, carina

nulla; apertura spiram eequans, fere verticalis, supra acute angulata ;

peristoma rectum, margine externo tenui, columellari incrassato.

Long. 6, diam. 4, apert. alt. 3, lat. 2 millim.

Makao, in a muddy inlet.

Head of the animal grey ; foot below yellow, with bluish edge.

204 Dr. E.von Martens on some Species of Assiminea.

3. Assiminea miniata, m.

A, testa ovato-globosa, vix rimata, subtilissime striata, lineis impressis

binis infra suturam sculpta, intense rubra, unicolore ; spira con-

vexa, obtusa, szepe erosa; anfr. circa 5, vix convexiusculi, ultimus

infra ventricosus, carina nulla; apertura spiram superans, fere

verticalis, supra angulata; peristoma rectum, margine externo

tenui, columellari incrassato.

Long. 9, diam. 43, apert. long. 4, lat. 3 millim.

‘Singapore, on the muddy bank of the streamlet, close to its

mouth, near the new church, east of the town.

Head and foot of the animal pale red.

These species agree with each other, as well as with 4. Grayana

and A. Francisci, in a peculiar smooth appearance of the shell,

neither brilliant, nor rough, but as if they were formed of some

fatty or greasy substance ; the whorls are generally flat, the um-

bilicus more or less narrow, but existing, the outer lip sharp, the

inner lip thickened, but neither of them bent outwards ; the

colour varies from a pale yellow to a deep red, but is never the

dark dull brown of so many species of Paludina and some Realia.

A distinct system of sculpture is sometimes entirely wanting ;

in some species a keel round the umbilicus, in others impressed

spiral lines below the suture are to be found.

These species being ascertained, by observation of the

living animal, to belong to the genus Assiminea must lead, of

course, to the supposition that some others, very nearly resem-

bling them, but known only from the dead shell and described

as Hydrocena, Omphalotropis, Paludina, &c., may also in reality

belong to the genus Assiminea. I examined, for the purpose of

deciding this question, a year ago, the shells, in the late Mr.

Cuming’s collection, called Hydrocena by Dr. Pfeiffer, and have

since consulted some published descriptions ; and, judging from

the above characters of the shell as well as in some cases from

the localities indicated by the authors, it is my opinion that the

following species belong to the genus Ass¢minea :—

a. European Species.

Assiminea Grayana, Leach. Well known to British concho-

logists.

Assiminea Charreyi (Melania Charreyi, Morelet, Mollusques

de Portugal, 1845, p. 98, pl. 7. fig. 5). As this work is not to

be obtained everywhere, I quote the diagnosis and habitat from

it :—

«Testa solida, perforata, fusiformis, ventriculosa, glabra, luteovirens,

linea albida pone suturam, apice acuta, violacea ; apertura parva,

ovato-angulata, sublanceolata. Long. 11 millim.”

Dr. E, von Martens on some Species of Assiminea. 205

Lives, with the Awricule and some Paludine (Hydrobia pro-

bably), in the lagoons of Villa Reale, which the ebb leaves almost

dry during a great part of the day.

I received, many years ago, from Nantes a small shell resem-

bling in size and general form the well-known AHydrobia ulve,

but with flatter whorls, of pale-yellow colour, and the peculiar

smooth greasy appearance of the Assiminee. I think it to be

the species described by Morelet.

b. Species from the West Indies.

Assiminea helicoides (Paludinella helicoides, Gundlach, in

‘Repertorio Fisico-natural de la Isla de Cuba,’ entrega 3°, Ha-

bana, Junio 1865, p. 70). Umbilicated, whitish, somewhat

glossy, with four rounded whorls. Length 1, diameter 14 millim.

Inhabits the land immediately near the sea, in company with

some Auriculacea; is not submerged, but occurs under leaves,

on moist beaches, littoral of Cardenas, Cuba.

I have not seen this shell; but the locality given seems to

indicate an <Assiminea, and the description contains nothing

repugnant to this supposition. It would be the most depressed

species I know of,

G: Sackies from the shores of the Indian Ocean.

1. Without keel.

Assiminea Francisci, Gray, Wood (Paludina conica, Troschel,

Wiegmann’s Archiv fiir Naturgesch. 1837; Philippi, Icones, 1.

1.15; Kiister, ‘ Paludina, 6. 15-17). Estuary of the Ganges.

A variety with a white spiral band, collected with the type by

Lamare Picquot, seems to agree with the specimen I saw some

years ago in the Museum of the Kast India Company, named

Assiminea fasciata, Cantor.

Assiminea cornea (Hydrocena cornea, Pfr. Pneum. Suppl.p. 156).

Bashi Islands. Cuming’s collection.

A. brevicula ( (Hydrocena brevicula, Pfr. p. 156). Singapore,

A. pinguis, m. ts b

ee above.

A. miniata, m.

2. A keel round the umbilicus.

A. carinata, Lea. See above. Siam, Cochinchina.

A. radiata (Hydrocena radiata, Pfr. Pneum. Suppl. p. 163).

Borneo. Cuming’s collection.

A. glabrata (Hydrocena glabrata, Pfr. ibid. p. 164). Borneo.

Cuming’s collection.

A. lirata (Hydrocena nat, Morelet, Journ. Conch. xi. p. 371).

Cochinchina.

206 Dr. E. von Martens on some Species of Assiminea.

d. Species from the Pacifie Islands.

1. Without keel.

A. albescens (Hydrocena albescens, Pfr. Pneum. Suppl. p. 157).

Opara. Cuming’s collection.

A. solidula (Hydrocena solidula, Pfr. 1. c.). Lord Hood’s

Island. Cuming’s collection.

A. ventricosa (Cyclostoma ventricosa, Hombron & Jacquinot,

Voy. au Péle Sud, pl.12.f.34-86. Realia ventricosa, Pf.). Otahiti.

Alhed to A. Charreyi.

2. A keel round the umbilicus.

A, rosea (Cyclostoma rosea, Gould, Exped. Shells, p. 39. Om-

phalotropis rosea, Pfr. Pneum. p. 308). Fiji Islands. Cuming’s

collection.

A. bulimoides (Cyclostoma bulimoides, Hombron & Jacquinot,

Voy. au Pole Sud, pl. 12. f.37-89. Hydrocena bulimoides, Pfr.

Pneum. Suppl. p. 162). Caroline Islands. Cuming’s collection.

A. dubia, Pfr. Zeitschrift f. Malakozoologie, 1847, p. 112.

(Omphalotropis dubia, Pfr. Pneum. p. 310). Opara. Cuming’s

collection.

A. huahemensis (Hydrocena huaheinensis, Pfr. Pneum. p. 163).

Huaheine.

A. maritima (Hydrocena maritima, Montrouzier; Journ. Conch.

x1. pl. 5. fig. 4). New Caledonia.

Also Realia producta, abbreviata, and fragilis (Pease), from

the Sandwich Islands (Cuming’s collection), 1 suppose to belong

to Assiminea.

e. Species from the North Pacific beyond the Tropics.

Laguncula pulchella, Benson (Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. 1842,

ix. p. 488), found at Chusan by Dr. Cantor, may perhaps

be an Assiminea. I suspect this to be the case from the words,

“ peristomate interrupto, labio subreflexo, umbilico profunde tor-

tuoso,” and “ apertura intus fascia lata pallide castanea ornata.”

This coloration calls to mind the Siamese Assiminea maculata.

The sculpture, however, and the deep suture are not favourable

to this supposition. The locality given is, “said to inhabit

canals.” The same words are repeated for Bullea caurina, Arca

galactodes, Mytilus niger, Dreissena purpurascens (evidently a Sep-

tifer near bilocularis, Li.), Venus sinensis, Sanguinolaria iridescens,

and Novaculina constricta,—all marine or brackish-water shells ;

whereas, for the true freshwater shells Planorbis, Limneus, Palu-

dina, the locality is given with much more assurance and detail.

From this we may perhaps be led to suspect that Laguncula pul-

chella habits the same localities as Novaculina, Venus sinensis,

&e.; and as the two last-named are common in the brackish

Dr. E. yon Martens on the Sandwichian Species of Limnezeus. 207

water of the estuary of the Yangtsekiang, and I have also found

a Bulla in company with Assiminea in a muddy inlet at Macao,

this consideration seems to give some reason for suspecting

Laguncula pulchella to be an Asstminea.

Paludina pulchella, Hutton, from British India, seems to be

distinct from this Chinese shell; but it resembles, in common

with some nearly allied species from the same country, some

Assiminee, by the keel in the base of the shell; the operculum,

however, as well as the outer appearance of the shell, are those

of Bithynia; and it seems to inhabit, like this latter genus,

really fresh water.

Finally, it ought to be observed that, in order to ascertain the

length of the tentacles and the position of the eyes in a living

mollusk of amphibious habits, it will be as well to observe it both

in the air and when surrounded by water. An example will

show how mistakes may occur. In the ‘ Voyage of H.ML.S.

Samarang’ (a work which has contributed so largely to our know-

ledge of living mollusks), pl. 18. fig. 3 a, Cerithium obtusum, a

relatively large mollusk, is figured with short tentacles and the

eyes at their tips, just as in Assiminea, and the description at

page 44 says exactly the same. Such is, indeed, the appearance

of the living animal when seen out of the water; but if observed

in water, the long slender portion of the tentacle is instantly

seen to be prolonged far beyond the eye, as in all other Cerithia;

the apex must have laid ciose to the base when the animal was

out of the water, as I have repeatedly seen in Singapore.

Ill. The Sandwichian Species of Limneus.

So far as I am aware, only four species of Limneus are re-

corded in different malacological works as living on the Sand-

wich Islands, —Z. oahuensis and affinis, Souleyet, L. sand-

vicensis, Phil., and L. volutatus, Gould. Three species are con-

tained in the Berlin Museum, a comparison of which with the

existing descriptions and figures has led me to the following

results :-—

1. Limneus oahuensis, Souleyet, Voyage de la Bonite, Zool.

(1841) vol. ii. pl. 29. figs. 38-41. L. sandvicensis, Philippi,

Wiegmann’s Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, 1842, figured in

Kiister’s new edition of Chemnitz, Limneeacea, pl. 4. figs. 25, 26,

does not offer any specific difference. Oblong-ovate, with rather

convex whorls; columellar plait moderate.

2. Limneus affinis, Souleyet, loc. cit. figs. 42, 44. Sinistral,

ovate-globose ; the whorls convex, the upper ones worn off.

3. Limneus volutatus, Gould, Expedition, Shells, p. 41

208 Dr. E. von Martens on the Sandwichian Species of Limnzus.

(1847). Oblong, with flattened whorls and conspicuous colu-

mellar plait.

I have no specimen before me to which Gould’s description is

entirely applicable; but the following one, differing almost

solely by its sinistrorsity, I consider a variety of it.

36. Limneus volutatus, b. sinistrorsus.

L. testa sinistra, conico-oblonga, striatula, luteo-fusca, vix nitidula,

apice truncata; anfractus superstites 3, plani, sutura superficiali,

ultimus antrorsum valde deflexus, basi rotundatus ; apertura sat

obliqua, piriformis, superne acutangula; peristoma rectum, tenue,

lamina parietali distincta, crassiuscula; plica columellaris valida.

Long. 8, diam. maj. 5, min. 4, apert. long. 5, lat. 3 millim.

Sandwich Islands. Received many years ago from the Heidel-

berg Museum, under the name of “ Physa, sp.”

4. Limneus Newcombi (Erinna), H. & A. Adams, Gen. Moll.

vol. u. pl. 188. fig. 9.

The preceding resembles so much the Sandwich freshwater

shell regarded as a new genus by the above authors, that I cannot

help placing the one next to the other, although I have no

specimen of Hrinna before me to examine. The only difference

I can make out is that in L.. Newcombi the whorls are more in-

volute, the last one forming almost the whole outside of the

shell—a difference well known to exist not only between distinct

species of European Limnet but also between the varieties of

our most common species, L. stagnalis, as well as between those

of L. auricularius ; in both the degree of exsertion of the spire

is very variable. The curved elevated external ridge of the

columella mentioned by the authors, I consider, from an inspec-

tion of the figure, to be the columellar fold common to almost

all species of ‘Tinmeus, but more strongly developed in L. volu-

tatus. Erinna Newcombi is dextral.

All the above species are of small size and dark-brown colour,

resembling in both respects the European ZL. truncatulus, Mill.

(minutus, Drap.), and the dwarf forms, allied to L. palustris, called

L. fuscus. heir chief differences are combined and repeated in

a curious crossing manner, as is shown by the following table :—

| Whorls. Less involute. More involute.

Convex. | Dextr. L. oahuensis, Soul. Dextr.

Sin.? Physa reticulata, Gould} Sin. L. affinis, Soul.

| Flat. Dextr. L. volutatus, Gould. | Dextr. EL. Newcombi, Ad.

Sin. L. volutatus, b., mihi. Sin.

Dr. E. von Martens on the Sandwichian Species of Limnzeus. 209

Limneus oahuensis exhibits no striking difference from the

general appearance of the European species. LL. volutatus and

L. Newcombi cannot be compared with any of them. Neverthe-

less an affinity between the four species cannot well be denied.

This is another example of the case (frequent in malacology) in

which a single species seems to offer very strong characters for its

separation as a genus, while the consideration of all the species

living in the same country shows its close connexion with others

in which all the characters of the new genus disappear. Striking

examples of the same among land-snails are the well-known

Brazilian Bulimus navicula and the Peruvian Bostryx solutus.

The sinistral forms have been placed repeatedly in the genus

Physa. Wow can it be decided whether they are Physe or Lim-

nei? Our European Physe are distinguished from the European

Limnai, at first sight, by their sinistrorsity and by the glossy

-surface of their shell; more essential differences are the long se-

taceous tentacles and the prolongation of the mantle outside of

the shell. This latter character does not hold good for P. hyp-

norum (Aplexa), which according to its other characters is a

good Physa, and shows by its glossy shell that this lustre is not

in every case connected with a prolonged mantle. This gloss of

the shell is absent in the Sandwich species, and also in Physa

contorta from Southern Europe (Diastropha) and in some species

from North America. Souleyet has figured the living animal of

his LZ. affinis. No prolongation of the mantle is to be seen, and

the tentacles are not long and slender, as in the Kuropean Physe,

but like those of Limneus. A. Gould refused to rely upon this

figure, calling it “rather indifferent,” but took for guide only

the direction of the whorls; so he deseribed (luc. cit. p. 43) a

Physa reticulata from the Sandwich Islands, the relations of which

with Limneus struck him and which may perhaps be (I know it

only from his description) a sinistral form alhed to Lamneus

oahuensis. The above-described Limneus volutatus sinistrorsus

is a strong argument, I think, against the practice of calling

all the sinistral forms Physa. It is true that sinistral specimens

have been found, but very rarely, among the Kuropean species

of Limneus (such have been described in the case of L. stagnalis,

pereger, ovatus, auricularius var. tumidus, and e@ronicus by

Geoffroy, Held, Hartmann, Forbes and Hanley), and that from

no other country in the world is a normally sinistral Limneus

known to us, since Lamarck’s Limneus columnaris is a land-

snail (Columna flammea). But, on the other hand, it is well known

that in Transgangetic India and the large islands of the Indian

archipelago a peculiar group of Bulimus (Amphidromus) is found,

distinguished by the about equal number of dextral and sinistral

specimens in most of the species. The Sandwich Islands them-

Ann. § Mag. N. Hist. Ser, 3. Vol. xvi. 14:

210 Dr. E. von Martens on the Species of Amphipeplea.

selves are the country of the Achatinelle, in many of which the

same peculiarity obtains; and it seems at least not absurd to

assume that the same may occur in the genus Limneus. Let us

hope that the zeal of the Sandwichian malacologists, which within

the last few years has enriched science with so many new species,

will take up and furnish an early answer to this question.

IV. On the species of Amphipeplea.

Amphipeplea is distinguished from Limneus by the external

expansion of the mantle in the living animal ; and this expansion

can be traced by the existence of a more whitish and less glossy

deposition on the outside of the shell. Various authors have in-

troduced into the genus species based only on the involuted

whorls and thinness of the shell, without regard to the above

characters.

1. European Species.—The only one of all the Palearctic

species which certainly belongs to Amphipeplea is, so far as I

know, A. glutinosa, Mull. sp., the type of the genus. Ehrenberg

(Symbol Physice, 1828) distinguished from it, as a subspecies,

his A. glutinosa syriaca from Beirut, chiefly because he could not

believe that the same species should inhabit Sweden and Syria.

I have examined the typical specimen in the Berlin Museum,

and cannot detect any constant differences between it and speci-

mens from Sweden and northern Germany.

The deposit on the outside of the shell occupies in A. glutinosa

only a circumscribed part of the last whorl near to the columella,

and is nothing else than a slight enlargement of the parietal

lamina, which can be distinguished in all specimens of Limneus

rather from its difference in colour and gloss than as a formally

distinct superposition. The spire is entirely free from any ex-

ternal deposit. Nevertheless it is well ascertained by different

authors (and I have had opportunity of noticing it myself) that

the external lobes of the mantle can be produced far beyond the

limits marked on the shell, these indicating only, I suppose, a

mean average or stationary ‘degree of expansion.

The eeosraphical distribution of Amphipeplea glutinosa ex-

tends from the Polar Circle, in the Baltic provinces of Russia, to

Sweden, Denmark, and the northern half of Germany (where it

is rather local and rare), Holland, England, the northern and

western parts of France. Its southern limits are not yet as-

certained; in southern Germany it has not yet been found, so

far as I know; and only two stations for it are recorded in

the whole Mediterranean province—Rome (by Cantraine) and

Beirut.

Beck (Index Molluscorum, 1837, p. 115) introduced the

Limneus ampullaceus, Rossm., into the genus Amphipeplea. This

Dr. E. von Martens on the Species of Amphipeplea. 211

species, inhabiting the Lake De Joux, in western Switzerland,

has indeed the general outlines of shell similar to those of Am-

phipeplea ; but, judging from a specimen in the Albersian collec-

tion presented by Carpenter himself, who sent the specimens to

Rossmassler, the author of the name, I can state that neither is

the outer surface of the shell so glossy as in Amphipeplea, but

rather dull, nor is the parietal lamina in any way extended beyond

the limit common to the true Limnei. In both respects it

closely resembles the common JL. auricularius and L. ovatus, and

may safely be considered one of the numerous varieties compre-

hended under these two names.

Some British authors, and among them Adams (Gen. Moll. i.

p- 256), admit into the genus Amphipeplea a shell from an Alpine

lake near Killarney, Limneus (or A.) involutus, Harvey. I have at

present no opportunity of examining the shell ; but the figure of

the living animal given in Gray’s figures (Moll. An. pl. 301.

fig. 3) is that of a Lamneus, not that of an Amphipeplea. Jeffreys

(British Conchology, i. p. 104), however, states the following :—

“Dr. Perceval Wright informs me that the greater part of the

shell in this species (Limnea involuta) is covered by the mantle,

as in LZ. glutinosa. The form and substance of the shell are also

similar in both of these species.” But the same author, in the

same book, on the preceding pages, terms the shell of L. gluti-—

nosa (true Amphipeplea) “excessively thin, highly polished,

transparent,” that of the questionable LZ. involuta only “ rather

glossy, semitransparent,” just as he terms that of L. auricularia

“thin, glossy, semitransparent ;” so that, judging from his

words, the substance of the shell of L. involuta is nearer to that

of L. auricularia than L. glutinosa,—t. e. that of a true Limneus,

not of an Amphipeplea. Most specimens of Limneus auricularius,

ovatus, and pereger exhibit on the outside of their shell some

thin incrustation of muddy or vegetable matter, which never

oceurs in Amphipeplea. I think that a careful examination of

the shell alone would enable us to arrive at a more satisfactory

conclusion as to the accordance either with Limneus or with

Amphipeplea. Judging from the published descriptions and

fizures of the shell, I think that Forbes and Hanley are right-in

suspecting it to be some variation of a more ordinary Limneus ;

indeed it seems to have the same relations to the smaller varie-

ties of Limneus ovatus (L. vulgaris, Pfr.) as L. Monnardi and L.

tumidus, Held (= amplus, Hartm.), to auricularius, L. roseo-

labiatus to L. pereger, L. lacustris to L. stagnalis—that is, to be

a more involuted lacustrine variety of it. The term “ znvolutus”

- itself I imagine to have been applied to it on account of the

involution of the whorls, and by no means to indicate an enve-

lopment of the shell by any soft part.

14*

212 Dr. E. von Martens on the Species of Amphipeplea.

2. Australian Species. —Dr. Pfeiffer (Malakozoologische Blatter,

1854; Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856 ; Novitates Conchologice, pp. 2, 5, 6,

& 19, 14, 15) has described two Australian species under the

names Amphipeplea Strangei and A. Melbournensis. The latter

resembles in every respect so closely the Limneus Lessoni, Des-

hayes (Guérin, Magasin de Conchyliologie, 1830, pl. 16), that

T cannot satisfy myself as to its specific distinctness. L. Lessoni

has been observed alive, described and figured by Lesson, ‘Voy.

de la Coquille, Zool.’ pl. 15. f. 1 and ‘Centurie Zoologique,’

pl. 44 (Gray, Fig. Moll. An. 307. 2): the foot is figured rather

large and clongated; but nothing like an expansion of the

mantle over a part of the outside of the shell is indicated.

Even in the figure of the shell given by Pfeiffer for his new

Amphipeplea the limits of the parietal lamina are to be distinctly

traced, and prove to be those of a Limneus. Therefore the

claims of A. Melbournensis to a place in the genus Amphipeplea

appear to be unfounded. The same is the case with 4. Strangei,

which has still more the appearance of a Limneus, the spire

bemg more produced. The analogy of the shell with Amphi-

peplea Cumingi is the only reason alleged by Pfeiffer for its

systematic position ; but this resemblance of the shells is much

more distant than that between the so-called A. Strangei and

Limneus Lessoni, or also L. ampullaceus. It must be left to

Australian naturalists to ascertain whether any real Amphipeplea

is found in Australia; at present we have no proof of it.

3. The Philippine species, on the contrary, is not only a true

Amphipeplea, but exhibits the distinguishing characters of that

genus more developed than in the European type itself. The

late Mr. Cuming, to whom science is indebted for valuable ob-

servations on the habits of living mollusks, besides an unparal-

lelled increase of new species, has described it as a ‘‘ freshwater

Bulla.” Pfeiffer (Novitat. p.6; Souleyet, Voyage de la Bonite,

Zoologie, pl. 29. f.383; Gray, Fig. Moll. An. 304. 7) figured the

living animal, exhibiting an extraordinary development of the

mantle and a very long foot. The development of the mantle-

lobes is confirmed by the examination of the shell; the parietal

lamina is continued in a shelly deposition with unequal waved

limits, occupying nearly half the circumference of the last whorl

and enveloping the apex itself. Beyond it, in the latter half of

the last whorl, there are to be seen, in many of the specimens,

scattered spots, of the same whitish appearance, probably thin

shelly deposits made by temporary contact of the mantle.

Three authors have named and described a Philippine Amphi-

peplea, without taking notice one of the other :—

Beck, ‘ Index Mioilusedae 1837, p. 115. Amphipeplea

Luzonica,

Prof. J. C. Schjédte on Pediculus. 213

Souleyet, ‘Voyage de la Bonite, Zool.? 1841. Limneus

Luconiensis.

Pfeiffer, ‘Proc. Zool. Soc. 1845. Amphipeplea Cumingi ;

figured afterwards (as 4. Cumingiana) in the ‘ Novitates Concho-

logice,’ pl. 2. figs. 3, 4, and in Ktister’s ‘ Continuation of Chem-

nitz, Limneeacea,’ pl. 10. figs. 17 & 18.

I suppose these all to be the same species, and identical with

one which the Berlin Museum has received from Mr. Jagor ;

but one of its principal characters, the deepened suture, is not

well expressed in Pfeiffer’s figure. Beck introduced the name

without any description; therefore the species cannot be re-

garded as duly established by him, which, in fact, was done by

Souleyet. Beck refers to the saine species, with some doubt,

the Limneus imperialis, Lea: this (published in 1837, in the

‘Transactions of the American Philosophical Society at Phila-

delphia,’ vol. v. p. 81, pl. 19. fig. 73) would be the oldest specific

name, if it should prove to be the same species; but the figure

is either very bad or disproves this supposition. As to the ha-

bitat, Lea supposes, with some doubt, the shell to be South

American ; but as, especially in this paper, almost all the foreign

localities given by this author (except North America) have

since proved to be erroneous, no dependence can be placed on

his statements.

XX1V.—On Phthiriasis, and on the Structure of the Mouth m

Pediculus. By Professor J. C. Scuséprr*.

Tuar Pediculi are possessed of mandibles and able to bite is an

opinion which seems not unlikely to be adopted by the naturalists

and physicians of the present day. I expect, however, that

naturalists, after renewed investigations and more careful con-

sideration, will all sooner or later agree that this opinion is not

only false in itself, but incompatible with the simplest, most

elementary, and most certain principles of the morphology of

Arthropods; and physicians will, 1 am sure, be not a little

pleased to get the ancient monster “ Phthiriasis” placed on

“the retired list,” in company with other griffins and dragons,

the offspring of ignorance. The many old and new fabulous

and confused accounts of cases of phthiriasis could not by them-

selves keep alive a belief in its actual existence ; and that such a

belief is still entertained is merely due to the notion that the

mouth of Pediculi is adapted for biting, enabling them to eat their

* Translated from the Danish original in ‘ Naturhistorisk Tidssknift,’

ser. 3. vol. ili. p. 48. Copenhagen, 1864.

214 Prof. J. C. Schjddte on Phthiriasis, and

way into the skin, and thus produce so-called “ lice-blains, open or

closed.” Once admit that the whole structure of these ani-

mals, in every part from beginning to end, is exclusively calcu-

lated for blood-sucking habits, then a peculiar disease caused by

them, such as phthiriasis is described to be, will immediately

show itself to be an impossible thing, unless we return to the

ancient notion, which now-a-days is in so little esteem that no-

body dares to avow it publicly,—viz. that vermin could be ge-

nerated spontaneously by the formation of cutaneous secretions.

If, therefore, the name is not to disappear altogether, nothing

will remain to which it could be applied except such abnormal

conditions of the skin as, in consequence of its peculiar

structure and manner of growth, may perhaps develope them-

selves under continued ill-treatment by blood-sucking animals,

at any rate when combined with other influences, such as may

always be supposed to exist in individuals who allow their per-

sons to serve as habitation and food for that kind of parasite.

At the same time, the notion of such a disease will presumably

linger a long while amongst the uninitiated; for imagination,

which originally seems to have bred this notion as a kind of

consolation and excuse for the continued existence of these ani-

mals, will also in future be inclined to stamp the degradation

as an unfathomable affliction of providence, and to give that

which is merely disgusting a touch of the sublime by unlimited

exaggeration. And in this respect it will always be a circum-

stance of great moment that precisely the most famous and

mighty men, poets, philosophers, and statesmen, kings and

emperors, are reported to have died from this direful disease.

All those who have written on the subject have more or less

misunderstood Swammerdam’s treatise ‘ Van de ontleeding van

de Menscheluys” (Biblia Nature, 1. 67); but none of them have

read it carefully, much less mastered it fully. It is true, how-

ever, that a superficial abstract of his observations pervaded all

works on natural history until the year 1839. According to

this, the mouth of the louse consisted of an haustellum armed

with hooks and capable of protrusion, from which a much smaller

sucking-tube could be pushed out: “Os aculeo exserendo” (L.

Syst. Nat.); “ haustellum retractile, reeurvum ” (Fabr. Ent. Syst.);

“os haustello antico tubuloso, brevissimo” (Latr. Gen. Ins. et

Crust.). But when Burmeister (Genera Insector. icon. illustr.

1838) had published Nitzsch’s posthumous drawings of the

mouth of the louse (pl. 2. f. 3-6), the following remarkable state-

ment was made by Erichson in ‘ Archiv f. Naturgesch.’ 1839, 11.

pale

“The drawing of the parts of the mouth agrees entirely with the de-

scription given by Nitzsch in the third volume of Germar’s Magazine.

on the Structure of the Mouth in Pediculus. 215

But his observations have been not less defective than those of Swam-

merdam. ‘The hooks on the so-called haustellum do not exist at all,

but there are instead a pair of strong four-jointed palpi ; the lice also

possess very distinct mandibles, so that I cannot but entirely side

with the unlearned, who maintain that the lice dite, in opposition to

the opinion of the learned,—and that so much the more as the strue-

ture of their mouth renders it impossible for lice to sting. It follows

of necessity from these indications, that it becomes altogether im-

possible to class Pediculini with Hemiptera as proposed by Nitzsch,

a classification which Burmeister considered necessary on purely

philosophical grounds.”’

In vain did Burmeister afterwards give a detailed account

(Linnea Entomol. 1. 1857, p. 569, pl. 1) of the struc-

ture of the mouth im Pediculus urius, agreeing with Nitzsch’s

statements, and confirming the hypothesis of this author in his

well-known treatise in Germar’s Magazine (“die Familien und

Gattungen der Thierinsecten”’), vol. in. p. 804, viz. that the

inner tube of suction consists of several sete. It was of no

avail, as indeed it never does avail in science, simply to put

forth one view as true and reject the opposite as false, because

the one thing necessary for a final decision is to test the har-

mony of the discoveries with the rational connexion of things :

it is, so far, of small importance that Burmeister’s account

contains several mistakes and faults. Accordingly we read, in

Simon’s elaborate work on cutaneous diseases, published in the

following year :—

‘Concerning the structure of the mouth in lice, the earlier obser-

vers supposed that they possessed an haustellum armed with hooks,

which, however, as early as 1839, was denied by Erichson, who, on

the contrary, discovered distinct mandibles, and a pair of four-jointed

alpi.

t wae the view formerly held is still favoured by many, I have not

thought it superfluous to enter more fully on this matter. I have

therefore, together with Professor Erichson, examined Pediculus

capitis in this respect [Professor Erichson’s former investigations

had been made on P. vestimenti|; and we found, by application of a

strong magnitying-power, that the parts of the mouth were precisely

as indicated by Erichson, and as drawn by me on tab. 7. figs. 4 & 5,

In the head, under the haustellum (a), there are a pair of mandibles,

of a brownish colour (4), and on the haustellum itself a pair of four-

jointed palpi (ec). We have not examined the mouth in PAthirius.

As long as it was believed that lice were furnished merely with

an haustellum, it was supposed that they perforated the skin with

this. "The existence of mandibles having now, however, been demon-

strated, it must be assumed that they first bite through the skin

with these, and then introduce the haustellum through the wounds

thus produced. The palpi probably serve to discover the places

216 Prof. J. C. Schjédte on Phthiriasis, and

favourable to suction.’—Die Hautkrankheiten durch anatomische

Untersuchungen erliutert, Berlin, 1848, p. 274, 279.

This view, which had already gained so much attention by

the influential support of Erichson, has recently again been main-

tained in the strongest terms, in two treatises, by Dr. Leonard

Landois in the ‘ Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie,’ Feb.

1864, In the first paper, on the anatomy of Phthirius nguinalis,

he expresses himself in the following manner :—

« The organs of the mouth are situated in the foremost part of the

head, mostly underneath. They consist of an haustellum (‘‘ promus-

cis,” Kirby), which altogether has a length of 3, millim. On this I

observed, first of all, a labrum longitudinally divided into two parts,

which forms the upper part of the haustellum, and which proceeds

from the middle part of the head. Near the root of the haustellum the

two halves of the labrum diverge, having a width of =; millim. each,

and ending in a continuation bent inwards. Viewed as a whole, the

labrum presents the shape of a bottle, of which the greatest width,

near the bottom, is ~; millim., whilst the narrowest part (the neck of

the bottle) only measures 1; millim. in width. Each half of the la-

brum carries on its foremost extremity a pair of excessively slender

small hooks, which are biarticulated and turned outwards, diverging

from one another ; these hooks consist of chestnut-brown, transparent

and hard chitine. Underneath the labrum, not far from its point,

two horizontally-working mandibles, true organs of biting, are

placed in a transverse position ; they consist of a close-grained trans-

parent chitine of a yellowish tint, along the lower edge shining brown.

They are ;4 millim. long and), millim. broad. There are certainly no

palpi to be found. My description and figure prove that the organs

of the mouth in Phthirius correspond very nearly (except with

regard to palpi) with the description of the same parts in P. capitis

and P. vestimenti given by Erichson and G. Simon; and the last-

mentioned author is no doubt quite right when he says, jokingly,

that the common people know better that lice “ bite” than the

naturalists, who take them to be sucking parasites. This point de-

serves, in a high degree, the attention of systematic authors, who

have hitherto persisted in separating lice “with sucking organs

of the mouth”’ from their congeners “with a mouth organized for

biting” (Ricinus, Mallophaga), an arrangement first proposed by

DeGeer and afterwards further developed by Nitzsch and Latreille.”’

(Vide the periodical quoted, vol. xiv. no. 1, pp. 4 & 5, tab. v. fig. 2.)

In the second paper alluded to, containing historical and

critical investigations concerning phthiriasis, the author expresses

himself, if possible, in still stronger terms :—

«The occurrence of lice underneath the skin can only be explained

by a number of them eating their way through the skin in one and

the same place. his is to be understood literally ; for the lice are

not, as was formerly generally supposed, provided with sucking-or-

on the Structure of the Mouth in Pediculus. 217

gans, but with true biting-organs, in the shape of chitinous mandibles

working horizontally, such as Erichson and Simon have shown to

exist in P. capitis and P vestimenti, and as I have found myself in

Phthirius inguinalis.” (Loc. cit. p. 34.)

Amongst the results of his inquiries the author also mentions

the following—evidently the most important of them all :—

‘In the lighter cases, the lice produce merely a papulous exanthema;

but in more serious cases, they eat their way in large numbers through

the skin on a circumscribed area, whereby open lice-blains are formed,

or, if the perforated skin remains over the place, closed lice-blains.”’

(L. ¢. p. 41.)

The verbal tenor of this last passage shows clearly that it is

principally founded on the recent communications of Dr. Gaulke

on phthiriasis, communications to which Dr. Landois ascribes

an extraordinary weight and importance, introducing them as

he does in the following words :—

“We are indebted to Dr. Gaulke for recent observations concerning

phthiriasis, which are in the highest degree important and interest-

ing (Casper’s Vierteljahrschrift, 1863, vol. xxiii. p. 315), and which

he has made at Susterburg, near Gumbinnen, on the high road to

Russia and Poland. In that neighbourhood, which is teeming

(tiberaus versehen) with lice, he has observed many cases of true

phthiriasis, of which I will here communicate two, which are of the

greatest importance.” (. ¢. p. 32.)

Let us, then, examine these proofs, which Dr. Landois con-

siders so very important.

The first of these cases was that of a lame, lunatic, old

woman. She became to that degree infested with Pediculus vesti-

menti, of which her lameness and a complete want of nursing

made her a defenceless victim, that she got a bad exanthema.

(It is here assumed, without any further proof, that the exan-

thema was caused by the parasites.) This ‘‘ exanthema” (Aus-

schlag) consisted of innumerable cavities in the skin, of the

diameter“of a pea and about a quarter of an inch deep, in which

cavities there were thousands of P. vestimenti. The habitation

of the woman, which was dirty and dark, teemed with the ver-

min, and she did not leave it during the medical treatment. The

latter remained without sensible effect, and she died of “ phthi-

riasis externa.”

The other case was that of an utterly degraded vagabond,

formerly an artisan. After a prolonged absence from home, he

returned, full of vermin, in a low and thin condition (animisch

und kachektisch), with sallow face and thin parchment-like skin.

On the skin, particularly on the inner side of the limbs, about

one hundred places were observed, partly open, partly covered

218 Prof. J. C. Schjédte on Phthiriasis, and

with a membrane, of a yellowish-red colour, a little protruding

and “ resembling abscesses,” the largest of the size of a nut, the

smallest not larger than a pea. The open cavities contained

thousands of lice, but not a drop of pus; the membranes cover-

ing the closed places were observed by a pocket magnifier to be

perforated by small holes, not larger than might have been

made by a pin. These closed places resembled shot-bags to the

touch; and when opened, the living contents spread in all direc-

tions; but not a drop of moisture was to be observed. Accord-

ing to Dr. Gauike’s opinion, the lice deposit their eggs under-

neath the epidermis, which he supposes them to perforate by

means of the “ovipositor” (Afterstachel) at the extremity of

their abdomen; the young, when hatched, remain under the

skin; and thus he fancies the “ Lausenabscess” to be formed.

Dr. Gaulke rejects most external remedies against this disease as

ineffectual ; only benzin and the internal use of cod-liver oil

“ effect,”’ according to him, “a radical cure.’ This patient,

however, understood quite well how to clean his clothes on his

wanderings from place to place—namely, by burying thei for

a time in an ants’ nest.

We should, no doubt, hesitate in drawing conclusions as to

the state of public sanitary police in Prussia from these accounts

of Susterburg and Gumbinnen, which are said to be “ mit Liusen

uiberaus versehen ;” but, at any rate, we cannot in other re-

spects bestow particular praise on accounts which contain such

gross blunders in natural history and pathology, and by their

whole style betray their author’s ignorance of what now-a-days

is required of a scientific inquiry. No critical reader could find

more in them than in the many earlier confused and contradic-

tory accounts, over which those of Dr. Gaulke really have no

other advantage than that of being dressed in modern medical

language. Nor can it be doubted that the very bad cases which

he describes, probably with a great deal of exaggeration, mostly

reduce themselves to an abnormal pealing off of the epidermis,

which in most cases had been utterly neglected. He gives not

even the faintest shadow of a proof that the cavities of the skin,

which he describes as exanthemata and abscesses, were formed by

the parasites ; and the hypothesis which he puts forward in this

respect has no other foundation than a gross blunder in natural

history, as he has no doubt mistaken the penis of the male for

an ovipositor*, Dr. Landois himself, who cites these com-

* The remarkable size and free position of this organ have long before

caused naturalists to fall into this and other errors. Some have thought

that the males used it as a sting. This last idea is owing to Leeuwenhoek,

who otherwise has communicated very valuable observations on the strue-

ture and development of lice. (Arcana Nature, Contin. p. 75, Epist. 98.)

on the Structure of the Mouth in Pediculus. 219

munications of Dr. Gaulke, has found several particulars too

open to criticism. He rejects most properly the idea of the

ovipositor “sehr energisch,” and consequently rejects at the

same time Dr, Gaulke’s whole theory of the formation of the

abscesses; he marks the account of the dry abscesses with a

note of exclamation ; and where Dr. Gaulke speaks of the inter-

nal use of cod-liver oil, Dr. Landois suggests “ that the external

use might probably be more effectual.” But without consider-

ing that the dry abscesses are equally worthy of a note of excla-

mation whether they are assumed to have been caused by a sting

or dug by the insect by means of its mandibles, Dr. Landois

nevertheless persists in pronouncing Dr. Gaulke’s relation of

cases of phthiriasis to be “ of the greatest importance, because they

place many dark points in the history of phthiriasis in their proper

light.”” And thus the present examination of this matter is again

brought back to its starting-point. For so much must here

become evident, that, if Dr. Landois finds such highly impor-

tant information and great discoveries in these communications

of Dr. Gaulke’s, this is solely because he has allowed himselt

to be blinded by the prospect that, in spite of their manifest con-

fusion and untrustworthiness, these communications might serve

to procure for the new theory of the structure of the mouth m

the louse serious consideration and final victory.

Let us therefore return to Krichson and Simon’s, and Dr.

Landois’s own account of the organs of the mouth in these ani-

mals, and we shall in that respect find their drawings very

useful *,

Whilst Swammerdam, step by step, shows us the way by which

he has come to his final conclusion, our three authors leave us in

entire ignorance how they have carried on their investigations.

However, it is not difficult to find out their method, which a few

experiments will prove to have been the simplest that could pos-

sibly have been adopted for the examination of such objects. It

is only necessary to cut off the fore part of the head, place it under

the microscope covered with a thin glass, and press it hard, and,

if the magnifying-power used is considerable, the figure given

by these authors on their plates will immediately present itself.

A long dark object is discernible lying longitudinally imside the

head, and provided at its anterior extremity with some smaller

appendages, which appear to vary in a curious way as to num-

ber and position. Sometimes they resemble diminutive hooks,

as in Dr. Landois’s figure ; but if the experiment is oftener re-

peated, they will sometimes arrange themselves into two rows, as

if we had a pair of slender articulated appendages before us,

* A copy of Erichson and Simon’s figure is inserted in p. 227.

220 Prof. J. C. Schjodte on Phthiriasis, and

that is, Erichson and Simon’s so-called “ palpi ;”” but, not to men-

tion that the two rows will never appear quite alike, there are two

points here to observe :—first, that these “ palpi,” when they ap-

pear, always show themselves further back than the hooks; and

secondly, that we never succeed in seeing hooks and “ palpi” at

the same time and in the same preparation: on the contrary,

when the hooks appear, the “palpi” are gone, and vice versd.

There is now no room for wonder that Erichson and Simon found

no hooks, but only “ palpi,” whilst Landois saw “ palpi” but no

hooks ; at the same time the uncertainty remains as to what

these small organs really are. As for the so-called mandibles,

they always remain the same, just as represented by our three

authors.

Let us for a moment content ourselves with this figure, and

seek the guidance of our authors in explaining it. But here we

at once meet with a certain degree of vacillation. In his first

statement Erichson does not seem quite inclined to acknowledge

the haustellum, which he alludes to as the “ so-called” haustel-

lum. But he must have overcome his doubts in this respect

when he had repeated his investigation together with Dr. Simon;

for then he spoke quite unreservedly of an haustellum provided

with palpi. Landois, too, describes the elongated dark object

as an haustellum, but at the same time considers it equivalent

to a bifid labrum. it is true that his expression is that he

“first ” (zuerst) found a labrum on the haustellum; but, as he

does not mention any further or second particular, he seems to

have really considered that the haustellum was entirely formed

by the labrum, though, strictly speaking, he only says that the

labrum forms the upper part (Decke) of it. But beyond this

our authors furnish us with no details of this haustellum, from

which we may safely conclude that they have not observed any-

thing beyond the same confused image presented by our pre-

paration.

Here, then, according to these authors, we have a mouth

composed of the following parts :—(1) an haustellum—according

to Erichson and Simon, provided with a pair of four-jointed

palpi, but according to Landois exhibiting a bifid labrum

armed with hooks at one extremity and reaching with the other

far back into the head; (2) a pair of mandibles wnderneath

the haustellum. Hvidently this combination is fundamentally

different from the mouth of any other known type of Arthro-

pods; and as it always is a matter of hesitation to acknowledge

as well founded morphological statements destroying a hitherto

supposed harmony in the multifarious forms of nature, it might

naturally have been expected, at least of Erichson, that he

would enter more fully into the matter in this respect. How-

on the Structure of the Mouth in Pediculus. 221

ever, neither he nor any of the other authors have said one word

on this highly important part of the question.

Thus left to our own resources, let us once more look at our

preparation. The haustellum apparently giving uo immediate

clue to a proper interpretation of what we observe, let us con-

centrate our attention on the so-called mandibles; and if in so

doing we have the benefit of some knowledge of the general

morphology of Arthropods, a number of considerations will

soon present themselves which will gradually weaken the inter-

pretation of these parts as mandibles, and at last prove altogether

conclusive against it. For if we consider their diminutive size

(their length in P. vestimenti, the largest of the species living on

pe ite body, and the See ose of phthiriasis, is only

=) to. — millim: Ey a breadth of =; to =; millim., and a thick-

ness ic =i, to +4, millim.)—their as which is that of a

narrow band equally broad at both ends complete want

of teeth, articular processes, and muscles, of which no vestige is

discernible—we must aver that such organs cannot possibly be

mandibles. Nor can we stop here: mandibles cannot be stuck

on arbitrarily any more than any other organ; they must have

their place in the plan of the organism, and harmonize with all

its parts. A glance at the structure of the Mallophagi, which

offer themselves most naturally for comparison, will show at

once what is required for an insect having mandibles; and yet

Mallophagi feed only on the youngest and softest sprouts of

feathers and hair, whilst Lice are accused of eating their way

through such a covering as the human epidermis. Not only would

the equipment of tendons and muscles be required, which these

so-called mandibles in reality lack, but, besides this, space would

be needed inside the head for the muscles, and also a surface on

which their fixed ends could find support ; that is to say, the head

would of necessity have to be broad, with a firm framework,

which, again, would demand an entirely different structure of

the thorax, limbs, &e. In short, if Lice had mandibles, they

could not possibly be such soft creatures as they are, with a

pointed head, strong climbing legs, and slow motion.

Nor do these conclusions, which, in my opimion, are incon-

testable, even yet exhaust the catalogue of improbabilities attach-

ing to the theory of Lice being provided with organs for biting.

For even those who advance this theory do not express any doubt

that Lice live exclusively on blood, which they suck by means

of an haustellum ; but why, then, should they take the trouble of

biting or enawing holes in the epidermis by means of the mandi-

bles, seeing that there is such a multitude of natural small

openings in the human skin, that the haustellum, when inserted

through one of these, at any rate nced perforate only a part of

222 Prof. J. C. Schjédte on Phthiriasis, and

the skin? Why should they, now and then at least, undertake

the difficult task of entirely burying themselves in the skin?

And, again, supposing even that they might thus more easily

get at their food afterwards, it does not appear why they should

do this only occasionally and in particular circumscribed places.

The more we think of this theory, the more confused does it

appear.

It is evidently high time to put aside as insufficient our pre-

paration as well as the statements and illustrations of Erichson,

Simon, and Landois, which are based on that preparation.

Let us make only one short experiment more—one that requires

but very little arrangement. Let us take a fresh head and

examine it from beneath, but this time with a lower magnifying-

power, by reflected light, and without the intervention of a thin

glass. The first result is sufficiently surprising ; for the “ man-

dibles” are gone. By and by, however, we find them by slowly

raising and depressing the compound body of the microscope ;

but hereby we discover at the same time that they are situated

underneath the skin. And now there is an end of the “ mandible”

theory ; for one need not be a naturalist to perceive that neither

man nor beast can work forceps which cannot be opened. We

must try some other way of finding the truth, and we will try

the method pursued by honest painstaking Swammerdam.

Suppose, then, a sufficient number of P. vestimenti* to be

* Linneus would not recognize more than one species of Pediculus in

man (P. humanus), though he acknowledged two varieties or races—one

of the head, and the other of the body. De Geer considered them two

distinet species, and described them as P. humanus capitis and P. humanus

corporis, which latter name Nitzsch proposed to change into P. vestimenti,

which is now generally used. De Geer’s statements as to their specific

differences have since made the round of all later works, whether general

manuals or special treatises, without any essential change. It is therefore

high time to point out that they are not only insufficient, but erroneous,

as nobody would be able to distinguish them by the words of Latreille,

Simon, Burmeister, Gervais, &c.; for it is by no means the case that the

dark colourmg on the edges of the thoracic and abdominal segments is

peculiar to P. capitis, and absent in P. vestimenti; the examiation of a

number of specimens will, on the contrary, show that P. capitis is occa-

sionally without any dark colouring at all, and that P. vestimenti is not

even generally without some, but, on the contrary, often as darkly tinged

as P. capitis. In both species these extremities are connected by a gradual

series of intermediate varieties. The two species are, upon the whole, so

very closely allied, that their discrimmation demands the greatest attention,

and it is very difficult to fix reliable marks of distinction. The best means

of distinction are, in my opinion, afforded by the abdominal segments,

particularly the two last but one, which in P. capitis are more sharply

separated towards the sides, whilst in P. vestimentt they join one another

more evenly; but this point of difference (mentioned also by De Geer,

though not made use of in his diagnoses) cannot be made appreciable ex-

cept by means of good drawings. Further, it is necessary, for the proper

on the Structure of the Mouth in Pediculus. 223

provided, which is both the largest and the most easily obtainable

of the species living on the human body (I got mine from the

workhouse), it will be advisable to let them hunger for three or

four days. It is only with repugnance that one thinks of put-

ting one of them on one’s hand; but at last we summon courage,

and soon the purely scientific situation from which to view the

matter—man and his parasite—is obtained. Scarcely does the

abominable little monster feel the heat of the skin before it lays

aside its former disheartened attitude, and begins to feel at ease,

its antennze oscillate for joy, and it stretches all six legs com-

placently out from the body. But, though the pleasure and

surprise at the sudden transportation into congenial sur-

roundings for the first moment eclipsed everything else, hunger

soon asserts its claim, sharpened as it is by the long fast which

has rendered its stomach and intestines quite transparent. The

animal raises itself on its legs, walks on a few steps, seeking

and feeling its way with its antennee, while we follow it with

the magnifier. Presently it stops, draws in its legs a little,

arches its back, bends the head down towards the skin at an

oblique angle, while it pushes a small dark and narrow organ

repeatedly forward, and draws it back through the fore end of

the head; at last it stands still, with the point of the head

firmly abutted against the skin. We seize the animal with a

forceps and attempt to detach it loosely from the skin, whereby

an appreciable, though of course weak, resistance is perceived

before it lets go its hold with the head; we expect to see a pro-

truding haustellum, but there is nothing to be observed*. We

then leave the animal to its own devices, and it at once resumes

the former position. Quite a new spectacle then presents itself.

discrimination between the two species, to take into consideration the

sexual differences, which are not meonsiderable, and which are not quite

the same in both species. Burmeister says that the legs are slenderer in

P. vestimenti, and attempts to illustrate this difference by means of

Nitzsch’s figures; but I cannot discover it in the animals themselves ; nor

does it appear to me correct to describe the second joint of the antennz

as elongated in P. vestimenti, although I grant that the first two joints

seem to be a little longer in that species than in P. capitis; but if these

small differences are to be of use, the two species must be defined with far

greater accuracy than hitherto.

* Swammerdam speaks of similar attempts with the same result. “ But

my object was to see the haustellum so much the clearer when I removed

the louse from its place, in which, however, I never succeeded; so that at

times I almost wished I had been able to use three hands, in order to in-

vestigate this more accurately, though there are several kinds of dissections

and investigations which do not admit of a second person being present,

which, besides, distracts the attention.” (Biblia Nat. i. p. 79, quoted by

ahs ,snetion in Dutch, but translated for the convenience of the English

reader.)

224 Prof. J. C. Schjédte on Phthiriasis, and

At the top of the head, under the transparent skin, between

and a little in advance of the eyes, a triangular blood-red point

appears, which is in continual movement, expansion and con-

traction alternating with increasing rapidity. Soon this pulsa-

tion becomes so rapid that several contractions may be counted

ina second. However, we must turn our attention elsewhere ;

for the whole digestive tube is now in the most lively peristaltic

movement, filling itself rapidly with blood, as is easily observed ;

the long cesophagus is particularly agitated, throwing itself from

one side to another inside the neck, bending itself so violently

as to remind one of the coiling of a rope when being shipped

on deck. We seize our most delicate scissors, and, without

touching any other part of the animal or displacing the head in

the least, the latter is divided by a transverse eut just in front

of the eyes. The fore part of the head is still firmly attached to

the skin, but is now slowly and cautiously taken away with the

forceps and placed under the microscope. And now * we per-

ceive a short, dark-brown, protruding haustellum, provided with

hooks at its extremity, out of which an excessively delicate

membranaceous tube, of varying length, is hanging. We natu-

rally wish to use a higher magnifying-power, and cover the

preparation with a thin glass; but in a moment all the

protruding parts disappear, and we have the old image with

“mandibles” and “palpi.” Repeated attempts prove equally

fruitless ; the slightest pressure chases everything back into the

head again. But we are evidently on the right scent. We choose

for dissection the largest, for examination with the microscope

by transmitted light the smallest and lightest specimens, whose

skin is most transparent; we alternate with fresh specimens

such as have been for some time preserved in spirit of wine,

and at last we arrive at some certain knowledge of the whole

mechanism.

The muscles inside the head appear to belong to four divisions.

That those of the neck are very strong cannot surprise us, as we

witnessed how the animal bent its head downwards so as to

form an angle with the thorax, and kept it in that position

during the whole act of suction; but neither these muscles nor

those belonging to the antennz concern us here. So much the

greater attention must we bestow on the two other groups of

muscles, viz. a large conical bundle filling up the greater part of

that section of the head which is in front of the insertion of the

* Swammerdam warns us, at the beginning of his description of the

mouth, against foregone conclusions: ‘ But this proboscis is, on account

of its diminutive size, not to be demonstrated except with great pains-

taking, and it is perhaps nothing but a piece of good luck if one succeeds

in seeing it.” (Bibl. Nat. i. p. 74.)

on the Structure of the Mouth in Pediculus. 225

antennz, and behind this, nearly in the centre of the head, a

number of small, short muscles radiating in all directions.

This star of muscles belongs evidently to the little organ which

was seen in such violent pulsation whilst the animal was suck-

ing; and we have without doubt here met with a “pumping-

ventricle’’—that is, one of that kind of organizations of the

swallow which have long ago been discovered in Aranee and

Tardigradi, and which, no doubt, are of frequent occurrence in

Arthropoda living by suction. I have discovered them myself

in those coleopterous larvee which have powerful organs for biting,

placed at a distance round a very minute mouth-opening, such as

the larvee of Carabi, Hydrophili, and Histri—as well as in the

larvee of Dytisci, which suck through the mandibles. Nor can

we escape the supposition that an organ of which the function

mechanically so much resembles that of a heart, must also in

essential points be so far constructed like a heart, and conse-

quently possess valves calculated to force the current of blood

the right way. But we shall hardly succeed in clearing up this

point with sufficient certainty with our present means of inquiry,

because the diminutive size of the ventricle and its recondite po-

sition, deeply imbedded in a mass of muscles in the centre of the

head, render a dissection a matter of very doubtful success, whilst

the immense rapidity of the pulsation renders the observation

during the suction unreliable—the thickness of the overlying

parts at the same time preventing the use of very strong mag-

nifying-powers. And thus we are compelled still to acknowledge

the truth of the venerable Leeuwenhoek’s words: “ Preeterea

pro certo habentes adhuc millenas in capite pediculi esse res, que

oculos nostros semper latebunt.” (Arcana Nature, Hpist. 77. p.

388, Jan. 1694.)

In the centre of the large conical bundle of muscles there is a set

of slender chitinous organs, which at their roots are all bent to the

sides, evidently in order to offer favourable points of insertion to

the muscles by which it is to be protruded ; for it is evident that

these organs must be pushed forwards out of the head, at the con-

traction of those muscles which are fixed between their outwardly

bent extremities and the part of the skull which is in front of

them. And thus we can understand why the protruded organs

of the mouth disappeared the moment a pressure from without

was exercised on the head ; for it is evident that the greater the

pressure the more was that force paralyzed which kept these organs

in their protruded position. But at the same time it will be un-

derstood that, whilst this arrangement renders it impossible to

press the organs of the mouth out through the opening of the

mouth, it renders it at the same time easy to pull them from be-

hind out of the muscular bundle in which they are imbedded.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xvii. 15

226 Prof. J. C. Schjédte on Phthiriasis, and

I have hitherto conducted this investigation as slowly and as

cautiously as I thought necessary in a matter so difficult, com-

plicated, and so disputed ; but I think we have now arrived at

a point from which we may without danger hasten more resolutely

to the conclusion. In order to render my account as clear and

perspicuous as possible, I shall m the sequel apply to all the

different parts of the mouth those names which, from a morpholo-

gical point of view, belong to them, forming as they do, in my

opinion, a somewhat modified but nevertheless unmistakeable

and complete mouth of the Khynchote type.

Lice are no doubt to be regarded as Bugs* simplified in

structure and lowered in animal life in accordance with their

mode of living as parasites, small, flattened, apterous, myopic,

crawling and climbing, with a conical head, moulded as it were to

suit the rugosities of the surface they inhabit, provided with a

soft, transversely furrowed skin, probably endowed with an

acute sense of feeling, which can guide them in that twilight in

which their mode of life places them. The peculiar attenuation

of the head in front of the antennz at once suggests to the prac-

tised eye the existence of a mouth adapted for suction. This

mouth differs from that of Rhynchota generally in the circum-

stance that the labium is capable of being retracted into the upper

part of the head, which therefore presents a little fold which is

extended when the labium is protruded. In order to strengthen

this part, a flat band of chitine is placed on the under surface,

just as the shoemaker puts asmall piece of gutta-percha into the

back of an india-rubber shoe; as, however, the chitine is not

very elastic, this band is rather thinner in the middle, in order

that it may bend and fold a little when the skin is not extended

by the lower lip. The latter consists, as usual, of two hard lateral

pieces, of which the fore ends are united by a membrane so that

they form a tube, of which the interior covering is a continuation

of the elastic membrane in the top of the head ; inside its orifice

there is a number of small hooks, which assume different po-

sitions according to the degree of protrusion: if this is at its

highest point the orifice is turned inside out, like a collar, where-

by the small hooks are directed backwards, so that they can serve

as barbs. These are the movements which the animal ex-

ecutes after having first inserted the labium through a sweat-pore.

When the hooks have got a firm hold, the first pair of sete (the

* Many naturalists, although free from the error that the so-called ha-

bitus, without any further examination of its character and origin in every

case, is of any weight in such systematic questions as the one before us,

nevertheless hesitate when it seems to be left quite out of sight. I may

remind such of Aradus and similar genera, in order to show that not even

is habitus violated by ranking Pediculini amongst Bugs.

on the Structure of the Mouth in Pediculus. 227

real mandibles transformed) are protruded; these are, towards their

points, united by a membrane so as to form a closed tube, from

The larger figure represents

the parts of the mouth, in a

large specimen of Pediculus vesti-

menti, entirely protruding, and

seen from above, magnified 160

times: a a, the summit of the

head, with four bristles on each

side; 5 6, the chitinous band, and

ce the hind part of the lower lip—

such as they appear through the

skin by strong transmitted light ;

dd, the foremost protruding part

of the lower lip (the haustellum);

ee, the hooks turned outwards ;

f; the imner tube of suction,

slightly bent and twisted ; the two

pairs of jaws are perceived on

the outside as thin lines; a few

blood-globules are seen in the in-

terior of the tube.

The smaller figure is a repeti-

tion of Erichson and Simon’s

figure of the organs of the mouth

in P. capitis: a, the haustellum ;

b, the mandibles; c,the palpi. (‘Die

Hautkrankheiten,’ tab. 7. fig. 4.)

which, again, is exserted* the second pair of setze or maxillee, which

* It will scarcely be possible to ascertain the details of the protruding

mechanism by examination of the human species alone, as the parts are

too small in these species. I had therefore wished to compare living spe-

cimens of the larger species inhabiting our domestic animals, particularly

the horse and the pig; but I have been unable to obtain any at present.

Very likely the mechanism may prove rather complicated. Without in-

tending a close comparison, I shall here only, as an instance, advert to the

exceedingly remarkable mechanism discovered by Lyonnet in Melophagus

ovinus. (See his posthumous papers in the ‘Mémoires du Mus. d’ Hist.

Nat.’ tome xvii. p. 233, pl. 9.)

15*

228 Prof. J. C. Schjédte on Phthiriasis, and

in the same manner are transformed into a tube ending im four

small lobes placed crosswise. It follows that when the whole

instrument is exserted, we perceive a long membranaceous flexible

tube hanging down from the labium, and along the walls of this

tube the setiform mandibles and maxille, in the shape of long

narrow bands of chitine. In this way the tube of suction can be

made longer or shorter as required, and easily adjusted to the

thickness of the skin in the particular place where the animal is

sucking, whereby access to the capillary system is secured at any

part of the body. It is apparent, from the whole structure of

the instrument, that it is by no means calculated on being used

as a sting, but is rather to be compared to a delicate elastic probe,

in the use of which the terminal lobes probably serve as feelers.

As soon as the capillary system is reached the blood will at once

ascend into the narrow tube, after which the current is contmued

with increasing rapidity by means of the pulsation of the pumping-

ventricle and the powerful peristaltic movement of the digestive

tube.

We can now easily explain what it is that Erichson, Simon,

and Landois have mistaken for mandibles and palpi. When the

labium is pressed down against the chitinous band above men-

tioned, it touches and covers precisely the thinnest middle part

of it, whilst the firmer lateral parts of the band by the pressure

become further removed from each other, or even entirely sepa-

rated if the pressure is increased, and thus they assume the ap-

pearance which led to their being misinterpreted as mandibles.

It is furthermore evident that the barbs of the labium must

assume many different positions, according to whether the elastic

part on which they are fixed is more or less protruding from or

retracted into the head, or more or less unfolded or contracted

in itself. When the labium only just peeps out of the head, a

greater or smaller number of hooks may become visible in front

of it, and then we have the image represented on Dr. Landois’s

figure of the mouth in Phthirius inguinalis. But if the elastic

part of the labium be folded up and entirely retracted in the

head, the hooks will show themselves, by pressure and transmitted

light, generally forming an irregular heap, but sometimes more

regularly grouped, and even placed in an oblique line on one or

the other side of the middle field, though never quite symmetri-

cally on both. It is such an accidental lmear arrangement of

the hooks that has been interpreted by Erichson and Simon as

alpi.

i How easily one may get upon a wrong scent by neglecting the

study of the living animal, we can also learn from the statements

of Burmeister, though he has come much nearer to the real

truth. He founded his conclusions merely on dissection of the

on the Structure of the Mouth in Pediculus. 229

swine-louse, which certainly is much larger and stronger-built

than the human species; and his result may be gathered from the

following passage towards the conclusion of his treatise :—

** According to these statements, the louse must go through four

quite different acts when feeding through its haustellum. First, it

must protrude the fleshy cone provided with hooks, and fix the

hooks in the skin. This done, the second step is to push the horny

semitube with the setee so far forward in the interior of the head as

is necessary to let the more delicate sting appear outside the orifice

of the fleshy cone. This act of protrusion is continued until the

sting has reached the tissue containing blood, whereupon the inner

tube, thirdly, acts as a drill and at the same time, moving-forwards

and backwards, causes the ascent of the blood, if not by suction,

certainly by capillary attraction. The fourth act is the peristaltic

movement of the cesophagus, which keeps up the current of blood,

and despatches further into the body the quantity of blood received

into the cesophagus. This movement is that rhythmic pulsation

which Swammerdam has compared to a pendulum.” —Linn. Entom.

vol. ii. pp. 581, 582.

As the solid part of the labium, even by pressure, very easily

detaches itself from the soft producible part on which the barbs

are fixed, itis not surprising that they should have separated

during the dissection without Burmeister observing it. Thus

it escaped his attention that they belong one to another, and

the inner part of the labium became to him an independent

horny semitube. But thereby he lost the right way out of the

old error (caused in some measure by the misunderstanding of

a certain passage in Swammerdam) of a soft proboscis capable of

protrusion—a vagina mollis, as Nitzsch says, or a “ fleshy cone,”

as Burmeister expresses himself. This circumstance, finally,

prevented him from perceiving the conformity of this structure

of mouth with that prevailmg amongst Rhynchota; nay, he

does not even attempt to refer it to any known type of mouth,

nor could such an attempt be successful as long as the imagi-

nary “ fleshy cone” had not been disposed of. Burmeister’s

statements concerning the structure of the inner tube agree

tolerably well with my own; some smaller differences may with

probability be explained as arising from the more considerable

size and powerful structure of the swine-louse ; they would at any

rate agree very well with the differences between the skin of man

and that of swine. His hypothesis concerning the use of the

tube during suction, which he conjectures to be partly to act as a

drill and partly as the brake of a pump, if closely examined can-

not be pronounced free from confusion and self-contradiction ;

but it must in any case be remembered that that author, as

indeed he expressly states in another part of his treatise,

230 Prof. W. King on the Tubulation of

never witnessed the conduct of the animal during suction ;

consequently he could not know anything from his own expe-

rience concerning the organ which plays the principal part in

that act. But he might have learned it from Swammerdam ; for

it is precisely the pumping-ventricle, and not the cesophagus,

which Swammerdam accurately describes*, comparing its move-

ment to that of the balance in a watch, in the place alluded to by

Burmeister.

If, in conclusion, we now read Swammerdam’s treatise with a

little attention, we shall find that his investigation, as far as it

goes, is not less ingenious and faultless here than elsewhere in

his incomparable work; nor is the description less full, perspicuous,

and vivid, nor less rich in pointed expressions and happy compari-

sons, written as it is in that naive and communicative style

which even a whole century later was still characteristic of many

excellent observers of natural history. Of course one ought not

to content one’s self with the Latin translation, but study the

Dutch original—an undertaking which at any rate to a Dane

has no difficulty, and which he least of all could wish to evade.

XXV.—On the Tubulation of the Valves of Rhynchopora

Geinitziana, De Verneuil. By Professor W. Kine.

In my former papers on Rhynchopora Geinitziana, I have described

and inferred its histological character from surface-observations

made with a Coddington lens+. But objections having been

taken to a hand magnifier as possessing too low a power to settle

unequivocally the question whether the above-named Permian

fossil is, as I have all along maintained {, characterized by tubes

passing completely through its valves, I have felt it necessary to

* « Whenever the louse is busy sucking, we see a small current of blood

just behind the sting (tab. 2. fig. 3 u), which shines through the head.

Between and in front of the eyes, in the middle of the head, we perceive a

tolerably large dilatation (2); so that the swallow, through the constantly

ascending blood, in that place is appreciably distended. And then these

parts contract themselves again so quickly that one scarcely sees any more

blood. And this works so rapidly that one can hardly distinguish the ex-

pansion from the contraction: so that I cannot compare it to anything

better than to the quick movement of the balance im a watch. Behind

the eyes in the head, we see nothing but a similar diminutive current of

blood pass through; and this passage is, in my opinion, properly the

gullet (f), which follows the swallow, and which is again dilated in the

neck of the louse, as shown in the drawing (g). And allthis I have inten-

tionally figured as a continued tube, in order that my description might be

the clearer.””—Bzbl. Nat. 1. p. 79.

+ Through a misunderstanding, I have hitherto called this magnifier a

** Stanhope lens.”

{ See Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 2. vol. xvii. p. 334, &., ser. 3.

vol. xvi. p. 124, &c.; Reader, No. 138, August 19, 1865.

the Valves of Rhynchopora Geinitziana. 231

make additional observations on some specimens from Gera, with

one of Smith and Beck’s highest-class binocular microscopes,

for the use of which I am indebted to its owner, Dr. Rowney.

I shall now relate the results of my last investigations.

In order to ensure an examination of the entire thickness of

the valves, I operated on specimens partially imbedded in their

matrix, which is siliceo-caleareous and granular.

Figure ] represents a polished medio-longitudinal section of

one of these specimens, about thrice its natural size. The in-

terior is filled with calcite. The letter a refers to the matrix,

which adheres to a considerable portion

of the perforate valve. In this case, Fig. .

there can be no doubt that the extra- OM

neous mineral matter covers the ori- Cae

ginal outer surface of the fossil. At the ie

umbonal region, b, the external layers

of the test are not present, having got

detached along with the matrix before

the specimen came into my hands: the

surface exposed at this part, as well as that of the imperforate

valve, displays numerous dark-coloured spots, resembling those

resulting from tubulation in many Palliobranchs, particularly

the Carboniferous Spiriferina octoplicata, 1 which, however,

they are larger.

Figure 2 represents a portion, from below the letter a, of the

last section, as seen under a mag- Fig. 2.

nifying power of 120. Two of the ¢-

tubes are insufficient for our pur-

pose, having been broken short of

their length by the removal of the

outer layers and matrix; but the

next one is conclusive, as it passes

completely through the valve. The

fourth or adjoining tube does not appear to reach the ex-

terior.

Figure 3 represents a portion of a similar longitudinal sec-

tion, as seen under the same power. It shows two tubes tra-

versing the thickness of the valve Fig. 3.

to the outer surface, and a third one ~~»

apparently passing to within a very

short distance of it. I strongly sus-

pect that the last tube, as well as the

“fourth” in fig 2, is not in reality

any shorter than the others, because

precisely where it appears to termi-

nate the test loses its semitransparency (brought out by the

232 On the Tubulation of the Valves of Rhynchopora Geinitziana.

polishing) and becomes opaque: and there are strong indi-

cations that it sinks under this part, and consequently passes

below the plane of the section, thus becoming intercepted or

getting beyond the range of vision. Although this figure shows

the tubes to increase in width as they approach the outer sur-

face, I have no doubt that the appearance is caused by their

axis not being parallel to the plane of section, or, in other terms,

by the section cutting them obliquely. A similar appearance

would be presented by a vertical section in which the tubes do

not lie perpendicular to the surface of the valves. The middle

tube is a case somewhat in point; and it is valuable in another

respect, inasmuch as it shows, what might have been readily

conceived, that vertical sections may be obtained in which the

tubes deviate from the plane of section, presenting, in consequence,

an appearance as if they terminated before reaching the exterior.

From what I have observed in other sections—longitudinal,

transverse, and tangential—of Rhynchopora Geinitziana, it seems

to be difficult to obtain one showing a number of tubes closely

associated and passing through the entire thickness of the valves ;

at least, I have only seen from one to three—never more—cut by

the plane of a single section*. This circumstance is to some

extent accounted for by the occasional, perhaps general, inclination

of the tubest, also by the fact that, with rare exceptions, they are

irregularly arranged: a quincunx or linear arrangement, a ten-

dency to which has only once occurred to me, would, it is evident,

bring a greater number into view. The incomplete infilling of the

tubes, noticed presently, furthermore explains their rareness in

the sections I have examined.

In my last paper in the ‘ Annals,’ August 1865, p. 125, itis

stated that “ I am disposed to regard the dark colour of the tubes

as due to the carbonaceous residuum of the membrane with which

they were originally occupied.” Recent observations, made

with a power of 210, show, however, that what were taken for the

remains of organic matter are aggregations of cubical crystals of

pyrites.

It has also occurred to me that the tubes are often either faintly

indicated, or rarely completely filled with pyrites, as most of them

contain only here and there, throughout their length, separated

clusters of crystals, while their remaining portion appears to

have an infilling similar to the calcareous substance now com-

posing the test. Hence, evidently, is explained the existence,

* Owing to the semitransparency of the test, the binocular occasionally

discloses other tubes reaching the surface below the plane of section.

+ This inclination is displayed in other sections that I have made of

the present species; and it is well known to be frequent in other Pallio-

branchs.

Bibliographical Notice. 233

mentioned in my last communication, of specimens showing

little or no appearance of a tubular structure on their exterior.

In conclusion, if the surface-observations which I have hitherto

brought under the notice of paleontologists have not been deemed

sufficient to show that the valves of Rhynchopora Geinitziana are

tubulated through and through, like those of species belonging

to nearly every family of the Palliobranchiata, it is to be hoped

that the clear evidence adduced in the present paper will be ac-

cepted as entirely removing all doubts on the matter:

Belmont, near Galway.

Feb. 14, 1866.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

Catalogue of the Coleopterous Insects of the Canaries in the Col-

lection of the British Museum. By T. Vernon Wo.ut.aston,

M.A., F.L.S. Printed by order of the Trustees. London, 1864.

8vo, pp. xin & 648.

Coleoptera Atlantidum, being an enumeration of the Coleopterous

Insects of the Madeiras, Salvages, and Canaries. By T. VERNON

Woutaston, M.A., F.L.S. London: Van Voorst, 1865. pp.

xlvii, 526, & 140.

WHETHER we are to regard the ancient traditions of an Atlantis as

pure fables, or as springing from some germ of truth, there can be

no doubt that its scattered islands, as the last relics of a great sub-

merged continent, must ever be looked upon with interest by the

naturalist. We cannot tell whether their summits were gazed upon

by men when this country was under an icy sea and the reindeer

wandered over Southern France, which would probably carry back

the time

“When first Madeira trembled to a kiss”

to a period considerably earlier than that ascribed to this remarkable

phenomenon by the Rev. Mr. Bowles; but we may justly regard

the animal inhabitants of these islands as representatives, perhaps

somewhat changed, of the great fauna of the lands now forming the

sea-bottom of the Atiantic, crowded together upon the highest points

to which they had access, and looking out, Deucalion-like, over the

flood that has destroyed the home of their progenitors.

Looked at in this light, a sort of dramatic interest seems to sur-

round these dwellers in the islands of the sea—an interest, however,

which cannot but heighten our curiosity to know as much as possible

about them ; whilst at the same time the data to be obtained from

their study, in connexion with the great question of the origin of

species, are of such importance that their careful investigation must

be considered one of the greatest services that can be rendered to

philosophical zoology.

Already some of these islands had received a portion of the atten-

234 Bibhographical Notice.

tion which they deserve, although the ‘ Histoire Naturelle des iles

Canaries’ of Webb and Berthelot cannot be looked upon as a very

satisfactory performance, and it has been reserved for an English

naturalist to appreciate the whole interest attaching to a thorough

examination of the fauna of the Atlantic islands, and to devote

himself with almost unexampled zeal to the task of investigating at

least the most considerable portion of their terrestrial inhabitants, the

Insects. For more than eighteen years (for his first visit to Ma-

deira dates back to 1847) Mr. Wollaston has been engaged in a most

careful study of the islands of the Madeiran and Canarian groups,

resulting in an enormous addition to the number of known species of

Insects ; and his published works on the Coleoptera of these islands,

the titles of the two latest of which stand at the head of this notice,

must be regarded as among the most valuable additions to entomo-

logical literature ever made in this country.

The history of these publications is as follows :—In 1854, after

three prolonged visits to Madeira, Mr. Wollaston published his

‘Insecta Maderensia,’ a magnificent quarto volume containing de-

scriptions of all the Coleoptera known to inhabit Madeira, and

illustrated by a series of beautiful plates. This was supplemented, in

1857, by a ‘Catalogue of Madeiran Coleoptera,’ published by the

Trustees of the British Museum, and containing such additions as

had been made to the list of Madeiran Beetles during the previous

three years. The desirability of an examination of the Canary

Islands then suggested itself to Mr. Wollaston, who subsequently

spent two periods of more than six months each in those islands, and,

collecting with his accustomed assiduity and success, brought home

a mass of materials which showed the complete absurdity of the

meagre list of Canarian Coleoptera given by Brullé in the great work

of Webb and Berthelot. The elaboration of this material was the origin

of the ‘ Catalogue of Canarian Coleoptera,’ published in 1864 by the

authorities of the British Museum, Mr. Wollaston’s collections having

been deposited in that establishment. But while this was in prepa-

ration, several entomologists, including two of our best British

Coleopterists, the Messrs. Crotch, were engaged in collecting in the

Canaries ; and among the immense number of specimens obtained by

them, a good many species were found which had not previously

been detected. These were handed over to Mr. Wollaston for exa-

mination; and their elaboration has led to the publication of the second

work indicated at the head of this article, the ‘Coleoptera Atlantidum,’

which contains a complete synonymic catalogue, with observations

upon known, and descriptions of new species, of the members of the

order Coleoptera hitherto discovered in the three northern groups of

Atlantic islands—the Madeiras, Salvages, and Canaries.

When we come to examine the results of all this indefatigable

work, both in the field and in the closet, we find that they are fully

commensurate with the labour that their attainment has cost. M.

Brullé, in the great French work above-mentioned, gives a list of

only 179 species of beetles from the Canaries; and even some of these

are considered by Mr. Wollaston, on apparently good grounds, not

Bibliographical Notice. 235

to belong to these islands at all. In his ‘Catalogue of Canarian

Coleoptera,’ Mr. Wollaston raises this number to 930, which is en-

larged in the ‘ Coleoptera Atlantidum’ to 1007, by the addition of

77 newly detected forms. The Madeiran Islands and the Salvages

may be regarded as having been virgin ground up to the time of our

author’s first researches in Madeira ; by his own investigations, and

those of others induced by his success, he has brought the number of

described species from the former to 661; whilst the Salvages, con-

sisting of bare storm-beaten rocks, have furnished 24 species, 13 of

which are peculiar to them.

The total number of species of Coleoptera recorded by Mr. Wollas-

ton as occurring in all the groups is 1449, of which 1234 have been

captured by himself, whilst 935 were first described by him. The

species belong to 423 genera, 82 of which were first characterized by the

author. Out of this whole number a good many are of course common

to the islands and various parts of Europe and Northern Africa ;

and when these are deducted we find that about 700, or nearly half

the species, may be regarded as bemg what Mr. Wollaston terms

‘ultra indigenous,” the positive autochthones of the soil. Singularly

enough, when we consider the general faunal resemblance running

through the Coleoptera of the whole archipelago, the entire number of

species common to the Madeiras and Canaries is only 238; and of these

38 may be deducted as having been in all probability introduced by

commerce, thus leaving only 200 presumably indigenous species

common to the two groups. The generally European character of

the forms met with is also remarkable ; for, except in the two eastern-

most of the Canaries (Lanzarote and Fuerteventura), nothing of a

truly African element is to be detected, the species and types not

peculiar to the islands being either European or “‘ Mediterranean *”

forms.

Mr. Wollaston dwells particularly, in the comparison of the Coleo-

pterous fauna of the Atlantides and the nearest mainland, upon the

circumstance that several of the Atlantic forms differ from their

nearest continental allies by very minuie characters, the permanence

of which constitutes their claim to specific distinction, whilst their

small importance seems almost to lead to the surmise that the so-called

species may be only what Mr. Wollaston calls ‘local phases” of

European species. Similarly several forms are indicated as differ-

ing in the same degree in the Canaries and Madeira, or even in

different islands of the former group, as will be easily seen by re-

ference to Mr. Wollaston’s ‘Index Topographicus,’’ where the

supposed possible original species are pointed out by an arrow. Mr.

Wollaston, in fact, seems to regard these forms as of the same nature

as those denominated ‘‘ phytophagic races”? and ‘“ phytophagic

species ’’ by Walsh, although he is far from adopting the evolutional

doctrines supported by that author, and maintains strongly the

essential existence and /imited variability of species. The author’s

remarks upon this interesting subject (Coleoptera Atlantidum, In-

troduction, pp. xxxvili-xlvi) are of much importance, and will well

236 Bibliographical Notice.

repay perusal. Nevertheless it does appear to us that we have here

an example of gradually increasing segregation, probably extending

over a very long period of time, with change of external conditions,

resulting, at all events in some cases (if Mr. Wollaston’s notion of

these derivative species be correct), in the production of forms differ-

ing by slight characters from the original type. The Darwinist will

say that the other forms, the specific rank of which, according to

Mr. Wollaston, is not doubtful, have probably required and under-

gone a greater amount of modification to fit them for their altered

conditions of existence. Under any circumstances, it seems to us

that the insect fauna of the Atlantic islands furnishes naturally

almost an experimental realization of the conditions necessary for the

origin of species by evolution from preexisting types; and a good

naturalist, without theoretical bias (if such a being can be found),

might certainly do much towards the settlement of this questio vexata

by a careful investigation of the ‘Coleoptera Atlantidum,’ under Mr.

Wollaston’s guidance. In connexion with this, the curious facts

presented by the study of the dominant forms of Beetles in these

islands (adverted to by the author in Col. Atlant. xxii-xxv) will be

of particular importance.

This notice has already extended to such a length, that several

points to which we might otherwise have referred must be passed in

silence. We may, however, state in general terms that the whole in-

troduction to the ‘Coleoptera Atlantidum,’ extending to 47 pages,

is replete with interesting observations and remarks, and gives an in-

creased significance to the systematic portion of the work. Both the

‘Catalogue of Canarian Coleoptera’ and the ‘Coleoptera Atlantidum ’

contain descriptions of a great number of species: in the former

work these are introduced in their places in the Catalogue; in the

latter they are given in an Appendix, and only referred to in the body

of the work. Both contain excellent topographical indexes,—that in

the ‘ Catalogue’ showing the species inhabiting the various islands of

the Canarian group, whilst that appended to the ‘Coleoptera At-

lantidum’ exhibits only the faunal relations of the three groups of

islands. The latter work is illustrated with an outline map.

Thus in the two volumes now before us, and in his ‘ Insecta Made-

rensia,/ Mr. Wollaston has fulfilled one of the highest tasks of the

zoologist: he has worked out, in an almost exhaustive manner, the

members of an extensive group of animals inhabiting a well-defined

area ; and having aimed at perfection in his work, it must be confessed

that he has perhaps attained it as nearly as is possible to man. We

can only hope that his present visit to the more southern islands of

the Atlantic may lead to equally valuable results—a hope in which

all entomologists will certainly agree with us.

237

MISCELLANEOUS.

Naturalization of Zosterops dorsalis in New Zealand.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. &c.

Mr. Ricwarp Taytor has sent to the British Museum a specimen of

Zosterops dorsalis, with the following notes :—‘“A singular little bird,

which has lately made its appearance in Wanganaui, New Zealand, and

now abounds. It appears to be migratory, and, I fancy, is originally

from Tasmania. Mr. Butler, an enthusiastic ornithologist, thinks it

belongs to the south end of the middle island; but I was assured

last summer, when visiting Dunedin, that it was equally a stranger

there. I fancy, therefore, that he is mistaken. The bird bids fair

to prove a blessing, by arresting the rapid progress of the American

blight, which is destroying all our apple-trees. It stays the winter

with us, and, we suppose, passes the summer at Taupo.”

The Boar Fish (Capros aper).

A fine specimen of this fish was taken on the 24th of January, near

Swanage, on the coast of Dorsetshire. The colour is very brilliant

when alive. The specimen has been presented to the British Museum

by the Rev. J. M. Colson.—J. E. G.

On the Occurrence of Paludicella Ehrenbergi 7x Shropshire.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—I have lately discovered the very interesting fresh-

water Polyzoon Paludicella Ehrenbergi in the Shropshire Union

Canal near my house. It is the first time I have met with this

' species, though I have been on the look-out for some years. Allman

remarks that this Polyzoon is very widely distributed, and says he

can scarcely account for its having so long escaped notice, except by

supposing that its resemblance to some of the Confervoid Algze caused

it to be overlooked. Paludicella is certainly, as the above-named

naturalist observes, ‘“‘a very timid little animal, and a specimen may

be for hours under observation before the polypides will venture to

issue from their cells, and then it is often for only a few seconds at a

time that they will continue visible.”

I may here remark that the most successful method of procuring

freshwater Polyzoa, according to my own experience, is to hunt for

the characteristic statoblasts (which may in most cases be found in

great numbers at the surface of the water in winter and spring), and

to take a supply of this water, with aquatic weeds, and place all

together in a glass vessel, which should be kept in subdued light in

a moderately warm room. The statoblasts will soon germinate and

afford specimens for examination. In this way I have obtained

young specimens of Cristatella and various species of Plumatella.

Indeed the naturalist will find it well worth his while to take at

random a can of water and a handful of freshwater weeds at any

time during the open weather in winter, and to keep a glass vessel

238 Miscellaneous.

or two of this water and weed in his sitting-room for a few weeks. He

will be rewarded by discovering rare forms of minute aquatic life.

On examining a vessel of water brought from the canal, I discovered, in

about a fortnight’s time, the rare and beautiful Stephanoceros, several

Melicerte, Paludicella and young Cristatelle. Paludicella, like

Fredericella, is an exception to the rest of the family, being perennial.

I remain, Gentlemen,

Yours sincerely,

W. Hoveuron.

General Considerations on the Circulation of the lower Animals.

By M. Lacaze-DuruieErs.

It is difficult to take up and irritate any mollusk, such as a snail

or slug, but especially a marine mollusk, without observing that the

animal, affected by the violent contractions caused in it by the im-

stinct of self-preservation, allows to flow from its body a liquid often

sufficiently abundant to moisten and bathe the hands of the observer.

What is this liquid? whence does it come? how does it escape?

It may be asserted that there exist a great number of animals of

low organization, which, for purposes sometimes unkown, but often

appreciable, deprive themselves, by bleeding, of a great part of the

liquids of their economy. But it must be remarked that the same

things do not take place in all groups, and that, to obtain an exact

notion of the circulation in the lowest divisions of the animal kingdom,

it is necessary to take our examples at once from the Mollusca, the

Annulata, and the Zoophytes.

In the first place, with regard to the Mollusca, positive facts now

prove, beyond the least doubt, that there is a communication between

their circulatory apparatus and the exterior world. MM. Langer

and Gegenbaur have seen this in a Lamellibranch and in some Ptero-

poda; and I believe the former has demonstrated the existence of

perfectly definite external orifices of the apparatus of circulation,

serving for the issue of the blood or for the entrance of water, in the

Gasteropoda, which are comparatively very high in the scale of

Mollusca.

The importance of such an arrangement will be understood with-

out difficulty, and it will be seen how necessary it is to take it into

account in studying the nutrition of these animals. We can hardly,

therefore, brmg too many proofs in support of the demonstration of a

fact so unprecedented and so little in accordance with what we

observe in the higher animals.

The new observations which I have the honour to present to the

Academy are not isolated; they are related to an ensemble of zoolo-

gical researches upon the Gephyrea, Zoophytes, and Mollusca which

I have pursued for a long time; they were made at Cette in the

months of August and September last.

If the existence of external orifices of the apparatus of circulation

in the Mollusca does not appear to be doubtful, it is nevertheless

very difficult to ascertain. Thetys leporina of the Mediterranean,

Miscellaneous. 239

the history of which possesses so much interest in various ways,

presents the most remarkable organic arrangements from the point

of view which now occupies us.

It bears on its back, placed symmetrically on each side, from

fourteen to twenty pairs of branchize, elegantly twisted into a spiral,

between which may be observed an oval pit of a more delicate texture

and more transparent than the rest of the integument of the body,

upon the middle of which there rises a small mamilla pierced by an

orifice like a button-hole.

If the extremity of the pipe of a syringe be applied to this orifice,

and an injection be made with much care, so as to avoid injury and

consequently all causes of error, the coloured liquids or air employed

are soon seen filling the venous system. If the animals are in favour-

able conditions, the veins may even be injected merely by directing

the stream of coloured liquid from a distance upon the mamilla of

the oval interbranchial fossa.

The Thetys bearing, as we have just seen, from fourteen to twenty

pairs of branchize on each side of the body, may therefore at pleasure

introduce water into its blood, or get rid of a portion of this nutritive

fluid, in front, behind, or towards the middle of its length, by means of

from twenty-eight to forty orifices. Hence, when we take up this

animal well expanded and developed, can we be astonished to see it,

in the hands which it inundates with fluid, change its form, retract

itself, and gradually lose more than one-third of its volume? It is

sufficient, however, to consider this in order to understand that, if the

animal could not reject a portion of the liquids which impregnate its

tissues like the water imbibed by a sponge, it would be impossible

for it to diminish its volume.

In Thetys leporina, as in all the naked Mollusca the observation

of which is easy, effects may be produced by irritation which it is

very useful to study. When a part of their body is touched, it is seen,

under the influence of irritation, to contract and return upon itself,

driving off the liquid lodged in the meshes of its tissues, and causing

the dilatation or inflation of some other part. If the latter be irrita-

ted, the same thing takes place, it contracts in its turn; and by mul-

tiplying the points of contact, the blood, being driven in all directions,

and no longer finding any place in the economy, is forced to escape

outwards: if orifices exist, it is through them that it issues; and if

these orifices are insufficient, it ruptures the tissues in order to make

a passage for itself. Direct observation can leave no doubt upon this

latter fact.

But when the issue of the blood is not violent, but natural, it is

subjected to a veritable appreciation on the part of the animal. Of

this the organization of the orifices furnishes a proof. In Den-

talium and Pleurobranchus I have described two muscles and a

valve which oppose the escape of the blood when the animal does

not consider it desirable. Here a muscle with circular fibres forms

a sphincter sufficiently developed to produce the mamilla of the oval

fossa. It is indeed this sphincter, which is usually much contracted,

that retains the liquids injected into the nervous system, and renders

240 Miscellaneous.

the detection of the orifices very difficult, causing us still to be

ignorant of their position in most species.

In studying in detail the nervous system of Thefys, I have ascer-

tained that two very distinct and comparatively very large nerves

pass to each of the sphincters of the orifices, and that sometimes,

before penetrating into the muscle, they even become inflated into a

very small centre or nervous ganglion. I should add that these nerves

have their origin from the central parts of the nervous system of the

life of relation, and not from the great sympathetic.

From this anatomical arrangement we must evidently chine that

the opening of the orifices is not effected without a direct influence

emanating from the nervous centres, and that the animal certainly

appreciates the occasion for the relaxation of the sphincter and the

escape or admission of fluids.

But things do not go on in the same way in all the lower animals.

In the Gephyrea, and especially in Bonellia, I have shown that

one liquid fills the general cavity of the body, and is distinct from a

second, contained in proper vessels. The former can be poured out

by the orifices of reproduction and by the terminal cups of the renal

glands, which present a very curious arrangement. Imagine a race-

mose gland of which all the grains or acini are terminated, not as in

ordinary glands, ceecally, but by elegant cups or urns, covered with

vibratile cilia causing currents from the outside to the inside of the

gland through a little canal,—imagine, besides, the kidney floating in

the midst of the general cavity of the body, giving it a portion of

the elements of the secretion, and on the other hand taking from it

directly, by means of its vibratile cilia, a portion which it rejects out-

wardly,—and we shall have an idea of the very remarkable renal ap-

paratus of Bonellia.

In no other animal belonging to a high order of the animal series

has there been described a similar organ effecting direct depuration

by motory organs, and independent of any physiological act of

secretion properly so called.

In the Ceelenterate Zoophytes, again, things take place differently.

The liquids which circulate in the innumerable canals hollowed out

in the sarcosoma of these composite animals come directly from the

stomach, without the intermediation of absorption. They pass

through orifices pierced in the walls of the digestive cavity, and are

thus poured directly into the apparatus of circulation ; they may also

be rejected by the way through which they penetrated, namely the

mouth.

From the preceding facts we may conclude that the conditions

under which nutrition is effected im these low animals differ pro-

foundly from those which correspond with the same function in the

higher animals; for the blood of the Mollusca, Gephyrea, and

Zoophytes must be very different from that of the Vertebrata, even

in consequence of the direct relation which it has with the outer

world.— Comptes Rendus, December 18th, 1865, pp. 1101-1105.

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES.]

No. 100. APRIL 1866.

XXVI.—On Germination at different Degrees of Constant Tem-

perature. By M. Apu. bE CANDOLLE*.

[Plate IV. ]}

Two motives gave rise to my undertaking a series of experiments

upon germination at different degrees of temperature. First, I

desired to continue and complete my earlier experiments upon

the duration of the germination and of the germinative power of

seeds of different species or familiest. I also wished to study

in a direct manner, and in regard to a particular function, the

effect of time in compensating a low temperature, and that of

an elevated temperature in diminishing the amount of time re-

quired for one function. It is well known how this problem has

engaged the attention of agriculturalists and naturalists for some

years; but, in almost all the known facts, there is always an

imextricable mixture of several functions considered collectively,

either of the influence of light mixed with that of heat, or of

temperatures which are continually varying. My aim has been

to eliminate all these complications; and if I have been antici-

pated by a judicious observer, M. F. Burckhardt {, in some ex-

periments which the perusal of my ‘ Botanical Geography’ ap-

pears to have suggested to him, it will be seen that my experi-

ments bear out his, that they apply to a larger number of spe-

cies submitted to more normal conditions, and that they con-

sequently lead to more extended and more certain conclusions.

* Memoir read at the General Meeting of the Swiss Society of Natural

Sciences at Geneva, on August 21, 1865. Translated from the ‘ Biblioth.

Univ. de Geneve,’ 1865, p. 243.

+ “Tables of the duration of the Germination of 863 Species observed

in the Botanic Garden of Geneva,” by Alph. de Candolle (im the ‘ Physio-

logie Végét.’ of Aug.-Pyr. de Candolle, vol. ii. pp. 640 & 646).

+ On the Determination of the Zero of Vegetation (Verhandl. d. Natur-

forsch. Gesellsch. Basel, 1858, vol. ii. 1. pp. 47-62.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvii. 16

242 M. A. de Candolle on Germination

I will first describe my experiments, and afterwards give the

results.

§ 1. Details of the Experiments.

I first procured the seeds of ten species, in good condition,

and belonging to several different families of plants. They were

of or below the average size, some suitable for germinating at

low temperatures, others requiring heat—at least according to the

ordinary modes of culture. I selected three Cruciferee (Lepidium

sativum, Sinapis alba, and Iberis amara), one of the Polemoniaceze

(Collomia coccinea), one of the Linacez (Linum usitatissimum), one

of the Cucurbitaceze (Cantaloup Melon), one of the Ranunculacee

(Nigella sativa), one of the Sesameze (Sesamum orientale), one of the

Leguminose (Z7rifolium repens), and one of the Graminaceze (Zea

mais, var. precox). Notwithstanding the importance of the last

two families, I preferred a single species only of each. The Legu-

minose are well known for their irregular germination. It is

not an uncommon circumstance, in the same sowing of the lupine

or Vicia, to see the seeds sprout up week after week, month after

month, and even until the following year, without our being

~ able to account for it*. The Graminacee germinate somewhat

slowly, and are furnished with an envelope (pericarp) adherent

to the grains, which perhaps complicates the physiological

phenomena.

After having convinced mnyself that all my seeds were suscep-

tible of germination, they were deposited in a dry place, where

the temperature varied but little, and from which they were re-

moved for each experiment. In each case they were sown upon

sand in an earthen vessel, a wooden box, or a glass bottle, ac-

cording to circumstances. The seeds were laid upon the dry

sand, and each sowing, thus prepared, was left for twenty-four

hours at least in the medium the mean temperature of which they

were to acquire ; they were then watered with water of the tem-

perature wished for in the experiment. The first watering was

always copious, so that the seeds might be rapidly penetrated by

the moisture—a necessary condition for their germination being

induced by the temperature and the oxygen. The seeds were

covered with a thin layer of sand, but the watering nearly always

uncovered them. In fact, I have not remarked any difference in

regard to the period of germination between the seeds upon the

surface and those which remained covered by a thin layer of

* T formerly pointed out to M. Vilmorin, senior, that Vicia narbonensis

was a plant which would form excellent forage if its proper cultivation

could be carried out. This skilful horticulturist took great trouble, and

after having proved the real merits of the species, was compelled to

renounce it, because he could not succeed in making the seeds gathered

and sown together spring up at the same time.

at Different Degrees of Constant Temperature. 243

sand—a proof that uniformity of temperature was preserved in

these two positions, in consequence of the favourable arrange-

ment of the experiments.

The determination of the moment at which germination takes

place is a delicate point, and to a certain extent arbitrary. The

embryo alters within the seed before it appears outside, the

radicle elongates more or less quickly, and, according to the

species, the young plant shows itself in various ways. I have re-

garded as the moment of germination, that at which, the sper-

moderm being ruptured, the radicle begins to escape*.

Several thermometers were at my command, most of them

being graduated upon the tube itself. Although they were

carefully made, I verified in each case the correction requisite

to be made at zero ; and for the higher degrees, [ compared them

at every ten degrees witha very accurate standard thermometer,

belonging to the Geneva Society for the construction of philo-

sophical instruments. This thermometer had been verified by

M. Louis Soret, by passing a drop of mercury from place to place

in the inner column. The principal cause of error arises from

the difficulty of determining the fractions of degrees in thermo-

meters constructed of thickish glass, when placed in various po-

sitions, and when the eye is not always perpendicular to the tube.

I hope, however, that the numbers are accurate to within one-

tenth of a degreet.

The object of my experiments being to observe the germina-

tion at different but constant temperatures, I had an apparatus

constructed under the direction of Professor Thury, which was

satisfactory as regards the temperatures near 0°, but which was

not found sufficient for the other circumstances. This apparatus

consists of a cubical zine reservoir, 44 centimetres in each di-

mension, surrounded by sawdust and contained within a large

wooden box. The reservoir could be filled with ice or water of

a given temperature, and the vessels or bottles containmg the

seeds could be arranged either in the reservoir or in the sawdust,

or even in the compartments of a zinc projection springing

from one of the faces of the box. This lateral addition did not

answer, because its cavities did not afford fixed conditions of tem-

perature and it occasioned a loss of part of the advantages, in

* M. Burckhardt, in the experiments alluded to above, and with which I

was not then acquainted, regarded the moment at which the cotyledons

became exposed as the period of germination. This is rather a period of

vegetation. It may be of value in the comparison of the same species

under different conditions, but it varies greatly in the case of different

species, certain embryos remaining for a long time recurved under the

surface of the soil or with their cotyledons imprisoned in the remains of

the spermoderm.

t The degrees are always those of the Centigrade thermometer.

16#

244. M. A. de Candolle on Germination

regard to heat, of the isolation of the reservoir. The box was

placed in an arched deep cellar, having no other outlet than a

door opening into a vault. The temperature was therefore na-

turally very steady, at least entirely removed from the influence

of daily and even weekly variations.

The temperatures near 0° were maintained with steadiness in

the reservoir as long as I wished, by renewing the ice every three

days; but in the case of other temperatures, especially from

18° upwards, the apparatus was unsatisfactory. Water at

50° or 55° very rapidly loses its heat ; and the apparatus being

difficult to move, I gave up its use, preferring to take advan-

tage of the succession of the seasons for placing the sowings

sometimes in the cellar, at others in the open air, then in rooms

or cupboards where the temperature scarcely varies from day to

day, which has allowed me to continue the observations to about

somewhat less than 24°; and for the higher degrees, I had re-

course to the artificial heat of a lamp.

Temperature of 0°.

Three small vessels to contain the sowings of the seeds were

placed in a large glass bottle closed with a cork. This floated in

the reservoir of melting ice, without ever entirely emerging or

becoming submerged. The temperature of 0° was maintained in

the interior of the apparatus with remarkable steadiness. Even

when a somewhat larger proportion of ice than usual was allowed

to melt, the thermometer immersed in the vessels containing the

seeds indicated exactly 0°. Another cylindrical box, made of

tin, which floated in the same reservoir and contained some

sowings, also retained the temperature of O° with great steadi-

ness.

The experiment lasted from 4 o’clock on the 7th of March

until the same hour on the 11th of April, 7. e. thirty-five days.

The results in the case of ten species are subjoined*.

The following did not germinate at all :—Collomia, Lepidium,

Linum, maize, the melon, Nigella, Sesamum, Trifolium, and

Celosia.

Two sowings were made of Trifolium, one in the vessels con-

tained in the large bottle, the other in the tin box.

The only species which germinated was the Sinapis, of which

also two sowings were made, one in the bottle, the other in the

box. Of the former, some seeds (five out of thirty) germinated

from the 28rd to the 25th of March, the mean being the seven-

teenth day. In the box, in which the sowing only took place on the

* The Iberis was not sown in some of my experiments, one of the

Amaranthacee (Celosia cristata) beg substituted for it.

at Different Degrees of Constant Temperature. 245

evening of the 16th of March, some of the seeds germinated on

the 27th in the evening, 7. e. the eleventh day, and others con-

tinued to sprout successively. It is difficult to determine to what

this difference of from eleven to seventeen days was owing ; for

the surrounding temperature was 0° in both cases. I suspected

that the seeds in the second sowing were not brought sufficiently

near 0° at the moment at which they were placed in the soil, which

was of this temperature. They were also but few in number,

and too crowded. It may be that the outer temperature had not

surrounded them with sufficient rapidity at first, and that, a

certain chemical change having ensued, the approximation of

the seeds had produced a local heat sufficient to alter the supposed

conditions. For these reasons, the result of the first experiment

(seventeen days) appears to me to be most probably correct.

At the end of thirty-five days, being obliged to absent myself,

I ceased to renew the ice in the apparatus; but the experiment

had lasted sufficiently long. And what proves it, was, that at

my return nearly a month later, on the 9th of May, I found the

vessels in the apparatus at 7°°7, and no other species except the

Sinapis had germinated. Several might have sprouted at simi-

lar temperatures, as we shall see presently ; but in such a pro-

longed experiment they had probably rotted. Lepidium and

linseed germinate at ordinary temperatures, almost as soon as

Sinapis, and would certainly have germinated between the seven-

teenth and the thirty-fifth day of the experiment if the tempera-

ture of O° had not formed an obstacle.

There are probably alpine species which sprout below a tem-

perature of 0°, especially nival species, as So/danella for example.

We are advised to sow the seeds of rhododendrons in melting

snow, and foresters sometimes sow in the same way the seeds of

trees on mountain-slopes. Undoubtedly, in the natural course

of things, the rays of the sun between whiles may cause a rise of

temperature above 0° at the expense of the water of the snow;

but we may believe that, as in the instance of Stnapis, certain

species germinate whenever water comes into contact with them,

even at 0°. On the other hand, according to my experiments,

several do not germinate at so low a temperature. It still

remains to be determined whether they really cannot germinate,

or whether they require so long a time that their tissue usually

passes into a state of putrefaction which reaches the embryo.

Temperature of 1°:4: to 2°2.

Four small porous earthen vessels were immersed up to the

rim in the sawdust surrounding the reservoir of ice. On the

7th of March, at 4 p.m., the seeds of all the above species, ex-

cept the melon and Trifolium repens, were placed in them. The

246 M.A. de Candolle on Germination

first would certainly not have sprouted ; the second did not then

appear to me disposed to germinate with sufficient uniformity to

be worth trying. I have since found that it would have been

better not to reject it.

The first vessel contained the seeds of Collomia and Celosia.

Its temperature varied but very slightly, from 1°-6 to 2° (mean

1°8). The seeds did not germinate. The experiment lasted

thirty-five days. Afterwards the temperature gradually rose to

8°. This temperature of 1°8 to 8°, having lasted twenty-eight

days, did not induce germination.

The second vessel varied in temperature from 1°4 to 1°9

(mean 1°65). It contained sowings of Lepidium and linseed.

The former sprouted on the thirtieth day, in tolerable abundance,

the latter on the thirty-fourth day*.

The third vessel varied from 1°-5 to 2° (mean 1°°75). It con-

tamed seeds of maize and Nigella. None germinated. After

the experiment had lasted thirty-five days, the temperature being

slowly raised during twenty-eight days as high as 8°, they still

had not germinated.

Lastly, the fourth vessel, containing the seeds of Sesamum

and Stnapis, varied from 1°°6 to 2°2 (mean 1°9). The Sesamum

did not germinate; neither did it germinate during the twenty-

eight days of 1°-8 to 8°, subsequent to the experiment. The

Sinapis, however, germinated on the sixteenth day. The mean

of these sixteen days was 1°9, as that of the entire experiment.

These facts, which are nearly all negative, help to confirm and

explain the experiment at 0°. The germination of Sinapis on

the sixteenth day, at 1°-9, shows that its true germination at 0°

was rather the seventeenth day than the eleventh.

At temperatures of 2°°6 to 3°°2.

The three cylindrical and lateral cavities nearest the reservoir

of ice contained the same species, sown, in three vessels, from

the 6th of March.

The cavity « contained seeds of Collomia and Lepidium. The

temperature varied from 2°8 to 3°2 (mean 8°) during the

thirty-six days which the experiment lasted. - The Collomia did

not germinate. Some of the seeds of Lepidiwm germinated on

the eleventh day}; they then perished; others, somewhat fewer

in number, germinated on the sixteenth day; lastly, three ger-

minated on the thirty-first day. Hence about half the seeds

germinated, in succession.

* In saying that a species germinated on the thirty-fourth day, I mean

that thirty-four complete days were required for the radicle to show itself.

+ I mean the end of the eleventh day. The same applies to all that

follows.

at Different Degrees of Constant Temperature. 247

The cavity 8, sown with linseed and maize, varied from 2°8

to 3°°2 (mean 3°). During the seventeen first days the tempe-

rature was steady at 8°1, and the linseed germinated on the

seventeenth and eighteenth days, in tolerable quantity. The

maize did not germinate.

The cavity y contained Nigella, Sesamum, and Sinapis. The

temperature usually varied between 2°°6 and 3°2; but on the

sixth day of the experiment an accidental cause of increased

heat occurred, raising the temperature to 5°. The Nigella and

Sesamum did not germinate. Three seeds of Sinapis germinated

on the ninth day, or rather on the eighth and a half day ; on the

seventeenth one more germinated; the rest were unchanged.

Finding the experiment useless, I again sowed Sinapis, at 2

o’clock on the 18th of March, in an additional vessel placed in

the cavity y. One seed germinated on the sixth day, another

on the thirteenth, subsequently two more, which proves but

little, for 60 or 80 grains were sown. After the experiment the

temperature gradually rose to 8° during twenty-eight days, and

oh seeds which had not previously germinated did not then

0 So.

At temperatures of 4°°2 to 61.

The same species were placed in the lateral cavities furthest

from the reservoir of ice, also in three vessels.

a varied from 4°°6 to 6°-1 (mean 5°35). It contamed Col-

lomia, which germinated on the seventeenth day in tolerably

large proportion (nearly half), and Lepidium, which germinated

on the eighth day in tolerable abundance.

B varied only from 4°°7 to 4°°9. It contained maize, which

did not germinate, and linseed, which germinated on the seven-

teenth day in the proportion of nearly a fifth of the seeds sown.

y varied from 4°-2 to 4°-9 (mean 4°55). It contained Ni-

gella, Sesamum, and Sinapis. None of these germinated, not

even the Sinapis. Evidently the seeds of the latter species, which

sprout so readily, had suffered; for a month afterwards, when

the temperature had risen to 8°, only a single individual showed

itself out of thirty or forty sown on the 6th of March.

The moisture had probably been too great in these three cavi-

ties, as in those in which the mean was from 2°°6 to 3°2, just

alluded to. On the 9th of May, twenty-eight days after the

experiment, of all the sowings there only remained a single plant

belonging to Sinapis.

At a temperature of about 5°°7.

From the 6th of March to the 11th of April, the temperature

of the cellar in which the experiment was made varied only from

248 M. A. de Candolle on Germination

5°-4. to 6°. The mean temperature every two days was 5°68,

say 5°°7.

All the species were sown on the 9th of March, upon a basis

of sand, in a large box. They were wetted with water of the

surrounding temperature.

At higher temperatures evaporation would lower the mean of

the soil in which the seeds were sown, which circumstance was

taken into account, in the following experiments, by measuring

the temperature of the soil instead of the air. At 5° or 6° this

cause could be of but little importance, but it would give rise to

the presumption that the mean was a little below 5%7.

The following were the results to the 11th of April :—

Collomia. Some seeds germinated on the fourteenth day ;

the others failed.

Lepidium. Germinated abundantly on the fifth day.

Linum. Germinated abundantly on the sixth day.

Maize. Did not germinate.

Nigella. Germinated on the twenty-seventh day.

Sesamum. Did not germinate.

Sinapis. Germinated abundantly on the fourth day.

Iberis. Germinated on the fourteenth day.

Trifolium. Germinated on the tenth day.

Melon. Did not germinate.

From the 11th of April to the 9th of May the temperature of

the cellar gradually rose to 8°. Still the seeds of maize, Sesa-

mum, and melon did not germinate. Those of the Sesamum had

perhaps suffered from the damp; but those of the maize and

melon were hardly swollen, and some of them were mouldy.

At a temperature of about 9°.

In the middle of May the temperature of the cellar had risen

to nearly 9°. I took advantage of this to sow, at 1 o’clock, on

the 17th, all the species, in a broad box, exposed to the free air.

On the 18th, at half-past 2, I watered them, and allowed the

experiment to contiue. From the 18th of May to the 2nd of

June the thermometer in the open air only varied 0°°6. In the

sand containing the sowings the variation was 0°8. The hu-

midity caused by the watering always lowered the temperature

of the soil relatively to that of the air, which induced me to

determine, as exactly as possible, the temperature of the upper

layer of soil. On making every correction with the standard

thermometer, I found 9°2 to be the most probable temperature

to which the seeds had been subjected. The following are the

results :—

at different Degrees of Constant Temperature. 249

Collomia. Germinated six days and three-quarters after the

sowing.

Lepidium. Germinated on the third day.

Linum. One seed commenced on the second day, several

others on the fourth.

Maize. One seed on the tenth day, two others on the twelfth,

and others subsequently.

Melon. Did not germinate.

Nigella. Germinated on the fifteenth day.

Sesamum. Did not germinate.

Sinapis. Germinated at the end of three days and a half.

Tberis. On the sixth day.

Trifolium. Some seeds on the fifth day, others on the sixth,

the eighth, &c.

At a temperature of 12° to 13°.

The same kinds of seeds were sown and watered on the 15th of

July, in the same manner as the preceding, but at a temperature

which in the cellar, from the 15th to the 30th of July, was 13°°66

in the air, and 12°-6 in the soil,—the extreme variation in the air

being 1-0, and in the soil 0°°8. During the first three days,

the mean in the soil was 12°-9: this refers especially to four of

the species mentioned below. The results were :—

Collomia. Germinated on the sixth to the seventh day.

Lepidium. Germinated after about a day and three-quarters.

Linum. Germinated in about two days and three-quarters.

Maize. Two seeds out of seventeen germinated at the end of

the fifth day; and on the seventh day half had germinated.

Melon. Did not germinate, not only from the Ist to the dlst

of July, but also during the month of August.

Nigella. The ninth day (at the end) a fourth part of the seeds

germinated.

Sesamum. Germinated abundantly at the end of the ninth day.

Sinapis. Germinated after one day and three-quarters.

Iberis. From three and a quarter to four days.

Trifolium. Germinated at the end of the third day, unequally.

The uncertainty which existed in regard to four of these

sowings, induced me to repeat the experiment at once.

Lepidium, at 12°-9, sprouted in one day and three-quarters,

as before.

The linseed failed; but on again repeating the experiment at

13°5, it germinated at the end of one day and three-quarters.

The mean, with the preceding experiment, is two days and a

quarter, at 13°2,

250 M.A. de Candolle on Germination

Sinapis. Germinated in about forty hours. The mean, with

the preceding experiment, is forty-one hours, at 12°9.

Trifolium. In three days, minus about three hours, at 13°-0.

At a temperature of about 17°:

Some sowings were placed, on the 15th of May, in a room

where the temperature of the air varied 1°3 to the end of the

month, and that of the sand in which the seeds were placed, also,

1°3. During the first three days, the mean to which the seeds

were subjected was 17°°2; the Lepidium and Sinapis germinated

towards the end of one anda half to one and three-quarters day; the

linseed and Trifolium at the end of the second day. Considering

the rapidity of the phenomenon, I wished to repeat the experiment

with still more exactness, and I found that, the means being 16°°9,

Lepidium germinated in thirty-six hours.

Linseed sprung up partially at the end of the fourth day.

Sinapis at the end of three days and a half.

Trifolium at the end of about three days and a quarter.

Under a mean temperature of 17°-3, in a third experiment, the

Stnapis germinated at the end of the second day. The mean of

these three results, in the case of Sinapis, is one day and seven-

tenths [? 2°33 days], at 17°:2.

The mean of two experiments gives for the other species, at

17°-05 :—

Lepidium. One day and a half.

Linum. Three days.

Trifolium. Two days and six-tenths.

The other species gave, at 16°-9 :—

Collomia. Five days and a half.

Maize. Three days and three-quarters.

Melon. Commenced at the end of nine days and a quarter, and

continued to spring up on the subsequent days.

Nigella. The sixth day.

Sesamum. The third day.

Iberis. The fourth day.

At a temperature of about 20° to 21°.

Similar sowings were made in a room in which the tempera-

ture was tolerably constant. The seeds, placed in an open box,

were copiously watered, covered with moistened brown paper, and

the whole shut in a drawer. The shape of the box allowed the

thermometer to be placed obliquely in the superficial layer of

sand in which the seeds were placed. At 4 p.m. on the 2nd of

August, when the experiment was begun, the temperature was

at different Degrees of Constant Temperature. 251

22°15; the next morning at 10 o’clock it was 21°2, and on the

following day at 10 it was 19°°9. 21°1 may be considered the

approximative mean. ‘The following are the results :—

Lepidium. Germinated in thirty-eight hours.

Linseed. Germinated in about thirty-six hours.

Maize. Two seeds germinated on the forty-second hour, and

others followed.

Nigella. In four days and a quarter.

Sesamum. Germinated in from thirty to thirty-six hours,

without my being able to determine accurately, in the middle of

the second night.

Sinapis. One seed germinated in eighteen hours, and the others

followed ; say, twenty-two hours for the first of them.

Trifolium. Some seeds germinated in forty-two hours.

On the 5th of August the temperature had fallen, and the

mean of the 2nd of August, from 5 in the afternoon till 10 in the

morning, may be estimated at 20°°4. Jberis germinated under

these conditions in two days and three-quarters.

Collomia did not sprout. Its seeds were kept and watered at

temperatures of from 18°°8 to 20°'4 (mean from the beginning

19°6), and on the 18th of August (fifteen days and a half after

the sowing) one germinated.

To be sparing of the melon-seeds, of which very few were left,

I did not then sow them, but began again on the 16th of August;

and at a mean of 19°-4, having varied from 18°°8 to 20°:4, two

seeds out of ten germinated in two days and twenty hours.

At a temperature of from 24° to 25°.

On the 19th of July, a sowing was made in a room the tem-

perature of which was about 26°, and subsequently, from the 22nd

to the end of the month, 23° to 24°. The seeds were placed upon

the sand in a drawer which shut tightly, and to guard still more

against external variations, they were covered with sheets of brown

paper. The sand was watered, and the paper moistened. The

temperature in the sand remained for three days between 24°-9

and 25°-2 (mean 25°05). Under these conditions,

Linseed germinated in thirty-eight hours.

Maize. One seed out of twelve germinated in twenty-three

iat ; but half the seeds had not germinated until after forty-four

ours.

Melon. Two seeds out of ten germinated in forty-four hours, the

others followed.

Sesamum germinated in from twenty-one to twenty-two hours

and a half. This extreme rapidity having prevented me from

252 M. A. de Candolle on Germination

determining accurately, I immediately made a fresh sowing at a

temperature of 24°-4 to 24°°9; it sprouted in twenty-two hours

and a half.

Sinapis appeared to have germinated in thirty-six hours ; but

it was in the night, and the moment was not ascertained.

Trifolium germinated about the forty-second hour.

Nigella and Iberis escaped observation, from an accident.

Lepidium presented a singular fact, probably resulting from an

error of observation or the accidental choice of more tardy seeds

than the others. This species, which germinates rapidly at low

temperatures, only commenced partially to germinate (two

grains out of ten) towards the end of the sixth day, and most of

the seeds sprouted between the sixth and the seventh day. The

temperature of the seven days varied from 22%] to 25° 1, the

mean being about 23°°6 or 23°°7. The construction of the curve

(Plate IV.) shows that this fact is not m harmony with those

deduced from higher or lower temperatures, consequently that

there was some error or accident. ‘To satisfy myself further,

I repeated the experiment in November in another form, with a

lamp placed under a large flask of water, im which a bottle

containing a sowing of Lepidium floated. The mean temperature

was 21°], with insignificant variations, and the Lepidium ger-

minated after thirty-eight or thirty-nine hours, exactly as in the

above-mentioned experiment. At a temperature of 26° to 27°,

which unfortunately rose much higher (43°) during some hours,

the Lepidium began to sprout at the sixteenth hour. Hence we

may conclude that the experiment at 25° was inaccurate.

Lastly, Collomia did not germinate in July. The temperature

of the sand remained, from the 24th of July to the 3rd of August,

between 22°°5 and 22° 1; on the 8th of August it fell to 18°5,

and then rose on the 14th of August to 28°6. The seeds had

been preserved and watered. I thought they would not germi-

nate; but on the 15th of August two of them did so. The mean

temperature varied too much for the experiment to be satisfactory.

Assuming it to be accurate, it would be necessary to admit that,

at a mean of 21°5, Collomia requires a period of twenty-seven

days, which agrees moreover with the observation at 19°-6, as

shown in the tracing of the curves in the Plate. It might be

questioned, as in the case of Lepidium, whether the temperature

of the second half of the period, which was momentarily lowered to

18°5, had not caused the germination which the heat prevented

in the preceding period. I doubt this, however, because the ger-

mination took place when the mean had returned to 20°6.

Moreover the duration of twenty-seven days agrees tolerably

with that of the experiment at 17° to 18°, as is well shown by the

curves. .

at different Degrees of Constant Temperature. 253

Temperature of about 28°.

Being unable at Geneva, even in a very hot summer, to

obtain in the open air constant means above 24°, I had recourse

to artificial heat for the higher temperatures.

A basin, nearly filled with warm water, was placed upon a support

heated by a lamp, which required to be renewed only three times

in twenty-four hours. A porcelain cup filled with sand was im-

mersed two-thirds in the water of the basin to receive the seeds.

The temperature remained pretty constant between 29° and 80°.

I then sowed the seeds, at an equal distance from the edge of the

cup, and, after having allowed them to acquire the temperature

of the sand, I watered them well with water at 80° which had

not been boiled. The experiment, which was begun at midnight

on the 2nd of August, was stopped at noon on the 6th. During

this period, the mean temperature of the room fell from 21° to

18°. This cause, as also the evaporation from the more or less

moist sand, and the unavoidable alterations in the source of heat,

induced a variation of temperature from 27° to 29°, and in

the morning of the last day it fell to 26°°3; but this could not

have had any influence upon most of the seeds, which had already

germinated. The results were:

Lepidium. Two seeds germinated in thirty-nine hours; one or

two others sprouted afterwards; but most of them did not ger-

minate.

Linum. One seed germinated at the end of two days and a half;

at the end of the third day three only had germinated; the

majority, about four-fifths, did not germinate.

Maize. Up to the thirty-sixth hour single seeds sprouted,

but after the second day almost all the seeds sprouted vigorously.

Melon. One seed evolved its radicle at the end of the third day,

and at the end of the third day and a quarter the majority ger-

minated regularly.

Sesamum. The germination began at the end of twenty-two

hours ; it was abundant during the three or four following hours.

Sinapis. Two seeds only out of ten germinated at the end of

the third day ; six hours afterwards a third showed its radicle ;

most did not germinate.

Trifolium. Some seeds germinated at the end of the third day;

most did not germinate.

Collomia and Nigella did not germinate. To prolong the ex-

periment, I left these seeds as they were, but under such con-

ditions that the temperature varied from 82° to 87°, until the

10th of August. Two or three of Trifolium and one or two of

Linum sprang up, but neither Collomia nor Nigella.

On the 4th of August, at 5 p.m., I sowed and watered some

seeds of Sesamum in a little cup placed so as to maintain a tem-

254 ; M. A. de Candolie un Germination

perature of 27° to 28°. At the end of thirty-one hours, one seed

germinated. The experiment was not continued.

Temperature of 40° to 41°.

The seeds were sown on the 6th of August, at 8 p.m., in a

glass vessel, filled with dry sand, placed in the centre of the

porcelain cup containing the moist sand of the preceding experi-

ment. At 11} p. m. I watered them freely with water at 41°

which had not been boiled, The temperature of the sand was

maintained, until the 10th of August at 54 p.m., between39°6 and

4.5°°4, but it only rose to this temperature in the evening of the

7th of August, and the mean, taken every twelve hours, was 4.0°°6.

Two seeds of Sesamum germinated at the end of ten hours and

a half, and others followed immediately. The mean during these

ten hours and a half must have been 40°°7. None of the other

species germinated ; and as the seeds of the maize and the melon

had assumed a dark tint (especially those of the maize), which in-

dicated a change, I removed the glass vessel and placed it upon

a marble mantlepiece, where it rapidly acquired the surrounding

temperature of 20° to 21°. To my great surprise, four hours

and a half afterwards, three melon-seeds germinated! The other

species did not sprout during the following days, up to the 12th

of August; it is thus probable that the melon-seeds would have

germinated at 40°°6,if I had not interrupted the experiment.

They would then have required, under these conditions, four days

winus two hours, or ninety-four hours.

At higher temperatures.

It appeared to me useless to continue the experiments at higher

temperatures, except as regards Sesamum, which seemed best to re-

sist an extreme heat. The experiments of Lefébure, as well as of

Edwards and Colin, have proved that most seeds undergo a change

at temperatures of 50° and upwards when the soil is moist—a

change so great that they are incapable of germinating when

subsequently placed under favourable circumstances. Seeds

heated in the dry state in a stove are capable of bearing a heat ap-

proaching the point of combustion* ; but in water they lose their

power of germinating at 55° or 50°, and perhaps below, accord-

ing to the species, and especially according to the duration of the

immersiont. In moist earth the seed is changed, according

to the abundance of water, at various degrees of the thermo-

meter. Thus, with the method of experimenting which I had

adopted for a certain purpose, the seeds, always being copiously

watered, would lose their power of germinating at 50°, 45°, and

* Edwards & Colin, /.c.; Théod. de Saussure in the ‘Mém. Soc. de

Phys. et d’Hist. Nat. de Genéve, iii. part 2.

+ Lefébure, p. 120 e¢ seg.; Edwards & Colin, J. c.; Fr. Burckhardt, J. ce.

=— we ee a a ee eee ..~

ese Ye

at different Degrees of Constant Temperature. 255

perhaps 44° or 43°, as is proved by the preceding experiment,

without its being possible to regulate and to determine this limit

exactly.

I therefore confined myself to pursuing the trial of the Sesa-

mum-seeds to about 57°, and the following were the results :—

A sowing was made, at 7 p.m., in sand which had been slowly

heated, with the seeds in the dry state, to 51°. I watered

copiously with water at this temperature. The temperature of

the soil rose to 57°; it varied from 50° to 57°, mostly remaining

between 51° and 52°. Some of the seeds were accidentally lost.

One of five which were left germinated at_the end of twenty-five

hours and three-quarters. In a final experiment, in which the

Sesamum, watered in the same way, was exposed to a more fixed

mean of 43° to 45° for twenty-six hours, and afterwards left at

temperatures of from 18°°5 to 22°, three seeds out of a dozen

germinated at the end of six days after sowing; two more fol-

lowed, and the majority did not germinate, which shows to what

extent the heat of from 43° to 45° had been prejudicial.

§ 2. Deductions and Conclusions.

1. Some seeds germinate at O°.

MM. Edwards and Colin, in 1834, stated in their memoir :—

“No seeds are known which are capable of germinating at the

point of melting ice.” M. de Seynes, in his very interesting trea-

tise on germination*, repeats, in 1863, “No seeds of the Phanero-

gamia are known which germinate at 0°.” My experiments

prove that out of ten species, taken at hazard, one has been found

which germinates at 0° (Sinapis alba).

The fact is the more singular, as it does not refer to a plant

belonging to the polar regions or high mountains. Probably

there are other species similarly circumstanced, especially among

those which live in the neighbourhood of snow; but we can

scarcely become acquainted with this in the ordinary course of

events. In fact, the persistence of a temperature of O° is very

rare in nature. <A sun’s ray or the proximity of a body of a

temperature above 0° is sufficient to raise the temperature of a

stream springing from melted snow. It is well known how

difficult it is to maintain a temperature of O° in a basin filled

with ice, when it is required to verify the zero-point of a thermo-

meter. Only by attentive observation in a prolonged experiment

can it be determined whether a species germinates at 0°. There

are even some seeds for which an experiment lasting thirty-five

days, like mine, is not sufficient.

2. Necessity of a minimum for each Species.

Sinapis alba germinated at 0°. Perhaps this species might

* De la Germination, 8vo, Paris, 1863.

256 M.A. de Candolle on Germination

have germinated even at a somewhat lower temperature, pro-

vided the water were liquid; but this kind of experiment ap-

peared to me too difficult to be attempted*.

Lepidium and Linum germinated at a mean of 1°°8, but did

not sprout at 0°.

Collomia, which does not germinate at 3°, does so at 5°38.

Nigella, Iberis, and Trifolium repens, which did not germinate

at 5°°3, sprouted at 5°7.

Maize, which did not germinate at 5°°7, did so at 9°.

Sesamum, which did not germinate at 9°, did so at 13°.

Lastly, the seeds of the melon, which did not germinate at

13°, did so at 17°.

Some seeds of the cotton-tree, at least two years old, which I

thought were beyond the condition for germinating, because

they had resisted a previous experiment at 18° for several days,

sprang up when placed upon a stove the temperature of which

was very variable but at times reached 40°.

Lefébure decided upon 5° to 6° C. as the minimum for radish-

seeds placed in a moist soil. MM. Edwards and Colin state

that they made winter-wheat, barley, and rye.germinate at 7°C.;

but they do not assert that this is the minimum ; and it is highly

probable that barley at least would germinate at a lower tem-

perature by prolonging the experiment.

Species therefore require a determinate minimum for ger-

mination. Assuredly agricultural practice would give rise to

this idea ; but we are not sure whether the germination of seeds

sown too early in spring is merely retarded, or rendered slower,

or whether their subsequent development is absolutely impos-

sible. Experiment shows that in this case germination is im-

peded ; it also shows how necessary it is, in calculations upon

temperature in regard to plants, to take as the basis facts deduced

from constant and prolonged temperatures }, and then to consider

certain temperatures useless for each species, at least as far as

relates to germination. Certainly there exist facts in accordance

with which the same applies to the foliation, the inflorescence,

and the maturation ; only, these facts are less exact.

In my experiments, all the species which required the highest

minima belong to warm countries. They are excluded for this

reason from cold countries; for if they germinated in them, it

* Natural philosophers are able to keep water in a liquid state below 0°,

as shown by M. L. Dufour’s beautiful experiments ; but it is almost impos-

sible to preserve this state of things, ensuring at the same time sufficient

oxygen for the germination of the seeds.

+ M. H. Hoffmann (Witterung & Wachsthum, &c., 1857, p. 525 &c.)

doubts the existence of a minimum proper to each species; but he confined

himself to experiments under variable temperatures, the means of which he

regards as equivalent to a constant temperature.

at different Degrees of Constant Temperature. 257

would be too late in the spring, and the ripening of the seeds

would not take place before winter. Among those species which

germinate at low temperatures, some belong to temperate coun-

tries. They do not advance so far as the polar regions, either

from causes not relating to germination, or because, germinating

too soon, the herbaceous parts are attacked by the cold.

3. Existence of a maximum.

When the temperature remains at a certain rather high degree,

some seeds are no longer able to germinate. Thus, in my ex-

periments, the seeds of Nigella and Collomia did not sprout when

the mean exceeded 28°. Most of the seeds of Trifolium repens

did not germinate at 28°, whence it might be supposed that at

about 30° none would have sprouted. Maize must cease at about

35°, for at 40° the seeds became brown and as if burnt. One,

however, of the seeds which had been rendered brown by a heat

of 50° to 57°, germinated on the eleventh day, when, the experi-

ment having been abandoned, the temperature fell to 18° or 20°.

The seeds of the melon and, especially, Sesamum bear 40°; but

they assume a brown tint, which indicates a certain change, and

it is probable that at about 42° in the case of ,the former, and

45° in that of the latter, germination would usually be impossible.

However, some of the Sesamum and melon-seeds which had

reached 45°, and were subsequently left at 18° to 20°, sprouted.

As stated above, the limit depends greatly upon the moisture.

When long immersed in water at 50°, and even 45°*, many of the

seeds would suffer. They are still capable of germinating in moist

earth; and as the quantity of moisture is very variable, and

this could not in my experiments be observed at each degree

of elevated temperature during a somewhat considerable length

of time, I did not attempt to obtain greater exactness.

Lefébure fixed the maximum for the seeds of the radish sown

in moist earth at 38°C. MM. Edwards and Colin found that

all the seeds of winter-wheat, spring wheat, barley, rye, and oats,

sown at 40° in slightly moist sand, sprouted, that at 45° only a

part of them did so, and at 50° none germinated.

4, Amplitude between the minimum and the maximum.

If we designate as amplitude the number of degrees between

the minimum necessary for the germination of a species and the

* None of the seeds of the Leguminosze and Graminacez submitted to

experiment by MM. Edwards and Colin were capable of germinating after

immersion for a quarter of an hour in water at 50°. According to M. F.

Burckhardt’s experiments, the seeds of Lepidium and linseed were sus-

ceptible of germination after immersion for half an hour in water at 50°

(49°°6 to 51°'4), but not for the same period in water at 60° (57° to 62°).

Ann. & Mag, N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xvi,

258 M. A. de Candolle on Germination

maximum beyond which it is impossible, we find differences be-

tween one species and another. Thus Collomia and Nigella have

23° of amplitude, maize 26° or 27°, the melon 24° or 25°, Sesamum

about 30°, and Sinapis nearly 40°. The maximum being varia-

ble according to the moisture, no great value can be attached to

these numbers. A short amplitude is evidently unfavourable to

the geographical extension and cultivation of a species.

5. Differences between seeds of the same species and origin.

Sometimes natural philosophers reproach naturalists with neg-

lecting the experimental method and constantly following that

of observation. Here we have an instance justifying naturalists.

Nothing is easier to submit to experiment than seeds; nothing

appears more homogeneous, more comparable, in the same species.

And yet seeds derived an the same source, preserved in the

same way, and sown together, germinate in succession*. The

fact 1s of common occurrence ; I have met with it many times in

my experiments. Agriculturists are well acquainted with it.

In some families, for instance the Leguminose, it occurs, as

already stated, to a very inconvenient extent. It is because seeds

from the same crop, the same plant, the same capsule, are not

identical either physically or chemically. Their organization is

very complicated, as is also their evolution, although other

physiological facts are still more so. Natural philosophers reason

upon homogeneous bodies; naturalists upon heterogeneous bodies.

A metal melts at a constant temperature, because it is composed

of similar parts. An organized body never presents this complete

similitude of all the parts of the same organ. Hence there is less

exactness in the experiments, and almost constant necessity of

comparing numerous facts, 2. e. of observing.

In my experiments, one, two, or several “seeds have been ob-

served germinating in succession, out of ten or twenty; and I

have called germination, somewhat arbitrar ily, the second or third

appearance of the radicle among the seeds. If the temperature

is very favourable, that of several seeds takes place simultaneously.

Near the maximum and, especially, the minimum, the seeds germi-

nate more irregularly, and a still larger number do not germinate,

6. Influence of the albumen.

The structure of each kind of seed, especially the absence or

presence of albumen, and its nature ahs it exists, must exert

a certain infiuence in accelerating or retarding the action of heat;

but the small number of species upon which I experimented

has not allowed me to determine this point sufficiently.

* See Cohn, ‘Symbola ad Seminis physiologiam,’ 8vo, Berlin, 1847.

at different Degrees of Constant Temperature. 259

Six of the species observed have no albumen, viz. the three Cru-

ciferae, Cucumis, Trifolium, and Sesamum; the four others, Nigella,

Linum, Collomia, and Zea Mais, have an albumen. That of maize

is considerable ; that of lmseed, on the other hand, is very small.

The three species which have a more or less considerable amount

of albumen, require a minimum of 5°, and sometimes more, for

germination. Stnapis, Lepidium, and Linum, which germinate

at very low temperatures, have no albumen, or very little. On

the other hand, it is a striking circumstance to find that the seeds

of Sesamum, which greatly resemble those of the Cruciferee in

the absence of albumen, in texture, and in size, require from

10° to 12° to germinate.

A temperature of 17° to 18° is favourable for all these seeds.

At this temperature, germination took place im the following

order :—Lepidium, Sinapis, Trifolium, Sesamum and Linum,

Iberis, Maize, Collomia, Nigella, and Melon; which shows better

that the albumen has a certain retarding influence. The melon,

it is true, is the slowest, although free from albumen; but the

coriaceous nature of its envelopes must impede development.

7. Relation of the temperature to the time required for germination.

All the species presented a tolerably similar progress as regards

its duration at different temperatures.

Near the minimum, a slight increase of temperature notably

abridges the time of germination. Under more favourable

means, the acceleration is slight. Lastly, near the maximum,

the intensity of the heat becomes injurious and retards germina-

tion. The latter is impossible at a higher degree. MM.

Edwards and Colin had already remarked this*; and it is evi-

dent at a glance on constructing curves expressing the results of

my experiments (see Plate IV.).

The Centigrade degrees being marked on the vertical line, and

the days (of twenty-four hours) on the horizontal line, I have set

down each observation by means of a point indicating the moment

at which the seeds of each species germinated, at each constant

temperature. These points are connected by straight lines, which

indicate, with the aid of a little imagination, what the normal

curves would be if founded upon more numerous and perfectly

exact observations.

It is at once evident that my observations at from 3° to 6°

and at 17° are not very satisfactory, for they have given the

curves an irregular form. It may also be seen that the linseed

has presented several anomalies, perhaps arising from the some-

what irregular rupture of the spermoderm at a certain stage of

the evolution of the embryo.

* Ann. d. Se. Nat. sér. 2. vol. i. p. 270.

17%

260 M. A. de Candolle on Germination

Omitting these irregularities, the curve of each species ascends

at first slowly, and the difference between each species is some-

what considerable. Subsequently all the curves become approxi-

mated and nearly parallel to the line of temperatures; and

finally they diverge and separate towards the top.

Hence it results that the relative order of evolution of the

seeds is different, according to whether the low, the mean,

. or the high temperatures are considered. The lines cross, like

the limits of the distribution of the species in geographical botany,

and partly from the same causes.

It has been proposed, for the purpose of measuring the tem-

perature required for vegetative functions, considered either in-

dividually or in the whole of the life of a plant, to add the ther-

mometric degrees day by day, from the commencement to the

end, either of the function or of the life of the individual. Ac-

cording to the calculations of M. Boussingault upon cultivated

annual species, and those which I have published upon some

indigenous species, nearly the same sum of degrees is found

for the performance of one function as for all the functions of

the same species. If the temperature has been higher, vegetation

will have proceeded more rapidly, and vice versd, so that one of

the numbers nearly compensates the other. As temperature

and time are absolutely different elements in their essence, as we

adopt them in part only of their infinite extension, and we ar-

bitrarily divide this part into degrees and days, there is no @

priori reason why the days of duration should exactly compensate

the degrees. If that happens, it is a fact, at first suspected,

then proved; and that is all. The question is to determine to

what point this law, which is empirical in its nature, is founded

in reality; and, as I stated at the commencement, there is a certain

interest in acquiring assurance by direct observations, in regard

to a function which is less complicated than the others, and

where heat exerts its influence without light. The calculation

may be made in two ways—either by adding together all the

degrees above zero, or by deducting the degrees which are useless

to the species in the function in question, and then adding the

other degrees, up to the moment at which the function is ac-

complished. The latter mode appears, @ priori, more logical ; but

the state of ignorance in which we nearly always are, in regard

to the minima, prevents our employing it. The following are

the numbers in relation to the species observed. I shall quote

only three species, the remainder presenting analogous facts.

Trifolium repens* at 5°7 requires ten days (of twenty-four

* This species is not indicated in the plate, to prevent complication. It

proceeds parallel with linseed in the lower degrees; afterwards, from 21°

to 25°, it is almost identical with maize; and still higher, it separates

from. it.

at different Degrees of Constant Temperature. 26]

hours) to germinate. Ten times 5°7 gives the number fifty-

seven, but it has been determined that at 5°°5 the species no

longer germinates; hence the truly useful temperature would

be only 0°2 during ten days, which produces a total number of

2° only. Similar calculations being made upon germinations of

Trifolium observed at 9°, 18°, 17°, &c., have yielded as follows :—

Calculating Deducting the

Temperature. Days. above 0° minimum 5°°5.

57 x 10 = 57 2

Che 5 46 18

13:2 3 39 23

17:0 2°6 44 30

1191 1°75 y/ B7/

25:0 I-75 44 34

28°0 3 84 67

In both methods of calculating, the first and the last numbers

present a disparity with the others; 7. e. near the minimum and

near the maximum the relation of the temperature to the duration

of the germination differs from the ordinary one ; in other words,

the germination is then more difficult and becomes extremely

slow. Under the other conditions of temperature, the numbers

do not present greater diversity than is admissible m physio-

logical facts, where so many causes exert their influence and where

errors of observation inevitably creep in. In opposition to what

I had supposed, the numbers in the present instance differ more

from each other if the useless temperatures are deducted than

if this is not done.

Lepidium, which requires about 1° to be able to germinate,

gives the following numbers* :-—

Calculating Calculating

Census Tas Days. above 0°. above + 1°.

IGort Xx 30 = 49 19

3°0 11 33 22

57 o 28 23

Pe 3 28 25

13°2 1-75 23 al

17:0 1°50 25 24

21% 158 33 32

28°0 16 44 43

Let us also take Sesamum, which requires a very high minimum,

from: 10° to 12° (say 11°}—

Calculating Calculating

Temperature. Days. above 0°. above 11°.

12°6 x 9 sain 4 0G 14

16:9 3 51 ff

Zi 14 29 14

24°6 0:94 23 13

28°0 0:92 25 15

40°7 0°44 18 13

* M. Burckhardt obtained higher numbers; but he regards as germina-

262 M.A. de Candolle on Germination

In these two instances, especially in the latter, the numbers

become much more equal on deducting the degrees of tempe-

rature below the minimum. Probably this correction becomes

more requisite as the minimum becomes higher.

When in these three calculations the numbers of the be-

ginning and the end, which are often in non-accordance with the

others, are abstracted, germination takes place, in widely different

species, under the influence of tolerably similar conditions of

time and temperature; for the numbers are comprised between

fourteen and thirty-four when the minima are deducted. They

are slightly less in the case of the species which requires the most

initial heat, but in very unimportant proportion.

Definitively, the method of the sums of temperature applies

with moderate accuracy to the facts of germination. What is

essentially required to be known in the case of each species, in

regard to this function, is the requisite minimum. The rest

differs but little in the various plants; and it is easy to foretell the

effects of an increase of temperature when once germination is

possible, without having recourse to calculations or direct obser-

vations in the case of each species. The same probably docs

not apply to the other functions, nor to the assemblage of func-

tions, from germination to maturation. This would form a point

to be decided by experiment. Unfortunately Lam unacquainted

with any means of causing a phanerogamous plant to undergo

regular development at a certain temperature, without light. It

would be requisite at least to be able to furnish a species with

light which is uniform and of the same kind for several weeks.

With the progress of knowledge, this will be possible sooner or

later; but until then our calculations upon the sums of heat in

botanical geography, in, agriculture, and in horticulture will be

contaminated with hypotheses and manifold causes of imexacti-

tude*.

8. Variable temperatures.

I have not yet experimented upon germination at variable

temperatures. I even endeavoured to maintain more constant

temperatures than M. Burckhardt had done, so as to eliminate

as much as possible the errors which might arise from variations.

tion a more advanced phase of development, that at which the cotyledons

Beene exposed.

* Tf the other functions agree with germination, the numbers calculated

from the extreme limit of the species must be distrusted. We see, in fact,

that near the poimt at which vegetation is arrested, much more time is

required to compensate for the loss of heat. The numbers calculated near

the limits would only serve for comparison with each other, and the num-

bers deduced from the centre of a habitat must not be confidently applied

to express the necessary conditions at the limits.

ewes «<

at different Degrees of Constant Temperature. 263

We may infer, from the demonstrated existence of a mini-

mum, that a mean temperature does not produce the same

effect as the same constant temperature, unless, perhaps, the

question is that of a mean calculated above the minimum

requisite for the species and below the degree at which the heat

becomes injurious to it. On deducting the useless and unfavour-

able degrees, the means may possibly act as a similar constant

temperature. I see, however, a reason for doubting this. It

is that temperatures which are too low for the germination of a

species, are probably not so as far as relates to some particular

detail of the function of germination. Low temperatures ap-

peared to me injurious to the absorption of water by the surface

of the seeds; however, slight absorption might occur, which

would be beneficial subsequently when the temperature rises for

a time. The same holds good in the case of other internal

phenomena of the seed. Hach of them is a function in the

general evolution of the germination, and each has its minimum

and maximum. Nothing in nature is simple, even in that which

appears comparatively very simple.

9. Analogy between seeds and eggs.

Some naturalists have ventured to affirm the existence of

a kind of identity between a seed and an egg. There is, how-

ever, in a physiological point of view, this great difference, that

the embryo is almost entirely stationary and inert in the interior

of the seed, while atmospheric influences act upon the -animal

contained in the egg, and must act to prevent the animal from

perishng. The egg constantly disengages carbonic acid and

aqueous vapour. It therefore requires air, while the seed can

dispense with it.

However, to all the existing points of resemblance, it must

be added that zoologists are at present content, like botanists,

with rather vague notions of the effects of temperature upon the

germs. If I have been well informed, and I have consulted

good authorities, exact and slightly varied experiments upon in-

cubation at definite thermometric degrees have not been made,

There is, however, a memoir upon rearing silkworms, by MM.

Millet and Robinet and Madame Millet, which contains precise

details upon one species. These authors say that, “to hatch silk-

worms, the eggs must be subjected to a temperature of +9° C.

The number of degrees necessary for incubation diminishes at

the same time as the number of days employed in producing them.

In other words, if it is required to distribute the number of degrees

of heat between fifty days on the one hand and one hundred on

the other, this number is found to be more than sufficient in the

first case, and the hatching takes place before the employment

264° * M. A. de Candolle on Germination.

of all the heat ; or, again, a temperature of 20° during ten days,

which makes 200°, has more influence upon the development of

the worm than a temperature of 10° during twenty days, which

also amounts to 200°. The 200° are insufficient in the latter

case and superabundant in the former.”

We here see the influence of a minimum, which exists in the

instance of the egg as also of the seed: if the silkworm requires

9°, it is evident that a mean of 10° is of little use.

10. Analogy of germination with combustion.

The production of carbonic acid by means of the oxygen of the

air has always caused germination, like respiration, to be classed

with phenomena which may be termed generally combustion.

For the sake of analogy, the necessity of a certain initial heat

must also be added in the case of germination; only, in seeds the

minimum of temperature is low : mustard-seed burns at 0°. As

regards the more or less rapid progress of germination, the seed

must be compared to a combustible which is acted upon slowly

and successively within by heat. There are two envelopes, and

frequently cellular tissue gorged with starch, surrounding the

embryo, which must evidently retard the influence of heat, as also

of oxygen and moisture, upon the internal organs.

11. Peculiar nature of germination.

At first sight, every one is inclined to regard germination as

something extraordinary and inexplicable, 2. e. vital, in which

heat and oxygen reanimate the young plant, which is well-known,

however, not to be dead. I fear that this kind of consideration

must be left to poets; for the more germination is studied, the

more it seems to be composed of solely physical and chemical

paenomena.

It is true that I have not examined the modifications under-

gone by the tissues of seeds at the different temperatures to which

I have subjected them. This kind of research would be of

great interest, and would require explanation by means of the

microscope, with the same care as that used by M. Arthur Gris

in his recent papers on the anatomy of seeds beginning to ger-

minate. We should like to know what alterations the seeds

undergo below their minimum of germination, above their max-

imum, also in the intermediate degrees which favour more or less

each partial function, of which the sum total constitutes ger-

mination. It is true, that the external appearance indicates

part of these phenomena. Below the minimun, seeds kept in

a moist medium and being unable to germinate, slowly decay ;

above 45° to 50° they begin to be carbonized. It is easy to

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee. 265

understand that these external alterations reach the internal

tissue, the substances deposited in the cells, and even the embryo.

Thus the young plant in the seed exists as a prisoner confined in

asmall space. Physical and chemical causes separate the walls

of the prison, rendering them flexible, penetrable, and sometimes

transforming the encumbering matters into quid and nutritive

substances. If these physical and chemical operations do not

take place too slowly or too suddenly, if they do not tend to a

putrid fermentation or to the carbonization of the tissues, if the

materials of the albumen or the cotyledons are properly and

suitably resolved, the young plant enlarges. Its nutrition had

been trammelled, or almost suspended ; it is sono longer. This is

the whole secret. Hence this phenomenon appears more easily

understood in accordance with the ordinary laws of matter than

numerous others relating to animal and vegetable life, although

undoubtedly it is still very complicated and in part imperfectly

understood.

XXVIT.— On the Menispermacce.

By Joun Mrurs, F.R.S., F.L.S. &e.

[Continued from p. 138.]

26. ANTIZOMA.

Under this name I separated from Cissampelos, in 1851 (Ann.

Nat. Hist. 2 ser. vii. 41), a small group of South-African plants

possessing a very peculiar habit : two of them had been described

by De Candolle,—one as Cissampelos calcarifera of Burchell, of

which the male flower only was known; the other being the Cis-

sampelos angustifolia of the same botanist, from a specimen of

which I derived a knowledge of the female flower : to these, three

other new species were then added. They are all small, erect

shrubs, with somewhat the habit of Lyctum, having almost simple

stems or subscandent branches. The leaves, unlike those of other

Menispermacee, are linear, with extremely abbreviated petioles ;

they are opake, thick, revolute on their margins, both surfaces

being shagreened with extremely minute and crowded granula-

tions. At each node, below the point of insertion of the petiole,

there is a short, rigid and somewhat reflected spime—a feature

peculiar to this genus, and quite singular in this family. The

male inflorescence consists of one or two very short peduncles

springing out of each axil, which bear on their summit from three

to six minute flowers on short closely approximated pedicels ;

these male flowers differ in no respect from those of Cissampelos.

The inflorescence and the structure of the female flower are,

however, very different: this I found in a unique specimen in

266 |Mr.J. Miers on the Menispermacce.

Dr. Burchell’s herbarium, where on each axil one or two very

short pedicels bear separately a single minute flower, with two

oval concave sepals, placed oppositely, with their margins some-

what imbricated in estivation ; at the base within, and opposite

to each sepal, isa very minute scale-like fleshy petal, placed at

the base of a central ovary, which is nearly the length of the sepals,

without any style, and with an obsolete stigma. This structure

will be seen to offer much analogy to that of “the genus Peraphora,

and places them in a position intermediate between Cissampelos

and Homocnemia, differing from the former in having double the

number of floral parts, and from the latter in having half as many.

Messrs. Bentham and Hooker were evidently unacquainted with

the facts here shown when, in their ‘Genera Plantarum’ (p. 38),

they amalgamated this genus with Czssampelos. The structure

of the female flower, with a different kind of inflorescence, and

the peculiar habit of all its species, certainly claim for Antizoma

the rank of a distinct genus.

Antizoma, nob.— Flores dicici. Mase. Sepala 4, cuneato-

obovata, petalo 3-plo longiora. Peta/wm unicum, cyathiforme,

depressum, margine crenulatum, earnosulum. Sfwmen uni-

cum ; filamentum centrale, breve ; anthera peltata, horizontalis,

4—10-loba, lobis rima extus dehiscentibus.—Pem. Sepaila 2,

opposita, ovata, valde concava, carnosula, eestivatione paulo

imbricata. Petala 2, sepalis opposita, minuta, squamiformia,

orbiculata, carnosula, hypogyna. Ovarium unicum, obovatum,

subcompressum, sursum conicum. Stylus nullus. Stigma

fere obsoletum, aut vix obtuse bilobum. Fructus ignotus.

Frutices Africe australis, humiles, erecti vel subscandentes ;

caulis ramulique sepius virgati, spina infra petiolum muniti ;

folia alterna, plerumque parvula, linearia vel oblongo-lanceolata,

integerruma, coriacea, breviter petiolata: racemi g azillares,

brevissimi ; pedunculus flores paucos minutos pedicellatos ap-

proximatos gerens ; pedicelli 9 awillares, gemini, 1-flori.

The following species are described in the third volume of the

‘Contributions to Botany ’ —

1. Antizoma calcarifera, nob. ;—Cissampelos calcarifera, Burch.

Trav. 1. 889 ; DC. Prodr. i. 102.—In Africa australi extra-

tropica.

2. Burchelliana, nob.—In Airica australi extratropica.

3. —— Harveyana, nob.—In Africa intertropica.

4. angustifolia, nob. ;—Cissampelos angustifolia, Burch.

Trav. 1. 889; DC. Prodr. i. 102.—In colonia Capensi.

5. Lycioides, nob.;—Cissampelos angustifolia, £. Mey.

(non Burch.); Linn. xix. 601.—In colonia Capensi.

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacee. 267

27. DissopeTaLumM.

This genus is proposed for a species belonging to Mauritius

and Madagascar, long since known, but imperfectly examined —

the Cissampelos Mauritiana of Thouars, a plant not common in

collections, but which has been much confounded with others of

African and Asiatic origin. It differs from Cissampelos in its

female flowers, which have two distinct petals, placed one on each

side of a single sepal, so that they alternate with the latter, anda

solitary ovary. This is admitted by Thouars in his original de-

scription of the typical plant, where he says the corolla is 2-lobed.

In Antizoma we also find two petals; but then there are two sepals

placed immediately behind and opposite to them, and a single

ovary. In Homocnemia there are four sepals, four petals, also

with a solitary ovary ; while in J/eospermum we find three sepals,

and three petals, placed round a central ovary, as in Stephania.

In the two former the structure of the male flower is like that

of Cissampelos ; in the two latter it is unknown. In order, there-

fore, to maintain consistency in so extensive a genus as Cissam-

pelos, it becomes necessary to maintain the several genera above

mentioned ; and Dissopetalum claims as high a title to distinction

as any of them. Its structure must not be confounded with a

peculiar anomaly I have observed in one species of Cissampelos,

which might easily be mistaken for a Dissopetalum; it occurs in

C. testudinaria from the Galapagos, where the petal appears

double, owing to its being deeply cleft into two equal segments ;

but on attentive examination it is seen that the two segments

are seated upon a single claw, fixed to the base of the sepal ; the

two lobes of the petal are therefore quite anterior and opposite to

the sepal, not lateral and alternate with it as in Dissopetalum.

It is probably to this exceptional case that the authors of the

‘Flora Indica’ allude when they affirm (p, 198) that they have

several times seen the petal in Cissampelos “bipartite to the base.”

I have carefully examined and drawn the analyses of many

hundreds of flowers of Czssampelos, but, with the exceptions above

mentioned, I have invariably found only a single complete petal

fixed to the claw of a single sepal. There is seen in the genus

Peraphora, which will shortly follow, another anomalous depar-

ture from the normal structure of Cissampelos, where in the g

flower there are two minute petals, or none at all, and a campa-

nular sepal, and in the ? two equal saccate sepals, without any

petal, with an ovary in the centre.

The name of the genus under consideration is derived from

the feature of its twin petals; its characters, as far as they are

known, are thus enumerated ;—

268 Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacece.

DissopetTaLum, nob.—Flores dioici. Masc. omnino Cissampeli-

dis structura.—Fem. Sepalum unicum, oblongum, subcarno-

sum. Petala 2, eequalia, dimidio breviora, late orbicularia,

imo breviter unguiculata, sepalo utrinque lateralia. Stamina

nulla. Ovarium oblongum, gibbum, 1-loculare, 1—-ovulatum.

Stylus longiusculus, erectus. Stigma trifidum, laciniis acu-

tis, reflexis. Fructus ignotus.

Frutex Madagascariensis et Mauritianus, scandens; folia sub-

peltata, subcordata, suborbicularia, vel ovata, petiolo limbo

subequilongo; panicule avillar es, plurime, fasciculate,

composite ramose, et corymbose, necnon cum ramulo florifero

racemiformt ; flores minuti: yvacemi 2 axillares, petiolum

excedens, bracteati; bractez foliiformes, floribus 5-9 pedicel-

latis fasciculatis minimis donate.

The single species, Dissopetalum Mauritianum, is described in

the third volume of the ‘ Contributions to Botany.’

CLYPEA.

This genus was established by Blume, in 1825, upon six species

from Java; but only one of these 1s congeneric with his type, the

rest belonging to Loureiro’s genus Stephania, with which he does

not seem then to have been acquainted. Wight and Arnott, in

their ‘ Prodromus,’ placed all the species of Stephania in Clypea,

while, contrariwise, the authors of the ‘Flora Indica’ merged

the latter genus into Sfephania, on the ground that the number

of its floral parts is mconstant. In this opinion they were sup-

ported by Prof. Asa Gray, who stated that he found in C. Fors-

teri trimerous as well as tetramerous flowers on the same plant.

I have since examined the ¢ flowers of the same species, which

were kindly sent to me by Dr. Asa Gray, and found most of

them regularly tetramerous, while the others were more or less

irregularly affected by metamorphic influence; but in no one

instance was I able to detect the decidedly trimerous structure

of Stephania*. I obtained similar results from the typical spe-

* Tn one head of twelve 3 flowers, it appeared to me that there were six

which had each eight sepals, four petals, and one stamen; one had nine

sepals and five petals, one with seven sepals and four petals, one with six

sepals and four petals, one with seven sepals and three petals, and one

double flower with fourteen sepals, eight petals, and two stamens, one of

which was much dwarfed: hence there existed, in all, twelve stamens,

forty-eight petals, and ninety-one sepals, averaging for each flower the

number of more than seven and a half sepals, four petals, and one stamen.

If account had been taken of the rudimentary parts, dwarfed to a size so

minute as to escape ordinary observation, the full normal proportion of

floral parts would be complete. In this species the sessile flowers are so

Mr. J. Miers on the Menispermacez. 269

cimens, now in the British Museum, collected by Forster and

Solander. Additional evidence of the tetramerous or dimerous

structure in Clypea is afforded by the structure of its 9 flowers,

which Dr. Gray does not appear to have seen: these have each

four sepals, two petals, and one ovary, with two stigmata, each

bifid *; while Stephania has three sepals, three petals, and an

ovary with three or six stigmata. We have also a different

development of the putamen in Clypea, where the hippocrepical

ring that forms the seminal cell has externally upon each face a

single series of centrifugal spines, which stand out beyond the

flattened edge that forms the periphery of the cell; whereas in

Stephania there is a double series of tubercles on each side ;

moreover in Clypea the condyle is a plane or slightly concave

entire disk, which is not perforated in the middle, the latter

character being peculiar to Stephania. I have found these cha-

racters constant in all the six species here enumerated ; so that

we have sufficient evidence upon which the right of Clypea to

rank as a distinct and good genus can be maintained,

All the plants of Clypea have deeply peltate leaves, as in Ste-

phania and Cissampelos. The inflorescence is dichotomously

branched, or more frequently simply or repeatedly umbellate, as

in Stephania; but very often, as Just stated, the ultimate rays

and pedicels become confluent into a disciform tumescence at

the summit of the umbel, on which the flowers are sessile and

closely aggregated into a subglobular head—a circumstance

which probably suggested the name of Clypea, as this aggluti-

nation is very conspicuous in Blume’s typical species, C. acumt-

natissima. When the plants and flowers are pubescent, the

hairs are all articulated.

Cryrra, Blume.—Flores dioici. Mase. Sepala 8, biseriata, spa-

thulato-oblonga, apice rotundata vel truncata, lateribus inter-

dum undulatis, seepe pilis articulatis extus vestita, sestivatione

closely compacted upon the fleshy disk, that it is almost impracticable to

separate them without confounding some parts of one with those of an-

other; the only sure mode of analysis is therefore to count the whole

number of parts in one capitulum, and take their average. In other spe-

cies (for instance, in C. oryphylia), where the flowers are approximated

(not agglutinated together), and therefore easily separable, the floral parts

are constantly and unquestionably tetramerous.

* In the 2 inflorescence of C. Forsteri, the flowers are agglutinated to-

gether upon a fleshy mass, as in the 3; so that it is equally necessary to

analyze the whole capitulum as if it were a single flower. In this way I

found in a single ? head fourteen ovaries and eighty-four floral scales,

of which one-third were smaller and darker than the remaining more

membranous two-thirds, which gives four sepals and two petals to each

ovary.

270 Prof. Gibelli on the Reproductive

subimbricata. Petala 4, cuneato-obovata, sepalis 4-plo vel

dimidio breviora, is opposita, carnosula, glaberrima. Stamen

unicum, centrale; jfi/amentum subbreve, erectum; anthera

4—8-locellata, locellis circa connectivum peltatum in annulum

connexis, rimis totidem horizontalibus bivalvatim dehiscentibus

et seepe minime interruptis suturam continuam simulantibus.

—FKam. Sepala 4, spathulato-oblonga, glabra. Petula 2,

spathulato-oblonga, dimidio minora, glabra. Stamina nulla.

Ovarium unicum, valde gibbosum, 1-loculare, 1-ovulatum.

Stylus nullus. Stigmata 2-4, subsessilia, recurvatim divari-

cata. Drupa carnosa, gibba; putamen Cissampelidis et illo

Stephanie diversum, condylo imperforato notatum.

Frutices scandentes, in India, in Japonia, in insulis Asiaticis et

Sandvicensibus crescentes ; folia peltata, oblonga vel sub-

orbicularia, subcordata, apice sepius acuta, petiolata, glabra

vel pubescentia; inflorescentia in utroque sexu axillaris ;

pedunculus sepius solitarius, simpliciter vel iterum umbellatus ;

flores numerosi, minuti, puberuli, crebre capitato-aggregati,

plerumque e pedicellis confluentibus in discum carnosum con-

glutinati.

The following species are described in the third volume of my

‘Contributions to Botany ’—

. Clypea acuminatissima, Bl.;—v.s. in hb. Hook. ¢ , Java(Lobb).

: oxyphylla, nob. ;—v. s. mm hb. variis, ¢, Nepal (Wall.).

Forsteri, nob. ;—Cocculus Forsteri, DC. ;—yv. s. in hb.

Mus. Brit., Tahiti (Solander); 9? (Forster, planta typica) ;

id. (Banks and Solander); in hb. Hook. ¢, Tahiti et Ton-

gataboo (Wilkes).

consummata, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook. 9, Nagasaki

(Oldham, 760).

. —— subovata, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook. 2, Rino Ohosimo

(Oldham, 346).

s effusa, nob. ;—v. s. in hb. Hook. ¢, Kurg (Hook. &

Ths).

Os we

for)

[To be continued. }

XXVIII.—WNotule Lichenologice. No. IV.

By the Rev. W. A. Letenton, B.A., F.LS.

Some highly interesting and instructive discoveries respecting

the organization of the fructitication of the Verrucarie have been

made known by Dr. Giuseppe Gibelli, Professor of Natural His-

tory in the Royal Lyceum of Pavia, in his valuable paper en-

titled “Sugli Organi Reproduttori del Genere Verrucaria,”

Milan, 1865, of which we propose to offer a summary.

Organs of the Verrucariz. 271

If a vertical section of the apothecium of a Verrucaria having

unilocular spores be made, a carbonaceous ring is obtained,

the upper portion of which is internally clothed with a spermati-

gerous apparatus, whilst the lower portion of the same ring

bears internally the asci and spores, or the sporigerous appa-

ratus. In the centre of the upper portion of the carbonaceous

ring is a small ostiolum, or opening, through which the repro-

ductive spores issue in maturity. The spermatigerous apparatus

lines the whole internal surface of the upper portion of the car-

bonaceous ring, but leaves a vacant space internally, correspond-

ing to the ostiolum, and hangs on all sides like an expanded

fringe above the sporigerous apparatus.

This structure is noticed by M. Tulasne in his “ Mémoire sur

les Lichens,” in ‘Ann. Sc. Nat.’ sér. 3. vol. xvii. (1852), and

also, as existing in the genus Spheria, in his subsequent work

on those Fungi. A similar organization was also discovered by

Leighton in Endocarpon sorediatum, Hook. See Brit. Ang. Lich.

p- 18 (1851).

It may be useful to note the manipulation adopted to obtain

the very thin section necessary for this investigation. To about

an ounce of the common stearine of a candle a few drops of

liquid asphalt were added. A stratum of the liquefied mixture

was smeared on a small piece of paper, and on this stratum was

laid the apothecium, which was then covered with another stra-

tum of the mixture. When consolidated, the mass was removed

from the paper, and with a sharp razor a very delicate section

was made, which being placed in a drop of water, was easily

freed from the asphalt, and made ready for the microscope.

The microscopical examination of the section so obtained

showed that the carbonaceous ring consisted of a united tissue,

which gradually passes from the external hard black carbona-

ceous stratum to an internal stratum formed of a very delicate,

white, mucilaginous network containing cells with oily nuclei.

‘This internal stratum is overspread with a semiorganized sub-

stance abounding in granulations differing in form and dimen-

sions according to the species, and constituting that which the

author names the stratum of the hymeneal corpuscles. Re-

peated observations showed with certainty that these granula-

tions or nuclei are destined to become either a sterigmatic tube

or a sporigerous ascus, according to their position in the upper

or lower portion of the section.

The spermatigerous apparatus consists of the stratum of hy-

meneal corpuscles compressed into a kind of mucous mass, of

the sterigmatic tubes, and the spermatia. The sterigmatic tubes

are swollen at the base, and bulbiform at the point where they

unite with the hymeneal stratum, and comprehend, exactly, in

272 Prof. Gibelli on the Reproductive

this swelling one or two of the hymeneal nuclei. These tubes

are simple or branched and tortuose, segmented into three

or four cellules at their base, though sometimes formed of a

single cavity. Their free extremities are enlarged, rotund or

clavate. Iodine turns them yellow; and with the addition of

sulphuric acid they become brown, but never blue with either.

The spermatia are cylindriform corpuscles borne on the free

extremities of the sterigmata. In the hermaphrodite Verrucariae,

and, with few exceptions, in those which he terms diclinous,

they are very slender, and cylindrical, in length 0-0032 millim.,

and in diameter 0:00052 to 0:00104 millim. They possess a

lively Brownian movement, but no spontaneous motion as in

spermatozoa. In the hermaphrodite Verrucarie the spermatia

cannot be seen, under the microscope, attached to the sterigmata,

as the least touch causes them to fall and disperse in the water

in which the section is viewed.

But the most original part of Prof. Gibelli’s observations is

this. He has observed that all the species furnished with dis-

tinct paraphyses are diclinous; 2. e. they possess the spermati-

gerous apparatus in a separate conceptacle termed a spermo-

gonium. On the other hand, all the species destitute of distinct

paraphyses possess the spermatigerous apparatus within the

same apothecium, in the form of a fringe pendent from the

upper portion of its cavity, the lower portion producing

the asci and spores, and are therefore termed hermaphrodite.

Such are all the species with unilocular spores. This fact he

has verified by an examination of the following, viz.:—V. sub-

mersa, Hepp. (Rab. 3844); V. Leightoni, Hepp. (Hepp. 95); V.

Harrimanni, Ach. (Anzi, Lich. Ven. rar. 147); Ticothectum

fuscellum, Flot. (Garov. hb.); V. nigrescens, Ach. (Hepp. 434) ;

Ticothecium nigrescens, Flot. (Garov. hb.) ; Lithoicea nigrescens,

Mass. (Lich. Ital. 172); V. nigrescens, Pers, (Anzi, Lich. Ven.

rar. 158); V. catalepta, Ach. (Hepp. 433) ; Lathoicea maura,

Bagl. (Critt. Ital. 892); Lithoicea macrostoma, DC. (Mass. Exs.

194); V. macrostoma, Duf. (Anzi, Lich. Ven. rar. 159); V. dif-

fracta (Ana, Lich. Langob. 241); V. viridula, Scher. (Hepp.

91); Amphoridium dolomiticum, Mass. (Exs. 250) ; V. rupestris,

Sechrad. (M. & N. 951); V. Hochstettert, Fr. (Garov. hb.) ;

Amphoridium baldense, Mass. (lixs. 251); V. epipolea, Gar.

(Garov. hb.) ; V. neglecta, Gar. (Garov. hb.); V. platyspora, Gar.

(Garov. hb.); V. maculiformis, Hepp. (Garov. hb.); V. aberrans,

Gar. (Garov. hb.); V. mauroides, Scher. (Garov. hb.); V. murals,

Scheer. (Garov. hb.); V. orbicularis, Gar. (Garovy. hb.) ; V. eleo-

melena, Mass. (Rab. 883) ; V. fusco-atra, Wallr. (Rab. 700) ; V.

Hoffmanni, Hepp. (Eixs. 431); V. Dufourei, DC. (Hepp. 436),

&c., together with all these in the herbarium of Prof, Garovaglio

Organs of the Verrucarize. 273

which have served as the basis and are enumerated in the

synonymy of the first fasciculus of his Monograph of the genus

Verrucaria.

Of the species with bilocular spores without paraphyses, he

has repeatedly noticed as hermaphrodite :—Pyrenula olivacea,

Scheer. (Garoy. hb.); V. olivacea, Gar. (Garov. hb.); Acrocordia

decussata, Krmphbr. (Rab. 646) ; Sagedia olivacea, Fr. (Anai,

Langob. 408).

Of the species (saxicolar) with quadrilocular, large, not fusi-

form spores, he has found as hermaphrodite :—all the varieties of

V. pseudo-Dufourei, Gar.; V. cryptarum, Gar. (Gar. hb.) ; V.

Leonina, Anzi (Lang. 242); Sagedia bubulce, Mass. (Anzi, Lich.

Ven. 136).

To these must be added the saxicolar species with multi-

locular or muriform spores, whether 2- or 8-spored, as V. macu-

liformis, Krmphbr. (Anzi, Lang. 367) ; Sagedia Sprucei, C. Bab.

(Anzi, Lang. 286); Thelotrema quinqueseptatum, Hepp. (Exs.

99); Sagedia pyrenophora, Ach. (Hepp. 97).

And also all the species in herb. Garovaglio which the Pro-

fessor has described as V. fissa, Gav.; V. Catalepta, Ach.; V. rufa,

Gar.; V. antercedens, Nyl.; V. pallide-lutea, Gar., &c.

All the foregoing are saxicolar species, and all absolutely

without paraphyses.

Most of the corticolar species which he has examined have para-

physes; and all are diclinous. He has discovered spermogonia in all

the following corticolar Verrucarie furnished with paraphyses :—

V. gemmata, Ach.; V. epidermidis, Ach.; Pyrenula nitida, Ach.;

Sagedia byssophila, Korb. (Hepp. 695) ; Arthropyrenia fraxini,

Mass. (Exs. 288) ; Sagedia candida, Anzi (Lich. Lang. 221);

V. punctiformis, Pers., var. diminuta, Flot. (Garov. hb.) ; V.

cinerea, B. atomaria, Flot. (Garov. hb.); V. cinereo-pruinosa,

Scher. (Garov. hb.) ; V. carpinea, Pers. (Garov. hb.) ; Sagedia

carpinea, Pers., Mass. (Anzi, Lich. Ven. 139); V. conoidea, Fr.

(Garoy. hb.). And he doubts not that further examination will

detect them in all the other species haying paraphyses.

The spermogonia are sometimes plurilocular, and the sepi-

ments are not formed of cellules with black carbonaceous walls,

like that which limits the spermogonia externally, but of a mass

of hymeneal corpuscles cemented by a mucilage which organizes

itself to cellular walls or into sterigmatic tubes. All the sper-

matia are cylindrical and straight, except those of Pyreinula

nitida, Ach., P. glabrata, and their allies, which are filiform,

incurved. Proportionately to the size of the apothecia, the

spermatia of the diclinous species are much larger than those of

the monoclinous or hermaphredite species.

He supposes that in the hermaphrodite species the spermatia

Ann. § Mag. N. Hist, Ser. 3. Vol. xvit.

274 Dr. P. P. Carpenter on Pleistocene Fossils

are first of all developed, and that fecundation is effected by the

spermatia falling upon the base of the apothecium and fecun-

dating the hymeneal corpuscles, which afterwards have the

faculty of investing themselves with a membrane, and thus

progenerate the asci and within them the spores.

In the diclinous species, further investigations are needful to

ascertain the mode of fecundation.

On the above subject Dr.W. Nylander thus writes in the ‘Flora’

of Dec. 9, 1865, p.579 :—“ Notare liceat, spermatia, quee videre

crediderunt clarissimi Garovaglio et Gibelli in supera parte cavi-

tatis apotheciorum apud Verrucari vas, nulla talia sistere vera.

Filamenta ostiolaria seepissime apice fragmenta tenella compres-

sione secernere conspiciuntur, hocce autem longe distat ab ele-

mentis spermogonicis (cf. Nyl. in Flora, 1864, p. 354, et ibidem

p- 358 exemplum allatum paraphysium et filamentorum ostio-

larium optime consociatorum in eodem perithecio) .”

XXIX.—On the Pleistocene Fossils collected by Col. K. Jewett

at Sta. Barbara (California) ; with Descriptions of new Species.

By Puirre P. Carpenter, B.A., Ph.D.

Tue study of the recent and tertiary mollusks of the west coast

of America is peculiarly interesting and instructive, for the fol-

lowing reasons. It is the largest unbroken line of coast in the

world, extending from 60° N. to 55° S., without any material

salience except the promontory of Lower California. Being

flanked by an almost continuous series of mountain-ranges, the

highest in the New World, it might reasonably be supposed that

the coast-line had been separated from the Atlantic from remote

ages. The almost entire dissimilarity of its faunas from those

of the Pacific Islands, from which it is separated by an immense

breadth of deep ocean from north to south, marks it out as con-

taining the most isolated of all existing groups of species, both in |

its tropical and its temperate regions. When we go back in time,

we are struck by the entire absence of anything like the boreal

drift, which has left its ice-scratchings and arctic shells over so

large a portion of the remaining temperate regions of the northern

hemisphere, and also by the very limited remains of what can

fairly be assigned to the Eocene age. The great bulk of the

land on the Pacific slope of North America (so far as it is not

of voleanic origin) appears to have been deposited during the

Miocene epoch. Here and there only are found beds whose

fossils agree in the main with those now living in the neigh-

bourig seas. To trace the correspondences and differences

from Sta. Barbara, California. 275

between these and their existing representatives may be expected

to present results analogous to those now being worked out

with such discerning accuracy from the various newer beds of

modern Europe.

The first collection of Californian fossils seen in the east was

made near Sta. Barbara by Col. E. Jewett in 1849; but no ac-

count was published of them before the list in the British Asso-

ciation Report (1863), p.539. They consist of forty-six species,

of which twenty-nine are knownto be now living in the Cali-

fornian seas, and others may yet be found there. The following

ten are Vancouver species, some of which may travel down to

the northern part of California :—

Margarita pupilla, Priene Oregonensis,

Galerus fastigiatus, Trophon Orpheus,

Bittium filosum, Chrysodomus carinatus,

Lacuna solidula, C. tabulatus, and

Natica clausa, C. dirus.

Some of these are distinctly boreal shells, as are also Crepidula

grandis (of which Col. Jewett obtained a giant, 34 inches long,

and which now lives on a smaller scale in Kamtschatka) and

Trophon tenuisculptus (whose relations will be presently pointed

out). So far, then, we have a condition of things differing from

that of the present seas, somewhat as the Red Crag differs from

the Coralline. But in the very same bed (and the shells are in

such beautiful condition that they all appear to have lived on

the spot, which was perhaps suddenly caused to emerge by

volcanic agency) are found not only tropical species which even

yet struggle northwards into the same latitudes (as Chione

succincta), but also species now found only in southern regions,

as Cardium graniferum and Pecten floridus. Besides these,

the following, unknown except in this bed, are of a distinctly

tropical type, viz. :

Opalia, var. insculpta. Pisania fortis.

Chrysallida, sp.

From a single collection made only at one spot, in a few

weeks, and from the very fragmentary information to be derived

from the collections of the Pacific Railway surveys (described by

Mr. Conrad, and tabulated in the Brit. Assoc. Report, 1863,

pp- 589-596), it would be premature to draw inferences. We

shall await with great interest the more complete account to be

given by Mr. Gabb in the Report of the California Geological

Survey. With the greatest urbanity, that gentleman has sent

his doubtful Pleistocene fossils to the writer, to be compared

with the living fauna; but it would be unfair here to give any

18%

276 Dr. P. P. Carpenter on Pleistocene Fossils

account of them, except that they confirm the foregoing state-

ments in their general character.

The following are diagnoses of the new species in Col. Jewett’s

collection.

Turritella Jewettit.

7’. testa satis tereti, haud tenui, cinerea rufo-fusco tincta; anfr.

subplanatis, suturis distinctis; lirulis distantibus (quarum t. jun.

duze extantiores) et striolis subobsoletis spiralibus cincta; basi

parum angulata; apertura subquadrata; labro tenui, modice si-

nuato.

Hab. Sta. Barbara, Pleistocene formation (Jewett). San Diego,

on beach (Cassidy).

This species comes nearest to 7’. sanguinea, Rve., from the

Gulf, but differs in the faintness of the sculpture. Mr. Cassidy’s

specimens may be washed fossils, or very poor recent shells.

Bittium Pasperum.

B. testa B. quadrifilato forma, magnitudine, et indole simili, sed

sculptura intensiore ; eodem vertice nucleoso abnormali; sed, vice

filorum, costulis spiralibus costas spirales superantibus, subnodu-

losis; t. jun. costulis ii. anticis majoribus, alteris minimis ; postea

plerumque iv. subzequalibus, interdum ii. interdum aliis inter-

calantibus; sculptura basali intensiore; costis radiantibus sub-

arcuatis.

?== Turbonilla aspera, Gabb, in Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Phila-

delphia, 1861, p. 368.

Hab. Sta. Barbara, fossil in Pleistocene beds; abundant (Jewet?).

S. Pedro, S. Diego, Catalina Is. 30-40 fms. (Cooper), State Col.

no. 591 ¢.

Mr. Gabb informs me that his Turbonilla aspera is a Bittiwn.

Unfortunately the type is not accessible; and as the diagnosis

would fit several closely allied species, it cannot be said with

precision to which it rightfully applies. As this is the com-

monest of the group, it is presumed that it is the “ Turbonilla”

intended. Should the type, however, be recovered, and prove

distinct, this shell should take the name of B. rugatum, under

which I wrote the diagnosis, and which was unfortunately

printed in the Brit. Assoc. Report, p.539. The fossil specimens

are in much better condition than the recent shells as yet dis-

covered.

Bittium armillatum.

B. testa B. aspero simili; anfr. nucl. ii. levibus, tumentibus, vertice

declivi, celato ; dein anfr. ix. normalibus planatis, suturis impressis ;

t. adolescente seriebus nodulorum tribus spiralibus extantibus,

supra costas instructis; costis radiantibus cire. xiii. fere parallelis,

jrom Sta. Barbara, Califorma. 277

seriebus, a suturis separatis, spiram ascendentibus; t. adulta,

costulis spiralibus, interdum iv., intercalantibus ; costulis radianti-

bus creberrimis; costis suturalibus ii. validis, haud nodosis; basi

effusa, liris cire. vi. ornata; apertura subquadrata; labro labioque

tenuibus; columella vix torsa, effusa, vix emarginata.

Hab. Sta. Barbara, Pleistocene, 1 sp. (Jewett). 8S. Pedro,

S. Diego (Cooper).

The sculpture resembles Ceriiiiopsis; but the columella is

pinched, not notched.

Opalia (?crenatoides, var.) insculpta.

O. testa O. crenatoidei simili; sed costis radiantibus pluribus, xii.—

xvi., in spira validis; anfr. ult. obsoletis ; sculptura spirali nulla ;

punctis suturalibus minus impressis, circa fasciam basalem leevem

postice, non antice continuis.

Hab. Sta. Barbara, Pleistocene, 1 sp. (Jewett).

Very closely related to O. crenatoides, now living at Cape

St. Lucas, and, with it, to the Portuguese O. crenata. It is

quite possible that the three forms had a common origin.

Trophon tenuisculptus.

T. testa 7. Barvicensi simili, sed sculptura minus extante; vertice

nucleoso minimo ; anfractibus uno et dimidio lzevibus, apice acuto ;

normalibus v., tumidis, postice subangulatis, suturis impressis ;

costis radiantibus x.—xiv., plerumque xil., haud varicosis, angustis,

obtusis ; liris spiralibus majoribus, distantibus, quarum 11.11. in

spira monstrantur, aliis interca‘antibus, supra costas radiantes

undatim transeuntibus; tota superficie lirulis inerementi, supra

liras spirales squamosis, eleganter ornata; canali longiore, sub-

recta, vix clausa; labro acutiore, postice et imtus incrassato, denti-

bus cire. v. munito; labio conspicuo, levi; columeila torsa.

Hab. Sta. Barbara, Pleistocene formation (Jewett).

This very elegant shell is like the least-sculptured forms of

T. Barvicensis, trom which it appears to differ in its extremely

small nucleus. It is very closely related to 7. fimbriatulus, A. Ad.,

from Japan, but differs in texture, and is regarded by Mr. Adams

as distinct. It stands on the confines of the genus, there being

a slight columellar twist, as in Peristernia.

Pisamia fortis.

P. testa P. insigni simili, sed solidiore; crassissima, sculptura valde

impressa ; anfr. norm. v., parum rotundatis, suturis distinctis ;

costis radiantibus t. juniore circ. xii., obtusis, parum expressis,

postea obsoletis; liris spiralibus validis, crebris (quarum t. juniore

v., postea X., in spira monstrantur), subzequalibus, anticis majori-

278 Dr. H. Lacaze-Duthiers on the Float of the lanthine.

bus; canali recurvata; lacuna umbilicali magna; labro intus

crebrilirato ; labio conspicuo, spiraliter rugose lirato.

Hab. Sta Barbara, Pleistocene formation (Jewett).

Col. Jewett’s single specimen is in very fine condition, and is

confirmed by a fragment obtamed by Mr. Gabb, the paleeonto-

logist to the California State Survey. Although resembling

Purpura aperta and congeners in the irregular rugose folds of

the labium, and Siphonalia in the strongly bent canal, Mr. H.

Adams considers that its affinities are closest with the Cantharus

group of Pisania. That genus is extremely abundant in the

tropical fauna, but does not now live in California. It is the

only distinctly tropical shell m the whole collection; and its

presence, along with so many boreal species and types, appears

somewhat anomalous, like the appearance of Voluta and Casst-

daria in the Crag fauna. It is distinguished from the extreme

forms of P. insignis by having the spiral lire pretty equally dis-

tributed over the early whorls, by the close internal ribbing of

the labrum, by the absence of the stout posterior parietal tooth,

and by the great development of the columellar folds.

Nofte.—Unfortunately, during the long interval which has elapsed

between the transmission of the MS. and receipt of the proof, the

types have been returned to the owner, and (with the remainder of

Col. Jewett’s invaluable collection of fossils) have become the pro-

perty of a college in New York State. As they are packed in boxes,

and at present imaccessible, I am unable to give the measurements ;

but the unique specimens were drawn on wood by Mr. Sowerby for

the Smithsonian Institution.—P. P.C., Montreal, Feb. 22, 1866.

XXX.—On the Float of the Ianthine.

By Dr. H. Lacazz-Duruters*.

Fasius CoLonna was the first to indicate the existence of the

peculiar float of the Janthine, under the name of spuma cartila-

ginea. Cuvier proved that this organ had no organic connexion

with the body. “It is attached,” he says, ‘‘to the posterior

part of the foot, almost immediately beneath the spot where the

operculum of other genera occurs. I should be very willing to

think that it is a vestige of the operculum which has undergone,

in its form and tissue, changes similar to those with which na-

ture presents us in so many of her other productions.” We

shall recur to this last notion, which does not appear to be quite

correct. Cuvier evidently had not observed the living animal,

* Translated by W.S. Dallas, F.L.S., from the ‘Annales des Sciences

Naturelles,’ série v. tome iv. pp. 828-341.

Dr. H. Lacaze-Duthiers on the Float of the lanthine. 279

but his investigation had been made upon individuals preserved

in spirits. He adds, “The organ has no direct communication

with the interior of the body; it is a mere appendage of the

integuments. And it does not appear that the animal can at

pleasure empty or fill it with air; it can only compress it by

drawing it into the shell, or leave it to its natural elasticity by

allowing it to escape”’*.

I have been able to examine animals in the expanded and

contracted states—even strongly contracted, such as those which

the sea had rolled upon the beach; and it is impossible to admit

that the float enters entirely within the shell; it follows the

Tanthina as it withdraws, but it is not introduced into the shell

as a part of the organism.

All differences of opinion will be easihy explamed when we

have shown what is the real origin of this curious object. It will

be seen how erroneous was the opinion of Bosct (already justly

criticised by Cuvier) when he said that? the animal absorbs the

air from its vesicles and inflates them at pleasure. Cuvier adds,

“This assertion of Bose is only a supposition, and not a fact

ascertained by direct experiments.” Even the very presence of

the organ did not appear to the celebrated naturalist to be ab-

solutely necessary ; for he says distinctly, “ All individuals do

not possess this organ: I have three which do not show the

least trace of it.”

Bory Saint-Vincent had no doubt observed the living Lanthina

in his voyages ; and he says, “I have not observed that the ani-

mal had the faculty of emptying or filling it at pleasure and

with promptitude”{. The same observer adds that he has seen

Tanthine ‘‘in which the organ had been crushed, or reduced

one-fourth, without their appearing to have suffered.” And

Cuvier, who cites this opinion, remarks that “its nature is in

fact such that Lanthine deprived of it by violence would proba-

bly experience no other inconvenience than that resulting from

the difficulty of rising to the surface of the water.”

All this is in accordance with its anatomical nature—that is

to say, the independence of the tissue and of the float, but not

with its origin and nature. Thus, when Cuvier adds, “ But I

have reason to believe that there are some which are naturally

deprived of it,” he makes a supposition, and his opinion ex-

presses doubt when he seeks to give its explanation. Thus he

invokes age and the season of the year to explain its absence,

his reason being that he was unable to “ perceive any cicatrix

* Cuvier, “ Mémoires pour servir a l’ Histoire et & l’ Anatomie des Mol-

lusques”’ (Mém. sur la Ianthine et la Phasianelle, p. 4).

+ Coquilles, tome iv. p. 74.

{ Voyages, tome i. p. 241.

280 Dr. H. Lacaze-Duthiers on the Float of the lanthine.

or residue of this part in the individuals im his possession which

wanted it.”

Dr. Coates confirmed Cuvier’s opinions, and showed that there

was no anatomical relation between the body and the float*.

He also found that the latter was entirely secreted by the foot,

and that when a portion is removed the damage is quickly

repaired.

The last author who has paid attention to the float of Janthina

is Mr. Adamst; his work is recent, dating only three years ago.

It contains numerous facts which are perfectly correct and prove

that the author observed the living animal. He says, “ The

float is attached to the under surface of the caudal end of the

foot, where what appear to be the muciparous follicles give it a

striated appearance. . . When the animal is weakly or dead, the

the float readily becomes detached, for there is no organic con-

nexion between it and the foot.” This perfectly correct notion

always recurs, and all the observers who have closely examined

the matter come to the same conclusion as Cuvier.

As to the origin of the float, Mr. Adams is less positive. He

says, “The vesicles are probably formed in the same manner as

the frothy spume of the little green Homopterous larva which is

seen on bushes in the spring, and which, in Hampshire, usually

goes by the name of ‘Cuckoo-spit.”. When a portion is cut off,

the float is enlarged at the end next the foot of the animal, and

is not regenerated at the excised part.” We shall see, however,

that it may be repaired at the point which has been destroyed,

but that this depends entirely on the position occupied by this

point. Mr. Adams adds, “ With a pair of sharp-pointed scissors

I made incisions into the floats, and allowed the air to escape,

when the animals gradually descended and remained helpless at

the bottom of the vessel; the floats were not regenerated or

renewed during the period the animals remained alive.” I call

particular attention to this passage, which very correctly indi-

cates a fact, and which I shall cite in favour of the opinion that

I shall maintain. Lastly, Mr. Adams remarks that crepitating

portions continue floating until the air which they contain

gradually escapes and they collapse, and, finally, that the floats,

when pounded in a mortar, are readily reduced to a mucus.

Such are the observations that have been made upon the float

of Fanthina.

The following are the facts that I have ascertained, and from

which I deduce the consequences that will be found in this

article. In the first place, I was struck with the fact that all

the Janthine absolutely destitute of aériferous vesicles remained

* Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. vol. iv.

t+ Annals & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser, 3, vol. x. p. 417 (1862).

Dr. H. Lacaze-Duthiers on the Float of the lanthine. 281

at the bottom of the water, although they were quite alive—that

some of the more lively ones crept, although with difficulty,

with their foot applied to the walls of the vessels, arrived at the

surface, then turned themselves up, but most frequently without

succeeding in reconstructing their float, and finally fell heavily

to the bottom of the water.

I never saw them swim, as so many Mollusca are seen to do,

by alternately dilating and contracting the foot. Perhaps in

the open sea things may proceed differently, but of this I can

say nothing; everything seems to indicate that the shell and

the animal are of a weight which does not allow them to swim

without a float; and it must be added that the Lanthine which

remained at the bottom of the water quickly died there.

The unsuccessful efforts made by the animals either to return

to the surface, or probably to reconstruct their float, gave me

the idea of placing them in different conditions, and which, as it

appeared to me, must be those sought by them.

I first of all endeavoured to ascertain exactly the constitution

of the frothy mass, and, like preceding writers, I soon found

that there was no organic relation between it and the body, but

that it was merely adherent to the foot, and consequently that

the air which it contained, as it could not be the product of a

secretion, must have been imprisoned or mechanically enclosed

within the vesicles. The thing to be sought, therefore, was the

means or mechanism by which the animal was able to introduce

a bubble into each vesicle.

The float is very regularly formed; the cells composing it are

polyhedral in consequence of the mutual pressure which they

exert upon each other, but they are always perfectly spherical

in the part that remains free. This may be very well scen, for

example, in all the vesicles of the circumference of the organ,

upon the upper surface, and especially in the newly-formed

cells. Moreover in the arrangement cf these vesicles there is

a well-marked order: they form nearly straight lines running

from one end of the mass to the other, and the greatest length

of which is in a direction from before backward.

By carefully observing the anterior extremity (that is to say,

that nearest the head), one may exactly count the number and

positively ascertain the volume, form, and relations of these

terminal cells or vesicles. We may then trace and judge of

what takes place when the animal is at work in restoring or

increasing its float.

The foot is very distinctly divided into two different parts:

the posterior and larger one is flat, and it is this which furnishes

the insertion for the float ; the other, or anterior one, is rounded

in front and hollowed bencath by a canal which changes its form

282 Dr. H. Lacaze-Duthiers on the Float of the lanthine.

every moment, in consequence of the folding of its margins

downwards*. It is the moveable anterior portion that constructs

the float; and this is effected as follows :—

It is seen at first to become elongated in front, then to curve

and become elevated, pass to the right and left, and embrace in

its concavity the anterior extremity of the float, upon which it

moulds itself. In its movements of elongation, this part of the

foot often acquires the form of a small club, especially when it

rises above the surface of the water. The position of the foot

upon the anterior extremity of the float has been indicated by

Mr. Adams.

But it is especially necessary to follow the succession of the

movements or manceuvres of the anterior part of the foot when

it issues from the water and approaches the float. The foot is

first of all seen to elongate itself, so as to issue from the water

in a direction nearly opposite to that of the float, then the ani-

mal lifts it up and causes it to project above the liquid. At this

moment the organ presents the appearance of a cup at its ex-

tremity ; it becomes hollowed into a canal by the approximation

of its margins beneath, and slightly wrinkles its anterior por-

tion. All these movements of course take place without inter-

ruption, but their succession may be observed without difficulty.

When the foot has issued from the water, the animal moves

it backward, causing it to describe an arc, which removes it from

the head and approximates it to the float; but at the same

time the animal bends it in such a manner that the channel and

the cup, which were turned upwards, become inferior. Then this

extremity of the foot encloses beneath it a certain quantity of

air, like an inverted glass or bell immersed under water....In

this position the foot gradually approaches the top of the float,

and it is then that we see it spread out and slide gently in all

directions, as if it was gluing the surface of the float by creeping

upon it.

When this manceuvre, which Mr. Adams observed, without, I

think, appreciating its purpose, has continued for a certain time,

* We must apply a clear and precise meaning to the words “above”

and “below,” in order to render the descriptions intelligible. The

Tanthina, when swimming suspended from its float, is reversed, like a

Limnea, which swims by gliding with its foot at the surface of the water.

Hence, when we speak of the inferior surface of the foot, we mean of the

foot in its natural position; and when, in the preceding paragraph, it was

said that “the foot is hollowed into a canal beneath,” this relates to the

position of the animal supposed to be erected and creeping upon the feot.

For if we take the position of the animal beneath the float absolutely. this

ought to be described as the superior surface. It will be remembered,

therefore, that the words “‘ above” and “ below” relate not to the reversed

animal, but to the animal supposed to be in the normal position of a

Gasteropod.

‘eos “ws = ee Sr “ee Pees &

Dr. H. Lacaze-Duthiers on the Float of the lanthine. 283

the foot withdraws, quite gently, under water, to remain there if

its operations cease, or to move forward again and recommence

if its work is to be continued.

When we have counted the number of vesicles at the extremity

of the float, and thoroughly observed their arrangement before

the manceuvres just indicated, we see, when they have ceased,

that another cell has been glued on in front of those which we

had ascertained to be the furthest towards the mouth. This

first fact proves incontestably that the growth of the float takes

place longitudinally and at its anterior extremity. It proves

also that it is the foot which manceuvres in such a manner as to

add the new vesicles towards this extremity; and the process

of growth is, no doubt, as follows :—The foot, first of all curled

up into a cup, had, when applied to the float, a certain thickness

of air between it and the latter; by secreting a layer of mucus

and then spreading out, it must necessarily join this viscous

layer to the rest of the float, and thus keep the air-bubble im-

prisoned.

We may form an idea of what takes place when we observe a

garden-snail or slug creeping upon a body covered with dust :

we often find, beneath the train of mucus left behind it by the

animal, a bubble of air which is imprisoned between the un-

moistened surface of the body and the lamella secreted by the

foot. Here we have something produced, mechanically speak-

ing, perfectly similar; but in the former case it is accomplished

by design and for a particular purpose.

The mucosity is evidently insoluble in water; and as it dries

in the emergent portion, it acquires a certain consistence, which

has led to the supposition that it was cartilaginous.

If we admit the process of the formation of the float to be

as just described (and it seems difficult to me not to regard it as

true, since at each new movement of the foot we count a fresh

bubble added), we may.easily explain the dissidences of authors,

their opinions, and most of the facts which they relate. Thus

we understand why the animal, when once at the bottom of the

water, is incapable of forming a new float. Most probably the

Janthine which have lost their float are fated to die, unless they

be carried to the surface by some cause which I shall not attempt

to imagine.

* * * * * *

To verify the notion which has just been put forward, it was

necessary that experiments, varied in several ways, should fur-

nish its confirmation.

Having taken an Janthina upon a small iron hook and sus-

pended it, not out of the water, but at about that depth below

the surface which it occupies when it swims freely suspended

284 Dr. H. Lacaze-Duthiers on the Float of the Yanthine.

from its float, I remarked that when the first movements pre-

ceding its being placed in this position ceased, and the animal

believed itself out of danger, it issued by degrees from its shell,

extended its foot, and commenced the manceuvres described

above. I had the satisfaction of seemg the opinion that I had

formed confirmed in every point, by observing the animals in

these normal conditions; for I was able to be present, with the

help of patience, at the origin and formation of a float. I saw

that, in proportion as one bubble was added to another, the ani-

mal became specifically lighter, and was less immersed in the

water. And I ascertained that, under these circumstances, the

Tanthine which could not reach the surface made vain efforts

and movements to form bubblés; and when, under these cir-

cumstances, I very gently raised the shell by means of a small

hook, as soon as the foot issued from the water, air was impri-

soned, a bubble added to the float, and the animal began to re-

ascend. Now, nothing of this could have taken place without

the assistance which I gave it.

I have had many individuals of which the floats, being par-

tially destroyed by storms, were insufficient to bring the body of

the Janthina near enough to the surface, and allowed the ani-

mals to perish floating at mid water, exactly like those which

fell to the bottom of the vessels when completely deprived of

aériferous vesicles.

Dr. Coates, cited by Forbes and Hanley, and already men-

tioned, supposes that the young Jantline, on issuing from the

capsules suspended beneath the float, in which they passed their

first embryonic period, get upon the back of the float, and then

attempt the formation of the apparatus which subsequently en-

ables them to do without their mother. This supposition, from

what we have just seen, appears to be perfectly legitimate as a

supposition. Nevertheless, as this matter is not proved by

direct observation, we must not forget that the Gasteropods in

an embryonic state have locomotive organs, which enable them

to move about, and to come even to the surface of the water ;

for they are very active. It may be, therefore, that at the mo-

ment when the organs of locomotion bring the young lanthine

to the surface of the water, they begin to form with their foot a

few bubbles containing air which serve as their first floats.

As all authors have stated, the floats of the Janthine are deli-

cate; they must be affected by the attacks of the numerous and

voracious inhabitants of the sea, and consequently they must

also be constantly repaired. It is plain, indeed, that constant

secretion would either be too late for the necessities of the

economy of the animal, or in advance of it, producing a too

great and inconvenient flotation. Hence the restoration of

Mr. A. G. Butler on new Species of Diurnal Lepidoptera, 285

the float must be entirely subject to the will of the animal,

to its appreciation, if I may so speak; and this is really the

case, as it never makes use of the mucosity of its foot except

when it feels its float to be insufficient, just as the spider

employs the silk with which its spinnerets furnish it only when

injuries have rendered its web unfit to capture the prey which is

necessary for its existence.

It is unnecessary to say that a gaseous secretion is inadmis-

sible, and that there is nothing to warrant its existence.

From all that precedes, I may justly be asked whether I have

seen in my aquaria Janthine entirely deprived of their floats re-

construct new ones. I reply that the animals did not live long

enough for this; it is with them as with the spider to which

I have just referred: if we destroy its web, it reconstructs this,

but at the expense of its body; and if we continue without

allowing it to capture a prey, if its organization does not pro-

vide itself with what is necessary to repair the losses caused by

secreting silk, it is seen to die of inanition. In the same way

here: the Janthine are animals of the high sea; they find in

these regions their proper food, which they did not meet with,

in all probability, in my aquaria; hence they only lived a short

time, exhausted by their exertions and by the want of nourish-

ment.

In conclusion, I will remark that Cuvier’s opinion, so full of

reserve and doubt, cannot be maintained. The float of the

Tanthina cannot in any way represent an operculum, or even its

distant analogue.

XXXI.— Descriptions of some new Species of Diurnal Lepidoptera

in the Collection of the British Museum. By Anrruur G.

Burier, F.Z.8., Assistant, Zoological Department, British

Museum.

Limenitis Calidasa, n. sp.

L. Calidasa, Moore, MS.

Ale supra fuscze, fascia media irregulari albo-viridescente, anticarum

maculas octo ineequales formante, posticarum integra, in medio

latiore ; area basali fascia media interrupta rubra nigro circum-

data, basi fascia simili obscura; area apicali fascia submarginali

rubra, maculis nigris utrinque marginata ; margine postico pallido,

lunulis nigris marginato.

Corpus fuscum ; antenne nigra, rubro acuminate.

Ale antice subtus area basali viridi, fascia media rubra a vena media

partita, lineaque basali obliqua nigra; area apicali cinerea, venis

apud costam rubris, linea rubra undata, maculisque nigris sub-

marginata; fascia media velut supra nigroque utrinque marginata;

286 Mr. A.G. Butler on new Species of Diurnal Lepidoptera.

margine postico albo, linea fusca marginato, angulis alternis ; ciliis

albis venis nigro acuminatis.

Ale postice area basali viridi, lineis sub vena costali duabus, puncto

inter nervulos subcostales lineisque quatuor intra cellam ni-

gris; fascia media latiore, lunulis brevibus nigris marginata ;

area apicali cinerea, fascia rubra velut supra; margine postico

albo, lineis duabus fuscis marginato, angulis alternis, venis nigro

acuminatis.

Corpus viride ; antenne ferruginez.

Alar. exp. une. 24.

Hab. Ceylon.

This species is allied to Limenitis Zulema, Doubl. & Hewits.

North India).

North Indi

Euodia Joanna, n. sp.

Ale antice supra fusce; macula parva apicali nigra purpureo

pupillata, maculaque apud angulum analem majore simili; fasciis

duabus fulvis de costa currentibus, una cellam terminante, simili-

que apud apicem ; fascia conspersa fulvo inter cellam angulumque

analem currente.

Ale postice fusce, ocello parvo apicali nigro ferrugineo circumdato,

maculaque apud angulum analem majore violaceo pupillata.

Ale antice subtus ae fasciis subcostalibus ad angulum analem

productis; ocellis ochreo cireumcinctis; margine postico lineis

duabus pallidis marginato.

Ale postice velut in Euodia Abeona, Donoy.(Australia), Hipparchia?

Abeona, Doubl. (List Lep. Brit. Mus.), ocellis autem majoribus.

Alar. exp. unc. 27%.

Hab. Australia.

Closely allied to E. Abeona, Donov., of which it has been

hitherto supposed to be a variety; but I can discover no proofs

of the identity of the two insects, and have therefore described

it as distinct.

It differs from EL. Abeona above in having the distinct orange

band of the front wings replaced by two pale-yellow streaky

bands, and the anal ocellus of the hind wings much larger.

Below, the orange band of the front wings is replaced by a

narrower and indistinct pale-yellow band, and the ocelli are

more distinctly encircled by pale brown. In the hind wings

the ocelli are proportionably much larger and brighter.

Lasiommata mirifica, n. sp.

Ale antice supra fuscee, fascia ochrea obliqua lata irregulari, de

costa post medium ad angulum analem currente; macula alba

inter venas discoidales apud marginem posticum.

Ale postice fusce, ocello magno apud angulum analem nigro albo

pupilato ferrugineoque cireumcincto.

Ale subtus fuscze, cinereo varie ; entice fascia ochrea lata macula-

Mr. J. Y. Johnson on a new Species of Fern from Madeira. 287

que alba; postice punctis albo pupillatis inter venas post alarum

medium dispositis.

Alar. exp. unc. 22.

Hab. .

This species is most closely allied to Lastommata Merope,

Boisduval (Australia). Our specimen is unfortunately in very

bad condition.

We have a female specimen of an insect somewhat more

closely allied to this species: it differs from the usual form of

LL. Merope in having the apical half of the front wings black,

the anal spot being small and quite distinct from the basal

ferruginous portion of the wing; and the yellow spot below the

front-wing ocellus is also replaced by a white spot.

XXXII.—Some Account of a new Species of Fern (Polystichum

Maderense) recently discovered in the Island of Madeira. By

JAMEs YATE JoHNnson, Cor. M.Z.S.

I am indebted to Mr. Joad, a zealous collector and student of

Ferns, who has lately spent a few months in this island, for

being permitted to examine and describe a Fern, of which he

found a single specimen in the Ribeiro de Janella. The two or

three fronds submitted to me show that the Fern is exactly

intermediate between Polystichum falcinellum, Presl, and P.

angulare, Presl, both of them natives of this island, tlfe former

being, as far as is known, peculiar to Madeira. Widely as these

two forms appeared to be separated, they are certainly brought

into close contact by the Fern which I now shortly describe.

The facies of the frond at once suggests an alliance with P.

angulare. It is lanceolate, lax, and subbipmnate ; that is, the

pinnee are divided nearly to the midrib, and the lobes are nar-

rowed, but not stalked, below. ach lobe has at its tip a short

but conspicuous aculeus. The first lobe on the upper side of

each pinna is elongate; and here we have an approach to P.

falcinellum, a resemblance which is further displayed in the

form of the pine at the upper end of the frond, and in the

structure of the scales on the rachis, which are long and some-

what hair-like. The arrangement of the sori are more like what

is seen in P. falcinellum than in P. angulare. The indusia are

those of the genus.

The fronds of the specimen are upwards of 24 inches in length.

Further researches may show that this is only a variety of

P. falcinellum; but for the present it seems best to register it

as a distinct species.

Madeira, March 3, 1866.

288 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

XXXII.— Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazons Valley.

Couuoprera: Lonercornes. By H. W. Barus, Esq.

[Continued from p. 201.]

Group Pogonocherine.

Genus PRyMNos!Is, nov. gen.

Body elongate, plane above, and clothed with short, fine, erect

hairs. Head small, depressed on the crown between the anten-

niferous tubercles, prolonged some distance below the eyes, and

contracted at the occiput behind the eyes. Antenne filiform,

nearly twice the length of the body, and clothed throughout

with fine, stiff hairs, longest on the underside of the joints; the

basal jomt elongate, nearly as long as the third, the third a very

little longer than the fourth, and the rest very slightly diminish-

ing in length. Thorax oblong, and armed on each side with a

stout, porrect and acute spine. lytra plane above, shoulders

armed with a short spine, tapering thence to the apex, which is

truncated, with the external angles prolonged each into a spine.

Legs moderately elongated, thighs slightly clavate, tarsal joints

triangular, claws divergent. Mesosternum narrowed and ele-

vated behind ; sockets of anterior coxee widely angular externally.

Prymnosis bicuspis, n. sp.

P. elongata, postice attenuata, supra plana, punctata, fusco-castanea,

vertice, thorace et scutello linea dorsali flava; elytris apice trun-

catis, angulis externis spinosis divaricatis, supra sublineatim pune-

tatis, cinereo confluenter maculatis ; pedibus rufo-testaceis. Long.

4 lin.

Head very coarsely punctured, black, depressed between the

antenniferous tubercles ; occiput constricted and marked with a

yellow central vitta, which is continuous over the thorax to the

scutellum. Antenne nearly twice the length of the body,

clothed sparingly throughout with fine, stiff hairs; reddish.

Thorax oblong, armed on each side with a stout spine, surface

very coarsely punctured, dark castaneous, with a yellow central

line. Scutellum yellow. Elytra narrowed in a straight line

from base to apex; shoulders armed with a small spine; apex

truncated, external angles produced each into a long slightly

diverging spine; surface punctured partly in lines, dark casta-

neous, sprinkled with grey confluent spots, which leave an

oblique belt about the middle spotless. Body beneath shining,

thinly pubescent ; thoracic segments coarsely punctured, black ;

abdomen reddish, faintly punctured. Legs testaceous red,

clothed with fine hairs.

Santarem and Nga,

of the Amazons Valley. 289

Genus EstHiocena, Thomson.

Thomson, Systema Cerambye. p. 107.

In this genus the body is elongated, subdepressed, and paral-

lelogrammical or slightly narrowed behind, with the apex of the

elytra more or less truncated, and sometimes dentate. The

hairy clothing usual in this group is, in some of the species

of Hsthlogena, short and bristly. The head is small, with no

depression between the antenniferous tubercles ; the face is short

and convex, and very slightly prolonged below the eyes. The tho-

rax is armed on each side with a conical tubercle. The legs are

moderately long and stout, with subclavate femora and short,

triangular tarsal joints. The claws are only semidivergent—a

character which, together with the more elongated body and

linear elytra, distinguishes this genus from Hstola, to which it

is very closely allied. The antenne, as in Hstola, are scarcely

longer than the body, hairy, with the fourth joint a little longer

than the third, and the remaining joints becoming gradually and

slightly shorter. The basal joint is short and thick, and nar-

rowed at the base.

1. Esthlogena pulverea, u. sp.

E. elongata, angustata, postice paulo attenuata, breviter setosa,

cinereo-ochracea; antennis corpore haud longioribus, articulis

apice fuscis; thorace supra sparsim punctato, vittis sex obscuris

brunneis, lateribus utrinque tuberculo lato apice spinoso’; elytris

sparsim punctatis, apice breviter sinuato-truncatis, angulis externis

productis, cinereo-fuscis, sutura maculaque apicali cinereo-ochra-

ceis. Long. 43 lin.

Head small, clothed with laid ashy-ochreous tomentum. An-

tenn about as long as the body, clothed sparingly with stiff

hairs, ashy ochreous, tips of the joints, from the fourth, blackish.

Thorax as wide as head and elytra, slightly uneven on the sur-

face; sides each with a broad dentiform prominence in the

middle; disk marked with a few scattered punctures; ashy

ochreous, disk with two, and sides each with two, obscure

brownish vitte. lytra elongate, narrowed before the apex,

which is briefly sinuate-truncate, with the outer angles denti-

form; surface clothed with fine bristles, marked with a few

widely scattered punctures, ashy brown, with the suture and a

spot near the apex ashy ochreous. Body beneath and legs

ashy ochreous.

Santarem.

2. Esthlogena mucronata, n. sp.

E, elongata, postice paulo attenuata, dense breviter hirsuta, castaneo-

fusca; pedibus piceo-rufis; elytris confertim cinereo confluenter

Ann, & Mag, N. Hist, Ser. 3, Vol. xvii. 19

290 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

maculatis, punctato- -striatis, apice sinuato-truncatis, angulis eX-

ternis spinosis ; tibiis dilatato compressis. Long. 5—6 lin.

Head dark pitchy, thinly pubescent, and marked with large

scattered punctures. Antenne about as long as the body, setose,

pitchy red, becoming darker towards the apex, with the joints

pale ashy. Thorax closely covered with large deep punctures,

leaving a smooth longitudinal dorsal space scored by an im-

pressed line ; lateral prominence small, dentiform ; surface thinly

clothed with ashy pubescence, forming faint lines. Elytra elon-

gate, subdepressed, tapering behind ; apex sinuate-truncate, with

the outer angles spiniform ; surface very thickly clothed with

erect hairs springing from punctures arranged in lines; the

colour is dark blackish chestnut, shining and varied throughout

with cinereous confluent specks. Body beneath castaneous,

thinly clothed with ashy pile. Legs reddish; intermediate and

posterior tibize broad and compressed from base to apex.

Ega, on dead branches.

3. Esthlogena sulcata, n. sp.

E. elongata, subdepressa, postice paulo attenuata, undique breviter

setosa, nigro-castanea; capite, thorace et scutello cinereo-fulvo

vittatis ; elytris cinereo confluenter maculatis, punctato-striatis,

striis postice fortiter impressis, apice truncatis, angulis externis

spinosis ; pedibus rufo-castaneis. Long. 7 lin.

Head very coarsely punctured; forehead strongly convex;

vertex with two ashy-tawny stripes. Antennze about as long as

the body, castaneous, clothed with grey pubescence ; apices of the

joints, from the fourth, black. Thorax broadened in the middle,

and having on each side a distinct acute tubercle ; surface covered

with scattered punctures, leaving a smooth space along the middle;

clothed with ashy pubescence arranged in vitte, the central vitta

(continuous to the scutellum) tawny. Elytra elongated, closely

covered with short bristles (like the rest of the body); apex

squarely truncated, with the external angles produced into an

acute tooth ; surface punctate-striate, the striz more deeply im-

pressed posteriorly and the interstices costate, dark blackish

castaneous, covered with small confluent spots of grey tomentum.

Body beneath blackish, thinly clothed with grey pile. Legs

reddish; tibize simple.

Santarem, dead branches of trees.

4. Esthlogena linearis, n. sp.

£. \inearis, dense longe hirsuta, fusco-castanea ; thorace foveolato,

linea dorsali levi, lateribus breviter spinosis; elytris lineatim

punctatis, cinereo irroratis, apice sinuato-truncatis, angulis vix

of the Amazons Valley. 291

productis ; antennis pedibusque testaceo-rutfis, illis articulis apice

obscurioribus. Long. 34 lin.

Head coarsely punctured, clothed with tawny-brown pubes-

cence. Antennz as long as the body, reddish testaceous; apices

of the joints, from the fourth, darker. Thorax sparsely covered

with large and deep punctures, leaving a smooth dorsal line;

sides each with a small acute spine; colour blackish chestnut.

Elytra linear, narrowed close to the apex, the latter sinuate-

truncate, with the angles acute, but not distinctly produced ;

surface clothed with long, stiff hairs very dense towards the

apex, punctured in rows, dull castaneous, sprinkled with greyish

confluent spots. Body beneath dull reddish brown; legs testa-

ceous red ; tibize simple.

Santarem. There are two undescribed species, closely allied

to this, found in the province of Rio Janeiro*.

Genus Estoxa, Fairmaire.

Fairmaire, Ann. Soe. Ent. Fr. 1859, p. 524.

This genus is very closely allied to Esthlogena, the shape of

the head, form and proportion of antennal joints, clothing of

body, and general appearance offering no points of difference

worthy of mention. The body, however, is less elongated, the

elytra being shorter and subtrigonal. The tarsal claws in all

the species that I have examined are fully divergent—a character

which will at once distinguish the present genus from the pre-

ceding.

1. Lstola basinotata, n. sp.

E. elongato-oblonga, postice attenuata, setosa, brunneo-fulva; tho-

race basi utrinque maculis duabus, elytris singulis basi macula

rotundata, nigro-velutinis ; pedibus rufescentibus. Long. 3—43 lin.

Head thickly punctured and clothed with tawny-brown pu-

bescence. Antenne as long as the body, fringed beneath with

* Esthlogena obtusa. Elongata, parallelogrammica, setosa, nigro-castanea,

griseo irrorata. Caput grosse punctatum. Antenne dense setose,

rufo-testacez, articulis a tertio basi pallidioribus. Thorax grosse

punctatus, niger, linea dorsali leevi et interstitiis griseo pubescentibus;

tuberculo laterali apice unguiculato. Elytra linearia, apice obtuse

truncata, lineatim punctata, interstitia levia, nigro-castanea, griseo

confluenter maculata. Corpus subtus nigrum, nitidum, sparse tomen-

tosum. Pedesrufi. Long.5 lin, Had. in Rio Janeiro (D. Squires),

Esthlogena prolica. Elongatissima, linearis, sparsim setosa, nigra, fusco-

griseo tomentosa. Caput sparsim punctatum. Antenne nigre.

Thorax supra subplanus, punctis magnis paucis notatum, tuberculis

lateralibus brevibus, latis, obtusis. Elytra apice recte truncata, an-

gulis externis spinosis; supra sparsim punctata, postice costata. Cor-

pus subtus et pedes nigra. Long. 6 lin. Hab. in Rio Janeiro.

19*

292 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

stiff hairs; reddish, joints from the third tipped with dusky,

eighth joint white, tipped with dusky. Thorax slightly narrowed

at the base; sides each with a conical, acute tubercle ; surface

punctured, setose, tawny brown, base on each side with two

velvety blackish spots margined with ashy. Elytra narrowed

from base to apex, the latter rounded ; surface setose, punctate-

striate, punctures elongated ; uniform tawny brown, base of each

with a rounded, velvety, purplish-black spot. Body beneath

blackish, clothed with fine grey pile, and setose; legs reddish,

setose.

Forests of the Tapajos.

2. Hstola variegata, n. sp.

EH. elongato-oblonga, postice attenuata, setosa, nigro griseo et fulvo

leete variegata. Long. 4 lin.

Head coarsely punctured, setose, black, varied with fulvous

spots and spotted with grey behind the eyes. Antenne as long

as the body, sparingly setose, dark reddish, bases of the joints

testaceous; eighth joint whitish, tipped with brown. - Thorax

slightly narrowed behind; lateral tubercles lar ge, with apex acute

and slightly recurved ; pene setose, coarsely punctured, but

leaving small smooth interspaces, black, varied with clear, large,

fulvous spots. lytra tapering from base to apex, the latter

rounded; surface setose, punctured in lines; third interstice

costate behind, minutely varied with black, clear fulvous, and grey,

the last colour prevailmg along the suture, and a light fulvo-

testaceous spot lying across the’suture towards the apex. Body

beneath black, thinly clothed with grey pile; legs reddish, varied

with greyish and fulvous.

liga.

3. Estola lineolata, n. sp.

£. elongato-oblonga, postice attenuata, setosa, fusca, griseo-fulvo

variegata ; antennis pallide annulatis ; thorace basi utrinque lineola

obliqua griseo-fulva; elytris punctato-striatis, apice angustatis,

obtusis. Long. 3-43 lin.

Head coarsely and irregularly punctured, blackish, thinly

clothed with coarse tawny-brown pubescence; in brightly coloured

individuals obscurely variegated. Antenne fringed beneath with

stiff hairs, dull reddish or testaceous; apices of all the joints

dusky, sometimes variegated with grey; eighth joint greyish

testaceous, tipped with dusky. Thorax very coarsely punctured;

lateral tubercles acute; surface setose, dingy brown, sometimes

varied with dull reddish, clothed with scanty tawny-brown pu-

bescence, the base at each side having a short, thin, pale line

running obliquely towards the disk, and in fresh examples sur-

rounded by blackish. Elytra tapering to the apex, which latter

of the Amazons Valley. 2938

is narrow and obtuse, almost truncated ; surface setose, coarsely

punctate-striate, with the third interstice costate before the apex,

dingy brown or blackish or partially dull reddish, more or less

varied with tawny spots, in fine examples minutely varied with

blackish and tawny. Body beneath dingy black; legs reddish,

thighs and tibiz varied with black.

Banks of the Tapajos, common. Also found at Cayenne, and

existing in some French collections under the names of Hebestola

annulicornis and Leprieurit. I have a specimen also which was

taken by Mr. Squires at Rio Janeiro, where several other species

are found allied to this, three of which have truncated elytra *.

4, Estola porcula, n. sp.

£. oblongo-ovata, hispida, obscure brunnea, griseo confluenter macu-

lata; antennis testaceo annulatis; elytris antice confuse, postice

sublineatim punctatis, apice obtusis. Long. 2-34 lin.

Head thickly punctured, blackish, clothed with coarse greyish

pubescence and rigid hairs. Antenne dusky; fourth, sixth, eighth,

and tenth joints ringed with pale testaceous. Thorax convex,

thickly punctured, setose, and clothed with dull-greyish tomentum;

lateral tubercles small, acute. Elytra oblong, scarcely narrowed

behind, apex obtusely rounded ; surface closely setose, minutely

varied with ding gy grey and dusky brown, punctured, the punc-

* Estola truncatella. Elongato-oblonga, parce setosa, nigro-fusca, griseo

obscuro tomentosa. Caput angustum, punctatum. Antenne ciliate,

fuscee, articulo octavo albo annulato. Thorax parvus, spina laterali

acuta; supra crebre punctatus, eriseo- -fuscus, unicolor. Elytra elon-

gato-oblonga, prope apicem angustata, apice oblique truncata, angulis

haud productis ; 3 Supra tenuiter setosa, griseo- -fusca, ¢ grosse punctato-

striata, interstitio tertio postice costato. Pedes nigri, griseo pilosi.

Long. 43 lin. Had. in Rio Janeiro,

Estola acricula. Elongata, postice attenuata, parce setosa, cinereo-fulva,

nigro punctata. Caput punctatum. Antenne corpore breviores,

testacez, articulis apice brunneo variegatis, articulo octavo testaceo.

Thorax grosse punctatus, spinis lateralibus longiusculi is acutis. Elytra

punctato- -striata, cinereo- fulva, nigro punctata, : apice oblique truncata,

angulis externis breviter spinosis. “Long. 43 lin. Hab. in Rio Janciro.

Estola varicornis (Dj. Cat.). Elongato-oblonga, postice vix attenuata,

setosa, nigrina, griseo obscuro variegata. Caput punctatum, inter

antennas valde concavum. Antenne ciliate, nigra, articulis basi

pallide testaceis ; articulo octavo testaceo, apice nigro. Thorax crebre

grosse punctatus, tuberculis lateralibus brevibus acutis. _Elytra punc-

tato-striata (interstitio tertio postice acute costato), nigrina, grisco

obscure variegata, apice oblique truncata, angulis internis rotundatis,

externis distinetis. Cor pus subtus nigrum. Pedes nigri, griseo varie-

gati, tarsis rufescentibus. Long, 3- 4 lin. Had. in Rio Janciro.

294 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

tures confused except towards the apex, where they are partly

arranged in rows. Body beneath and legs dusky, clothed with

coarse greyish pile.

Lower Amazons, at Santarem and Villa Nova, on dead twigs.

Genus EPecrasts, nov. gen.

Body greatly elongated, narrow, cylindrical, clothed through-

out with erect, fine hairs. Head small, face convex, vertex de-

pressed between the bases of the antennz ; eyes reniform, rather

distant on the crown. Antenne as long as the body, filiform,

clothed both above and beneath with long and fine hairs; basal

joint short and thick, but narrowed at the base ; third jot con-

siderably shorter than the fourth, the following joints gradually

and successively shorter. Thorax elongate, cylindrical ; lateral

tubercles nearly obsolete. Elytra elongated, cylindrical, apex

obliquely truncated. Legs short; thighs scarcely clavate, basal

joint of the posterior tarsi cylindrical, as long as the second and

third taken together; claws semidivergent. Sterna narrow,

plane.

The chief points of distinction between this genus and the two

preceding are the elongated cylindrical form of body, the hairy

antenn, both above and beneath, and the unarmed thorax. The

insect known in collections under the MS. name of Huteles lurida,

might be included in it, as it offers most of the characters, with

the exception of the fourth antennal joint not exceeding in length

the third.

Epectasis attenuata, nu. sp.

EZ. elongata, cylindrica, hirsuta, obscure castaneo-fusca; antennis

piceo-rufis, articulo terminali dimidioque penultimi pallide testa-

ceis; thorace crebre punctato, medio late cinereo-fusco vittato ;

elytris grosse confuse punctatis, prope apicem cinereo plagiatis,

apice oblique valde truncatis. Long. 4 lin.

Head small ; face convex, hairy, and clothed with dingy-greyish

pubescence, punctured. Antenne dull pitchy red, basal half of

tenth joint and the whole of the eleventh greyish testaceous, bases

of several preceding joints also greyish. -'Thorax cylindrical, elon-

gate, sides slightly conical in the middle; surface closely punc-

tured, dull blackish castaneous, middle with an obscure dull-

ashy vitta. Hlytra elongate, cylindrical, hirsute, covered with

large punctures, dull chestnut-brown ; apex with a greyish patch

and obliquely truncated. Body beneath and femora blackish,

tibie and tarsi reddish, hirsute, and clothed with dingy-ashy

pubescence.

Ega, on a dead twig.

cw)

of the Amazons Valley.

Group Apomecynine.

Genus AcrenNnopsis, Thomson.

Thomson, Archives Entom. 1. p. 302.

This genus is tolerably well known to students of the Lon-

gicornes under the name of Talepora of Dejean’s catalogue. The

body is of an elongate-elliptical shape with obtusely rounded

elytra, the apex of which is adorned in most of the species by a

black spot, margined anteriorly with pale ashy, the pale streak

existing in those species which are destitute of the black spot.

The antenne, as is usual in the Apomecynine, are much shorter

than the body, and filiform, with the terminal joints much abbre-

viated, and the third of great relative length. The thorax is un-

armed, the head small, with rounded vertex and forehead and

retracted face. The claws of the tarsi are short and scarcely di-

vergent.

1. Agennopsis pygea, n. sp.

A. elongato-elliptica, brunnea ; thorace grosse vage punctato, lateri-

bus cinereo-brunneis ; elytris vage punctatis, nigro cinereoque ob-

scure irroratis, apice macula rotundata communi nigro-velutina

antice cano marginata. Long. 33-5} lin. 3 Q.

Head retracted beneath, sprinkled with large punctures, and

clothed with tawny-brown pubescence. Antenne about half the

length of the body in the female, two-thirds the length in the

male, filiform ; third joint as long as the three following taken

together, dark brown. Thorax narrowed anteriorly and rounded

on the sides, marked with large evenly distributed punctures, which

leave a narrow impunctate dorsal space ; colour brown, sides each

with a broad ashy-brown vitta. Hlytra considerably broader than

the thorax at the base, scarcely widened beyond the middle, then

narrowed to the apex ; surface smooth and marked with scattered

punctures not arranged in lines; colour light brown, obscurely

speckled with dusky and pale ashy, apex ornamented with a

rounded velvety black spot,narrowly margined anteriorly with ashy

white. Body beneath and legs dingy brown; abdomen with a

black spot on each side of the second to the fourth segments.

Santarem, Lower Amazons. Also found at Rio Janeiro. *

2. Agennopsis sordida, n. sp.

A. elongato-elliptica, brunnea; thorace grosse vage punctato, lateri-

bus cinereo-brunneis ; elytris lineatim punctatis, interstitiis sub-

costatis, ante apicem utrinque lineola transversa cinerea. Long.

4 lin: 2:

Head marked throughout with very large punctures. Antennz

about half the length of the body, dingy brown. Thorax slightly

296 Mr. II. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

narrowed anteriorly and scarcely rounded in the middle ; surface

thickly marked with large punctures, leaving no smooth dorsal

line ; brown, sides each with a broad ashy-brown vitta. Llytra

considerably broader than the thorax, scarcely widened beyond

the middle, then narrowed to the apex ; surface punctured in rows

from base to apex, with some of the interstices elevated ; colour

brown, obscurely spotted with black and ashy ; apex concolorous,

and near the apex on each elytron a short oblique ashy line.

Body beneath and legs ashy brown ; abdomen with a black spot

on each side of the second to the fourth segments.

Santarem.

3. Agennopsis cylindrica, un. sp.

A. elongata, ‘cylindrica, obscure fusca; capite thoraceque lateribus

fulvis; elytris lineatim punctatis, prope apicem linea transversa

flavescente. Long. 4 lin.

Head irregularly punctured, clothed with yellowish-tawny pu-

bescence. Antenne black, three basal joints (except the apex of

the third) tawny. Thorax cylindrical, covered with coarse, large

punctures; dark brown, sides tawny. Llytra linear, singly

rounded at the apex ; surface punctured in rows, with a mixture

of large punctures; dull brown, with a straght transverse

yellowish line near the apex, the space between the line and the

apex studded with large black punctures. Body beneath coarsely

punctured, dark grey ; legs blackish.

Santarem.

Subtribe SaAPERDITA.

Group Calhone.

Genus Eumatues, Pascoe.

Pascoe, Trans. Ent. Soe. n. s. iv. p. 251; Journal of Entom. i. p. 354.

The characters of this genus are well defined by Mr. Pascoe,

in the Journal of Entomology as above referred to. Its position

is not so well ascertained. The form of the tarsal claws (widely

divergent, with a broad, acute tooth at the base) points to an

affinity with the Callianze ; and as I think this feature outweighs

in importance the dissimilarity of general form and facies, I have

placed the genus in the Calliane group, rather than amongst the

Pogonocherine, with which it agrees in some points. The body

is elongate-oblong, narrowed behind, depressed above, and beset

with short bristles. The head is short, the crown, in profile, not

forming an angle with the forehead, and the face very little pro-

longed and narrowed below the eyes, which latter are large and

convex. The thorax has a distinct acute tubercle on each side

in the middle. The elytra are singly rounded at the apex. The

of the Amazons Valley. 297

antenne are half as long again as the body, filiform, and setose,

the basal jot short and forming an oblong club, the third

joint a little longer than the fourth, and the rest very gradu-

ally decreasing in length. The legs are moderately long, the

thighs slightly clavate ; the tarsi moderately short, with the claws,

as before mentioned, armed each at the base with a large, acute

tooth.

Eumathes Amazonicus, n. sp.

Eu. elongato-oblongus, supra planus, setosus, viridi-cinereus, obscure

fusco maculatus; elytris dense et confuse punctatis; maris tar-

sorum posticorum articulo primo valde elongato. Long. 5-54 lin.

Head coarsely punctured, .clothed with grey pubescence.

Antenne dingy grey. Thorax irregularly punctured on its sur-

face, light-greenish ashy, obscurely varied with dusky ; lateral tu-

bercles small, acute. lytra shghtly narrowed behind, plane

above and free from cost, rather thickly but irregularly covered

with small punctures, especially on the basal half, and clothed

with short bristles; pale-greenish ashy, obscurely varied with

dusky spots of various sizes. Body beneath and legs clothed

with ashy pubescence. First jot of the hind tafsi in the male

as long as the remaining joints taken together.

Ega. Iam indebted to Mr. Alexander Fry for pointing out

the differences between this species and its near relative Humathes

undatus (Pascoe) of Southern Brazil. The great length of the

basal joint of the posterior tarsiin the male, and the closer punc-

tation of the elytra, are the chief distinguishing characters.

Genus CHALCOLYNE, noy. gen.

Closely allied to Gryllica, Thoms. (Classif. des Cérambye.

p- 120), but differs in the thorax being armed on each side with

an acute spiniform tubercle. Body oblong, clothed with short,

stiff hairs; elytra subtrigonal, rounded at the tip. Head with

long, slightly retracted face; mouth projecting ; palpi elongate,

pointed; eyes ample both above and beneath, and nearly ap-

proximating on the crown; antenniferous tubercles distinct,

divergent. Antennz scarcely so long as the body, stout, the

jomts simple and gradually tapering to the apex, basal joint

thickened gradually from base to apex. Thorax subcylindrical,

finely wrinkled transversely, sides each armed with an acute

spiniform tubercle. Legs moderately elongated, thighs clavate,

middle tibiz simple on their outer edge; tarsi about half the

length of the tibize, broad, not compressed ; basal joint in all the

feet short, triangular; claw-joint slender, projecting beyond the

third jot to an extent equal to the length of the third joint ;

claws widely divergent and strongly curved, furnished at the

298 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

base on the inner side with a broad square enlargement. Pro-

sternum narrow, simple; mesosternum rather broad, bitubercu-

lated, and vertically inclined anteriorly. .

Chalcolyne metallica, Pascoe.

Onocephala(?) metallica, Pascoe, Trans. Ent. Soe. n. s. iv. (1858).

C. oblonga, nitens, nigro-eenea, breviter fusco setosa; elytris viridi-

eeneis, striato-punctatis ; thorace subcylindrico, elytris multo an-

gustiore, antice leviter angustato, supra transverse rugoso, lateribus

utrinque tuberculo acuto armatis. Long. 5 lin. 3?

Found only at Ega, Upper Amazons, on the stem of a slender

tree in the forest. The insect is very similar in form to Gryllica

flavo-pustulata, Thoms., but differs not only in the spinose tho-

rax and metallic colours, but in the basal joints of the antenne

not being compressed.

Genus EumMIMEsIs, nov. gen.

Body oblong, above plane, clothed with short, stiff hairs.

Elytra oblong, broadly rounded at the tip. Head with long,

slightly retracted face; mouth somewhat projecting; palpi

elongate, pointed; eyes ample, but distant on the vertex; an-

tenniferous tubercles distinct, divergent. Antenne short ; basal

joint oblong-quadrate, compressed ; second joint rather abruptly

dilated from the middle; third joint curved and dilated at the

apex ; fourth with the upper edge enlarged into a short foliaceous

expansion ; remaining joints very short, simple. Thorax sub-

cylindrical, thickly punctured, sides each armed with an acute

spiniform tubercle. Legs moderately elongated, thighs clavate,

middle tibize simple on their outer edge, tarsi short and uncom-

pressed, claw-joint slender and short; claws divergent and

strongly curved, furnished at the base on their inner side with a

broad tooth. Prosternum narrow, simple ; mesosternum much

broader, bituberculate, steeply inclined anteriorly.

This genus, as will be seen by the above description, harmo-

nizes with Chalcolyne in the majority of its characters. Mr.

Alexander Fry, who has paid especial attention to the Saper-

dite and their allies, having examined my specimens, is inclined

to think that the insect on which I have founded the genus

Chalcolyne is a male individual of a species of Humimesis. The

great difference in the antennz, in the absence of positive evi-

dence of identity, forbids, however, the fusion of the two forms

into one genus.

Kumimesis heilipordes, n. sp.

E. speciebus Heilipi generis Curculionidarum simillima, oblonga,

_ fusco-ferruginea, dense breviter setosa ; thorace utrinque vitta lata,

of the Amazons Valley. 299

elytris vitta lata basali et macula magna subapicali sordide albis.

Long. 6 lin. 9?

Head dark red, hispid and thinly clothed with whitish recum-

bent pile. Antenne dark red, fifth joint and apices of third to

eleventh joints black, bases grey. Thorax subcylindrical, a little

narrowed in front ; sides each armed with a small acute tubercle,

thickly punctured, rusty brown, each side marked with a broad

tawny-white vitta. Elytra oblong, broadly rounded at the apex,

surface in the middle depressed and very closely punctured, the

sides over the tomentose whitish parts sparsely punctured, over

the naked parts closely so ; from the base to beyond the middle of

each runs a tawny-white stripe, thickest in the middle, and

within the apex is a similarly coloured rounded spot composed

of dense tomentum, the edges of the elytra and a large tri-

angular spot between the vitta and the apical patch being dark

and shining. Body beneath and legs rusty red, sprinkled with

grey tomentum. The whole body clothed with short erect hairs.

St. Paulo, Upper Amazons.

This insect, from its colour and form, bears a most deceptive

resemblance to many species of Heilipus, a genus of Curcu-

honidee.

Genus Hasratis, Buquet.

Buquet, i Thoms. Archives Entom. i. p. 338.

In this genus the body is oblong, slightly convex, and beset

with short bristles. The head is moderately short, depressed

between the antenniferous tubercles ; the eyes are rather small.

The antennze are about the length of the body, and clothed

above and beneath with short, stiff hairs. The lateral tubercles

of the thorax are acute and spiniform. ‘The elytra are rounded

at the apex, and depressed in the middle. The mesosternum

is prominent in front. The thighs are clavate, the tarsi short

and broad, with a broad tooth at the base of each claw.

FHastatis galerucoides, n. sp.

H. oblonga, breviter setosa, fulvo-brunnea, vertice thoracisque lateri-

bus cinereis ; elytris marginibus lateralibus lineaque longitudinali

discoidali pallide testaceis ; antennis nigris, articulis 3°-6™ apice

dilatatis, angulis productis. Long. 5 lin. @.

Head brown, partly clothed with yellowish-ashy pubescence,

which forms two divergent stripes on the vertex. Antenne a

little shorter than the body (¢), black, clothed with short

bristles ; third to sixth joints gradually dilated at the apex, with

the apical angles produced. Thorax clothed with dense tawny-

brown pubescence, sides each with a broad ashy vitta, lateral

tubercles large and acute. Elytra oblong, obtuse at the apex ;

300 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

surface clothed with short bristles, finely punctate-striate, de-

pressed along the suture, tawny brown, with the lateral and

apical margins and a line from base to apex terminating at the

sutural angle pale testaceous. Body beneath dusky castaneous ;

mesosternum with two tubercles in front. Legs pale-reddish

testaceous, with a large black spot on the outer side of the

middle and posterior femora.

Santarem.

Genus Caius, Serville.

Serville, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. iv. (1835) p. 60.

The species composing this well-known genus are all of small

size and of the most diversified colours—some being metallic, and

others resembling species of various other families of Coleoptera.

The antenne are filiform, with the joints from the third (inclu-

sive) gradually and proportionally decreasing in length. The

tarsal claws have a broad and acute tooth at their base.

1. Callia fulvocincta, nu. sp.

C. oblonga, setosa, chalybea, nitida; elytris violaceis, cano tomen-

tosis, basi fascia lata fulvo-aurantiaca. Long. 3 lin. Q.

Head glossy steel-blue, thinly clothed with hoary tomentum ;

front with a deeply impressed longitudinal line. Antenne dark

metallic blue, setose. Thorax short (much shorter than in the

allied C. avillaris), glossy steel-blue, smooth, convex. Scutellum

steel-blue. Elytra oblong, setose, punctured, violaceous, ob-

scured with fine hoary tomentum; base with a broad tawny-

orange fascia, broadest a little before the lateral margin. Body

beneath and legs steel-blue.

Santarem, flying over masses of dried branches.

2. Callia chrysomelina, Pascoe.

Callia chrysomelina, Pascoe, Trans. Ent. Soc. n.s. v. p. 34.

C. oblonga, postice paulo dilatata, setosa, nigra; capite, thorace, an-

tennarum articulo basali (apice excepto) femoribusque anticis et

intermediis (geniculis exceptis) leete ferrugineis; elytris crebre

punctatis azureis ; corpore subtus chalybeo. Long. 33 lin. Q.

Liga, dry twigs. SAIOIN,

3. Callia criocerina, n. sp.

C. oblongo-elongata, setosa, nigra nitida; capite, thorace, anten-

narum articulo basali (apice excepto) femoribusque anticis et in-

termediis (geniculis exceptis) flavis; elytris elongatis, crebre

punctatis, violaceis. Long. 3 lin. o.

Head and mouth, except the tips of the palpi, yellow. An-

tenn a little longer than the body, bluish black ; basal joint of

the antenne, except the extreme base and the apex, yellow.

of the Amazons Valley. 301

Thorax glossy yellow; lateral tubercles large, obtuse at their

apex. Scutellum yellow. Elytra elongate-oblong, parallel-

sided, setose, thickly punctured, violet. Body beneath and legs

black ; anterior and middle femora, except their apices, yellow.

S. Paulo, Upper Amazons.

4. Callia halticoides, n. sp.

C. elongata, setosa, nigra; thorace (margine postico excepto) ferru-

gineo; autennis articulis tribus terminalibus albo-testaceis ; femo-

ribus anticis (geniculis exceptis) abdominisque lateribus flavo-

testaceis. Long. 23 lin. <C.

Head small, deeply impressed down the middle, shining black,

except the margin of the epistome, which is pale testaccous.

Antenne scarcely longer than the body, black, extreme bases of

the joints and the whole of the three terminal joints whitish

testaceous. Thorax very short, transverse; lateral tubercles

very acute, red, hind margin black. Scutellum black. Elytra

elongate, linear, setose, thickly punctured, partly in rows, black.

Body beneath and legs black; anterior femora in the middle,

and intermediate femora on one side, pale testaceous; sides of

abdomen testaceous.

Ega, Upper Amazons.

5. Callia lycotdes, n. sp.

C. elongata, setosa; capite thoraceque flavis, lateribus nigro vittatis ;

elytris fulvo-flavis, plaga quadrata communi basali lineola prope

basin marginali et plaga magna apicali nigris; antennis nigris,

articulis tribus terminalibus fiavis; femoribus (apice exceptis) et

tibiis basi pallide testaceis. Long. 23 lin. ¢.

Head small, tawny yellow, with fine golden pubescence, sides

behind the eyes each with a dusky stripe. Antenne not longer

than the body, black ; three terminal joints pale yellow. Thorax

somewhat elongated, rusty yellow, shining, and clothed with

fine golden pubescence; lateral tubercles broad, but acute ;

disk obtusely tubercular, with a dusky stripe on each side.

Scutellum tawny yellow. EHlytra elongate, regularly punctate-

striate (punctures large), tawny yellow; a quadrate patch over

the scutellar region, a basal marginal streak, and a broad fascia

at the apex black. Body beneath black; legs black; thighs,

except their apices and the bases of the tibic, yellow testaceous.

S. Paulo, Upper Amazons.

6. Callia cleroides, ni. sp.

C. sublinearis, postice paulo ampliata, setosa, nigra; capitis lineolis,

thoracis vitta laterali antennarumque annulo magno mediano

fulvo-flavis. Long. 34 lin. ¢.

Head small, deeply impressed in the middle, black, a line

302. Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorns of the Amazons.

down the centre of the crown and one on each side, and the

lower part of the face, tawny. Antennz as long as the body,

black, apex obscurely rufescent; apical half of the fourth and

nearly the whole of the fifth jomt clear tawny yellow. Thorax

elongated, lateral tubercle small, conical ; surface coarsely punc-

tured and tubercular, black; sides each with a broad golden-

fulvous vitta. Scutellum black. Elytra elongated, a little

dilated at the apex ; surface setose, closely punctured, partly in

rows, black ; lateral edges near the base obscurely rufescent, and

an indistinct streak from the shoulder down each side dull

tawny. Body beneath clothed with silvery-grey tomentum.

Legs black; femora at the base rufescent.

Ega.

The preceding series of species, mimicking respectively various

types of Coleoptera, do not exhaust the variety of dress which

the Callie put on. I have a small species in my collection,

from Rio Janeiro, which presents the style of coloration of cer-

tain species of Lampyride*.

Genus PRETILIA, noy. gen.

Closely allied to Cala, but differs in the thorax being un-

armed on the sides. This part of the body is short, convex, and

rounded, the sides being tumid instead of having the distinct

conical tubercle. The eyes are short and convex, their reniform

undivided shape distinguishing the species from the Tetraopine,

to which they are allied by the form of the thorax. The body is

linear and setose. The antenne are filiform and longer than the

body in both sexes ; the third joint is much elongated, and half

as long again as the fourth, the remainder being filiform and

slender to the apex. The pro- and meso-sterna are both very

narrow. The legs are moderately elongated, and the tarsal

claws have a large tooth at the base.

I am indebted to Mr. Alexander Fry for pointing out the chief

distinguishing characters of this genus.

Pretilia telephoroides, n. sp.

P. linearis, setosa; capite flavo-ferrugineo, occipite nigro nitido ;

thorace rufo, pube aurea tecto; elytris nigris vel fulvo-brunneis,

* Callia lampyroides. Elongato-oblonga, depressa, setosa, fusco-nigra,

testaceo marginata. Caput breve, nigrum, leve, ore testaceo mar-

ginato. Antenne corpore multo breviores, parce ciliate, nigree, arti-

culis basi pallide testaceis. Thorax subquadratus, supra tuberosus

interstitiis grossissime punctatis; niger, lateribus litura rufo-testacea,

breviter tuberculatis. Elytra elongato-oblonga, apice rotundata, se-

tosa, supra punctata, fusco-nigra, lateribus late testaceo marginatis.

Corpus subtus nigrum. Pedes nigri; coxee et femora pallide-testacea,

his nigro maculatis. Long. 34 lin. 9. Had. in Rio Janeiro (Squires).

Dr. H. Burmeister on Ziphiorrhynchus. 303

apice nigris, pube fulvescente vestitis, punctato-striatis, apice ob-

tusis ; pedibus testaceis, tarsis fuscis ; pectore abdomineque nigris,

griseo tomentosis, hoc lateribus fulvo-testaceis ; antennis nigris,

basi ferrugineis, articulis 5° et 6° flavis. Long. 3-43 ]in. 3 Q.

Head depressed between the antenniferous tubercles; face,

cheeks, and palpi reddish yellow ; crown and occiput shining

black. Antenne black; basal joint, except the apex, reddish

yellow; fifth and sixth joints (sometimes also the apex of the

fourth) pale yellow. Thorax short, rounded, convex ; sides tu-

mid, reddish yellow, clothed with golden pubescence. Scutel-

lum black. Llytra linear, obtuse at the apex, punctate-striate,

setose, purplish black or tawny brown, gradually becoming

black towards the apex, clothed with a changing tawny pubes-

cence. Breast and abdomen dusky, clothed with griseous pile ;

abdomen brownish testaceous on the sides. Legs reddish yel-

low; tarsi dusky.

Para and Lower Amazons.

[To be continued. ]

XXXIV.— Additional Observations on Ziphiorrhynchus.

By Dr. H. Burmeister.

[In a Letter, from Buenos Ayres, to Dr. J. EL. Gray.)

[Plate VI.]

My pear Frrenp,—I received your letter some days ago, and

set to work as soon as possible to send you further notes on

Ziphiorrhynchus (the outer form of which was described in the

‘Annals & Mag. Nat. Hist.’ for February 1866, vol. xvii. p. 94,

Pl. III.). There is no doubt that the animal is a species of

Epiodon, the whole of the characters being the same as those

given by you in your ‘Synopsis.’ My name Ziphiorrhynchus

must therefore fall, there being no reason for retaining it ; but

the species appears to me to be different, as far as I can judge

from the drawing you have sent me. You must now study my

figure, and compare it with the others, to find out the specific

characters. I can do nothing here without a work concerning

the species of EHpiodon.

The figures which I send you show the skull from the side,

rather less than one-fourth of the natural size, the whole

skull, from the apex of the lower jaw to the end of the occipital

condyle, being 75 centim. long, and each branch of the lower

jaw 59 centim. The lower jaw is somewhat longer than the

upper, with two round apertures (Pl. VI. fig. 3), in which are

contained two large teeth. Fig. 4 shows one of these teeth, of

the natural size, and fig. 5 one of the smaller teeth, which

304 Dr. H. Burmeister on Ziphiorrhynchus.

are situated in the narrow channel running backward from the

alveoli of the larger teeth, as shown in fig.3. The upper jaw

has a similar but smaller channel, which is indicated, in fig. 1,

at the side of the upper jaw near J, as a dotted line (.+««..).

In this figure, b indicates the maxillary bone, and a the inter-

maxillary.

In the whole Jongitudinal line between the two intermaxillary

bones there is a deep channel, beginning at the top of the upper

jaw, as shown in fig. 3. The vomer is situated in the bottom of

this channel ; and behind the vomer there is a strong cylindrical

cartilage, which goes from the top of the jaw to the nasal open-

ing, where it unites with the high septum of the vomer between

the two apertures, as shown in fig. 2.

The intermaxillary bones are enlarged behind, and somewhat

excavated, rising into a high protuberance on the forehead, the

right maxillary bone being much larger than the left, as you

may see in my drawing (fig. 2). In the middle of this pro-

tuberance are situated the nasal bones (fig. 2 0 0), which are also

unequal, the right being stronger than the left, and forming a

large and thick promontorium between the intermaxillary bones.

On the outside of the maxillary bone (0) is situated the frontal

(d), forming an arch over the eye on each side, and ascending

like a small narrow band at the hinder margin of the maxillary

bone to the top of the protuberance in the highest part of the

skull. Behind these comes the large parietal bone (c) in the

middle of the cranium, and on the sides the temporal bones (/),

having on the underside the ear-bone or os petrosum (g). The

posterior margin of the temporal is united with the occipital

bone (A). The zygomatic bone is very curious; it forms a

thin cylindrical arch, united in front of the eye with the frontal,

but not reaching the temporal bone behind.

The skull is 34 centim. in breadth at the broadest part, in the

middle of the superciliary arch ; and the protuberance is elevated

20 centim. above the horizontal part of the upper jaw in the

same region of the skull. I hope you will understand all

thoroughly by examining my drawings. (Plate VI.)

The other parts of the skeleton closely resemble the figures

given by Vrolik in his account of Hyperoodon (in the Transac-

tions of the Academy of Haarlem, 1848, vol. v. p.1). I have

this very valuable description of the Hyperoodon, the only scien-

tific work on whales in my library, except yours in the ‘ Voyage

of the Erebus and Terror.’ The neck has the same construction,

and has also seven vertebre, the first four being united into one

piece, and the other three separate. The arches of these three

vertebree are open above, as is also the arch of the first dorsal,

which is very small and united on the left side with the arch of

Dr. H. Burmeister on Ziphiorrhynchus. 505

the second. This is the first vertebra with a spinous process,

but it is also somewhat open on the right side of the arch. The

third dorsal vertebra has the arch entirely closed, and is much

larger than the second. From this the vertebre increase to the

end of the lumbar part of the column, where the vertebra are

largest, each of them being 12 centim. long. The number of the

dorsal vertebree is ten, and that of the lumbar twelve. Of the

ten pairs of ribs, six are united with the sternum, and four free.

The sternum has precisely the same form as that of Hyperoodon

figured by Vrolik, and this is the case also with the hyoid bone.

The forms of the arm-bones are also exactly the same, except

that the upper margin of the scapula is somewhat larger, and

the carpal bones are not cartilaginous, but ossified.

The twelve lumbar vertebre are followed by twenty caudals,

the first eleven having spinous processes on the underside.

The same region of the tail has also the smallest spinous pro-

cesses of the dorsal side. The last three vertebree are very small,

forming merely round osseous corpuscles; and the two preceding

these last three are each perforated perpendicularly by two fora-

mina on each side of the central line of the body.

This is all that I can tell you of the general construction of

the skeleton, and I hope you will find enough to make out the

characters of the species.

{The skull shows that this species is distinct from Epiodon

Desmarestii of the Mediterranean; and it should be called

Epiodon cryptodon, Burmeister.—J. E. Gray. ]

I am very curious to see your work on the Edentata, as you

know that { had the good fortune to be the first describer of

some new species of this family, such as Dasypus hispidus and

Praopus hirsutus, from Guayaquil, and the new Chlamyphorus.

I hope you know my descriptions in the ‘ Abhandl. der Hallisch.

Naturf, Gesellsch. I have had for some time a living Dasypus

conurus, and have observed his curious habits : he walks, as you

say, with only the tips of his claws touching the ground. His

skeleton is most allied to that of the gigantic Glyptodon, which

he also resembles in his general figure. We have many speci-

mens in the collection here.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI.

Fig. 1 shows the skull from the right side.

Fig. 2, the nasal region, with the protuberance from the front.

Fig. 3, the apex of the upper and lower jaws.

‘ig. 4, a large tooth, natural size.

‘ig. 5, a small tooth, natural size.

In figs. 1 & 2, a marks the intermaxilla; 4, the maxilla; e, the parietal ;

d, the frontal; f, the temporal; g, the os petrosum ; h, the occipital bone,

and o, the nasal bones.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist, Ser. 3. Vol. xvi, 20

306 Dr. W.B. Carpenter on Rhynchonella Geinitziana.

XXXV.—On Rhynchonella Geinitziana.

By W. B. Carventer, M.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.GS.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

University of London,

Burlington House, W.

If Prof. King had contented himself, in his last communica-

tion, with stating the facts which had come under his observa-

tion in regard to the structure of Rhynchonella Geinitziana, I

should have left it to your readers to judge whether that state-

ment (to which I take no exception) at all invalidates the facts

adduced by myself. For it must be obvious to any one accus-

tomed to estimate the relative value of positive and negative

evidence, that the existence of a single specimen of that shell

possessing an outer layer not perforated by canals is of more

weight than that of a dozen specimens in which the canals pass

through what seems to be the whole thickness of the shell; since

every paleontologist knows that the superficial layers of shells,

especially Brachiopods, have been so frequently removed by

abrasion previously to their fossilization, that in many forma-

tions a perfect shell is a rarity.

But Prof. King, without having seen my preparations, persis-

tently refuses to admit the existence of such a specimen, and

disposes of the facts which I have stated in regard to it by

imputing to me incapacity as a microscopic observer. I am

unable, according to him, to distinguish, in a vertical section,

between canals which really stop short and canals which pass

out of the plane of section ; and, in a tangential section, I have

mistaken canals filled by transparent infiltration for the proper

substance of the shell, which J affirm to be really continuous where

he says that it ought to show perforations. As a microscopist of

thirty years’ experience, as the original discoverer of the canali-

cular structure in Brachiopods, and as the maker of several

hundred preparations illustrative of that structure, I venture to

ask whether it is more likely that I am deceived by such ¢rans-

parent fallacies, or that Prof. King’s observations have been

made upon abraded shells. And I believe that such of your

readers as may have followed this discussion will agree with me

that, so far from the “ clear evidence” adduced in Prof. King’s

paper being entitled to acceptance ‘as entirely removing all

doubts on the matter,” it leaves this matter precisely where it

was before.

The course which Prof. King has thought proper to follow in

his revival of this discussion is in perfect accordance with that

which he has adopted in recently controverting my statement of

the existence of finely tubular Nummuline shell-structure in

GENTLEMEN,

Dr. R. Dyce on the Eye of the Mackerel. 307

Eozoon Canadense, not only (as I have the best authority for

stating) without having seen a section of that fossil thin enough

to show it, but even (I have good reason to believe) without

having examined the like structure in any Nummuline shell, so

as to be able to recognize it when seen. I trust, therefore,

that the scientific public will now hold me absolved from the

necessity of taking any further notice of his pertinacious at-

tempts to throw discredit upon my observations.

I remain, Gentlemen,

Your obedient Servant,

WiiiaM B. Carpenter.

March 21, 1866.

XXXVI.—WNotes on some Peculiarities in the Eye of the Mackerel.

By Rosert Dyce, M.D., F.R.S. Edin., Professor of Midwifery,

University of Aberdeen.

[Plate VII.]

In the following observations it is not my intention to enter

into any minute detail of the anatomical structure of the eye,

but merely to notice some very striking and interesting pecu-

liarities, different from the eye of any other fish which I have

met with.

The eye of a fish, like the eye of all vertebrate animals, is

constructed upon principles essentially similar, and presents

the same coats and lenses as are met with in the human

eye, and, generally speaking, arranged similarly. It, however,

differs in many points of structure from that of terrestrial

Vertebrata, its organization being, of course, adapted to the

denser medium in which the fish resides, and so adapted as to

bring the rays of light to converge at a shorter focus upon the

retina. It is hence more globular or spherical, has always a

very flattened form of bulb and a shorter axis, and is always

covered by an investing fibrous membrane called the sclerotic coat.

This is more or less thick and elastic; it is not, however, uni-

formly thick, being more so at the back of the eye than im front

towards the cornea, in order, it is believed, to preserve the flat-

ness of the cornea—an arrangement rendered necessary in all

swimming animals, as well as fish, who reside constantly in

water, and who receive the rays of light through so dense a

refractive medium. The sclerotic also varies in thickness in

different fish ; in the larger fish it is very thick, while in the

generality of ordinary-sized fish it is very thin, soft, elastic, and

flexible. In the Mackerel, however, instead of being soft, it is

uniformly firm, nay, entirely cartilaginous, and would be inflexible

but for its peculiar construction,—so much so that it retains its

20%

308 Dr. R. Dyce on the Hye of the Mackerel.

ordinary form, and with scarcely any diminution in size, if left

unheeded to dry; whereas, in most other fish, the eye shrivels

up, unless some distending medium (as cotton) is used to keep

it in shape.

Again, in every fish which I have examined, the optic nerve

penetrates the sclerotic coat by a round aperture, the coat closely

encircling the nerve (see Pl. VII.: eye of Haddock, Whiting,

and Cod); but in the Mackerel there is in this unyielding

sclerotic coat a portion, as it were, cut out from the back of

the eye, extending from near the opposite edges of the cornea,

thus leaving, when in its quiescent state, an elliptical space, like

two narrow cones joimed at their bases( <>); but if the sides

of the eye are pressed close, as they must be by the muscles when

the focal distance is to be changed, it then becomes a mere line

or slit.

There is a still further peculiarity in the Mackerel, viz. a small

semicircular notch on the nasal side of this linear slit, in which the

optic nerve lies secure from pressure in its passage through it.

(See Plate.) It is, I believe, admitted that the adjusting power

in the eye, in order to obtain distinct vision at different distances,

is mainly dependent upon the flexibility of the sclerotic coat,

which allows of its being compressed by the muscles, and thus,

by the pressure of the humours, increasing the convexity of the

cornea, while it also brings the retina closer to the posterior

surface of the lens. Hence, in the greater number of fish, the

sclerotic is soft and dexible. yet sufficiently firm to ania its

spherical shape. In a very few fish it is as hard as bone—in

the sword-fish (Xiphius gladius), for example—and nearly in-

flexible ; yet all of them possess the same adjusting-power.

Amongst these the Mackerel has this peculiar formation: in

this fish the eye would be nearly inflexible, from its hard carti-

laginous nature ; but by the very simple, yet beautiful, arrange-

ment which I have described (of the elliptical slit), compression

may be effected to any useful extent—thus accommodating the

form of the eye to distances. The provision made to prevent

pressure upon the optic nerve by this notch in the hard un-

yielding sclerotic will also be noticed. This notch clearly de-

monstrates not merely that, in this fish at least, the sclerotic 1s

an investing membrane to preserve the form of the eye, but that

compression is produced to suit the focal distance; and if the

compression were so great as to close the gap left in the sclerotic,

it would, but for this notch, destroy, for a time at least, the

optic nerve.

This singular and beautiful arrangement appears remarkably

adapted to the habits of this fish. It is well known to be a very

strong and rapid fish; it must therefore greatly facilitate it, in

Miscellaneous. 309

its rapid motions, in seizing its food, which it is believed it does

by ‘striking across the course of what it supposes to be its

flying prey,”’—thus almost proving that its pursuit is more

under the influence of sight than of taste or smell.

Couch, in his recent beautiful work, says that it will never

attempt to seize that which seems without life; hence the object

of the fishers is to cause the boat to be influenced by an amount

of motion which shall resemble a living object. The boat must

therefore be always under sail, and in a sufficient breeze to

ensure any amount of success.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Note on the Genera Amphipeplea and Assiminea.

By J. Gwyn Jurrreys, Esq., F.R.S.

Dr. E. von Martens, in his interesting “ Conchological Gleanings ”

(Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3. vol. xvii. p. 211), has referred to

the description, in my work on British Conchology, of the shell of

Limnea involuta, in comparison with L. glutinosa and L. auricularia;

but he seems to have overlooked the sectional character which I

there gave of the first two species, viz. “extremely thin and fragile.”

Nor has he quoted exactly the words which I used in describing DL.

glutinosa. He would also have found that Lapland was recorded

by Nylander as a station for L. glutinosa, Pau by Mermet, and the

south-west of France by Des Moulins and many other writers. J

thank him for having called my attention to the two localities in the

Mediterranean province. The genus Amphipeplea cannot be sepa-

rated from Limnea, if Aplewa remains united with Physa.

Assiminea is undoubtedly marine and pulmonobranch, as I shall

be prepared to show in the course of my work. The dentition of

A. Grayana and A. litorea is delineated in the ‘Annals and Maga-

zine’ for February 1859, pl. 3. figs. 12 & 13.

March 24, 1866.

On the Existence of a Third Membrane in the Anther.

By. A. CHatin.

Botanists generally believe that the anther consists only of two

membranes, named, since the time of Purkinje, the evothectum and

endothecium. But Meyen and Schleiden observed in certain young

anthers the tissue which corresponds with the third membrane ;

they seem, however, to have regarded it as part of the endothecium of

Purkinje. The author states that there is no doubt of the existence

of a third membrane interior to the endothecium or membrane

with fibrous cells ; it forms a sort of interior epidermis, and should

be called the endothecium, the membrane which received that name

from Purkinje being the mesothecium.

Evolution. —The third membrane always exists at a certain stage

310 Miscellaneous.

of development of the anthers. The cells of the inner membrane,

which are at first confused with the tissues which form the outer

membranes and other parts of the anther, begin to detach themselves

from the contiguous tissues at the period when the pollinic utricles

themselves acquire their peculiar appearance. The development of

the cells of the third membrane, and that of the pollinic utricles,

then proceed side by side until the pollen is nearly mature. But as

this period approaches, and when the mother cells of the pollen

have disappeared and the threads are produced in the fibrous cells,

the third membrane shrivels, becomes lacerated, and is usually

absorbed without leaving any traces, except a granular matter adhe-

ring to the second membrane.

As a provisional production intimately connected with the de-

velopment of the pollen and the special organization of the fibrous

cells, the third membrane seems to be of great biological importance.

Its disappearance as the dehiscence of the anthers approaches,

however, is subject to some exceptions. Thus it persists in various

degrees in Hyoscyamus, Pedicularis, Convolvulus, Forsythia, Ery-

thronium, Fuchsia, Paratropia, Crassula, Echeveria, Megazea,

Aisculus, Citrus, Dictamnus, Helleborus, Linum, Reseda, Spar-

mannia, Thea, Tropewolum, Arum, Dianella, Hemodorum, Loranthus.

In anthers with apicilar dehiscence the third membrane is regu-

larly persistent, as if in these anthers, which are found to be without

fibrous cells, the non-destruction of the third membrane was con-

nected with the non-production of fibrous cells in the second.

Colour.—The third membrane is most frequently coloured, whilst

the second is generally colourless. Its colour is also generally in-

dependent of that of the epidermic membrane ; but the second mem-

brane sometimes partakes of that of the third, as in Aponogeton, Gono-

lobus, and Salvia splendens. 'The colour of the third membrane, on the

contrary, is directly related to that of the pollen, so that the colour

of the destroyed membrane may be known from that of the pollen ;

and, on the other hand, the colour of the pollen may be foretold

from that of the membrane.

Structure.—The cells of the third membrane are sometimes papilli-

form, sometimes flattened, but always possess very delicate walls. Some

exceptions are presented in Pyrola, Cassia, Vaccinium, and Rhododen-

dron, in which the anthers have no fibrous cells, and the internal

membrane is strikingly thickened as if in compensation. The mem-

brane is usually composed of a single layer of cells ; but there are two

in Sparmannia, and from two to six in Viola, Crassula orbicularis,

and some species of Cassia and Canna. The layers are most

numerous towards the junction of the valves. The membrane does

not only extend over the valves of the anther, but lines the whole

cavity of the cells.

Contents.—The chief contents of the cells of the third membrane

are various colouring-matters, fatty bodies often united into drops

charged with colouring-matters, nitrogenous substances, mucilage,

sugar, and aleurone.

Functions.—All its characters indicate that the third membrane

Miscellaneous. 3ll

is the nurse of the pollen; and it may also be the reservoir from

which the cells of the second membrane derive the nutriment neces-

sary for their rapid transformation.—Comptes Rendus, January 15,

1866, pp. 126-130.

New Fishes from the Iberian Peninsula.

By Dr. SrEINDACHNER.

Barbus Graelsii, Steind.

Form elongate, subcylindrical ; length of head contained 43-53

times in the total length ; dorsal fin without a serrated bony ray ;

anal and caudal fins long-rayed ; both pairs of barbels long, the pos-

terior reaching or passing the posterior margin of the preeoperculum.

8-9

D. 4/8; A. 3/5-6; V. 2/8; L. lat. 48-50.

From the Ebro and the rivers about Bilbao.

Leucos Arcassii, Steind.

Body elongated ; head rounded off in front, small; depth about

one-fifth of the total length.

7-8

D. 3/7; A. 3/7; L. lat. 42-46.

In the Ebro, near Logrofio, and the Cailes near Tudela.

Chondrostoma Miegii, Steind.

Nose short, obtuse; orifice of mouth semicircular; pharyngeal

teeth six on the right and seven on the left side, rarely six on both

sides ; a bluish-grey longitudinal band above the lateral line.

9-10

D. 3/8; A. 3/9; V. 1/83 L. lat. 50-53.

: Hi-5t

In the Ebro and the rivers about Bilbao.—Bericht der Akad. der

Wiss. in Wien, 1866, pp. 14 & 15.

New Fishes from South America.

By Dr. SrernpacHNER

Pentaceros Knerii, Steind.

Dorsal with fourteen spines ; forehead not crested; body spotted

with blackish brown.

Ancylodon altipinnis, Steind.

Depth contained 44 times in the total length; dorsals united by a

narrow membrane ; first dorsal with ten spines,

312 Miscellaneous.

Clinus Philippii, Steind.

Depth contained 4} times in the total length ; dorsal with nineteen

spines; fringed tentacles over the eves and nasal apertures and on

the nape ; large, irregular, pale spots on the base of the dorsal fin and

on the back.

Brycon lineatus, Steind.

A blackish spot above the foremost scales of the lateral line; a

black longitudinal band on the middle rays of the caudal fin ; brown

longitudinal lines on the posterior half of the body.—L. lat. 56-57.

Platycephalus angustus, Steind.

Length of head contained 34 times in the total length, and breadth

of head once and five-sixths in its length; two small preeopercular

spines, of nearly equal length; dorsal with nine spines; caudal with

three deep-black longitudinal bands upon a milk-white ground;

body pale brown, with small, roundish, faintly marked spots and two

transverse bands on its posterior half.—ericht der Akad. der Wiss.

in Wien, 1866, pp. 19 & 20.

The White-beaked Bottlenose.

A specimen of Lagenorhynchus albirostris, Gray (Cat. of Seals and

Whales in the British Museum, p. 272), has been shot on the coast of

Cromer by Mr. H. M. Upcher, of Sherringham Hall, who has kindly

presented the skull to the British Museum. This is only the second

time that the animal has been observed on the British coast. It

was first described by Mr. Brightwell in the ‘Annals & Mag. of Nat.

Hist.’ for 1846, vol. xvii. p. 21, t. 1.—J. E. G.

Domesticated Whales.

The Whitefish, or White Whale, was kept for some time alive in

atank in America. ‘“ He was sufficiently well trained during the time

he was in confinement to allow himself to be harnessed to a car, in

which he drew a young lady around the tank; he learned to recog-

nize his keeper, and would allow himself to be handled by him, and

at the proper time would come and put his head out of the water to

receive the harness or take his food.” ‘‘ He was less docile than a

specimen of Delphinus Tursio which was for a time with him in the

same tank.” (Wyman, Boston Journ. Nat. Hist. 1863, p. 603.)

Capture of a Ribbonfish.

A very fine specimen of a Ribbonfish (Gymnetrus Banksit), with

the crest in a very good state, has been caught at West Hartlepool,

on the coast of Northumberland. It is 14 feet long, and, like the

other specimens which have been taken on the north-east coast of

England, was found in shallow water, in a wounded condition. It

has been shown by the fishermen at Stockton-on-Tees.

Miscellaneous. 313

Note on the Genus Chevreulius of Lacaze-Duthiers.

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,—Mr. Alder, in the ‘ Annals’ for February last, has

stated that the genus Chevreulius of Lacaze-Duthiers has been de-

scribed twice before, by Messrs. Stimpson and Macdonald.

I believe that the same genus is distinctly indicated by Ehrenberg

(1828) in the introduction to his ‘Symbole Physicee’ (Mammalia,

p- 3), thus: ‘.... quod formam animalium novam attulimus (Iho-

dosoma verecundum) Ascidias bivalvibus Molluscis externa etiam

forma adnectentem, Ascidiam scilicet tunica cartilaginea bivalvi in-

dutam.”” These words seem to prove that the genus is found in the

Red Sea.

I take this occasion to call to mind a curious body described by

Linnzus as an Asterias, but which perhaps may prove to be founded

on a dried specimen belonging to Rhodosoma.

Asterias (lunata) semiorbiculata.

Corpus depressum, referens lunam dimidiatam, cum suis cornibus,

adspersum undique punctis obsoletis, absque oris aut ani vestigio.

(Linn. in ‘‘ Chinensia Lagerstrémiana,’’ ‘Amcenitates Academicee,’

iv. p. 256, n. 44. fig. 14.)

The figure represents a crescent-shaped body, about 2 inches long,

with some dispersed granulations on the surface.

Perhaps, however, it is only an object of art, like the Corallium

chinense on the same plate, which represents a piece of jade formed

into a man on horseback.

I am Gentlemen,

Yours obediently,

O. A. L. Morcu.

Copenhagen, Feb. 27, 1866.

On the Functions of the Air-cells, and the Mechanism of Respira-

tion, in Birds. By Dr. Drosier.

After brief mention of the additions made to our knowledge of these

matters by numerous distinguished physiologists, the author remarked

that still more remained to be done—a proof of the difficulty of the

subject. Several of the commonly received views are quite untenable,

—such as that the air-cells are intended to assist in supporting the

bird in flight, by rendering it lighter, in consequence of the rarefac-

faction of the air in the air-cells, and the hollow bones; and again,

that the air-cells are a sort of second respiratory apparatus, so that

birds may be described, as they were by Cuvier, as animals having

a double respiration. In disproof of these views, it was shown that

a pigeon weighing 10 ounces, or 4375 grains, would have its weight

in air diminished by less than one grain in consequence of the rare-

faction of the air in its air-sacs and hollow bones; so that the floating-

power resulting from such rarefaction would be almost inappreciable.

Again, the air-cells are bounded by delicate membranes, in which

314 Miscellaneous.

the blood-vessels are very minute and sparsely scattered. Hence

very little blood is offered for oxidation in them.

Some of the earlier observers, as Harvey and Perrault, in the

middle of the seventeenth century had correctly described the air-

cells of birds as sacs that enclose and confine the air received from

the openings, on the inferior surface of the lungs, in which the bronchi

terminate. Later observers, however, have generally fallen into the

error that the air passes from the air-sacs into the cavities of the pe-

ritoneum and the pericardium, and even extends itself between the

muscles, and beneath the skin in some cases; and notwithstanding

that Guillot and Sappey have shown that the air does not pass out

of the air-sacs, such errors are repeated even at the present day.

The lungs of birds are not very elastic, are fixed to the ribs at the

upper part of the thorax by close cellular tissue, and bound down by

an aponeurosis formed by the tendons of the pulmonary diaphragm,

so that they cannot draw in much air by expansion. They are

moreover small, and are penetrated by the principal bronchi, which

open upon their surfaces. Such lungs are quite incapable of acting

in inspiration in the same manner as the lungs of reptiles and mam-

mals. Capacious membranous bags are therefore provided to receive

the inspired air, the volume of which is much greater in the case of

birds than in the case of mammals. But the larger quantity of air

inspired would be of little use if it were merely drawn into the air-

sacs to be simply expelled again; for the greater part of the inspired

air does not pass through the lungs, but direct through certain large

bronchial tubes into the air-sacs situated within the thorax. There

are another set of air-sacs situated without the thorax—namely, two

very large sacs in the abdomen, and several others anterior to the

thorax. When the thoracic air-sacs expand, the others contract,

and vice versd. ‘The alternate expansion and contraction of the two

sets of air-cells causes currents of air to play continually through the

spongy tissue of the lungs peculiar to birds, and to pass between the

almost naked capillaries, first described by Mr. Rainey (in 1848) as

forming the only walls of the areolar spaces that answer to the air-

cells of the mammalianlung. ‘The air-spaces between the capillaries

are, according to Mr. Rainey’s measurements, only >; th of an

inch, and the quantity of air in them must soon be deprived of oxygen

and saturated with carbonic acid. Hence the necessity of its con-

tinual change. ‘This change is effected by constant streams of air

that fan the capillaries in passing from one set of air-sacs to the

other. The intricate courses which the air takes in passing in and

out of the air-cells and bronchial tubes of various orders is difficult

to describe, especially without diagrams.

The respiration of birds, even when in repose, has been shown to

be much more active than that of mammals. But in order that

birds may be equal to the enormous exertion required of them for

sustaining themselves in the air for considerable periods of time, very

ample provision must be made for respiration. If therefore the lungs

were constructed after the mammalian type, they would require to

be very large, and powerful muscles must have been provided for the

Miscellaneous. 815

respiratory movements. But this would add unduly to the weight of

the body. The lungs therefore are small, very porous, and light;

yet nevertheless their efficiency is ensured by a more minute division

of the capillaries, and a more complete exposure of these to the

action of the air supplied so abundantly from the capacious air-sacs.

In short, more perfect /ocalized instruments of respiration cannot be

conceived.

Our great physiologist, John Hunter, believed it impossible that

the ribs and sternum of a bird could move while the powerful pec-

toral muscles are engaged in flight. He therefore thought that the

air-sacs of birds might be intended to act as reservoirs of air to be

used in respiration during flight. These sacs, however, do not hold

enough air to support the respiration of a bird for two minutes ; for

in that time, if the trachea of a bird be tied, it dies; yet many birds

continue on the wing for hours together. Sappey has endeavoured to

explain the difficulty which occurred to Hunter by pointing out that the

great pectoral muscles of birds arise exclusively from the sternum, and

not at all from the ribs, as they do in mammals. But this explana-

tion only removes a part of the difficulty; for the ribs are so articulated

with the sternum, that they cannot move unless the sternum moves

also. Now the sternum in respiration moves at its articulations

with the two coracoid bones, these bones being fixed in regard to

the sternum and humerus in the movements of flight. It might

seem, therefore, that when the pectoral muscles contract, the ster-

num would be drawn powerfully upwards as the wings are drawn

downwards, and so the sternum and ribs flexed. But this is not so;

for the fibres of these muscles converge towards and pass over the

coracoid bones on their way to be inserted into the ridge of the

humerus, and they act in the direction of the axis of the coracoid ;

so that they only draw the sternum and coracoid together more

closely, and do not tend to flex these bones on one another. The

common inspiratory muscles are therefore free to act, whether the

pectorals are in action or not. ‘To be more exact, the line of action

of the great pectoral muscle lies a little below the coracoid bone, and

parallel to its axis. Hence, in contracting, the muscle will tend to

depress the sternum, and so assist the inspiratory muscles, and ren-

der inspiration deeper in flight than when the wings are closed.

The author gave a mathematical as well as an experimental proof

that the external intercostal muscles raise both the ribs to which

they are attached, and that the internal intercostals depress both ribs.

A frame of wood, in the form of a parallelogram with hinges at the

angles, represented two ribs, the spine, andthe sternum. An india-

rubber ring was passed over a peg in the upper rib and another in the

lower rib, at different distances from the spine, to represent the inter-

costal muscle. Both ribs were elevated or depressed according as

the upper peg was nearer to, or further from the spine than the peg

in the lower rib.

The hollow bones are filled with air, not for respiratory purposes,

but to remove the moisture from the interior of the bones secreted

by the endosteum, which would otherwise accumulate and defeat

316 Miscellaneous.

one of the objects for which the bones are hollow, namely, to dimi-

nish their weight,—the other object being to increase their strength.

The author proposes to publish his views in a separate form so soon

as he shall have leisure to complete certain experimental investiga-

tions that he has devised.—Cambridge Phil. Soc. Feb. 12, 1866.

On the Organs of Parturition in the Kangaroos.

By Epmonp ALrx.

I have lately, by the kindness of M. E. Verreaux, had the oppor-

tunity of examining the organs of parturition in a female Halmaturus

Bennettii. This investigation has enabled me to solve a question

which has long been under controversy. The organs of generation,

in the female Kangaroo, consist of two ovaries, two Fallopian tubes,

two uteri, and two lateral vaginze (which, after bending round in the

form of loops, terminate in the urethro-genital vestibule), and a

median pouch or vagina. ‘This median vagina, to which our atten-

tion must be particularly directed, is in the form of an elongated

cone. The base of the cone, turned towards the uteri, has a wide

communication on each side with the lateral vagine ; its apex

advances between these two passages and reaches the bottom of the

urethro-genital vestibule. Home asserted (Phil. Trans. 1795) that

there was a direct communication between the cavity of the median

vagina and that of the urethro-genital vestibule, that the orifice

enlarged gradually as the period of parturition approached, and that

it then became capable of sufficient dilatation to allow the escape of

the foetus. Cuvier did not accept this opinion, his dissections not

having shown him the orifice indicated by Home. He assumes, in

consequence, that the foetus gets into one of the lateral vaginze and

passes slowly along until it is expelled. Owen (Cycl. of Anat. and

Phys.) has confirmed Cuvier’s assertions; and this opinion has been

generally adopted. The object of this arrangement of the organs

would be the multiplication of obstacles destined to prevent the too

rapid expulsion of so delicate an embryo.

Nevertheless, if we consider the narrowness of the lateral vagine,

and especially the extreme fineness which they present at about

2 centimetres from the urethro-genital vestibule, we may be alarmed

at the slowness of the passage and the violence of the pressures to

which this delicate embryo would be subjected. 'There is no more

argument in favour of the second than of the first opinion ; and the

observation of facts can alone teach us what is the truth.

In a preparation which I have submitted to the examination of

my colleagues of the Société Philomathique, it is easy to see, upon

the pubic face of the urethro-genital vestibule, immediately above

the urinary meatus, a circular orifice, larger than that meatus, and

folded in the manner of the anal sphincter. A sound introduced

through this aperture, passes immediately into the cavity of the

median vagina. This preparation furnishes incontestable evidence

of the existence of the aperture denied by Cuvier and Owen, and

affirmed by Home. ‘The difference of opinion between these authors

Miscellaneous. 317

may perhaps be due to their not having examined the same spe-

cies.

The lateral vagine present no trace of distention, and there is

nothing to indicate that they have served for the passage of the

foetus. They do not appear to have been of any other use than to

receive the semen at the moment of copulation and to convey it to

the neck of the uterus. They would thus merit the name of sper-

matophorous vagine, whilst the median vagina would be an embryo-

phorous vagina. ‘This opinion is confirmed by an interesting fact—

namely, that the median vagina is covered with a pavement-epithe-

lium, while the lateral vaginze are clothed with a cylinder-epithelium.

From these facts it follows that the issue of the embryo does not

in this case present that slowness which was ascribed to it by the

opponents of Sir Everard Home; but it must not be supposed that

the prevision of nature can be at fault ; it has made up for this by

the instinct of the mother. M. Jules Verreaux, during his residence

in Australia, possessed a considerable number of Kangaroos, which

he kept in confinement. By attentively watching them day and

night, he succeeded in ascertaining the secret of their parturition.

When the female feels that she is about to expel an embryo, she

applies her two fore feet to each side of the vulva in such a manner

as to separate its labia; she then introduces her muzzle into the

vestibule and receives the embryo in her mouth. The fore feet are

then at once removed to the margins of the marsupium in such a

manner as to dilate its aperture; the head is passed into the pouch

and deposits the embryo there. In a few moments it is attached to

the teat. Messrs. Owen and Bennett had a suspicion of these facts ;

but the honour of the discovery is due to M. Jules Verreaux.—

Comptes Rendus, January 15, 1866, pp. 146-148.

Descriptions of Twenty-one new Fishes from Port Jackson, and

One from Port Natal. By Dr. F. Srernpacuner.

Dr. Steindachner has communicated to the Vienna Academy a

paper on the Fishes of Port Jackson, in which he refers to sixty-six

species. He describes the following as new :—

1. Plectropoma myriaster.—Body and fins densely covered with

small round spots; length of head contained 2,/;-24 times, and

depth of body 3 times, in the total length; caudal fin slightly

rounded off.

D. 13/14-15; A. 3/8; L. lat. c. 100.

2. Dules novemaculeatus.—Dorsal with nine spines.

D. 9/10; A. 3/7-8; L. lat. 49-50.

3. Scorpis Richardsonii.—Profile of head concave ; diameter of

eye = j length of head.

4, Scorpena Jacksoniensis,—A milk-white spot upon and below

318 Miscellaneous.

the last rays of the dorsal ; body reddish brown, with black spots on

the belly and ventrals.

D. 11-1/9; A. 3/5; L. lat. 50-52.

Parapistus, g. n.—Form of body Scorpzenoid, without occipital

pit; head not scaly, armed with spmes; pectoral fins with divided

rays; trunk covered with ctenoid scales; branchiostegal rays seven ;

supplementary gills large ; a cleft behind the fourth branchial arch.

5. Parapistus marmoratus.—Length of head contained 3 times,

and depth of body 35 times, in the total length. Body light brown,

with darker marblings.

D, 15/9; A. 3/5; P11; UL. lat, 56-63.

6. Sciena Nove Hollandie.—All the fins, except the first dorsal,

almost entirely covered with scales ; depth of body=length of head;

caudal rhombic.

D. 10-1/25-7; A. 2/7; L. lat. 50.

7. Sphyrena grandisquamis.—Length of head contained 34 times,

and depth of body 82 times, in the total length ; operculum rounded

off; maxillary bone terminating in front of eye; dorsal commencing

behind the apex of the pectorals.

D. 5-1/10; A. 1/9; L. lat. c. 82.

8. Gobius Krefftii.—Body with three rows of round spots ; length

of head contained four times, depth of body 6} times, in the total

length ; pectorals with several hair-like free rays.

D. 6-1/9; A. 1/9; L. lat. 36.

9. Eleotris striata.—Scales rather large; head much pointed in

front, forehead very narrow; head, except operculum, scaleless ;

obsolete spots on the sides of the body.

D. 7-1/10; A. 1/10-11; L. lat. 35.

10. Eleotris gymnocephalus.—Head and nape without scales ;

forehead broad, flat; eye small; body yellowish, with the margins

of the scales brownish ; a large blackish spot before the caudal fin

and upon the axillee of the pectorals.

D. 7-1/9; A. 1/9; P. 19-20; L. lat. 39-40.

11. Hleotris Richardsonii.—All the fins intensely yellow ; dorsals

and caudal spotted or banded with brown; caudal short, rounded, a

brown longitudinal band on each side of the body ; cheeks and oper-

cula scaled; head contained 43 times in the total length, and eye

5 times in that of the head.

D. 719% Ay 1/9; L. lat. 37.

12. Mugil breviceps.—Eye without adipose membrane; head

contained 52 times in the total length.

D. 4(1/8; A. 3/9; V. 1/5; P. 2/13; L. lat. 48.

Miscellaneous. 319

_HetTrrocua@roprs, g. nov.—Maxillary teeth as in Cherops, for

the most part amalgamated into a lamella; four free canine teeth in

the intermaxillary and lower jaw in front of the lamella; sides of the

head and ventral fins scaled; preeoperculum toothed ; cheeks not

elevated ; dorsal spines 11; lateral line not interrupted.

13. Heterocherops viridis. Sides of body green; scaleless por-

tion of fins dark greenish blue; fourth dorsal spine higher than any

of the rest.

D; 1/11; A. 3/11; Ts lat. 42,

14. Odax Hyrtlii—Preoperculum toothed on the hinder margin;

a very large indigo-blue spot between the last dorsal spine and the

sixth soft ray of the same fin; caudal yellowish, with a violet mar-

gin; muzzle and cheeks with azure longitudinal streaks ; first dorsal

spine not elongated.

D, 18/12; A. 3/10; E. lat. 58;

15. Lotella Schuettei.—Length of muzzle equal to that of the

eye; first dorsal rather higher than second; vertical fins with black

borders ; points of the rays in the same fins white.

D. 5/60-62; A. 55-56; V.7; P. 25.

RicHARDSONIA, g. nov.—Upper margin of mouth formed by the

intermaxillary and maxillary bones; all the bones of the jaws, the

tongue, vomer, palatal and pharyngeal bones armed with teeth.

Ventrals of half the length of the body ; dorsal at the commencement

of the last third of the length; anal placed in front of the small

adipose fin ; eye of moderate size ; supplementary branchiee distinctly

developed. Sp. Richardsonia retropinna, Rich. sp.

16. Hemiramphus trilineatus.—Intermaxillaries twice as long as

broad ; dorsal and anal of equal depth and length; ventrals short,

without any elongated ray, situated nearer to the caudal than to the

branchial aperture; three dark-blue longitudinal lines between the

occiput and the dorsal.

2/12 A52/1 05 21/10;

17. Atopomycterus Bocagei.—Form of body roundish; head

quadrangular; spines of various lengths, longest on the anterior

frontal band, with two roots; head with small, belly with larger

black spots.

D: 23; AlT2: Pi 225°C: 1/7/l.

18. Trygonoptera Miilleri—Disk elongate rotundate ; snout

blunt; breadth of disk equal to length of body ; tail somewhat longer

than body ; dorsal at some distance in front of the caudal spine.

19. Trygonoptera Henlei.—Snout blunt ; disk considerably broader

than long; lengths of tail and body equal ; dorsal fin placed imme-

diately in front of caudal spine.

20. Trygonoptera australis.—Disk broader than long ; tail rather

longer than body. Posterior angle of disk obtusely rounded off ;

ventrals considerably smaller than in 7’. ¢estacea ; anterior margin

of disk convex.

3820 Miscellaneous.

ScuHvetTea, g. nov. (Fam. Psettoidei).—Body oblong, strongly

compressed ; dorsal and ventral lines also strongly compressed. Kye

very large; muzzle short; cleft of mouth directed upward ; lower

jaw projecting ; jaws, vomer, and palatal bones with small pointed

teeth of equal length; praeoperculum finely toothed ; ventrals com-

pletely developed ; dorsal and anal fins very long, opposite, with the

spines densely pressed together ; accessory branchize large ; branchio-

stegal rays seven.

21. Schuettea scalaripinnis—Depth of body contained 24 times

in the total length, and eye 22 times in that of the head; operculum

spinosely notched at its hinder margin; upper surface of the head

with a moderately elevated crest.

De 5/al; A. 3/28: 2. 16% i. lat. ¢. 50:

(22.) Mustelus natalensis.—Teeth quadrangular, much broader

than high, drawn out into thin rounded processes on the free margin ;

pectorals longer than broad; first dorsal commencing in front of the

hinder margin of the pectorals, and reaching with its posterior point

to the commencement of the ventrals.

From Port Natal.

Bericht Akad, Wiss. in Wien, March 8, 1866, pp. 50-54.

On the probable Existence of Accessory Eyes in a Fish.

By Prof. R. LeucKkart.

It has long been known that the bodies of certain Scopelinide are

covered with very brilliant pigment-spots, grouped more or less regu-

larly. Hitherto these spots had not been carefully examined; but

Professor Leuckart, having investigated them anatomically in one

species (Chauliodus Sloanz), endeavours to interpret them as acces-

sory visual organs. This would certainly be a very unexpected dis-

covery in a Vertebrate animal, especially as the number of these eyes

amounts to more than a thousand, disseminated partly upon the

hyoid and its dependencies, and partly on the head and belly, where

they form two parallel longitudinal rows. Professor Leuckart’s

opinion is founded upon the anatomical structure of the organs in

question. They are in the form of small cylinders, the anterior half

of which is occupied by a spherical body very like a crystalline lens.

Behind this there is a sort of vitreous body. The layer of pigment

which envelopes this supposed ocular bulb presents a silvery lustre

and a structure identical with that which lines the eyes of the Pla-

giostomi. It has, however, been impossible to detect on the nerve

of the organ any membranous expansion acting the part of a retina ;

but it must not be forgotten that the observations were made upon

an animal preserved in spirits. The genus Stomias presents exactly

similar organs. This genus has hitherto been placed among the

Esocida, but erroneously, according to Leuckart: it must be united

with the Scopelinide.—Bericht Versamml. deutsch. Naturf. und

Aerzte, 1865, p. 153; Bibl. Univ. January 1866, Bull, Sci. p. 94.

eA ASIN INCAC IES

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES. ]

No. 101. MAY 1866.

XXXVII.—An Epitome of the Evidence that Pterodactyles are

not Reptiles, but a new Subelass of Vertebrate Animals allied

to Birds (Saurornia). By Harry Srerzy, Esq.*

Baron Cuvier assumed that Pterodactyles were Reptiles, and

as reptiles they have since been described. It was by no rigorous

determination such as modern science would give that the great

master assigned to the tribe of Saurians this extinct group of

animals. Other authors have referred them to mammals, to

reptiles, and to birds; but Cuvier, regarding the latter hypo-

thesis as scarcely worth notice, devoted much of his demonstra-

tion to proving that they were not mammals, and much of it to

assuming that therefore their structure was reptilian. Of course

there is some truth in this, as there is sure to be in every con-

viction of Cuvier’s; and facts were then more favourable to such

a view than they are in the eyes of modern discovery. But the

evidence on which Cuvier relied was furnished chiefly by two

individuals, neither of which showed the details of structure

seen in Cambridge specimens; hence it will not be surprising

if the facts which suggested the reptilian hypothesis prove, on

examination, to point to another conclusion.

Quoting from the new edition of the ‘Ossemens Fossiles’

(that of 1824), in Cuvier’s own words, we shall endeavour to

illustrate the results at which he arrives.

First, then, he says—~ Ayant encore porté mon attention sur

le petit os eylmdrique marqué g [i. e. os quadratum] qui va du

crane a l’articulation des machoires, je me crus muni de tout ce

qui étoit nécessaire pour classer ostéologiquement notre animal

parmi les reptiles.’ The exact relations of the quadrate bone

are not seen in either Cuvier’s or Von Meyer’s figures of Péero-

* The substance of this paper was communicated to the Cambridge

Philosophical Society, as part of a monograph of Pterodactyles, read

March 7 and May 2 & 16, 1864.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 8. Vol. xvii. 21

322 Mr. H. Seeley on the Avian Affinities of Pterodactyles.

dactylus longirostris ; but in the figures of P. crassirostris, P.

longicollum, and P. Kochi it appears to be a free bone articulated

to the squamosal and petrosal region of the skull and with the

lower jaw. This is the case neither with Chelonians nor Croco-

diles, and is only in a certain sense found in lizards and serpents ;

while, on the contrary, it is characteristic of the whole class of

birds. The form of the bone is certaimly not more Lacertian

than Avian, while its direct attachment to the bone of the brain-

case finds no parallel among lizards, but is exactly paralleled in

all birds.

Cuvier then goes on to say, “Ce n’étoit pas non plus un

oiseau, quoiqu’il eit été rapporté aux oiseaux palmipédes par

un grand naturaliste.’ Which position he supports as fol-

lows :—

(1) “Un oiseau auroit des cétes plus larges, et munies cha-

cune d’une apophyse récurrente* ; son métatarse n’auroit formé

qwun seul os, et n’auroit pas été composé d’autant d’os qu'il a

de doigts.”

These, though they may not be characters which are those of

birds, are certainly not eminently reptilian. The elongated

form of the tarsals im birds is peculiar, but quite functional, as

may be seen among the penguins, where, when the so-called

tarso-metatarsal bone is no longer erect, it becomes much

shorter, and is nearly separated into three distinct bones. And

it would be premature to assert that this tarsus has no analogue

in the Cretaceous Pterodactyles.

(2) “Son aile’ n’auroit eu que trois divisions aprés l’avant-

bras, et non pas cing comme celle-ci.”

This is a difference of detail only. The creatures have wings,

and they are formed on the same general plan as those of birds.

Most birds have two phalanges in the long finger, though some

have three. One Pterodactyle is described as having only two

phalanges in the wing-finger, while most of them appear to have

four phalanges, and others but three. But im birds the longest

finger appears to be the middle one, whereas in Pterodactyles it

is the outermost one. This adds nothing to its supposed repti-

lian characters.

(3) “Son bassin auroit eu une toute autre étendue, et sa

queue osseuse un toute autre forme; elle seroit élargie, et non

pas gréle et conique.”

I am not aware of any evidence tending to show that the

pelvis of Pterodactyles. was materially different from that of

some birds. And the discovery of a long-tailed bird like the

* This is shown in other specimens figured since, and in the specimen

from Stonesfield, in the Oxford Museum.

Mr. H. Seeley on the Avian Affinities of Pterodactyles. 323

Archeopteryx shows that the tail is like that of old birds, even

if it presents some analogy in form to that of certain reptiles.

(4) “Il n’y auroit pas eu de dents au bec; les dents des

harles ne tiennent qu’a l’enveloppe cornée, et non a la charpente

ossense.”

This is not a reptilian character. Among reptiles some tribes

have teeth, others want them; and among mammals some ani-

mals are without teeth, though they are so characteristic of the

class. And therefore it seems an anomaly that birds should all

be toothless. And so, without citing the supposed teeth of

Archeopteryx, it may be affirmed that it would be no more re-

markable for some birds to have teeth than it is for some mam-

mals and reptiles to be without them.

(5) “Les vertébres du cou auroient été plus nombreuses.

Aucun oiseau n’en a moins de neuf; les palmipédes, en parti-

culier, en ont depuis douze jusqu’a vingt-trois, et lon n’en voit

icl que six ou tout au plus sept.”

This, again, is a variation of detail such as, had it occurred

among ordinary birds, would not have occasioned remark. When

the variation of the neck-vertebre ranges from twenty-three to

nine, the further reduction of the number to seven becomes in-

significant, and is certainly far from going to show that the

animal was a reptile.

(6) “Au contraire, les vertébres du dos Pauroient été beau-

coup moins. Il semble qwil y en ait plus de vingt, et les

oiseaux en ont de sept a dix, ou tout au plus onze.”

This modification is so obviously the result of small develop-

ment of the pelvic bones, and hence of the small number of

vertebra in the sacrum, that it cannot be held to bear against

the avian relations of Pterodactyles any more than it supports

their reference to the class of reptiles.

These are Cuvier’s arguments ; and in them is found nothing

against the ornithic affinities of the tribe, except the tarsus, and

absolutely nothing to support the hypothesis that Pterodactyles

are reptiles.

Further on (tome v. part 2. p. 363), speaking of the teeth, it

is said—‘“ Elles sont toutes simples, coniques, et & peu prés

sembables entre elles comme dans les crocodiles, les monitors, et

dautres lézards.”” Now the teeth of Pterodactyles are (in the

skull) all, or nearly all, in the premaxillary bones, in which it is

so characteristic for the teeth of animals to be merely conical

and simple. Therefore it would have been difficult to imagine

the teeth to have been anything but what they are, whatever

the affinities of the Pterodactyle might be.

At p. 867 it is remarked—“ La longueur du cou est propor-

tionnée a celle de la téte. On y voit cing vertébres grandes et

21*

324 Mr. H. Seeley on the Avian Affinities of Pterodactyles.

prismatiques comme celles des oiseaux a long cou, et une plus

petite se montre a chaque extrémité.” This adds nothing to

the evidence for its assumed reptilian character.

“Ce qui est le plus fait pour etonner, c’est que cette longue

téte et ce long cou soient portés sur un si petit corps; les

oiseaux seuls offrent de semblable proportions, et sans doute

e’est, avec la longueur du grand doigt, ce qui avoit determiné

quelques naturalistes & rapporter notre animal a cette classe.”

Nor can this be taken as evidence that the animal was a reptile.

And in many other minor matters Cuvier is careful to show how

their modifications resemble those. of birds; and when this is

not so, birds are the only animals from which he finds them vary-

ing. And the few suggestions which are thrown out respecting

affinities to lizards are upon points which are also common to

birds. Thus what Cuvier did was to distinguish these animals

from birds, and incidentally to show that their organization was

only a modification of that of the avian class. And the legiti-

mate inference from this would have been that their systematic

place was that of a new group of birds, and not that they were

reptiles.

None of the long list of writers reviewed or cited by the

learned author of the ‘ Fauna der Vorwelt’ appear to have ad-

duced anything of importance in favour of the presumed rep-

tilian relations of Pterodactyles. And what Professor Owen has

incidentally stated in his descriptions would go far towards de-

monstrating them to be bird-allies, while he, no more than

preceding or succeeding writers, has pointed out any characters

which would justify the position that has been assigned to them

in the reptilian class. In a case like this it may be remembered

to Prof. Owen’s honour that he described certain fragments of

bones of Pterodactyle as those of birds, and never allowed that

the determination was erroneous, as many maintained.

Seeing, then, that Pterodactyles have hitherto been placed

with reptiles, on Cuvier’s dictum, and on the trivial data which

I have quoted that their nature might be apparent, I believe it

will be readily conceded that the proofs that Pterodactyles are

reptiles have yet to be found.

In determining and arranging the osteological remains which

adorn the collections of the Woodwardian Museum, I was struck

with the almost invariably ornithic characters of the bones of

Pterodactyles, and was led to the conclusion that, as the prin-

ciple of organization was avian, and the bones were nearly all

avian in their modifications, the animal must have been avian.

And comparative diagrams of the corresponding parts of Ptero-

dactyles and birds were exhibited to prove it when, in 1864, I

read a paper on the Pterodactyle as evidence of a new subclass

Mr. H. Seeley ow the Avian Affinities of Pterodactyles. 325

of birds, at the meeting of the British Association in Bath.

And now Prof. Owen, in his ‘Comparative Anatomy,’ elevates

the Pterodactyles to the rank of the highest group of reptiles

—thus placing them between the recognized Reptilia and Aves,

as I had done.

Under these circumstances I venture to submit an epitome of

the evidence which led to the conclusion that Pterodactyles are

a subclass of bird-allies, and have nothing whatever t» unite them

with the Reptilia—a result which has been chiefly worked out

from Cambridge specimens, which have been almost invariably

determined by comparing the articular surfaces of the bones.

And thus the osteology of the group has been made out inde-

pendently of comparison with the bones of other animals.

In a former paper attention was drawn to the equality in size

between the fore and hind limbs of Pterodactyles; and anyone

who examines the figures of the species longirostris, brevirostris,

crasstrostris, scolopaciceps; longicollum, Meyeri, micronyx, &c.,

will observe that the clawed phalanges of the hand are spread

out like those of the foot, while the wing-finger is bent back in

front, often against the metacarpal bones. The small bones of

the hand are often not dissimilar to those of the foot. From

these facts, and from a consideration of the joints, I find that

the Pterodactyle was quadruped, and, when not flying, carried

its wings folded up in front of the fore limbs. For if it were

true, as the restorations and figures of Pterodactyles fiying

would lead us to believe, that the large wing-metacarpal was

only used to support the wing, and the small metacarpals only

used to support the claws by which the creature is imagined to

have suspended itself like a bat, it would be impossible to believe

that the force of flying so exactly corresponded to the force of

suspension as to cause the large and the small metacarpals in-

variably to attain the same length. A correspondence of this

kind in structure, as it seems to me, can only indicate a corre-

spondence in function ; and as the animal did not fly by means

of its claws, the only other inference is that it walked by means

of its metacarpal bones. There are plenty of instances of in-

equality in thickness of metacarpal and metatarsal. bones where

the major part of the work of running or jumping is thrown

on some special bone, but there are probably no instances of in-

equality in length where the function is exactly the same; and

hence it may be shown that it would be contrary to all con-

siderations, both theoretical and empirical, to suppose the growth

would be the same though the functions were so different as

those supposed. But in birds, where the functions of the dif-

ferent metacarpals are not very dissimilar, one metacarpal is ex-

ceedingly short ; very much less, then, could they all be expected

326 Mr. Hi. Seeley on the Avian Affinities of Pterodactyles.

to correspond in length in an animal where one was used for

flying and the others for clinging. But they do correspond ;

and therefore I conclude that they were not used in dissimilar,

but in the same function. And hence, as the only way in which

they could have been equally used was in walking, it follows

that the Pterodactyle was quadruped. This, as we shall see, is

a consideration of theoretical value, as bearing on their position

in the animal kingdom, and will help to show their affinity to

birds in a. direction which removes them far from reptiles.

It is well known that many bones of most birds are filled with

air, and that, as a principle, the more the motion of the animal,

the greater is the number of bones filled with air. This air is

received from the air sacs, which receive it from the lungs and

return it through the lungs again. Thus there is in birds a

sort of supplemental lung-system, which circulates air through

the body. Nothing of this sort is observed in reptiles, even the

lungs with them being generally in.a very rudimentary con-

dition, while in birds the respiratory system is more perfect and

complex than in any of the other Vertebrata, and, as a result, the

temperature of the blood is hotter.

Now in Pterodactyles the bone-walls are all very thin, the

bones being hollow and showing pneumatic apertures, which are

large, precisely as in birds of great flight. The fact that the

bones are supplied with air necessitates an elaborate system of

air-sacs to furnish the supply ; and the existence of these air-

sacs speaks incontestably to bronchial tubes opening on the sur-

face of the lungs to supply them, and to the existence of lungs

essentially like those of birds. But the circulation of this air

through the body was seen in birds to have relation to rapid

motion through the air, which necessarily would produce more

rapid respiration. But rapid respiration only means more rapid

oxidation of the blood, and conversion of the purple cruorine into

scarlet cruorine—that is, the conversion of venous blood into

arterial blood. And if venous blood is rapidly converted into

arterial blood, there must be rapid circulation. Now rapid cir-

culation cannot take place without a heart with two auricles and

two ventricles ; therefore I conclude that Pterodactyles had the

heart like that of birds and mammals: and hence it follows that

they must have had hot blood. But it has been seen that the

Pterodactyles were quadrupedal; and hence it may fairly be

concluded that they could not have moved so much through the

air as birds, and therefore the stimulus to active respiration

could not have been so great ; and yet they possess to perfection

the elaborate respiratory system of the most active birds; and

so it follows that their circulatory and respiratory organs were

not less developed than in birds, but rather more developed.

Mr. H. Seeley on the Avian Affinities of Pterodactyles. 327

This alone is ample evidence, were there no other, that our ani-

mals were near allies of the birds; but it will be seen that the

correspondence is not limited to the general principle of organi-

zation, but extends to many of its details.

I have been able to examine fragments of several skulls from

the Cambridge Greensand, one of which is of great size, and

shows the interior of the front part of the skull, exhibiting the

form, size, and characters of the front part of the brain. The

brains of birds and reptiles are both so characteristic that there

can be no doubt about the conclusion to be drawn from this

evidence. In Pterodactyles the large hemispheres are extremely

high, and terminate in front in well-rounded convexities, between

which there is a little depression. This is most characteristically

avian, and would be quite sufficient to show that the Pterodac-

tyles ought not to be expected to have any resemblance to rep-

tiles. I have also been able to examine three skulls of which

the occipital and parietal regions are well preserved, and can

confidently assert that the brain is not less developed than in

birds; indeed it is only by some minor modifications of the

basal region that any one could distinguish the skulls from those

of ordinary birds. There is nothing in the brain to show that

the Pterodactyles were not more highly organized than birds.

Although Pterodaectyles were quadrupeds, they were flying

quadrupeds ; and it has been generally assumed that they flew

by means of membranous wings, like the mammalian bats. But

their wings have little in common with the mammalian wing,

not being formed by prolongations of all the fingers; and no

reptile known, from recent or fossil specimens, has wings. There-

fore there only remains the birds with which the Pterodactyle

wing can be compared; and with them, as will be seen, the

correspondence of plan is perfect. In ordinary birds it is sin-

gularly close, but in the Archeopteryx it is closer. Each of

these groups of animals has a well-developed humerus, and ulna

and radius not very dissimilar, as was to be expected. In both,

the carpals are short, small bones; in both, the metacarpals are

long, slender bones: there are three in ordinary birds (one

short), four in the Archeopteryx, and four in most known Ptero-

dactyles. In ordinary birds, one of the fingers which these

support sometimes terminates in a claw; in Archeopteryx two of

the fingers appear to terminate in claws, while in Pterodactyles

three of the fingers have claws. In birds two of the metacarpals,

more or less anchylosed together (and therefore functionally one),

with their phalanges, terminate the wing; but in Pterodactyles

there is one large metacarpal which supports a number of long

phalanges, varying to as many as four, while in birds the num-

ber is usually limited to two. Thus, however dissimilar they

328 Mr. H.Seeley on the Avian Affinities of Pterodactyles.

may look at a glance, the wings of birds and Pterodactyles do

not differ in kind, but only in degree. The plan is the same,

but the modifications of it are different. And these divergences

seem chiefly to have reference to the fact that Pterodactyles

were quadrupeds; whence it comes that while in birds the whole

limb is modified for flight, the whole limb in Pterodactyles, ex-

cepting one finger, is also modified for standing. And thus it

happens that in birds the bones of the arm and forearm are

enormously long, while in Pterodactyles they are comparatively

short, and that, while in Pterodactyles the phalanges of one

finger are enormously elongated to form a wing, in birds, where

they have no such function, they are short.

Therefore I affirm that the fore imb of Pterodactyles has no-

thing reptilian in its mode of construction, but is essentially

avian in type; and even if it should be found that the wing-

finger supported a membranous wing, which there are no suffi-

cient reasons for assuming as certain, that would rather show

an approximation towards mammals than the faintest affinity

with the Reptilia.

Then the form of body and proportions of its parts are worth

remark in Pterodactyles ; for they find no parallel among the

Reptilia, but are very bird-like. The large, long head, tapering

in front, is essentially the head of the bird in form, and proba-

bly, but for the teeth, would have been always so regarded.

Although Plesiosaurs and turtles both have long necks, the

proportions of the neck in Pterodactyles are decidedly those of a

bird. The length of the limbs finds its parallel in no group of

reptiles, but is characteristic of birds ; and the proportions and

form of the breast-bone are only to be matched among birds.

Neither the length of the tail in some tribes nor its shortness in

others is opposed to our knowledge of the structure in birds.

Therefore it is not astonishing to find that Blumenbach con-

sidered the Pterodactyles to be birds, that Sémmering named

the genus Ornithocephalus, or that Prof. Hermann placed it be-

tween the birds and mammals.

I will now briefly give some of the results of a consideration

of the several bones. And here, no more than in the organiza-

tion, do I find any characteristics of reptiles, or anything to

make me doubt that the Pterodactyles were, even in the details

of structure, formed essentially on the ormithic plan.

If the reader will refer to any figure of the skull of a Ptero-

dactyle, and compare with it any similarly formed skull of a bird

(say that of the heron), it will be found that the form and size

of the region for the brain is the same in both, and that all the

cavities of the skull, orbits, nares, and the apertures between

them, correspond exactly in the two. The eye is usually more

Mr. H. Seeley on the Avian Affinities of Pterodactyles. 329

developed in the Pterodactyle than in birds, is similarly defended

with sclerotic plates, and, as a result of larger size no less than

of the greater intensity of life im the animal, it is surrounded

with bone. The lachrymal, similar to that of a bird, grows

down from above, and meets a process of the jugal, of which

there is a trace in some birds, which grows up from below.

Then the eye extends down to the quadrato-jugal, which accord-

ingly is much thickened, and appears to extend up the inner

side of the quadrate bone (from which it sometimes cannot be

separated) to meet the outward process of the alisphenoid and

squamosal bones. This slight and evidently functional differ-

ence is almost the only important deviation from the bird-type

seen in the Pterodactyle skull. . As I have already remarked,

the quadrate bone, both in form and in its relations to the skull,

is quite the same as that of a bird; and the articulation with the

lower jaw is exactly matched by the complex articulation of

some birds. ‘The relations and proportions of the premaxillary,

maxillary, and nasal bones are those of birds; and, as far as

can be judged from figures, the other bones of the skull are not

less avian. As regards Cambridge specimens, I can confidently

say that, if seen separately, and their history were unknown, no

anatomist would ever dream of their being anything but a new

tribe of birds.

The vertebral column of true birds is very peculiar, and, with

some few exceptions, is readily distinguished from that of all

other animals by the concavo-convex articular surfaces. No

Pterodactyle is at present known to show this character, though

both kinds of articulation exist in the class. The Dimorphodon

has vertebre which are convex in front, while the Pterodactyloid

animals from the Cretaceous beds have the vertebrae concave in

front ; hence, seeing that the development is entirely functional,

it would not be surprising to find Pterodactyles with vertebra

like birds ; for the bird’s vertebra might be easily modified into

the concave or the convex type. But it would seem to be by no

» means necessary that a bird should have this concavo-convex

articulation to the vertebre ; for, as Prof. Owen has stated, “in

the third to the eighth dorsal vertebree of Aptenodytes, the fore

part is simply convex, while the hind part is concave.” Thus

the Pterodactyle may be regarded as a case m which all the

vertebre have a like simplicity of articulation; for in all their

other features, from the atlas and axis downwards, they present

characters which have been recognized by Cuvier, Owen, and other

observers as only comparable to those of birds. In the pectoral

apparatus every bone might have been that of a true bird, nor

can any characters be given suflicient to distinguish them well.

Prof. Owen remarks that “the scapular arch is remarkably

330 Mr. H. Seeley on the Avian Affinities of Pterodactyles.

similar to that of a bird of flight.” And, again, the same able

authority remarks, ‘ In the main, the Pterosaurian breast-bone,

like the scapular arch, is formed on the ornithic type; but the

postcoracoid lateral emarginations are distinctive Pterosaurian

characters.” And, going into details, Prof. Owen observes,

“Only in birds are distinct synovial articulations provided for

the coracoids, which, in the main, are situated and shaped as

in the Pterodactyle.’” After so clear an exposition, I cannot

draw the conclusion that, because the Pterodactyle has the

characters of a bird, therefore it must be a reptile.

The compact pelvic bones are distinctive. The femur, tibia,

fibula, and humerus are in the main avian. Nor will any of the

remaining bones be found to show reptilian characters. From

facts such as these it seems to me no hard task to determine

whether the Pterodactyle has the organization of a reptile or of

a bird. I find it in every essential principle to be formed on

the avian plan. Yet it differs more from existing birds than

they do among themselves, and therefore cannot be included as

an order of Aves; for the poimts of structure in which it differs

from birds are those in which all existing birds agree. I there-

fore regard it as forming a group of equal value with Aves, each

as a subclass, forming together a great class of birds. Its dis-

tinctive characters are—in having teeth, in the simple convex or

concave articulation of the vertebra, in the separate condition

of the tarsal and metatarsal bones, in having three bones in the

forearm instead of two, in a peculiar carpal bone, in the sacrum

formed of few vertebre, and in the modification of the wing by the

enormous development of the phalanges of one finger. The sub-

class so characterized forms a parallel group with the true birds.

Whether it may not in some points of organization rise above

birds, is a question on which IJ offer no opinion, further than to state

that in none of the typical mammalian characters does it approach -

the mammals. Reptiles, as may naturally be expected, resemble

the Pterodactyles, because the gap between reptiles and birds is

smaller, and the osteological correspondences between them are

many. Hence those parts in which the Pterodactyle falls short

of the specialized characteristics of true birds may rightly be

regarded as those in which it is more Saurian. Such are the

quadruped motion, the lizard-like hand, the simple articulation

of the vertebree, the smaller sacrum and less-developed pelvic

bones, the divided condition of the tarsals and metatarsals, the

succession of the teeth, and the often long tail. But, while

making it more Saurian, they do not necessarily imply that the

animal was more reptilian in the sense of being of lower organi-

zation, but only that it diverged less from the Saurian type on

which the osteology of the bird seems founded. Therefore the

Prof. R. Leuckart on the Development of Nenatode Worms. 331

Pterodactyle’s place in nature appears to be side by side with

the birds, between the reptiles and mammals, thus :—

Mammalia

. Aves

XXXVIII.—On the Developmental History of the Nematode

Worms. By Rupoiew Leuckarr*.

THE investigations and discoveries of the last few years have in

many respects modified our notions on the particulars of para-

sitic life, and enriched our knowledge with a great number of

important details. Of many parasites, even of man, we have

now the entire life-history clearly before us. But there still

remain many gaps in our observations; and these are nowhere

so great and so serious as in the group of the Nematoda, or

Roundworms.

Our present knowledge of the life-history of these parasites

(with the exception of the Gordiacei, which are parasitic only in

the lower animals) is pretty nearly limited to what has been

ascertained by Virchow, Zenker, and myself with regard to the

Trichine. At any rate the Trichine are the only (true) Nema-

toda whose natural history is known in all phases, and through

all migrations.

In the same way as the other known Entozoa, the Trichine

live under different conditions and in different animals in their

young and adult states. In order to arrive at sexual maturity,

they must pass from the muscle of one bearer into the intestine

of another ; from rats and mice they migrate into cats and pigs,

and from the latter find their way again into their former hosts.

That man and other mammals cccasionally come within the

developmental cycle of the Trichine is to be regarded, in a

helminthological point of view, as merely accidental, notwith-

standing its fatal significance. The intercalation of these or-

ganisms represents to a certain extent a collateral course, which

is Just as unimportant for the circulation of the Trichine as the

occurrence of Cysticerci in the muscles of rats or dogs in the

life-history of the Tapeworms of man, which primarily requires

only the interchange with the pig or the ox.

* Translated by W.S. Dallas, F.L.S. &c., from a copy of the paper in

the ‘ Archiv fiir Heilkunde,’ Band ii. pp. 195-235, communicated by the

author.

332 Prof. R. Leuckart on the Developmental

Notwithstanding all analogies with the other Entozoa, and

especially with the Tapeworms just mentioned, the Trichine

diverge in their comportment in this respect: the muscle-

Trichine, which may be compared to the Cysticerci of muscles,

regularly originate by self-infection in the bearer of the sexually

mature intestinal Trichine, whilst the development of the Cysti-

cerci usually requires infection from without. In other words,

the embryos from which the muscle-Trichine are produced mi-

grate in the host of their parents ; while the germs of the Cysér-

cerct quit their original host and pass imto another species of

animal. In the complete development of the Tenie, therefore,

three different bearers usually co-operate, while that of the Zz-

chine in general only require two.

But the difference here indicated is by no means of primary

importance. So little is it such, indeed, that not unfrequently

the two forms of worms completely change their parts. Just as

we know that embryos of Trichina introduced from without

become further developed, under certain circumstances, in the

muscles even of other animals, so also is it sufficiently well

known that the bearer of a Tenia solium not unfrequently ac-

quires Cysticerct by self-infection. That this does not more

commonly take place, notwithstanding the development of the

embryos while still in the body of the parent, is explained by

the presence of a firm egg-capsule, which requires the action of

the juices of the stomach to set free its vagrant inmate. For

their further development the germs of Tenia must pass the

stomach (which, of course, can only occur exceptionally in man),

whilst the embryos of Trichina, which are produced without egg-

shells, start upon their migration immediately from the intestine.

According to my observations, however, there are numerous

Nematoda in which the emigration of the embryos from the

original host not only occurs regularly (which is by no means

the case with the Jrichine), but even constitutes a necessary

preliminary to further development.

In the mucous membrane of the stomach of the cat there lives

a viviparous Strongylide worm hitherto overlooked (Odlulanus

tricuspis, mihi*), which measures scarcely more than | milli.

* T append the following diagnosis to characterize this worm, which is

by no means rare :—

Ollulanus tricuspis, n. gen. et n. sp.—Small, rather thick worms, with a

beaker-shaped or poculiform chitinous coating of the mouth-cavity.

Pharynx slightly muscular, of granular appearance. In the males

two short and stout, nearly straight spicula, and a bilobed caudal

hood, each of the lateral wings of which contains six ribs. Female

with three caudal points. Vulva at some distance before the anus;

uterus simple.

History of the Nematode Worms. 333

in length, and produces young of comparatively quite colossal size

(0°3 millim.). The worms are usually found in considerable

numbers together, both embryos and fully-developed organisms,

so that the mucous membrane usually appears reddened and is

often covered with small ecchymoses. The embryos, however, re-

main only for a short time in the dwelling-place of their parents.

They quit the stomach, part of them passing directly out with

the excrements, whilst part migrate, in the manner of the embryos

of Trichina, into the body of their host. The coat of the pleura,

the diaphragm, liver, and lungs of the infected cats are sprinkled

with a greater or less number of small cysts, each of which encloses

one or more embryos. The wall of the capsule has the texture of

connective tissue, and is so thick as not unfrequently to measure

three or four times the diameter of the internal space. If several

worms are present in the same capsule, each of them has its own

cavity, which, however, it does not in general completely fill with

its convolutions. These capsules are most frequent in the lungs,

where they sometimes produce the appearance of a regular miliary

tuberculosis, and give rise to a more or less widely diffused in-

flammation. (On one occasion I examined a cat which had evi-

dently died in consequence of this inflammation.) The bloody

bronchial mucus usually contains considerable numbers of mobile

embryos, whilst the muscles and other organs (as also the blood)

are free from them.

The organization of the embryos is very characteristic ; indeed

the earliest states of the Nematoda in general are by no means

so uniform and concordant in structure as is generally supposed.

Their bodies measure about 0°3 millim. and are of the same thick-

ness throughout (0015 millim. with a length of 0°32 millim.).

The tail (reckoned from the anal orifice) is short and furnished

with an S-shaped point, which is distinctly marked and projects

towards the ventral surface over the end of the strong chitinous

band running along the sides of the body (on the future so-

called lateral line). The cesophagus constitutes nearly half of the

entire intestinal tract, and contains a number of clear vesicles in

its clavate posterior extremity. The commencement of the genital

organs is small and placed on the ventral side, behind the middle

of the intestine.

From the analogy of the Trichine, we should now expect that

these embryos would be developed in the capsules of their bearer

into larval intermediate forms. But nothing of the kind takes

place. Not only do we never observe any further development

of them in the cats, but we speedily ascertain that sooner or later

they are destroyed. The encapsuled worms gradually lose their

mobility and their transparent appearance; they become granular,

and finally decompose into an oyal or roundish mass, which en-

do4 Prof. R. Leuckart on the Developmental

closes an oil-drop and may readily be mistaken for an egg or

yelk-mass.

Encapsulation in the interior of the first host is consequently

in this case an accidental phenomenon, and by no means the in-

troduction to a further metamorphosis as in the Trichine. This

belongs, in the present parasite, rather to the embryos only which

emigrate through the intestine and bronchi.

As I could not manage to keep these embryos alive for any

length of time in water or moist earth, even with addition of ex-

crement or bronchial mucus, I administered them, with bread, to

a mouse. I hoped to be able in this way to cause the further de-

velopment of the young worms; and in this | was not deceived.

On examining my experimental animal six weeks after the com-

mencement of the experiment, I found, in the very first fragment

of muscle which I placed under the microscope, a round worm

rolled up in the manner of Trichina, enclosed in a capsule about

0:3 millim. in diameter, which proved on closer examination to

be a second developmental form of my worm. Then wherever

I sought for them in the muscles of the trunk I found the same

worms, but most abundantly in the regions of the neck and

breast ; a few also occurred in the heart and cesophagus and even

in the loose connective tissue permeated by fat between the

organs of the neck, although elsewhere they might be looked for

in vain except in the striped muscles. The total number of

the parasites in the body of my experimental animal must have

been many hundreds.

On a superficial examination the capsules resembled those of

Trichine, but they were all round or only a little elongated.

When they were closely examined, however, many other differences

were detected. In place of the structure so characteristic of the

Trichine, the wall of the cyst here presented nothing but a closely

interlaced, firm and tough connective tissue, which was sur-

rounded by growing nuclear structures, and enclosed innumer-

able granular cells (0°025 millim.), which were constantly pushed

to and fro by the movements of the convolute worm. At the

poles of the cyst a yellowish pigment was deposited in the

nucleate tissue which was here particularly accumulated ; and

this pigment sometimes extended over the whole capsule. Here

and there single fat-masses were also seen at this point.

Except im its dimensions (length 0°8, breadth 0:04 millim.)

the enclosed worm showed an unmistakeable similarity to the

embryos above described. This applies especially to the form of

the body and the structure of the intestinal canalf; only the

pharynx has already a muscular texture (even to the posterior ex-

tremity), and the intestine is of a brownish colour. The walls

of the body are of considerable thickness, and contain numerous

History of the Nematode Worms. 335

clear nuclei in their deeper layers, whilst the cuticle is distinctly

annulated. The truncated extremity of the head exhibits the

most singular comportment ; it bears a roundish chitinous disk,

usually somewhat drawn in, from the middle of which the funnel-

shaped mouth originates; at a short distance behind the lip-

like projecting margin of the head there stand some small pa-

pilliform prominences. The commencement of the genital organs

measures 0:017 millim.

From the want of sufficient material, I have been unable as

yet to trace the conversion of this larval form step by step into

the sexually mature animal. I have, hitherto, been able to make

only a single experiment, and this has scarcely done more than

prove the fact that my worms fall out of their capsules in the

alimentary canal of the cat, and remain alive for a long time.

When I examined my experimental animal eight days after it had

been fed with the flesh of the infected mouse, I found the young

worms, not indeed in the stomach, but in the cecum and colon.

They were not numerous, and presented no perceptible change—

a circumstance that almost leads me to suppose that they were

not yet sufficiently mature for conversion into the sexual animal.

Our Ollulanus, however, is by no means the only Strongylide

worm with a change of hosts. To all appearance there are a

great number of forms which behave exactly in the same way,

except that in them the migration of the embryos in the interior

of the first bearer disappears, and the intermediate host is also

different. This I suppose to be the case especially with Stron-

gylus commutatus from the lungs of rabbits and hares, as also

with S. rufescens, a species hitherto unknown, which I have

discovered, together with S. filaria, in the lungs of the sheep*,

and, indeed, because their embryos agree almost completely

with those of Ollulanus. The only difference existing in them

consists in the caudal point (projecting over the lateral chi-

tinous bands) being straight. In both cases + the embryos are

developed in multitudes together in the finer branches of the

bronchi and their terminal dilatations, where they cause a more

or less widely diffused inflammation, with phenomena of hepa-

* The characters of this species, the name of which is derived from the

shimmering through of the brown intestine, are as follows :—Head un-

armed, with three small lips and a short cesophagus. Thin; the female

almost span-long, the male shorter. The vulva immediately in front of

the anus; in the uterus only a few ova in segmentation. 'I'l.c caudal hood

of ee male short, with thick ribs and two long and rather strongly curved

spicula.

+ Here also evidently belong the “ Anguillulide”’ of the lungs of the

hare, observed by Sollmann (Beilage No. 11 of the Coburger Zeitung,

1865), which, from his statements, must have been very abundant in

Thuringia during the last two years.

336 Prof. R. Leuckart on the Developmental

tization, not unfrequently making portions of half an inch in

diameter perfectly impermeable.

The ova are deposited in segmentation and possess their shells,

which are perforated by the embryos when their development is

complete. There is no doubt that these embryos emigrate, as

they are not only met with in the bronchial mucus (often tinged

with blood), but may also be traced up into the trachea.

Unfortunately I can say nothing as to the subsequent destiny

of the embryos. My leading experiments with them have all

failed. I should, however, suppose that after emigration the

young worms penetrate into mollusca or insects*, are developed in

them for a certain period, and then, when their bearer is acci-

dentally taken up with food, find their way from the mouth into

the lungs.

At present I also think we may assume the same to be the

case_with the Strangylus filaria of our sheep +, which in many

seasons is so abundant as considerably to thin our flocks. This

worm inhabits especially the bronchial ramifications of medium

diameter, in which, according to its numbers, it sometimes pro-

duces merely a catarrhal affection, and sometimes a state of in-

flammation,which not unfrequently diffuses itself over a great part

of the lung and causes death. In the frothy mucus which fills

the bronchi and trachea innumerable embryos are found, some

of them still enveloped in the capsules in which they were born.

They are distinguished from the previously described forms by

the obtuseness of their caudal extremity (the absence of the

above mentioned point), the shortness of the cesophagus, and the

presence of a small knot which projects outwardly in the vicinity

of the mouth. The size is also rather larger (0°54 millim.).

In moist earth the embryos remain alive for some time, some

of them even for several weeks. They take no nourishment, and do

not grow, but nevertheless undergo a change of skin in from eight

to fourteen days; by this, however, they are scarcely perceptibly

altered, except that the caudal extremity becomes somewhat

sharper, and the buccal knot is reduced in size. Most of the

embryos die during the change of skin ; and even those few which

survive it appear to close their lives soon afterwards. An attempt

to infect a lamb with the moulting worms failed, as also did

the transference of the bronchial mucus abundantly thronged

with embryos, which was effected at different times upon four

sheep. The widely diffused supposition of the contagiousness of

* Tn many insects, especially dung-beetles, we meet with asexual Nema-

tode worms, which might easily belong to the developmental cycle of some

Strongylide.

+ Not only of the sheep, but also occasionally, as I have observed, of

the roebuck and fallow deer.

History of the Nematode Worms. 337

verminous pneumonia (proceeding from Strongylus filaria) must

therefore be without foundation*.

The immigration of the young worms into their definitive host

appears to take place only when they have grown to at least twice

their original length; at least I conclude so from the analogy

of Ollulanus. The smallest specimens observed by me measured

3-5 millims. They were found several times in the trachea of

healthy sheep, and were not yet sexually developed. When their

length has increased to 9-12 millims. the worm is found in the

interior of the lung. Sometimes they appear to die even in this

stage ; at least I once found in the lung of a sheep a number of |

small, tubercle-like knots, each surrounded by a space of hepa-

tized tissue, and enclosing a dead and coiled up Strongylus of

the above-mentioned size.

With regard to the development of the last-mentioned

Strongylide worms, I have been compelled to confine myself to

mere suppositions; in other cases I have again been fortunate

in my experiments.

Thus, especially, I have succeeded in tracing experimentally

the entire developmental history of the so-called Hooded Worm

(Cucullanus elegans). The worm, which in the developed state

measures about 20 millims. in length, lives in the intestine and

pyloric appendages of the perch, and is so abundant as to be

found in nearly every specimen of the fish. Among its most

important distinctive characters is, as is well known, its posses-

sion of a horny buccal funnel equally remarkable for its size and

the elegance of its markings—an organ which is also certainly

met with elsewhere in the family Strongylide, but in a different

form.

The female Cucullani produce living young, which escape

from the egg-capsules whilst still within the body of the parent,

and, in large specimens, may be found in many thousands in

the sexual passages. Unlike the embryos of the other Strongy-

lide, they are furnished with a long subulate caudal extremity,

which measures neatly one-third of the total length of the body

(0-4 millim.), and possesses an extraordinary mobility. In a state

of repose the animals are usually bowed or rolled up spirally ;

several of them may also not unfrequently be seen adhering to-

gether by their tails and making powerful jerking movements.

The cuticle is uncommonly firm, and distinctly ringed, and cha-

racterized by a hump-like thickening on each side at the level of

the anus. A similar thickening is observed on the dorsal mar-

* It is also opposed to the fact that the young embryos (as also in S.

commutatus and S. rufescens) never undergo any further metamorphosis

in their birthplace.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xvii. 22

338 Prof. R, Leuckart on the Developmental

gin of the buccal orifice; but the latter projects far more dis-

tinctly, and is also larger. The cesophagus is still free from the

subsequent division into the muscular and glandular portions.

The beaker-shaped armature of the mouth is also wanting; in

its place there is only a short and narrow chitinous tube leading

into the interior.

The further development of the embryos takes place in the

little Cyclopes which inhabit our waters in such quantities (more

rarely in the larvee of the dragonflies). Within a few hours of

the transference of these animals ito the aquaria stocked with

the young worms, a few immigrants may be found in their in-

terior. The number increases in course of time up to several

dozens ; indeed I once found thirty-four young Cucullani toge-

ther in a Cyclops of only moderate size. The worms, owing to

the toughness of their cuticle, can resist the action of the water

for a long time (for single embryos may be seen moving about

briskly in the mud a fortnight after their mtroduction) ; hence

their immigration may take place with tolerable certainty even

in freedom.

From the presence of the boring-tooth on the upper hip, it

might be supposed that the immigration takes place directly

through the external integuments, as in the case of the Cercarie ;

but, as far as I have been able to observe, this is not the case.

The embryos are rather taken up through the mouth of the

Cyclops. They are first seen in the intestine, and only sub-

sequently in the body-cavity, where they twist about briskly for

a time between the muscular cords and the intestines.

Gradually, however, this movement becomes slower. The

worm imcreases In length (to 0-6 millim.) and diameter, and

after a certain period. (in summer within three days; in winter

later) undergoes a change of skin, after which it exchanges its

previous slender form at once for a plump one. On closer ex-

amination, moreover, many differences from its previous struc-

ture are detected. Thus the boring-tooth disappears with the

old skin, and the tail is reduced nearly to one-half of its previous

length. The cesophagus has become divided, by a stronger de-

velopment of its posterior half, into two sections differing from

each other even histologically, and which constitute almost one-

third of the whole intestinal canal (elsewhere of a deep brown

colour). The outer walls of the body have also increased con-

siderably in thickness, although the cuticle is perhaps thinner

than before.

After the worms have remained in this state for some time, a

new change takes place in them. This is the preparation for

the formation of the buccal cup. The rounded anterior extremity

of the cesophagus which issues outward through a short, funnel-

Mistory of the Nematode Worms. 339

shaped chitinous tube, separates at the circumference of the latter

from the adherent parenchyma and gradually retracts itself more

and more. The cavity which is thus produced in front of the

cesophagus has at first, of course, the form of a meniscus; and it

retams this as long as the funnel-shaped chitinous tube which

unites the cesophagus with the buccal orifice persists ; but when

the latter breaks up on the approach of the next change of skin

and the cesophagus sinks in posteriorly, the cavity becomes deeper

and more globular in its form. Its inner surface then becomes

clothed with a chitinous lamella, which, on the walls of the buccal

orifice, passes over continuously into the new cuticle formed

beneath the old one, and, after the casting of the latter, speedily

acquires a yellowish brown colour. This covering is, however,

quite distinct from the future buccal cup; it is not only smaller

but also furnished with a different sculpture. ven after its

second change of skin our worm is certainly not yet the definitive

Cucullanus. It is much smaller (at the utmost 0°8 millim.) and

has no sexual differentiation. The sexual organs, scarcely larger

than in the embryo, consist of a simple bean-shaped body, which

is attached to the ventral wallimmediately in front of the middle

of the chyle-intestine. On the abbreviated caudal extremity

the worms bear three small points, which subsequently (after the —

sexual differentiation) are found only im the female individuals.

In summer I have sometimes observed the stages of develop-

ment here described within six days after the infection of the Cy-

clopes, while in winter three weeks not unfrequently elapse before

they are completed. To all appearance, however, the parasitism of

these animals is very fatal to their host; almost all the infected

Cyclopes are observed to die soon after the ¢ompletion of the

developmental processes above described. At the same time it

must be borne in mind that, in the small aquaria of the ex-

perimenter, the parasites penetrate into their hosts in far greater

numbers than would ever be the case in the open water.

The last phase of development is only passed through in the

interior of the final host. The young Cucullani, in the form of

small asexual worms with a simply sculptured buccal cup, are taken

up by the perch with its food (the Cyclopes), when they grow

rapidly and at the next change of skin cast off their previous

larval characters; at the same time the sexual differentiation

takes place, carrying the animals quickly towards their perfect

maturity. Within ten days or a fortnight after their transfer

into the intestines of the perch, the young Cucullani must have

already effected their copulation.

When we glance over the life-history of the Cucullanus as here

brietly described, we again find in it essentially (and still more

completely than in the Trichine and Ollulani) the same picture

22%

340 Prof. R. Leuckart on the Developmental

that has already been revealed to us by former observations for

other groups of Entozoa. We see the brood of the Cucullanus,

like that of the Tapeworm, quitting the bearer of their parent

in the embryonic form; we see them migrate into an inter-

mediate host, whilst here approach their later structure by trans-

formations of various kinds, and finally attain their complete

development after their transfer to their definitive host.

There can be no doubt that in a considerable number of Ne-

matode worms the life-history is exactly as in Cucullanus, and

that this is the case not only in the family Strongylide, as above

indicated, but also in other families, especially m that of the

Ascaride.

In the mesenteric covering of the stomach and intestines of

athe mole we not unfrequently meet with pedunculated flat cap-

sules, 15-2 millims. in diameter, which enclose a thread-worm,

8-10 millims. in length, usually rolled into a flat spiral. This

worm is an Ascaris (A. incisa, auctt.), but an Ascaris with un-

developed sexual organs, and with a boring-tooth near the three

tubercular buccal papille. This bormg-tooth was probably

possessed by the worm in its embryonic state, and perhaps was

employed by it in its wanderings in the interior of the mole.

Its retention after the formation of the lips (which must take

place very early, as I have seen them in young animals only

1 millim. in length, with a capsule 0°4 millim. m diameter)

seems to indicate that it will also be subsequently required.

Perhaps, after the passage of the worm into its definitive host,

it may use this tooth to break through the firm capsule which

at this time envelopes it. The animal which constitutes this

definitive host is at present unknown; but we may easily sup-

pose it to be some of the numerous rapacious animals which

prey upon the mole. In fact, the owls, buzzards, and other

predaceous birds harbour in their intestines a round worm (A.

depressa, auctt.), which, notwithstanding the more complicated

structure of its buccal organs, may readily represent the deve-

loped form of Ascaris incisa. The two forms agree especially in

this respect—that they possess at the commencement of the

chyle-intestine a ceecal diverticulum directed forward, which is

usually wanting in the Ascarides of the Mammalia. I have,

however, been unsuccessful in my attempts to develope A. incisa

in the buzzard; but I had only a single bird at my disposal for

this experiment, and moreover the buzzard may not be the

animal.

Perfectly similar encapsuled and asexual Nematode worms,

with lips and boring-tooth, occur in numerous marine fishes,

sometimes in the liver, but also sometimes (e. g. in the Torsk)

in the muscles. As some of these are of considerable size (some

History of the Nematode Worms. 341

more than 1] inch), and they often occur in great numbers, they

have long been known and introduced in various parts of the

helminthological system under different names (Filaria piscium,

Ascaris capsularis, &c.). They belong (as indeed is proved by

the varying form and size of the boring-tooth) to several different

species, and may be developed, in predaceous fishes, sea-birds,

seals, and dolphins, into well-known Ascarides (perhaps A. aucta,

A. spiculigera, A. osculata, &e.). At any rate, the final develop-

ment, as in Cucullanus, only takes place after their transference

to another host.

That the intermediate form of Cucullanus is free, and not

encapsuled like the young Ascarides just mentioned, can hardly

be regarded as an important distinction between them. This

depends rather upon the nature of the host and of the organ °

inhabited than upon the peculiarities of the parasite, as we shall

see immediately from another example.

In Cucullanus (and probably also in A. incisa, &c.) a trans-

formation takes place in the embryos during their residence in

the intermediate bearer. They do not grow, but change their

structure, especially that of the mouth. But this is not always

the case throughout the Nematoda.

We can hardly examine an example of the bleak (Leuciscus

alburnus), so common in our brooks, without finding in the

mesentery and liver numerous small capsules (up to 1 millim. in

diameter), each of which encloses a young roundworm. _ It

is probably the worm referred to in Diesing’s ‘Systema Hel-

minthum’ as a Trichina (T. cyprinorum). It varies in size

from 0°6 to nearly 2 millims., but otherwise presents the same

characters—a slender body, short tail, wide mouth, with a

strongly prominent boring-tooth on the ventral side, and a

muscular pharynx with a long glandular cecum. The only

difference that I could detect between the smaller and larger

specimens consisted in the last-mentioned cecum, which is less

developed, not only absolutely but relatively, m the smaller

worms ; so that it may readily be supposed to have been deve~

loped from the posterior end of the cesophagus only after immi-

gration into the bleak. But that the worm undergoes no other

changes is certain; the characters above indicated are found not

only in the largest specimens, but also in those which have died

in their capsules, the number of which is usually by no means

small.

As to the course taken by the worms in their immigration

there can be no doubt, when we find that they are by no means

rare even in the intestine of the bleak. And we do not meet

only with small worms in this situation, but also with half-grown

animals of 1 millim. and more, which sufficiently proves that

”

342 Prof. R. Leuckart on the Developmental

their stay in the intestine not unfrequently extends beyond the

time necessary for passage.

But the bleak is not the only bearer of these young Nematoda.

I have also found them in the pike, and that under circumstances

which lead me to assume with almost perfect certainty that they

are the young forms of Ascaris acus, which is well known to be

so abundant in this fish.

Beneath the mucous membrane of the stomach of the above-

mentioned animal we not unfrequently observe white spots, of

larger or smaller size, produced by an aggregation of cells, and

which are probably nothing but altered glandular sacs*. Each

of these cell-masses contains an example of the young round-

worm just described, and, according to its size, sometimes a

small one (0°6 millim.), sometimes a larger one (up to 2°5 mil-

lim.). But, besides the encapsuled specimens, free ones are also

found, creeping about quickly upon the mucous membrane of

the stomach and in the intestine, some of which have attained

to a much larger size. In the intestine I have found specimens

9 millims. in length; whilst in the stomach none were ever more

than 5 millims. These larger specimens were indeed always

sexually immature, but were still distinctly Ascarzdes, and could

hardly be anything but the common Ascaris of the pike (4.

acus). The boring-tooth and the wide buccal aperture which

occur in the smaller worms had been lost, and replaced by the

large lip-hke projections which were formed beneath the old

chitinous skin in the circumference of the former buccal cavity

(as could be distinctly traced in animals of about 3 millims.).

The preceding observations sufficiently prove that our worm

is the larva of an Ascaris which undergoes a further develop-

ment in the intestimal canal of the pike. In the bleak the worm

retains its original larval organs, although even here it consider-

ably increases in size. But whether this growth be necessary

for the further development of the worm in the pike seems at

the first glance almost doubtful, as specimens of very different

sizes occur even in the latter ; but, independently of the fact that

the small worms are almost always found imbedded in the mu-

cous membrane of the stomach, and very rarely free, it seems

probable that these smaller forms commence another migration

after their transfer to their definitive bearer, instead of being

directly and continuously converted into Ascarides.

That similar phenomena occur elsewhere among the Nematoda

is proved by an observation which I have made upon the so-

called Trichine of the mole. I premise that these so-called

* Tn the frog, also, numerous capsules of Nematoda are to be found in

the walls of the stomach and rectum; and these are probably produced

from altered glandular sacs.

History of the Nematode Worms. 343

Trichine are not only “very probably not the same that we find

in the pig,” but that they have nothing at all to do with the

Trichine, but are rather very probably young Ascarides. More-

over the worms do not occur only in the muscular tissue, but,

as Herbst has already correctly indicated, just as frequently in

other structures, especially the lungs and liver, and indeed so

universally that one can hardly examine a mole without finding

more or less numerous specimens in it. In the last-mentioned

organs the presence of the worms betrays itself, even to the

most superficial examination, by the fact that here each of them

lies in a tuberculoid knot formed by an aggregation of granular

cells, and constantly surrounded in the lung by a small area of

hepatized pulmonary tissue. On the other hand, I have never

seen the worms of the muscles encysted thus, but always free an

the interior of altered muscular fibres ; for it is in this light that

we must regard the tubes, filled with granular matter and en-

closing the worms, which are imbedded between the other, nor-

mal muscular fibres. Where the worm, with its more or less

tortuous body, lies, this tube usually presents a larger or smaller

dilatation, or perhaps, more correctly, a series of four or five

alternate small dilatations, which correspond with the curves of

the body and change with every movement of the animal. And

these movements are so little obstructed that the worm creeps

along for a considerable distance in the tube in either direction

with its (obtuse) cephalic extremity in front, and even frequently

turns about and returns upon its previous path. During this

process the granular contents of the tube are displaced and

pushed aside. In certain places we may see in the interior of

the tube a distinct impression of the body, but this, appa-

rently, only where the worm has stayed for some time. During

the ordinary movements, the granular contents flow together at

once behind the advancing worm, so as to form a continuous

mass. With the exception of its contents, the muscular tube is,

however, entirely unaltered; we observe neither a thickening of

the sarcolemma, nor even an increase of the surrounding areolar

tissue, such as. is observed in the vicinity of the Trichine and

Ollulant of the muscles.

With the exception of an inconsiderable difference of size

(0°38-0°43 millim.), the worms are all of the same structure.

They are slender, truncated anteriorly, furnished with a tuber-

cular boring-tooth on the lower lip, and with a short, conical

tail, the end of which forms a separate short point, as in many

Strongylide. The cesophagus, which is somewhat thickened

posteriorly, is of considerable length, and has a granular texture,

but has no trace of the so-called cellular body occurring in the

Trichine.,

344, Prof. R. Leuckart on the Developmental

It is clear that, notwithstanding a residence probably of years

in the mole, these animals constantly retain the embryonal

character, and this even more rigidly than the young Ascaris

acus, which grows in its intermediate bearer to as much as four

times its original length. In all probability they remain in the

mole without any alteration at all; for the above-mentioned dif-

ference of size exists even at the time of their immigration, as

may be readily ascertained from the specimens not unfrequently

found in the contents of the stomach among the remains of half-

digested earthworms and larvee of insects*.

As regards the parentage of these worms, I can only add to

the supposition already indicated, that they appear to have no

genetic relationship with the sexually mature Nematode worms

which live in the mole. It is evident that their residence in the

mole is only temporary, and intended to facilitate their trans-

ference into other animals. Starting from this point of view, I

fed two young buzzards, taken from the nest, with several moles

every day, for three weeks, and in this way most certainly trans-

ferred many thousands of the worms into their intestines. My

hope of seeing the worms further developed in their new hosts

was indeed disappointed ; but, on the other hand, I found the

lungs and liver of both the animals (especially their peripheral

portions) sprinkled with innumerable small tubercles, each of

which, as in the moles fed for experiment, contained a small

roundworm. As these little worms agreed in every detail (size,

form, and internal structure) with the above-described young

forms, I do not hesitate to refer to the experiment made for the

explanation of the phenomenon, and to affirm that the parasites

in question, after their transfer into the new host, recommenced

their migrationt, as I have already endeavoured to show is

* The stomachal mucous membrane of the mole contains another young

Nematode form, of 0°73 millim., with a rounded head (without a boring-

tooth) and a caudal point, from the base of which two smaller points pro-

ject. The internal structure shows no essential difference from that of the

form above described; but this similarity of course does not suffice for the

assumption of a genetic connexion. The so-called Trichine of the earth-

worm, which occur in great quantities free in the contents of the stomach

of the mole, have nothing to do with these worms. They are rapidly de-

stroyed in the stomach of the mole, without any trace of further develop-

ment. One earth-worm, however, harbours several species of Nematoda,

and especially, besides the common so-called Anguillula (Rhabdites) lum-

brici, which, notwithstanding its pharyngeal armature, has probably con-

tributed most to the confusion with Trichine, two young forms with which

T am unacquainted.

+ With this Herbst’s statement also agrees—namely, that in his experi-

ments with ‘‘ trichious ” moles’ flesh, in pigeons, magpies, and weasels,

he found the worms administered in the muscles and other organs. (Nach-

richten von der G, A, Universitat zu Gottingen, 1852, No. 12.)

History of the Nematode Worms. 345

probably the case also with the smaller specimens of the young

Ascaris acus. That I have detected the same worm-capsules in

buzzards with no precedent experimental feeding cannot be

urged in opposition to my conclusion, as their number was

constantly comparatively small, even in decidedly older animals.

I have, however, never met with parasites in the muscles of my

buzzards.

The tuberculoid knots consisted of a thin envelope of con-

nective tissue and an aggregation of cells of considerable size,

the elements of which were united in the immediate vicinity of

the worm to form a finely coherent mass, of irregular form and

opaque texture. It was remarkable that each cyst (at least in

the lungs) was close to a distinct vessel, and sometimes so firmly

united to it that it was difficult to separate them. Whether

this peculiarity justifies us in supposing that the migration of

the worms is effected through the blood-vessels I will leave un-

decided; but it appears to me that the circumstance that the

capsules were generally appended, not to the capillaries, but to

the smaller arteries, is scarcely in favour of such an assump-

tion.

The worms of the muscles of the mole, therefore, present us

with an example of a Nematode larva which retains its original

embryonic structure notwithstanding its residence in an inter-

mediate bearer, and also resembles an embryo in this respect—

that it recommences its wanderings even after accidental immi-

gration into a second intermediate bearer.

These are conditions with which we have not yet become

acquainted in other groups of Helmintha; but these are not

the only peculiarities in the life-history of the Nematoda. To

my great astonishment, I have convinced myself, in the course

of my investigations, that there are also Nematoda which are

developed without intermediate bearers*.

Among these forms is a small Strongylide which is by no

means rare in the intestinal canal of the dog; it is nearly allied

to Ancylostomum duodenale of the human subject, and is known

to zoologists under the name of Dochmius trigonocephalus. Like

Cucullanus (and Ollulanus), it possesses a horny mouth-armature,

of cup-like form and complicated structure, with the help of

which it nibbles at the intestinal villi of its host.

The ova of this roundworm, which are usually expelled during

the first stages of segmentation, are developed in damp situations

in a few days (three to four in summer, four to six in winter)

* A few months ago, I published a statement of my (first and imperfect)

observations on the development of Dochmius, Ascaris nigrovenosa, and

Cucullanus, in the ‘Nachrichten von der K. Gesellsch. der Wiss. zu Got-

tingen,’ 1865, No. 8.

346 Prof. R. Leuckart on the Developmental

into little worms, 0°34 millim. in length, which, on the conclu-

sion of their embryonic development, immediately break through

the outer capsule of the egg, and move about briskly in the

mud. Without a knowledge of their parentage, we should refer

them to the free Anguillulide or, rather, Rhabditide. Like these,

they possess a simple, narrow and short, chitinous buccal tube,

which is followed immediately by a long muscular pharynx, the

posterior bulbous enlargement of which contains three flapping

chitinous teeth, of conical form. The anterior half of the pha-

rynx also forms a dilatation, but this possesses a more elongated

cylindrical form. The body is rather compressed, somewhat

diminished in front, and drawn out behind into a long and

slender tail, the tip of which is separated in the form of a distinct

appendage.

Moreover not only the structure, especially of the pharyngeal

section, but also the mode of life, reminds one of the species of

Rhabditis. The animals feed and grow, and change their skins,

as if they had to earry on a free existence throughout their

lives.

In about a week the little worms have grown to twice their

original length. Their structure remains essentially the same

as before (with the exception of the loss of the caudal tip, which

is thrown off with the first change of skin), being only changed

in this respect, that the armature of the posterior dilatation of

the pharynx has been lost, and the muscular strize which were

previously distinct at this point have made room for some clear

vesicles.

At this stage of development the free life of our worms is

concluded. ‘They indeed remain alive for a long time (some

even for more than two months) in. mud and water, but they

undergo no further changes.

From the analogy of the other parasites, we might have ex-

pected that the young Dochmi would now immigrate into an in-

termediate host. But all my experiments made in this direction

produced no result. Sometimes, certainly, the worms were

observed in small water-snails (Physa) which lived in the same

vessel with them; but it appears to me that this immigration

was merely accidental, not only because the worms remained

unaltered in the snails, but especially because I have ascertained

by direct experiment that such a migration is not necessary to

bring the worms to their perfect development. I have, in fact,

succeeded in rearing the young worms directly to sexually ma-

ture Dochmii in the intestine of the dog.

In a dog which had been experimented on eight days pre-

viously, the parasites were found nearly unaltered, and, indeed,

all in the stomach, mostly in the cardiac half. The only re-

History of the Nematode Worms. 547

markable difference consisted in the posterior pharyngeal dila-

tation (which was previously cordate) having increased consider-

ably in length, and acquired seemingly a granular appearance

in its interior. The chitinous coat of the buccal cavity was some-

what tougher, and the commencement of the genital organ was

enlarged. In front of this two clear vesicles of considerable size

were to be seen—undoubtedly the nuclei of the two colossal

glandular cells situated here in nearly all Strongylide, which

open outwards through the porus excretorius. The worms were

but little increased in size.

A few days later (ten days after transfer) I found a further

stage of development in a dog: this was characterized by a

stouter form and the possession of a chitinous buccal funnel,

and had been produced, like the above-described second develop-

mental form of Cucullanus, from the earlier larval form by a

change of skin. As in Cucullanus, moreover, the structure of

the buccal cup was not the final one. It was scarcely more than

a simple clothing of the funnel-shaped buccal cavity ; whilst the

buccal armature of the mature Dochmius has a rather compli-

cated structure, and is composed of a number of separate skeletal

pieces. Posteriorly, however, the buccal armature was already

continuous with the horny linng of the pharynx. The

sexual] distinctions could not yet be made out, the sexual organs,

notwithstanding their increased size, still retaining their primi-

tive organization.

The intermediate stage here described, however, is of but

short duration, and passes without interruption into the mature

stage (in this respect differmg from Cucullanus, in which it is

attained within the intermediate host). Twelve days after the

transfer we see the young animals (now 2 millims. in length)

acquire the definitive Dochmius-form by a change of skin. The

buccal cavity is produced behind the provisional funnel, and is

at first clothed only with a thin and colourless coat, which,

however, soon shows that it 1s composed of separate pieces.

In the course of two more days the young Dochmi measure

3-5 millims. The genital organs are more or less increased, and

in the males even fully developed, although still without mature

seminal corpuscles. The female organs seem to require a longer

time for their development. The ovaries especially, which im

the smaller animals were seated upon the so-called uterus as

short and thin, horn-like diverticula, had already, in the larger

specimens, grown through a considerable portion of the body-

cavity, and formed many loops, without, however, anywhere

attaining their full length or enclosing mature ova.

[To be continued. |

348 Dr. W. Nylander on new British Lichens.

XXXIX.—WNotule Lichenologice. No. V.

By the Rev. W. A. Lricuron, B.A., F.LS.

Tue following new British Lichens are described by Dr. Wm.

Nylander in the ‘Flora’ (1864, pp. 353 & 487, and 1865,

p- 601).

Verrucaria inumbrata, Ny).

Thallus fuscescens vel sordide cinereo-fuscescens vel cervinus,

sat tenuis, effusus, inzequalis, seepe dispersus ; apothecia medio-

cria a thallo tecta, ostiolo nudo, epithecio mimutissimo szpius

impresso, perithecio integre nigro; spore 8”, incolores, ob-

longo-ellipsoideze vel ellipsoidez, murali-divisze, long. 0-033-

0-050 millim., crass. 0°017-0:025 millim. Gelatina hymenea

iodo vinose rubens.

Ben Lawers in Scotia, ad saxa schistosa edita. (Admiral

Jones.)

Inter V. Sendtneri et V. intercedentem locum systematicum

habet hee species.

Verrucaria furvescens, Nyl.

Thallus fuscescens vel olivaceo-fuscescens, granulato-ineequalis,

sat tenuis (vel crass. 0°75-fere 1 millim.), opacus, effusus,

haud continuus; apothecia innata, mediocria (latit. circiter

0:4 millim.), apice conico emerso, perithecio integre nigro ;

spore 8", incolores, fusiformes, 5-septate, long. 0°031-

0-033 millim., crassit. 0°006 millim. ; paraphyses sat graciles,

confertz.

In Scotiz montibus, Ben Lawers, supra muscos minutos in

terra schistosa-micacea.

Ad stirpem pertinet Verrucarie chlorotice; notis datis bene

distinguitur. Gonidia magna (diam. 0:026-0:032 millim.).

Verrucaria consequens, Ny.

Thallus obsolete cinerascens, latissime effusus, non distinctus ;

apothecia sat parva, prominula, perithecio dimidiatim nigro ;

spore 8", incolores, ovoidez, 1-septatee (superiore parte

crassiore), longit. 0-016-0-019 millim., crass. 0°:007 millim. ;

paraphyses parve vel nulle, distincte. Gelatina hymenea

iodo hand tincta.

Supra saxa calcarea, eestibus maris submersa, prope Glenarm

in Hibernia. (Admiral Jones.)

Species accedens ad Verrucariam epidermidis et sicut eadem

saxicola.

Thelopsis melathelia, Ny).

Thallus vix ullus proprius (chroolepoideus); apothecia nigra,

Dr. W. Nylander on new British Lichens. 349

tuberculoso-prominula, rugoso-irregularia (latit. circiter 0°5

millim.), epithecio haud semper distincto, perithecio ellip-

soideo nigricante (vel lamina tenui rufescente) undique simi-

lari; thecee polyspore ; spore ellipsoidez vel oblongz, seepius

indistinct, 3-septate, long. 0°014—0:017 millim., crass.

0:006-0:007 millim.; paraphyses graciles, et filamenta ostio-

laria gracilia. Gelatina hymenea iodo cerulescens, dein sor-

dide violacee tincta.

Supra muscos depressos ad terram in micaceo-schistosis alpis

Ben Lawers Scotiz. (Admiral Jones.)

Pertusaria nolens, Nyl.

Thallus cinereus, levigatus, areolato-rimosus, determinatus

(crass. circiter 0°3 millim.) ; apothecia innata, (nulla promi-

nentia thalli indicata, nec nisi) ostiolis (epitheciis) nigris,

planiusculis, rotundatis, oblongis aut nonnihil difformibus

(latit. 0°15-0°30 millim.), seepe 2 aut plura approximata, intus

concoloria ; spore 8°, incolores, ellipsoidez (pariete medio-

cri vel seepe tenui), longit. 0°030—0-042 millim., crass. 0°015—

0:022 millim.; thecz cylindracese (iodo intense cerules-

centes).

Ad saxa basaltica prope Glenarm in Hibernia. (Admiral

Jones.)

Faciei est preecedentis, omnino forme Lecanore cineree, pro

qua sumatur, nisi microscopice (et chemice) examinetur.

Adhuc exemplum sistit nexus cum genere Lecanora !

Thelotrema subtile, Tuck.

Thallus macula lactea vel albida subnitidiuscula indicatus ; apo-

thecia incoloria (alba), erumpentia sat parva (latit. 0-4 millim.),

margine thallodeo parum prominulo, proprio spe albo-pul-

verulento; spore 8", incolores, oblongz, 10—13-loculares,

longit. 0°040—0:056, crass. 0:009-0°010 millim. (iodo ceru-

lescentes).

In Hibernia, Kerry, ad corticem fagi. (Isaac Carroll, Esq.)

Parum (et presertim sporis majoribus) differt a Thelotremate

bicinctulo, Nyl.

' Pyrenopsis diffundens, Nyl.

Thallus niger, opacus, tenuis, areolato-squamulosus, squamulis

subfurfureis sat parvis variis, effusus; apothecia rufescentia,

innata (latit. 0°3 millim. vel minora), sepe gyalectoidea, at

variantia planiuscula, intus tota pallida; spore 8"®, incolores,

ellipsoideze, simplices, longit. 0-011-0:023 millim., crass.

0:007-0'011 mullim.; paraphyses discrete, gracilescentes.

350 Dr. W. Nylander on new British Lichens.

Gelatina hymenea iodo vinose rubens (precedente cerules-

cens).

Ad saxa arenaria (“greensand”) prope Maidstone in Kent.

(Admiral Jones.)

Collema psorellum, Nyl.

Thallus nigricans vel fusco-niger, tenuis, rugosus vel subgranu-

lato-ineequalis, diffractus, determinatus ; apothecia rufescentia

vel fusco-rufa, parva (latit. 0°3-0:4 millim.), subbiatorina ;

sporee (solite hujus generis, submurali-divise,) longit. 0°023-

0:035 ‘millim., crassit. 0-O12-0°016 millim. Gelatina hy-

menea iodo intense czerulescens.

Ben Lawers, ad saxa micaceo-schistosa. (Admiral Jones.)

Thallus intus glomerulose compositus. Apothecia vulgo ob-

tuse marginata, dein explanata margine excluso.

Lecidea obsoleta, Ny).

Thallus nullus proprius visibilis; apothecia nigra, minuta (latit.

circiter 0-3 millim.), opaca, margine obtuso vel non distincto,

intus concoloria; spore 8"®, incolores, oblongze, simplices (vel

septo obsoleto), longit. 0-009-0:011 millim., crassit. 0-003

mullim. ; paraphyses fere mediocres, discrete, apice subclavato,

incrassato, subincolore, (vel epithecium dilute vage nigrescens,)

hypothecium sordide fuscescens. Gelatina hymenea iodo vix

tincta.

Sussex Downs, prope Lewes, ad cretam. (Admiral Jones.)

Locum habeat prope L. neglectam, Ny).

Arthonia melaspermella, Nyl.

Thallus vix ullus vel macula diffusa pallescente indicatus; apo-

thecia nigra (vel fusco-nigra), plana, sat parva (latit. circiter

0:5 millim.), marginata (margine subcrenulato, demum

evanescente) ; spore 8”, fusco-nigrescentes, oblongo-ovoidee,

1-septate, longit. 0°011-0°015 millim., crass. 0-0045 millim.

Gelatina hymenea iodo dilute czerulescens.

In Anglia, prope Londinum, ad lignum legit Currey ; apo-

thecia rotundata lecideiformia facile seriatim secus fibras ligni

disposita.

Verrucaria advenula, Nyl.

Similis Verrucarie endococcotdee, sed differens sporis, quee sunt

oblongee (demum fuscescentes), 3-septatze (ad septa seepius

constrictiuscule), longit. 0°015—0-020 millim., crass. 0-006-

0:008 millim. (non iodo tinctee). Gelatina hymenea iodo

vinose rubens.

Supra thallum Lecidee eacentrice prope Killarney in Hibernia.

(Admiral Jones.)

On the Contractile Substance of the Polythalamia. 351

Perithecia forte interdum subtus (exoperithecio) subincoloria,

et spore ad faciem stirpis Verrucarie epidermidis vergentes.

Paraphyses nulle rite evolute, nec filamenta ostiolaria ulla visi-

bilia (D. Fuisting ea dixit “periphyses;” melius dicerentur

anaphyses, si nomine novo egeant). Apothecium latit. circiter

0-1 millim.

XL.—On the Morphological Structure and the Motory Phenomena

of the Contractile Substance of the Polythalamia (Gromia ovi-

formis)*. By M. ReicHerr.

1. In the Polythalamia two substances are distinguishable, in-

dependently of the shell: the contractile substance of the body,

and the colourless constituent which forms the central mass of

the body and contains colourless and coloured corpuscles as well

as vesicles.

2. Nothing has been accurately determined in regard to the

morphological composition of the central substance of the body

containing the vesicles, in Gromia oviformis. Vesicular bodies

of the size and structure described by M. Schultze, ‘ Ueber den

Organismus der Polythalamien,’ &c. p. 21, and figured in pl. 1.

fig. 6, pl. 7. figs. 10 and 12, were not observed. Whether the

apparent vacuoles of the contractile cortical substance, which are

not described by this observer, led to the idea of the existence

of vesicular bodies, or whether I have not been so fortunate as

to obtain animals with true vesicles situated in the central sub-

stance of the body, future observations must decide.

3. The contractile substance of the body forms the cortical

layer of the soft body of the Polythalamia, which surrounds the

central substance containing the vesicles. Whether this was

provided at the mouth of the shell with an orifice could not be

ascertained in Gromia oviformis; but in one instance a granular

flocculent mass, probably arising from the central substance, was

observed at the orifice of the shell. The contractile substance

of the body in Gromia oviformis forms a depressed ellipsoidal

hollow sac corresponding in external form to that of the entire

body, and hence accommodates itself, as in other Polythalamia,

to the shell, with the necessary regard to the siphons. It pro-

bably takes part in the formation of the shell, but appears sub-

sequently to separate almost entirely from it, as the sea-water

enters between the shell and the cortical substance even at its

wide commencement ; it is also well known that the soft body of

Gromia oviformis partly leaves the shell. Besides contractility,

* Translated by J. W. Griffith, M.D., F.L.S., from the ‘Monatsbericht ’

of the Berlin Academy, Aug. 1865,

352 M. Reichert on the Morphology and Motory Phenomena

the cortical substance of the soft body probably also possesses

the property of producing excretions by which animals forming

its food are killed. It also exhibits phenomena of sensation ; for

the extended processes retract on contact with foreign bodies.

It is probably also a respiratory organ, and the active motion

of its granules may contribute to the constant change of the sea-

water. From the manner in which the many-chambered Fora-

minifera enlarge and grow, it can scarcely be doubted that it

plays an important part in this formative process. Lastly, I

have observed that segments separate from it and apparently

disappear entirely ; so that it must undergo a kind of regenerative

process, and restoration must take place in the remaining corti-

cal layer from regeneration by intussusception.

4. The contractile cortical substance of the body of the Poly-

thalamia in a state of rest cannot be recognized as a distinct

constituent, even with the aid of the microscope; it forms so

thin a layer that its optical section, with the thickness of the

body of the animal and the apparently shapeless central sub-

stance of the body containing the vesicles, appears merely as a

boundary line of the latter and without a double contour. But

it is distinctly visible when thickened by contraction and evolving

the processes, as well as when the central mass containing the

vesicles is passively pushed against it. Although it may origi-

nally have been formed from a group of cells, yet when fully de-

veloped there is not the slightest trace of any distinct compo-

nents. It is perfectly hyaline and colourless in the pseudopodia,

but sometimes becomes coloured at condensed spots. At these

condensed spots and in the larger processes it also appears finely

granular, and hence appears under the microscope as if it con-

tained larger granules. Although in other low invertebrate

animals the presence of similar true granules in the contractile

substance is undoubted, this must at present be denied in the

case of the contractile substance of the Polythalamia, as the

granular appearance only occurs during the state of contraction,

and must therefore be attributed to irregularities of the surface.

5. In regard to the motory phenomena of the body of the

Polythalamia, which must be brought into connexion with the

contractility of the cortical substance, I distinguish active and

passive. To the passive belong the movements and the often ap-

parently rotating motions of the central substance of the body,

arising from the peristaltic constrictions of the contractile mantle

and the locomotion of the entire body. All the active motory

phenomena are recognizable by general or local alterations in

the external form and morphological structure of the contractile

cortical substance.

a. The contractile property of the cortical substance is exhi-

of the Contractile Substance of the Polythalamia. 353

bited in the simplest manner by greater or less constriction of

the ellipsoidal body of the Polythalamia, which occurs slowly and

slowly changes position. At the constricted spot the contractile

substance is thickened, and its optic section exhibits the form of

a narrow sickle with the concavity placed outwards. These

constrictions are regularly accompanied by passive movements

of the central substance of the body, which contains the

vesicles.

b. On every part of the contractile cortical layer the contrac-

tile action gives rise to processes in the form of tubercles, warts,

papillee, also flat knob-like prominences and lamellz, and, lastly,

elongated, either regular or somewhat irregular processes. These

prominences and processes are only formed, as far as the present

observations extend, upon the outer surface of the contractile

cortical layer. They appear either at the orifice of the shell or

upon a protruded segment of the entire body of the animal ; but

they are also developed within the shell, at any part of the sur-

face of the body. In the latter case they give rise to the ap-

pearance of vacuoles and alveoli, which, however, are filled with

sea-water and exist upon the surface of the body, and not within

the central substance containing the vesicles. The elevations

commence with an aggregation of contractile substance, small

at first, at some part of the boundary of the contractile mem-

brane ; they then gradually enlarge by the addition of more mat-

ter from the surrounding parts, and the contractile membrane is

seen to move over the central substance of the body containing

the vesicles. By increase of the contraction, new elevations of

various forms are sometimes developed upon a lamellar or

elongated process, so that the originally membranous contractile

lamella thus assumes variously branched forms.

ce. The most slender kind of the elongated processes forms

the so-called pseudopodia of the Polythalamia. These are most

strikingly developed outside the shell, at the orifice ; but they

exist also within the shell during the above-mentioned forma-

tion of vacuoles. In the sarcodic net, as it is called, formed by

them, membranous plates of the contractile substance are some-

times so inserted, as shown by a described observation, that as it

were a portion of the contractile substance, from which pseudo-

podia are developed, maintains the connexion with the other

parts of the contractile cortical layer merely by a slender pseu-

dopodiform filament. The pseudopodia may arise directly from

the cortical substance; but they are usually developed from

stouter processes, in consequence of an increase of the contrac-

tile action. The so-called granules observed in the granular

movement must be regarded as very minute wart-like eleva-

tions of the membranous contractile substance. They occur

Ann. § Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xvu. 23

354 M. Reichert on the Morphology and Motory Phenomena

most frequently in the pseudopodia ; but their movement is ob-

servable in all the processes, even in the unthickened and ele-

vated contractile membrane, both within and outside the shell.

d. On return to the so-called state of rest, each process retracts

to exactly the same place in the contractile sac or the lamella

as that from which the elevation occurred. In the branched

forms the retraction commences at the terminal branches, and

at the same time the movement of the granules ceases; that of

the trunks follows. Hence it may be regarded as a law, that

the particles of the contractile cortical layer protruded by the

contraction, after return to the state of rest, he in exactly the

same order and relative position as they did when the contrac-

tion began.

e. All motory phenomena in which large masses of the contrac-

tile substance are concerned, exhibit a certain sluggishness at

their commencement as well as at their recedence. A stout

cylindrical process always requires a considerable time for its

formation, during which new contractile matter is being added—

as much as half an hour or even more ; the development of the

more slender pseudopodia, and especially of the granules, takes

place rapidly.

f. The contractile action in the granular movement is more-

over remarkable from the circumstance that in most cases, im-

mediately after the state of rest has taken place, it causes a

similar action in the adjoining contractile substance, producing

a movement of waves, resulting from contraction, running in

various directions. The law of these waves has not hitherto

been determinable; according to appearances, the commence-

ment, the cessation, and, in the case of the plates and mem-

branes of the contractile substance, also the direction of the

motion of the granules ensue with perfect irregularity. More-

over, although the appearance of a so-called granule of the

granule-movement gives rise to a similar contractile motion in

the adjacent parts, yet instances have often occurred to me in

which granules have appeared and remained, without setting a

contraction-wave in motion. It may be regarded as a peculi-

arity of the motory phenomenon of the contractile cortical layer,

that every movement of contraction may remain at a certain

state of intensity for several hours.

Comparison of the Contractile Substance of the Bodies of the

Polythalamia with Muscular Fibre.

The comparison of the contractile cortical layer with muscu-

lar fibre will refer exclusively to the morphological phenomena,

and what may be deduced from them to illustrate the relative

law of the contractile action. What takes place within the

of the Contractile Substance of the Polythalamia. 355

contractile muscular fibre on its transition from the state of rest

to that of action, and the reverse, is still very obscure ; there is

even controversy upon its minute structure. Still an attempt to

compare the two different forms of contractile substance at pre-

seut known with each other appears justified, so long as only

recognized and undoubted facts are brought into comparison,

and thus new aspects and some progress, although but slight,

may be made towards the further explanation of the contracting-

power of the two structures.

The following are the properties of muscular fibrewhich should

be prominently brought into comparison :—

1. The contractile particles of the muscular fibres are arranged

with special regard to the long axis ofa cylinder or to some kind

of longitudinal axis: every muscle consists of an aggregation of

these longitudinally arranged contractile morphological ele-

ments.

2. No other means of recognizing the organism of the muscular

fibres as a whole are known, except those which refer to the

contractile power.

3. The contractile action is accompanied by changes in the

form of the muscular fibres, which I have designated active

motory phenomena. The passive motory phenomena are exhibited

in the neighbourhood of the contractile substance by displace-

ment of the substance situated there, and any so-called passive

sources of motion of the organisms which may be present—by

conversion of the original pressing force of the shortened muscu-

lar fibre into tractive force, &c.

4. In regard to the active phenomena of motion, the following

facts are established :—

a. On the transition of the contractile substance of the

muscular fibre into the so-called active or contracted state, it

diminishes in longitudinal and increases in transverse section,

either without or with but little change of volume. Or this may

be expressed thus:—The slender elongated body is finally

changed into a more or less thick plate or disk. On return to

the state of rest, the original elongated form is restored.

b. The shortening and thickening on the one hand, as also

the elongation and diminution of breadth on the other, may

apparently occur suddenly in the entire muscular fibre; they

may, however, run as a contraction-wave, distinctly perceptible

under the microscope, from one end to the other.

c. The contraction may be limited to or localized in any seg-

ment of the length of the muscular fibre.

d. The contraction may stop at any intermediate state within

the most. extreme limits; it may then either increase or pass

from the state of action to that of rest.

93%

396 M. Reichert on the Morphology and Motory Phenomena

e. During the contraction, the particles of the contractile

substance must be displaced in a manner corresponding to the

form of the state of action and of rest, and therefore according

to a law. It must thus be conceived that the particles of the

contractile substance during each state of action and of rest

must have a determinate absolute and relative position cor-

responding to the form in each case, that their displacement

during the contraction is in this way regulated according

to a law, and that the particles, after displacement, return to

exactly the same absolute and relative position as that in which

they were previously. Every other change in the absolute

and relative position of the particles is excluded from the con-

tractile action; hence the uniform mobility in every direction

belonging to liquids is absent, as the absolute and relative posi-

tion of the particles to each other in each case would depend on

accidental external circumstances, and would comprise in itself

the possibility of any changes in relative position. The con-

traction of organized bodies is also distinguished from elasticity,

quite independently of other phenomena, by the mobility of the

particles only occurring in a definite direction, regulated with

regard to the organized form.

By comparison of the morphological properties and active motory

phenomena of the two contractile structures, the following three

differences become evident :—

1. Muscular fibres are elongated contractile formations, in

which the contractile particles are arranged with regard to a

longitudinal axis during the state of rest. What the special

form of the fibre may be, whether cylindrical or spindle-shaped,

or flattened and terminating in a. lancet-shaped point, as

the smooth unstriped muscular fibres, it may often be difficult

to decide. But, for comparison, the fact is sufficient, that the

contractile particles in a muscular fibre are arranged with regard

to a longitudinal axis.

Moreover muscular fibres exist as separate contractile ele-

ments, by the aggregation of which the muscles and muscular

lamine of the more highly developed animal organisms areformed.

The contractile cortical layer of the Polythalamia forms

during the state of rest a very thin membranous expanded con-

tractile structure, in which the contractile particles are arranged

with respect to a body expanded in breadth, or a disk. This

layer, whether originating from cells or not, forms a continuous

whole, in which no distinct contractile elements can be detected,

with our present resources, in fully developed animals.

2. In muscular fibres the property of contractility is, as far

as our present observations extend, the principal, if not the only

consideration to be taken into account, and to be estimated in

of the Contractile Substance of the Polythalamia. 357

the structure as a whole. The contractile cortical layer of the

Polythalamia is a principal constituent of the body as a whole,

upon which its external form depends, and which exerts an

action in regard to the entire body, not merely by its contrac-

tility, but also by its respiratory secretory power, &c.

3. The muscular fibre, on transition from a state of rest into

the so-called active state or that of contraction, becomes changed

into a flattened disk-shaped body. The contractile cortical

layer of the Polythalamia, on transition into the active state, as

is well known, appears in extraordinarily varying forms. When,

however, it is considered that this contractile structure forms a

continuous whole, in which the contraction ensues at any spot

and to any extent, with the attraction of new contractile par-

ticles, which augment the mass in action, alter the form, and,

lastly, may increase to any extent, the distinctive and essen-

tial relation on transition into the state of contraction may be

characterized by the words “the contractile membranous plate

finally changes into an elongate, under certain circumstances

cylindrical body.” If the contractile energy is of but little in-

tensity and is limited to a small spot, this form of contraction

will appear as a small tubercle, and under the microscope as a

minute granule upon the contractile membrane. If the tubercle

enlarges, a more or less elongated papillary body becomes deve-

loped from it, which appears as a tentacle or a pseudopodial

process upon the contractile cortical layer continuous with it

and in a state of rest. Lamellar processes and alveolar spaces

will be formed by the contractile force of a segment of the con-

tractile cortical layer corresponding to this form. Branched

forms may be produced by increase of the contractile force in

already existing processes, with attraction of new masses. A

remarkable circumstance is, that the various forms resulting

from contraction, as far as the present experiments extend, only

occur upon the outer surface of the contractile layer. The cir-

cumstances which are in action here are unknown; but the: law

that the contractile cortical layer of the Polythalamia which in

a state of rest forms a plate or disk, on passing into the active

state finally assumes elongated variable forms, is not thereby

altered.

Of the three above-named differences, the first two, which

refer to the purely morphological question, do not at present

allow of further comparison. Both contractile structures are at

all events morphologically of entirely different value and of

different importance. The rational morphological relation of

the two contractile structures to each other can only be deter-

mined hereafter by an accurate knowledge of the history of the

development of the body of the Polythalamia and of the mus-

358 On the Contractile Substance of the Polythalamia.

cular fibre, as also a comparative anatomical consideration of

the entire structure of the Polythalamia and the animal organ-

‘sms in which distinct muscular fibres occur. By the words,

“that the contractile cortical layer of the Polythalamia is an

undeveloped muscular mass, sarcode, or protoplasm,” is as little

or even less advance made than by the expression “ that the

Polythalamia are undeveloped vertebrata.”

In regard to the motory phenomena, in which the contractile

action is expressed, the differences are very striking at first sight.

In the case of the muscular fibre (for the sake of simplifying the

comparison and, by comprising the extremes, allowing the law

to be surveyed with great nicety), a cylindrical contractile sub-

stance becomes converted by contractile power into a disk with

a circular outline, possessing nearly or absolutely the same

volume; in the case of the contractile cortical substance of the

Polythalamia, a disk with a circular outline into a cylinder. Accu-

rate examination, however, teaches us that different forms only are

concerned, under which the contractile substance is apphed and

its contractility realized for the accomplishment of spontaneous

and involuntary movements and functions in the organism. As

regards the expression of the contractile action, 2. e. of the

movement of the contractile particles in a certain direction cor-

responding to each change of form of the contractile structure,

the distinction of a so-called active or passive state is of secon-

dary importance. The former force, which urges and transfers

the contractile particles from a position arranged according to

the long axis of a cylinder, into that in which the contractile

particles are situated with regard to the axis of the cylindrical

section and in the form of a disk, is in every respect exactly

the same, by whatever cause, on transition imto the state

of rest, the displacement of the contractile particles from the

discoidal form into that of the cylinder is produced; and so

vice versd in regard to the contractile action occurring in the

Polythalamia.

If, however, the transition of the contractile structure into

the so-called state of rest and the form of this state is also

taken into account as an active motory phenomenon, the muscular

fibre and the contractile cortical layer of the Polythalamia agree

perfectly as regards their contractile action. In both are recog-

nizable the same fundamental forms, which appear in the alter-

nation of two contractile tissues in a state of action, viz. the

elongated cylindrical, and the disk or plate, expanded in

breadth or into the section of a cylinder—the difference referring

simply to the circumstance that in the two contractile tissues,

as already stated, quite independently of other morphological

relations, the same fundamental forms are not conceived in the

Dr. E. von Martens on a new Species of Astacus. 359

so-called active and passive states of the contractile action,

Hence it results, from the comparison of the morphological

properties and motory phenomena of muscular fibre and the con-

tractile cortical layer of the Polythalamia, that the contractile

substance during its action appears in two forms—the elongated

(under certain circumstances cylindrical) form, in which the con-

tractile particles are arranged with regard to a long axis, perhaps

that of a cylinder; and the form of a plate or disk, in which

the arrangement of the contractile particles has regard to the

axis lying in the section of the cylinder. The contractile action

itself is exhibited in the displacement of the contractile particles

from one fundamental form to the other, and vice versd. Hach

of the two principal or fundamental forms of the contractile

substance in the animal organisms may be realized as the so-

called active state, or as that of rest. In the muscular fibre the

arrangement of the contractile particles with relation to the longi-

tudinal axis of the cylinder is conceived as the state of rest, the

discoidal form as the active form; while the reverse occurs in

the Polythalamia.

XLI.—On a new Species of Astacus.

By Dr. E. von Martens.

Tue Zoological Museum in Berlin has recently received from

Dr. Richard Schomburgk a species of crayfish, almost equal in

size to a lobster, from the Murray River, Australia. Dr. J. E.

Gray, in a paper on the Australian Crayfishes, embodied in

Eyre’s ‘Journal of Expeditions of Discovery in Australia,’ vol. 1.

1845, p. 409, mentions a large species living in the said river,

weighing about two pounds, and possessing the same flavour as

the European lobster. This may be the same; but, as I could

not find elsewhere a zoological description of it, I venture to

regard and to describe it as new.

Astacus armatus.

Rostrum of the cephalothorax as long as the peduncles of the

outer antenne, pointed, furnished on each side with four teeth,

the posterior ones smaller ; its lateral edges continued backwards

on a short extent of the cephalothorax in the form of a raised ridge.

A single spine behind the middle of the orbit, somewhat behind

the orbital edge, and continued backwards in a similar very short

ridge. The sides of the cephalothorax, the hepatic as well as

the branchial region, furnished with scattered conical spines,

each enlarged at its basis, as if placed on a cushion. The lateral

lamina of the outer antenne of the same spiniform shape as in

Homarus vulgaris, but somewhat longer. Two strong spines on

the interior edge of the carpus, the foremost much stronger.

350 Dr. E.von Martens on a new Species of Astacus.

The hands are exactly similar in size and in the shape of the

teeth situated on the cutting-edges, both lateral edges of the

hand serrated by blunt, short, conical spmes, bent foxy wards and

forming a double row on the eal edge, and a single one on

the internal. The femur of the four other thoracic feet furnished

on its upper edge with two, three, or four spines. The upper

face of the abdomen armed with strong conical spines disposed

on each segment in a transverse row of six, the outer ones

stronger ; only on the second segment, the lateral part of which

is enlarged forwards as well as backwards, there are two outer-

most spines, one behind the other, so that this segment possesses

eight instead of six of them. The laminz of the abdominal feet

membranaceous, with calcareous edges. The hinder half of all

the lamine of the caudal fin soft and flexible; the lateral edges

of the median one (the last abdominal segment) with a single

tooth, further removed from its extremity than in the lobster,

and corresponding in situation to the deep notch in this segment

in the Crayfish. The two lateral pairs of caudal plates with

the same transverse and denticulated suture as in the lobster.

Length from the extremity of the rostrum to that of the

caudal fin 330 millims. ; length of the hand 130 millims., breadth

of the same 60 millims.

Astacoides nobilis, Dana, from New South Wales, comes very

near to this species in several respects, but is at once distin-

guished by its blunt, almost toothless, rostrum ; its abdominal

spines are much more feeble. The formation of the rostrum

and the want of a deep notch in the caudal fin bring this new

species nearer to Homarus than any other known species; but

_the hands being equal, and the last thoracic segment being

moveable independently of the cephalothorax, distinguish it from

the lobsters. As I could examine one specimen ” only, which

I did not wish to injure, the number of the gills could not

be ascertained; and, as it is a female, there were no means

of determining whether any appendages exist in the male

These are the two characters on which is based the division

Astacoides, adopted by Dana as a genus. Judging from

some other characters, which are peculiar to Astacoides Ma-

dagascariensis and the new species, as the prickles on the

sides of the thorax and the membranaceous texture of the

abdominal feet, I think it probable that also in the above cha-

racters Astacus armatus will resemble Astacoides. Whoever

may consider the teeth of the rostrum and the notches of the

caudal fin to be generic characters will be under the necessity of

establishing a new genus for our species. I prefer, however,

to regard it as evidence against the generic value of those

subordinate characters, the different combinations of which

would not fail to require more and more new genera.

M. V. Fatio on the Coloration of Feathers. 361

XLII.— On the various Modes of Coloration of Feathers.

By M. Victor Fario*.

THE various plumages of birds have been studied in all times,

and their difference of coloration has been in the present day

the subject of many interesting works. The question of changes

of plumage has presented itself in various ways. Is a new

coloration always the peculiarity of a new feather? or may the

coloration sometimes undergo alteration in the same tissues ?

Each of these notions has had its defenders; but the second

gradually increasing in probability, it has become necessary to

find out how and by what means these internal modifications

take place.

Schlegel}, in 1852, supposed a new life in the feather at the

approach of sprmg; and most of the naturalists who have paid

attention to the subject since his time have sought rather to

throw over this first hypothesis than to substitute for it a new

and plausible explanation of the phenomenon.

Nevertheless some theories put forward during the last few

years have still further subdivided the question. Weinlandt,

supposing that a pigmented fat came from the body to colour

the dead feather afresh, did not believe in the presence of what

may be called a latent colouring principle beneath the apparent

colour.

Severtzof § believed in this primitive inherence of the new

colouring matter, and put forward the ozone of the air as the

modifying agent of the coloration in general.

As none of these methods satisfy the mind, and especially as

none of them can sustain a careful observation, I have taken up

the question by commencing with the study of the growth and

anatomy of the feather, which must hereafter facilitate that of

the ulterior developments.

I shall not enter here upon the details of these preliminary

researches, but will confine myself to citing briefly the points

most indispensable for the comprehension of my subject. I

shall state, in the first place, that each feather consists of —

1. A central stalk, or primary axis.

2. Numerous barbs arranged on the sides of this first stem,

and forming, as it were, branches or secondary axes.

3. Numerous barbules regularly implanted upon the barbs,

and forming tertiary axes.

* Translated by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., from the ‘ Bibliothéque Univer-

selle,’ March 25, 1866, Archives des Sciences, pp- 244-254.

+ Naumannia, vol. ii. 1. p.2.

{ Zur Verfarbung der Vogelfeder ohne Mauserung, Cabanis, iv. 1856.

§ Mikroskopische Untersuchungen iiber die Verfarbung der Federn, &e.

362 M.V. Fatio on the Coloration of Feathers.

4. Small lateral hooklets, forming, as it were, the branches of

the latter, or quaternary axes.

I may then indicate that each of these parts is also composed

of an exterior epidermis with flat and irregular cells, of a cortical

matter formed of cells more or less elongated into fibres, of a

coloured medullary substance in rounded or polygonal cells in

the interior, and of pigment-granules scattered or grouped in the

centre of each segment of each axis.

Lastly, I may state that the feather is formed in the interior

of the corium at the expense of plastic cells which become

organized in a protective sheath, and that, in growing, they

push before them the down which prepared their path in the

young bird.

Cuvier*, Reclam+, Engelt, Holland§, and many others have

written so much upon the development of feathers, that [ may

abstain from touching upon this point. When once grown, the

feather has already received all the coloured principles that it

can ever derive from the body; the bloodvessels which have

nourished it become gradually obliterated, and its interior me-

dulla dries up by degrees.

This being established, I commenced by studying the modifi-

cations due to actual moultings, or to changes of feathers; but

I shall not enter here into any details, in order to arrive more

speedily at the true purpose and actual result of my investiga-

tion—namely, the various modes of coloration in the same

feather.

Every bird presents different aspects according to its age and

sex and the season ; but it also varies according to the localities

which it inhabits, and the food which it finds there. The blood,

modified by these various internal or external influences, fur-

nishes the new feathers with diversely elaborated pigments.

A young bird, for example, at its first moult, will not receive

either the same quantity or the same quality of pigment as an

older individual. A male will not receive the same colouring

matter as his female, or, rather, he will receive a substance

which, although at first analogous, will be capable, of modifica-

tion in a different manner. Lastly, an old individual will always

receive only the same quantity of the same pigment, so as con-

stantly to present a similar plumage.

* F. Cuvier, Observ. sur la Structure et le Développement des Plumes

(Mém. du Musée d’Hist. Nat. tome miii.).

+ C. Reclam, De Plumarum Pennarumque Evolutione. Leipzig, 1846.

t Jos. Engel, Ueber Stellung und Entwickelung der Feder (Wiener

Sitzungsber. Bd. xxi., 1857, pp. 376-393).

§ F. Holland, Pterologische Untersuchungen (Journal fiir Ornitho-

logie, 1864, vol. xi.).

M. V. Fatio on the Coloration of Feathers. 363

A feather grown in autumn becomes modified in the spring,

if it is not renewed; but at the same time it passes by degrees

from a death which was only apparent to a more and more real

death, until a moment will arrive when it must be expelled and

replaced by another, presenting certain forms and proportions

and a determinate coloration.

At the approach of cold, a new feather, longer and warmer

because it has been less worn, comes to replace the old one; in

the spring a more brilliant plumage decorates the bird, which is

preparing for its nuptials.

When, in the spring, a bird cannot cover itself with a new

clothing, it refreshes its old plumage by picking off the worn ends

and retaining what still remains good. It is precisely this refresh-

ing, and the new tint thus produced, that I have more particu-

larly endeavoured to study in the present memoir. I have

attempted, in taking up the question, always to reproduce arti-

ficially what I supposed must have taken place in nature.

A new coloration may appear in a feather, slowly, and even

commencing in the autumn, or more rapidly, only in the spring;

it may also consist in a simple augmentation of the intensity of

the former coloration, or be in complete contrast with it.

The external or internal conditions which may act upon the

feather are the humidity of the air, temperature, light, movements,

and the grease of the bird. The modifications produced by these

agents are the various development of certain parts, the solution

and diffusion of the internal pigment, and the rupture of the ex-

ternal parts.

The humidity of the air causes the cortical substance of a

feather to swell, and thus facilitates the communication between

the constituent cells and fibres. A colourless liquid fat, arriving

either by the interior or the exterior of the feather, dissolves the

latent colouring fatty matter in the centres; the intensity of

the colour is then simply augmented in certain cases, whilst in

others the old colour is replaced and driven outwards by the

new one, which spreads and forces it to become extravasated

throughout in the form of an external powder. A slightly ele-

vated temperature facilitates these chemical actions; winter

slackens them; great cold arrests them almost entirely. Light

seems, as it were, to direct the deposit towards those surfaces

which are most exposed to it.

A feather thus becomes coloured more or less rapidly, but

always from the periphery to the centre, as the extreme parts of

the new feather are the first and the most exposed to the in-

fluences of the circumambient air.

Moisture, which in course of time injures the cortical sub-

stance which it at first inflated, weakens and deteriorates the

364 M.V. Fatio on the Coloration of Feathers.

ends of all the feathers; the latter, torn off by friction at each

movement of the bird, by degrees make way for the coloration

manifested in other feathers beneath them.

During this time the lowest parts of the feather are gradu-

ally decolorized, not, as might be supposed, in consequence of

an ascending current of colouring matter, but simply by the

fall of the greater part of the coloured downy barbules.

All this takes place without any introduction of new blood,

without any resurrection of the ‘soul of the feather,” and solely,

as I have just said, under the influence of moisture externally

and of the fat in the interior. I have produced and studied

under the microscope both the development of the cortical sub-

stance and the internal solution of the different pigments in the

barbs and barbules.

Conditions of climate and food produce varieties in nature,

just as the different influences and the more or less abnormal

diet to which we subject birds in captivity cause their plumage

to vary. We may, for example, obtain albinism, either by an

impoverishment of the blood so that it may no longer furnish

colouring matters to the feathers, or by a complete extravasation

of all the internal pigment. Nevertheless, although the solution

takes place everywhere in the: same way, the coloration is not

developed in the same manner in all feathers.

Bogdanow *, who has occupied himself with the chemical

solution of the pigments of feathers, has distinguished in them

two groups, in accordance with differences in their pigmentation.

He has given the name of optical feathers (optiques) to those

which always furnished him with a brown pigment and owed

their variety of colours to light alone; and that of ordinary

feathers (ordinaires) to those which contained variously coloured

pigments. I have retained this primitive division, which the

microscope has shown to be natural; but a deeper study has

forced me to establish two new subdivisions—the mized feathers

(mixtes), dependent on the ordinary feathers, and the enamelled

feathers, dependent on the optical. The comparative distribu-

tion of the cortical substance, combined with the different

pigmentation, give these feathers their principal distinctive

characters.

In the ordinary feathers, which contain various pigments, it is

the barbs that possess the thickest layer of cortical substance.

These barbs, in swelling, throw off their useless barbules, and

in spring form as it were clubs, of which the coloration is the

same both by transmitted and reflected light. These first fea-

thers present plenty of brilliancy of colour, but never reflections.

* Etude sur les Causes de la Coloration des Oiseaux (Revue Zoolo-

gique, 1858, vol. x. p. 183).

M. V. Fatio on the Coloration of Feathers. 365

In the mized feathers the barbules are persistent, because the

cortical substance is equally distributed in the two axes. In

them the latent coloration is concentrated principally in the barbs,

and these possess ready communication with the barbules. These

second feathers, like the ordinary feathers, contain various pig-

ments and sometimes present much brightness of colour; but

they never possess reflections, and rarely so much brilliancy as

the preceding ones.

In the optical feathers it is the barbule alone that can develope

itself. It swells enormously, and very often swallows up in its

mass its lateral hooklets, when it acquires a cylindrical or pris-

matic form. Sometimes in spring it may actually measure three

or four times as much in diameter as in the previous autumn.

These feathers always contain brown pigments, and the sepa-

rative septa of the superposed segments which compose each

barbule are in them much stronger than in any other feathers.

These third feathers present themselves under all forms, and of

all the colours of the spectrum, but always with metallic reflec-

tions.

Lastly, in the enamelled feathers, it 1s again the barb that is

developed and throws off the barbule, although these are never-

theless optical feathers, invariably furnished with dark pigments.

In them the cortical substance has not been developed into fibres,—

on the contrary, it presents itself in the form of large polygonal

cells with the nuclei strongly coloured brown. On the dorsal

surface of the barbs the cells, much less strongly coloured, are

elongated and vertical, and form as it were a transparent external

varnish of greater or less thickness. To thisfourth kind belong

some green feathers, and especially all the blue feathers without

metallic lustre.

The observation of these four divisions allows us to establish

the following general laws :—

1. Of two successive axes, one is always developed at the expense

of the other.

2. In the ordinary feathers, properly so called, the secondary

axis predominates over the tertiary.

3. In the optical feathers, properly so called, the tertiary axis,

on the contrary, predominates over the secondary.

A. The mixed feathers present a mean condition.

B. The enamelled feathers are optical in their pigmentation, and

ordinary tn their development.

The mived character is very often met with in a feather together

with a development of another kind; but no feather can be at

once ordinary and optical, any more than ordinary and enamelled

or enamelled and optical.

The influence of humidity and light upon the development and

366 M. V. Fatio on the Coloration of Feathers.

coloration of the parts which are most exposed to them, readily

explains why the dorsal surface of a feather is usually more highly

coloured than its ventral or inferior surface.

Besides the coloration seen by transmitted light and pro-

duced by various pigments, which act the same part with light as

any other coloured bodies, I explain the brilliancy of ordinary

feathers, the coloration of enamelled feathers, and the varying

metallic lustre of optical feathers by the following phenomena of

interference.

The development of the cortical substance increases the bril-

liancy by multiplying the reflecting surfaces, and at the same time

increasing their distance. The meeting of these rays, reflected

at various distances, produces an effect nearly similar to that

described by Dove * in some bodies. I should even be tempted

to ascribe the production of the blue colour by the enamelled

feathers to a phenomenon analogous to that by which the above

learned physicist endeavours to explain the brilliancy and lustre

of some bodies,—namely, to the superposition of a transparent

reflecting layer (in my case slightly coloured) upon a base covered

with dark-coloured designs. In fact, if I scrape away this external

varnish at some point, the blue feather appears black or brown

at this part.

In the lustrous optical feathers a new complication is added to

these first effects. It indeed recalls the designs and streaks of

Dove, but seems nevertheless to approach more nearly to the

phenomenon of the coloured rings. ‘This is a series of transverse

lines, sometimes brilliant, sometimes obscure, corresponding with

the strongly marked segmentation of the barbules, as may be

easily ascertained by examining an optical feather with a low power

under direct light. The effect of each barbule is added to that

of the following one, and we always find a much more regular

arrangement of the barbules in the feathers which have the

strongest metallic lustre.

We must not confound the coloration extravasated in powder,

of which I have spoken above, with another coloration deposited

in the same form, but from the outside, upon the feathers of some

birds. In the latter case, itis by rubbing against foreign bodies,

vegetable or mineral, that some species cover certain parts of

their bodies with a tr uly external and more or less solid coloration.

Nor must we confound the decolorization which takes place upon

a living dividual with that which occurs slowly in our muse-

ums. The decolorization in collections arises most frequently

from a saponification of the coloured fatty matters, produced

in course of time by air and light, as also from a disintegration

* Abhandlungen der Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin, 1855.

Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorns of the Amazons. 367

of the epidermis and cortical substance, produced either by too

great dryness or, especially, by too much moisture.

A closer investigation of feathers would perhaps explain the

geographical distribution of colours modified by climatic influ-

ences, the formation of local varieties, or the parallel effects, often

so curious, of captivity upon coloration.

XLIL.— Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazons Valley.

Cotvortera: Loneicornes. By H. W. Barus, Esq.

[Continued from p. 303.]

Group Astatheine.

Genus Puasa, Newman.

Newman, Entomologist, p. 13.

Syn. Lamprocleptes, Thomson, Arch. Entom. i. 377.

The chief character which distinguishes this genus from

Tetraopes (the chief American representative of the group Asta-

theinz) is the form of the tooth of the claws. ‘The tooth in

Tetravpes is long and acute, running parallel to the claw itself,

but much shorter; in Phea it is very broad and short, adhering

only to the base of the claw, as in the Calliane. The eyes, as

in the rest of the Astatheinz, are completely divided. The body

is more or less elongate and linear.

Phea coccinea, n. sp.

P. linearis, brevis, coccinea, pube pallida sericea vestita; femoribus

apice, tibiis, tarsis et antennis (basi exceptis) nigris. Long. 32 lin.

Head as broad as the middle part of the thorax, bright red ;

eyes moderately prominent, black. Antenne about as long as

the body, filiform, hirsute, black, basal half of the first jot red.

Thorax constricted near the front and hind margins, surface

strongly elevated and smooth in the middle, clothed with long

erect hairs; bright red. Elytra linear, bright red, clothed with

fine pale silky pubescence (visible only in certain lights), and

with erect hairs, strongly punctate-striate, the punctures fainter

and more confused towards the apex. Body beneath and thighs

yellowish red; apex of thighs, tibize, and tarsi black.

Santarem.

Group Amphionychine.

[The Amphionychine are distinguished from the Phytceciinse

(both having bifid claws) by the sides of the elytra having a

longitudinal carina extending from the shoulders. |

368 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

Genus Lycrpoia, Thomson.

Thomson, Systema Cerambye. p. 125.

The proposer of this genus has omitted to state the essential

characters which distinguish it from Spathoptera and Hemilophus.

These are furnished by the peculiar width of the sterna, especi-

ally of the prosternum, which is as broad as, or a little broader

than, the mesosternum. The prosternum in Spathoptera is

much narrower than the metasternum, and in Hemilophus it is

reduced to a mere thread, almost concealed by the large coxe.

Lycidola is moreover distinguished from Spathoptera by the

dilatation of the elytra commencing almost from the shoulders, .

by the breadth and shortness of the head, and the transverse

thorax. The genus is founded on Saperda palliata, Klug (En-

tom. Bras. Specimen alterum, pl. 42. f. 11).

Lycidola simulatriz, n. sp.

L. nigra, breviter setosa; capite et thorace vitta laterali communi

fulva; elytris apud medium fascia alba diaphana, apice singulatim

rotundatis ; femoribus basi flavo-testaceis. Long. 5—6 lin.

Head short and broad, the face extending a short distance

below the eyes, and not dilated ; black, face reddish ; occiput on

each side with an oblique fulvous stripe. Antenne black ; third

joint one-fourth longer than the fourth, cylindrical; the fourth

a little dilated ; both densely hairy ; the remaining joints shorter

than the third and fourth taken together, and sparingly setose.

Thorax considerably broader than long, coarsely punctured, ex-

cept on the disk, which is smooth, deep black; sides each with

afulvous stripe. Scutellum black. Elytra dilated almost from

the shoulders, and quite abruptly, at the apex singly rounded ;

disk punctured, and having on each three longitudinal carine,

the two outer of which are united before the apex, and the inner

one abbreviated ; expanded sides shagreened and traversed by a

flexuous carina; colour wholly deep black with a violet tinge,

except a white diaphanous belt across the middle, interrupted at

the suture. Body beneath and legs black ; basal part of thighs

testaceous yellow.

Var. Base of each elytron with a small fulvous spot in con-

tinuation of the thoracic stripe; lateral edge of the elytron also

fulvous near the base (approaching L. palliata, Klug). Tapajos.

The typical form not uncommon at Ega, on leaves. The var.

found only on the banks of the Tapajos.

Genus SpatHorrTeRA, Serville.

Serville, Ann. Soe. Ent. Fr. 1835, p. 50.

Body elongated, dilated behind; facies of the genus Lycus.

of the Amazons Valley. 369

Head somewhat prolonged on the vertex; face elongated and

dilated below the eyes. Thorax short, a little narrower than the

head. Elytra dilated from beyond the middle, apex briefly

emarginated. Legs short; claws bifid. Prosternum narrower

than the mesosternum. Antenne about the length of the body,

or a little shorter; basal joimt greatly elongated, gradually and

slightly thickened from base to apex, ciliated; third and fourth

joints greatly elongated, hairy and ciliated beneath, sometimes

very thickly ciliated ; following joints short and sparingly setose.

The lateral carina of the elytra is thick and prominent, and ex-

tends from the shoulder to the apex.

1. Spathoptera capillacea, n. sp.

S. elongata, postice dilatata, nigra; capite thoraceque vitta laterali

fulva, fronte rufescente ; elytris macula angulari humerali fasciaque

lata pone medium fulvis; antennis articulis tertio et quarto haud

dilatatis, infra pilis longis densissimis nigris vestitis. Long. 6 lin.

Head coarsely punctured; vertex elongated, shining black,

with a fulvous vitta on each side behind the eye ; face dull red-

dish, clothed with scant tawny pile. Antenne a little shorter

than the body, black; fifth and sixth joints reddish; third and

fourth joints greatly elongated, neither of them thickened, but

furnished on their under surface with a dense fringe of long

thick haus. Thorax coarsely punctured, shining black, with a

fulvous stripe on each side. LHlytra with their dilatation com-

mencing a little before the middle, at first very gradual, at about

two-thirds their length abruptly.dilated ; apex of each rounded,

and offering a small triangular emargination; surface finely

setose; disk closely punctured, and with two very fine raised

lies, united before the apex (where alone they are distinct) ;

dilated margins (outside the strong lateral carma) shagreened

and traversed, to the apex, by a nearly straight carima; colour

black, with a basal spot on each shoulder bent towards the su-

ture, and a broad fascia beyond the middle, fulvous; the edges

both of the humeral mark and the fascia irregular. Body be-

neath and legs black ; coxee and thighs beneath pale testaceous.

liga.

2. Spathoptera mimica, n. sp.

S. elongata, postice dilatata, fulva, capite vitta laterali nigra, thorace

lateribus maculaque triangulari dorsali nigris; elytris nigris, ma-

cula hnmerali angulata fasciaque lata pone medium fulvis ; antennis

breviter hirsutis, nigris, articulis quinto et sexto testaceis, quarto

incrassato. Long. 6-73 lin,

Head fulvo-testaceous, punctured ; sides behind the eyes with

a black stripe; vertex elongated, convex. Antenne wholly

clothed with shortish hairs, black ; fifth and sixth joints pale

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvii. 24

370 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

testaceous ; fourth joint dilated. Thorax with a few large pune-

tures and an elevated dorsal line fulvous; detlexed sides, and a

triangular dorsal spot with the apex scareely reaching the ante-

rior margin, black. Elytra elongated, the dilatation commencing

very gradually before the middle, and at two-thirds the length

more abrupt ; at the apex singly rounded and faintly emarginated ;

surface finely setose, closely punctured, and with two indistinct

raised lines united before the apex; dilated margins (outside the

lateral carina) shagreened, and traversed by a raised hne from

base to apex; colour black, with a basal spot on each shoulder

(bending towards the suture), and a broad fascia beyond the mid-

dle, fulvous; the edges both of the humeral spot and the fascia

jagged. Body beneath fulvo-testaceous ; sides of breast black,

and abdomen with two rows of brown spots. Legs black; coxz

and inside of femora testaceous.

Kga; found only on leaves of trees in the deep forest.

Genus Hemiopuvus, Serville.

Serville, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. 1835, p. 50.

The chief difference existing between this genus and Amphio-

nycha resides in the antenne, which in Hemilophus are formed

almost the same as in Spathoptera and Lyeidola: that is to say,

the third and fourth joimts are disproportionately elongated,

occupying together, in some species, nearly one-half the total

length of these organs ; they are, besides, thickened and densely

hirsute, sometimes ciliated. Both genera have a strongly ele-

vated lateral carina, bifid claws, and very narrow prosternum. The

elytra in Hemilophus are sometimes a little dilated before the

apex, but in Amphionycha never show any trace of dilatation.

Hemilophus fasciatus, n. sp.

H, elongatus, sublinearis, ante apicem paulo ampliatus ; capite fulvo,

vitta laterali maculaque triangulari occipitali nigris ; thorace nigro,

vitta utrinque laterali fulva; elytris nigris, macula cuneiformi hu-

merali fasciaque recta mediana fulvis; antennis nigris, articulo

quinto basi rufo, articulis quarto et quinto paulo incrassatis, dense

breviter setosis. Long.5lin. o¢.

Head tawny yellow, with a triangular spot on the occiput and

a stripe behind each eye black; forehead convex and marked

with a deeply impressed line. Antenne a little longer than the

body (¢); black, with the base of the fifth joint reddish ; basal

joint clothed with longish hairs ; third and fourth joints together

longer than the whole of the following joints, thickened, linear,

densely clothed with short hairs; remaining jomts clothed spa-

ringly with very short hairs. Thorax coarsely punctured, leav-

of the Amazons Valley. 371

ing smooth spaces on the disk, and having a deep transverse

impression behind ; black, with a fulvous vitta on each side of

the upper surface. Elytra nearly linear, being very slightly

dilated a little before the apex, the latter, on each elytron, pre-

senting a very shallow emargination with a short spine at its

outer side; surface densely punctured, partly in lines, and with

several interstices slightly raised, black; a straight humeral

spot, pomted behind, the basal part of the lateral edges, and a

straight fascia about the middle fulvous. Body beneath tawny

yellow ; sides of thorax and breast and middle of the abdominal

segments black. Legs black, base of thighs yellow.

EKga.

Genus TyRINTHTA, nov. gen.

This genus includes a number of species which agree with

Hemilophus in the great length and dense clothing of the third

and fourth (or, at least, the third) antennal joints, but differ in

the absence of a distinct continuous lateral carina from the elytra.

The vertically deflexed sides of the elytra form with the disk, in

section, a distinct angle; but the carma is not apparent, except

for a short distance from the shoulders. ~

I have adopted the name that the group bears in the rich

collection of Mr. Alexander Fry.

1. Tyrinthia capillata, n. sp.

7’. elongata, setosa, nigra; capite fulvo-flavo, supra nigro, vitta late-

rali fulvo-flava, inter antennas profunde indentato ; thorace utrin-

que vitta laterali fulva ; elytris elongatis, juxta apicem angustatis,

apice singulatim rotundatis et brevissime emarginatis, supra punc-

tato-striatis, macula humerali cuneiformi vittaque lata mediana

fulvis; antennis nigris, ultra medium annulo lato flavo, articulo

tertio longissimo, ciliato. Long. 5 lin. ¢.

Head coarsely punctured, forehead ¢onvex, mouth projecting,

vertex deeply depressed between the bases of the antenne, tawny

yellow, the crown and occiput and a stripe behind each eye

black. Antennze as long as the body, black, with the apical

half of the fourth, the whole of the fifth, and the base of the

sixth joints yellow; basal joint elongate, gradually thickened

and fringed with very long, fine hairs; third joint nearly as long

as the whole of the succeeding joints taken together, not thick-

ened, but furnished beneath with a continuous fringe of very

long hairs; fourth joint not much longer than the fifth, and

destitute of fringe. Thorax coarsely punctured, leaving smooth

spaces on the disk, behind deeply impressed ; fulvous, with a

broad central and lateral vitte black. Elytra linear, except very

near the apex, where they are narrowed, the apex itself being

9 4k

372 Mr.H. W. Bates on the Longicorns of the Amazons.

narrow and apparently entire, but showing, on close examina-

tion, a very shallow emargination and minute tooth; disk regu-

larly and rather deeply punctate-striate, black, a wedge-shaped

basal spot and a broad median vitta fulvous. Body beneath

black ; sterna and centre of the breast bright testaceous yellow.

Legs black, base of thighs testaceous yellow.

S. Paulo, Upper Amazons.

2. Tyrinthia scissifrons, n. sp.

T. elongata, linearis, setosa, fuliginoso-nigra; fronte, vitta laterali

thoracis lineolaque laterali elytrorum fulvo-testaceis ; femoribus

basi articuloque quinto antennarum rufo-testaceis ; antennis arti-

culis tertio et quarto biciliatis ; fronte (maris) tumida, conica, apice

fissa. Long. 4lin. ¢.

Head testaceous yellow, vertex and occiput black ; upper part

of the forehead (2%) conically produced and cleft at the apex,

and antenniferous tubercles armed on the inner side with a

conical prominence. Antenne as long as the body, black, with

the fifth joint reddish; basal joimt on its upper side abruptly

thickened, hairy ; third and fourth joints together longer than

the whole of the remaining joints, slightly thickened and fur-

nished beneath with two fringes of long and fine hairs. Thorax

coarsely punctured, and with a smooth dorsal line, black, a

narrow stripe on each side pale testaceous. Hlytra linear, singly

rounded and entire at the apex; surface very closely punctured

and furnished with three obtuse cost, dull black ; lateral edge

and carina near the base dull testaceous. Body beneath dull

black ; base of thighs reddish testaceous.

Banks of the Tapajos and Ega, Upper Amazons. Mr. Fry

informs me that the peculiar bilobed prominence of the head is

found in the males of some Rio Janeiro species. ee

frontalis of Guérin-Méneville (Ins. rec. par Osculati, n. 265)

belongs to this genus.

Genus IsoMERIDA, Noy. gen.

This new genus is distinguished from Hemilophus by the an-

tennal joints decreasing in length in regular proportion from the

third joint to the apex, and by the fringe of hairs on their under

surface existing in uniform density on all the joints. The only

difference between Isomerida and Amphionycha les in the short-

ness of the antennz, which are not longer than the body, even

in the males, and decrease greatly in thickness from the third

joint to the apex.

I have adopted the name under which the genus stands in

the collection of Mr, Alexander Fry.

Bibliographical Notice. 373

1. Isomerida albicollis, Castelnau.

Hemilophus albicollis, Laporte de Castelnau, Animaux articulés, 11. p. 488.

I. elongata, linearis, postice paulo angustata, tenuiter setosa ; capite

thoraceque rufo-testaceis, cano interdum dense tomentosis ; elytris

punctatis, interstitiis duobus elevatis, apice truncatis, rufo-testa-

ceis plus minusve fuliginosis, vel totis nigris; abdomine nigro,

segmentis tertio et quarto dense cano tomentosis ; antennis nigris,

articulis basi testaceis. Long. 43-53 lin. ¢ 2.

This common species is very variable in its coloration, and there

is only a small proportion of examples which exhibit the white

hue of the thorax, and these only in the dried state ; in life, the

thorax is always red. The truncature of the elytra is straight

and offers a short tooth at the exterior angles.

It is found on the leaves of trees, and is a common and gene-

rally distributed insect throughout the Amazonian forests.

2. Isomerida ruficornis, n. sp.

I. robustior, elongata, linearis, postice haud angustata, tenuiter setosa,

nigra; capite, thorace, antennis (apice exceptis) et pedibus (femo-

ribus supra exceptis) rufis ; elytris apice truncatis, angulis externis

dentatis ; abdomine segmentis tertio et quarto dense cano tomen-

tosis. Long. 6 lin. ¢.

Head entirely red, depressed between the eyes. Antenne

stout, as long as the body, finely fringed beneath; third joint

one-third longer than the fourth, the following becoming very

gradually shorter ; red, with the three apical joints tinged im

the middle with dusky. Thorax thinly clothed with pale silky

tomentum, visible only in certain lights ; red, prosternum and cir-

cuit of the acetabula blackish. Scutellum black. Elytra slightly

dilated a little before the apex, the latter straightly truncated,

with the outer angles slightly produced; surface punctured) and

marked with one faintly raised line besides the lateral carina ;

deep black, shining. Breast and abdomen black; third and

fourth ventral segments densely clothed with pale silky tomen-

tum. Legs red, upper side of femora black.

Fonte Boa, Upper Amazons.

(To be continued. ]

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

Our Reptiles: a plain and easy Account of the Lizards, Snakes,

Newts, Toads, Frogs, and Tortoises indigenous to Great Britain.

By M. C. Cooke. 12mo. London: Hardwicke, 1865.

A.trHovuGcH the number of our British reptiles, even if we include

the Batrachia among them, is very small, there is perhaps no other

class of animals so generally misunderstood by the public at large.

374 Bibliographical Notice.

The undoubtedly venomous qualities of some snakes, coupled perhaps

with the peculiarly insidious, gliding movements of all the Ophidians,

have given the whole of those remarkable reptiles a bad name, which,

as in the case of the proverbial dog, is very nearly equivalent to

hanging ; and this has been extended by popular prejudice to ali

reptiles, which accordingly lie under a sort of ban in the imaginations

of the ignorant, and not unfrequently suffer persecution in conse-

quence.

In the little volume now before us, Mr. Cooke has manfully done

battle in behalf of this much maligned class of animals, showing, what

indeed is well enough known to naturalists, that of all our British

reptiles the common viper is the only one that has the slightest claim

to the possession of those redoubtable poisoned weapons which render

many of the exotic species so formidable ; whilst of the others

the toad alone can be charged, with some show of reason, with pro-

ducing injurious effects by means of the acrid secretion of the surface

ofits body, when this is applied to wounds in the skin. All the rest

are harmless, and, as Mr. Cooke well shows, often highly interesting

in their habits and mode of life ; and he has certainly done good service

in the popularizing of natural history, by producing so pleasant and

instructive an account of our native members of a class so generally

regarded with unmixed aversion.

After a short account of the general characteristics of reptiles, and

of the singular superstitions connected with what are called snake-

stones, Mr. Cooke describes the British species of the class in sys-

tematic order, commencing, however, with the Lizards, and placing

the Chelonians in a supplementary chapter, as being only occasional

visitors to our coasts. Among the true reptiles we find two additions

to our list,—one the Smooth Snake (Coronella levis), the claim of

which to be regarded as a British reptile may now be considered

settled ; the other the Green or Guernsey Lizard (Lacerta viridis),

the introduction of which does not appear to rest on such good evi-

dence. The Edible Frog also makes its appearance in the list, but

evidently, even in the author’s opinion, as a very doubtful native ;

and the additions to the limited series of British reptiles are con-

cluded by Dr. Gray’s Banded Newt (Ommatotriton vittatus, Gray),

the distinctness of which from the other British Newts is shown by

means of woodcut outlines of the skulls of all the four species,

copied from the memoir of Dugés.. After all, the total number of

species cited, including the two Chelonians, is only seventeen.

These are all well described, and respectably figured on the eleven

plates with which the book is illustrated; woodcuts are also given

of the heads of the various snakes and lizards, and of the tadpoles,

and some details of the Batrachians. The accounts of the habits of

the different species are given in a pleasing style, not disfigured by

that affectation of slang which some writers appear to consider

indispensably necessary in a popular work on natural history. An

appendix contains a synonymic list of the species, and the whole

work forms a most convenient handbcok of the subject on which it

treats.

375

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

March 9, 1866.—Sir Henry Holland, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,

President, in the Chair.

On the Metamorphoses of Insects. By Sir Joan Lusrock, Bart.,

F.R.S., M.R.I., Pres. Ent. Soc., V.P. Lin. Soc., V.P. Ethn. Soc.,

F.S.A.

Tue subkingdom Annulosa, to which insects belong, is divided into

five classes, namely, Annelida, Crustacea, Arachnida, Myriopoda,

Insecta.

The Annelida, or worms, have a body consisting of more or less

numerous segments, but without any jointed appendages.

The Crustacea, or crabs and lobsters, have a jointed body, and each

segment usually bears a pair of appendages. They are aquatic in

their habits.

The Arachnida, or spiders, possess four pairs of legs; the body is

divided into two parts, the cephalothorax and abdomen. The seg-

ments composing the abdomen bear no appendages. Spiders are aérial

in their habits.

The Myriopoda, or centipedes, have a long body consisting of

numerous segments, each of which bears a pair of legs.

The Insecta, or insects, have three pairs of legs. They are aérial

in habits, and breathe by means of tracheze or air-tubes, which ramify

throughout the internal organs. The body is divided into three parts,

the head, thorax, and abdomen.

In addition to the three pairs of legs, the thorax bears generally

either two or four wings. The older naturalists collected the wingless

forms into a special order—the Aptera; but more extended observa-

tions have shown that each of the large orders or groups into which

insects are divided contains some apterous forms. The female glow-

worm and the working ants are familiar examples of this.

But though the presence of wings is the rule, and the division of

insects into orders is founded in great measure on the characters

afforded by these important organs, still they are present only in the

mature state of the animal, and no known insect is born with wings.

Not only in the absence of wings, but also generally in many other

important points, the young insect differs from the mature form, and

the changes which it goes through are known as metamorphoses.

Entomologists have generally considered the life of all insects to be

divisible into four well-marked periods—that of the egg, the larva

or caterpillar, the pupa or chrysalis, and, finally, the imago or per-

fect insect. It is true that in some orders, as, for instance, the Coleo-

ptera (beetles), Hymenoptera (bees), Lepidoptera (butterflies), and

Diptera (flies), the larvee differ much more from the perfect insects

than is the case in others, as, for instance, the Orthoptera (grasshop-

pers) or Heteroptera (bugs) ; but even in these latter the stages were

still supposed to be well marked,—that of the larva, by the entire

absence of wings ; that of the pupa, by the possession of rudimentary

wings ; finally, the perfect insect, by having perfect wings.

376 Royal Institution :—~

The lecturer then pointed out that, when the habits were alike,

similar larvee might be met with in very different families of insects.

Thus, among beetles, the Melolontha (cockchafer), Anobium

(death-watch), and Chlamys are very similar in their larva state,

although they belong to perfectly distinct families of beetles—namely,

the Melolonthide, Ptinide, and Chrysomelide.

The same fact holds good even in larve’ belonging to different

orders of insects. Those larve which, in the words of Mr. Herbert

Spencer, are ‘symmetrically related to the environment,” and

which either are surrounded by their food, or have it brought to

them, are fat, legless, fleshy grubs or maggots. Such are almost all

the larvee of flies. So, again, the Hymenopterous larvee are generally

of this character : whether they inhabit other insects, like those of

the ichneumons, or live inside galls, like those of the Cynipide, or

are enclosed in cells and fed by the perfect insects, like those of the

bees, practically any great deviation from that which may be looked

upon as the normal type is unnecessary. The larve of beetles, on

the contrary, are generally of a very different character. But there

is one group, that of the weevils, which are internal feeders. The

grub of a nut-weevil feeding inside a nut is under very similar con-

ditions to those of a Cynips-larva in a gall, or an Anthraz-larva

living parasitically in a bees’ cell ; and we accordingly find that these

larvee, though belonging to three different orders of insects, very

closely resemble one another.

To this type belong most Hymenopterous larvee ; but there are

two exceptional groups, the Tenthredinida, or sawflies, and the

Siricide. The larve of the Tenthredinide feed, like those of but-

terflies, on leaves, and in the general form of the body, in the possession

of three pairs of legs and several pairs of abdominal prolegs, they

very closely resemble ordinary caterpillars, and differ extremely from

the ordinary type of Hymenopterous larvee. In the same manner

the larvee of the Scricide, which are wood-borers, possess thoracic

legs, and closely resemble the larvee of some wood-boring beetles.

From these facts it may be concluded that the form of a larva de-

pends more on the conditions in which it lives than on the form which

it will ultimately assume. But this is shown still more clearly in the

case of Sitaris, a small beetle which is parasitic on a species of solitary

bee (Anthophora), and the habits of which have been carefully ob-

served and excellently described by a French naturalist, M. Fabre. -

The female Sttaris, which comes to maturity in August, never

wanders far away from the sandy banks in which the Anthophora loves

to burrow. At that time no Anthophoras are abroad, their period of

maturity is not in autumn, but in spring ; and consequently, though

the bee is so necessary to the beetle, we are at once met with the re-

markable fact that no perfect Sifaris ever saw one of the bees, and

it is probable that no Anthophora has ever yet seen a Sitaris. The

latter lays her eggs, which are about 2500 in number, in the burrow

leading to the cell of the Anthophora. These eggs are arenes in

September, and produce small, black, active larvee, about j-th of an

inch in length, with four eyes, two Paiher long antennee, and six well-

Sir J. Lubbock on the Metamorphoses of Insects. 377

formed legs. But though evidently adapted for an active life, the

young larvee remain quiet among their empty egg-shells until the

spring. Then the Anthophora comes to maturity, and as it passes

out along the burrow the young larvee spring upon it. The male

bees, however, leave their cells about a month before the females ;

consequently the larva first finds itself on the male bee, from which,

however, at the first opportunity it passes to the female. She, poor

thing, unconscious of her misfortune, proceeds to excavate her burrow

in the usual manner, constructs the usual cell, and fills it with honey.

On the honey she lays her egg, but at this moment the larva of

Sitaris springs on to the egg and floats on it, as ona raft. It then

tears open the egg and devours it, thus at once destroying a rival,

and making its first meal. As it has by this time been seven months

without food, this its first food must be very welcome. But it is

necessary on another account. The larva in its first form, though

beautifully fitted for its mode of life, is quite unsuited to live on honey

in a bees’ cell. Hence a change of formis necessary. The increase

of size produced by devouring the egg enables the larva to change

its skin, and it now emerges in a form very different indeed from the

list. The eyes have disappeared; the legs and antenne are rudi-

mentary. ‘The mouth is so placed that when the larva floats on the

honey it is just below the surface, while the spiracles are arranged

along the back so as to be just above it. Lastly, the belly is very

protuberant, and thus prevents the larva from rolling, in which case

the spiracles might be choked by the honey, and the insect suffucated.

After living from thirty-five to forty days in this condition, during

which it increases very considerably in size, the larva ceases to feed,

and contracts into an ovoid body, resembling in many respects the

so-called pupa of a fly. Withirthis, as in a case, it forms a new

skin, and takes on a fourth form not very unlike the second. After

four or five weeks it changes again into a chrysalis, from which finally

the perfect beetle emerges.

Here, then, we find, first, a remarkable change of form accompany-

ing a change of habits, and, secondly, a case in which the life is di-

vided into more than three well-marked stages. This phenomenon

received from M. Fabre the name of hypermetamorphosis. For

some time the cases of Sttaris and Meloe were looked on as excep-

tional; but in 1862 the attention of the lecturer was called to the

question by observing a somewhat similar case in Lonchoptera, a

genus of small flies. Moreover he found that in many species be-

longing to the Orthoptera and Hemiptera the stages were much less

definite and more gradual than had hitherto been supposed.

In illustration of this he described the transformations of Chloéon

(Ephemeride), and showed that the perfect form was attained through

more than twenty changes of skin, each attended by a slight

change of form. In its preparatory stages this insect lives in the

water, but in the last two it becomes aérial. Sir John Lubbock had

been so fortunate as to see more than once the passage from the

aquatie to the aérial condition: the larva floated helplessly on the

surface of the water; suddenly the skin burst, the insect sprang out

378 Royal Institution :—

of the back of its own head, and fluttered away. The whole process

occupied less than ten seconds.

The speaker in this case wished particularly to impress on his

hearers, first, the gradual nature of the changes, and, secondly,

that some of them have no reference to the fourm of the perfect insect,

but are entirely of an adaptational character. Thus the young larva

is born without branchiz, and with two caudal appendages. It gradu-

ally acquires a thin tail and seven pairs of branchie ; but the perfect

insect has only two tails and no branchize. Thus, then, the changes

which an insect undergoes are of two kinds, developmental and adap-

tational.

External forces act upon the larveeas much as on the perfect insects.

And we can thus understand the remarkable fact that some animals,

which differ much when young, are very similar at maturity.

The speaker then entered into some theoretical considerations as

to the nature and causes of metamorphoses, dividing the subject into

three questions.

Ist. How these changes of form might have originated.

2ndly. Why they are, in insects, so abrupt in their character ; and

ordly. Why the pupa condition, a period of approximate immobility,

should intervene between the active larva and the still more active

imago.

1. The changes of form depend on the early condition at which

some insects quit the egg. There is reason to believe that all insects

pass through the stage of fat, fleshy grubs, and subsequently acquire

legs*. Some, however, are hatched in the first state, while’ others

remain in the egg until they attain the second. In the former case

additional changes are produced by the fact that external forces do

not affect the larva in the same manner as the perfect insect; and

thus there is a tendency to still greater differentiation.

2. The abruptness of the change is more apparent than real. The

actual change itself is merely the withdrawal of the curtain, the

casting of the old skin, by which the alterations which have perhaps

been in preparation for days, or even weeks, are rendered visible. In

fact there can be no great change in insects without a moult. Insects

have no bones, and the muscles are attached to the skin, which there-

fore is necessarily hardened to afford them a solid and sufficient

fulcrum. But it follows from this that no change of form can take

place without a change of skin.

In Chloéon we have seen that each moult is accompanied by a

slight change.

In caterpillars, on the contrary, there is little alteration during

growth, and the changes are concentrated, so to say, on the last two

moults. The advantage of this is obvious; the mouth, digestive,

and other organs of the larva are very different from those of the

perfect insect ; and if the change from the one type to the other were

gradual and slow, the insect would be liable to perish of starvation in

the midst of plenty.

* See, for instance, Professor Huxley’s admirable memoir on Aphis, in

the ‘ Linnean Transactions.’

Sir J. Lubbock on the Metamorphoses of Insects. 379

3. Similar considerations throw much light on the immobility of

the pupa. The organs are altering so rapidly that they are unable

to perform their functions. When the changes are gradual, as in

Orthoptera, &c., there is no period of quiescence.

The speaker then pointed out the analogy between metamorphoses

and the alternation of generations.

Many species of the lower animals are represented by two totally

dissimilar forms ; but, so far as the speaker knew, no explanation of

this remarkable phenomenon had yet been given.

Through the metamorphoses of insects, however, we get a clue.

When an animal is born in a state so early that external forces act

on it in one way, and on the perfect form in another, they tend to

produce greater and greater differences between the two. As long

as the external organs arrive at their mature form before the gen-

erative organs are fully developed, we have cases of metamorphosis;

but if the reverse is the case, then alternation of generations is the

result.

The same considerations explain why in alternation of generations

the reproduction is almost invariably agamic in the one form. This

is because impregnation requires the perfection both of external and

internal organs ; and if the phenomenon arises, as has just been sug-

gested, from the fact that the internal organs arrive at maturity

before the external ones, impregnation cannot take place, and repro-

duction will only result in those species which have the power of

agamic multiplication.

However this may be, insects offer every gradation between simple

growth and that phenomenon which is known as alternation of gen-

erations.

In the wingless Orthoptera, the young so closely resemble the

perfect insects, that there is nothing which in ordinary language would

be called even a metamorphosis.

In those Orthoptera which eventually acquire wings, there is of

course a well-marked difference.

In Chloéon, though the changes are gradual, the difference be-

tween the larva and the imago is very considerable, and we have

seen that the action of external forces produces changes which have

no reference to the form of the perfect insect.

In caterpillars we have a typical class of metamorphoses,

Until recently, however, we knew of no case in which a larva pro-

duced more than one perfect insect*. Insects never multiply by

buds, and almost always the external form is acquired before the

organs of reproduction are mature. Recently, however, Professor

Wagner of Kasan has discovered that the larvee of certain Cecidomyias

have the faculty of producing other larvee, so that they present a

true case of alternation of generations. Thus, then, we see that

insects present every gradation, from growth to alternation of gen-

* The instances in which certain insects breed while their wings are but

imperfect, might here have been cited. But as there is much difference of

opinion among entomologists as to these cases, I have thought it better to

take one about which no question is likely to arise.

380 Royal Institution :—

erations ; we see, from a single fact, how metamorphoses and _ alter-

nate generations may have originated, and we find reason to suppose

that in the course of time the latter phenomenon may become more

frequent than it is at present.

It is, moreover, evident that there are in the animal and vegetable

kingdoms two kinds of dimorphism. The term has generally been

applied to those cases in which—as in the ant and bee in animals,

and the Primulas among plants—the perfect individuals are divided

into two forms. In fact the sexes themselves constitute a kind of

dimorphism. In these cases the forms are not alternate. When,

however, external forces act on the young in one manner, and on the

mature form in another, they tend to produce different forms, which

do not complement, but succeed, one another. I have elsewhere

proposed to distinguish this form of dimorphism, under the name

of dieidism or polyeidism. In polymorphism the chain of being

divides at the extremity ; in polyeidism it consists of dissimilar links,

Finally, the speaker said, “The principal conclusions which I

would impress on you this evening are—

“1, That the presence of metamorphoses in insects depends, in

great measure at least, upon the early state in which they quit the egg.

“2. That metamorphoses are of two kinds—developmental and

adaptational.

“3. That the apparent abruptness of the changes which they

undergo arises in great measure from the hardness of their skin,

which permits no gradual alteration of form, and which is itself ren-

dered necessary in order to afford sufficient support to the muscles.

“4, That the immobility of the pupa or chrysalis depends on the

rapidity of the changes going on in it.

“5. That although the majority of insects go through three well-

marked stages after leaving the egg, still a large number arrive at

maturity through a somewhat indefinite number of slight changes.

“6. That the form of the larva of each species depends in great

measure on the conditions in which it lives.

“When an animal is hatched from the egg in an immature form,

the external forces acting upon it are different from those which affect

the mature form; and thus changes are produced in the young, bearing

reference to its present wants rather than to its ultimate form.

“7. When the external organs arrive at this final form before

the organs of reproduction are matured, these changes are known as

metamorphoses ; when, on the contrary, the organs of reproduction

are functionally perfect before the external organs, or when the

creature has the power of budding, then the phenomenon is known

as alternation of generations.

“« Insects present every gradation, from simple growth to alter-

nation of generations.

“8. Thus, then, it appears probable that this remarkable phe-

nomenon may have arisen from the simple circumstance that certain

animals leave the egg at a very early stage of development, and that

the external forces acting on the young are different from those which

affect the mature form.

Sir J. Lubbock on the Metamorphoses of Insects. 381

“9. The dimorphism thus produced differs in many important

respects from the dimorphism of the mature form which we find, for

instance, in the ants and bees; and it would therefore be convenient

to distinguish it by a different name.

** But there is still another aspect under which, if time had per-

mitted, the metamorphoses of insects might have been regarded.

In one or two cases, indeed, I have sketched very briefly and im-

perfectly the habits and mode of life of particular insects. A whole

course of lectures might be filled with such life-histories. The

various manners in which different insects provide for the wants of

their young are most remarkable, and all the more so because

their wants are so different from those of the perfect insects them-

selves.

«Thus the butterfly, which lives on honey, and did live on leaves,

lays her eggs ona twig. She seems to feel that honey will not suit

her young, and that the leaves will wither and fall before another

spring comes round.

«The gnat, which lives in the air and feeds on blood, lays her eggs

on the surface of water; and the sugar-loving housefly knows that

very different food is necessary for her young.

“The nut-weevil chooses the embryo of the nut; the goat-moth

the bark of the willow; the RAzpiphora braves the dangersof the wasps’

nest; the Gstrus lays on cattle; the Ichneumon in caterpillars ; the

gall-fly in the still almost imperceptible bud ; and some insects even

in the eggs of others.

“Generally the larvee forage for themselves ; but in some cases

the mother supplies her young with food. Thus the solitary wasp

builds a cell and fills it with other insects. If, however, she impri-

soned them while alive, their struggles would infallibly destroy her

ege ; if she killed them, they would soon decay, and the young larva,

when hatched, would find, instead of a store of wholesome food, a

mere mass of corruption. To avoid these two evils, the wasp stings

her victim in such a manner as to pierce the centre of the nervous

system, and the poison has the quality of paralyzing the victim with-

out killing it. Thus deprived of all power of movement, but still

alive, it remains some weeks motionless and yet fresh.

“‘ But, perhaps, the ants are the most remarkable of all. They

tend their young, they build houses, they make wars, they keep

slaves, they have domestic animals ; and it is even said that in some

cases they cultivate the ground.

‘‘Nor must it be supposed that even now the habits of insects are

anything like thoroughly known to us. In spite of Réaumur and De

Geer, the two Hubers, and many other excellent observers, there is in

this subject still a wide field for patient and conscientious labour ;

the observations already made have been far from exhausting the

mine, though amply sufficient to prove the richness of the ore.”

382

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Parturition of the Marsupials. By Professor R. Owen.

Proressor Owen has communicated to the Academy of Sciences

in Paris the following observations on the memoir of M. E. Alix

on the above subject, a notice of which appeared in this Journal for

April 1865, p.-316.

Having observed an aperture of communication between the me-

dian vagina and the urethro-genital vestibule in Halmaturus Ben-

nettii, M. Alix draws from this an argument against the passage of

the foetus, in the parturition of the Marsupials, through the lateral

vaginee, hack are certainly of extreme narrowness. Rad indeed, if

we admit this physiology of these complex organs, it would follow

that the anatomists who have denied this direct communication in

other Marsupials were in error.

But the function of the “lateral loops’’ (Cuv.) as spermatophorous

canals, and that of the ‘‘fundus”’ of the third uterus (Cuv.) as an

embryophorous canal, is far from being proved by the observation, in

a certain species of Kangaroo, that the fundus en cul-de-sac becomes

converted into a canal in direct communication with the urethro-

genital vestibule. Such a physiological view is contrary to the law

of the structure of the internal reproductive organs of the marsupial

animals.

The order Marsupialia presents a series of modifications of the

vagina for the greater part of which the exclusively spermatophorous

function of the lateral canals is inadmissible. In the small Opos-

sums (e. g. Didelphys dorsigera, the Philanders, &c.) each true

uterus terminates in a vagina, reduced to form a lateral loop, which

is comparatively longer, narrower, and more twisted than in Macropus

or Halmaturus, and there is no median vagina*. Here, therefore,

the foetus must find its way out by the same extremely fine canals

which give access to the semen.

In the larger Opossums (e. g. Didelphys virginiana) each uterus

terminates in a vagina, the commencement of which is widened out

ceecally ; but these vaginee do not communicate with each other, nor

does either of them extend to the urethro-genital vestibulet.

In Macropus the vaginal diverticula intercommunicate, and the

common cavity extends to the urethro-genital vestibule, but without

opening into it. This I have ascertained in females of Macropus

major, which had produced young at least twice.

In Halmaturus the div erticulum not only attains the fundus of

the urethro-genital vestibule, but opens into it, as has long since been

demonstrated ft.

* See Phil. Trans. 1834, p. 133, pls. 6 and 7.

+ Catalogue of the Physiological Series, Hunterian Museum, 4to, vol. v.

p- 154 (1838).

{ By myself, in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852, and Annals Nat. Hist. 2nd ser.,

vol. xiv. p. 450; also by Dr. Poelman in Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg. tome xviii.

p. 599.

Miscellaneous. 383

Other modifications of the complex female organs of the Marsu-

pials, which have been described* and figured ¢ elsewhere, are equally

opposed to the hypothesis of the passage of the foetus by a median

vagina, and prove that, if it ever takes place, it must be by a rare

exception, the rule in marsupial parturition being the passage of the

foetus through the lateral loops.

Whilst thus submitting to the Academy the dates and notices of

the discovery of an exceptional modification of the median vagina

in Halmaturus Bennettii, I must remark that the purpose of the

anatomical section of my Memoir in the ‘ Philosophical Transac-

tions’ for 1834 was not to confirm a description of Cuvier’s, or to

refute one of Home’s, with regard to an anatomical fact observed in

a single species, but to show, by a general review of the entire

order Marsupialia, that the parts of generation which both these

eminent anatomists had described as uterine were really vaginal,

and that the passage which they called the vagina corresponded to

the urethro-genital canal of other animals.

To determine the homologies of the complex female organs of the

Marsupials was the chief object of my anatomical investigations in

1834. They enabled me to prove that the parts described as Fal-

lopian tubes (Hometf), or as a ‘‘small portion of a triple or qua-

druple uterus”’ (Cuvier §), were in reality nothing but the homologues

of the two distinct uteri, in their totality, of the Rodents; and

that the succeeding portions, to which the function of gestation had

erroneously been ascribed, were solely efferent, and answered to the

vagina of other mammalia.

It is by the aid of these homologies, expounded in 1834 (and at

the same time a proof that they have been accepted), that M.

Alix is now enabled to speak of lateral vagine and of a median

vagina, although, indeed, the latter is absent in many Marsupials

and occurs in the form of a cul-de-sac in most of those which

possess it.

The mode of transit of the foetus from the vulva to the pouch is of

so remarkable a character that I cannot accept the merit, which M.

Alix is so kind as to attribute to me, of having foreseen it. It would

have been impossible for me to divine the facts @ priori; and even

had I been endowed with so lively an imagination, I should hardly

have ventured to present this hypothesis to the Royal Society with-

out the experiments which gave support toit. I never had any suspi-

cion of these facts; they were the pure and simple results of obser-

vation.

Having isolated a fecundated female of Macropus major, I subjected

her to a daily examination until I determined the precise period of

gestation. It is true that I did not see the embryo in transitu.

He must have eyes differently constituted from mine to discern a

* In Dendrolagus inustus, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852, p. 106.

+ In Aypsiprymnus Whiter, Phil. Trans. 1834, pl. 6. fig. 6.

{ Phil. Trans. 1795, p. 228.

§ Legons d’Anat. Comp. tome v. p. 146 (1805).

384 Miscellaneous.

vermiform body, of 15 millims. in length and 5 millims. in thick-

ness, through the walls of the muzzle of a large Kangaroo, buried at

one time in the vestibule, and at another in the bottom of the

marsupial pouch. But the transportation of the foctus and its at-

tachment to the teat being the result of similar operations, I deter-

mined to apply to them a new test, by means of an experiment

which I proposed to the authorities of the Zoological Society, and

for which I obtained their sanction.

A few hours after parturition I removed the young animal from

the teat and witnessed the following phenomena :—

The mother immediately showed symptoms of uneasiness, stooping

down to lick the orifice of the vagina and bury her muzzle in the

vestibule. At length she grasped the sides of the pouch with her

fore paws, and drawing them apart, she thrust her head into the

cavity as far as the eyes, and could be seen moving it about in various

directions in the act of replacing the feetus*.

I do not know whether a Mr. Bennett has really suspected these

facts. It is possible; but M. Alix cites neither work nor memoir.

Mr.E. J. Bennett was Assistant Secretary of the Zoological Society in

1834, Mr. N.A. Vigors was Secretary, Messrs, Yarrell and W. S. Mac-

leay were Members of Council ; they were all present at my experi-

ments, and accepted the consequences which I drew from them. But

not one of these friends (now, alas! no more) flattered himself with

having foreseen the results ; not one of them pretended to any other

part than that of a spectator.

Dr. George Bennett, of Sydney, has furnished me with valuable

materials for my investigations, and we are indebted to him for an

article on the habits of the Ornithorhynchus+; but I am not aware

that he has published any notice or memoir upon the parturition of

the Kangaroos.

In point of fact, M. Alix only cites an article of an Encyclopeedia.

Ifhe had consulted original memoirs, from which articles of this nature

are usually only abridged compilations, he would have saved me the

trouble which I am now taking. If he will permit me to refer him to

the first observation on Marsupial parturition published after the

Memoir of 1834 in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society,’ part

xii. p. 163 (1844), he will there find the details of an observation of

this operation in a Potoroo (Bettongia), reported by the late Earl of

Derby, then President of the Zoological Society.

I hope that M. Alix will not allow himself to be discouraged by

the fact that his supposed anatomical discovery has been anticipated

by at least two observers. The field of nature is so vast and so

varied, that by persevering in direct cultivation of it, he cannot fail

to raise for himself a title to our gratitude by gathering in fruits at

once new and solid. But it is very rarely that, by means of an

isolated anatomical fact, we can rectify or determine the physiology

of a complex organ.— Comptes Rendus, April 1866, pp. 592-596.

* See Phil. Trans. 1834, p- 345.

Tt Trans. Zool. Soe. vol. i. 1834.

Miscellaneous. 385

New Flud for Preserving Natural-History Specimens.

By A. E. Verritu.

In consequence of the high price of alcohol, a series of experiments

was undertaken by me last year, with the view of finding a sub-

stitute for it in preserving the soft parts of animals. Among the

various solutions and liquids tested were nearly all that have ever

been recommended, besides many new ones. Chloride of zinc, carbolie

acid, glycerine, chloride of calcium, acetate of alumina, arsenicus acid,

Goadby’s solutions, and various combinations of these and other

preparations were carefully tried, and the results made comparative

by placing the same kind of objects in each, at the same time.

Although each of these, under certain circumstances, have more or

less preservative qualities, none of them were found satisfactory,

especially when the colour and form of the specimen are required to

be preserved as well as its structure.

As a test for the preservation of colour, the larvee of the tomato-

worm (Sphina guadrimaculata) were used. These larve are difficult

of preservation with the natural form and colour, nearly always turn-

ing dark brown and contracting badly in alcohol and most other

preparations.

As a result of these experiments the following solutions were found

highly satisfactory in all respects when properly used. By their use

the larvee and recent pupze of the tomato-worm were preserved and

still retain their delicate green colours, together with their natural

form and translucent appearance, while the internal organs are fully

preserved. Fishes, mollusks, various insects, worms, and leaves of

plants have also been preserved with perfect success and far better

than can be done with alcohol. In the case of mollusks, especially,

the preparations are very beautiful, retaining the delicate semitrans-

parent appearance of the membranes nearly as in life, with but little

contraction. Another great advantage is the extreme simplicity and

cheapness of the solution.

To use this fluid I prepare first the following stock solution, which

may be kept in wooden barrels, or casks, and labelled :—

SouvutTion A. 1.

TOG KHaSA Gn. Soe ust het Gk eee bg eg Tk 40 oz.

Nitre: (nitrate Of potassayy. oases tee 4 oz.

ORG WALEE: fain 5 AN yc, ae er, 1 gallon.

This is the final solution in which all invertebrate animals must be

preserved. A solution with double the amount of water may be

kept if desirable, and called A. 2. Another with three gallons of

water will be A. 3.

In the preliminary treatment of specimens the following solution

is temporarily employed, and is designed to preserve the object while

becoming gradually saturated with the saline matter; for in no case

should the specimen be put into the full strength of solution A. 1,

for it would rapidly harden and contract the external parts and thus

prevent access to the interior. Even with alcohol it is far better to

place the object for a time in weak spirits and then transfer succes-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvii. 25

386 Miscellaneous.

sively to stronger, and for some objects, as Medusze, no other treat-

ment will succeed.

So.LuTIon B. 1.

Ott WALER <6) sae caeettit ln UE een eee 1 gallon.

Solution Acaliyo a ayct eos eeeeace ane eee pean 1 qt.

PAT SenLAte 0% (POLASS Ait hear cea eerie I oz.

Another solution with double the amount of water may be made, if

desired, and called solution B. 2.

To preserve animals with these solutions they are, if insects or

marine invertebrates, ordinarily placed first in solution B. 1; but if

the weather be cool it would be better in many cases to employ first

B. 2; and in the case of all marine animals, washing first in fresh

water is desirable, though not essential. If the specimens rise to the

surface they should be kept under by mechanical means. After re-

maining for several hours, or a day, varying according to its size and

the weather, in the B. 1 solution, it may be transferred to A. 3,

and then successively to A. 2 and A. 1; and when thus fully pre-

served it may be transferred to a fresh portion of the last solution,

which has been filtered clear and bright, and put up ima cabinet,

when no further change will be necessary if the bottle or other

vessel be properly secured, to prevent the escape of the fluid by

crystallization around the opening. To prevent this, the stoppers,

whether of cork or glass, together with the neck of the bottle or jar,

may be covered with a solution of parafline or wax in turpentine or

benzole, which should be applied only when the surfaces are quite dry

and clean. The length of time that any specimen should remain in

each of the solutions is usually indicated by their sinking to the

bottom when saturated by it. In general the more gradually this

saturation with the saline matter takes place, the less the tissues

contract or change in appearance. In many cases, however, fewer

changes than indicated above will be effectual. I have in some cases

succeeded well with but two solutions below A. 1. For vertebrates,

except fishes, the solution A. 2 will usually be found strong enough

for permanent preservation, especially when the object is small or

dissected. If the entire animal be preserved, when larger than two

pounds in weight, it should be injected with the fluids, especially

B. 1 and the final A. 1 or 2, or an incision may be made in one

side of the abdomen in vertebrates, or under the carapace of crabs,

&c., to admit the fluids more freely. In preserving the animals of

large univalve shells, an opening should be made through the shell,

at or near the tip of thespire. Mammals, birds, and reptiles should

be placed first in solution B. 2 to obtain the best results. In cases

where the use of the B. fluids would be objectionable, on account ot

their highly poisonous nature, a fourth dilution of solution A. 1, eor-

responding in strength with B. 1, but without the arseniate of

potassa, may be substituted, and in many cases will do nearly as well,

if the weather be not very hot; but the specimens in this case should

be carefully watched and transferred to the stronger solutions as

soon as possible, so as to avoid incipient decomposition while in the

first fluids.—Silliman’s American Journal, March 1866.

Misceilaneous. 387

On the Urticating Capsules of some Polypes and Acalephs.

By Karu Mosivs.

The urticating capsules are elastic vesicles, which may be compared

with simple glands. They have a long efferent duct, which is pro-

duced within their cavity, and is appended directly to the outer wall

as an inversion of it. As the commencement of this duct bends at

first inwards, then upwards and then again inwards, a threefold tube

is produced—the aazal body, the innermost division of which passes

over into the filamentous piece, the convolutions of which either

surround the axial body or run down beside and below it.

The capsular wall everts the duct suddenly by its contracting

elasticity, whenever, being assisted by external pressure, it can over-

come the extending resistance of the duct.

The pressure of the capsular wall propagates itself over the whole

of the duct through the fluid contents ; but its first everting action is

exerted in front, at the angle where the middle tube of the axial

body bends into the inner one.

The duct is beset with spiral rows of hairs. As long as it remains

within the capsule these are turned inwards and present a resistance

to the pressure of the capsule, but when it is everted, they stand out

and then increase its adhesive power. The everted ducts remain

attached to surfaces with which they come in contact, and moisten

these with their fluid contents. This produces an urticating pain on

sensitive parts of the skin.

Each capsule can only act once. As it remains connected with

its everted duct, it is torn out of the skin as soon as the movements

of the Polype retract its place of insertion. The lost capsules are

replaced by new ones, which are formed below them. They are de-

veloped in cells with granular contents and with one or more nuclei.

The long cylindrical urticating capsules are at first bent in their

formative cells, and only afterwards become extended. Large axial

bodies appear earlier than the filiform end of the duct, which in

immature capsules lies regularly twisted on the wall; in mature

eapsules irregular bendings frequently interrupt the course of the

ordinary spiral.

Most of the capsules made use of by Polypes and Acalephs, pass

with their food into their own stomachs. Perhaps, when there, they

assist digestion. Some Sea-anemones form an envelope for them-

selves of discharged capsules interlaced together. Many Polypes

(Lucernarie, Actinie, Hydre) which change their places, employ

urticating capsules during their progression, to enable their tentacles

to adhere. As all rough contact induces the Ccelenterata to contract

themselves, they discharge urticating capsules whenever they are

subjected to an unfriendly attack; and thus these may serve them for

defence.

(These statements form the concluding summary of the results

detailed in the author’s paper in the fifth volume of the ‘Abhandl. des

naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins zu Hamburg,’ 1866, of which he has

kindly sent us a copy.)

25*

388 Miscellaneous.

On the Swimming-Bladder and Sexual Organs of the Murenoid

Fishes. By Pror. Kner.

Professor Kner communicates the results of his investigation of the

swimming-bladders and sexual organs of thirty-six species of eel-like

fishes. The species examined belong to nineteen of Bleeker’s genera,

distributed through six families.

The swimming-bladder occurs, more or less developed, in all the ex-

amined species and genera of three families—namely the Anguilloidei,

Congyroidet, and Ophisuridi ; whilst it is wanting in the other three

families, viz. Gymnothoracoidei, Ptyobranchoidei, and Symbranchii.

The sexual organs are sometimes symmetrical, and sometimes the

reverse ; in the former case they sometimes show the same structure,

resembling that of our common eel, in all the specimens examined,

and therefore, as in that species, leave the determination of the sex

uncertain, but sometimes exhibit differences of structure in different

individuals ; so that many species decidedly have the sexes separate.

The latter result was also obtained by the examination of several

species with unsymmetrical sexual organs, whilst others left doubts

upon this point. In aspecies of the family Symbranchii (Ophisternon

bengalense=Symbranchus bengalensis, Bleek.), however, there was

on one side a closed ovary filled with ova 1 line in diameter, and

on the other side a lobate glandular organ, longer than the ovary,

and exactly resembling the testes of Petromyzon in appearance. As,

however, no spermatozoids could be detected, even under the micro-

scope, the occurrence of hermaphroditism in this case is not strictly

proved, although it certainly seems very probable.—Bericht der

Akad. der Wiss. in Wien, December 14, 1865, p. 207.

Annelida and Turbellaria of Guernsey. By E. Ray LANKESTER.

The following is a list of the species of Annelida and Turbellaria

obtained by the Dredging-Committee of the British Association last

summer, off Guernsey and the neighbouring islands. Some of the

species obtained have yet to be identified.

TURBELLARIA.

. Leptoplana subauriculata, Johnston. Firman Bay.

flexilis, Johnston. Firman Bay.

. Eurylepta cornuta, Miller. Herm.

. Convoluta paradoxa, Girsted. Passim.

. Astemma rufifrons, Girsted. Guernsey.

A. filiformis, Johnston. Guernsey.

. Cephalothrix lineatus, Girsted. Guernsey.

. Tetrastemma yaricolor, Dalyell. Guernsey.

variegatum, Dalyell. Guernsey.

10. Borlasia olivacea, Johnston. Guernsey.

octoculata, Johnston. Guernsey.

12. Ommatoplea rosea, Miiller. Guernsey.

CON AOD ON

13. alba, Thompson. Guernsey.

14 melanocephala, Johnston. Guernsey.

15. pulchra, Johnston. Guernsey.

eyo

. Lycidice Ninetta, Aud. § Edw. Guernsey, d.

. Lumbrinereis tricolor, Leach. Passim.

#40),

*50,

Miscellaneous.

. Lineus longissimus, Simmons. Herm.

gracilis, Goodsir. Belgrave Bay.

lineatus, Johnston. Belgrave Bay.

. Meckelia annulata, Montagu. Passim.

tenia, Dalyell. Firman Bay.

. Serpentaria fusca, Dalyell. Herm.

ANNELIDA.

Chetopteride.

. Cheetopterus pergamentaceus, Cuvier. Herm.

Aphroditacee.

. Aphrodite aculeata, Linneus. Guernsey, d.

. Hermione hystrix, Savigny. Guernsey, d-

. Lepidonotus squamatus, Linneus. Passim.

. Harmothoé Sarmiensis, Lankester. Passim.

Malmereni, Lankester. Herm.

. Antinoé nobilis, Lankester. Herm.

. Halosydna Jeffreysii, Lankester. Herm.

. Polynoé scolopendrina, Savigny. Herm.

. Sigalion Matilde, Audouin § Edw. Herm.

Amphinomacee.

. Euphrosyne foliosa, Aud. § Edw. Herm.

Eunicee.

. Eunice Norvegica, Linneus. Belgrave Bay.

. — Harassii, Aud. § Edw. Guernsey, d.

(sp. inc.). Herm.

sanguinea, Montagu. Belgrave Bay.

— Belli, Aud. § Edw. Guernsey, d.

Latreillii, Aud. § Edw. Guernsey, d.

Nereide.

. Nereis brevimana, Johnston. Herm.

pelagica, Linneus. Passim.

cxrulea, Linneus. Belgrave Bay.

Nephthyacee.

. Nephthys cxeea, Fabric. Passim.

longisetosa, Girsted. Guernsey, d.

Phyliodocide.

. Phyllodoce lamelligera, Turton. Herm.

bilineata, Johnston. Guernsey, d.

. Eulallia viridis, Linneus. Belgrave Bay.

ellipsis, Dalyell. Herm.

— Parretti, Blainville. Herm.

Glyceracee.

. Glycera dubia, Blainville. Herm.

capitata, Cirsted. Herm.

389

390 Miscellaneous.

Ariciadeé.

53. Nerine vulgaris, Johnston. Belgrave Bay.

54. Cirratulus borealis, Lamarck. Belgrave Bay-

tentaculatus, Montagu. Belgrave Bay.

56. Leucodore ciliatus, Johnston. Belgrave Bay.

*57. Aricia Cuvieri, Blainville. Belgrave Bay.

58. Ammotrypane limacina, Rathke. Guernsey, @.

59, Travisia Forbesi, Johnston. Guernsey, d.

Siphonostomacee.

60. Siphonostoma uncinata, Aud. & Edw. Herm.

(sp. incert.). Herm.

Telethuside.

62. Arenicola piscatorum, Lamarck. Passim.

ecaudata, Johnston. Herm.

Maldaniade.

64. Clymene lumbricalis, dud. §& Edw. Belgrave Bay.

amphistoma, Savigny. Perrelle Bay.

Terebellide.

66. Terebella conchilega, Pallas. Herm.

cirrata, Montagu. Bordeaux Harbour.

68. —— nebulosa, Montagu. Bordeaux and Herm.

Sabellariade.

69. Sabellaria anglica, Ellis. Guernsey, d.

Serpulide.

70. Sabella penicillus, Linneus. Guernsey.

vesiculosa, Montagu. Perrelle Bay.

2. Protula protensa, Grube. Perrelle Bay.

73, Serpula vermicularis, Ei/is. Passim.

(sp. incert.) Herm, d.

There are several tubicolar forms which I have not yet satisfac-

torily identified. Those species in the list to which an asterisk is

prefixed are new to Britain, though previously described as occurring

in French localities. The Phyllodoce Parretti of Blainville has

hitherto been obtained only from the Gulf of Genoa, and is therefore

peculiarly interesting. The letter d indicates that the specimens

were obtained by the dredge.

On the “ Capture of a Ribbonfish.”

To the Editors of the Annals and Magazine of Natural Mistory.

GENTLEMEN,—I trust you will allow me to correct the short

notice of the “ Capture of a Ribbonfish,’’ which was given in the

April Number of the ‘ Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.’ p. 312. It was not

taken at West Hartlepool, which is not on the coast of Northum-

berland, although it is on that of the ancient Northumbria. It was

observed about March Ist by a pilot near to Seaton Snook, in the

“Miscellaneous. 391

county of Durham, in shallow water on a sand-bank, nearly (if not)

dead, and he conveyed it to the neighbouring village of Seaton Carew,

where it was shown to many persons.

It was, at first, considered to be the Vaagmer (Gymnetrus arc-

ticus) ; but from its greater size, being 14 feet 7 inches long, it was

shown to be a larger species.

Mr. Tristram, F..S8., saw it, and made it out to be G. Banksit.

I do not know that species, which may probably be synonymous

with G. Grilli, found in Iceland, or with an intermediate species

known to Scandinavian zoologists.

The fish, I was informed, was sent to Leeds to be sold and exhi-

bited ; but it never was shown (as far as I can learn, and I was anxious

to see it) at Stockton-on-Tees. When taken, it was in good condition,

and its colours very bright.

The Gymnetri are too rare on our coasts to permit arevision of the

species, which is much required.

Yours faithfully,

Joun Hoae.

Norton House, Stockton-on-Tees,

April 11, 1866,

Notes on the Dactylethre.

To Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S.

Dear Str,—I saw in the ‘ Annals of Natural History > an account

by you of the Dactylethre.

Tt is difficult here to tell how much is known on any subject, and

therefore your notices of South African animals from time to time

have proved of great service to me.

I think, however, that your impressions as to the Dactylethre

are not quite correct. I am inclined to think that the beardless,

spurless specimens are females ; and you can judge from my notes.

Description of Specimen caught in the Koonup River, near the

Mancazana Old Post, Fort Beaufort District, S.A.

From extremity of mouth to anus 53 inches ; from second inner

toe, without claw, to anus, 5 inches; across the chest at armpit

47 inches ; round the thigh 33 inches ; length of forearm 2% inches ;

greatest width across the belly 64 inches; distance between eyes

4 inch.

Colour. —Ochraceous green on head ; olive-green on back, with

darker leopard-like spots in rings of heterogeneous shape. Fore legs

ochraceous olive-green ; hind legs the same, but with a reddish-brown

tinge, terminating towards the toes in a rich sienna-brown. ‘Three

inner toes armed with black nails ; web of feet ochraceous. No spurs;

where the spurs would be, there was a slightly prominent projection.

Anus orange-pink. Belly white, with a pale creamy tinge. Fore legs

reddish ochraceous towards their extremities. Lower extremity and

hind legs of a dirty salmon-colour, the last joint of the leg and the

foot being on the inner side spotted with minute yellow dots. To-

B92 Miscelianeous.

wards the anus on the under surface there was a silvery line, with

pale bluish-grey spots.

No beard under the eyes. The general form of the glands resem-

bles little quilts in the skin: those towards the anus were roundish

and tuberculous, and form a little triangular row immediately above

the vent ; on the belly they were entirely linear. The inner row on

the dorsal surface bifurcates into two at the throat, the outer row

approaching nearer the eye, and the two inner receding towards the

centre. On the dorsal line between the three lateral rows are two-

minute semituberculate linear glands. In other respects the descrip-

tion accords with yours in the ‘ Annals.’

Female specimen, with nearly mature ova. Caught in February.

In the Baaken’s River, near Port Elizabeth, the commonest kind

corresponds to your grey specimens, and is small in size. I think

T have seen the same here, but have never minutely examined them.

My specimens are in the Museum at Port Elizabeth.

I have seen a specimen similar to that described, only larger and

of a much paler and yellower colour, in the Eland’s River at Uiten-

hage. It was feeding on a dead baboon ; but I could not capture it.

I caught, the other day, a smaller specimen than that described, with

very faint spots; but the glands were very large, and almost all

quite round. I unfortunately lost it, or I would have described it.

The Dactylethre are called by the Dutch “ Platanas,’”’ and by the

Kafirs “Izeyla.” They live at the bottom of muddy pools, or

*““zeekoe gattes,”’ as they are called here, and are exceedingly vora-

cious; they and the crabs give the fisherman a deal of trouble, by

taking his baits when fishing for eels. ‘They are exceedingly slimy

and disgusting to handle, and are usually found in deep water. It

is amusing to see them rise to take breath ; they just pop their heads

out, and you hear a piff, as of a jet of gas.

Mr. R. Hallack, of Port Elizabeth, told me that he was much sur-

prised, one wet season, to see numbers about his yard, as there was

no pool or stream in the neighbourhood ; and he could not conceive

where they came from, as he had never seen them before there ; nor

has he seen them since.

I trust I shall shortly be able to send you some more information.

I know nothing about their larvee. Hoping that this may prove of

some interest,

Believe me, dear Sir,

Faithfully yours,

J. P. MAnsELt VEALE.

Eland’s Drift, near Adelaide.

March 6, 1866,

On the Occurrence of Bones of Marmots near Graz.

By Professor Oscar ScumMtpT.

In the immediate vicinity of Graz, on the Rainerkogel, about

200 feet above the Mur, an old Marmot-dwelling has been discovered,

with the skeletons of four individuals, belonging to three generations.

Miscellaneous. 393

This discovery, the first and only one of the kind in Styria, leads

directly to that diluvial period when, by the extension of the

glaciers in the higher regions of the Alps, the Upper Alpine animals

and the Alpine flora were driven down into the low grounds, the

evidences of which have hitherto been detected chiefly in Switzerland.

— Bericht der Akad. der Wiss. in Wien, March 8, 1866, p. 46.

Researches upon the Hydrobiinee and allied forms ; chiefly made

upon Materials in the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution.

By Dr. Wriuram Stimpson.

The great difficulty of studying the anatomy of the Hydrobiinee,

owing to their diminutive size, has, with few exceptions, caused

conchologists to classify them merely from the form and other cha-

racters of the shell, and such parts of the animal as can be seen pro-

truded when in motion. Hence rather widely different views have

been entertained in regard to their generic relations, some referring a part

of them to the genus Paludina, others to Melania, Leptoxis, OCyclo-

stoma, &c., while other authors have more properly proposed for the

reception of certain types the genera Amnicola, Pomatiopsis, Soma-

togyrus, &e. Even those who have admitted these new genera, how-

ever, still differed in regard to their family affinities, some placing

certain of them in the Melaniide, others in the Rissoide, Viviparide,

Littorinide, &e., while still other conchologists proposed to establish

for their reception a new family, Amnicolide.

After a thorough and searching investigation of the whole subject,

particularly of the structure of the softer parts and the dentition of

many of these types, Dr. Stimpson arrives at the conclusion that these

little snails all belong to the Rissocde, to which they had in part

been referred by H. & A. Adams; though he also includes in the

family the genera Lithoglyphus and Paludestrina (referred by those

authors to the Littorinide), as well as several new genera he finds it

necessary to establish. He likewise suggests that Pyrgula, Tricula,

Cecina, and Blanfordia probably belong to this group; while he

excludes from it the genus Barleea, which had been included by

H. & A. Adams.

After thus eliminating the extraneous genera, and including others

not previously known to belong to this family, he gives a full and

clear diagnosis of the group, by which it can readily be distinguished

from the families Littorinide, Viviparide, Truncatellide, Melaniide

and Valvatide, with which it is more or less nearly allied, or has in

part been confounded. He then defines the following six subfamilies,

into which the group is found to be naturally divisible :—

. Bythiniine, including Bythinia, Gray.

. Rissoinine, including Rissoina, D’Orb.

. Rissoine, inciuding Rissoa, Frém., Cingula, Flem., Alvania, Risso,

and Onobia, Setia, Ceratia, and Fenella, H. & A. Adams.

. Skeneine, including Skenea, Flem.

Hydroliine, including Hydrobia, Hartm., Littorinella, Braun,

One

394. Miscellaneous.

Amnicola, Gould & Hald., Bythinella, Moq.-Tand., Stenothyra,

Benson, Tricula, Benson, Pyrgula, Christ. & Jan, Paludestrina,

D’Orb., Tryonia, Stim., Potamopyrgus, Stim., Lithoglyphus, Mihl-

feld, Fluminicola, Stim., Gillia, Stim., Somatogyrus, Gill, and

Cochliopa, Stim.

6. Pomatiopsine, including Pomatiopsis, Tryon.

The memoir is mainly devoted to the subfamilies Hydrobiine and

Pomatiopsine. Of the genera belonging to the former, extended

descriptions, and excellent outline cuts illustrating the shell, animal,

dentition, &c., are given of the typical species of Amnicola, Bythinella,

and the new genus Fluminicola. Similar illustrations and a good

description are given of the type (Amunicola lapidaria, Say) upon

which the genus Pomatiopsis and the subfamily Pomatiopsine were

founded. The latter type, although a true air-breathing mollusk,

living habitually out of water, is shown to breathe by gills, and not,

as would naturally be expected, by lungs. He remarks, however,

that ‘it may be said to be amphibious, but only in the sense that

Suecinea and some other terrestrial mollusca are so; that is, it is

capable of living for a long time under water.” ‘The foot of this type

is also shown to be adapted, by a peculiar construction, to a gliding

mode of progression in water, and to a stepping motion, aided by the

rostrum, when on land.

Further on, he gives an extended description of the subfamily

Hydrobiine, with accurate diagnoses of each of the included genera,

full references, synonymy, citations of types, &c. Of these genera,

the following are new :—Tryonia, Stim., founded upon a new species;

T. clathrata (probably extinct) from the Colorado desert; Pota-

mopyrgus, Stim., founded upon Melania corolla, Gould ; Cochliopa,

Stim., founded upon Amnicola Rowellii, Tryon ; Gillia, Stim., founded

upon Melania altilis, Lea; and Fluminicola Stim., founded upon

Paludina Nuttalliana, Lea.

It is worthy of note that the author has not, as is too often done,

gone on to refer by guess, to his new genera, all the little shells that

might be supposed to belong to them, but leaves that to be done by

others who may have an opportunity to study thoroughly their softer

parts, dentition, &c., and determine whether or not they really possess

all the characters of the newly founded groups.

Another commendable feature in this memoir is, that the author

has in each instance distinctly stated what species he regards as the

types of thenew genera. Every naturalist must be aware that much

of the confusion in the nomenclature of natural history has arisen

from the neglect of this simple rule in the subdivisions of the group

which may afterwards take place, some retaining the original name

for one group of the species, and others for others, with no chance

of agreement. Many, perhaps the majority, say that in such cases

the old name should always be used for the group including the first

species, or, in other words, that the first species mentioned or de-

scribed under the old name should be regarded as itstype. Others,

however, insist that the original name should be retained for the

group including the majority of the species first described or inclu-

Miscellaneous. 395

ded ; while others contend that the type most nearly agreeing with

the diagnosis, or which has its characters best expressed in the name

itself, should be regarded as the type of the original genus.

Still others say that the first author who divides and properly

restricts a genus originally founded upon heterogeneous materials has

the right to determine, arbitrarily, which shall retain the old name,

and which shall receive new ones. Now all such confusion is avoided

by simply stating which species is recognized as the type in founding

a new genus.—Nilliman’s American Journal, March 1866.

The Placentoid, a new Organ of Anthers. By M. Cuatin.

The organ now to be made known has not yet been indicated.

The name of placentoid, by which we propose to designate it, recalls

the analogies of form, position, and, to a certain extent, of function

which it has with the placentas of ovaria with axile placentation.

We shall consider it under the points of view—

1. Of morphology or organography ; 2, of histology ; 3, of bio-

logy ; 4, of taxonomy ; and 5, of philosophy.

1. Morphology of the placentoids.—These organs, by the place

which they occupy in the cells and the forms which they put on, recall

the axile placentas of bilocular ovaria. If we make a transverse sec-

tion of the ovary of a Solanum and of one of its anthers, we find in

each of the cells of the latter, as in the ovarian cavity, a fleshy body

which advances towards the middle of the chambers of the ovary and

_ of the cells of the anther.

In consequence of the considerable space which it occupies in the

cells, the placentoid often greatly reduces that left for the pollen,

nearly as, in a great many Solanaceze and Scrophulariaceze, we see

the seeds pressed between large trophosperms and the valves of the

pericarp. Sometimes the placentoid advances so far towards the op-

posite valve as to touch this with its extremity, thus nearly subdi-

viding each cell into two. The section of a young anther thus con-

structed is subdivided into eight subcells if the anther be complete

(Hemitomus), or into four if, as in Salvia and Westringia, the anther

should be reduced to a single cell. Some plants (Justicia flavicoma)

only present placentoids upon one surface of the dissepiment ; this

organ is consequently wanting in the cell placed on the opposite side.

Like the dissepiment, the placentoids are shaped out of the paren-

chymatous mass of the young anther.

The duration of the placentoids is limited ; they disappear towards

the period of the maturation of the pollen, sometimes leaving their

traces in the form of two small appendages approximated to the con-

nective by the retraction of the dissepiment which bears them.

To sum up, like the dissepiment, and even still more than this,

the development of the placentoids is connected with that ot the

pollen.

2. Histology of the placentoids.—We have always found the pla-

centoids formed by a parenchymatous tissue very similar to that which

396 Miscellaneous.

forms the dissepiment. Like the latter they admit neither fibres nor

vessels ; and in this respect their parallelism with the placentas can

no longer be traced—just as, moreover, we cannot compare the pollen

lying free in the cells, like the spores in the capsules of mosses, with

ovules attached to placentas.

In the placentoids we have never observed the so-called fibrous

cells which form a part of many dissepiments ; it would appear, there-

fore, that the presence of placentoids, always of a parenchymatous

nature, is connected with that of dissepiments of the same histolo-

gical nature.

The placentoids, like the dissepiments, are usually covered by a

fold of the nutritive membrane or third membrance of the anther.

3. Biology of the placentoids.—The function of the placentoids

appears to be to assist in the formation of the pollen. They originate

about the same period as the latter, follow it in their development,

and disappear when, as its maturation approaches, they become use-

less to it, their persistence being even capable of hindering its disse-

mination.

The essentially parenchymatous structure of the placentoids, and

the nutritive membrane which clothes them, and of which they thus

serve to multiply the surfaces or points of contact with the pollen,

are evidently conditions appropriate to the part which we ascribe to

the new organ. We are, moreover, the more struck with the utility

of an organization which has the effect of bringing nutriment every-

where within reach of the body to be nourished, as the latter (the

pollen) does not, like the ovules, receive its nourishment by conti-

nuity, but indirectly and by simple contiguity. ,

4. The placentoids in their relation to taronomy.—When a new

organ is discovered in plants, it becomes necessary for the history of

this organ to inquire what relations of existence it may possess with

the natural divisions of the vegetable kingdom. ‘This first point

being determined, it will become possible to appreciate the significa-

tion of the existence of placentoids in its relations with the various

degrees of organic elevation of species of plants.

Placentoids exist in no monocotyledonous plant. Among the

Dicotyledons, the Dialypetalee (Monochlamydez and Thalami-

florze) are also destitute of placentoids. The same might be said of the

Calyciflorze if we had not observed these organs in Cassia marilan-

dica. There remain the Corolliflore ; and it is in a certam number

of families of this class that we have found the anthers to be habitu-

ally provided with placentoids, which exist

In the Gentianacee (Chlora, Chironia) ;

In the Solanacee (Atropa, Habrotamus, Hyoscyamus, Lycopersi-

con, Solanum, Witheringia) ;

In the Scrophulariacee (Hemitomus, Pedicularis, Verbascum ;

not in Veronica and Chelone) ;

In the Labiate (Salvia, Rosmarinus, and Westringia, genera

with unilocular anthers; and Lamium, Leonurus, and Marrubium

with perfect anthers) ;

In the Acanthacee (Acanthus, Justicia, &e.) ;

Miscellaneous. 397

And, lastly, in some Orobanchee (Lathrea; not in Orobanche

and Phelipea).

The following families, also belonging to the Corolliflorze, appear

to be destitute of placentoids:—the Gesneriacee, Polemoniacee,

Apocynee, Convolvulacee, Primulacee, Plumbaginee, and Planta-

ginee,

It is remarkable that among the Corollifloree the orders with

labiate flowers are most frequently provided with placentoids.

The presence of placentoids appearing to be in relation with

organographic characters, it will be easily understood that it may be

made use of as a complementary character in the investigation of

natural affinities.

5. Philosophy of the placentoids.—Under this head we might

consider the placentoids from several points of view, recurring to

their biological part, &c.; but I cireumscribe the question to this

single point, the appreciation of the existence of placentoids with

regard to the measurement of the organic gradation of vegetable

species. It may be said, by reference to the facts acquired by

science, that to put the question is to solve it.

In fact it is admitted (and the evidence is superabundant) that

the Monocotyledons are less elevated in organization than the Dico-

tyledons. Now the Monocotyledons have no placentoids.

With regard to the Dicotyledons, the question of gradation among

their classes, long under discussion, seems to have at last arrived at

this solution :—-The gamopetalous plants are of a higher order than

the dialypetalous species; and among the former the families with

_ the ovary united to the calyx must occupy a place below those

with the ovary free—that is to say, below the Corollifloree. Now we

have proved the general existence of placentoids in the Corollifloree.

Hence these organs are an attribute of the plants which are most

elevated in organization.—Comptes Rendus, January 29, 1866,

pp. 215-218.

On the Method of Flight of the Flyingfish.

By Horace Mann. [Ina letter to F. W. Putman.)

I have been watching the flyingfish to-day. They are very abun-

dant ; and though you may know all about them from persons more

competent to see and describe than I, yet I venture to send you a

few notes on them in my journal. I had supposed that they must

acquire some considerable momentum below the surface before rising

above it, and for that reason wished to see if the motion of the fish

immediately after leaving the water was more accelerated than during

the later portions of its flight (for it is obviously a true flight). I

think that I have been able to discover some slight differences in the

rates of motion immediately after leaving the water and later in their.

course ; but I also think their motion is kept up by the fins, and also

that the weight is sustained by them. They do not appear to leave

the water at a large angle, but otherwise—as near as I have been

able to judge, about 5° or 6°. They plainly have the power of altering

398 Miscellaneous.

their course of flight, so far as rising and falling, as I have seen them

go over the rising surface of a not very high wave, and their flight

is also almost always slightly dipping. I have also thought they

sometimes altered their course to the right or left without touching

the surface of the water; but it may have been owing to the wind.

They will often barely touch the surface of the water, and rise again,

keeping on in the same or an altered course. There went a shoal

of a dozen or twenty this very minute, rising and falling slightly, and

entering the water and issuing from it again and again, and altering

their course, for the distance of seventy-five to one hundred yards.

The motion of the fin is ot always steady, as I have seen when

they rose near the ship and the sun struck favourably upon them ; for

in those cases the motion was intermittent in velocity, though kept

up all the time, and might be represented by a line more or less

shaded. I have observed them fly thirty or forty yards without

touching the water, though I should say usually they would not go

more than half that distance. They do not usually rise much over a

foot above the surface of the water, often much less, though one was

said to have come on board the other day, and to do that, I should

think, must have risen at least eight or ten feet.—Proc. Boston Soc.

N. H. x. p. 21.

On some Marsupial Fishes. By L. AGassiz.

Professor Agassiz states that at Teffé he discovered several species

of the family Chromidze which carry their eggs at the bottom of the

mouth in a marsupial pouch formed by the superior pharyngeal

bones and the anterior cavity of the first branchial arch. This appa-

ratus is furnished with numerous nervous filaments, which spring

from a special inflation of the medulla elongata immediately behind

the cerebellum. This inflation resembles the ‘electrical lobe of the

Malapteruri. Other species carry their eggs in the folds of their

lips, such as the Loricari@ ; others, such as the Hypostomi, hatch

theirs like birds.. .. . The changes of form undergone by the young

fish are very instructive as regards classification. A Scomberesocid

of a new genus has jaws resembling those of Belone; but when

young, the upper jaw is so short that it might be taken for a Hemi-

rhamphus.—AdAnn. Sci. Nat. 1866, tome v. p. 228.

On the Occurrence of an Internal Convoluted Piate within the Body

of certain Species of Crinoidea. By James Hatt.

During the investigations upon the Crinoidea of the Carboniferous

Limestones of Iowa, there were discovered in the broken bodies of

several species a vertical convoluted plate, filling a large part of the

cavity of the body. At that time I showed several of these specimens

to Prof. Agassiz, who informed me that he had observed a similar

convoluted plate in the body of Comatula.

This convoluted intestinal plate was first observed in the body

of Actinocrinus pentagonus, and afterwards in A. longirostris,

A. erodus, A. Verneuili, and in a species of the type of 4A. um-

Miscellaneous. 399

brosus. In several of the specimens (and this is apparently true

of all the Actinocrini), the opening into this convoluted sac is wider

at the apex, and becomes gradually attenuated below and pointed

toward the centre of the basal plates, where it is attached. The lower

portion is twisted not unlike the lower portion of some univalve shells,

and this ofgan in one specimen presents a very close resemblance to

a small Bulla or similar shell. In Actinoecrinus longirostris this

organ is proportionately very large, the sides straighter and less

curved, and very wide at the top.— Proc. Boston Soc. IN LEX

On the Fossil British Oven.—Part I. Bos Urus, Cesar.

By W. Boyp Dawkrns, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

The problem of the origin of our domestic races of cattle was

considered by the author to be capable of solution only after a care-

ful examination of each of the three European fossil species of Oxen,

namely, Bos Urus of Cesar, B. longifrons of Owen, and B. bison of

Pliny. In this paper he began the inquiry with Bos Urus, Cesar,

being the Bos primigenius of Bojanus, and he arrived at the con-

clusion that between this species and Bos Taurus, or the common

Ox, there is no difference of specific value, though the difference in

size and some other characters of minor value render the bones of

the two varieties capable of recognition. After giving the synonymy

of Bos Urus in some detail, and measurements of the different bones

as represented by specimens from a number of localities, Mr. Boyd

Dawkins described the range of the species in space and time, show-

ing that it coexisted in Britain with the Mammoth, Rhinoceros lepto-

rhinus, R. megarhinus, and R, tichorhinus, and was associated with

Elephas antiquus, Felis spelwa, Ursus speleus, U.arctos, Bos priscus,

Megaceros Hibernicus, Cervus elaphus, C. tarandus, Equus fossilis,

&c., and held its ground during the Prehistoric period, after most

of these animals had become extinct or retreated from this country.

The precise date of its extinction in Britain was stated to be

somewhat uncertain, although the author inclined to the belief that

it existed in the wild state as late as the middle of the 12th century ;

while on the continent it seems probable that it lingered until the

loth century. The author then endeavoured to explain its gradual

diminution in size by the progressive encroachment of cultivation on

its old haunts; and in conclusion stated his belief that at least the

larger cattle of Western Europe are the descendants of the Bos Urus,

modified in many respects by restricted range, but still more by the

domination of man.—Proc. Geol. Soc. March 21, 1866.

Note on the Presence of Teeth on the Maaille of Spiders.

By Miss STAVELEY.

I do not find in Dr. Blackwall’s ‘ Monograph of the British Spi-

ders,’ or in M. Simon’s ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Arandides,’ or in

any other work which I have had an opportunity of consulting,

that the occurrence of teeth on the maxillz of Spiders has been

noticed.

400 Miscellaneous.

On the maxillee of six out of seven Spiders which I have examined,

belonging to various genera, there is a row of very regular and per-

fectly formed teeth on the outer edge of the extremity of the maxilla.

These teeth vary slightly in form in the different species, and the

first of the row is sometimes unlike the succeeding teeth. The

species examined were :— .

Agelena labyrinthica, 2. Theridion quadripunctatum, 2.

Salticus scenicus, Q. Epeira callophylla, °.

Theridion nervosum, 9. Tetragnatha extensa, Q.

lineatum, °.

Of these only one of the Theridions showed no teeth; but the

specimen was not satisfactory, being ill prepared and mounted. The

jaw of one (Agelena labyrinthica) presented an appearance of a

second row of teeth, forming a waved line running down the surface

of the maxille, and quite distinct from the marginal row; but as

this occurred in no other species examined, nor even in another in-

dividual of the same species, as it seemed much less substantial than

the marginal row, and presented other suspicious appearances, and

as the specimen was prepared and mounted before the teeth were

observed, I cannot be sure, without the examination of other speci-

mens, that this is a genuine row of teeth. Unfortunately the fellow

jaw was thrown away without being looked at.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. The jaw of Agelena labyrinthica, magnified.

2. The beginning of the row, more highly magnified.

In one or more specimens the teeth appear to have been worn or

broken by use. All the specimens referred to are mounted in Canada

balsam, and are now in the collection of the British Museum *.—

Proc. Zool. Soc. 1865, p. 673.

* [Since this paper was read, Miss Staveley has examined several other

species of Spiders, and found these ‘teeth developed in all of them.—

J. E. Gray. ]

THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[THIRD SERIES. ]

No. 102. JUNE 1866.

XLIV.—On the Anatomy and Physiology of the Vorticellidan

Parasite (Trichodina pediculus, Ehr.) of Hydra. By Prof.

H. James-Crark, A.B., B.S.*

[Plates VIII. & IX.]

THERE can be no doubt that a large amount of the diversity of

opinion in regard to the general and classificatory relations of

animals arises ‘from the lack of a correct knowledge of the intimate

structure of the subject under controversy. This is especially

applicable to the lower forms of life, and above all to the fifth

and lowest grand division of animals—the Protozoa. Theories

which are based upon insufficient observations and a misconcep-

tion of facts not only present .a distorted view of nature, but

mislead and give a wrong direction to the tendencies and cur-

rents of scientific research. The theory of the unicellular nature

of Infusoria—so acutely upheld by the arguments of Siebold

and Kolliker, and especially by the latter m his papers on the

Gregarinide+ and on Actinophryst—had no small influence n

blinding the mental vision of subsequent investigators, and long

delayed the conclusion (strangely enough, too, seemingly favoured

by Kolliker himself) that it is not essential to the constitution

* From the memoirs read (Oct. 18, 1865) before the Boston Society of

Natural History, vol. i. part 1. Communicated by the author.

+ Beitrage zur Kenntniss niederer Thiere (Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zool. Bd. i.

(1848-49) p. 1.

{ Das Sonnenthierchen, Actinophrys sol (Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zool. Bd.i

(1848-49) p- 198. In some remarks upon Actinophrys which I took occa.

sion to make at a meeting of the Boston Society of Natural History (see

Proceedings for September 16, 1863), I stated that the so-called vacuoles

of the Actinophrys (A. Eichhornii) are “‘true cells with a distinct wall

about them.” In a new work (Mind in Nature; or, The Origin of Life

and the Mode of Development of Animals: New York, 1865) just issued

from the press, I have reiterated this statement, and given still further

details of the anatomy and physiology of Actinophrys.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvi. 26

402 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Anatomy and

of a cell that it should possess a tangible, distinctly differentiated

envelope.

At the present day we may safely consider every one of the

minutest centres of organic development and action as so many

individual cells (not only potentially, but as essentially so as are

any of the most decidedly wall-bound cells of the highest kind

of tissue), and yet not become liable to the accusation of leaning

toward a visionary method of investigating or interpreting the

phenomena of nature. It really seems as if the much-abused

spirit of Oken were about to have its revenge, and the prophetic

vision of that immortal genius were soon to be realized by the eyes

of the philosophers of the present day. Happily, among the

rising generation of the naturalists of this country, a growing

independence of thought and action—too long under the shade

of the upas tree of fictitious authority, and allured by the

deceitful and fascinating exterior of superficial, glittering, swift,

and hasty generalization—is leading to this result with rapid

strides.

Neither the genius of a Spencer nor the incomparable inge-

nuity and tact of a Tolles are able to increase the availability of

the microscope as rapidly as the requirements of scientific pro-

gress demand; and if one would see beyond the mere optical

image of the instrument, he should, by careful and judicious

treatment, train the eye to develope to the requirements of the

occasion. It must become to him a sliding-scale of adjustable

optical powers. The tutored eye of Ehrenberg saw far more

than the microscopes of his earlier days could help him to dis-

cern. The truth of this is especially observable in the surpass-

ing naturalness and life-like character of his illustrations, so

often superior to the delineations of his more modern compeers.

When we have combined the effect of the former with the more

accurate details of the latter, we shall then, and not till then, have

arrived at an honest representation of animal life, and have laid

a firm foundation for a series of deductions and generalizations

whose influence shall be felt beyond the brief flitting period in

which they were produced.

That investigation which, although confined within a narrow

circle, is the most thorough, and at the same time truthfully

recorded, is far more valuable for the future than a course of

observations which extends over a larger field and is carried out

on a grander scale, but lacks the element of completeness. A

thorough and elaborate study of one single species will carry

the possessor of such knowledge immeasurably deeper into the

secrets of life, and inconceivably further along the road of pro-

gress, than a superficial, lightly tripping survey of the whole

kingdom of animals. In the former case, for each newly dis-

Physiology of Trichodina pediculas. 403

covered fact the naturalist takes one step higher on the hill of

science, whilst in the latter he is for ever trying to get the first

foothold in the ascent.

Of all the Protozoa, there are none which have so great a claim

upon the naturalist’s time for investigation as the Vorticellide.

The want of a precise understanding of their structure led, in

the first place, to their being classed with the Zoophyta, and

(simply on account of their similarity in form) among the Hydras.

This was the first retrocession. After Ehrenberg had promul-

gated the opinion that they possessed a distinct intestine, whose

two ends approximated each other, we find Van der Hoeven, in

the second edition of his ‘ Handbook of Zoology,’ comparing

them to the Bryozoa, and avowing his belief that their future

place will be among the lowest groups of Mollusca. Here we

have a still deeper plunge into the vortex of confusion—not so

much, however, if at all, to the discredit of the Dutch natu-

ralist as to that of those who came after him. The apparent

similarity of the organization of the Vorticellide to that of the

Bryozoa was no small warrant for his suggestion ; but after almost

every microscopist of any degree of reliability who looked at

these infusorians had disproved and denied the presence of the

intestine so elaborately set forth by the Berlin micrographer,

and nothing was left but a mere resemblance in outward form

to the Bryozoa, it was, to say the least, a very - far-fetched

comparison when Professor Agassiz homologized them with the

Mollusca, declaring that he had satisfied himself of the ‘‘ pro-

priety of uniting the Vorticellide with Bryozoa.”

Ere this, too, Lachmann (Mill. Archiv, 1856) had shown

that the whole group of ciliated Infusoria possess a conformity

of organization altogether unlike that of any other. The pro-

found researches of this early-lamented observer left no doubt

as to the dissimilarity between the Vorticellide and Bryozoa.

Here was, at last, a step taken in the right direction; and when

this author, in connexion with Claparéde, published the ‘ Etudes

sur les Infusoires et les Rhizopodes,’ the climax of proof was

attained in the abundance of details presented in that remark-

able volume. Among the many questions which are discussed

in that work, that of the unicellularity of the Infusoria receives

a considerable share of attention ; and a decided ground is taken

in favour of their pluricellularity—not so much, however, on

account of their being known to consist of more than one cell

as of the fact of their possessing such a variety of organs and

performing so many diverse functions.

The greatest variety of this kind is most elaborately exempli-

fied by the group of Vorticellide; but yet it rises, from the

lowest of the class, through such imsensible grades, that the

26*

404 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Anatomy and

relations of the type and of the two extremes are never lost sight

of amid the growing complexity of the organization.

Among the many forms which more than usually excite the

interest of the observer, there is no one in the whole class of

Protozoa that surpasses the allurements of the remarkable crea-

ture which forms the subject of the present memoir. This is

accounted for by a twofold reason,—in the first place, because it

possesses such an unlooked-for degree of complication in its

organization ; and secondly, because it seems to stand inter-

mediate between the two great groups of Ciliata—the dewio-

tropic on the one hand, and the /zotropic on the other. The

transitional forms in all departments of the animal kingdom are

eminently suggestive, but none more so than the genus Tricho-

dina. Combining i in one animal the typical forms of two groups,

and yet so singularly individualistic as to be confounded neither

with the one nor with the other, the elaborate solution of the

relations of the various members of its organization to each

other, and the tracing of their homologies with those of the

groups on either side, engage the attention no less deeply, and

none the less worthily, than if it were occupied in the investiga-

tion of the most profound philosophical problem.

An attempt, therefore, at a full life-history of this animal be-

comes an effort at something more than a mere specific description

without an aim; and whatever apparent triviality of detail there

may seem to be in it, the consciousness that no one part of an

organization is without relation to some other part leads the

author to the opinion that an investigator should never under-

take to assume what is of importance and what is not. Itis no

unfrequent occurrence that what at one time has been deemed

worthy of very slight consideration, becomes at another the

paramount object in a course of scientific research. Nature

is not to be represented in full detail by the broad touches and

counterfeiting portraiture of a Vandyck, howsoever striking and

suggestive the likeness may be ; in order to beara closer inspec-

tion, her image must needs be mapped and copied by the more

matter-of-fact hand of the humbler Flemish artist.

§ 1. Hasirat.—tThis species (Pl. VIII., Trichodina pediculus,

Ehr.) is found in great abundance creeping over the body, and

even to the tips of the tentacles, of our common brown and

green freshwater Hydras (H. fusca and H. viridis, Trembley).

Oftentimes it may be seen with the middle of its base applied

directly over the centre of a group of nettling-organs, the former

fitting the latter like a cap, and without seeming to disturb the

Hydra in the least.

Notwithstanding the apparent rigidity of the chitinous unci-

nate ring of the base, the latter possesses the greatest degree of

Phystology of Trichodina pediculus. 405

flexibility, and an unlimited adaptability to whatever surface it

may come upon, no matter how uneven it happens to be. The

intimate structure of the chitmous ring does not interfere in the

least with, but on the contrary appears to assist in, the flexures

of the base. The latter is always the point of attachment ; and

upon this part of the body the animal may be seen, almost at all

times, gliding to and fro like a miniature cup (figs. 1, 2), now

on the upper side of a Hydra, and then on the lower side. At

one moment several individuals are crowded together on a

tentacle, and in the next instant scattered along its length

from base to tip, and giving to it a singular, irregular, changeable

outline. At times the Hydra seems to be strangely knotted,

and ungainly in outline, when, upon close examination, we

ascertain that it is crowded with a swarm of Keronas, upon

several of whose convex backs one, two, or three Trichodinas are

seated, enjoying the pleasure of locomotion without the effort

of producing it. Not unfrequently an individual may be seen to

leave its reptant mode of progress and take to the surround-

ing element. Then it swims, at times very swiftly, either in a

fully expanded state, or half expanded (fig. 4), or even shortens

its length so much that its body resembles a wheel (fig. 5)

rolling on its axis, or turning end for end and performing a

series of somersaults with great rapidity. Presently it returns

to its more quiet mode of life, sliding spectre-like over the

animate surface which forms its principal field of operations.

During its act of reptation it revolves very slowly upon its lon-

gitudinal axis, as if upon a pivot, and most frequently, if not

always, wheels to the right.

§ 2. Specrric ReLatronsuip.—When looking at perfectly

fresh and lively specimens of this Infusorian, one can hardly

believe, at first, that their deep, cyathiform, dicebox-like bodies

(figs. 1, 2) are specifically identical with the straight and

broad cylindrical forms which are figured by Ehrenberg and

Dujardin, or with the turban-shaped bodies which are illus-

trated in the papers of Stein and Busch; but when, upon pro-

longed investigation, we see that the least interference with their

freedom of motion causes them to assume a depressed form and

a partially retracted margin, we recognize their close resem-

blance, at least, to those of the above-named authors. The

former state represents nature in reality; the latter exhibits her

in a disguised shape. It is therefore with no small degree of

reluctance that one concludes to identify the flexible, irregu-

larly funnel-shaped, conspicuously asymmetrical body of the Ame-

rican Trichodina with the seemingly stiff, precisely outlined,

cylindrical or conical figures illustrated in European works ;

but a careful study of this under various conditions, both in re-

406 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Anatomy and

gard to space for movement and the quality of the water, in-

evitably leads to the conclusion that the European figures repre-

sent the creature in an abnormal, or at least a more or less re-

strained condition, certaimly not in a perfectly healthy state.

If a Hydra, upon which some of these animals are living, is

transferred to a flat watch-glass, and the water is frequently re-

newed, there is not the least difficulty in studying this In-

fusorian whilst in its fullest degree of expansion, and even with

a magnifying-power of at least five hundred diameters. In fact

it is absolutely necessary that the body should be fully expanded,

in order to understand the relation and nature of certain parts

of its organism—especially the vestibule and cesophagus, and tlie

contractile vesicle. Ina semiexpanded state of the body these

parts are confused, and it becomes impossible to ascertain their

character with even the least degree of satisfaction. It is on

this account that neither the figures of Stein nor those of Busch

give the faintest idea of what the anterior region of Trichodina is

like; and we actually get a better and truer impression of its

character from the almost forgotten illustrations of Ehrenberg

than from the more modern and what ought to be more correct

delineations of this animal.

§ 3. Form.—The form of the body is like that of a heavy

wine-glass (figs. 1, 2, 8, 14) with a very thick and but slightly ex-

panded base. The plane of the margin of the front, 2. e. the

peristome (d'), lies parallel with that of the base, or “ adherent

organ,” and nearly at right angles to the axis of the body. The

disk (c, c1), or area encompassed by the vibratory crown (8), is

deeply depressed, so that the anterior end of the body, not only

externally but internally, is truly cyathiform. In fully expanded

individuals the depression of the disk extends nearly to half the

depth (at ce) of the body, and occupies at least nine-tenths of the

diameter of this region. At times the animal suddenly recurves

the edge of the cup nearly back to its base, and exposes the

bottom of this hollow in a most convincing manner (fig. 6). _In

partially contracted individuals (fig. 10), the bottom of it be-

comes elevated, and projects like a boss (ec) more or less beyond

the inrolled vibratile organ (b). This is the condition (with

the vibratory cilia more or less projecting) of those figured

by all observers, and especially by Stein and Busch, and a form

which the creature very frequently assumes when in a confined

state.

It is an easy matter to see that their natural and accustomed

shape is as we have represented these animals—if one studies

them undisturbed, as they creep over the body of a Hydra which

is attached to the side of an aquarium. With a Wollaston doublet,

magnifying thirty diameters, or even a Tolles triplet, magnifying

Physiology of Trichodina pediculus. 407

seventy diameters, one may, with great facility, survey, through

the glass sides of an aquarium, the whole body of a Hydra, and

watch the movements of the Trichodinas which infest it. Under

these conditions it is no exaggeration to say that it is very rare

to meet with a Trichodina whose disk protrudes (and that only

momentarily) beyond the plane of the vibratile crown ; on

the contrary it is sunken far below this plane, thus rendering

the region about this part of the body singularly transparent,

light, and airy. This effect is very much enhanced, moreover,

by the excessively transparent filmy exterior wall (p) which

projects, very prominently in profile, between the two ends of

the body.

The contour of the body behind the spiral vibratile crown (6)

is singularly irregular, especially in a transverse direction.

A sectional view (fig. 9) presents the form of an irregular cir-

cle with various projections, inwardly and outwardly, from

its main course. This arises from the fact that the body 1s fluted

and ribbed exteriorly by irregular longitudinal furrows and pro-

jections (Pl. IX. fig. 14, 7, r), which extend from one end of it

to the other. The ribs (r) arise with a broad expanse imme-

diately behind the anterior ciliated margin (d'), and gradually

narrow toward the mid length, and then more gradually expand

to a much less width at the posterior end. At first one is im-

pressed with the idea that they are longitudinal muscles; but

as they are more carefully examined, they do not appear to be

anything but mere thickenings and folds of the body-walls.

The principal cause of the one-sidedness of the body is the

protrusion of the region (figs. 8,11, 13, d, d?) about the mouth

(m) of the vestibule (v), transforming the circular outline of the

vibratile organ (4, b1) into a broad oval figure when this ciliated

margin is foreshortened (fig. 13) and brought into focus with

that part which winds spirally downwards and into (at J?) the

aperture of the vestibule. In the form of the disk, and the cir-

cumambient spiral vibratory crown, we are reminded rather of

Stentor than of the Vorticellide ; nor would it be amiss to sug-

gest here that, in this respect, Trichodina stands intermediate

between the Vorticellidans and the group (Bursarinz) to which

Stentor belongs.

Owing to the presence of the reproductive organ (mn), and the

so-called “ adherent apparatus” (fig. 10, h, 2, J, /'), the expanded

circular base is even more conspicuous than the discal end. It

most frequently presents itself as a rather abruptly widening,

perfectly circular, disciform expansion whose plane trends

transverse to the axis of the body. It varies in form more or

less, according to the surface over which it is creeping—at one

moment sunken (fig. 14) like a cast into a depression of the

408 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Anatomy and

body of the Hydra, and at the next instant assuming the reverse

form (fig. 10), and embracing some projecting group of enide,

or as it were wrapped around the parietes of an extremely elon-

gated tentacle. As a further extension, the base is margined

by an annular membrane, or velum (f, f*), and a single row of

cilia (9 ); both of which serve to render it more conspicuous, and

give to this region of the body the appearance of greater weight

and firmness.

§ 4. THe Prenensite OrGans.—The motory organs appear

to be divided into two groups, of which one is very active in

character, and the other is comparatively passive and resistant.

The members of the former group are the vibratile cilia and

velum; and those of the latter constitute the ‘ adherent organ.”

The vibratory crown.—The vibratile cilia occupy two widely

separate parts of the body, in one place fulfillmg the office of

purveyors of food, and in the other acting as organs of locomo-

tion in the strictest sense. The former are the true prehensile

organs, and, with the margin to which they are attached, con-

stitute the so-called ‘vibratory crown” (6, b', b?).. This organ

lies, in the form of a nearly flat spiral, at the anterior end of

the body, and borders the edge of the cup, which forms the

principal part of the front. It therefore rests on the periphery

of the disk (c, c!, c?), so that a delineation of the one defines the

contour of the other. The spiral commences (5) at the extreme

right of the front, and, sweeping around ventrally and just before

the edge of the mouth (m) of the vestibule (v), passes to the

extreme left, and thence along the dorsal edge of the cup, whence

it passes toward its starting-point on the right, but a little ex-

terior to it, so as to overlap it. Thus far it follows the edge of

the cyathiform disk, and forms a distinct border throughout its

circumference ; but in passing to the termination of its course it

runs along the extreme brink of an inclined plane (figs. 11, 12, c*)

which rests on a cornice-like projection that extends obliquely

across the body, from the right, slightly backwards, toward the

left, as far as the aperture (m) of the vestibule, and then rapidly

narrows and vecomes blended (fig. 13, d*) with the body beyond.

In fact the vestibule (v) is buried for its major part im this

oblique projection, and opens at the widest or terminal part of

the inclined plane which forms the anterior face of the latter.

Consequently the vibratory crown, when followmg the bor-

der (d°) of this plane, passes exterior to, and along the ventral

side of, the aperture of the vestibule, but, instead of going beyond

it, gradually approximates to it, and finally entering at its left

side, and taking an oblique course toward the right, plunges to its

very bottom, in one unbroken, single line (PI. ane fig. 13, 5°).

In the true Vorticellide the disk is a prominently marked

Physiology of Trichodina pediculus. 409

organ, and is more or less elevated above the annular peristome

whereas in the Trichodina before us the peristome (d, d', d’, d*, d®)

is not a closed circle, but is blended with the spiral margin of

the disk (ce, cl, c?, ct); or rather the disk, instead of projecting

beyond the rest of the body, is sunken (c, c!)—invaginated, as

it were—and has a deep cyathiform contour, and its margin 1s

only separated from the peristome (fig. 15, d!) by the slight

furrow (0?) in which the cilia (6) of the vibratory crown are im-

planted. This relationship is strikingly exemplified in another

way ; for when the animal is contracted (fig. 10) and the peri-

stome (d', d?) rolled inwardly, the vibratile row of cilia (b) 1s not

to be found at the bottom of the enclosed space, as is the case

when the like phenomena occurs in Vorticella, Zodthamnium,

Carchesium, and Epistylis, but hangs down into that space,

like a fringed curtain, from the inrolled edge of the peristome.

The distinction between disk and peristome is therefore no more

marked than in Stentor; and, in consequence of the relation of

the two, the peristome, instead of traversing the-ventral side

and forming a complete ring as in the true Vorticellide, de-

scends, with the vibratile organ, to the mouth of the vestibule,

and then vanishes in the general surface of the body.

The vibratile cilia (6) of this organ are very long and slender

thread-like bodies, which stand in close rank, in a single row.

They arise from the bottom of a slight furrow (fig. 15, 5°)

which extends along the inner side of the peristome (d'), from

its beginning (d') on the right, throughout its first turn (d’),

and thence to its termination (d) at the left margin of the aper-

ture of the vestibule. They usually incline in the direction

which leads toward the mouth and along the margin of the

disk (2. e., throughout the extent of the first turn of the spiral),

and they at the same time spread outwardly as if m continua-

tion of the curve of the cup; but occasionally they incline to-

ward the centre of the depressed disk, and produce a vortex

therein by their combined action.

The esophageal cilia—The vibratile cilia which line the ceso-

phagus (0, o') and seem to be continuous with those of the

vibratory crown (b) which enter the vestibule, are much more

delicate and shorter than they; and although they perform an

analogous duty in the preparation of the food before it is finally

taken into the general cavity of the body, yet, inasmuch as they

are occupied in the more special office of moulding the intus-

suscepted matter into nutritive pellets, they in all probability

are to be looked upon as belonging to a separate system from

those of the vibratory organ.

The so-called bristle of the vestibule of Vorticellide, which

was first described as such by Lachmann (Mull. Archiv, 1856,

410 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Anatomy and

p- 348, taf. xiii. figs. 1-5, eg), 1s an optical illusion! It was

almost by accident that we were induced to doubt the character

of this seemingly definite body. After having successfully fol-

lowed two rows of cilia from the stem of the rotatory organ into

and to the very bottom of the vestibule of an Hpistylis (E. galea,

Ehr. ?), it seemed very strange that the “ bristle of Lachmann ”

had not been met with during such a close and searching

scrutiny. Recalling its position, as described by Lachmann and

by Claparéde, and as we thought we had seen it on former

occasions, it was observed that, whilst one of the rows of cilia,

which had just been traced into the vestibule, occupied its right

side, the other row was in the position of the so-called bristle ;

i.e. it trended along the left side of the vestibule. Occasionally

it was noticed that both the right and left rows of cilia had the

appearance of single vibratory lashes, and that the left row,

where it ran out beyond the aperture of the vestibule and

thence upon the stem of the rotatory organ, had a particularly

strong resemblance to a single lash or bristle, especially when

the cilia projected toward the eye, so as to foreshorten the whole

row. In the latter case it 1s easy to see how, when the cilia

vibrated in regular succession, they would produce the effect of

ai undulating line. The closest scrutiny with a Tolles one-

eighth-of-an-inch objective and a B ocular (equalling a magni-

fying-power of 750 diameters) utterly failed to discover the

least trace of anything else which might correspond to the so-

called vestibular bristle ; and it was therefore fully determined

upon that there is no such body existing in the vestibule of the

Epistylis. ‘The same observations were also made upon another

species of Epistylis (2. grandis, Ehr.?), and upon Carchesium

(C. polypinum, Ehr.) and Vorticella (V. nebulifera, Ehr.), with

the same result.

Notwithstanding this forewarning, it was very difficult to

dispel the illusion when the vestibular cilia of Trzchodina were

under investigation. If one observes attentively, however, it

will be noticed, in the first place, that what appears to be a single

cilium or bristle never projects beyond the tips of the cilia,

which lie outside of the aperture of the vestibule ; and secondly,

that when the tips of these cilia are followed along with the eye

the row appears to terminate abruptly, and exactly at that point

there seems to be the end of a bristle; 7. e. the tip of the latter

ends just where the line of ciliary points terminates ; the two are

coincident! Sometimes the point of coincidence is seen oppo-

site the left side of the vestibular aperture, at other times oppo-

site the middle of the same, or considerably to the right of it.

Again, this point of coincidence appears to run rapidly from

left to right, and then back again from right to left, as if the

Physiology of Trichodina pediculus. 411

tip of the bristle were sweeping along the row of cilia and

pushing them back in succession. In addition to this, it will be

noticed that the end of this false bristle varies in thickness from

moment to moment during the shifting of the pomt of coin-

cidence ; and fina!ly it may be remarked that it frequently seems

to be broken into a series of dots, or short irregular pieces.

This last feature gives the clue to the mystery. The apparently

disjointed pieces of the tip of the false bristle are nothing more

or less than the foreshortened points of the closely approxi-

mated successive cilia as they project towards the eye during

the descent of the row into the vestibule. The point of coin-

cidence mentioned above is the place where the row bends

abruptly towards the aperture of the vestibule ; and the shifting

of this pot is the changing of the trend of the ciliary tips.

The line of attachment of the cilia is not changeable, and it may

be readily traced to the bottom of the vestibule ; but the cilia,

whilst projecting at various and constantly diversified angles

from their base of attachment, are so disposed that their ap-

proximated tips form a frequently varymg undulating line.

That the “ bristle ” sometimes unaccountably disappears

during observation, arises from the fact that the cilia have so

changed their position that they do not afford a view which

presents the appearance of such a body. Usually, however, the

cilia are curved transversely to the axis of the vestibule, so that

they form as it were a cylinder of juxtaposed hoops or circles ;

and it is not to be wondered at, therefore, that in almost any

position the outline of this cylinder should appear as a single

line or filament. In a view directly into the aperture of the

vestibule the bristle, so called, is not to be seen, for the very

reason that the cylinder is presented endwise; and on this

account, too, the vestibule appears to have a double contour, the

inner one of these contours being nothing less than the series

of curved cilia placed closely side by side and trending trans-

versely to the axis of the cavity in question. This is a particu-

larly facile observation in Vorticella, and none the less so in

Carchesium. Finally, it may be said on this pomt—and, coming

last, it is of no less importance than what has preceded, but, on

the contrary, is worthy of the utmost consideration in an optical

point of view—that were the so-called bristle a genuine body

it would be in focus at only one particular adjustment of the

lens ; whereas we find that, having obtained what appears to be

a clear and definite view of a filament, it does not go out of view

by a change of the focus over a considerable extent above or

below that horizon. This, one may readily perceive, would be

the case in observing the outline of a transparent cylinder ; and

as the closely approximated curved cilia form such a cylinder,

412 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Anatomy and

the outline of the latter is hkewise as variable as that of any

other similar form.

§ 5. Tar Locomotive Orcans.—The locomotive organs are

divided into three quite distinct sets, and appear to have as

many diverse offices. They are all situated at the extreme

posterior end of the body. Taken in their order, they stand

thus :—lIst, a veil, or membranous annular margin (f, f!) ; 2nd,

a row of vibratile cilia (7), which lies immediately behind the

veil; and 3rd, a complex “adherent organ,’ in the form of a

circle of centrifugal hooks (figs. 10, 17, 18, 4) and centripetal

rays (2) which are firmly attached to the truncate posterior face

of the body.

The velum (f, f!) is merely an excessively thinned margin of

the abruptly expanded, truncate, circular base. It has a breadth

which is at least one-third as great as the length of the vibratile

cilia (g), which are attached in a single row immediately behind

its basal edge (fig. 17, f°). The free edge (f!) of the velum is

smooth and regularly curved. It is not very difficult to dis-

tinguish from the closely set row of cilia (g) just posterior to it.

Although these cilia move so uniformly in concert, or in regular

succession, as to appear at times like a vibrating frilled margin

(fig. 10), yet when they are nearly quiet the veil may be dis-

tinctly seen (especially with a one-eighth-of-an-inch objective)

as an overlying, separately undulating membrane. With

oblique light, at about twenty degrees from direct illumination,

the velar edge is very conspicuous, and may be seen to be mar-

gined by a thickening (fig. 17) which is easily traced across the

whole width of the body, and at a decidedly different focus from

that in which the bases of the vibratile cilia underlie it. Ina

profile view it may be recognized as an abruptly terminating,

marginal, tongue-like projection, vibrating by fits and starts

(fig. 11, f), at the periphery of the circular base.

The basal vibratile cilia (g) form a complete, symmetrical

circle about the truncate posterior end of the body. They are

more delicate and much longer than those of the anterior vibra-

tory crown (d), and arise, m a single, closely set row, from a

slightly projecting annular ridge which immediately subtends

the line of attachment of the velum. This annular ridge, as will

be seen presently, is the border (figs. 10, 17, 7!) of the ad-

herent organ. Owing to their excessive fineness, the close

proximity in which they are set, and the almost uniform succes-

sion with which one cilium follows the other in the series of

vibrations, this system gives to the unaccustomed eye the im-

pression of an undulating frimge-like membrane, when it is

viewed with only a moderate magnifying-power; but with an

amplification of five hundred diameters, if the objective be a

Physiology of Trichodina pediculus. 413

good one, one may trace the cilia to their very bases, with the per-

fect confidence of not having seen amiss, and at the same time

satisfy himself conclusively that they are unequivocally distinct

from the veil which lies in front of them. There can be no

hesitation, therefore, in pronouncing the veil and the vibratile

row of cilia to be two distinct and separate systems, with no con-

nexion whatever other than a close proximity of attachment to

the basal margin of the body, and their similar duties in the

process of locomotion ™~.

The adherent organ (figs. 10, 17, h,.i, 2) is a complex appa-

ratus, which altogether forms a thin circular disk, whose border

(/') reaches to the margin of the base, or, in other words, to the

inner edge or line of attachment (f?) of the velum (f).

About one-third of the radius of the adherent organ, at the

peripheral margin, is occupied by a sétriated annular membrane

(2, 2, 1?, 08, 4, &), which is separable from the rest of the appa-

ratus. It lies in front of the centrifugally projecting hooks (A),

but closely pressed against them, and extends centripetally

(to J) as far as their bases. This membrane is possessed of two

sets of striz, which radiate from its inner to its outer margin. One

set of strie occupy the anterior face (fig. 17, /' to /4), and are

comparatively quite coarse (/?), and m number about ninety-six,

i.e. four times the number of the hooks (/) of this organ. They

le wide apart, and are arranged so uniformly that two traverse

the interval between every two hooks, and two overlap every

hook, where they run to the proximal margin (/°) of the mem-

brane. In dead or dying specimens this membrane becomes

folded or wrinkled (fig. 16, /') transversely, and then these striz

(?) overlap each other and appear to fork more or less, or seem

to be linear processes, divergent from the curved ends of the

hooks (A)+.

* See the note on the “adherent organ” at the end of this section,

. 415.

+ In the ‘ Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History’ for

November 6, 1850, p. 354, Prof. L. Agassiz makes the following statement in

regard to the relation of Trichodina to the Meduse, and especially in re-

ference to these apparently forked, radiatimg striz, which remind one of

the numerous radiating tubes of certain Hydroid Acalephz. He says :—

“These parasites at times leave the Hydra and swim free, changing their

form in a remarkable degree. In addition to the mternal ring, he was able

to trace rays going from the hooks to the margin, divided into numerous

branches, and also rays proceeding toward the centre from this ring ; the

margin has a fringed undulating edge, under the tentacles. By feeding

them with colours, he was able to see that the internal folds are the margin

of a mouth, as in Rhacostoma; so that these parasites on Hydra are dimi-

nutive Meduse. In the egg of Hydra, he had been able to trace all the

forms from a segmental yolk to these parasites ; the freshwater Hydra is

the Polypoid form of Meduse, while these parasites are the Medusoid

form.”

414 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Anatomy and

The other or posterior set of strie (l4, ) is much more

readily detected than the anterior one, and the stri@ are about

three times as numerous. They are so closely set together that

it is a difficult matter to count them, although viewed with a

one-eighth-of-an-inch objective. They extend, like those of the

anterior set, over the whole breadth of the membrane, and, ter-

minating abruptly at the peripheral margin (/', /*), give to the

thickened edge a milled appearance. This milling is, moreover,

rendered conspicuous by an incrassated, scalloped “border (7), in

which the striz (/*) of the front set terminate*. The striated

membrane is very flexible, and is frequently made to undulate,

apparently by the successive impacts of the vibrating cilia.

The apparently most important members of the adherent

organ are the hooks (h). They vary in number from twenty-

two to twenty-four, and curve in a direction which is diametri-

cally opposite to the upward coil of the vibratory organ; 7. e.

they are leotropic. They are separate pieces, of an £-formed

(fig. 18, 4,4?) shape ; the upright part of the £ being the hook (h)

proper, and the horizontal limb (43) the base of it. These £’s are

arranged in a circle with their horizontal limbs all pointing one

way—. e. the same as the upright part or hook—and nearly or

quite touch each other, according to circumstances. A spur-like,

slender point (4?) projects from the horizontal part, in the oppo-

site direction, and is about half as long as the latter. Along

this spur and the convex side of the hook a broad, lunate crest

(k) arises, and, nearly filling the interval between two succeeding

hooks, projects peripherally beyond the tips of the latter. This

crest is excessively faint, and not recognizable as a distinct body

unless the striated membrane is removed ; although it is to be

If this be true, then the whole group of Vorticellidee (from which no one

would for a moment think of separating Trichodina) must be removed to

the class of Acalephe! We must, for own part, however, unequivocally

dissent from this view, since it is quite at variance with our own observa-

tions. But, again, according to another, more recent statement of Prof.

Agassiz, in his ‘ Essay on Glnssiecabious (Boston, 1857, p. 72; London

ed., 1859, p. 108), he has satisfied himself of the “propriety of uniting

the Vorticellide with Bryozoa,” 7. e. the group of Vorticellide ; and con-

sequently the Acalephan (vide preceding paragraph) Trichodina is Mol-

lusean! From this view, also, we would modestly, but unequivocally, dis-

sent, not only as the result of our own investigation, but in accordance

with the observations of other very competent authorities. This view

would also seem to argue that the Bryozoa—if they do not strictly belong,

with Polypi, to the eS Radiata, as is insisted upon by other and

eminent authority—are at least a transitional group between Radiata and

Mollusca.

* The separation of these two sets of strie, or radiating ridges, is an

excellent test of the quality of a quarter-inch objective ; a one-eighth-of-

an-inch lens can do it easily.

Physiology of Trichodina pediculus. 415

seen when in place, especially where it projects beyond the tip of

the hook, and forms with the others a succession of scallops

(fig. 17, &) lying in a circle parallel with the margin (/') of the

striated membrane.

Immediately within the row of hooks a series of nazl-shaped

pieces (i, 2”) extends im a circle, and they are arranged in such

order that each one lies opposite the horizontal part (43) of a

hook. The pointed, conical head (2?) of the nail-shaped piece

corresponds in position with the pomt of contact of the bases of

two successive hooks, and at the broadest part protrudes side-

ways between the latter. The tip of the nail-head projects be-

tween the point (74) of the succeeding nail and the base (A?) of a

hook, the two latter constituting a sort of socket in which the

former appears to slide. This would seem to show conclusively

that this complicated ring may be enlarged or diminished at the

will of the animal.

The faint radiating ridges (7) which occupy the central two-

thirds of the adherent apparatus are attached one by one to the

point (74) of the nail-shaped body just mentioned, and at right

angles to it. The basal third of these radi is easily seen with

a one-fourth-inch objective ; but even a one-eighth does not dis-

tinctly trace the pointed end to the centre of this apparatus.

Each radius (i) and the nail-shaped body (2!, 2?) seem to form a

solid piece, a sort of Greek I’ whose angle is occupied by a

faint membrane, or web (73), which extends from one-third to

one-half the way along the nail, and nearly, or altogether, to the

end of the tapering radius. This faint membrane appears to

fill the whole space between the radii, in healthy animals.

In dying specimens the adherent organ readily separates

from the body, en masse; but shortly afterwards the striated

membrane loosens from the circle of hooks ; and in a brief space

of time the latter becomes disjomted, and each hook detaches

from its fellow, but remains for a longer period in conjunction

with its corresponding radius and nail-shaped piece *.

* Various opinions (and all of them at variance with the one promul-

gated in this paper) have been expressed in regard to the nature of the ad-

herent apparatus and its motory appendages, the vibratile row of cilia.

Siebold (Zeitschr. fiir wissenschaftl. Zool. Bd. i. p. 367), as the following

translation shows, has mistaken the row of vibratile cilia ( g) for an undu-

lating membrane and has entirely overlooked the velum (f). He says,

‘** Among the Infusoria, the genus Trichodina is endowed with a distinct,

undulating membrane, which, applied to the lower margin of the body, in

the form of a circle, adheres to, and is supported by, a solid toothed ap-

paratus not unlike a watch-wheel. In Trichodina pediculus this vibrating

border is entire-margined ; in T. mitra... . the free border of this appears

to be deeply and delicately frmged. Trembley, Goeze, O. I’. Miiller, Carus,

Dujardin, and others have, in consequence of an optical illusion, considered

this undulating membrane in T. pediculus to be a vibrating-cilia-crown.”

416 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Anatomy and

§ 6. Tur Dicrstive System.—This infusorian takes so

readily to an indigo diet that the process of collecting food and

forming it into pellets at the bottom of the cesophagus and its

passage into the general cavity of the body may be seen at any

time, and without any particular preparation. On this account

it is no difficult task to ascertain the position of the mouth and

the trend of the vestibule and cesophagus, as well as the pos-

terior termination of the latter.

The vestibule (v) is as distinct from the cesophagus (0) as in

most of the Vorticellide. Its aperture (m) is very broad, and

diverges almost insensibly into the peristome (d). It passes

into the body in a direction which is in strict continuation

(fig. 13) of the spiral trend of the border (d) of the disk ;

that is to say, it winds posteriorly, dorsally, and toward the

Stein (Infusionsthiere, 1854, p. 176) controverts the assertion of Siebold,

and insists that the “undulating membrane” of the latter is a crown of

cilia; but yet, as in Siebold’s case, the velum has entirely escaped his no-

tice. He writes as follows :—‘‘ The posterior cilia-crown . . . on account

of the very closely set cilia, does certainly readily produce the impres-

sion of an undulating membrane margining the rear-body, which, not only

in T. mitra, but also in T. pediculus, appears to be denticulately notched ;

but let one kill the animal with diluted acetic acid or alcohol, and he

will separate each single cilium sharply. That the posterior cilia-crown is

connected neither with the toothed horn-ring nor with the annuliform

membrane, let one convince himself thereof by crushing the animal, by

which one easily separates the entire adherent apparatus, in all its inte-

grity, from the body.”

Next Busch (Mill. Archiv, 1855, p. 358) appears in the field of contro-

versy, and, commenting upon the observations of the two foregoing authors,

makes a compromise between their views by uniting the vibratile cilia to the

edge of the undulating membrane. This idea is set forth in the following

words :—‘“‘ On the so-called hind body is found the (by Stein first very

correctly described) saucer-shaped rim, on whose base is fastened the ring

of the rigid-baton crown, from which the hooks arise. On the foundation

of, and exterior to, the saucer-shaped membrane is implanted the chief

locomotive organ of the animal, the posterior cilia-crown. Siebold has

explaimed this as an undulating membrane, whilst Stein has evidently re-

cognized the separate cilia of the same, and only speaks of a cilia-crown.

The truth seems to me to lie intermediate ; for though I clearly observed

the single cilia, especially im dying animals, yet I could never follow them

to the margin of the saucer, unless a fissure was present. This organ

consists, then, of a membranous undulating border, on whose free edge

vibratile cilia are inserted. One may convince himself best of this on

dying animals, where one sees the gentle pulsations of the border and the

cilia.” Although it is certain that Busch did not see the velum, as such,

and in its proper relations, yet it is not equally clear that he did not have

it in view, but confounded it with the row of vibratile cilia which under-

lie it. ;

Finally, as the latest investigator, Claparéde (Etudes sur les Infusoires et

les Rhizopodes, Mémoires de l'Institut Geneévois, 1858-59, p. 130) sus-

tains the view of Stein, demurs to the opinions of Siebold and Busch, and

says nothing about the true velum.

Physiology of Trichodina pediculus. 417

right side of the body. In an end view (fig. 13) of the animal,

the vestibule narrows rapidly from its aperture to its bottom,

whereas when seen in profile (fig. 8,v) the diminution of its

diameter is more gradual. When the body is fully expanded,

its aperture (m) is always open, and is circular, or broadly oval

(fig. 12,m), in outline. This aperture lies just behind and ex-

terior to the first spiral turn (fig. 11,5! to d®) of the vibratory

margin of the cyathiform disk, and receives the termination

(tig. 13, 5?) of that spiral within its depths. It might there-

fore, with propriety, be designated as the internal prolongation

of the disk.

The anus (Pl. IX. figs. 12, 18, a@).—When the anus is open,

which not unfrequently happens, it appears as a distinctly

bounded, seemingly margined aperture, which lies very con-

spicuously on the right side of the vestibule, and near its mouth.

The esophagus (0, 0'), in conjunction with the vestibule (v),

is an elongate-sigmoid (fig. 13) funnel-shaped cavity, which ex-

tends obliquely backwards and across the body, nearly to its axis.

When not in the act of taking in food, the cesophagus terminates

in a fusiform point or pharynx, and may be recognized as a

clear colourless space in the midst of the light-yellow tissue of

the body. From the point where it joins the bottom of the

vestibule it curves to the left, and thus forms the dorsal termi-

nation of the sigmoid. In a profile view (fig. 8, 0,0!) it hes

nearly parallel with the proximate or ventral surface of the

body. When the pellets of food are forming, its posterior fusi-

form termination (0!)—the so-called pharynx—gradually ex-

pands into a globular cavity, which eventually exceeds in dia-

meter the breadth of the mouth; but as soon as the food passes

into the general digestive cavity, it assumes its accustomed

funnel-shaped outlime. As has already been stated in the

section on prehensile organs, it is lined by vibratile cilia, which,

it may be added here, seem to cover its whole interior.

The digestive cavity—Beyond the cesophagus there is no

special cavity for the preparation or assimilation of food; the

latter passes from the posterior end of the former through a

simple expansible aperture directly into the general digestive

cavity. The final assimilation of the food is accomplished, as in all

other Vorticellidans, in a space which embraces every part of

the body except that which is immediately occupied by the con-

tractile vesicle (cv) and the reproductive organ (7). This space,

therefore, serves both the purpose of a stomach and intestine ;

nor does it appear to have any accessory glands or appendages

of whatever kind that may assist in the process of digestion.

The walls of the body, therefore, form the immediate parietes

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 3. Vol. xvii. 27

418 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Anatomy and

of the digestive cavity. There are, at least, two cf these walls.

The inner one (p!) consists of a clear, amber-coloured, homo-

geneous, formless tissue, in which all the organs are imbedded.

The other, or exterior wall (p), embraces the inner one like a

film, and has more of the character of a colourless excretion

than a true tissue. It is thickest about midway between the

two ends of the body, and gradually thins out to an incon-

spicuous stratum at the anterior and posterior borders. Its

surface is beset with excessively minute, short cilia, which,

although occasionally and with great difficulty seen to move,

cannot be called vibratile cilia in a strict sense, but rather

pointed roughenings which are agitated by the varied con-

tractions and expansions of the tissue from which tbey arise.

The thickness of this wall is more or less deeply corrugated,

principally in a longitudinal direction (fig. 14,7,7), and to a

certain extent independently of the irregular folds and furrows

on the outer surface of the inner wall *.

§ 7. Tue Crrcutatory System.—It would seem a little re-

markable, at first thought, that the Vorticellide, which hold the

highest rank among Infusoria, should possess a circulatory

system which, in all but one genus, seems as simple in cha-

racter as that of the lowest forms of the class, and apparently

much less complicated than in Stentor and Paramecium and

others of the leotropic division. If, however, we look upon the

numerous contractile vesicles of Amphileptus, Trachelius, &c., as

indications of a diffuse, lowly organized circulatory system, and

upon the fewer branching vesicles of Paramecium, Spirostomum,

Stentor, &c., as tendencies to a greater degree of concentration,

then the unique contractile organ of Vorticellidans would repre-

sent the consummation of this process, and consequently the

most elevated status of the system as it exists in this class of

animals.

The contractile vesicle (cv) of Trichodina is a simple cavity

which lies near the ventral side (figs. 8, 11) of the animal, a

little to the left of the axial plane (figs. 12, 13), and conse-

quently on the same side of the cesophagus, and about halfway

between the anterior and posterior truncate ends of the bodyt.

It contracts once in fifteen seconds. The systole occupies

* See, for further details, the section (§ 3) on the form of the body.

+ There is a singular error im Stein’s figure (Infusionsthiere, 1854,

taf. vi. fig. 56) of the animal as seen from the basalend. The view of the

base is underlain by a view of the anterior end of the body; but the

latter is posited as of seen from the front. To correct it, the contractile

vesicle should lie to the right of the cesophagus, and the sigmoid flexure of

the vestibule and cesophagus should be reversed.

Physiology of Trichodina pediculus. 419

between two and three seconds, and the diastole proceeds slowly

and continuously during the remainder of the quarter of a

minute, until the vesicle has attained its maximum size (figs. 8,

11, 13, 14), and then it immediately contracts again. In speci-

mens which are confined, or in the least restrained in their

movements, the systole and diastole succeed each other much

less frequently. At the full diastole the vesicle is perfectly

globular, and occupies at least one-third of the diameter of the

mid region of a fully expanded animal. The systole reduces it

to an almost invisible point ; and from this it gradually expands,

first into a jagged (fig. 10, cv) star-like cavity, then into an

irregular spheroid (fig. 12), and finally assumes, at full diastole,

a globular contour.

§ 8. Tur Rupropuctive Sysrem.—As these observations

extend over but a few days (mostly at the beginning of October

of this year), the different phases in the development of the

nucleus were not investigated. At the period just mentioned,

this organ (n,n!) had the form of a thick, knotted, or monili-

form band, which extended in a uniform curve, over three-

quarters of a circle, around the truncate base, and in a direction

exactly transverse to the axis of the body. Its two ends (n!)

lay next the ventral side, and right and left of the plane which

passes through the cesophagus; and its breadth ran parallel

with the axis of the body. It had a decidedly yellow colour,

and was finely granulated throughout. In profile, or rather m

a foreshortened view of its length, it was quite conspicuous ;

but where it extended across the vision, it was so excessively

faint as to nearly escape the eye, even though the utmost care

was taken to ascertain its presence and exact position.

§ 9. Resume*.—Reducing, now, the details which have been

given in this memoir to the briefest expressions, we have the

following summary in an aphoristic form. In its healthy, un-

restrained condition, Zrichodina pediculus is very dissimilar to

the hitherto published representations of it. The illustrations

of Ehrenberg, Dujardin, Stein, and Busch represent the animal

in an abnormal, more or less reverted attitude, the result of

studying the animal in a confined state, or when in an un-

healthy condition. It has a deep, cyathiform, or dice-box shape,

with an irregularly and longitudinally furrowed and plicated

exterior. There is no disk, or it is represented by the depressed

cupuliform area which is bordered by the vibratory crown. The

peristome is not a closed circle, as in Vorticellidee proper, but

* The principal points of this résumé are to be found in the ‘ Proceedings

of the Boston Society of Natural History,’ Oct. 18, 1865.

a7t

420 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Anatomy and

follows the spiral course of the vibratory crown, and vanishes

near the aperture of the vestibule. The vibratory crown con-

sists of a single row of vibrating cilia, which winds along the

margin of the spiral dexiotropic peristome, just at the edge of

the cupuliform disk, and descends thence to the left of the

vestibular aperture, and, entering it, plunges to the bottom of

the vestibule in an unbroken line. Neither Trichodina nor

any of the Vorticellidze possesses a vestibular lash or bristle ; and

the latter is an optical illusion. The posterior truncate end of

the body is margined by a well-defined annular velum, imme-

diately behind which, and arising from the same basis, is a com-

plete circle of vibrating cilia. The so-called adherent organ, or

apparatus of hooks and radii, consists, first, of a distinct, sepa-

rable, annular border, whose opposite faces are dissimilarly

striated by perfectly straight, transverse ridges ; secondly, of a

complicated circle of disseverable hooks, which are applied to

the posterior face of the striated annular border, along its

proximal edge; and thirdly, of a series of I'-shaped radu, which

le one by one opposite the several hooks, and converge toward

the axis of the basal plane of the body. The vestibule and ceso-

phagus are as well marked, each in its own way, as in any of the

Vorticellidee. The vestibule opens near, and posterior to, the

cilia-crowned margin of the sunken cupuliform disk. The anus

opens into the vestibule a short distance from its mouth, and

on the right side. The contractile vesicle is a simple cavity,

which performs its systole once in fifteen seconds. The repro-

ductive organ is a knotted band whose antero-posterior thick-

ness is much greater than at right angles to that ; and it lies, in

the form of a crescent, near the base and transverse to the lon-

gitudinal axis of the body.

The extraordinary and almost incomprehensible position and

form of the disk of this singular appendage of the Vorticellidan

group seem to render it desirable that no pains should be spared

to make the relations of its organs to each other as clear to the

understanding as it is possible to do with the help of figures.

The accompanying diagrammatic illustration of a longitudinal,

sectional, or rather profile, view of Trichodina pediculus is parti-

cularly intended to exhibit the outline of the sunken cup-shaped

disk (c, c!) and its close connexion with the peristome (d!, a?) ;

but, in addition to this, it is designed to show, in an outline

sketch, the relations of the internal organs to the walls of the

body. The contractile vesicle (cv), not being strictly in the

plane of the section, is represented in dotted outline. The nu-

cleus (m) is cut across its middle. The sigmoid figure of the

Physiology of Trichodina pediculus. 421

vestibule (v) and cesophagus (0), being seen as it were edgewise,

is foreshortened upon a flat surface. The lettering is the same

as that used for the figures of the plates.

b GH Clas c ch

| ARETE GaN Ry FAG THEY WORT BMT HR

| 7

Gan: SDD

EEN

PINS

\ YY

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

The corresponding parts in all the figures of the plate and the wood-

cut are lettered alike as follows :—a, anus; 0, vibratory crown; 51, begin-

ning of the vibratory crown; 67, end of the vibratory ‘crown within the

vestibule ; 5°, furrow of the vibratory crown; c¢, the bottom of the cupuli-

form disk; c', the side of the disk; c?, the side of the disk rolled back ;

c*, a front view of the disk; c‘4, the “inclined plane” which lies upon the

cornice-like oblique projection below the aperture of the vestibule ; cv, the

contractile vesicle; d, the peristome opposite the vestibular aperture ;

d‘, the dorsal region of the peristome; d’, the inrolled edge of the peri-

stome ; d*, the peristome at the edge of the inclined plane (c*); d‘, the

peristome where it becomes blended with the general surface of the body ;

d°, the first turn or ventral region of the peristome; e, the lumen of the

edge of the row of vibrating cilia, hitherto supposed to be a distinct vesti-

bular lash (“ bristle’); f, the profile of the velum; f, the free edge of the

velum; f*, the basal edge or line of attachment of the velum; g, the basal

422 Prof. H. James-Clark on the Anatomy and

cilia-crown; h, the hooks of the adherent organ; h!, the circle formed by

the bases of the hooks; A’, the spur of 4; A’, the horizontal limb of the

hook ; 7, the radii; 7, the “nail-shaped piece ;” 7, the head of the same;

i, the “ faint membrane”’ or web of the T-shaped radii; 7*, the pomt of

the nail-shaped piece; k, the crest of the hooks; /, the profile of the

“striated membrane ;”’ /', the distal edge of the last; /?, the coarser strize

of the same, on its front face; /°, the proximal edge of the same; /*, 1°, a

portion of the posterior face of the striated membrane, showing the finer

strie ; m, the mouth of the vestibule; , the nucleus, or reproductive or-

gan; n', the left end of the nucleus; 0, the cesophagus; o', the bottom of

the same ; p, the outer, and p’, the inner walls of the body; q, digestive

vacuole ; 7, longitudinal ridges on the surface of the body; s, the general

digestive cavity ; v, the vestibule.

All the figures represent the whole or portions of Trichodina pedicu-

lus, Ehr.

Puate VIII.

Fig. 1. An individual in the fullest degree of expansion. This is the most

common form of the animal. 200 diameters.

Fig. 2. Another, less frequent form of a fully expanded individual. 200 diam.

- Fig. 3. An attitude occasionally, but briefly, assumed by healthy specimens.

The body is simply shortened, but without changing or reversing

the relative position of the organs. 200 diam.

Figs. 4 & 5. Shapes assumed when swimming, different from those already

described. 200 diam.

Fig. 6. An individual with the edge of the cup-shaped front (disk) rolled

back so as to expose the bottom of the cup. 200 diam.

Fig. 7. A partially retracted individual, with one side of the cupuliform

front rolled back. 200 diam.

Fig. 8. A profile view of the left side, showing the following parts : viz.,

the left flank (c*) of the front partially reverted, and the right

flank im the distance bearmg the vibratory crown (b); the

bottom (c) of the cupuliform disk in the distance, and its flank

in profile (c'); the contractile vesicle (cv), at full diastole, lying

near the ventral side of the body ; the peristome (d) opposite the

mouth (m), i.e. where the cilia—of the vibratory crown (b)—

leave it and enter the vestibule (v), also the profile (d+) of the

same at the dorsal margin; the falsely called vestibular lash

(bristle) (e) apparently attached near the dorso-anterior side of

the vestibule; the velum in profile (f), and nearer the observer

(at f!) overhanging the base of the posterior row of cilia (9) ;

the ring (h!) of hooks of the adherent organ foreshortened,

i. e. seen strictly edgewise ; the left half (m') of the nucleus most

conspicuous next the back, where its length is foreshortened ;

the cesophagus (0 to o'), partially filled by a nutritive pellet in the

process of formation and rapidly revolved by the action of the

vibratile cilia; the filmy, colourless outer wall (p) projecting very

conspicuously in profile, and in marked contrast with the bright

amber-coloured mner one (p'); the general digestive cavity, oc-

cupied by numerous “digestive vacuoles”’ (q), nutritive pellets,

and smaller alimentary concretions; the wide aperture (m) of the

vestibule (v), and the latter obliquely traversed by the posterior

termination of the spiral vibratory crown. 850 diam.

Fig. 9. A transversely sectional view of the mid region of the body, to

show its irregular contour and the corrugations of the outer ( p)

and inner (p') walls. 850 diam.

Physiology of Trichodina pediculus. 423

Fig. 10. A dorsal view of an individual whose peristome (d’, d?) is inrolled,

and with it the vibratory crown (4), which hangs down into the

enclosed space about the partially raised boss-like bottom (c) of

the disk. The contractile vesicle (cv) is in partial diastole. The

nucleus (7) lies next the back. The principal feature in this

figure is the adherent apparatus (i, h, 0, l'), which is copied whilst

in the act of embracing a highly convex surface, and has

therefore an inverted saucer-shaped contour. The radii (7) are in

the extreme distance; the hooks (4) project in the opposite direc-

tion; the striated membrane shows its breadth in the profile (7),

and exhibits its milled edge (/') and the coarser striz where it

projects toward the observer. The velum (f) is at its fullest

expansion, and allows its thickened margin (f1) to be seen very

distinctly where it overlies the gaps between the groups of

vibrating cilia (g). The cilia of the basal vibratory crown are

represented as they appear sometimes when moving in groups or

successive waves, and when they most resemble a torn, undulating

membrane. 6.9 diam.

Fig. 11. A bird’s-eye viev of the left side and of the anterior end of the

body, partially exposing the depressed face (c*) of the cupuliform

disk. The vibratory crown (4) is displayed throughout its length,

from its beginning (6') on the right side, over its spiral sweep by

the ventral and dorsal sides, and thence to its downward coil into

the mouth (m) of the vestibule. The peristome follows the same

course as the vibratory crown, and appears as a distinct rim (d%,

d®) just outside the base of the cilia, until, after descending along

the edge (d*) of the inclined plane (c*), it vanishes on the left of

the mouth (m). The false vestibular lash (e) or lumen of the

vibrating tips of the cilia. The velum (f, f), shown very clearly

in the profile (f), projecting like a tongue, and undulating m-

dependently of the vibratory cilia (g). The circle (h) of hooks

and the striated membrane are drawn but just distinct enough to

show their position. The mouth (m) of the vestibule appears as

an oval aperture, lying between the first (d°) and second (d*) coils

of the peristome. The cesophagus (0) is very much expanded at

its bottom by a fully formed nutritive pellet, just at the moment

when the latter is about to be passed into the digestive cavity.

The nucleus (n, n') lies fully in view, with its left end (n) nearest

the observer, and its right half in the distance beyond the con-

tractile vesicle (cv). 650 diam.

PLATE IX.

Fig. 12. A bird’s-eye view of the ventral side and front of a slightly re-

tracted individual, exposing the dorsal flank (c?) of the eupuliform

disk. The anus (qa) appears as a distinct opening (when the feces

are making their exit) at the right side of the vestibule, whose

interior is here partially exposed in the full-face view of the

gaping mouth (m). The descent of the vibratory crown along

the edge (d*) of the inclined plane (ct) is its most noteworthy

feature in this view. Its beginning (6!) on the right side of the

front is also clearly brought out. The dorsal flank (c%) of the

cup-shaped disk presents an unobstructed view, but its bottom (¢)

is seen in profile through the side of the body. Its extension in

the form of the inclined plane (c*) has already been noticed.

The contractile vesicle (cv) is represented in partial systole, a

very marked feature when contrasted with its hemidiastole

424 On the Anatomy and Physiology of Trichodina pediculus.

(fig. 10, cv). The peristome is particularly noticeable as a dis-

tinct border (d*) along the edge of the inclined plane (c*), and

for its disappearance at the left side of the mouth (m). The

pseudo-vestibular lash (e) or tips of the vibrating cilia raised

above the position which they usually occupy, and in the attitude

assumed during the expulsion of the feeces. The velum (f, f) is

only partially expanded. From the position of the animal, the

basal cilia (g) are exposed at full length. The hooks and radii

of the adherent apparatus (/) are but dimly seen through the

corrugated walls of the body. From its peculiar position in this

view, the vestibule is seen through the open mouth (m). The

moniliform nucleus (n) is seen in the extreme distance; its

right (7) and left ends are foreshortened, and appear as two very

conspicuous, dark-yellow, oval spots, easily seen even with a low

magnifying-power. 650 diam.

Fig. 13. An end view of the anterior face, looking directly into the cupu-

liform disk (c#), and through its walls upon the various organs.

The ventral region corresponds to the lower side of the figure.

The anus (a) appears as a faint slit on the right border of the

vestibule (v). The vibratory crown (b) commences abruptly on

the right (5!) side, and appears clearly defined as a spiral just

within the peristome (d!), and equally well marked where it forms

a curve (4?) at the bottom of the vestibule (v). It is quite evi-

dent, from this view, that the disk (c*) is inseparable from the

peristome (d!), except by the slight, narrow furrow from which

the cilia arise. The peristome is designated by a double border

(d') (the outer and imner walls) along the spiral course of the

vibratory row (0, b'); but at the mouth (at d) of the vestibule (v)

it loses that character, and gradually shades off (at d*) into the

surrounding surface. The lumen of the vibrating row of cilia—

the vestibular lash (e) falsely so called—appears distinct from

this point of view. The contractile vesicle (cv) is in full diastole.

Its distance from the ventral side of the body is rendered appa-

rently unusual by the expanse of the disk (c?). The circle (h, h’)

of hooks and the radii are in the extreme distance, the hooks

partially overlain by the knotted nucleus (n,') and the cesopha-

gus (0). The cesophagus (0) is in a scarcely expanded state,

having but a few granules within it. The principal feature is its

decidedly marked curve in the opposite direction to that of the

vestibule (v). The “ digestive vacuoles” (q, q) lie nearest the

observer. 650 diam.

Fig. 14. A dorsal view of the body. The leotropic leaning of the cilia (0)

of the vibratory crown is more decidedly marked than in the

previous figures. The bottom (c) and flank (c’) of the cup-shaped

disk are seen in strict profile through the corrugations (r) and

furrows of the outer (p) and inner (p') walls. The contractile

vesicle (cv) is in the extreme distance, at its full diastole. The

peristome (d') appears as a distinct ridge just exterior to the

vibratory crown. The velum(f) is in a semi-expanded state.

The cilia (g) of the basal crown are stretched to their full length.

The circle () of hooks is scarcely recognizable as such in an

edge view like this. The nucleus (m) lies next the observer.

The outer wall (p), as in previous figures, bristles with numerous

immobile, short cilia. The inner wall (p') is dotted everywhere

by a minute scattered granulation. The longitudinal ridges (7)

of the body bear a singular resemblance to muscles. 650 diam.

Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorns of the Amazons. 425

Fig. 15. A diagrammatic enlargement of the edge of the disk, principally

to show how the cilia (0) arise from the furrow (6°), and also the

relation of the peristome (d') to the furrow. The outer (p) and

inner (p') walls are represented in their relative proportions.

Fig. 16. A portion of the adherent apparatus, from a dead animal, to show

the wrinkling of the striated membrane (/') and the overlapped,

apparently forked, coarser striz (J). The latter are seen through

the thickness of the membrane, the finer striz being omitted.

The hooks (A) and radii (2) lie on the side next the eye. 950

diam.

Fig. 17. A basal view of the adherent apparatus, velum, and a part of the

posterior row of cilia. The hooks (4) with their crests (/) lie

nearest the observer, and partially covering the striated mem-

brane (/' to 7’). The radii (7, 7') with their webs (7°) fill up the

central area. The posterior face of the striated membrane with

its finer strize is shown from /‘ to 7’, and the anterior face of the

same, as seen through its thickness, with its coarser striz (/*),

between /' and /*. The distal edge (/') is crenated and thickened.

The proximal edge (/*) runs along the bases of the hooks. The

velum (f', £1) is attached by its proximal edge (f”) close to the

distal margin (/', /*, /*) of the striated membrane, and almost the

same with, but just anterior to, the line of attachment of the

cilia (g, g) of the basal crown. Between ?? and f? the striz of

the membrane are omitted. 950 diam.

Fig. 18. Two of the hooks and their corresponding radii, from the adherent

apparatus of a dead specimen. The hook (h), its horizontal

limb (4’), the spur (h?), and the crest (k) apparently form one

solid piece. The radius (7) and the nail-shaped transverse piece

(z', ) are united at the angle by a triangular web (7). The

mechanical contrivance for the sliding of these pieces upon and

between each other is too obvious to need any comment. 2400

diam.

Cambridge, Mass., October 1865.

XLV.— Contributions to an Insect Fauna of the Amazons Valley.

CoLeorTeRA: Loneicornes. By H. W. Barus, Esq.

[Continued from p. 373. ]

Genus AmMpHionycHa (Dej. Cat.), Thomson.

Thomson, Archiv. Entom. i. p. 311.

The numerous species which compose this genus agree in the

possession of long filiform antennz, with the joints more or less

densely frmged with fine hairs, but never partially thickened,

clothed, or tufted; the third joint is more or less dispropor-

tionately elongated. The body is variable in shape, but is ge-

nerally elongated and linear, in some species greatly elongated,

in others much shorter and oblong. All have well-developed

lateral carinz on the elytra; the apices of the latter are variable,

being in some species broadly truncated and toothed, in others

briefly truncated, and in some species rounded and entire.

426 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

1. Amphionycha Diana, Thomson.

Amphionycha Diana, Thoms. Classif. des Cérambye. p. 65.

A. elongata, postice paulo attenuata, castaneo-rufa, occipite fascia

brevi et macula laterali, thorace vitta laterali et macula postica,

elytris fascia communi subbasali maculisque utrinque tribus poste-

rioribus cretaceo-albis; prothorace pectoreque lateribus cretaceo

plagiatis ; pedibus fulvo-testaceis ; antennis ciliatis, articulo tertio

modice elongato ; elytris breviter truncatis. Long. 6} lin. @.

This very handsome species occurred only in the forests. of the

Tapajos. It is found also in the interior of French Guyana.

2. Amphionycha seminigra, un. sp.

A. elongata, parallelogrammica, ferrugineo-testacea; antennis, ely-

trorum dimidio postico, pedibus posticis, tarsis omnibus et abdo-

mine nigris; thorace tuberoso; elytris late truncatis, angulis pro-

ductis. Long. 5 lin.

Head coarsely punctured, testaceo-ferruginous. Antenne

longer than the body ( ¢?), finely fringed to the apex ; joints all

slender, third double the length of the fourth; black. Thorax

with three large, smooth tubercles on the disk, and one on each

side, red; margins marked with a few very large punctures.

Elytra parallelogrammical, broadly truncated, with both angles

of the truncature produced into sharp teeth; surface closely

punctured, the punctures and also the lateral carina ceasing

abruptly at three-fourths the length of the elytron ; black, basal

third rusty testaceous. Body beneath reddish testaceous ; hind

part of the breast dusky; abdomen black. Legs reddish testa-

ceous ; tarsi and the hind legs black.

S. Paulo, Upper Amazons.

3. Amphionycha nigripennis, n. sp.

A. elongata, parallelogrammica, ferruginea; elytris, tarsis apicibus-

que tibiarum nigris; thorace tuberoso; elytris late truncatis,

angulis productis ; antennis parce setosis. Long. 63 lin. 2.

Head broad, muzzle dilated and having prominent angles,

testaceous red, shining, and marked with a few shallow punctures.

Antenne shorter than the body, slender and tapering to the

extremity, very sparingly setose ; third jomt nearly twice the

length of the fourth ; testaceous red. Thorax with a large ele-

vated rounded tubercle on the disk, and a large obtuse one on

each side, constricted near the anterior and posterior margins ;

bright testacedus red, marked with a very few shallow punctures.

Scutellum bright testaceous red. Elytra parallelogrammical,

broadly truncated at the apex, with both angles of the truncature

produced and acute; surface closely punctured, the punctures

as well as the lateral carinee ceasing abruptly before the apex ;

of the Amazons Valley. 427

deep black, suture near the scutellum red. Body beneath and

legs testaceous red ; apical part of the abdomen, tarsi, and apices

of the tibize black.

Kga.

4. Amphionycha miniacea, n. sp.

A. elongata, parallelogrammica, glabra, rufa; elytris nigris, medio

castaneo-rufis, utrinque maculis quatuor suturaque rufis ; antennis

nigris, articulis tertio quartoque rufis ; thorace postice paulo dila-

tato; elytris truncatis, angulis externis valde productis, internis

dentatis. Long. 43-53 lin. ¢ Q.

Head bright red, marked with large, distinct, scattered punc-

tures. Antenne a little longer than the body in the g, shorter

in the ? , sparingly setose, black ; third, fourth, and sometimes

also the fifth, jomts reddish testaceous; third joint one-fourth

longer than the fourth. Thorax marked with very large scat-

tered punctures, red; sides behind the middle dilated. Elytra

parallelogrammical, depressed above; apex broadly truncated,

with the external angle of the.truncature much elongated, and

the sutural angle produced into a point ; surface closely punc-

tured, dark red on the disk, shining black on the sides, glabrous,

each elytron with four elongate patches, and a streak down the

middle part of the suture, of dense bright-red tomentum (pallid

in dried examples); one spot is near the scutellum, another

underneath the shoulder, a third a little before, and a fourth a

little after the middle. Body beneath and legs red.

I took numerous specimens of this beautiful species on the

leaves of a tree in the forest at Obydos, Lower Amazons. In

life the red colour is of a clear vermilion hue.

5. Amphionycha megalopoides, n. sp.

A. brevis, oblonga, flavo-testacea ; capite lato, fronte nigra, bipeni-

cillata, occipite nigro, bifasciato; thorace postice transverse sul-

eato; elytris singulis maculis duabus nigris ; antennis rufo-testa-

ceis, articulo quarto flavo, articulis 5°-11™ fuscis. Long. 44

him Gi

Head broad, pale testaceous, clothed with fine pubescence and

long pale hairs; face much narrowed below the eyes; forehead,

near each eye, furnished with a cluster of long, black hairs ;

occiput with a black vitta behind each eye. Antenne a little

longer than the body, fringed with long scant hairs; third joint

nearly twice the length of the fourth ; basal joints reddish testa-

ceous; fourth jomt yellow, the rest dark brown. Thorax

widened behind, and marked with a transverse sulcus near the

hind margin ; pale testaceous, opake. Scutellum dusky. Elytra

short and broad, oblong, slightly narrowed behind, apex rounded;

-lateral carina thick and flexuous ; surface punctured towards the

423 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

base; disk with two slightly raised lines, pale yellowish testa-

ceous, clothed with fine silky tomentum; a triangular spot over

the shoulder and a round one near the suture, towards the apex,

black. Body beneath and legs testaceous; breast with a black

belt.

Santarem. Resembles in form and colouring certain species

of Megalopus (family Phytophaga).

6. Amphionycha Sapphira, u. sp.

A. elongata, angustata, postice sensim attenuata; nigra, fronte, vitta

coronali, vittis lateralibus thoracis lineisque quatuor elytrorum _

ceruleis; his disco bicostatis, apice sinuato-truncatis, basi macula

magna aurantiaca; antennis corpore longioribus, robustis, fili-

formibus, nigris, dense ciliatis. Long.53 lin. dg.

Head a little broader than the thorax, deeply impressed on

the crown, clothed with pale-blue tomentum ; occiput coarsely

punctured, black, naked except on the pale-blue tomentose vittz.

Antenne one-fourth longer than the body, stout, filiform, black,

densely fringed to the apex; third joint elongated. Thorax

elongated, cylindrical, uneven, broadest in the middle, black,

coarsely punctured ; sides each with a broad vitta of clear hight

blue, the black parts naked. Scutellum black. Elytra narrow,

elongated, tapering from base to apex, the latter briefly sinuate-

truncate, with both angles produced and acute; disk coarsely

punctured, except near the apex and along the two slightly

raised lines; lateral carina straight ; colour blue black, shining,

with the suture, a line along the disk, and lateral margins

pale blue; a rounded orange-coloured spot at the base of each

elytron. Body beneath and legs clothed with fine blue-grey

pubescence.

I met with one example only of this remarkable species, at

Ega, on the Upper Amazons, on a leaf.

7. Amphionycha cephalotes, Pascoe.

Amphionycha cephalotes, Pascoe, Trans. Ent. Soc. n.s. vol. iv. p. 250.

A. modice elongata, linearis, rufescens ; elytris lateribus fuscis, apice

suturaque antice cinereo sericeis; capite lato, convexo ; thorace

postice strangulato; elytris linearibus, supra planis, punctato-

striatis, apice rotundatis; antennis corpore paulo longioribus,

longe ciliatis, nigris, articulis tribus vel quatuor terminalibus

flavis; tibiis extus fuscis. Long. 4 lin.

Found at Ega, Upper Amazons, and on the banks of the

Tapajos, on foliage.

8. Amphionycha megacephala, n. sp.

A. linearis; capite valde convexo, nigro, polito; antennis nigris ;

of the Amazons Valley. 4.29

thorace nigro, lateribus vitta castanea testaceo plagiata, marginis

postici lineola et scutello albis; elytris supra planis, crebre punc-

tatis (apice excepto), basi fulvo-brunneis, medio nigris, apice

cinereo-sericeis. Long. 4% lin.

Head large and convex both above and in front; mandibles

large, strongly curved; glossy black, lower part of the face

greyish tomentose; cheeks with a small white spot under each

eye. Antenne a little longer than the body, filiform, finely

fringed, black ; third joint about twice the length of the fourth.

Thorax cylindrical, uneven, marked above with a few large

punctures, black, sides each with a broad tawny-chestnut stripe,

in which is a paler spot; anterior margin with two small spots ;

hind margin in the middle with a short white line. Scutellum

white. Elytra linear, apex rounded; surface plane, closely punc-

tured (except near the apex); colour tawny brown near the base,

black across the middle, ashy tomentose towards the apex, the

colours not sharply defined. Body beneath black; breast and

base of abdomen glossy tawny red; sides of the mesosternum

with a white spot. Legs black.

Ega. There is another species of large-headed Amphionycha

found on the Isthmus of Panama, in which this part assumes

still larger proportions*.

9. Amphionycha concinna, White.

Phebe concinna, White, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856, p. 408.

A, linearis, capite lato, albo, fronte bicorni ; thorace postice angus-

tato, convexo, albo, supra plaga magna postica colore lavandule,

disco maculis tribus levibus nigris ; elytris linearibus, apice trun-

“catis (angulis externis productis acutis), colore lavandulee, apice

fascia lata cretaceo-alba fusco bimaculata ; corpore subtus cretaceo-

albo, sternis fuscis; abdomine, pedibus et antennis rufo-testaceis,

his longe ciliatis, corpore duplo longioribus. Long. 53-6 lin. ¢.

Ega, Upper Amazons.

10. Amphionycha bicornis, Oliv.

Saperda bicornis, Olivier, Entom. t. iv. 68. 27, pl. 4. f. 46.

A, linearis, cretaceo-alba ; thorace maculis octo, elytris singulis apice

maculis tribus, griseis; abdomine, antennis pedibusque rufo-

* Amphionycha capito. Robusta, linearis, nigra, nitida; thorace flavo,

macula discoidali nigra. Caput magnum, convexum, corpore latius,

nigrum, grosse punctatum. Antenne corpore longiores, nigree, ciliate,

articulis sex terminalibus flavis. Thorax capite angustior, postice

paulo constrictus, tomento flavo dense vestitus, macula quadrata dis-

coidali nigra. Elytra brevia, linearia, supra plana, punctata, apices

versus leevia, nigra, nitida, apice macula cinerea tomentosa. Corpus

subtus et pedes nigra, femoribus anticis et intermediis flavis. Long.

4i lnm. ¢. Hab. in Panama.

430 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

testaceis ; capite lato, fronte bicorni; antennis corpore duplo lon-

gioribus, ‘longe ciliatis. Long. 5 lin. ¢.

Forests of the Tapajos.

11. Amphionycha testacea, n. sp.

A. cylindrica, setosa, testacea, pube fulvescente sericea induta, tho-

racis marginibus pallidioribus; elytris disco abdomineque basi

fuscescentibus ; antennis tenuiter longe ciliatis, nigris, articulo

basali (apice excepto) rufo, articulis quarto et quinto (apicibus

exceptis) flavis; thorace antice angustato. Long. 33 lin.

Head small, pale testaceous, crown darker; face convex, pro-

minent ; upper and lower lobes of the eyes connected by a very

slender thread. Antenne a little longer than the body, furnished

with a scanty fringe of long straight hairs; basal joint red,

except at the apex, which, together with the second and third

joints, is deep black; third joint about one-third longer than

the fourth, the latter (except the apex) and the basal half of the

fifth pale yellow, the rest black. Thorax narrowed in front, and

broadest in the middle; surface (except the disk) marked with

large punctures, reddish testaceous, anterior and lateral borders

paler. Elytra very briefly truncated at the apex; lateral carine

vanishing considerably before the apex; surface punctured in

lines, clothed with pale silky pubescence, brown testaceous, paler

anteriorly. Body beneath and legs testaceous yellow, basal

three-fourths of the abdomen blackish brown.

ga.

12. Amphionycha roseicollis, n. sp.

A. brevior, linearis, nigra, subsericea; fronte, antenuis (apice ex-

ceptis), corpore subtus, et pedibus flavo-testaceis ; abdomme apice

nigro ; thorace (basi excepta) leete roseo, elytrorum lateribus et

apicibus rufo-testaceis ; unguiculis simplicibus. Long. 33lin. ¢.

Head as broad as the elytra; face yellow and densely pubes-

cent ; vertex black, naked, coarsely punctured. Antenne one-

third longer than the body, furnished with a scanty fringe of

straight hairs, yellowish testaceous, sixth to eleventh joints

dusky; basal joint subclavate; third joint about one-fourth

longer than the fourth. Thorax with an obtuse prominence in

the middle on each side, and narrowed behind; surface pale,

and clothed with silky pink pubescence, hind ‘border black,

coarsely punctured, lateral prominences pale. LElytra linear,

sinuate-truncate at the apex, with both angles prominent ; lateral

carina obsolete before reaching the apex, and accompanied in

that part by a lower carima, parallel to it but not reaching the

middle of the elytra; surface punctured, black, with changeable

greyish pubescence ; lateral margins reddish; apex testaceous.

of the Amazons Valley. 431

Body beneath and legs yellowish testaceous ; apex of the abdomen

blackish.

Ega; one example. The claws in this species are simple: it

ought therefore to rank amongst the group Saperdine, if the

evidence were complete that this is not a sexual character in this

instance. As only one example exists of the species, its true

position cannot at present be decided.

Group Phytecine.

Genus EraAna, nov. gen.

Body cylindrical. Head rounded, scarcely depressed between

the eyes, the latter with the upper and lower lobes connected.

Antenne moderately elongated, filiform, setose, and beneath

ciliated ; third joint much longer than the fourth, the remaining

joints gradually diminishing in length. Thorax short, cylin-

drical. Elytra cylindrical, obtuse at the apex, and rounded at

the sides, the discal portion not being separated from the lateral

by an elevated line. Legs somewhat short, tarsal claws bifid.

I have adopted this genus from the collection of Mr. Alexander

Fry, to whom is due the credit of having first detected its dis-

tinctness from Amphionycha and Hemilophus. It embraces nu-

merous tropical American species, nicluding Saperda triangu-

laris (Germar), S. deta (Newman), and others.

Erana cincticornis, n. sp.

E. cylindrica, nigra, pilosa, fronte et vitta laterali thoracis albo

sericeis; antennis nigris, articulis tertio et quarto basi dense

setosis, quinto et quarto apice albis; elytris apice conjunctim

rotundatis, angulis suturalibus spinosis. Long. 33-4 lin.

Head convex above ; front and cheeks clothed with silky

whitish pubescence; vertex naked, black, coarsely punctured.

Antenne a little longer than the body, ciliated (except near the

apex), black, the fifth and apical half of the fourth joints white ;

the third and basal half of the fourth joints appear to be thicker

than the rest of the antenne, owing to their dense clothing of

short hairs. Thorax transversely depressed near the apex ; sur-

face clothed with very long and fine but erect hairs, centre part

black ; sides each with a pale vitta, emitting a short branch in

the middle. Elytra cylindrical, apex rounded, with the sutural

angles each armed with a short spine; surface clothed with erect

hairs which are longest near the base, thickly punctured, dull

black. Body beneath black, thinly clothed with grey pile; sides of

breast and abdomen pale. Legs yellowish; tarsi and apices of

tibize black. -

Kga and 8. Paulo, Upper Amazons.

4.32 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorn Coleoptera

Group Saperdine.

Genus AmILLARus, Thomson.

Thomson, Archives Entom. i. p. 312.

In this very distinct genus of Saperdine the body is elongate

linear, and, in the males, narrowed behind. The eyes are hemi-

spheric, with a narrow angular emargination for the reception

of the antenne, the latter being greatly elongated (twice the

length of the body), with very long and gradually thickened

basal joint. The legs are moderately elongated, together with

the tarsi. But the most characteristic peculiarity of structure

is the form of the claw-joint of the tarsi and of the claws. In

both sexes the claw-jomt is longer than the second and third

joints taken together ; but in the males it is also rather abruptly

dilated and thickened beneath from a short distance beyond the

base. The claws are nearly straight, compressed, and scarcely

divergent.

Amillarus mutabilis, n. sp.

A. elongatus, linearis, breviter parce setosus, fulvo-rufus, pectore

medio et abdomine plumbeo-nigris, antennarum articulo basali

nigro; tarsis tibiisque posticis fuscis; maris elytrorum parte pos-

tica, foemine elytris totis plumbeo-nigris. Long. 4-6 lin. ¢ Q.

Head tawny red, vertex marked with a few shallow punctures

and a smooth central line. Antenne with a scanty fringe of

short stiff hairs, reddish ; basal joint and tips of other joints

black. Thorax narrower than the head, broadest in the middle,

constricted behind, marked with a few shallow punctures, tawny

red. Scutellum reddish. LElytra tapering in the male, nearly

linear in the female; apex obliquely truncated, with the outer

angles dentate; surface smoothly punctured, partly in lines ;

colour in the males tawny red, with the posterior part more or

less black, with pale silky pile; in the females wholly black,

with pale silky pile. Body beneath tawny red; centre of breast

and abdomen almost entirely black, with silvery silky pile. Legs

tawny red, tarsi and posterior tibiee dusky.

Abundant at Santarem on the leaves of shrubs, borders of

woods. The species seems to differ from the New Granada form

which has been described by M. Thomson under the name of

A, apicalis.

ADDENDA.

The following species were accidentally omitted-in treating of

the genera to which they belong :—

of the Amazons Valley. 433

Subtribe AcCANTHOCINIT.

Group Acanthoderine.

Genus OREODERA.

13. Oreodera (Anoreia) biannulata, n. sp.

O. oblongo-ovata, convexa, fulvo-brunnea ; thorace lateribus tumidis

obtusis ; elytris apice singulatim rotundatis, supra tenuiter punc-

tatis fulvo-brunneo et fuliginoso variegatis, lateribus apud medium

macula fulvo-brunnea annulo cinereo-albo circumcincta ; antennis

setosis, fuscis, articulis basi testaceis. Long. 2? lin.

Head clothed with tawny-brown tomentum, impressed between

the antenne; eyes distant on the vertex. Antenne longer than

the body, clothed beneath with numerous stiff hairs; basal

joint reddish, the rest dark brown, with bases of joints pale testa-

ceous. Thorax short, transverse, nearly as broad in the middle

as the base of the elytra; sides tumid, obtuse ; surface clothed

with a mixture of tawny-brown and dark-brown tomentum.

Elytra oblong, narrowed towards the apex, at the latter singly

rounded; surface convex, free from tubercles, finely punctured

and clothed with a mixture of dark-brown and tawny-brown

pile, in which are two short, zigzag, blue-grey fasciz, one before,

the other after the middle; each side in the middle with a tawny

spot encircled by a whitish ring. Body beneath ashy tawny.

Legs blackish, short, stout ; femora clavate.

S. Paulo, Upper Amazons.

Group Letopodine.

Genus LrepPrurcEs.

25. Lepturges ovalis, n. sp.

I. ovalis, paulo convexus, griseo-brunneus ; elytris crebre punctatis,

griseo lineatis, apice oblique sinuato truncatis, angulis productis ;

femoribus valde clavatis. Long. 23-34% lin.

Head clothed with dingy tawny-brown pubescence. Antennz

dull red, sparingly clothed with short bristles. Thorax widen-

ing from the front towards the base ; lateral spines short, acute,

and situated very near the hind angles; disk with a transverse

depression near the hind margin; colour brown, clothed with

dingy-grey pubescence. LElytra oval, slightly convex; apex

obliquely sinuate-truncate, both angles produced, sutural one

very slightly; surface rather closely and coarsely punctured,

light brown; each elytron with about eight narrow lines of grey

pubescence, interrupted in some places. Body beneath and legs

brownish red; femora abruptly clavate.

Santarem. The species will come next to L. griseostriatus ;

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xvu. 28

434 Mr. H. W. Bates on the Longicorns of the Amazons.

but it is shorter and more oval and convex than any other Lep-

turges hitherto described.

26. Lepturges scutellatus, n. sp.

I. subovatus, paulo convexus; thorace fusco-nigro, griseo vario,

spinis lateralibus validis, rectis, paulo ante basin sitis; elytris

ovatis, apice breviter oblique truncatis, fulvo-brunneis, nigro

maculatis, macula magna basali communi fusco-nigra fulvo-cinereo

marginata. Long. 22 lin.

Head clothed with tawny-brown pubescence; epistome and

labrum testaceous ; palpi black. Antenne reddish, tips of joints

dusky. Thorax widened and rounded from the fore to the hind

part ; lateral spines stout and uncurved, placed a short distance

from the hind angles, and the thorax greatly narrowed behind

them; surface blackish, varied with silky grey marks. Elytra

ovate, slightly convex, narrowed near the apex, and briefly and

obliquely truncated; surface punctured, tawny brown, varied

with blackish spots of various sizes, and having over the scutel-

lar region a large black triangular spot broadly margined with

tawny ashy. Body beneath dusky tawny, clothed with fine ashy

pile. Legs dull red; thighs dusky and distinctly clavate.

S. Paulo, Upper Amazons. The place of this species will be

in the second division of the genus, near L. dorcadioides.

Genus SPorETUS.

3. Sporetus decipiens, n. sp.

S. elongatus, Colobothee speciei simillimus, setosus, olivaceo-niger ;

capite cinereo trivittato; thorace vitta lata laterali cinerea, medio

nigro lineolata; elytris thorace basi duplo latioribus, elongatis,

sinuato-truncatis, maculis cinereis in lineas transversas flexuosas

irregulariter ordinatis, apice albo marginatis. Long. 4$lin. ¢.

Head narrow, black ; forehead with three ashy stripes, besides

a streak underneath each eye; vertex with an ashy central line,

and a broad lateral stripe, the latter continuous with both the

lateral stripe of the forehead and the cheek stripe. Antenne

black, fourth joint ringed with ashy. Thorax very slightly

widened from the front to beyond the middle, armed at that

point with a minute tubercle, and then narrowed again to the

base; surface black, sides each with a broad ashy stripe, in the

centre of which is a short black line. Elytra twice the width of

the thorax at its base, elongated, narrowed near the apex, the

latter broadly sinuate-truncate (angles not produced); surface

punctured, olivaceous black, marked with a number of small

dingy-ashy spots, most of which are confluent, and tend to form

three transverse flexuous lines. Body beneath plumbeous black ;

On the Identity of certain Species of Diurnal Lepidoptera. 435

sides, from the prothorax to the apex of the abdomen, ashy.

Legs black, basal joint of tarsi grey.

3. Apical ventral segment truncated, sharply notched in the

middle ; dorsal segment slightly emarginated in the middle.

Para. The species resembles greatly in form and coloration

certain species of Colobothea. The absence of a lateral carina to

the elytra readily distinguishes it from that genus.

Eutrypanus Colobotheides, White (Cat. Long. Col. Brit. Mus.

i. p. 872), belongs also to our genus Sporetus.

XLVI.—WNote on the Identity of certain Species of Diurnal Lepido-

ptera. By Artuur Garviner Burter, F.Z.S.

For the information contained in the present paper I am in-

debted to M. Victor von B6nninghausen, who visited the British

Museum a few days ago for the purpose of seeing the collec-

tions. This gentleman has resided for some years at Rio Janeiro,

where he has been engaged in studying the transformations of

Lepidoptera.

Whilst looking through the collection of Diurnal Lepidoptera,

M. Bonninghausen pointed out several apparently good and

distinct species as opposite sexes of the same insect; and, upon

examination, I find the one form to be represented by males

only, and the other by females.

There can be no doubt of the possible identity of apparently

distinct species, as many curious instances of dissimilarity in

the sexes of Diurnal Lepidoptera are already well known; yet

men are generally slow to believe what they have not personally

proved; and thus in many instances the opposite sexes of a

species have been kept apart until the continued assertions of

eye-witnesses, or perhaps the arrival of an hermaphrodite speci-

men, have at length removed all doubt of their identity.

The following insects have been bred by M. Bonninghausen,

and are said by him to be sexes :—

$. Papilio torquatus, Cramer, Pap. t. 177. f. A. B. (1776).

?. Papilio Polybius, Swainson, Zool. Il. ser. 1. t. 137 (1821).

Bred from larve, and taken in copuld.

3. Papilio torquatinus, Esper, Aust. Schmett. t. 45. f. 2

(1785-98).

9. Papilio Argentus, Martyn, Psyche, pl. 14. f. 34 (1797).

Bred from ova found on orange-trees.

In Mr. G. R. Gray’s ‘ Catalogue of Lepidoptera,’ pt. 1. p. 40,

Papilio Lysithous is placed as the male of P. Argentus. We do

not, however, possess this insect; but, judging by the figure, I

hould myself imagine it to be a variety of P. Argentus. The

28%

436 On the Identity of certain Species of Diurnal Lepidoptera.

abdomen is rather narrower than in our specimens of that insect,

but, I think, too stout for a male insect ; however, it is impos-

sible to be sure of the sex of an insect merely by an examination

of a figure.

Mr. H. W. Bates, in two papers on the Lepidopterous Fauna

of the Amazons Valley, gives P. Caudius, Hiibner, as the female

of P. torquatus; but I think it possible that P. Caudius may be

an Amazonian form of P. Argentus, as the two insects are very

similar in pattern and coloration.

The following notes on the species | take from Mr. Bates’s

papers :—

Trans. Ent. Soe. vol. v. n. s. pt. 8. Nov. 1860. “Group 6.

“ P, torquatus, S , Cramer, pl. 177. f. A. B.

?, Hiibner, Samml. (as Caudius).

Local var. Patros, ? , Gray, Cat. B. M. p.43, pl. 7. £.5,7,8.

“The female varies very much between the Upper and the

Lower Amazons. The difference’ is so great between the sexes

that it is only the evidence afforded by having captured P. tor-

quatus and P. Caudius in copula that induces me to place them

together. Every example examined shows all the individuals of

P. torquatus to be g, and all those of P. Caudius and P. Patros

to be ?.

“The female frequents, like the species of the neas group,

the shades of the forest, coming out only on dull days to the

borders. The male, although choosing the open sunlight, de-

scends also into the sunny breaks and open glades of the forest.

I have often seen the male in pursuit of the female, although I

have only once detected it in copuld.”

Journal of Entomology, December 1861, p. 228. no. 30.

“The ¢ inhabits open places in company with P. Thoas and

allies, but sometimes descends into sunny breaks in the forest ;

the ? almost exclusively inhabits the forest, being found at

flowers on its borders only in cloudy weather.”

We have an analogous instance of difference in the sexes in

the Pammon group, where almost precisely the same changes in

pattern and coloration take place.

The two following are also said to be sexes :—

3. Euterpe Swainson, G. R. Gray, in Griffith’s ‘ Animal

Kingdom,’ t. 38. f. 2, 3 (1832).

9. Huterpe Leucodrosyme, Kollar, Wien. taf. 44. f. 8, 4.

Reared from pupe.

Besides these species, there were many others which M. Victor

von Bénninghausen pointed out, the sexes of all which had, how-

ever, been previously known to science.

Dr. E. Stizenberger on the Saxicolar Species of Opegrapha. 437

XLVII.—Notule Lichenologice. No. VI.

By the Rev. W. A. Lritcuton, B.A., F.L.S.

Dr. ERNst St1zENBERGER, of Constance (Baden), Germany, has

kindly sent me a copy of his valuable paper on the saxicolar

species of Opegrapha, illustrated with two plates containing

about two hundred figures of spores, &c., which has recently

appeared in vol. xxxu. of the Transactions of the Academy

Nature Curiosorum at Dresden. As this paper contains so

much that is interesting to British lichenists, a ‘“‘ Conspectus,”

which appears in the ‘ Flora’ of Feb. 22, 1865, is here given.

Conspectus specierum saxicolarum generis Opegraphe. Auctore

E. Stizenberger, Med. Dre.

A. Species saxicolz, sporis 6-plurilocularibus.

1. Opegrapha farinosa (Hmpe.), Hepp.

O. rupestris B. farinosa, Hmpe.

Thallus rimoso-areolatus, flavo-griseus. Apothecia primum immersa,

rotundata, denique paulum emersa, oblonga, plerumque simplicia

(1-1°5 millim. longa, 0°3-0°5 millim. lata), nigra; epithecio e

rimiformi plano, margine primum rotundato, deinde angustato vel

obliterato. Hymenium (50-60 mik. altum) hyalinum, in hypo-

thecio dilute fusco, e paraphysibus discretis et ascis clavatis (50-

55 mik. longis, 10-14 mik. latis) compositum. Sporze 8"®, crasse

aciculares, rectee vel curvulee, 5—7- (raro 3-) septatee, hyaline

(20-28 mik. longze, 2-3 mik. crassee). Hymenium tinctura iodii

fulvescens. Spermogonia non reperta.

In rupibus ad Blankenburg (Hercyniz), leg. Dr. E. Hampe.

2. Opegrapha vulgata f. lithyrga, Ach.

O. lithyrga, Hepp., Korb. (incl. 8. grisea). O. vulgata, wv. lithyrga et

steriza, Nyl. Scand. Exs. Fw. 83; Zw. 1 as, 3. 354; Hepp. 348;

Korb. 138; Krypt. Bad. 302.

Thallus tenuis, subdeterminatus, farinaceus, sordide griseus vel cine-

reo-viridis v. albus v. ochraceus, interdum deficiens. Apothecia

sessilia, plerumque anguste linearia recta vel flexuosa (1-2°5 mil-

lim. longa, 0°1-0°2 millim. lata), simplicia vel divaricato- raris-

sime radiato-ramosa vel conglobato-difformia nigra; epithecio rimi-

formi, ztate paulum dilatato, margine tumido, rotundato. Hy-

menium (60 mik. altum) in hypothecio nigro, hyalinum, e para-

physibus distinetis et ascis clavatis (40-55 mik. longis, 14 mik.

latis) compositum. Spore 8"*, fusiformes vel bacillares vel cla-

vatee rectze vel curvulee, 5—7-septatee, hyalinee (20-28 mik. longee,

3, raro 4—5 mik. crassze). Hymenium tinctura iodii vinose rubes-

cens. Spermogonia globosa, alba, apice denigrata. Spermatia

cylindrica, recta vel curvula (4-5 mik. longa, 1 mik. crassa).

In rupibus schistosis, granitaceis, gneisiacis, porphyricis, arenaceis,

438 Dr. E. Stizenberger on the Sasicolar Species of Opegrapha.

trachyticis, raro in radicibus vel rhizomatibus, Germanie, Hel-

vetiee, Hungarie, Fennie.

Oés. Thallus valde variabilis at nil typici in hisce formis inest.

Forme apotheciis radiato-ramosis ad varietatem subsiderellam, Nyl.

Scand. accedunt.

3. Opegrapha zonata, Korb. Syst. et Pg.

O. tristis, Fw. p.p. Exs. Korb. 18; Arn. 183; Rbh. 517.

Thallus tenuis, fuscus, albo-soreumaticus, lineis atris decussato-limi-

tatus (seepe Chroolepo conspurcatus). Apothecia aggregata,

sessilia, rotundata vel ovalia (0°5 millim. longa, 0:3-0°4 millim.

lata), nigra; epithecio rotundato vel elliptico, concavo, margine

prominente rotundato, ztate attenuato. Hymenium in hypothecio

fusco, dilute fuscescens (80 mik. altum), e paraphysibus ramosis

intricatis et ascis clavatis (70 mik. longis, 16 mik. latis) compo-

situm. Sporee 82”, fusiformes, graciles, rectze vel curvulz, hya-

linee, raro infuscatse, 5—11-septatee (25-37 mik. longee, 4-6 mik.

crassee). Hymenium presertim protoplasma ascorum tinctura

iodii pulchre vinose rubescens. Spermogonia minute punctiformia.

Spermatia tenella, cylindrica, recta (6 mik. longa, 0°5 mik. lata),

in sterigmatibus brevisetiformibus.

In regione montana Silesiz, Franconiz, Badeniz, Longobardiz ad

rupes varias.

4. Opegrapha varia, Pers. (notha Ach.) saxicola.

O. varieformis, Anzi, Comm. Soc. Critt. It. p. 160 (ut videtur).

f. pulicaris (Hffm.) saxicola.

Syn. ut forme sequentis.

Thallus tenuis, farinaceus vel leprosus vel nullus (interdum Chroolepo

conspurcatus). Apothecia sparsa, sessilia, elliptica vel lanceolata,

apicibus obtusis, simplicia, raro tridentata, recta (0°5-1 millim.

longa, 0°2-0°5 millim. lata), nigra; epithecio pliciformi, ztate de-

hiscente, interdum viridi-suffuso, margine persistenter prominente.

Hymenium (60 mik. altum) hyalinum, superne olivaceum e para-

physibus conglutinatis et ascis clavatis (50-55 mik. longis, 16-18

mik. latis) compositum. Sporz 8"®, subfusiformes vel clavate,

5-septatee, eetate fuscee (20-23 mik. longe, 6-7 mik. crassz).

Hymenium tinctura iodii vinose rubescens. Spermogonia puncti-

formia, nigra. Spermatia cylindrica, recta (5 mik. longa, 1 mik.

crassa), in sterigmatibus setiformibus (ca. 15 mik. longis).

Obs. Maximam partem sub forma sequente adhuc latet. Eam e

Franconia (in rupibus dolomiticis prope ‘‘Gailenreuther Hohle,”’

necnon ad Casendorf et ad rupes arenaceas montis Hohenlandsberg.

Hbb. Rehm et Arnold), necnon e Badenia (ad rupes arenaceas prope

Heidelberg, in Hb. Zw.) vidi.

f. diaphora, Ach. saxicola.

O. varie, ff. Fries, Nyl. O.tridens 8. arenaria, Ach. O. argtllicola, Duby.

Dr. E. Stizenberger on the Saxicolar Species of Opegrapha. 439

Graphis saxatilis, Wallr. O. saxatilis, Leight., Korb. (incl. 8. pruinosa),

Arn., Mudd. O. lithyrga, Moug.-Nest. O. Mougeotii, Mass. Anzi,

Venet. O. saxicola, B. amylacea, Mass. Anzi Venet. O. Korberiana,

Mill. O. pruinosa, Hepp. Herb. Exs. Moug.-Nest. 856; Zw. 2. 1458;

Rbh. 620; Anzi, Longob. 407, Id. Venet. 103, 106; Hepp. 765 (ined.).

Thallus effusus, farimoso-pulveraceus vel tartareus, tenuior vel rarius

crassior, imo tuberculoso-areolatus, albus (seepius algis conspur-

catus), raro deficiens. Apothecia sparsa vel cumulata, majora (ad

2°5 millim. longa, 0°5 millim. lata), elongata, utrinque attenuata,

recta vel curvula vel plicata, simplicia, raro ramulo laterali nigra ;

epithecio primum rimiformi, dein dilatato, plano, albo-ceesio- vel

viridi-pruinoso vel nudo, margine subpersistente. Hymenium

hyalinum (60-100 mik. altum), superne fuscatum, in hypothecio

denigrato, e paraphysibus capillaribus sat distinctis et ascis clavatis

60-80 mik. longis) compositum. Spore 8®®, crasse fusi- vel

claviformes, 5- rarius 3—7-septatis, eetate fuscee (20-32 mik. longe,

6-8 mik. late), seepe halone involute. Hymenium tinctura iodii

vinose rubens. Spermogonia nigra, punctiformia. Spermatia

cylindrica, in sterigmatibus setiformibus (5 mik. longa, 1 mik.

crassa).

In rupibus calcareis vel arenaceis, tegulis, raro in rupibus azoicis et

in terra argillacea Italiz, Helvetice, Germanie, Galliz, Angliz,

Suecize meridionalis. Interdum in Rubos et Hederas trans-

migrans.

B. Species saxicole, sporis 4-locularibus.

5. Opegrapha atra, var. calcarea, Turn. Ach. non Aut.

O. saratilis, Fr. p.p.

Thallus pulveraceo-tartareus, rimuloso-areolatus, albus. Apothecia

sessilia, elongato-elliptica, utrinque obtusa, recta, nigra, opaca,

stellatim conferta (vix 1 millim. longa, 0-2 millim. lata); epithecio

anguste rimiformi, margine tumido. Hymenium (ca. 60 mik.

altum) hyalinum, in hypothecio nigro-fusco, ex ascis pyriformibus

(35-50 mik. longis, 18 mik. latis) pariete apicali incrassato et

paraphysibus distinctis compositum. Sporze 8°, elongato-ellipticee

vel solezeformes, 3-septatee, hyalinee (14-16 mik. longze, 4—5 mik.

crass). Hymenium tinctura iodi cerulescens. Spermogonia

nigra punctiformia. Spermatia tenella, recta (5-6 mik. longa, vix

1 mik. crassa).

In rupibus calcareis Gallize et Angliz.

f. tenuior, Nyl. sec. spec. miss.

Apotheciis gracilioribus linearibus differt. Sporze et spermatia sicut

in typo.

Ad Oran in Algeria.

Var. trifurcata, Hepp.

O. trifurcata, Hepp. in Miill. Genev. p. 67. O. exilis, Garov. in hb. Zw.

O. confluens, Hepp. Arn. in hac Flora. Arthonia confluens, Korb. Pg.

Thallus tenuis, tartareus, continuus, albus. Apothecia insulari-

440 Dr. E. Stizenberger on the Saxicolar Species of Opegrapha.

ageregata, sessilia, minuta, linearia (0°3-1 millim. longa, 0:2 mil-

lim. lata), seepius trifurcata, recta v. curvula, nigra; epithecio

angusto, margine tumido, inflexo, splendente. Hymenium (ca.

50 mik. altum) vel hyalinum vel viridi-flavescens e paraphysibus

dilutis et ascis pyriformibus pariete apicali incrassato (40-45 mik.

longis, 18 mik. latis) compositum. Sporze 8°, 3-septatee, hya-

linee (14-16 mik. longee, 5-7 mik. crassee). Hymenium tinctura

iodii vinose rubens. Spermogonia non reperta.

In rupibus Italie superioris, Helvetize, Franconiz.

Var. Chevallieri (Leight.).

O. Chevallieri, Leight. Brit. Graph. p. m. p., minime O. sazatilis, B. prui-

nosa, Korb. Pg. Exs. Leight. 67. 242; Anzi, Etr. 37.

Thallus effusus, tenuis, tartareus, interdum rimulosus, albus vel fla-

vescens, raro deficiens. Apothecia sessilia, insulari-aggregata,

lineari-cylindrica (0°1—0°2 millim. latze, longitudinis varie), cur-

vula, utrinque obtusa, simplicia vel ramosa vel stellatim conferta,

nigra; epithecio anguste rimiformi, margine tumido splendente.

Hymenium (ca. 55-60 mik. altum), hyalinum e paraphysibus sat

distinctis et ascis pyriformibus (40-50, raro 60 mik. longis,

18 mik. latis) compositum. Spore 8®®, elongato-ellipticee, 3-sep-

tatee, hyalinee (14-18 mik. longze, 4-6 mik. crassee). Hymenium

tinctura iodii vinose rubens. Spermogonia nigra, punctiformia.

Spermatia cylindrica, recta vel curvula (8 mik. longa vix 1 mik.

crassa).

In saxis calcareis Italie, Dalmatiz, Galliz, Angliz, Cypri.

f. heteromorpha, Hepp.

O. Chevallieri, Leight. et Mudd, p.p. O. Chevallieri forma Ny]. Armor.

Thallus obsoletus. Apothecia majora (3 millim. longa, 0-4 millim.

crassa) utrinque subacuta, simplicia vel ramosa, recta vel curvata,

interdum congesta, nigra. Epithecium nonnihil dilatatum. Struc-

tura interna sicut in var. Chevallieri. Spermogonia crebra.

In saxis schistosis Gallize et Hibernize ad litora maris.

6. Opegrapha confluens (Ach.).

O. dege, B. confluens, Ach. Univ. O. vulgata v. steriza, Nyl. Gall.

O. tesserata, Bagl. O. conferta, Anzi. Exs. Nyl. Paris, 144; Anzi,

Etr. 36; Rbh. 339; Erb. Critt. 396, 695.

Thallus effusus, tenuissimus, griseo- -viridis, seepius obsoletus. Apo-

thecia sessilia, simplicia, nigra, opaca, crasse cylindrica (1-2 mil-

lim. longa, 0°25-0°5 millim. crassa), recta vel seepius curvata vel

contorta, rarissime solitaria, sparsa, vulgo conferta vel conglobata ;

epithecio anguste rimiformi, ztate subdilatato, margine primum

rotundato, inflexo, mox acuto. Hymenium (ca. 60 mik. altum)

hyalinum, in hypothecio nigro, e paraphysibus liberis septatis

ramosis superne capitatis infuscatis et ascis crasse claviformibus

(55 mik. longis, 18 mik. crassis) compositum. Spore 88,

elongato-ovales vel solezeformes, 3-septatze, vulgo hyalinze (15-20

Dr. E. Stizenberger on the Saaxicolar Species of Opegrapha. 441

mik. longee, 4-7 mik. crassee). Hymenium tinctura iodii ceeru-

lescens. Spermogonia nigra punctiformia. Spermatia cylindrica

(6-7 mik. longa, | mik. crassa).

In rupibus granitaceis, schisto-talcaceis, et arenaceis Italie, Galliz,

Angliz, Scandinaviee.

7. Opegrapha saxicola, Ach. Syn. p. 71; Mass. Mem. p. 102

(excl. syn. et var.); Nyl. Scand.

O. rupestris, Pers. et Aut. O. sazatilis, Schar. pp.; Kremph. p. p. 0.

gyrocarpa, Korb. p.p. O.rupestris vy. dolomitica, Arn. Exs. Sehar. 94;

Hepp, 346; Leight. 243; Zw. 145 a; Korb. 197; Arn.104; Rabh.334.

Thallus crustaceus effusus, continuus, tenuis, leprosus, albus v. gri-

seus vy. czesius v. flavescens (interdum algis varie coloratus).

Apothecia sparsa, nonnihil innata, leevia, rotundata vel elliptica,

alterutro apice plerumqué obtuso vel abbreviato-linearia (1 millim.

longa, ad 0-5 millim. lata), recta vel curvula, simplicia, rarius

triradiata, rarissime tuberculato-difformia vel glyphiformia, nigra,

margine primum rotundato, mox attenuato, acutiusculo, epithecio

primum angusto tandem dilatato. Hymenium in hypothecio nigro

vel hyalinum vel flavescens vel fuscescens, superne infuscatum

(80-120 mik. altum), e paraphysibus filiformibus plus minusve

liberis et ascis crasse claviformibus (60-80 mik. longis, 12-20 mik.

latis), pariete apicali vix incrassato. Spore 8, oblongo-ellipticee

vel clavatze, altero vel utroque apice rotundato, 3-septatee (20-30

mik. longee, 5-8 mik. crassze), hyaline, rarius fuscee. Hymenium

tinctura iodii vinose rubens. Spermogonia punctiformia, nigra.

Spermatia cylindrica, tenella (5-6 mik. longa, 0°5 mik. crassa),

in spermatophoris filiformibus.

In rupibus arenaceis, calcareis et dolomiticis Italie, Helvetiz, Gallize,

Angliz, Germanie.

Var. Decandollei, Stizb.

O. saxatilis, DC. Fl. Frane. (teste J. Mill. Genev.); Schar. p.p.; Mass.

Mem. 102. O. saxigena, Tayl. O. rupestris, B. saxigena, Hepp.

Exs. Leight. 311; Hepp. 347; Anzi, Longob. 406, Id. Venet. 104,

A typo differt, thallo crassiore, albido, apotheciis magis immersis,

minoribus (0°5-0°6 millim. longis, 0°2-0°4 millim. latis), ro-

tundatis, insulatim confertis, margine tumido, persistenter rotun-

dato, epithecio nunquam dilatato, ascis sporisque nonnihil minori-

bus. Spermogonia et spermatia sicut in typo.

In rupibus calcareis Italize, Helvetizee, Germaniz, Anglize.

Obs. Nomen novum propter homonymiam nominum saxatilis et

saxigenze cum nomine specifico allatum benevole excusare velis.

Var. centrifuga, Mass.

O. centrifuga, Mass. Misc. et Aut. Exs. Anzi, Venet. 102.

Thallus effusus, farinoso-leproso-tartareus, cinereo-albescens vel cz-

sius. Apothecia in annulos circulares disposita, nigra, splendentia,

rotundata vel elongato-elliptica (0-5 millim. longa, 0:2 millim. lata);

margine rotundato epithecium rimiforme nonnihil dilatatum ob-

442 Dr. K. Stizenberger on the Saaxicolar Species of Opegrapha.

tegente. Hymenium in hypothecio fusco e paraphysibus crassis,

septatis ramosis et ascis clavatis (60 mik. longis, 17 mik. latis)

compositum. Spore 8®, hyaline vel fusce, 3-septatze, oblongo-

ellipticee (15 mik. longze, 5 mik. crassee). Spermatia cylindrica,

recta, in spermogoniis punctiformibus, nigris.

Ad saxa dolomitica prope Hichstadt.

Var. gyrocarpa (Fw.).

O. gyrocarpa, Fw., Korb. O. gyrocarpa « arenaria, Id. Pg. 251. O. ru-

oie v. rufescens, Fw. O.rupestris,Fr. Exs. Fw.79 4, B,c; Korb.

229.

Thallus lineis nigris determinatus, tenuissimus, fusco-cinereus (szepe

Chroolepo couspurcatus), nonnunquam obliteratus. Apothecia

dispersa, sessilia, rotundata vel rotundato-elliptica, rarissime elon-

gata, nigra; epithecio plano vel plicato per exceptionem concavo,

margine tenui, rotundato. Hymenium hyalinum (80-100 mik.

altum) in hypothecio nigro-fusco, e paraphysibus crassis liberis

et ascis late claviformibus (65 mik. longis, 15 mik. latis) compo-

situm. Sporee elongato-ellipticee vel clavate, rectze vel curvule,

3- (rarissime 1- vel 4—6-) septatee (20-25 exceptione 30 mik.

longee, 4—5 mik. crassee), hyaline. Spermatia cylindrica, recta

6 mik. longa, 5 mik. crassa), in spermogoniis punctiformibus,

nigris.

In saxis primitivis Germaniz, Hiberniz.

Var. Persoont (Ach.).

O. Persooni, Ach., Ny.

A typo differt, thallo griseo leproso-soreumatico, apotheciis plicatis,

confluentibus, sporis vulgo utrinque acutiusculis.

In Scandinavia, Gallia, Franconia superiori.

8. Opegrapha lutulenta, Nyl. Prodr. Gall. 153.

(Non vidi.)

[‘‘Thallus opacus, sordide rufescens effusus, satis tenuis, fere leprosus,

integrior rimose diffractus; apothecia atra, nuda, superficialia,

ellipsoidea vel oblongo-difformia, crasse marginata, epithecio in

vetustioribus dilatato-concaviusculo vel plano, in junioribus rimi-

formi, intus nigricantia; spore oblongz, 3-septate, longit.

0:015-0°018 millim., crassit. 0°006-0°007 millim.; hypothecium

crasse nigrum, paraphyses discretz. Gelatina hymenea partim

cerulescens, partim vinose fulvescens.

“Ad lavam prope Agde Galliz meridionalis., Affinis O.grumulose.’’ |

9. O. endoleuca, Nyl. ibid.

(Non vidi.)

[“Thallus tenuis, albus; apothecia superficialia, lineari-lanceolata,

persistenter marginata, epithecio concaviusculo, albo-suffuso,

intus albida; spore oblongo-ovoidez, 3-septatz, longit. 0-013-

0-016 millim., crass. 0°005-0:006 millim.; hypothecium dilute

Dr. E. Stizenberger on the Saxicolar Species of Opegrapha. 443 -

rufescens, lateribus (margine) modo denigratum. Gelatina hy-

menea iodo czeruleo tincta.

« Ad cimentum muri prope Agde, versus pharum. 0. Duriai est

affinis, sed apotheciis aliis.’”]

10. O. grumulosa, Duf.

Lecanactis, Fy. 0. varia, var. calcaria, Scher. p. p.

Exs. Anzi, Longob. 404.

Thallus determinatus, crassus, ambitu undulatus, tuberculoso-tarta-

reus, superficie farinosus, albus. Apothecia primum immersa,

elliptica rotundatave, denique elevata, sessilia, lanceolata vel dif-

formia, nigra (ca. 1 millim. longa), margine tenui, persistente,

nudo, elevato; epithecio plano, ceesio-pruinoso. Hymenium hya-

linum (60 mik. altum), in hypothecio crasso, nigro-fusco, e para-

physibus crassis, superne brevi-ramosis, subconglutinatis, et ascis

lanceolatis (50 mik. longis, 15 mik. latis) compositum. Sporee

8», elongato-ellipticee, interdum fusiformes, 3-septatee, hyaline

(15-17 mik. longee, 3-4 mik. late). Hymenium tinctura iodii

vinose rubens. Spermogonia non reperta.

Obs. De hujus speciei varietatibus tribus ef. Nyl. 1. c. De va-

rietate arthonoidea hic adnotare liceat sporas in ea multo majores

necnon aliter formatas esse quam in typo.

11. Opegrapha Monspeliensis, Nyl.

Thallus deficiens. Apothecia in Lecanora calearea parasitice vigen-

tia innata, elongato-elliptica vel nonnihil difformia (0°5-0°7 millim.

longa, 0°2-0°3 millim. lata), simplicia, raro furcato-divisa, margine

prominente rotundato. Hymenium (50-70 mik. altum) hyalinum,

in hypothecio nigro-fusco, e paraphysibus crassis, ramosis, liberis,

et ascis late clavatis (50 mik. longis, 15-18 mik. latis) compo-

situm. Spore 8"®, oblongo-ovoideze, raro ellipticee, 3-septatee

(16-20 mik. longee, 6-7 mik. crasse) fusce. Hymenium tinc-

tura iodii vinose rubens.

Prope Monspelium.

12. Opegrapha opaca, Nyl. Prodr. Gall. 154.

(Non vidi.)

[‘‘ Thallus apacus, fuscus, rimoso-areolatus ; apothecia parva, innata,

ellipsoidea vel nonnihil difformia ; epithecio primum rimiformi,

dein dilatato concaviusculo, intus nigricantia; spore: oblongo-

ovoide, 3-septate, long. 0:012-0°017 millim., crass. 0°005-

0-006 millim. ; hypothecium crasse nigrum (infra, ut lateribus).

Gelatina hymenea iodo (e levissime czrulescente) dilute vinoso

rubens. Spermatia recta.

«Prope Monspelium, ad lapides calcareos.’” |

13. Opegrapha herpetica, Ach.

Calcicola prope Parisios a cl. Nylandero reperta a typo corticicolo

vix diversa est.

444 Dr. J. E. Gray on the “ Prodrome of

14. Opegrapha Duriei, Mont. Nyl.

O. calcarea, Rbh. Exs. Rbh. 22!

Thallus sat tenuis, linea nigra determinatus, superficie amylaceus vel

cretaceus albus. Apothecia innata, dispersa, simplicia vel varie

ramosa, late linearia (1-1°5 millim. longa, 0°25 millim. lata);

epithecio albo-suffuso, rimiformi. Hymenium (100 mik. altum)

in hypothecio fere incolori e paraphysibus liberis et ascis clavatis

(70 mik. longis, 18 mik. latis) compositum. Sporee 8"®, elongato-

ellipsoideze vel late clavi- vel fusiformes, 3-septatee, hyalinze (20-

26 mik. longe, 6-8 mik. crassee). Hymenium tinctura iodii

vinose rubens. Spermatia cylindrica, recta, vel leviter curvula

(5-6 mik. longa, 1 mik. lata).

Ad rupes calcareas Algerize nec non insularum maris Adriatici.

C. Species saxicole, sporis 2-locularibus.

15. Opegrapha Elise, Mass.

Encephalographa, Id. Symm. 66. Exs. Anzi, Venet. 108.

Thallus linea nigra determinatus, tenuissimus, e viridi flavo-cinereus.

Apothecia linearia, primum solitaria, nonnihil immersa, denique

sessilia et acervulos contortos formantia, margine rotundato, epi-

thecio rimiformi. Hymenium hyalinum, superne denigratum, in

hypothecio nigro, e paraphysibus gracillimis coalitis et ascis late

claviformibus (40 mik. longis, 16 mik. latis) compositum. Sporee

8», ellipticee vel ovales, 1-septatee, olivaceze (12-14 mik. longze,

6-7 mik. crass).

Ad rupes dolomiticas Italize superioris.

16. Opegrapha aphoristica, Ny).

In lit., descriptione ampliori non addita.

Ad rupes insularum Canariensium (non vidi).

XLVIII.— Observations on the “ Prodrome of a Monograph of the

Pinnipedes, by Theodore Gill.” By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S.,

V..PAZ:S:

In the fifth volume of the ‘ Proceedings of the Essex Institute,’

published on the 7th of April, 1866, Mr. Theod6re Gill has

published a “ Prodrome of a Monograph of the Pinnipedes.”

He states that it is founded on the examination of the skins,

skulls, and skeletons possessed by the Smithsonian Institution,

the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, the museum

of the Essex Institute, and of Professor Wyman. It may be

observed that the “‘ Prodrome ” founded on the examination of

these museums does not furnish the author with a single species

that has not been described in Europe; and the author informs

us that they did not afford him any specimens of several well-

known genera, as Monachus, Lobodon, Leptonyx, Ommatophoca,

a Monograph of the Pinnipedes.” 445

as is recorded in page 8. And it is evident also that the author

has not seen the American genus Halicyon; for he refers it to

the genus Phoca, as “ Gill ex Gray.” Indeed, as far as this

paper is concerned, the author need not have consulted any

specimens whatever, as almost all the characters he gives are to

be found in published papers which have chiefly appeared in the

‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London.’

This absence of new matter is more extraordinary, as there

are several Seals noticed and imperfectly described in American

voyages and travels which seem, from the short account given

of them and from their habitats, to be very probably distinct

from those known in Europe.

In the Appendix to the “ Prodrome,” there is a list of the

Pinnipedes of California, Oregon, &c.; and in it Mr. Gill men-

tions “ Macrorhinus angustirostris, Gall, California,” observing, in

a note, “It is distinguished by its narrow snout and the form

of the palatine bones, &c. It will be described in the Proce.

Chicago Acad. Sc.” But he takes no notice of it in the “ Pro-

drome of the Monograph.” A Sea-Elephant from the North

Pacific is very probably a distinct species, and certainly was

worthy of being more fully described.

This is not the only species that is left out of the “ Prodrome.”

No notice is taken, for example, of the Phoca Largha of Pallas,

from Japan, or of the Australian Eared Seals A. lobatus, A.

cinereus, and A. australis ; and he even does not include the two

Seals from Jamaica, viz. Cystophora Antillarum and Phoca tro-

picalis, and only mentions them, in a note, as if they were

a single species—saying, “Its West-Indian habitat requires

confirmation,” overlooking the fact that they were both col-

lected in Jamaica, and sent home direct from the island, by

Mr. Gosse.

As the author has nothing new to describe, or, at least, refers

all the materials at his command to well-known species, he pro-

ceeds to change the names which have been applied to well-

established genera (always a great evil to science); but it is a

change that any tyro in natural science, however little acquainted

he may be with a group, can easily make, and find an excuse for

so doing.

Naturalists have generally agreed that the twelfth edition of

Linnzeus’s ‘Systema Natura’ is to be regarded as the standard

of the Linnean nomenclature; but Mr. Gill says “the tenth

edition, of 1750, the first in which the binominal system was in-

troduced,” is the standard; and thus he finds an excuse for

changing the type used for the genera Phoca and Trichechus,

and this gives him the opportunity of applying the name

Lrignathus to the genus Phoca as defined by F. Cuvier. In the

446 On the “ Prodrome of a Monograph of the Pinnipedes.”’

same manner Mr. Gill says F. Cuvier quoted Phoca ursina as the

type of the genus Arctocephalus, and therefore that generic

name must be retained for the true Phoca ursina—overlooking

the fact that the skull figured and described by F. Cuvier as the

type of his genus is not that of the Phoca ursina of Behring’s

Straits, to which Mr. Gill wishes to attach it, the fact being that

until lately almost all the sea-bears or Arctocephali were called

P. ursina. This allows Mr. Gill to give the name of Ewmetopias

to the Arctocephali of F. Cuvier, and Arctocephalus to the genus

which I defined as Callorhinus.

In the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society,’ when de-

scribing the skulls of the sea-bears in the British Museum, I

divided a genus into sections according to the form of the palate.

Mr. Gill has applied to two of these sections the generic names

of Zalophus and Halarctus.

There is one observation of importance in the paper: Mr. Gill

observes, “ the Halichewrus antarcticus of Peale, very erroneously

identified with Lobodon carcinophaga by Dr. J. E. Gray, is a typi-

cal species of Phoca.”’ But he might have stated that Cassin, in

his text to the plates of the Peale Expedition, refers it to Lobodon

carcinophaga (see p. 25), and that I stated the figure of the skull

was “not good” for Lobodon, that Peale says it inhabited the

Antarctic Sea, and that the teeth in the figure of the skull given

by Peale and repeated by Cassin are very unlike those of a typical

Phoca,and somewhat like those of Lobodon. On re-reading Peale’s

description, I think that it is very probably a new genus, more

allied to Phoca than to Lobodon; for he says it has six cutting-

teeth in the upper jaw, and that the four posterior molar teeth

in both jaws are double-rooted, their crowns many-lobed, the

cutting-teeth short, simple, and curved; the whiskers flattened,

waved on the edges. To the animal so characterized the generic

name of Haliphilus may be applied.

Though Mr. Peale distinctly says this Seal inhabits the An-

tarctic Sea, Mr. Gill observes, it “appears to be identical with a

species occurring along the Californian and Oregonian coasts ;

consequently there must be some error as to its assigned habitat

in the Antarctic Sea. I am happy to add that Mr. Peale him-

self now doubts the correctness of the label on the faith of which

he gave its habitat; and as a change of name is desirable, I

would propose that of P. Peale.” Mr. Peale does not describe

the colour of his Seal. Probably the Seal with which Mr. Gill

compares it is the Hair Seal, figured in Hutching (‘Scenes of

Wonder and Curiosity in California,’ p. 180) as the ‘ Hair Seal,

Phoca jubata”’(!), from the Tarallone Islands, the Halieyon? Cali-

fornica of my Catalogue of Seals and Whales in the British

Museum, p. 367.

44.7

XLIX.—On the Developmental History of the Nematode

Worms. By Rupo.tew Leuckarr.

[Continued from p. 347.]

I am acquainted with phases of development similar to those

last described in Sclerostomum equinum, the notorious palisado

worm of the horse (Strongylus armatus, auctt.), not, however,

from the intestine, in which I have always found the worm in full

sexual maturity, but from aneurismatic dilatations of the mesen-

teric arteries, which are produced by the parasitism of this ani-

mal, and frequently (when great numbers are present) increase

to a very considerable size. Contrary to what occurs in the in-

testine, we find in these aneurisms nothing but young forms of

the worm (the so-called small variety), from which I am inclined

to think that the worm passes only thence into the intestine,

probably through the peripheral ramifications of the mesenteric

arteries. If my supposition be well founded, the worm must

certainly bore through the wall of the intestine at a time when

it is already of the considerable length of 15-20 millims. (thick-

ness=1 millim.); but the powerful armature of the mouth, and

especially the denticulation of the margins of the lips, which

almost involuntarily remind one of a trephine, show that this

process cannot be attended with any great difficulties.

The youngest of the worms detected by me (as also previously

by Mehlis, Gurlt, and Dujardin) in the aneurisms had a length

of about 10-12 millims. From their grade of development,

they might be compared with the intermediate forms of Doch-

mius and Cucullanus, although differing from these not only by

their larger size, but also by the want of the buccal cup. In-

stead of the latter, the worms (like the young forms of Ollu-

lanus) possess in the periphery of the gaping buccal orifice a

rosette-like plate with six lamine, which exhibit an elegant

sculpture. The caudal extremity is short and pointed, and,

in the small specimens, of perfectly concordant structure ;

whilst among the larger worms we may distinguish specimens

with slenderer tails, and others with a shorter and plumper

posterior extremity. In the former the tail is longer than

broad; in the latter, on the contrary, broader than long, and

truncated at the apex (which is directed dorsally).

If we subject the latter specimens to a closer examination, we

at once find that they are the male animals. However, we are

led to this conviction less by the still rudimentary internal

sexual organs than by the copulatory apparatus, which is deve-

loped beneath the cuticular covering of the inflated posterior

extremity, and becomes more and more recognizable with in-,

creasing age.

418 Prof. R. Leuckart on the Developmental

The formation of these organs is commenced by the paren-

chyma of the body in the periphery of the anus separating from

the chitinous envelopes and gradually removing further from it.

In this way a dome-shaped cavity 1s produced in the interior of

the caudal extremity, its axis being traversed by the lobately

projecting rectum. Of course, the dome is not perfectly sym-

metrical, but is obliquely truncated at its lower extremity in

correspondence with the structure of the tail, with a shorter

ventral and a longer dorsal lateral margin.

As soon as the walls of the dome have been enlarged so

as to produce a certain amount of surface, their parenchyma

begins to undergo unequal division in a definite manner. There

are produced numerous radiating blastema-streaks, which are

united to each other by a more lamellar diffusion,—in other

words, the ribs of the caudal hood, with their unitmg mem-

branes, structures which consequently correspond morphologi-

cally with the previous caudal extremity, and no doubt have the

same origin essentially also in Dochmius and the other Strongy-

lide.

But during the formation and development of the caudal hood

a peculiar transformation has also taken place at the anterior

extremity of our worm, the future buccal cup having presented

its first traces here, especially in the periphery of the anterior

extremity of the cesophagus. The developmental history of this

apparatus agrees in its essential particulars with the processes

already described in Cucullanus, except that, in consequence of

the much larger size of the worm, they are much more striking

and may be more distinctly traced. To this may be added the

circumstance that the buccal cup of Sclerostomum is composed

of several (four) different portions, lying one behind the other

like segments, so that it has a more complicated structure than

in Cucullanus. Of course this circumstance has an influence on

the development. It would, however, lead me too far if I were

to attempt a detailed description of the different developmental

processes ; consequently I shall only remark that the segments

of the buccal cup very early rise like so many terraces on the

inner wall of the new buccal cavity. As this takes place at a

period when the cesophagus is still situated close behind the

buccal rosette, it follows that at their first appearance these

rings occupy precisely a reversed position; that is to say, the

finally last segment is at first the foremost one. A change of

position commences only at the retrogression of the cesophagus,

which gradually brings the buccal cup to its definitive structure.

The first embryonic form of Sclerostomum equinum is still

unknown to me; but I can hardly doubt that it is essentially

constructed as in Dochmius, and also leads the same life. Iam

History of the Nematode Worms. 449

less doubtful about this, because in S. hypostomum of the sheep*,

the eggs of which pass out in a state of segmentation, I observed

Rhabditis-like young in the course of a few days, and these dif-

fered from the embryos of Dochmius trigonocephalus only by a

somewhat larger size (0°46 millim.) and an extraordinarily long,

subulate caudal extremity (of fully 0°15 millim.). The animals

lived in mud for-several weeks, but only increased a little in size

(to 0°53 millim.), and then, towards the end of the third week,

underwent a change of skin, in which the tail was lost. As the

dental apparatus of the posterior pharyngeal bulb had previously

disappeared, and the two dilatations were not very prominent,

the embryo at this period of development (length =0°46 millim.,

of which only 0:04 was due to the abbreviated tail) had a great

resemblance to the embryos of Strongylus filaria. Unfortunately

I did not succeed in observing the further metamorphoses. The

worms remained unaltered in water, and gradually began to die

off; so that I was induced to administer the remainder of them

at two different times (on the 20th and 27th of February) to a

young sheep; but on dissection (on the 6th of March), I could

not find any trace of them. It is therefore possible that the

life-history of our Sclerostomum is more complicated than that

of Dochmius, and that its free existence is not followed imme-

diately by parasitism in its definitive host.

The Strongylide with a buccal armature are not, however, the

only Nematoda with Rhabditiform embryos. ‘The same young

forms recur in other species, even systematically distant—for

example, in Ascaris acuminata of the frog, the embryos of which,

as is well known, are developed in the body of their mother, and

have been kept alive for a long time in water by Goéze and Du-

jardint. On close examination, we recognize in these embryos

the Rhabditis-form above described, with teeth in the posterior

pharyngeal dilatation, and a pointed but short tail. The length

of the little worm is 0°6 millim., and its thickness 0:035 millim.;

the embryo has consequently a tolerably thick form. But this

appearance is altered in the course of a few days. The embryo

grows, and, indeed, so rapidly that in a week the length of its

body has increased almost threefold (nearly 15 millim.). But

* Tt may be mentioned, in passing, that this Sclerostomum, which in-

habits the colon, belongs, like Oryuris curvula, to the dung-feeding Nema-

toda. In the buccal cup and intestine we constantly find numerous vege-

table particles derived from the vicinity; these form black excrements,

which accumulate at the anal orifice, and in the females form an incrusta-

tion surrounding the whole abdominal extremity like a hood.

+ The same is stated by Spencer Cobbold of Ascaris osculata and A

megalocephala, but probably, as regards the latter, incorrectly ; for I have

preserved its eggs, with the embryos contained in their interior, unchanged

in water for two years.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Sev.3. Vol. xvii. 29

450 Prof. R. Leuckart on the Developmental

it is only the length that increases. The transverse section of

the body remains almost unchanged, and thus the worm gradu-

ally alters its original form for a more slender one, at the

same time increasing in mobility in the same proportion. The

pharynx and tail retain their previous form, and undergo but

little alteration in size, whilst in the periphery of the buccal

orifice three small papille gradually sprout forth, and a few

(usually four) oil-drops accumulate in the body-cavity on each

side behind the anterior pharyngeal dilatation, and, remaining

pretty regularly grouped, produce almost the impression of eyes

destitute of pigment.

In this state I have sometimes met with the young worms in

the nasal cavity and rectum of the frog; so that one might be

led to suppose that they may be converted, after immigration,

directly into the definitive form. The experiments made by me

in this direction, however, produced no results. Once, certainly,

the young worms were found still unchanged in the rectum on

the sixth day after their transfer; but otherwise they seem

generally to die pretty quickly.

The example of Ascaris acuminata shows us, even more

strikingly than that of Dochmius, that the free young states of

the Nematoda not unfrequently attain a high degree of indepen-

dency. But A. acuminata by no means reaches the final limit

of this development. There are Nematoda the embryos of which

even attain sexual maturity in their Rhabditis-form, and only

become parasitic again in their progeny— Nematoda, consequently,

the history of which presents us with no simple alternation of

the conditions of life, but with an alternate sequence of free and

parasitic generations. And, what is most wonderful, both these

generations are sexually developed—both are produced from ova.

Here, therefore, we have nothing to do with an ordinary alter-

nation of generations, such as occurs, for example, in the Dz-

stomee, but with a process hitherto almost unheard of in the

animal kingdom, and which calls for our consideration the more,

because we are accustomed to regard the sexual development of

an animal not merely as the sign of its perfect maturity, but

also as the criterion of specific individuality.

The roundworm which undergoes this peculiar development

is one which has been repeatedly investigated—the well-known

Ascaris nigrovenosa of the lungs of our brown frog (Rana tem-

poraria).

The embryos of this Nematode worm*, as everyone knows,

* Tn the investigation of the life-history of Ascaris nigrovenosa I was

gratified by the participation of a talented young zoologist, M. Elias

Mecznikow, of Charkow, who has also taken a lively interest in my other

observations and experiments upon Nematoda. With regard to the pre-

History of the Nematode Worms. 451:

are developed in the body of the mother like those of Ascaris

acuminata, and usually pass into the stomach of the host still in

the egg-capsule, in order there, after boring through the latter,

to collect gradually in many hundreds in the rectum, in the form

of small rapidly-moving vermicles; they present in their ex-

ternal structure a great agreement with the Rhabditiform young

states of other species. They have a rather stout form, and a

length of 0:4 millim. The tail is short and pointed, and the

anterior, buccal extremity is furnished with three small cuticular

papille, which I have not met with elsewhere among the allied

forms. The structure of the commencement of the genital or-

gans is still more divergent. Whilst this is elsewhere (except

in the Trichine, the embryos of which are peculiar in many

other respects) always developed in the form of a small and

nearly homogeneous clear corpuscle (0°02 millim. m length,

with usually a simple nucleus), which shimmers through the

ventral wall of the embryos about the middle of the chyle-

intestine, it appears in the youngest forms of A. nigrovenosa as

a considerable sac, of 0°08 millim. in length and 0-012 millim.

in thickness, enclosing numerous distinctly recognizable cells

with vesiculiform nucleus and nucleolus (cell=0-007 millim.,

nucleus = 0:0043 millim.). In previous grades of development

this sac is recognized as an aggregation of embryonal cells,

which separates from the other elements of the body of the em-

bryo, and only changes in this respect, that the cells lose their

previous coarsely granular texture, and acquire a more transpa-

rent appearance.

When the embryos are removed from the rectum of the frog

(or even from the body of the mother) and kept in moist earth,

they begin not only to grow rapidly, but also to develope their

sexual organs; so that in a short time we have, instead of the

previous young forms, sexually mature male and female animals.

The duration of this period of development depends on external

circumstances, especially the surrounding temperature. In the

height of summer a single day sometimes suffices, whilst in

winter it is a week or more (in the case of embryos taken from

the body of the mother even as much as twelve days) before

the animals arrive at sexual maturity.

The sexual differentiation commences before the middle of

this developmental period. It is introduced by a change of skin,

after which the male individuals are to be distinguished by the

shorter and blunter form of the caudal extremity, from the

tensions raised by him in connexion with these investigations (Miiller’s

Archiv, 1865, Heft 4) I refer to the next part of that journal, and the

communication published in it by me. ;

29*

452 Prof. R. Leuckart on the Developmental

otherwise still perfectly concordant females. At this time the

genital sac measures about 0°15 millim., or more than half the

length of the chyle-intestine, which, like all the rest of the body,

has hitherto increased but little in length. After the change of

skin, the growth advances far more rapidly, with increasing

sexual development, especially in the female individuals, which,

at the time of copulation, are about 0°65 millim. in length, while

the males scarcely measure more than 0°50 millim. The trans-

verse diameter also is pretty considerable, still especially in the

females (at the level of the genital orifice, about the middle of

the intestine = 0:05, in the males only 0:037 millim.), so that

the form of our animals cannot well be denominated slender.

In accordance with this, the movements in general are slow and

clumsy.

In the female apparatus we distinguish, besides the two ova-

ries, which run through almost the whole length beneath the

intestine, and the short vagina with its thin chitinous tube

seated perpendicularly upon the outer mteguments, also a mid-

dle section of moderate length, the walls of which possess a dis-

tinctly cellular structure. From its position, this section repre-

sents the so-called uterus of other Nematoda; but this denomi-

nation is perhaps not very applicable in this case, although in

pregnant individuals it assists in the reception of the young.

Before the development of the latter it is very distinctly and

sharply marked off from the extremely thin-walled ovarian tubes,

the contents of which are formed, throughout their whole length,

of coarsely granular ova. In the blind extremities of the tubes,

which are sometimes extended and sometimes bent in the form

of horns, the ova are but small. But this is not the case at their

commencement, where, at the time of copulation, we find ova

fully 0-04 millim. in length (transverse diameter 0°013, germinal

vesicle 0-008, germinal spot 0:0016 millim.). The number of

these large ova is, however, but small, rarely exceeding four (in

winter scarcely ever more than two).

The male apparatus, as usual, consists of a single testis, which

runs backward beneath the intestine in the form of a thin-walled,

usually simply extended tube, and, before its union with the end

of the intestine, is produced into a short and muscular vas de-

ferens. Beside the cloaca there are two short lanceolate spicula,

which, with a third smaller chitinous piece, function as the co-

pulatory organ. All three are produced by local development

from the originally quite simple chitinous tube of the extremity

of the intestine, as is also observed to be the case in other

Nematoda. The short caudal point of the male is incurved and

beset with a few small papille to the right and left of the median

line. The extreme end bears a larger cylindrical papilla.

Estory of the Nematode Worms. 453

The seminal elements have retained their early cellular form

in the upper extremity of the testis. Posteriorly these cells in-

crease, with simultaneous formation of granules, to balls of fully

0:02 millim., which break up by quadripartition, and then form

the genuine seminal corpuscles (of 0°005 millim.) not unfre-

quently met with after copulation, even in the interior of the

female organ among the ova.

After impregnation the eggs continually increase in size (up

to 0:08 millim. in length and 0:04 millim. in thickness) ; and at

the same time commences the ordinary segmentation, which

soon (in summer sometimes on the third day) leads to the sepa-

ration of a long and slender embryo of disproportionate size

(0°25 millim. m length). The number of these embryos of

course depends upon that of the mature ova; and this, as already

remarked, is 1 summer nearly twice as great as in winter.

However, it is not only the ova (even the immature ones) that

increase in size after impregnation, but also the female animals,

which in the gravid condition (although only in summer) grow

to a length of 1 millim.

Originally, of course, the embryos lie within the genital tube,

enclosed in a thin egg-membrane. But the latter is lost as soon

as the rolled-up embryo begins to extend itself. The delicate

wall of the genital tube also can only resist the movements of

the embryo for a short time. Soon atter their development the

young are seen free in the body-cavity of the mother, the wall

of the genital tube beg destroyed, and the mass of eggs scat-

tered through the whole body.

This destruction of the genital tube is, however, only the

introduction to a further breaking-up, which does not continue

confined to the ova, but soon attacks the chyle-intestine, and

finally even the pharynx and the muscular mass of the body.

All these structures break up, under the constant lively move-

ments of the embryos, into a finely granular detritus. In four

or five days after the commencement of the experiments (at least

in summer, for in winter this period is extended to ten or twelve

days) there remains nothing of the original worm except the

external chitinous envelope, with the embryos, whose undulatory

movements are so strong that, at the first glance, the mother

might be supposed to be still alive.

As long as the embryos remain in the body of their mother

they are, as regards the structure of the pharynx, regular Rhab-

ditides, with two dilatations, and teeth in the posterior bulb.

But hardly have they escaped from their surrounding membrane

than both the teeth and the dilatations are lost. The pharynx

then forms a slender cylinder, with a slight thickening at the

hinder extremity. The animals are also remarkably different

ABA Prof, R. Leuckart on the Developmental

from their parents in other respects. They have a more slender

form (length=0°5-0'6, thickness=0-02-0:023 millim.) and an

extraordinary mobility. The tail bears a small stiff point. The

cuticle is distinctly longitudinally striated, and the genital rudi-

ments in the interior are of small size.

In this state the young worms remain for a long time, perhaps

for weeks, without any alteration. They live both in mud and

water, and also occasionally penetrate into the mollusks (Physe

and Paludine) which live in company with them. Apparently

they select the mouth as the starting-point of their wanderings ;

at least I have repeatedly met with them in the intestines of

these animals, as well as in the body-cavity. In the latter situ-

ation the worms have cast their former cuticle and the caudal

point, and likewise somewhat changed the form of the head.

This immigration into snails is, however, by no means abso-

lutely necessary for our worms. The young worms may also be

converted into the known form of Ascaris nigrovenosa by direct

transfer to the frog.

The method employed by me in these experiments was as fol-

lows. I placed the earth inhabited by the little worms in the

throat of the frog, and spread it out as much as possible with

the handle of the scalpel. Direct transfer into the lungs (through

the glottis and penetrating skim-wounds) did not answer. The

frogs certainly survived the operation ; but the change occurring

in consequence of injection in the lungs (strong congestion)

acted so imjuriously on the parasites, that they could never be

found a few days afterwards. However, I will not assert that

the method above recommended led to the desired result in all

cases. As the frogs soon swallow the introduced earth, most of

the young worms get into the stomach of the animal experi-

mented on, where they are certainly to be met with alive for one

or two days; but finally they all die without undergoing any

essential alteration. Never more than a few specimens pene-

trated (through the glottis) into the lungs—at the utmost eight

to e often only a single one, and not unfrequently none

at all.

I presume that the worms usually immigrate into the throat of

the frog by their own motory powers. As they live in moist

earth, we might also in this way explain the fact that Ascaris

nigrovenosa 1s more frequently met with in the land-frog (Rana

temporaria) than in the water-frog (Jt. esculenta), although the

latter is as available as the former for the helminthological

experiment.

The first changes of the immigrated worms (even of those

which passed into the stomach) consist in the change of skin

already mentioned. Within twelve hours after transfer the

History of the Nematode Worms. 455

worms are seen with an obtuse tail. In the periphery of the

buccal orifice there are three small lip-like processes, enclosing

a small, almost spherical buccal cavity, with a strong chitinous

wall. In the following days the size of the body increases con-

siderably. At the end of the first week, the worms not unfre-

quently measure as much as | millim.; in the second week they

increase to 3°5 millims. All the individuals do not, however,

grow equally fast; among the larger ones we occasionally find

small specimens measuring scarcely two-thirds of the former, as,

indeed, is not unfrequently observed in helminthological experi-

ments. The increase in thickness at first pretty nearly keeps

pace with that of the length. At 0°85 millim. it is about 0-04,

and at 2 millim. about 0:09. But when the worm has attained

the latter size, and the intestine, previously slightly coloured by

the browning of the epithelial cells, begins to be filled with

blood, the transverse diameter of the young worms increases

considerably, so that the original slender form gradually gives

place to a shorter and stouter one. Worms of 3°5 millims. are

fully 0:16 millim. in thickness, and those of 5 millims. in length

(such as are met with towards the end of the third week) are as

much as 0:23 millim. thick. The extreme caudal point alone

takes no part in this thickening. It remains thin and slender,

as in the worms of the first week, and then, as might be ex-

pected, is very sharply marked off from the rest of the body,

almost in the form of a spine.

This increase of size of the young A. nigrovenosa does not,

however, take place without repeated sheddings of the cuticle.

This is most distinct in the later stages, where the swelling body

is usually surrounded by the remains of the cast-off and wrinkled

skin, as if by a scaly covering. Of course, also, the cuticle con-

stantly becomes thicker with the increase of the size of the body,

and the musculature makes its appearance more and more dis-

tinctly.

The differentiation of the sexual organs commences even be-

fore the length of the body has reached 1 millim. About this

time the vagina may first be perceived, a little behind the middle

of the body, with two horns running from it forward and back-

wards, which are at first short and thin, and terminate cecally

at a distance of about 0°07 millim. from the genital orifice. In

individuals of 2 millims. in length each of the two genital tubes

measures about 0:3 millim. ‘Their course is very irregular, so

that the end is scarcely 0-2 millim. from the orifice. The in-

ferior section of the tube is the thickest (0-025 millim.), and is

distinguished by an internal epithelial coat. A little further up

we see a portion with delicate annular fibres ; and this is followed

by the longest and thinnest section, the true ovary, in the cecal

456 Prof. R. Leuckart on the Developmental

extremity of which we may already detect distinct ova, of 0:01

millim. in diameter (germinal vesicle = 0:007 millim.). In

worms of 3°5 millims. these ova have attained nearly their full

size (length=0-08, thickness = 0-085, germinal vesicle= 0-028,

germinal spot =0:0085 millim.), and a granular yelk-mass has

accumulated in them. They are contained in the genital tube,

which measures about 8 millims. and is strongly folded together,

and have not yet passed into the uterus, which is still short,

and are destitute of shells. Perfectly developed eggs with shells

are first seen in individuals of 5 millims. When the length has

reached 6 millims., the uterus, which has in the meanwhile con-

siderably increased in size, not only contains numerous mature

ova, but also ova in all stages of embryonic development, and

even perfectly mature embryos.

It is, however, exceedingly remarkable that the immigrated worms

always develope only into female individuals. Even the preg-

nant animals bred by me were always unaccompanied by males.

As I have nowhere else met with male specimens of A. ngro-

venosa, although I have examined many hundred females, and

have never found a trace of semen in the sexual organs, I have

no hesitation in regarding the lung-worm of the frog as a

parthenogenetic creature. That this is the first case of the kind

among the Nematoda, or indeed among the Entozoa in general,

can no more invalidate my supposition than the fact that older

writers occasionally mention the male of Ascaris migrovenosa.

What they (Zeder, &c.) state about these so-called males by no

means proves their existence, and leaves room for the supposition

that younger specimens have been regarded as males.

How widely the developmental processes here described for

A. nigrovenosa may be diffused among the Nematoda can only

be ascertained by further investigations. At any rate, it would

be too precipitate, starting from the preceding facts, to regard

all the numerous Ahabditis-forms of mud and dung as mere

developmental stages of parasitic roundworms. I am acquainted

with nearly thirty different species of this group, but have not

met with a single one which I could with any probability bring

into the developmental cycle of a parasite.

However, I am not the first to assume alternating genera-

tions of parasitic and free forms for certain Nematoda. About

ten years ago, an excellent naturalist, Carter, of Bombay, asserted

that the embryos of the notorious Filaria medinensis did not be-

come developed into parasites, but into free-living Rhabditiform

worms (Urolabes, Carter), which grow to sexual maturity in

water, and only resume a parasitic existence in their progeny.

That doubt should have been repeatedly thrown upon this state-

ment is perfectly explicable, considering the want of all objective

History of the Nematode Worms. 457

foundation: even now it can only be regarded as question-

able.

I know the embryos of Filaria medinensis from my own exa-

minations, and can assert that they furnish no point of support

for Carter’s hypothesis. They are especially destitute of that

peculiar development of the rudimentary sexual organs which

appears so strikingly in the embryos of Ascaris nigrovenosa, and

as it were foreshadows the remarkable destiny of this worm.

To this may be added that the embryos of Filaria have been

kept alive in water for a considerable time without change, by

different observers.

If I were to put forward a supposition with regard to the

destiny of these embryos, it would be to the effect that they are

destined to an active immigration. I found this especially upon

the considerable development of the tail, and the similarity which

they present to the embryos of Cucullanus. The latter goes so

far that one might easily be led to confound the two forms with

one another, although the proportionate sizes do not exactly

coincide. But it must be left to the future to decide whether it is

the definitive host into which the embryos penetrate (through the

sudoriferous pores, as Carter supposes), or an intermediate host,

which is then probably mtroduced into the stomach. Indeed

there are numerous surgeons who, in spite of all apparent rea-

sons to the contrary, suppose the Filaria medinensis to penetrate

into the muscles from the intestine.

On the other hand, and from the analogy of Ascaris nigro-

venosa, | think I may accede to Bastian’s supposition, that the

embryonal development of Filaria medinensis takes place without

the concurrence of male individuals. Hitherto no male example

of this parasite has ever been found; and yet, although it is no

doubt smaller than the female (considering the enormous fer-

tility of the latter), it could hardly be overlooked on account of

its size. The same consideration also excludes the supposition

that the Filaria, although its size when seeking its definitive

dwelling-place will be but small, has already received its store

of seminal fluid.

Unfortunately I must here admit that my investigations upon

the Nematoda of man present many other gaps. And yet, of

course, the fate of these parasites is of the greatest importance to

us. I can, however, add something even about these animals.

I may state, in the first place, that most of the Nematoda of

the human subject belong to the species with hard and firm

egg-shells. This applies especially to the more abundant spe-

cies, Trichocephalus dispar, Ascaris lumbricoides, and Oxyuris

vermicularis. The ova of the last-mentioned worm contain an

embryo at the period of their escape from the female organs ;

458 Prof. R. Leuckart on the Developmental

and this was probably in general overlooked (up to the time of

Claparéde) only in consequence of its peculiar form. It consists

of a short and plump oval body (0-049 millim. in length, and

0:022 millim. in breadth), which occupies almost the whole

space of the ovum, and of a thin conical tail (of 0:034 millim.

in length) which is bent up on one side. Slender embryos,

coiled up and moving briskly, such as occur in most Nematoda,

and were ascribed by Vix also to Oxyuris vermicularis, have

never been met with by me.

The ova of Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichocephalus dispar are

only developed after a long sojourn in water or damp earth. (I

have never been able to bring this development to completion in

urine and in artificially prepared pits). In the first-mentioned

worm the separation of the embryo usually requires from four

to six months in summer, and in the other perhaps six to eight

months ; but the periods frequently oscillate in one or the other

direction. Under certain conditions, the ova of Ascaris lumbri-

coides are not developed until the lapse of more than a year.

The embryo of Ascaris lumbricoides is much more slender than

that of Trichocephalus, and is furnished with a short pointed tail,

and a small tooth-like projection on the ventral side of the buccal

orifice. It measures 0:25-0:28 millim., while the embryo of

Trichocephalus affinis, which is rather larger than that of 7’. dis-

par, with the same thickness (0°01 millim.), only measures

0:127 millim. The embryos of Ascaris mystax and A. marginata,

which inhabit the intestines of the cat and dog, and also require

a period of several months for their incubation, although generally

a shorter time than those of A. lumbricoides, present precisely the

same characters, and only differ in size, the length in A. mystax

being 0°38 millim., and in A. marginata even 0°42 millim. As,

moreover, the egg-shells of the Nematode worms just mentioned

possess the same thickness and resistant power, we may suppose

that the fate of the young brood agrees with that of A. /umbri-

cotdes.

From the observations on other Nematoda above described, it

might perhaps be anticipated that these embryos slip out of

their shells when their development is completed. The shells

are certainly thicker and firmer than in Dochmius, for example ;

but nevertheless such an assumption cannot be regarded @ priori

as erroneous—and this least of all with respect to Tricho-

cephalus, the egg-shells of which bear an orifice at each pole,

closed by a soft, nearly albuminous substance, like a stopper,

which might easily be removed by the pressure of the worm.

In Ascaris, indeed, these orifices are wanting; but, to make up

for this, the embryos bear a dentary apparatus at the ante-

rior end of the body (like that of Ascaris acus), and this might

History of the Nematode Worms. 459

certainly aid them in breaking out of the egg-envelopes. More-

over it is not difficult to ascertain that the firmness of the egg-

shells considerably diminishes in course of time.

Nevertheless I have not been able to effect the exclusion of the

embryos of Trichocephalus and Ascaris, either in water or in moist

earth. Even the addition of putrefying substances (such as fruit,

potatoes, and beet) produced no result. It is true that during the

investigation (especially with Ascaris) we sometimes find a few

ruptured egg-shells, and even free embryos, but always in such

small quantity that we remain in doubt whether their exclusion

has been effected by the mechanical treatment of the objects or

by the activity of the embryos. By far the greater part of the

embryos remain within the egg-shells, and die there after a

longer or shorter period.

The duration of life in the embryos seems to be longest in the

species of Ascaris, which may not unfrequently be observed lively

and mobile in their envelopes after the lapse of a year. Davaine

states that he saw a portion of the embryos alive even in ova of

five years old. In my experiments, however, decomposition

commenced sooner, especially in the earth, where only a few

living embryos could be detected after the lapse of fourteen

months.

The embryos of Oxyuris vermicularis died within a few days,

without any change of form, whether the ova were kept in water

or in damp earth*.

Of course the only thing that remains to be done is to employ

the mature ova with living embryos for the purpose of experi-

ment. Starting from the assumption, already repeatedly ex-

pressed, that these ova could become developed at once in the

ultimate parasite-bearer into the definitive worm, I made experi-

ments in their administration several years ago. For this pur-

pose I chiefly employed Ascaris marginata. The result was

always negative. The dogs, which were killed at from six to

twenty-one days after the administration, certainly often con-

tained A. marginata, but always under circumstances which ex-

cluded all notion of their having possibly originated from the

germs administered. I had no better success with A. mystax

and A. megalocephala, or with A. lumbricoides, the ova of which

were repeatedly administered to children by a surgeon of my

acquaintance, and were twice swallowed in large quantities by

adults.

Notwithstanding these constantly negative results, certain

observations on the occurrence of the Ascarides led me to resume

* This applies also to the ova of Oxyuris ambigua of the Rabbit, which

are deposited at the commencement of segmentation, and cannot be brought

to any further stage of development.

460 Prof. R. Leuckart on the Developmental

these experiments at different times. In young dogs which

were still sucking at their mother I repeatedly found these worms

of from 1 to 2 inches in length, which must consequently to all

appearance have been living as parasites for several weeks; on

the other hand, I sometimes observed, in dogs which had been

shut up for a long time, and fed upon broken victuals, worms

measuring only a few millimetres, which therefore could not

long have immigrated. The idea of the probability of a transfer

in the egg-state seemed the more admissible in the latter case,

because my dog-kennel was infected by previous experimental

animals, so that, on microscopic examination, numerous ova of

Ascaris, m earlier and later stages of evolution, were found on

its floor. In one of these dogs, some of the Ascarides of which

were only 3-4 millims. in length, a few ova with developed em-

bryos were likewise to be found in the stomach.

In the presence of such observations, the assumption of an

infection by means of mature ova must acquire more and more

probability. It is true that experiments in this direction have

hitherto given only negative results ; but was it quite impossible

that these were governed by certain individual and temporary

peculiarities (age, nature of the stomachal fluids, &c.) of the

experimental animal ?

Taking these circumstances into consideration, the new expe-

riments were made under varying conditions. Not only were

dogs (and cats) of various ages employed, but these were sub-

jected to experiment sometimes with a full, sometimes with an

empty stomach, at a longer or shorter period after feeding.

Unfortunately the result in all these cases was equally nega-

tive with those of the previous experiments ; and yet the number

of experimental animals was not less than ten; moreover large

quantities of ova were always administered, in some cases re-

peatedly at longer or shorter intervals. The examination was

usually made soon after the last administration, sometimes only

from six to twelve hours. In such cases there were usually still

in the stomach numerous fragments of egg-shells, and even a

few ova with a clear chorion and disintegrated (or at least deco-

lorized) contents; but neither a living embryo nor a young

Ascaris was ever found either in the intestine or in any other

organ.

I must admit that it is with difficulty and unwillingness that

I have given up the notion which served as the foundation of the

above-mentioned experiments. By the proof that the ova fur-

nished with mature embryos were developed directly into Asca-

rides in the intestine of man and the higher animals, the mode of

occurrence of these worms with all its peculiarities would have

been both simply and easily explained. But the facts were too

History of the Nematode Worms. 461

clear and too accordant to permit one any longer to imagine an

infection of this kind. If we had to do with matters of rare occur-

rence, we might certainly at least suppose that the circumstances

of the experiment had not fulfilled the conditions necessary for

the development of the parasites; but the worms in question

are, as is well known, so abundant, that this objection can

hardly be maintained.

That, however, there are really Nematoda which migrate

directly into their definitive host by the medium of ova containing

embryos, in the manner here indicated, is indubitable, from the

results of other experiments made by me. ‘The proof of such a

development was most strikingly obtained in the case of Tricho-

cephalus affinis of the sheep, the destiny of which, considering

the perfect agreement of the ova and embryos, must be regarded

as furnishing a rule for the 7. dispar of man.

The embryos of this animal have already been mentioned as

short plump worms, of 0:127 millim. They have a thick and a

thin end, and terminal orifices to the alimentary canal, like the

embryos of Trichina, but unlike those of all other Nematoda.

They also resemble the embryos of Trichina in the fact that their

organization exhibits but little differentiation. Their movements

consist of very slow changes of position within the egg, during

which the thicker end of the body is usually pushed in advance.

My material for experiment consisted of the whole of the ova

of some twenty female individuals, which had been kept for

about seven months in water, and had been completely decom-

posed therein. Sixteen days after administration, the experi-

mental animal (a young lamb) was killed. To the naked eye

the large intestine presented nothing unusual, but the micro-

scope immediately revealed upon it many hundreds of young

Trichocephali. The majority of these worms measured about

0-8-1 millim. ; but there were specimens of only 0°5, and others

of nearly 2 (one even of 2°4) millims. in length. Leaving out

of consideration the absence of sexual development, they pre-

sented exactly the aspect of the intestinal Trichine. They were

clear capilliform filaments (0-024 millim. thick), which, notwith-

standing the presence of a diminished anterior end, showed as

yet no indication of the characteristic ultimate form. In the

interior, besides the cellular body, which traversed nearly the

whole cavity of the body, the cesophagus and the short chyle-

stomach were to be distinguished, the latter with a muscular

terminal piece which, in the larger specimens (in the males),

was not unfrequently clearly divided from the true stomach in

the form of a distinct section. In the larger worms the genital

tube could already be distinguished, running down beside the

chyle-stomach.

462 Prof. R. Leuckart on the Developmental

The result of this experiment is so precise and convincing,

that the above statement requires no further proof. But for

this very reason it seems to me scarcely to be any longer doubtful

that the Ascarides are developed in some other way, different

from that of Trichocephalus. But if the embryos of these ani-

mals neither escape of themselves from their shells, nor pass

with the shells into their definitive bearer, there hardly remains

any other course except the assumption of an intermediate host.

But where are we to find this intermediate host ?

I have administered the ova of Ascaris lumbricoides to a mouse

without any result whatever. They passed out again undigested

and with the embryos still living. I was led to make this ex-

periment not by any hope of seeing the embryos developed into

an intermediate form in the muscles of the mouse (for man will

hardly introduce his roundworms by feeding on mice), but by

the statement of Davaine that the embryos of A. lumbricoides

fell out of their egg-capsules in great quantities in the intestines

of the rat. It might perhaps be that the young worms only

became capable of “development when they had passed through

the intestine of another animal and by this means had lost their

shells. But here, again, I got a negative result.

The attempt to bring certain of the widely diffused lower

animals to take up the ova of our Ascarides was equally unsuc-

cessful. Harthworms, woodlice, and Tenebriones, which I kept

in earth mixed with an abundance of the ova of Ascaris lumbri-

coides, never presented these ova or their embryos when dis-

sected. The only animal which tock them (and this was from

water) was the Asellus aquaticus ; but it yielded them in as un-

altered a state as the mouse.

As, therefore, all my experiments left me just where I was

before, I thought it necessary to strike into a new course. I put

a number of young cats to live in a place from which I had

repeatedly obtained animals with numerous young specimens of

Ascaris mystax. This was a house outside the gates, with dung-

hills and kitchen-gardens in which the animals ran about freely

and without any particular care being taken of them. After

residing there for six or eight days, the animals were caught

(usually in the morning), killed, and submitted to examination.

I had the satisfaction, in this way, not only of repeatedly de-

tecting Ascarides of no great size (4-8 millims.), but also of

making a discovery which, if it does not completely solve the

question of their mode of importation, at least throws much

light upon the destiny of our animals.

This related to a cat about eight weeks old, which had re-

mained for six days in the above- mentioned place. The stomach

and small intestine of the animal had collapsed, and contained

History of the Nematode Worms. 463

no chyle; but the former contained a few bitten fragments of

straw and all sorts of vegetable débris, among which a micro-

scopic investigation distinctly showed fragments of potatoes and

of potato-parings.

But the same stomach contained also at least forty to sixty

Nematode embryos, some of which measured only 0°4—0°6 mil-

lim. ; so that the smallest individuals were scarcely larger than

the embryos of Ascaris mystax while still enclosed in their egg-

capsules. However, there could not be the least doubt that the

embryos which I found here free and twisting about briskly on

the mucous membrane of the stomach of the young cat were

those of Ascaris mystax. Not only did they, especially the

smallest specimens, agree exactly with the animals from the eggs

with which I was so well acquainted, but I could also follow

them through all stages of development up to young Ascarides

of 3-4 millims. in length, which occurred, together with the

larger embryos, in the small intestine, and, notwithstanding

their small size and slender form, already presented precisely

the characters of the Ascaris mystax of the cat.

In the first place it was proved by this discovery that Ascaris

mystax (and also decidedly the other allied Ascarides, including

therefore A. lumbricoides) retains its original developmental

condition up to the time of its introduction into its definitive

host, or, in other words, immigrates into its definitive bearer in

the embryonic form. In this respect A. mystax therefore behaves

like the above-mentioned A. acus; nay, it even surpasses the

latter, as before its transfer to its definitive habitat it does not

even increase in size.

But what the embryos previously wanted is made up imme-

diately after their immigration. The embryos grow, without,

however, essentially altering their structure ; they grow rapidly,

and pass, when about 1:5—2 millims. in length, from the stomach

into the small intestine. The intestinal cells gradually acquire

a brownish colour during the increase of size. The muscular

sac is thickened, and the glandular stomach gradually separates

from the posterior extremity of the cesophagus as a special struc-

ture. But the rudimentary sexual organ still remains without

any further development, and the mouth still bears the embry-

onic boring-tooth instead of the three lips. These conditions

are altered only when the next change of skin takes place, at a

length of 2°8 millims. A little while before this, the genuine

structure of the Ascaride mouth may be distinguished under the

cuticle of the head; and the increase of the genital rudiment

into a short sac, either simple or Y-shaped, according to the

sex, may be observed. The formation of the spicula only takes

place subsequently, when the worm has already attained a length

464. M.E. Boissier on new Facts in Botanical Geography.

of 10-12 millims., and long been furnished with the wing-like

cephalic ridges (which make their appearance when it is about

6 millims. in length).

Unfortunately this interesting discovery has given us no

definite information as to the mode of introduction. No re-

mains of animal matters could be detected in the contents of the

stomach; but who can tell how long the embryos had already

been in the stomach? A second young cat, which had eaten

the mucous membrane of the stomach of the former, together

with the parasites still living in it, showed the worms on the

following day likewise in the stomach, and hardly perceptibly

altered from their previous condition.

It appears clear to me, however, that it is not by any of the

larger animals that the embryos of Ascarides are conveyed into

the intestine of therr definitive bearer. As things remain from

the preceding observations, we need for the completion of our

knowledge of the life-history of the Ascarides only a single ele-

ment. May we soon succeed in filling up this gap, and thus

bring the commonest of the human Entozoa completely within

the domain of science.

L.—WNote on some new Facts in Botanical Geography.

By Epmonp Botssizr*.

By generalizing observations which are nearly always incom-

plete (as we are still but imperfectly acquainted with most

floras), botanists, ascertaining the predominance in some parti-

cwlar botanical region of certain families or genera, hurry some-

times, and prematurely, to the conclusion that this region is their

exclusive habitat. Nevertheless new facts come from time to

time to show us that there is nothing absolute in the laws which

have governed the present distribution of plants upon the sur-

face of the globe; and some interest attaches to the registration

of these facts and to the combination in this manner of the

materials which will perhaps hereafter assist in explaining the

formation of the different floras.

There have recently been discovered in Europe and Asia Minor

some species which are particularly interesting, inasmuch as

their congeners inhabit very distant regions. The first of these

is a Dioscorea. The Dioscoree are dicecious monocotyledonous

plants with generally a twisting and climbing stem. Their root

is a tuber; and that of some species is employed as food, under

the name of Yam. The genus Dioscorea is very numerous in

* From the ‘ Bibliotheque Universelle,’? March 25, 1866, Archives des

Sciences, pp. 255-260.

M. E. Boissier on new Facts in Botanical Geography. 465

all the tropical regions, both of the Old and New World. Only

a few species inhabit the temperate regions of the northern he-

misphere, and among these I may cite the D. villosa of the

United States, and in Japan the D. Batatas, recently introduced

among us as an alimentary root under the name of the Japanese

Yam. Hitherto no Huropean species of Dioscorea has been

known, until, a few years ago, it was reported that M. Bubami,

an Italian botanist, had found one on the Pyrenees. As the

details of this discovery were nowhere published, it was sup-

posed that there might be some error of determination; it was

thought that this could only be a Zamus, a European genus of

the same family, very distinct from Dioscorea in having its fruit

a berry and not a capsule, but of which the very similar aspect

may easily, when it is only in flower, lead to its being con-

founded with the latter genus. This, however, was by no means

the case; I have just received from M. Bordére, of Gédre, in

the Hautes-Pyrénées, some specimens of the plant in question,

which, from its tuberous root and its membranous 3-celled cap-

sules, undoubtedly forms part of the genus Dioscorea. Dioscorea

pyrenaica, Bub., is an alpine plant which grows upon the ealca-

reous débris on the southern slope of the Col de Gavarnie ;

and, what is very remarkable, by its dwarfed and flexuous and

not climbing stems it exactly recalls. (although specifically

distinct) other alpine Dioscoree, such as D. nana and D. mul-

tinervis, which must be sought in the Andes of Chili and Peru

and upon the mountains of Mexico.

A second curious fact is the discovery, also dating a few years

back, of a Pelargonium among the mountains of the Kast. The

genus Pelargonium, which includes the so-called Geraniums .-

cultivated in our conservatories, is characterized, in the family

of which it forms a part, by the nectariferous tube, which de-

scends from the calyx and becomes united throughout its length

with the peduncle ; it has hitherto been regarded as exclusively

indigenous in the southern hemisphere, most of its species in-

habiting the Cape of Good Hope, and a few Australia. But M.

Kotschy brought from the Taurus in Cilicia a beautiful plant

belonging undoubtedly to this genus; and it has since been

found along the whole of the same chain, from Pamphylia to

Armenia. Like some other species from the Cape, Pelargonium

Endlicherianum has the inferior petals very small and nearly

aborted; the upper ones, which are very large and of a fine

purple, render it an ornamental plant, which is the more valua-

ble as it can bear our winters.

I now pass to the third species that I have to mention here.

It is already many years since Bertero collected in Chili a para-

sitic plant growing in great abundance upon the branches of an

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.3. Vol. xvii. 30

466 M.E. Boissier on new Facts in Botanical Geography.

Adesmia, a shrub belonging to the family Leguminose. M.

Guillemin found that it formed a new genus, which he de-

scribed under the name of Pilostyles. It has no root, stem, or

leaves, and consists only of a campanulate flower of 2 lines in

length, sessile upon the bark of the Adesmia, the epidermis of

which it tears during its development. It is dicecious; and

hitherto only the male plant is known. The flower is surrounded

at the base by a few bracts, and consists of a calyx of four

oblong and imbricated parts, of a corolla with four spathulate

petals, also imbricated, and exceeding the calyx a little, and,

lastly, of a thick, short, obtuse central column, which is attenu-

ated in its lower half and surrounded about the middle by a

ring formed of three rows of unilocular anthers, above which

there is another, narrower one, composed of closely approximated

papilla. This column is solid, and formed of cellular tissue ;

but a transverse section, when magnified, shows the orifices of a

very few isolated trachez. The flowering over, the flower falls,

leaving a concave depression upon the bark of the Adesmia.

This curious production of flowers with no stalks gave rise at

first to the strange notion that the Pilostyles is only a mon-

strosity of the normal flower of the shrub on which it grows;

but this opinion could not maintain its ground for a moment in

the presence of the details of structure and the non-axillary

insertion of this singular plant, which may be arranged very

naturally in the family Rhizanthee, as a miniature of those

gigantic Rafflesie which, in the Sunda islands, are parasitic upon

the roots of other shrubs.

The naturalist Pohl also brought from Brazil a second species

of the same genus, growing upon the branches of a Bauhinia;

but for many years no new fact has been added to the history of

Pilostyles wntil this winter, when, in examining a collection of

dried plants collected in the alpine region of the mountains of the

east of Asia Minor by M. Haussknecht, I found the branches of

a spiny Astragalus covered at the base and round the points of

insertion of the leaves with small reddish globular bodies which

immediately reminded me of the Chilian plant. It was, in facet,

a Pilostyles, resembling P. Berterii in all its principal characters,

but differing specifically in the absence of bracts, the shorter

flower, and having the pieces of the calyx and corolla to the

number of five or six instead of four. My friend Dr. J. Miller

has been kind enough to make a very particular microscopic

analysis of this curious production, and has found other differ-

ences. Thus, in the oriental plant, the ring of unilocular anthers

round the central column is formed of two instead of three rows

of anthers; the column itself is shorter, and is not narrowed in

its inferior portion. It is a very singular fact, that whilst the

Bibliographical Notice. 467

male individuals of Pilostyles grow so abundantly upon the

branches of the Adesmia in Chili and on those of the Astragalus

in the east, the female plant still remains unknown; there is

here a gap to be filled up, in order to complete the description

of this curious genus. Perhaps, according to Dr. Miller, the

ring of papillze surmounting that of anthers in both species may

represent a row of aborted ovaries, as would seem to be indicated

by a certain analogy of position with the flowers of the Aroidez.

Here we have, therefore, an oriental and alpine species,

Pilostyles Haussknechtii, coming to complete a genus hitherto

known only from South America, and of which all the species,

singularly enough, are parasitic upon shrubs of the family

Leguminose. Hitherto we did not know, either in Europe or

in Asia Minor, any Rhizanth,—the Cytinus, another plant para-

sitic upon the roots of the Cisti in the Mediterranean region,

being arranged in a neighbouring family on account of its stem

(which bears several moncecious flowers), its bilocular anthers,

and other important characters.

It would have been easy for me to enlarge this list of disjointed

species—that is to say, species growing in a botanical region

very distant from that in which the rest of their genus or family

live; but, without going in search of other little-known ex-

amples of this curious fact in botanical geography, we are

acquainted with some which surprise us the less because we

have them always under our eyes. Is it not singular, for ex-

ample, that we find in the floras of Southern Europe only a

single Myrtle and a single Laurel, whilst all the rest of the very

numerous families to which these shrubs belong inhabit the

tropical or subtropical countries of both continents? If, how-

ever, we consider that in the Tertiary period the Myrtles and

Laurels were diffused in Central Europe, we get a glimpse of an

explanation, being led, as has been so well shown by M. Alph.

Decandolle in his ‘Géographie Botanique,’ to assume species of

different antiquities, and to hope that, as our knowledge of the

floras of preceding geological epochs becomes more complete, it

will by degrees make us better understand the present distribu-

tion of plants.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

The Geology and Scenery of the North of Scotland; being Two

Lectures given at the Philosophical Institution, Edinburgh.

With Notes and an Appendix. By James Nicot, F.R.S.E.,

F.G.S., &. 12mo. Edinburgh, 1866.

Proressor Nico has three chief objects in these Lectures,—first,

to elucidate the close and very evident connexion of the geological

468 Bibliographical Notice.

structure and geographical features of his native country ; secondly,

to claim his share of credit for early and long-continued labour in

working out the geology of Scotland; and thirdly, once more to

protest against the now very generally accepted interpretation of the

complicated phenomena of granites, schists, limestones, quartzites,

and other altered rocks in the north-west Highlands, as elaborated

by Murchison and Geikie, Harkness, Ramsay, and others. We

must leave the disputed point, as to whether there be one (Nicol) or

two sets of gneissose rocks in the Highlands, to the personal observa-

tion of working geologists, who for years to come will have to tramp

over moss and moor many a weary day before all the details of strati-

fication are conned and noted, and before what belongs to Lower and

what to Upper Silurian is rightly determined in those wild regions.

Nor can we be historians of the progress of geological knowledge in

Scotland. The part that Prof. Nicol has so worthily performed can

be readily known by reference to the publications quoted (and almost

the only ones quoted) in the little book before us. We can, how-

ever, assure our readers that we have had real pleasure in reading

some very eloquent passages in Prof. Nicol’s Lectures, which are

clear, earnest, and conscientiously true to the author’s hard-won ex-

perience. Excepting that so many equally well informed geologists

interpret the natural sections of the strata otherwise than he does,

his view, of the great gneissic area being fissured from N.H. to S.W.,

with an alteration of level, might well command belief as being quite

in accordance with the general structure of the region, where the

edges of the strata run S.W.-N.E., partly from longitudinal folds,

partly from great faults, holding the same direction and inter-

sected by transverse fissures, breaking the land into large irregular

masses. ‘*'These lines of elevation and of fraction have determined

the lines along which rivers and other denuding agents have acted ;

and consequently the systems of mountain-chains and river-valleys.”

The action of ice in this disintegration of the surface is little alluded

to; but the student can turn to Geikie’s account of the Scottish

scenery for an enthusiastic treatment of its effects. Our author,

among his other “‘ conservative” tendencies, ignores the hypothesis

that refers many lake-basins to ice-action, which, he says, ‘‘ may

somewhat widen or deepen a valley, but not excavate a lake below

its level. There is, however,’ he adds, ‘‘no mystery in the forma-

tion of lakes. Like the valleys in which they lie, they have been pro-

duced in more ways than one. Some have originated in great slips,

—masses of the strata being thrown down, and the hollow then filled

with water. Such is Loch Maree, as shown by the sandstone islands

lying far below the gneiss hills on the shore. Many may have been

excavated entirely by river-action—frequently, however, along the

line of faults. The changes in the relative level of the different por-

tions of the country explains the origin of very many. The western

division, as the form and character of the coast prove, has subsided,

gone down into the sea, since the eastern rose. By this change of

level, valleys formerly dry and drained by rivers may have been con-

verted into lakes. Their formation, therefore, requires no extraor-

Bibliographical Notice. 469

dinary excavating action, but only, as is now happening in Scandi-

navia, that one portion of the land should rise or sink more rapidly

than another. The absence of detritus in the west explains how the

lakes once formed have long continued unfilled by river-washings.”

On the other hand, “a wide mud-filled sea-bottom, with icebergs

floating and stranding in its shallow waters,’’ was slowly lifted up on

the eastern side of Scotland into a low undulating country, without

such cliffs, and lochs, and inlets as mark the rugged western side.

The little conical holes or pipes in the old Silurian quartzite, or

altered sandstone, of Assynt have their recent analogues in the bur-

rows made by “small Crustacea on the Kyle of Duirness in sand

washed out of these very rocks.” Well may Mr. Nicol say, “yet

the mind almost refuses to grasp the myriad ages that have inter-

vened.”’ Again, to quote our author, “ Once the true history of the

region is known and can be read off from a distance, there cannot be

a more impressive lesson to the geologist than, from some lonely hill

or moor in the Lewis, to trace the long line of strange fantastic

mountains on the mainland, rising over the low gneiss platform on

which they are built up. When we try to fathom the innumerable

ages involved in these two steps in the history of the earth—and

they are only two—the mind feels crushed with the interminable

lapse of time, and is glad to seek repose in the view of the quiet

ocean, with a few ships peacefully floating on its bosom. But it is

only to be thrown back into the remote past. For was it not this

ocean, these now invisible beating waves, that levelled that platform, |

fashioned and laid down these high masses of conglomerate, and

moulded all these mighty mountains into form? And that, too, is

a pericd dating, not centuries or millenniums, but world-ages,

counted by birth and death, the creation and extinction of tribes

and families of plants and animals, before man had a place on the

earth!’? Admirably, but from his own pomt of view alone, does

Prof. Nicol sketch out the chief points in Scotland’s primeval history ;

and some of its bearings on the living present are thus clearly indi-

eated :—* To Scotsmen the structure of their own land should be

specially interesting. We pride ourselves on being a_ peculiar

people ; and, were we willing to forget it, our neighbours are not

slow to remind us of the fact. Now, be our peculiarities good or

bad—yvirtues or vices—they have been in part produced, in part en-

couraged, by the character of the land in which we dwell. Like

generous wine, they taste of the soil; they acquire new strength

whenever they touch their mother earth. We rejoice in the skill

and industry which have carried the rich culture of the Lothians far

up the steep sides of the Lammermuirs and the Pentlands,—which

have changed the skirts of Cairntable, where the Douglas defied the

threats of England’s proudest king, into fields of waving corn, and

have converted the black wilds of Buchan, where the Bruce sought

refuge in dire extremity, into storehouses of cattle and grain. Let

me ask, What would this skill and industry have availed, had not

the soil contained the elements of that fertility they were to draw

forth? Look at the merchant princess of the west, and tell me if

470 Bibliographical Notice.

Glasgow would have multiplied her people tenfold in a century,

unless the great estuary of the Clyde had opened its bosom to fleets

from many lands—unless she had possessed those stores of coal and

iron that furnish the means and materials of her increasing labours.

And our ancient metropolis in the east—were not the true founda-

tions of Edinburgh then laid when internal fires pushed up through

the level shales and sandstones that grand basaltic prism under

whose protecting shadow first clustered the few rude huts which the

toil and taste of her citizens have expanded into the stately streets

and squares of modern Athens? And turning to a higher, less

material product, is not the thought of the nation, its intellectual

life, born of the soil, fed and nourished by the land in which we

live? Is not the free exuberant poetry of Burns the genuine pro-

duct of the banks and braes of Bonny Doon? Does not the romantic

chivalry of Scott ever reflect Tweed’s silver streams and Yarrow’s

dowie dens? And the dreamy ghost-like strains of Ossian, if they

grew not up amid the grey rocks and mist-shrouded glens of Morven,

were they not at least nursed under the gloomy shades of the pine-

forests of Strath-Spey ?

“There is not a more striking feature in the history of Scotland

than the tenacity and success with which she maintained her national

independence. Driven into a corner by her more powerful neigh-

bour—cut off from retreat by barren hills and a stormy ocean, with

much to lose by resistance, much to gain by yielding, she fought on

for long centuries, and at length gave her king to her rival, and

formed a free alliance with the freest nation in the world. How

this was possible, a glance at the physical structure of the country

will at once tell. But that structure is only the outward expression

of internal geological phenomena. In the geological map the

different formations are shown by colours. You will see how they

run in lines across the country from shore to shore. Each band of

colour marks a distinct formation. Some are igneous, others

stratified. Some, hard and tenacious, naturally form mountains ;

others, softer and more yielding, valleys. Thus each geological forma-

tion became a true line of fortification. Every mountain-ridge was a

wall ; every valley a broad ditch, across which the southern invaders

had to force their way. Usually they turned the flank of the first line

of the Cheviots—came in by the east or west marches. But the

second line of wall—the Southern Highlands, stretching from shore

to shore, from St. Abb’s Head to Stranraer—could not be so turned.

Then, beyond, comes the wide ditch of the Firth of Forth, which

no engineer had then ventured to bridge. North of it lies the third

wall, of the Ochills, and the third river and Firth of the Tay.

Deeper still rose the frowning barrier of the Grampians, backed by

an interminable labyrinth of hills and glens, of winding straths, and

fordless sea-lochs. No wonder the Roman eagles retreated from this

region, and the conquerors of the ancient world fenced off its fierce

tribes by walls and towers. Its peculiar character shutting out this

mountain-land from all intercourse with other portions of the king-

dom, gave it a people of its own, with special habits, traditions, and

history.”

471

MISCELLANEOUS.

Greyhounds run Wild.

In May 1814 I saw, in the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris, two, or

perhaps three, animals, which I should have declared, on my oath,

to the best of: my knowledge and belief, to be neither more nor less

than wire-haired Scotch greyhounds, which were labelled ‘ Loups

des Pyrénées.” Now I know, of my own knowledge, that the roads in

the seat of war were at that time so encumbered with dead baggage-

animals, that the sporting dogs of the English officers took the

opportunity of being independent of their masters for food, to turn

wild and live upon the country. I remember riding towards half a

dozen of them feasting on a dead mule, when they with one accord

formed line between me and their prey, and advanced against me

with one disciplined howl; insomuch that I retired, lest they should

proceed to try to add me and my horse to their larder.

It has within these few days occurred to me as possible that some

ingenious Frenchman, between joke and earnest, may have seized on

a portion of these dogs, and sent them to Paris with a “ Voila

les véritables loups des Pyrénées.”” I am sure what I saw were

Scotch greyhounds, and nothing else. I remember that one or more

of them was savage and ill-tempered, as dogs are given to be when

shut up in cages. I remember seeing two Cuban bloodhounds in a

cage at the Zoological Gardens, one of which was as savage as any

hyena. I have a notion that dogs at large would have no difficulty

in returning to the wild state if exposed to temptation.

I have written to my son, who is at Pau, to ask himif he can throw

any light on the point. He reports seeing young wolves brought in

to Pau as a show.—T. P. T.

On the Perforating Bryozoa of the Family Terebriporide.

By P. Fiscuer.

The existence of perforating animals has been ascertained in nearly

all the classes of Invertebrata—Mollusea, Annelida, Echinodermata,

Spongiaria, &c.; the vegetable kingdom likewise presents us with.

examples of Protophyta hollowing out their residence in shells and

stones. Perforation and, consequently, the destruction of the per-

forated bodies are therefore the effects of a great law of nature. By

the side of the creatures which accumulate masses of calcareous

polyparies, and of those of which the shells strew our shores and

cover the bottom of the sea, nature has placed other organisms,

smaller but not less powerful in their effects, which restore to the

ocean the elements which have been drawn from it.

Among the Bryozoa the existence of terebrant cells is almost a

new fact. It was known that some Lepralie and Cellepore slightly

alter the surface of the shells to which they attach themselves ;

but before the discovery of Alcide d’Orbigny, no one had ever seen

them lodged in the very interior of the shells.

472 Miscellancous.

The agents by which the perforation is effected are sti]] unknown

to us; we have been unable to detect siliceous corpuscles in the ex-

cavations of the Terebripore—a circumstance which of itself would

suffice to distinguish them from the terebrant Sponges (Cliona,

Thoosa), even if their organization were not infinitely superior.

Until we acquire fuller information, therefore, we shall assume that

the perforation is due to a chemical action.

In the commencement of this memoir we shall indicate a serious

gap. We have been unable to study the animals whose habita-

tions are described. In excuse we may say that the existence of

their excavations is tolerably evident, and that the cells of the living

Terebripora of the French coasts are scarcely 0°09 millim. in

length.

The systematic arrangement of our Bryozoa is consequently

founded upon the form of their cells, their grouping, and develop-

ment—characters which are sufficient for their identification.

The genus Terebripora was established by A. d’Orbigny for two

Bryozoans collected during his voyage in South America—one on

the coast of Peru, the other at the Falkland Islands. D’Orbigny

indicates that this genus differs from all others in its class by its

cells hollowed out in the very substance of shells, their arrangement _

being identical with, and their mode of production similar to, those

of Hippothoa. Since the publication just referred to, no author has

made mention of the Zerebripore.

The investigations which I have undertaken upon the terebrant

Sponges in a fossil state led me incidentally to ascertain how widely

the Terebripore are diffused in the Secondary and Tertiary beds. I

have detected four or five species in the former, and as many in the

latter. Their presence in the middle Tertiary beds of Touraine and

the Astésan led me to expect that this genus was perhaps not yet

extinct in the European seas, when, in September 1865, I collected

in the harbour of Arcachon (Gironde) an oyster perforated by a

colony of Terebripore. The same species occurs in the Medi-

terranean.

From the examination of this specimen it is easy to rectify some

incorrect statements made by D’Orbigny, who represented the aper-

_tures of the cells as round, whereas they are furnished with a notch

of greater or less extent—a character of great importance in the

classification of the Bryozoa.

Besides Terebripora, I have found, on the coasts of the Gironde

and the Charente-Inférieure a Bryozoan belonging to the same

family and having the same habits, but differing in having its cells

alternate and borne upon alternate axes. It leaves upon the shells

elegant impressions resembling the ramifications of the Sertularia.

I propose to name it Spathipora.

The living Spathipore are not numerous. I know only two spe-

cies—one from the coasts of France and of the Mediterranean, the

other from the Pacific; but the former does not differ notably from

a Bryozoan which has perforated with its colonies the shells of the

Faluns of Touraine.

Miscellaneous. A473

To sum up. The Yerebripore and Spathipore constitute a very

natural group, of which the species are probably very numerous.

The interest which it presents is increased by the evidence of its

existence during the whole series of secondary and tertiary deposits.

I arrange the family Teredriporide in the order of Cheilostomatous

Bryozoa, side by side with the Hippothoide. The latter family is

composed of the true Hippothoe (H. divaricata, patagonica, &c.)

and the new genus Cercaripora, Fischer, established for the reception

of Gtea truncata, ligulata, argillacea, &c.— Comptes Rendus, April

30, 1866, pp. 985-987.

On the Systematic Position of the Lepidosirens.

By Professor W. Prrers.

The author recapitulated the external and internal characters

which he considers to prove the piscine nature of the genera Lepido-

siren and Protopterus, and then indicated the circumstances which

appear to be opposed to the union of these animals with the Ganoids,

as recommended some years ago by Gill (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.

1861, pp. 13 ef seg.) and more recently by Brandt (Bull. Acad.

St. Pétersb. 1865, p. 139). He remarked that the distinctions of

the six subclasses of fishes established by J. Miller were to be sought

chiefly in the central organs of the circulation and respiration, and

that, according to this view, the Lepidosirens differ essentially from

the Ganoidei (without taking into consideration the structure of the

auricle and the valves of the aorta) by the absence of a muscular coat

in the base of the aorta, and by the form of the laminar branchie,

united to each other as far as the middle and destitute of cartilaginous

supports.

In opposition to the opinion put forward by Dr. Steindachner,

that the external branchiz of Protopterus are of importance only

during the embryonal and earliest periods of life, it was shown that

these organs increase in size even after the animals have attained a

reproductive age (at less than + métre in length), and that, if they

are found quite aborted in very old individuals, this cannot be re-

garded as a normal, but only as an individual occurrence. This is

the more probable, as the branchize are wanting on the left side of a

specimen only 4 métre in length in the Berlin Museum. The author

further indicated that, even if external branchiz similar to those of

Protopterus were to be discovered on Lepidosiren, the composite

structure of the paired fins of Rhinocryptis (Protopterus) would

remain as an essential difference between the genera.—Monatsber.

Berl. Akad, Wiss. January 11, 1866, pp. 12, 13.

Remarks on some Bones of the Dodo (Didus ineptus) recently col-

lected in the Mauritius. By Aupu. Mitne-Epwarops.

Some months since, in draining a small marsh called the Mare

aux Songes, Mr. George Clark, of Mahébourg, discovered therein a

considerable number of bones of the Dodo. ‘These benes were sent

474, Miscellaneous.

to London, where many of them were sold by auction, which has

enabled me to procure an important series of specimens, by means

of which the skeleton could be almost entirely restored ; and I now

request permission to bring before the Academy the results furnished

by the study of these objects.

The differences of opinion which exist among zoologists with re-

gard to the natural affinities of the Dodo, sufficiently indicate the

difficulties they have met with in studying the remains of this bird.

Linné and Latham thought that it should be placed along with the

Ostriches ; Cuvier approximated it to the Penguins; De Blainville

believed that it should be classed in the order Raptores, beside the

Vultures ; Brandt regarded it as having more affinity to the Plovers ;

and, finally, Reinhardt discovered characters of great resemblance to

the Pigeons. So long as only the external form was taken into

consideration, the questions thus raised could not be solved. But in

1847 Messrs. Strickland and Melville had the opportunity of studying

the bony parts contained in the fragments of feet and in the head of

the Dodo preserved at Oxford, and from this examination they con-

cluded that the bird, notwithstanding its singular form, belonged to

the family of the Columbidee—an opinion which was shared by most

ornithologists, and which Professor Owen has recently adopted in

consequence of his examination of the bones lately discovered in the

Mauritius. According to this illustrious anatomist, the Dodo would

belong to the group of Columbidee, and the peculiarities of structure

observed in it, although very considerable, would be of the rank of

those which may be regarded as dependent on the adaptation of a

bird of this type to an essentially terrestrial mode of life and to a

special diet. One of tle most remarkable portions of the skeleton

of the Dodo is the pelvis; and if Linné, Cuvier, Blainville, and

Brandt had been acquainted with this part of the skeleton, they cer-

tainly would not have expressed the opinions which I have indicated

above. The pelvic apparatus of this bird, although in some respects

resembling that of the Columbidee, is distinguished therefrom by

anatomical characters of great importance ; and these differences are

not of the kind observed in the terrestrial species when compared

with the best fliers among the Pigeons. The pelvis is not con-

structed in the same manner in any bird now living.

Nor are the peculiarities in the structure of the sternal apparatus

any better explained by the hypothesis of the adaptation of the

organic type of the Columbide to an essentially terrestrial mode of

life. At the first glance one is struck by the slightness of its re-

semblance to that of the Pigeons, and by its general form, which

reminds us of the sternum of the Rhea more than that of any other

bird—although it cannot be assimilated to the sternum of a Struthious

bird, on account of the existence of a keel.

The modifications of the sternum which correspond with essen-

tially terrestrial habits, or even with a complete incapability of flight,

are of two kinds: sometimes the median keel for the insertion of

the great pectoral muscles is diminished and disappears completely

without any atrophy of the lateral portions of the sternal shield, as

Miscellaneous. 475

is seen to be the case in the Struthionide ; in other cases the keel is

developed in a normal fashion, but the lateral plates are very imper-

fectly ossified and reduced to mere narrow rods. This arrangement

occurs in the ordinary Gallinaceous birds, and is carried to a great

extent in the Tinamous.

If the Dodo were a Columbide merely modified to live upon the

ground, we ought to expect to find a sternum constructed like that

of the Pigeons, except a greater or less atrophy of the sternal keel,

a narrowness of the hinder part of the entosternal, or an absence of

ossification in a portion of the lateral plates ; but this is not the cha-

racter of the sternum in the Dodo. This pectoral buckler, which is

remarkably thick and much arched, presents on each side of the

keel a very broad and solid surface for the insertion of the thoracic

muscles. The structure of the anterior portion is likewise different

from that which occurs in the Columbide ; and here everything

seems to me to indicate a peculiar ornithological type. The femur,

the tibia, the fibula, and the tarso-metatarsal present much resem-

blance to the bones of the foot in the Pigeons, but also differ in

various anatomical characters.

To sum up, we see that the Dodo, as was shown by Reinhardt and

other authors cited above, presents incontestable affinities with the

Pigeons, but that the resemblances, although striking when we con-

fine ourselves to the comparison of the feet, disappear to a great ex-

tent when we take into consideration the other parts of the skeleton,

especially the pelvis and the sternum. Now the conformation of

these osseous parts is so intimately bound up with that of the

economy in general, that it seems to me impossible not to lay great

stress upon them when we have to appreciate the zoological affinities

of birds. We also see that the modifications which among the Co-

lumbide coincide with an adaptation of the organization more and

more to a terrestrial mode of life, do not lead towards those which

we have indicated in the Dodo. I think, therefore, that, in a natural

ornithological classification, this bird, although occupying a place

beside the Columbide, cannot be regarded as a walking Pigeon, that

it cannot enter into the same family, and that it must be classed

in a separate division of equal value.—Comptes Rendus, April 23,

1866, pp. 929-932.

476

INDEX. co VOL) XVil.

A ccauepus, on the urticating cap-

sules of some, 387.

Acheus Cranchii, observations on,

24.

/Erenea, new species of, 198.

Agassiz, L.,on some marsupial Fishes,

398,

Agennopsis, new species of, 295.

Alder, J., on the Chevreulius eal-

lensis, 152.

Aletretia, description of the new ge-

nus, 34.

Alix, E., on the organs of parturition

in the Kangaroos, 316.

Amillarus, new species of, 432.

Ammonites, new species of, 174.

Amphieneeia, description of the new

genus, 32.

Amphionycha, new species of, 426.

Amphipeplea, on the species of, 210,

309.

Amphipoda of the Adriatic, on the,

154.

Animals, on the circulation in the

lower, 238.

Annelides, on the classification of

the, 1, 100, 107; of Guernsey, list

of the, 389.

Anodon, new species of, 54.

Anthers, on the existence of a third

membrane in, 309; on a new organ

Oh S00:

Antizoma, on the genus, 265.

Arthonia, new British species of, 350.

Ascarides, on the development of,

340, 449. ,

Assiminea, on some species of, 202,

309.

Astacus, new species of, 359.

Athyma, new species of, 98.

Atopomycterus, new species of, 319.

Avicula, new species of, 179.

Barbus, new species of, 311.

Bate, C.S., caremological gleanings

by, 24.

Bates, H. W., on the Longicorns of

the Amazons Valley, 31, 191, 288,

367, 425.

Beck, Messrs., on a new kind of illu-

mination for opaque objects, 159.

Bernericea, new species of, 181.

Birds, on the function of the air-cells

and the mechanics of respiration

in, 313; on a new subclass of ver-

tebrate animals allied to, 321.

Bittium, new species of, 276.

Blabicentrus, new species of, 192.

Boissier, E., on some new facts in

botanical geography, 464.

Books, new :—Haughton’s Manual of

Geology, 65; Daubeny’s Trees and

Shrubs of the Ancients, 71; The

Record of Zoological Literature for

1864, 73; Stainton’s Natural His-

tory of the Tineina, 151; Wollas-

ton’s Catalogue of the Coleopterous

Insects of the Canaries, 235 ; Wol-

laston’s Coleoptera Atlantidum,

233; Cooke’s Reptiles, 373; Nicol’s

Geology and Scenery of the North

of Seotland, 467.

Bos Urus, notes on, 399.

Botanical geography, on some new

facts in, 464.

Brycon, new species of, 312.

Bryozoa, on perforating, 471.

Bulimus, new species of, 49.

Burmeister, Dr. H., on a new Ceta-

cean, 94, 303.

Butler, A. G., on new species of but-

terflies, 98, 285; on the identity

of certain species of diurnal Lepi-

doptera, 435.

Butterflies, new species of, 98, 285.

Cacostola, new species of, 32.

Calicium, new British species of, 60.

Callia, new species of, 300.

Callithrix, on some new species of, 57.

Candolle, A. de, on germination at

different degrees of constant tem-

perature, 241.

Capros aper, on the capture of a spe-

cimen of, on the coast of Dorset-

shire, 237.

Caradina, on the genus, 27.

Carcinological gleanings, 24.

Carpenter, Dr. P. P., on some Pleis-

tocene fossils, 274.

Carpenter, Dr. W. B., on Rhyncho-

nella Geinitziana, 506.

INDEX.

Cecidomyia, on the asexual repro-

duction of the larve of, 161.

Cellulipora, new species of, 181.

Cetacean, description of a new, 94,

303.

Chalcolyne, description of the new

genus, 297.

Chatin, A., on the existence of a third

membrane in the anther, 309; on

the placentoid, 395.

Chevreulius callensis, observations

on, 152, 313.

Chloéon, on the transformations of,

377.

Chondrostoma, new species of, 311.

Cissampelos, notes on the genus,128.

Claparéde, E., on the classitication of

the Annelides, 100.

Clinus, new species of, 312.

Clypea, observations on the genus,

268.

Collema, new British species of, 59,

350.

Collocalia, synopsis of the species of,

18.

Colobus, new species of, 77.

Colpodz, on the vital resistance of

encysted, 79.

Conchological gleanings, $1, 202.

Conulus, new species of, 53.

Crinoidea, on the occurreace of an in-

ternal convoluted plate within the

body of certain, 398.

Cucullanus elegans, on the develop-

ment of, 337.

Dactylethrze, notes on the, 391.

Desmiphora, new species of, 200.

Dissopetalum, characters of the ge-

nus, 267.

Dochmius trigonocephalus, on the

development of, 545.

Dodo, on some bones of the, 473.

Dorcasta, new species of, 35.

Drosier, Dr., on the function of the

air-cells, and the mechanics of re-

spiration, in birds, 313.

Dules, new species of, 317.

Duméril, A., on the development of

the Axolotl, 156; on the habits of

the Lepidosirens, 160.

Dyce, Dr.R., on some peculiarities in

the eye of the mackerel, 307.

Eleotris, new species of, 318.

Enodia, new species of, 286.

Epectasis, description of the genus,

294,

477

Erana, description of the genus, 431.

ee description of the genus,

Esthlogena, new species of, 289.

Estola, new species of, 291.

Eumathes, new species of, 297.

Eumimesis, characters of the genus,

298.

Exocentrus, new species of, 191.

Fatio, V.,on the various modes of co-

loration of feathers, 361.

Feathers, on the various modes of

coloration of, 361.

Fischer, P., on the perforating Bryo-

ie of the family Terebriporide,

(al

Fish, on the probable existence of

accessory eyes in a, 320.

Fish-hatching, on purifying the water

for the purpose of, 77.

Fishes, on the extension of certain

marine, to the freshwater rivers of

India, 153; on some marsupial,

398; new, 311, 317.

Flyingfish, on the mode of flight of

the, 397.

Fungi, on the reaction of iodine in,

58.

Garovaglio, Prof., on the Verrucariz,

183.

Germination, observations on, at dif-

ferent degrees of constant tempe-

rature, 241.

Gibelli, Prof. G., on the reproductive

organs of the Verrucariz, 270.

Gobius, new species of, 318.

oe J., on a Japanese Pheasant,

50.

Gray, G. R., on the species of the ge-

nus Collocalia, 118.

Gray, Dr. J. E., on some new species

of Callithrix, 57; on two new spe-

cies of Colobus, 77; on the genera

of Vespertilionide and Noctilio-

nid, 89; on the Pinnipedes, 444.

Greyhounds run wild, 471.

Gromia oviformis, observations on,

351.

Guppy, R.J.L., on the terrestrial and

fluviatile Mollusea of Trinidad, 42.

Gymnetrus Banksii, note on the cap-

ture of, 312, 390.

Hall, J., on the occurrence of an in-

ternal convoluted plate within the

body of certain Crinoidez, 398.

Hastatis, new species of, 299,

478

Hawkins, W. B., on the fossil British

Oxen, 399.

Heller, C., on the Amphipoda of the

Adriatic, 154.

Hemilophus, new species of, 370.

Hemirhamphus, new species of, 319.

Heterochzrops, characters of the ge-

nus, 319.

Hinnites, new species of, 178.

Hippopsis, new species of, 39.

Hogg, J., on the capture of a Ribbon-

fish, 390.

Houghton, W., on the occurrence of

Paludicella Ehrenbergi in Shrop-

shire, 237.

Hydra, on the anatomy and physio-

logy of the Vorticellidan parasite

of, 401.

Hydrobiinz, researches upon the,

393.

Tanthinze, on the float of the, 278.

Insects, on the muscular force of,

139; on the metamorphoses of,

375.

Isomerida, description of the genus,

372.

James-Clark, Prof. H., on the anato-

my and physiology of the Vorticel-

lidan parasite of Hydra, 401.

Jeffreys, J. G., on the genera Amphi-

peplea and Assiminea, 309.

Jerdon, T. C., on the extension of

certain marine fishes to the fresh-

water rivers of India, 153.

Johnson, J. Y., on a new species of

Polystichum, 287.

Kangaroos, on the organs of parturi-

tion in the, 316.

Kner, Prof., on the swimming-bladder

and sexual organs of the Murenoid

fishes, 388.

Lacaze-Duthiers, M., on a new mode

of parasitism observed in an un-

described animal, 155; on the

multiplicity and termination of the

nerves in the Mollusca, 157; on

the circulation in the lower animals,

238; on the float of the Ianthine,

' 278.

Lagenorhynchus albirostris, note on

the capture of, near Cromer, 312.

Lankester, E. R., on the Annelida

and Turbellaria of Guernsey, 388.

Lasiommata, new species of, 286.

Laura, observations on the new ge-

nus, 155.

INDEX.

Lecanora, new British species of, 60.

Lecidea, new British species of, 61,

350.

Leighton’s, Rev. W. A., Notule Li-

chenologice, 58,183, 270, 348,437.

Lepidoptera, diurnal, new species of,

285; on the identity of certain

species of, 435.

- Lepidosirens, observations on some,

160; on the systematic position of

the, 473.

Leptogium, new British species of, 59.

Lepturges, new species of, 433.

Leuckart, Dr. R., on the asexual

reproduction of Cecidomyide larvz,

161; on the probable existence of

accessory eyes in a fish, 320; on

the developmental history of the

Nematode worms, 331, 447.

Leucos, new species of, 311.

Lichens, on the reaction of iodine in,

58, 190; new British, 59, 348.

Limenitis, new species of, 285.

Limnzus, on the Sandwichian spe-

cies of, 207.

Lizard, on a fossil, in copal, 78.

Longicorns of the Amazons Valley,

on the, 31, 191, 288, 367, 425.

Lotella, new species of, 319.

Lubbock, Sir J., on the metamor-

phoses of insects, 375.

Lycidola, new species of, 368.

Mackerel, on some peculiarities in

the eye of the, 307.

Mann, H., onthe method of flight of

the flyingfish, 397.

Marmots, on the occurrence of bones

of, near Graz, 392.

Marsupials, on the parturition of the,

382.

Martens, Dr. E. von, conchological

gleanings by, 81, 202; on a new

species of Astacus, 359.

Matthews, Rev. A., on several new

species of Trichopterygide, 141.

Megacera, new species of, 37.

Menispermacez, on the, 128, 265.

Meunier, V., on the vital resistance

of encysted Colpode, 79.

Miers, J., on the Menispermacez,

128, 265.

Milne-Edwards, A., on some bones

of the Dodo, 473.

Mobius, K., on the urticating cap-

sules of some Polypes and Aca-

lephs, 387.

INDEX.

Moreh, O. A. L., on the genus Chev-

reulius, 313.

Mollusca, on the terrestrial and flu-

viatile, of Trinidad, 42; on the

multiplicity and termination of the

nerves in the, 157 ; on new Pleis-

tocene, from California, 274.

Mugil, new species of, 318.

Murenoid fishes, on the swimming-

bladder and sexual organs of the,

388.

Mustelus, new species of, 320.

Natural-history specimens, on a new

fluid for preserving, 385.

Nematode worms, on the develop-

mental history of the, 331, 447.

Nephanes, new species of, 148.

Noctilionidz, synopsis of the genera

of, 92.

Notulz Lichenologice, 58, 183, 270,

348, 437.

Nylander, Dr. W., on the reaction of

iodine in Lichens and Fungi, 58,

190; on new British Lichens, 59,

348.

Odax, new species of, 319.

Ollulanus, description of the new ge-

nus, 332.

Opalia, new species of, 277.

Opegrapha, new British species of,

62; on the saxicolar species of,

437.

Oreodera, new species of, 433.

Owen, Prof., on the parturition of

the Marsupials, 382.

Pagurus, on the British species of, 25.

Palinurus, on the structure of the

antenne of, 26.

Paludicella Ehrenbergi, on the occur-

rence of, in Shropshire, 237.

Parapistus, characters of the genus,

318.

Parasitism, on a new mode of, 155.

Pediculus, on the structure of the

mouth in, 213.

Pentaceros, new species of, 311.

Perch, on the spawn of the, 79.

Perna, new species of, 178.

Pertusaria, new British species of,

61, 349.

Peters, Prof., on a fossil Lizard in

copal, 78; on the systematic posi-

tion of the Lepidosirens, 473.

Phza, new species of, 367.

Phasianus, on a probably new species

of, 150.

479

Phthiriasis, observations on, 213.

Pinna, on the subdivisions of the ge-

nus, 81.

Pinnipedes, observations on the, 444.

Pisania, new species of, 277.

Plateau, F., on the muscular force of

insects, 139.

Platycephalus, new species of, 312.

Plectropoma, new species of, 317.

Plekocheilus, new species of, 51,

Plicatula, new species of, 176.

Polypes, on the urticating capsules

of some, 387.

Polystichum, on a new species of,

287.

Polythalamia, on the morphological

structure and the motory pheno-

mena of the contractile substance

of the, 351.

Pretilia, description of the new ge-

nus, 302.

Pristolepis, note on the genus, 153.

Prymnosis, characters of the new ge-

nus, 288.

Pterodactyles, on the ornithic nature

of the, 321.

Pyrenidium, new British species of,

60.

Pyrenopsis, new British species of,

349.

Quatrefages, A. de, on the classifica-

tion of the Annelides, 1, 107.

Ransom, Dr. W. H., on purifying the

water for the purpose of fish-

hatching, 77; on the spawn of the

Perch, 79.

Reichert, M., on the morphological

structure and the motory pheno-

mena of the contractile substance

of the Polythalamia, 351.

Rhynchonella Geinitziana, on the

structure of, 306.

Richardsonia, characters of the new

genus, 319,

Royal Institution, proceedings of the,

375.

Salenia, new species of, 180.

Saurornia, on the new subclass, 321.

Schjodte, Prof. J. C., on phthiriasis,

and on the structure of the mouth

in Pediculus, 213.

Schmidt, Prof. O., on the occurrence

of bones of Marmots near Graz,

392.

Schuettea, characters of the new ge-

nus, 320.

480

Scieena, new species of, 318.

Sclerostomum equinum, on the de-

velopment of, 447.

Scorpzena, new species of, 317.

Scorpis, new species of, 317.

Scyphia, new species of, 181.

Seeley, H., on Torynocrinus and

other new and little-known fossils

from the Upper Greensand, 173 ;

on the evidence that the Pterodac-

tyles are not reptiles, 321.

Simpulopsis, new species of, 53.

Siredon mexicanus, on the develop-

ment of, 156.

Spathoptera, new species of, 369.

Spheroma, on a new species of, 28.

Sphyrzena, new species of, 318.

Spiders, on the presence of teeth on

the maxillz of, 399.

Sporetus, new species of, 434.

Staveley, Miss, on the presence of

teeth on the maxille of Spiders,

399.

Steindachner, Dr., on new fishes from

the Iberian peninsula and South

America, 311, from Port Jackson

and Port Natal, 317.

Stimpson, Dr. W., on the Hydrobinee

and allied forms, 393.

Stizenberger, Dr. E., on the Saxicolar

species of Opegrapha, 437.

Strongylus, new species of, 335.

Taylor, R., on the naturalization of

Zosterops dorsalis in New Zealand,

237.

INDEX.

Terebriporidx, on the perforating

Bryozoa of the family, 471.

Thelopsis, new British species of, 348.

Thelotrema, new British species of,

349.

Torynocrinus, description of the new

genus, 173.

Trichine, observations on the, 331.

Trichodina pediculus, on the anatomy

and physiology of, 401.

Trichopterygidz, new species of, 141.

Trophon, new species of, 277.

Trygonoptera, new species of, 319.

Turbellaria of Guernsey, list of the,

388.

Turritella, new species of, 276.

Tyrinthia, description of the genus,

371.

Veale, J. P. M., on the Dactylethre,

391.

Verrill, A. E., on a new fluid for pre-

serving natural-history specimens,

385.

Verrucaria, new British species of,

63, 348, 350; on the species of,

found in Lombardy, 183.

Verrucariz, on the reproductive or-

gans of the, 270.

Vespertilionidee, synopsis of the ge-

nera of, 89.

Whales, note on domesticated, 312.

Ziphiorrhynehus eryptodon, descrip-

tion of, 94, 303.

Zosterops dorsalis, on the naturaliza-

tion of, in New Zealand, 237.

END OF THE SEVENTEENTH VOLUME.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,

RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

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