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THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY,

ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, ann GEOLOGY.

(BEING A CONTINUATION OF THE ‘ANNALS’ COMBINED WITH LOUDON AND

CHARLESWORTH’S ‘MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY. )

CONDUCTED BY

PRIDEAUX JOHN SELBY, Esa., F.L.S.,

CHARLES C. BABINGTON, Esa., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,

J. H. BALFOUR, M.D., Prof. Bot. Edinburgh,

AND

RICHARD TAYLOR, F.I.S., F.G.S.

VOL. XVI.—SECOND SERIES.

eee ayy

| LONDON:

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS.

SOLD BY LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL,

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1855,

‘*Omnes res create sunt divine sapientie et potentie testes, divitie felicitatis

humane :—ex harum usu bonitas Creatoris; ex pulchritudine sapientia Domini;

ex ceconomia in conservatione, proportione, renovatione, potentia majestatis elucet.

Earum itaque indagatio ab hominibus sibirelictis semper estimata; a veré eruditis

et sapientibus semper exculta; malé doctis et barbaris semper inimica fuit.”—

LINNZUS.

* Quelque soit le principe de la vie animale, il ne faut qu’ouvrir les yeux pour voir

qu'elle est le chef-d’ceuvre de la Toute-puissance, et le but auquel se rapportent

toutes ses opérations.””—BRUCKNER, Théorie du Systéme Animal, Leyden, 1767.

oe ee oe ee oe oe « ene sylvan powers

Obey our summons ; from their deepest dells

The Dryads come, and throw their garlands wild

And odorous branches at our feet ; the Nymphs

That press with nimble step the mountain thyme

And purple heath-flower come not empty-handed,

But scatter round ten thousand forms minute

Of velvet moss or lichen, torn from rock

Or rifted oak or cavern deep: the Naiads too

Quit their loved native stream, from whose smooth face

They crop the lily, and each sedge and rush

That drinks the rippling tide: the frozen poles,

Where peril waits the bold adventurer’s tread,

The burning sands of Borneo and Cayenne,

All, all to us unlock their secret stores

And pay their cheerful tribute.

J. Tayitor, Norwich, 1818,

CONTENTS OF VOL. XVI.

[SECOND SERIES. ]

NUMBER XCI.

I. Observations on the Development of Gonidia (2) from the Cell-

contents of the Characee, and on the Circulation of the Mucus-sub-

stance of the Cell; with a Postscript. By H. J. Carrer, Esq.,

Page

Assistant-Surgeon H.C.S., Bombay ............ esviins huaen a Shaydawestaasbabnn ]

II. Descriptions of the Animals of certain Genera of Conchifera.

By S. P. WoopWARD, Esq., F.G.S. .....ccsccscseveecceevevessveccscescens 22

IIT. Notes on some new or little-known Marine Animals. By

_ Puriip Henry Goss, A.L.S. (With two Plates.) .......s.csseeeee 27

IV. On the Homologies of the Carapace and on the Structure and

Function of the Antenne in Crustacea. By C. Spence Bare, F.L.S.,

SG eh WERE MU IMOUMLE Vea pevaicres dakrbonsasescoeves cisaceeverotateeneaesces 36

V. On Double Monstrosity in Fishes ...........scsseeseecesevssvecsceees 47

Proceedings of the Linnean Society ; Zoological Society ; Royal Insti-

tution ; Botanical Society of Edinburgh .........sss.sseeeeeeeee 51—78

On the Nereis bilineata, by William Thompson; On a New Species

of Thalassidroma, by George Robert Gray, F.L.S. & F.Z.S.; On

the Eggs of Otogyps and Prosthemadera, by H. F. Walter; Me-

teorological Observations and Table ......-cssesessceseresereeeers 78—80

NUMBER XCII.

VI. Notes on Paleozoic Bivalved Entomostraca. No. I. Some

Species of Beyrichia from the Upper Silurian Limestones of Scandi-

navia. By T. Rupert Jongs, F.G.S. (With a Plate.) ............+4 81

VII. On the Conjugation of the Diatomacee. By J. W. GrirFitu,

Beery Pheu: Wath & Plate,)- <> scissatacsccssscsvcsescccscccctccsesedececece 92

1V CONTENTS.

Page

VIII. On a new Genus of Fossil Cidaride, with a Synopsis of the

Species included therein. By THomas Wricurt, M.D., F.R.S.E.... 94

IX. Brief Notices of several new or little-known species of Mam-

malia, lately discovered and collected in Nepal, by Bk1an HoucHtTon

Hopeson, Esq. By T. HORSFIELD, M.D. .....ccccceseeseeeceeeseeer ens 101

X. On the Assiminia sha a and Rissoa anatina. By W1LLIAM

CLARK, Esq, ......c0..cccccceccheccotesscvscesnensevsnssesneasnetsabasasnasecanes 114

XI. Deseriptions of two newly discovered species of Araneidea. By

JOHN BLACKWALL, FLAS. ...ccccssccassceesscctereecsesensccsvosooss ispenvas 120

XII. Note on the Descent of Glaciers. By J. Gwyn JEFFREYS,

WM. 5 FIRS. ©... 60s csecsconcnicssss cuuabeepatvoustspuveencpeereeaseeepagesyen sti 122

New Books :—Catalogue of British Hymenoptera in the Collection

_ of the British Museum. Part I. Apide—Bees, by Frederick

Smith, M.E.S.—Proceedings of the Yorkshire Philosophical

SOciety sesncicesdeoseccscocnnsesvensnbhneduonbneays abaiugece ctndde nis 124—128

Proceedings of the Zoological Society; Botanical Society of Edin-

DPE ios enseessacssereps is subs si pcb coh Meas amie GN WG OES 128—146

On the Organization of the Pedicellate Glands of the Leaf of Drosera

rotundifolia, by M. A. Trécul; On a new Organ observed in Cal-

litriche (C. platycarpa, &c.), by M. A. Chatin; Description of a

new Tanager of the Genus Calliste, by Philip Lutley Sclater,

M.A.; On the Spermatophora of the Crickets, by C. Lespés;

Meteorological Observations and Table —........sceseseseeeee 146—152

NUMBER XCIIE.

XIII. Observations on the Genera Pachybdella (Diesing) and Pel-

togaster (Rathke), two animal forms parasitic upon the abdomen of

Crabs. By Professor STEENSTRUP ...... Bes teady ecad UCI Seanese 153

XIV. Notes on Paleozoic Bivalved Entomostraca. No. I]. Some

British and Foreign Species of Beyrichia. By T. Rupert Jonss,

F.G.S. (With a Plate.) .....0..scsecsessoeee Waibesscapne pebiday ob sversns gon «- 163

XV. On the Heart and Circulation m the Pycnogonide. By Dr.

A. KROHN. (With a Plate.) ......ccscscsecseccevsccsscccescassevsaees vines LO

XVI. Abstract of a Monograph of the Family Gorgonide. By

M. VALENCIENNES 6occcccssceccsscscscatssssesesenccontseweevoncecscesas wobsas hdd.

XVII. On the Genus Assiminia. By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S.;

WE IR onc coi vai cakc be cdc cavin'ce ccUdueunsapecatenaas Tega ede bya I 183

CONTENTS. Vv

Page

XVIII. On the Law which has regulated the Introduction of New

Species. By ALtFrep R. WALLACE, F.R.G.S. ....csecseceseeee wdéccet LB4

XIX. On some new Species of Hemipedina from the Oolites. By

THOMAS WRIGHT, M.D., F.R.S.EB. ...cccccsccccescscees yh iB bao bs grec Uae 196

XX. Short Biographical Notice of the late Dr. Jounston of Ber-

WAMU EWEOD Suse cncssiersicanddcs <pssvasseveresbaties consceiuhystd thieves 199

New Books :—The British Flora, comprising the Phenogamous or

Flowering Plants and the Ferns. The 7th edition, with Additions

and Corrections, &c., by Sir William Jackson Hooker, K.H.,

D.C.L. &e. &e., and George A. Walker-Arnott, LL.D. &c. &c.... 203

Proceedings of the Royal Society; Linnzan Society; Botanical

Society of Edinburgh ; Zoological Society .......esssseeeee 205—229

Monstrosity of Antirrhinum majus, by Dr. J. E. Gray; Notice of the

Horns and Skull of the Arnee, by Dr. J. E. Gray; Meteorolo-

gical Observations and Table .........seseccsssecrscecesceseveees 229—232

NUMBER XCIV.

XXI. The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. By

Dr. ALEXANDER Braun, Professor of Botany in the University of

Berlin, &c. Translated by CHAs. FRANCIS STONE ........0+8 kadevenes 233

XXII. Note on the Subgenus Limea, Bronn. By Joun Lycert,

rea taia'cdd ERAATRUAS CHUA CUCRAa A446 LANE EE MA Eu CED Wa FUCK OVEN eceehs seaugedeves 256

XXIII. Notes on the Brachiopoda observed in a Dredging Tour

with Mr. M‘Andrew on the Coast of Norway, in the summer of the

present year. By Lucas BARRETT, F.G.S. ............cccceseeeceeseeees 257

XXIV. On the Young States of some Annelides. By R. LnucKkarr.

RRM Oh BRUNE. sees deitune sc ss naomi cqsnesyaSnehatehnerpsngiieand 4b be bdo eiesesy 259

XXV. Observations on the Genus Assiminia. By WILLIAM

CLARK, Esq. ...... Sanh Saas AU RV NMA cchok hed aL EAD ALL eda as WE ap idan dvds sd edos% 272

XXVI. On the Morphology of the Organs called Lenticels. By

M. E. GERMAIN DE SAINT-PIERRE .....2..cccsceveccescecstecceosececoees 273

New Books :—A Manual of Marine Zoology for the British Isles, by

Philip Henry Gosse, A.L.S. ...... REET idk a sae cicki cvexeonabedavins 277

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ; Linnean Society ...... 278—296

vi CONTENTS.

Page

Sibbald’s Drawings of Scottish Animals, by the late Dr. George John- .

ston ; Clausilia Rolphii, by Mr. 8. P. Woodward ; Note on Helix

aspersa, by Mr.S. P. Woodward; Descriptions of some new spe-

cies of Birds; by the Viscount Du Bus de Gisignies ; On the Oper-

culum of Diplommatina, by Captain Thomas Hutton; Note on

Aphyllanthes monspeliensis, and the new Family Aphyllanthacee,

by M. Parlatore; Meteorological Observations and Table . 296—304

NUMBER XCV.

XXVITI. Notes on some new or little-known Marine Animals. By

Puitie Henry Gosss, A.L.S. (With a Plate.) .........c0cceceeee vesee BOS

XXVIII. On the Injurious Effects of an excess or want of Heat

and Light on the Aquarium. By Roperr WarincTon, Esq. ...... 313

XXIX. On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration and on the

Structure of the Organs of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals. By

Tuomas Wiuuiams, M.D. Lond. (With a Plate.) .........ceeceeseeees 315

XXX. Notice and Description of a new species of Spider. By the

Rey. Hamuet Ciark, M.A., Curate of All Saints, Northampton ... 329

XXXI. Observations on the Habits of the Stickleback. By RoperrT — -

WARINGTON, Esq. ....... con¥odsdenssee Ghdiddnns dhe oesedsocsedscesaccsess suas 330

XXXII. The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. By

Dr. ALEXANDER Braun, Professor of Botany in the University of

Dees Cbs caisicdics ics dada Sikes ns Capra ek den Ge 333

New Books :—Glaucus; or the Wonders of the Shore, by Charles

Kingsley ........... » sussndadvds sab Nibsbinebyardewnenss dtndisnnueened baeeds 354

Proceedings of the Linnean Society ; Zoological Society ...... 356—378

Bohemian Forests and Peat-bogs, by Dr. Hochstetter ; Occurrence of

Diodonta fragilis at Weymouth, by William Thompson, Esq. ;

Description of a second species of the genus Procnias, by Philip

Lutley Sclater, M.A.; Descriptions of some new species of Birds,

by the Viscount Du Bus de Gisignies ; Description of a new spe-

cies of Petrogale, by Dr. J. E. Gray ; Meteorological Observations

SOD TADIC socccers.cccesovdecencapavenn pada cbeosegeeweaneagens east 378—384

NUMBER XCVI.

XXXITII. On the Batrachian Ranunculi of Britanm. By CHARLES

C.ABINGTON, M.A., FURS. S66. sivsis ucacvssebrnnseevesvris ovavecdsss: 385

CONTENTS. vil

Page

XXXIV. On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration and on the

Structure of the Organs of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals. By

Tuomas WiuuiaMs, M.D. Lond. (With a Plate.) ....0.....cecceceeeee 404

XXXV. On the Genera of Mollusca, and on the Genus Assiminia

in particular. By Dr. J. E. Gray, FURS. &. .....0...ccccceccccsecevees 422

XXXVI. A few Remarks on the Brachiopoda. By Tuomas

Davipson, Esq., F.G.S. &c. (With a Plate.) ......sseesee sevecshesesss 429

. XXXVII. On the Phenomena of the Reproduction of the Chitons.

By WiLuiAM CLARK, Esq. ........ = PSR SS CARE te phiesiasniabaciaes 446

XXXVIII. Note on Linaria sepium, Allman. By CuHaruss C.

BaBINGTON, M.A., F.R.S. &e. .s.eeececoee ESTEE, 1 Reakgieat hy SP oe fee SN 449

‘ New Books :—Catalogue of the Genera and Subgenera of Birds con-

tained in the British Museum, by G. R. Gray, F.L.S.—Descrip-

tive and Illustrated Catalogue of the Histological Series contained

in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. Prepared for

the Microscope. Vol. ib. .........cccssscessecesceeeccersrcesees «es 450—457

Proceedings of the Zoological Society ............ Sec haieapey asiets 457—464

Shropshire Mollusea, by J. Gwyn Jeffreys; Note on the Arrested

Development of the Tadpole of the Common Frog, by W. Davies ;

List of Species of Mollusca obtamed by Prof. Goodsir from

Spitzbergen, by R. M‘Andrew, Nia ; Meteorological Observations

DE IO Cor teen etc saki sae ssacews "i Feeley ARS pian ear ae aacnn ss 464—467

PLATES IN VOL. XVI.

Piate I. pone. of the Carapace in the Crustacea.—Conjugation of

II. the Diatomacee.

Ill.

IV.

o } Paleozoic Bivalved Entomostraca.

} New or little-known Marine Animals.

VII. Young States of some Annelides.—Circulation in the Pyeno-

gonide.

VIII. New or little-known Marine Animals.

IX. Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration in Invertebrate Animals.

X. New Species of Brachiopoda.

XI. Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration in Invertebrate Animals.

THE ANNALS

AND

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

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Floribus et pictum, dive, replete canistrum.

At vos, o Nymphe Craterides, ite sub undas ;

Ite, recurvato variata corallia trunco

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1. Holy (Hex) *

1, common

1.— Observations on the Development of Gonidia(?) from the

Cell-contents of the Characeze, and on the Circulation of the

Mucus-substance of the Cell; with a Postscript. By H. J.

Carrer, Hsq., Assistant Surgeon H.C.S., Bombay.

THE following is a short’ summary of observations on the cell-

contents of the Characez made in the island of Bombay during

the last eight months, and which want of time only now pre-

vents me from communicating in a more extended and complete

form. All physiologists are acquainted with the development

of the spiral filaments in the globule and a new plant from the

nucule, but the passage of the cell-contents into gonidia in this

family of the Algze does not seem to have met with description ;

nor has, I think, the circulatory movement been satisfactorily

explained.

Before, however, proceeding to the detail of these phenomena,

it is desirable to refresh the memory of the reader with a descrip-

tion of the recent cell of the Characez in which the circulation

is going on, and for this purpose I shall take.an internode of

Nitella, as at once furnishing the simplest and largest type of

the cell throughout the family*.

* The species of Nitel/la which I have used for my observations is a de-

licate, slender plant with long internodes and umbelliferous verticils, the

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi.

2 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Development of Gonidia

The internode of Nitella consists of—1st, the cell-wall ; 2nd, the

green layer ; 3rd, the mucus-layer ; and 4th, the azial fluid, to each

of which parts separately let us now direct our attention.

Cell-wall.—This, in the internode, is cylindrical, more or less

convex at each end, transparent, and resistent like all other cel-

lulose membranes of the same kind.

Green layer.—In contact with the inner surface of the cell-

wall is a layer of green bodies, which, being more or less discoidal,

we shall call “ green disks.” These disks, which are slightly

separated from each other, are arranged up and down the inter-

node in parallel lines, and the layer which they thus form is

divided into two equal parts by two transparent linear intervals,

which, for reasons that will appear hereafter, have been aptly

termed by Slack the ‘lines of repose.” Neither these lines, nor

the lines of green disks which are parallel to them, are exactly

parallel with the longitudinal axis of the internode, but twisted

round it in a semispiral form, so that by transmitted light the

two white intervals, which are on opposite sides of the internode,

present the appearance of a cross with acute angles, which angles

vary in their degree with the length of the internode.

The green disk, which is more or less elliptical and com-

pressed, is composed of a vesicle of chlorophyll in which are

three or more granules of compressed, circular or elliptical form,

each of which is also, apparently, in a distinct vesicle of chloro-

phyll, and the whole thus grouped together form a green body

which is attached to, or imbedded in, the cell-wall of a third

vesicle. At least, this appears to be the typical form of the

“ green disk,” though its component parts are not always di-

stinctly mdividualized ; and a vesicle with a nucleus, such as I

have described, may frequently be seen among the cell-contents

of the internode when the latter has been evacuated, whilst the

divisions of the green disk with a granule in each, as well as faint

lines between them, indicative of each being surrounded by a

transparent vesicle, may often be seen while the disk is in situ.

Thus, the green layer is composed of a number of vesicles set

together in linear arrangement, to each of which is appended

the green disk mentioned. The average size of the green disk

latter consisting of sixteen to twenty branches, alternately long and short.

The long branches are thrice divided, and the last division in all termi-

nated by a spine. The organs of fructification, which are cast together in

the axils of the verticil or separately in the centres of the umbels of the

branches, are, with the terminal divisions of the latter, too small to be seen

distinctly by the unassisted eye. It grows here and there in the muddy

tanks of the island of Bombay all the year round, and from the slime and

foreign matter which collects about it, looks not unlike toad’s spawn. Its

‘chief character, when cleansed of this, is its delicate, slender, umbelliferous

aspect.

from the Cell-contents of the Characeze. 3

in the species of Nitel/a on which I have been making observa-

tions, is 1-4300th of an inch in diameter. Iodine with and with-

out sulphuric acid gives it a dark brown-red colour, but does

not turn it or its contents blue.

Mucus-layer.—Immediately within the green layer is a gra-

nular, colourless mucus, which is unequally and unevenly spread

over the surface, so that it presents a wavy line towards the axial

fluid. The unevenness of the inner surface of this mucus arises

from partial aggregations of its substance, which are most pro-

minent and accumulated midway between the lines of repose..

One of these aggregations is generally larger than the rest, and

this in the spiniform cells which terminate the branchlets and

in the early state. of the imternode itself contains the cytoblast,

which with its accompanying mucus also at this early period

lines the inside of the cell; so that the whole of the granular

mucus-layer and its contents, which afterwards form such a large

portion of the internode, is developed from this cytoblast, and

should be regarded as merely an increase in quantity of the ori-

ginal protoplasm or primordial utricle of Mohl.

We have now to direct our attention to the contents of the

granular mucus, which, when one extremity of the internode is

truncated by a sharp cutting mstrument, under water, rushes

out partly in a loose amorphous form, and partly enclosed in

vesicles of variable dimensions, the largest of which are some-

times nearly as wide as the internode. Both the amorphous

masses and vesicles are again charged with vesicles of different

sizes, circular disks containing a finely granulated substance,

subreniform or round starch-globules, and a number of irre-

gularly-shaped bodies of different sizes, but of which none exceed

the 1500th part of an inch in diameter.

The most striking of these contents are the circular disks,

which, from their defined outline and uniform size and appear-

ance, are easily distinguished from any of the other bodies..

They average about the 2150th part of an inch in diameter, and

appear to be filled with a minutely granular mucus of a very

faint yellow colour, which, a certain time after the disk has been

exposed to the water, contracts into an elliptical form, and thus

shows that it is enclosed within a capsule, from which it is also

distinct. These disks may be seen in considerable numbers

loose or imbedded in the amorphous masses of mucus, or in

that filling the large vesicles, or in variable plurality in trans-

parent globular vesicles otherwise empty ; lastly, they may be

seen fixed singly to, or in the wall of a vesicle, which appears to

be their normal appendage, and though this vesicle is sometimes

hardly distinguishable, it is at others five or six times the dia-

meter of the disk. Iodine colours the nucleus of a deep brown

4, Mr. H.J. Carter on the Development of Gonidia

amber colour, but leaves the capsule and globular cell un-

affected. 7

Many globular vesicles of different sizes, which appear to be

entirely empty, are also to be observed, and here and there a

solitary starch-globule.

But the composition of the irregular bodies, which appear to

vary in size from a minute granule to the largest starch-globule,

is not so evident. These bodies, which have a faint yellow opake

colour, and apparently granular structure, are like the circular

disks loosely scattered through the mucus, or enclosed in plu-

rality within transparent globular vesicles otherwise empty, or

attached to or imbedded singly, in the wall of one of these cells,

which also seems to be their normal appendage. In Chara ver-

ticillata (Roxb.) these bodies in the early part of their growth

are club-shaped, after which the large end appears to expand

into an irregular, globular or agariciform head, to which the

small end then forms a kind of pedicel, and thus they are also

found within vesicles. At first these irregular bodies look very

much like starch-granules, and particularly the agariciform ones,

from the eccentric lines on their surface ; but iodine, even when

assisted by sulphuric acid, only turns them of a deep brown

amber colour like that which it pruduces in the nucleus of the

disk ; sometimes it seems to have little or no effect. upon them.

They differ from the circular disk in the extreme irregularity of

their form, their apparent want of capsule, greater thickness,

deeper yellow colour, greater opacity, and in their apparent ori-

gin from granules infinitely smaller than the circular disks.

Axial fluid.—This, as before stated, fills the centre of the in-

ternode ; it is of an aqueous consistence, colourless, and fre-

~ quently contains bunches of acicular raphides (oxalate of lime ?),

starch-globules, ad many of the faint yellow irregular bodies

just mentioned, all of which, except the raphides, appear to have

accidentally dropt into it from the mucus-layer.

Thus we have the internode of Nitella complete, and we have

only to conceive the mucus-layer moving round the axial fluid

and propelling it and its particles in the same direction (by the

projections on its surface), to obtain a true idea of the motion

which takes place within the cell of the Characee.

Let us now follow the passage of the cell-contents into

gonidia.

All are aware, that in the freshwater Algee commonly called

Confervz, the formation of the spore is preceded by a breaking

up or displacement of the cell-contents, after which a conden-

sation and re-arrangement of them takes place, and they are then

invested with a capsule which remains entire, until the time

arrives for the spore thus formed to germinate. Now, under

from the Cell-contents of the Characez. 5

certain circumstances, which appear to be the approaching dis-

solution or death of the cell-wall, a similar process takes place

in the cells of the Characee, and following this from the begin-

ning, we find, that it first commences with a cessation of the cir-

culation, after which the lines of green disks forming the green

layer become displaced, and, as if obeying a still continued but

inappreciable movement of the mucus-layer, they roll themselves

up into lines which assume a more or less irregular arrange-

ment across the internode, or into groups of different sizes, more

or less connected by narrow lines of mucus and single disks, so

as to present an areolar structure in contact with the inner sur-

face of the cell-wall. The next stage is the separation of the

disks into still more distinct groups, which, having become more

circumscribed and circular, leave the cell-wall and evince a cer-

tain amount of polymorphism and locomotion. The cavity of

the internode, hitherto rendered turbid by the breaking up of

the green layer, now clears off and becomes transparent, save

where the circular masses, which have changed from their ori-

ginal green into a brownish-green yellow colour, intercept the

light. After a day or two,—but the time seems to vary,—the

green disks become entirely brown, and the group, assuming a

more circumscribed and circular form, shows that it is sur-

rounded by a transparent globular cell ; this we shall henceforth

call the gonidial cell. A new substance, consisting of a bluish

semitransparent mucus, more or less charged with minute gra-

nules (from which its colour appears to be derived), and refrac-

tive globules of a faint yellowish-green and sapphire-blue colour,

makes its appearance in different parts of the brown mass, or to

one side of it, and afterwards, becoming botryoidal or mulberry-

shaped, separates into gonidia. The brown chlorophyll with the

other effete contents then shrinks up into a structureless, homo-

geneous, more or less defined, circular nucleus, of a dark brown

colour, and the cell, frequently projecting on one side in a

conical form, bursts at the apex and gives exit to the gonidia.

The gonidia are globular, ovate or spindle-shaped, and of a -

light blue colour. They average 1—4300th of an inch in dia-

meter, and contain, together with the blue substance mentioned,

more or less also of the refractive globules, and a transparent

vesicle. Hach gonidium is provided with one or two cilia accord-

ing to its form, that is to say, the globular ones present one and

the spindle-shaped two, which may be perceived while they are

yet grouped or separate in the transparent gonidial cell, where

they already exhibit a certain amount of polymorphism. Shortly

after they have become free in the internode, the wall of the

latter gives way and they pass into the water, where, for a cer-

tain time, they remain so active, that it is almost impossible to

6 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Development of Gonidia

describe their form ; but here and there, that which I have stated

may be seen in those which are less active in their movements

than the rest. 3

- There are, however, certain peculiarities about the elongated

and spindle-shaped gonidia which it is desirable to notice, viz.

that one cilium appears longer than the other, and that while

the short one floats almost motionless backwards, so as to

appear as if it proceeded from the posterior extremity, the latter,

for the most part, keeps up a constant whipping-movement in

front which frequently renders it imperceptible. Both cilia

however appear to be of the same length, if we add the length

of the gonidium to the one which floats behind, and which is

concealed in the first part of its course by lying in contact with

or underneath the body of the gonidium ; both also appear to be

occasionally brought together anteriorly. There is also fre-

quently a kind of proboscis extended from the rostrum or beak

of the gonidium which moves incessantly, both in the ovate and

spindle-shaped forms, and seems to have a suctorial extremity

by means of which it fixes the gonidium to the glass, while the

floating cilium also appears to be provided with a similar power

and to exert it for detaching the gonidium, when so fixed, by

pulling it backwards, which it does with a peculiar jerk ; when

this little proboscis has been present, I do not think I have ever

observed the anterior or active cilium,

After a while, perhaps some hours, the gonidia become sta-

tionary, and while they appear to be fixed by the proboscis men-

tioned, the long cilium floats motionless, or presents a languid

kind of whip-like undulation ; the latter then disappears, and a

day or two after, the gonidia both small and great, for there are

many sizes, as will presently be mentioned, are seen creeping

about the watch-glass (into which they were transferred for ob-

servation) under as active polymorphism as any ameebous cell

could present ; diffluent, digitated, and in the form of that beau-

tifully radiated figure called Actinophrys Sol (Ehr.). They also

now present the “ contracting vesicle,” as well as other vesicles,

which do not appear to alter their dimensions, but vary, like the

former, in distinctness with their change of position and the

varying form of the gonidium. After a few days’ existence in

this state their polymorphism becomes very sluggish, they re-

main for some time under a slowly changing rhizopodous figure,

which is more or less common to all, and then disappear.

Whether they germinate or not, I have not been able to

determine,

Lastly, a development of transparent mucus which becomes

filled with vibrios and Bacterium termo (Dujar.), immediately

follows the elimination of the gonidia both in the gonidial cell

Jrom the Cell-contents of the Characeze. 7

and in the internode, presenting itself in a mass or branched

organized form, more particularly at those parts of the latter

which have become ruptured. This also disappears after a few

days, and a thorough dissolution of the internode and its original

contents seems thus to be completed.

_» We have now then seen that a breaking up or displacement of

the green layer, a grouping of its green disks, the investment. of

the groups with a mucus-covering, their complete separation,

their endowment with a certain amount of polymorphism and

locomotion, the turning brown of the chlorophyll, and the passage

of the investing mucus into a globular transparent cell, precede

the evolution of the gonidial substance and its subsequent self-

division into gonidia ; let us now see if there be anything else

within the gonidial cell during the time this process is going on,

It will be remembered, that a great number of discoidal

bodies exist in the mucus-layer of the internode, and that many

of these are loose, while others are fixed singly in the wall of a

transparent vesicle ; now (apparently under an arrest of develop-

ment), a gonidial cell frequently presents itself, in which a single

disk, with or without its vesicles, precisely similar to one of

these, is seen within or to one side of the brown chlorophyll,

surrounded by a shrivelled, crenulated membrane, appearing,

from its irregular mulberry-like surface, want, of motion, dingy

colour, and absence of refractive granules, as if it were the re-

mains of the gonidial substance which had perished from some

cause or other just before it began to separate into gonidia.

Moreover, in many of the disks, the nucleus is not only seen to

be separated from its capsule by an annular interspace, but its

granules have become larger and more distinct, and an irre-

gular cavity like a contracted vesicle appears. to exist in its cen-

tre. When the circular disk is enclosed within the brown matter,

it may be rendered more evident by the addition of alcohol,

which extracts the colouring matter completely, while the appli-

cation of iodine deepens the colour of the brown matter, and

gives a dark brown tint only to the nucleus of the disk.

That the gonidial cells should. contain a nucleus within the

brown matter is easily conceived, for on truncating a young in-

ternode, sometimes, in the way which I have mentioned, parti-

cularly where the green layer 1s soft and previously disturbed,

the whole of the contents rush out together, and all the vesicles,

both large and small, become surrounded with green disks,

which, under these circumstances, present a similar appearance

to that which is witnessed in the internode when the green layer

has been broken up and its green disks separated into groups,

preparatory to the development of the gonidia.

8 Mr. H.J. Carter on the Development of Gonidia

But many of the gonidial cells are too small to contain the

circular disk, and we have still to account for the disappearance

of the irregular bodies of a faint yellow colour and granular

structure, which appear to form a much larger proportion of the

cell-contents than the circular disks.

As the smallest of the gonidial cells, which may appear in the

internode, is but a very little larger than the single gonidium

which it contains, and others are sometimes present which may

contain fifty or more, it is obvious, that although the latter may

also contain a circular disk, there is no room for it in the

former. Nevertheless, the small gonidial cells containing one,

two, and three gonidia, as they vary in size from the 4300th to

the 2150th of an inch in diameter, are provided with a body pre-

cisely similar to the irregular ones mentioned, which is not in

the interior, but attached to or imbedded in their cell-wall, and

with the latter seems to comprise all the elements of which the

small gonidial cells are composed. In this way then we can

account for the disappearance of the irregular bodies.

It is also not unusual to see in the older internodes, when clit

contents are passing into gonidial cells, a few of the green disks

in situ, as well as loose in the cavity, and their disappearance

also calls for explanation, which would be difficult, if we did not

frequently see some of them actually 2m situ, under the form of

gonidia, among the other green disks which have not passed into

this state or departed from their original linear arrangement.

Whether the gonidium has here taken the place of the green

disk, or whether it has been developed in its transparent vesicle,

I have not been able to determine; but in an old internode,

where the basal structure of the green layer has become more or

less hardened, the remains of the transparent vesicles may occa-

sionally be seen in their original position, while the green disks

have disappeared. In the fan-shaped groups of cells too, which

form part of the capsule of the globule, the red granules, which

are equivalent to the green disks, may frequently be seen at-

tached, like the irregular bodies, singly or in groups, to the

periphery of small gonidial cells which contain one or more

gonidia. This appears to be invariably the case at the dehiscence

of the globule, while the absence of circulation in these cells

from the commencement would indicate a corresponding scarcity

of the mucus-layer and its contents. With the exception of the

central cavities of the globule and nucule, I have not seen any

kind of cell in the species of Chara and Nitella, which I have

had under observation, that has not produced gonidia.

Lastly, we have to account for the genuine starch-globules and

raphides, both of which may be seen lying among the gonidial

from the Cell-contents of the Characeze. 9

cells ; but in no instance have I seen the former im the gonidial

cell, or been able to produce a blue colour in the nucleus of the

latter by the application of iodine.

Thus we have followed the contents of the internode of Nitella

from the breaking up of the green layer to the development of

the gonidia. Let us now direct our attention to the different

parts of the gonidial cell analytically, more however with the

object of adding to rather than recapitulating what has already

been stated respecting it.

We have seen that the mucus-investment, which appears to

be derived from the mucus-layer, gives the cell the power, not

only of limited polymorphism, but also of locomotion ; in addi-

tion to this also, the cell possesses for some time the power of

projecting thread-like flaments of extreme tenuity from its sur-

face that adhere to neighbouring objects, and thus form a point

@apput towards which the cell can then move itself. Subse-

quently, however, these processes, apparently following the same

law of development as the cell, become stiff, and then stand out

like short, straight hairs, more or less thinly scattered over its

circumference, and resembling a parasitic growth,—which some

might consider them, as they do not appear on all the cells; but

my impression is that they are what I have stated. I have also

seen, now and-then, a small gonidial cell in which the hardening

process appeared not to be about to take place, but, from the

rhizopodous prolongations of a part of its periphery, and its con-

taining nothing besides the gonidial substance, presenting rather

the appearance of a polymorphic spore about to germinate than

to pass into a fixed cell. Occasionally the gonidial cell, after it

has become stiff and transparent, presents itself under a lenti-

cular form; at others, as if a notch had been cut in it, and

sometimes with a plane surface, &c., but all these irregularities

appear to be caused by objects against which the cell rests while

passing from its flexible into its hardened cellulose state. Iodine

alone does not appear to impart any colour to the gonidial cell.

Immediately within the transparent globular cell is a layer of

brown matter, which, as before shown, is composed of the green

disks in which the chlorophyll has thus become changed in

colour. This layer is also globular, and encloses the circular

disk alone or with its vesicle. It often presents a botryoidal

surface, which appears to be occasioned by the presence of the

gonidia inside or in the midst of its substance ; when the gonidia

have been developed, this as well as its granular contents disap-

pear, leaving a homogeneous, brown substance, which shrinks

up into a more or less defined nucleus of a much darker colour.

The brown matter is deepened in colour by the addition of

iodine, and extracted by that of alcohol. In the small gonidial

10 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Development of Gonidia

cells there appears to be no brown matter, but from the red gra-

nules, which are the equivalents of the green disks in the fan-

‘shaped group of cells forming part of the capsule of the globule,

bemg attached singly or in groups to their periphery, it may

reasonably be inferred that this is the position of the so-called

brown matter in them,

After a certain time, the gonidial substance with its bright

refractive granules makes its appearance in different parts of the

brown matter, as if it were rising out of it, and then to one side

in a distinct mass which acquires a mulberry-form and separates

into gonidia; or the gonidia may be fully developed inside or in

the midst of the brown matter before they make thei appear-

ance. ‘The gonidial substance has already been described, as

well as the bright refractive globules, which do not alter in

colour by contact with iodine. Making its appearance then in

this way, it is not extraordinary that the gonidia, in addition to

their own peculiar blue-coloured mucus, which colour, as_ before

stated, appears to depend on its granular contents, should, for

the most part, also contain more or less of the refractive globules,

and occasionally a fragment of the brown matter, which is the

case.

_ I have already described the commonest form of gonidium,

but there is still another about twice the size, viz. 2150th of an

inch in diameter, which although not so frequent, is nevertheless

sufficiently so to show, that there are two sizes more common

than the rest ; for we shall presently see, that the gonidial sub-

stance may occasionally come out as a whole, or in gonidia of

all sizes below its original bulk. This large gonidium generally

presents itself under a circular or globular form, with a single

cilium, but it is sometimes seen ovate or spindle-shaped like the

smaller one. It must be obvious to all, that a polymorphic cell,

such as the gonidium is, can have no constant figure while in a

state of activity; hence at one time it may be of one shape, and

at another of another; but when under polymorphism and the

cilium has disappeared, a group of gonidia will evince a strong

tendency to assume the same kind of figure generally, whatever

‘that may be. Thus, just after they become stationary, the form

of Actinophrys Sol seems to prevail ; then the digitated form for

progression ; then the diffluent form, which appears to be pro-

duced by the more internal protoplasm bursting through that

which is becoming hardened on the surface; and lastly, the

tardy, rhizopodous form which I have mentioned; but I will

not vouch for this sequence, and only instance it for example.

I have already alluded to the variety in size of the gonidia,

but this is an exception to the general rule, for the smallest

gonidial cell, in which only one gonidium is developed, yields a

Jrom the Cell-contents of the Characee. ll

gonidium equal in size to the one first mentioned. It may how.

ever yield a smaller one, and occasionally, in the same mul-

berry-group, may be seen gonidia of different sizes ; again, some-

times a whole group is composed of the same-sized gonidia,

which are not more than half the size of the common form, that

is 1-8600th of an inch in diameter; while occasionally a large

mass is seen creeping about which seems equal in size to the

whole of the gonidial substance of a large gonidial cell. Some-

times a compound mass of gonidia, composed of three or more

which appear to have flowed into each other, may be seen, with

their cilia projecting from different parts of the circumference.

I have already alluded also to the variable contents of the

gonidia. In addition to the dull, bluish-green mucus, they also

frequently contain more or less of the bright refractive globules,

which, when the latter are beneath or in the midst of the mucus,

may be mistaken for the transparent vesicles which I shall pre-

sently mention.

The gonidium may also contain more or less of the brown

matter, and occasionally, when it is unusually large and of a

Florence-flask shape, with the vesicle in front and a fragment of

brown matter of a bright colour present, it is hardly distin-

guishable from Astasia.

- Lastly, we come to the vesicles which are seen in the goni-

dium. While the gonidium retains its cilium and swimming

motion, the vesicle is for the most part single, and though

changeable in position with the movements of the cell-wall of

the gonidium, does not appear to be endowed with contractility

per se; but when it loses its cilium and sinks down to the reptant,

polymorphic state, the vesicle becomes distinctly contractile, and

the gonidium is then hardly distinguishable from the young

Ameba or sponge-cell. Frequently in this state also it presents

one or more hyaline vesicles which are not contractile, and only

change their position with those parts of the gonidium to which

they may be attached.

We now come to the nucleus of the gonidial cell, and of this

I can state little more than has already been given. It is evi-

dent, that although the larger ones contain a nucleus, the smaller

ones do not, unless the irregular body fixed to their periphery

is to be considered its equivalent. I have mentioned that the

nucleus of the large cells appears to be the circular disk of the

mucus-layer, and that the latter is sometimes with and some-

times without its vesicle ; also that frequently, under an arrest of

development, it is surrounded by a crenulated membrane. The

fine granules of which the central part is composed, appear also

on these occasions to have become larger and more evident, and

in one instance they were replaced by three or four large glo-

12 Mr. He J. Carter on ‘the Development of Gonidia.

bules of a faint yellow colour, as if they had run together. In the

larger gonidial cells, where a set of shealthy gonidia of normal

size have been developed, the nucleus shrinks up with the effete

brown matter into a common, homogeneous-looking mass, from

which it is then undistinguishable.

General Observations.

Haying now described the gonidial cell synthetically and ana-

lytically, let us for a few moments direct our attention to the

offices of the several elements of which it is composed,

_ The gonidial cell, originally a portion of the mucus-layer en-

dowed with the power of motion, at first appears to gather up a

number of the green disks and wrap them round the nucleus;

after which it becomes separated from the contents which it has

thus enclosed, and passes into a firm, transparent membrane of a

globular form, which serves to isolate and protect the materials

from which the gonidia are to be developed. Lastly, it fre-

quently assumes a conical form, which bursts at the apex and

then gives exit to its gonidia. Whether the bursting is an act

of its own, or induced by the distension, of the, mucus. before

mentioned, which becomes developed in it immediately after the

evolution of the gonidia, and subsequently throughout the inter-

node, I have not been able to determine; but the. mucus, in

question is frequently seen protruding from the ruptured parts

of the cell in an organized, transparent, fungoid mass, or.in.a

branched form, as if it had caused the rupture.

This mucus appears to me worthy of notice, from its great, re-

semblance, under the organized forms mentioned, to the gonidial

substance. When within the gonidial cells and in the internode,

it swarms with yibrios; but when liberated, the vibrios,. after

moving about for some time in the water, settle down into a

form like Bacterium termo. When in the massive or. branched

form mentioned, bright, refractive, blue-green granules are scat-

tered through it, and there appears to be an abortive attempt at

a cellular division of the mass generally. Can this be the rem-

nants of germinating matter which are left about the. gonidial

cells and the internode ?

The power of the green disks, as well as the irregular bodies

of the mucus-layer, to produce gonidia, is incontestable, for we

haye seen gonidia developed in cells where nothing else but the

green disk or the irregular body was present.

What is the office then of the circular disk ?

This I can only suggest from inference. It is perfectly evi-

dent that there are corpuscles in the nucule besides the starch-

globules, which corpuscles resist the blue colouring action of

from the Cell-contents of the Characer. — ’ 13

iodine, and it. seems equally so, that there are, only these two

kinds of bodies in the nucule ; again, these corpuscles very closely

resemble in colour, and in not, becoming blue, by contact with

iodine, the irregular bodies contained in the mucus-layer of the

internode, while they bear in other respects also a strong analogy

to them. Lastly, we now know, that a gonidial cell having one

of these irregular bodies for its nucleus or peripheral appendage

can develope a gonidium. Thus then, if the irregular bodies

and the corpuscles be identical, we have the germs of gonidial

substance and starch-globules as the contents of the nucule, the

latter being designed for the nourishment of the former. May

not the circular disk contain nutriment for the gonidia f—while

the irregular bodies would seem to be identical with the green

disks, and are indeed, in many instances, almost undistin-

guishable from them, even when both are present among the

contents of the evacuated internode.

Thus we see a great resemblance between the formation of

the gonidia and the germinating of the nucule, and in the for-

mation of both with that of the “resting spore” of Algz

generally. :

As yet, I have never seen a new plant developed from the

gonidium of Nitella, nor have I ever been able to identify their

germination with that of germinating cells, which I have fre-

quently seen on the surface of an internode containing the

gonidia; neither did Pringsheim see those germinate which

came from Spirogyra, m which he has carefully described the

same kind of gonidial development as that which takes place in

Nitella*. But Braun, who has followed the development of

gonidia in Hydrodictyon +, states, that the larger gonidia (for

there are two distinct sets, which he calls macrogonidia and

microgonidia) germinate, that is, form the young water-net,

while the smaller ones never do this, but unite into groups,

forming a homogeneous green mass, which becomes covered

with a distinct cell-membrane. This very much resembles the

fungoid growth at the ruptures of and about the internode which

follows the disappearance of the gonidia of Nitel/a, and which I

have suggested might be the last efforts to form and to increase

of the remnants of gonidial substance left in the gonidial cell

and about the internode. Be this as it may, the dividing up of

a body formed after the manner of a resting spore mto smaller

ones, resembling gonidia, which afterwards germinate, is the

* «On the Germination of Resting Spores and one form of Moying

Spores in Spirogyra.’ Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. xi. p. 210, 1853.

+ Pub. of Ray Society, Botan. and Phys. Mem., Phenom. of Rejuve-

nescence in Nature. ‘Transl. by Henfrey, p. 261.

14 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Development of Gonidia

normal process of reproduction in Achlya prolifera*, as well as

in Cladophora glomeratat, &c.; and therefore it. seems not im-

possible that, under certain circumstances, the gonidia of Nitella

might produce a new plant; but this has not yet been proved ;

neither have we, I think, an instance on record of the resting

spore, which commonly developes a new filament, dividing upon

some occasions into small spores, which can also each produce a

new filament. Although Agardh{ saw the resting. spore of

Spirogyra divide up into small spores, while he was endeavouring

to see the single filament developed from it which Vaucher

had described, he does not state whether or not these sporules

germinated, One difference between the resting spore and the

gonidia is, that in the former the process of development is very

slow, and in the latter very fast; hence it may be. that the

resting spore is only resolved into gonidia when it. does not

“oo its full time,” so to write, and therefore produces an

abortive progeny; while in Achlya prolifera, where the spore

does not wait until the next season for development, this is the

normal process, and each small spore produces a new indi-

vidual. |

_ Since writing the above, I have been able to confirm some

more observations which I had made some months since respect-

ing another kind of passage of the cell-contents of Nitella.into

ciliated sacs, viz.—

About three weeks after gathering plants of MNitella) and

placing them in a basin of water, the green layer of the long

slender internodes becomes separated from the cell-wall, and

gathered up into dark, spherical bodies, averaging about. the

100th part of an inch in diameter, or large enough to be seen:

by the unassisted eye.

These at first move up and down the internode with the rapidity

of animalcules, but afterwards lose this power of locomotion and

become stationary. They then present, under the microscope,

the appearance of resting spores ;. that is to say, they consist of

a dark green, globular, grumous mass, invested with a trans-

parent spherical cell. This green mass, in all that I have

examined, has been in an active state of rotation, first one way

and then the other, by means of short cilia which covered \its

surface, like those on the spore of Vaucheria Ungeri§. On being

crushed between two pieces of glass, this mass was found to

consist chiefly of pellets of different sizes, of a deep green

colour (formed of groups of green disks, respectively surrounded

* Thuret, Ann. des Sc. Nat. 3° Ser. t. 14. pl. 16, Botan.

+ Unger, idem, 2° Ser. t. 11. p. 1, Botan.

* Ann. des Se. Nat. 2° Ser. vi. 197.

§ Thuret, Ann. des Sc. Nat. 2° Ser. t. xix. p. 266, Botan.

from the Cell-contents of the Characez. 15

by a mucus-investment), together with a few of the common-

sized gonidia, some gonidial substance, and a great number of

the bright refractive globules before mentioned. Todine gave

the green pellets a deep brown colour, but did not alter in ap-

pearance the rest of the contents.

Two days after I had collected a number of these globular

bodies and placed them in a watch-glass for observation, partly

in and partly out of their respective internodes, the green mass

in many had become divided up into four or more sacs, which

were ciliated like the parent one, and enclosed in a second trans-

parent spherical cell. These also rotated individually and en

masse, while the division appeared to have enabled them to

throw off the greater portion of the dark green pellets, now

become black, and lying loosely in a more or less flocculent state,

like effete matter, in the inner cell.

The third day the spherical cells had burst, and the ciliated

sacs, which averaged 1-430th of an inch in diameter, were set

free in the water.

They now presented different appearances, according to their

contents, shape and motions. All were filled with a colourless,

granular mucus, charged with small vesicles, and each presented

also a large '‘ contracting vesicle.” In some there was left only

a trace’ of the dark matter, while in others there was a con-

siderable quantity, either in an undefined shape, or in small

globules. They presented both an undulatory motion of the

cell-wall, and a ciliary motion of its surface. Sometimes the

cilia were motionless, and lay like a halo of short radi round its

circumference, though the sac was otherwise gradually changing

its shape; while at others there was no appearance of cilia at

all. On the other hand, sometimes the sac was rotating rapidly

under a globular form, with its wall undulating and cilia playing

over it with corresponding activity; the rotation of the sac ap-

peared contrary to the movement of the cilia. Occasionally a

sac might be seen under an elongated, oblong form, with a

slowly undulatory change of shape at one end, and a languid

movement of the cilia on its surface generally ; again it might

be seen with mucus-radii spread out in the saine way as those

of Actinophrys Sol.

It would, however, be endless to describe the forms which

these sacs presented ; but it is worthy of remark, that instead of

being like those of the Ameba, they so closely resembled the

order of one-celled ciliated animalcules, many of which were

present in their largest forms, that, had it not been for the

dark matter mentioned, I should have frequently been unable

to determine the difference ; and I cannot help thinking it pro-

bable, that many of these guast animalcules have their origin in

16 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Circulation of the

a similar way, and either germinate after having become sta-

tionary, or pass after a short time into dissolution, as the sacs

have hitherto done which I have just described.

I had forgotten also to mention, that there is frequently a

considerable space between the outer and inner spherical cell

just described ; and here, before the green mass has undergone

division, may frequently be seen one or more of the common-

sized gonidia, under their ciliated active form; which, after the

division has taken place, passes into the diffluent one, when they

may be seen, on the contrary, creeping slowly over the inner

surface of the external spherical cell, in a polymorphic state.

The tenacity to life of the green matter and mucus-layer

after the death of the cell-wall is so great in the species of

Zygnema, to which I shall have occasion to allude presently,

that although all the filaments broke down from the destruction

and dissolution of the cell-wall a few days after they had been

placed in a basin of water for examination, the mucus-layer

continued to hold the spiral bands together, with but little

alteration, except in form and position, for three weeks after-

wards, when the whole began to break up into small parcels of

green matter, of variable sizes, below the 700th part of an inch

in diameter, each of which is now rounded with a mucus-in-

vestment that is carrying them about under the form of Actin-

ophrys Sol; but with a halo of short cilia in many, immediately

round the circumference, in addition to the long radii. Whether

they will ultimately germinate, or their contents—now of a

bright yellowish-green, but still presenting a tint of brown in

it—pass into gonidia, time will show ; but from the brownish

tint, I should think the latter the most likely sequence.

Circulation.

What is commonly understood by the “ circulation in the

Characez,” is, that the cell-contents move round the internode ;

but this is a very vague idea of the phenomenon. There is but

one part that moves, viz. the mucus-layer; and another part which

is circulated, namely the axial fluid; while the green layer, so

long as it is uninjured, remains stationary.

The axial fluid, as before stated, is impelled by the uneven

surface of the mucus-layer, as may be seen by watching the

motion of a bunch of the raphides when struck by one of the

mucus-prominences. It will then present not only an accelera-

tion of its progress, but, the force having been communicated to

the radiated crystals next the mucus-layer, causes it to rotate

backwards, or in the contrary direction to that in which it is

being transported. Hence, as I have before stated that the

Mucus-substance of the Cell in the Characez. 17

aggregations are most prominent midway. between the lines of

repose, so the greatest impetus is given to. the axial fluid and

its suspended bodies in this part, while at the sides, that. is,

close to the lines of repose, it is remarkably slow... This was

the reason why Slack* thus designated them; but. he was

wrong when he conceived that the dark defined surface. of the

mucus-layer was a membrane which was fixed to these lines

throughout their course, and therefore divided the ascending

from the descending current, inasmuch as the opposite currents,

which are closely approximated at these parts of the internode,

frequently take from each other the particles which are lingering

along their direction, and thus whirl them backwards and for-

wards, or up and down, according to the position of the inter-

node, until, by chance, they get into a more powerful part of

the stream, and are then carried round the internode with the

rest,—which would. not be the case if a partition existed along

the lines of repose.

Easy, however, as it is to describe the way in which the axial

fluid is. circulated, it is not so easy to describe the property by

which the mucus-layer travels round the internode.

That Amici and Dutrochet should have ever considered. the

green disks instrumental in any way in effecting this in the

internode of the stem, shows that neither of them recollected at

this time, that the mucus-layer moves round the internode of

the roots of the Characez in just the same manner, where there

are no green disks present; while the total absence, or rare

occurrence, of gonidial cells in the internodes of the roots of

Characex, we now know to be an additional reason for inferring

the absence also of the green disks there, even if they were

present without their green colour to make them more visible.

That the green disk is occasionally seen to move per se, and

to rotate actively in situ, has been observed by others as well as

myself; and the observations of Donné, confirmed by Dutrochett,

prove, that under certain circumstances, viz. when in a globule

of the mucus-layer, they will rotate also out of the inter-

node; but these are exceptions to the general rule. Again,

out of many scores of observations, | have seen only two in-

stances in which the green disk (in an old internode, where

most of the contents had passed into gonidial cells) presented

each a cilium’; also, on one other occasion, three green disks) an

situ, in an internode where the circulation was going on rapidly,

presented each ashort thick cilium in active motion ; but these,

* Trans. Soc. of Arts, vol. xlix. pt. 1, 1833.

+ Varley, Trans. Soc. of Arts, vol. xlix. pt. 2, 1833.

+ Ann. des Sc. Nat. 2° Ser. t. x. 1838,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvi. 2

18 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Circulation of the

again, may be conceived, from what I have stated, to be very

rare occurrences, and, as such, are only worth remembering.

The only change in the green disk which is frequently observed,

is its transition from its common elliptical to a circular form,

which generally accompanies a cessation of the circulation; but

not always, for the former is sometimes seen when the circula-

tion has been permanently arrested, and the latter when it is

going on with great activity.

The contraction, however, of the green layer as a whole, when

the internode sustains even a slight injury, 1s worthy of notice.

The same thing takes place in Zygnema (nitidum, mihi). On

one occasion, when testing the evacuated contents of a truncated

internode with tincture of iodine, I observed a fragment of the

green layer, which was projecting from the orifice of the inter-

node, to tremble rapidly when the iodine touched it; this

motion, after a few seconds, became rhythmical, and then slower

and slower, until it altogether ceased; thus exhibiting the same

kind of convulsive motions as muscular fibre under similar

circumstances. When one end of an internode is truncated

with a sharp instrument, as before stated, the whole of the loose

contents rush out, while the green layer remains within the

internode, but retracted both from the orifice and sides of the

cell-wall; and it is this contraction which appears to be the

principal agency in causing the rapid expulsion of the mucus-

layer, which I may here mention is every now and then drawn

back into the internode spasmodically, from a contraction, ap-

parently, of its own substance, and perhaps a momentary relaxa-

tion of the green layer at the same time. In what part of the

green layer this contractile power resides, I am not able to

state; but as the green disks are appended to vesicles which

thus make up the green layer, and the irregular bodies of the

mucus layer, which appear to be almost identical with them,

have also an appended: vesicle, which, a certain time after they

have been exposed to the water, contracts to such an extent as

to become undistinguishable from the irregular body itself, it

may be the contraction of the vesicles of the green disks which

produces the general contraction of the green layer.

Be this as it may, the movement which is the chief object of

our consideration here is that of the mucus-layer. It has already

been shown, that this is mdependent of the green layer; and

this, combined with the power of polymorphism and locomotive

agency which it presents when investing the groups of green

disks preparatory to passing into the firm gonidial cell-wall,

seems conclusive of its possessing an inherent power of mobility

independent of any other influence, so long as it remains un-

altered, and within an uninjured internode. The movement of

Mucus-substance of the Cell in the Characeze. 19

rotation may appear both peculiar and unaccountable; but that

of the sponge-cell, when under progression, particularly in an

elongated form, is identical with it. If we watch the latter, we

shall see the granules that are attached to the upper part of the

cell move rapidly forwards until they arrive at the advancing

boundary, where they sink down, become stationary, and remain

there until the rest of the cell has passed over them, when they

again ascend from behind, and again are carried on to the an-

terior border ; and so on, as the cell progresses, after the manner

of a flexible wheel. Thus the mucus-layer in the internode of

Nitella rolls round an imaginary oblong axial plane, whose

edges correspond with the lines of repose, where, as a matter of

course, there is a long linear eddy, in which the mucus is almost

stationary, as well as the axial fluid and its particles immediately

beneath.

Were any further proof wanted of the independent contrac-

tion or movement of the mucus-layer, that might be cited which

I have mentioned when endeavouring to account for the con-

tractility of the green layer; but, in addition to this, I have

seen the mucus-layer in an internode of the root of Chara

verticillata, when the rotatory movement has been returning

after having. been arrested, stretch itself directly across the

internode, from one part where it had become aggregated into

a large mass. The jerking movements which are seen in this

mucus after it has been allowed to escape from the internode in

the way mentioned, seem to be owing to the successive bursting

of the vesicles with which it is filled; but its diminution in bulk

is indicative of something more than common. contractility.

Lastly, in the cells of the species of Zygnema mentioned, there

is not only a ceaseless irritable contractility exhibited in the

mucus-layer next the cell-wall, but also throughout the mucus-

threads suspending the cytoblast; and although this motion is

not rotatory, which indeed it could hardly be, with the cytoblast

so suspended, yet here and there, and particularly against the

septa at the extremities of the cell, aggregations of granular

mucus, enclosing one or more faint yellow-coloured bodies, like

that of the cytoblast, frequently present themselves, which are

as unceasingly active in their polymorphism (stretching out

their processes here and there) as any portions of Spongilla or

Ameba that the eye meets with.

I have since seen in the youngest, or terminal cell of a filament

of introverted Zygnema with single spiral band, a distinct but

very irregular travelling up and down of the mucus-layer,

exactly like that of the Characee. It can only be seen in the

long delicate young cell, where the spiral band is stretched out,

and where the minute granules of the mucus are congregated to

20 Mr. H. J. Carter on the Development of Gonidia

such an extent as to indicate the presence of the moving trans-

parent protoplasm.

Thus the phenomenon of motion in Zygnema, in Spongilla,

and in the Characez being exhibited by the same kind of sub-

stance, in organisms so nearly allied, and in instances where

there is evidently no direct connexion between it and the parent

plant, leads me to view it in all as modifications of one common

property, and that property a vital endowment of the same

nature as contractility or power of motion generally throughout

the animal kingdom.

Bombay, January 1855.

Postscript.—Since this paper was written, I have taken a dif-

ferent view of the nature of the so-called “ gonidia” in it, viz.

that they may be Infusoria, perhaps of the family Astastea (Khr.),

and that the “ciliated sacs ” may have had a similar origin.

Contrary to what Pringsheim has stated (Ann. and Mag. Nat.

Hist. vol. xi. 1853, p. 294 et seg.) respecting the integrity of

the cells of Spirogyra, wherein he witnessed a similar process of

development of gonidia to that which I have described above in

Nitella, viz. that a supposition of such gonidia being “ foreign

structures, not belonging to the Spirogyra, would be an altogether

inadmissible hypothesis, since they are formed in the interior of

the closed filament-cells of the Spirogyre, directly from their con-

tents,” &c. ;—contrary also to what I have myself stated above

respecting the formation of the same kind of gonidia in the cells

of Nitella, and where I might have also added that the cell-wall

did not show any signs of decay or unsoundness until the

* gonidia” were developed in the one instance, and the “ ciliated

sacs ” in the other ;—I have nevertheless, from recent observa-

tions, been induced to doubt the correctness of this view.

While examining some filaments of Conferva in which the

cells had become divided into resting spores, I perceived that

one of the capsules was so far empty, that it contained nothing

but a single large Astasia, which was filled with the chlorophyll

and other granules of the spore, part of which had turned

brown ; and although the capsule of the spore was fresh and the

vaginal sheath of the filament unruptured, there was a small

round hole in one part passing through both that was not more

than the 1—4300th of an inch in diameter, and about which the

Astasia was lingering for the purpose of making its exit, but

having gorged the whole of the contents of the spore, this was of

course impossible.

Here then was an infusorium with a transparent flask-shaped

sac terminated by a long cilium, distended by the granular con-

tents of the spore, and so incarcerated, that it must either die

from the Cell-contents of the Characeze. 21

in the spore-capsule or pass into an ovarian sac and develope its

progeny much in the same manner as we have seen the “ gonidial

cells”? in the internode of Nitella. At all events, the hole by

which the Astasia entered was visible, and from its minuteness

indicated a very minute size of the Astasia originally compared

with that which it presented when I saw it.

Again, from Stein’s valuable observations on the development

of Vorticelle (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. ix. 1852, p. 471),

and latterly my own observations on this family, I can easily

conceive, from the extreme minuteness with which the germs

might leave the ovary of Vorticella, their rapid development

under favourable circumstances, and their multiplication by fissi-

paration and gemmation, even when barely changed from their

larval or infant, monadic form, how accidental holes may exist in

the internode of Nitella, or in the cell of Spirogyra, Cladophora,

or any other filamentous or thalloid Alge, large enough to

admit such germs and gemme, and yet pass unnoticed by the

microscopist, though not by the voracious young of Infusoria.

Whenever a cell in the filamentous Algz shows by derange-

ment of the granular chlorophyll or gonimic contents that its

functions have ceased or become interrupted, several gonidia

similar to-those developed in the cells of Nitella may be seen

swimming about it and trying to get into it, which they do

immediately the cell-wall gives way, and then fixing on its

mucus-contents devour them. — - |

All this seems to point out that the so-called gonidial develop-

ment within the cells of Nitella is anything but spontaneous,

while it favours the view which I have now taken, that it is

infusorial.

But as we see the fragments of the contracted chlorophyll-

bands of Spirogyra retaining their freshness and greenness while

wrapped in their mucus, for weeks after the cell-wall has passed

into dissolution, a question may suggest itself, whether the con-

tents of a resting spore when quickly swallowed by an infu-

sorium which dies soon afterwards, might not germinate to a

certain extent, under such cireumstances—the sac of the infu-

sorium supplying the place of the capsule of the spore. If so,

indeed, then an infusorium would after this manner appear to

develope a plant.. On the other hand, if the chlorophyll turns

brown, that may be considered a sign of the death of the spore-

contents ; and if anything arise out of this, it must be viewed as

the progeny of the infusorium, such as the so-called “ gonidia ”

appear to be which I had described above as developed from the

eell-contents of the Characez.

This “ postscript ” will not invalidate the facts in my paper,

although it may affect the reasoning, from tending to change

22 Mr. 8. P. Woodward on the Animals of

our view of the nature of the “ gonidium ” so called therein, and

make it an infusorium instead of a zoospore, of which much

more might be said in support if this were the place for it;

and although one of the facts brought forward in proof of the

independent movement of the mucus, was the polymorphism

and locomotion of the gonidial cells which it was supposed to

have composed, there are sufficient reasons left for my still re-

taining the opinion, that its contractility is not the effect of any

chemical process of nutrition that is going on in the cell, though

it may not be uninfluential as a physical agent in this process.

I1.— Descriptions of the Animals of certain Genera of Conchifera.

By S. P. Woopwarp, Esq., F.G.S.

My pear Sir,

I HEREWITH send you some more figures of the animals of cer-

tain genera of Bivalve shells (Conchifera), which Mr. Woodward

has made for me, and the notes he has appended to them.

These animals have been shortly noticed by me in my paper

on the Arrangement of Bivalves in the ‘ Annals,’ vol. xiv. p. 21.

I am, my dear Sir, yours truly,

J. E. Gray.

Dr. Francis.

Solen (Cultellus?) Javanicus. Singapore.

Mantle-lobes united, covered with wrinkled epidermis ; siphons

very short, fringed ; no ventral orifice ; pedal opening terminal.

Foot straight, compressed, truncated, attached by small suspen-

a, a', adductor muscles; J, liver ; h, heart ; Pp, palpi.

sors—two beneath the hinge, and two in front of posterior ad-

ductor. Palpi very large, oblong, pointed, attached lengthwise.

Gills long, narrow, equal, plaited transversely. A long curved

portion of the intestine lies close to the left side, bordering the

palpi. |

[This is a species of the genus Pharus.—J. E. G.]

certain Genera of Conchifera. 23

Glauconome rugosa. Philippines.

Manile-margins plain, united ; pedal opening anterior, rather

large. Siphons longer than the shell, moderately thick, united

nearly to their ends, retracted, by inversion at half-length, into

the branchial cavity, where they project beyond the centre of the

a', a, adductor muscles; p, p, pedal muscles; r, retractor of siphons ;

b, e, pedal opening.

shell ; orifices frmged. Foot moderately large, thick, linguiform,

heeled; suspensor muscle attached close to, but distinct from,

the adductors. Palpt very large, broadly falciform. Gills two

on each side, long and plaited, rounded in front, the outer pair

shorter and furnished with a plaited dorsal flap.

In G. curta the siphons are much shorter and more deeply

divided; the branchial was introverted at its extremity in the

specimen examined.

Anomia ephippium.

Animal unsymmetrical ; mouth and byssus twisted to the

right side. Mantle quite open, except for a space of five lines at

the hinge ; its margin double, slightly fringed (no ocelli). Gills

two on each side, unsymmetrical (the right pair shortest in

front), very delicate, flat (destitute of internal partitions or gill-

tubes), crescent-shaped, tapering to a point and united poste-

riorly ; suspended by two falciform membranes (m) forming three

dorsal channels, the lateral incomplete ; outermost gill-laminz

free at the dorsal edge, and furnished with a broad reflected mar-

gin or supplementary gill (r, 7); mmnermost laminz also unat-

tached, but united to each other throughout their length, the

united edges passing to the /eft side of the body in front. Mouth

on the under side, between the ligament and byssal plug. Lips

narrow, plain, longest on the right side, confluent with the gills ;

(palpi obsolete). Foot small, cylindrical, expanded at the end

and grooved, supported by two muscles from the left valve.

Byssus large, laminar, passing through a nearly complete fora-

men in the right mantle-lobe, and attached by a powerful muscle

24 Mr. 8. P. Woodward on the Animals of

to the centre of the left valve. Adductor moderate, indistinctly

composed of two elements ; pallial line continuous.

Sexes di-

Fig. 1.

SMa ean we

===

———

Fig. 2.

WH,

—

E—

Fig. 1. Animal lying in its upper (left) valve; right mantle-lobe turned

back in front.

Fig. 2. Animal in right valve, with left mantle-lobe removed.

Fig. 3. Section of gills.

, i, ligament ; 0, mouth; f, foot; u, anterior; p’, posterior pedal

muscles; p, p, byssus and byssal muscle; a, adductor; v, ventricle;

i, rectum; g, generative organ; m, gill-suspensors ; 7,7, reflected

gill-margins.

certain Genera of Conchifera. 25

stinct ; generative organs combined with the right mantle-lobe.

Ventricle exposed, not perforated by the rectum.

There is an admirable memoir on the structure of Anomia by

Dr. Lacaze-Duthiers, in the Ann. Sc. Nat. 1854, t. ii. p. 1, with

figures. These and some drawings by Mr. Albany Hancock

have been compared with the example here represented.

[This description differs in many particulars from that given

by Mr. Clark in the ‘ British Marine Mollusca.”’—J. E. G.]

Placuna placenta. Singapore.

Animal nearly symmetrical, free (or attached by a byssus when

very young). Mantle quite open, its margin fringed with large

and small cirri, and furnished with an inner pendent border.

Adductor round, subcentral. Gulls as in Anomia, their outer

margins grooved. Pallial muscle reduced to two fasciculi in

— Hil

pp vinci

Qf GFZ j Mi

Right valve with the animal, as seen on removing the left mantle-lobe.

1, ligament; c, cartilage; p, pedal muscle; f, foot; h, liver; g, gene-

rative gland; v, ventricle; a, adductor; 7, rectum; 0, 6, branchio-

pallial muscles.

front of, and one behind, the adductor. Pedal muscle minute,

anterior, attached to the upper (left) valve. Foot small, cylin-

drical, tubular (very extensile?). Laps short and wide, becoming

striated inside near the gills. Generative organ and rectum

attached to the right mantle-lobe. Ventricle exposed, not per-

forated. 3

Tt will be seen by the figures that Placuna is essentially like

Anomia ; both are very different from Ostrea, and more like the

26 On the Animals of certain Genera of Conchifera.

Scallops. Carolia (Hemiplacuna) is a Placuna with the hinge

and byssus of Anomia; Placunomia has no pedal muscle, like

Placuna sella ; whilst Anomia pernoides has an anterior pedal sac

in each valve, as pointed out by Dr. Gray.

Anatina subrostrata. Philippines.

Mantle-margins united ; no ventral orifice ; pedal opening quite

anterior, minute. Stphons united, thick, not entirely retractile

into the shell, covered with rugose epidermis ; orifices small

a, a', adductors ; g, single gill; 0, eavity of ossicle; J, liver; 4, palpi: the

termination of the alimentary canal in the exhalent siphon is indicated

by dotted lines.

(fringed ?). Foot very small, compressed. Gills one on each

side, long, narrow, very thick and deeply plaited, furrowed at

the lower edge, not continued into the branchial siphon ; dorsal

border free, nearly as wide as the gill. Palpi very long, narrow,

free, striated inside.

Modiolarca trapezina. Falkland Islands.

Mantle-lobes united, leaving only three small, subequal ori-

a, a', adductors ; p, p’, pedal muscles ; J, pedal opening ; /, liver; the gill-

tubes are distended with spawn.

fices, the interspaces with two rows of cirri; branchial opening

Mr. P. H. Gosse on new or little-known Marine Animals. 27

with a fringed border, the others plain. Anterior adductor muscle

larger than the posterior. Foot with a small flat sole, crenulated

at the edge, deeply grooved behind and byssiferous; pedal

muscles small in front, large behind, close to the adductors.

Palpi very small. Gills oblong, finely striated; the outer ones

not quite so deep, furnished with a dorsal border, their free edge

grooved only in the middle.

This remarkable shell, which resembles the Palzeozoic Modio-

lopsis in the large size of the anterior adductor, is found attached

by its byssus to floating weed in many parts of the Southern

Ocean.

III.—Notes on some new or little-known Marine Animals.

By Pure Henry Gossz, A.L.S.

[ With two Plates. |

(Fascis II.*)

Class ARACHNIDA.

Order ACARINA. Fam. ORIBATADZ.

Genus Hazacarus (mihi).

Body covered above with a well-defined shield, either entire or

transversely sulcated; under surface divided across the middle :

rostrum head-like, consisting of a bulbous lip tapering to a point,

divided longitudinally beneath, allowing the protrusion of a pair

of slender filiform mandibles; palpi terminated by a fang-like

unguis: feet cursorious, tipped with two falcate ungues; di-

rected two forward and two backward; thighs remote. Marine.

Name from @As, the sea, and d«apt, a mite.

Sp. 1. H. rhodostigma (mihi). Plate ITI. figs. 1-5.

Body divided above and below ; claw of palpus slender, little

curved ; legs nearly equal; thighs of first pair ventricose ; claws

of all simple ; whole surface minutely punctured.

Description.—Length znd of an inch from anus to tip of

rostrum ; colour pellucid whitish, stained with pale red on the

anterior half; above and below studded with punctures, which,

under a high power, take the form of rosettes (whence the specific

name, from podoy, a rose, and oTvyp7), a point), or the spots on a

panther’s coat (fig. 4); the punctures are conspicuous on the

first thighs, but are scarcely visible on the other limbs. The

* Fasc. I. appeared in the ‘ Annals’ for August 1853.

28 Mr.P.H. Gosse on new or little-known Marine Animals.

haunches are moderately distant at their origin, sprmging from

the margin of the body, the shield being notched to give them

exit ;. the third joint of the legs is the largest, much swollen in

the first pair (fig. 1); the fifth is also large, and the sixth (the

terminal one) is long, but slender, tapering abruptly from the

middle ; the claws (fig. 5) are simple hooks, much curved, neither

pectinated nor tipped with an accessory piece, but the joint

from which they spring is tipped with two nearly parallel styles :

the legs are equal in length.

The shield of the body above is subtruncate in front, but pro-

jects in a small medial point (fig. 2); its general form is long-

oval, with a transverse sulcus at the origin of the second legs;

this sulcus, however, does not extend across the whole breadth,

being met on each side by a bent longitudinal sulcus, which cuts

off a wing-like portion, on which is seated a large crescent-

shaped dark eye. Below, the body has two transverse divisions

(fig. 1) ; one at the origin of the first legs, another at the origin

of the third; these two impart the aspect of the division into

head, thorax and abdomen, of a beetle: there is also a narrow

longitudinal portion separated on each side.

The rostrum (fig. 3) forms a thick bulb tapering to a point,

from which during life I observed two apparently soft, flexible,

filiform, divergent organs (mandibles ?) protruded and retracted

(fig. 1). At a strong shoulder on each side of the rostrum,

about one-third from its point, is articulated a palpus of four

joints, of which the second is by far the largest; the terminal

one is a style, slightly curved, pointed, and furnished near the

base with two strong bristles on the imner side, and one on the

outer. All the joints of the legs are armed with a few short

bristles. The vulva (fig. 1) occupies a large oval area at the hind

part of the venter, and the anus is terminal.

This little species is not uncommon at Weymouth, among sea-

weeds from low-water-mark ; aud I find it in my tanks, crawling

up the glass, always immersed ; doubtless introduced with weed-

covered stones.

Sp. 2. H. ctenopus (mihi). Plate III. figs. 6-10.

Body divided below only; claw of palpus a stout pointed

hook ; hind legs longest, but otherwise alike ; claws of all pecti-

nate ; whole surface smooth.

Description.—Length of body to tip of rostrum 4nd of an

inch ; colour dark-red above with a white line down the centre

of the back ; under parts cream-white, very satiny ; legs trans-

parent-corneous. The shield of the upper parts (PI. IIL. fig. 6)

is entire, nearly oval, but projecting into a point over the rostrum ;

Mr. P. H. Gosse on new or little-known Marine Animals. 29

its margins are sinuated and notched at the emission of the legs,

and the excavations at those parts are still more strongly marked

on the under surface. Beneath (fig. 7) there is a transverse

sulcus opposite the origin of the third pair of legs, but bent for-

ward on each side to the second pair; a longitudinal bent sulcus

exists on each side, whose limits are undefined. The vulva and

anus are both on the under surface, the latter small and situated

behind the former, which is large and oval, and both are enclosed

in an oval area. .

The rostrum (fig. 8) is a globose bulb, drawn out to a more

lengthened point than in the former species, its tip extending to

the third jomt of the palpi. The palpi (fig. 9) are usually pro-

jected parallel to the rostrum, but are capable of divergence ;

the jomts have nearly the same relation to each other as in

H. rhodostigma ; but the third bears a stout spur-like spine on

its inner face; and the fourth, which is stout at the base, much

curved inward and acute, is armed with another spine, but

longer and more slender, which likewise points inward and

forward.

The legs (fig. 6) are consimilar, except in length; the first

and second being to the length of the body as 4} to 53, the

third and fourth as 63 to 53; hence the hind pairs are just half

as long again as the fore pairs. The coxe of the first and second

originate close together, but the others are remote from them

‘and from each other. The joints are nearly cylindrical, but di-

minish slightly to the last, which bears two very moveable sickle-

shaped ungues. Each unguis (PI. III. fig. 10) has an accessory

piece set on the under side of its extremity, and is strongly pec-

tinated all along its concave edge. Hence the name, from xtels,

a comb, and zrovs, a foot. . ;

No eyes were visible, unless a black speck on each side of the

bulb of the rostrum was an eye, which I much doubt, from the

position of the conspicuous organs of vision in the former spe-

cies. Found (a single specimen) with the preceding.

Whether either of these species has been described before I

cannot certainly say. Fabricius (Spec. Insect. 11.491; ed. Hamb.

1781) has included two Norwegian marine Mites, Acarus zostere

and A. fucorum, which he briefly describes ;—the former as

« A. subrotundus, albidus, abdomine rufo ;” the latter as “A. pal-

lidus, lineis duabus flexuosis nigris, pedibus posticis brevissimis

incurvis.”. Meagre as these characters are, they are sufficient to

show that neither of my species was intended.

M. Paul Gervais in his ‘Aptéres’ (iii. 253) mentions that

M. Dujardin had described a marine Oribates, in the ‘Journ. de

VInstitut’? for 1842; but he has not given the characters, and I

30 Mr. P.H. Gosse on new or little-known Marine Animals.

have not been able to find any trace of such a species in the

‘Comptes Rendus’ for that period. |

The only British marine Mite yet recognized, so far as I am

aware, is the Halarachne halicheri of Professor Allman, which

is widely different from these in form and habit, beimg parasitic

within the nostrils of a Seal.

The form now described I cannot refer to any of the published

genera: the dorsal shield seems to locate it among the Oriba-

tade, and near to Belba and Galumna; but in the form and

structure of the rostrum, there is a curious affinity with Raphi-

gnathus among the Trombidiade.

Class CRUSTACEA.

Order Poposomata. Fam. PycnoGonip@.

Genus PHoxicuitipium (M.-Edw.).

P. olivaceum (mihi). Plate IIT. figs. 12, 13.

Rostrum thickened at each extremity, hollowed in the middle,

2rds as long as first joint of mandibles; the portion of the first

segment of body anterior to the first pair of legs, about as long

as rostrum ; fourth joint of first pair of legs dilated ; all the legs

four times as long as the body; colour olive.

This species is perhaps one of the many British forms of this

family, which Leach says were in his possession, but which he

had not had an opportunity of determining. I found it at Wey-

mouth, in the low spring-tides of April. The characters above

given are those in which the specimen differed conspicuously

from the P. coccineum of Dr. Johnston, by comparison with his

figures in the ‘ Mag. of Zool. and Bot.’i. pl.13. My specimen

was ith of an inch in length, exclusive of the members ; a female,

bearing the globose egg-masses that characterize the genus.

Fig. 12 represents it of the nat. size; and fig. 13, the fore-parts

magnified.

Order EpriopHTHALMA. Fam. CYAMIDA.

Genus Cyamus (Fabr.).

C. Thompsoni (mihi). Plate III. fig. 11.

-Body about 3th of an inch in length. Five pairs of feet equally

developed ; all 5-jointed ; all with the penultimate joint large and

ovate. Third and fourth segments each furnished with a single.

small oval appendage.

This species was obtained by Mr. Wm. Thompson of Wey-

mouth, after whom I have named. it. It was attached to one of

Mr. P. H. Gosse on new or little-known Marine Animals. 31

two specimens of Hyperoodon bidens, the capture of which in

Portland Roads was recorded in the ‘ Annals of Nat. Hist.’ for

November 1854. Four species of Cyamus are enumerated by

M. Milne-Edwards in his ‘ Hist. Nat. des Crustacés ’ (iii. 113),

from all of which this specimen differs signally. Indeed that

eminent carcinologist’s résumé of the generic characters must be

modified to include this species, which yet is an indubitable

Cyamus. “ The first pair of feet,” he observes, “ are difficult to

perceive when we look at the animal from above ;—they are com-

posed of five joints, and are terminated by a minute sub-cheliform

hand, slightly oval. The second pair are very large, hooked, and

composed of only four distinct pieces.” Now in this new spe-

cies, the first pair do not differ either in form or size from the

second, third, fourth or fifth pair ; the hand is as stout, as ovate,

and the claw as strong and as much hooked as in the second

pair, while this latter pair are composed of five joints as distinct

as in the others, and in no wise differing from them.

Class ANNELIDA.

Order Cu zTopopa. Fam. NEREIDZ.

_ Genus Syxuis (Sav.).

Sp. 1. S. tubifex (mihi).

Head lobed ; post-occipital segment equal to the following ;

antenne moniliform ; tentacular cirri antenniform ; feet lobed,

armed with one pencil of hooked sets ; superior cirrus shorter

than the breadth of the segment, not moniliform : animal fissi-

parous, minute, inhabiting a membranous tube.

Description.—Body 4rd of an inch long, dirty-white, composed

of about forty-five segments.

Head small, the lobes well developed and deeply divided,

clothed with short hairs. Eyes large, widely diverging; those

of each lateral pair about equal in size, and placed so close as to

be sometimes in contact. Antenne three, moniliform, clothed

with short bristles ; the central one nearly twice as long as the

others, composed of about twenty-five well-marked joints; the

outer pair having about twelve each.

Proboscis long, the outer portion about 3-the length of the

inner. Frontal margin of outer part serrated ; inner part covered

with small oval tubercles, set closely in quincunx, and in trans-

verse rows.

Post-occipital segment not larger than the rest ; furnished

with two tentacular cirri on each side, of which the upper is

about twice as long as the lower, equalling respectively the an-

32 Mr. P.H. Gosse on new or little-known Marine Animals.

tenne. Those of the two following segments are similar in

length and structure, being all antenniform.

Segments slightly incised, much broader than long. Foot

short, subconical, obtuse, and divided at the tip into three or

four lobes ; armed with a bundle of bristles, each of which bears

a terminal hook very freely jointed on an oblique knob. Supe-

rior cirrus shorter than the breadth of the segment, tapering,

not moniliform. Inferior cirrus scarcely projecting beyond the

foot, ovate and leaf-like.

The bundles of hooked bristles consist of about sixteen each,

but. those near the tail appear to have only about twelve. I can-

not find any accessory pencil of fine hairs by the closest pressure ;

but the long slender pair of internal plates are present.

The internal surface of the head-lobes is clothed with vibratile

cilia, by the action of which a strong uniform current is drawn

into the mouth. The current passing down along the antennz

may at first be supposed to be produced by cilia on these organs,

but I could not detect any on close examination. The inferior

surface of each foot is also strongly ciliated, and vortices are

produced on each of these organs, the whole forming a powerful

current from head to tail. )

This is one of the species that increase by spontaneous divi-

sion from the posterior portion of the body.. There was, at the

tail of the specimen described, an incipient young one of about

five or six segments, triangular in its general form and little de-

veloped, but well separated, by an incision, from the parent.

This species I frequently found in my glass jars of sea-water

at Ilfracombe, especially in those in which I was keeping the

Hydroid zoophytes. It climbs to the surface, and then along

the very edge of the water, forms a slender membranous tube

attached to the glass, open at each end, within which it dwells.

If touched at either extremity, it issues forth at the other with

much agility, wriggling its segments in lateral undulations. No

drawing was made of this species.

Sp. 2. S. dongiseta (mihi). Plate IV. figs. 14-21.

Head not lobed; antennz short, not moniliform ; no tenta-

cular cirri; feet obtuse, simple, armed with two pencils of

bristles, of which the inferior are twice the breadth of the seg-

ments; superior and inferior cirri equal, minute; inhabits a

membranous tube. (Fig. 14, nat. size; 15, magnified.)

Description. — Head round, not distinctly lobed. (fig. 16) ;

three antenne, slightly fusiform, not moniliform, shorter than

the breadth of the head, set in a transverse line; four eyes,

brick-red, reniform, the inner pair set a little behind the outer,

and rather smaller: no tentacles or tentacular cirri.

Mr. P. H. Gosse on new or little-known Marine Animals. 33

Segments about thirty-eight, nearly alike in size, but those of

the middle parts more separable ; diminishing abruptly at the

tail.

Feet slightly developed for the first five or six segments ;

thence thick, with a semi-oval lobe projecting from the upper

portion (Pl. IV. figs. 17 & 20), from which protrudes a fan-like

pencil of bristles, which are short (about as long as the foot),

slightly curved, consisting of a slender shaft with a terminal

notched knob, bearing a short curved blade set in the notch;

this blade is longer in the upper bristles (fig. 18) of the pencil

than in the lower ones (fig. 19). The lower pencil (figs. 17 &

21) consists of very long, simple, finely-pointed bristles (about

twice as long as the breadth of the body), which project laterally

or posteriorly, and are not retractile ; these long bristles do not

appear till the 10th segment, and disappear at the 32nd.

The tail consists of two fusiform appendages, much resembling

ee antennz, about half as long as the greatest width of the

ody.

_ Colour hyaline, slightly tinged with yellow. Total length

zth of an inch.

Found at Weymouth on the side of a glass in which I had

placed atuft of Rhytiphlea. It makes a gelatinous tube attached

to the glass (fig. 14), in which it moves freely backwards and

forwards by means of its long sete.

Order CH@TOPODA. Fam, SABELLADZ.

Genus Ornonia (Johnston).

Gill-fans two, composed of several soft, thick, curled-inward,

pectinated, ciliated stems set like a star around the mouth : body

composed of twelve to thirty-five segments, all furnished with

lateral pencils of bristles, but without hooks, Animal inhabits

a membranous tube, open at both ends, which it often forsakes.

The discovery of two other species of this genus renders ne-

cessary a revision of the generic characters; as some of those

enumerated by Dr. Johnston (Loudon’s Mag. N. H. vin. 183)

are merely those of the single species then known, O. Fabrice.

Sp. 1. O. Fabricii (Johnst.). — Plate IV. fig. 22.

Segments fourteen ; first and last with a pair of eye-like spots :

pinnee of gills graduated in Jength ; bristles simple.

Description.—Head with two well-defined eyes, and a ring of

vibratile uncinate cilia. Gill-fans wrinkled; pinnated; the pinne

long, and so graduated that the tips are level; they often curl

Amn. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvi. 3

34 Mr. P. H. Gosse on new or little-known Marine Animals.

inward at the tips; their colour is a clear green. Segments four-

teen, all but the last two furnished on each side with a pencil of

stiff long bristles, few, converging to their tips, deeply seated,

nearly straight, but curved forward at the points, simple ; wholly

retractile. Last segment round, with a pair of well-defined eye-

like spots.

Length ;',th of an inch.

This little species is common at Weymouth, coming out of

tufts of Rhytiphlea pinastroides when these are kept im glass

vases. The little Annelid crawls up the side of the glass, often

going tail-foremost ; a curious fact, when considered. in con-

nexion with the eye-like spots on the last segment, which cannot

be distinguished from the true eyes of the anterior extremity.

It is possible that this may be the immature condition of one

of the succeeding species. The ring of uncinate cila suggests

youth.

Sp. 2. O. Bairdit (mihi). Plate IV. figs. 23, 24.

Segments above thirty, without eye-spots at either extremity ;

gills each composed of five or six stems, set with a double row

of short pinne: bristles with an oval expansion at their base,

Deseription.—Gill-fans two, ample, each consisting of five (or

six) stems divided almost to the base, each set with a double row

of short ciliated pinne, not graduated, curling inwards in a

plumose manner. Segments (in the specimen described) thirty-

four, all but the last two with pencils of bristles; three in each

pencil (fig. 24) very short, finely-pointed, with an oval blade-like

dilatation at the base of ‘each, The segments diminish quickly

but gradually to the last, which forms a blunt point, and is un-

spotted. No eyes are visible on the head, nor any ring of cilia.

Length th of an inch ; colour whitish-green, opaque ; gill-fans

hyaline. :

A single specimen was found with the preceding, at Wey-

mouth, in April. I have dedicated the species to my esteemed

friend, Dr. William Baird of the British Museum.

Sp. 3. O. Johnstoni (mihi). Plate IV. figs. 25-28.

Segments above thirty, without eye-spots ; gills each of about

sixteen stems, some of which are simple, others set with gra-

duated pinnz: bristles with an expansion near the tip.

Description. — The gill-fans are composed of many (about

sixteen) stems, some of which are quite simple, others set with

numerous long, but graduated pinnz in two rows, and others in

an intermediate condition, the pinne being rudimentary or

short (fig. 26). The stems (fig. 28) are hollow, with close-set

transverse lines (septa ?); and the pinne are covered with small

Mr. P: H»Gosse on new or little-known Marine Animals. 35

vibratile cilia. These fans are very deciduous, for, in captivity,

I have seen the animals voluntarily throw off in succession more

than a dozen of the stems, separating them at the base : probably

they are renewable, as I know to be the case, from repeated

observations, in Sabella.

Segments about thirty-three ; nearly equal, except that: they

diminish rapidly at the posterior extremity, tapering somewhat

abruptly to a blunt point. All but the last two are furnished

with graduated pencils of bristles, about eight or ten in each

pencil. In those of the anterior segments the bristles are of

two forms (fig. 27), the shorter consisting of a slender, acutely-

pointed stem, which is dilated near.the tip into an oval plate,

through the centre of which the stem passes; the longer ones

are of essentially the same structure, but the dilatation is gra-

dual and elongate, and therefore blade-like or lanceolate. Both

kinds end in finely-drawn points, which are much curved. To-

wards the hinder part of the body all the bristles take the latter

form.

The animal throws off at will a transparent gelatinous mem-

brane, which forms a tube just large enough to hold its body,

and the sides of which are pushed out by the bristles during

their movements.

Length } an inch; colour greenish-white. )

I have named this species after Dr. George Johnston, who

may be called the father of our marine invertebrate zoology. It

is the most common of the three at Weymouth, being found

abundantly in shells and stones, dense sea-weeds, &c., from tideé-

marks and deep water.

Class POLYZOA. ,

Order INFUNDIBULATA. Fam. VESICULARIADA.

Genus NoLexta (mihi).

Cells erect, subcylindrical, springing singly, but closely, from

an undefined polymorphous incrusting mat ; tentacles eighteen,

forming a bell. Name from nola, a little bell.

N. stipata (mihi). Plate IV. fig. 29.

Cells about ;1,th of an inch long, whitish, sub-opaque.

_ I found. this species numerous in mats on the fronds of Phyl-

lophora rubens, dredged between the Abergavenny and Portland

Breakwater, in Weymouth Bay. It is very near Bowerbankia,

but the number of its tentacles distinguishes it from all recog-

nized genera, except Avenella (Dalyell), from Which, PEE it

36 Mr.C. Spence Bate on the Homologies of the Carapace

totally differs in habit and form. The opacity of the cell pre-

vented me from discerning whether it has a gizzard.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES III. anp IV.

Puate III.

. Halacarus rhodostigma, magnified, ventral surface.

. Ibid. dorsal surface of trunk.

. Ibid. rostrum and palpi.

Ibid. punctures of surface.

Ibid. ungues of foot.

H. ctenopus, magnified, dorsal surface.

. Ibid. ventral surface.

. Ibid. rostrum and palpi.

. Ibid. right palpus.

10. Ibid. one unguis of a foot.

11. Cyamus Thgmpsoni, magnified, ventral surface.

12. Phowxichilidium olivaceum, nat. size.

13.. Ibid. fore-parts magnified.

Piate [V.

14. Syllis longiseta, in its tube, nat. size.

15. Ibid. magnified.

16. Ibid. head, somewhat laterally.

17. Ibid. a right foot seen from behind.

19. Ibid. sete of the upper pencil.

20. Ibid, a middle segment, from above.

21. Ibid. the same, from below.

22. Othonia Fabricii, magnified.

23. O. Bairdii, magnified.

24. Ibid. a pencil of setee, more enlarged.

25. O. Johnstoni, nat. size. ‘

26. Ibid. magnified (middle segments omitted).

27. Ibid. bristles of two forms.

28. Ibid. a portion from a stem of the gills, with two pinne.

29. Nolella stipata, magnified. |

CO DONT OTB Go tO

Prelit bi bbbttd

LE bila bees £ ke

IV.—On the Homologies of the Carapace and on the Structure and

Function of the Antenne in Crustacea. By C. Spence Barn,

F.L.S. &c.*

[With two Plates. |

In the class Crustacea the most anterior articulation is that

which supports the eyes. This is shown most conspicuously in

the genus Squilla, in which animal it is united by a free joint

with the next succeeding; but if this lucid example were want-

ing, the relative position of the ophthalmic ring in advance of

any of the rest is clearly manifest in the larva and pupa stages

of the Decapoda.

Dissection moreover leads to the same conclusion. Upon

* Communicated by the author, having been read at the Linnean Society,

April 17, 1855.

Année Mag. Nat. Hist, S.2.Vol.16. Pl. IIT.

“ nee

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TDe C. Sowerby. se

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4 Ann & Mag. Nat. Hist. $.2 NoL.16. PIV.

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mesh

and on the Function of the Antenne in Crustacea. 37

laying bare the cephalic ganglion, we find that the two anterior

branches of nerves pass to the eyes, the central being the motor

oculi, the outer the ophthalmic, and lead direct to the organs

of vision.

In all the higher tribes, except the aberrant family of Dia-

stylide (Say) (Cuma of M. Milne-Edwards), the eyes are borne on

moveable pedicles. In the Brachyura the ring which bears these

pedicles is free, but unlike Squzl/a, instead of being seen distinctly

in advance of the animal, it is enclosed within and covered by

the anterior portion of the carapace ; I say that it is covered by,

and not absorbed into, the structure of the integument which

forms the anterior portion of the external skeleton of these

animals.

If we throw off the carapace we shall find that the calcareous

representation (Pl. I. fig. 1 a) of the ophthalmic ring occupies a

position between and connecting the two eyes, lodged in a fossa

(Pl. I. fig. 2 w) formed by the interspace between the dorsal and

ventral arches of the second ring, the superior antennal, which

arches approximate in the Brachyura so closely, that, as in the

genus Cancer, they meet in front of and enclose the ophthalmic

ring, leaving the point of union visible only by a distinct suture

(Pl. I. fig. 3a). Thus the ophthalmic ring is: covered by and

not fused with the rest of the testaceous skeleton ;—it therefore

takes no part in the development of the carapace of the Decapod

Crustacea.

The superior antenne succeed the eyes, and with the excep-

tion of the genus Squilla, the ring which supports them is always

fused with the succeeding, the inferior antennal. These two

form a closely associated part im the anterior structure of the

animal, and together build up the whole of that portion of the

carapace which is in advance of the cervical suture, and which,

I. think, I shall be able to show, forms almost the whole of the

carapace in the Brachyura,—half of the same in Macroura,—and

that it lessens in importance as the animal descends in the scale

of nervous centralization.

If we turn our attention to the lower forms, we find that in the

Cuma and other allied genera of the Diastylide, the eye (for the

two coalesce so as to form but one) is developed nearly in the

centre of the carapace ; but this appearance is only the result of

the great development of the lateral angles of the carapace,

which meet in front and form what appears like a rostrum ;

they never unite, but are distinctly separated through the centre

of the so-called rostrum, as well as on either side of that portion

which supports the antennal rings, which occupies a small island

as it were in the centre of the carapace (PI. I. figs. 4, 5 & 6).

_ The fact which dissection has enabled us distinctly to make

38 Mr.C. Spence Bate on the Homologies of the Carapace

out, that the small central patch bears the two antenne, that

the external angles of the carapace which pass in front and

surround it posteriorly, carry the mandibles, demonstrates the

relation of one portion of the carapace to the other, and that the

line of separation round the antennal centre homologizes with the

cervical suture of the Macroura.

The constant position of this suture in all Crustacea when

present is the same, and forms a line of demarcation between

the third and the fourth rings, and therefore visible in its posi-

tion external to the inferior antenne ; and M. Milne-Edwards’is

most assuredly wrong when he attributes the depressions on the

carapace, which terminate in the central notch of the orbits of

the Brachyura, to be the representatives of the cervical suture of

the Macroura.

If we wish to judge of its position in the Brachyura, it is but

just that we should make a careful investigation of the structure

of the animal in its immature condition. In the so-called pupa

stage of the Crab, we find that the inferior antenne are attached

to the extreme horns of the carapace (PI. 1. fig. 7), but these

horns are folded beneath the animal ; it is this reflexion which

afterwards forms the orbit in which the eye is lodged.

- The position of the antenna, anchylosed as it is with the der-

mal skeleton in all. the Brachyura, still holds the same, therefore

by inversion the cervical suture must be inferiorly inside, but

still within the limits of the carapace; such a suture is plainly

demonstrable in most of the Brachyura (Pl. I. fig. 10; and

Pl. II. fig. 1), and separates the inferior antennal (a) from the

mandibular rmg (0); it extends posteriorly to the extreme

limits of the carapace, forming as it were two’ side pieces, the

epimerals of M. Milne-Edwards: this line unquestionably homo-

logizes with the cervical suture of the Macroura. ,

If we turn our attention to the development of the nervous

system in these various animals, we shall find that centralization

decreases in an inverse ratio with the development of ‘that ‘por-

tion of the carapace which is posterior to the cervical suture, and

vice versd, that centralization is most perfect when that portion

of the carapace which is anterior to the cervical suture is largest.

In the Brachyura the nervous ganglia are in the highest de-

gree consolidated, and in the Spider Crabs the most perfect cen-

tralization exists; there we shall find that the cervical suture,

the line of union between the inferior antennal and mandibular

rings, 1s so lateral, that the two side pieces of the incomplete

mandibular ring are reduced to much less importance than is. to

be found in any other tribe of the whole class. In the genus

Cancer, &c. the line of union remains but partially anchylosed,

and splits when the animal throws off its exuvie. |

and on the Function of the Antenne in Crustacea. 39

In the Galatheade, the development of the mandibular ring

shows a closer approximation to the Brachyura than to the Ma-

eroura, in which latter the two antennal rings occupy but one-half

of the whole carapace, the mandibular ring furnishing the re-

mainder; whereas the Paguride assimilate closer in the deve-

lopment of the same portion to the Macroura,—a circumstance in

its position among Crustacea corroborated by the fact, that pre-

vious to their taking possession of the shell of the mollusca, they

exhibit all the characteristics of a perfect Macroura. Here, when

the neryous centre commences its first tendency to separate into

numerous distinct but less important ganglia, we find those

rings which carry distinct organs of sense, and furnished by

nervous filaments from the cephalic ganglion, decrease in a rela-

tive proportion to the rest of the animal: this, which we see very

apparent in the Macroura, is carried to the greatest extent in the

Diastylide, where the carapace is constructed almost wholly of

the mandibular ring, having but a small area in the centre

which bears the antenne. And more, the carapace extends pos-

teriorly so as to envelope only the Gnathopods; the rest of the

thorax being complete in the development of each separate ring.

Lower in the scale we find that the whole thorax, including

the Gnathopods, is perfect in its distinction from the cephalic ring,

which. latter is so reduced in importance as to differ little in ap-

pearance from that of a single rmg; whereas consolidation still

remains, and embraces within the compass of this one ring the

whole of the seven anterior.

But. we have seen in the descending scale of nervous force the

rings which carry the organs of consciousness degenerate in im-

portance, and yield to a corresponding development of the man-

dibular ring ; this law appears still to be in force in the Amphi-

poda, the lowest type of the Macroura form, in which I am

inclined to believe that the mandibular ring represents the whole

of the upper portion of the cephalic articulation ; the anterior

three being so diminished in importance, that they are to be

found. only in the perpendicular anterior wall of the head *, or

perhaps represented by their appendages only.

Since the present paper was communicated to the Linnzan

Society, the author has had the opportunity, through the

kindness of Mr. J. Lubbock, of perusing Dana’s great work on

Crustacea, and it is but just he should state, that the conclusions,

which careful and long-continued observation of the homologies

~ * An example of which may be seen in the manner in which the two

first joints of the external antennz are absorbed in the frontal aspect of

Talitra ; a circumstance overlooked by naturalists, who have invariably de-

scribed this genus as having but three instead of the constant fiye articu-

lations to the peduncle of the inferior antennz. —

40. Mr.sC.Spence Bate on the Homologies of the Carapace

of the:carapace of Crustacea had induced him. to arrive at, are in

some of the most important points anticipated in the work of

the United States’ Exploring Expedition.

But since they have been arrived at by independent research,

the regret with which the author found his deductions forestalled,

are to a considerable extent removed by the important testimony

of so learned and correct a naturalist as Mr. Dana. The follow-

ing two sentences are taken from the first volume of that author ;

the italics being in the original text :—

“‘ Weare therefore led to believe, that the so-called ‘ciianioanlen

or ventral pieces of the carapax, are in fact the posterior exten-

sions of the mandibular segment.” (Page 27.)

+5 jase

©... Milne-Edwards thus makes the larger part of the

carapax “epimeral i in character.

«< Excepting that we consider what is here ealled epimeral, the

mandibular segment, we agree with Edwards, for the most, part,

im the above-mentioned deduction ; so that while the mandibular

segment is confined to the ventral j pieces of the Brachyural cara-

pax, it constitutes its posterior half im Macroura.’ (Page 82.)

The author also has had the opportunity at the British, Mu-

seum of seeing the plates in Kroyer’s great work on the Natural

History of Scandinavia, where he finds the carapace of Cuma

Rathkii (Kroyer) (the Alauna rostrata of Goodsir) is figured

with the so-called rostrum separated from the antennal region,

as drawn and described in this paper.

The Anterior or Internal Antenne.

These organs are borne by the second ring, and supplied with

nerves from the cephalic ganglion.

The anterior antenna is evidently of importance to the animal,

and is always present in aquatic Crustacea: as a general law it

consists of an articulated peduncle of three joints, which I believe

1 am correct in asserting, unlike those of the external antenna,

are never anchylosed together or with the carapace, and a

terminating filament, which is generally double, often treble,

but I believe never single, above the Amphipoda. . This appen-

dage is various as well as unequal in length, and in every species

that I have examined, whether in Brachyura, Macroura, Am-

phipod or Isopod, will invariably be found furnished, in addition

to the small hairs common to other parts of the animal, with

long, delicate, membranous cilia, in form varying in genera and

species ; they are always larger than the ordinary hairs, but

much more delicate in structure. These vary in number and

im thickness of clusters, but, as far as my experience goes, are

imvariably present on the upper antenna.

and on the Function of the Antenne in Crustacea: 41

In the Anomoura, Macroura, and all below, the antenna gra-

dually increases at the base. In) the Brachyura this increase is

immensely developed in the first or basal articulation. Exami-

ning this organ in the larva, I thought I observed what I took to

bean otolithe*; this led my attention to the same in the. adult

Brachyura, and there I found, upon breaking open the basal ar-

ticulation, what appeared to be an imperfect kind of cochlea,

Afterwards, in company and with the assistance of my friend

Mr. Howard Stewart, we were enabled to trace distinctly the

nerve which supplied this antenna directly to the centre of the

cochlea (for such I believe it is), as I feel convinced that the

upper antenne are auditory organs.

But since the general opinion up to the present time has been

that they are olfactory and not auditory, and as the external an-

tenn are invariably considered as auditory and not olfactory; I

shall ‘withhold any further discussion until those organs have

been: deseribed. |

In the lower forms of Podophthalmia, as also in the Sessile-eyed

Crustacea, the basal joint of the antenna is not enlarged, neither

have I been enabled to find any structure answering to the

internal cell; on the other hand, the whole organ increases in

length, as if to gai by external surface what is lost by internal

development.

Among the land Crustacea this antenna is obsolete, and in

Lagia and other amphibious marine ones it is rudimentary.

The Inferior or External Antenne.

_ These are borne upon the third ring, and are among the most

constant organs present. One of these antenne is formed of a

peduncle consisting as a general law of five articulations and a

filament, generally multiarticulate and very long; these are

sometimes anchylosed together so as to be even as few as a single

articulation.

. The five joimts of the peduncle are all distinct in the Macroura.

In Amphipoda the first and second are closely associated, but

* In Macroura, Dr. Farre states that he found.sand deposited in the base

of theinternal antenna, which he assumes to act the part of otolithes; this

the author has failed to find, and, from the fact that the membrane over the

orifice spoken of by Dr. Farre is imperforate, thinks it probable that the

specimen examined by that observer must have been injured.

©. It may be. that in this communication sufficient justice is scarcely done

to Dr: Farre’s researches, since the short abstract published in the ‘ Annals’

for 1843 has been the only means the author had at his disposal to become

acquainted with them. But if, as he thinks, Dr. Farre’s researches

on the Macroura corroborate his on the Brachyura, then the evidence is

strong against the generally received opinion of naturalists and physiologists,

including among them Edwards and Siebold.

42 Mr.C.Spence Bate on the Homologies of the Carapace

searcely fused. In Brachyura the whole, more or less, certainly

the four first, almost always coalesce, and are generally formed

into a very compact mass, so that their position can only be

indicated in Sternorhynchus by the presence of the olfactory open:

culum.

In the Macroura this operculum is absent, and an orifice pro-

tected by a thin membrane represents the position of the organ.

In the Amphipoda the organ is developed in the form of a strong

spine or tooth with an orifice at the extremity*. In the lsopoda

I have not been able to decipher with confidence the organ of

sense in the inferior antenna, but that it exists can scarcely be

doubted, since the lower antenna, except in parasitic Crustacea, as

the female of Bopyrus and Iona, is I believe never rudimentary.

The nerve which supplies this organ is afifth pair or a branch

of the fourth. In the Brachyura, in which our dissections have

chiefly been made, the fourth pair of nerves extends beyond the

inferior antenna, and then terminates in the muscles whicks raise

and close the olfactory operculum.

This organ, which is described by M. Milne-Edwards as an

organ of hearing, differs in its construction’ in the different

families of Crustacea. In the Brachyura it is a small moveable

appendage, situated at the point of articulation between the.

third and second joints ; it is attached to a long calcareous lever-

like tendon, at the extreme limit of which is attached a set of

muscles by which it is opened and closed, to assist in which

operation at the angle of the operculum most distant from the

central line of the animal are fixed two small hinges. When

the operculum is raised, the internal surface is found to be per-

forated by a small circular opening protected by a thin membrane.

Among the Macroura this orifice exists at the extremity of a

small protuberance, and is not capable of being withdrawn into

the cavity of the antenna, as in the Brachyura.

The next question which we have to consider is, to which sense

either of these two sets of organs belongs ;—whether the upper

belongs to the auditory and the lower to the olfactory, as I shall

endeavour to prove, or vice versd, as maintained by Prof.

Milne-Edwards.

We shall divide the evidences on either side under two heads ;

the first, that which is derived from an external observation ; and

the second, that which is derived from its internal organization.

First: then from external circumstances : An auditory appa-

ratus isan organ furnished to an animal for one or both of two

objects ; first, for protection from danger ; ear for the plea-

* This will be more enlarged upon in the fietheouing Report at the

next Meeting of the British Association.

and on the Function of the Antenne in Crustacea. 43

sure derivable from sounds. To animals so low in the scale of

beings as the Crustacea, placed as they are in a medium which

must considerably modify its character, sound can convey little

to the consciousness of the animal beyond a sense of security or

danger.

To enable this to be of the most extensive value, the auditory

organ must and always is so placed as to be most exposed to

external impressions at all periods ; particularly when the animal

is at rest or pre-occupied. |

~ Now if we look at the organ the present state of science attri-

butes to the sense of hearing, we find that in the most perfectly

formed animals, the Brachyura, it is enclosed within a bony case

and secured by a calcareous operculum ; that it is always so in a

state ‘of ‘rest, and only exposed when especially required. Not

only is ‘this the case throughout the order, but in some genera,

as ‘Corystes, Cancer, &c., it is again covered by the supplying

organs of the mouth.

If we take into consideration that the inferior antenna is fre-

quently developed into organs assimilating to feet, and fre-

quently used for the purpose of assisting to climb, &c., it seems

difficult to admit that it is an organ capable of protecting the

animal by its’ quick detection of the sound of approaching

danger.

‘© Tf~we turn our attention to the superior antenna, we find that

in’ the living animal it is always elevated in the water and never

at rest,—always playing with a constant vibration and a jerking

motion peculiar to itself in the higher orders. Among the Am-

phipoda, though constantly erect, the motion is more regular and

graceful ;this probably is consequent upon the greater relative

length of the organ.

o/ “This organ is ‘one that appears as if always on the watch ;—let

the animal be at rest, let it be feeding, no matter, the superior

antenna is ever elevated and on constant guard.

(Again, if we turn our attention to the land Crustacea, we find

the organ as an antenna disappear ; and in Ligza and the amphi-

bious Orchestide they are rudimentary, as if the organ, passing

from water into a less dense medium, required modification in

order'to adapt it to the change of circumstances.

If we take into consideration the nature of sound, and its dif-

ference of character when conveyed under water from that of

passing through air, the obtuse character of the former, which

ean scarcely be more than a vibratory action of particles of

water, which conveys to us a very modified and imperfect idea

of sound, we find it difficult to understand that the organ

situated at the base of the under antenna is capable of receiving

44. Mr. C, Spence Bate on the Homologies of the Carapace

impressions of sound, enclosed as it is within and covered by a

stout calcareous operculum.

But if we view it as an organ of smell, every objection pre-

viously becomes evidence in favour of the idea. The small door

when it is raised exposes the orifice in a direction pointing to the

mouth; this also is the direction of the same organ im all the

higher orders. In Amphipoda it is directed inwards and for-

wards. In every animal it is so situated that it is impossible for

any food to be conveyed into the mouth without passing under

this organ, and of this the animal has the power to judge its

suitability for food by raising the operculum at will, and expo-

sing to it the hidden organ—the olfactory.

If we turn to the upper antenna, we find that its position,

form and power are as capable of fulfilling the office of conducting

the sensation of sound, as the lower is that of smell. As I before

observed, it is always placed erect, and continually feeling in the

water for the first approximation of sensation. The filamentary

appendages are always two or more, one of which is supplied

with singularly delicate membranous cilia, being apparently pro-

longations of a similar membrane to that which covers the larger

orifice of the olfactory organ. These lengthened and delicate

cilia are peculiarly adapted to receive and convey the most minute

vibratory sensation of the medium in which they are suspended.

These organs when spoken of may conveniently be designated

as auditory cilia, and have been found in every species of Crus-

tacea that has been searched for them.

If we turn our attention to the internal structure of this an-

tenna, we shall find that it supports the idea of its bemg an

auditory organ more forcibly than its external analysis. |

In the Brachyura, as before observed, the first or basal arti-

culation is largely developed ; if it be removed from its connexion

with the animal and broken open, the basal articulation will

be found occupied by a still smaller chamber having calcareous

walls of a much more delicate character than the integumentary

structure. This internal chamber or cell is that which in this

paper is supposed to be a cochlea, from its analogy both in its

structure and supposed use to that organ in higher animals. It

is situated in the cavity of the basal articulation of the antenna,

and attached to the walls furthest from the median line of the

Crab. It presents a tendency to a spiral form, but passes not

beyond the limits of a single convolution. The calcareous walls

extend across the axis of the ideal spire, and the internal cavity

is one continuous irregular chamber, the walls of which at the

centre of the axis closely approximate so as almost to meet.

Pl. II. figs. 3, 4, 5, 6.

3 3

{ | Ann. ke Mag. Nat. Hist.8.2 e116. PL.

20 diameters .

JS Basie SC.

and on the Function of the Antenne in Crustacea. 45

This internal cell represents, we think, the cochlea of higher

animals, to which it bears some resemblance both in form and

structure. If so, then beyond dispute it identifies the superior

antenna as an organ of hearing. :

The.internal structure of the inferior antenna differs ver

materially from the appearances we have just described. In the

Brachyura, where the organs are most fully developed, there is

attached to the operculum a long osseous tendon or lever, by

which the attached muscles raise or close the entire organ, but

there is no internal structure of any kind which could. identify

it.as being an organ of sound. The aqueous sac mentioned by

Edwards I have entirely failed to discover.

Viewing the two antenne each as a whole. in their relative posi-

tions and connexion with the rest of the animal, we are forcibly

led to the conviction that the upper antenna is an organ of

hearing, and the lower antenna is an organ of smell.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. anp II.

PLATE I.

Fig. 1. The ophthalmic ring and appendages of Cancer Pagurus isolated

from its position.

Fig. 2. The internal aspect of the two antennal and the anterior portion

of the mandibular rings of Cancer Pagurus.

F F F shows the line of fracture in consequence of the removal of

the upper portion of the carapace.

A A. The inner or anterior antennal ring, the supposed limits of

which are shown in dotted lines. :

w. The fossa which is exposed by the removal of the ophthalmic

segment.

x, z. The internal extremities of the orbits.

y, y. Cavity exposed by the removal of internal antenne.

B BBB. The external or posterior antennal ring, the limit of

which is defined anteriorly where it is fused with the anterior

antennal ring by the dotted line, posteriorly by the margin of

the cesophageal opening Ai, by a ridge between B and C, where

a line of separation is often, if not always visible, and the line P,

which splits in some of the Brachyura when they throw off the

exuvie.

z. The white spot in the deep hollow shows the position of the

olfactory organ (auditory of M. Milne-Edwards, Von Siebold,

C CCC. The fourth or mandibular rmg; epimeral of Prof. Milne-

Edwards*.

m, m. Calcareous tendon of mandible.

* The author anticipates being able to demonstrate, in the Report on the

Amphipod Crustacea for the British Association, that the so-called epi-

merals of the thorax, in the Sessile-eyed Crustacea, are in fact the first jomt

of the leg. If this be correct, and the so-called epimerals in the Brachyura

be admitted as the fourth or mandibular ring, the side pieces or epimerals

of authors will be found to have no existence,—a circumstance which the

author affirms to be the case.

Fig.

On the Function of the Antenne in Crustacea.

3. The anterior aspect of the internal or first antennal ring isolated

from the rest of the carapace, answering to A A A in fig. 2,

which is the internal aspect of the same. :

a. The line of demarcation between the dorsal and ventral arches,

which enlarges at (e) to permit the organ of vision to pass

through.

b, 6. Portions of the orbits.

ce. The superior antenna in situ.

f. The foramen through which the nerves and muscles pass to the

superior or internal antenna, which is here removed.

d,d. Depressions left by the removal of the external antenne, the

extremity of the third joimt of the peduncle of which here rests,

with which it is almost fused.

Carapace of Diastylis (Say) Rathkii, Kroyer, = Alauna rostrata,

Goodsir, Bell: dorsal aspect. ;

. 5. Ditto: ventral aspect.

Lateral view.

Carapace of Cancer Pagurus: pupa stage; ventral aspect.

Do. do. do. : lateral view.

. 8. Carapace of Astacus fluviatilis: dorsal aspect.

. 10. Carapace of Corystes Cassivelaunus : lateral view. —

PLATE IT:

. 1. Carapace of Cancer Pagurus; ventral aspect.

. 2. Cephalic ring of Erichthonius difformis, to show the relation in

which it stands to the carapace of Podophthalmia. The antennal

rings, which in the Sessile-eyed order are absorbed within the

posterior, are here produced in dotted lines (a)*. The letters in

all define the homological divisions.

a. The two antennal rings.

6. The mandibular.

The line between a and 3 is the limit of separation between the

rings and homologies in Brachyura with the cervical, suture

in Macroura. ,

3. The anterior or internal antenna of Cancer Pagurus. The dotted

line at (a) shows the position of the internal cell. Ls

4. Posterior view of the basal articulation of the antenna, showing the

internal or auditory cell (the presumed cochlea of the author),

5. Anterior view of the internal cell; the outer or dermal walls of

the antenna being broken away.

6. Internal view of the cell, which is broken to show the relative ar-

rangements of its walls. il

The author would wish this passage to be accepted only provisionally

for the present, as, since the paper has been in the hands of the printer,

on examining some specimens of Gammarus which had been saturated in

dilute acid, he thinks he has identified a line or suture which must _

homologize with the cervical suture in the higher types. Should further

research establish the fact, then it must result that the inferior antennal,

as well as the mandibular segment, enters into the structure of the first or

cephalic ring of the Amphipoda; but this he hopes to discuss soon more at

large elsewhere. e*

On Double Monstrosity in Fishes. 47

V.—On Double Monstrosity in Fishes.

On the 19th March last, M. de Quatrefages exhibited to the

French Academy of Sciences a living specimen of a double mon-

strous Fish. The observations made by M. de Quatrefages on

the occasion of this exhibition have given rise to a discussion

upon the phenomenon of double monstrosity m Fishes, in

which several of the most distinguished physiologists of France

have taken part, and although, as might be expected from the

nature of the subject, no very decisive results have been ob-

tained, there seems to be every reason to hope, from the zeal

with which these gentlemen appear to be devoting their atten-

tion to the solution of the interesting question of the mode of

production of these monstrosities, that their researches may

eventually throw considerable light, not only upon the particular

phenomenon in question, but also upon the origin and deve-

lopment of the normal embryo. For this reason we have thought

it advisable to give a short account of some of the leading state-

ments that have been made, in the hope that by so doing we

may call the attention of some of our readers to this interesting

subject.

The monster exhibited by M. de Quatrefages had been ob-

served by him for a period of nearly two months. When he first

received it, it consisted of two young fishes, completely separated

from each other and adhering to the opposite sides of a vitellus,

which. exhibited a deep notch in front. Hach of these embryos

exhibited a certain amount of deformity,—one, the largest, had

the face deformed and the eyes entirely wanting, whilst the other

parts of the body were perfectly developed ;—in the other the

head, was well-formed, the body humped and the tail twisted.

The two abdominal veins (afterwards converted into the vene

porte) were in their usual position, and their ramifications

spread over the whole surface of the vitellus, communicating at

their extremities with the roots of the vitelline veins, which

afterwards form the hepatic veins. It is remarkable also that

numerous anastomoses united the last ramifications of the abdo-

minal vein of each embryo with those of the vitelline vein of the

other, so that a continual interchange of blood took place. [Ac-

cording to M. Coste the circulation in double monsters is common

to the two embryos,—-the greater part of the blood which has

eirculated'in the body of one passing into the vessels of the um-

bilical vesicle [abdominal vein], whence the greater part of it is

eonveyed by the vitelline vein to the auricle of the other embryo

and so on, and in accordance with this reciprocal circulation

the contractions of the two ventricles take place alternately.

48 On Double Monstrosity in Fishes.

M. de Quatrefages, however, states that such was not the case in

two instances observed by him.]

On the 19th February, nearly a month after the specimen

came into the possession of M. de Quatrefages, and about six

weeks after its exclusion from the egg, the two embryos were

close together and ready to unite on one side of the abdomen,

whilst on the other they were still separated by a considerable

space occupied by the vitellus. When exhibited to the Academy,

the vitellus was nearly gone, and the larger of the two was

nearly ready to feed. It had originally been placed to the right

of the vitellus, but had become superior, lying somewhat across

the smaller and more deformed individual, which it carried about

with it.

The conclusion at which M. de Quatrefages arrives with re-

gard to this monster is, that it is formed by the coalescence of

two originally distinct embryos, and that the vitellus from which

it was developed was also double, the point of junction being in

his opinion indicated by the deep notch already mentioned at

the anterior part of the vitellus. This opinion is also shared by

M. Serres.

M. Coste however maintains that there is only a single vitellus

and umbilical vesicle, since at whatever period these monsters

may be observed, the vesicle is always simple ; and this view is

further supported by the intimate connexion between the circu-

latory systems of the two embryos. He considers that as the

external lamina of the umbilical vesicle really forms a common

abdominal wall enclosing the vitellus, it is impossible to regard

the two embryos as distinct individuals developed at the poles of

a double vitellus and becoming coalescent at a late period of

their growth, as they are actually united from the first into a

single organism by this membrane, and their subsequent union

is only effected by the gradual contraction of this membrane as

the vitellus becomes absorbed. This conjugation is consequently

a primordial phenomenon, and of a much more intimate nature

than one of simple adherence, such as the case cited by M. Geof-

froy Saint-Hilaire, in which two chickens, hatched from two

separate yelks contained in the same egg, were found to adhere

to one another by the belly.

M. Lereboullet holds the same opinion with M. Coste, regard-

ing the primitive simplicity of the vitellus, and his observations

(made upon the eggs of the Pike) appear to be tolerably con-

clusive upon this point. He states that in the eggs of the Pike

the development of the embryo commences at the moment when

the blastoderm has almost completely enclosed the vitellus, by

the formation of a small triangular tubercle on the blasto-

dermal ridge (bourrelet blastodermique), and that from this

On Double Monstrosity in Fishes. 49

centre, the embryonic fillet. takes its, rise. In many cases the

ridge of the blastoderm bears two tubercles, from each of

which an embryonic fillet is produced, and the further develop-

ment. of these gives rise to double embryos of various kinds. . It

appears from a statement of M. Lereboullet, that the formation

of these monsters may be determined at pleasure by placing the

eggs.in unfavourable conditions for development.

.M, Lereboullet describes the formation of several varieties of

these double monsters. 1. In some instances two tubercles were

produced on the margin of the blastoderm, from each of which

proceeded a fillet furnished with a dorsal furrow, forming two

embryos. adhering to the marginal ridge. Soon afterwards the

divisions of the vertebre made their appearance, the external

ones having their ordinary form and dimensions, whilst the in-

ternal. gradually became confounded, passing from the body of

one embryo to that of the other, thus causing the partial amal-

gamation of the two embryos. In this manner a double fish is

formed, arising from two primitive germinating points produced

upon the blastodermal ridge, so as to become partially joined ; it

has therefore two separate bodies with a common tail. A spe-

cimen of this description, in which the fusion of the double em-

bryohad, extended to about the middle of the body, lived for

four. days after exclusion from the egg.

2. In. other eggs the blastodermal ridge gave rise to a long

and» broad. fillet, terminated anteriorly by two rounded lobes.

Two.parallel furrows made their appearance in the fillet, and

soon exhibited the vertebral divisions, whilst the anterior lobes

acquired; a, determinate form, and each produced two ocular vesi-

cles, ‘constituting an embryo with a single body and two distinct

heads.,, In, these cases however the duplicity was transitory ; the

two heads.soon came in contact, and became soldered together —

in such-a manner as to form only a single head. M. Lereboullet

has observed. these phenomena in about fifteen instances, but

could.never ascertain in what manner the fusion of the two

heads )was .effected. In some cases the two heads appear to

remain distinct.

3. One of the most remarkable monstrosities is that presented

by some embryos with a single head, two separate bodies, and

one or two. tails. 'These are formed in the following manner :—

the ridge of the blastoderm, which has the form of a gaping |

~ button-hole, produces a single cephalic tubercle, but the forma-

tive processgoes on in the whole circumference of the margin,

each half:of which acquires a chorda dorsalis and a nervous cord,

and soon exhibits the divisions of the vertebra. When the

cephalic tubercle is short and only gives rise to the true head,

each of, the two bodies is furnished with two auditory capsules,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvi. 4

50 On Double Monstrosity in Fishes.

two pectoral fins and a heart; but when this tubercle is more

elongated, the anterior part of the body is simple, and bears two

eyes, two auditory capsules and a single heart, and the body is

terminated posteriorly by two short branches.

4. This organization of the ridge of the blastoderm imto a

double embryo seems to explain an extremely curious form

which only occurred once in M, Lereboullet’s observations. This

consisted of a simple embryo, bearing on the right side of ats

body a small tubercle, directed backwards, and terminated. by an

auditory capsule and an active heart. The production of this

form is accounted for by the resorption of the parts of the body

posterior to the heart in one of the embryos, and M. Lereboullet

has witnessed the complete disappearance of one of the bodies

in other mstances. |

5. In another egg the ridge of the blastoderm exhibited tw

contiguous tubercles, of which one had the ordinary form of the

cephalic tubercle, whilst the other was smaller and irregular.

The former alone acquired a furrow and gave rise to an embryo,

on one side of which the smaller tubercle was borne.

6. Occasionally bodies furnished with three heads make their

appearance. One of these is described by M. Lereboullet. . It

was a double embryo, composed of two bodies united behind,

but quite free in front. One ofthese bodies was of the normal

form ; the other bore two heads, of which that on the left was of

the normal form and furnished with two eyes, whilst that on the

right only ‘bore the right eye, the union of the two heads being

effected at the point where the left eye ought to have been. This

singular embryo was still in the egg when described ; it had two

hearts, one common to the two principal bodies, situated at their

bifurcation, the other placed in the angle of union of the two

heads.

M. Lereboullet explains the formation of this anomalous»crea-

ture in the following way. He considers that two fillets have

‘been formed, one of which has been terminated by two cephalic

lobes and acquired two furrows (as described under 2.), whilst

the other has remained simple. These two embryos have then

united posteriorly (as under 1.), producing an embryo with one

tail, two bodies and three heads.

7. An extraordinary result was obtained when the develop-

meut of the eggs was retarded by a considerable diminution of

temperature. In this case the ridge of the blastoderm pro-

duced no embryo, but contracted gradually like the opening of a

bag, its substance becoming condensed and forming a mammil-

lated tubercle projecting from the surface of the vitellus. This

tubercle continued living, rose more and more from the surface,

acquired a lingulate form, and at last constituted an elon-

Linnean Society. 51

gated body, narrowed in front, divided transversely into verte-

bral lamellae, without dorsal cord, or sensitive organs, but fur-

nished with a heart, of which the contractions were sometimes

very lively.

These ‘observations, as M. Lereboullet well observes, appear

to prove that the generally received opinion that double monsters

are produced by the fusion of two embryos is perfectly correct,

whilst that which attributes a separate vitellus to each of these

embryos is not founded in fact. He considers that his observa-

tions, with those of Valentin, show that there is only a single

germ, but that this, by becoming developed in two directions,

instead of one as in normal cases, gives rise to two more or less

distinct embryos. In his opinion the ridge of the blastoderm

(bourrelet blastodermique) plays a most important part in the

formation of the embryo, and in fact constitutes the “ true em-

bryonic germ, which is always simple and single, like the vitel-

lus which is covered by the blastoderm, but when its develop-

ment is deranged from its regular course, is capable of vegetating

like the substance of which the bodies of polypes are composed,

so as to produce various forms, which however, m their subse-

quent development, always show a distinct tendency to return

to the original type of the species.”

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

LINN AN SOCIETY.

December 5, 1854.— William Yarrell, Esq., V.P., in the Chair.

~ Mr. Ward, F.L.S., exhibited two sets of specimens of Asplenium

lanceolatum, from Jersey, both found growing on disintegrated

sandstone, exhibiting a striking difference between the growth of

the same species on an open sunny bank and in dense shade.

Mr. John Hogg, F.R.S., F.L.S., exhibited some scales, and a

piece of the scaly covering which was cut from the back of a large

fish found in the river Tees, in September of this year. He stated

that two fishermen observed a great fish—such as they had never

before seen—left by the tide on a sand-bank, in the estuary of the

river Tees. They described it as having the head of a salmon, with

the back-fin like that of a perch, erect, and somewhat spiny, and

the tail spreading and much curved. ‘The colour they did not men-

tion, except that of the back, which was represented as being of a

purplish-black. They likewise particularly observed some large

scales on the front of the fish near the gill-covers, one of which Mr.

J. Hogg also exhibited, and which is of a very strong bony texture.

From the account of this fish so given, Mr. Hogg conceived that it

could only have been a large Tunny (Thynnus vulgaris of Cuvier),

which had been stranded whilst in pursuit of herrings or other small

4-*

52 Linnean Society :-—

fishes. MM. Cuvier and Valenciennes in their ‘Hist. Nat. des

Poissons,’ tom. viii. p. 57, separated the Tunnies from the Mackerels

(Scomber), in consequeuce of the ‘‘ remarkable disposition of the

scales on the thorax, which are larger and more unpolished than

the others, and form around that part a sort of corselet?” They

also describe the corselet of the Common Tunny thus :—“‘ Le corselet,

c’est-a-dire cette portion du trone couverte d’écailles plus grandes

et moins absorbées dans la peau, est considérable.” (p. 62.) ‘This,

however, would seem to lead to an incorrect view of the smailer

scales on the back, which are, as it were, enclosed between two

skins, and are placed in a somewhat imbricated manner, resembling

the arrangement of the slates upon a roof, and cannot properly be

termed ‘‘ absorbées dans la peau.’”’ Mr. Hogg showed the nature of

the piece of the external covering which the fishermen had cut off

the back; the outside skin being of a dark, or nearly black colour,

and of a coriaceous substance. The white scales, imbedded in it,

are similar to those forming the corselet near the gill-covers, but

they are much smaller, and so closely placed by one overlapping the

other, that they constitute a perfect defence against nearly every

kind of danger. The piece so cut off the back of the fish, which

was done with some difficulty, resembling a portion of a shield,

would seem to be (from the close disposition of the osseous plates

or scales enclosed between two skins) proof against large shot, or

even a ball from a musket. Both the external large plate-like scales

forming the corselet, and those, arranged in a slate-like manner, be-

tween the skins, are of an irregular, but somewhat round, or oval,

shape. When seen from the outside of the external black skin, the

plain parts between the extremities of four scales, present, by the

overlapping of their edges, asomewhat regular appearance, and are of

a nearly uniform size, viz. about half an inch in length, by a little

_tmore than one-eighth of an inch in width, and they thus exhibit

much of a diamond pattern.

Mr. Hogg observed, that ichthyologists seem not to have described

this remarkable protection, presented by the thick skins, and strong

bony interlaminated scales, which is evidently a beautiful provision

of Nature to defend these fishes from the attacks of their enemies,

and especially those of their greatest foe, the sword-fish.

Read a paper ‘‘ On Decaisnea, a remarkable new genus of the

tribe Lardizabalee,” by J. D. Hooker, Esq., M.D., F.R.S., F.LS.,

and Thomas Thomson, Esq., M.D., F.L.S.

The small family of Lardizabalee, which was first instituted

many years ago by Mr. Brown, and chara cterized by the distribution

of the ovules over the whole surface of the ovary, was afterwards

admirably illustrated by M. Decaisne in a memoir in the ‘ Archives

du Muséum.’ Though the peculiar distribution of the ovules has

always been justly regarded as the most striking characteristic of

Lardizabalee, it is by no means the only peculiarity of the order,

which may be distinguished from all its near allies by a considerable

number of very striking characters, sufficiently proving the distinct-

Drs. Hooker & Thomson on the genus Decaisnea. 53

néss of the order even where the prominent characters of the in-

sertion of the ovules and the digitate leaves are absent. ‘lhis is

remarkably the case in the plant to which the authors of this paper

called the attention of the Society, and of which a figure was placed

on the table.

This interesting plant, which was originally discovered in Bhotan,

by Mr. Griffith, is briefly referred to in his ‘ Itinerary Notes,’ under

the name of Slackia insignis, a name evidently imposed on a con-

viction that the many striking characters which it presents warranted

the establishment of a new genus, to which, however, no characters

were assigned. That name having (before the publication of these

‘Itinerary Notes,’ in which it was only a manuscript designation, )

been applied by Griffith himself, in his ‘ Essay on Palms,’ to a genus

of that order, the authors proposed to designate the plant now de-

scribed, Decaisnea, after the distinguished monographist of the group

to which it belongs, as the two genera of Orchidee which have been

so called have both proved to have had earlier names.

Decaisnea, Hf. & Thoms.

Sepala 6, lineari-subulata. Petala 0. Stamina in flore masculo mona”

delpha, in hermaphrodito parva libera. Ovaria 3, lineari-oblonga’

Ovula placentis 2 filiformibus parallelis, suturse ventrali approximatis

sed ab ef discretis, inserta, indefinita, anatropa. Folliculi pulpa re-

pleti. Semina indefinita, compressa; testa levi, nitida, crustacea, atro-

fusca.

Frutex Himalaigus erectus; foliis alternis, pinnatis; inflorescentia race-

mosd, terminali; floribus paliide viridescentibus.

Decaisnea insignis is a native of the temperate parts of the Eastern

Himalaya, at elevations between 8000 and 10,000 feet. As men-

tioned above, it was first discovered in Bhotan by Griffith. Dr.

Hooker’s specimens are from the interior of Sikkim. It is an erect

shrub, with large simply pinnated leaves, and a nearly simple trunk,

marked by large scars after the leaves fall away, as in many Araliacee.

The nearest analogy is no doubt with the section Mahonia, of the

genus Berberis, but the leaves of Decaisnea are soft and thin, not

rigid and prickly as in Berberis. ‘The flowers are arranged in elon-

gated racemes, and closely resemble those of other Lardizabalee.

Their colour is pale green, slightly tinged with purple towards the

apex. The sepals are elongated to a subulate point, and there

are no petals. ‘The stamens on the male flower are monadelphous,

and very like those of Stauntonia or Parvatia. In the fertile flower

the stamens are free and very small, but the anthers always contain

pollen, so that the flowers are rather polygamous than dioicous.

The most remarkable character is exhibited by the ovaries, which,

though externally not unlike those of Hollbéllia, have the ovules

arranged in a double series along two elevated lines, one on each

side of the ventral suture, and not scattered over the whole surface

of the ovary as in all the other genera. The same arrangement is

preserved in the ripe fruit, which consists of three large follicles full

‘of an agreeably-flavoured solid pulp, dehiscing along the ventral

54 Linnean Society :—

suture, so as to expose to view the numerous shining black seeds, in

structure like those of Hollbdllia.

The characters of this remarkable plant are so striking that no

lengthened detail is necessary. It will suffice to call attention to its

importance, as affording an indication of the value of characters in

the class of plants to which it belongs. An inspection of the figure

(which is intended to form one of the plates of Dr. Hooker’s ‘ Ilus-

trations of Himalayan Plants’ now in preparation) shows that, not-

withstanding its remarkable alteration from the character which has

hitherto been considered as most essential to Lardizabalee, it is an

undoubted member of that group. At the same time it illustrates,

by many points of structure, the relationship of that tribe to all the

surrounding orders. ‘The proof which it affords that the apparently

very aberrant structure of fruit in which the ovules are scattered

over the whole surface of the ovarium, is compatible in the same

order with the normal structure, and is therefore reducible to it, and

as it were only a modification of it, is especially interesting, and

sufficiently, the authors trust, justify them in bringing the plate just

completed to the notice of the Society.

Read also observations “On the Identity of Pinus hirtella and

Pinus religiosa of Humboldt, Bonpland, and Kunth.” By Berthold

Seemann, Esq., Ph.D., F.L.S.

Dr. Seemann states that a short time ago, when determining the

Conifere gathered by himself in the western parts of Mexico, he

was glad to find that he had amongst them specimens of the Pinus

(Abies) hirtella; but on comparing them with those named Pinus

(Abies) religiosa in the herbaria of Sir W. J. Hooker and Mr. Ben-

tham, he observed that the latter too, without exception, had Airtel-

lous branches ; and again, on examining specimens of P. religiosa

growing in the Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew, as well as at various

other horticultural establishments, he found that they did not differ

in any way from those of hirtella collected by himself.' As the only

difference between P. religiosa and P. hirtella insisted upon by

writers on Conifere consists in the former having glabrous, the latter

hirtellous branches, he was forced to conclude that all the spe-

cimens of P. religiosa which he had seen in this country ought ‘to

be called P. hirtella, unless it could be shown that P. religiosa had

(notwithstanding Humboldt’s, Bonpland’s, and Kunth’s description)

hirtellous branches. In order to ascertain this point, he addressed

a letter on the subject to Mr. George Gordon, at the Horticultural

Society’s Gardens at Chiswick, a gentleman of great practical ex-

perience, who, in a letter dated Chiswick, Nov. 11, 1854, kindly

replied, that ‘‘ having taken a good deal of interest and pains in the

matter, when Mr. Hartweg was collecting in Mexico, and begged

him to examine minutely Humboldt’s and Bonpland’s localities, and

see what their A. hirtella was, he did so, and could discover no

other species than~the ‘ Oyamel,’ or Abies religiosa..'\\He found

Abies religiosa, and carefully examined the same in various’ places

between 15° and 22° S. Lat.; but its chief range was about 19° and

Dr. Goppert on Fossil Palms. 55.

at an elevation of 9000 feet. He found it on the ‘Campanario,’ the

highest point of the mountains of Angangues, 5 or,6 feet in dia-

meter, and 150. feet high; at other places. very much smaller and

stunted, but still the same species ;, and I have, as. well as. Hartweg,

after carefully examining all these facts, come to, the decided conclu-

sion that both names, P. hirtella and P. religiosa, belong to the same.

species; and that the error arose. from describing imperfect speci-

mens, and not having cones of A. hirtella to compare .with the

‘Oyamel’ of the Mexicans,” |

Finding that Mr. Gordon’s opinion coincided so entirely with his

own, in order to settle the point definitively, Dr. Seemann requested

his.friend Dr. Charles Bolle, at Berlin, to examine Humboldt and

Bonpland’s original specimens of P. religiosa, and to ascertain whe-

ther they had glabrous or hirtellous branches. In a letter just re-

ceived from that botanist, dated Berlin, Nov. 24, he says,—‘ I con-

gratulate you upon your power of divination, for the authentic

specimens of P. religiosa in the Royal Herbarium have certainly

hirtellous branches.” We may therefore conclude that P. religiosa

and P, hirtella are identical, and consider the difference thought to

exist between them as entirely attributable to imperfect descriptions,

As the names were both given at the same time, it becomes a ques~

tion which of the two ought to be adopted. The name hirtella

might appear the most appropriate, as indicating a botanical cha-

racter; but as that of religiosa is so much more diffused, and as the

plant is used in Mexico, on. account of its elegant branches, for

ornamental purposes on religious festivities, Dr. Seemann determines

in favour of the name P. religiosa.

Read further ‘‘ Remarks on Fossil Palms.” By Dr. Goppert,

Professor of Botany in the University of Breslau.

. These remarks are the result of a letter addressed by Dr. Seemann

to. Dr. :Géppert, requesting to be favoured with a brief summary of

all that) is known of fossil Palms, and they have appeared to

Dr. Seemann. of so much interest as to induce him to lay them

before the Linnzean Society. They are as follows :—

»f- During the last,and even the first quarter of the present century,’’

says Dr. GGppert, ‘‘ so little was known of the structure of Palms,

and all that was known appeared so abnormal to the scientific men

of: those days, that they were only too readily inclined to class with

the Palms almost all fossil plants presenting strange and anomalous

forms.' This remark applies with full force to Sigillaria and Lepi-

dodendron, genera belonging to the Paleozoic formation; and

startling as it may be, it cannot be very surprising to us, when we

consider that. even in. our own times notions equally erroneous

prevail to an almost incredible extent. For instance, a principal

share in the formation of coal is still ascribed by the generality of

geologists to the Ferns, although it has been proved by me, bya

series of careful observations on numerous carboniferous formations,

that such can be claimed only for the Sigillarias and Stigmarias ; that

a subordinate share only is.due to the Araucarias and Calamites, con-

56 Linnean Society :—

tained in the anthracite coal; and a still less significant portion to

the Lepidodendrons, the Ferns, and the remaining members of the

flora of the Carboniferous period.

“ A diligent study of the extinct flora has demonstrated that the

Palms occur more rarely than was thought in the transition rocks

and the Carboniferous formation, and more frequently than was

believed in more recent formations. Generally speaking, we know

at present only trunks, leaves (both fan-shaped and pinnatisect),

and a few fruits of fossil Palms; flowers have as yet not been

discovered, and the spathes collected have hitherto not been satis-

factorily proved to belong to the natural order under consideration.

These fragments, remnants of members of former creations, have

been distributed under nine genera and seventy-eight species. For

the trunks, there have been adopted the genera Palmacites, Brongn.,

and Fasciculites ; for the leaves, Flabellaria, Sternb., Zeugophyllites,

Brongh., Phenicites, Brongn., and Amesoneuron, Gopp.; for the

spathes, Paleospatha, Unger (founded, as has been stated, upon

doubtful materials); for the fruits, Baccites, Zenk, and Castellinia,

Massal. The genus Burtinia of Endlicher, placed by Unger among

Palms, belongs without a doubt to Pandanee, and is identical with

Nipadites.

“Although our present imperfect knowledge of fossil plants

renders it an almost useless task to speak of the proportion which

the number of Palms bears to that of the other members of the

extinct flora, yet it may be remarked that, if the number of species

of the fossil flora is assumed to be 4000,—there are actually 3945

described,—Palms constitute about the eighty-fourth part of the

whole. In the transition rocks no remnants of Palms have as yet

been discovered; in the Carboniferous formation five species have

been noticed; in ‘ Kupfersandstein,’ or the Permian formation,

only two species have been collected; in the secondary class of

rocks which succeeds (Keuper, Bunter-Sandstein, Muschelkalk, Lias-

Jura, and Wealden formation), none have been collected except

three species in the Cretaceous formation, especially in Quadersand-

stein. ‘lhe greatest number has been found in the Tertiary class of

rocks, viz. sixty ; twenty-nine of which belong to the Eocene system,

and thirty-one to the Miocene formation. The habitat of nine spe-

cies is unknown. .

‘It will be seen from this synopsis that there was a geological

period when Palms were entirely wanting in the extinct flora, or

when, after their first appearance on the globe, they vanished again,

and after a lapse of time reappeared; a state of things, which if

confirmed by future investigations, would certainly be highly curious,

and is one never before observed in a like manner in any large group

of plants. No species is common to two formations. Several spe-

cies show a remarkable degree of resemblance with those of the

flora now existing, especially some of those collected by Junghuhn

in Java, as for instance, Amesoneuron calyptro-calyx, Gopp., A. dra-

cophyllum, Gopp., A. fagifolium, Gopp., and A. anceps, Gopp. But

it would be rather bold, perhaps injudicious, to attempt identifying

Dr. Knox on the Food of certain Gregarious Fishes. 57

them, from the fragments hitherto collected, with those of the pre-

sent flora. The results hitherto obtained only entitle us to say,—

Palms make no exception to the rule generally received, that the

laws governing the vegetable kingdom were the same in all periods

of our earth’s history when plants existed; and that the species of

Palms have a very local geological, as they have a very local geo-

graphical distribution.”

December 19.—Thomas Bell, Esq., President, in the Chair.

Read a Memoir “ On the Food of certain Gregarious Fishes.” By

Robert Knox, Esq., M.D.

Dr. Knox’s inquiries were commenced about thirty years ago, and

the results then arrived at were communicated to the Royal Society

of Edinburgh, in whose ‘ Transactions’ a notice of the paper was

published. Since that period the observations have been repeated

on many occasions, and the author does not find it necessary to alter

er modify the statements which he originally made. His attention

was first directed to the fact, that in the stomachs of Salmon, fresh

from the recesses of the ocean, nothing is ever found except a small

quantity of a peculiar reddish substance, unlike anything known to

possess life. Practical fishermen agreed in the opinion, that the food

of the Salmon, while resident in the ocean, was altogether unknown ;

neither could they give any satisfactory account of that of the Herring.

Having learned accidentally, that in a lake or lakes near Lochmaben

there existed in great abundance a small fish (the Vendace) which

could not be tempted by any bait, and whose food was entirely un-

known, he determined to visit Lochmaben, and make this fish, so

easily procured, the subject of his researches. Dozens of Vendace

were taken in nets, and immediately opened; and their stomachs

were found crammed with thousands of Hntomostraca, which were

immediately recognized on placing a portion of the contents of the

stomach undera strong lens. The species first discovered belonged

to the genus Lynceus ; but several other genera were subsequently

observed ; and in winter, that is to say, on the 14th of December

1832, several species of Cyclops, Mill., most abounded. The notion

that the Vendace dies immediately on being taken out of the water,

Dr. Knox found to be quite erroneous. It is by no means a very

delicate fish, and could easily be transplanted to other lakes; but its

good qualities have been much exaggerated.

The author next enters into some detail on the distinctive charac-

ters of a number of Vendace, both males and females, caught partly

in the Castle Loch and partly in the Mill Loch, and which were

carefully examined by his brother with a view to their supposed

specific distinction. He treats as a delusion the idea that the males

live apart from the females in deeper water, for a single draw of

the net in the Castle Loch, in the presence of Mr. Murray and

himself, was found to produce nine females and six males, although

of forty taken in the Mill Loch at one time only two were males.

58 } Linnean Society :—

Dr. Knox then turned his attention to the food. of the Char, of

which some fine specimens were obtained from Windermere; and

the food, of these, which also proved to, consist of Hntomostraca, was

exhibited to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. The Char is a gre-

garious, deep-swimming fish, and shy of taking any bait ; but never-

theless it. will rise to a fly, and the common food of the Trout may

be found in its stomach, although the author has not himself met

with it. It does not seem to feed so exclusively on Hntomostraca,

aithough these unquestionably form the larger portion of its natural

food. The observations on this fish were several times repeated, and

always with the same results.

The Early-spring or Grey Trout of Lochleven form the subject of

the next series of observations. Dr. Knox had many years ago

remarked a distinction, which he is still disposed to believe may be

specific, although anatomical investigation has not hitherto confirmed

it, between the ordinary Trout of the lake and this, which is in the

highest condition at the end of December, and in the months of

January, February and March, a period in which all other descrip-

tions of Trout are worthless as food for mam. On an examination

of these Trout in the month of January, they were found to be filled

with Entomostraca, which the author has always found to constitute

the food of the early spring Trout of Lochleven. During the

remainder of the year, the ordinary Lochleven Trout live on the

Buccinum and the common food of Trout, with which the lake

abounds; they rise readily to a fly, and may be taken with worms

or minnows, or any of the ordinary bait used for Trout.

In regard to the Herring, which next formed the subject of

Dr. Knox’s investigations, the great difficulty was to obtain speci-

mens from the deep sea in fine order, and as remote as possible from

the spawning condition, inasmuch as when found near the coast the

Herring is either about to spawn or has already spawned; and in

these states it is more or less of a foul fish, and the food taken by it

at these times is not to be regarded as its natural food in the ordi-

nary state. Of the hundreds and hundreds of deep-sea Herrings

examined with this view, the author remembers only three in whose

stomachs anything was found excepting Entomostraca of various

species. Of these three, one had been feeding on sand-eels, another

on what appeared to be small herrings, and the third on a small

shell-fish, apparently a Buccinum. When near the coast, and before

spawning, the Herring is frequently not feeding. ‘The stomachs of

a great number of Herrings taken in the Frith of Forth in January

and February 1834, were found quite empty. After spawning, and

while still close to the shores, they seem to take to other food, such

as sand-eels and shrimps. ‘This was the case with Herrings taken

off Dunbar in June 1831, at which time the stomach and intestines

were loaded with putrescence, and the fish worthless and insipid,

The author’s own repeated observations and those of his brother

confirm the fact, already well ascertained by practical men, that

shore-fisheries of fish whose habitat is the deep sea, seldom produce

Dr. Knox on the Food of certain’ Gregarious Fishes. 59

the fish in prime condition. Of this truth the deep-sea fisheries of

Cod and Haddock, as compared with those caught high in estuaries,

also afford good éxamples. A long series of observations, establishing

this position in regard to the Herring, are then given. And lastly,

Dr. Knox states that his friend and former pupil, Mr. H. D. Goodsir,

one of the enterprising companions of Sir John Franklin in his last

fatal expedition, having’ been requested by him to push the inquiry

to the utmost, that lamented naturalist undertook a series of excur-

sions in the fishing-boats, not only in the Frith of Forth, but also to

the fishing-ground near the Isle of May, and in the open sea. The

author transcribes one of Mr. Goodsir’s letters, dated ‘‘ Anstruther,

June 15, 1843,” in which he states, first, that ‘‘the Hntomostraca

are at certain seasons the almost exclusive food of the Herring.

There can be no doubt that they follow shoals of these Crustacea

to prey upon them, for it is only when the latter make their ap-

pearance on this coast that the former are seen, and when the

food is most plentiful the Herrings are in best condition. It is

during the summer months also that we find the larve of the more

common species of Decapoda, along with those of Balani, and occa-

sionally a minute shell-fish, among the contents of the stomach.

Secondly, it appears to be chiefly during the winter and spring

months that the Herrings take other kinds of food than the Hnto-

mostraca; during these months we find the stomach oftener empty,

and only occasionally filled with Crustacea, such as shrimps, &c.;

in other cases with Hntomostraca. Thirdly, as to Entomostraca

being the partial or exclusive food of other fish besides the Herring,

there can be no doubt that during the summer months, when the

shoals of Entomostraca, or what our fishermen term Maidre, are in

great abundance, they form the food of a great number of other

animals besides the Herring. ‘The common Coal-fish is particularly

the species which, next to the Herring, preys on the Maidre. It

appears to me also that the shoals of Cetacea, which make their ap-

pearance in the Frith during the Herring season, are in pursuit of

the Maidre, and not of the Herring, as is most generally thought.”

To these facts, thus confirmed, Dr. Knox would especially call the

attention of M. Valenciennes; they are most important to man in

regard to the Herring-fisheries, and explain certain ceconomic sta-

tistics bearing on the great fisheries of Holland, otherwise wholly

unintelligible. The naval power of the ancient Republic of Holland

was connected with, and based on, a deep-sea Herring-fishery ; while

the modern Herring-fisheries of France and England and the Sean-

dinavian States are shore- and boat-fisheries, of little value as a food-

producing employment, and of no value whatever in a naval point of

view. Dr. Knox concludes this branch of the subject with extracts

from the works of Sir Gilbert Blane, Dr. M‘Culloch, and Leeuwen-

hoek, showing the total obscurity in which the food of the Herring

was involved prior to the time when he first communicated the

result of his observations.

Lastly, the author proceeds to examine the question as regards

60 | Linnean Society.

the Salmon. From about midsummer, but more especially with the

autumnal floods, Salmon and Sea Trout of various sizes begin to

rush up the freshwater streams and rivers, their object being clearly

to make their way to the place of their birth, there to provide for

the propagation of their species. From the time the Salmon enters

the fresh water it ceases to feed, properly speaking, although it may

occasionally rise to a fly, or be tempted to attack a worm or min-

now, in accordance seemingly with its original habits as a smolt.

But after first descending to the ocean and tasting its marine food,

it never again resorts to its. infantile food as a constant mode of

nourishment. This great fact, well understood by fishermen and

anglers, has been placed by Mr. Young of Invershaw beyond all

doubt. Nothing is ever found in the stomach or intestines of the

fresh sea Salmon but a little reddish substance, and this Dr. Knox,

after a careful microscopic examination, concluded to We the ova

of some species of Echinodermata. Of the Salmon, while in the sea,

this is therefore the sole and constant food. Sea Trout also live on

it, but they readily take to other food even in the sea, such as

sand-eels, herring-fry, &c. The absence of this kind of food forms

an insurmountable obstacle to the preservation of Salmon and of

some kinds of Sea Trout in freshwater lakes. M. Valenciennes de-

scribes the Salmon as voracious, and states that its food consists of

fishes—Ammodytes Tobianus ; but Dr. Knox maintains that there

exists not a single fact in the history of British Salmon to support

this opinion. He refers to various fanciful theories suggested by

fishermen and others in regard to the marine food of the Salmon ;

and concludes by stating that in spring, as the spawn fish are

descending with the smolts, they may occasionally be tempted with

an artificial fly or lob-worm, but as to their feeding regularly in

rivers, Mr. Young’s experiments have negatived the assumption be-

yond all doubt.

With regard to the Hntomostraca themselves, they are abundant

in the sea as well as in freshwater lakes; and it is easy to see by

their remains in the limestone of Burdiehouse and of other quarters

that they played an important, perhaps the same, part in the ceco-

nomy of the ancient world as they do in this, serving as food namely

to countless shoals of gregarious fishes, which abounded then as

now in fresh and in marine waters. The Hntomostraca of the

Southern Hemisphere differ seemingly from those of the Northern;

that they serve there also as the food of gregarious fishes was proved

by the author’s brother many years ago in respect of the so-called

Herring of the Bay of Islands. They vary considerably in size, and

seem to extend from pole to pole, consuming the organic remains,

which but for them might speedily infect the ocean itself.

The paper was accompanied by magnified drawings of the species

of Entomostraca found in the stomachs of the Vendace and of the

Herring.

Zoological Society. 61

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

February 14, 1854.—Dr. Gray, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Nores oN THE Hasits or INDIAN Birps. Part II.

By LizuTENANT BuRGEss.

. Family Srrieip2z.

Genus Urrva, Hodgs.

Urrva BEenGALENSIS.

I have found this large Owl common on the banks of the large

rivers, as also amongst the low jungly hills and patches of brush-

wood in the Central Deccan. It appears to prefer the small bushy

ravines covered with high grass, which lead down from the high

banks into the beds of the larger streams and rivers. When seated

on the top of a bush in the dim twilight, it forms quite a formidable

object, the gloom making it appear larger than it really is. It

does not appear to be strictly nocturnal, as I met with one sitting

on the sandy shore of the river Bheema some time after the sun had

risen. I never found the eggs of this bird; but I have been in-

formed, on good authority, that they make their nest at the foot of

bushes in the tall grass, and lay four white eggs. I kept three nest-

lings of this species for some time. When brought to me out of the

nest, they were covered with down of a chestnut colour, spotted and

streaked with dark brown. This Owl breeds during the months of

March and April.

Genus Noctua.

Noctva Inpica, Frank.

This is a very common Owl in Western India, so much so that

every grove, and almost every large tree, appears to have some of this

clamorous family inhabiting its holes and crevices. It is a most

noisy bird, screeching and screaming ere the shades of evening draw

on, and becoming quite a nuisance to any one pitched under the tree

frequented by them. It appears to be very little incommoded by a

strong light, moving out of its hiding-place before the sun is down,

flitting backwards and forwards amongst the branches and from tree

to tree. In the month of June I saw a pair of these little Owls sitting

on the bare branch of a tree, with the brilliant morning sun shining

full on them; in fact, they appeared to be sunning themselves. On

another occasion I shot a pair, sitting on a ledge of rock, in the full

blaze of the setting sun. If disturbed during the day, they fly about

with the greatest activity, uttering their squabbling note, and look

down on the intruder from above with eyes that appear in no way

incommoded by the light. In the stomachs of the last pair above

mentioned, I found the wing-cases and legs of beetles. This little

owl breeds during the months of February and March, laying three or

four eggs of a pure white colour, nearly 1,3, in. long and 1,75 in.

broad. They lay their eggs in holes of trees.

62 Zoological Society :—

Order II. Insxssorss.

Tribe DenTIROSTRES.

Family LANtAD@.

Subfamily Lanrana.

Genus LANIvs.

Lanrus Harpwickil.

This handsome little Shrike migrates, I believe, from the Deccan

for the purpose of breeding, probably resorting to the thickets and

ravines of the Western Ghauts, and returning to the Deccan about

September. I could not find its nest when on the hills in the month

of October; but I shot a young bird, which may probably be the

young of this species. I give a description of its plumage. Beak

rich deep brown; chin and throat dirty brownish-white; under

plumage and under tail-coverts white; flanks dull grey ; white streak

passing from the beak over the eye and ear-coverts; ear-coverts and

patch behind the eye dull black; top of the head and nape of the

neck brownish-grey, the feathers having very pale whitish ferruginous

tips ; feathers on the lower part of the neck and back are on their

basal half grey, and the remaining portion greyish-brown with light

tips. On the lower part of the back the feathers are very filmy and

thick-set, of a grey colour, with a dark band near their ends, and

tipped with white. Primaries hair-brown; bastard wing, brown;

greater coverts lighter brown with pale tips ; secondaries hair-brown:;

tertials paler brown, with light edges. Tail consists of twelve feathers;

the two outer are white, with pale brown near the ends on the outer

webs. The next feather has also a dark spot near the tip on the

inner web; the third feather is nearly black, with a white spot on

the inner web about half an inch from theend ; the remaining feathers

are of a black-brown, being nearly black on the inner webs; lesser

coverts pale brown with light tips; feathers on the thighs ofa pale

grey-brown with white tips; legs and feet lead-colour; claws:pale

brown; the legs and claws have a white powdered look -in several

places, especially near the junction of the scales... This may perhaps

have been the young bird of the large rufous-backed Shrike, Lanius

erythronotus. i: ail

Lanivus Excusiror. LarGce Grey SHRIKE.

This is very common in the Deecan. It is generally seen seated on

the top of small babool trees, or other thorny bushes, in open country,

and may be distinguished at some distance by its silvery-white breast.

When disturbed, it flies low to some neighbouring bush, on the top

of which it alights, uttering its harsh and grating ery.’ The Grey

Shrike begins to breed as early as January, as a boy brought me a

pair of nearly fledged young ones on the 2nd of ‘February: They

almost, if not invariably build in a thorn bush, and ‘generally well

into the centre. I subjoin a note penned at the time of finding one

of their nests :—“ 15th May. Sawa pair of Grey Shrikes building

Lieut. Burgess on the Habits of Indian Birds. 63

in a place I never saw this species building in before, viz. on the

outside branches of the babool tree. The nest was composed of a

thorny twig or two of babool and thick bents of grass.” Another nest

was made in a thorny bush, about 5 feet from the ground, and close

to the stem of the bush ; it was composed of twigs of the thorn bush,

pieces of cotton and a piece of rag, with grass interwoven into it.

This nest contained three eggs. It is now in the Museum of the

Zoological Society. The eggs are a little less than an inch in length,

by a little less than ;8, in. wide, of a white ground, spotted and mot-

tled, especially at the large end, with grey and red-brown.

I believe that this Butcher Bird, like the last-mentioned, migrates

from the Deccan during the monsoon, returning about September.

_ It would form a very interesting subject for investigation, as to what

families of birds leave the Deccan during the monsoon, whither they

betake themselves, and for what purposes. I have frequently made

inquiries, but could not learn anything satisfactory on the subject.

Subfamily Dicrurinz&.

Genus Dicrurus.

Dicrurvus MAcRocERCUS. DrRoNGO SHRIKE.

This bird is not much indebted to variety or richness of colouring

in its plumage, for bringing it into notice; but its pleasant cheerful

note and active habits must have been remarked by all observers of

nature in India. Ere the peep of day it commences its pleasant

twitter, and from- sunrise to sunset it may be seen, now sitting on a

bare spray watching for some passing insect, now perched on the

back of a browsing cow or sheep, and then off in an instant in pursuit

of a fly. I have seen one chase and capture a large white butterfly,

which it appeared to have some difficulty in swallowing when caught,

as it did not attempt to pull it to pieces, but was endeavouring to

bolt it entire. They appear to have great antipathy to crows, chasing

them with great vigour and boldness whenever one enters within their

domain. I subjoin a note, made at the time, of the curious flight of

these birds when hawking after flies. “Saw one of them (Drongo)

relied on the outside’ branch of a tree hanging over a field of wheat ;

suddenly the Shrike descended close to the ears of corn on which the

flies had settled in the heat of the sun, and commenced a most

curious jerking flight up and down, as if it had been tossed up and

down on the waves of the sea. After performing this dancing flight

for some little time, it returned to its seat, and after remaining there

a short time, descended and repeated its jerking flight.” The

Marahta name is Kolsa, the word for charcoal, alluding I suppose to

its jet-black colour. The Drongo begins to build in the month: of

May, and Dr. Jerdon mentions having found its nest as late as August.

I found its nest in a bush-in.a thick hedgerow; it was composed of

roots, and contained ‘three eggs of a rather reddish creamy-white

ground, spotted with red spots; the egg is ,% in. long by rather:more

than ;4, broad. . The food of the Drongo consists of insects, moths,

and butterflies.

64 Zoological Soctety :—

Genus Po@nicornis, Swains.

PH@NICORNIS PEREGRINUS, Vig.

I have not met with the nest and eggs of the small red bird, but I

believe the description given below is that of a young bird soon after

it had left the nest. ‘18th September 1849. Whole of the upper

plumage olive-green, mottled about the head with pale yellow, a large

spot of which is behind the eye; tips of the lesser wing-coverts pale.

Primaries and secondaries dark, with pale edges; breast and belly

pale whitish-yellow, with yellow streaks; legs and feet pale lead-

colour ; claws soft, as also the edges of the beak.”

Genus Iora.

IORA TIPHIA.

I have never met with the nest or eggs of this handsome little bird ;

but Dr. Jerdon, in his Catalogue of Indian Birds, says, ‘I once, on

the west coast, in the month of September, met with a nest of this

species in the fork of a low tree; it was more neatly and carefully

made than any other of the few nests I have seen in this country. It

contained young ones.” The lora has a most wonderful power of

voice, At one moment it is heard uttering a low plaintive cry, at

the next a shrill whistle; no one could have believed the notes to

have issued from the same throat. On the 29th of August, 1849,

.I shot a female. The eggs in the ovaries were very large. The

gizzard contained the remains of a curious green insect, partly covered

with black hair. The tongue of this bird is furnished with two long

muscles, as in the woodpecker.

Genus HaMATORNIS.

H&MATORNIS CAFER.’ Common BULBUL.

This sprightly and truly Indian bird breeds during the months of

August and September. The first time that I noticed them building

in August was on the 11th, and I found a nest with one fresh-laid egg

on the 25th of September. They build in thick bushes in gardens.

I found two nests in my garden at Ahmednuggur, one built in a

guava tree, and the other in a mass of creepers. The nest is com-

posed of fine twigs, bound together here and there with cobwebs, and

lined with fibres. The nest I send is lined with the fibre of the

cocoa-nut picked off a cocoa-fibre mat. I observed the old birds

picking at the mat when it was put out of doors. I do not know

the number of eggs which their nest generally contains.. The egg is

75 in. in length by a little more than 55 wide, of a rich madder

colour, spotted and blotched with grey and madder-brown. The only

egg which I possessed is unfortunately broken; but a drawing in my

possession, most accurately painted by my sister-in-law, Miss Gardiner,

gives it very correctly.

Mr. F. Moore on Birds from Northern India. 65

February 28, 1854.—Dr. Gray, Vice-President, in the Chair.

DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME NEW AND LITTLE-KNOWN SPECLES

or Brros rrom NortTHERN INDIA, CONTAINED IN THE

Museum or tHe Hon. East Inp1A Company. By Fre-

pERIC Moores, Assist. Hon. Comp. Museum.

Fam. Mervin, Vigors.

Subfam. MyrorHertna, Swains.

Genus PNotipyea, Hodgs.

Syn. Microura, Gould (nec Ehrenb.).

1. PNOEPYGA LONGICAUDATA, nobis.

Colour of the upper parts deep olive-brown, the feathers slightly

margined with black, and having blackish shafts; wings and tail in-

clined to ferruginous brown ; upper tail-coverts long ; throat whitish ;

breast and sides of abdomen pale dusky ferruginous, the feathers

having pale centres and blackish margins; centre of lower part of

breast and abdomen white; flanks the same as the back; vent and.

under tail-coverts dark ferruginous ; bill dark horn colour, legs paler.

Length, 43 inches; of wing, 2; the tail is rounded, the central

feathers being 21 inches long, and the outer 14 inch ; bill to front,

through the feathers, 4 inch; to gape, ;5; tarse, 58.

Hab. N. India.

Genus Bracuypteryx, Horsfield, p. s. d.

2. BRACHYPTERYX NIPALENSIS, Hodgson.

Male: colour above a greyish cyaneous, or light greyish blue, as

are also the cheeks, sides of breast and flanks, and paling to greyish

white on the centre of the breast; throat, middle of belly, vent and

under tail-coverts, streak over but not extending beyond the eye,

white. Female: ferruginous brown above, paling on the sides ;

throat, breast, belly, under tail-coverts and streak over the eye,

whitish, the feathers on the breast and sides fringed with brown ;

bill dark horn colour, legs paler.

Length, 41 inches; of wing, 23; tail, 13; bill to gape, £; tarse, 1.

Hab. Nepal (No. 943, Hodgs. Catal.).

This species is allied to Br. cruralis, Blyth, but may readily be

distinguished by its smaller size, shorter tail, paler colour of the upper

parts, and by its white throat and belly.

Genus Catiene, Blyth, Journ. A.S. Beng. p.136 (1847).

Syn. Cinclidium, Blyth (nec Gould).

Gen. Char. ‘ Bill shorter than the head, straight, slender, higher

than broad, the ridge of the upper mandible tolerably acute, and its

tip very slightly emarginated ; inferior gonys ascending for the ter-

minal half, imparting to the bill the appearance of a tendency to bend

upward ; naral apertures in the form of elongate-oval fissures in the

lateral nasal membrane, and partially impended by the short semi-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 5

66 — Loological Society :—

reflected frontal feathers; gape armed with a few small setee; wings

and tail rounded, the 4th, 5th and 6th primaries equal and longest ;

legs and toes slender, the tarsi smooth, unscutellate, and very long,

as is also the middle toe; claws but moderately curved, and of little

more than mean length; plumage light, soft and full, having a scale-

like appearance on the crown, breast and belly.”’

3. CALLENE FRONTALE, Blyth.

Syn. Cinclidium frontale, Blyth, Journ. A, §. Beng. xi. p. 181,

xii. p. 954. t. p. 1010. Bonap. C, G. Av. p, 301.

Callene frontale, Blyth, Journ. A. 8. Beng. xvi. p. 136; Catal. B.

Mus. A. 8. Beng. p. 178.

Ruticilla frontalis, G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, i. p. 180.

Brachypteryz scapularis, Horsf. MS.

Hab. Nepal (No. 950, Hodgs. Catal.).

Spec. Char. ‘Plumage dark fusco-cyaneous, the rump dusky ;

flanks somewhat ashy, and middle of the belly slightly grey-edged ;

lores and immediately above the beak blackish, contrasting with a

bright czerulean forehead ; bend of the wing also cerulean, but less

bright ; and winglet, primaries and their coverts, secondaries and ter-

tiaries, dark olive-brown ; a white spot on the under surface of the

wing, beneath the winglet ; bill black; legs dusky brown.

' “Length, 75 inches; of wing from bend, 32; middle tail-feathers,

35, the outermost + of an inch shorter ; bill to forehead nearly $, to

gape 13; tarse, 13; middle toe and claw, 1,3,; hind toe and claw, $;

the last, 3.

“This bird is reported to be a fine songster, and heard chiefly in

the evening.” —Blyth.

Subfam. TiIMALINA.

Genus TricHastoma, Blyth.

Syn, Malacocinela, Blyth.

Gen, Char, “Bill as long as the head, rather stout, high, much

compressed, the tip of the upper mandible pretty strongly hooked,

but indistinctly emarginated, and its ridge obtusely angulated towards

the base, the remainder scarcely angulated; gape but little widened,

and feebly bristled; nostrils large and subovate, with oval aperture

to the front, alittle removed from the base of the bill; tarse of mean

length and strength, as long as the middle toe with its claw; the

claws suited for perching, compressed, and moderately curved, that

of the hind toe rather large ; wings moderate, with the first primary

reaching to about their middle, the second much shorter than the

third, and the fourth longest ; tail rather short, weak and even, ex-

cept that its outermost feathers are a little shorter than the rest ;

plumage full and lax, the coronal feathers somewhat elongated and

of a spatulate form.”

4, Tricuastoma Asszorti, Blyth,

Syn. Malacocinela Abbotti, Blyth, Journ, A. 8. Beng. xiv. p. 601

(1845). .

Mr. F. Moore on Birds from Northern India. 67

Trichastoma Abbotti, Blyth, J. A. 8. Beng. xvi. p. 462; Catal. B.

Mus. A. S. Beng. p. 147. Bonap. C. G. Av. p. 259.

Malacopteron Abbotti, G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, iii. App. p. 9.

Hab. Arracan (No. 919, Hodgs. Catal.), |

Spec. Char, ‘Colour above plain olive-brown, tinged with rufous

on the rump and tail; the upper tail-coverts ferruginous brown,

under parts paler ; the throat ind middle of the belly white ; the ear-

coverts, sides of the breast and flanks rufescent ; the tower tail-coverts

weak ferruginous ; bill horn-colour, paler beneath.

“Length, 6 inches ; of wing, 3; tail, 21; bill to gape, 14; and tarse

the same.” —Blyth.

Mr. Blyth states Arracan to be the habitat of this bird. Speci-

mens have lately been presented to the Company’s Museum by B. H.

Hodgson, Esq., from Nepal, and by Capt. R. C. Tytler from Dacca.

Fam. Syiviap&, Vigors.

Subfam. Saxicoxina, Vigors.

Genus Nemura, Hodgson.

_ Syn. Ianthia, Blyth.

_ 5. Nemura Hopeésont, nobis. i

Male: colour of the upper parts purplish blue, brightening to vivid

ultramarine on the crown ; forehead, lores and sides of head, wings

and tail black, the two latter margined with blue externally ; on the

rump some of the feathers are tipped with white ; upper tail-coverts

blue; lower parts yellowish ferruginous ; under wing-coverts, flanks

and under tail-coverts white. Female: ferruginous brown, richer on

the rump; wings and tail dusky, margined with ferruginous brown

wertarniall ; lores, ear-coverts and under parts pale dusky ferruginous;

under tail-coverts white; bill black; legs pale horn colour. «|

Length, 33ths of an inch; wing, 32; tail, 14; bill to front, 2;

to gape, = tarse, 5 an inch.

Hab, Nepal (No. 949, Hodgs. Catal.).

Subfam. Putromenina, Swains.

Genus TarsiceR, Hodgson.

6. TaARSIGER SUPERCILIARIS, Hodgson.

Male: above deep cyaneous; wings brown, margined with cya-

neous and rufous on the shoulder, primaries also margined with rufous,

secondaries with cyaneous; tail brown, margined with cyaneous ; a

white superciliary streak extending one inch and a half from the nares

to the back of the neck; lores and cheeks black; beneath rufous ;

centre of belly white. Female: olive-brown above; wings and tail

brown, margined with rusty olive; superciliary streak not so clear as

in the male; beneath pale dull rufous; centre of belly and shafts of

the underside of tail white; bill black; legs horn colour.

Length, 5} inches ; of wing, 32; tail, 22; bill to gape, $; tarse, 14.

Hab. Nepal (No. 924, Hodgs. Catal.). is

68 Zoological Society.

Subfam, Synvrana, Vigors.

Genus Prinia, Horsfield, p. s. d.

7. PRINIA CINEREOCAPILLA, Hodgson.

Crown of the head grey, the shaft and margin of the feathers being

darker; naral and frontal plumes, a streak over and beyond the eye,

and the whole under parts rufescent, brightest on the flanks and

thighs; lores and upper part of ear-coverts greyish; nape, back,

rump and wings bright rufous brown, the tips of the latter dusky ;

tail the same colour as the back, paler beneath, with a terminal dusky

band and rufescent white tips; bill black ; legs pale horn colour.

Length, 4} inches; wing, 1,8; tail, 2; bill to front, $; to gape, $;

tarsus, 3; middle toe and claw, ;4; hind ditto, =.

Hab. Nepal (No. 890*, Hodgs. Catal.).

Genus Suya, Hodgson. -

8. SuvA ATROGULARIS, nobis.

Colour above dusky brown, in some specimens ashy brown; edge

of wing at shoulder and under wing-coverts buff; primaries mar-

gined with buffish and secondaries with rufescent brown; a whitish

streak extending from the base of the lower mandible to the end and

under the ear-covert ; chin, throat, side of neck, breast and centre of

abdomen black, the feathers of the two latter broadly centred with

» white; flanks and sides of abdomen mixed grey, brown and rufescent;

vent buff; thighs buffy rufous; tail paler than the back, and has no

perceptible terminal band; bill horn colour, feet paler.

Length, 6} inches, including the tail; wings, from 13 to 2 inches

in some specimens ; central feathers of tail from 34 to 4, its outermost

being only | inch; bill to gape, ;;; to front, ,°;; height from chin to

front, 15; width at chin, 7; tarsi, 4.

Hab. Darjeeling ; Nepal (No. 893, Hodgs. Catal.).

A single specimen of this beautiful bird has been in the Museum

of the East India Company for a number of years, collected in Dar-

jeeling by F. T. Pearson, Esq.; and B. H. Hodgson, Esq., has brought

home several examples from Nepal.

Genus Drymorca, Swains. p.s. d.

9. Drymoica NIPALENSIS, Hodgson.

Above rufous brown; wings dusky brown, the primaries exteriorly

and secondaries interiorly and exteriorly margined with bright rufous

brown ; tail rufous brown, paler beneath, and distinctly rayed, has a

terminal dusky band, the tips being pale but not white; the whole

under parts rufescent, as in Prinia socialis, Sykes; bill dusky horn

colour, paler below at base ; legs pale horn colour.

Length, 44 to 5 inches; wing, 149; tail varying from 2} to 3

bill to front, 4,; to gape, +4; tarsi, +$; middle toe and claw, 8

hind ditto, 54.

_ Hab. Nepal (No. 913, Hodgs. Catal.).

Royal Institution. 69

ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.

April 20, 1855.—William Robert Grove, Esq., M.A., Q.C., F.R.S.,

Vice-President, in the Chair.

On certain Zoological Arguments commonly adduced in favour of

the hypothesis of the Progressive Development of Animal Life

in Time. By T. H. Huxuey, Esq., F.R.S.

When the fact that fossilized animal forms are no lusus nature,

but are truly the remains of ancient living worlds, was once fully

admitted, it became a highly interesting problem to determine what

relation these ancient forms of life bore to those now in existence.

The general result of inquiries made in this direction is, that the

further we go back in time, the more different are the forms of life

from those which now inhabit the globe, though this rule is by no

means without exceptions. Admitting the difference, however, the

next question is, what is its amount? Now it appears, that while

the Paleeozoic species are probably always distinct from the modern,

and the genera are very commonly so, the orders are but rarely dif-

ferent, and the great classes and sub-kingdoms never. In all past

time we find no animal about whose proper sub-kingdom, whether

that of the Protozoa, Radiata, Annulosa, Mollusca, and Vertebrata,

there can be the slightest doubt; and these great divisions are those

which we have represented at the present day.

In the same way, if we consider the Classes, e.g. Mammalia, Aves,

Insecta, Cephalopoda, Actinozoa, &c., we find absolutely no remains

which lead us to establish a class type distinct from those now

existing, and it is only when we descend to groups having the rank

of Orders that we meet with types which no longer possess any living

representatives. It is curious to remark again, that, notwithstanding

the enormous lapse of time of which we possess authentic records,

the extinct ordinal types are exceedingly few, and more than half of

them belong to the same class—Reptilia.

The extinct ordinal Reptilian types are those of the Pachypoda,

Pterodactyla, Enaliosaurea, and Labyrinthodonta ; nor are we at

present acquainted with any other extinct order of Vertebrata.

Among the dnnulosa (including in this division the Hehinodermata)

we find two extinct ordinal types only, the T’rilodita and the Cys-

tide.

Among the Mollusca there is absolutely no extinct ordinal type ;

nor among the Radiata (Actinozoa_and Hydrozoa) ; nor is there

any among the Protozoa.

The naturalist who takes a wide view of fossil forms, in connec-

tion with existing life, can hardly recognize in these results anything

but strong evidence in favour of the belief that a general uniformity

has prevailed among the operations of Nature, through all time of

which we have any record.

Nevertheless, whatever the amount of the difference, and however

one may be inclined to estimate its value, there is no doubt that the

70 Royal Institution :—

living beings of the past differed from those of the present period ;

and again, that those of each great epoch have differed from those

which preceded and from those which followed them. That there

has been a succession of living forms in time, in fact, is admitted by

all; but to the inquiry—What is the law of that succession? differ-

ent answers are given ; one school affirming that the law is known,

the other that it is for the present undiscovered. :

According to the affirmative doctrine, commonly called the theory

of Progressive Development, the history of life, as a whole, in the

past, is analogous to the history of each individual life in the present ;

and as the law of progress of every living creature now, is from a less

perfect to a more perfect, from a less complex to a more complex

state—so the law of progress of living nature in the past, was of the

same nature; and the earlier forms of life were less complex, more

embryonic, than the later. In the general mind this theory finds

ready acceptance, from its falling in with the popular notion, that

one of the lower animals, e. g. a fish, is a higher one, ¢. g. a mammal,

arrested in development; that it is, as it were, less trouble to make

a fish than a mammal: but the speaker pointed out the extreme

fallacy of this notion; the real law of development being, that the

progress of a higher animal in development is not through the forms

of the lower, but through forms which are common to both lower

and higher: a fish, for instance, deviating as widely from the common

Vertebrate plan as a mammal. : |

_ The Progression theory, however, after all, resolves itself very

nearly into a question of the structure of fish-tails. If, in fact, we

enumerate the oldest known undoubted animal remains, we find

them to be Graptolites, Lingule, Phyllopoda, Trilobites, and Car-

tilaginous fishes.

The Graptolites, whether we regard them as Hydrozoa, Anthozoa,

or Polyzoa (and the recent discoveries of Mr. Logan would strongly

favour the opinion that they belong to the last division), are cer-

tainly in no respect embryonic forms. Nor have any traces of

Spongiade or Foraminifera (creatures unquestionably far below

them in organization) been yet found in the same or contempo-

raneous beds. Lingule, again, are very aberrant Brachiopoda, in

nowise comparable to the embryonic forms of any mollusk ; Phyl-

lopods are the highest Entomostraca; and the Hymenocaris vermi-

cauda discovered by Mr. Salter in the Lingula beds, is closely allied

to Nebalia, the highest Phyllopod and that which approaches most

nearly to the Podopthalmia, And just as Hymenocaris stands be-

tween the other Entomostraca and the Podopthalmia, so the Trilo-

bita stand between the Entomostraca and the Hdriopthalmia, Nor

can anything be less founded than the comparison of the Trilobita

with embryonic forms of Crustacea; the early development of the

ventral surface and its appendages being characteristic of the latter,

while it is precisely these parts which have not yet been discovered

in the Trilobita, the dorsal surface, last formed in order of develop-

ment, being extremely well developed.

Mr. Huxley on the Progressive Development of Animal Life. 71

The Invertebrata of the earliest period, then, afford no ground

for the Progressionist doctrine. Do the Vertebrata ?

These are cartilaginous fish. Now Mr. Huxley pointed out that

it is admitted on all sides that the brain, organs of sense, and repro-

ductive apparatus are much more highly developed in these fishes

than any others; and he quoted the authority of Prof. Owen *, to

the effect that no great weight is to be placed upon the cartilaginous

nature of the skeleton as an embryonic character. There remained,

therefore, only the heterocercality of the tail, upon which so much

stress has been laid by Prof. Agassiz. The argument made use of

by this philosopher may be thus shortly stated :—Homocercal fishes

have in their embryonic state heterocercal tails; therefore, hetero-

cercality is, so far, a mark of an embryonic state as compared with

homocereality ; and the earlier, heterocercal fish are embryonic as

compared with the later, homocercal.

The whole of this argument was based upon M. Vogt’s examina-

tion of the development of the Coregonus, one of the Salmonide ;

the tail of Coregonus being found to pass through a so-called hetero-

cercal state in its passage to its perfect form+. For the argument

to have any validity, however, two conditions are necessary :—l.

That the tails of the Salmonide should be homocereal, in the same

sense as those of other homocercal fish. 2. That they should be

really heterocercal, and not homocercal, in their earliest condition.

On examination, however, it turns out that neither of these con-

ditions hold good. In the first. place, the tails of the Salmonida,

and very probably of all the Physostomi, are not homocercal at all,

but to all intents and purposes intensely heterocercal ; the chorda

dorsalis in the Salmon, for instance, stretching far into the upper

lobe of the tail. The wide difference of this structure from true

homocereality is at once obvious, if the tails of the Salmonide be

compared with those of Scomber scombrus, Gadus eglefinus, &e.

In the latter, the tail is truly homocercal, the rays of the caudal fin

mene arranged symmetrically above and below the axis of the spinal

column. )

All M. Vogt’s evidence, therefore, goes to show merely that a

heterocercal fish is heterocercal at a given period of embryonic life ;

and in no way affects the truly homocercal fishes.

-In the second place, it appears to have been forgotten that, as.

M. Vogt’s own excellent observations abundantly demonstrate, this

heterocercal state of the tail is a comparatively late one in Coregonus,

and that, at first, the tail is perfectly symmetrical, 7. e. homocercal.

In fact, all the evidence on fish development which we possess, is

to the effect that Homocercality is the younger, Heterocercality the

more advanced condition: a result which is diametrically opposed

to that which has so long passed current, but which is in perfect

accordance with the ordinary laws of development ; the asymmetri-

-* Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrata, pp. 146-7.

+ Von Bar had already pointed out this circumstance in Cyprinus, and

the relation of the foetal tail to the permanent condition in cartilaginous

fishes, See his “ Entwickelungsgeschichte der Fische,” p, 36,

72 Botanical Society of Edinburgh:—

eal being, as a rule, subsequent in the order of development to the

symmetrical. A ey 5

- The speaker then conclnded by observing that a careful considera-

tion of the facts of Paleontology seemed to lead to these results :—

1. That there is no real parallel between the successive forms

assumed in the development of the life of the individual at present,

and those which have appeared at different epochs in the past ; and

_ 2. That the particular argument supposed to be deduced from

the heterocercality of the ancient fishes is based on an error, the evi-

dence from this source, if worth anything, tending in the opposite

direction.

At the same time, while freely criticising what he considered to be

a fallacious doctrine, Mr. Huxley expressly disclaimed the slightest

intention of desiring to depreciate the brilliant services which its

original propounder had rendered to science.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

April 12, 1855.—Professor Balfour, President, in the Chair.

The following papers were read :-—

1. ‘On Placentation,” by John Cleland, Esq. See ‘ Annals,’

vol. xv. p. 336.

2. ‘* Notes on the Flora of the neighbourhood of Castle Taylor, in

the county of Galway,” by A. G. More, Esq., of Trinity College,

Cambridge.

The author enters into a detailed account of the indigenous flora

of that part of Ireland, contrasting it with that of other parts of the

United Kingdom. The district is rendered interesting from its form-.

ing part of the singular limestone-country of the West of Ireland, the

surface broken and rocky, and but slightly elevated above the sea-

level: nevertheless several subalpine species are to be found in it,.

such as Dryas octopetala, Saxifraga hypnoides, Hieracium. cerin-

thoides, Arbutus Uva-ursi,.Juniperus nana. 3

He then arranges the produce of his district and the classes defined

by Watson, and enumerates the more interesting or peculiar: plants:

present or absent in each case. He points out the following species.

as seen by him, but not marked as Irish in ‘ Babington’s Manual’:—

Cardamine sylvatica. Hieracium cerinthoides.

Viola stagnina. Epipactis media.

Spireea filipendula. Potamogeton lanceolatus.

Geum intermedium. Alopecurus agrestis.

Myriophyllum alterniflorum. Lolium italicum.

3. ‘ Notes on the Flora of the Bass Rock,’’ by Prof. Balfour.

_ 4. ‘Notice of Plants collected during a trip to Loch Lomond in

July 1854,” by Prof. Balfour.

5 “Register of the Flowering of Spring Plants in the Royal

Botanic Garden, as compared with the four previous years,” by

Mr. M‘Nab. | ren

Prof. Gregory on British Freshwater Diatomacee. 73

May 10.—Professor Balfour, President, in the Chair.

Mr. P. S. Robertson exhibited germinating plants of the following

species of Coniferee, to show the remarkable variation in the number

of their cotyledonary leaves :—

~ Pinus nobilis ; normal number of cotyledons 6, varying with 4, 5,

and 7.

13, 17, 18, 19.

_ § Pinus Jeffreyi ; prevailing numbers 9 and 10, varying with 7,

8, 143

“ Abies Hookeriana; usual number 4, varying from 3 to 5.

“Pinus Beardsleyi ; prevailing numbers 6 and 7, varying with 3,

5, 8, 9, and 10. This species occasionally produces two perfect

plants from one seed.

“Thuja Craigana (Libocedrus decurrens); usual number 4,

varying from 1 to 4.

** Cryptomeria gaponica ; usual number 3, varying from 2 to 4.

* Pinus Lambertiana; usual number 14, varying with 10, 12,

and 13.

** Pinus monticola ; usual numbers 8 and 10, varying with 6, 7,

Git.’

The following papers were read :—

--1. “Qn some new species of British Freshwater Diatomacee,

with remarks on the value of certain specific characters,” by Prof.

Gregory.

After some remarks on the distribution of Freshwater Diatoms,

the author proceeded to consider the value of certain specific

characters. 3

- Species, among Diatoms, are generally distinguished by the follow-

ing particulars, viz. the form; the structure, where anything re-

markable occurs ; the length of the individual frustule, within the

usual limits ; the arrangement and number of the strize, where these

are visible, as well as their nature, whether moniliform or continuous,

narrow or broad, close or distant, &c. ; and frequently the aspect of

the median line, if present, and of the nodules at its centre and

extremities.

The form or outline.—This varies so much, that, if we were guided

by it, we should make many false species, as is shown by the fact,

that these forms pass by gentle gradations into each other. This

kind of variation occurs, for example, in Navicula lacustris, of which

two very different forms occur ; but there is a third which is precisely

intermediate. It is seen also in Navicula elliptica, some forms of

which are oval, but of different proportions, others are constricted.

_ Navicula dubia is believed to belong to the same species as NV. am-

phigomphus and N. dilatata, and by some persons, all the three are

united to N. firma. It is certain that all four agree in having

the side lines, but they all differ in outlme. Navicula lepida, a new

species, exhibits’ ‘three varieties, differing in form. But the most

remarkable example is found in Navicula varians.

74 7 Botanical Society of Edinburgh :—

The number of strie.—In some species, perhaps in many, this

character is by no means constant. In Navicula varians, I find that in

the smaller individuals there are often 24 to 26 strize in 1-1000th of an

inch, while in the larger there are only 14 to 16, and this in indivi-

duals of the same type of outline. Smith describes Pinnularia di-

vergens with 11 strize in 1-1000th inch, while I find it more frequently

with from 22 to 26 in 1-1000th inch—the arrangement, which is

peculiar, being the same in both. A very striking example occurs

in NV. elliptica, which, as we have seen, also varies inform, The

species, as described by Kiitzing, has very coarse striee, even coarser

than appears by any of the figures. But in a variety to which I have

directed attention, and which I regarded on this account as a distinct

species, till I found a gradual transition to the first-named type, the

strize are so very much finer, being about three times more numerous,

that the aspect of the frustule is totally changed. In comparing

examples of the extreme types in regard to striation, I took indivi-

duals of equal size, and I found in one very coarse striz ; in the other,

strize so fine as not to be easily seen unless the valve was placed in

the most favourable position with reference to the light.

The appearance of the median line and nodules—In the coarsely

striated variety of N. elliptica, there are lines on each side of the

median line, forming a double cone, of which the bases meet near the

centre. But in the finely striated variety, these lines are parallel to

the median line; only bending outwards round the central nodule.

This assists in giving a very different aspect to the two forms, which

yet are connected by a graduated chain of transition forms.

We have then, if we consider only the three characters of form or

outline, number of strie, and aspect of medial line and nodules,

evidence that great variations may occur in any one of them. Nay,

in J. elliptica and N. lepida, variations occur in all three together.

In such cases as these last, it is difficult to define the species by these

characters in the usual way, and we have apparently no resource but

to state the fact of the tendency to vary in one or more of these

points, as one of the specific characters. In NV. varians the arrangement

of the strize is always the same, as it is also in Pinnularia dwergens,

and many others; butin N. elliptica even this fails, for the strie are

highly radiate in the coarsely striated form, and nearly parallel in

that with finer striee.

Enormous variations in size occur, even in the same type of form,

If Pinnularia megaloptera be referred to P. lata, we have a variation

in length from about 20 ten-thousandths of an inch to nearly 80.

The distribution of Diatoms over the world is one of the most

remarkable points about their history: Not only do we find, if we

examine a gathering from any part of the world, that most of the

forms are identical with those of our own waters; but in tracing

these minute organisms through the latter to the earlier sedimentary

rocks (and it is said that they occur in the lower Silurian strata, the

oldest in which any organic remains occur), we find still the greater

number of species to be the same as those of the present day.

Ehrenberg, in his last great, work on the distribution of microscopic

Dr. Balfour on Megacarpeea polyandra. 75

forms over the earth, both in the present period and in past geological

times, has shown that in all soils in which plants grow, Diatoms are

present, often in considerable quantity, and in great variety. He

ascribes to them a great part in the formation of such soils, and it is

probable that by their life and growth they extract much silica from

the water in which they live, and transfer it at their death to the soil.

The sediment of all rivers contains a considerable amount of Diatoms,

as, for example, the mud of the Nile and that of the Ganges, which

have formed the great Deltas of Egypt and Bengal.

2, ‘* Remarks on specimens of Megacarpea polyandra, Bentham,”

by Dr. Balfour.

The interest of the plant consists in ite possessing a number of

stamens (from 12 to 15), quite abnormal in the order of Cruciferee,

to which it otherwise belongs; and which might seem, taken alone,

to place it between that order and Papaveraceze ; but when these

extra stamens are viewed as developments of the glands which are

present in the Cruciferee on the disk or torus, between the petals and

the ovary and ordinary stamens, the plant may well be referred to

that order.

- The genus Megacarpea was first discovered, I believe, by Fischer,

in the salt steppes and calcareous hills of Turkistan, in the neigh-

bourhood of the Caspian Sea; and by Ledebour in Siberia; and was

originally referred to Biscutella. Two species. are described by

DeCandolle (Prod. i. 183), but so imperfectly, that till further in-

formation is obtained, it is impossible to determine whether the plant

before us, from the Himalaya, is identical with either of them,

especially M. laciniata from the Altai Mountains, or a new species

which is to bear the name of M. .polyandra.

Megacarpea (probably this very species) was next met with by

Dr. Hugh Falconer in the Highlands of Little Tibet, on the Husora

River, an affluent of the Indus, and in the same country by the late

Mr. J. E. Winterbottom, who described it to me as growing 6 to 8 feet

high on the Barzil Pass, upper glen of the Kishenganga River, between

Kashmere and Astor; but neither of these botanists was, I believe,

so fortunate as to obtain the flowers, which were first seen by Capt. R.

Strachey in 1848, on a visit to the glacier sources of the Patel

River in Kumaon, up to which date the existence of the plant in the

British Himalaya was unknown; nor has it been discovered, so far

as I am aware, in any other of our provinces—at least those south of

the Sutlej River. Here it occurs in three localities, where the

climate resembles or approximates to that of Little Tibet, Turkistan,

and the other habitats, viz. extreme cold in winter, and extreme heat

and aridity in summer, conditions which have proved favourable to

the migration or presence of many other Tibetan and Siberian plants

on the dry northern slope of the Himalayan range, where a system of

vegetation is established in marked contrast with what prevails on the

Indian face, which is annually for three months deluged with rain*.

oA very instructive example of the manner in which plants are distri-

buted in distant regions of similar physical character 1s afforded by Calli-

76 Botanical Society of Edinburgh :—

In Kumaon the plant occurs on the open sunny downs, at from

11,500 to 14,000 feet above the sea-level, where all arboreous vegeta-

tion has ceased. It is well known to the mountaineers by the name

of Roogee. They eat the pounded root as a condiment ; it has, like

the whole plant, a strong permanent odour and flavour, something like

horse-radish. The localities in which it grows are—1. Champwa,

near the Kaphini glacier; 2. near the Soondurdhoongee glacier, the

heads of the Pindar River; and 3. at Ralim, on one of the spurs of

the snowy Panch—Choola Range, which bounds the next great valley

to the east. Here the Roogee flowers in May—June, and ripens its

fruit in September—October. The root is fusiform, a foot or more

in girth at the collar, and from 1 to 2 feet long, forked below;

internally of light cellular substance, externally exhibiting very

numerous horizontal annular ridges. Several annual stems from

4 to 6 feet high. When young in winter protected by many erect,

rectangular, straw-like scales. Radical leaves spreading, from 2 to

24 feet long, the exterior half occupied by 7 or 8 distant, distinct,

subopposite or alternate pinnee ; petiole dilated at the base; cauline

leaves scattered, erect, pinnato-pinnatifid, about a foot long, with

10 to 12 segments, linear-lanceolate, acuminate, incised, the lower

ones more or less separate, terminal more confluent. Flowers in

dense terminal and axillary leafy corymbs, shorter than the leaves ;

small, white or yellowish-white, with a sweet fragrance or strong

odour of horse-radish (according to taste), and much frequented by

bees, flies, &c. Peduncles and pedicels villous, the latter long and

one-flowered. Sepals 4, oblong, obtuse, coloured, from 1-5th to

1-4th inch long; petals alternate, oval, veined, half the height of the

sepals; stamens 12 to 15, hypogynous, erect, as long as the calyx,

and disposed in 2 or 4 sets. Ovary one, flat, obcordate, resembling

the silicle of Capsella Bursa-Pastoris, with 2 auriculate, 1-seeded

cells; stigmas 2, on a very short style. The silicle is about 13 inch

by 14, one of the cells being abortive.”

gonum Pallasii. This, like the Megacarpea, abounds in the Caspian province,

and equally, or much more, in the sandy deserts of Western India, between

the Jumna and the Indus rivers. The heat for many months annually is

extreme, and one is at first surprised to find a plant flourishing here, which

is also indigenous to the steppes of the Caspian, where the winter cold‘is

equally extreme. But, as is now well known, the Caspian and its deserts

occupy a deep hollow at the western end of a plain descending from the

sources of the Oxus and Jaxartes, and, as a consequence of this low position

on the earth’s surface, possess a summer temperature as high as the winter

one is low, and perhaps equal to that of the Indian desert above referred

to. In the latter, durmg the months of April, May and June, when every-

thing else is burnt up, the Calligonum, with its innumerable green leafless

twigs, covers the waste of sand-hills with a mantle of verdure, yielding a

favourite food to the camel, the proper beast of burden of the country. It

is known to the people by the name of Phoke, and under this designation

is first mentioned by Mr. Elphinstone in his account of the kingdom of

Caubul. A species of Ephedra likewise occurs, which is also called by the

same name ; but the true plant is the Calligonum, and neither Ephedra nor

Asclepias acida (the Soma plant) as some have supposed.

Dr. Balfour on Megacarpiea polvandra. 77

The following is a description of the plant taken from the speci-

men sent by Mr. Moore :—

Megacarpea polyandra, Benth.—Leaf sent by Mr. Moore about

a foot long—greatest breadth about 7 inches ; deeply pinnatifid—lobes

narrowish, tapering at the apex—toothed ; upper surface dark green

—under surface glaucous, covered with short hairs, many of which

are glandular. Similar hairs occur on the petiole, which is thick,

with ridges and grooves, flattened on the upper side and rounded

below. Flowers in compact racemose clusters, of a yellowish-white

colour, and having astrongish odour. Sepals whitish, with a yellowish

and purplish tinge in some places, rugose, deciduous, broadly ob-

ovate, and convex externally. Petals smaller than the sepals—ob-

ovate, tapering below—rugose. Stamens varying from 11 to 13,

some longer than others, but not apparently in any definite number ;

filaments thick—broader below. Anthers mnate, two-lobed, yellow ;

green circle of glands round the base of the stamens, attached to a

broadish thick receptacle. Ovary transversely elliptical, with a short

style and large stigma—two-celled. Fruit a silicula, with the replum

across its narrow part. Seed brownish, about 11 inch in length,

and about the same in breadth—winged ; the wing nearly a quarter

of an inch deep—veined ; hilum straight or slightly curved, about

half an inch long.

3. “Lowest Temperature indicated by the Register Thermometer

(Fahr.),; kept at the Botanic Garden, during April 1855,” by Mr.

M‘Nab.

Average lowest temperature for April 333°.

4. “ Register of the Flowering of Plants in the Botanic Garden,

compared with the four preceding years,” by Mr. M‘Nab.

5. “Remarks on Mr. Moore’s notice of the effects of the late

' winter at Dublin,” by Prof. Balfour.

6. “On the Disease of Finger and Toe in Root Crops,” by Sir

John S. Forbes.

7. ‘*Notice of the origin of the name Chenopodium Bonus Hen-

ricus,” by Mr. J. Hardy.

Lately, in turning over J. Bauhin’s ‘ Historia Plantarum,’ I met

with the following, tom. ii. p. 965.—‘* Dodon. Gall. et Lat. in fol.

qui sub Tota Bona describit et depingit ; ait Bonum Henricum a

singulari quadam utili facultate vocari; veluti et perniciosam quan-

dam plantam Malum Henricum appellant, de quo alibi dicendum.” I

have not the Latin copy of Dodoneeus, but in the English translation

of Lyte, 1st ed. 1578, p. 561, this explanation is not given ; we have,

however, the English “‘Good Henry,” being a translation of the

Dutch and German name. The term Bonus Henricus it appears

from Mentzel (Index sub Lapath.) occurs in Brunsfel’s Herbal,

printed in 1532. I suspect, however, that it will be found in the

‘Herbarius’ of 1484, or the Ortus Sanitatis, as in an early Herbal

that I possess, without a date, but published by Egenolf, who is

said to have given an improved edition of Cuba’s work, I find the

name Gut Heinrich over the figure of this plant. (This book of

Egenolf .has no text, being merely coloured figures.) The English

78 _ Miscellaneous.

names are attached in MS. ina very old hand. “ Good King Harry”

occurs for the first time in Gerard, who says it was so called in Cam-

bridgeshire (Johnson’s edit. 1633, p. 329). Malus Henricus seems

to have been Lathrea squamaria. s

MISCELLANEOUS.

NEREIS BILINEATA.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

Weymouth, May 15, 18565.

GENTLEMEN,—lI beg to draw your attention to a fact I have not

seen noticed in print. It is, that Nereis dilineata constructs a tube

for its domicile. Its usual habitat is the upper coils of any dead

whelk that may have been selected by a Pagurus for its domicile,

This Annelid is well known to the fishermen here, and by whom it is

much used as a killing bait for whiting. I was not aware of the

fact of its constructing a tube for itself until lately, when, on

breaking off the top coils, I found that the worm had constructed

a tube, with which it had lined its lodgings. The tube is perfectly

white, rather strong, and not attached to the whelk shell. :

I am, Gentlemen, yours obediently,

Weitee THOMPSON,

On a New Species of Thalassidroma.

By Grorce Rosert Gray, F.L.S. & F.ZS. |

A specimen of a Stormy Petrel, from the north-west coast of Ame-

rica, which has lately been kindly presented to the British Museum

by Miss Hornby, differs from all those that I am acquainted with.

In form it agrees best with Thalassidroma furcata, but the colo-

ration differs much in several particulars. Front, cheeks, throat,

collar round the hind part of the neck, breast and abdomen pure

white ; crown, hind head, a broad band in front of neck, bend of

wing and lesser wing-coverts sooty grey; upper part of back grey ;

lower part of back and tail ashy grey; greater wing-coverts brownish

grey; tertiaries and quills deep black.

Total length, 83"; bill from gape, 103/", from front, 83’; tail

(outer feather), 3}! ‘; tarsus, 1; middle toe, 1",

I propose to give this species the appellation of Thalassidroma

Hornbyi, after Admiral Hornby, who obtained it during his com-

mand on the Pacific station, where he collected many interesting

animals for his brother-in-law, the late President of this Society.—

Proc. Zool. Soc., May 10, 1853,

On the Eggs of Otogyps and Prosthemadera:

By H, F. Water, Esq.

Mr. H. F. Walter exhibited specimens of the eggs of Otogyps and

Prosthemadera nove seelandie from his own collection.

The egg of Otogyps was obtained by Herr Ludwig Parreyss of

Meteorological Observations. 79

Vienna from North Africa, and will therefore be that of O. nubicus ry

(H. Smith ; Bp. Consp. p. 10), if that species is really distinct from

the southern O. auricularis. The long diameter of this egg is 3°9,

the short diameter 2°8 inches.

The egg of the Parson-bird or Tui, Prosthemadera nove seelandie

(Gm.), was taken in New Zealand in 1852 by Dr. White. Its colour-

ing is somewhat different from that of the other Honey-eaters with

which we are acquainted, not presenting the usual rich red ground-

colour which is the general characteristic of the eggs of that family

of birds. The long diameter of this egg is 1°0, the short diameter

0°75 inch.—Proe. Zool. Soc.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS - FOR MAY 1855.

Chiswick.—May 1. Densely clouded : dry haze: clear. 2. Clear: sharp frost at

night. 3. Fine: densely overcast. 4. Cloudy and cold: frosty. 5. Excessively dry

air, with bright sun. 6. Fine. 7. Fine: overcast: boisterous at night. 8. Cloudy:

clear, with sharp frost at night. 9. Fine: rain at night. 10. Cloudy. 11. Cloudy

and fine : thunder-storm in afternoon: clear. 12. Cloudy and cold: very clear:

frosty. 13. Overcast: boisterous, with heavy rain at night. 14. Cloudy. 15,

Cloudy: rain. 16. Cloudy: clear and frosty at night. 17—-19. Very fine. 20.

Foggy: very fine. 21. Overcast. 22. Cloudy. 23—25. Fine. 26. Very fine:

hot and dry. 27, Slight haze: cloudy: rain. 28. Rain. 29. Cloudy: showery.

80. Cold showers. 31. Rain.

Mean temperature of the month ......+0+..4 eae TERE etre 48°88

Mean temperature Of May 1854 ...ccc.cceseseceeescececenssenes « 50°07

Mean temperature of May for the last twenty-nine years ... 53 °72

Average amount of rain in May ........sceeseesveees Soesceee wes» 1°85 inch.

Boston.—May 1. Cloudy. 2. Fine. 3. Cloudy: rain and snowr.m. 4—6.

Cloudy. 7. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 8. Cloudy: rain, hail and snow p.m.

9. Cloudy. 10. Cloudy: rain a.M..andp.m. 11. Cloudy: rainp.m. 12. Fine.

13. Cloudy: rainp.m. 14, Cloudy. 15. Cloudy: raina.m. 16,17. Cloudy:

rain P.M. 18—20. Cloudy. 21. Cloudy:raina.m.andp.mM. 22. Cloudy. 23—

28. Fine, 29-—-31, Cloudy: rain a.m. and P.M.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—May 1. Cloudy a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 2. Drizzle a.m. :

showers P.M. 3. Hail-showers a.M. and p.m. 4. Cloudy a.m.: clearp.M. 5.

Cloudy a.m.: rain p.m. 6. Sleet-showers a.m. and p.m. 7,8. Sleet-showers A.M. :

cloudy p.m. 9. Hail, frost a.m.: clear p.m. 10. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 11.

Clear a.m. and p.m. 12,13. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 14. Cloudy a.m.: clear

p.M. 15. Showers a.m.: cloudy p.m. 16. Cloudy a.m.: showers p.m. 17. Bright

A.M.: drops P.M. 18. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 19. Showers a.m.: cloudy p.m.

20. Bright a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 21. Cloudy a.M.and p.m. 22. Small rain a.m.

andp.M. 23, Small rain a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 24,25. Hazy a.m.andp.m. 26.

Drops a.M.: cloudy P.M. 27. Hazy a.m. and p.m. 28. Cloudy a.m. and p.m.

29. Bright a.m.: clear p.m. 30. Cloudy a.M.and p.m, 31. Clear a.m. and p.m.

This month has been remarkably cold, the mean temperature being lower than

that of any May during the twenty-eight years of my observations,—4°°18 below

the average, and the first half of it was only about the average temperature of

March. |

Mean temperature of May for twenty-eight previous years . 47°99

Mean temperature of this month ...........csececessceeeeesenee ». 43°81

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THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

No, 92. AUGUST 1855.

_VI.-—Noites on Paleozoic Bivalved Entomostraca. No. 1. Some

Species of Beyrichia from the Upper Silurian Limestones of

- Scandinavia. By T. Rurrerr Jongs, F.G.S.

[With a Plate. |

Amongst the small bivalved Entomostraca found in the Lower

Palzeozoic rocks are several species of the genus Beyrichia, for

the elucidation of which we are chiefly indebted to MM. Kloéden,

Beyrich, M‘Coy, and Salter. “The Beyrichie oceur very low down

in the geologic series, though they are not the first to indicate

the Crustacean class in the fossiliferous rocks.

' . The carapace-valves of these little Crustaceans are usually ob-

long in shape, and rarely exceed ;4,th of an inch in length; the

more typical forms have their surfaces embossed with two, three,

or more transverse ridges or isolated protuberances. Some spe-

cimens in their general contour and in the arrangement of the

inequalities on the surface of the valve offer a distant resemblance

to a miniature human ear. Other varieties have smooth valves,

more or less. indented by a transverse furrow which divides the

surface into two unequal parts.

- The remains of Beyrichie are met with, both as calcareous

carapace-valves (by far most usually separate), and as casts of

single valves, scattered more or less abundantly in the substance

of the rock or on the planes of stratification. Not unfrequently

they have been distorted by the movements which the integral

parts of the rock have suffered in the process of partial meta-

morphism. The carapaces themselves, generally as single valves,

are frequently met with in the Upper Silurian rocks of Britain,

though not in the Lower Silurian ; and they abound in some of

the Upper Silurian rocks of Sweden. Yet our observations are

often necessarily limited to the casts of the exteriors and the

Ann, & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 6

82 Mr. T. R. Jones on Scandinavian Beyrichie.

moulds of the interiors of these minute valves. The substance

of the valves being of the same thickness throughout, the in-

ternal casts represent with tolerable clearness the configuration

of the exterior.

The Upper Silurian limestones of Gothland and the south of

Sweden often abound in minute, symmetrical, semicircular, tri-

lobed bodies, which are the heads and tails of little Trilobites of

the genus Agnostus (particularly A. pisiformis). Together with

these occur other somewhat similar trilobed forms, which how-

ever are smaller, longer in proportion, and not symmetrical.

These are Beyrichia.

Drifted fragments of these fossiliferous Scandinavian lime-

stones occur abundantly in the sands and gravels of Mecklen-

burg, Brandenburg, and Pomerania ; and these blocks in their

weathered condition have yielded plentiful supphes of fossils to

the naturalists of North Germany. In 1769 C. F. Wilckens *

figured specimens of Agnostus pisiformis from this source, refer-

ring them with doubt to Trilobites (and proposing the removal

of Trilobites from amongst Mollusks to Insects). With these he

also figures a Beyrichiat (B. Wilckensiana, nobis), from Havel-

berg, without however arriving at any conclusion as to its true

nature.

L, von Buch in his ‘ Recueil de -Planches de Pétrifactions re-

marquables{,’ pl. 6, figures some Beyrichie in a limestone block

from near Giistrow. im Mecklenburg, and regards them as the

young of his Leptena lata, a view quite incompatible with every

character of these creatures, as M. Kloden has well explained in

his ‘ Die Versteinerungen der Mark Brandenburg $.’

Kléden met with numerous specimens in weathered fragments

of the Scandinavian limestone from the gravels near Berlin ; and

he has given carefully executed (but evidently not quite correct)

figures of the valves of at least two species, in different stages of

growth, accompanied with a detailed description ||. This observer

remarked that these little fossils are not at all referable to the

Leptena which accompanies them, nor to any mollusk ; and,

guided by the apparently symmetrical, semicircular, three-lobed

form of some of the specimens, he was led to regard them as

being probably the cephalic and caudal portions of the carapace

of small Trilobites, and to assign them to the genus Battus

(=Agnostus), although he figures and describes the unsymme-

trical contour and irregular distribution of the surface-lobes of

* Nachricht von seltenen Verstemerungen (8vo, Berlin), 1769, pl.7. f. 38.

t Op. cit. p. 77. pl. 7. fig. 39. These specimens have been confounded

by Dalman, Kléden, Burmeister, &c., with the foregomg.

t Fol. Berlin, 1831. These figures are too obscure for satisfactory re-

cognition as to their specific relations.

§ Berlin, 8vo, 1834, ~ "lt Op. cit. pp. 112-19.

Mr. T. R, Jones on Scandinavian Beyrichie. 83

other specimens, and even shows the actually bivalved condition

of at least one example. This author refers all his specimens to

one species, under the name of Battus tuberculatus.

In 1843 Burmeister (Die Organiz. d. Trilobiten, p. 72) refers

M. Kléden’s figures, without any assigned reason and certainly

erroneously, to Odontopleura ovata.

In 1846, M‘Coy, describing the Silurian fossils of Ireland *,

pointed out the really unsymmetrical arrangement of the lobes

and furrows on these little bodies; and, finding them to corre-

spond in pairs of dextral and sinistral valves, he rightly con-

jectured them to be the bivalved carapaces of Entomostraca. For

these animals he therefore established a new genus, “ Beyrichia,”

named from M. Beyrich, who also, in a work then lately pub-

lished}, had stated his belief that M. Kloden’s specimens were

not referable to any Trilobite, but to some small bivalved Crus-

tacean.

In 18514 Prof. M‘Coy further illustrated the genus, referring

it to the family “ Limnadiade,” of the Phyllopod order of Ento-

mostraca ; and remarking that “several species of this genus

have been figured and described by Kléden, as varieties of his

Batius tuberculatus.”

Mr. Salter also has illustrated and described some British

species of this genus, in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey

of Great Britain, vol. ii. part 1, and in Appendix A. of ‘ Descript.

Brit. Pal. Foss.’ above referred to. There are a few other pub-

lished notices of Beyrichiea; but we now have to confine our-

selves to an examination of the species from the Scandinavian

limestone, postponing for the present the critical notice of other

published species.

As M. Kloéden’s figures were nearly all that we had in this

country for our guidance in the comparison of the Beyrichia, it

was desirable that we should be able to test by the examination of

good Scandinavian specimens.the accuracy of these drawings and

of the specific determinations that have been made by their help.

Not long since Sir C. Lyell, when visiting Berlin, had the kind-

ness to mention to Prof. Beyrich my desire to have an oppor-

tunity of examining some well-preserved specimens of M. Klo-

den’s typical species ; anda liberal supply of limestone fragments

from the gravels of Prussia and Silesia, rich in Beyrichie, was

most courteously granted by Prof. Beyrich and brought to En-

gland by Sir C. Lyell.

I now proceed to the results of the examination of these inter-

* Synopsis of the Silurian Fossils of Ireland (4to, Dublin), p. 57.

+ Ueber Eimige boéhmische Trilobiten, p. 47.

t Description of Brit. Pal. Foss. in Sedgwick’s Synopsis of the Classi-

fication of Brit. Pal. Rocks. 4to, Cambridge. Part II. sia 1. p. 135.

84 Mr. T. R. Jones on Scandinavian Beyrichiz.

esting specimens. They consist of five fragments of a bluish-gray

limestone, full of organic remains ; one of them from near Berlin,

and the others from the neighbourhood of Breslau. (I shall

refer to them as Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, & 5, for the sake of convenience.)

They differ somewhat among themselves im their lithological

characters and in their organic contents; and no two of them

contain exactly the same set of Beyrichia. Nos. 1, 2, & 4 have

a weathered exterior of a whitish dun colour, in a more or less

friable condition. On fracture this whitish external portion of

the limestone exposes its fossils far more readily to the eye than

the inner crystalline limestone does ; and, indeed, the calcareous

cement having been decomposed, the innumerable Beyrichia and

other minute fossils start away in the breaking up of the mass,

and may be readily picked out of the debris. Nos. 3 & 5 are

rather darker in colour than the others, and have a rough con-

cretionary structure. The weathered surface of these is not more

friable than their mterior, and the whole readily breaks up under

the hammer, numbers of the’ little fossils becommey disengaged

among the debris. All the fragments contain Leptena lata.

Nos. 1, 2, 3, & 4 are rich in this fossil, some of them contain

fragments of heads of Trilobites, and No. 1 abounds with Tenta-

culites also. No. 5 is poorer in the Leptena, &c., and euntains

Encrinital remains. Each of the limestones contains abundance

of Cytheres or Cytheropses, the description of which is postponed

for the present. :

The relative distribution of these organic remains in each of

the specimens is shown in the following Table :—

Near Berlin. Near Breslau.

LIMESTONE SPECIMENS, Nos. 1. > Sie fi Bak Oe SS

Beyrichia Buchiana, n. sp. ...... woke

B. tuberculata, K16d., sp. ...c.c00e| seceeesee — feceoes eke | aeekok

VGr. MUA iesessswereeeecessoss steecese | AK

Var, antiquata ....iccoccceece| escscocas [sevese|seresclescons *

B. Dalmaniana, 1. Sp. so..sc0cceee] - covscsese foneves *

B. Maccoyiana, n. sp. ......00. ouc], seeabos a * | ®

B, Salteriana; 1. sp. si 66 ei ee ees Weelebevvafeccees ek

B. Wilckensiana, n. sp. ...eesees AL tS beebdbblancnee tek | etek

Var. plicata. s..eccupqesesentes * :

Ba, SUBS, o0.0is suns 000 debhancatien tes Pivccakoies ats. facc¥eolatenss *

Bi fnttndula *.........4 Rbecbecceepeey | SE “Liens gltagase * | ee

Cyne. si ci ERAS sek eRe | ook | ok pode

Leptzena lata ........ccccereesene er wee | ek | ok | ok

Tentaculites ...cccccererceee cocseeee *

Encrinital remains .........c0ceee|, escvesees [e Teseseceees secoeel

[The asterisks by their“tlative numbers denote the comparative abun-

dance of the fossils. } aE

Mr.:T. R. Jones on Scandinavian Beyrichiz. 85

The several:forms of the Beyrichie obtained from the lime-

stone fragments are illustrated in Plate V., and I now proceed

to their description (premising that the figures represent the

specimens magnified 4 diameters).

Class CRUSTACEA.

Subclass ENromostTRAca.

Order Phyllopoda ?

Family Limnapiapz?

Genus Bryricuia, M‘Coy, 1846 (Synop. Sil. Fos. Ireland, p.57).

Generic characters.—Animal enclosed in a vertical bivalved

carapace. Carapace equivalved. Carapace-valves oblong ; anterior

(cephalic) and posterior (caudal) extremities somewhat rounded ;

inferior (ventral) border semicircular ; superior (dorsal) border

straight. Valves wider at the caudal than at the cephalic extre-

mity ; more or less convex; impressed with one or more trans-

verse furrows, commencing on the dorsal or hinge border, and

variously modifying the surface of the valve. Hingement not

known ; probably a simple adaptation of the thin dorsal edges

and their union by membrane.

1st Group : Simptices.—Surface of valve simple, almost uni-

formly convex, but impressed with one, usually short, vertical,

dorsal furrow on the anterior half of the valve, and (if extended)

dividing the surface of the valve into two unequal parts (the

anterior portion being the smaller). Valves either with simple

edges, or bordered (except on the dorsal edge) by a narrow flat-

tened rim ; in the first case the margin of the one slightly over-

lapping that of the other valve, when united; in the second case,

the opposite flat borders coming in contact.

2nd Group : Corrucat#£.—Surface of valve convex, impressed

with two vertical furrows, not reaching across the valve, but

marking out three unequal lobes on the surface and giving it a

crumpled appearance. The anterior furrow holds the same rela-

tive position as the single furrow in the “Simplices.” The

valves are bordered (on three sides) by a narrow depressed

margin. © ee =

8rd Group: Jucosm.—Surface of valve impressed with two

or three strong vertical furrows, extending from the back to the

ventral portion of the valve, and dividing the surface into three

or more unsymmetrical lobes, transverse ridges, or bosses, which

vary considerably in their size, mode of subdivision, and relative

position in different species, and, to some extent, in different

stages of growth of individuals. The anterior, inferior, and pos-

86 Mr. T. R. Jones on Scandinavian Beyrichie.

terior margins of each valve are turned sharply inwards, the

angle so made being marked externally by a prominent ledge,

either slightly rounded or trenchant (and sometimes spiny),

forming a narrow depressed border along these three edges of

the external surface of the valve. These edges of the valves

close together by the marginal flange of the one valve being re-

ceived within that of the other,—somewhat like the fitting of the

lid and body of a circular snuff-box. United valves are very

rare; one such specimen shows the ventral margin of the left

valve overlapping that of the right. There is no marked differ-

ence in the shape of the two valves; and the size of the valve

that is received within and overlapped by the other is very little

less than that of its fellow.

(Jucosm.)

1, Beyrichia Buchiana, nov. sp. Pl. V. figs, 1-38.

Surface of valve impressed with three transverse furrows ; the

anterior and central ones reaching across the valve, and separated

by a narrow ridge ; the posterior furrow extending about two-

thirds of the width across, and bounded by a semicircular ridge.

In other words, the exterior of the valve presents three trans-

verse ridges ; the anterior is isolated, narrow, and slightly curved ;

the other two, occupying the posterior half of the valve, are

united towards the ventral border, and form a compressed semi-

circular or horse-shoe ridge, with its convexity downwards. The

posterior arm of this horse-shoe-shaped ridge is larger than the

other arm (or median ridge), and is sometimes indented by a

slight, short, oblique furrow on its outer ridge (fig. 2); and

sometimes it is tuberculated (fig. 3). The anterior and posterior

margins of the valve are also roughened with spinose tubercles

in old specimens. ,

This form presents a well-marked and simple pattern of the

surface, to which we can conveniently refer for comparison in

describing others. Only one of our limestone fragments affords

this species, and in this it occurs in great profusion, together

with B. Wilckensiana, Tentaculites, and Leptena lata.

A very similar limestone appears to have furnished the spe-

cimens figured in the ‘ Recueil des Pétrif. Remarq.,” and which

indeed are possibly referable to this species :—a coincidence

which has led me to dedicate this well-characterized Beyrichia to

the memory of M. von Buch,

2. Beyrichia tuberculata, Kléden, sp. PI. V. figs. 4-9.

Surface of valve embossed with three lobes or ridges. The

anterior ridge is usually divided more or less decidedly by a

Mr. T. R. Jones on Scandinavian Beyrichize. 87

transverse furrow into two oval bosses of unequal size, the lower or

ventral one being the largest and often becoming in the adult a

protuberance of great (relative) size, and so prominent as to render

the anterior part of the valve broader than the posterior (figs. 7

& 8). The central ridge is usually reduced to an oval boss,

isolated and placed rather obliquely. The posterior or largest

ridge is well developed, strongly curved, thick above and taper-

ing downwards and forwards, until it terminates nearly opposite

and near to the lower end of the central boss, with which it

sometimes shows an inclination to unite at a sharp angle, At

its thickest part, the posterior ridge is divided obliquely and

transversely, by two, slight, narrow, sinuous furrows, into three

parts, which vary in their distinctness in nearly every individual :

sometimes a third similar furrow again divides this ridge in its

ventral portion (fig. 8).

The surface of the valves is coarsely granulated, except in the

very young state.

This species differs from B. Buchiana in its larger bulk, its

coarser aspect, its granulations, and especially in the disposition

of the surface-ridges. The same general arrangement of these

exists in both species, but in B. tuberculata they have a greater

development and are more subdivided; the horse-shoe ridge

especially of the one is broken up in the other species.

This is evidently the species illustrated by Kloden’s figures

20-23; and it is therefore the typical Beyrichia tuberculata.

The other figures (16-19) referred by this author to the young

state of the same species, belong to our new species B. Wilcken-

siana, to be presently described,

B. tuberculata, var. nuda. PI. V. figs 10, 11.

A smaller-sized variety of this species occurs plentifully in

another block of limestone. The surface is destitute of tubercles ;

and the ventral anterior lobe does not appear to attain the ex-

cessive growth that is seen in old specimens of the typical form.

B. tuberculata, var. antiquata. Pl. V. fig. 12.

A large and unique left carapace-valve, from No. 5 lime-

stone, exhibiting the usual arrangement of the surface-lobes of

this species, except that the posterior ridge is not quite so largely

developed, has a perfectly smooth surface, and a trenchant

margin well armed with spines on the front, hind, and lower

borders of the valve. This spiny or denticulated condition of

the margin I have not met with in other varieties of this species ;

but it occurs in two figures (20, 21) of M. Kloden’s typical

form.

88 Mr. T. R. Jones on Scandinavian Beyrichise.

8. Beyrichia Dalmaniana, nov. sp. Pl. V. fig. 13.

Anterior extremity of valve contracted, so as to give an almost

triangular outline. Surface bearing five smooth rounded un-

equal protuberances or lobes; two obliquely placed anteriorly,

two posteriorly, and one in the middle towards the dorsal border ;

the infero-posterior lobe is the largest. In the arrangement of

these five lobes some reference to that of the ridges in the pre-

ceding species can be recognized, the two anterior lobes being

the equivalents of the divided cephalic ridge in B. tuberculata ;

the posterior lobes representing the great caudal ridge, and the

central lobe being isolated and similarly placed in both species.

The narrow depressed border of the valve is slight but distinct.

The surface is smooth, with traces of very fine linear pune-

tations.

Only a right and ‘a left valve were found (in No. 3. lme-

stone). .

I have distinguished this rare and curious little Scandinavian

Beyrichia by the well-known name of one of the illustrious

paleontologists of Sweden.

4:, Beyrichia Maccoyiana, nov. sp. Pl. V. fig. 14.

Carapace-valve nearly semicircular ; bearing three almost sym-

metrical rounded ridges. The anterior ridge broad, tapering

downwards and backwards, and disunited at its termination from

the others by a very slight depression. The middle ridge oval,

united below with the posterior ridge, but constricted at the

junction ; the two forming a compressed horse-shoe ridge. Sur-

face of valve punctate. The marginal depressed rim is broad,

prominent, and trenchant, especially on the ventral margin,

where it is marked by regularly placed, transverse, depressed

lines or strize equally on its upper and its under surface. This

breadth of the ventral rim gives rise to the peculiar semicircular

form of the valve. ;

The surface-lobes of this species have the arrangement of

those in B. Buchiana; but, the furrows not being so deeply ex-

cavated, the ridges are fuller and less distinctly separate. The

punctation of the surface and especially the well-developed and

striated rim are the peculiar characteristics of this species.

B. Maccoyiana approaches some of Prof. Hall’s* figures of

B, lata (Vanuxem sp.), a Beyrichia from the Clinton rocks of the

U.S.; but differences in the relative proportions of the ridges,

and especially the broad rim, sufficiently separate the two forms.

Three specimens of left valves are all that I have found (one

* Paleontology of New York, vol. ii. pl. A. 66. fig. 10.

Mr. T. R. Jones on Scandinavian Beyrichiz. 89

in No. 2. limestone, and two in No. 3.); and from their friable

condition the carapace appears to have been of an unusually de-

licate structure.

This rare and interesting species is named after Prof. M‘Coy,

who founded the genus and devoted much labour to the eluci-

dation of the species of this and other allied forms of paleeozoic

Entomostraca.

5. Beyrichia Salteriana, nov. sp. Pl. V. figs. 15, 16.

_ Valves narrow oblong ; caudal portion wider than the cephalic ;

marginal rim of the anterior, inferior, and posterior borders uni-

form, well developed, and impressed with a series of shallow

pits along the ventral portion. Surface finely punctate ; divided

into three unequal subtriangular convexities or lobes, separated

by a very narrow forked or Y-shaped furrow. The posterior

lobe is the largest ; and the middle one, which is slightly in

advance of the centre of the valve and is pushed up to the dorsal

border, is the smallest.

- This species offers a strong contrast to B. Buchiana in the

width of the surface-lobes and the narrowness of the furrows ;

and it could scarcely answer to the name of “ jugosa” or ridged,

were it not that its system of furrows is equivalent: to that of

B. tuberculata, which is at the opposite extremity of this group.

This small, but elegant and well-characterized species is -nu-

merous in No. 5. limestone ; and I dedicate it with much plea-

sure to my friend Mr. Salter, Paleeontologist of the Geological

Survey, to whom we are indebted for much information on the

history of the Entomostraca of the Silurian rocks.

(CoRRUGAT.)

6. Beyrichia Wilckensiana, nov. sp. Pl. V. figs. 17, 18.

Carapace-valves contracted anteriorly, almost reniform. Sur-

face of valve smooth, highly convex, divided into three unequal

lobes by two short furrows, the anterior of which is near the

centre of the valve. The middle lobe, lying between the fur-

rows, is rounded, prominent, projecting over the dorsal edge,

and passes, by a narrow and sometimes constricted neck, into

the convex body of the valve with which the front and hind

lobes are continuous. The middle lobe, though prominent, is

the smallest, and the anterior lobe is the widest, but depressed.

The ventral part of the convex surface, where the lobes unite,

hangs over the narrow flat rim of the inferior margin of the

valve, and is separated from it by a deep wrinkle, which dies out

90 Mr. T. R. Jones on Scandinavian Beyrichie.

on the flattened margins of the anterior and posterior dorsal

angles of the valve.

This form abounds in two of the limestones, and is evidently

referred to in Kloéden’s figures 16-18; but it is still better

figured by Wilckens, after whom I have named this peculiar

species. )

Beyrichia Wilckensiana, var. plicata. Pl. V. figs. 19-21.

In this variety the anterior dorsal angle is more acute, and

the central lobe more compressed, than in the typical form ; and

the dorsal portions of the anterior and posterior lobes are marked

by short faint vertical furrows, so as to appear pinched up into two

or three small projecting angular ridges or plaits. The wrinkle

or sulcus bounding the convex part of the valve is rather more

strongly marked also.

This variety does not occur with the foregoing, but is plentiful

in No. 1. limestone ; and the specimens are usually smaller,

though some individuals attain the full size of the type. ;

Possibly Kléden’s figure 19. was ‘taken from a specimen of

this variety.

7. Beyrichia siliqua, nov. sp. Pl. V. fig. 22.

Carapace-valve elongate, contracted anteriorly ; smooth ; con-

vex; divided into three unequal lobes by two shallow, rather

oblique furrows crossing the convexity of the valve. Posterior

lobe the largest. Marginal rim well developed on the ventral

border.

Two dextral valves only in one of the limestones represent

this well-marked species.

(Srrerices.)

8. Beyrichia mundula, nov. sp. Pl. V. fig. 238.

Carapace-valves varying from oblong to nearly oval, convex,

smooth, punctated, and marked by a short distinct furrow near

the middle of the upper part; the marginal depressed rim nar-

row and sometimes obscured on the ventral border by the con-

vexity of that part of the valve.

This occurs in three of the limestones, and from its small size

and general appearance is liable to be confounded with the

numerous Cythere-like forms so common in these Scandinavian

limestones. The specimens from No, 1. limestone are more oval

and convex than the others; those from No. 5. are well pre-

served, and interesting from their oblong shape, depressed mar-

Mr. T. R. Jones on Scandinavian Beyrichiz. 91

gins, slight sulcus, and trace of central “lucid spot ;” in which

characters we have a near approach to Leperditia.

B. mundula differs from B. simplex, Jones (Quart. Journ. Geol.

Soe. vol. ix. p. 161. pl. 7. fig. 7), chiefly in its having a propor-

tionally longer hinge-line, or dorsal border, and a narrower pos-

terior extremity, and in frequently presenting a depressed Leper-

ditia-like aspect of the valves, which we do not find in B. simplex.

The specimen here figured (fig. 23) is from the No. 1. lime-

stone, and is very convex and broadly oval in shape. The dorsal

border is, however, usually straight, two-thirds the length of the

valves, and from each of its extremities the margin has an oblique

direction downwards and outwards to about half the width of

the valve, where it meets the semicircular ventral border, and so

forms the more or less angular anterior and posterior extre-

mities of the valve, the former of which is somewhat narrower

and sharper than the latter. This outline, or an approximation

to it, is traceable in very many of the Beyrichia, but it is best

developed in the specimens of B. mundula above referred to,

from No. 5. limestone, in which the obliquity of the antero-

dorsal and the postero-dorsal angles of the carapace is as well

marked as in Leperditia, and is combined with a general de-

pression of the carapace-valves and other characteristics above-

noticed, which indicate a close relationship to the last-named

genus :—to this point we shall again refer in further descriptions

of the species of these genera.

Of the three groups of the genus, that of the Jugose is well

represented in the Scandinavian limestones under examination.

To this group also belong—

_ Beyrichia Kleedeni, M‘Coy.

complicata, Salter.

symmetrica, Hall.

lata, Vanuxem, sp.

— Busacensis, Jones.

Bohemica, Barrande, MS.

The Corrugate have here only two representatives (B. Wilck-

ensiana and B. siliqua). Possibly Hall’s Cytherina spinosa may

be a Beyrichia of this type. An undescribed species from Busaco

belongs to this group, and, taken together with B. Bohemica,

affords a passage into B. complicata of the Jugose group.

The little B. mundula above described has many larger con-

geners among the Simplices, such as—

Beyrichia simplex, Jones,

Logani, Jones, MS.

strangulata, Salter,

and several Bohemian forms collected by M. Barrande.

92 Dr. J. W. Griffith on the Conjugation of the Diatomacer.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE V..

[The figures represent the specimens magnified 4 diameters, with the

exception of 16 bd

Fig. 1 a. Beyrichia Buchiana, Jones: right valve. 10. Ventral aspect of

“the same valve. 2. Left valve. 3. Left valve of old specimen.

Fig. 4. Beyrichia tuberculata, Kloden, sp.: right valve (young individual).

5a. Right valve. 50. Ventral aspect of the same valve. 6. Left

valve. 7a. Left valve (old individual). 7. Ventral aspect of

the same valve. 8a. Right valve. 8b. Transverse section of

the right valve. 9a. Left valve. 90. Ventral aspect of the same

valve. s -

Fig. 10 a. B. tuberculata, var. nuda, Jones: right valve. 100. Ventral

aspect of the same valve. 11. Left valve.

Fig. 12. B. tuberculata, var. antiquata, Jones: left valve.

Fig. 13a. Beyrichia Dalmaniana, Jones: right valve. 13 5. Ventral

aspect of the same valve.

Fig. 14. Beyrichia Maccoyiana, Jones: right valve.

Fig. 15 a. Beyrichia Salteriana, Jones: right valve. 156. Ventral aspect

of the same valve. 16a. Left valve. 160. Highly magnified

view of part of the border. H

Fig. 17. Beyrichia Wilckensiana, Jones: Left valve. 18a. Right valve.

18 5. Ventral aspect of the same valve.

Fig. 19. B. Wilckensiana, var. plicata, Jones: right valve of large indi-

vidual. 20a. Right valve. 2005. Ventral aspect of the same

valve. 21. Left valve.

Fig. 22. Beyrichia siliqua, Jones: right valve.

Fig. 23. Beyrichia mundula, Jones: left valve.

VII.—On the Conjugation of the Diatomacez.

By J. W. Grirrita, M.D., F.L.S.

[With a Plate. ]

Tue interest attached to the conjugation and the relation of

the forms to the species of Diatomacez, will, I trust, render the

following remarks of interest to the botanist.

At the end of May of the present year, I was fortunate enough

to find the bodies delineated in Pl. II. B. figs. 1-5, in a ditch

near Blackwall.

The first which attracted my notice was that represented by

fig. 38, and which could not be referred to any known Diato-

macean ; it was composed of silex, 7. e. indestructible by heat

and nitric acid. Upon further search, other of these bodies

were found (fig. 2) containing a frustule of a Navicula, some

also with the valves of another Navicula (figs. 1 & 2) adherent

to the former. It was then evident that these bodies represented

a 6 a

Faleozoie Entomostraca.

“18.4

Beyrichie.

#. Jones. det.

J De C Sowerby. fectt.

a %

ie eS

_—

i ee

Dr. J. W. Griffith on the Conjugation of the Diatomacer. 98

a Navicula in a state of conjugation, and that the larger Navi-

cula was the sporangial frustule of the smaller, enclosed in a

siliceous sporangial sheath.

_ The siliceous sheath (fig. 3) is colourless, elongate, rounded

at the ends, and furnished with coarse transverse striz or de-

pressions, through which the line of fracture runs when the

object is crushed (figs. 1 & 2). Its length its variable, appa-

rently according to the stage of growth. The smallest was

zy of an inch, the parent frustules being very slightly sepa-

rated from each other, the form of the sheath more rounded,

and the transverse strize very few. The larger forms were from

zip to x+y" in length.

The parent frustules (fig. 4, side view; fig. 1 (below), front

view), of which there were two, were brownish when dry ; linear

in front view ; almost linear in the side view, sometimes more or

less lanceolate, but always suddenly constricted near the ends,

which are produced. The valves have a medial line and central

and terminal nodules. The length of the parent frustules was

37g 0 x00 ;

The sporangial frustules (fig. 5, side view; fig. 2, front view)

were also brownish when dry, and in side view of a linear form,

slightly narrowed towards the obtuse ends ; in front view, linear

and. narrowed towards the obtuse or slightly truncate ends, and

slightly constricted in the middle; the medial line, with cen-

tral and terminal nodules distinct. The dimensions of the spo-

rangial frustules are those of the sporangial sheath.

The determination of the species I shall leave to those who

believe that the numerous hair-splittings of forms belonging to

Navicula constitute distinct species. But it is very clear that

the forms of the parent and sporangial frustules belong respec-

tively even to different sections of the genus Navicula as subdi-

vided by Kiitzing* and Smitht.

It would be well perhaps for those who specially study the

Diatomacez to attend more to the relations of the forms and

structure of frustules to species than to the making out of the

minute markings existing upon the valves, which at present re-

ceive almost the whole attention. The observations made in the

former direction are exceedingly few, yet most important to the

point. Those of Thwaitest and Focke$ have shown that great

differences of size and shape may exist in forms of one and the

-same species ; the subject of the present communication confirms

this result. Variation in the number of markings, as rays, dots,

* Kiitzing, Species Algarum, 1849.

+ Rey. W. Smith, Synopsis of the British Diatomacez, i.

+ Thwaites, Ann. Nat. Hist. 1847, xx., and pls. 4 & 22,

§ Focke, Physiologische Studien, 1853, Heft ii.

94 Dr. T. Wright on a new Genus of Fossil Cidaride,

and surface-elevations, or even their absence or presence, is not

sufficient to distinguish species, as shown by Thwaites*, &e. and

Shadbolt+. The observations of Ralfst upon Himantidium are

very interesting in this respect, although unfortunately very

incomplete.

It may be remarked, that the surface of the valves of the

Navicula described above were covered with minute depressions,

invisible by ordinary illumination, but visible by oblique light

with the use of stops ; while the sporangial sheath was free from

markings, save the transverse striz.

The manner in which the unyielding siliceous sporangial

sheath enlarges in accordance with the growth of the sporangial

frustule is obscure, unless it ensue by the occasional ecdysis, as

it might be ealled, of the old sheath and the formation of a new.

In the earliest conjugating specimen observed of the above Navi-

cula, the sporangial sheath was of a rounded-oblong form, about

two-thirds of the size of the parent frustules, and situated midway

between them, both in regard to length and breadth, whilst

the full-grown sporangial frustule and sheath were twice the

length of the parent frustule (figs. 2 & 3), both the former being

of about the same size, and the latter situated near one end of

the sporangial sheath. It was noticed also, that all the spo-

rangial frustules were undergoing division, although contamed

within their sheaths.

VIII.—On a New Genus of Fossil Cidaridee, with a Synopsis of

the Species included therein. By Tuomas Wricut, M.D.,

F.R.S.E.

NorwitHsTANDING the many new generic sections introduced

into the classification of Echinoderms, by MM. Agassiz and

Desor, and the important light thrown by these savans on our

knowledge of the numerous species of this class contained in

European collections, still the progress of discovery renders it

imperative on paleontologists to modify from time to time

many of the opinions put forward by these authors in their

* Catalogue raisonné.’ When the amount of real work done by

them is taken into account, in a field which was then compara-

tively unknown, the wonder is, not that mistakes or oversights

should have been committed, but that so much good work

* Annals, loc. cit,

T Shadbolt, Microse. Journal, vol. iii.

t Ralfs, Annals, 1843, xii. on Fragilaria pectinalis, R. (Himantidium

pectinale, Kiitz.) var. 8.

with a Synopsis of the Species included therein. 95

under the circumstances should have been attained, which will

bear the most severe criticism, and remain as it was left, a monu-

ment of the genius and industry of the authors.

In our memoirs on the Cidaride of the Oolites, we have

figured and described three species, Gontopygus perforatus, Pe-

dina Etheridgit and Pedina Bakeri; the true generic position of

these forms seemed to us uncertain at the time our papers were

passing through the press, as they exhibited characters which

did not assimilate with either of the generic divisions of the

‘Catalogue raisonné.’ Our materials did not then justify us in

proposing a separate genus for their reception ; the discovery,

however, of an interesting series of new congeneric forms has

now enabled us to rectify our determination, and propose the

genus Hemipedina for the group, to which we have added a

synopsis of the species included therein.

Hemirepina, Wright, 1855.

This new genus is composed of small, neat, and highly orna-

mented Urchins, much depressed on their upper surface, and

with a flat or slightly concave base. The ambulacral areas are

narrow and straight; the pores in the poriferous zones are ar-

ranged in single pairs; the interambulacral areas are in general

more than double the width of the ambulacral, with two, four,

or six rows of tubercles in general arranged abreast on the same

tubercular plate. The tubercles are perforated, and set on mam-

millary eminences with smooth uncrenulated summits; one row

of tubercles in general only extends from the peristome to the

disc; the other rows, when there are four and six rows in the

area, stop short at the equator, or between the equator and the

disc ; the intertubercular space on the upper surface of the test is

therefore in general wide, and covered with a small miliary gra-

nulation. The apical disc is large ; the genital and ocular plates

are expanded and foliated. The mouth-opening is of moderate

dimensions, and the peristome is divided mto ten nearly equal-

sized lobes. The spines are long, slender, and needle-shaped ;

those that are known, equal at least the diameter of the test, and

their surface is sculptured with delicate longitudinal lines.

Hemipedina is related to Diadema in having the pores ar-

ranged in the zones im single pairs and the tubercles perforated ;

but it is distinguished from Diadema by the absence of crenu-

lations on the summits of the mammiullary eminences. It is,

related to Pedina in possessing perforated and uncrenulated

tubercles ; but it is distinguished from that genus in having the

pores in the zones in single pairs (Pedina having the pores in

triple oblique pairs like Echinus), in having the elements of the

96 Dr. T. Wright sn a new Genus of Fossil Cidaride,

apical disc more largely developed, and in the species being nearly

all small and depressed forms, Hemipedina is related to Echin-

opsis in possessing uncrenulated and perforated tubercles, with

the pores in pairs ; but it is distinguished from the latter by the

narrowness of the ambulacral areas, the depressed form of the

test (Echinopsis being high and inflated), the form of the mouth-

opening, and the deep decagonal lobes of the peristome (that of

Echinopsis bemg almost deprived of these incisions), together

with the greater size and development of the elements of the

apical disc.

Hemipedina, as far as we at present know, is composed of

Jurassic species, which commence in the lower Lias and extend

into the Coral Rag, each stage possessing its own specific forms.

The following synopsis of the British species now before us will

be figured and described in detail in our Monograph on the

British Oolitic Cidaride.

A. Species from the Laas.

Hemipedina Bechei, Wright.

Cidaris Bechet, Broderip, Geol. Proc. ii. 202.

Diadema Bechei, Agassiz, Morris’s Catalogue of British Fossils,

Ist ed. p. 51,

Test small, much crushed, and covered over with spines ; ambu-

lacra with two rows of tubercles; interambulacra with four

or six rows of tubercles ; spines long, slender and needle-

shaped, ,&,ths of an inch in length, with longitudinal lines on

the surface. This appears to be identical with the typerspe-

cimen in the Museum of the Geological Society.

Locality.— Lower Lias, Lyme Regis.

Coll, J. 8, Bowerbank, Esq.

Hemipedina Bowerbankii, Wright, nov. sp.

Test crushed, 1,4,th of an inch in diameter ; ambulacral areas nar-

row, with two rows of marginal tubercles rather smaller than

those in the interambulacra, a tubercle on every alternate

_ plate ; interambulacral areas wide, with six rows of tubercles

abreast, surrounded by a delicate scrobicular circle; spines

shorter and thicker (+2ths of an inch in length) than those of

H, Bechei, although the test is much larger, deeply sculptured

with longitudinal lines.

Locality.— Lower Lias, Lyme Regis.

Coll. J. S. Bowerbank, Esq.

with a Synopsis of the Species included therein. 97

Hemipedina Jardinn, Wright, nov. sp.

Test small, much depressed ; ambulacral areas wide, with two

rows of marginal tubercles which extend from the peristome

to the dise; interambulacral areas with two rows of tubercles

set near the poriferous zones, from eleven to twelve tubercles

in each row, a delicate scrobicular circle of granules around

each, and a naked intertubercular space in the centre ; mouth-

opening small, situated in a depression ; peristome decagonal ;

base finely radiated in consequence of the size and regularity

of the interambulacral tubercles.

Locality.—Marlstone near Ilminster, Somersetshire, and Bre-

don Hill, Gloucestershire.

Coll. of the late H. Strickland Esq., and Dr. Wright.

Hemipedina Etheridgii, Wright.

Pedina Etheridgii, Wright, Annals of Nat. Hist. S. 2. vol. xiii. p.315.

-pl. 1. fig. 5 a-d.

Test small, circular, depressed ; ambulacral areas narrow, with

six small perforate tubercles below, and a double row of mar-

ginal granules above ; interambulacral areas with two rows of

tubercles, seven in each row ; apical disc large and petaloidal ;

mouth-opening small; peristome decagonal; lobes nearly

equal. :

Locality.--Upper Lias, Ilminster.

Coll. Dr. Wright.

B. Species from the Inferior Oolite.

Hemipedina Bakeri, Wright.

Pedina Bakeri, Wright, Annals of Nat. Hist. 8. 2. vol. xiii. p. 312.

pl. 1. fig. 4 a-e.

Test circular, depressed ; ambulacral areas very narrow, with two

rows of small tubercles set so far apart that they form a zig-

zag row; interambulacral areas with two rows of rather large

prominent tubercles, five in a row; apical dise with a pro-

minent anal rim; mouth-opening large; peristome deeply

decagonal.

Locality.—Pea-grit, Inferior Oolite, Crickley Hill.

Coll. Dr. Wright : a single specimen.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 7

98 Dr. T. R. Wright on a new Genus of Fossil Cidaride,

Hemipedina perforata, Wright.

Goniopygus ? perforatus, Wright, Annals of Nat. Hist. 8. 2. vol. viii-.

p- 267. pl. 6. fig. 5 a—6.

Test small, circular and depressed ; ambulacral areas with two

rows of small tubercles which extend from the peristome to

the disc ; imterambulacral areas with two rows of tubercles,

seven to eight in each row, three or four secondary tubercles

between the primary rows at the base; surface of the plates

covered with numerous coarse miliary granules ; mouth-open-

ing large; peristome rather deeply decagonal ; lobes nearly

equal in size ; apical disc large and foliated.

Locality.—Pea-grit, Inferior Oolite, Crickley Hill.

Coll. Dr. Wright. |

Hemipedina tetragramma, Wright, nov. sp.

Test circular, ;%,ths of an inch in diameter; ambulacral areas

narrow, with two marginal rows of small nearly equal-sized

tubercles extending from the peristome to the disk ; interam-

bulacral areas with two rows of primary tubercles, about four-

teen in each row, and two rows of secondary tubercles, ten in

each row, extending from the peristome to nearly the upper

surface; mouth-opening small, situated in a depression ;

peristome decagonal, unequally lobed.

Locality.—Pea-grit, Crickley Hill.

Coll. Dr. Wright.

Hemipedina Waterhouse, Wright, Nov. sp.

Test small, pentagonal, rather inflated at the sides ; ambulacral

areas with two rows of small tubercles extending from the

peristome to the disc ; interambulacral areas with two rows of

tubercles, eight in a row; scrobicular circles neatly defined ;

mouth-opening small ; apical disc narrow and prominent.

Locality. —Pea-grit, Inferior Oolite, Crickley Hill.

Coll. Dr. Wright. |

Hemipedina Bonei, Wright, nov. sp.

Test small, pentagonal, depressed ; ambulacral areas with two

marginal rows of close-set tubercles ; interambulacral areas

with one entire row and four short rows of tubercles, which

extend only as far as the equator; tubercles of both areas

about the same size; base flat; mouth moderate in dimen-

sions ; peristome unequally decagonal ; apical dise absent.

Locality.—Pea-grit, Crickley Hill.

Coll. Dr. Wright.

with a Synopsis of the Species included therein. 99

C. Species from the Great Oolite and Cornbrash.

Hemipedina Davidsoni, nov. sp.

Test much depressed, 1 inch in diameter ; ambulacral areas with

two rows of marginal tubercles very regular in their arrange-

ment throughout ; interambulacral areas wide, with two rows

of primary tubercles, fourteen in a row, and two rows of

secondary tubercles which extend beyond the equator, between

the former, and two rows of smaller tubercles between the

main rows and the poriferous zones, so that at the equator

there are six rows of tubercles abreast, whilst on the upper

surface there are only two rows; mouth-opening small, in a

concave depression ; peristome decagonal and nearly equally

lobed ; apical disc absent. |

Locality.—The sandy beds of the Great Oolite, Minchin-

nampton. - se

Coll. Dr. Wright : only one specimen known.

Hemipedina Woodwardiu, Wright, nov. sp.

Test circular, much depressed ; ambulacral areas narrow, with

two rows of small tubercles below and extending as far as the

equator, diminishing to granules on the upper part of the

areas; interambulacral areas with two rows of rather large

primary tubercles, eight in a row, and two rows of secondary

tubercles, three to four in each row, which scarcely reach the

equator, the upper part of the intertubercular space being

filled with a small, abundant miliary granulation ; apical disc

large, anal rim prominent ; mouth-opening small; peristome

decagonal, nearly equal-lobed. —

Locality —Cornbrash, Wiltshire.

Coll. British Museum, from Dr.Smith’s collection ; Dr. Wright.

Hemipedina tuberculosa, Wright, nov. sp.

Test elevated, subconoidal ?, the precise form unknown ; ambu-

lacral areas with two rows of basal semitubercles raised on

very prominent bosses diminishing rapidly in size into coarse

granules above ; interambulacral areas with two rows of large

tubercles set on very prominent bosses, with scrobicular circles

_ of coarse granules surrounding the areolas ; two rows of small

secondary tubercles close to the poriferous zones from the

peristome to the equator, and three or four at the base of the

intertubercular space ; upper surface enveloped in the matrix ;

apical aperture large.

Locality.—Coral Rag, Wiltshire.

Coll. British Museum.

100 Dr. T.. R. Wright. ona new Genus of Fossil Cidaridee.

Foreign Species of the genus Hemipedina.

Hemipedina seriale, Wright.

Diadema seriale, Agassiz ; Leymerie, Mém. de la Société Géologique

de France, tome ii. Pc 330. pl. 24. fig. 1, 1839; Agassiz and

Desor’s Cat. raisonné des Echinides, 3 sér. tome vi. p. 348.

Test ‘hemispherical, subglobose above, flat below; ambulacral

areas with two rows of tubercles nearly as large as those of

the interambulacra; interambulacral areas with six rows of

tubercles abreast at the equator, diminishing to four and two

rows above ; a few secondary tubercles unequally distributed ;

mouth-opening small ; peristome slightly decagonal.

Locality.—Inferior Lias, France.

Coll. M. Michelin.

Hemipedina Woodwardiu, Wright.

This species occurs in the Cornbrash of the Marquise, near

Boulogne-sur-Mer. In one.of the specimens before us the spines

are preserved ; the primary spines are not very long, scarcely the

length of the diameter of the test; the secondary spines are

short and needle-shaped ;, the surface of both kinds is covered

with fine longitudinal lines... . . 7

Locality.—The Cornbrash near Boulogne-sur-Mer.

Coll. British Museum.

Hemipedina Nattheimense, Wright.

Echinopsis Nattheimense, Quenstedt, Handbuch der Petrefacten-

kunde, p. 582. pl. 49. fig. 37.

Locality — White Jura, Nattheim.

Coll. British Museum. At this moment the specimen is not

at our disposal. We shall give a diagnosis of this species in our

Monograph. ipefenee “

Hemipedina Semanni, Wright, nov. sp.

Test small, hemispherical ; ambulacra with two rows of tubercles ;

interambulacral areas with one row of primary and two rows

of secondary tubercles, the primary tubercles alternating with

the secondary tubercles, not placed abreast as in most of the

species ; tubercles of both areas nearly the same size.

Locality.—Coral Rag, Commercy, Meuse.

Coll, Dr. Wright : sent by M. Louis Scemann of Paris.

On some new or little-known species of Mammalia. 101

IX.—Brief Notices of several new or little-known species of

Mammalia, lately discovered and collected in Nepal, by Brian

Hovueuton Hopeson, Esq. By T. Horsrietp, M.D.

Harry in the year 1853, B. H. Hodgson, Esq., late of the

Bengal Civil Service, presented to the Museum of the East

India Company, a large collection of prepared skins of Mam-

malia, chiefly from the higher regions of India, with duplicates

of most species. Many of these have already been communi-

eated to the public in a detailed catalogue prepared by Dr. John

Edward Gray, chief Zoologist of the British Museum, with the

title of “Specimens and Drawings of Mammalia of Nepal and

Tibet, presented by B. H. Hodgson, Esq., to the British Museum,

December 10th, 1845.’

Since Mr. Hodgson’s return to India in 1847, various new

and interesting species of Mammalia have been discovered by

him in Nepal, Darjeling, Tibet, and other parts of India near

the Himalayan range, which are not contained in the catalogue

above mentioned ; of these a concise description is now given,

with remarks on several other species hitherto imperfectly

known.

Of the numerous duplicates liberal distribution has been

made, under the orders of the Hon. Court of Directors of the

India Company, agreeably to the recommendation of Mr.

Hodgson, to the British Museum, the Derby Museum at

Liverpool, to several other English museums of natural history,

and also to the museums at Leyden, Frankfort and Heidelberg,

on the continent of Kurope.

Of the family of Vespertilionide the collection contains the

following species :—

1. MrecaprerMa scuistacea, Hodgs. J. A. S. xvi. 589, with a

figure.

Megaderma Lyra, Geoff. apud Kelaart, Prodr. Faunz Zeylanice, Mam-

malia, p. 11.

This species was discovered by B. H. Hodgson, Esq., in 1847,

in Sikim Tarai, and a very copious description of its form and

habits is given in vol. xvi. of the Journ. As. Soc. Beng. It

appears to be the representative of the M. Lyra in the higher

regions of Bengal, and though very like that species, Mr.

Hodgson considers it clearly distinct, on account of its slaty

colour in the living state, and his figure represents it of that

tint. When dry it can scarcely be distinguished from M. Lyra:

this appears from the specimens set up in the Company’s

museum. Dr. Kelaart, who found it in Ceylon, introduces it

102 Dr. T. Horsfield on some new or little-known

in his catalogue as a synonym of that species, while he remarks,

that “none of the specimens examined by us were of the dimen-

sions given by Mr. Hodgson.”

Mr. Hodgson describes the colour of the fur for the most

part of a clear, deep slaty-blue above, and sordid buff below,

and that of the eye very dark. Females resemble males. The

expanse of the wings is 1 ft.6 in. The dimensions are given

in detail at page 894.

2. RHINOLOPHUS PERNIGER, Hodgs. J. A.S. xu. 414, xvi. 896.

Rhinolophus perniger, Hodgs. apud Blyth, J. A. S. xin. 484.

Discovered by Mr. Hodgson in the central regions of the

Sub-Himalaya, and described in vol. xii. of the Journ. As. Soe.

Beng. ; also briefly noticed by Mr. Blyth. As yet a rare

species in collections. According to comparisons made at the

British Museum, it resembles the Rh. trifoliatus.

3. RurnoLopuus tRaGAtTUS, Hodgson.

First described in Journ. As. Soc. Beng. iv. 699; Gray, Cat.

Mamm. Br. Mus. p. 22; Cat. Hodgs. Coll. p. 2; Blyth, Journ.

As. Soc. Beng. xi. 484. A new subject in the wird s

museum.

4. Hrprostperos armicrr, Hodgs. J. A. 8. iv. 699; ~~

Cat. Mamm. Br. Mus. p- 24; Cat. Hodgs. Coll. P

Blyth, J. A. 8. xi. 488.

Although nearly allied to Rh. {Hipposideros) nobilis of Hors-

field, it deserves the rank of a distinct species. It is larger

than the Javanese species, and its peculiarities. are pointed out

by Hodgson and Blyth.

5, VESPERTILIO SILIGORENSIS, Hodgson.

Muzzle pointed, with a moustache on the upper lip. Lars

eval, slightly emarginate and somewhat pointed ; tragus elon-

gate, acute. Wing-membranes arising from the base of the

toes. Fur above uniform dark brown, below dark brown tipped

with pale brown. Membranes brown. Fore-arm 1] in. 3 lines.

Tibia 63 lines. Longest finger 2 in. 4 lines.

Obs, —Very nearly allied to, if not identical with, the VY. mysta-

cinus of Kurope.

6. VESPERTILIO DARJELINGENSIS, Hodgson.

Very nearly allied to the former, but differing in having the

ears more emarginate, with a distinct lobe at their base; in

having the tibia somewhat shorter, with the fur of the upper

species of Mammalia. 1038

parts darker and tipped with chestnut, with a gloss somewhat

as in V. mystacinus, but lighter*. |

7. SCOTOPHILUS COROMANDELICUS, F. Cuv. sp.

Vesperiilio coromandelicus, Lesch. & Cuv. Nouv. Ann. de la Mus. Schinz.

Syst. Mamm. p. 171.

Examined by R. F. Tomes, Esq.

8. Murina suiLuvs, Temm. sp.

Vespertilio suilius, Temm. Monogr. li. 224. t. 56. f. 456.

Murina suillus, Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1842, 259.

Identified by R. F. Tomes, Esq.

9, Barpastettus Dausenroniu, Mém. Acad. Par. 1759, t. ii.

p. 8; Bell, Brit. Quad.

Barbastellus communis, Gray, Mag. Zool. and Bot. ii. 13.

Examined by R. F. Tomes, Esq., who considers it identical

with the European species, although somewhat darker in colour

from its preservation in spirits.

10. PLECoTUS HoMocHROUS, Hodgs. J. A. 8. xvi. 894.

Mr. Hodgson, after giving a very copious description of this

new species of Plecotus, which he discovered in the central

regions of Sub-Himalaya, remarks: “ Nearly allied to auritus,

but differs therefrom by disunited ears, fewer molars, a flat inner

ear, shorter fur and nude ears, besides its more uniform colour.

The joints of the digits also differ, showing how little dependence

can be placed upon this mark, which yet Cuvier, Geoffroy and

Hamilton Smith make the corner-stone of the general classifi-

cation of the family.”

11. PLecorus DARJELINGENSIS, Hodgson.

Nearly allied to the former, but considered distinct by Mr.

Hodgson. The dimensions are the same in all points; the

colour is deeper, inclining to blackish. The lobes of the ear are

spreading, with a small appendicule at the bases. The tragus

is narrow. The specimens of this and of the former are few

and not well preserved, and more materials are required for a

satisfactory discrimination.

12. Lasrurvus Pearsontt, Horsfield, Cat. Mamm. E. I. C. Mu-

seum, p. 86; Blyth, J. A. 8. xx. 524.

Noctulinia lasiura, Hodgs. J. A.S. xvi. 896; fide Blyth, J. A. S. xxi. 343.

The specimen sent by Mr. Hodgson is not quite adult; in

* This and the preceding were examined and described at my request

by R. F. Tomes, Esq.—T. H

104 Dr. T. Horsfield.on some new-or little-known

other respects it agrees with Mr. Pearson’s specimen from Dar-

jeling, from which the original description was made.

13. Nycrttcesus nrvicotus, Hodgson.

Colour of the head and body above uniform light brown, with

a slight yellowish shade; underneath, from the throat to the

vent, dark grey with a brownish tint, lighter on the sides of the

throat. Ears long, attenuated to an obtuse pomt, exceeding

half an inch in length. }

The fur has the character of that of Lasiurus Pearsonii, bemg

delicate, very soft and silky both above and underneath, Entire

length 5 in., of which the tail measures 2; brachium 1% in. ;

cubitus 2} in.; longest digit 41 in.; tibia 1} in.; foot and

claws $ in.; ears § in.; expanse 1 ft. 7 in.

This species resembles the Nycticejus ornatus described by

Mr. Blyth in vol. xx. of the Journ. As. Soc. Beng. pp. 517,518,

but it 1s of larger dimensions, more uniform in its colouring,

and altogether destitute of the white spots and bands indicated

in the description of the N. ornatus, and of the tawny-red colour

on the membranes of that species. It has also some affinity to

the Nycticejus Tickelit, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. xx. 157,

158, but its dimensions and proportions are different, and the

brighter maroon colour which spreads over the membranes, as

m Kerivoula picta, is entirely wanting in the Nycticejus nivi-

colus.

More specimens of this species are desirable to illustrate its

true character.

14. Prerorus Epwarpstt, Geoffr. (Gray, Cat. Hodgs. Coll. p.3),

presents nothing peculiar.

Of the genus Felis, the collection contains, besides the more com-

mon species, the following :— Felis Uncia, Erxleb. Syst. Mamm.

p- 508. Leopardus Uncia, Gray, Cat. Mamm. Br. Mus. p. 41;

Cat. Hodgs. Coll.p.5. Uncia Irbis, Ehrenb. sp. Gray, Ann. &

Mag. Nat. Hist. N. 8. xiv. 394*,

* Dr. J. E. Gray has recently proposed that the Ounees, or Tortoise-

shell Tigers as they have been called, should form a particular group of

Cats, to which the name of Uncia may be attached. They are easily cha-

racterized by the great length and thickness of their cylindrical or rather

clavate tail, and the marblimg of the colours on the fur. They are con-

fined to Asia.

1. Uncia Irbis. Felis Uncia, Schreber. F. Pardus, Pallas. ‘Tibet.

2. Uncia macroscelis, Temm. Sumatra.

3. Uncia macrosceloides, Hodgson. India.

4. Uncia marmoratus. Felis marmorata, Martin. F. Diardii, Jardine.

Penang.

5. Uneia Charlitoni. F. Charltoni, Gray. F. Duvaucelli, Hodgs. MSS.

India, Himalaya.—Dr. Gray, Ann. Nat. Hist, 1854, xiv. p. 394.

species of Mammalia. 105

15. Fexis uncromes, Hodgs. List of Mamm. presented to

K.1.C. Mus.

The specimens received from Mr. Hodgson agree in all points

with those from Tibet presented to the Museum of the East

India Company by Capt. R. Strachey. ~

16. Fetis MacrosceLoipes, Hodgs. Coll., Journ. N. H. iv, 286.

Felis macroscelis, Hodgs. J. A. 8. xi. 275.

Felis, n. sp., Tickell, J. A. S. xii. with a figure.

Although nearly allied to F. macroscelis, Temm., of the Ma-

layan Islands, Dr. J. E. Gray allows it the rank of a distinct

species, on account of its smaller size and some difference in the

markings. In a note on the specimen described by Mr. Hodg-

son in vol. xi. of the Journ. As. Soc. Beng. p. 276, Mr. Blyth

remarks, “ that this fine species originally discovered in Bengal

should also inhabit Tibet is a remarkable circumstance.”

Mr. Hodgson’s specimen is from Tibet; that described by

Lieut. Tickell is from the snowy range of Darjeling.

A figure of Mr. Hodgson’s specimen will be found in the

Illust. Proce. Zool. Soc.. 18538.

17. Fetrs MurMENsis, Hodgs. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1882, p. 10,

varietas nigra.

Mr. Hodgson has recently discovered a very beautiful variety,

of a saturated brown or black colour, of which the collection

contains several specimens. In size and external character it

agrees exactly with the brown-red or bay species, first described

in the ‘Proceedings of the Zoological Society.’ The lateral

marks on the cheeks, forehead and thighs are the same, and

also a slight whitish discoloration on the tip of the tail. It is

a very beautiful variety.

18, Feris Cuaruroni, Gray, Br. Mus.

Uncia Charltoni, Gray, Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. xiv. p. 394 (1854).

This is as yet a very rare species in collections. Besides the

original specimen discovered by Col. Charlton, and that for-

warded by Mr. Hodgson, none is enumerated in Catalogues of

Natural History. It is from the higher regions.

19. Parapoxurvus strictus, Hodgson.

General colour grey, with a slight rusty shade ; two prominent

white spots on each side of the head, one beneath the eye oblong,

tending forward, one behind the eye larger, triangular, tending

backward ; five continuous stripes, regularly defined and straight,

of a deep black colour, commencing on the neck, extend over

the whole length ofthe body, having on each side beneath an

106 Dr. T. Horsfield on some new or little-known

interrupted band of black spots. Abdomen grey. Tail exceed-

ing the body in length; mixed grey and black at the base, the

terminal portion black, the colour increasing in deepness towards

the extremity. Legs black. Throat grey, with a medial black

stripe. ars developed.

Length from the snout to the root of the tail 23 inches, of

the tail 25 inches.

This species appears nearly allied to Par. Palassii, described

by Dr. Gray in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1832, p. 67, but it has no

resemblance to the figure of that species given in Gray and Hard-

wicke’s Illustrations of Indian Zoology, u. fig. 8. Its distinctive

character requires further examination.

Five well-defined and regular black lines on the back are the

chief characteristic of this species; hence the specific name.

Mr. Hodgson considers it to be new; and from the comparison

made by Dr. Gray at the British Museum, it appears to be

distinct from Par. Palassii.

| 20. ParapoxuRus quapRiscriptus, Hodgson.

General colour grey, with a slight rufous shade extending

over the whole of the body, over one-half of the tail, over the

forehead and the lower part of the ear. On the back and parts

adjoining, four well-defined continuous black stripes pass from

the neck to the rump, having a shorter interrupted band on

each side; the bridge of the nose in the middle, a well-defined

narrow streak from the canthus of the eye, the neck, the feet,

and the terminal part of the tail are black; on the upper part

of the neck the hairy covering is slightly variegated black and

grey, the separate piles being grey at the base and black at the

tip. The fur is soft, lengthened and straggling. |

The entire length of this species is 50 inches; 26 of which

are occupied by the head and body, and 24: by the tail.

This species resembles the Paradoxurus Bondar in habit and

in the softness of its hairy covering, but differs essentially in

colour and in the four strongly marked black lines on the back.

The Bondar, according to the description of M. de Blainville

(Desm. Mamm.), is of a yellowish colour, with one prominent

black line on the back: the Par. hirsutus of Hodgson, which

is identical with the Bondar of Dr. Buchanan Hamilton, de-

scribed in vol. xix. of the ‘ Asiatic Researches,’ is of a yellow

colour, and without lines on the body. According to the notice

of Dr. Gray, this species is not contained in the British Mu-

seum *,

* Dr. Gray states in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853, p. 191 :—** I cannot see any

difference between these specimens and the P. musanga.”

species of Mammalia. 107

21. Hyana striata, Zimm.

The collection contains two imperfect skins, marked by Mr.

Hodgson “ Hyena virgata, List of specimens presented to the

Kast India Company.” In Mr. Ogilby’s memoir on the Mam-

malogy of the Himalayas, in Royle’s Illustrations, &c., is the

followmg remark: “the Hyzna of India (Hyena virgata), a -

native of the plains, sometimes ascends even to Simla.” The

skins have been compared with specimens of the striated species

at the British Museum and at the Hast India House, but present

no character to warrant a specific distinction. The multifarious

specific names with which this species is enumerated in books

on zoology have greatly perplexed its synonymy.

Besides the common Indian species of Vulpes bengalensis,

montanus and ferrilatus, the collection contains a specimen com-

monly indicated as Vulpes lamiger, which is, however, a true

Lupus.

22. Lupus taniceR, Hodgson.

The entire length of the specimen from the nose to the root

of the tail is 4 feet 4 inches; of the tail only 11 inches remain,

and its length cannot be determined accurately. The general

colour above is fulvescent inclining to sordid, deeper on the

back, which is slightly variegated by the admixture of black-

tipped hairs; underneath pale grey. On the back the pelage is

close and formed into small tufts, on the sides dense and shaggy,

in accordance with the cold regions which it inhabits; on the

_ head and nose it is greyish. The ears are large, pointed, and

covered externally with a dense brownish fur. The form of the

head is that of a common European wolf, rounded posteriorly

and tapering to the nose.

This animal must be considered specifically distinct from

the Canis Lupus of Elhot (Madr. Journ. Lit. x.), and from

the Canis pallipes of Sykes (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1831), to which the

name of Wolf is also assigned. It is a larger animal, and the

hairy covering is of a different character, besides other distinc-

tions which appear from the descriptions. The black lines on

the front of the fore feet are observed in both species. Mr.

Blyth’s remarks in his Report for September 1847, afford a

useful illustration of the Tibetan Wolf.

23. Musteva striciporsa, Hodgson.

A new species discovered by Mr. Hodgson in the Sikim Hills of

Tarai, and thus described by himself:—Snout to vent 12 inches;

head 23 in.; tail only 5} in.; tail and hair 63 in. Palma 12 in.,

planta 2 in. Weight 71 to 8 ounces. Intense brown, with the

108 Dr. T. Horsfield on some new or little-known

lips, head and neck inferiorly, and a dorsal and ventral stripe,

yellowish-white or pale aureous.

Remark.—Is a fourth larger than the Kathia or auriventer,

and differs from it by the dorsal stripe and also by the ventral,

the latter in the Kathia being much wider and its colour richer.

Hab. Sikim (Hodgson MS.).

The specimen sent to the Museum agrees generally with this

description ; the brown colour has a shade of chestnut, and the

under part of the head, neck and breast are nearly white, with a

slight isabelline discoloration *.

24, Mrues tevcurvs, Hodgson.

Tazidea leucurus, Hodgs. J. A. 8. xvi.

Tiimphd of the Tibetans.

Tibetan Badger.

This interesting animal was first brought to the notice of Mr.

Hodgson by the receipt of a specimen from the neighbourhood

of Lassa, and a very copious description of it is given m

vol. xvi. of the Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng., with a figure of the

animal, and details of its skull and feet comparative. with

the allied quadrupeds. A specimen im a tolerable state of pre-

servation, with a separate skull quite perfect, has been presented

to the Museum. The comparison of this skull with one of the

European Badger has afforded the means of determinmg its

true generic character. The result of the examination made by

Dr. J. E. Gray, which illustrates this point, is given in a short

notice published in vol. xii. of the Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. N.S,

xi. 2217.

The specimen sent agrees generally with Mr. Hodgson’s

* See also description by Dr. Gray in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853, p. 191.

+ The Tibetan Badger of Hodgson.

“Mr. Hodgson having sent to the India House a specimen with its skull

of his Taxidea leucurus (Journ. Asiat. Soc. xvi. 763, 1847), 1 have com-

pared the skull with that of the various Badgers in the Brit. Mus. Collec-

tion. I find all the Old-World Badgers (Meles) have a moderate-sized

triangular flesh-tooth, and a very large four-sided oblong tuberculous

grinder in the upper jaw, which is rather longer than broad, and the skull

is rounded behind. The nose of the Tibetan Badger or Tumpha, Meles

leucurus, is rather more tapermg and more compressed than that of the

European Badger (Meles Taxus), which it most resembles. The Japanese

Badger (Meles Auakuma) differs from both in having a much shorter skull

and a short, rather broad nose.

“The American Badgers (Taxide, Waterh.) have a very large triangular

flesh-tooth, and an equally triangular tubercular grinder in the upper jaw

not exceeding the flesh-tooth in size. The skull is also much broader,

more depressed and truncated behind. Of this genus J only know a single

species, T. Labradoria.”—J. E. Gray, Ann. Nat. Hist. N.S. xii. 221. See

also Proce. Zool. Soc. 1853, p. 191. |

species of Mammalia. 109

original description. The upper parts are of a greyish-white

colour, with a fulvescent shade which is deeper on the extremity

of the tail. The chin, throat, breast and extremities are entirely

black. In the hairy covering on the back, the separate piles

are nearly 3 inches long, white at the base one-half of their

length, with a black extremity, widely diffused and straggling,

giving the animal a rough and shaggy appearance. It bears

a great resemblance to the European Badger.

Mr. Hodgson has proposed that it should be formed into a

genus under the name of Pseudomeles.

In the Report to the Bengal Society for September (1854),

Mr. Blyth communicates some remarks on Indian Badgers. He

mentions the Tibetan Badger with reference to Mr. Hodgson’s

description and figure in vol. xvi. of the Journ. Asiat. Soc. ;

while he indicates what he considers to be a distinct species,

with the name of Meles albogularis : comparatively with the

European Badger “it has smaller and much less tufted ears, a

shorter and much less bushy tail, and the fur shorter and

coarser.”

The subject of Indian Badgers requires further examination.

An Indian Badger resembling the Meles leucurus is described

by Pennant in vol. ii. of Hist. of Quad. p. 16 (Ursus indicus) :

“ Badger with a small head and pointed nose; scarcely any

external ears; only a small promiment rim round the orifice,

which was oval; colour of the nose and face, a little beyond the

eyes, black ; crown, upper part of the neck, the back, and upper

part of the tail, white inclining to grey; legs, thighs, breast,

belly, sides, and under part of the tail black. Five toes on each

foot, the inner small; claws very long and straight. Length

from nose to tail about 2 feet; tail 4 inches long; hair short

and smooth.”

Dr. Shaw in his ‘General Zoology’ adds the following remark :

“Mr. Pennant is the first and only describer of this species, which

was brought from India, and was in the possession of the late

Mr. John Hunter. (It remains to be determined whether all the

- Badgers hitherto indicated do not constitute local varieties of the

same species ?—T. H.)

Of the genera Lutra and Adnyz, the collection contains the

following representatives :—

25. Lurra cuinensis, Gray, Mag. Nat. Hist. 18386; Cat. Mamm.

B.M. 71?

Lutra tarayensis, Hodgs. J. A. 8. viii. 819; Gray, Cat. H. C. p. 14.

26. AONYX sIKkIMENSTS, Hodgson.

This Mr. Hodgson considers to be a new species. It differs

110 Dr. T. Horsfield on some new or little-known

chiefly from the common Adnya of India, which is found in

Bootan and Afghanistan, by a more clear brown colour, inclining

to chestnut, but the specimen is not sufficiently perfect to afford

the means of an accurate description.

In the “Summary Description of four new species of Otter,”

Journ. Asiat. Soc. vii. 319, Mr. Hodgson remarks: “ One of

the most remarkable features of the mammalogy of Nepal is the

great number of distinct species of Otter characterizing it. There

are at least seven species, I believe, though not one of them is

numerous in individuals,—at least not in comparison of the

common Otter of commerce, which is produced in the neigh-

bourhood of Dacca and Sylhet.”

In the “ Summary” Mr. Hodgson describes four species ; most

of these are rare in collections. In the Catalogue of Hodgson’s

collection, Dr. Gray enumerates four species from Nepal: Lutra

aurobrunnea, Lutra chinensis, Lutra monticola, and Adnyzx indi-

gitatus.

27. Sorex MURINUs, Zimmerman.

Sorex myosurus, Pallas.

The Museum contains specimens of this species from Nepal,

Bootan, and other Indian localities; among these are several very

perfect specimens presented by Capt. R. C. Tytler. One of

these, as well as a single specimen of Mr. Hodgson’s last collec- —

tion, are. of comparatively larger dimensions, of a cerulescent

greyish colour, agreeing with the description of Sorex cerules-

cens of authors; while two specimens of a former collection, re-

ceived from Mr. Hodgson in 1845, are of a darker colour, brown,

and not cerulescent, resembling the S. murinus described by

authors. Much uncertainty still exists in the discrimiation of

the species of Sorex, and the real character of many species

enumerated by authors remains doubtful, until, for imstance,

cerulescens, murinus, myosurus, serpentarius, nemorivagus, soccatus,

&c., be subjected to a careful examination of specimens in a

perfect state.

28. Sorex satuRatior, Hodgson.

Colour uniform deep brown, inclining to blackish, with a very

slight rufescent shade. Fur short, with an admixture of a few

lengthened piles; when adpressed to the body smooth, but re-

versed somewhat rough and harsh. Tail cylindrical, long, and

gradually tapering to the point. Snout elongate, regularly at-

tenuated. Ears moderate, rounded.

Very nearly allied in habit and dimensions to Sorex Griffithii,

Horsf. Cat. Mamm. E.1. C. Mus, p. 184, the more lengthened

species of Mammalia. 111

and cylindrical tail forming the chief distinction. The character

of the fur is the same in both species.

Length from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail 54

inches, of the tail 3 in. -

29. Sorex caupatus, Hodgs. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. N.S. iii.

p- 203 ; Cat. Mamm. EH. I. C. Mus. p. 135.

Corsira? caudata, Blyth, Mem. on Indian Shrews, J. A. 8. 1855, p. 37.

A true Sorex, as appears from the examination of the skull.

Judging from the number of specimens sent to the Museum,

this species appears to be common on the hills.

30. Sorex ? Nemorivaaus, Hodgs. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. xv.

269; Coll. J. N. H. iv. 288; Gray, Cat. H. Coll. p. 10.

Sorex nemorivagus, ap. Blyth, Mem. on Ind. Shrews, J. A. S. 1855, p. 31.

A species by no means clearly determined. The specimens

sent defective.

31. Sorex pyamaus, Hodgs. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. xv. 269 ;

Gray, Cat. H. Coll. p. 16.

“ Structure typical, save that no odorous glands were detected,

nor had the animal any musky smell.”—Hodgs. loc. cit.

32. Sorex Levcors, Hodgson.

In Mr. Hodgson’s list, accompanying his present, this is

marked as a new species. |

Colour uniform blackish-brown ; tail very slender and taper-

ing, exceeding in length the body and head together, terminating

with a whitish tip of half an inch long. It is named White-

lipped, but this character does not appear in the specimen sent.

It appears to be a distinct species, but further specimens and

examinations are required to determine its rank. '

Length of the body and head 3 inches, of the tail 3} in.

The distinguishing character is the comparative length of the

tail and its white tip. It resembles the caudatus, but the colour

is darker, and the single specimen examined is not furnished

with the delicate hairs on the sides of the snout which exist in

the S. caudatus.

Note.— The Sorex sikimensis, Hodgs. Ann. & Mag. Nat.

Hist., N.S., vol. 1. p. 203; Cat. Mamm. Mus. E. I. C. p.186, has,

on a more accurate examination of its skull and other characters,

been determined to be identical with Corsira nigrescens,Gray, Ann.

& Mag. Nat. Hist. x. 261. In the Catalogue of Hodgson’s Coll.

p. 17, Dr. Gray gives the following synonyms of this species :—

Sorex ? soccatus, Hodgs. Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist. xv. 270, and

112 Dr. T. Horsfield on some new or little-known

Cat. Journ. Nat. Hist. iv. 288; and Sorex aterrimus, Blyth,

Journ. As, Soe. Beng. vol. xii. 1843, p.928? The latter spe-

cies is not enumerated in Blyth’s Memoir on Indian Shrews,

J.A.8. B. 1855; but the Corsira nigrescens is defined here

as Soriculus nigrescens, Blyth, with the synonym of Corsira ni-

grescens and Sorex sikimensis. The Sorex soccatus of Hodgson,

Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., is enumerated by Mr. Blyth as a di-

stinct species.

33. Mus TarAyeEnsis, Hodgson.

Nearly allied to Mus brunnusculus, Hodgs., Ann. & Mag. Nat.

Hist. xv. 267.

Colour of the body and head above dark brown, delicately

variegated with blackish and rufous hairs ; a very slight gloss on

the surface. Outer sides of the extremities rather darker. Under

parts from the chin to the vent, and inner parts of the extremi-

ties greyish-brown, with a rusty shade. Tail shorter than the

body, tapermg to an abrupt tip. Head lengthened and com-

pressed ; muzzle gradually tapering to an abrupt tip.

Distinguishing character.—A. dark brown surface with a slight

gloss. Head lengthened. Tail shorter than the body. Under-

neath rusty-grey.

Mr. Hodgson’s collection contains only a single specimen,

and further observations are required to confirm the distinctness

of this species.

34, Mus pLturimammis, Hodgson.

Colour above brown, with a rufescent shade; fur soft, con-

sisting of brown and rufous hairs intermixed in equal propor-

tions, forming a uniform upper surface; a rather obscure band

extending from the gape over the cheek, terminating under the

ears, and the abdomen and adjoining parts rufous-grey. Head

proportionately short, muzzle abrupt ; ears moderate. Tail equal

m length to the body, tapering to a sharp point, and minutely

annulated.

Length of the head 24 inches, of the body from the neck to

the vent 54 in.; of the tail the same.

The distinguishing character, according to Mr. Hodgson, rests

on the number of teats, exceeding that of other species.

35. Mus moruneeEnsis, Hodgson.

Hairy covering of the body above minutely striated with

black and rufous hairs, nearly equally mixed, giving the animal

a blackish rufous aspect ; abdomen and extremities paler, rufes-

cent-grey. Body proportionately robust and stout ; head large

~ species of Mammalia. — 118

and thick; muzzle short and abrupt ; ears large and rounded ;

tail cylindrical, gradually tapering to the point and delicately

annulated, equal in length to the body and head together. Fur

above soft; hairs more lengthened than in Mus plurimammis,

rufous and brown intermixed, the former predominant.

Dimensions.—Head 14 inch ; body 3 inches; tail 44 in.

Distinguishing character.—A large truncated head, robust

body, long, tapermg and minutely annulated tail. General

colour rufescent-black.

36. ARcToMYS TIBETANUS, Hodgs. J.A.S. xii. 409.

In presenting this animal to the Museum, Mr. Hodgson gave

us personally the following remark respecting the two species of

this genus described by him, and their respective specific names

and localities:—‘‘ The Bobac, Arctomys himalayanus, Hodgs.,

A. Bobac, Schreb., is found only in the higher regions of Tibet,

while the A. tebetanus, Hodgs., inhabits exclusively the lower

regions of Himalaya; but inadvertently the respective locality.

of the two species has been alternated in my descriptions.”

Among the Squirrels sent by Mr. Hodgson there are several

specimens of the Sciurus M‘Clellandi, Horsfield, Proc. Zool.

Soc. 1839, p. 152, which was discovered by J. M‘Clelland, Esq.,

in his visitation to Assam as a member of the deputation on the

Tea-plant, and described in the Report of his contributions of

Mammalia and Birds to the Company’s Museum. It is thus

described :—

Scrurus M‘Crievianni1, Horsfield. Supra fuscus fulvo tenuis-

sime irroratus noteo saturatiore; subtus ex sordido fulvo-

canescens ; dorso summo linea recta atra; linea insuper utrin-

que laterali fusca leeto fulvo marginata, antice saturatiore, ad

oculos extensa, postice obsoleta in uropygio utrmsecus ap-

proximata; cauda mediori subcylindrico-attenuata nigro ful-

voque variegata ; auriculis atris barba nivea lanuginosa insigni

circumscriptis ; vibrissis longis nigris.

In the specimens contained in Mr. Hodgson’s collection, the

colour on the upper parts is brownish-grey, with a slight rufes-

cent shade, rather deeper on the back, minutely grizzled with

brown and blackish hairs; all the under-parts are fulvescent-

yellow: on the middle of the back from the neck to the rump

is a deep black stripe, and somewhat lower a brownish-black

stripe of the same extent, adjoining which, on each side, is a

yellowish-white stripe, commencing at the tip of the nose and

extending along the sides to the rump, gradually narrower

towards its termination. , Ears large, black exteriorly, delicately

Ann, & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 8

114 Mr. W. Clark on Assiminia Grayana and Rissoa anatina.

fringed with white on the posterior border. Tail tapering, va-

riegated with black and rufescent hairs. Whiskers long and

black. |

Dimensions.—Head 14 inch; body 3 inches; tail 3 in.

This species, although provisionally arranged in the genus

Sciurus, resembles in its external habit, markings, attenuated —

tail, and minutely fringed ears, the American genus Tamias, and

it remains for naturalists in the higher regions of India, who

may examine living specimens, to determine whether it has

cheek-pouches, by which Tamas is distinguished from Sciurus.

Mr. Hodgson’s collection contains a large supply of most of

the Indian Uneutata: many of these have been discovered, and

first described by himself, and are known to naturalists chiefly

by the copious details given in the Journal of the Asiatic Society

of Bengal, and by Dr. J. E. Gray’s Catalogue of the collection

presented to the British Museum. Among the subjects as yet rare

in colleetions may be mentioned Poéphagus grunniens, Linn.,

adult and one calf., Porcula salvania, Hodgs., and Budorcas tax-

icolor, Hodgs.* Of the latter, Mr. Hodgson has some three

specimens, on the whole in good preservation; one of these is

exhibited in the Museum of the East India Company, one has

been presented to the British Museum, and one to the Museum

at Leyden. A very perfect specimen of the Cervus affinis of

Hodgson has also been sent, and is mounted in the Museum.

Whether this be really a distinet species from Cervus Wallichiz

of Cuvier remains still to be determined; the horns of both

agree in structure and subdivisions. Dr. Gray has given most

copious details regarding the various, multifarious synonyms

with which they are enumerated by authors (Cat. Mamm. Brit.

Mus. Part iii. Ungulata fureipeda, pp. 197 & 199).

X.—On the Assiminia Grayana and Rissoa anatina.

By Witi1am Crark, Esq.

To the Lditors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN, Exmouth, 26th June 1855.

I Bea to present descriptions of two testaceous Gasteropoda,

which could not be obtained during the passage through the

press of my volume on the British Marine Testaceous Mol-

lusca. One of them, the Assiminia Grayana, is of peculiar in-

terest, and has caused much discussion and difference of opinion

* These three interesting animals have been figured in the Illustrations

of the Proc. Zool. Soe. for 1853,

avir. W. Clark on Assiminia Grayana and Rissoa anatina. 115

respecting the structure of the tentacula and eyes, and its natural

position. The other, the Rissoa anatina, is a Rissoidean of the

group which is represented by R. ulve. Authors have men-

‘tioned both these animals, and the Rev. M. J. Berkeley has pub-

lished a valuable memoir and figure of A. Grayana, in vol. v.

p- 429 of the ‘ Zoological Journal ;’ but I have thought that the

addition of later notes on several unobserved points of this last

species, and in comparison with those of the genus Truncatella,

-would be acceptable to some of your readers.

In vol. xii. p. 4 of the ‘ Annals’ for July 1853, and in my

work above mentioned, pp. 380-6, I have expressed an opinion

that the genus Assiminia is superfluous, and that its only spe-

cies would be handed over to the genus Truncatella. I have

been so impressed with this view, that I invited malacologists

residing in the neighbourhood of Greenwich to send me live spe-

eimens of the A. Grayana; this request was inserted in the

‘Annals,’ but the appeal remained unsuccessful until this date,

when I had the good fortune to obtain the long-sought-for desi-

deratum, with an unexpected addition of the Rissoa anatina,

both in a living state, through the kindness of my friend John

Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., of Swansea, who omits no opportunity nor

spares any personal exertion to add to his valuable contributions

to the molluscan branch of British natural history.

Truncatella Grayana, nobis.

Assiminia Grayana, auctorum; Brit. Moll. vol. iii. p. 70. pl. 71.

figs. 3, 4; (animal) pl. H.H. f. 6.

Shell, a short strong cone. of 64 tumid volutions, increas-

ing rapidly in bulk from the apex to the base, which are di-

-stinetly but not deeply divided; each whorl is marked with a

somewhat irregular and confused rufous-brown and a yellow

spiral band, the former being the broadest, and situate at its

base; the latter winds round the upper part, but in many ex-

amples the bands become so blended as to diffuse throughout

the entire area the mixed hues of the two fasciez. The trans-

verse striz of increment are well marked, and also obsolete

-rather coarse spiral lines may be detected. Aperture suboval or

‘pear-shaped ; peristome disunited ; outer lip sharp ; no umbilical

-fissure ; the apex is pointed. Axis ,%,ths, diameter ;th of an

inch.

Animal.—The mantle at the aperture of the shell is simple.

The muzzle is very short and broad, flat, expanded, and curved

at the end on each side, forming minute auricles with a central

emargination or well-impressed sinuation, and furnished with

-raised elastic annular lines that enable the animal to effect a

116 Mr. W. Clark on Assiminia Grayana and Rissoa anatina:

great protrusion of the neck and rostrum ; the latter organ in

every position is always borne much in advance of the foot ; it is

vertically cloven, and at the under part, in the centre, slightly

sO, in a crosial direction, from whence the jaws or subcircular

arches of the lingual riband, supported by the buccal plates, are

almost momentarily exserted; the cesophagean portion of the

riband springing from the stomach is short and of rissoid stamp.

The posterior part of the muzzle next the neck is suffused in

different individuals with all the phases of dark colour ap-

proaching to almost black, and with all the variations of the

most delicate cinereous hues ; the flattened or expanded anterior

curved terminal portion abruptly becomes white, and is shot

with the minutest points or flakes of a still intenser white. A not

very deep longitudinal groove, or two contiguous parallel lines,

are visible on the neck when moderately protruded, but these,

when greatly so, are lost ; they are generally supposed to act as

a conduit to the branchial water.

The dark tentacula spring from a minute mammilla, and

are very short, massive, and columnar at the base, becoming,

though still thick, somewhat spatulate and rounded at their

whitish terminations; in the centre of this minute plateau,

at some little distance from the extremities, the large eyes

are immersed, and from the intensity of the black colour are

almost equally visible on the upper and lower surface; this is

their natural position when the animal is on the undisturbed

march, but the instant it is disquieted, both the tentacula and

eyes assume various modifications of figure: for instance, when

the neck is greatly exserted, or the animal is in comparative re-

pose, in either of these opposite conditions they become much

contracted, especially at the tips, which are folded or withdrawn

into a minute hollow, out of which the eyes peep, and thus ap-

pear fixed at the extremities; but, as we have shown, this is not

their true site, which here, and in all the Truncatella, is at some

little, but distinct, distance from their final points.

Some authors have thought that the eyes are mounted on

pedicles, connate, and of the same length as the true tentacula :

this idea is wrong: we repeat their true position is an absolute

immersion in the tissue ; the tentacula are therefore strict vibra-

cula, and in nowise sustentacula. The white pupil mentioned

in my first account of Truncatella was not detected in this spe-

cies. The animal on the march carries the tentacula nearly ata

rectangular divergence: this position is a marked characteristic

of the genus Truncatella.

Foot rather short, broad and fleshy, not auricled, but subqua-

drate in front, with a tendency to roundness at the external

angles, without a central sinuation, and deeply and conspicu-

Mr. W. Clark on Assiminia Grayana and Rissoa anatina. 117

ously labiated; when not in action rounded posteally, but in

full progression it assumes a broad lancet-shape, suddenly sloping

on each side to an obtuse termination ; there is no longitudinal

depressed line on the sole, and only a slight transverse crease is

visible when the posterior portion is drawn up to the advanced

one ; it carries on a distinct upper fuscous lobe, which is only

narrowly alated on each side, a light corneous pear-shaped

operculum, with a rather indistinct submarginal nucleus, the

spiral continuations of which show the fine oblique lines of in-

crement, as in the Littorine and Rissoe. The animal is slow

and deliberate in progression ; its action is between that of Lit-

torina and Rissoa, not having the lateral oscillatory march of

the former, nor the perfectly steady advance of the latter. The

foot on the upper surface is of all the hues of lead-colour ; the

sole is pale bluish-white, aspersed thickly with minute.flakes of

an intenser white.

From the non-transparency of the shell, the character of the

-branchiz could not be well made out, and when examined after

extraction their delicate and minute structure suffered from col-

lapse. The neck has no appendages except the guide lines for

the branchial water, and the muzzle is altogether without them.

Verge long, slender, and falcate at the end.

It inhabits the Greenwich marshes in company with the Rissoa

anatina, and seems, like many of the littoral species, to enjoy a

kind of amphibious existence ; it is also nearly equally at home

in fresh water, or in a mixture of salt, half of each. It feeds on

a common Ulva of the pools. I received the animals by post,

deposited in a small tin box in moderately moistened weed ; they

remained alive for some time, but they are constitutionally

sluggish.

The above minutes of this curious creature do not differ in

any essential character from my recorded descriptions of the

Truncatelle, and will justify the surmises I have expressed in the

earlier part of this account, that Assiminia is only a generic

synonym of the established genus Truncatella.

Rissoa anatina, auctorum.

Rissoa anatina, Brit. Moll. vol. iii. p. 134. pl. 87, f. 3, 4.

_ Shell—of a light horn-colour, of 4-5 rounded tumid volutions,

with well-marked wrinkled strie of increment, as in Bithynia

ventricosa (Leachii, nonnull.), to which, in these respects, it bears

much resemblance, as well as in the entire peristome; the two

are also occasionally found in the same locality, with the colour

of their shells obscured by a similar black earthy deposit. This

circumstance is singular, as the 7runcatella Grayana living with

118 Mr. W. Clark on Assiminia Grayana and Rissoa anatina.

or near them is perfectly clean: perhaps the other two have

de difference of habitat. Axis ;4,ths, diameter ths of an

inch.

Animal.—The mantle is simple, and the linear process seen at

that part which lines the upper angle of the aperture in Rissoa

ulve, and often in other Rissoe, is wanting. The muzzle is long,

subcylindrical, and armed with very contractile, dark, annulated

ridges, which allow of a great protrusion of the neck. The

buccal orifice is cloven vertically, and from it, almost without

cessation, the animal shows a pair of corneous jaws, to which the

short lingual riband proceeding from the stomach is united, and

both portions of the tongue are supported by a pair of red fleshy

plates, which are visible through the tenuity of the enveloping

tissue.

The tentacula are long, not much flattened, slender and mode-

rately pointed, of a very light ashy hue, quite smooth, divergent,

with rather large black eyes at the external bases, fixed on mi-

nute semicircular expansions ; at their lower half they are spa-

ringly studded with white, flaky, minute irregular blotches, and

sometimes ‘a very fine cinereous line coasts their margins.

The foot is scarcely so proportionately long, slender, and con-

stricted below the auricles as m the usual run of the Rissoe ; it

is perfectly rounded posteally, but parts of the margin are some-

times notched; anteally furnished with moderately large lateral

auricular expansions. The opercular lobe is distinct, and shows

at the junction of the foot with the body a whitish alated process

on each side, and carries a rissoidean suboval operculum of laxly

spiral rather indistinct turns, with an eccentric nucleus; the

curved lines of each volution are coarser, fewer, and less oblique

than in the generality of the Littorine and Rissoe. The upper

part of the main foot is of a darkish lead-colour, disposed in

close-set fine irregular lines; the sole is either white, yellow or

palely cinereous, without a longitudinal depressed central line,

and aspersed thickly with minute pale-gray-coloured points or

flakes. The opercular lobe is without a caudal process, but it

may be observed, this is not an invariable adjunct of all Rissoe.

The character of the branchial plume in a young, almost

white horn-coloured shell was sufficiently apparent ; it consists

of a flat ordinary-shaped leaf deposited in the usual position in

the branchial vault, of 12 to 16 or even more coarse white strands ;

the transverse measure of the anterior ones and those nearest

to the pericardium being the shortest, whilst the central threads

are gradually elongated. The intestine is rendered visible, by its

contents, through the filmy shell,—at least that length of it which

proceeds from the part of the animal enclosed in the second

volution to its debouchure as rectum on the right side. Verge ?’

M yr, W. Clark on Assiminia Grayana and Rissoa anatina. 119

The animal continues lively for some days in a mixture of salt,

as well as in the fresh, or scarcely brackish water. These crea-

tures were received from Greenwich in company with the Trun-

catella Grayana ; they are neither shy nor apathetic.

Though the shell of R. anatina resembles the Bithynia ventri-

cosa (Leachii, nonuull.), and is found in company with it and

the Limneus palustris, L. truncatulus and B. impura, all of fresh-

water habitat, I am of opinion that the R. anatina, R. ulve and

R. ventrosa are essentially of marine organization, and inhabit

the salt and brackish estuaries as their natural localities, and

that the Bithynie and Limnei are mixed with them fortuitously,

— perhaps impelled into their districts by floods, and agreeably to

a well-known habit and law, live and even multiply and become

acclimated in localities that are not strictly natural to them.

In other words, I believe that both these tribes are eminently

distinct, the one being of marine, the other of freshwater habitat,

and that there is no connexion between them beyond that of

accident, chanee acclimation, and the alliance which is conse-

quent on the proximity of their genera in most malacological

methods. It results from these views of ours, that the R. ana-

tina, R. ventrosa and R. ulve are in their right places as the

Ulvan group of the Rissoideans. |

It has been proposed to remove the above species to Littorina,

or Hydrobia, or Paludinella ; the two latter of these genera would

only be useless synonyms of Rissoa; for the variations of the

malacology of the three species from the typical Risso are not

greater, perhaps not so great, as those of many of the animals

that form part of that genus, and if such differences are to be

held as of generic value, every admitted Rissoa must have its

particular genus and be itself the only species.

I have merely mentioned casually the localities of Truncatella

Grayana and Rissoa anatina, but the deficiency of the detail of

the habitats will be well supplied by presenting, by way of con-

clusion, a valuable letter from Mr. Jeffreys, which contains many

excellent remarks on these points.

“9 Montague Place, Bryanstone Square,

London, 25th June 1855.

“ My pear Sir,—Our friend Mr. Barlee told me that he had

not been successful in procuring for you specimens of the Assz-

minia Grayana, the animal of which you were desirous of exami-

ning. I went to.Greenwich last Saturday, and have the pleasure

‘of sending you some lively examples of this curious mollusk, as

well as a few Littorina (?) anatina. The shell of the latter is

120 Mr. J. Blackwall on newly discovered species of Arancidea.

closely allied to Bithynia, but the operculum is that of Littorina,

and the animal resembles Paludinella ulve.

_ 2nd July.—I again visited the Greenwich marshes yesterday

for the purpose of ascertaining the range of Littorina (?) anatina

and Assiminia Grayana, and to inform you more particularly of

their respective habitats. I found both of them more or less

distributed along the banks of the Thames, from a little below

Greenwich Hospital to the upper Pier at Woolwich, a distance of

about three miles. I met with them occasionally in the same

localities, but their habitats are somewhat different. The Litto-

rina inhabits muddy ditches and their banks, and it is gre-

garious. The other mollusk inhabits muddy places, but seldom

occurs under water. It is in countless profusion at and about

the roots of the water-flag, and is more generally dispersed than

LL. (?) anatina. It is associated with Limneus palustris (our

tinctus) and L. truncatulus. The Jittorina lives in company

with Bithynia impura and Leachii, as well as with the Assiminia.

I have little doubt that both kinds are also to be found on the

other side of the river in the Isle of Dogs, and perhaps below

Woolwich. The Assiminia has the same habit as Paludinella

ulve, and seems to take its place on the brackish estuary of the

Thames,

“T remain, my dear Sir, yours sincerely,

“J. Gwyn Jeffreys.”

“© Wm. Clark, Esq., |

Exmouth, Devon,”

I am, Gentlemen,

Your most obedient servant,

Wititam Crark.

XI.— Descriptions of two newly discovered species of Araneidea.

By Joun Briackwa tt, F.L.S.

Tribe OCTONOCULINA.

Family CrnIFLONIDz.

Genus CinrtF.o, Blackw.

Cinifio humilis.

Length of the female ;4,th of an inch ; length of the cephalo-

thorax ;4,; breadth s4,; breadth of the abdomen ;',; length of

an anterior leg } ; length of a leg of the third pair 3}. —

The four intermediate eyes describe a trapezoid, the two ante-

rior ones, which form its shortest side, beng much the smallest

Mr. J. Blackwall on newly discovered species of Araneidea. 121

and darkest of the eight. The cephalo-thorax is convex, glossy,

compressed before, rounded on the sides, and has an indentation

in the medial line; it is of a brown colour, with longitudinal

‘ lines in the cephalic region, oblique streaks on the sides, and

lateral margins of a brownish black hue. The falces are conical,

vertical, armed with a few minute teeth on the inner surface,

and, with the maxille, which are enlarged at the extremity and

slightly inclined towards the lip, have a pale brown hue. The

hp is dilated about the middle and truncated at the extremity ;

and the sternum is heart-shaped. ‘These parts are of a dark

brown colour, the former being paler at the extremity. The

legs are moderately long, hairy, of a yellowish brown hue, with

brownish black annuli, and the metatarsi of the posterior pair

are provided with calamistra ; each tarsus is terminated by three

claws; the two superior ones are curved and pectinated, and the

inferior one is inflected near its base. The palpi resemble the

legs in colour, but are without annuli. The abdomen is oviform,

thinly clothed with hairs, convex above, and projects over the

base of the cephalo-thorax: it is of a pale yellowish brown

colour, with a series. of angular lines of a brownish black hue,

whose vertices are directed forwards, and whose extremities are

enlarged, extending along the middle of the upper part; this

series of angles is bisected by a brownish black, longitudinal

line, which is enlarged and somewhat triangular at its anterior

extremity; the sides are closely reticulated with brown lines ;

two brown bands extend along the under part to a transverse

bar of the same hue, near the spinners; and the sexual organs

are of a red-brown colour.

This small species of Ciniflo was captured by Mr. R. H. Meade

in Buckinghamshire in August 1854.

Family Linyrnrp2.

Genus Nrerizne, Blackw.

. Neriéne affinis.

Length of the male }th of an inch; length of the cephalo-

thorax ;!,; breadth ;4,; breadth of the abdomen +; ; length of

a posterior leg 14; length of a leg of the third pair ;%.

The legs are provided with hairs, and have a bright yellowish

red tint; the fourth pair is the longest, then the first, and the

third pair is the shortest ; each tarsus is terminated by three

claws ; the two superior ones are curved and slightly pectinated,

and the inferior one is inflected near its base. The palpi are

long and resemble the legs in colour, but are somewhat paler ;

the humeral joint is slightly curved towards the cephalo-thorax,

122 Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Descent of Glaciers.

and the cubital and radial joints are clavate, the former having

a conical, pointed process projecting at right angles from its ex-

tremity, on the under side, and the latter a very minute, bifid,

black apophysis ut its extremity, in front; the digital joint is

small, oval, convex and hairy externally, concave within, com-

prising the palpal organs, which are moderately developed, not

very complicated in structure, and of a pale red-brown colour.

The cephalo-thorax is oval, convex, glossy, with slight furrows

on the sides converging towards an indentation in the medial

line; the falees are powerful, subconical, vertical, convex at the

base, in front, divergent at the extremity, armed with teeth on

the inner surface, and have a conical tooth-like process near the

middle, towards the inner side, and numerous minute, pointed

prominences in front ; the maxillz are convex at the base, en-

larged where the palpi are inserted, and at the extremity, which

has a pointed process on the outer side, and incline towards the

lip, which is semicircular and prominent at the apex; and the

sternum is broad, glossy, and heart-shaped. These parts have a

reddish-brown colour, the lip and anterior part of the cephalo-

thorax being much the darkest. The four intermediate eyes

form a trapezoid, the two anterior ones, which constitute its

shortest side, being the smallest and darkest of the eight ; and

those of each lateral pair are seated obliquely on a small tubercle,

and are almost in contact. The abdomen is oviform, thinly

clothed with hairs, convex above, projecting over the base of the

cephalo-thorax ; it has a dark olive hue, the under part being

the palest, and the colour of the branchial opercula is yellow ;

along the middle of the upper part there extends a series of

obseure, curved, grayish lines whose convexity is directed for-

wards ; and two indentations occur on each side of the medial

line, the posterior pair being rather the wider apart.

Two adult males of this species were received from Mr. R. H.

Meade in June 1855, one of which had been taken in the vici-

nity of Burton-on-Trent, and the other at Hornsea, near the east

coast of Yorkshire, in the preceding year.

XI1.—WNote on the Descent of Glaciers.

By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, Esq., F.R.S.

Tue different theories, propounded from time to time by so

many able observers of this singular phenomenon, have been so

earnestly and plausibly argued, that 1t may be worth while to in-

quire if they cannot be reconciled with each other ; and, although

my knowledge of the subject does not enable me to do so, I

trust I shall not be considered presumptuous in offering a sug-

Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on the Descent of Glaciers. 123

gestion which may be improved by some abler pen. My atten-

tion has been somewhat directed to the question in consequence

of my having resided during a considerable part of last year in

Switzerland, the land of glaciers, where I had the good fortune

of making the acquaintance of that veteran geologist, M. de

Charpentier.

These theories appear to be five in number.

lst. That of De Saussure, who supposed that glaciers de-

scended solely by their own weight; and this has been called

the “ Gravitation ” theory. His observations have justly had

the credit of being most accurate; and they extended over a

great number of years, and were conducted with much labour

and at considerable expense. They will be found in his ‘ Voyage

dans les Alpes,’ published in 1779.

2nd. That of De Charpentier, and adopted by Agassiz, which

supposed that the phenomenon was caused by the surface of the

glacier being thawed during the day ; that the water thus pro-

duced percolated the porous material ; and that upon conge-

lation taking place at night the whole structure expanded in

every direction, naturally occasioning or accelerating a down-

ward movement in the direction of the slope. This is called the

‘¢ Dilatation” theory. It was first propounded by Charpentier

at a Meeting of the Helvetic Society held at Lucerne in 1834;

and it appeared in the 8th volume of the ‘Annales des Mines.’

It was afterwards (in 1841) published by him in a more elabo-

rate form under the title of ‘ Essai sur les Glaciers.? Agassiz’

memoir was read at a Meeting of the same Society held at Neu-

chatel in 1837 ; and it was, I believe, published in their Transac-

tions. In his work entitled ‘ Etudes sur les Glaciers,’ and pub-

lished in 1840, this theory is further developed.

- 8rd. That of Professor James Forbes, which attributed the

phenomenon to the viscous or plastic nature of the glacier,

causing the descent suis viribus. This has been called in Ger-

many the ‘ Pech” theory, and was published in 1843 by our

distinguished countryman in his work on Glaciers.

4th. That of Mr. Hopkins of Cambridge (mentioned by Pro-

fessor Forbes), who referred the motion of a glacier to the dis-

solution of the ice in contact with the rock; although Char-

pentier had previously instanced some striking facts to prove

that the glacier bed never thaws.

And 5th. The theory lately offered by the Rev. Henry Moseley

and published in the 7th volume of the Royal Society’s Proceed-

ings, which (assimilating a glacier to a sheet of lead) supposed

that the phenomenon was owing to the heat of the sun, and

consequently to an alternate expansion and contraction of the

material. | |

124 Bibliographical Notices.

Now the suggestion I would venture to make is, that the phe-

nomenon may be attributed to all and each of the forces above

mentioned ; and that the discrepancy of opinion between so

many experienced and trustworthy observers may arise from

their researches having been conducted at different seasons of

the year, in different states of temperature, on different soils or

kinds of rock (some of which retain or impart more heat than

others), at different heights above the sea-level, after the fall of

a greater or less quantity of glacier snow, at different degrees of

‘solar heat or radiation, or under many other different conditions.

Some of the theories are self-evident, and have been admitted to

a certain extent by their opponents. Perhaps the structure of

the material in various climates and at different heights may be

better known when the science of photography has been further

applied to it, as I cannot help thinking that the interesting and

kaleidoscopic forms of snow (taken by Mrs. Glaisher), which were

exhibited at the last soirée given by the Assistant Secretary of

the Royal Society, may throw some light on this vexed and diffi-

cult question. |

It seems to me that the modi operandi of nature for the same

purpose are various, and that the inanimate and animated crea-

tion are governed by similar or analogous laws. An illustration

of this occurs to me in the case of certain marine mollusks and

annelids which perforate limestone and other rocks. This ope-

ration has been attributed by naturalists to many and different

causes: viz. to mechanical action, to a solvent power, to con-

tinual maceration of the material, as well as to the action of

siliceous bodies which are occasionally found in some of these

mollusks. The modern and better opinion, however, seems to

be, that all or more than one of these various methods are used

by the same species, and perhaps by the same animal, in effect-

ing its object, according to the nature of the material acted on,

the age of the individual, and other circumstances. |

London, 13th July 1855.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. |

Catalogue of British Hymenoptera in the Collection of the British

Museum. Part 1. Apide—Bees. By Freperick Situ, M.E.S.

London: Printed by Order of the Trustees, 1855. 12mo.

Amongst the many anomalies presented by the state of Entomology

in this country, the little attention paid to the interesting family of

the Bees is certainly none of the least. It is indeed singular that the

majority of our entomologists should confine themselves so religiously

to the study of Coleoptera and Lepidoptera, the habits of which are

Bibliographical Notices. 125

generally obscure and often wholly uninteresting, whilst the insects of

the large order of Hymenoptera, which present so many points of in-

terest in the almost infinite variety of their ceconomy, attract scarcely

anybody’s attention. In the case of the Bees this is the more remark-

able, as we have for many years possessed a work upon the British

species of those insects (the ‘ Monographia Apum Anglize’ of Kirby,

published in 1802), which has generally been regarded as a model of

an Entomological monograph, and which, notwithstanding the lapse

of more than half a century since its publication, still holds its place

as a standard work.

Nevertheless even in this neglected department of Entomology,

this interval of fifty years has added considerably to the list of Bri-

tish species, and shown that the learned author of the work above

mentioned, was, as might be expected, not unfrequently in error with

regard to the species known to him, and especially that in some cases

he has placed together as males and females of the same species

insects which are truly distinct, whilst in others the two sexes of the

same insect have been described as distinct species. Most of these

errors are now corrected, mainly by the exertions of Mr. Smith,

whose numerous and interesting papers on British Bees, published

in the ‘ Zoologist,’ have done much for the extension of our know-

ledge of this subject. The scattered nature of these notices, how-

ever, renders the appearance of the present little work particularly

welcome, as in it Mr. Smith has given in a systematic form the en-

tire results of his study of the British Bees, pursued assiduously for

more than twenty years, and in many instances with the advantage

of having corrected his previous notions by the more extended inter-

course with continental entomologists, which his present position at

the British Museum has opened up to him.

Although brought out as one of the series of Catalogues published

by the Trustees of the British Museum, this little book is certainly

far more deserving of the title of a monograph than a great majority

of the things that commonly make their appearance under that

name, many of which indeed are little more than catalogues ;—Mr.

Smith’s Catalogue contains full descriptions of all the genera and

species, accompanied by observations on their habits and ceconomy,

which are rendered particularly valuable by the author’s long expe-

rience, and will be found very interesting even to the general reader.

Of this the following account of the ceconomy of the Bees of the

genus Osmia may serve as an example, and the reader will find many

other passages of equal interest in other parts of the book :—

‘If I were asked,” says Mr. Smith, ‘which genus of bees would

afford the most abundant materials for an essay on the diversity of

instinct, I should without hesitation point out the genus Osmia. I

propose to notice in this place all that has occurred to me during an

attentive observation of their ceconomy for the last twenty years.

The most abundant species is Osmia bicornis ; its ceconomy 1s varied

by circumstances ; in hilly country, or at the sea-side, it chooses the

sunny side of cliffs or sandy banks, in which to form its burrows ;

126 Bibliographical Notices.

but in cultivated districts, particularly if the soil be clayey, it selects

a decaying tree, preferring the stump of an old willow ; it lays up a

store of pollen and honey for the larvee, which when full-grown spin

a tough dark brown cocoon, in which they remain in the larva state

until the autumn, when the majority change to pups, and soon

arrive at their perfect condition; many however pass the winter in

the larva state. In attempting to account for so remarkable a cir-

cumstance, all must be conjecture, but it is not of unfrequent occur-

rence; this species also frequently makes its burrows in the mortar

of old walls. Osmmza leucomelana may be observed availing itself of

a most admirable, and almost ready, adaptation for a burrow ; it

selects the dead branches of the common bramble ; with little labour

the parent bee removes the pith, usually to the length of from five to

six inches; at the end she deposits the requisite quantity of food,

which she closes in with a substance resembling masticated leaves,—

evidently vegetable matter; she usually forms five or six cells in one

bramble-stick. The bee does not extract the whole of the pith, but

alternately widens and contracts the diameter of the tube, each con-

traction marking the end of a cell; the egg is deposited on the food

immediately before closing up the cell ; it is white, oblong, and about

the size and shape of a caraway-seed: the larva is hatched in about

eight days, and feeds about ten or twelve, when it is full-grown; it

then spins a thin silken covering, and remains in an inactive state

until the following spring, when it undergoes its transformations, and

appears usually in the month of June.

** Osmia hirta burrows in wood, seldom in any other material ; the

same habit will be observed in Osmia enea ; but I have observed this

bee more than once constructing its burrow in the mortar of walls,

and sometimes in hard sand-banks. Osmia aurulenta and O. bicolor

are bees which commonly burrow in banks, the latter being very

abundant in some situations, forming colonies; but although it ap-

pears to be the natural habit of these species to construct tunnels in

hard banks, with great labour and untiring perseverance, still we

find them at times exhibiting an amount of sagacity, and a degree of

knowledge, that at once dispels the idea of their actions being the

result of a mere blind instinct, impelling them in one undeviating

course. A moment’s consideration will suffice to call to mind many

tunnels and tubes ready-formed, which would appear to be admirably

adapted for the purposes of the bee—for instance, the straws of a

thatch, and many reeds ; and what could be more admirably adapted

to their requirements than the tubes of many shells? So thinks the

bee! O. aurulenta and O. bicolor both select the shells of Helix hor-

tensis and H. nemoralis: the shells of these snails are of eourse very

abundant, and lie half hidden beneath grass, mosses, and plants ; the

bees finding them in such situations, dispense with their accustomed

labour and take possession of the deserted shells. The number of

cells varies according to the length of the whorl of the shell selected,

the usual number being four, but in some instances they construct

five or six, commencing at the end of the whorl; a suitable supply

of pollen and honey is collected, an egg deposited, and a partition

Bibliographical Notices. 127

formed of abraded vegetable matter ; the process is repeated until the

requisite number is formed, when the whole is most carefully pro-

tected by closing up the entrance with small pellets of clay, sticks

and pebbles ; these are firmly cemented together with some glutinous

matter, and the bee has finished her task.

** We will now observe the intelligence of the bee under different

circumstances: she has selected the adult shell of Helix aspersa ;

the whorl of this species is much larger in diameter than that of

H. nemoralis or H. hortensis—too wide, in fact, for a single cell;

our little architect, never at a loss, readily adapts it to her purpose

by forming two cells side by side, and as she advances towards the

entrance of the whorl, it becomes too wide even for this contrivance ;

here let us admire the ingenuity of the little creature ; she constructs

a couple of cells transversely! And this is the little animal which

has been so blindly slandered as being a mere machine!

“‘ There is still another species of this genus whose habits are so

different to the rest, that our admiration of the ingenuity of these

bees is greatly increased when we consider its curious details and re-

flect upon the degree of care and foresight exhibited by the provi-

dent parent,—this is the Osmia parietina, a bee only found in the

northern parts of this country. This species selects the underside of

a slate or stone lying on the ground, and having a hollow space be-

neath ; to the stone the bee attaches the little balls of pollen. A stone

of this kind was found at Glen Almond, Perthshire, on the Grampians,

800 feet above the level of the sea, by Mr. J. Robertson, who, on

turning it up, observed a mass of cocoons; although he was not

much acquainted with: entomology, still he knew them to be the

production of some insect; he presented the stone to the British

Museum, and it was placed in my hands for observation. The size

of the stone was 10 inches by 6; the number of cocoons attached to

it two hundred and thirty: when first discovered, about one-third of

them were empty; this was in the month of November. In the

beginning of the following March, a few males made their appear-

ance, and shortly afterwards some females ; they continued to come

forth occasionally until the end of June ; at this time there remained

thirty-five undeveloped cocoons ; on opening one or two of them,

they proved to contain active larvee ; these I carefully closed, and left

the whole undisturbed until the following April, at which time, on

examination, they proved to be still in the larva state; but at the

end of May they changed to pupze, and about the end of June began

to come forth perfect insects. This, then, was the result—a portion

of a deposit of eggs made in 1849 had been three years in arriving

at maturity : when found, one-third were developed; the following

year a second brood came forth, and whilst in my possession a third.

In the first instance, the whole deposit was subject to the same

influences, and had produced larvee; what was the cause of the

retarded development of the rest, it were vain to attempt to deter-

mine.”

There can be no doubt that this is one of the most valuable con-

128 Zoological Society :—

tributions to entomological literature that has been brought out by

the Trustees of the British Museum. It is illustrated with several

excellent plates engraved on copper by the author himself, contain-

ing figures of ail the genera, accompanied by carefully executed de-

tails. If we might suggest any improvement it would be, that

Mr. Smith would have rendered his work more generally acceptable,

had he given characters to the families and subfamilies into which

he divides the Bees ; for as it now stands, a beginner will perhaps be

somewhat at a loss to determine which of the principal groups will

receive a bee of which he may have taken specimens. This however

is but a passing objection, and we trust that the present work, which

is published at an exceedingly low price, may lead some of our young

entomologists to turn their attention to the interesting subject of

which it treats.

Proceedings of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. Vol. I.

York, 1855.

We have recently received this interesting volume, containing “A

selection from the papers relating to the Antiquities and Natural

History of Yorkshire, read at the monthly Meetings of the Society,

from 1847 to 1854,” and recommend it strongly to the attention of

our readers. By far the greater number of the papers here published

relates to Antiquities, and are of such a character as doubtless to at-

tract the attention of our Archeological brethren. Amongst those

more especially interesting to the naturalist. we may particularize the

observations on Zamia gigas, by Messrs. Yates and Wilhamson ; on

the Zoophytes of the Flamborough Chalk, by Mr. Charlesworth; on

the Sclerotic ring of the Eyes of Birds and Reptiles, by Mr. Allis;

as well deserving of perusal.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

February 28, 1854.—Dr. Gray, Vice-President, in the Chair.

NorTiceE OF THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS ORTHOTOMUS OF

HorsFIELD, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF A NEW SPECIES, AND

OF THOSE HITHERTO KNOWN. By Frepreric Moore,

Assist. Mus. East Inp1a Company.

Fam. Sytv1aD&, Vigors.

Subfam. Syiv1ana, Vigors.

Genus OrtrHotomus, Horsfield.

Syn. Edela, Lesson.—Sutoria, Nicholson.

1. OrrHotTomus sEPiuM, Horsfield.

Syn. Orthotomus sepium, Horsf. Trans. Linn. Soc. xii. p. 166

(1820). Lath. Hist. iv. p. 265. Temm. Pl. Col. 599. f.1. G. R.

Mr. F. Moore on species of Orthotomus. 129

Gray, Gen. of Birds, i. p. 162. Blyth, Catal. B. Mus. A. S. Beng.

p- 145. Bonap. C. G. Av. p. 282.

The Chiglet Creeper, Lath.

Chiglet of the Javanese, Horsf.

Hab. Java. :

O. sepium.—The forehead, lores, over the eyes and ear-coverts,

ear-coverts themselves, base of lower mandible and chin ferruginous,

palest on the sides and chin; top of head, back and tail brownish

olive, having a greenish tinge; wings dusky, broadly margined with

brownish olive; throat and breast asay black, the rest of the under

parts yellowish ; tail with a terminal dusky band, tipped with yellow-

ish; thighs ferruginous ; bill brownish, paler below; legs pale.

Length, 44 inches; of wing, 1,8; tail, 14; bill to gape, ;4;

tarsus, 3.

The aboye description is taken from Dr. Horsfield’s typical speci-

mens, contained in the Mus. East India Company.

2. ORTHOTOMUS ATROGULARIS, Temminck.

Syn. Orthotomus atrogularis, Temm. Pl. Col. Texte, 599 (1836).

G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, i. p. 162. Bonap. C. G. Av. p. 282.

Hab. Malacca; Borneo.

O. atrogularis.—“ The forehead, top of the head and occiput

bright brownish red; the neck, the back and the wings of a grassy

green ; the tail of a yellowish green, marked near the end and on the

inner web with a narrow yellowish band ; the chin, throat, breast and

upper parts of flanks pure black, the sides of the abdomen yellowish ;

middle of the belly and abdomen white; bill and feet brown. No

difference in the sexes.

*‘ Length, 32 inches.” — Temm.

3. ORTHOTOMUS FLAVOVIRIDIS, nobis.

The forehead, crown, round the eyes, and occiput ferruginous ;

back and rump yellowish green; tail more dusky green; wings

brown, broadly margined exteriorly throughout with yellowish green ;

chin, base of lower mandible, ear-coverts, centre of some of the feathers

of the throat and breast white ; lower part of the breast ash and white ;

centre of abdomen white ; throat and fore part of the breast black,

centred as above ; flanks yellowish ; extreme edge of shoulder of wing

yellow ; under part of tail yellowish, with a terminal dusky band,

tipped with yellowish; thighs greenish ferruginous. Specimens

labelled ‘ male.”

Length, 4 inches; of wing, 13; tail, 1}; bill to gape, ;4,; tarsus, ;4.

Hab. Malacca. In Mus. East India Company.

4. OrTHOTOMUS EDELA, Temminck.

Syn. Orthotomus edela, Temm. Pl. Col. 599. f. 2 (1836). G. R.

Gray, Gen. of Birds, i. p. 162, Blyth, Catal. B. Mus. A. S. Beng.

p. 144. Bonap. C. G. Av. p. 282.

Motacilla sepium, Raffles, Trans. Linn. Soe. xiii. p. 313. Lath.

Hist. vii. p. 218 (nec Horsf. v. Lafres.).

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvi. 9

130 Zoological Society :—

Edela ruficeps, Less. Cent. Zool. p. 212. t. 71 (1834) (nec Less.

Tr. d’Orn.).

Kachichi of the Malays of Sumatra, Raffles.

Hab, Malayan peninsula; Sumatra. In Mus. East India Com-

pany.

O. edela.—‘‘ The forehead, lores and crown ferruginous; the

entire lower parts whitish, but the sides of the neck slightly varie-

gated with clear ashy; back of neck, back, wing-coverts and tail

greenish ; the wings ashy, but bordered with greenish ferruginous ;

ro tail is regularly of one colour; the bill and feet brownish.” —

emm.

Length, 44 inches ; of wing, 13; tail, 1}; bill to gape, 2; tarsus, 3

5. ORTHOTOMUS RUFICEPS, Lesson.

Syn. Edela ruficeps, Less. Tr. d’Ornith. p. 309 (1831) (nec Less.

Cent. Zool.).

Orthotomus sericeus, Temm. Pl. Col. Texte, 599 (1836). G. R.

Gray, Gen. of Birds, i. p. 162. Bonap. C. G. Av. p. 282.

* Hab. Malacca; Borneo.

O. ruficeps.—The forehead, crown, occiput, lores and upper part

of ear-coverts bright ferruginous; the chin, base of lower mandible,

lower part of ear-coverts and the rest of the under parts silky white ;

back, rump and wings deep ash ; tail bright ferruginous, at base ashy,

and with no terminal band ; thighs ferruginous ; bill yellowish brown,

pale below ; legs pale.

Length, 43 inches; wing, 2; tail, 13; bill to gape, 4; tarsus, 8.

The above description is from a specimen in the East India Com-

pany’s Museum. This species may readily be distinguished by the

bright ferruginous colour of the head, the tail also being of the same

colour, and by the bill being considerably longer and stouter (though

strictly typical) than in any of the other known species.

6. ORTHOTOMUS CINERACEUS, Blyth.

Syn. Orthotomus cineraceus, Blyth, Journ. A. 8. Beng. xiv. p. 589

(1845); Catal. B. Mus. A. S. Beng. p. 144. Bonap. C. G. Av.

. 282.

r Orthotomus sepium, Lafres. Mag. de Zool. 1836, t. 51 (nec Horsf.

v. Raffles).

Hab. Malacca.

O. cineraceus.—“ Upper parts pure ash-grey, without any tinge of

green; forehead and sides of the head light ferruginous, palest on the

cheeks, and there is a slight tinge of the same upon the chin ; crown

tinged with olive-brown ; lower parts white, passing to light ashy on

the sides of the breast ; tail somewhat brownish, with terminal dusky

band, and whitish extreme tips to its outer feathers; tibial plumes

rust-coloured ; the tarsi and toes red-brown; bill dusky above, pale

beneath.

“Length about 43 inches; of wing, 1,8; tail, 14; bill to gape, 3;

tarse, £.”—Blyth,

Mr. F. Moore on species of Orthotomus. 131

A specimen in the East India Company’s Museum, from Malacca,

has the centre of the throat and the whole of the breast and flanks

lightish ash, paling to silky white on the centre of the belly; the

under tail-coverts are also white; wings brown, the primaries mar-

gined. exteriorly with pale dusky ferruginous, the secondaries with

ashy olive; extreme edge of wing, under spurious wing-coverts and

exterior margin of the latter ferruginous white, contrasting with the

ash on the breast ; under wing-coverts white. The wing and tarsus

are both an eighth of an inch longer. Other characters as in the

description above.

7. ORTHOTOMUS LONGIROSTRIS, Swainson.

Syn. Orthotomus longirostris, Swains. 24 Cent. p. 343 (1837) ;

Classif. Birds, ii. p. 62. f. 135. G.R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, i. p. 162.

Bonap. C. G. Av. p. 282. |

_ Hab. $.W. Australia (Swains.). Malacca?

0. longirostris.—*‘ Cinereous ; sides of the body beneath cinereous,

the middle white; head, chin and thighs ferruginous ; throat black ;

tail brownish, graduated, the latter with dusky black ends, tipped

with whitish ; bill and legs pale. |

** Length, 43 inches ; wing, 2;3,; tail, beyond 1; base, 1,45; bill to

gape, ;§ ; tarsus, ;%.’—Swains.

This species differs from O. cineraceus in having a black throat,

and in the wing being three-tenths of an inch longer, the tarsus also

being longer by a quarter of aninch. Mr. Swainson has given 8.W.

Australia as the habitat of this species, which must evidently be an

error.

8. ORTHOTOMUS CUCULLATUS, Temminck.

Syn. Orthotomus cucullatus, Temm. Pl. Col. 599. f. 3 (1836).

G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, i. p. 162. Bonap. C. G. Av. p. 282.

| Hab. Java; Sumatra. 26

_ « O.cucullatus.—“Top of the head bright ferruginous; neck, cheeks,

and the sides of the breast of a pure ash; the neck in front, the

breast, and the middle of the belly are pure white ; the sides, the

thighs and the abdomen of a citron-yellow; back and wings of a

greenish tint, the quills and tail margined with greenish ; upper man-

dible brown, the lower as well as the feet yellowish.””—Temminck.

9. OrTHOTOMUS LONGICAUDA, Gmelin.

- Motacilla longicauda et sutoria, Gmel. 8. N. L. i. pp. 954, 997.

Orthotomus longicauda, Strickl. Ann. N. H. xii. p. 35. Blyth,

J. A. S. Beng. xiii. p. 377; Catal. B. Mus. A. S. Beng. p. 144.

G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, i. p. 162. Tickell, J. A. S. Beng. xvii.

pt. i. p. 298. Hutton, J. A. 8S. Beng. xvii. pt. ii. p. 691. Bonap.

C. G. Av. p. 281. Layard, Ann. N. H. 1853, p. 262.

Sylvia longicauda et sutoria, Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. pp. 545, 551;

Gen. Hist. vii. pp. 79, 119. Vieill. Enc. Méth. p. 456.

Malurus longicaudus, Pearson, J. A. 8. Beng. x. p. 644.

Sylvia guzuratta, Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 554; Gen. Hist. vii. p. 129.

QO*

182 Zoological Society :—

Orthotomus Bennettii et O. lingoo, Sykes, P. Z. S. (1832) p. 90.

Lafres. Mag. de Zool, (1836) t.52,53, Jerdon, Madr. Journ. xi. p. 1.

Hodgs. Cat. B. Nep. p. 63.

Orthotomus ruficapilla, Hutton, J. A. S. Beng. ii. p. 504 (1833).

Orthotomus sphenurus, Swains. 21 Cent. p. 343 (1838).

Orthotomus sutorius, v. ruficapillus, v. sphenurus, Hodgs. Gray’s

Zool. Mise. (1844) p. 82.

Orthotomus sutoria et O. patia, Hodgs. P, Z. 8. (1845) p. 29.

Sutoria agilis, Nicholson, P. Z. 8. (1851) p. 194.

The Indian Tailor Bird.

Phutki, of the Hindoos, Jerdon.

Tuntuni, of the Bengalese, Hamilton, Blyth.

Patia, or “ Leaf Bird,’ Nepal, Hodgson.

Hab. India generally; Ceylon; Burmese countries; Malayan

peninsula ?

This species is too well known to require further description.

“The Tailor Bird is tolerably common in most wooded districts, and

universally spread, frequenting cultivated ground, especially gardens,

groves of trees, and is also found in high jungle, in the more open

spaces. It lives in pairs or in small flocks, mcessantly hopping about

the branches of trees and shrubs, peas and other vegetables, with a

loud reiterated note, and picking various insects (chiefly ants and

small larvee) off the bark and leaves, and not unfrequently seeking

them on the ground. It has the habit of frequently jerking up its

tail while feeding or hopping about, and at times (especially when

ealling) it has the power of raising the feathers on the lower part of

the throat, and displaying on either side a small black stripe. This

has been noted by no one except Lieut. Hutton, who states, ‘it is

only seen when the bird is in motion, and wholly disappears when in

a state of rest.2 It has various notes, one of whieh sounds like éwee,

twee, twee, as mentioned by Col. Sykes, and another which is gene-

rally used when alarmed or angry, and sounds like ehich, chick, chick,

chicky, chick. It is a familiar bird, and ventures close to houses,

but when observed becomes wary.’’—Jerdon. NY

_ Dr. Nicholson says, “It has a loud, short, and not unmelodious

song ; its general cry being ‘wheet, wheet, wheet, often repeated ;

but its alarm cry is like ‘ eheertah, cheertah, eheertah.’”’

The following are a few observations on the structure of two speci-

mens of the nest of the Tailor Bird, found in the garden belonging

to Capt. Hearsey, by Lieut. Hutton: “The first was neatly formed

of raw cotton and bits of cotton threads, woven strongly together,

thickly lined with horse-hair, and supported between two leaves on a

twig of the Amaltas tree (Cassia fistula). These two leaves were

first placed longitudinally upon each other, and stitched in that posi-

tion from the points to rather more than halfway up the sides with

a strong thread spun from the raw cotton by the. bird, leaving the

entrance to the nest at the point where they join the branch of the

tree. Both of these leaves were of course green and living. Subse-

quently, hcwever, they were biown down by a high wind, and being

now withered, the nest appears enclosed between two dead leaves.

Mr. E. L. Layard on new species of Paludomus. 133

The second specimen was at the end of a branch of the Bhela (Seme-

carpus anacardium), about two feet from the ground, and constructed

of the same materials as the above, viz. raw cotton, cotton threads,

also a little flax, and lined with horse-hair alone; the leaves were

stitched together partly with thread prepared by the bird, and partly

with spun thread ; and so well concealed was it, that even after Capt.

Hearsey had discovered it (by accident) he could scarcely find it

again to show to me. In it were found an egg and two young birds

nearly fledged. These I placed, with the nest, in a trap-cage, and

thus succeeded in capturing beth of the old birds. The young birds

are similar in colours to the adults, except that they are paler and the

top of the head cinereous with a faint rufous tinge; bill yellowish.

The eggs are white, spotted, chiefly at the larger end, with tawny

spots.”

P runihiek notices of the habits and nest of this curious bird are given

by the following authors, at the places above referred to, viz. Hodgson,

Sykes, Blyth, Layard, Nicholson, &c.

- March 14.—Dr. Gray, Vice-President, in the Chair. -

1, OBSERVATIONS ON THE GENUS PaLuDOMUS oF SWAINSON,

wiTH DrescRIPTIONS OF SEVERAL New SPECIES, AND THE

DescripTion oF A New Srvecies or ANCuLoTus. By,

Epear L. Layarp, F.Z.S., C.M.E.S, etc. etc.

A cursery survey of the genus Paludomus, which Swainson many

a y

“id

‘4

years ago separated from Melania, at once satisfied me that several } \

genera or subgenera, differing in structure and habits, were united °°

together under one name by Mr. Reeve, in his monograph on the

genus in the ‘ Conchologia Iconica,’ where he describes the charac-

ters of the genus as follows :—“ Animal fluviatile, with a horny sub-

triangularly-ovate concentrically-striated operculum.” ©

Had Mr. Reeve been furnished with the operculum and a correct

account of the habits of each species, he never would have left the

genus as it now stands. I was not aware that Dr. Gray had sepa-

rated one division from it, until so informed by him when I intro-

duced the subject to the notice of the Zoological Society on a former

evening ; and I rejoice to find that my observations on the Mollusca

in their natural state confirm the views to which that learned zoolo-

gist has arrived, from the structure of the opercula.

This induced me carefully to examine the whole group; and the

ample collection of Mr. Cuming, ever open to the investigator, my

own cabinet, particularly rich in this family, and my memoranda

taken in Ceylon, have furnished the results here presented to the

Society.

I propose to separate the genus into four divisions, founded upon

the structure of the operculum.

The first I shall designate PaLuvomus, as, with the addition of

the position of the nucleus in the operculum, the characters, as given

by Reeve, sufficiently describe that organ, and from its partiality to

134 Zoological Society :—

sluggish waters (two species being found in the marshy borders of

tanks or artificial lakes), it better suits the name than any of the

other divisions. A note of interrogation after a species implies that

I have not seen the operculum, but from the form I consider it to.

belong to the division in which it is placed.

Genus 1. Patupomus, Swains.

Animal inhabiting gently-running or still water. Operculum horny,

subtriangularly ovate, with the apex superior and slightly inclined ;

concentrically striate ; nucleus subcentral, sinistral.

P. levis, Layard, P. decussatus, Reeve ?

P. palustris, Layard. P. Stephanus, Benson?

P. chilinoides, Reeve. P. conicus, Gray.

P. phasianinus, Reeve. P. bifasciatus, Reeve.

P. acutus, Reeve. P. spiralis, Reeve.

P. bicinctus, Reeve. P. pictus, Reeve?

P. constrictus, Reeve. P. bacula, Reeve? ~

P. nigricans, Reeve. P. abbreviatus, Reeve?

P. paludinoides, Reeve. P. clavatus, Reeve ?

' P. punctatus, Reeve. P. Maurus, Reeve ?

_P. globulosus, Reeve? P. rudis, Reeve?

Genus 2. Ganea*, Layard.

Animal inhabiting gently-running water. Operculum horny, sub-

triangularly ovate; apex superior, slightly inclined, concentrically

striate ; nucleus subcentral, dextral.

G. dilatata, Reeve. G.neritoides, Reeve? G. olivacea, Reeve ?

Genus 3. TANALIA, Gray.

Animal fluviatile, delighting in the most rapid mountain torrents.

Operculum horny, subtriangularly ovate; apex lateral, lamellated ;

nucleus lateral, dextral.

T.. loricata, Reeve. T. Gardneri, Reeve.

T. crinascens, Reeve. T. Tennentii, Reeve.

T. erea, Reeve. T. Reevei, Layard.

T'. Layardi, Reeve. T. similis, Layard. An

T. undata, Reeve. T. violacea, Layard... /*.. °

T. funiculata, Reeve.

Genus 4. Puttoporamis, Layard.

Animal fluviatile, amphibious, delighting in rocky torrents. Oper-

culum horny, subtriangularly ovate ; apex superior, paucispiral ; nu-

cleus sub-basal, dextral. iia

Ph. sulcatus, Reeve. Ph. Thwaitesii, Lay. Ph. regalis, Lay.

* Cingalese name for a river.

Mr. E. L. Layard on new species of Paludomus. 135

One characteristic habit, separating the whole of these species, as

far as I can ascertain, from Melania, is that they are constantly found

adhering to stones, or the submerged roots of trees and stems of

aquatic plants, which the Melanie never are ; neither do they burrow

in sand, as do the Melanie, though they often resort to a sandy

locality, perhaps for the purpose of breeding. The habit in PA. su/-

catus of crawling several feet out of the water on the damp grass is

remarkable.

A few remarks on the various species in detail may prove not un-

acceptable. |

PALUDOMUS CHILINOIDES, Reeve.

This is the commonest species of the whole tribe. It is found in

gently-running water generally, but often in paddy fields and other

marshy grounds to which these running waters have access.

The animal is blackish-mottled, forehead produced into an obtuse

point, slightly indented in the centre and fringed with red dots ;

tentacula two, acuminate ; eyes two, sessile, situated about one-fifth

of the distance up the tentacles.

I have taken the operculum of this species as the type of the

family ; it therefore needs no description.

PaLupomus Lzvis, Layard.

Shell oblong-ovate ; axis 11 lines, diam. 7 lines; spire acute, ex-

serted, moderately long; whorls rounded, not depressed round the

upper part, smooth. Colour olive-yellow, the lower whorls seldom

marked, but the upper always spotted with one or two rows of arrow-

headed dots; apex bluish; aperture white.

Operculum as in Pal. chilinoides.

Hab. Ceylon, in slow-running streams on the northern side of the

mountain zone extending into the flat country beyond Anarajahpoora.

I also obtained a few in a paddy field in the south of the island, near

the village of Heneratgodde. Mus. Cuming et Layard.

I think this may prove to be but a variety of Pal. chilinoides,

although the experienced eye of Mr. Cuming at once separated it

from that species. It is found in the same localities, and only differs

from it in wanting the depression round the upper part of the whorls

and in the colouring ; the mollusk is similar.

PaLuDOMUS PALUsTRIS, Layard.

Shell ovate, thin; axis 10 lines, diam. 6 lines; spire exserted,

long; whorls rounded, rather flat, spirally closely grooved with mi-

nute granular striee (visible under the lens)... Colour of adult shell *

a rich yellow spotted with dark brown, the markings frequently run-

ning into wavy lines; apex bluish ; aperture white.

* In young shells the ground colour is almost hidden by the dark markings,

and the aperture is found to be spirally marked with thin lines of the same

colour.

136 Zoological Society :—

Operculum nearly oval, the apex slightly inclined to the left ; con-

centric nucleus subcentral, sinistral.

Hab. The grassy margins of a tank at Anarajahpoora. Mus.

Cuming et Layard.

PALUDOMUS NIGRICANS, Reeve.

Operculum as in Pal. chilinoides, Reeve.

Hab. Baleaddua Pass, mountain torrent, affecting the little pools

and not found in the rapids.

PALUDOMUS CONSTRICTUS, Reeve.

Operculum as in Pal. chilinoides, Reeve, but with the apex very

much inclined to the left.

Hab. Kadaganava Pass, mountain streams. I have not taken it in

situ. Mus. Cuming et Layard.

PaLupomws BiciIncTus, Reeve.

Operculum as in Pal. chilinoides, Reeve.

Hab. Balcaddua Pass, in the Mahavillaganga, shallow quiet places

on sand. Mus. Cuming et Layard.

PALUDOMUS PHASIANINUS, Reeve.

Operculum as in Pal. chilinoides, Reeve.

I cannot help thinking that this is but a geographical variety of

Pal. chilinoides, of which the Ceylon race will be the connecting link.

Seychelles type. Mus. Cuming. Ceylon var. Mus. Layard.

PALUDOMUS PALUDINOIDES, Reeve.

Operculum as in Pal. chilinoides, Reeve.

Hab. Ganges. Mus. Cuming et Layard.

PALUDOMUS DECUSSATUS, Reeve.

Operculum as in Pal. chilinoides.

Hab. Baleaddua Pass, mountain torrent, in company with Pal. ni-

gricans, Reeve. Mus. Cuming et Layard. 7

PaLupomus PARvus, Layard.

Shell ovate ; axis 6 lines, diam. 4 lines; spire exserted, moderately

Jong; whorls slightly rounded, smooth. Colour dark olive-yello w

more or less marked with fine spiral brown lines; aperture white.

Operculum as in P. chilinoides, Reeve.

Hab. Bombay. Mus. Cuming et Layard.

PALUDOMUS GLOBULOSUS, Reeve.

Tam not quite satisfied that the opercula which I received with the

specimens of this shell presented to me, are really the proper oper-

‘ cula of the species, but it probably belongs to this group.

I was told that the shells came from Rambodde Pass, between

Newera Elia and Kandy, but never saw it x situ, as I did not visit

that locality. Mus. Layard et Cuming.

Mr. E. L. Layard on new species of Tanalia. 137

PALUDOMUS SPIRALIS, Reeve.

I include in this group, from its resemblance to my Pal. palustris.

The only specimens I ever saw are in Mr. Cuming’s cabinet.

PALUDOMUS DILATATUS, Reeve.

Operculum concentric; nucleus subcentral, dextral.

Hab. Ceylon, Rambodde Pass, mountain torrent. This species was

given to me along with Pal. globulosus ; I therefore know nothing of

its habits.

Genus Tanatia, Gray.

TANALIA LORICATA, Reeve.

This species grows to its largest size in the Calloo ganga, above

- Ratnapoora, where it is found in the most rapid foaming currents ad-

hering to rocks. It resorts to deep sandy pools and reaches at some

seasons, but apparently will not exist im a river devoid of rocks and

rapids. Most of the streams of the southern provinces answering to

this description contain it; but I never met with it to the northward,

where the rivers become more sluggish.

The mollusk is almost black.

TANALIA CRINASCENS, Reeve.

I doubt this being more than a geographical variety of the preceding

species ; and not being aware that it had been separated from it, did

not pay attention to the operculum, though it evidently belongs to

this group. I have only received the species from one locality,

Kadaganava Pass, between Colombo and Kandy ; but have interme-

diate varieties, on which half the spines are solid, as in loricata,

half capped and hollow, as in crinascens.

T. =zREA, Reeve. T. Layarpi, R. T. unpATA, R.

I seek in vain for sufficient distinction in these species to separate

them from loricata. Take a strongly-marked specimen of each, and

the division appears an excellent one; place a hundred of each, and

the gradations are imperceptible.

As far.as my recollection serves me, there is nothing different in

the animals; but as I was not aware of the separation of @rea and

Layardi, 1 did not closely scrutinize them; however, of undata

dozens passed in review with careful survey.

They are found with Joricata and the pseudo-variety crinascens

before mentioned ; and the opercula are undistinguishable, save that

those of @rea having a wider aperture to fill, are larger and not

quite so angular. I look upon them as varieties of loricata.

TANALIA GARDNERI, Reeve.

Operculum not distinguishable, except in size, from that of Jorz-

cata. In very large specimens the angle is often very great, and is

bent outward on the exterior side.

Hab. I found this species in a waterfall pool at Tambillichna,

below Ratnapoora ; also in the Calloo ganga, but only in the most

rapid current, mixed with /oricata and thé next species.

138 Zoological Society :—

TANALIA TENNENTII, Reeve.

Operculum the same as in the preceding species, but, if anything,

always more angular.

Hab. asin T. Gardneri.

TanauiA Reevet, Layard.

Shell oblong ovate; axis 14 inch, diam. 1 in. 2 lines. Spire exserted,

short. Whorls rounded, spirally corded with rather distant obtuse

ridges, longitudinally striated with well-marked close-set strize, the

great characteristic mark of the species. Aperture: outer lip edged

with deep purple-brown, columellar lip white. Colour a dark yellow-

nt thickly marked with longitudinal, slanting, jet-brown wavy

ands.

Hab. The Calloo ganga, Ratnapoora.

I have much pleasure in dedicating this beautiful species to the

gentleman who has so extensively investigated this peculiar family.

TANALIA VIOLACEA, Layard.

Shell globose; axis 6 lines, diam. 5 lines. Spire very short,

slightly exserted. Whorls rounded, ventricose, spirally grooved

with close-set, fine, minutely decussated striee (in one variety the

strize become ridges). Colour a dark bluish-brown, almost amounting

to black, with darkish brown patches appearing in some specimens,

Aperture deep violet inside; columella white, stained on the outside

edge with dark brown.

Hab. A small mountain torrent in a dense forest between Gilly-

malle and Pallabaddoola, towards Adam’s Peak, Ceylon.

TANALIA SIMILIs, Layard.

Shell rather globose; axis 8 lines, diam. 6 lines. Spire short,

exserted. Whorls rounded, ventricose, spirally grooved with close-

set, fine, minutely decussated strize. Colour rich. olive-yellow, pro-

fusely marked* with longitudinal, wavy, dark lines, interrupted by

four or five fine transverse bands of the same colour. Aperture: the

dark markings of the shell show through, and are dimmed by a bluish

haze ; columellar lip white, stained on the outside edge with dark

brown, which runs round the outer lip in a thin band.

Hab. A mountain torrent at Kandangamoa, near Ratnapoora.

TANALIA FUNICULATA, Reeve. i

I never could find any species which answered to Mr. Reeve’s

description of this shell, until Mr. Cuming kindly lent me the type

specimen, when an hour’s immersion in soap and water showed that

the “‘jet-brown’”’ was merely the accumulation of the freshwater algze

(which always cover this sluggish family) and the red cabooky dust

of “India’s utmost isle.” This cleaning revealed a ‘bright yellow

epidermis, variegated with dark brown wavy lines, and the very

minutely striated structure of the shell; an ‘the specimen imme-

diately ranged itself with a series of a very variable shell, which I had

in vain endeavoured to reconcile with any published description.

Mr. E. L. Layard on new species of Philopotamis. 189

A more lengthened description of this species, which I shall still

eall 7’. funiculata, Reeve, may prove acceptable, and prevent others

from experiencing the same difficulty which I have felt.

Shell oblong ovate; axis 13 lines, diam. 10. Spire exserted.

Whorls rather depressed round the upper part, spirally corded with

rather distant obtuse ridges placed at unequal distances, sometimes

with a thread-like ridge between two larger ones, the whole minutely

longitudinally striated. Colour a bright rich yellow, variegated with

closely set, dark brown, broadish, zigzag lines. Interior whitish ;

exterior lip faintly marked all round with purplish-brown, with fre-

quent dark brown spots; columellar lip white, with the exterior

margin stained with a bright pale brown. This description is taken

from the original type shell; in some examples the ridges are almost,

if not quite, obsolete ; the spire is hardly exserted, the zigzag lines

lost, and the aperture almost pure white; one of these specimens

measures, axis 95 lines, diam. 8 lines. In another, measuring, axis

17 lines, diam. 14 lines, the strize are much coarser, and some of the

upper ridges present a decided indication of nodules! The outer lip is

pretty deeply edged with dark brown, and the bright brown of the

columellar lip, though still present, is soon changed into a deep rich

hue.

The species is abundant in a mountain stream not far from Ratna-

poora, probably the very stream whence my lamented friend Dr.

Gardner procured the type specimen, as it is crossed by the high

road leading thither from Colombo ; and, as I have had opportunity

of witnessing, Dr. Gardner never failed to examine every stream he

passed.

PHILOPOTAMIS SULCATUS, Reeve.

Operculum ovoid ; apex slightly inclined, sinistral, paucispiral.

Nucleus sub-basal, dextral. Mollusk black ; forehead produced, as

in Paludomus chilinoides ; tentacles and eyes also the same.

Hab. Weyweldenia, a rocky rivulet. I found this species Joc. cit.,

and I then remarked that vast numbers of them were crawling on the

wet grass on the banks of the stream. I subsequently found it at

Kandangamoa and in the Calloo ganga.

PHILOPOTAMIS REGALIS, Layard.

Shell oblong ovate; axis 1 inch, diam. 9 lines. Spire exserted,

short. Whorls rounded, depressed at the upper part, spirally corded

with close-set slight ridges, longitudinally minutely striated, and

crowned with a single row of short, sharp, hollow, angular spines,

closely set. Colour yellowish-olive, painted with wavy, dark brown

longitudinal lines. Aperture pure white.

Operculum unknown, but most probably as in P. sulcatus.

Hab. Stream in the Cnia Corle, Western province, Ceylon.

Puitorotamis Tuwatresit, Layard.

Shell oblong ovate; axis 13 lines, diam. 9 lines. Spire exserted,

short. _Whorls almost carinated round the upper part, spirally

corded with unequal-sized, close, but irregularly set ridges, granulated

140 Zoological Society :—

or minutely striated. Colour yellowish-olive, painted more or less

with wavy, dark brown longitudinal lines. Aperture pinkish-white,

occasionally having the outer lip dotted with dark pink-brown marks.

Hab. Same as P. sulcatus.

This is a rare shell, if really distinct from sulcatus, from which

and from regalis it may at once be distinguished by the shallowness

and irregularity of the ridges.

ANCULOTUS CARINATUS, Layard.

Shell somewhat globose; axis 5 lines, diam. 4 lines. Spire ex~-

serted, short. Whorls inflated, rather square, sharply keeled round

the inferior angle, minutely longitudinally striated. Colour dull

olive, marked faintly with two or three broad bands of dark rufous-

brown, which are very apparent in the aperture; columellar lip

white, stained with a light 7 of the same rufous-brown on the

exterior margin.

Hab. Streams in the Mahakeshwar Hills, Bombay Presidency.

Mus. Cuming.

March 28.—Dr. Gray, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. Gould exhibited male and female specimens of a very rare

English Duck, described in 1847 by Mr. Bartlett, under the name

of Fuligula ferinoides. The specimens exhibited were lent to Mr.

Gould by M. Van den Bergh, of Rotterdam. Mr. Gould men-

tioned, that only three instances of the occurrence of the bird in

England are on record; one of the specimens is in the collection of

J. H. Gurney, another in that of Mr. Doubleday, of Epping, and

the third in the museum of the late Earl of Derby, at Liverpool.

CHARACTERS OF SOME NEW OR IMPERFECTLY-DESCRIBED

Species or TANAGERS.

By Paiute Lutiey Scuater, M.A.,, F.Z.S.

I have been collecting Tanagers for some time, with the view of

ultimately attempting a monograph of the family. But the forms in

many of the genera are so closely allied, and the limits of the family

itself at present so unsettled, that a larger collection of species, and

a much greater familiarity with the subject-matter than I have yet

had time to acquire, are requisite before such a monograph can be

satisfactorily completed. Puzzling indeed to ornithologists would

seem the question, “ What is a Tanager?” as puzzling perhaps as to

political economists Sir Robert Peel’s celebrated poser, ‘‘ What is a

pound?” My ideas on this point, that is, I mean, as to the posi-

tion and extent of the family or subfamily of Tanagers, coincide, I

believe, nearly with those of Mr. G. R. Gray.

A Tanager I consider to be a dentirostral Piushesen be distinguished

from other more typical Fringillide by the presence of one or more

teeth or notches in the upper mandible (sometimes further developing

themselves into serrations, as in certain species of Huphonia and Ta-

chyphonus), and the culmen being always more or less inflexed, never

straight. The colours of the group are generally very brilliant. They

Mr. P. L. Selater on new. species of Tanagers. 141

feed on ripe fruit, some on insects, and perhaps in habits rather

resemble Sylviade than true Fringillide,

With these views, I keep among the Tanagers the Pityli and

Saltatores, excluded therefrom by certain modern systematists, and

retained among the Fringillide, while the whole of what may be

termed the more typical portion of the group is removed far away to

the neighbourhood of the Sylvicoline. '

Now I think it will be impossible to settle these, and other families

belonging to the South American Fauna, in a really satisfactory way,

until we know much more than we do at present of the habits and

customs of the animals of that vast continent. Unfortunately those

who have hitherto written upon the ornithology of that country have

in general had too little previous scientific knowledge of the subject.

~ Not, of course, that this makes them less accurate observers of facts,

but only less likely to hit upon the right facts to be observed. A per-

son previously well acquainted with the varied forms of South Ameri-

can ornithology by study of the European collections, so as to know

what points required looking up, would, I have little doubt, be in a

much more favourable condition for observing these animals in their

native haunts, and thereby solving many of those doubts which at

present so perplex the student of natural history. As, however, we

may perhaps have to wait some time before a determination of the

question ‘‘ What is a Tanager?’’ can be arrived at in this manner,

I propose adopting as provisional limits for the family or subfamily,

nearly those given by Mr. G. R. Gray in his ‘ Genera of Birds,’ ex-

cluding only the genera Pipilo, Embernagra, and Emberizoides, which

appear to me to go better with Zonotrichia and its allied forms. To

show the arrangement I contemplate, I have formed a list* of the

genera and species, which may perhaps be useful for collectors to

mark off their duplicates or desiderata; though, as a mere catalogue

of names, it is, of course, of no scientific value. Some of the many

lately-formed genera now used, I may hereafter find occasion to con-

solidate, the principle of subdivision having been carried to great

lengths in this as in other families.

My present list contains the names of 222 species, though I have

no doubt that many more remain to be discovered. These are all

believed to be veal, not nominal species; indeed I have myself seen

specimens of nearly the whole of them, and the ten or twelve I have

not personally examined I believe rest on good authority. The

names used are many of them taken from Bonaparte’s ‘ Conspectus,’

his ‘ Note sur les Tanagras”’ in the ‘ Rev. et Mag. de Zool.’ for 1851,

the ‘Museum Heineanum’ of Cabanis, and my own papers in Sir

William Jardine’s ‘ Contributions.’

The Tanagers are essentially a South American family. Out of

the whole 222 species, 193 are from the continent south of the Isth-

mus of Panama, and the rest mostly either from Central America or

Southern Mexico. Three or four only are peculiar to certain of the

West Indian islands, and three only, well-known members of the

genus Pyranga, extend as summer migrants into the United States of

* Tanagrarum Catalogus Specificus. Auctore Philippi Lutley Sclater. Basing-

stoke, 1854. 8vo. 16 pp.

142 Zoological Society :-—

North America. Through South America they range down to the Rio

de la Plata, but on the western coast I am not aware that they have

been observed nearly so far south. M. d’Orbigny met with but one

species * at all on the occidental slope of the Andes; Tschudi men-

tions but three or four as occurring in the vicinity of Lima, on the

coast-region of Peru. —

Subjoined are the specific characters of five species occurring in

my list, of which accurate descriptions have not yet been published.

1. ARREMON AXILLARIS, Sclater. A. supra olivaceo-viridis ;

capite atro; superciliis productis albis; vitta verticali et cer-

vice postica cinereis : subtus niveus, lateribus cinerascentibus ;

macula utringue cervicali vittam quasi imperfectam formante,

mentoque summo atris; remigibus rectricibusque nigricantibus :

tectricibus alarum majoribus flavo-olivaceis, minoribus et awxillis

lete flavis: mandibula superiore nigra, inferiore flava: pedi-

bus clare brunneis.

Long. tota 5°2, alee 3°0, caudee 2-0 poll. Angl.

Avis junior. Semitorque collari vix conspicuo.

Hab. In Nova Grenada. 3

Obs. Species Arremoni semitorquato maxime affinis, sed hujus

axillis olivaceis, illius leetissime flavis.

2. RampuHoceLus porsALis, Bp. MS. 3 Coccineus: dorso

medio obscurius coccineo : alis caudaque nigris: rostro nigro,

mandibula inferiore basi lete alba.

9 Fusco-brunnea: alis caudaque nigricantibus: uropygio et

ventre toto erubescentibus : rostro brunneo.

Long. tota 7°0, alee 3°2, caudee 3°2.

Hab. In imp. Brasiliensi. | :

Obs. R. brazilio maxime affinis at dorso medio obscurius coccineo.

I should hardly have ventured to have separated this species from

R. brazilius, from which it only differs, so far as I can make out, in

the patch of darker colouring in the middle of the back ; but as the

Prince Charles Bonaparte has done so, and his MS. name has

attained wide circulation on the MM. Verreaux’s labels, I think it

best to give a published description of the grounds of the alleged

specific difference. However, M. Jules Verreaux,—a good authority,

—considers the two species truly distinct, and has assured me, if I

recollect right, that he has seen and shot them both frequently at

Rio and Pernambuco.

3. BuTHRAUPIS CHLORONOTA, Sclater. B. supra viridis; pileo

ceruleo: alis caudaque nigris, illarum tectricibus. minoribus

ceruleis; majoribus et secondariis viridi limbatis: subtus

flavus, crisso saturatiore : gutture toto atro : rostro pedibusque

nigris.

* The Tanagra striata, Gm., inthe ravines of Palca in Peru, 18°S.L. M. d’Or-

bigny attributes a wide range to this species, which he says occurs besides in the

Banda Oriental, near Monte Video, at Buenos Ayres, near La Paz, and in the

provinces of Yungas, Sicasica, Cochambamba, Valle Grande, and Chiquisaca in

Bolivia. (Voy. p. 272.) But, guere, does he not confound with 7’. striata,

Tschudi’s 7. frugilegus ?

Mr. P. L. Sclater on new species of Tanagers. 143

Long. tota 8°8, alee 4°6, caudze 3°8.

Hab. In republ. Equatoriana.

Obs. Affinis B. eximie, sed major, dorso toto viridi nec uropygio

ceeruleo.

I have seen only one specimen of this species, which was re-

ceived by the Fréres Verreaux of Paris from Ecuador. It is closely

allied to B. eaimia, but is larger in all its dimensions, nearly equalling

in size B. cucullata. Its distinguishing character is the uniform

green back, whence I have named it chloronota. I have examined

multitudes of B. eximia, and invariably found the vege Aces blue.

4. EvuPpHONIA CONCINNA, Sclater.

E. Poston a Bp. Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1851, p. 156?—

E. affinis, Less. Rev. Zool. 1842, p. 175?

E. supra nigro-violacea valde purpurascens ; pileo summo flavo :

infra gutture nigro-violaceo ; abdomine aurantio-flavo : cauda

subtus immaculate nigra.

Long. tota 3°8, alee 2°2, caudee 1°4.

Hab. In Nova Grenada.

Obs. EF. chlorotice similis, sed cauda subtus immaculata, fronte

latius nigro, dignoscenda.

This bird is one of the group so closely affine to EL. chlorotica, but

may be distinguished from all of them (as L. melanura from LE. vio-

lacea and its affines) by the absence of white markings on the exterior

rectrices. The middle of the belly is also of a brighter orange tint,

and the black front is broader than in Z. chlorotica. <A skin of this

species, received from the MM. Verreaux, is labelled L. hirundinacea,

Bp., and it is probably the species referred to by that name in the

** Note sur les Tanagras,” Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1851, p.156. It is

not however the true L. hirundinacea, Bp. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837,

. 117; for on examination of the type of that species, which is now

in the Derby Museum at Liverpool (labelled EL. hirundinirostris /),

I found it coequal with the bird described by me (Cont. to Orn,

1851, p. 86) as E. laniirostris, which again is not the true laniv-

rostris of MM. de Lafresnaye and d’Orbigny, but a closely allied

species, called in the Baron de Lafresnaye’s museum L. fortirostris,

This must, of course, for the future bear the first proposed specific

appellation hirundinacea, and will stand as follows :—

5. EUPHONIA HIRUNDINACEA, Bp.

Euphonia hirundinacea, Bp, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 117.—2#.

laniirostris, Sclater, Cont. to Orn. 1851, p. 86.—E. hirundini-

rostris, Bp. in Mus. Derb.—E£. fortirostris, Lafr. in mus. suo.

Ei, eneo-nigra: capite summo antico et corpore toto subtus flavis :

rectricibus 2 utringue extimis late albo intus notatis: rostro

et pedibus nigris.

Long. tota 4°5, alee 2°5, caudee 1°5.

Hab. In Guatimala (Bp. ); Chiriqué in Veragua (Kellett in Mus.

Brit.) ; Nova Grenada ?

Obs. E. violacee similis, sed veneo-nigra nec purpurascens : rostro

robustiore. |

144, Botanical Society of Edinburgh :—

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

June 14, 1855.—Professor Balfour, President, in the Chair.

Professor Balfour stated that Pontederia elongata had been culti-

vated in the Botanic Garden of Edinburgh, and distributed under

that name. It seems to be only a variety of P.crassipes, produced by

being grown in soil in place of water, The effect of this treatment

is to cause the inflated petioles to elongate and lose their globular

form. When the plants are put into deep water so as to float, the

roots being unable to reach the soil, they assume the proper form

of P. crassipes.

The following papers were read :—

1. * Remarks on the Calamites and Sternbergia of the Carboni-

ferous Epoch,” by Dr. Fleming.

Dr. Fleming arrived at the following conclusions :—1. That many

species have the original matter, now forming a thin film of coal,

smooth on the outside, or not exhibiting externally any traces of

joints or longitudinal ribs. 2. From the inside of their woody cylin-

ders, now converted into coal, diaphragms proceeded at regular, but

occasionally at irregular, intervals, dividing the inside of the hollow

stem into a series of chambers.

These partitions appear to have possessed a very loose texture

towards the centre, but become more dense in substance towards

their junction with the stem, and usually leave traces of coaly matter

at the sides. The jointed character of the casts of the inside, in

general all that is noticed by the geologist, is thus referable to the

dissepiments, and cannot be regarded as resembling the jointing of a

Calamus. 3. The inside of the woody cylinder, although smooth on

the outside, was grooved longitudinally in the spaces between the

partitions or on the walls of the chambers, and hence the rubbed

surfaces of the casts. 4. The stem, unlike Stigmaria and Lepido-

dendron, had no woody axis, nor dense medullary sheath.

The author next exhibited specimens of Sternbergia, displaying,

like the Calamite, the external cylinder of coal with a smooth surface,

and giving no indication of the internal arrangements. The inside

exhibited diaphragms having the same origin as in the Calamite, but

less regularly disposed, frequently wanting, and giving to the surface

of the cast, not a distinctly jointed, but a transversely crumpled ap-

pearance. He concluded, by stating that, from the smooth surface,

and thickness of the coaly matter into which the plant had been con-

verted, joined to its independent or detached condition in the rocks,

it could not be regarded as the remains of a discoid pith, but, like

the Calamite, as a plant which had a hollow stalk, the cavity divided

into chambers by transverse partitions, the remains of which give to

the casts their characteristic appearance.

2. “On the Dyeing Properties of Lichens,” by Dr. W. Lauder

Lindsay.

In this paper the author endeavours to direct public attention spe-

Prof. Harkness on Fossil Diatomacez. 145

cially to the two following facts, viz. First—that, in our own country,

many native Lichens, which grow more or less abundantly, might,

with advantage and ceconomy, be substituted for the somewhat ex-

pensive and scarce foreign Roccellas and other dye-Lichens usually

employed in the manufacture of orchil, cudbear and litmus ; and,

secondly—that, in our colonies, and foreign countries to which we

have access, species valuable as dye-Lichens probably grow in abun-

dance—might be collected and transported easily and cheaply—and

thus become important and lucrative articles of commerce.

3. ‘On Diatomacee found in a Sub-fossil state in Dumfriesshire,”’

by Robert Harkness, Professor of Geology, Queen’s College, Cork.

In this paper, the author remarked :—“ While examining the

boulder deposits which occur on the northern shore of the Solway

Frith last summer, my attention was directed to a locality about a

mile west of the mouth of the river Annan, where there is an inter-

esting association of indurated gravel beds, hill deposits, and peat-

bog, overlaid by the vegetable soil of the district. The boulder

gravel, which here is the lowest deposit exposed, consists of the ordi-

nary Silurian sandstone, mixed with the carboniferous grits, and a

few fragments of the Bunter sandstone of the neighbourhood. It

had a hardened nature, and in this respect bore considerable affinity

to many conglomerates. Above this bed of indurated boulder gravel

there is seen a silty deposit, which consists of beds of fine drab-

coloured sandy clay, having vegetable remains scattered through the

mass. These vegetable remains, when in such a condition that they

can be recognised, are, for the most part, fragments of Hquiseta.

The contents of this silty deposit are, however, not confined to such

organisms as ordinary swampy vegetation. On submitting portions

of the silt to microscopic examination this substance is found to

afford many species of Diatomaceee, associated together in an inter-

esting manner. Professor Gregory states that the following forms

of Diatoms occur :—

Epithemia Hyndmanni. Pinnularia major.

Cymbella Scotica. viridis.

maculata. acuta.

Coscinodiscus radiatus. tenuis (Gregory).

Cyclotella operculata. Gomphonema tenellum.

—— Kutzingiana. Doryphora amphiceros (fine).

Campylodiscus cribrosus (?). Synedra radians.

Tryblionella acuminata. Nitzschia (sp. ?).

~—— punctata. Grammatophora marina.

marginata. Melosira sulcata.

Surirella minuta. distans.

nobilis (or biseriata ?). Fragilaria virescens.

Navicula didyma. Odontidium mesodon.

ovalis. Meridion circulare.

——— rhomboides var (Gregory). Achnanthidium lanceolatum.

varians (Gregory).

This association of marine and freshwater forms indicates the oc-

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 10

146 Miscellaneous.

currence of conditions of an estuary nature, and leads to the inference

that the circumstance under which the silt was deposited approached

such as now prevails at the mouths of rivers.

«The occurrence of marine forms of Diatoms in silt, puts us in

possession of another element, by means of which we are enabled to

ascertain the changes which have taken place in the physical geo-

graphy of the earth. It furnishes us with a means applicable in

many instances where other and more perfect organisms have disap-

peared, the siliceous skeletons of these minute bodies being capable

of resisting that agent by means of which the solid coverings of mol-

luses are dissolved. Many of the raised sea-beaches, now affordin

no shells, will probably be found to contain Diatoms, which will tell

of the conditions under which these raised sea-beaches were originally

deposited, and provide us with information concerning the circum-

stances which operated in the production of strata of this nature.”

Dr. Gregory alluded to the interesting fact that Diatoms had been

found by Ehrenberg in all fossiliferous rocks as far down as the

Silurian ; and that while the higher organisms exhibited striking dif-

ferences in the rocks of different epochs, there was, in the case of

Diatoms, a striking similarity.

4. “Notice of the time of Flowering of certain Trees and Shrubs

in the Royal Botanic Garden during the past month,” by Mr. M‘Nab.

5. * Notes on the Effects of last winter upon Plants in the Royal

Botanic Garden, Belfast,’ by Dr. Dickie, Professor of Zoology an

Botany, Queen’s College, Belfast. ‘

The lowest point to which the thermometer fell during the month

of February 1855 was on the 15th, viz. 13° F. In 1845, on March

5th, the thermometer ‘in the Botanic Garden indicated 10° F., lower,

than in 1855. The injury to the plants, however, in 1855, was

greater, because in February last a generally low temperature, with

east and north-east winds, prevailed during two weeks.

6. “Account of the Origin and of some of the Contents of the

Museum of Economic Botany attached to the Royal Botanic Garden

of Edinburgh,” by Professor Balfour.

MISCELLANEOUS.

On the Organization of the Pedicellate Glands of the Leaf of

Drosera rotundifolia. By M. A. Trecut.

THERE are some plants certain organs of which are capable of

executing very remarkable movements under the influence of-a

mechanical ‘excitement. Amongst these are the leaves of Mimosa

pudica and sensitiva, and of Dionea muscipula, the stamens of Ber-

beris, &c. The Drosera has been classed with the plants which pos-

sess this singular property. It is generally supposed that as soon as_

a fly or other insect, attracted by the viscous juice secreted by the

Miscellaneous. 147

glanduliferous hairs which cover the surface of the leaf, settles upon

it, the hairs stiffen and curve towards those of the opposite side, so

as to form a sort of net under which the little creature remains im-

prisoned. It is certain that we often find one or more insects

struggling or dead under the hairs of this leaf, and this, I believe, is

the best proof that we possess of the excitability and movements of

the hairs in Drosera. I think however that these hairs are not ex-

citable, and that they are incapable of performing the movements

attributed to them. I have often endeavoured to irritate them, but

have never succeeded in observing anything which would indicate the

least degree of excitability, although I have been placed in circum-

stances very favourable for these experiments ; for after a recent shift-

ing of the Orchideous plants at the Museum, a great many specimens

of Drosera grew up amongst the Sphagnum employed in this ope-

ration, and there were for a long period leaves of all ages in the con-

servatory, so that I was enabled to experiment upon organs at differ-

ent degrees of development. Nevertheless, I never perceived the

least inflexion which was not occasioned by the pressure which I

employed.

It appears to me that the following is the cause of the capture of

insects by the leaves of Drosera. During their development these

leaves are rolled in upon themselves, the margins of the limb are

curved towards the centre, and the hairs have the same direction.

In growing, the limb spreads by degrees and the hairs also stiffen

successively from the circumference to the centre. If, before the

whole of the hairs have become stiff, some insect comes to suck the

viscous juice which exudes from their glands, it presses into the

space which they leave between them at the centre of the leaf, and

becomes entangled in the mucosity. The growth of the leaf con-

tinues nevertheless, the incurved hairs are straightened one after the

other, but the unfortunate insect dies before they become quite

straight.

The glands which secrete the viscous matter above mentioned are

deserving of the attention of botanists from their interesting struc-

ture, which has not yet been sufficiently studied. Meyen gives the

most detailed description of them in his memoir ‘ Ueber die Secretions-

Organe der Pflanzen ;’ but this description, although apparently mi-

nute, is notwithstanding very incomplete. It may be resumed as

follows :—‘‘ The glands of Drosera are elliptical and pedicellate ; a

spiral vessel runs up the pedicel and penetrates into the gland.”

Meyen adds in his ‘ Physiology’ (p. 478), that the gland, like the

edicel, consists of a very compact cellular tissue. Let us now see

whether this is the structure of the secreting organs. We shall soon

see that the form of the glands of the margin of the leaf of Drosera

rotundifolia has not even been indicated. In fact Meyen has only

described the elliptical pedicellated glands, and yet he speaks of mar-

_ ginal and central glands; but he only distinguishes their inequality

of size: he has seen only that they are longer than the others, but

has not noticed that their organization is different.

| 10*

148 Miscellaneous.

The marginal glands which form the fringes of the leaf have a

very different form from those of the surface. In the marginal

glands, the substance of the pedicel seems to expand at the apex into

an elegant oblong cup, at the bottom of which the carmine-coloured

glandular tissue is spread. The central glands on the contrary are

simple papillee of a more or less rounded, ovoid or elliptical form, the

outer ones being of a more or less red tint, whilst those nearest to

the middle of the limb are colourless.

The structure both of the central and marginal glands is very re-

markable, for itis not merely a single spiral vessel that exists in the

‘gland, but a voluminous group of large reticulated cells occupies the

centre of the organ. These reticulated cells have expanded meshes

in the colourless central glands of the leaf, but the meshes of those

nearest the margin are narrow. The middle of the marginal glands

is also occupied by a considerable group of similar cells.

The pedicels of the marginal glands are dilated at the base and of

a green colour; they become insensibly narrower, their green colour

becomes paler and passes to rose in the upper part which supports

the gland, which is elongated and attenuated at the base. These

pedicels are composed of an epidermis, a coloured parenchyma, and

a vascular system. 1. The epidermis is formed of long cells, which

become shorter from the base of the pedicel to its apex; they are

colourless at the base of the organ, tinged with rose colour at its

upper part. In many cases the epidermic, or rather superficial

utricles, were furnished with grains of chlorophyll on the wall con-

tiguous to the green parenchyma: this is a fact to which I would

call the attention of anatomists. Some small stomata are most fre-

quently scattered between the epidermic cells towards the dilated

base of the pedicel, and some may even be found at a considerable

height upon it. There are also some small eminences, or short,

simple or bifurcated hairs, scattered on its surface. 2. The green

parenchyma is also composed of elongated cells, which contain a pro-

portion of chlorophyll equal to that of the tissue of the leaf itself.

This parenchyma goes on diminishing with the diameter of the

pedicel, so that towards the top it only consists of one or two series

of cells surrounding the vascular axis; the green matter also dimi-

nishes in the interior of the cells, and at last is even sometimes

replaced by the rose colour. 3. The vascular system is usually com-

posed of single central bundles, but towards the base of the pedicel

there are sometimes two bundles distant from each other which unite

higher up. Each bundle is composed of two or three tracheze of

great delicacy, often having two spiral fibres at a little distance and

turning in the same direction.

This is the structure of the pedicels of the marginal glands. If we

examine that of the glands themselves, from their posterior to their

anterior face, that is to say, from the surface corresponding with the

lower surface of the leaf to that which corresponds with the upper, we

find the elements arranged in the following manner. First, there is

an epidermis of colourless or rose-coloured cells, then a layer of cells

Miscellaneous. 149

containing chlorophyll of a pale green or nearly yellow colour ;—

' these two parts form the oblong and slightly concave cup already re-

ferred to, at the bottom of which the vascular system, considerably

increased, is placed. Lastly, these vessels or reticulated cells are

covered by utricles of a carmine red colour. ‘They form on the sur-

face of the cup, with the vascular cells which they enclose, a promi-

nent oblong gland, which is very elegantly bordered by the periphery

of the cup.

The order in which these elements are presented, is not without

analogy with that which rules the arrangement of those of the stem

of a Dicotyledonous plant. Thus, in this respect, we may compare

these marginal glands (as has been done with leaves) to a segment of

the stem of a plant with two cotyledons. Thus at the exterior of the

gland there is an epidermis as in the segment of stem, and then a

layer of cells with green matter, representing the herbaceous en-

velope; then the vessel§ as in a stem ; and lastly, the rose-coloured

cellular tissue of the gland represents the pith. This comparison is

the more just, as the glands which fringe the leaf are, so to speak,

only the termination of the delicate teeth of the latter represented by

the pedicels, just as the marginal glands of the stipules of roses ter-

minate their much shorter teeth and even their nervures.— Comptes

Rendus, 25th June 1855, p. 1355.

On a new Organ observed in Callitriche (C. platycarpa, §c.).

By M. A. Cuartin.

_ The organs for which I propose the name of cystize give a whitish

appearance to the lower surface of the leaves in Callitriche, where

they exist in immense number. Under the lens they appear like

brilliant points, but the microscope shows that each cystia is a small

utricular apparatus presenting a closer esemblance to a doctor’s cap*.

The cystize are usually formed of eight cells, enlarged at their

apical or free portion, and united in a common, narrow circular base,

inserted into the larger, irregular cells of the epidermis. Towards

the middle and upper parts the cystia is adorned with ribs, like some

Cucurbitaceous and Euphorbiaceous fruits (especially that of Hura

crepitans).

These organs are at first filled with a liquid, which is often replaced

by gases (oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid) towards the period of

flowering. ‘The liquid usually contained in these organs contains

floating granules, which sometimes attach themselves to the walls,

and which are, for the most part, rendered brown by iodine. The

cystize when filled with gas serve as floats; their presence coincides

with the absence of pneumatophora in the tissue of the leaves.

The organogeny of the cystiee is peculiar. Each of them, like the

stomata, arises from a cell which is distinguished by its small size

and its rounded form from the large twisted cells which constitute

the epidermis. Like that of the stomata, the original cell of the

* The peculiar structure in question was described ‘y Dr. Lankester in 1850;

see Ann. Nat. Hist. vol. vii. 8.2. p.423.—Ep.

150 Miscellaneous.

cystize is soon divided by a septum, and if at this moment it did not

rise above the epidermis, it would be impossible to say decidedly

whether it was a cystia or a spiracle in course of development. But

afterwards the two cells of the cystia each divide into two others,

forming four cells, which by a further subdivision are converted into

the eight elements composing the perfect organ.

All the stomata of the lower surface of the leaves, and those of the

stalk, give place in this manner to cystiez, whilst the transformation

only takes place in the minority of those placed on the upper surface

of the leaves. Thus nature makes use of an organ already existing to

form a new apparatus.— Comptes Rendus, 18th June 1855, p. 1291.

Description of a new Tanager of the Genus Calliste.

By Paiute Lutruey Scxuater, M.A.

CALLuIsTE veNuSTA, Sclater. C. lete ceruleo-viridis : intersca-

pulio alis caudaque nigris, eodem viridi limbatis : fronte, loris,

gula summa et auchenio nigris : pileo lateribusque capitis flavis :

ventre medio crissoque pallide ochraceis : rostro nigro : pedibus

pallidis.

Long. tota 4°5 ; alee 2°5; caudee 1°5 poll. Angl.

Hab. In Nova Grenada et in rep. Equatoriana provincia Quixos.

I have been acquainted with this pretty Calliste for some time,

but have always considered it as the xanthocephala of Tschudi, and

have described it as such in my “ Synopsis of the genus Calliste”’ in

the-Contributions to Ornithology. But having lately had the oppor-

tunity of examining Tschudi’s type specimens in the Neuchatel Mu-

seum, I find that his Callospiza xanthocephala is not this bird, but

the same as my Calliste lamprotis (Cont. to Orn. 1851, p. 65). That

species closely resembles the present, but may be distinguished by its

orange cap and brilliant golden-yellow ear-coverts.

The extreme inaccuracy of Dr. Tschudi’s figure, which looks more

like this species than the other, must be my excuse for committing

this error, in which however I am not alone, as even in the Berlin

Museum (where Tschudi’s types ought to be known) I have observed

the present bird called xwanthocephala.

Mr. Gould’s collection from Quixos contained examples of this

species. My own specimens are from Santa Fe di Bogota.—Proc.

Zool. Soc., Nov. 14, 1854.

On the Spermatophora of the Crickets. By C. Lespés.

In the Crickets the ejaculatory canal does not turn back as in

nearly all insects to form the penis. During copulation, which is

accompanied by some singular manceuvres, the male introduces into

the vulva of the female the extremity of a small apparatus which

contains a drop of the seminal fluid. This spermatophore consists of

a small horny vesicle, and of a slender, flattened appendage; the

latter is the only part that penetrates into the vulva. In the course

of a few hours the female drops the whole apparatus.

As soon as the male has lost one of these spermatophora, a new

Meteorological Observations. 151

one takes its place. It may easily be seen at the extremity of the ab-

_ domen by raising the dorsal plate which terminates it, and this repro-

duction may be observed repeatedly upon the same male.

The spermatophore is produced by an appendage of the genital

segment,—the ventral plate of this segment being flattened posteriorly

and converted into a twisted glandular plate. When the spermato-

phore is formed, the vesicle is expelled from the secreting apparatus,

and takes its place between two fleshy palettes, by which it is sup-

ported at the moment of copulation. It remains in this position for

a longer or shorter time, but if the male is prevented from copulating

he will after a time allow it to drop.—Comptes Rendus, 2nd July

1855, p. 28.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR JUNE 1855.

Chiswick.—June 1. Overcast. 2. Cloudy and fine: very clear. 3. Fine:

cloudy: overcast. 4. Heavy clouds: very fine. 5. Cloudy: fine. 6. Hot and

dry: rain. 7. Very fine. 8. Cloudy: very fine. 9. Showery. 10,11. Very

fine. 12. Very fine: clear at night. 13. Slight haze, 14. Overcast: rain. 15.

Cloudy: fine: rain. 16. Fine: showery: overcast: heavy rain. 17. Cloudy:

slight showers. 18. Clear: cloudy: rain. 19. Overcast and fine. 20. Light

clouds : fine: clear: frosty at night. 21. Clearand fine. 22. Fine: very dry air.

23. Overcast. . 24. Very fine. 25. Cloudy and fine. 26. Overcast: very fine.

27. Dry haze: very fine. 28—30. Very fine.

Mean temperature of the month ............ te Fk gt he) seen 87°98

Mean temperature of June 1854 ........cccccscesesecessceeceeese 56 °93

Mean temperature of June for the last twenty-nine years... 60°39

Average amount of rain in JUne ......ceccecccsesessceeeeees eseee 1°89 inch.

Boston.—June 1. Cloudy: rain a.m. 2. Cloudy. 3,4. Fine. 5. Cloudy. 6.

Fine. 7. Cloudy: rain a.m. 8. Cloudy. 9. Fine: rainp.m. 10. Fine: rain

with thunder p.m. 11. Fine. 12,13. Cloudy. 14. Rain a.m. and p.m. 15. Cloudy:

rain A.M. and p.m. 16. Fine. 17, 18. Cloudy: rainp.m. 19,20. Cloudy. 21,

22. Fine. 23—27. Cloudy. 28—30. Fine.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—June 1. Bright a.m.: rain p.m. 2. Damp a.M.:

foggy P.M. 3. Hazy a.m.: cloudy p.m. 4. Hazy a.M.: clearp.M. 5, Bright a.m.:

clear P.M. 6. Rain, thunder a.m.: drops p.m. 7. Foggy a.m.: cloudy p.m.

8. Bright, fine a.m.: foggy p.m. 9. Showers a.m.: showers, foggy p.m. 10.

Cloudy a.m.: clear p.m, 1). Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 12. Rain a.m. and p.m.

13. Foggy a.m. and p.m. 14. Clear a.m. and p.m. 15. Cloudy a.m.: clear p.m.

16. Showers a.m.: drops P.M. 17. Drizzle, showers a.M. and p.m. 18. Bright

A.M.: drizzle, showers p.m. 19. Clear a.m. and p.m. 20. Cloudy a.m.: small

rain P.M. 21. Foggy a.m.and p.m. 22. Foggy a.m.: bright p.m. 23. Bright

A.M. and P.M. 24. Bright a.m.: bright, rain p.m. 25. Rain a.m. and p.m. 26.

Drops A.M.: rainp.M. 27. Bright a.m.: clearp.m. 28. Clear, fine a.m.: bright,

fine p.m. 29,30. Bright, fine a.m. and p.m.

Mean temperature of June for twenty-eight previous years . 52°°78

Mean temperature of this month ............seeeeeseseees Puen eibed 52 °23

Mean temperature of June 1854 ............00eeees Seoumoeacsenss 52 *86

Average quantity of rain in June for fifteen previous years . 221 inches.

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THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

[SECOND SERIES.]

No. 93. SEPTEMBER 1855.

XIII.— Observations on the Genera Pachybdella (Diesing) and

Peltogaster (Rathke), two animal forms parasitic upon the

abdomen of Crabs. By Professor SteENsTRUP*,

In the most recent. systematic work on the Worms, Intestinal

Worms and the lower division of the great Articulated series in

general, Diesing’s ‘ Systema Helminthum’ (1850, vol. 1. p. 434—

435), we find amongst the Bdellidea, in the suborder Monoco-

tylea, subtribe Cephalobdelliida, a new genus Pachybdella, esta-

blished upon a parasitic animal discovered some years before

by Rathke under the abdomen of the common Crab, Carcinus

Menas, and described by him under the name of Peltogaster

Carcinit. Diesing himself appears to have had no specimens of

the animal before him, but to have merely drawn up his generic

and specific characters from Rathke’s descriptions and figures,

which again are founded upon two specimens of this remarkable

parasite, one of which was obtainéd from the Norwegian coast,

the other from the Black Sea. Neither Rathke’s description

nor his figures, however, furnish a sufficient notion of the

structure of the animal to enable us to arrive at any definite

conclusion as to its systematic position, or as to the group,

whose characteristic marks it might have lost in consequence of

its parasitic existence. It is only from the circumstance that

Rathke refers the animal to the genus Peltogaster, which had

been recently established by him, and of which he has more

fully described another species} (P. Paguri, Rathke), from the ab-

domen. of the Hermit Crab, that we learn that this author would

* From Wiegmann’s Archiv. 1855, No. 1. p. 15.

+ Nova Acta Acad. Ces. Leop. Car. 1843, tom. xx. pt. 1. pp. 244-249.

{ Partly in the same paper, p. 245-247, and partly in the Neuest. Schr.

der Nat. Ges. in Danzig, 1842, Bd. uu. p. 105-111.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 11

154 M.Steenstrup on the genera Pachybdella and Peltogaster.

place the genus Pachybdella amongst the Vermes, accepting this

class in its widest sense. In this class, however, Rathke has given

his genus no determinate place ; he only thinks that these ani-

mals are by no means to be arranged with the Bdellide or Trema-

tode worms, of which we are at once reminded by the form of

their bodies, the pits with which they attach themselves, and their

parasitic mode of life; he would rather regard them as transition

forms from the Worms to the Actinia and the Radiated animals

most nearly allied to these. Thus, according to his view, the

pit with which these sac-like parasites attach themselves to the

abdomen of the crab, is only a sucker, from which no tube leads

into the body of the animal; and the other opening, which exists

at the free extremity of the body, is a mouth, which leads into a

large cavity, serving at once as a digestive cavity and for the

development of the ova,—a double office which he considers to

be proved by the extended observations which he was enabled to

make upon the P. Paguri, but which we must admit with the

author is “ something very peculiar and hitherto unheard of in —

the case of a worm.”

Our knowledge of Diesing’s so-called genus Pachybdella is

however fortunately not confined to the scanty information,

welcome as it may be in every respect, which Rathke has fur-

nished upon the individuals found and examined by him; other

statements are extant, which, although they have hitherto been

overlooked, are deserving of every attention, as they throw a

light upon the distribution and systematic position of this

parasite.

With regard to the occurrence and diffusion of Pachybdella, I

will refer to the sac-like parasite found by Bell under the abdo-

men of Carcinus Menas and Portunus marmoreus from the Bri-

tish Channel, and which he has described in such a manner,

that there can be no doubt he had a Pachybdella before him.

On the first-mentioned crab he appears to have found the parasite

only occasionally, but it occurred in considerable numbers on

the other. This author, who only refers to the parasite en pass-

ant, regards the pit by which it attaches itself as the oral aper-

ture, and the other orifice, which Rathke considers to be the

mouth, as the anus. Bell consequently ascribes a complete di-

gestive canal to the animal. The parasites which occurred upon

Carcinus Menas were so similar to those which Bell found in

greater abundance upon Portunus marmoreus, that he does not

appear to have felt any doubt as to the identity of the species.

I can prove the occurrence of Pachybdella not only in the

Channel, but also in the Mediterranean, from several individuals

in the Zoological Museum of this University (Copenhagen). In

the year 1848 I received a few Crustacea from the former locality,

M. Steenstrup on the genera Pachybdella and Peltogaster. 155

from M. V. Prosch, a ship-surgeon, and amongst these was a

Portunus hirtellus, under the abdomen of which there was a very

large sac, which I took to be a Lerneid parasite, without how-

ever being able to refer it to any known form of the family of

Lerneide. I have since, however, recognized in it a form ap-

proaching so closely to Pachybdella Carcini, that it could only

be distinguished therefrom by. a few immaterial points in the

outline of the body, and the wrinkling of the hinder opening.

From a specimen of Carcinus Menas, taken by Captain Svenson

on the “ Black banks” in the North Sea, I obtained a very large

individual of a form exactly agreeing with P. Carcini, Rathke ;

and I have since found three other individuals, resembling the

first, in a bottle containing several specimens of Portunus hir-

tellus from the Mediterranean.

If the preceding statements would lead to the supposition

that this form of parasite is by no means to be reckoned amongst

the greatest rarities of these seas, this appears still more di-

stinctly from some observations which I found in Cavolini’s

memoir upon the Development of Fishes and Crustacea, on

reading it through last autumn with a very different object.

From this I found that Cavolini had not only known and figured

these animals, but that he had had them in quantity, and, as it

appears from his figures, several species of them, found under the

abdomen of two species of crabs, which are called Cancer de-

pressus, Fabr., and C. verrucosus, Forsk., in his memoir. These

sacs-are found both upon the males and females ; they are repre-

sented under the abdomen of the males of both species (tab. 2.

figs. 1 & 14), and under that of the female of the former (fig. 13).

They occur so commonly, that the fishermen are generally of

opinion that the eggs of the crabs are contained in them. The

form represented under the tail of the C. verrucosus in Cavolini’s

fig. 14, so closely resembles the P. Carcini figured by Rathke,

that it might be taken for the same species; that represented in

figs. 1 & 13 on Cancer depressus rather resembles the one above

mentioned from Pagurus hirtellus, but Cavolini states that the

opening at the narrow end has only four knots or teeth, whilst

my specimens had at least twice that number (8-10). The com-

parison of the outline of the animal with that of the fruit of

Thlaspi. Bursa-pastoris is very characteristic, but shows that his

specimens must have been somewhat longer in proportion than

those which | obtained from Pagurus hiriellus.

From the above observations it is sufficiently evident, that

these Pachybdelia-like parasites are not only more abundant

than has been supposed, but that several species of them occur,

according to the various species of crabs upon which they live.

But still more important consequences result from Cavolini’s

11*

156 M. Steenstrup on the genera Pachybdella and Peltogaster.

investigations. He has traced the development of the eggs

which fill these sacs in such enormous quantities, and ascer-

tained that the young proceeding from the sacs from both spe-

cies of crabs are of the same kind, and that the young is a true

Crustaceous animal. He finds a resemblance between these

young animals and the Cancer paludosus of Miiller (Zool, Da-

nica, tab. 48), but at the same thinks that they must be ap-

proximated to the Monoculus Telemus of Linneus*. On tab. 2.

fig. 15, Cavolini figures a portion of the eggs taken from “ the

sac” that is the Pachybdella, under the abdomen of the crab

which he calls Cancer verrucosus; they are still immature, and

are united by mucous threads into chains. Fig. 16a. represents

the mature egg with the developed embryo within it, and

fig. 16 c, the embryo just after its exclusion from the egg, with

three distinct pairs of swimming feet, provided with bristles. It

cannot be denied that this embryo is exceedingly like that of

many Entomostraca, and we might therefore be induced at first

to regard the Pachybdella as a kind of Lerneid animal. But as

I must leave it to future observers, who may have the opportu-

nity of collecting these animals in large quantities, to give a

conclusive answer to this question, and only propose in the fol-

lowing pages to indicate some remarkable relations between the

Pachybdelle and other forms of Crustacea, I will only add here,

that Cavolini, notwithstanding the experiments which he made

with this view, did not succeed in tracing the further changes of

this embryo, and that he, in accordance with the spirit of his

time, did not suppose that the young animal itself might be-

come converted into the sac in which the eggs were found,

but rather that it was developed into a Crustacean, which after-

wards fastened this ovisac under the abdomen of the crabs.

From Cavolini’s observations, however, it appears that Pachy-

bdella is undoubtedly a Crustacean, and one which is gradually

brought into its sac-like form in consequence of its parasitic

mode of life.

Even if we admit Diesing’s separation of the original contents

of Rathke’s genus Peltogaster,—according to which the shorter

and broader form with the sucking pit at one end of the body,

which occurs under the abdomen of crabs, will form a peculiar

genus under the name of Pachybdella, and this we may be so much

the more inclined to do, as it appears from the preceding state-

ments that there are several species exceedingly closely allied to

it in external appearance,—we should certainly establish no

* The Monoculus Telemus, Linn., which Linneeus himself says is “ ge-

neris etiamnum dubii,” is very clearly from his diagnosis and description

the Hyalea tridentata of Forskal.

M. Steenstrup on the genera Pachybdella and Peltogaster. 157

more than a generic or subgeneric division, as the other half of

the original contents of the genus appears to be so closely allied

to this, and only to differ in the more elongated form of the

body, in the position of the sucking pit further from the extre-

mity, and almost under the middle of the body, and in the resi-

dence of the animal under the abdomen of a species belonging

to another family of Crustacea (Pagurus Bernhardus). If there-

fore Pachybdella has proved to be a true Crustacean, analogy

leads us to regard Peltogaster in the same light. —

However, we need not perhaps rest entirely upon this conclu-

sion, as there are certainly direct observations in existence that

the young of the Peltogaster-like sacs found under the abdomen

of the Macroura and Anomura (?) are Crustacean in form. Thus,

Diesing has not noticed that Kroyer, in his Monograph of the

Northern species of Hippolyte, has briefly mentioned the para-

sites by which they are infested, and especially certain sac-like

creatures, which must undoubtedly be referred to the animals

now under consideration*. In the fourth section of the Mono-

graph, which bears the title of “Hin Paar Bemerkungen iiber

Schmarotzerthiere auf Hippolyten,” the author, after describing

some other parasites, continues as follows (p. 56) :—“ Lastly,

under the abdomen of Hippolyte pusiola, I discovered an enig-

matical parasite (tab. 5. fig. 110) which it is difficult to refer to

its right position,—nay, its structure appears so simple, so com-

pletely destitute of all organs, that one might perhaps easily be

led to regard it, not as an independent animal, but as a mere

pathological phenomenon, a swelling or excrescence on the Hip-

polytet. It evidently forms a new genus, which on the one

hand appears to have some analogy with the Lernezidz, and on

the other possesses an external affinity to some Hirudinee and

intestinal worms. Of this form I know several species : 1 found

one of a whitish colour and of considerable size, in abundance

on the abdomen of Pagurus pubescens near Spitzbergen ; another,

smaller and of an orange-red colour, occurred on Pagurus Bern-

hardus in the Kattegatt ; the third, which occurs on Hippolyte

pusiola, is nearly of a globular or oval form, of a white colour,

and about 2 lines in diameter. Of 25 specimens of H. pusiola,

eight bore these parasites under the abdomen ; some specimens

had two, and upon one I found no less than three of them. I

propose to describe these more fully on some other opportunity.”

* This is also noticed by Lovén in his annual Reports.

T “Ishould perhaps not have ventured to mention this creature decidedly

as a distinct animal, if J had not seen the eggs rush out on opening a spe-

cimen ; these, when examined under the microscope, exhibited fully deve-

loped young, consisting of an anterior body and an abdomen or tail, the

_ atter provided with swimming feet or bristles,” &c.—Kréoyer.

158 M.Steenstrup on the genera Pachybdella and Peltogaster.

Tam not aware that Professor Kroéyer has since published

anything upon this subject ; but from the preceding it is evident,

that at least the two first-mentioned vermiform species are true

Peltogastri, and that the third must also be placed very near

this genus, notwithstanding the difference in the form of the

body, appears from the fact that Kréyer places them all in

one and the same genus. If the interesting observation upon

the young given by Kréyer in the preceding note applies to all

the three species, it becomes a positive observation of the

Crustacean nature of the vermiform Peltogastri; but: if it

applies only to the third and last form—to which, as is evident

from the text, the note in which the observation is given par-

ticularly belongs,—it is at any rate a new confirmation of the

opinion that these sac-like structures, filled with eggs, which

occur under the abdomen of the long-tailed crabs, are them-

selves to be regarded as Crustacea.

Even if it may remain doubtful to which of the smaller natural

divisions of the Crustacea the genera in question are to be re-

ferred, the above-mentioned observations upon the form of the

young show distinctly that they are Crustaceous animals ; so that

it is evident they cannot be represented in our systems as her-

maphroditic animal forms. As long as it is not universally

admitted that the separation of the sexes, or unisexuality, 1 1s @

general rule (not to say, law) in nature, and that in our science

it must not be admitted that any single animal possesses an

opposite sexuality or hermaphroditism, without a scientific proof

of this abnormal behaviour with regard to ¢his particular

animal, the opponent of hermaphroditism, which is still ascribed

to a good many animals, must find himself in this position,—

that the sexual relations of the less known and uninvestigated

animal forms are adopted from the relations of those animals

which are most nearly allied to them, and which have been sub-

mitted to a closer examination in this respect, although imnu-

merable examples of the mneentainty of this procedure are suffi-

ciently well known. Thus, as long as the two genera of parasites

under consideration could be regarded as Hirudinoid animals,

we were under the necessity of supposing them to be herma-

phrodites, although this point was not only not proved, but had

never even been investigated, but because al/ the Hirudinez were

regarded as hermaphrodites. But if we now know that these

animals are Crustacea, and agree that all the Crustacea—with

the exception of most of the forms belonging to the group of

Cirripedia, to which they can scarcely be referred—are to be

regarded as animals with separate sexes, these parasites must

also be considered from analogy as unisexual animals. To show

this, and to prove that it was far from right to seek in these

M. Steenstrup on the genera Pachybdella and Peltogaster. 159

fixed parasitic forms for representations of hermaphroditism,

was the principal object of the preceding remarks, in which I

have endeavoured to give a better view of our knowledge of

these parasites.

As, however, we have been directing our attention to these

shapeless and somewhat enigmatical Crustacea, I will not omit,

in conclusion, touching upon the question as to the positive

systematic position which they may possibly occupy, in order to

remind the, reader of one or two remarkable circumstances,

which perhaps may not be without their value in the solution of

this problem.

Thus, it is known that in his Peltogaster Paguri, Rathke

found some (eight) small Crustacea, scarcely one line in length ;

they were in the large cavity which occupied the greater part of

the body of the animal, and contained an extraordinary quantity

of developed eggs, so that this observer regarded the cavity as a

combined digestive and hatching organ. That this cavity, to

which the opening at the free end of the body forms an entrance,

certainly serves for the latter purpose, we know with certainty

from Cavolini’s observations; and these small Crustacea were;

therefore, contained in an ovisac (Bruthdhle) together with ova

im course of development. In the work above quoted, Rathke

has described and figured these Crustacea under the new sy-

stematic name of Liriope pygmea; but, remarkably enowgh, has

regarded this new genus as a form of the Amphipoda,—I know

not for what reason, for the characters given do not appear to me

to indicate that relation, nor do the figures remind one of an

Amphipode. We are rather struck with the great resemblance

of the young of the Isopodous genus Bopyrus to these small

Liriope, and at least one cannot doubt for a moment that the

form in question is Isopodous. They appear to differ in no

essential points from the larve of the Bopyri which are known to

us, especially from the observations of Kroyer and Rathke ; they

are only more elongated than the previously described larve of

the Bopyride. Now, as it is well known that the Bopyri are

parasitic under the carapace or abdomen of other Crustacea, we

might suppose the relation between the Liriope and the Pelto-

gaster m which they were found, to be of this nature: that the

former, instead of serving, as supposed by Rathke, for the

nourishment of the Peltogaster, led a parasitic life lke other

Bopyride, in the ovisac of the latter, which, as we are now aware,

is a Crustaceous animal. There are, however, other circum-

stances which sufficiently prove that the relation may be quite

of another nature.

In the above-mentioned memoir of Cavolini, which is so rich

160 M.Steenstrup on the genend Pachybdella and Peltogaster.

in excellent observations, we find a representation of a very

remarkable irregular mass (fig. 19), which was quite full of more

or less developed ova. It was found in a crab, attached by one

end to the inner wall of the stomach, and with the opposite ex-

tremity somewhat squeezed in between two of the partitions, which

indicate the limits of the lateral parts of the original rings of

which the carapace is composed. In fig. 18 mn, Cavolini has

represented the ova contained in this mass in various degrees of

development, and in fig. 18 7 r, two embryos just after their

exclusion from the egg. Cavolini compares these embryos with

the Onisci squilliformes described by Pallas, and confers upon

them thisname. We cannot help seeing that the embryos thus

described and figured, are so very closely allied to Rathke’s

Lariope, that they could not be distinguished without difficulty,

and we are consequently led involuntarily to compare them with

the larvee of Bopyrus. The form of the young larve, therefore,

shows, that this irregular, ovigerous mass is in all probability

not only a transmuted parasitic Crustacean, but that it also

belongs to the family of the Bopyride, only it is more shapeless,

or, as we might say, more monstrous than any other developed

form of that family, more even than the Peltogastri and Pachy-

bdelle, and consequently this parasite is somethmg more tham an

Epizoon; for it was attached to an internal organ, like an

Entozoon, or intestinal worm, and especially like the extraor-

dinary mollusk Entoconcha mirabilis, discovered by J. Miller in

Synapta digitata*®.

We have now got the following facts together :—The: Bopy-

ride are known only as parasites upon the higher Crustacea,—

the less irregular species of the genus Bopyrus occurring under

the carapace of the long-tailed Crustacea (Macrura), and the

most irregular, with which Rathke has even formed a separate

genus, under the abdomen of the same animals. The latter

forms consequently agree essentially, both in their residence and

external conditions of life, with Peltogaster and Pachybdella, which,

as we have seen, live under the abdomen of Paguri and Crabs

(Brachyura). Moreover, they approach these two parasites to a

certain extent even in their form. Thus they differ from the

more regular species of the genus in having the limbs, with the

exception of the anterior pair, completely lost on one side of the

animal; and the cavity for the reception of the eggs, which

occurs so universally amongst the Isopoda, instead of being

formed of several equally developed plates, is here composed

principally of a single plate, which has been developed at the

* See Annals, 2nd Series, vol. ix. pp. 22 and 103, Jan. and Feb. 1852,

M. Steenstrup on the genera Pachybdella and Peltogaster. 161

expense of the others, and forms by itself a spacious pouch with

a large opening. From this we might say, that they form a sort

of transition to Peltogaster and Pachybdella, whose ovisacs might

perhaps be represented as resulting from a further development

of the single large lamina of Bopyrus, and whose feet must then

be considered as having disappeared at once from both sides of

the body. ‘To this may be added Rathke’s observations, who

found the Liriope, resembling the larve of Bopyrus, amongst

the eggs in the ovisac of Peltogaster Paguri, and Cavolini’s

observation of the development of Liriope-like larvee from the

eggs contained in an irregular sac, which cannot properly be

placed far from Pachybdella and Peltogaster ; and the question

then forces itself upon us, whether we must not suppose that

there is an actual and close relationship between these. two

parasites and the Bopyride, and especially whether we must not

admit the existence of a more intimate connexion between Pelto-

gaster Paguri and its Liriope, than that the latter is parasitic in

its ovisac.

Supposing Peltogaster and Pachybdella to be Bopyride, the

Liriope might either be regarded as the more advanced larvee of

the Peliogaster in which they were found, or as the young state of

the male parasite, for it is well known that the males of the

Bopyridz are very different from the females and live as parasites

upon them. — None of these suppositions can however be proved

at this moment, unless we are in a position to recognize a re-

markable resemblance between the larve of the Bopyride and

the Crustacean embryos, which Cavolini and Kréyer have found

in our parasites.. Neither the short notices given by both these

authors, nor the figures published by the first, are sufficiently per-

fect for this purpose ; but on the other hand, they do not appear

to stand in the way of such an opinion. ‘The feet with swim-

ming bristles, mentioned by both and represented in Cavolini’s

figures, may very well represent the abdominal feet of a Bopyrus ;

and even the circumstance that no mention is made of the tho-

racic feet which are so characteristic of the Bopyride, cannot be

taken positively as a proof that they were not present, as they

might have been so pressed under the belly, that they would

only become: visible on more careful examination. It even ap-

pears from Cavolini’s statements about the projecting branchial

laminz, seen when the animal was observed from beneath, that

he must have seen something, which might be regarded either as

these feet, or perhaps as the branchial laminz of the Bopyridez ;

nay, we cannot exactly understand how Cavolini can have com-

pared his young animals with O. F. Miiller’s figure of Cancer

paludosus, unless they had possessed such feet, or presented quite

162 M. Steenstrup on the genera Pachybdella and Peltogaster.

different forms from the one in which he has figured them.

From the similarity to the Cancer paludosus we might almost be

induced to suppose, that his figure represents the animal con-

tracted into the bowed form in which it lies in the egg, and which

it may probably have retained for some moments after exclu-

sion,—and the resemblance to the larva of a Cirripede or of

some other Entomostracan, might have been produced in this

manner.

All this however lies, as I have already said, beyond the ob-

ject which I had proposed to myself in the present communica-

tion, and only furnishes indications which I recommend espe-

cially to the notice of those naturalists, who for the study of the

lower animals have lately so often visited the coast of the Medi-

terranean, where these remarkable parasites must, according to

the preceding observations, be not uncommon*, |

PostscRIPt.

Some time since I was informed, by a letter from Dr, Creplin

of Greifswald, that Professor O. Schmidt had given a figure and

short description of the larva of a Pachybdella in a periodical

called ‘Das Weltall’ for 1854 (No, 3. p. 19), but I have only just

(December 1854) been able to obtain this journal. From. the

figure given by Schmidt, which agrees closely with Cavolini’s

fig. 16 c. referred to by me, it certainly appears that the young

animal is extremely like the larva of an Entomostracan ; and this

renders still more remarkable the relation above referred to. be-

tween the Liriope of the Peltogastri, which resemble the larve of

Bopyrus, and the Liriope-like young of Cayolini’s extraordinary

parasite (figs. 17 & 18 rr). Moreover Schmidt’s observations

prove that Pachybdella is not only common but even abundant

at Wangerooge, and it also appears that Schmidt has collected

single specimens of Pachybdella = Peltogaster on the Dalmatian

coast.

+ The Peltogastri which I have been able to examine, for three of which

I am indebted to the Zootomical Museum of this University, and for a

fourth to Professor J. Miiller of Berlin, have unfortunately furnished me

with no explanation of the structure of the embryos, as none of them pre-

sented eggs with developed larvee. This was also the case with the speci-

mens of Pachybdella.

Mr. T. R. Jones on Beyrichie. 163

XIV.—WNotes on Palaeozoic Bivalved Entomostraca. No. U1. Some

British and Foreign Species of Beyrichia. By T. Rurgre

Jones, F.G.S. | |

[Continued from p. 92. ]

[With a Plate. ]

In my former notice of Paleozoic Bivalved Entomostraca (‘An-

nals,’ No. 92, p. 81, &c.) the Beyrichie of Sweden and Gothland

only were treated of ; and I now propose to illustrate the British

species, as far as my materials will allow, as well as some foreign

species which I have had the opportunity of studying. I owe

much to Mr. Salter for his friendly advice and assistance in the

examination of these little fossils, and I have much pleasure in

acknowledging his kindness; Mr. Morris also has kindly aided

me; the Portuguese specimens have been lent to me by Mr. D.

Sharpe ; and to Sir R. Murchison I am indebted for permission

to use and to illustrate the specimens in the Museum of Prac-

tical Geology in Jermyn Street, which form the largest portion

of the series. I ought here also to repeat my thanks to Prof.

Beyrich and Sir C. Lyell for the Scandinavian specimens above

mentioned ; for without them I could not have entered upon the

subject, and because a part of the materials of this notice also is

derived from that source.

Like the Scandinavian species, the forms now described also

represent the three groups into which I divide the genus accord-

ing to the surface-divisions of the valves ;—and they are de-

scribed in the same order.

The figures in Pl. VI. represent the objects magnified 4 dia-

meters, as in Plate V.

Referrmg to my former communication for the generic cha-

racters, I proceed to the description of the several species.

(Jucos#.)

1. Beyrichia complicata, Salter. Pl. VI. figs. 1-5.

Mem. Geol. Survey, 1848, vol. ii. part 1. p. 352. pl. 8. fig. 16;

Brit. Paleeoz. Foss. Cambridge, 1851, part 2. fase. 1. p. 136

(M‘Coy’s descript.) pl. 1 E. fig. 3; ibd. 1852, fase. 2. Appen-

dix A. p. ii. (Salter’s descript.).

Surface of valve depressed, deeply furrowed, and bearimg three

sharply defined ridges, which are usually united by a connecting

ridge along the ventral margin. Anterior ridge largest, pear-

shaped; middle ridge narrow, club-shaped: these two ridges,

somewhat curved and pointing obliquely downwards and back-

wards, are frequently less distantly separated than the middle

and posterior ridges are. The hindermost ridge is variously

164 Mr. T. R. Jones on Beyrichie.

modified by a transverse depression on its thickest part, usually

forming an oblique indentation on its inner (anterior) side, and

producing a bifurcation of the ridge. In the figures in pl. 18 of

the ‘Mem. Geol. Survey’ (above referred to) the artist has’ in-

advertently made the small inner branch of the posterior ridge

uniformly continuous with the produced upper part of the ridge;

a condition, however, almost arrived at sometimes by ‘the inden-

tation on the broad part of the ridge (compare fig. 3)))°~

I have not seen the carapace-valve itself of this species ; but,

judging from the aspect of the casts and impressions it was pro-

bably smooth. All the figures are from casts. Figs. 1-4 are

selected from a number of drawings illustrative of the variations

of outline, and of the disposition ‘of ‘the ridges. Figs. land 2

may be regarded as the typical form.

_ 6 In\a young specimen from Harnage (fig. 5) the anterior fur-

row (dividing the fore and middle ridges or lobes) is seen tobe

shorter than that between the middle and hinder lobe ;: and the

indentation on the upper part of the last ridge is vertical and

distmct.. This specimen is very interesting, as: it shows that

in the young state this species (so strongly ridged in: the adult

state) is scarcely removed, except by its well-defined: marginal

rim, from the merely “ crumpled ” condition of the Corrugate:

With this young individual several adult specimens occur, which

retain the vertical bifurcation of the posterior lobe, as is also seen

in’ Prof. M‘Coy’s figure, Cambridge Pal: Foss. plol Hi fig. 3

(which is better matched by our fig. 5 than by the others) ; in

other respects they resemble our fis. 1.

Figs. 1 and 2 are from artificial casts of impressions m dick

siliceous micaceous Llandeilo flagstone, from Llan Mill (two

miles east of Narberth, Haverfordwest district). Figs. 3.and 4

are from internal casts in a dark calcareous Llandeilo flagstone

of the same locality. The specimens are very abundant in the

shelly bands of the flagstone and scattered over its divisional

planes, together with the remains of Trilobites, Leptena, Encri-

nites, &e. (In the Museum of Practical Geology.)

Fig. 5 is from a soft greenish-yellow argillaceous and mica-

ceous bed of the lower Bala rocks at Harnage, near Shrewsbury ;

and occurs with a few older individuals, several specimens of

B. bicornis, and a vast number of minute specimens, described

further on under the heads of B. strangulata and B. simplex ;—

together with palliobranchiate and other Bivalyes*,—nearly all

in the state of casts, on the surface of a divisional plane of the

rock. (In the Museum of Practical Geology.) ’

* Harnage, from whence many of these s écimens are described, is a

rich locality in the Lower ronald (or Bal a) flags ; Trilobites, including

Alenus, are found there. —J . W. S

Mr. T, R. Jones on Beyrichie. 165.

The black Bala flagstone of Abermarchant (in the Museum of

Practical. Geology) contains specimens of B. complicata in. which

the furrows are not. so, deeply excavated as in the Llan, Mill

specimens. Hence the ridges are broader and less steep, the

connecting ridge along the ventral border more distinct, and the

aspect, of the valves approaches that of some of our Corrugate ; ;

thus, making the passage still less difficult between our B. Ribei-

riana, Barrande’s B. Bohemica, and the typical B. complicata.

There is here and there on the Abermarchant specimens some

slight evidence of a granulated surface.

B. complicata, var. decorata. Pl. VI. fig. 6.

Accompanying the broad-ridged form of B. complicata in the

Abermarchant flagstone (Mus. Pract. Geology), is an impression

of the valve of a variety of this species, which has a semicircular

outline, a finely granulated surface, and a broad, depressed,

sloping marginal rim, which was crested by a continuous series

of fine projecting spines. The ridges are disposed in much the

same manner as those in fig. 5 and in M‘Coy’s specimen above

referred to, the bifurcation of the posterior ridge being vertical ;

the furrows are very strongly marked ; the middle ridge is some

what crenulate, and the anterior lobe is impressed by a slight

indentation along its thickest part.

+ Beyrichia complicata is a characteristic Lower Silurian form ;

its localities above alluded to are—Llan Mill, near Narberth ;

Harnage, near Shrewsbury ; and Abermarchant. Prof. M‘Coy

mentions as-localities for this species—

Llanfwrog, near Ruthin. 7]

Cwm of the Cymmerig, E. of Bala.

Hall N. of Moel Uchlas, Montgomeryshire.

Tregib, 8S, of Llandeilo.

Coed-y-Bedw, Bala.

Selattyn Road, S. of Llangollen.

Bryn Eithin, Péedmachno.

Mynydd Mawr, Caermarthenshire.

Mathyrafal, S. of Meifod.

Pen-y-Park, Llanfyllin.

Pont-y-Meibion, two miles S. of Llansantfraid, on

the Ceiriog. Hower Bala,

Milltir Cerrig, Llangynnog, Montgomeryshire.

. Upper Bala.

2. Beyrichia Kleden, M‘Coy. Pl. VI. figs. 7 & 9.

Synops. Sil. Foss.. Ireland, 1846; p. 58 (woodcut figs.) ; Brit.

Pal. Foss. Cambridge, 1851, part 2. fase. 1. p. 135. pl. 1 E.

fig. 2. Agnostus’ tuberculatus, Sil. Syst. 1839, p. 604. pl. 3.

fig. 17 (non Battus tuberculatus, Kl6éden). Beyrichia tuberculata,

166 Mr. T. R. Jones on Beyrichiz.

Salter, Mem. Geol. Survey, 1848, vol. ii. part 1. p. 852. pl. 8.

figs. 14, 15, and B. gibba, ibid. p. 352. pl. 8. figs. 17, 18. B.

tuberculata, Siluria, 1854, p.234 (woodcut 45, 4), pl. 34. fig. 21.

Surface of valve convex, divided into three lobes; the hind

and front lobes both large, pyriform, but somewhat variable in

their relative proportions ; the ventral extremity of the anterior

lobe extending below that of the posterior lobe; the middle lobe

small, oval, and frequently united with the posterior lobe by a

narrow depressed curved neck ; marginal rim distinct.

The surface sometimes smooth (fig. 7), and sometimes granu-

lated (fig. 9).

Messrs. Salter and M‘Coy have given several ‘figures of this

species, most of which accord generally with the above deserip-

tion, except that for the most part the anterior and posterior

lobes are made to appear continuous along the ventral part of

the valve. M/‘Coy’s figure 2, pl. 1 E. Brit. Pal. Foss.is an im-

teresting exception to this condition; and it differs.from our

specimens in having the anterior lobe much reduced in width.

Salter’s figures 17 and 18. pl. 8. Mem. Geol. Surv. are excep-

tional also in the angular production of the ventral border; these

are from the Middle or Upper Silurian series at the Slate Mill,

S.W. of Haverfordwest. |

M‘Coy also mentions (loc. cit. p. 136) a well-marked variety,

having a long central ridge continued to the ventral* border

from the Bala schist at Dermydd Fawr, near Craig Bronbanog,

N.W. of Corwen.

Fig. 6 is an artificial cast of an impression in calcareous flag-

stone (in the Museum of Practical Geology), which contains

numerous specimens of this species, chiefly on the divisional

planes, with remains of Trilobites, Leptzna, &c., and belongs to

the Wenlock shale of Tynewydd, S. of Llandovery. Fig.9 re-

presents the exterior of a well-preserved specimen (in Mr. Mor-

ris’s collection) from the Wenlock limestone of Lincoln Hill;

near Dudley. |

In addition to the above-mentioned localities for this. species

Sir R. Murchison + gives “ Tilestone (Upper Ludlow), Lodge

Bank, Downton ;’ Mr. Salter mentions Woolhope (Wenlock

limestone) ; and Prof. M‘Coy enumerates Underbarrow, Kendal,

Westmoreland (Ludlow Rocks) ; Cowan Head, Kendal (Upper

* Ip the comparison of the species here described, with the descriptions

by Prof. M‘Coy, it should be observed that I regard as the dorsal border

that which M‘Coy describes as ventral, and vice versd.

+ This species “is very abundant from the base of the Wenlock shale to

the highest Ludlow stratum, and is a good index of Upper Silurian rocks,

pe found: sometimes in the upper division of the Caradoc.”—Siluria,

p» 236.

Mr. T. R. Jones on Beyrichie. 167

Ludlow) ; Llanfair Road, W. of Welchpool (Wenlock shale) ;

[Gaer Fawr, Montgomeryshire (Upper Bala) ?] ; and the sand-

stone of Boocaun and the slates of Cappacorcogne, Cong, County

Galway.

B. Kledeni, var. antiquata. Pl. VI. fig. 8.

Fig. 8 represents a very fine dextral valve, clearly referable to

this species, but differing from the typical form in its greater

proportional length and squareness,—the relative shortness of

the anterior lobe,—the greater development of the marginal

rim, which has its outer edge furnished with strong spines,—

and especially in the finely punctated surface of the valye. I

found this specimen in a calcareous nodule, containing Grapto-

lites and. Orthoceras subgregarium, from the Wenlock schists in

the road-cutting about half a mile from Montgomery towards

Garth Mall.

B, Kledeni, var. torosa, Pi. VI. figs. 10, 11, 12.

Accompanying, specimens of the typical form (fig. 9) in soft

light brown micaceous shale of the Upper Ludlow series, from

Frith quarry, Stapleton, near Presteign, are numerous indi-

viduals of B. Kledeni in which the anterior and posterior lobes

are each divided into two knobs, which with the central boss

make the:valve 5-lobed (figs. 10,11). The infero-anterior lobe

attains in the larger specimens a great (relative) size, and over-

hangs the ventral border. The valve is more quadrate, and the

marginal,rim)|is better developed, than in the usual smaller

3-lobed form. |

The specimens occur as impressions on a divisional plane of

the rock. (Mus. Pract. Geol.)

In greenish elayslate from the lowest beds at Wooltack, Pem-

broke’ (Mus. Pract. Geol.) occurs an imperfect impression of a

very large individual of this variety. The anterior lobe is oblique

and subdivided into three tubercles, the lower one large and

overhanging the ventral border, the other two decreasing rapidly

in size upwards. The central lobe is represented by two trian-

gular knobs, and the posterior lobe appears to be pyriform and

curved, but is not well preserved.

This variety may be the result of age, especially as the greater

development of the isolated lobes appears to accompany increase

of the size of the valve. Still there appears to be a want, of an

intermediate stage between the forms represented. by figs. 9

and 10.

At first sight, fig, 12 appears ‘to bear a close resemblance to

Kloden’s fig, 22 (pl..1. Verstein. Mark Brandenburg, &c.) ; but

168 Mr. T. R. Jones on Beyrichie.

I think that the resemblance is not real. I can trace no exact

counterparts in the two figures ; our specimen is imperfect pos-

teriorly, and it seems to me probable that. Kléden’s specimen

also was not quite perfect. Under the circumstances, I prefer to

consider the two specimens as very old individuals of their

respective species.

3. Beyrichia lata, Vanuxem, sp. Pl. VI. fig. 13.

Agnostus latus, Vanuxem, Conrad’s Report Geol. New York ;

and Vanuxem, Geol. New York, p. 80 et seq.

Beyrichia lata, Hall, Paleontology of New York, vol. 11. p. 301.

pl. A 66. figs. 10 a-e. bog

Surface of valve divided into three unequal ridges or lobes;

posterior lobe largest, broad, its ventral portion curved forwards

to meet the constricted neck of the middle lobe; anterior lobe

smallest, depressed, forming a narrow oblique ridge which is

scarcely separated at its lower end from the advanced extremity

of the hinder lobe. Marginal rim well developed, uniform.

The specimens here described, and referred to the B. lata

figured by Prof. Hall, are dispersed in great numbers, together

with fragments of Trilobites, in the ferruginous (weathered) por-

tion of a compact sandstone or quartzite, from a locality three or

four miles south of Utica, New York State, and marked “ Hud-

son River Group*.” All trace of the carapace itself has disap-

peared, and the casts and impressions afford no good evidence

either of a smooth or an ornamented state of the surface of the

carapace-valves. (In the Museum of Practical Geology.)

Prof. Hall+ describes his specimens (which are from the fer-

ruginous rocks of the Clinton group of the State of New York)

as having on one valve a subcentral ridge, and on the other a

subcentral and corresponding depression. But, guided by Mr.

Hall’s figures and by the specimens before me, I think that this

description cannot be applicable ; and that it has arisen from the

relatively great breadth of the subcentral furrow, between the

middle and hinder ridges or lobes, and from, the sometimes

almost obsolete condition of the anterior ridge.

* Most probably incorrect. ve

+ With regard to the Beyrichiea of the New York State, Prof. Hall re-

marks (loc. cit. p. 301), that “we have three or four ‘species of Beyrichie

in our successive groups, beginning with the Clinton group.)

.{ “In the ferruginous shale associated with the iron ore at/Wadsworth’s

uarries,and in the ferruginous sandstones below,at New Hartford, Oneida

ounty; in numerous localities in the same posi ion farther west, and in

the green shale of the group at Sodus and Rochester.”’—Hall, op. cit. p. 301.

Mr. T. R. Jones on Beyrichiz. 169

4. Beyrichia Bussacensis, Jones. PI. VI. fig. 14."

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. ix. p. 160. pl. 7. figs. 5, 6.

Surface of the valve depressed, smooth, bearing three well-

defined, transverse, slightly curved, narrow, separate ridges;

posterior ridge close to the posterior margin, and curving down-

wards and forwards until it meets and runs into the marginal

rim of the ventral and anterior borders. Marginal rim well

developed, and raised into a narrow continuous ridge, which in

old specimens is one and the same with the posterior ridge

and. its extension forward.

In the majority of adult specimens (for instance, fig. 5. pl. 7.

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. ix.), the posterior ridge is placed

close to the posterior margin ; but in the young state (fig. 6. loc.

cit.) and in the specimen here figured (fig. 14) a shallow de-

pression. occurs behind this ridge.

_.In_young individuals the marginal rim is not so strongly

developed, and the valve is rather less quadrate in outline.

..This characteristic species occurs in great numbers on the

divisional planes. of Lower Silurian schists from near Coimbra

(Serra de Mucela, and Porto de Louza in the Serra de Bussaco),

Portugal, which form part of the collection made by Senhor ©.

Ribeiro and described by Mr, D. Sharpe, Quart. Journ. Geol.

Soc. vol..ix. pp. 135 et seq.

5il3 (Cornueara.)

5. Beyrichia Ribeiriana, nov. sp. Pl. VI. fig. 15.

~Carapace-valves contracted anteriorly, convex, impressed to-

wards the dorsal border by two short, broad furrows, the hinder

of which is largest and subcentral. The convexity of the valve

forms a broad curved posterior lobe, a narrow short, oblique

middle lobe, and an oblique anterior lobe; the last two near

together, and forming a short angle, with the apex pointing

downwards and backwards; and all three lobes continuous with

the convex ventral portion of the valve. The posterior lobe is

frequently indented on its broad dorsal extremity. Marginal

rim indistinct.

_ The younger specimens may be described as presenting. a

nearly semicircular convex lobe, parallel with the ventral, border

and: bounding a:subcentral pit-or furrow ; the extremities of the

two°arms of'the lobe bempoeach; but unequally, impressed by an.

obliquely vértical’indentation, :

‘This interesting form (which I have named after Senhor C.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvi. 12

170 Mr. T: R. Jones on Beyrichite.

Ribeiro, who brought these Portuguese fossils to light) occurs

plentifully, as casts, with B. Bussacensis in the Porto de Louza

schist. When examining these schists in 1853, I overlooked

this species, regarding the casts as crumpled specimens of a

large: variety of B. simplex. The corrugations of the surface,

however, are quite constant and. peculiar, as wellas the outline of

the valves, which differs from that of B. simplew:. I have already

mentioned (supra, p. 91 & p. 165) that: B. Bohemica: (im ‘which

the lobes are much more pinched up and ridge-like) forms a

passage from this species to B. complicata.

6. Beyrichia affinis, nov. sp. Pl. VI. fig. 16.

»Carapace-valve depressed ; nearly semicircular, but obliquely

acute at one extremity (anterior). Surface of valve, if regarded

as 2-lobed, may be described as being divided into two parts by

a deep and broad central indentation ; the anterior part of the

valve forming a somewhat convex, pyriform, curved lobe, taper-

ing downwards and backwards ; the other portion of, the surface

subdivided by a short furrow on its Be | part and forming a

depressed, bifurcated, y-shaped. lobe, the anterior) arm) of. which

is more prominent than the other, and constitutes a middlelobe,

if the valve be regarded as 3-lobed,—in which ase, besides the

yriform, curved, anterior lobe, there are two less prominent

tbs. which are near together, occupying the broad (posterior)

half of the valve, and are separated from the anterior lobe by a

broad central pit ; the middle lobe small, but well defined ; pos-

terior lobe larger, but depressed, curved. Marginal rim distinct,

especially on the posterior border. ph Nees

This little Beyrichia is essentially different from’ any other

that I have seen, although it is not without points of resem:

blance to some of the above-mentioned forms, such as B. Kledeni

and B. Ribeiriana ; and hence I propose to distinguish it by the

name of B. affinis. | vz: Seg

‘Tt is represented by the cast of a single valve in’ a Lower

Silurian dark-coloured schist from Waterford, Tramore. (In the

Museum of Practical Geology.)

7. Beyrichia, Barrandiana, nov. sp. - Pl. VI. fig. 17.

Carapace-valve nearly semicircular ; surface divided by a sub-

eentral furrow into-two unequal lobes ; thejsmaller lobe is pyri-

form, tapering downwards ; the other ‘triangular and ‘subdivided

by’a faint’ vertical furrow, and its largest:portion, oecupyimg the

middle! of the valve, gradually rises towards the ventral border

Mr. T. R. Jones on Beyrichiz. 171

until it is elevated into a strong conical projection or spine. ‘The

marginal rim is well defined, and was furnished with a series of

thin projecting spines.

This well-marked and peculiar species is established: on a

distinct impression (somewhat squeezed obliquely by the cleavage-

structure of the rock), discovered by Mr. Salter in the Lower

Llandeilo schist of Mynydd Garw, Beddgelert, N. Wales. (In

the Museum of Practical Geology.)

I have dedicated this Beyrichia—the earliest, so far as yet

known, of the genus, and one of the most peculiar—to M. Bar-

rande, of Prague, whose indefatigable and extensive researches

in the palzeozoic rocks of Bohemia will have comprised the study

of the Beyriche and their allies, as well as the larger and more

important groupsof organic life, some of which M. Barrande has

already so elaborately and: lucidly illustrated.

(SIMPLICEs.)

8. Beyrichia strangulaia, Salter. Pl. VI. fig. 18.

Brit. Pal. Foss. Cambridge, part 2. fase. 1. p. 186 (M‘Coy’s

descript.), pl. 1 E. figs. 1 a, 16; and fase. 2. Appendix A. p. ii.

(Salter’s descript.).

Carapace-valves subquadrate, convex; impressed at or near

the dorsal border, and towards the narrow (anterior) end of the

valve, by.a short, vertical, subcentral furrow ; the anterior side

of the furrow rising up in a low rounded knob er tubercle.

- The marginal rim is very broad, convex, divided from. the

body of the valve by a deep narrow furrow, and is seldom well

preserved. From Mr. Salter’s observations (loc. cit.), the mar-

ginal rim would appear to be broader at the antero-inferior, than

at the posterior border of the valve. Prof. M‘Coy says that the

marginal rim is often wanting, having been broken. away.

B. strangulata is abundant in the Upper Bala calcareous

schists at Coniston Waterhead, Lancashire.

The foregoing description of the typical specimens is not

quite applicable to any of the forms that I have next to notice.

Still I see no good reason for regarding as distinct species the

individuals represented by figs. 19-22; for, although neither of

them exactly: corresponds with the above description, yet there

are some important: characters common. to all, especially. the

uniform, convexity of the valve, andthe single dorsal sulcus. .On

the other hand, thereis a considerable, though not.an unlimited,

12*

172 Mr. T. R. Jones on Beyrichiz.

variation in the shape of the valve ; and, what appears to me to

be of more importance, the marginal rim is in one variety hghly

developed (as in the type), and in others it is absent ; nor do [

find any reason to suppose that these latter individuals have José

their rims accidentally.

B. strangulata, var. a. Pl. VI. fig. 19.

Valve much less quadrate than the typical form ; dorsal furrow

faint, extending across two-thirds of the width of the valve (an-

other but very faint impression occurs on the anterior part of the

valve, but amounts to little more than an undulation in the ge-

neral convexity of the surface) ; marginal rim strongly developed

at the infero-anterior border, and tapering off posteriorly.

Fig. 19 is froma unique cast in Lower Silurian fossili-

ferous schist from Robeston Wathen, Pembrokeshire. (Mus.

Pract. Geol.)

B. strangulata, var. 8. PA. VI. figs. 20, 21.

Carapace-valve (adult) narrow- oblong, with the ends rounded

and the anterior extremity contracted ; surface coarsely pitted ;

dorsal furrow short and deep, in the middle of the anterior half

of the valve; anterior side of furrow slightly elevated in some of

the casts, but not in the impression made by the outside ; no

trace of marginal rim.

Four specimens of this form occur (as casts or impressions) in

dark-coloured fossiliferous schist, of Lower Silurian age, from

Sholes Hook, Haverfordwest. (Mus. Pract. Geol.)

The cast and impression of a young individual (fig. 21),ac-

companies the foregoing. It is proportionally broader and

shorter ; nearly semicircular, but obliquely acute anteriorly ; the

sulcus is well defined, and its anterior edge is raised (in the

cast) ; the surface appears to be smooth; there is no marginal

rim.

B. strangulata, var. y. Pl. VI. fig. 22.

Cast of carapace-valve very small; convex; narrow-oblong,

narrower in front than behind; dorsal furrow short, strongly

marked, and accompanied by an anterior tubercle; no marginal

rim.

From Harnage, Shrewsbury ; and accompanies B. complicata

(fig. 5) and others: see p. 165. | |

With regard to B. strangulata and its*varieties above men-

tioned, [ would observe that M, Barrande’s collection of the

Mr. T. R. Jones on Beyrichie. 173

Silurian Entomostraca of Bohemia (now in the British Museum)

comprises several forms closely allied to this group.

9. Beyrichia bicornis, nov. sp. Pl. VI. fig. 23.

Carapace-valves flattened; impressed with a distinct, short,

subcentral, dorsal pit-like furrow; a small semicylindrical tu-

bercle rises up on either side of the furrow. Marginal rim well

developed, sloping, and crested by a narrow continuous ridge.

The carapace-valves, in one or two rare well-preserved specimens,

are smooth ; but in various stages of dissolution the surface puts

on a deceptive pitted, reticulated, or carious aspect.

The well-defined outline, raised border, and bi-tubercled sur-

face, with its deep subcentral notch, sufficiently characterize this

interesting little species. It is from the Harnage rock before

mentioned. (Mus. Pract. Geol.)

10. Beyrichia seminulum, nov. sp. PI. VI. fig. 24.

Carapace-valyes convex, almost symmetrically semicircular ;

coarsely punctate ; impressed with an almost central dorsal fur-

row, extending across one-third of the width of the valve. Mar-

ginal rim distinct, uniform.

I met with this neat little species in the Wenlock schists of

the Town Hill, Montgomery, as casts and impressions, in com-

pany. with casts of B. Kledeni.

11. Beyrichia simplex, Jones. Pl. V1. fig. 25.

“Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1853, vol. ix. p. 161. pl. 7. fig. 7.

Carapace-valves convex, smooth, somewhat ovate ; posterior

half of the valve much broader than the“anterior ; ventral border

rounded ; anterior and posterior borders obtusely angular ; dorsal

border somewhat angular, formed partly of the straight hinge-

line (which is about half the length of the valve), and partly of

the obliquely rounded upper margins of the two extremities.

Dorsal furrow slight, subcentral, towards the anterior extremity.

Marginal rim indistinct.

_ This species was established on numerous specimens, constant

in form and character, accompanying B. Bussacensis in the

Lower Silurian schists of Serra de Bussaco and Serra de Mueela,

near Coimbra, Portugal.

By simple? vars? Pl. VI. figs. 26, 27.

Figs. 26 and 27 represent small individuals, which, with

ther similar but somewhat variable forms, occur in numbers in

174 Mr. T. R. Jones on Beyrichiz.

the Harnage rock already frequently referred to. For the most

part, they much more nearly approach B. simplex than B. stran-

gulata,—their only other ally. If fig. 22—one from amongst

this crowd of minute individuals in the Harnage rock (and

which, like others of the Stmplices, have been hitherto regarded

as Cytherine)—be placed in the same category with figs. 26’ and

27, we can but see what a difference of form these little asso-

ciates present. |

Probably in mere casts of the external coverings of such mi-

nute animals, and with such general simplicity of outward form,

we should not expect to arrive at exact specific determinations.

12. Beyrichia mundula, Jones. Pl. VI. figs. 28-31.

Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 2. No. 92 (Aug. 1855), p. 90.

pl. 5. fig. 23.

Since writing the description of this Scandinavian ‘species

(loc. cit.), I have met with several very well-preserved specimens

in the limestone No. 5 (vide supra, p. 84), some of which ex-

hibit the well-marked marginal rim and striato-punctate surface

(fig. 29 5). The generality of the individuals have a’ marked

straightness of the hinge-line (about two-thirds the length of the

valve), and a decided obliquity of the upper part. of the margins

of the extremities, and frequently a conspicuous angularity of

the extremities themselves. In the specimens which have these

characters most strongly marked, the valves have a tendency to

be depressed towards their margins, and to lose the, impression

of the dorsal sulcus (figs. 830 & 31); thus resembling the cara-

pace-valves of Leperditia,—a genus which | hope to treat of in

my next notice of the Paleozoic Bivalved Entomostraca.

In the subjoined Table I have arranged the Beyrichie so as

to indicate the geological distribution of the genus and its three

subdivisions, as far as the species above described will permit.

The few other species known in the United States, already re-

ferred to (p. 168), and the Beyrichie collected by M. Barrande

and now to be seen in the British Museum, are all the species

of which I am cognizant, with the exception of some Lower

Silurian specimens of the Simplex group from Canada, which

have been collected by Mr. W. E. Logan, and will, I trust, form

part of the materials for a future notice on the Paleozoic Bivalved

Entomostraca of Canada.

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Ann. Mag. Nat.Hist. $2. Vol1G. PW

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Mr. T. R. Jones on Beyrichie. 175

TABLE OF THE BEYRICHIA,

Lower Upper

Silurian. Silurian. References,

( Simplices ;— Page

Beyrichia simplex .....+...+++.+. LR eae VOCOO 173

sImplex, Var.? .....ceccees Sk”: ongeee 173

strangulata .........000... igen Cape et” 171

strangulata, var. @ ...... vattdoie Wie 172

strangulata, var. B ...... Berghe k « aaliay 172

strangulata, var. y «++... S shnane 172

ECOEDIGS sosscedeacee ss. Sauls oe Caaaves 173

: Corrugate :—

Beyrichia Barrandiana ......... Heke aaah 170

PRIVCH IATA ame ns'gk's 0 os 0c ees eee Teen ees 169

MEME, Ghageedss decsec Pete Se aes 170

Jugosee :—

Beyrichia Bussacensis .....,-.. Ws fic ci ahes 169

COMplicata —ssseecserneres- eto, a ere 163

& complicata, var. decorata Oh: Pe Psy haa 165

( Simplices :—

Beyrichia mundula ........5464| seeees x 90 & 174

SOM cv Sacsdaecdademch.- teases oe

—— Wilckensiana ......-.....| eee * 89

+— Wilckensiana, var. plicata) ...... * 90

Corrugate :—

, Beyrichia Bea eae dal: chaaee * 90

‘ Jugose : —

3 Beyrichia Salteriana .........66.| sever X* 89

— lata OF ahh een sakes « * 2 *

Maecoyiania Seeks CV ioniel ove ani * 88

Daman oc Ail Lacks * 88

or CHDEPCUALA:: © se cidecnsdeeeel sieeee * 86

— tuberculata, var. nuda...| ...... * 87

— tuberculata, var.antiquata| ...... * 87

—-— Kloedenl .........-0s.0008- * ? * 165

—— Kloedeni, var. antiquata | ©...... * 167

— Kloedeni, var. torosa ...| ...6. * 167

iq DRCIRGR. Kies orth ixiebs * 86

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI.

Fig. 1. Beyrivhia hie sty te Salter (typical form): right valve. 2. Left

Fig. 3: B. complicata: right valve. 4. Left valve.

Fig. 5. B. complicata (young): right valve.

Fig. 6. B. complicata, var. decorata, Jones: right valve.

Fig. 7. B. Kledeni, M‘Coy: right valve.

Fig. 8. B. Kledeni, var. antiquata, Jones: right valve.

Fig. 9. B. Kledeni, M‘Coy: right valve.

176 Onthe Heart and Circulation in the Pyenogonide.

Fig: 10::B. Kledeni, var. torosa, Jones: left valve. 11. Right valve.

» 12. Left valve.

Fig. 13. B. lata, Vanuxem, sp.: right valve.

Fig. 14. B. Bussacensis, Jones: left valve.

Fig. 15. B. Ribetriana, Jones: left valve.

Fig. 16. B. affinis, Jones: right valve.

Fig. 17. B. Barrandiana, Jones: left valve.

Fig. 18. B. strangulata, Salter: left valve.

Fig. 19. B. strangulata, var. «: right valve.

Fig. 20. B. strangulata, var. B: left valve. 21. Right valve (young),

Fig. 22. BR. strangulata, var. y: left valve.

Fig. 23.a. B. bicornis, Jones: left valve. 23. Ventral aspect of the

same valve.

Fig. 24. B. seminulum, Jones : left valve.

Fig. 25. B. simplex, Jones : right valve.

Fig. 26. B. simplex? : right valve. 27. Right valve.

Fig 28. B. mundula, Jones: right valve. 29a. Left valve. 29 6. Ven-

tral aspect of part of the same valve. 30. Left valve. 31. Left

valve.

XV.—On the Heart and Circulation in the Pycnogonide.

By Dr. A. Kroun*.

[With a Plate. |

Tue opinion of Quatrefages that the Pycnogonide are destitute

of a heart, has been contradicted by Zenker+, who has succeeded

in recognizing this organ in Nymphon gracile. Zenker disco-

vered it in the position where analogy would lead us to expect

to meet with it; he describes it as a very delicate sac, furnished

with ramified muscular fibres; its outlines may be most clearly

distinguished in the neighbourhood of the last pair of legs. I

had recently an opportunity, whilst examining a Phozichilus

(probably P. spinosus), of convincing myself most decidedly of

the existence of the heart. 1am thus enabled to furnish more

exact details as to its form and structure.

The heart is a sac, of proportionably very large size, which is

placed, as in all the Arthropoda, in the back, above the intestinal

canal ; it is seen to extend from the hinder margin of the last

thoracic segment to the middle of the foremost one (PI. VII. fig. 7).

Whether it terminates at this pomt, or extends beyond it, must

remain undecided, as further observations are prevented by the

tubercle which rises on this part, upon the apex of which the

four eyes are situated. The heart is divided into,three chambers -

by two pairs of deep lateral notches or constrictions ; the hinder

* From Wiegmann’s Archiv for 1855, p. 6.

+ Miiller’s Archiv, 1852, p. 383.

SE Se ey te a ne a See See ee Se ne eee

wie ene pees gb ici ee —<. : . > HON cs, = ti?) 4 : e ws .

Ann..be Mang. Nat. Hist. 8 2N0.16. 71.0.

—

M. Valenciennes on the Gorgonide, 177

chamber is smaller than the middle, and this than the anterior

one. The latter is very considerably enlarged immediately be-

hind the above-mentioned tubercle, and is no doubt in free

communication with the cavity of the body or the interstices

(/acune) between the organs, and this is very probably the case

also with the hinder chamber. In the bottom of each notch

there is an opening for the entrance of the returning blood, so

that there are four such apertures, arranged in pairs. From

this description it is evident that the heart of the Pycnogonide

agrees essentially im form and structure with that of the higher

Arachnida.

The circulation goes on pretty rapidly in a distinctly marked

course, and if the nutritive fluid contains a suflicient quantity

of blood-corpuscles, may be easily observed. The chambers of

the heart contract simultaneously. At each diastole, the blood

returning from the organs is taken up by the heart through the

four lateral openings and driven forwards at each systole. In

this manner a small portion of the blood reaches the proboscis,

whilst the greater part. takes its course in the form of a consi-

derable stream towards the abdomen. From this principal cur-

rent, lateral streams are given off to the legs; these pass down

one side of the respective legs and up the other, so as to return

at last to the heart.

In conclusion I must remark, that Van Beneden has already

observed a regular circulation of the blood in the legs of Nym-

phon*. He could not discover the heart, and according to him,

the impulse is given to this current of blood in the extremities

by a peculiar, rhythmically contractile membrane, situated within

the base of the legs. But as it is now certain that the blood

circulates in all parts of the body by the action of the heart

alone, we may very justly doubt the existence of any such ar-

rangement as this in the legs of the Pycnogonide.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII.

Fig. 7. Sketch of the heart of Phoxichilus. The numbers 1-4 indicate

the several thoracic segments ; a, proboscis; 6, abdomen ; ¢, the

four eyes; d, d,d,d, the legs; e, e, the stomach with its lateral

ceca; f, intestine; g, the anterior, A, the middle, and 7, the

hinder chamber of the heart ; k, k, the constrictions of the heart.

XVI.— Abstract of a Monograph of the Family Gorgonide.

, By. M, VaLenciennes. :

M. Mutne-Epwarps has shown that the animals of the class

of Polypes belong to two great orders. One of these, called

Anthozoa (Zoanthaires), includes those animals which more or

* Froriep’s Notizen, xxxvul. p. 72.

178 M. Valenciennes on the Gorgonide.

less resemble the Actinie so abundant on the coasts of all seas,

characterized by their simple, conical, hollow tentacles, and by

_ the numerous ovigenous lamelle which rise in their internal

cavity. The second order, to which M. Milne-Edwards has long

since given the name of Aleyonia—fixing the zoological meaning

of this word, borrowed from Pallas, which has been applied by

other authors to the most dissimilar creatures—includes those

polypes in which the mouth is surrounded only by eight pin-

nated tentacles, and in which there are only eight internal ova-

rian lamelle; each tentacle is a conical tube, furnished on each

side with shorter, filamentous secondary tentacles, which are

mserted on the primary tentacle in the same manner as the

barbs of a feather upon the stalk. All these polypes are united

posteriorly to a common sarcoid body, forming true compound

animals. This soft tissue, which is often gelatinous in its ap-

pearance, is consolidated by numerous calcareous concretions,

entirely composed of carbonate of lime, and possessing deter-

minate forms in each species, but often very different in differ-

ent species, and also frequently exactly similar in very distinct

species belonging to different genera. They must not be con-

founded with the spicules or acicules which also exist in the

tissue of several parts of the polypes, principally round the oral

orifice, or near the cells through which the body of the isolated

animal is exserted. To these bodies I give the name of sclerites.

The masses produced by the aggregation of the Alcyonia are

as varied in their form as the polypidoms of the Anthozoa, which

have received the general name of Madrepores. The compound

Alcyonia are sometimes protected by a simple epidermie scleren-

chyma, without any solid internal parts; but sometimes’ there

exists an axis, which is variable in its nature, form, and chemical

composition.

Amongst the families established in this order by MM. Milne-

Edwards and Dana, the family to which the latter has given the

name of Gorgonide, and which has been divided by Milne-

Edwards into several subfamilies, includes the species united by

Pallas in the genus Gorgonia.

A work which I have long been occupied with, upon the nu-

merous species of Sponges, has led me to compare their spicules

with the sclerites of the Gorgonide. The examination of these

corpuscles has enlarged the sphere of my observations, and some

new researches have become the basis of a new classification of

these zoophytes. 3G OMANI

All my predecessors, with the exception of M. Milne-Edwards,

only describing the Gorgonide from dried specimens, have

founded their characters upon the arrangement of the divisions

of the more or less delicate branches of what they call the avis of

M. Valenciennes on the Gorgonide. 179

the Gorgonie, and upon the form and arrangement of the cells in

the friable envelope of the branches, to which they give the name

of cortex. M. Milne-Edwards has ascertained that this enve-

lope, when examined upon living animals, is composed of a sort

of contractile parenchyma, which is rendered arenaceous by the

quantity of caleareous molecules contained in it. His extended

knowledge of the organization of the polypes, has shown him

the relations which exist between the envelope and the axis; and

in order to render his idea more intelligible he has given the

name of sclerenchyma to the external portion from which the

extensible bodies of the polypes issue, and of sclerobase to the

concealed portion, which he still regarded as composed of a

horny matter.

It appears from what I have just stated, that a Gorgonia isa

body formed. by the union of numerous polypes upon a common

body, enveloped by an arenaceous sclerenchyma surrounding

another dendroid secretion, the sclerobase ; just as a Veretillum

is composed of numerous polypes protruded from a soft fleshy

sclerenchyma. The sclerenchyma of the Gorgonide contains

numerous sclerites. These, which are often microscopic, but are

sometimes as much as 2 millimetres in length and consequently

visible to the naked eye, occur in all the genera of this family.

The following are some of the principal forms :—

1. The corpuscles have two small circles of tubercles at a

distance from one another on a short axis; the tuberculate ex-

tremities resemble a small branch of cauliflower. These occur

in Junceella juncea, surculus and elongata, Gorgonella sulcifera;

Ctenocella pectinata, Rhipidigorgia umbraculum, cribrum, arenata,

&c., and in the common coral of the Mediterranean.

2. Other sclerites are fusiform, with four or six circlets of

tubercles. These occur in Péerogorgia simplex, Plexaura virgea

and peteghizans, Phycogorgia foliata, Rhipidigorgia reticulum,

Gorgonella cauliculus, &c. |

3. A third form is that of the clubbed sclerites, in which a

single extremity is dilated, and furnished with ridges, like some

ancient maces. These are found in Gorgonia crinita, papillifera

and placomus, Gorgonella betulina and ceratophyta, Plexaura ho-

momalla, pensilis, parvula, &c.

4. A fourth and new form is seen in the muricated sclerites

with four or several points, and entirely covered with spines,

which occur in Plevaura aurantiaca, Plewaurella dichotoma, Gor-

goma vermiculata, &c.

5. A fifth form consists of larger or smaller. scales, more or

less covered with small spines. ...\These are found in Cricocella

verticillaris and plumatilis, Primnoa lepadifera and antarctica, Gor-

gonia fungifera, &e. |

180 M. Valenciennes on the Gorgonide.

These sclerites exhibit the most agreeable colours: some are

white and transparent like a fine crystal of Iceland spar, others

violet like amethyst, others red or yellow. Their transparency

has led to the supposition that these corpuscles were composed

of small crystals, but M. Senarmont after the examination of

several sorts has been unable to recognize any crystalline form

in them, and does not hesitate to say that they are not crystals.

Their similarity in such different species of Gorgonide proves

that these sclerites cannot be employed in characterizing the

genera, as has been supposed by some very excellent zoologists :

they can only be taken into account in the diagnosis of the

species.

The sclerenchyma thus formed is perforated with cells, which

soinetimes project from the surface like small warts, whilst in

other species they are pierced as though with the point of a

needle. These cells are sometimes margined with a small ex-

pansion which may be called a lip; other species have the cells

surrounded by small scales.

A second organ, the study of which is of great importance, is

the axis or sclerobase. A fact first established by my researches

with the aid of M. Fremy, is, that this axis, notwithstanding ‘its

external appearance, does not consist of horn like'that of the

claws and hoofs of the Mammalia or the horns of Ruminants. It

is a substance sui generis, which however approaches more closely

to horn than to the chitine of the articulated animals, It is

insoluble even in hot solution of potash, brought to the greatest

possible concentration by boiling. Some species give up a por-

tion of their colouring matter to muriatic, acid; others yield

nothing. I have met with some sclerobases which became soft,

and even began to dissolve in this acid. It is therefore a new

substance peculiar to the Gorgonide, like the conchyoline of the

Mollusca, of which the shells of the genus Pinna furnish such

large and fine specimens. I think we may designate this sub-

stance by the name of corneine, on account of its resemblance to

the material of the hoofs and nails of the Mammalia. The ana-

lyses made by M. Fremy prove that it is isomeric with horn.

The sclerobase does not consist of corneine alone in all the

species of Gorgonide. In a great number of species the axis

contains a considerable quantity of carbonate, of lime, Several

species possess an axis which gives a very brisk. effervescence

with muriatic acid. This physiological fact is very,mportant in

the classification of the Gorgonide, and not less so in explaining

the way in which the membranes of the polypes assist in the

formation of the sclerenchyma and sclerobase. Those species

with a calcareous sclerobase, which I unite under the name of

Gorgonellacee, have the body prolonged into the common sarcoid

M. Valenciennes on the Gorgonide. 181

mass, and are protected internally by a delicate, membrane,

which secretes a plate of corneine covered with carbonate of

lime._The polypes in adding to their common body secrete

fresh plates composed of calcareous matter and corneine, and by

treating these axes with an acid which removes the lime, the

superposed membranes are separated from each other. When

the internal membrane, which is often thick, as in some Plez-

aure and Eunicee, only deposits corneine, the sclerobase is

composed entirely of homogeneous layers of this substance ;

these have often been regarded as ligneous axes by observers who

recognized in their lamellar structure a certain appearance of

concentric layers like that of the ligneous layers of vegetables,

although in reality there is no resemblance between the organi-

zation of these sclerobases and vegetable tissues.

These investigations have led me to revise the classification of

these polypes and to arrange them as follows :—

Family I. Goreonacrz.

Axis not effervescing with muriatic acid.

Genus Gorconza. Cells opening upon a small tubercle of the

sclerenchyma, projecting from the stalk.

“Sp. verrucosa, Pal., placomus, Linn., graminea, Pall. epee

Pall.,; and LL other species.

Genus Prexavra. Cells opening by a simple hole pierced in

the sclerenchyma, without projections or lips.

Sp. virgulata, Lamk., sanguinea, Lamk,y rosea, Lamk., jla-

vida, Lamk., fleguosa, Lamk., homomial, , Lamk. , friabilis,

Latik.; vermitulata, Lanik., multi taith: Tanke. alba,

Lamk., laxa, Lamk. , petechi zans, Pall., sa 13. other

species. a

? Genus Hunicea. Cells placed in tubular prominences of the

sclerenchyma, and opening under a sort of lip.

Sp. plantaginea, Lamk., mammosa, Lamk., and 6 other

species.

(Genus Prerocorara. Cells opening in series on the two sides

of a compressed stem.

Sp. anceps, Khr., and 3 other species.

w’ Genus Pavedadin dill -» Sclerobase dilated into membranous la-

minz like a Fucus ; sclerenchyma covered with cellular pores.

Sp. fucata, Val. - (Mazatlan.)

Genus Hymenocoreia. Sclerenchyma dilated into foliaceous

laminz, supported on a. sclerobase wn simple, aise

“rounded, slender, separate stems.

Sp. quercifolia, Val.. (Guadaloupe.) ‘ Nha hint , | , y gs

182 M. Valenciennes on the Gorgonide.

Genus Payitiocoreta. Sclerenchyma with foliaceous expan-

sions; branches of the sclerobase with frequent anastomoses:

Sp. dilatata, and foliata, Val.

Genus Rurrrpicorera. Branches of sclerobase rounded, fre-

quently anastomosing to form a flabelliform network.

Sp. umbraculum, Lamk., flabellum, Linn., and 6 other

species. :

Family II. GorconeLtaces.

Axis effervescing with muriatic acid.

Genus Juncre.ia, Val. Stems straight, covered with polypi-

ferous cells scattered upon the sclerobase.,

Sp. junced, surculus, vimen, gree, calyculata and hystrix,

Val. |

Genus Crenoceta, Val. Sclerobase forming straight rods,

pectinated on one side only of the principal stem.

Sp. pectinata, Val. (China.)

Genus GorGoneLa, Val. Sclerobase much divided, forming

fine branches. w inf vA i> %

Sp. violacea, Lamk.j sarme osa,) Lamk., and 3 others.

I have extended my researches to other polypes of different

families, and they have given me the opportunity of observing

several facts which have escaped previous observers, and which

will serve to rectify some faulty diagnoses. The’ coral-fishers

agree in saying that the extremities of the branches of coral are

soft when first taken from the sea, and that they only become

hard by desiccation. The truth of this may be ascertained by

examining coral preserved in spirits.

On dissecting the Melitea ochracea, Lamk., the parenchyma

of the sarcoid envelope of the common body is seen to extend

along the stems, and between the calcareous masses, of which

the articulations of the sclerobase are composed. But it is in-

correct to say that this sclerobase is composed of a series of

joints separated by a corky tissue: it is the desiccation of the

parenchyma that renders the separation of the joints too easy.

Lamarck only examined dried individuals.

The sclerites of the Melitee are small, scarcely measuring

from 0°08 to 0°10 of a millimetre. They are’ smooth, cylin-

drical, rounded at both ends, and of a fine orange colour. These

are mixed with others, of a longer form, and pointed’ at the two

extremities ; their colour is yellow and they measure'0‘15 of a

millimetre. With these sclerites I have seen others much smaller,

measuring only 0°04 to 0°06 of a millimetre, of a fine orange-

yellow colour, and furnished with two whorls of tubercles.

Dr. J. E. Gray on the genus Assiminia. 183

The articulations which separate the calcareous pieces of the

sclerobase of Jsts, consist of corneine. The sclerites of sis are

0-18 to 0°20 mill. in length, with a swelling at each extremity ;

they are of a fine white colour.

The substance of the axis of Pennatula phosphorea has been

analysed by M. Fremy. It contains.a considerable quantity

of phosphate of lime with the carbonate of lime. ‘These are

the only Radiated animals containing phosphate of lime, and

this pecularity was the less expected as the axis of Virgularia

and Pavonaria contain only carbonate of lime.

XVII.—On the Genus Assiminia.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S.

To.the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN,

In the preceding Number of the ‘ Annals’ Mr. Clark thinks he

has proved that Dr. Leach’s genus Assiminia is only a species

of Truncatella of Risso. Mr. Clark’s description proves the con-

verse of his position. Zruncatella should have a subcylindrical

shell, witha slender tapering tip, which falls off when the shell

approaches, adult age; hence the name of the genus: Assiminia

has.a,broad conic shell with an acute tip which does not fall off;

if it)is to.be a species of the same genus, the name of the latter

eught.to be changed.

,o The foot of Zruncatella is small and peculiarly formed, and the

eyes of all.the, species, according to Mr, Clark’s observations, are

large with a white iris ; now this is not the case with Assiminia,

and, yet, Mr. Clark regards it as a Truncatella.

» Every naturalist has the nght to restrict his genera as he

pleases.:,, L have only to observe that Mr. Clark’s notions on this

head are not those usually held by modern zoologists, and this

must, explain the proposed union; it is not so extraordinary as

that of the species which he has combined together under the

generic name of Murex in his late work, species which are. by

other authors referred to six distinct families. If we were to ex-

tend the views.of..Mr. Clark as applied to the British Mollusca

to the,exotie species, that is to say to the Mollusca known, many

of our genera would.contain from 500 to 700 species, which cer-

tainly, would, not facilitate the study of these animals. But, the

whole of Mr.,Clark’s.theory, is so opposed to sound logic, that I

shall. not proceed further.

Te oA ¢ to .ovtodam, Gentlemen, yours truly,

re Oe J... Gray.

184 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the. Law whith .has regulated

XVIET.—On the Law which has regulated the Introduction of

, New Species. By Atrrep R. Wariace, F.R.GS. >

Every naturalist who has directed. his attention to, the subject

of the geographical distribution of animals and_, plants, must

have been interested in the singular facts which it. presents.

Many of these facts are quite different from what would have

been, anticipated, and have hitherto been considered as. highly

curious, but quite inexplicable. None of the. explanations. at-

tempted from the time of Linnzus are now considered. at-all

satisfactory ; none of them have given a cause sufficient, tor ac-

count for the facts known at the time, or comprehensive enough

to. include all the new facts which have since been, and are, daily

being added. Of late years, however, a great light has been

thrown upon the subject by geological investigations, which

have shown that the present state of the earth, and the organisms

now inhabiting it, are but the last stage of a.long. and, uninter-

rupted series of changes which it has undergone,,and.conse-

quently, that to endeavour to explain and account, for its pre-

sent condition without any reference to those changes’ |(as, has

frequently been done) must lead. to very imperfeet andjerroneons

conclusions.

The facts proved by geology are briefly these s-#That, diving

an immense, but unknown period, the surface, of, the. earth has

undergone successive changes ; land has sunk beneath the ocean,

while fresh land has risen up from it; mountain chains have

been elevated; islands have been formed into continents,.and

continents submerged till they have become islands; and. these

changes have taken place, not once merely, but perhaps: hun-

dreds, perhaps thousands of times :—That all these operations

have been more or less continuous, but unequal in their progress,

and during the whole series the organic life of the earth has

undergone a corresponding alteration. This alteration also thas

been gradual, but complete ; after a certain interval not a single

species existing which had lived at the commencement. of. the

period. This complete renewal of the forms of life also appears

to have occurred several times :—That from the last of the Geo-

logical epochs to the present or Historical epoch, the change of

organic life has been gradual: the first appearance, of animals

now existing can in many cases be traced, their numbers gradu-

ally increasing in the more recent formations,-while other species

continually die out and disappear, so that, the.present, condition

ef the,organic world is clearly derived! by asnatural process of

gradual extinction and ¢xeation of (species from, that of the, latest

geological. periods... We may therefore |safely; infer, a dke-grada+

tion and natural sequence from one. Benlogianh epoch. to’ waother.

the Introduction of New Species. 185

- Now, taking this as a, fair statement of the results of geolo-

gical inquiry, we see that the present geographical distribution

of life upon the earth must be the result of all the previous

changes, both of the surface of the earth itself and of its inha-

bitants. ‘Many causes no doubt: have operated of which we must

ever rémain in ignorance, and we may therefore expect to find

many details very difficult of explanation, and in attempting to

give one, must allow ourselves to call into our service geological

chatiges which it is highly probable may have occurred, though

we have no direct evidence of their individual operation.

The ‘great increase of our knowledge within the last twenty

years, both of the present and past history of the organic world,

has accumulated a body of facts which should afford a sufficient

foundation for a comprehensive law embracing and explaining

them all, and giving a direction to new researches. It is about

ten year’s’ Since the idea of such a law suggested itself to the

writer of this paper, and he has since taken every opportunity of

testing it by all the newly ascertained facts with which he has

become acquainted; or has been able to observe himself. These

have ail served to convince him of the correctness of his hypo-

thesis:" “Fully to ‘enter into such a subject would occupy much

space, and it is only in consequence of some views having been

lately promulgated, he believes in a wrong direction, that he

now ventures to’ present his ideas to the public, with only such

obvious’ illustrations of the arguments and results as occur to

him ina placé’ far removed from all means of reference and

exact information. '

~The following propositions in Organic Geography and Geology

give the main facts on which the hypothesis is founded.

Geography.

1. Large groups, such as classes and orders, are generally spread

over the whole earth, while smaller ones, such as families and

genera, are frequently confined to one portion, often to a very

limited district.

2. In widely distributed families the genera are often limited in

range; in widely distributed genera, well-marked groups of

“species are peculiar to each geographical district.

3. Whena group is confined to one district, and is rich im spe-

cies, it is almost invariably the case that the most closely

‘allied species ‘ave found ‘in the same locality or in closely ad-

~ the species ‘by affinity is also geographical. p

4. In:countries of a’ similar climate; but separated by a wide sea

or lofty mountains; the families; genera ‘and’ species of the

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvi. 13

186 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Law which has regulated

one are often represented by closely allied families, genera

_and species peculiar to the other.

Geology.

5. The distribution of the organic world in time is very similar

to its present distribution in space.

6. Most of the larger and some small groups extend ihwougls

several geological periods.

7. In each period, however, there are peculiar groups, found no-

where else, and extending through one or several formations.

8. Species of one genus, or genera of one family occurring in the

same geological time are more closely allied than those sepa-

y| mated in time.

9. As generally in geography no species or gents occurs in two

>i very distant localities without being also: found m>interme-

diate places, so in geology the life of a species or genus has

not, been interrupted. In other words, no alien n or species

has come into existence twice.

10. The followmg law may be deduced from thesis facts + Hvery

species has come into existence coincident both; in space and

time with a pre-existing closely allied species. jens Jeon

This law agrees with, explains and illustrates all the facts

aaanbeee with the following branches of the subject :—1st. The

system of natural affinities. 2nd. The distribution of animals

and plants in space. 3rd. The same in time, including all the

phzenomena of representative groups, and those which Professor

Forbes supposed to manifest polarity. 4th. The phzenomena of

rudimentary organs. We will briefly endeavour to show its

bearing upon each of these.

If the law above enunciated be true, it follows that the natural

series ‘of affinities will also represent the order in which the

several species came into’ existence, each one having had for its

immediate antitype a closely allied species existing at the time

of its origin. It 1s evidently possible that two or three distinct

species may have had a common antitype, and that each of these

may again haye become the antitypes from which other closely

allied species were created. The effect of this would be, that so

long as each species has had but one new species formed on its

model, the line of affinities will be simple, and may be repre-

serited by placing the several species in direct succession In a

straight’ line. But if two or more species have: ‘been indepen-

dently formed on the plan of a common a i pe, then the series

of affinities will be compound, atid cat only ‘be ‘represented by a

forked or‘many-branched line. Now, all Bretiieh at a Natural

classification and arrangement of organic ‘beitigs show, that both

the Introduction of New Species. 7. Tae

these plans have obtained in creation. Sometimes the series of

affinities can be well represented for a space by a direct pro-

gression from species to species or from group to group, but it

is generally found impossible so to continue. There constantly

oecur two or more modifications of an organ or modifications of

two distinct organs, leading us on to two distinct series of spe-

cies, which at length differ so much from each other as to form

distinct genera or families. These are the parallel series or re-

presentative groups of naturalists, and they often occur in dif-

ferent countries; or are found fossil in different formations.

They are said to have an analogy to-each other when they are so

far removed: from their common antitype as to differ in many

important points of structure, while they still preserve a fainily

resemblance.. We thus see how difficult it is to determine in

every case whether a given relation is an analogy or an affinity, for

usis evident that:as-we go back along the parallel or divergent

series,-towards the common antitype, the analogy which existed

between the two groups becomes an affinity. We are also made

awaré of the difficulty of arriving ata true classification, even in

aysmalh and: perfect: group ;—in the actual state of nature \it is

almost impossible; the species bemg so numerous and the modi-

fications of form and structure so varied, arising probably from

the immense number of species which have served as antitypes

for the existing species, and thus. produced a complicated branch-

ing of the lines of affinity, as intricate as the twigs of a gnarled

oak or the vascular system of the human body. Again, if we

consider that we have only fragments of this vast system, the

stem and main branches being represented by extinct species of

which we have no knowledge, while a vast mass of limbs and

boughs and minute twigs and scattered leaves is what we have to

place in order, and determine the true position each. originally

occupied with regard to the others, the whole difficulty of the

true Natural System of classification becomes apparent to us,

We shall thus find ourselves obliged to reject all those systems

of classification which arrange species or groups in circles, as

well as those which fix a definite number for the divisions of each

group. The latter class have been very generally rejected, by

naturalists, as contrary to nature, notwithstanding the ability

with which they have, been advocated ; but the circular system

of affinities seems to have obtained a deeper hold, many eminent

naturalists having to some extent adopted it... We have, .how-

ever, neyer been able. to finda case in which the circle.has, been.

closed by a diréct and close affinity, In, most, cases a, palpable

analogy has been substituted, in. others, the, affinity, 1s,.very.

obscure or altogether doubtful. » The complicated .branching of

the lines of affinities in extensive groups must also afford great

13*

188 Mr. A. R..Wallace.on the Law which has regulated

facilities for, giving a show of probability. to any such purely

artificial. arrangements... Their. death-blow was. given, by, the

admirable. paper. of the lamented, Mr. Strickland, published in

the, Annals. of Natural History,’ in which he so clearly showed

the, true, synthetical method of discovering. the Natural System.,

If,we, now consider the geographical distribution, of animals

and plants upon the earth, we shall find all the facts, beautifully

in accordance with, and readily explained by, the present ,hypo-

thesis... A country having species, genera, and.whole., families

peculiar.to it, will be the necessary result. of its haying been

isolated for a long period, sufficient for many series of, species, to

have, been created on the type of pre-existing ones, which,.as well

as many of the earlier-formed species, have become extinct, and

thus made, the groups appear isolated. . If in any.case the anti;

type chad an.extensive range, two, or more groups, of species

might. have been formed, each varying from).it, in a. different

manner, and thus producing several. representative or analogous

groups. The Sylviade of Kurope and the Sylvicolide.of North

America, the Heliconide of South America and, the Hupleas.of

the Kast, the group of Zrogons inhabiting Asia, and that.pecu-,

har to South America, are examples that may, be. accounted, for

in this manner. i

Such phenomena as are exhibited .by the Galapagos. Islands,

which contain little groups of plants and animals peculiar.to

themselves, but most nearly allied to those of South America,

have not hitherto received any, even a conjectural explanation.

The Galapagos are a volcanic group of high antiquity, and have

probably never been more closely connected with the continent

than they are at present. ‘They must have been first, peopled,

like other newly-formed islands, by the action of winds and cur-

rents, aud ata period sufficiently remote to have had the original

species die ont, and the modified prototypes only remain. , In

the same way we can account for the separate islands having

each their peculiar species, either on the supposition that the same

original emigration peopled the whole of the islands with the

same species from which differently modified prototypes were

created, or that the islands were successively peopled from each

other, but that new species have been created in each on the

plan of the pre-existing ones. St. Helena isa similar case of a.

very ancient island having obtained an entirely_peculiar, though

limited, flora. On the other hand, no example.is, known of an

island which can be proved. geologically to be ,of ,very..recent

origin (late in the Tertiary, for instance),) and yet. possesses

generic or family groups, or even many species.peculiar to itself,

When a range, of mountains. has, attained.a great, elevation,

and has so remained during a long geological period, the species. -

the Introduction of New Species. 189

of the two sides at and near their bases will be often very dif-

ferent, representative species of some genera occurring, and even

whole genera being peculiar to one side only, as is remarkably

seen in the case of the Andes and Rocky Mountains. A similar

phznomenon occurs when an island has been separated from’a

continent at'a very early period. The shallow sea between the

Peninsula of Malacca, Java, Sumatra and Borneo was probably

a continent or large island at an early epoch, and may have

become submerged as the volcanic ranges of Java and Sumatra

were elevated: The organic results we see in the very consi+

derable number of species of animals common to some or all of

these ‘countries, while at the same time a number of closely

allied representative species exist peculiar to each, showing that

a considerable period has elapsed since their separation. “The

facts of geographical distribution and of geology may thus mu-

tually explain each other in doubtful cases, should the principles

here advocated be clearly established.

Tn all those cases in which an island has been separated from

a continent, or raised by volcanic or coralline action from the

sea, or in which a mountain-chain ‘has been elevated, in a recent

geological epoch, the phenomena of peculiar groups or even of

single representative species will not exist. Our own island is

an example’of this, its separation from the continent being geo-

logically very recent, and we have consequently scarcely a species

which is peculiar to it; while the Alpine range, one of the most

recent mountain elevations, separates faunas and floras which

Sait differ nore than may be due to climate and latitude

alone. , :

~The series of facts alluded to in Proposition 3, of closely allied

species in rich groups being found geographically near each

other, is most striking and important. Mr. Lovell Reeve has

well exemplified it in his able and interesting paper on the Distri-

bution of the Bulimi. It is also seen in the Humming-birds

and Toucans, little groups of two or three closely allied species

‘being often found in the same or closely adjoining districts, as

we have had the good fortune of personally verifying. Fishes

give evidence of a similar kind: each great river has its peculiar

genera, and in more extensive genera its groups of closely allied

species. But it is the same throughout Nature; every class and

order of animals’ will ‘contribute similar facts. Hitherto no

attempt has been made to explain these singular phenomena, or

to show how they have ‘arisen!’ “Why are the genera of Palms

and of Orchids ‘in almost every Case confined to one hemisphere?

Why are the'closely' allied’ species’ of brown-backed ‘Trogons all

found ‘in the Hast, and the ‘sreen-backed in the West ? Why

are the Macaws aiid the’ Cockatoos similarly restricted? Insects

190 Mr. A.R. Wallace om the Law. which has regulated

furnish; a countless number of analogous, examples ;--the Go-

hathi of Africa; the Ornithoptere of the Indian islands, the He/i-

conide of South America, the Danaide of the Fast, and in, all,

the most. closely allied, species found in. geographical proximity,

The question forces itself upon every thinking mind,—why are

these things so? They could not be as they are, had no.law,re-

gulated their creation and dispersion. The law here enunciated

not merely explains, but necessitates the facts we see to, exist,

while the vast and long-continued geological, changes ofthe

earth readily account for the exceptions, and apparent disere-

pansies that here and there occur, The writer’sobjectin putting

forward his views in the present imperfect. manner is.to, submit

them to the test of other minds, and to be made,aware of all the

facts supposed to be inconsistent with them. As his hypothesis

is.one which claims acceptance solely as explaining and. connect-

ing facts which exist in nature, he expects facts,,alone, to, be

brought to disprove it; not a-priori arguments against, its pro-

bability. m

__,./The phenomena of geological distribution are, exactly analo-

gous to those of geography... Closely allied species are,found

associated in the same beds, and the change from. species to spe-

cles appears to have been as gradual in time.as,im space... Geo-

logy, however, furnishes us with positive. proof of the extinction

and production of species, though it does not. imform, us, how

either has taken place. The extinction of species, however,

offers but little difficulty, and the modus operandi has been well

illustrated, by Sir C. Lyell in his admirable ‘ Principles.’ ,.Geo-

logical changes, however gradual, must occasionally have modi-

fied external conditions to such an extent as to have rendered

the existence of certain species impossible. The extinction

would in most cases be effected by a gradual dying-out, but im

some instances there might have been a sudden destruction of a

species of limited range. To discover how the extinct species

have from time to time been replaced by new ones down to the

yery latest geological period, is the most difficult, and at the

same time the most interesting problem in the natural history

of the earth. The present inquiry, which, seeks to eliminate

from known facts a law which has determined, to a certain de-

gree, what species could and did appear ata given epoch, may,

it is hoped, be considered as one. step in the, right, direction

towards a complete solution of it, + nie ghee ie

Much discussion has of late years taken place.on,the question,

whether the succession of life upon the, pare has been,from.a

lower to a higher degree of organization ¢,:./The.admitted, facts

seem to show that there has been, a,general, but, not-a.detailed

progression.. Mollusca and Radiata, existed,.before Vertebrata,

‘the Introduction of New Species. 191

and the progression from Fishes to Reptiles and Mammalia, and

also from the lower mammals to the higher, is indisputable. On

the other hand, it is said that the Mollusca and Radiata of the

-very earliest’ periods were more highly organized than the great

mass of those now existing, and that the very first fishes that

havé’ been discovered are by no means the lowest organized of

the*elass.’’ Now it is believed the present hypothesis will har-

monize with all these facts, and in a great measure serve to

explain them; for though it may appear to some readers essen-

tially a theory of progression, it is in reality only one of gradual

change: Tt is, however, by no means difficult to show that’a

real progression in the scale of organization is perfectly consistent

with all the appearances, and even with apparent retrogression,

should ‘such occur.

“Returning to’ the analogy of a branching tree, ‘as the’ best

Mode of representing the natural arrangement of species and

their ‘successive creation, let us suppose that at an early geolo-

gical epoch any group (say a class of the Mollusca) has attained

toa gréat richness of species and a high organization. Now let

this great branch of ‘allied species, by geological mutations, be

completely or partially destroyed. Subsequently a new branch

‘springs from the’same trunk, that is to say, new species are

successively created, having for their antitypes the same lower

Organized’ species ‘which had served as the antitypes for the

‘former group, but which have survived the modified conditions

which destroyed it: This new group being subject to these

altered conditions, has modifications of structure and organiza-

‘tion given to it, and becomes the representative group of the

former one'in another geological formation. It may, however,

happen, that though later in time, the new series of species

may never attain’ to so high a degree of organization as those

“preceding it, but in its turn become extinct, and give place to

yet another modification from the same root, which may be of

‘higher or lower organization, more or less numerous im species,

and more’or less varied in form and structure than either of

those which preceded it. Again, each of these groups may not

have become ‘totally extinct, but may have left a few species,

the modified prototypes of which have existed in each succeeding

period, a faint niemorial of their former grandeur and luxuriance.

Thus every case’‘of apparent retrogression may be in reality a

progress, though an interrupted one:!when some monarch of

gress, 3 | Pp |

the’ forest losesa’ limb; it’ may be replaced by a feeble and sickly

substitute? The foregoiie remarks appear to apply to the case

6f the Mollwwea} which! ‘at “avery early period, had reached a

high ‘organization and ‘agréat development of forms and spe-

cies ‘ini’ ‘the ‘Teéstacedws' Cephalopoda! In’ each succeeding age

‘192 Mr. A. R, Wallace on the Law which has regulated

modified species and genera replaced the former ones which had

beéonie extinct, and as.we approach the present zra:but few

and small representatives of the group remain, while the Gaste-

-ropods and Bivalves have acquired an immense preponderance.

In ‘the long series of changes the earth has undergone, the:

process of peopling it with organic beings has been continually:

going on, and whenever any of the higher groups’ have-become:

nearly or quite extinct, the lower forms which have ‘better,

resisted the modified physical conditions have served):as the

antitypes on which to found the new races. In this manner:

alone, it is believed, can the representative groups"at successive)

periods, and the risings and fallings in the scale of organization,

be in every case explained. ort ta

The hypothesis of polarity, recently put forward by Professor’

Edward Forbes* to account for the abundance of generic forms

at a very early period and at present, while in the/imtermediate

épochs there is a gradual diminution and impoverishment, ‘till

the minimum occurred at the confines of the Paleozoic and

Secondary epochs, appears to us quite unnecessary, as the facts

may be readily accounted for on the ‘principles already laid

down. Between the Paleozoic and Neozoic periods of Professor

Forbes, there is scarcely a species in: common, and the greater

-part of the genera and families also disappear ‘to be replaced ‘by

new ones. It is almost universally admitted that such‘a change

in the organic world must have occupied avast’ period of time:

Of this interval we have no record; probably because! the whole

area of the early formations now exposed: to our researches was

elevated at the end of the Paleozoic period, and remained so

through the interval required for the organie changes ‘which

resulted in the fauna and flora of the Secondary:periods ‘The

records of this interval are buried beneath the ocean, which

covers three-fourths of the globe. Now it appears highly pro-

bable that a long period of quiescence or stability in the physical

conditions of a district would be most favourable to the existence

of organic life in the greatest abundance, both as regards indi-

viduals and also as to variety of species and generic groups, just

as we now find that the places best adapted to the rapid growth

and increase of individuals also contain the greatest profusion

of species and the greatest variety of ‘forms,;—the tropics in

comparison with the temperate and arctic’ regions: Ono the

other hand, it seems no less probable*that:\a change in: the

s2ijoniogqya DMS 9119200 .0 :

* Since the above was written, the,author, has, heard wath sincere regret

of the death of this eminent naturalist, from w QB #9 much, important

work was expected. His remarks on the present paper,—a subject on

which no man was more competent to ‘decide,—were looked. for-with the

greatest interest. Who’ shall supply ‘his place?: 00. 9ISO MIE VION

soln \eothe Introduction of New. Species’ (1) 193

physical conditions of a distriet,,even small in amount. if, rapid,.

or even gradual, if,,to a +great. amount, would be. highly.un-

favourable to the existence .of individuals, might cause. the

extinction, of-;many, species, and, would . probably ‘be. equally

unfavourable to;the creation of new ones. In this too we may

find:an analogy with the present state of our earth, for it. has

beem shown, to be» the violent extremes and rapid changes, of

physical .conditions, rather than the actual mean state in’ the

temperate, and frigid zones, which renders them less prolific

than:the tropical regions, as exemplified by the great distance

beyond»thetropics,to which tropical forms penetrate when the

climate /is,equable,. and also by the richness in species and forms

of tropical mountain regions which principally differ. from the

températe zone,in the uniformity of their climate. However

thisemay:bey it seems a fair assumption that during a period sof

geological repose the new species which we know to. have, been

created», would, have appeared, that the creations would then

exceed: in number the. extinctions, and therefore the number.of

species; would, increases; In.a period of geological activity, on

the! other:hand):it, seems, probable that. the extinctions might

exceed thé, creations;,and, the number of species consequently,

diminishs:/; That such effects did.take place in connexion. with

the ieauses,to,which,;we have imputed them, is shown in the case

of: the Coah formation, the! faults and contortions of which show

a period of great activity and. violent convulsions, and it. is in

the formation-iminediately, succeeding this that the poverty of

forms of; difesis most; apparent. We have then only to suppose

adong: period}of: somewhat similar action during the vast. un-

known interval atthe termination of the Paleozoic period, and

then a) decreasing violence or rapidity through the Secondary

period, to-allow forthe, gradual repopulation of the earth with

varied forms, and the whole of the facts are. explained....We

thus, havea clue to the increase of the forms of life during

certain periods, and their decrease during others, without: re-

course to.any causes but those we know to have existed, and to

effects fairly deducible from them. The precise manner.in which

the geological changes of the early formations were effected. is so

extremely obscure, that when we can explain important facts by

a retardation’ atone, time and an acceleration at another. ofa

process) which we know, from its nature and from observation. to

have been; unequal;~-a cause so simple may surely be preferred

to one so obscure and hypothetical as polarity.

~Twould’also'venttire'to suggest some ‘reasons against the very

nature of thé theory of Professor Forbes. Our knowledge of

the organic,.world, during.any.geological epoch. is. necessarily

very imperfect. Looking »at»theivast, numbers of .species:and

groups that have been discovered by geologists, this may be

194 Mr. A. R. Wallace on the Law which has regulated

doubted; but we should compare their numbers not. merely with

those “that. now exist upon ‘the earth, but with a far larger

amount*, »We have no reason for believing that the number of

species on the earth at any former period was much: less than at

present; at all events the aquatic portion, with which geologists

have most acquaintance, was probably often:as great or greater:

Now we know that there have been many complete ‘changes’ of

species ; new sets of organisms have many times been introduced

im place of old ones which have become extinct, so that) the

total amount which have existed on the earth from theearliest

geological period must have borne about the same proportion ‘to

those now living, as the whole human race who: have: lived: and

died upon the earth, to the population at the present) time:

Again, at each epoch, the whole earth was: no doubt; as: now;

more or less the theatre of life, and:as the successive generations

ofeach species died, their exuviee and: preservable parts would

be deposited over every portion of the then existing ‘seas ‘and

oceans, which we have reason for supposing to have: been more,

rather than less, extensive than at present. In order then” to

understand our possible knowledge of the early world and: its

mhabitants, we must compare, not the area of the whole field of

our geological researches with the earth’s surface; but the area

of the examined portion of each: formation separately with the |

whole earth. For example, during the Silurian period allithe

earth was Silurian, and animals were living ‘and: dying, and

depositing their remains more or less over the whole areaof the

globe, and they were probably (the species: at least) »nearly as

varied in different latitudes and longitudes as at present: What

proportion do the Siluriay districts bear to the whole surface of

the globe, land and sea (for far more extensive Silurian districts

probably exist beneath the ocean than above it), and what portion

of the known Silurian districts has been actually examined for

fossils? » Would the area of rock actually laid open tothe eye

be the thousandth or the ten-thousandth part of the earth’s:

surface?) Ask the same question with regard to the Oolite or the

Chalk, or even to particular beds of these when they differ consi-

derably i in their fossils, and you may then get some notion of

how small a portion of the whole we know.

But yet more important is the probability, nay; almost the

certainty, that whole formations containing the records of vast

geological periods are’ entirely buried’ beneath the «ocean, and

for ever beyond our reach. Most ofthe gaps'anithe geological

series may thus be filled up, and vast numbers-of:unknown and

unimaginable animals, which might help to elucidate the affinities

of the numerous isolated groups which are)a perpetual: puzzle-to

[* See on this subject a paper by Professor Agassiz in the ‘ Annals’ for

November 1854.—Ep. ]

the Introduction of New Species. 195

the zoologist, may there be -buried, till future revolutions may

raise them in their turn above the waters, to afford materials for

the study of whatever race of intelligent beings may then have

succeeded us. These considerations must lead. us to the con-

clusion, that our knowledge of the whole series of the former

inhabitants of the earth is necessarily most imperfect and frag-

inentary;——as much so as our knowledge of the present organic

world would-be, were we forced to make our collections and

observations only im spots equally limited in area and in number

with those actually laid open for the collection of fossils. Now,

the hypothesis:of Professor Forbes is essentially one that assumes

to:a great extent the completeness of our knowledge of the whole

seriés of organic beings which have existed on the earth. This

appears to: be a fatal objection to it, independently of all other

considerations. --It may be said that the same objections exist

against every theory on, such a subject, but this is not neces-

sarily the case.,.The hypothesis put forward in this) paper

depends in no degree upon the completeness of our knowledge

of the former condition of the organic world, but takes what

facts we have as fragments of avast whole, and deduces from

them something of the: nature and proportions of that whole

which we can never knowin detail. | It is founded upon isolated

groups of facts, recognizes their isolation, and endeavours to

deduce from them the nature of the intervening portions.

» Another important’ series of facts, quite in accordance with,

and even necessary deductions from, the law now developed, are

. those.of rudimentary organs. That these really do exist, and in

most cases have no special function in the animal ceconomy, is

admitted by the first authorities in comparative anatomy. The

minute limbs hidden beneath the skin in many of the snake-like

lizards, the anal hooks of the boa constrictor, the complete series

of jointed: finger-bones in the paddle of the Manatus and whale,

are afew of the most familiar instances. In botany a similar

class of facts has been long recognized. Abortive stamens,

rudimentary floral envelopes and undeveloped carpels, are of the

most frequent occurrence. To every thoughtful naturalist the

question must arise, What are these for? What have they to

do with the great laws of creation? Do they not teach us

something of the system of Nature? If each species has been

created: independently, and without any necessary relations with

pre-existing «species, what do these rudiments, these apparent

imperfections mean ?s2 There, must. be a. cause for them ; they

tnust: be the necessary results.of some, great natural law. Now,

if, as:it} has ‘been endeavoured: to be shown, the great law which

has regulated) the peopling) of, the earth with animal and vege-

table life is, that every change shall be gradual; that no new

196 Dr. T. Wright on some new species'of Hemipedina.

creature shall be formed widely differing from anything’ before

existing ; that in this, as in everything else in Nature, there shall

be gradation and harmony,—then these rudimentary organs are

necessary, and are an essential part of the system of Nature.

Ere the higher Vertebrata were formed, for instance, manly steps

were required, and many organs had to undergo modifications

from the rudimental condition in which only they had’as yet

existed. We still see remaining an antitypal sketch of a wing

adapted for flight in the scaly flapper of the penguin, and limbs

first concealed beneath the skin, and then weakly protruding

from it, were the necessary gradations before others should be

formed fully adapted for locomotion. Many more of these

modifications should we behold, and more complete series of

them, had we a view of all the forms which have ceased to live.

The great gaps that exist between fishes, reptiles, birds and

mammals would then, no doubt, be softened down by inter-

mediate groups, and the whole organic world would be seen to

be an unbroken and harmonious system. |

It has now been shown, though most briefly and imperfectly,

how the law that “ Every species has come into existence coin-

cident both in time and space with a pre-existing closely allied

species,” connects together and renders intelligible a vast number

of independent and hitherto unexplained facts.’ The natural

system of arrangement of organic beings, their geographical

distribution, their geological sequence, the phenomena of repre-

sentative and substituted groups in all their modifications, and

the most singular peculiarities of anatomical structure, are ‘all

explained and illustrated by it, in perfect accordance with ‘the

vast mass of facts which the researches of modern naturalists

have brought together, and, it is believed, not materially opposed

to any of them. It also claims a superiority over previous

hypotheses, on the ground that it not merely explains, but

necessitates what exists. Granted the law, and many of the.

most important facts in Nature could not have been otherwise,

but are almost as necessary deductions from it, as are the elliptic

orbits of the planets from the law of gravitation.

Sarawak, Borneo, Feb. 1855.

XIX.— On some new Species of Wemipedina from the Oolites.

By Tuomas Wrieut, M.D.,'F.R.S-E

Since the publication of our paperoin the:August Number-of

the ‘Annals and Magazine of: Natural History,’: on the new

genus Hemipedina and the Synopsisof the species included

Dr. T. Wright on.some new species of Hemipedina. 197

therein, our friend,S. P. Woodward,, Esq., has. kindly sent:.us

three new English forms of this group, one found in the cal-

careous. grit.of Berkshire, and two in the Kimmeridge clay of

Bucks; our, friend Thomas Davidson, Esq., has likewise com-

municated.a figure of one found by M. Bouchard Chantereaux

- some, years ago in the Kimmeridge clay of Boulogne-sur-Mer ;

we, loseyno time therefore in recording these additions to the

Oolitic fauna, at the same time returning our hearty thanks

to; the kind. friends .who, have so liberally communicated the

specimens..

A. Species from the Calcareous Grit.

Hemipedina' Marchamensis, Wright, nov. sp.

Test large, and. depressed ; ambulacral areas narrow, with two

rows. of marginal tubercles, nearly as large as those of the

..interambulacra, extending regularly and without interruption

~ from the peristome to the apical disc, and separated by a zig~

gag line of. small. granules down the centre, the areas retain-

“ing.a nearly uniform width throughout ; poriferous zones form

a slightly waved line, from every three pairs of pores being set

_ slightly oblique, to the line of the zones; interambulacral areas

four times the width of the ambulacral, with eight rows of

_tubercles at. the equator, each tubercular plate supporting

_ four nearly equal-sized tubercles abreast ; bosses prominent ;

. areolas surrounded with incomplete circlets of small granules ;

mouth-opening less than one-third the diameter of the test;

a peas unequally decagonal; five jaws, mm situ, each Jaw

aving two broad.fiat central ridges, and two oblique mar-

_ ginal ridges with two intervening depressions ; teeth long, and

_ obliquely truncated at the points.

Dimensions.—Transverse diameter 2,2, inches; height 153,

inch ?

Locality.—The calcareous grit of Marcham, Berks.

» Coll. The Hon. R. Marsham.

B. Species from the Kimmeridge Clay.

Hemipedina Morrisu, Wright, nov. sp.

Form and size unknown; test small; ambulacral areas with two

rows of regular prominent marginal tubercles gradually dimi-

nishing in size from the base to the apex of the areas, and

-oseparated by:a zigzag linc: of small granules down the centre ;

poriferous) zones’ slightly waved ; pores large, the pairs sepa-

rated: by-thin»septa ;!interambulacral areas more than three

198 Dr. T. Wright on some new species of Hemipedina.

times the width of the ambulacral, with six rows of tubercles

at the equator, each plate supporting three nearly equal-sized

tubercles-abreast ; bosses prominent; areolas surrounded ‘by

incomplete circlets of small granules.

Spines referred to this species long, round, slender, and sculp-

tured with delicate longitudinal lines ; articulating cavity small,

with a smooth rim; head thick, with a thin prominent finely

milled ring ; body long, much more slender than the head: ©“

Locality. —Kimmeridge clay, Hartwell, Bucks.

Coll. Professor Morris.

Hemipedina Cunningtoni, Wright, nov. sp.

Form unknown, upwards of an inch in diameter; ambulacral

areas with two marginal rows of very small tubercles rather’

irregular in their mode of arrangement; poriferous zones

nearly straight ; interambulacral areas three times the width

of the ambulacral, with two rows of tubercles situated on the

zonal half of the tubercular plates, leaving thereby a wide in-

tertubercular space which is filled with 8 to 10 rows of small

granules; the bosses large and prominent, and the tubercles

of a proportionate size; areolas surrounded by a complete

circlet of small granules the same size as those filling the

middle of the areas. ,

Locality.—Kimmeridge clay near Aylesbury. Collected by.

Ryofessor Morris.

~ Coll. British Museum.

Foreign Species from the Kimmeridge Clay.

Hemipedina Bouchardii, Wright, nov. sp.

Test large, depressed; ambulacral areas with two rows of re-

gular marginal tubercles extending without interruption from

the peristome to the apical disc, and separated by a median

zigzag line of small granules ; poriferous zones straight ; inter-

ambulacral areas three times the width of the ambulacral, with

ten rows of tubercles at the equator, each tubercular plate hay-

ing five tubercles abreast ; areolas surrounded by circlets of

small granules; spines slender, sculptured with longitudinal

lines. :

Dimensions.—Transverse diameter,2;45 inches f..,...

Locality.—Kimmeridge clay, Boulogne-sur-Mer., .. Collected

by M. Bouchard Chantereaux. 8 atod BBY

Coll. M. Bouchard Chantereaux at Boulogne:

In the present state of our knowledge it would be premature

Short Biographical. Notice of the late Dr. Johnston. 199

to suggest subdivisions, but/it-is clear that we have two distinct

types in the genus Hemipedina: 1st; those with two rows of

large tubercles, and a wide intertubercular granulated space in

the middle of the interambulacral areas; and 2nd, those with

four, six, eight or ten rows of nearly equal-sized tubercles in

these areas at the equator.

XX.--Short Biographical Notice of the late Dr. Jounston of

Berwick-upon- Tweed.

Nor a twelvemonth has elapsed since our scientifie public had

to mourn the premature death of one of the most distinguished

and amiable of its members. Cut off at an age when most men

are but beginning to distinguish themselves, at a period of his

life when he might have been expected to have even exceeded

his previous admirable performances, and at the moment, of. his

attaining a position in which his talents and kindliness of dispo-

sition might have exerted a most. beneficial influence. upon the

rising generation of naturalists, the death of Edward Forbes pro-

duced a unanimous feeling of heart-felt regret amongst all. who

had received. profit from his works, or enjoyed the pleasure. of

his. personal acquaintance.

Scarcely nine months after the remains of Professor Forbes

were carried to the tomb, we have again to lament the loss.of

another of the most distinguished naturalists of our country,

- Dr. George Johnston of Berwick-upon-Tweed ; and although

the light of this eminent man has not been extinguished at its

noon, like that of the late Professor of Natural History at Edin-

burgh, he was. still.so far from the traditionally allotted period

of human existence, and his most recent writings showed that

the freshness and originality of his mind were so far from being.

impaired, that none could have anticipated that he was so soon

to be taken from amongst us.

. But it is not only as an eminent naturalist that Dr. Johnston

has a claim upon the regard of the readers of the ‘ Annals,’—he

possesses another title to their attention : from the first establish-

ment of this Journal he was one of its conductors, and to the last

moment. of his existence he took .an active interest, in its pro-

gress. On this account, therefore, as well as from the. interest

which must necessarily attach to the history of a man of. such

great and varied attamments, we cannot allow his death to pass

without consecratitig’ ‘a few pages to his memory, by recording

thé leading events’ of his-quiet but eminently useful life.

Dr. Johnston was born at Simprin in Berwickshire on the

20th of July 17972" His father was ‘a farmer, and was descended

from a family, many. members, of which were, well, known, on the

rebarsa t

200 Short Biographical Notice of the late

borders as eminent agriculturists. Whilst he was still a child

his father removed to Ilderton, near Wooler, in Northumberland,

and here his earliest years were spent. His father died early,

and Mrs. Johnston carried on the business successfully after his

decease. :

George Johnston, the subject of the present notice, was sent

to school first in Kelso, and afterwards to the Grammar School-

of Berwick, where he was under the tuition of Mr. Gardiner, a

teacher of some celebrity, who died at a very advanced age only

a few months before his gifted pupil. From Berwick he went to

the High School at Edinburgh, and in the year 1812 or 1813

commenced his medical studies in that city as a pupil of the

celebrated Dr. Abercrombie. During his stay in Edinburgh he

lived with Dr. Macrie, the distinguished historian and biographer

of John Knox, who was a distant relation of his.

At the conclusion of his apprenticeship he became a member

of the College of Surgeons, and afterwards visited London for:

the sake of hospital practice. Here he also studied under the

celebrated anatomist Mr. Brooks. On his return to the North

he commenced practice at Belford, a small town in Northum-

berland, where he met with the amiable and accomplished lady

whom he afterwards married, and to whose ready pencil so many

of his subsequent works are indebted for most of their illus-

trations.

In the year 1819 Dr. Johnston took his degree as Doctor of

Medicine, and soon afterwards became a Fellow of the College

of Surgeons of Edinburgh. He then removed to Berwick, where

he established himself as a physician and speedily became one of

the leading medical men in that town. Here he remained, de-

voting himself with unremitting application to the duties of his

profession, until his death, which took place on the 30th of July.

last, at the age of 58.

The immediate cause of Dr. Johnston’s death was paralysis,

but he appears to have been indisposed for a considerable time.

About two years ago, when visiting some patients in the country,

he was exposed to a heavy shower of rain, which caused a severe

cold, followed by general debility, from which he never entirely

recovered. Some weeks since, he was advised to seek repose and

relaxation from the anxious duties of his profession at the well-

known Bridge of Allan, and it was ‘here, about a fortnight before

his death, that he experienced the attack under which he finally

succumbed. He was removed to his residence in Berwick, where

he shortly afterwards fell into a state of ‘uiiconsciousness, which

lasted with but few and brief intervals until, on, the morning of

the 30th July, he calmly passed from the scene of his labours.

Upon Dr. Johnston’s scientific merits we need scarcely dwell

Dr. Johnston of Berwieck-upon- Tweed. 201

at any great length. | His published. works, which must be well

known 'to our readers, are all of the highest excellence, and some

of them, although limited to British natural history, have been

hailed as standard works upon the subjects of which they treat,

even in distant countries.

Dr, Johnston was, however, essentially a British naturalist.

Inspired by an ardent love for the beautiful district in which he

was born and in which his boyish days were passed, he early

devoted, his attention to the investigation of the natural objects

which this presented to him in profusion; and it is probably to

this; concentration of his energies upon one particular object,

that, he has been enabled, in the midst of the arduous and. en-

grossing duties of a large medical practice, to do so much good

service to science, and to raise an enduring monument to his

own talents and. perseverance,

His researches were by no means confined to a single branch

of natural history, but. Botany and the study of the marine

Invertebrate animals occupied the greater part of his attention,

One of his first works is a\Flora of Berwick-upon-Tweed, pub-

lished. in 1829 and 1831, and about the same time, he com-

menced a series .of articles called ‘ Illustrations in British Zoo-

logy” in ‘ Loudon’s Magazine of Natural History.’ In the same

penodical ,he also published a Natural History of the Mollusca

im an epistolary form, which was the foundation of the admi+

rable ‘ Introduction to Conchology,’ published many years after,

in 1850. The ‘ History of British Zoophytes,’ which has passed

through two editions, and the ‘ History of British Sponges,’ are

further contributions to the zoology of this country, whilst his

last published work, the ‘ Botany of the Eastern Borders,’ is un-

doubtedly the most charming botanical work in our language.

At the time. of his death Dr. Johnston had just completed a

Catalogue of the British non-parasitical Worms for the British

Museum, which will shortly be published by the Trustees. of

that establishment.

In. the accuracy of his obseryations and the clearness with

which he describes them, he is probably without a rival amongst

British zoologists since the days of Montagu; whilst, by a happy

geniality of mind, he was enabled to invest subjects, apparently

the driest in the world, with a peculiar charm, which renders

many of his scientific works and papers interesting even to the

general reader.. The kindliness of disposition which is almost

a necessary concomitant of this tone of mind, rendered him uni-

yersally beloved in the scene,of his professional labours ; and, to

use the words of a writer in the.‘ Berwick. Advertiser,’ . ‘He

neyer visited a house for, the first time in his medical capacity

which he did not leave as a friend.” This. general popularity

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 14

202 Short Biographical Notice of the late Dr: Johnston.

was employed by him for the advancement of his favourite

science, and he was the founder and first President of the Ber-

wickshire Naturalists’ Club, an association which has already

given to the world some valuable papers upon the natural history

of that district, and which has served as the model upon which

similar societies have been established in other parts of the

country, from the united labours of which we may expect great

advantage to the progress of British zoology. In fact, both

from his published works and the manner in which his per-

sonal influence was employed, we cannot but regard Dr. John-

ston as one of those to whom natural history will be most in-

debted for its advancement in this country. He took great

interest in the establishment and progress of the Mechanics’

Institute in his town, and delivered many highly successful

lectures there, not only on different branches of natural history,

but also on the local traditions and antiquities of the Eastern

Border, which had occupied a considerable share of his attention.

Another circumstance, which doubtless contributed greatly to

his popularity amongst his neighbours, was the active part which

he most unexpectedly took in public business during the stormy

period of agitation in favour of Municipal and Parliamenta

Reform, which intervened between the years 1830 and 1835.

Well known as the accomplished physician and the studious phi-

losopher, he appears rather to have astonished the good people of

Berwick by a display of judgment and practical ability for which

they probably had not given him credit. He speedily, however,

took a prominent place in the politics of his native district, and

was elected one of the members of the first Town Council in

1835. In this position he remained until the year 1850, and

in the course of that period was three times elected to the office

of Mayor, and twice to that of Sheriff. He was also for ten

years an Alderman of Berwick. In public life he exhibited the

same love of truth and kindliness of disposition which characterized

him in private, and as a man of science ; his judgment appears

to have been greatly relied on by his colleagues, whilst his tact

and good-nature enabled him to command constant respect and

affection.

The best proof of this is to be found in the universal regret.

of his fellow-townsmen at the decease of one whom they justly

regarded as “the most distinguished ornament of their town.”

The Mayor and Members of the Corporation, the Town Council

and the members of the medical profession all followed his re-

mains to the grave ; the shops were closed during the ceremony

of interment, and a great crowd of the townspeople assembled to

witness the performance of the last rites over the body of one

who had for many years been the object of their love and

respect.

Bibliographical Notices. 203

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

The British Flora, comprising the Phenogamous or Flowering Plants

and the Ferns. The 7th edition, with Additions and Corrections,

&c. By Sir Wini1am Jackson Hooker, K.H., D.C.L. &e. &c.,

and Grorere A. Watker Arnott, LL.D. &c. &e. Longman

and Co. 1855. Pp. 618.

HAvING reviewed at considerable length the sixth edition of the

British Flora,’ we do not think it necessary to say much about the

seventh. The plan of the work is unchanged, as are also for the

most part the principles and opinions of its authors; nor have the

last five years been by any means fruitful of discoveries in British

botany. The remarks on species have frequently been abbreviated ;

many doubts have been more cautiously worded, and the imaginary

grounds for them judiciously suppressed. Nearly every page still

reminds us that we have to do with men more conversant with books

and herbaria than with living uncultivated nature, who prefer tradi-

tion to observation, have a morbid horror of whatever is difficult to

discover or to describe, and look down with something very like

contempt on the habitual study of the vegetation of our own islands.

But we are glad to recognize likewise sundry indications of an in-

creasing disposition to do justice to the present race of botanists :

and occasionally, as before, the Authors’ extensive knowledge has

enabled them to throw light on difficult questions, especially of syno-

nymy. Itisa pity that they have not examined more carefully the

records of English periodical and other works. This remark applies

particularly to the distribution of plants. They give so many loca-

lities that the omission of others in different districts destroys the

value of their information as far as botanical geography is concerned.

Mr. H. C. Watson’s ‘ Cybele Britannica’ alone (mentioned, by the -

way, in the Introduction) would have supplied many untoward

omissions. We may mention in particular the case of the Cumber-

land habitat for Lychnis alpina, respecting which the old sceptical

observation remains, though Mr. Daniel Oliver (Cyb. Brit. iii. 160)

has lately verified its genuineness. Perhaps their rashness in dealing

with the foreign distribution of plants as bearing on questions of

British nativity may be excused by the comparative neglect with

which this interesting subject has been treated: but it is strange

that they do not see, as we formerly pointed out (vi. 383), that their

argument against the nativity of Thesium humile would be equally

valid against that of 7’. humifusum ; and this is by no means a solitary

case. On the subject of hybrids, their extreme anxiety to repudiate

new species has led them into a curious inconsistency. In the

Introduction (p. x.), Linneeus’s maxim that no permanently fertile

hybrids can be produced between truly distinct species is adopted,

apparently on the authority of his ipse dixit ; and from this maxim;

in conjunction with Dr. Bell Salter’s experiments respecting the

supposed Geum intermedium, the specific identity of G. rivale and

G. urbanum is deduced: whereas we are still told, in a note to the

14*

204: Bibliographical Notices.

genus Rubus (p. 122), that the Authors “are almost quite convinced”

that the modern British supposed species (of the fruticose section)

are all ‘‘ mere varieties approaching on the one side to R. ideus,

on the other to R. saratilis, with both of which many fertile and

permanent hybrids may have been formed, and are still forming.”

Can it be that the next edition will exhibit Raspberries, Blackberries,

and Stoneberries (if we may coin a name) as the a, 3, and y of one

capricious bush? Surely this is carrying zeal against neomaniacs

rather too far. In one case however we cannot refuse assent to the

Authors’ suspicions of hybridity ;—we mean, that of the British

Rumex pratensis: we have met with it in many places, but always

sparingly, and in company with both R. crispus and R. obtusifolius.

It may be well to subjoin a few remarks on different species. The

descriptions of the ‘‘ varieties” of Thalictrum minus are considerably

amended ; but our Authors have an unhappy knack of omitting the

most important characters of species which they wish to combine :

thus in this case they do not allude to the direction of the branches

of the panicle. A remark about Ranunculus hederaceus becoming

R. ceenosus near Glasgow through an artificial rise of temperature

deserves attention ; but we suspect the true J. ceenosus was not seen

there at all,—a solution applicable to many other cases. Of plants

formerly combined, Fumaria parvifiora and Vaillanti, Linaria re-

pens and sepium (Allm.), Sparganium natans and minimum, Triti-

cum junceum and laxum are separated with greater or less degrees of

doubt. Polygala austriaca, [Hypericum anglicum or hircinum),

Achillea tanacetifolia, [Cicendia Candollei|, Salix acutifolia, Epi-

pogon Gmelini, Potamogeton trichoides, Naias flexilis, Gymnogramma

leptophylla, and Polypodium alpestre appear for the first time, some

of them of course under a similar qualification: by some strange

carelessness, Allium triquetrum and Carex brizoides are altogether

omitted. The confusion among the Viole is not yet quite removed :

it is satisfactory to learn that our Authors meant by V. dactea in the 6th

edition solely the plant which they now follow Mr. Babington in calling

V. stagnina; but they are quite mistaken in supposing that what

that gentleman calls its ‘rhizoma’ is altogether caused by the soil,

for the narrow-leaved var. lancifolia of the allied species grows by

its side with stems altered and elongated by the soil and yet quite

different. New but unsatisfactory arguments are introduced to de-

fend the misapplication of the name V. canina: if by that name

Linnzeus wholly or chiefly meant Smith’s V. flavicornis, its English

origin has nothing to do with the matter; it would be mere English

obstinacy to suppose that our popular vernacular usage is to give

the law to continental science. We confess we should not be un-

willing to see the name (in its Latin form) dropped altogether. The

short synopsis of Rwbz, exhibiting Dr. Bell Salter’s views five years

ago, is reprinted verbatim in the body of the work. The account of

the Hieracia has been revised and enlarged with the aid of notes and

specimens from Messrs. Backhouse and Baker, but is still merely

provisional : we gladly echo the wish that the former gentleman may

speedily publish a full account of his views. The Authors ‘ think

Royal Society. 205

there can be no doubt that Potamogeton flabellatus, Bab., is what

Chamisso and Schlechtendal consider the common form of P. peeti-

natus: is it impertinent to ask whether they have ever. seen

Mr. Babington’s plant at all? Again, have they any reason to be-

lieve that Carex Davalliana has been again found near Bath? It

seems unquestionable that the former station was destroyed long ago,

but it is here spoken of as if still existing. Once more, may we sug-

gest that the remarks on the varieties of Asplenium filix-feemina re-

quire correction? there is now an inextricable confusion of the pre-

sent and the former wording.

We ought not to close this notice without again bearing witness to

the richness of knowledge and courtesy of tone which distinguish

the ‘ British Flora.’ . It may not be of absolute authority on contro-

verted questions: but, besides acting as a useful check on those

whose faults are of an opposite tendency, it supplies a large fund of

valuable information not otherwise accessible.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

- April 26, 1855.—Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart., V.P., in the Chair.

«« Some Observations on the Ova of the Salmon, in relation to

the distribution of Species; in a letter addressed to Charles Darwin,

Esq.,.M.A., V.P.R.S. &c.” By John Davy, M.D., F.R.SS. Lond.

& Edinb. uy

In this paper the author describes a series of experiments on the

ova of the Salmon, made with the intent of ascertaining their power

of endurance under a variety of circumstances without loss of life,

with the expectation suggested by Mr. Darwin, that the results might

possibly throw some light on the geographical distribution of fishes.

' The details of the experiments are given in five sections. The

results obtained were. the following :—

1.. That the ova of the Salmon in their advanced stage can be ex-

posed only for a short time to the air if dry, at ordinary tempera-

tures, without loss of life; but for a considerable time, if the tempe-

rature be low, and if the air be moist; the limit in the former case

not having exceeded an hour, whilst in the latter it has exceeded

many hours. :

2. That the vitality of the ova was as well preserved in air satu-

rated with moisture, as it would have been had they been in water.

8. That the ova may be included in ice without loss of vitality,

provided.the temperature is not so low as to freeze them.

4. That the ova, and also the fry recently produced, can bear for

some time a temperature of about 80° or 82° in water, without

materially suffering; but not without loss of life, if raised above 84°

or 85°,

5. That the ova and young fry are speedily killed by a solution

206 Royal Society :—

of common salt nearly of the specific gravity of sea-water, viz. 1026;

and also by a weaker solution of specific gravity 1016.

Finally, in reference to the inquiry regarding the distribution of

the species of fishes, he expresses his belief that some of the results

may be of useful application, especially those given in the second

and third sections; inferring, that as in moist air, the vitality of the

ova is capable of being long sustained, they may during rain or fog

be conveyed from one river or lake to another adhering to some part

of an animal, such as a Heron or Otter, and also during a time of

snow or frost; and, further, that other of the results may be useful

towards determining the fittest age of ova for transport for the pur-

pose of stocking rivers, and likewise as a help to explain the habitats,

and some of the habits of the migratory species.

‘“‘ Brief sketch of the Anatomy of a new genus of pelagic Gaste-

ropoda, named Jasonilla.”’ By John Denis Macdonald, Esq., R.N.

This communication refers to a remarkable genus of pelagic Gas-

teropoda, characterized, like Macgillivraya and Cheletropis, by the

presence of ciliated cephalic appendages, but having, as in the pre-

sent instance, a beautifully transparent, cartilaginous and _ perfectly

symmetrical shell. ‘The author has seen but one species, which was

frequently taken between Port Jackson and the Isle of Pines.

The shell resembles that of Argonauta in shape, is less than one-

eighth of an inch in diameter, and the little animal, when fully re-

tracted, occupies but a small portion of its cavity. The margin of

the mantle is of considerable thickness, containing loosely-packed

cells, similar to those of the middle or operculigerous lobe of many

Pteropods. About eight ciliated arms, identical in character with those

of Macgillivraya, &c., encircle the head, including the mouth, which

is furnished with two massive lateral jaws bearing sharp prominent

dental processes on the anterior border, and with a pair of simple

tentacula having a dark ocellus at the outer side of the base of each.

A well-formed foot arises by a narrow pedicle from the under surface

of the body, immediately behind the ciliated collar. The creeping

disc is elongated in form, subquadrate in front, and tapers off gradu-

ally towards the posterior extremity. The latter part, correspond-

ing to the operculigerous lobe of other species, is speckled with

little clusters of dark pigment-cells, disposed so much after the

manner of those of the ciliated arms as to lead to the impression that

it is one of the same series, or whorl of organs, to use botanical

phraseology. A pectinate gill extends beneath the mantle, along

the anterior third of the dorsal region, lying, as in most cases, in

advance of the heart. ‘The visceral mass of the body, though elon-

gated, is but slightly curved upon itself, not exceeding half a turn.

The lobules of the liver, distended with large amber-coloured oil-

globules, may be distinctly seen through the transparent outer enve-

lope and shell. Single spherical otolithes are contained in the

acoustic sacs, and the lingual ribbon is lengthy and flexuous, pre-

senting a row of uncini on each side, with a series of minute

denticulations, pointing backwards on their anterior and posterior

Dr. Carpenter on the genus Orbitolites. 207

borders. The uncini of opposite sides interlock with one another

so closely as to conceal the rudimentary segments of the rachis

almost completely. The shell is cartilaginous, transparent, planor-

bicular, and perfectly symmetrical, presenting four rows of minute

conical tuberculations on its convex or dorsal surface. The gyri of

the involute nucleus are so curved as to leave a central perforation ;

the mouth of the tube encroaches considerably on the last whorl,

and the outer lip is deeply notched between the two lateral rows of

tubercles. The author has named the species Jasonilla M’Leayiana.

The paper is accompanied with illustrative figures.

June 14.—The Lord Wrottesley, President, in the Chair.

‘© Researches on the Foraminifera.—Part I. General Introduction,

and Monograph of the Genus Orditolites.’ By William B. Car-

penter, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. &e.

The group of Foraminifera being one as to the structure and

physiology of which our knowledge is confessedly very imperfect,

and for the natural classification of which there is consequently no

safe basis, the author has undertaken a careful study of some of its

chief typical forms, in order to elucidate (so far as may be pos-

sible) their history as living beings, and to determine the value of

the characters which they present to the systematist. In the pre-

sent memoir, he detaiis the structure of one of the lowest of these

types, Orbitolites, with great minuteness; his object having been,

not merely to present the results of his investigations, but also to

exhibit the method by which they have been attained; that method

essentially consisting in the minute examination and comparison of

a large number of specimens.

The Orbitolite has been chiefly known, until recently, through the

abundance of its fossil remains in the Eocene beds of the Paris

basin; but the author, having been fortunate enough to obtain an

extensive series of recent specimens, chiefly from the coast of

Australia, has applied himself rather to these as his sources of in-

formation; especially as the animals of some of them have been suf-

ficiently well preserved by immersion in spirits, to permit their cha-

racters to be well made out.

As might have been anticipated from our knowledge of their con-

geners, these animals belong to the Rhizopodous type; the soft body

consisting of sarcode, without digestive cavity or organs of any kind ;

and being made up of a number of segments, equal and similar to

each other, which are arranged in concentric zones round a central

nucleus. ‘This body is invested by a calcareous shell, in the sub-

stance of which no minute structure can be discerned, but which

has the form of a circular disk, marked on the surface by concentric

zones of closed cells, and having minute pores at the margin.

Starting from the central nucleus,—which consists of a pear-shaped

mass of sarcode, nearly surrounded by a larger mass connected with

it by a peduncle,—the development of the Orbitolite may take place

either upon a simple, or upon a complex type. In the former (which

208 Royal Society :—

is indicated by the circular or oval form of the cells which show

themselves at the surfaces of the disk, and by the singleness of the

row of marginal pores), each zone consists of but a single layer’ of

segments, connected together by a single annular stolon of sarcode ;

and the nucleus is connected with the first zone, and each zone with

that which surrounds it, by radiating peduncles proceeding from this

annulus, which, when issuing from the peripheral zone, will pass out-

wards through the marginal pores, probably in the form of pseudo-

podia. In the complex type, on the other hand (which is indicated

by the narrow and straight-sided form of the superficial cells, and

by the multiplication of the horizontal rows of marginal pores), the

segments of the concentric zones are elongated into vertical columns

with imperfect constrictions at intervals; instead of a single annular

stolon, there are two, one at either end of these columns, betwéen

which, moreover, there are usually other lateral communications ;

whilst the radiating peduncles, which connect one zone with another,

are also multiplied, so as to lie in several planes. ‘Moreover, be-

tween each annular stolon and the neighbouring surface of the disk,

there is a layer of superficial segments, distinct from the vertical

columns, but connected with the annular stolons ; these occupy the

narrow elongated cells just mentioned, which constitute two’ super-

ficial layers in the disks of this type, between which is the iaterme-

diate layer occupied by the columnar segments.

These two types seem to be so completely dissimilar, that they

could scarcely have been supposed to belong to the same ‘species ;

but the examination of a large number of specimens shows,’ that

although one: is often developed to a considerable ‘size upon ‘the

simple type, whilst another commences: even from the centre upon

the complex type, yet that many individuals which begin life, and

form an indefinite number of annuli, upon the simple type, then take

on the more complex mode of development.

The author then points out what may be gathered from obesaiear

tions and from deduction) respecting the Nutrition and mode of

Growth of these creatures. He shows that the former is probably

accomplished, as in other Rhizopods, by the entanglement and draw-

ing in of minute vegetable particles, through the instrumentality of

the pseudopodia; and that the addition of new zones probably takes

place by the extension of the sarcode through the marginal pores,

so as to form a complete annulus, thickened at intervals into seg-

ments, and narrowed between these into connecting stolons, the

shell being probably produced by the calcification of their outer por-

tions. And this view he supports by the results of the examination

of a number of specimens, in which reparation of injuries has taken

place. Regarding the Reproduction of Orbitolites, he is only able

to suggest that certain minute spherical masses of sarcode, with

which some of the cells are filled, may be gemmules; and that other

bodies, enclosed in firm envelopes, which he has more rarely met

with, but which seem to break their way out of the superficial cells,

may be ova. But on this part of the inquiry, nothing save observa-

tion of the animals in their living state can give satisfactory results.

Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on. British Foraminifera. 209

‘The regular type of structure just described is subject to nume-

rous variations, into a minute description of which the author next

enters; the general results being, that neither the shape nor dimen-

sions of the entire disk, the size of the nucleus or of the cells form-

ing the concentric zones, the surface-markings indicating the shape

of the superficial cells, nor the early mode of growth (which, though

typically cyclical, sometimes approximates to a spiral), can serve as

distinctive. characters of species; since, whilst they are all found to

present most remarkable differences, these differences, being strictly

gradational, can only be considered as distinguishing individuals.

It thus follows that a very wide range of variation exists in this

type;. so that numerous forms which would. be. unhesitatingly

accounted specifically different, if only the most divergent examples

were brought into comparison, are found, by the discovery of those

intermediate links which a.large collection can alone supply, to be-

long to one and the same specific type. :

After noticing some curious monstrosities, resulting from an un-

usual outgrowth of the central nucleus, the author proceeds to in-

quire into the essential character of the Orbitolite, and its relations

to other types of structure. He places it among the very lowest

forms of Foraminifera; and considers that it approximates closely

to sponges, some of which have skeletons not very unlike the cal-

careous net-work which intervenes between its fleshy segments. Of

the species which the genus has been reputed to include, he states

that a large proportion really belong to the genus Orbitoides, whilst

others are but varieties of the ordinary type. . This last is the light

in which he would regard the Orbitolites complanata of the Paris

basin ;; which differs from. the fully-developed Orbitolite of the

Australian coast in some very peculiar features (marking a less com-

plete evolution), which are occasionally met with among recent

forms, and which are sometimes distinctly transitional towards the

perfect type. 53 )

The author concludes by calling attention to some. general prin-

eiples, which arise out of the present inquiry, but which are appli-

cable to all departments of Natural: History, regarding the Aind and

extent of comparison on which alone specific distinctions can. be

securely based.

~ June 21.—The Lord Wrottesley, President, in the Chair.

“Notes on British Foraminifera.” By J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq.,

BRS.

_ Having, during a great many years, directed my attention to the

recent Foraminifera which inhabit our own shores, I venture to offer

afew observations on this curious group, as Dr. Carpenter, who has

favoured, the Society with an interesting and, valuable memoir on

the subject, seems not..to have had many opportunities of studying

the animals in the recent state.

_. Rather more than twenty years ago I communicated to the Lin-

nean Society..a, paper on the. subject, containing a diagnosis and

figures of all. the species. This paper was read,and ordered to be

210 Royal Society :—

printed in the Transactions of that Society; but it was withdrawn

by me before publication, in consequence of my being dissatisfied

with D’Orbigny’s theory (which I had erroneously adopted), that

the animals belonged to the Cephalopoda; and my subsequent ob-

servations were confirmed by the theory of Dujardin. I have since

placed all my drawings and specimens at the disposal of Mr. Wil-

liamson of Manchester, who has given such a good earnest of what

he can do in elucidating the natural history of this group, by his

papers on Lagena and the Foraminiferous mud of the Levant.

The observations which I have made on many hundred recent and

living specimens of various species, fully confirm Dr. Carpenter’s

view as to the simple and homogeneous nature of the animal. His

idea of their reproduction by gemmation is also probably correct ;

although I cannot agree with him in considering the granules which

are occasionally found in the cells as ova. These bodies I have fre-

quently noticed, and especially in the Lagene; but they appeared

to constitute the entire mass, and not merely a part of the animal.

I am inclined to think they are only desiccated portions of the ani-

mal, separated from each other in consequence of the absence of any

muscular or nervous structure. It may also be questionable if the

term ‘‘ova”’ is rightly applicable to an animal which has no distinct

organs of any kind. Possibly the fry may pass through a metamor-

phosis, as in the case of the Medusa.

Most of the Foraminifera are free, or only adhere by their pseudo-

podia to foreign substances. Such are the Lagena of Walker, Nodo-«

saria, Vorticialis and Textularia, and the Miliola of Lamarck. The

latter has some, although a very limited, power of locomotion ; which

is effected by exserting its pseudopodia to their full length, attach-

ing itself by them to a piece of seaweed, and then contracting them

like india-rubber, so as to draw the shell along with them. Some

of the acephalous mollusks do the same by means of their byssus.

This mode of progression is, however, exceedingly slow; and I have

never seen, in the course of twenty-four hours, a longer journey than

a quarter of an inch accomplished by a Miliola, so that, in compari-

son with it, a snail travels at a railroad pace.

Some are fixed or sessile, but not cemented at their base like the

testaceous annelids. The only mode of attachment appears to be a

thin film of sarcose. The Lobatula of Fleming, and the Rosalia and

Planorbulina of D’Orbigny belong to this division.

Dr. Carpenter considers the Foraminifera to be phytophagous, in

consequence of his having detected in some specimens, by the aid

of the microscope, fragments of Diatomacee and other simple forms

of vegetable life. But as I have dredged them alive at a depth of

108 fathoms (which is far below the Laminarian zone), and they are

extremely abundant at from 40 to 70 fathoms, ten miles from land

and beyond the range of any seaweed, it may be assumed without

much difficulty, that many, if not most of them, are zoophagous, and

prey on microscopic animals, perhaps even of a simpler form and

structure than themselves. ‘They are in their turn the food of mol-

lusca, and appear to be especially relished by Dentalium Entale.

Mr. J. G. Jeffreys on British Foraminifera. 211

- With respect to Dr. Carpenter’s idea that they are allied to

sponges, I may remark that Polystomella crispa (an elegant and not

uncommon species) has its periphery set round at each segment with

siliceous spicula, like the rowels of aspur. But as there is only one

terminal cell, which is connected with all the others in the interior

by one or more openings for the pseudopodia, the analogy is not

complete, this being a solitary, and the sponge a compound or

aggregate animal. |

I believe the geographical range or distribution of species in this

group to be regulated by the same laws as in the Mollusks and other

marine animals. In the gulf of Genoa I have found (as might have

been expected) species identical with those of our Hebridean coast,

and vice versd.

In common with Dr. Carpenter, I cannot help deploring the ex-

cessive multiplication of species in the present day, and I would in-

clude in this regret the unnecessary formation of genera. Another

Linneus is sadly wanted to correct this pernicious habit, both at

home and abroad.

The group now under consideration exhibits a great tendency to

variation of form, some of the combinations (especially in the case of

Marginulina) being as complicated and various as a Chinese puzzle,

It is, I believe, undeniable, that the variability of form is in an in-

verse ratio to the development of animals in the scale of Nature.

Having examined thousands (I may say myriads) of these elegant

organisms, I am induced to suggest the following arrangement :—.

1. Lagena (Walker) and Entosolenia (Williamson).

2. Nodosaria and Marginulina (D’Orb.), &c.

3. Vorticialis (D’Orb.), Rotalia (Lam.), Lobatula (Flem.), Globi-

gerina (D’Orb.), &c.

4. Textularia (Defrance), Uvigerina (D’Orb.), &c.

5. Miliola (Lam.), Biloculina (D’Orb.), &c.

This division must, however, be modified by a more extended and

cosmopolitan view of the subject, as I only profess to treat of the

British species. To illustrate MacLeay’s theory of a quinary and

circular arrangement, the case may be put thus.

Lagenade.

The first family is connected by the typical genus Lagena with

the second, and by Entosolina with the fifth; the second is united

212 Linnean Society :—

with the third through Marginulina; the third with the fourth

through Globigerina; and the fourth with the last through Uvige-

rina.

Whether these singular and little-known animals are Rhizopodes,

or belong to the Ameeba, remains yet to be satisfactorily made out.

London, June 18, 1855.

LINNZAN SOCIETY.

January 16, 1855.—Thomas Bell, Esq., President, in the Chair.

Read, an extract from a Letter, addressed by the Rev. William

Henry Hawker to the President, dated ‘‘ Horndean, Hants, Dee. 11,

1854.” After referring to his previous discovery of Asplenium fon-

tanum in the neighbourhood of his place of residence, Mr. Hawker

proceeds as follows :—

«« My discoveries of the past year are not altogether without

interest. Last year I paid a visit to the English Lakes, and had the

good fortune to find Polystichum Lonchitis growing near Ulleswater.

I brought away one plant and sent a frond to Newman, who, how-

ever, does not mention it in his new Edition. This year (in July)

I went to the Lakes again and had the pleasure of confirming the

above discovery ; and, moreover, on my mentioning it to other col-

lectors, a search was instituted, which has resulted in its turning up

in several new localities in that district, e. g. Helvellyn, Fairfield,

&c. This fern has never before, I believe, been found in the Lake

country. Whilst there this year I went a few days’ hotanical

ramble with Mr. Clowes of Windermere, and on one of these days,

whilst clambering on a terrific precipice, I had the delight to find

Aspl. septentrionale growing in such quantity, that I took away I

suppose between 60 and 70 plants and left more than 100, and

here right amongst them I found 2 plants of Asplenium germanicum !

A guide was with me, who found close by Woodsia Ilvensis growing

in some quantity. Three good things were they not, to be growing

on a spot only a few yards square? It was on an outcrop of iron

ore, which seems to me always to be a good ‘ matrix’ (?) for ferns.

This took place not many miles from Scaw Fell, though not on it.. It

was of course plain that the locality had never been before visited

by a botanist. Mr. Clowes found Euphorbia Cyparissias growing on

Whitbarrow Fells in great quantity. I have gathered it on the

mountain limestone of Somersetshire near Wells, and I should think

it will prove to be a true native; on the continent it is the com-

monest of weeds, especially where there is limestone. I followed

your advice about keeping the Helix Pomatia till the spring, when I

fed them up and kept them till impregnated, and then turned them

out. The dry summer was rather against them, but I dare say they

are all right, though I have not searched for them since. I have

found another rare shell in the Ashford woods, Clausilia Rolphii—I

think about its fifth or sixth locality in England.

Mr. J. Hogg on the common Tunny. 213

«« Last September and October I took a rapid run on the continent

up the Rhine,~Heidelberg, Baden Baden, Basle, Soleure, Bern,

Interlaken, the Simmenthal, Vevay, Geneva, over the Jura to Dijon,

Fontainebleau, Paris, and home. The season was late ; flowers mostly

over, and deciduous ferns killed down, so that on the Alps I did not

gather Woodsia alpina as I wished. I found on the Jura in one spot

my favourite Aspl. fontanum. In the Pine forests of the Alps and

Jura, Polystichum Lonchitis grows in the most wonderful luxuriance ;

I have dried some fronds 22 inches long! Its appearance is quite

beautiful ; I dried a good deal and brought away some live roots.

Aspl. septentrionale too abounded on the alpine rocks. I found Helix

obvoluta at Heidelberg at the foot of the walls of the Castle amongst

grass, and also at Thun in a wood. Helix Pomatia was very com-

mon and abundant everywhere.”

Read also a Letter addressed to the Secretary by John Hogg,

Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S. &c., dated ‘‘ Stockton-on-Tees, December 27th,

1854,” of which the following is an extract :—

«Since my return home, I[ have had an opportunity of learning

more particularly respecting the large fish which was stranded last

September in the Tees Bay; and I have now not the least doubt

that it was a common Tunny, and that too of a large size. One of

the fishermen who had seen. the fish, on cutting it said—the flesh

looked like highly salted bacon, 7. e. red with salt or saltpetre. He

described it in size as ‘ being pretty well on to 60 stone,’ which at

8Ibs. to the stone (meat weight) would give 480lbs. The only

freshly killed Tunny I ever saw was at Palermo ; it was a good-sized

fish and was carried on the shoulders of two strong fishermen, the

one walking a few feet before the other. Pennant describes in his

‘ Brit. Zool.’ (edit. 1812), vol. ili. p. 362, one which was caught at

Inverary in 1769, as weighing 460 lbs. This then would probably

be somewhat less than the Tees fish ; and this is further shown by

the following fact.—Pennant says the tail ‘ measured 2 feet 7 inches

between tip and tip’ of its crescent-form. I yesterday measured the

tail of the Tees fish, which gave 2 ft. 8} inches from tip to tip, thus

having 14 inch more in the width of the crescent-tail than Pennant’s,

and consequently most likely it was the larger of the two. The

fisherman had well preserved the tail, and it presents a beautiful

specimen of a crescent, and very perfect, each half corresponding in

avery accurate manner with the other. It is covered with a thick,

nearly black skin, and quite smooth. I counted the caudal rays, and

at first I made nineteen on one side and eighteen on the other; but

on re-counting them I am more satisfied that they are equal, 7. e.

eighteen on each side or in each half. Between them I noticed most

distinctly ‘a cartilaginous keel between the sides of the tail,’ as

described by Cuvier in his generic characters of his genus Thynaus.

Moreover, the fisherman (who is a very sensible man and a good

bird-stuffer) on being shown Mr. Yarrell’s figure of the Common

Tunny, immediately recognized it and pronounced it at once to be

the same fish,”

214 — Linnean Society :—

Read, in conclusion, an ‘‘ Extract from a Memoir on the Origin

and Development of Vessels in Monocotyledonous and Dicotyledo-

nous Plants.” By Dr. Francisco Freire Allema&o of Rio de Janeiro.

Dr. Allem&o states that in 1849 he commenced a series of micro-

scopical observations on several points of vegetable anatomy, and in

particular on the origin and development of vessels in the roots of

plants. In 1851 he read before the Vellozian Society of Rio de

Janeiro a memoir in which the most important facts observed by him

were shortly stated, which memoir he revised and published in 1852,

as the third of his-‘‘ Botanical Exercises,” in the ‘ Trabalhos da So-

ciedade Velloziana,’ p. 101. In the following year he pursued his

investigations into the growth of vessels in germinating seeds, and

extended them to the next stage in the development both of dicoty-

ledonous and monocotyledonous plants. This inquiry is not yet

completed, but Dr. Allema&o transmits the extract communicated by

Mr. Miers, together with a portion of the illustrative drawings, with

the view of ascertaining whether his observations are really, as he

believes them to be, new to science, and whether they are sufficiently

exact.

The drawings represent first, a young plant of Sida carpinifolia,

but little developed, showing the epigeal cotyledons still enveloped

in their seminal integuments. The caulicle (radicle) is linear and

without ramification. Seen under the microscope the nervures of

the cotyledons are found to be composed solely of tracheal vessels,

two of which constituting the midrib are continuous with those of

the caulicle, which are four in number, distinct, entire, straight,

parallel, and equidistant, descending more than half the length of

the caulicle, the lower portion of which does not yet exhibit any

vessels, nor does its radicular bulb show any tendency to form roots.

In a somewhat more developed stage, the nervures of the cotyledons

have their tracheze considerably increased; the gemmule is seen

under the form of a cellular tumour without vessels; the four

trachee of the stem descend parallel to each other as far as the

radicular bulb, and thus constitute the medullary sheath; no root-

lets are yet observable. A further stage of development exhibits the

same plant after the formation of rootlets, and the development of

one of the leaves of the gemmule. In this stage the cotyledons

have acquired a larger number of nervures; the nervures of the

primordial leaf consist only of trachez, two of which forming the

midrib descend by the stem to meet the four cotyledonary trachee ;

in the stem or primary merithal (radicle of authors) these trachez

are as yet solitary for two-thirds of the upper portion of their length,

but in the lower third they are accompanied and invested externally

by dotted ducts. At the limit between stem and root where the

rootlets are given off, the trachez of the stem terminate, and we see

the commencement of the dotted or ligneous vessels, which begin to

ascend in bundles through the stem outside the trachez and to de-

scend, unaccompanied by trachez, through the roots and their rami-

fications.

From his investigations Dr. Allemfo infers, first, that the trachez,

Dr. Allemao on the Origin of Vessels in Plants. 215

which are the first vessels formed, derive their origin in the stem

from the vital point in which the leaves originate, whence they ascend,

forming bundles in the leaves, of which they constitute the nervures,

and whence they descend through the stem to form, the medullary

sheath. Secondly, that roots do not exist in the embryo, but are

formed in the young plant when, freed from its seminal envelopes, it

penetrates the earth. [This is, however, subject to some exceptions

in cases where the roots begin to sprout while contained within the

seed.| The radicular bulb which is destined to produce them bears

some analogy with the gemmule, and may be considered as a primary

spongiole, through which the plant absorbs nutriment prior to the

production of roots. Thirdly, that the fibrous, ligneous or reticu-

lated vessels are formed posteriorly to the appearance of the tracheze,

their origin being at the vital point from which the roots proceed,

whence they ascend in bundles through the stem until they reach

the extremity of the nervures of the leaves, being always external to

the trachez, and whence they descend through the root as far as the’

extremities of its ramifications, leaving almost always in its centre a

kind of canal filled with cellular tissue, which is a true pith, and com-

municates with the herbaceous envelope by means of medullary rays,

but is not enclosed by trachez in dicotyledonous plants. Trachez

are to be found, however, in the roots of nearly all monocotyledonous

plants, or if absent, their place is supplied by mixed or scalariform

vessels. In this exposition of his views Dr. Allem&o has gone beyond

what appears on the face of the drawings sent, and has, he is aware,

repeated several well-known facts: what he believes to be new in

them is the extension of two vascular systems in opposite directions,

and their increment at their respective extremities ; in other words,

the projection upwards and downwards of fibres or vascular bundles.

Fourthly, that the radicular branches, as appendicular or radiated

organs, are in their origin perpendicular to the fibres of the stem,

and not continuous with them, contrary to the theory maintained

by Gaudichaud.

The same facts are demonstrated in monocotyledonous plants by

microscopical observations on the young rooting bulbs of Fourcroya

gigantea. A longitudinal section passing through the centre of the

bulb shows, on repeated and careful dissection, that the bulbous

mass is formed of rather dense cellular tissue filled with a viscous

lymph, the cells of which contain much fecula and a large quantity

of raphides or solitary prisms. Of the numerous sheathing and con-

centric leaves, the central one, in its earliest development, is com-

posed only of very fine cellular tissue; the one next in succession

outwards is still cellular, but beginning to receive tracheal ramifica-

tions, which are the upper extremities of numerous simple trachez

forming a crown around the vital point which Dr. Allemao regards

as the limit between stem and leaves. These trachez are very

slender, vermicular or fusiform, with a curvature in the middle, the

convexities of which look towards the centre; extending upwards

they penetrate the leaves in great number running parallel to each

other, and passing downwards they cross and become external to

216 Linnean Society :—

the interior bundles taking a flexuose direction. — In the succeeding

leaves there are no simple trachez, but numerous trachez form

bundles running parallel to each other as far as the extremities of

the leaves, and giving off lateral and transverse. branches which

anastomose in a very beautiful manner. These vascular bundles

also descend as far as the base of the bulb. Above they are formed

entirely of trachez; lower down the trachez are accompaniedon

the outer side by dotted vessels, which extend upwards to penetrate

the leaves and downwards to communicate with the root.|, In;the

roots the vascular system is composed of a certain number of bundles,

parallelly disposed with admirable symmetry, among which are seen:

dotted and scalariform vessels, but no true trachee. - A great number

of microscopical observations made on various plants under different

circumstances have confirmed these views, which Dr. Allemao con-

siders unquestionable. "

The paper was accompanied by a series of notes by Mr. Miers,

in which, from his knowledge of his antecedent researches, published

in the Proceedings of the Vellozian Society, he states, it. to -have

been the object of Dr. Allemio to test. the validity of the theory first

propounded by Du Petit-Thouars, and more recently modified and

supported by Gaudichaud, which maintains, contrary to the.views

of Mirbel and others, that all the woody fibres of the stem proceed,

from the nascent leaf-buds and thence descend to the radicular ex-,

tremity of plants. Dr. Allemio believes that: his-observatious.in-no

degree tend to support this theory. He takes -as an|-example.the

Cucurbita Pepo, in which the dotted vessels are extremely large, and

conspicuous. In this plant no reticulated vessels are.found) in the

last-formed leaves or in the internodes near the: termination-of ;the

stem, although they exist in the lower and older, leaves. | He ob::

served spiral vessels only in the stems and leaves as low,as the.9th.

or 10th axil from the extremity of each branchlet ;, from,that point

as low as the 14th and 15th axils, other vessels are observed in, the

stem only; but below this point he found them in the stem, and

more especially in the leaves, proving, as he believes, that all reticu-

lated and dotted vessels ascend through the stem before. they find.

their way into the leaves, in the progress of their growth upwards..

He thinks that the formation of a circular tumour in the trunk of

dicotyledonous plants above the line of a ligature tightly tied around

it may be accounted for by reasoning on the facts which he con-

ceives himself to have established, viz. that in the development of

the vascular fibres of the stem, there always exists.a vital centre from

which they extend themselves in two opposite directions. This

vital centre may be fixed, moveable, or accidental, fixed. in woody

fibres, moveable in trachez, and accidental.in.all adventitious forma-

tions. If, for. instance, we take a,cutting of any-young.branchlet,

in which no natural bud is distinguishable, and.,plant,half,of it in the

ground, several adventitious vital points.make their appearance, the

lowermost of which give out rootlets, and the; appermost, leaf-buds.

In this case, vital points or centres make.their appearance in the vital

zone of the cutting, which would never -haye existed|in the natural

Dr. Allem4o on the Origin of Vessels in Plants. 217

condition of the branch. Applying this fact to the case of the liga-

ture, he thinks it evident that the cambium or elaborated sap, or

whatever may be the source of the tumour deposited between the

wood and the bark, must assuredly proceed from the leaves towards

the root, and meeting with this obstacle, becomes accumulated there ;

its tendency to organize itself not being distributed, a zone of adven-

titious or occasional vital centres soon appears in that point, whose

two forces are quickly manifested; the ascending fibres continue to

extend themselves without impediment, while those which should

have descended, unable to overcome the impediment presented to

their further progress, continue to grow, twisting and interlacing

themselves, so as to form a tumour.

Mr. Miers then refers to the differences which Dr. Allemio be-«

lieves to exist between his theory. of the evolution of each fibre in

opposite directions upwards and downwards, and that of Gaudichaud,

in respect to which he thinks there must be either a misprint or a

complete misapprehension of the views of Gaudichaud, who clearly:

traces the source of each bud, not from the point of external growth

(as Dr. Allem&o seems to infer), but from the seat of its origin

around the medullary sheath, at the neud vital or point of de-

parture of each independent ascending and descending system’ of

vascular fibre. The origin of numerous distinct bud-fourmations

around the medullary sheath, and the extension of ascending spiral:

vessels and of corresponding descending dotted vessels from each of

these separately, are maintained throughout by Gaudichaud in his

“Recherches Générales” as an essential part of his theory, and mi-

nutely demonstrated in his figures, both in monocotyledonous and:

dicotyledonous plants. He even forcibly quotes the same circum-

stances of the intumescence of a stem produced by a ligature, and

the germination of an apparently budless stem, in support of. his

views; between which and those of Dr. Allemaio, Mr; Miers is con-

sequently unable to perceive any essential difference.

Mr. Miers further quotes, from early works of Mirbel, the proof

that, as long ago as 1802 and.1809, he accurately depicted and de-

scribed the origin and formation of similar vessels in germinating

seeds of Nelumbo and of the Common Haricot ; and refers to plates by

him in the 5th and 13th volumes of the ‘Annales du Muséum,’

showing the ascending system of spiral vessels in the plumule and

cotyledons, and the descending system of dotted vessels in the

radicle.

Dr. Allemio further states, that although the ‘‘ bolbo radicular ” is

always the chief growing point of the radicle, he observed, in Zuphor-

biacee, four other cruciform branches, on the same horizontal plane,

proceeding from this radicle. The same fact was described more

than forty years‘ago’ by Auguste de St. Hilaire (Ann. du Mus. xix:

p. 467) in the germination of a Ranunculaceous plant (Ceratoce-

phalus). Yn this, besides the main shoot, growing in the same way

as an ordinary exorhizal root,- five other branching rootlets are

shown to be produced’ on one plane, from the collar of the young

root, which make their appearance through lacerations of the ex-

Amn, & Mag. N, Hist, Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 15

218 Linnean Society. .

ternal coat. ‘Their earliest indication is in the form of tubercles,

through the investing covering of which these rootlets burst a pass-

age, in all respects similar to the coleorhiza in the germinating em+

bryos of Monocotyledonous plants. ‘The coleorhiza is sometimes

extended to some distance along the rootlet, but in other cases it

forms merely a swelling round its base. The same appearance,

although far from general, was observed by St. Hilaire in the ger-

minating embryos of numerous other excrhizal plants, as Myosurus,

Plantago, Valerianella, Urtica, Senecio, Sonchus, Calendula, Matri-

caria, Veronica, Phaseolus, Medicago, &c. In Tropeolum the radicle,

although exorhizal, exhibits a kind of valve-like opening for the exit

of the plumule, which has been called a coleorhiza: and a somewhat

similar appearance is said to occur in the germination of the seed of

Viscum album ; this, however, Mr. Miers apprehends. can, refer only

to the coleorhizal mode of bursting of the attenuated expansion of

the thin covering of the albumen which is spread over the growing

radicle.

Dr. Allemao, Mr. Miers adds, here considers the radicle of the

embryo as forming part of the caulicle or stem, and the root as ori-

ginating in the subsequent growth of the embryo, after it is released

from its integuments, and produced by the expansion of the obtuse

extremity of the radicle, which he calls the “‘ gommo ;” and Gaudi-

chaud the radicular bulb. This view was taken» by Turpin ‘nearly

twenty years ago, and represented by him, in the germination of

Solanum tuberosum (Mém. Mus, xix. p. 19; te 1)y;where all the radi

cular portion of the embryo is referred to the ¢igelle or ascending

system, while the true root is represented as beginning. from» its

sprouting point in the radicular bulb. It has not; however; been

generally countenanced, and Mr. Miers states that he: cannot) per-'

ceive that it has any advantages over the more generally received:

theory which regards the radicle as an elementary root, commencing:

from the point of union of the cotyledons and their junction with

the plumule. On the contrary, it is disproved by numberless facts;

and more especially by one to which he lately called the attention

of the Society, in the germination of the embryo of Xanthochymus, as

figured by Dr. Roxburgh; in which (in addition to the principal root

thrown out at the base of the seed, at the point which Dr. Allemao

would call the radicular bulb) another secondary root is seen pro-

ceeding from the summit of the nucleus out of the ascending collar

or tigelle, immediately below the scales, which appear to be minute:

cotyledons, showing that the main body of the nucleus or radicle

belongs to the descending system of the root. It is more natural,.

Mr. Miers thinks, to conclude, in the case cited by, Dr: Allemao,;

that the main descending shoot, growing out of the radicular bulb,

and also the subsequent coleorhizal rootlets, are preductions of that

axile portion of the radicle, which Mr. Miers has called the neorhiza ;

and under this point of view he considers: it easy to account for the

coleorhizal character of the secondary rootlets in the germination of.

Ceratocephalus, as described by St. Hilaire. A very singular example

of this sort of production is shown by Klotzsch, in the germination:

Botanical Sotiety of Edinburgh. 219

of the seeds of Pistia (Ueber Pistia, Berl. 1853, plate 1. f. C.D/E),

where the many secondary rootlets, or branches of the neorhiza,

force their way through the epirhizal covering of the main root, ex-

tending it as a coleorhiza, in the form of a long cylindrical tube,

which at length breaks away, leaving a long sheath in the form of a

thimble, covering the extremity of each growing rootlet, and which

probably thus performs the functions of a spongiole.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

Thursday, 12th July 1855.—Professor Balfour, President, in

: the Chair.

The following papers were read, viz.—

1. “On the Introduction of the Cinchona Tree into India.’* By

Thomas Anderson, M.D., H.E.I.C.S. sie |

The author gave an account of the peculiar character of the

country inhabited by the Cinchona tree, and showed that similar

districts existed in India where this valuable tree may be successfully

grown. He also showed, by the great quantity of the bark that is

used, that much profit must result to the cultivators.

2.‘ Onthe presence of Diatomaceze, Phytolitharia, and Sponge

ape in Soils which support Vegetation.”’ By William Gregory,

DD. F.R.S.E., Professor of Chemistry. :

» Ehrenberg, in his late work, ‘ Mikrogeologie,’ has stated that: in

specimens of ‘soils from all parts of the world, he has found many

microscopic organisms ; he divides these into Siliceous and Calcareous,

the former including Diatomacee, Phytolitharia, and Polycystina,

as wellv as Sponge spicules, the latter minute Mollusks and other

shells. The present observations are confined to the siliceous organ-

isms, and among these, chiefly to the Diatomacee, with Phytolitharia

and Sponge spicules, the soils examined being such as are connected

with fresh water, in which the Polycystina do not occur.

Many of Ehrenberg’s observations were made on the small por-

tions of soil found adhering to dried plants in herbaria, and I requested

Professor Balfour to supply me with such portions of soil, By his

kindness I obtained upwards of sixty such specimens, almost all of

which were of very small bulk, on an average not exceeding that of

a pinch of snuff, and sometimes less. Of these a certain number

consisted. chiefly of earth, with some half-decayed vegetable matter,

and many contained hardly anything but decaying vegetable matter,

witha mere trace of earth. Of course, the latter are not fair speci-

mens of soil; but I have subjected all to the same treatment, namely

boiling with nitro-muriatic acid, washing, straining through gauze,

and examining the fine insoluble residue. This, of course, contained

all the siliceous matter present, but it also contained much organic

matter, of a brown or red colour, insoluble in acids, which, if neces-

win might be destroyed by ignition, when it would leave a trifling»

aso,

15*

220 Botanical Society of Edinburgh :—

|, In.every. case I found Diatomacee in the residue, as well as Phyto-

litharia.,. Sponge spicules, apparently of freshwater sponges, were

less frequent, but occurred in many... In a few, cases, where the acid

caused. effervescence, there was calcareous matter present, but im most,

this was not the case.

Of. course, in those cases in which the proportion. of, earth was

small, the residue consisted chiefly of the insoluble organic matter,

through which, however, Diatoms and Phytolitharia were. scattered,

in greater or smaller proportion.

In the cases where the proportion of earth was larger, the,residue

was much richer in Diatoms and Phytolitharia, but almost always

contained also the dark insoluble organic matter, . In several, the

proportion of Diatoms in the residue was so large, that it had the

appearance of a regular Diatomaceous gathering, after boiling with

acids. ; The most remarkable soils in this respect, were one from the

Sandwich Islands, one from Lebanon, one from the roots.of.a German

moss, and one from Ailsa Craig.

. A1tis to, be noticed, however, that Diatomacee, were found. in, aot

case, without exception, and that in all, their proportion, tothe whole

non-calcareous earthy residue was copaldneeiiit: and. often large....In

many of those where the proportion of. earth was smallest, there was

no. siliceous matter in the residue, except Diatomacee and Phiyto-

litharia.

The soils examined were from various and distgit lowaltien $ thax

were about twenty from the Andes, several from Brazil,and other, parts

of South America, a few from North America,.a.few from the West

Indies, one from the Sandwich Islands, one from New Zealand, a few

from India, one from Lebanon, a good. many. from Germany, some

from .France, a few from Spain, and some from Britain,

The. great majority of the species of ,Diatomsinall these were

found to coincide with our. British forms, but a good many species

occurred in the exotic soils which have not yet been found in Britain,

and most of these not even in Europe, but which haye been fignead

by Bailey, Ehrenberg, Kiitzing, Rabenhorst, Xe.

A good many were observed, which, so far as I know. at present,

have not yet been figured or described. Lastly, a certain number of

species, lately found by Smith, Greville, and others, as. well as. by

myself in Britain, and some of which are scarce, have occurred. in

these exotic soils. Among these I may name here, Vavieula seutel-

loides, W.Sm. (Lebanon), Orthosira spinosa, W.Sm., Grey. (Andes,

Germany), Cymbella turgida, W. G. (Sandwich Islands), and Navi-

cula varians, W.G. (various soils).

Of such species as are unknown. to Europe, I shall only. mention

here Terpsinoé musica, one of the most striking.of; known forms,

which. I found in. the first soil I examined,: which, was. from Brazil.

It is accompanied by. Niteschia paaharte, a fineferm, which, occurs in

Britain, but is far from frequent here.{))4) |esituohi 0)

--L.am satisfied that a close examination, of, such specimens of soil,

biel are often thrown away |in. putting 1p-specimens sin herbaria,

will. bring-to, light: many new forms, and.supply, us with many exotic

Prof. Gieeory ‘on Diatomacese i Soils. 221

‘and raré species.” Tt is very desirable that collectors of plants should

preserve 4 little of the earth adhering to their roots, end in this way

copious materials would be obtained. jk ,

The above observations entirely confirm Ehrenberg’s statements as

to the distribution of the Diatomacee. They furnish evidence of the

‘fact that these organisms are far less affected by climate and tempe-

rature thandarger plants or animals; since many of the very same

spécies are found in every latitude and in every country. For example,

such common forms as Achnanthidium lanceolatum, Achnanthes

exilis, Gomphonema tenellum, G.constrictum, G. capitatum, Cocconeis

Placéntula, C. Pediculus, Cocconema lanceolatum, C. cymbiforme,

Synedri radians,’ Navicula elliptica, N. rhomboides, Pinnularia

viridis, P. major, P. oblonga, P. borealis, Surirella biseriata, S.

ovata; Meridion circulare, M. constrictum, Cymbella maculata,

‘C. scotica, C. cuspidata, Epithemia turgida, Ep. Argus, Himan-

tidium’ Arcus, H. gracile, H. majus, Odontidium mesodon, Dia-

toma tenue, D. vulgare, Nitzschia linearis, N. amphioxys; Me-

losira varians, aid many others actually occur in every part of ‘the

world from whence these soils have come ; and there is absolutely n

difference between ‘the exotic and’ the British forms.

“Ehrenberg spécifies two species, namely Pinnularia borealis (P.

latestriata, W.'G.) and Eunotia amphioxys (Nitzschia amphioxys,

W.Sm.), as having been found by him in almost every instance. 'My

results confitm this. ~ In’no one case have both of these been absent,

and in at least nine-tenths of these soils both are present. They are

often the predominant forms, and im a few cases almost the only

forms: present." Gomphonema tenellum and Achnanthidium lanceo-

latum are found in a large majority of these soils.

I am disposed to agree in’ opinion with Ehrenberg, that the micro-

scopic Organisms found in soils contribute materially to the increase of

the soil. This is’ true both of the siliceous and calcareous forms.

The Diatomacee live in moist earth. They obtain silica from the

water, and ‘at’ their death their shells are added to the soil. Where

many are present, this process of transference of silica from the rock

to'the soil goes on very rapidly. We have so far evidence that they

live’in ‘these’ soils, that we find them there very often in the state

of self-division, which is not observed in old accumulations of the

dead shells. .

~The ‘peculiar capacity of the Diatomacee for resisting climatic

changes, whereby the same species can live and thrive as well in the

_ Aretic circle‘as under the line, corresponds well with the results of

the study of the same organisms in the fossil state. In Ehrenberg’s

*Mikrogeologie’ will be found very fine figures of the Diatoms occur-

ring in the different fornis of Bergmehl, Tripoli or polishing slate,

Kieselguhr, puriice;' and. other voleanic rocks, mountain limestone,

amber, &¢.) arid it will be seen ‘that by far the greater number of the

species are quite identical with recent ones: ‘Microscopic organisms

have been found: so'‘low° down asthe green sand of the Silurian

system’; but they ‘rather belong to the Polythalamia. The earliest

Diatoms, ‘geologically’ speaking, as figured by Ehrenberg, agree in

222 Zoological’ Society :—

every point, as far as the great majority of the species is concerned,

with those now living in our waters, and forming deposits which will

become rock at some future time.

It was supposed that most of the species in the much more recent

Bergmehl were no longer to be found living; but most of them

have been since found. I myself have lately found two species of the

Lapland Bergmehl to be still im existence, namely Hunotia octodon

and Synedra hemicyclus ; and Hunotia incisa, which occurs both in

the Lapland and the Mull earths, has been found recent by me in a

dozen British gatherings. Yet all these forms were supposed, not

long since, to be exclusively fossil. We cannot say that there are

no species exclusively fossil, but so many that have been thought so

are daily found living, that it is probable the rest may be so found

too, and at all events, a very large proportion of the forms in the

oldest fossil deposits are absolutely identical with the forms of the

present day.

I have only further to mention, that although so many species are

universal in their habitat, some appear to be local. Thus, Terpsinoé

musica does not occur in Europe, nor has it yet been found except in

America, and, I think, in Australia.

Some species are decidedly Alpine ; for example, Orthosira spinosa,

which Professor Smith found on the Mont d’Or in Auvergne, and

Professor Balfour on the Grampians. It occurs also in nearly every

soil from the Andes.

3. “On the Effects of the Severe Frost of last winter on Plants

in the neighbourhood of Sligo.” By the Right Hon. John Wynne,

of Haslewood.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

April 11, 1854,—Dr. Gray, Vice-President, in the Chair.

DESCRIPTIONS OF TWO NEw Specizes oF PucRASIA,

By Joun Gouxp, F.R.S. Etc.

Mr. Gould having recently found in the rich stores of the Hast

India Company, at their house in Leadenhall Street, a new species

of Pheasant, of the same form but remarkably different from the

Pucras Pheasant, took the earliest opportunity, with Dr. Horsfield’s

permission, of bringing it under the notice of the Society. This fine

bird, of which two specimens have been sent to the East India Com-

pany from Kafiristan by Dr. William Griffith, may be at once reeog-

nized by the uniform chestnut colouring of its mantle, breast and

flanks, which has suggested the specific name of

‘PuCRASIA CASTANEA.

Forehead, cheeks, chin and lengthened portion of the crest dark

shining green; hinder part of the head and the shorter portion of the

crest dull sandy-buff, the two colours blending on the occiput ; on

each side of the neck an oyal patch of white ; lanceolate feathers of

the neck, both above and below, breast and flanks, deep chestnut ;

Mr. J. Gould on two new species of Pucrasia. 228

feathers.of the upper part of the back black, stained with chestnut

on. the outer web and margined with grey; lower part of the back

and rump grey, fading into white on the edges, and with a narrow

streak of blackish-brown down the shaft; wing-coverts dark brown,

largely edged with greyish and ashy-brown ; primaries brown on the

inner margins, cream-white on the outer ones; feathers of the lower

part. of the abdomen brownish-black, edged with whitish ; under tail-

coverts chestnut, with a black line down the centre, and fringed with

white at the tip; upper tail-coverts ashy-grey, with a broad mark of

blackish-brown down the centre, but not extending to the tip ;_ tail-

feathers black, the central ones broadly margined with grey freckled

with black, the remainder fringed with whitish at the tip ; bill black ;

feet, horny-brown.

Total length, 23 inches; wing, 92; tail, 103; tarsi, 25.

Hab. Kafiristan.

Remark.-—This species is altogether a stouter and larger bird than

Pucrasia macrolopha. :

, Mr. Gould further remarked that, upon a careful examination and

comparison of the Pheasants from Nepaul, which have usually been

considered. as identical with the P. macrolopha, with true examples

of that species, he found them to differ so considerably, that he felt

inatitied: in characterizing the Nepaulese birds as distinct, under the

name o

Pucrasta NipaLENsIs.

Forehead, cheeks, chin and lengthened portion of the crest deep

shining green ; hinder part of the head and the shorter portion of the

crest buff, with lighter shafts, the two colours blending on the occi-

put; on each side of the neck an oval spot of white ; feathers of the

sides and back of the neck and upper part of the back brownish-

black, with a narrow mark of rich chestnut down the centre, and

edged with rufous or whitish ; feathers of the lower part of the back

brownish-black, with white shafts and edges; wing-coverts brownish-

black, with white shafts and margins; scapularies broadly margined

with deep reddish-buff; primaries brown on the internal web, deep

buff on the outer; tertiaries pale chestnut, mottled with black along

the shaft and towards the edge, which is sandy-buff; throat, centre

of the breast and abdomen rich chestnut; flank-feathers brownish-

black with white shafts, bordered on each side by a very fine line of

chestnut, and narrowly edged with grey, the markings becoming

larger and paler behind the thigh ; under tail-coverts lively chestnut,

with an oval spot of white at the tip of each ; centre tail-feathers ru-

fous, stained with black near the shaft, the remainder black on the

inner web and at the tip, the outer webs chestnut, which colour curves

round into and. occupies a portion of the internal web near the tip ;

all fringed with white at, the tips ; bill black ; feet horny-brown.

Total length, 202 inches ; wing, 83; tail, 9; tarsi, 23. |

Hab. Nepaul and Bhotan.

Remark.—In size this bird is the smallest of the three species of

224 Zoological Society:

the genus, but it is by far the most highly coloured and beautifully

marked; the mantle, the sides of the neck and. the flank-feathers

are conspicuously striated with black, chestnut and grey; the same

parts in the other species being sombre in comparison.

Specimens are contained in the collection at the British Museum,

in that of the East India Company, and, Mr. Gould believes, in that

of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris.

April 25.—Dr. Gray, Vice-President, in the Chair,

Nores ON THE Hasitrs or some INDIAN Birps.. Parr III...

By Lizvut. BurGEss.

Family MeruLip2&.

Subfamily Timauinz.

Genus Trmauta.

_Trwaria Maucoumy, Sykes. Large Baspurr. |

This Large Babbler, though not. generally so. common, I believe,

as Timalia grisea, I have shot. in) the Deccan in the districts near

the city of Ahmednuggur. It is gregarious in its habits, flying about

in flocks of eight or ten. It lives much on the ground, seeking its

food, which consists of grasshoppers,, beetles, black and white ants,

and other insects, under large trees and hedgerows, scratching up

and turning over the dead leaves with its strong claws. It also feeds

on grain; the stomach of one which I examined,contained bajocee

seeds and the remains of black ants, of another the, remains: of black

and white ants. This fact, I think, accounts for the habit of these

birds, of scratching amongst the decayed leaves round the trunks

of large trees, where both the black and white ants are sure to

be found ; indeed it is almost impossible to find a large tree ‘with-

out a colony of the former round its roots. I am not certain whether

the nest’ and eggs in the Museum of the Zoological Society, marked

as those of the Greater Thimalia, belong to this bird, or to Tymalia

grisea; but as I procured two or three specimens of the Large

Babbler and not one of 7. grisea, I think that there is every pro-

bability that the nest and eggs belong to this species. I believe

that birds of the genus Timalia breed twice durmg the year, as I

have found their nests in the months of May and October. The

nest brought to me in the month of October was found in a tuft of

high grass in a boggy piece of ground; it contained four eggs of a

uniform rich blue, 5% in. in length by nearly 7% in. in width. ‘The

number of eggs does not exceed four. ‘The nest'above-mentioned

was composed of coarse matted grass at the’ bottom, anid finer bents

on the sides, lined also with bents of grass ; ‘it was loosely put together.

There are the nest and eggs of Saree aac tties Timatia'in the

Museum of the Zoological Society ; but not having put the bird off

her nest, I am unable positively to assert to what species they belong.

T believe, from the smallness of the éges; that they probably belong

Mr. F. Moore on a new Indian Swallow. 225

to Timalia hyperythra or T. hypoleuca; but this point nequisits

— investigation.

Subfamily Or10Linz.

Genus ORIOLUS.

OrioLus AUREUS, Gmel. INpDIAN Or1IOLE or MANGO Birp.

This is common in the Deccan, frequenting banian trees and topes

of mangoes, whence its name. These birds are particularly fond of the

fruit of the banian, or Indian fig; the gizzard of one which I shot

was full of the seeds of this small fig. The Indian Oriole begins to

breed in the month of June. A pair of these birds built their nest

on the small forked branches of a flowering tree in my garden at

Ahmednuggur. The nest was composed of various fibrous substances,

amongst which pieces of hemp appeared to predominate; with this

two of the branches were bound together; some fragments of part of

a letter which had been torn up and thrown away were inserted ;

the handwriting on the paper I easily recognized as that of a lady at

the station. The nest, in its position, and in the manner in which

it was attached to the boughs, was much like that figured by Mr.

Yarrell in his work on British Birds as the nest of the Golden Oriole.

The nest, T believe, contained four eggs, of a white ground with claret-

coloured spots. This nest, with the eggs, and a pair of the old birds,

are in the possession of the Zoological Society.

Notice or A New InpIAN SwWALLow.

By Freperric Moors, Assist. East Inp. Comp. Museum.

. The subject that I beg to lay before the Meeting this evening, is

a) new form belonging to the family Hirundinide, lately re

Nepal, and presented to the Museum of the East India Company a

B. H., Hodgson, Esq., which is allied to, but. certainly distinct from,

the genus Chelidon, and for which the following anagrammatic name

is proposed.

? DELICHON (nov. gen.).

..Gen. Char. Bill short, thick, robust, gape rather wide, the cul-

men rounded, the nostrils basal, lateral and rounded. Wings rather

long, with the first quill the longest. Tail short, and emarginated or

nearly evenat the end. Tarsi longer than the middle toe, and clothed

with plumes. Toes long and clothed with plumes, the inner shorter

than the outer; the claws moderate and curyed.

Type, .D. Nipalensis, Hodgs. n. sp.

-» Spee. Char, Top.of the,head, chin, cheeks, ear-coverts, nape, back,

upper. and under. tail-coyerts, fine glossy black; wings black, paler

é Reneeb PnP RDS coyerts fringed with glossy black, the under coverts

ydusky black,;,.tail; black, fringed, on, the external webs with glossy

black; a, band, 0: > W. ite. across. the rump ; ; throat, breast, abdomen,

lower part of Al nks,and; vent. white, upper part of flanks black ; tarsi

226 Zoological Society :—

and toes covered with white plumes; claws pale flesh-colour ; bill

black.

Length from tip of the bill to the end of the tail, 33 inches; of

wing, 3; of tail, 1g; bill to front, ,3;; to gape, ;4; height from

chin to front, +; breadth at front, 3,; tarse, ;4,; middle toe and

claw, =%;; hind toe, 35.

Hab. Nepal. (No. 963. Hodgs, Catal.)

This interesting bird differs from the type of the genus Chelidon

by its smaller and more robust bill and by its shorter and even tail ;

the wings also are shorter. From the genus Cotyle it is at once di-

stinguished by its plumed feet. | ,

_ Notice oF some New Species or Birps CONTAINED IN THE -

Museum or THE Hon. East InNp1a Company.

By Freperic Moors, Assist. East Ind. Comp. Museum,

Family Mervin, Vigors.

Subfamily Trimax, Vigors.

Genus Pycroruis, Hodgson (1844). Chrysomma (Blyth),

Hodgson (1845). :

1. PycrorHis LONGIROSTRIS, Hodgson.

Forehead, crown, nape, back, rump, upper tail-coverts and tail

rufous-brown, deepest on the crown, wings and tail, the last being

distinctly rayed; chin, throat, base of lower mandible, middle of

belly and vent white; ear-coverts, sides of the neck and breast pale

rufescent, brightening on the flanks, thighs and under tail-coverts ;

under wing-coverts also rufescent; bill black, yellowish beneath’ at

base; legs pale horny.

Length, 8 inches; of wing, 24; tail, 33; bill to frontal plumes, £;

to gape, 1 inch ; height from chin to front, ;2,; tarse, 1 inch’; middle

toe and claw, 1,4,; central and lateral ditto, .4; hind ditto, 4.°''~

Hab. Nepal. (No. 892. Hodgs. Catal.) |

This bird may be distinguished from Pyct. sinensis (better known

under the name of Timalia hypoleuca) by its larger size, by the

lengthened bill, the rufescent colour of the under parts, and by the

absence of white before the eye. It may possibly be the species no-

ticed by Mr. I. W. Frith, in the ‘ Journ, As. Soc. Beng.” xiii. p. 370,

as being found in Bengal, which he states ‘ differs from the’ common

species in being about half larger.” BIA MIeD ato 118

I may here notice, in connexion with this genus; that’ Mr. Hodg-

son, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ 1845, p. 24, refers his genuis Pyctorhis only

to sinensis, and not to the bird named, rufifrons, which is, there

described as an Actinodura, it being synonymous with the species

previously described by Mr. Gould under the’ name of Actinodura

Egertoni.

Mr. F. Moore on some new species of Birds. 227

‘Family Syuvrap2, Vigors.

Subfamily Syivrana, Vigors.

Genus HoreIrTEs, Hodgson,

“2, Horsgrres mayor, Hodgson.

Above olive-brown, ruddier on the wings; tail rounded, more of a

dusky-brown, with the outer webs fringed with olive-brown ; cap red-

brown; a yellowish-ferruginous superciliary streak, extending over

the ear-coverts ; upper part of the latter ruddy-brown, lower ashy ;

throat, sides of neck, centre of breast and abdomen ashy-white ; a Ae

of the breast and flanks olive-brown; bill dark horn-colour, yel-

lowish at base beneath ; feet also yellowish.

Length, 5 inches; of wing, 2}; tail, 2,2,, outer feather $ an inch

shorter than the middle; bill to front, $; to gape, $; tarsus, ;% ;

middle toe and claw, 5; inner ditto, ;5,; outer ditto rather more than

% an inch. |)

Hab. Nepal. (No. 946. Hodgs. Catal.)

This species mayeasily be distinguished by its greater size,

and larger bill, the wings being much longer, though rounded as in

the other species, and by the nearly total absence of ash-colour on

the under parts; the feet also are much longer and stronger.

Genus ABrornis, Hodgson.

3. ABRORNIS POLIOGENYS, Blyth.

. Culicipeta poliogenys, Blyth, J. A, 8. Beng. xvi. p, 441 (1847).

. Rhipidura poliogenys, G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, tii. App. p. 12.

Hab. Darjeeling, Nepal.. (No..920. Hodgs, Catal.)

Head. and nape, base of lower mandible and ear-coverts dark ash-

grey, the loral feathers, tipped. with greyish-white ; round the eye a

clear white ring ; back, rump and shoulders bright olive-green ; wings

dusky black, margined with olive-green, the greater coverts tipped

with whitish-yellow ; throat greyish-white, the rest of the under parts

clear yellow; tail dusky on the six central feathers, which are mar-

gined with olive-green, the three outer being greenish-dusky on the

terminal half of the outer web, the basal half with the whole of the

inner web being white; upper mandible blackish horn-colour, lower

yellowish ; feet yellowish horn-colour.

Length about 4} inches; of wing, 2 inches; tail, 12; bill to

front, =3,; to gape, } an inch; and tarse the same.

- This species is nearly allied to Abrornis wanthoschistos, Hodgs.,

from which it differs in having the cheeks and ear-coverts, with the

feathers commencing from the base of the lower mandible, of the

same ash-grey. colour.as the head, and. the throat greyish-white, in-

stead of these parts being bright yellow as in that species.”’

: 4. ABRORNIS AFFINIS, Hodgson +.

_ This species is closely allied to 4. poliogenys, but differs from it in

+ No. 920*, to distinguish it from 920 of Mr. Hodgson’s Catalogue.

228 Zoologicul Society.

having |the lores, base of lower mandible, lower portion’ of the ear-

coverts, and the chin and throat, the same bright yellow as the rest of

theunder parts ; ‘the feathers of the crowii are pale shafted, which

is not'the case in poliogenys ; the tail is pale dusky, the two outer

feathers only being white on the apical portion of the inner web, the

basal’ portion of which is dusky ; the outer web in both is pale dusky

green; the other ten are fringed with greenish on the outer web.” The

wing in afinis is a quarter of an inch longer, but has the same mark-

ings; the tarsus is also longer by a tenth of an inch. Other charac-

ters agree in both species. The bill in this and poliogenys is broader

than in A. wanthoschistos, Hodgson.

Hab. Nepal. (No. 920*. Hodgs. Catal.)

5. ABRORNIS ALBOGULARIS, Hodgson.

_ Forehead, lores, over and under the eyes to nape,! and ear-coverts

brightish. ferruginous, the crown. being dusky. ferruginous, passing

to. yellowish olive-green on the.back and) shoulders;, the ramp

yellowish ; wings black, margined with the colour, of the, back ;. tail

pale dusky greenish, edged exteriorly throughout with, yellowish:

green; throat and. base of lower. mandible. white; the,feathers black

at base; breast bright yellow; abdomen) white,..vent,yellowish ;., bill

horny, paler beneath; feet pale horny; the imcwian! bristles. black,

strong, nearly as long as the bill.,

Length, 33 inches; of FAN gs 13; the firat quill, 2 an inch, ahiater

than the second ; third <? ths longer than the first; fourth, fifth and

sixth nearly equal, the fifth being the op ge tail, 1} inch ;, bill to

frontal pane y zz; to gape, 7%; “tarsus, <5 =o53 middle toe and claw, ws

hind ditto, 3; tarsus and hind claw strong. eee ee

Hab. Nepal. (No. 936. Hodgson’s Catal.)

On THE Genus MopDIOLARCA.

By Dr. Joun Epwarp Gray, F.R.S., P.BSs V.P,Z.S. ere.

In, the Synopsis of the British Museum for 1840, «pp. 144, 155;

L established a family of bivalve shells under the name of Crenellida,

for the genera Crenella and Modiolarca, taking the character of the

family from the animal of Modiola trapezina, the type of the genus

Modolarea, the only one that had then come under my examination.

The following were the characters given :—

** The family of Crenellide chiefly differs from the former (Myti-

lide) in the mantle lobes being united together so as to leave only

two posterior holes for the entrande and exit of the water, and a slit

for the foot and beard. The hinge-margin is denticulated at each

end, and the umbo is nearly central.’

Shortly after, Mr. Alder described the anitoals of: ‘the. British ives

nella undulata, and found that the mantle was’ neatly as ‘mhuch open

as that of the Modiole, and complained of the inaccuracy of. the

description ; the fact bemg, that the two. genera.had.very different

animals, and that Crenella had been wrongly referred to the group,’

and taken as the patronymic of it.

Miscellaneous. 229

I have lately had an opportunity, of verifying my description of

the animal of Modiolarca, and find that' it exactly agrees with. the

above character, and that it has a very peculiar-formed. foot, most

resembling that found in some Arcide, which caused me to call, the

genus Modiolarca*.

The following is a more particular description of the animal of the

genus, which must. be considered as the type of a peculiar family,

called

“OBIS! MoproLarcaD&.

Crenellide, Gray, 1840.

Genus Moproxtarca, Gray, 1840.

Mantle lobes united. Siphonal apertures two, distinct ; anal mo-

derate ; branchial very large, inferior, simple edged; pedal aperture

small, basal, ‘subanterior. Gills four, thick, dependent, subtrigonal,

truncated in front, narrow, produced and united together behind.

Lips ‘four, moderate. Palpi obsolete. Foot oblong, base truncated,

lower end laiiceolate, acute in front, with a subposterior, central cavity

for the byssus. :

* Shell’ equivalve, oblong, thin; umbo subanterior. Hinge-teeth

none; ‘or’ ‘rudimentary. “ Cartilage linear, external. Periostraca

polished, hard. © °° >

The animal lives attached to floating sea-weed.

‘° Modiolarca trapezina+ = Modiola trapezina, Lamk. Hist. A. s. V.

nvP7. ed.2. vii. 24; Delessert, Icon. t. 13. fig. 7; Hanley, Cat. Re-

cent Shells)'237. .' | :

MISCELLANEOUS.

. MONSTROSITY OF ANTIRRHINUM MAJUS.

In a garden at'' Brixton I observed many spikes of the common

Snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus, with larger and much. brighter-

coloured» flowers than the rest. The flowers were divided to the

baseinto’ five separate lobes, the upper lip of the common: form of

the flower being formed of two, the lower lip of three ; the upper

lobes were inequilateral, the upper side very straight, and the outer

one curved with an enlarged end somewhat like the wing of a papi-

lionaceous flower, and they were one-coloured and slightly twisted ;

the three lower lobes were equilateral, lanceolate, variously con-

* Two genera have been made out of this word. Dr. Beck when in.this

country! madé/a note that J had called the genus Modiolarca; but he appeared to

have read, it Modiolaria, and,,that.name.has been used for it. The latter name

is now chiefly used for the more oblong Crenelle.

+ a Sh above was read, T find that M. Valenciennes has considered this shell

as the type Of a new gehitsy Phascolicama (see Gay’s Chili, 1854); and Mr. Gould

has, more lately; formed # genus for it, under the name of Gaimarda.—J. I. Gray.

280 Miscellaneous.

torted and variously coloured, the limb very bright orange or red

or white, and the claw yellow and bearded within. The stamens and

other parts of the flower were of the usual form and number. On

some spikes a few of the flowers were only slit to the base along the

centre of the upper side, somewhat like the flowers of the genus

Lobelia; and in another spike, some of the flowers had the upper

and lateral lobe of each side united, the slits being between the two

upper and on each side of the lower central lobes. The white variety

of the plant offered the same modifications. —J. E. Gray. |

Notice of the Horns and Skull of the Arnee.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., P.B.S., V.P.Z.8. &.

Colonel James Matthie has lately presented to the British Mu-

seum the skull and horns of an Arnee or Buffalo, killed by him near

Fezpoor, Central Assam, on the 8th of April, 1842. weld

The horns are of a very large size, as proved by the accompanying

measurement, being nearly as large as the separate horns without a

skull, in the British Museum, which formerly formed part of Sir

Hans Sloane’s Collections, and were described and figured by him

in the Philosophical Transactions for 1727, no. 397, p. 222, f. 23:

These horns are 78 inches, or 6 feet 6 inches long. | : ;

The dimensions of Colonel Matthie’s specimen are as follows,

according to his measurement.

ft. in.

** Length of the skull from occiput to nose ..... tant iat -

Length of the horns round the outside of them and

{1 across: the forehead... gical ci 2d... antl tanta LQ a.

Length of line from tip to tip of the horns........ 6 8

Circumference of right horn at base ............ °° 1 83

‘4 yo JOEL MORE AL PRSG ow. cc orc ny 5 BO «|

Width across the forehead ........ ssoagua nas. 011

*The horns do not exactly correspond in length and shape.’’.

The occipital portion of the skull is very much developed, to give

enlarged attachment to the muscles of the neck for the support of

the horns.

I may observe; that the Arnee of Anderson, Bee, 1792 (the Bos

arne of Kerr, ‘ Animal Kingdom,’ 336. t. 295, copied into ‘ Shaw,

Zoology,’ iv. p. 400, t. 210), is only a large horned variety of the

common Buffalo, with horns nearly regularly curved from the base.

The horns presented by Colonel Matthie, on the other hand, are

nearly straight for great part of their length, and only curved at the

end. In this respect they agree with the horns in the British Mu-

seum, which Mr, Doyle, whose name is “given, to, .a, sort of stuffe

worn in summer,’ discovered in a cellar in rs ne er ere he

ve to Sir Hans Sloane for his kindness in attending him in sickness.

hese are described by the latter in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions ”

for 1727, no. 397, p. 222. f. 23; and re-described and figured by

Meteorological Observations. 231

me Smith as those of Bos Arnee in Griffith, A. K. iv;

t. 201.-f. 2, 3.

Dr. Hook read a lecture on Mr. Doyle’s horns at Gresham College,

and thought. they were probably those of the Sukotyro or Sucotaria,

described : by Nieuhoff in his ‘ Voyages and Travels in the East’ as

found in Java. He compares the horns to the tusk of the elephant,

which they. somewhat resemble. Dr. Shaw thought otherwise, and

formed a genus for Niewhoff’s animal, making a figure of it from

his description (see General Zool. i. 226. t.65). Illiger considered

it more probably a Babyrusa. See Illiger, Genera Mam. 100.—

Proe. Zool. Soc. Jan. 23, 1855.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR JULY 1855.

Chiswick.—July 1. Very fine. 2. Heavy clouds: slight rain. 3,4. Very fine.

5. Clear: hot and dry. 6. Foggy: very fine. 7,8. Very fine. 9. Hazy: very

fine : thunder, lightning and rain at night. 10. Fine: cloudy: very fine. 11. Con.

stant and very heavy rain from early in the morning till night. 12,13. Very fine,

14, Cloudy: very fine. 15. Cloudy and fine: rain. 16. Cloudy: heavy rain at night.

17. Fine: cloudy. 18. Very fine. 19. Rain. 20. Very fine. 21. Exceedingly

fine. 22. Very fine. 23. Slight fog: sultry: rain. 24. Rain: cloudy. 25. Rain.

26. Densely overcast: constant and very heavy rain. 27. Overcast: heavy clouds

and showers. 28. Cloudy: heavy showers. 29. Very fine. 30. Slight haze: very

fine : overcast: rain at night. 31. Heavy rain: showery : clear and fine at night.

62°:

Mean temperature of the month ............ sibs bep aaa vas on peenes 99

‘‘Meah temperature of July 1854 ........ccscececesceccseeneeeees 61 59

Mean temperature of July for the last twenty-nine years ... 63 °12

Average amount of rain in July ........ sind ego oad gute sesssesesee 2°428 inches,

Boston.—July 1—4. Fine. 5—7. Cloudy. 8. Fine. 9. Cloudy. 10, 11.

Cloudy :°rain A.M. 12. Fine. 13. Cloudy. 14. Rain and hail a.m. 15. Fine.

16,17. Cloudy: rain a.m. and p.m. 18, Cloudy. 19, 20. Cloudy: rain, with

thunder a.Mm.andp.m. 21—23. Cloudy. 24, 25. Rain a.m. andr.m. 26. Fine:

rain P.M. 27. Cloudy: rainp.m. 28. Fine: rainp.m. 29, 30. Fine. 31.. Rain

A.M. and P.M. .

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—July 1. Damp a.m.: showers P.M. 2. Showers a.m. :

drops p.m. 3. Rain a.m.: damp p.m. 4. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 5. Cloudy

A.M.:fog p.M. 6. Bright, fine a.M.: clear, fine p.M. 7. Bright, fine a.m. and

p.M. 8. Bright, fine a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 9. Clear, fine a.m. : vapour, fine p.m.

10. Hazy a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 11. Fine a.m. and p.m. 12. Bright, fine a.m.::

fine, fog p.M. 13, Fog A.M.: fine, fog p.m. 14. Fog A.m.: thunder showers, fog

p.M. 15. Fog a.m.: showers P.M. 16. Rain A.m.: showers P.M. 17. Damp a.m. ;

cloudy p.m. 18. Cloudy a.M.and p.m. 19. Bright a.m.: hazy, fine p.m. 20,

Bright a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 21. Clear a.m.: drops p.M. 22. Cloudy a.m. and

pM. 23, Cloudy a.M.: showers p.M. 24. Bright A.m.: fine, fog p.m. 25. Cloudy

AuM.: fine, fog p.m. 26. Rain a.M.: fog p.m. 27. Rain, fog a.m.: showers,

thunder and lightning, clear p.m. 28. Bright a.m.: fine, dropsp.m. 29. Rain

A.Mi: damp p.m. 30, Cloudy a.m, : fine, vapourp.M. 31. Cloudy A.M.: fine p.m.

Mean temperature of July for twenty-eight previous years . 55°08 |

Mean temperature of this month ............cseceeccceeeeeeees ae S919 <”

Mean temperature of July 18540 06. cl. cissesccsceseesvecesseee OO °25

Average quantity of rain in July for fifteen previous years... 2°41 inches,

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THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

Bs [SECOND SERIES.}

No. 94.. OCTOBER 1855.

XXI.—The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. By

Dr. Anexanper Brawn, Professor of Botany in the Univer-

sity of Berlin, &c.* Translated by Cuas. Francis Stone.

Part I.—Intropuction anp Historyf.

in Organic Nature the two principal phenomena, in which the

shifting scenes of ‘Life*are unfolded, are individual development

and individual propagation. Through them the intricate course

of Nature, and its living chain of organized beings, are refreshed

and renewed, Every new generation seems to bring back the

old form ; still, to the investigator who looks deeper into the

graves of the past, a slow, but certain, progress reveals itself even

in this apparently identical succession. If Nature is to be for us

something more than a labyrinth of varied and intricate phno-

mena ; and if, in the apparent disorder, the hidden threads of the

connexion are to become visible, we must first of all separate

and compare the different spheres of life, placing them higher or

lower according to their rank. The starting-pomts which Nature

offers for such a purpose are, the Individual and the Species ;

whose reciprocal relations, however simple they may at first

appear, when followed out to particulars lead to difficulties-which

demand an accurate examination{. From the botanist such an

* From the Transactions of the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences

for 1853.—Reprinted from Silliman’s American Journal for May 1855.

t I have omitted the anthor’s brief introductory remarks.— Transl.

{ Should any one be inclined to doubt that the nature of the vegetable

individual needs a further discussion, I would beg him to turn to the latest

works on Botany and. compare the passages which treat of the plant’s in-

dividuality. I take Kiitzig’s Grundziige der phil. Botanik (2nd Part), as

we have a right. to demand from.a work that lays claim to philosophical

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 16

234 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

examination is particularly demanded ; as the vegetable ideal pre-

sented tous by the science in its earlier stages has been obseured

by conceptions obtained from the animal kingdom having been

transferred to Botany, though based upon the mistaken assump-

tion that plants possess the same independent individuality as

animals, the same organs with equally well-defined functions,

and the same mutually dependent relations of the vital activities.

And the investigations of late years, forsaking the old views

more and more, have arrived at no well-defined conclusions, and,

particularly as regards vegetable individuality, seem to lead

more to negative than to positive results. After all, this should

not surprise us ; for even a superficial investigation shows rela-

tions in plants which will hardly harmonize with the common

conceptions of individuality, and which require a careful review.

In the whole realm of organic nature, we know of nota single

species of which any one individual is a perfect representative:

on the contrary, we see each species adding generation to gene-

ration, by multiplying the individuals in time! and space, until

its day has ended, whether from internal or external causes. In

this particular, the species resembles the individual itself ; having

its allotted age, though measured by days of a‘higher order; and

its appointed cycle of life,—in which the imdividuals ‘appear ‘as

members occupying a certain time and place,—resembling’ the~

development, a fundamental discussion of this. subject,.sitice) it, is ;the

ground-work of the whole science. The first two paragraphs under, the

heading “ Das Pflanzenindividuum als Organismus,” read as follows : “ By

individual we here mean a single vegetable body not organically connected ©

with a similar vegetable body. Vegetable individuals have'the power of

developing the general pheenomena of vegetable life by themselves, unas-

sisted by any other individual of the same species, . It is the nature.of an

organism to consist of members..... The possession of members is the

first, as well as the most essential condition of the existence of the vege-

table individual.”” Not one of these assertions is true of vegetable indi-

viduals, either in the broader or the narrower signification of the term. ‘To

say nothing of the connexion in which the individuals appear which are

successively developed by shoot-formation, the coalescence of stocks which

were originally separate is no rarity. Are the pines of the pine-forest no

individuals, because, as Gdppert has shown, they are connected with each

other by their roots? Do the filaments of Zygnema cease to be individuals

when they copulate? Are the cells of Hydrodictyon and Pediastrum, ori-

ginally separate, no longer individuals when they have joined themselves

into a net or a star? To refute the second assertion, we may refer to

dicecious plants; to refute the third, we refer to the one-celled Algx

and Fungi, a part of which, at least, are of such a character that we can by

no means ascribe to them an organization in the usual acceptation of the

term. However, we may regard it as an’ improvement, that Kiitzing’s

‘Grundziige’ treats of the vegetable individual at all; for the earlier ma+

nuals do not even mention this important subject, but commence their ac-

count of plants with descriptions of the root, stem and other organs, or, as

it has been preferred of late years, of the cells and vesicles.

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 235

successive relative forms through which the individual passes.

For the organic individual does not manifest itself im one single

permanent form, but in a succession of forms, now gradually

connected, now broadly interrupted ; and these last, especially

in plants, may attain to an independence which gives them the

character of a subordinate species. To this analogy between in-

dividuals and species it: may be objected, that, in most cases, a

very retnarkable metamorphosis is connected with the successive

forms of the individual, while within the sphere of the species

the consecutive members continue to have essentially the same

character*. But, however important this fact may be, still we

may assert of the mdividual as well as of the species, that it com-

pletes the cycle) of its existence in a succession of subordinate

generations, while, on the other hand, we may affirm of the spe-

cies, that, like the individual, it exhibits a determinate cycle of

development}. In comparing the processes of propagation with

the process of the formation of the individual, cell-formation,

which lies at the foundation of both, reveals the intimate con-

nexion which exists between the small and the great spheres of

development; while the numerous cases which admit of a double

explanation (since they may be ascribed with almost equal justice

to the inferior cycle of development of the individual, or to the

superior one.of the species) establish the close relationship of

both. The above-mentioned circumstance, that the cycle of de-

velopment’ does not present as graduated a progress in the spe-

cies as it does in the individual, seems to suggest that the most

reliable view of the analogy between the species and the indi-

vidual.is that,in which the species is not compared with the

whole cycle of the individual’s successive development, but with

the single steps of the metamorphosis (which of course has its

own subordinate members), and in which the species itself is re-

garded, as an inferior “momentum” of a still more compre-

hensive cycle of development ; but to determine this would lead

us'too far from our subject {. In a word, the relation of the in-

dividual to the species is that of an inferior cycle of development

to a superior: the individual is a member of the species. How-

ever, although they are under one and the same specific law, all

the members of the species are not identical: a single member

only represents the idea of the species more or less incompletely ;

and certain members, or series of members, are thus reciprocal

* Those of the forms.and properties. which persist through the successive

generations determine, the species... Link, Grundlehren der. Kraiiter-

kunde, vi. p. 11.

+ The species is an individual of a higher rank (higher power). Link,

l.c. p. Ll.

{ o the Author’s, work on Verjiingung (1849), note to m 344.

236 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

complements... The regular relations. here brought to view will

form the principal subject of the present investigation. _ But we

must first carefully determine the sphere of the individual. The

individual shall not and may not be considered by itself: it must

be viewed in the successive generations to which it belongs.

This succession may be similar or dissimilar, simple or compli-

cated by divisions, continuous or graduated by cyclical changes.

It is by this that the phenomena of fissiparous and. alternate

generation may be explained. It is only by:a consideration of

these relations that the nature of the individual itself; as a sub-

ordinate sphere of the species’ development, can be rightly com-

prehended, and that the single individuals in their worth ‘and

importance, in their relations to each other and to the whole

realized cycle of the species, can be understood.

Preliminary Remarks on Vegetable Individuality: different views

in regard to it. |

We must determine what constitutes the vegetable individual,

before we can investigate its relations to the whole,cyele,of,.ge-

neration of the species. But it is this determination itself which

presents so many difficulties ; and these difficulties ‘become the

greater, the further we push our investigations. Individuality in

plants seems as obscure and ambiguous, as,in,animals (atleast

in their higher orders) it appears clear and.simple ;:\so that, as

Steinheil remarks, it escapes us just when we are upon the point

of seizing it*; and investigators might even conclude that we

can realize no other individuality than that which 1s. manifested

in the totality of the species. | The first obstacle to our compre-

hending the vegetable individual as a single sphere of conforma-

tion, as a morphological whole, is the disconnected and separate

character which obtains in the most heterogeneous modifications

of vegetable organisms. For nowhere in the vegetable kingdom

do-we perceive that indissoluble connexion, and those pervading

reciprocal functions, which in the animal kingdom we are accus-

tomed to associate with the idea of an individual. organism.

Nevertheless, by starting from a comparison with animals we

get an apposite point of departure for a comprehension of the

plant’s individuality. Among the higher animals, the individual

appears as a member of a race produced by sexual generation ;

and this very test may be applied to plants, except im the very

lowest forms, to which sexual generation does not apply at all,

* «Dans chacun de ces organes nous nous croyons au premier aspect sur

le point de saisir Pindividualité normale, et partout elle nous échappe.”

Steinheil, De I’Individualité végétale (1836), p. 9.

Dr. A. Braun ‘on the Vegetable Individual. 237

or not positively. Without at present discussing the question

whether the vegetable individual thus conceived is truly ana-

logous to the animal individual, we may here state, that this

conception carried out to its consequences, involves the assump-

tion that all the plant-stocks produced, not by sexual generation,

but by any mode of vegetable division, are not individuals, but

only parts of the primary individual to which they owe their

origin ; as Gallesio has in fact contended*. Botanists have often

asserted that it is the individual + alone, which is reproduced by

slips (branches, buds, tubercles, &c.), and their opinion coincides

with this view. Still, how are we to distinguish plant-stocks of

such an origin, from ‘those derived from seeds? The former

take root, ramify, blossom, ripen their fruit and seeds, just as

the latter do, so that in a physiological sense they are complete

individuals t. For example, let us cast a glance at the weeping-

willow. (Salia Babylonica). It is well known that this. tree,

which was originally brought from the banks of the Euphrates,

is always propagated by slips ; for with us it never bears seeds—

not because our climate is unfavourable, but because in our

gardens there is no fructifying male tree §. According to Lou-

* Gallesio, Teoria della Riproduzione vegetale (1816), a work, which I

am sorry to say I have not been able to consult myself. Huxley (upon

Animal Individuality, in the Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist..June 1852), hold-

ing corresponding views, regards all the animals which spring from an egg

by non-sexual increase, as one individual, or, as he expresses it, as a repre-

sentative .of. the, individual. by successive coexisting separable forms ;—re-

gards as such, for example, the sum total of all the Aphides, produced in

Successive generations, by non-sexual increase, from the first “nurse”

which sprung from the egg. If we assume with Bonnet that one nurse

encloses’one hundred young Aphides in the tenth generation (and accord-

ing to) Kyber, they often reach even a higher number), the series would

amount to much more than a billion (1,010,101,010,101,010,101). Those

who regard sexual reproduction as the criterion of imdividuality must ad-

mit this as a perfectly legitimate consequence of their view.

+ *Gemme individuum continuant cum semina speciem propagent.”

Link, Elem. Phil. Botan. ed. 2. vol. i. p. 332. ‘* Continuant,”’ in anti-

thesis to.“ propagent,”’ cannot be mistaken, Again, Endlicher and Unger,

Grundziige der Bot. p. 85, say: “ In these cases (7. e. when the buds drop

off ) the bud-formation is a true propagation, by which the individual is

multiplied ; though we must distinguish this mode of propagation from

that of generation, by which the species is reproduced.” Here the meaning

is obvious, though the expression is perfectly paradoxical; for how can we

imagine that the individuals are multiplied without the species being re-

produced? ~I have elsewhere attempted to show what is here meant, by

representing non-sexual propagation as a propagation subordinate to the

eycle of sexual reproduction (cf. Verjimgung, pp. 26, 27).

{ In many cases the experienced gardener can distinguish them, but

certainly not in all; in some the difference is very remarkable: e. g. in

Araucarié raised from branches.

§ This has the advantage of avoiding the disagreeable seed-down. For

the same reason, it is said, in China they cultivate the male tree only.

238 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

don (Arboret. Brit.), the weeping-willow was sent to England

in 1730, by a French merchant named Vernon. It was planted

in' Twickenham Park, whence it'spread rapidly over England and

the continent. The tree, from which the first slips thati were

brought to Europe were taken, was most probably a cultivated

one itself, raised from a slip. However this may be, could the

descent of all our weeping-willows be traced, it would wndoubt-

edly lead us back to a willow, a female willow, grown in its na-

tive country from a seed. And so, on this account, we are to

regard all the beautiful weeping-willows of our gardens and our

cemeteries—and surely they are perfect trees—not as individual

stocks, but as the disyecta membra of a primary trunk, now hid-

den in mythical darkness! In other cases this primary trunk

is known with perfect certainty. It can be proved by history

that many hybrids and varieties have been’ produced im’ one

single exemplar; though they now ornament our gardens far

and wide, having increased’ by means of slips; :asithey do not

bear seeds. This was the case of the famous Cytisus Adami,

which sprung, shortly before the year 1825, from: the minghng

of C. purpureus and C. Laburnum. The single’ parent-stock,

preserved in the garden of the celebrated Adam»in) Paris, has

long since disappeared ; but its scions and ‘scions’ scions’ have

grown up into fine trees in half the gardens: of Europe*. In

the view just stated, they all form but one individual! To sup-

port such a view, its partisans adduce the fact: of certaim indi-

vidual particularities being preserved (in) dicecious ‘plants espe-

cially the gender), when propagated by slips. In general this’is

true, and for practical gardening, e. g. for the cultivation of the

finer kinds of fruit, of the greatest importance; but exceptions

are not rare; among which the well-known re-division of Cytisus

Adami into its two primary stocks is one of the most striking

and remarkable. In our gardens the rule is, that from slips the

weeping-willow produces female trees; still some exceptions

may be noted here. Napoleon’s grave in St. Helena is shaded

by a weeping-willow, which has become the subject of scientific

discussions. It was supposed to belong to a species (Salix

Napoleonis) indigenous to that island; but Loudon’s exhaustive

researches show that it is descended from our weeping-willows,

one of which was carried from England to St. Helena in 1810.

Branches of this Saliz Napoleonis were brought back to England,

and to the astonishment of botanists they bore male flowers.

Since up to that time no male weeping-willows had been seen in

England, a change of gender must have been produced through

* Cf. Verjiingung, pp. 337 and xi..:In another place I shall communi-

cate the history of this’ hybrid, which has since been investigated,

Dr. As Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 239

vegetative increase... A: similar case has also occurred im Ger-

many. In the Grand-ducal Gardens at, Schwetzingen there/isa

weeping-willow, which, although a descendant from the common

parent tree of all European weeping-willows, has. changed. its

gender to.such.a degree, that we not only find, on it. the, most

heterogeneous stages of transition from female flowers to, male

ones, but on many branches purely male catkins are produced*.

Besides, these; cases, a curled variety of weeping-willow, Salix

crispa.or S.,annularis of the gardens, is known ; which, as it is

a mere garden: plant, has probably been produced by shp-propa-

gation. If. it be true that we sometimes obtain varieties with

hanging branches from several kinds of trees by grafting the

slips inverted, we should have one of the most. remarkable ex-

amples of the production of a singular peculiarity by non-sexual

increase... But, even, if such exceptions did not exist, and if in

every, case aseries of peculiarities which are extinguished in

seminal propagation were continued by grafting, yet we cannot

perceive, how. we; can. seriously refuse an individual existence, to

such stocks as these, produced, it is true, by non-sexual propa-

gation, but; still, completely separated externally, developing in

different! places and under the most dissimilar relations, and ex-

hibiting subordinate differences indefinitely, though with certain

similar, characteristics. But if we were to make any concessions

on-this point; we should be carried irresistibly on to others.

Most: of the modes, of non-sexual propagation thus far consi-

dered. agree inthis particular: that some shoot of the plant,

whether it. be, undeveloped. (eye, bud), or developed (branch,

sucker, layer, &c.),is separated from the parent-stock by natural

development itself, or by artificial means. As the nature of the

separable part is not changed by the separation, it is no, great

step to attribute individuality to the shoot (or as it is commonly

ealled, the bud), even when it is not separated from the stock.

Kach single plant-stock could then be no longer regarded as an

indiyidual in the usual meaning of the term, but as a united

family of individual shoots ;—a view which seems to be of high

antiquity; as passages are found in Aristotle+ and Hippo-

* This tree was first observed by C. Schimper in 1827. Some remarks

upon it may be found in Spenner’s Flora Friburgensis, vol. iii. p. 1061.

ft Cf, Wimmer, Phytologiz Aristotelice Fragmenta, §§ 23-28, 66 et

113... I cannot ‘discover that explicit acknowledgement of the individuality

of shoots, or buds,) which! is said by Schultz (Anaphytose, p. 24) to be found

in. Aristotle, either in, Sehultz’s, quotations, or even in Wimmer’s complete

collection of the passages in Aristotle referring to plants. It is true that

Aristotle epeatedly speaks of the divisibility of plants; says that separated

parts of plants may continue to exist ; that on this account many trees may

spring from a single source; ‘that ‘many plants are propagated by slips

(ard orapaypiray: arodurevopévwy), and by lateral bud-formation (7

240, Dr, A. Brann onthe Vegetable Individual.

crates * which are interpreted in this sense. In later times,

this view has been more or less advocated, especially by De la

Hire+, Linnzus, Darwint, Batsch, Goethe, Riper, Pohleiden'§;

and others.

But, even in this narrower view of vegetable individuality, the

same difficulty meets us ; for the shoot itself is divisible, and new

stocks may be produced by its parts ; 7. e. by the members of the

stem and its leaf or leaf-whorl ||... Besides, the several members

of the shoot are not contemporaneous creations, but, developing

successively out of and over each other, they constitute a sue-

cessive generation, composed of divisions each of whieh repeats

essentially the same form, each of which may be compared tothe

embryonic plant originally developed in the seed,.and consisting

of its stemlet with one or two leaves (cotyledons). Thus the

shoot itself came to be regarded as.a succession of individual

vegetable members, built up one above the other, like the stories

of a house. The earliest traces of this view may be! found) in

Darwin’s ‘ Phytologia’ |; it was developed at, a, later period in

various ways and with various modifications, e.g. by Agardh**,

mapaBhaoravew), e.g. the bulbous plants; but he ‘does not state his

opinion of the parts which develope after such a separation, and explains

the phenomena in general, by saymg that the vegetable soul. of. plants

(Openrixyn vx) is simple in actuality (¢vreAcyeca), though multiple in

capacity (Suvdper).

* According to Moquin-Tandon, Teratologie, p. 5.

+ Hist. de ’Acad. Roy. des Sciences, 1708, p. 233. De la Hire regards

all the branches as new plants proceeding from hidden,ovules.,, Myriads

of these ovules, he thinks, exist between the bark and the wood ; more or

less of them come to maturity, according to cireumstances.

{ Darwim, Phytologia (1800), p.1. “ Ifa bud be torn from the branch

of a tree, or cut out and planted 1 in the earth ....; or if it be inserted into

the bark of another tree, it will grow and become a plant in every respect

like its parent. This evinces, that every bud of a tree is an individual ye-

getable being, and the tree therefore is a family or swarm of individual

OME ns 's 0)

. § I shall consider the views of these authors more at large in the next

section.

|| Ladduce this point in connexion with the history of the views held by

botanists in regard to vegetable individuality, in the terms in, which. it

has been usually expressed ; further on I shall show that this view needs

qualification. The individual members of the stem cannot expand ito a

new stock by direct development, like the separated shoot ; they have this

property only by being connected with a lateral sprout, by means of the

eye which they bear, or have the power of Producing. This view naturally

brings us back to the shoot as the dividual.

q "Pp, 9; where even the single well-defined stem-members of: different

herbaceous plants are described as so many buds, and/hence.as| so! many

individuals.

** Agardh, Essai de réduire la Physiologie yégétale & des principes son

damentaux, 1829 (Ann. des Sci. Nat. tom. xvii. p. 86),

Dr. As Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 241

Engelmaun*, Steinheil+ and Gaudichaud t{—the last of whom

calls the member of the shoot elevated to the rank of an indi-

vidual vegetable being, “ the phyton,” and ascribes to it not only

a stem and leaves, but even a root, by which he imagines it is

connected with the preceding phytons, as the first phyton (the

embryonic plant) is connected with the ground. Steenstrup $

and Forbes'|| employ a similar view for their comparison of

alternate generation in plants with that in the lower animals.

But this restriction of vegetable individuality could not stop

here ;'for even the members of the shoot, the “ phyta” or “ sto-

ries,” are themselves too complex organisms not to present sub-

ordinate divisions, which, like the whole member, possess a cer-

tain independence, and under certain circumstances may even

give ‘birth to new stocks. Although botanists have attempted

to view the ‘petiole as the lower part of the leaf, or vice versd,

the leaf as the upper part of the petiole** (so as not to be com-

pelled to divide the phytons of the structure themselves into re-

latively independent members), this much at least is certain (and

it is the important point here), that each of these two parts is

capable of producing new growths by itself ; yes, this capacity is

enjoyed even by different determinate or casual parts of either

member.’ It is well known that the leaf of Bryophyllum produces

sprouts in every notch on its edges, while on the other hand,

caducous leaves of many bulbous plants (e. g. Hucomis regia

according to Hedwig, Ornithogalum thyrsotdes according to Tur-

pintt) produce new plants in the form of bulblets on any portion

of the whole of the upper surface. The petiole itself under cer-

tain circumstances has the power of producing the so-called ad-

ventitious. buds, not only on the portions determined by the po-

sition of the leaf (leaf-axil), but sometimes on any other portions ;

a' power enjoyed by the root in many cases. Hence parts of

plants, otherwise most dissimilar, when they contain cambium,

* Engelmann, De Antholysi (1832), p. 12.

' + Stemheil, L’Individualité dans le Régne végétale. 1836.

{ Gaudichaud, Recherches sur l’Organographie, la Physiologie et l’Or-

ganogénie des Végétaux. 1841.

§ Steenstrup, On Alternate Generation (1842), p. 128. As this im-

portant little work may be supposed to be in every one’s hands, I refrain

from quoting this interesting passage.

9 |) Forbes;'On the ‘Morphology of the Reproductive System of Sertu-

larian '‘Zoophytes, &c., Ann: and Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. xiv. (1844), p. 388.

{| Ernst Mayer, Die Metamorphose der Pflanze und ihre Widersacher.

Linnvea,; 1832) p.401. | Jaghe

| wR Hoehstetter; Aufbau’ der Graspflanze. (Wiurtemberger Jahreshefte,

1847 and 1848.) 7 3

; mG Treviranus, Pflanzenphysiologie, where several examples are ad-

uced. act

242 Dr, A, Braun on, the Vegetable Individual.

may;.have the power, of, reproducing the. plant*,. This. is, the

foundation .of , the. Schultz-Schultzenstein-ian . doctrine. of .ana-

phytons.;, viz. those vegetable members “ which, even when, sepa-

rated from the plant, continue to live, bud, and developet,” and

which are hence regarded. as the individuals proper, as, the true

elementary forms or morphological elements ; and it.is by various

combinations of these that the organs (commonly so-called), root,

stalk and leaf, are formed, by the repetition of which the whole

plant is built up and indefinitely renewed, |

, But. where are the limits of the anaphytons ?,- How. shall lines

be drawn to include all the buds of the root, stalk and leaf, from

which new formations may spring? Aub. du Petit-Thouars t,

who_had already developed doctrines similar to.those of the ana-

phyton-theory, attempts to draw the line between individuals by

means of the cellular tissue, regarding every vascular bundle as

an. individual, since it has in. itself, and imdependently, of all

others, the means of its growth, its preservation, and. the repro-

duction of new bundles. . But it is difficult to, perceive how, in

such a view, the labyrinth of anastomosing bundles (not less

complicated in the majority of petioles than in most, reticulated

leaves) can be. disentangled and, resolyed ,into separate. indivi-

duals, and why the same independence and the same rank should

not be allowed to the parts of the. vascular, bundles,,., And how

shall we regard the lower plants, which, have, no, fibres) at. all?

If our conclusions are to be anything more than mere arbitrary

assumptions, we must go still farther; and. we. shall find no

halting-place till we reach the cell, the true seat, of every reno-

vation in the plant, the starting-point of all non-sexual increase§,

* Aristotle himself says that plants possess the power) of reproducing

‘¢ stalk and root”’ in every one of their parts (ravrayn yap exe kal pitay

Kai kavAov Svvauwv. Vit. long. et brey. c. 6, p. 467).

+ Schultz, Die Anaphytose (1848), and System der Morphologie (1847).

The passage quoted is taken from his later work, Verjiingung in Pflan-

zenreich (1851). The remark made above, when treating of the members

of the petiole, holds good here. The so-called anaphyta can by no means

grow into new plants themselves; on the contrary, the new plant is pro-

duced as a germ, which is not identical with the anaphytons.

{ Essais sur la Végétation considérée dans le développement des

bourgeons (1809), ef. e. g. p. 174. ‘C’est done le bourgeon en qui réside

toute l’énergie végétale ; aussi le regarde-t-on depuis longtemps comme un

individu .... D’aprés les principes que j’ai, développés dans mes. précé-

dens mémoires, il faut aller plus loi, car je crois que ehaque fibre végé-

tale.est un individu, puisqu’elle a en soi, indépendamment, des autres, les

moyens d’accroissement, de conservation et de, réproduction.”

§ Earlier investigations into the origin of adventitious, buds had made it

probable that, in its formation, each, new, shoot arises from a single-cell.

The. first, convinemg proof of this, fact,.was.given by, Hofmeister (Ver-

gleichende, Untersuchung u. s, w. der Coniferen,\p. 94), in Lquisetum..'The

propagating cells on the foliage and edges of the leaves of Liverwort, which

Dy. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 248

as it is of sexual propagation*. The cell has a better right to

be considered as the vegetable individual than any other subor-

dinate member of the plant ; when connected with other cells it

still continues to be an independent sphere of formation, sharply

defined and, in youth at least, completely isolated}. Before the

universal law of cell-formation was known, and before botanists

had’ succeeded in reducing all the elementary organs of plants

to’cells, Turpin hit upon the idea of seeking the vegetable indi-

vidual in the cell; though his views did not rest on as solid a

foundation as Schleiden’s assertion, that “in a scientifie point

of view, the cell is the vegetable individual {.”

Thé most reliable authorities have agreed that new cells can

never be formed externally to, but only within, other cells already

formed §, ‘so that cell-multiplication must be regarded as a pro-

pagation, while all the cells of the mature plant must be re-

garded as the progeny of the first embryonic cell. Besides, each

and every plant:is at first a cell ; and there are single-celled plants

in the strictest’ sense of the term, in which the first formation of

new cells is that destined to reproduction ; 7. e. the germinating

cells or spores||. Again, there are other plants in which the

cell-generations contained between the first generation (which

sprung from spores) and the last (itself returning into spores)

separate from each other, so that all the cells belonging to one

cycle ‘of vegetable development are segregated, and live com-

develope into new plants, have long been known. The spores of the Crypto-

gamia ‘belong ‘here,-as they are cells originating and developing non-

sexually,

* Pollen-cells, and the embryonic utricle and germinating cells,—as

well‘as those of the archegonium of the higher Cryptogamia.

+. Malpighi himself (Anatom. Plant. 1675) calls cells utrieuli, or saeculi,

though he distinguishes the wood and bast-cells as “‘ fibre,’’ the vascular

cells as “‘fistule,” and the cells contaming milky sap as “ vasa specialia.”’

As early as 1805, Link (Roémer’s Archiv, iii. p. 439) had expressed himself

very explicitly in regard to the isolated position and the independence of

cells: ‘* Queevis cellula sistit organon peculiare, nullo hiatu nee poris con-

spicuis preeditum in vicina organa transeuntibus. Conspicies non raro cel-

lulam rubro colore tinctam inter reliquas virides.”

t ree Grundziige, lte Aufl. 1842, vol. ii. p.4 [Eng. trans. (1849),

p27/T. }:

i § Cf. Schleiden, Grundziige, i. p. 267 [Eng. trans. p. 103 T.]: “The

process of the propagation of cells, by the formation of new cells in their

mterior, is a universal law in the vegetable kingdom.” Mohl, Anat, und

Phys. d. veg. Zelle, 1851,°p.'53. “ Cell-formation in plants takes place

only in the cavities of older cells, not between or upon them.” Schacht,

Die Pflanzenzelle'(1852),’ ps 47 :'*'The formation of new vegetable cells

always takes place in the mterior of cells already formed.” ;

|| Eog., Asetdium, Chytridium, Codiolium (a genus lately discovered in

Heligoland); »Sciadium, Hydrodietyon (the last two with “ colonial forni-

ation ”?)o"" rid to 29vaol 9 H 4

244 Dr. A! Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

pletely independent of each other *. The importance of the cell

as an individual seems to be decided by these facts; that of the

entire plant, as a superior whole composed of individual cells,

seems to be settled, and a firm foundation for the doctrine of

vegetable individuality to be gained. But let us try to obtain a

clearer view of some of the most important of these facts. The

view which regards all cell-formation as a process of reproduction

rests upon observations of the formation of free daughter-cells,

(blastidia) in the contents of the mother-cells (matrices),—the

so-called free, or endogenous, cell-formation. Schleiden, who dis-

covered this process, and Karstent+, the most decided and original

of his followers, regarded endogenous formation as the universal

law of cell-formation. By this view the whole doctrine was

turned in a wrong course, from which it could only be gradually

recovered by the discovery, or rather the farther investigation,

of another mode of cell-formation, which Nageli designated as

*‘ wandstandige,” Unger as “ merismatic,” and Mohl as “cell-for-

mation by division of the primordial utricle.” But even at this

day the misconception caused by generalizing the view that new

cells are formed within old ones, has not been entirely removed.

I have already { called attention to the fact that cells are divided

which have no cell-wall, which is often the case among the

Algee§. In several genera in which numerous spores are formed

in one mother-cell, its entire contents first divide into two. parts

(the so-called daughter-cells), which, without first secreting a

cell-wall, immediately divide again into two; and this process

may be repeated over and over ||, according to the number of

spores which are to be formed (8, 16, 32, &c.). In the second

and subsequent divisions there is no formation of new cells in

old ones, of daughter-cells in mother-cells, and hence no: repro-

duction, in the sense of one or more individuals bemg produced

in an old one. ‘The entire mother-cell is converted into two

filial cells ; the filial cells are nothing but the mother-cell divided.

And this is essentially the case in every cell-formation by division ;

for the wall of the mother-cell (within which the division gene-

rally takes place) certainly is not the living mother-cell, but

* Many Palmellacee, Desmidiacez, and Diatomes. Cf..Braun, Ver-

juingung, p. 132 et seq. 3 Pat

+ H. Karsten (De Cella Vitali, 1843) emphatically. rejects every mode

of cell-formation by division and by sprouting, and asserts that every cell

originates at its first appearance as a dot-like utriculus ; regarding all form-

ations found in the contents of the cell as cell-brood. © >"

t Cf. Verjiingung, p. 245. 20qx9 SOT YU8I99

§ E. g., Protococeus (viridis), Characium, Pediastrum, Ulothriz, En-

teromorpha, Ulva, &¢., during the proeess of spore-formation:

|| Nageli (Monocellular Algie, p. 28) calls such cell-genierations “ transi-

tory generations.” sient

Dr. A. Braun. on the Vegetable Individual. 245

merely its cast-off garment, its perishing shell. , Cell-formation

by division (called the “‘ merismatic ” or ‘‘ wandstandige ”’) is

that which obtains through the whole realm of vegetative deye-

lopment ; while free cell-formation occurs only in fructification.

Thus, the same phenomenon, which, regarded as endogenous

cell-formation, seemed so favourable to the importance of the

cell as the vegetable individual, when more justly comprehended

only brings us back to the divisibility of the vegetable organism,

repeated in the most heterogeneous spheres. But still more;

eyen the cell whose contents are not converted by division into

new cells; but, remain simple, presents phenomena which can

hardly be reconciled with their view by those who regard. such,a

cell as an individual, isolated in space and independent in time.

In the genera Vaucheria, Bryopsis, Caulerpa, and other related

Algze in the family of Szphonie, we find such cases, examples of

the most extraordinary kind of cell-formation. The single cell,

- which forms the vegetable organism of these plants, has in fact

a development which may continue indefinitely. Certain parts

of the elongated stem-like cell shoot forth into branches which

lengthen by an independent terminal growth, without separating

from the cavity of the maternal trunk by any partition. The

principal trunk of the cell is either creeping, with an indefinite

terminal growth, though dying off from behind (Cauwlerpa pro-

hifera*), or.it is upright and deciduous, while the sucker-like

branches, club-shaped at, the ends, and filled with a denser con-

tents, are perennial (Vaucheria tuberosat). In both cases the

branches separate from the dying trunk, closing up at the

_ bottom ; and thousands of new trunks may thus be produced

without any proper cell-formation. Thus the cell leads us back

to the point from which we started at the tree; and, as we could

not refuse individuality to the ramifications of the tree, neither

can we refuse it to the ramifications of the cell. Hence we can-

not regard the cell as an absolutely single being, completely iso-.

lated and indivisible. Shall we penetrate still further into the

anatomy of the cell itself, in the hope of possibly finding a valid

vegetable individual? All that we discover here is, first, the

vesicles, spherules and granules in the contents of the cell (amy-

lum, chlorophyll and other pigment-vesicles, spherules of fat,

and, finally, the granules of the viscous cell-contents, whose

chemical nature it is difficult to determine) ; and secondly, the

* Cf. Nageli’s important paper on this plant (Zeitschrift fiir wissen. Bot.

i. p. 134), especially the exposition of the above-mentioned relations be-

ginning p.. 158.

t A new species fromthe vicinity of Lake Neuenberg in. Switzerland,

remarkable for its purely furcated ramifications, with constrictions at the

bottom of the branches, as well as for the club-shaped suckers at the ends,

ZAG: Dr. A.Braun onthe Vegetable Individual.

fibres;-which compose) the cell-membrane according tothe old:

view advanced by Grew and lately revived by Meyen* and

J. Agardh +s: These parts, it is true, have often been regarded

as the elementary forms { of plants, or their primary “indivi-~"

dualized”’ bodies § ; the attempts, however, to represent them as

the true and real vegetable individuals are not’ numerous; and

they astonish us by their daring rather than entice to imitation:

Turpin, who commenced by considering plants to be composed

of different kinds of individual cells, which he compared with

various lower plants (especially the Algee-genera Protococcus and

Conferva), afterwards expanded his views, sovas to regard ‘the:

cells themselves as individuals of a second rank ; while he consi-

dered the true primary individuals to be the granules'of the cell-

contents, from which, in his opinion, the cell (cell-wall) is formed

by agglomeration ||. Mayer of Bonn, basing his theory upon

molecular motions, considers the smallest) granules of ‘the cell-

contents as individuals possessing animal life (biospheres), which’

build up plants for their dwellings. “Like hamadryads ‘these

sensitive monads inhabit the secret) halls of the bark-palaces we °

* Meyen, Pflanzenphysiol. i. p. 45; answered by Mohl, in his Ver-

misechte Schriften, p. 314.

+. J. Agardh, De Cell. Veg. fibrillis tenuissimis contexta (1852). Not=\)

withstanding the importance of the author’s new investigations, they, still

need a more searching examination, as some points directly contradict

well-ascertained facts, e.g. the direct transition of the fibres from the

outer to the inner layers of the cell-wall. The whole theory of the forma-

tion of cells by the uninterrupted growth of fibres cannot be admitted in:

view of the undoubted independence of the formation of the cell-wallfrom'

the contents. Mohl is certainly right in regarding the fibrous division,

and divisibility of many cellular tissues as a mere structural relation of the

membrane (which in other parts is continuous); and he thinks it depends’

upon the peculiar mode of agglomeration of the molecules. As stich mole+“

cules of the cell-wall are invisible, I think it preferable to regard it:as de»

pendent upon a regular change of the relations of density. 1

t Kiitzmg, Phil. Bot. i. p- 125, 129, does not regard the cell as the

elementary form of plants, but as a complicated structure itself, and pre-

ceded by many other more simple forms, which he comprehends under the

name of * molecular tissue,” and which, he says, present im themselves

many lower vegetable forms ;—plants which are not even cells!

§ Unger, Grundz. d. Anat. u. Phys. der Pflanzen, p..4., ‘The cell is re-

presented as the “elementary vegetable organ ;’’ but the vesicles, fibres

and granules within it are further distinguished as very minute, “‘indivi-

dualized ’’ bodies. 90 JONAS

| Turpin, “Sur le nombre deux”? (Mém, du Musée, xvi: 1827, Pp 305):

* Ainsi des individus globuleux, rapprochés simplement contigus,, forment

la membrane de la vésicule Individu du tissu cellulaire, le filament Individu

du tissu tigellulaire, et la membrane cuticulaire Individu. Des agglomé-

rations de ces derniers constituent. les Individualités, provenantes) des

bourgeons développés, et enfin, celles-ci, achévent /’Individualité composée

d’un arbre.”

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. DH?

call, plants, and here: silently hold their dances and) celebrate

their orgies *.”’

Farther than this’ we cannot go: if we did, we should have to

leave specific vegetable life, and, instead of investigating its most

minute spheres of formation, the visible cells, vesicles, granules

ot monads, turn to the invisible indiwvidua + of brute matter, so

as to consider plants as phenomena of appellant and repellant,

coherent:and incoherent atoms. If we must understand by an

individual, a being perfectly simple and indivisible, this is our

last.refuge; in which we may indeed reach an individual, but not

a vegetable individual ; for this would then be identical with the

material individual common to all corporeal existence. But, even

if we could.give up all hopes of a specific vegetable individual,

doubt would still linger round these physical individuals ; for even

the existence of the universal. primary particles of bodies—the

material individuals, the atoms,—is not conclusively established:

No eye hasseen them ; we do not even think of considering them

as objects of direct perception ; we only accept them as an‘ hypo-

thesis, to eke out our theories of motion and of chemical affinity’;

and to enable us to compute their relations. The question might

easily be asked, whether the same .phenomena may not. be as

well explained by assuming the continuity, expansibility, and

penetrability of matter. However this may be, the question con-

cerning the existence of atoms certainly lies beyond the limits of

botanical investigation ; and if the existence of vegetable indi-

viduals depends, on this question, the botanist must despair of

proving it.. Thus the question at which we have now arrived is

this: can’we speak of individuals in botany ? and this is identical

with another: are plants mere products of the operations of

matter (7. e. of a substance self-moving, uniting and separating

by.an innate force), and hence non-entities, or mere phenomena

resulting from, or produced by, the blind forces of nature’; ‘or’

may we ascribe to plants an independent existence in nature,

notwithstanding their connexion with the external world?

If what we call plants are nothing but complex chemical. and

physical processes,then we can no longer speak of their individuals

and species in the sense the words usually bear; for the mere

phenomena of the operations of the primary substance, which

have no other efficient principle than the forces of this,.sub-

stance, cannot be regarded as self-existent beings, or as peculiar

(specific) kinds of these beings, or as’ single (individual) modi-

fications of them. ' This'is, in fact, the result towards which the

* pe Ny CE a Lehre vom Kreislauf (1837), p. 49." Tan

acquainted with ‘Mayer's views through Meyen’s Pflanzenphys. ii. p. 256.

+ Cicero calls the atoms “ individua.”

248 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

later physiological investigations are hastening, grounded on the

positive results of investigations in the physical sciences. Even

vegetable physiology cannot resist this tendency of science, al-

though it struggles more or less against these conclusions *.

The operations by which plants, and all organic beings, form

and preserve their organisms, were formerly ascribed to peculiar

vital forces ; but the physiology of our day would recognize in

the vital functions of the organism the same forces by which the

processes of inorganic nature are performed. Thus physiology

becomes physics and chemistry, or, according to the usual con-

ception of the physical and chemical processes themselves, the

“mechanics” of organic nature in the most comprehensive mean-

ing of the term mechanics. And thus the life of the enchanter

is unveiled, who had seemed to be the immediate cause of his

own works ; the lofty partition-wall between organie and inor-

ganic nature falls, and one common foundation is laid for inves-

tigating all material processes in every realm of nature. This

important result is reached: the existence of the higher orders

of natural phenomena, which had been regarded as the peculiar

realm of Life, is referred to the same natural causes (the same

material substance and the same kind of forces) by which the

lower orders, those of “‘inanimate” nature, have their being and

perform their functions. Still further conclusions may be at-

tempted, and it is in the nature of scientific progress that these

attempts should be made. As physical forces seem to be every-

where indissolubly connected with matter, and as a fixed regu-

larity displays itself in their operations, men were found bold

enough to consider the totality of natural phenomena as the re-

sult of original primary substances, cooperating with determinate

forces, according to the laws of a blind necessity ;—a natural

mechanism revolving in its endless orbit}.

Though this view seems to explain all the phenomena of na-

ture from one principle, in fact it precludes any real explanation

* Even Schleiden, the most prominent and most decided of the repre-

sentatives of this tendency, seeks to counterbalance the deadening effects

of the purely materialistic view by an esthetic one (Die Pflanze und ihr

Leben ; last lecture, D. Aisthetik der Pflanzenwelt).

+ As far as concerns natural history these views are developed, e. g. in

both of Mohlschott’s works, D. Physiol. des Stoffwechsels in Pflanzen u.

Thieren (1851), and D. Kreislauf des Lebens (1852) ; in the last-mentioned

work we find such sentences as these : “‘ The miracle of nature is the inter-

change of matter, the first cause of physical life,” p. 83. ‘‘ Creative omni-

potence means the relations of matter,” p. 258. “ The hinge round which

the wisdom of the present day is turning is the doctrine of the interchanges

of matter,” p. 363.—The doctrine, that the universe is the play of attra-

hent and repellant atoms, belongs, after all, to the “ wisdom ” of the past,

professed by Democritus and Epicurus.

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 249

of them, that is, when exclusively applied to their solution. That

which is eternally necessary can only be conceived. as eternally

carried. out ; and. thus any real event becomes an absurdity... If

the ‘‘ mechanical” (physical and chemical) forces of nature, are

necessarily active, then if any motion is to take place, the first

impulse, the proximate cause, cannot be explained by the nature

of the motion ; it must be another principle above necessity ; and

this is true not only of nature as a whole, but also of every par-

ticular motion in nature as well. Thus not only the first impulse,

but the universally apparent final cause, remains an inexplicable

riddle in. the doctrine of blind necessity. Hence the insuffi-

ciency of the “physical”? theory, compared with the “ teleolo-

gical *,” 1s, peculiarly obvious in the realms of organic nature,

where the final cause of each particular life appears so distinctly,

The advocates of the physical view perceive this; but they ex-

plain the fitness of means to ends in nature as a whole, and in

its individual parts, by supposing matter, with its blind forces,

to, have been created by an intelligent Beingt. But we, can

regard this as a germ. of an explanation only in proportion as it

is also, granted, that the intellect of the Creator lies not only be-

hind and without nature and her processes of development, but

that, as if mceorporated in nature, it is taken into the destiny of

each created being, in proportion to its individuality. But this

again presupposes the admission of a substantiality of nature fit

for such an, hypothesis ;—a substantiality not grounded on mere

matter, like a blind force; but which, on the contrary, must

comprehend matter as subordinate to itself, and must realize

itself through matter :—an assumption which modifies the phy-

sical view essentially, and would seem to be a modification of

some ideal, or teleological theory.

Without underrating the great importance which the physical

view, possesses for vegetable physiology, still we must confess

that we cannot find in it the key to a conception of vegetable

individuality ; for, after all, this must be sought for, not in the

external conformation, but in the essence of the plant, determined

* Cf. Schwann, Microscopische. Untersuchungen iiber die Ueberein-

stimmung in der Structur u. d. Wachsthum d. Thiere u. Pflanzen (1839),

especially p..221—225; on the other side, Eschricht, D. Physische Leben

(1852), in sections li. and iii.

t. “‘ The fitness of means to ends, in every organism, even a superior de-

gree of this individual fitness, cannot be denied ; but in this (the physical)

view, the cause of the fitness does not consist in the fact that every organ-

ism is produced.by anjindividual force tending towards a certain end, but,

like the.cause, of the fitness of, means. to. ends in. the organic world, that

matter\is the.creation, of,an, intelligent Being.’ Schwann, J. c. p. 221, and,

in almost;the same words, p..224. ... ;

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 17

250 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

from within. This leads us from the last negative results to an

historical view of the attempts at a positive explanation.

It is evident from the foregoing review that, if we would not

give up all hope of conceiving plants as beings, realized in indi-

vidual conformations, we must not allow so great and decisive an

importance to the external divisibility of their organism as has

been usually done. We must seek a decision in the essential

concatenation of all the steps in the plant’s development forming

one whole, according to one idea. This is the tendency of the

concluding remark of Nageli, to which he is led by the relations

of growth and propagation in Caulerpa, when he says, that in-

divisibility of form is not an element essential to individuality—

which, indeed, must be constructed upon a new, and somewhat

less material basis. Link calls attention to this same unity,

which is expressed in the whole development of the plant, and

which forms the essence of its individuality, in the following true

words: ‘ We cannot recognize an individual unless we are con-

vinced that it remains the same in different periods of its exist-

ence *.” Now the question is just this: how can we perceive

such a oneness of essence amid these changes of form and mate-

rial? How do we perceive that, with all its divisibility, the

plant remains after all really one and the same individual ?

Every development presents a succession of phenomena, which,

while they present themselves in a regular order, also show un-

mistakeably a point of departure, an end, and a course between

the two advancing after a fixed plan, and which indicate a com-

mon internal principle +. They point to an internal vital prin-

ciple { common to the whole succession ;—to a principle which

* Link, Elem. Phil. Bot. ed. 2. p. 11.

+ Du Petit-Thouars, J. ¢. p. 234: “ L’individu est un étre dont toutes

les parties sont subordonnées & un principe unique d’existence.” Link,

Elem. Phil. Bot. ed. 2. p.3: ‘“ Nos individuum vocamus, quod ab uno

eodemque principio interno determinatum est, ad idealem potius quam ad

realem respicientes divisionem.” _

{ Spring, Ueber d. Begriffe v. Gattung, Art u. Abart (1838), p. 55. “ It

is this indwelling principle which makes the individual; and in natural

history, every body is an individual in as far as it really exists as a single

being, whose existence is determined by a peculiar indwelling vital prin-

ciple.” Spring afterwards distinguishes the systematical and the physio-

logical imdividual: in the former one phase of the development is com-

prehended, in the latter the whole metamorphosis. The physiological in-

dividual comprehends an assemblage of forms, which might be regarded by

a casual observer as so many systematicalindividuals. Still, a true system-

atist must protest against such a purely subjective distinction of system-

atical and physiological individuals. However much the embryos of

Mosses resemble Confervee, or the larva of an insect resembles a worm, a

true systematist will not separate the young individual from the developed

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 251

must be conceived of, not only as an idea which guides the whole

process, or as a force determining the specific type of this plastic

succession, but also as a living essence, comprehending the idea

as its internal determination, and the force as the means of its

realization ;—an essence which precedes and shapes the external

existence ; as intentions precede and determine acts*. If, in ac-

one ; and genera which are founded upon our ignorance of their successive

development, as Protonema, Lepra, Sclerotium, &c., must be given up by

the systematist himself. True, we shall be called upon at a later point in

this inquiry to decide, whether a sphere of development which really be-

longs to the individual can present itself to us so divided that the divisions

themselves attain to the importance of subordinate individuals.

* Aristotle describes the internal essence of plants as a “ plastic soul”

(Operrixn uy}, Tov Cdvros o@paros airia kai apxn). Cf. Wimmer, Phytol.

Arist. Frag. ¢. ii. De Pl. Vita atque Anima. The charge of anthropomorphism

has been made against such a view, which attempts to conceive of nature

as a chain of essences, both in the reciprocal relations of her forces, and in

her internal developments; but, if man himself is a member of nature, if

he is the highest member in the order of natural bemgs, that member

which presents the most complete unison of all the phases of life in nature,

—then all his knowledge of nature must be connected with his knowledge

of himself. However meanly we may estimate this knowledge at the pre-

sent stage of psychological science, still it is sufficient to assure man of his

own “ego.” And if man is justified in regarding himself as a human being,

by analogy he is justified in regarding his relations, the animals, in the

same manner, as animal beings; plants as vegetable beings; and every

single animal, every single plant, as an individual being (even though in-

cluded in a higher entity). To attain a unity of idea in Natural History,

man must apply this idea farther down im the scale of nature, and must

regard minerals, even the elements themselves, as begs of their own

kind. But the materialist will reply, Individual beings are only the ele-

mentary substance: all other beings, so called, are formed by a temporary

composition and cooperation of these. But who has seen these elements

of chemical combinations, as elements, or has proved their existence in any

way? But even if they should exist as such, is it not conceivable that a

higher being should include the lower beings? We say, hydrogen and

oxygen form water; but it would do as well to say, water forms itself out

of hydrogen and oxygen. The elements do not form the plant; the plant

forms its body out of the elements. We may declare both these views to

be hypotheses ; but of hypotheses that is preferable which is nearest to

man,—I would almost say, most necessary to man’s nature, when he pro-

ceeds from the data of his own existence. Shall the elements have a

stronger claim to be acknowledged as real existences than man himself?

Or will any one say that it is a more daring hypothesis to assume that man

thinks ; that brutes move themselves ; that plants themselves produce the

determinate form of their organism, than to suppose that elementary sub-

stances in their connexions and cooperations produce the phenomena of

thought, voluntary motion, and typical conformation? But after all, is it

not true that the elementary substance is everywhere present ? that without

it none of the phenomena just mentioned can occur? Certainly this is so;

the higher stages cannot be realized without the lower, which enable them

to exist ; but these higher stages can never be explained by, and compre-

hended in, the lower. No one, as yet, has shown even the shadow of a

possibility of explaining, from the things themselves merely, why the ele-

17*

252 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

cordance with this idea, we regard external development as the

revelation of the internal essence, which exhibits its purport in

the processes it undergoes in connexion with the world without

it, and whose realization is thus produced by a determinate

sphere of activities, necessary for such a realization, then, vice

versd, we may infer the essential unity of each particular sphere

of development from the complete unity of the functions rela-

ting to this realization. This leads us to the attempts made at

a physiological determination of the vegetable individual. The

usual definition, and one entirely in accordance with the physio-

logical point of view, is that an individual is a perfect represen-

tative of the character of the species, possessing all the functions

necessary to the continuance of the species. Now if we would

conceive of a physiological individual, in the broadest meaning

of the term, we should certainly be compelled to demand that

our conception should be such as to exhibit not only single

phases, but all the phases of the specific life during its entire

development ; that it should realize all the capabilities of the

specific being, and thus present to us the whole plan, the whole

destiny of the species. If we examine the preceding conclusions

from this point of view, it will be evident that single cells can-

not be such individuals ; for, although the whole construction of

the plant and all the functions of its life are carried on by means

of the cells, still, viewed as a connected whole, the cells are only

single stones, single elements, in the great mechanism of the

mentary particles form a mineral kingdom, a vegetable kingdom, an animal

kingdom, and man. And why do they not fulfil their task after an eternal,

immutable manner, since such a fulfilment is one of their necessary, eter-

nal, and immutable properties? Why have they succeeded in composing

‘man only in the most recent geological epoch? Why have they not from

eternity produced in man’s brain the theory of their actions, and thus, in

accordance with their eternity, eternally manifested and glorified them-

selves? The most industrious investigations into the relations of the phy-

sical world promise us a deeper insight into the regular connexions of all

the parts of nature; into the cunning mechanism which carries on and

upholds all natural life. Still, a key to the interior of this structure, and an

admission to the essence of plastic nature in her operations, cannot be found

by our investigations, if, by presumptuous hypotheses, they debar us from

the higher realms of development, especially those of organic nature and

of human life. Flesh and blood are hypotheses ; but mind is truth, says a

well-known writer ; and Des Cartes could find a proof of his own existence

and of that of the world around him in his mind alone. It would be a

strange contradiction, if the investigation of the most distant realms into

which the human mind can penetrate should rob us of what is nearest and

surest, the intellectual ego itself, the starting-point of all investigations.

But he who has not recognized the foundations of the spiritual world in

nature itself, must of consequence deny their existence in man, if he would

not lose, in an inexplicable dualism, the hope of obtaining coherent views

of nature.

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 253

organism. Any single member of a plant (as the internode and

leaf) corresponds no more to such a physiological individual than

does the cell; for plants undergo their metamorphoses in their

successive members; and the various processes of their preser-

vation, reproduction and propagation are connected with the

various steps of these metamorphoses. Nor can it be the shoot ;

for that usually does not embrace all the steps of the metamor-

phosis; besides, the functions are variously distributed in the

shoot; and in many cases, this takes place for the reciprocal

completion of the functions. Besides, whatever is characteristic

in ramification and in growth depends upon the combined shoots,

and without these it is impossible to conceive of trees, for in-

stance. Then we come back to the whole plant-stock! Nay,

farther ; we cannot stop at the plant-stock ; for the single stocks

are far from being perfect representatives of all the phases and

tendencies of the specific life. I would refer to the division ac-

cording to gender, or the modes of fructification, which is often

made in botany; the dicecious and tricecious * relations, and

farther, to the varieties, especially to those which do not possess

essential organs and functions, which belong to the species as

such; e.g. those varieties which never bear blossoms (ball-

acacias), or which never produce fruit (congested blossoms), or

which never perfect seeds (currant-grape, cultivated bananas and

bread-fruit trees). Besides, no stock is exactly similar to an-

other: we ascertain only the limits of the possible relations of

the specific form by a comparison of many stocks. As in ani-

mal physiology the solution of the problem of the life of many

animals depends upon their social relations (societies composed of

couples or of flocks, or of self-governing states), so in vegetable

physiology it depends upon characteristic physiological traits

whether plants live singly and dispersed, or in societies. For

example, in considering the life of turf-mosses, we must deter-

mine whether they grow in great sods or in carpets; and of

grasses, whether they form meadows; or of trees, forests. Even

the relations of geographical distribution, which are discovered

by a comparison of all the stocks, depend upon the physiological

character of the plants: plants of sensitive and inflexible consti-

tutions are found only within narrow limits; while plants of

adaptive and pliant constitutions are more widely distributed,

become migratory plants, and by degrees spread over almost all

parts of the earth, if their seeds possess the necessary properties.

* Tricecious plants are exceedingly rare among Phanerogamia (Cera-

tonia, some kinds of Rhus), but are more common among the Crypto-

gamiz ; perhaps we may add the Floridie. In Polysiphonia violacea I

have found three kinds of stocks mixed, and in the same stage of develop-

ment in the same place (upon the same thread in Chorda Filum).

254: Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

From these considerations, and many others which might be

adduced, it is obvious that there are no determinate limits to a

purely physiological conception of the vegetable individual ; and

that we may expand the definition of the individual until it

coincides with that of the species itself.

How then can we steer a middle course, between the mor-

phological view, which results in indefinite subdivision, and the

physiological, which ends in indefinite expansion? The physio-

logical view has shown that none of the divisions or spheres of

formation, which have been regarded as the individual ones, fully

realizes the idea of the species ; and that each needs the others

to render this idea complete. The morphological view has

shown, in the same manner, that there are subordinate and com-

prehensive spheres of development, none of which exhibits com-

plete independence, since all appear in unequal degrees, as more

or less perfect members of the entire succession of the specific

development. If we would discover the individual under such

circumstances, we must not demand of it all that belongs to the

species ; for this is completely represented only in the totality of

the individuals, not in any single individual. We must answer

this question: Which member of the graduated potential series

m the sphere of development subordinate to that of the species

deserves pre-eminently the title of individual? And we: shall be

compelled to reply: That which exhibits the most complete in-

dependence and definiteness. Good use has decided in regard

to man (and the higher animals), and it justifies itself by the

fact, that what is usually termed an individual undoubtedly pos-

sesses great organic independence: and this is true both of its

subordinate spheres (2. e. the members of the organism, down to

the cells) and of those by which the individual is comprehended

(family, state, race, &c.). By means of comparison and analogy,

the signification of the more doubtful spheres of development

among the lower animals and plants may receive some new light

from such a view. I propose to attempt this in the second part

of this investigation, but now I will only subjoin a few general

remarks. |

In the conception of individuality, there are two elements ; that

of multiplicity and that of unity. Each development exhibits

multiplicity ; but this multiplicity is not equally subordinate to

the unity in every development. The more complete this sub-

ordination, the more perfect is the individuality ; for it is only

this subordination to the unity which binds up the multiplicity

of the conformation into an indivisible organism. The less com-

plete the subordination, the more perfect will be the independ-

ence of the parts, and the more indefinite will be the indivi-

duality of the whole. If we apply this view to plants, whatever

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 255

is dubious in our conception of vegetable individuality will be

explained, Successive development, we may say, is the peculiar

nature of plants, which, beyond the power exhibited in the pro-

cess of formation and propagation, possess no higher vital power ;

while in animals the process of the formation of the body ap-

pears only as an operation preparatory to its connexion with a

higher vital activity, For animals, in addition to their powers

of external manifestations, have a power of internal vital com-

prehension, which expresses itself in the life of the soul (by

which animals possess an internal centre, from which the organ-

ism is governed and regulated). It is the soul alone which con-

nects in indivisible unity, and for reciprocal services, the pro-

ducts of the plastic power, and gives to the organism of animals

the character of a definite individuality, Among plants the case

is different : plants in their operations are active solely in one

direction, externally—are split up, so to say, in the process of

external conformation, so that the parts appear less connected,

as compared with the plant as a whole more independent, and

more divisible among themselves. Thus the vegetable organism

is a dividual, rather than an individual; a multiplicity * rather

than a unity; 7. e. a whole whose parts hold the same relation

to each other as individuals to each other, but which present

spheres as indivisible as the whole itself. This is the doctrine of

the relative + individuality of plants, which Steinheil has espe-

cially noticed. According to this doctrine, different orders of

vegetable individuals, as it were different powers of individuality,

are distinguished. In the same manner DeCandolle { distin-

guishes the cell-individual (?individu cellulaire, in which he

has been preceded by Turpin); the bud-individual (Pindividu

bourgeon, after Darwin); the slip-individual (?individu bouture) ;

the stock-individual, or the vegetable individual (individu végé-

tal penes quem est jus et norma loquendi); and the embryo-

individual (individu embryon), which, in accordance with the

* « Planta est multitudo.” Engelmann, De Antholysi, p. 12.

+ Steinheil, 7. c., especially p. 4 and p. 17: “ Les végétaux ne peuvent

arriver 4 l’individualité absolue; ils se présentent 4 nous dans un état,

qu’on peut désigner par le nom d’individualité relative ; ce qui distingue

cette partie de la création du régne minéral, ot l’individualité est nulle, et

du régne animal, ot elle est presque toujours absolue.”

t DeCandolle, Physiologie Végét. p. 957. The author does not attach

much importance to his diyision, as he says he has assumed it for conve-

nience of expression, and to avoid the usual confusion of language. His

son Alphonse DeCandolle considers it quite an arbitrary matter which part

of the plant we call the individual: “ Les végétaux sont évidemment des

étres composés: mais jusqu’ol veut-on les décomposer, pour que les élé-

mens s’appellent des individus? C’est une chose arbitraire, qui dépend de

Vidée par laquelle on se laisse dominer ” (after Steinheil, p. 6).

256 - Mr. J. Lycett on the Subgenus Limea.

meaning in which Gallesio used the term, comprehends all that

proceeds from one germ, even if multiplied by division. Since

the slip-individual is essentially the same as the bud-individual

(«. e. shoot-individual), we have four degrees of individuality, in

which at least one more might have been easily inserted, between

the cell and the shoot-individual), i. e. the member or “ story ”’-

individual (Gaudichaud’s phyton). With this view Schleiden’s

division is connected: he distinguishes the cell as the plant of

the first order; the shoot as that of the second, which he calls

the simple plant (a term borrowed from C. F. Wolf, who used it

in the same sense) ; the whole stock as that of the third order,

which he designates as the composite plant. By a searching in-

vestigation into the shoot, I shall endeavour to decide whether

all these relative individuals can be considered individuals with

the same justice ; or whether, after all, one of them does not de-

serve the title pre-eminently, corresponding to the animal indi-

vidual. In either case Goethe’s words may be applied with per-

fect justice to plants and their individuality :—

Freuet euch des wahren Scheins,

Euch des ernsten Spieles ;

Kein Lebendiges ist Eins

Immer ist’s ein Vieles.

Herder, in speaking of the works of the Creator, says: “ Every

one of Thy works Thou makest one and perfect, and like itself

alone.”

This sentence presents the other aspect of existence, hy which

the multiform is one; and every unity in the one-sidedness and

incompleteness of all single manifestations, is after all a perfect

whole. These words lead us to the internal essence of things,

referring us at the same time to the primary ideas, which Nature

comprehends and realizes in Life.

[To be continued. }

XXII.— Note on the Subgenus Limea, Bronn.

By Joun Lycert, Esq.*

THE present note is intended to direct attention to a peculiarity

connected with the external surface of Limea, trivial in its zoo-

logical importance, but which is calculated from its persistency

to be a useful aid to the paleontologist in the absence of hinge

characters,

* Read to the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Club, August 28th, 1855,

On some Brachiopoda found on the Coast of Norway. 257

The subgenus Limea has hitherto been distinguished from

Lima solely by the presence of a series of parallel teeth upon

each side of the hinge-plate, a feature which cannot be ascer-

tained in the majority of specimens ; and the only British species

of Limea hitherto described has so little in its general aspect to

separate it from the young condition of Lima duplicata (a shell

which is associated with it in the same beds), that any clear ex-

ternal distinction which can be. ascertained between them is

worthy of notice, more especially when it will also be found to

characterize Limea as a subgenus.

It is in the auricles that the distinctive feature resides, and it

is immediately connected with the hinge-plate beneath: it will

be found that the radiating lines which usually ornament the

surfaces of the auricles in the Pectens and Lime also exist in

Limea, but that in the latter they abruptly disappear towards the

outer angle of each auricle, leaving a small triangular smooth

area, which is traversed transversely downwards and inwards by

a few elevations ; these are placed immediately over and corre-

spond to the grooves which separate the teeth upon the hinge-

plate. In all well-preserved specimens this kind of surface is

visible upon one or both of the auricles, its distinctness depend-

ing upon the condition of the specimen with reference to fossi-

lization and the greater or less prominence of the internal

features.

Limea duplicata is abundant in the shelly oolite of Leck-

hampton Hill; there is also another more ornamented but un-

described species higher in the same formation, and found at

many localities in the upper Ragstones of the Cotteswold Infe-

rior Oolite. The peculiarity of the auricles is observable equally

in both these species.

XXIIL—Notes on the Brachiopoda observed in a Dredging Tour

with Mr. M‘ Andrew on the Coast of Norway, in the summer of

the present year. By Lucas Barrett, F.G.S.*

In the course of our cruise we met with four species of Brachio-

poda, belonging to three out of the four recent families of those

shells. Fresh specimens of one or more of these were obtained

almost daily for two months, and as during that time we were

within the Arctic circle, enjoying perpetual sunlight, the oppor-

tunity of watching their movements was extremely favourable.

1. Terebratulina caput-serpentis. This species shows more of

* Communicated by the Author, having been read at the Meeting of the

British Association at Glasgow, Sept. 18, 1855.

258 On some Brachiopoda found on the Coast of Norway.

itself than any other, and protrudes its cirri further; it was met

with everywhere, in small numbers, in 30 to 150 fathoms, often

attached to Oculina. The cirri on the reflected part of the arms

are shorter than those on the first part, as shown in the wood-

eut. The cirri were almost constantly in motion, and often ob-

served to convey small particles to the channel at their base.

When placed in a small glass of sea water the valves gradually

opened. Individuals remaining attached to other objects mani-

fested a remarkable power and disposition

to move on their pedicles. Detached speci-

mens could be moved about without causing

the animal to close its valves. If any of the

protruded cirri were touched, the cirri were

retracted and the valves closed with a snap,

but soon after opened again. When the

oral arms are retracted the cirri are bent up,

but are gradually uncoiled and straightened

when the shell is opened, before which the

animal has often been observed to protrude

a few of its cirri and move them about, as if to ascertain if any

danger threatened. Only on one occasion a current was observed

to set in on one side between the two rows of cirri. I had

been attempting to ascertain the existence of currents, by in-

troducing small quantities of indigo into the water surrounding

the animal with a camel’s-hair brush; three times the water

was forcibly drawn in, and particles of indigo were seen to

glide along the groove at the base of the cirri in the direction

of the mouth.

2. Waldheimia cranium occurred on several occasions between

Vigten Islands and the North Cape, in 25 to 150 fathoms, at-

tached to stones, Balani, &c.; only once in plenty at Omnesde.

This species belongs to the division of Terebratulidz with a long

loop, and the oral arms are so fixed to the calcareous ske-'

leton as to be incapable of motion, except at their spiral ter-

minations: it has been supposed that~ these conjoined spiral

ends could be unrolled, like the pro-

boscis of a butterfly ; but I never saw

any disposition of the kind manifested.

This species is more lively than caput-

serpentis, moving often on its pedicle,

also more easily alarmed ; the cirri are

not protruded beyond the margins of — Waldheimia cranium.

the valves; when the shell is closed

they are bent up. No currents were detected, though fre-

quently sought for.

Terebratulina caput-

serpentis.

M. R. Leuckart on the Young States of some Annelides. 259

8. Rhynchonella psittacea was moderately abundant in the

extreme north, from Tromsée to the North Cape, in a living state,

in 70 to 150 fathoms water. Dead valves

were found at Hammerfest in mud. I found

Rhynchonella very difficult to examine, the

animal being extremely timid and closing

its valves on the slightest movement. The

coiled arms are extended, so that the cirri

when unbent come as far as the margin of piynchonella psittacea.

the shell. I have frequently seen this spe-

cies with its valves open, but it never protruded its arms.

4. Crania anomala, Mill.

sp., was met with between

Drontheim and Tromsée, at-

tached to stones, shells, &c.,

in 40 to 150 fathoms water ;

the cirri are protruded, but

not the arms, beyond the mar-

gin of the shell. The valve

opens by moving upon the

straight side as on a hinge,

without sliding the valve. Crania anomala, Mill. sp.

XXIV.—On the Young States of some Annelides.

By R. LevcKkarr *.

[With a Plate. ]

In his copious “ Observations on the Anatomy and Development

of some Invertebrate Marine Animals,” Busch has figured (pl. 8.

figs. ]-4) the larva of an Annelide of unknown origin, which is

particularly remarkable in many respects, and especially from

its possession of strong spines and fringes of cilia upon the in-

dividual segments. In the spring of 1853 I not unfrequently

took similar larve from the surface of the sea near Nice and

Villa Franca. The stage of development in which they occurred

agreed pretty well with that observed by Busch, at least in most

of the specimens: younger larve were never found, but some

occurred which had proceeded a little further, and these proved

their increased development especially by the partial or even

complete loss of the above-mentioned spines. When the tem-

porary nature of this peculiar apparatus of bristles was esta-

blished, it was tolerably easy, by the consideration of the other

<a by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., from Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1855,

p. 63.

260 M.R. Leuckart on the Young States of some Annelides.

characters, to ascertain the pedigree of our larva, or at all events

its nearest allies. These, in my opinion, are to be found in the

family of the Aricig, and indeed in the group with two long

tentacular cirri (Aricie Naidee, Oerst.; Spioidea, Grube), pro-

bably amongst the species of the genus Spio or Nerine.

Before setting forth the reasons in favour of my supposition,

we must first of all get a good notion of the larva itself; espe-

cially as Busch’s statements do not take up every point, and are

also erroneous in this respect, that he treats the dorsal surface

of the worm as the ventral surface, and vice versd.

The most developed individuals that occurred to me (PI. VII.

fig. 1) measured 23 lines and were of a brownish colour. They

were rather slender, about ,4,ths of a line in width anteriorly,

tapering towards the hinder extremity and flattened on the back,

so that the height of the body (fig. 3) was scarcely more than

half its breadth. They swam, at least so it appeared to me,

almost exclusively by the action of the circlets and rows of cilia,

the arrangement of which has already been described by Busch.

As soon as they were interrupted in their movements, they rolled

themselves up into a flat spiral and sank to the bottom.

The segments of the body (fig. 1) had already attained a con-

siderable number (about fifty). They exhibit a very uniform

structure, but gradually decrease in development from before

backwards. The head consists of a short, broad, nearly qua-

drangular tubercle, which is but indistinctly separated from the

first segment of the body, and bears, between the rounded ante-

rior angles, a short tentaculiform process (frontal tentacle) of

a conical form. The upper surface of the head is furnished with

four black ocelli placed at a considerable distance from the

median line, and standing in a line which is but slightly curved

backwards. The posterior and inner eyes are the largest, and

are sometimes divided on one side into two spots placed close

together. No refractive media could be found in them. At each

side of the head there is a very considerable tentacle (a tenta-

cular cirrus) which arises from the angle between the head and

the protuberant upper lip, and curves backwards like a horn

over the first segment. Where this meets the upper lip, the

latter bears a tuft of long cilia, which Busch has regarded, cer-

tainly correctly, as the remains of the crown of cilia.

The anterior segment of the body is produced forwards at the

ventral surface almost to the base of the frontal tentacle (fig. 2),

and here forms a lip-like protuberance in front of the mouth ; this

is the upper lip already mentioned, which at the same time marks

the boundary between the buccal segment and the head. Even

without this process the first segment of the body is the longest,

although on the back it only measures about one-third of its

M. R. Leuckart on the Young States of some Annelides. 261

width. The next following segments certainly yield but little

to this in length, but the later ones from about the middle of the

body diminish rather rapidly to a considerable extent. On each

of these segments four pedal tubercles (fig. 8) may be distin-

guished (not two, as stated by Busch) ; two of them are dorsal

and two ventral, they are placed on the nearly perpendicular

lateral surfaces, and have the form of slight, but very distinctly

marked elevations. The bristles of the two pairs of pedal tuber-

cles are of different forms ; the dorsal tubercles contain edged

capillary bristles (fig. 4), the ventral ones on the contrary ex-

tended uncini, the ends of which (as shown in fig. 5) form two

unequally developed teeth. As is usually the case under such

circumstances, the capillary bristles are the longest. The num-

ber of bristles diminishes gradually towards the hinder extre-

mity ; on the anterior segments it amounts to six or seven, on

the posterior ones only to two or three. Above the dorsal pedal

tubercle there rises a slender cirrus, clothed with short cilia; the

length of this is however constantly less than that of the bristles,

even in the anterior half of the body.

The segments are further distinguished by the peculiar ciliary

lobes or combs described by Busch (figs. 2 & 3), which are

situated on the ventral surface and occupy about the middle of

the space between the ventral pedal tubercles and the median

line. The cilia of which these are composed agree in size and

development with the remains of the ciliary wreath, at least on

the anterior segments, but they gradually diminish considerably

both in size and number as we proceed backwards. In front

I not unfrequently counted twelve or even more hairs, standing

regularly close together in a transverse line ; on the hinder seg-

ments there were only from six to eight. The two first segments

of the body form an exception to this, as they are quite destitute

of these ciliary combs, but instead of them are covered on the

ventral surface with a uniform soft coat of cilia.

The last segment of the body is destitute of bristles, but is

considerably broader and longer than the preceding rings. It

forms as it were an annular protuberance around the anus, and

is margined with a circle of powerful cilia.

Of internal organs the intestinal canal alone could be distin-

guished ; it exhibits a very great development in our animal.

Its commencement forms an cesophagus, without a protrusible

proboscis or any armature; but with fleshy walls, which are

dilated on each side into tolerably wide ceca in the second, third

and fourth segments. In the fifth segment the stomach com-

mences; it contains a greatly developed, yellow glandular layer,

by which it is very clearly distinguished even at the first glance

from the cesophagus ; although it appears otherwise to be only

262 M.R. Leuckart on the Young States of some Annelides.

a direct continuation of the latter. This appears also, especially

as the stomach possesses the same lateral ceeca as the cesophagus ;

these indeed gradually diminish posteriorly and entirely dis-

appear about the second third of the body, but at the same

time (with the exception of the first cecum) appear very much

longer and more considerable than the corresponding processes

of the cesophagus. The glandular layer of the stomach is lost

upon the intestine, where it is replaced by a greater development

of the muscular membrane. The muscular walls, as in the ceso-

phagus, are marked with black pigment spots.

The preceding description only applies exactly, as has been

said, to the most developed specimens of our worms ; the younger

ones are not only smaller and furnished with a less number of

segments (35 to 50), but are also particularly distinguished by

the toothed bristles or spines described by Busch. Where these

spines were still most completely retained, I observed in the

first place a strong tuft on each side of the first segment of the

body, inserted upon the dorsal surface behind the tentacular

cirrus (fig. 2), and consisting of three or four, or sometimes only

two very large shafts, which were armed with short spine-like

teeth, and extended nearly half the length of the body. The

other segments bore similar, but very much shorter spines, which

were also upon the dorsal surface above the dorsal cirrus (fig. 3),

but never more than two together. The length of these spines,

on the anterior segments at least, might be about equal to the

breadth of the segment to which they belonged, but they gra-

dually diminished in length posteriorly, as Busch has already

stated. Similar organs were never found between the pedal

tubercles.

It is difficult to suppose that the loss of the spines im the

larger specimens is only accidental. For this, the number of the

spineless individuals was too large. Moreover the spined spe-

cimens universally exhibited the greatest variety in the number

of their spines and in the presence of these upon the individual

segments. Sometimes the spines of the anterior segment were

wanting, whilst the others were still uninjured ; sometimes it was

the latter that were absent to a greater or less extent. Occa-

sionally specimens were found (like fig. 1) which only possessed

a few (two or three) spines on some particular spots of their

bodies.

Under such circumstances I have no hesitation whatever, as

indeed has already been observed, in regarding these remarkable

appendages as a temporary adornment. But it is probable that

these spines do not constitute the only provisional organs of our

larve. ‘The circles and combs of cilia may also doubtless be

placed in the same category, for the developed Annelida, as far

M.R. Leuckart on the Young States of some Annelides, 268

as we know with certainty, are always destitute of such appa-

ratus. It is true that Quatrefages professes to have observed

some small Annelida with permanent tufts of cilia, but the ani-

mals in question are still but imperfectly known,—still less have

they been ascertained to be fully developed species.

f we leave these bristles out of the question, there remains a

slender worm, with an eye-bearing cephalic tubercle, and two

tentacular cirri, with a simple (not protrusible) unarmed ceso-

phagus, slightly developed dorsal cirri, and differently formed

simple bristles in the pedal tubercles, which are also but slightly

prominent. Of course many changes take place in this animal

before it arrives at its perfect development and sexual maturity,

but these will hardly be of great importance ; they will probably

be confined to the enlargement of the tentacular and dorsal

cirri.

If we consider this proved, there can be little doubt as to the

systematic position, or, which is the same thing, the origin of

our animal. Our worm is one of the so-called Dorsibranchiata,

and indeed belongs to the family of the Aricie* as circum-

scribed by Oersted (Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1844, i. p. 103). The

existence of a single pair of tentacular cirri refers it to the group

of Aricie Naidine, and the uniform structure of all the indi-

vidual segments of the body places it under the genus Nerine

or Spio. Without a knowledge of the mature form, it is difficult

to decide to which of these two genera the worm’ belongs ; this

will depend especially upon the subsequent condition of the

apical segment, which in Nerine is provided, as is well known,

with a sucker-like circle of papille.

Of the two genera above mentioned, we know at present in

the Mediterranean only a single representative, and that but

imperfectly—the Lumbricus cirratulus of Delle Chiaje. At the

moment I have unfortunately no opportunity of consulting the

Memoir in which this worm is figured (tab. 64. fig. 16), and

must therefore leave it undecided whether our larva may be

referred to this species.

The developed Spiones and Nerine live in mud, where they

form regular passages and tubes ; the free pelagic life of our larva

is therefore subsequently, probably after the loss of the cilia,

exchanged for another and very different residence.

If, however, further proofs of the derivation of our larva

from a Spioid Annelide be required, we need only refer to the

* For comparison of the form of the bristles I may refer here to my de-

scription of Leucodore mutica (Wiegm. Arch. 1849, i. p. 200). With regard

to the structure of the cesophagus I may also mention the genus Aonis,

which, according to my observations (Wagner’s Zoot. ii. p. 307), in this

respect agrees most closely with our larva.

264 M.R. Leuckart on the Young States of some Annelides.

similarity existing between it and the supposed larva of Leucodore

ciliata, figured by Oersted (Consp. Annul. Danie. tab. 6. fig. 96).

It is true that I have not this figure by me at present, but as

far as I can remember, exactly the same powerful bristles occur

in this, which so remarkably characterize our larva in the first

period of its life, and these are also exactly similar in arrange-

ment and development. I am not certain whether Oersted has

recognized the peculiar structure of these bristles, but I scarcely

think he can have done so, as otherwise I should hardly have

approximated to it a larva with simple (permanent) — bristles

which I found in Heligoland, as was the case in the papers

which I published in conjunction with Frey (p. 99).

Similar temporary bristles occur however in other Annelidan

larvee, and even in some which are considerably removed from

our animals. I will not refer to the larva figured by Busch

(tab. 7. figs. 5 & 6) as an example of this, as its derivation is still

entirely unknown, and it might possibly be nearly allied to our

Spio. But I may recall the fact that Quatrefages has described

an exactly similar structure in the larva of the genus Hermella

(Ann. des Sci. Nat. 1848, vol. x. p. 153). It is true that there

are no observations as to the subsequent shedding” of these

bristles, but nevertheless there can be no doubt upon the’ point,

for the developed Hermelle are destitute of them, ‘as I know

from my own observations. These bristles have nothing’ in

common with the pale afterwards possessed by the animal.

So much for the spinous Annelidan larva from Trieste and

Nice and its genetic relations, which, I hope, have been pretty

correctly recognized. Let us now pass to another: larva, also

discovered and described by Busch, which is figured on tab. 9.

figs. 1-8 of the work above quoted, and which has a great re-

semblance to the Mesotrocha sex-oculata of the same observer.

We have recently obtained information as to the origin of the

latter from Miller (Monatsber. der Berl. Akad. 1854, p. 395).

We now know that it is the larva of the Chetopterus Norvegicus,

discovered by Sars. With this information we may probably

explain the second Mesotrocha, found by Busch at Trieste. It

may probably prove to be the larva of the Chetopterus perga-

mentaceus (Tricelia variopedata, Ren.), found at Trieste, of which

I have given a more exact description in Wiegmann’s Archiv

for 1849, p. 340. On a previous occasion (Gott: Gel. Anz.

1852, p. 857) I expressed the opinion that-we might perhaps

suppose the Annelidan larvee of the Mesotrocha type .to be the

descendants of a Serpula, or of some other worm in which the

segments of the anterior part: of the body were distinguished, as

in Serpula, from the other segments by ‘the form, ‘structure and

position of the pedal tubercles ; and, in fact; this ' supposition

M. R. Leuckart on the Young States of some Annelides. 265

appears now to be completely justified, although the determi-

nation of the species was incorrect.

The connexion between the Mesotrocha of Trieste and the

Chetopterus pergamentaceus is rendered in the highest degree

probable by the structure of the bristles. The same forms

which Busch has figured from the segments before the circlet

of cilia in his Mesotrocha, have also been observed and described

by me on the anterior part of the body of our Chetopterus.

Even the peculiar broad bristles which Busch found upon the

fifth segment of his larva reappear in the mature worm (but on

the fourth segment), only they are less distinctly serrated, and

occur in greater number,—as indeed the number of bristles in

general is much more considerable in the mature state,

If we are once convinced of the identity of Mesotrocha and.

Chetopterus, it becomes easy to refer the two forms to one

another, and thus, even without direct observation, to obtain

a tolerably complete view of the metamorphoses of the animal

in question.

I have shown, as above quoted, that Chetopterus is fur-

nished, like the other Annelida, with a true cephalic tubercle.

In the developed state this part is certainly very rudimentary,

so that it might previously have been overlooked; but im the

larva it is very greatly developed, and appears produced. over

the mouth into a disc, like an upper lip*. To this upper lip in

the larva a bilobed lower lip is opposed, the two lobes of which

only require to be fused together to form the peculiar labial

apparatus of the mature animal. The two tentacles placed in

our larva at the sides of the mouth also occur in Chetopterus,

according to my observations, although much less developed in

proportion, and, to a certain extent, aborted, like the cephalic

tubercle and the eyes. ,

The segments which in the larva intervene between the head

and the circlet of cilia form (together with the head) the fore-

body of the mature animal. But their number still requires.

increase; Busch only counted nine segments, whilst in my

worms there were twelve or thirteen. The new segments are

evidently formed at the hinder extremity of the fore-body ;

that is to say, between the fore- and middle body, as suffi-

ciently appears from the position of the above-mentioned ser-

rated bristles; this, as far as I know, is the only instance of the

kind amongst the Annelida. With the last segments of the

fore-body, Mesotrocha is also destitute of the large wing-like

- * From the formation of the head in the larva, it is established beyond

a doubt that Sars has really, as I formerly stated, taken the back of Che-

topterus for its belly. |

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvi. 18

266 M.R.Leuckart on the Young States of some, Annelides,

appendages, which, according to. my.view, are produced by the

metamorphosis. of, the last, pedal tubercles of that part of the

body, as also..of. the uncini which I have indicated on_ its last

two.segments.

The. second division of the body m Mesotrocha, which coms

mences with the circle of cilia, represents the middle and hinder

parts of the body of our Chetopterus, but apparently requires. a.

still greater increase for its complete development, as Busch only

counted eleven segments in this part of his larva, whilst in the

mature state more than double the number occurs,... When,

however, Busch denies the possession of setose feet to this divi-

sion of the body, he st only had the subulate. bristles: of

the anterior part of the body in his eye, for. the eleven. pairs of,

rudimentary feet with “longish oval bodies ”’ which are, inserted

in, them, undoubtedly represent. setose feet, and..are.probably,

the) first. indications of the ventral tubercles. furnished, with

uncini.. .Busch even states, that the inserted. bodies. are.den-.,

ticulated, as I have found to be the case with the;uncini, of,

Chetopterus. It is mteresting also that these. ventral pedal,

tubercles possess a bilaterally symmetrical, distribution. on: all

the segments, whilst in the anterior, segments of the middle. part.

of the body they are subsequently, as.is well, known, fused.into,

a\single median organ. The. dorsal. tubercles, which;;o¢cur on)

the abdomen of the mature Chetopterus:appear to; be developed,

subsequently. ‘freeunad tt

My regarding the segments lying behind the. circles of cilia

as representing both the middle of the body,and_the, abdomen,

of Chetopterus, arises from the observation of, Busch, that the,

dorsal surface of these segments is gradually produced,on, each,

side, close to the median line, into a tolerably long and: vibrating;

process. Busch considers these processes to. be branchiz, and.

concludes accordingly that Mesotrocha is the larva.of, a. Dorsi-,

' branchiate Annelide ; he consequently assumes that these pro-.

cesses are persistent in their original form, whilst im my opinion)

(which however is only founded on the supposed identity. of.

our larva with the Chetopterus of Trieste) they are gradually.

converted, by growing together in the middle, into the scale-like

appendages which communicate to the segments of the middle

of the body, and also, although much less, remarkably, to the

first segments of the abdomen, their, well-known, lenticular.

or conical form. The, development,.of |these,.processes),com-

mences' close. behind the. rings. of..cilia, and, gradually extends,

thence backwards,—how far. has not ;yet,| been, observed... The,

oldest larvee of. Mesotrocha which presented themselves for exa-

mination, exhibited these’ processes fully developed only on the

first four segments; consequently,:exactly,on.those,,segments

crys

MR? Tieuckart dn the Yound States of some Annelidey- 267

which are subsequently converted into’ the middle: body, ‘and

which, as is well known, present by far the largest appendages.”

The mature Chetopterus lives in a free tube formed by itself:

In this respect it is not without interest that we learn from

Busch, that ‘the larve observed not unfrequently exuded. a

slimy ‘mass in the last days of their existence, with which they

attached themselves to the side of the vessel in which they

were kept. ~~ isa pa |

“'T regret that daring my residence in the Mediterranean I had

nd” opportunity of becoming acquainted, by my own obser-

vations, with these’ interesting larve, which appear to possess

rather a wide distribution. In this case it is probable that many

other ‘points of resemblance with the structure of Chetopterus

would ‘have’ been ‘discovered. But in Nice the larve of Anne-

lides are generally rarities, at least it was so while I was there.

Except the 'spinose forms above described, only a few were’ dis-'

covered, and these mostly at a time when my attention was taken’

up with other investigations. Amongst these few there is how-

ever one upon which I may add a few words, although, properly

spéaking; the name of larva is no longer applicable to it, as it’

scarcely exhibits any traces of its provisional organs. It is a

young Alciope (A: Raynaudii), which I took up one day in the

Bay of Villa Franca with a number of Firoloides, amongst which

it was Swimming about*. -

The beautiful, transparent little animal (Pl. VIT. fig. 6) mea-

sured 43 lines, and its body consisted of three distinctly sepa-

rated ‘regions,—the head with the neck, the true body, and a

tail; —although the mature animal, as is well known, exhibits no

trace’ of any such divisiont. ‘The middle region was by far the

largest of these divisions ; it measured about three lines in length

and’ nearly a fourth of this in breadth ; it was broadest in the

middle and gradually diminished a little towards the extremities,

especially in front. In this middle region eight segments were

distinctly to be recognized ; they resembled those of the mature

animal in every respect, so that I need not describe them parti-

eularly. But I may observe, that the bristles of the first pair of

pedal tubercles were very much shorter and less numerous ‘than

those of the others, and especially the hinder ones, which were

the most developed'in every respect. The neck was considerably

narrower than the foremost segment to which it was attached,

and probably measured scarcely a third of the greatest breadth

of the middle ‘région: It was as long as broad, and exhibited

three segnients, or rather’ three pairs of segmental appendages,

* I also met with Aleiope. candida. seyeral times in the Bay of Villa

Franca.” ‘3

tT See Krohn; Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1845, p. 171. i

268 MoRiLeuckart on the Young States of some Annelides.

which ‘certainly were greatly inferior in size to the corresponding

appendages of the middle of the body, and were further distin-

euished from these by the absence of bristles, and of the black

glandular pigment-spots, which, as is well known, are placed on

the segments beneath all the other pedal tubercles. The append»

ages of the two hindmost pairs were cleft, that is to say, they

éach consisted of a dorsal and ventral cirrus, which however both

possessed the same cylindrical form. The foremost segmental

appendage on the contrary was perfectly simple, and appeared

in the form of a small, stumpy cirrus, which projected close

behind the eyes of the animal. The anterior part of the neck

bore a distinct range of cilia, running round behind the eyes and

mouth, which appears, from the observations’ of Krohn, to be

persistent on the ventral surface. The head had already acquired

exactly its future form and structure, but I could not succeed in

distinguishing the central frontal tentacle, which, however, is but

slightly marked even in the perfect animal. The globular eyes

project on either side but little beyond the necks ‘it: is well

known that in A. Raynaudii they by no means attain the same

colossal dimensions as in A. candida, Close to the mouth, and

underneath the eyes, a very considerable tubercle stands out

right and left, a kind of an upper lip, between the lobes: of

which an elongated disc-like lower lip projects from behind» *

The caudal portion of the animal forms ‘a ‘narrow, stump-like

appendage, which at its root is scarcely. half so ‘broad asthe

preceding terminal segment of the middle region of) the ‘body,

gradually tapers to its apex, and is about 1 line in length (rather

less than more). Microscopic examination shows that this tail

is annulated; a number of narrow segments maybe distin-

guished in it, which gradually diminish in size and develop-

ment posteriorly. The foremost segments. already possess the

future dorsal feet with their bristles and black glands; these

characteristics are gradually lost by the posterior ones, until

~ about the last fourth of the tail, which forms an undivided mass

with a rounded apex. I distinguished eleven distinct caudal

segments (with bristles), and behind these two or three other

indistinct (without bristles), which were just separated from the

apical piece.

Regarding the internal structure I can say nothing that has

not already been mentioned by Krohn. The nervous system is

very distinct, at least as far as the middle of the tail, where it

gradually withdraws itself from observation in. consequence of

the increasing opacity of the substance of the body,, The anus

lies at the extreme apex of thetail,so that the intestine passes

through the entire length of the body. But it is only as‘ far as

M. R. Leuckart on the Young States of some Annelides, 269

the root-of the caudal appendage that it possesses the structure

described by Krohn., Beyond that point it narrows suddenly to

about a fourth of its previous width, and then. proceeds in. the

form of a thin straight tube to the anus. The only. vessel

observed was the pulsating dorsal vessel. Lateral glands are

deficient.

The changes through which the worm has to pass before it

returns to the perfect form of its parent, are of two kinds... In

the first place the neck will gradually shorten and disappear,

with the»exception of its segmental appendages*, so that the

head will appear; to sit immediately upon the first pair of setose

feet... The segments of the caudal appendage then gradually .in-

crease in number and. become developed so completely, that at

last. the difference between them and those of the middle of the

body is lost... The temporary existence of this distinction perhaps

indicates, that a state of rest intervenes between the formation

of the middle region and that of the posterior segments, during

which the plastic processes are entirely confined to the develop-

ment of the,parts already formed. The formation of the poste-

rior segments of the body as here exhibited, presents so remark-

able.a resemblance ito the reproduction of the body after muti-

lation, that:I should: not! have: regarded our worm as a normal

stage in|the development of Alc. Raynaudit, if its small size, the

structure of the neck; and especially the presence of a range of

cilia. behind ‘the head, had not: sufficiently indicated that it -was

an immature and. undeveloped creature.

Supplementary Notice.

Long after I had sent the preceding sheets to the press, the

‘ Magasin de Zoologie’ for the year 1843, with a paper by Qua-

trefages upon some new Annelides from Normandy, which had

hitherto escaped my notice (and which is not even mentioned in

Grube’s Monograph), came accidentally into my hands, At pl,3.

fig. 7. of this work, a Spioid Annelide is figured under the name

of Malacoceros longirostris, which from its appearance and the de-

scription annexed may probably be the mature state of the spinous

larva. observed by Busch and myself. The formation of the

cephalic tubercle especially is perfectly similar, and it is from

* Krohn: only.mentions, four tentacular cirri on each side in A. Ray-

naudi, but leaves it- uncertain whether these represent the appendages of

two or four segments. This pot may perhaps be settled by my observa-

tions. On the other hand ‘it! must still remain undecided, whether th

msi foremost) cirwis gradually. disappears: or has been overlooked by

ro. Ns ranite of Ti » 2 a

270 M,.R. Leuckart on the Young States. of some..Annelides.

this» also. that, Quatrefages has derived the name, of his. species.

The Jength of the developed animal is from.2} to 3. inches,—that

of the two tentacular cirri, 9. lines. . The only thing that, might

perhaps be urged with reason against the identity of the..two

animals, is the circumstance that the first segment of, the body,

according to Quatrefages, is destitute of the dorsal pedal tubercle ;

but with regard to this point, of difference I should. be rather in-

clined to suppose that there is an error of some kind. ,. Eyes are

wanting in the developed animal, as in many other. mature

worms (and Mollusca) which possess those organs in their, young

state. The distinction which appears in this respect between the

larvee and the mature animals, only shows that, Quatrefages has

established his new genus Malacoceros without sufficient. reason,

for the want of eyes is the only character by which it is distin-

guished from Nerine. via

The difference of habitat appears to be of no, consequence,

especially as our larva has a tolerably wide distribution, [ cer-

tainly do not know where Busch observed his specimens; but

J..Miiller states (Arch. fiir Anat..1854,.p.92).that he has found

it at Marseilles. Miiller however only speaks of a very ‘similar,’

larva, but, apparently, merely because his. specimen, wanted .the

long spines of the first segment. It is with reason,thatJ. Muller

also points out the great. similarity. that, exists; between, the

large spine-like. bristles of our Nerine.larve,and the. strong

bristles of the singular Mitraria....1 think that .this ¢cireum-

stance may even justify us in supposing that the, tufts of, bristles

in Mitraria are also mere larval organs...At.any rate,it seems

to me that Mitraria is scarcely anything but.,the larva. of.an

Annelide. with .a_ provisional apparatus .of bristles,; as. indeed

Miiller himself has lately indicated (/oc. cit. sup-)..It.is much

to be regretted that Quatrefages could not. follow. the deyelop-

ment. of his Hermella-larvee for a longer period ; we should then

probably have obtained further data for the. elucidation, of the

species of Mitrarie. 1 will not however assert directly that the

Mitraria are actually larve of Hermelle, for that would be gomg

too far with our present knowledge, although the elongated capi-

tate bristles, which J. Miiller has described, together with the

ordinary spines, in the species observed by him, remind one un-

mistakeably of the forms of the peculiar palez of the, Hermelle,

. ,As regards Mesotrocha and its metamorphosis, into Cheto-

pterus, M. Miller has given his, mteresting.,obseryations upon

this subject in full in the Archiv fiir Anat. und Physiol. 1855,

p- 1. In connexion therewith M. Miiller also mentions the

larva discovered by Busch, the relations of which to Chetopterus

pergamentaceus I have endeavoured to prove, and expresses his

opinion that it does not belong to the genus Chetopterus itself,

‘M. BR: Leuckart\on' the Youny States of some Annelides. ‘271

‘but to some other, unknown, but very nearly allied ‘wornt.’ Since

I have become better acquainted with the metamorphosis of the

Mesotrocha sexoculata from ‘Miiller’s ‘ statements, 1° must now

“agreé with him entirely in this opinion. ‘The course of deve-

‘lopment of Mesotrocha, which I took as the basis of my ‘argu-

‘ments, and could only deduce from the comparison of Meso-

‘trocha with the mature Chetopterus, certainly agrees in general

‘with ‘this: process as observed by Miiller; but I was wrong mn

“supposing that the lenticular processes of the middle segments

“of the body were produced by a fusion of the lateral’ dorsal ‘ap-

“pendages which ‘occur in the larva described by Busch. The

‘remarkable form of the segments in question is the result rather

of a peculiar development of the bodies of the segments, without

the participation of any segmental appendages, as indeed T had

previously assumed, in opposition to the assertion ‘of Audouin,

am my description of Chetopterus pergamentaceus. On the other

hand, M. Miller was ‘able to convince himself, that the large

‘wing-like’ processes on the last segments of the anterior part of

the body im Chetopterus appeared ‘at first only as simple dorsal

processes, and it is remarkable that, like the dorsal processes of

‘Busch’s’ larva, ‘they are immediately behind the circle ‘of’ cilia,

‘which, as is well known; is double in Mesotrocha sexoculata. It

‘is’ possible‘ therefore,that: inthe’ worms like Chetopterus, for'a

‘knowledge of'the larval ‘state of which we are indebted to Busch,

four ot more ‘such appendages occur on each side instead of''a

single one; ‘and it is ‘also possible certainly, that the dorsal’ pro-

“cesses of the Jarva’ may really, as supposed by Busch, become

gradually developed into branchie. |

From the statements of M. Miiller, it also appears’ that the

‘characteristic distinctions between the two species of Chetopterus

‘at’ present known are by no means of such a decided nature as

‘one might perhaps have concluded from the difference in their

Size, and as was presupposed by me in the preceding analysis.

This applies especially even to the structure of the bristles, which

appear to be essentially similar in the two species, so that in'my

paper the name of C. norvegicus might be substituted throughout

for C. pergamentaceus with equal right. .

‘Under these circumstances I can of course only bespeak some

consideration for my statements, in as far as they may place be-

yond a doubt the relations of the larva described by Busch’to a

(still unknown) ‘form 'of the family of the Chetopteride.

272 Sool Mro Wy Clark on the Genus Assiminias: ©

XxXV.— @iierviitions on the Genus Assiminia.

3 By Wir1i1aM Crark, Esq.

, To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

“Ganerzccy, . Norfolk Crescent, Bath, Sept. 11, 1856...

In your September Number, 1855, p. 183, Dr. Gray has| con-

troverted my opinion, that the soeitledk genus Assiminia, em-

bracing the single species A. Grrayana, belongs to the Trunca-

tella of Risso.

oHe says, “ Mr. Clark’s description proves the converse: of( his

josition ;” and observes, “that Truncatella should have a subecy-

lindrical shell with a slender tapering tip, which falls off when

the shell approaches adult age; hence the name of the genus::

Assiminia has a broad conic shell with an acute. tip which does

not»fall off; if it is to be a species of the same genus, the name

of the latter ought to be changed.

“The foot of Truncatella is small and peculiarly formed, and

the eyes of all the species, according to Mr. Clark’s ebsentitiong,

are large, with a white iris; now this is not the case with atin

minia, and yet Mr. Clark regards it as a Truncatella.?.....

It appears by the first part of Dr. Gray’s remarks, that) he rie

adopted the old conchological generic base for, Zruncatella from

a particular species: that definition has long been disused, and

did not even conchologically satisfy the requirements. of, science

when M. Philippi wrote ;—as proof, that eminent naturalist,in the

2nd part, p. 133, of his ‘ Enumeratio Molluscorum Siciliz,’ thus

remarks on the animal of Truncatella :—

Tale animal testas tantopere diversas habitat, at vix ac ne

vix quidem characteres illis communes invenire possumus, sub-

cylindricas nempe, apice demum decollatas, globoso-conoideas,

imo discoideas. Illi quibus hane ob causam nomen Truncatelle

non placet, nomine Choristoma a De Cristophoris et Jan pro-

posito utantur, ne novo nomine scientiam jam nominibus gra-

vatam onerent.”

And Philippi illustrates these views by four figures, tab. 24)

f. 2,3, 4,5; three of them differ from Dr. Gray’s definition by

their contours and by their apices never becoming decollated :

the 4th greatly resembles the outline of the so-called) A.,.Grayana;

indeed, so. much so, that it might pass, for it, if the; description

and size, did not somewhat differ ; but, notwithstanding, this dis-

crepancy, I, almost. think. the, figure (the outline size having

perhaps being accidentally omitted) may, be, mtended to, repre-

sent our Truncatella Grayana.

These extracts show that Dr. Gray's conchological, generic cha-

On the Morphology of the Organs called Lenticels. 273)

racter of Truncatella applies to only one species, and is therefore

partial, untenable, and contrary to authorities.

We now come to a later epoch, when malacology has fur-

nished an essential generic character for Truncatella which no

other British mollusk has yet been found to possess, that is,

the immersion of the eyes in the tissue (instead of being placed

on pedicles as is usually stated) at the superior and nearly ter-

minalpoints of the short, strong, divergent, almost rectangular

tentacula: this structure stamps the so-called A. Grayana a

Truncatella, and is that of every other British species of the

enus.

: Dr. Gray’then terminates his reasoning with a malacological

observation, that I have described the Truncatelle of my work

on the British Marine Testaceous Mollusca as having a white

iris (? pupil), and that I had not observed in A, Grayana‘a

similar appearance, on which account he seems to throw a doubt

of its being’ a Truncatella. 1 do not understand the logic’ of

this ; the point in question is a mere specialty ; one may with as

much reason say that a man with a red iris or pupil, for example

an’ albino, is not of the genus Man, because he has not the

usual dark “or grey iris ; so, it is equally absurd to infer that

A. Grayana is not a Truncatella, because the white iris or pupil

was not detected.

Dr. Gray concludes by stating, that my notions are not those

usually held by modern zoologists, and pronounces the whole of

my logic unsound.’ Iam not surprised that my logic should

not. find favour with one who considers that a genus must be

restricted in the number of its species, however similar these

may be in every essential character; and am sorry to learn, on

Dr. Gray’s authority, that such notions are held by modern

zoologists, of which I was not before aware. : 7

I am, Gentlemen,

Your most obedient Servant,

WixtuiAm CLARK.

| XXVI.—On the Morphology of the Organs called Lenticels. —

By M. E, Germain ve Saint-Prerre*,

THe name of lenticular glands was given by Guettard, and that

of lenticels by P. DeCandolle, to certain organs belonging to the °

bark of a great number of plants, which appear at the surface of

the epiderinis in the form of ‘little brownish elevations or rugo-

sities of an oval ov elliptical fori. |

From the Comptes Rendus, ‘August 20,11855, p.305.

Re)

‘274 M. E. Germain 'de Saint-Pierre on the Morphology

“-SThe opimion of Guettard (1734) that these organs formed an

“apparatus of secretion, was combated by DeCandolle (1826), who,

“as well as .E. Meyer, believed that the lenticels were the rudi-

ments of ‘the. nibvesttiviotie roots.. M. Hugo Mohl in his: turn

(1832+1836) has’ shown that DeCandolle’s opinion was ‘ill-

‘founded, and ascertamed that the production of the lenticels is

analogous to that of cork, with this difference, that cork is the

‘result of the hypertrophy of the suberose layer of the bark, and

that the lenticels are produced by the hypertrophy of ‘a deeper

layer, the herbaceous layer. Lastly, M. Unger (1836) thought

‘he recognized a sort of analogy between the lenticels andthe

soridia of the Cryptogamia, the utricles of cellular tissue which

eonstitute the corky mass of the lenticel appearing to him ‘to be

‘analogous with the spores or propagula.. The ‘same observer

‘regarded the lenticels as the result of a deformation of thesto-

imantds and Du Petit-Thouars, who had given‘an analogous ‘opi-

mion, ‘eorisidered them to be:intended. for effecting a sort of com-

munication between the external air and the cellular or‘amy-

daceous layer of the bark. The great diversity of opmionm

'so'many distinguished observers, regarding a structure appa-

rently so simple and ‘so accessible to study, determined me ‘to

undertake some new researches, a summary of which/I laid before

the Société Philomatique in 1849 ;°I have ‘since: continued’ my

series of observations upon this subject, and now lay ‘the results

before the Academy. ‘I have chosen for the subjects of my obser-

vations three trees in which the lenticels present essential differ-

ences of form,—namely the Birch (Betula alba), the Elder (Sam-

‘bucus nigra), and the suberose variety of the er nem cam-

pestris).

In the Birch the first state of the lenticel: is; an epidehaie

gland of very simple structure. During its period of vitality

(ori the ‘young branch) this gland secretes a gummy resinous

‘matter; it then dries, splits up and becomes destroyed, leaving

‘in its place a brownish fissure through which the subjacent cel-

lular tissue protrudes. It is this cellular tissue which constitutes

the ‘adult Jenticel, and M. Unger, who examined these’ glands,

did not follow their development as far as the true: lenticular

period: “In this particular case, it cannot be denied that the

name of lenticular glands applied by Guettard to thelenticels is

correct ; but it can only apply at the: period when 'the-prepa-

‘gatory organ of the lenticel exists alone, and ee nae lenticellar

mass does not yet exist. o” > GJ m1 sidgot yl [9g &

On the epidermis’ of very’ youingd ‘bradoheslof whe Elder; we

may observe stomata and epidermic elevations)or short ‘hairs

with broad’ bases. The’ stomata do snot undergo any ulterior

charige of form} they are merely obliterated/in proportion as the

yololgne Mofithe Organs! called Lenticels::) | (i — \2%5

epidermis dries and grow old; but)I have never seen them pass

to the state of lenticels... On the other hand; in the short hairs

already mentioned, and which are, properly speaking, elevations

or pouches of the epidermis, the: following facts. may. be,ob-

served: the upper part of the short hair,.or. the centre of the

#btuse epidermic process, dries wp and. becomes destroyed atja

certain) time, and, there soon remains nothing: but. the. base,

‘whichis of an-oval.or elliptical form, and the. margins of which

are, composed of ia delicate membrane with lacerated edges ; in

place of the hair a narrow fissure only is then seen, -It.is

through this)fissure that. the eruption of subepidermic cellular

tissue of which the adult lenticel is composed, takes place ; the

quantity of -cellular tissue protruded.soon enlarges the original

fissure by tearing it, and the origin of the lenticel is no.longer

recognizable; subsequently the increase in the length and.dia-

meter:.of the, branch and the consequent distension of the. epi-

dermis become fresh causes of deformation, and the lenticel, after

having been torn in a vertical direction, becomes enlarged, hori-

zontally., The cellular mass of suberose appearance which, pro-

-trudes, through the epidermic fissure in the form. of a double

seushion, and, of, which the outer layer becomes brownish by. de-

si¢cation, appears to me to: be composed, not of the herbaceous,

vor deep: cellular layer, but'of ‘the suberose or subepidermic cel-

Aholar layer.) 6 3 192

,oelm the ‘suberose variety of the Elm, the first development, of

the lenticels takes place as in the Eider, but the excessive hyper-

‘trophy. of the! subepidermie cellular tissue soon disguises its. len-

-ticellar:origin.' In this tree I have followed all the transitions

between the first elevation of the epidermis, the lenticellar hernia,

sand-the corky: masses which afterwards cover the bark with their

canastomosing channels. In this tree, as in the preceding, nu-

merous microscopic preparations have always showed me a per-

feet continuity between the lenticellar hernia and the suberose

layer of the bark, with this difference, that in consequence of

the direction of the expansion, the cells of the protruded portion

are perpendicular to the bark instead of being. parallel to.it, as

am the normal suberose layer.

From these observations it results that I regard the lenticels

not only as a formation analogous to cork, but as one completely

identical. in origin) and.in, tissue ; the. difference between. the.two

productions! consists, only, in, the intensity, of the hypertrophy,

which is generally feeble in the production. of ;lenticels and. very

intense ih that; ot;.cork; whichis, nothing, but, exaggerated, lenti-

cellar productions) ;}s) 15 9 1 pias 3

The; maceration: injowater, .0

branches, }coyered » with» Jenticels,;has » convinced, me, like .M.

xeansertion in. meist, earth, of

276 On the Morphology of the: Organs called Lenticels.

Mohl, that the adventitious roots are only accidentally produced

on points occupied by lenticels, and that these roots commence

thei appearance’ externally by an elevation of the. epidermis,

which presents the appearance of a young lenticel and _is..con-

verted into a coleorhiza by the passage of the root, but that this

elevation, which never becomes a suberose lenticel, is without any

analogy with the lenticular elevation.

True lenticels had only been noticed on woody stems, but

I have ascertained their existence not only upon some herba-

ceous stems, and on rhizomes or underground stems, but. even

on the surface of roots, both of trees and herbaceous. plants

(Betula alba, Dahha variabilis, Mirabilis Jalapa, &c.),; and. fre-

quently on the petioles of leaves (as in the Elder). Finally, I

have ascertained that the rugosities which are: commonly seen

on the surface of the epidermis of some fruits, on the bark of

Melons for example, are merely lenticels more or less deformed,

and that most of the punctures which exist on the surface of

Apples and Pears are lenticels incompletely formed, by the de-

struction of an epidermic elevation and the desiccation of the

subjacent cellular tissue. vhs

The lenticel therefore is not an organ without. analogy with

other known organs ; in its first state it passes) by. insensible

gradations to the epidermic productions known under.the names

of hairs, thorns, and glands.. During the following period, after

the destruction of the epidermic elevation, it is: formed bythe

hypertrophy of the superficial cortical cellular tissue,:a ‘hyper-

trophy which appears to be determmed by the ‘contact’ of the

subepidermic cellular tissue with the external air. This hyper-

trophy differs neither organically nor physiologically from the

suberose production of the Cork Oak. The form of the hernia

or lenticellar cushion is determined by the epidermic fissure

which serves it as a mould; its form is usually that of a button-

hole with thick edges which throw shreds of epidermis out-

wards: this form resembles that of the stomata, but it appears

to me that the analogy between the stomata and the lenticels is

confined to this resemblance.

_ The physiological function of the lenticels appears to me to

consist simply in causing the commencement of fissures in the

epidermis. In consequence of the growth of the tree in height

and diameter these fissures become long clefts, extending either

in.a vertical or horizontal direction, and facilitate, by loosening

the bark, the increase of the diameter, of the tree.

Ly Bibliographical Notices os 9h) wi WT

‘

“BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

A Manual of Marine Zoology for the British Isles: By Purnte

“Henry Gossz, A.L.S. Part I. “London: Van Voorst;: 1855

Amongst the host of blind guides that are continually making their

appearance, professing to clear up the mysteries of nature.to the

uninitiated, it is some satisfaction to us to have to record the publi-

cation of the present little work,—a work written with a definite and

intelligible purpose, which is carefully and intelligently carried out.

Mr. Gosse states, and we can readily believe him, that he has often,

in the course of his investigations, felt the want of a manual which

should give, in)a succinct form, the characters of the genera of

British animals, so.as to enable the student to determine on the spot

something more than the general alliances of any animal that might

occur to him. As nobody else appeared inclined to undertake ;the

task, he has set to work himself, and we have here a portion of the

result of his labours, embracing the invertebrate animals as far as the

Annulosa; the Mollusca and Vertebrata being reserved for a second

part. '

It is not only to the beginner that such a work as this is of value;

the more advanced student of nature will find it of the greatest

advantage, as, from its very small bulk, he can easily carry it in his

pocket in his rambles along the shore, so as to ascertain at once the

nature \of ‘the: objects: he meets with, and thus probably refresh his

memory as to what has been, or remains to be, observed with respect

to their habits and.economy. venti ryel

{Upon these latter subjects the work of course contains little beyond

generalities; the author has contented himself with working out the

characters of the groups down to the genera, referring in every case

to the:larger works which have served him as guides in the different

branches of his subject, and to which the student is referred for more

extended information.” To each genus is appended a list of the

known British species, accompanied by an excellent. outline figure on

wood of one species. To the eye, on a cursory inspection, these

figures constitute one of the most refreshing features of the book,—

accustomed as we are to the continual recurrence of the same wood-

cuts in almost every popular work on natural history. The present

part contains figures of three hundred and forty species, of which a

great majority are original, and more than half of these drawn from

living specimens, |

In the execution of the work Mr. Gosse appears to have laboured

carefully and. conscientiously ; the characters are given in clear and

intelligible language, and we should think that the merest tyro would

have no difficulty in working out most of the animals which ‘he is

likely to meet with on our shores. The Infusoria and Entozoa, how-

ever, are entirely omitted; the former from the uncertainty existing

as to what are really Infusoria, and what embryonic forms of higher

animal. forms, and the latter because, to use Mr. Gosse’s words,

2785 -onnwe) (0 » Zoological Societys os 9)

“though some of them live in marine animals, their proper sphereis

not ‘the water or the land, but the living tissues of other creatures:

they: have a world of’ their own.” It must be admitted that these

excuses are plausible, but we think by no means'satisfactory ; and the

omissions in question only add to our regret, that instead of devoting.

his book exclusively to the marine zoology of these Islands, »-Mr..

Gosse ‘has not given us a manual of British animals, a work whieh.

(at least if the Insects were omitted) would have occupied but little:

more space.

“In the classification adopted there is, of course, nothing new; but.

Mr. Gosse has put the ordinary views on this subject mto a very

simple and intelligible form. The most objectionable’ pomt}in this

respect, the separation of the Cirrhopods from the Crustacea, asa

distinct class, may perhaps conduce somewhat to this simplicity ;

but we cannot agree with Mr. Gosse in “ believing that the diversity

between the groups is quite as great: as that which subsists between

the Crustacea and the Arachnida, or between the Arachnida and the

Insecta.” | |

For the explanation of the technical terms, Mr. Gosse has appended

a glossary, which is certainly capable of great:improvement.- Thus,

we‘are told that “‘ Bilateral”’ means ‘‘ having aright anda left,side ;??/

that “Capsules” are “ bladder-like: vessels ;’? that: “ Cirri?’).are.,

‘fleshy, unjointed threads ;” that a ‘‘Sac’’ is *‘ avbag ;’’ (and. there;.

are several other instances of the same kind, some positively incorrect, ;

others unsatisfactory, and a few trivial and unnecessarysseor/ vison

On the whole, however, it is rarely that we meet with a’ book: con=;,

taining so little to find fault with, and we look forward with pleasure

to the appearance of the second part. | o—sqoTHs

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

May 9, 1854.—Dr. Gray, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Description oF A New Species or Hummine Brrp,

FROM Quisos. By Joun Govutp, F.R.S. etc.

Mr. Gould exhibited a Humming Bird, lately received from Quijos,

which is very nearly allied to Threnetes leucurus, but which differs

from that species in its larger size, and in having those parts of ‘the

tail-feathers of a deep fawn-coloured hue which are white in 7’. Zeu-

eurus; precisely, in fact, the difference which occurs between La-

Sresnaya flavicaudata and L. Gayi. For this bird’ Mr. Gould ‘pro-

posed the name of eee gt syste og

THRENETES CERYINICAUDA. |) iy cooniro1g ih int has .

Head, all the upper surface, upper wing-ebverts,' two! central: tail-

feathers, sides of the neck, ‘breastand’ flanks: shining :olive-green ;

wings purplish-brown ; lateral tail-feathers deep fawn-colour, stained

Mr. P. L. Sclater on Birds:from the:Republic of Ecuador. 279°

on the apical half of the outer margin and the tip of the outer feather’

with ‘dark brown; a crescent of the same; but of a’much. paler hue,

atthe tip of the next; a still fainter mark of the same colour near

the tip of the external web of the third; and a nearly obsolete mark,

of a similar tint, in the same situation on the fourth; lores and ear-

coverts brown ; on the chin and throat‘a lengthened triangular mark

of black, bounded on either side by a narrow line of greyish-white,

and below by abroad band of deep sandy-buff crossing the throat ; |

centre of the abdomen greyish-buff ; under tail-coverts olive, narrowly

edged with greyish-buff ; bill black, with the cutting edge of the

upper mandible and ‘the basal three-fourths of the under one pearly-

white ; feet yellow. . : , !

*Total length, 4% inches ; bill, 15%; wing, 23.; tail, 14.

Hab. Quijos, in Ecuador. :

List or 4 CoLiection or Brrps recetven sy Mr: Govtn;

FROM THE PROVINCE OF Quisos IN THE REPUBLIC OF’

Ecuapor. By Puruip Lurvey Scuater, M.A. en J

-Among-'the' many novelties in ornithology lately received. by,

Mr. Gould from different parts of the world, is a small but valuable.

collection ‘of birds from: the province of Quixos, or Quijos, in the

republic of Ecuador “This country, which lies on the eastern slope.of »

the’ Andes, where'the Rio Napo and. other adjoining tributaries of the

mighty Amazon'take their rise, is a very interesting locality to those

who’ study South»American ornithology, being intermediate between

New *Grenada~-whence so many new forms have lately been sent to

Europe—on the one side, and the wood regions of Peru and: Bolivia,

where Von Tschudi and D’Orbigny pursued their laborious researches

in natural history, on the other. |

Mr. Gould having most liberally placed this collection in my hands

for examination, I have drawn up a complete list of the species as far

as I can determine them satisfactorily, in order to show the character

of the ornithology of this country— observing that Mr. Gould is ex-

pecting fresh consignments from the same quarter, which will doubt-

less much further increase our knowledge of the fauna of this highly

interesting region, 3 :

HirvuNDINIDE.

1, Acanthylis albicollis (Vieill.).

_Hirundo albicollis, Vieill. Nouv. Dict. xiv. 524 (1817).

Hirundo collaris, Wied, Reise nach Bras. i. p. 75 (1820), et

Beit. z., Nat, dil. p. 344.

Acanthyhs collaris, Gray's Gen. 1, p. 55, sp. 6.

This fine spine-tailed Swift seems generally distributed over the

northern portion of the continent. It was observed by Prince Max.

of Neuwied in many provinces of Brazil, by Schomburgk in British

Guianayand Sir Willian Jardine has examples transmitted) by Professor

Jameson from the,wieinity.of Quito2:.Mr, Gesseshasirecorded its: aps’

pearante mu @amateat qooh erodisct-list [s1otel ; aword-deilqiug eg:

280 Zoological Society :—

TROGONID.

Trogon melanopterus, Sw. (Gould’s Mon. pl. 10, 11).

. Calurus auriceps, Gould.

Bucconip&,

. Bucco macrorhynchus, Gm.

. Bucco collaris, Lath.

. Malacoptila fusca (Gm.).

GALBULID,

7. GALBULA CHALCOTHORAX, Sclater, sp. nov.

G. lete cupreo-viridis ; capite cerulescente ; pectore lete violaceo ;

macula gulari triangulari alba: ventris plumis basi nigrican-

tibus, apice albis; rostro pedibusque nigris.

Long. tota 8°3, alee 3°3, caudee 3°5, rostri 1°5.

Obs. Similis G. leucogastre, sed major et pectore violaceo-cupres-

- eente.

This is an immature bird of a species closely resembling G. leuco-

gastra, but of larger size and with a bright violet or purple tinge on

the breast, which does not appear in examples of the older species.

Ca@REBINE.

8. Daenis cayana (L.) (Pl. Enl. 669. fig. 1).

9. Daenis angelica, De Fil. (Pl. Enl. 669, fig. 2).

10. Dacnis atricapilla (V.).

TROCHILIDE.

Mr. Gould has himself determined the species of Trochilide that

occur in the present collection, as also the Trogons and Toucans.

11. Phaéthornis striigularis, Gould (Mon. Trochil. viii. pl. 15).

A new species allied to P. intermedia.

12. Phaéthornis superciliosus (Linn.) ?

13. Threnetes cervinicauda, Gould.

A new species resembling 7’. leucurus, but with the tail-feathers

fawn-coloured where they are white in the other species (see p. 278).

14. Thalurania viridipectus, Gould,

15. Chrysuronia cenone (Lesson).

16. Lolema Schreibersi (Bourc.).

Mr. Gould has made a new generic name for this bird, which has

been placed by Prince Charles Bonaparte in his ‘ Conspectus Trochi-

lorum’ among the Campylopteri.

17. Celigena typica, Bp.

18, Gouldia Langsdorfi (Vieill.).

DENDROCOLAPTINZE.

19, Xiphorhynchus procurvus (Temm.) (Pl. Col. 28. fig. 4).

20. Dendrornis guttata (Licht.).

Nasica guttatus, Lafr. Rev. Zool. 1850, p. 385.

These are both Brazilian forms.

Mr. P. L. Sclater on Birds from the Republic of Ecuador. 281

MENURIN&.

21. Seytalopus griseicollis (Lafr.).

Merulazis griseicollis, Lafr. Rev. Zool. 1840, p. 103.

A Bogota bird.

MNIOTILTINA.

22. Setophaga ruticilla (L.). ,

This North American species is one of the few Passeres of that

country that extend all through Central America into the northern

portions of the southern continent. It is included by Schomburgk

among the birds of British Guiana. |

23. Myiodioctes canadensis (L.).

Described from Bogota by the Baron de la Fresnaye as a new spe-

cies under the name of Setophaga nigrocincta (Rev. Zool. 1843,

p. 292), but, as afterwards acknowledged by the same author, quite

identical with North American specimens.

24. Sylvicola Blackburnia, juv.

Also a common U. 8. species.

TURDINA.

25. Turdus minimus, Lafr. (Rev. Zool. 1848, p. 5).

The Prince Charles Bonaparte has reunited this bird to the minor

of the U. S., from which M. de la Fresnaye considered it distinct.

FORMICARIINE.

26. Thamnophilus stellaris, Spix ? (Av. Bras. ii. p. 27. pl. 36. fig. 2).

& cinereus : pileo dorsoque summo et medio nigris, hujus pennis

basi niveis : alarum tectricibus apice maculis rotundis, albis.

2? supra pallide cinerea: subtus brunnea, lateribus cinerascenti-

bus: alis externe rufis.

Long. tota 5°2, alee 3-0, caudee 1°6.

This is a typical Thamnophilus with a strong thick bill. There are

several examples of it in the Paris Museum in different states of plu-

mage, and it was from examining them that I was enabled to decide

that the female above described (which is in my own collection)

belongs to this species.

27. Cymbilanius lineatus (Leach), g & 2.

28. Formicivora cerulescens (Vieill.), Menetr. Mon. t.6. fig. 1 & 2.

p- 499 (2).

29. Pyriglena quixensis (Cornalia).

Thamnophilus quixensis, Corn. Vert. Syn. p. 12*.

P. atra, abdomine cinerascente : tectricibus alarum maculis rotun-

* Dr. Cornalia’s paper, which is little known in this country, is entitled ‘‘ Ver-

tebratorum Synopsis in Museo Mediolanensi exstantium que per novum orbem

Caietanus Osculati collegit annis 1846, 47, 48 speciebus novis vel minus cognitis

adjectis necnon descriptionibus atque iconibus illustratis : Modoetiz 1849.”

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 19

282 Zoological Society :—

dis, albis terminatis : dorsi plumis laxis, elongatis, basi albis :

rectricibus apice albis.

Long. tota 4°5, alee 2:1.

30. Pyriglena rufiventris (Cornalia).

Thamnophilus rufiventris, Corn. Vert. Syn. p. 12.

P. atra, abdomine lete castaneo: alarum tectricibus maculis ro-

tundis, albis terminatis: dorsi plumis laxis, elongatis, basi albis:

rectricibus graduatis, harum extimis apice albis; rostro pedi-

busque nigris.

Long. tota 4°5, alee 2°1, caudee 2°0.

I have little doubt that I have correctly referred these two birds

to the species described by Dr. Cornalia, the types of which I had

an opportunity of examining through his kindness when last at

Milan. Although they closely resemble one another, except in the

colouring of the belly, there is so much difference in the form of the

bill in the two specimens in this collection, that I think it hardly pos-

sible that, as suggested by Dr. Cornalia, the variations between them

can be due to age or sex, and I believe them distinct, though nearly

allied species. I have placed them in the genus Pyriglena, with the

type of which, P. domicella, they agree in several respects ; particu-

larly in the lax and elongated feathering of the lower back—a curious

structure occurring in several groups of birds, Pyenonotus, Philen-

toma, &c., and which has not yet, as far as I am aware, been fully

explained. In this same genus I should also place that peculiar form,

the Myiothera nudiceps of Cassin (Proc. Ac. Sc. Phil. 1850, p. 106),

Pyriglena nudiceps, mihi, of which Mr. Gould has a specimen from

Panama, and the MM. Verreaux have lately received examples from

Santa Martha in New Grenada,

There are several other birds of this family in the collection that I

cannot make out. A modern monograph of the group would be a

great addition to our knowledge of South American ornithology.

31. Conopophaga aurita (Linn.) (Pl. Enl. 822).

Agrees with Cayenne specimens.

TYRANNINAE.

32. Pyrocephalus rubineus (Bodd.), Pl. Enl. 675. fig. 1.

33. Todirostrum ?, ‘

34, TyRANNULA PH@NICURA, Sclater, sp. nov.

T. flavo-olivacea: dorso imo et ventre flavissimis : capite nigro-

cinerascente, crista media flava utrinque nigra : fronte lorisque

albis : gula cinerea : alis nigricantibus, tectricibus majoribus et

secondariis rufescente limbatis : cauda unicolore clare rufa.

Long. tota 4°0, alee 2°5, caudee 1°7.

Obs.—Similis T. ornate, Lafr. Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1853,

p- 57, sed cauda clare rufa et secondariis rufescente marginatis sane

diversa.

35. Elania cayennensis (Linn.).

Mr. P. L. Sclater on Birds from the Republic of Ecuador. 2838

TANIOPTERIN2.

36. Copurus filicauda (Spix).

TITYRINZ.

37. Tityra marginata (Licht.).

AMPELID&.

38. Pipreola Sclateri (Cornalia).

Euchlornis Sclateri, Corn. Jard. Cont. to Orn. 1852, p. 133.

pl. 101; Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1853, p. 104. pl. 4.

Dr. Cornalia, to whom I owe many thanks for the honour he has

done me in calling this elegant bird after my name, rightly insists on

the claims of priority of De Filippi’s genus Euchlornis over Lafres-

naye’s Pyrrhorhynchus. But both these names must, I think, give

way to Swainson’s term Pipreola, established in 1838 (Animals in

Menag. p. 357), the type of which, his P. chlorolepidota, seems

closely allied to D’Orbigny’s Ampelis viridis. I was rejoiced to see

this bird in the present collection, as it clears up a mystery about

its habitat, which Dr. Cornalia supposed to be Peru or Bolivia. But

I have now no doubt that the type specimen in the Museo Civico at

Milan, which is the only other I have seen, came, as the present,

from the province of Quixos, and was probably collected there by

the enterprising Italian traveller Osculati.

39. Pipreola Riefferi (Boiss.).

Ampelis Riefferi, Boiss. Rev. Zool. 1840, p. 3.

40. Laniisoma arcuatum, Swains.

This generic name of Swainson’s must be used as prior by several

years to Ptilochloris of the same author. M. de la Fresnaye has re-

cently reunited his Ptlochloris remigialis to the type species arcuata,

but I am sure that there are two birds confounded under this name,

though I have not yet seen enough specimens to enable me to distin-

guish them accurately. The P. rufo-olivaceus and virescens of La-

fresnaye, described in the Revue Zoologique, 1838, p. 238, do not, I

think, belong strictly to this genus. They have both been pre-

viously named by Prince Maximilian of Neuwied, the first as Muscicapa

turdina, Beit. iu. 817, the second as Muscicapa virescens, ib. p. 802.

41. Pipra Isidori, Sclater, Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1852, p. 9;

Cont. to Orn. 1852, pl. 100. fig. 1. p. 132.

42. Pipra coronata, Spix, Av. Bras. ii. pl. 7. fig. 1.

(P. cyaneocapilla, Hahn. P. herbacea, Spix, ii. pl. 8 a. fig. 1 2 .)

I believe Spix’s name is prior to Hahn’s. The Pipra herbacea of

the former (of which I have seen the type in the Munich Museum) is

certainly a female of this species.

43. Pipra leucocilla, Linn.

44. Chiromacheris gutturosa (Desm.) Tang. & Man. pl. 58.

I have my doubts whether this bird is really separable from Pipra

manacus, as made out in Bp.’s Consp. p. 171.

19*

284 Zoological Society :—

GARRULINE.

45. Cyanocorax yncas, Bodd. (Pl. Enl. 625. Corvus yncas, Bodd.,

Corvus peruvianus, Gm.)

STURNID&.

46. Cacicus persicus (L.).

47. Gymnomystax mexicanus (Linn.) (Bp. Consp. p. 431).

TANAGRINZE.

48. ARREMON SPECTABILIS, Sclater, sp. nov.

A. supra aurescenti-olivaceus : capite nigro, vitta verticalt cinerea :

superciliis albis : axillis letissime croceis: subtus albus ; mento

summo et torque gutturali nigris; lateribus cinerascentibus ;

rostro flavo. )

Long. tota 5°8, alee 2°8, caudee 2°5.

This beautiful Arremon appears to me to be quite new. It comes

nearest perhaps to the 4. aurantiirostris of Lafr. (Des Murs, Icon.

Orn. pl. 55), but that has a very broad pectoral band, this a narrow

one. Besides, the deep saffron, almost chestnut colour of the bend of

the wing is of itself sufficient to distinguish it from all the other

species of the genus.

A second example of this bird is in a collection lately received by

Sir William Jardine from the same locality.

49. Pyranga ? 2.

A bad skin of a female or immature bird.

50. Ramphocelus i j

A female of one of the species allied to R. jacapa.

51. Tachyphonus luctuosus, D’Orb. & Lafr.

52. Tanagra celestis, Spix, Av. Bras. ii. p. 42. pl. 55. fig. 2.

Readily distinguished from the other Bishop Tanagers by the silky

white bar across the wing. A rare bird in collections. In the Paris

museum are examples collected by MM. Castelnau and Deville at

Pontobamba in June 1847.

53. Calliste Parzudakii (Lafr.).

54: Calliste Schranki (Spix).

55. Calliste xanthogastra, Sclater.

56. Calliste gyroloides (Lafr.) 9 .

57. Calliste cyanicollis (D’Orb. & Lafr.).

58. Calliste thalassina (Strickl.).

59. Calliste xanthocephala (Tsch.).

60. Euphonia xanthogastra, Sund.

CAPITONID&.

61. Eubucco Bourcieri (Lafr.).

62. Eubucco Hartlaubi (Lafr.).

63. Capito peruvianus (Cuv.).

Mr. F, Moore on the known species of the genus Accentor. 285

CucuLipa.

64. Piaya cayana (Linn.) (Pl. Enl. 211).

Ps1TTACID.

65. Psittacula passerina, Spix ?

Agrees with Bogota specimens,

RAMPHASTID&.

66. Pteroglossus castanotis, Gould.

67. Pteroglossus flavirostris, Fraser.

68. Andigena nigrirostris, Waterhouse.

RALLIDZ,

69. Corethrura cayennensis (Gm.) (Pl. Enl, 368).

May 23, 1854.—Dr. Gray, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Norice OF ALL THE KNOWN SPECIES OF THE GENUS ACCEN-

TOR, WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF AN UNCHARACTERIZED SPECIES

FROM Nepau. By Frepreric Moore, Assist. Mus. East

Inp1A CoMPANY.

Family Sy.viap&, Vigors.

Subfamily Accentorina, Vigors.

Genus AccenTor, Bechstein.

1. ACCENTOR ALPINUS, Gmelin.

Motacilla alpina, Gmel. 8. N. L. i. p. 957.

Sturnus moritanus, Gmel. 8. N. L. i. p. 804.

Sturnus collaris, Scop. Ann.i. p. 131. no. 192. Gmel. 8. N. L. i.

p. 805. Lath. Ind. Orn. i. p. 323.

Accentor alpinus, Bechst. Naturg. Deutschl. iii. p. 700. Eyton,

Cat. Brit. B. p. 13. Macgill, Hist. Brit. B. ii, p, 258. Gould,

Birds of Eur. t. 99. G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, i. p. 187 ; Catal.

Brit. B. in B. M. p. 64. Blyth, Cat. B. Mus. A. S. Beng. p. 130.

Bonap. C. G. Av. p. 305.

Le Fauvette des Alpes, Buffon.

The Alpine Accentor, Eyton ; Yarrell.

Hab, Europe.

2. ACCENTOR NIPALENSIS, Hodgson.

Accentor nipalensis, Hodgson, J. A.S. Beng. xii. p. 958 (1843) ;

Gray’s Zool. Misc. 1844, p. 83; P. Z. S. 1845, p. 34; Cat. B. of

Nepal, p. 71. G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, i. p. 187. Blyth, J. A.

S. Beng. xv. p. 42. Bonap. C. Gen. Av. p. 305.

Accentor cacharensis, Hodgs. P. Z. 8. 1845, p. 34.

The Nepal Accentor, Gray.

Hab. Nepal.

286 Zoological Society :—

A. nipalensis.—‘‘ Newly-moulted adults haye the upper parts nearly

as in 4. modularis, but the dark colour predominating, and the stria-

tion of the head and neck obsolete, or nearly so, these parts, with the

ear-coverts and breast, being of an almost uniform dark brownish-

grey; throat white, spotted with dusky-black, which forms two

cross-bars on each feather, their extreme tips being greyish ;. belly

and flanks bright dark ferruginous, mingled with the hue of the

breast along the middle of the former; under tail-coverts dusky,

tinged with ferruginous, and laterally margined with white; the

feathers of the back are greyish-brown, with broad dark centres, or they

may be described as blackish, with brown lateral margins, tinged with

ferruginous towards and upon the scapularies ; wings dusky-black, the

tertiaries broadly margined with ferruginous, the other large alars

slightly so, and all having a spot of this colour at the extremity of

their outer edge ; wing-coverts having a white spot at the tip of

their exterior webs, and the small feathers near the bend of the wing

coloured like the head ; tail brownish-black, tipped with brown, the

terminal spot of the mner web of each feather successively more

albescent to the outermost ; upper tail-coverts long, and brown with

a dark central streak ; bill dusky, the lower mandible yellow except

at tip ; legs reddish-brown. In worn plumage, the margins of all

the feathers have more or less disappeared, and what remains of

them is faded in hue; the conspicuous white spots on the wing-

coverts, and ferruginous margins of the tertiaries, being completely

abraded, the former leaving a semicircular sinus, as if artificially cut

away. The young have the clothing plumage of the usual flimsy

texture, the under parts coloured like the back, with no ferruginous

on the belly, the spots on the wing-coverts are larger and less purely

white; and the ferruginous on the scapularies and wing-coverts

dingy.”

Loneth about 7 inches; of wing 33 inches; tail 23; bill to gape

aths; and tarse +3ths of an inch. ; )

This species appears to represent 4. alpinus on the Kachar region

of Nepal.

3. ACCENTOR VARIEGATUS, Blyth.

Accentor himalayanus*, Blyth, J. A. 8S. Beng. xi. p. 187.

Accentor variegatus, Blyth, J. A. 8. Beng. xii. p. 958 (1843) ;

Cat. B. Mus. A. 8. Beng. p. 131. G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, i.

p- 187. Bonap. C. G. Av. p. 305.

Accentor alpinus, Vieill. Gal. des Ois. t. 156 (nee Gmel.).

The Variegated Accentor.

Hab. Sikim ; Kasouli; Nepal (No. 964, Hodgson’s Catalogue).

A. variegatus.—“< Forehead, crown, occiput, neck, shoulder of the

wings, and rump dingy grey-brown, with an inconspicuous lighter

greyish eye-streak ; throat and fore-neck white, with small round

spots disposed as in alpinus ; ear-coyerts streaked with fulvescent, and

* This name was changed to variegatus by Mr. Blyth, as the other Indian

snecies of this genus are also found in the Himalayas.

Mr. F. Moore on the known species of the genus Accentor. 287

small loral and infra-orbital feathers tipped with fulvous-white ; gorget

brown, more or less tinged with rufous, which latter brightens on the

lower breast, flanks, and sides of the belly, the feathers being laterally

edged with white, and some having dark streaks on the flanks pos-

teriorly ; lower tail-coverts white, with lanceolate central dusky spots ;

wings intricately mottled, having the anterior range of coverts dusky-

black with white tips, the next or great range fulvescent-grey

exteriorly at base, and dusky-black for the remainder with slight

whitish tips; primaries edged with grey, secondaries with brown,

and tertiaries with fulvous; scapularies and interscapularies rufous-

brown, mottled with large black terminal spots on the middle of each

feather ; tail dusky, having a large white spot at the tip of the inner

web of each feather; bill black ; legs pale reddish.”

4. AcCCENTOR MODULARIS, Linn.

Motacilla modularis, Linn. 8. N. i. p. 329.

_ Aecentor modularis, Bechst. Naturg. Deutschl. i. p. 617. Eyton,

Cat. Brit. B. p. 13. Macgill. Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 251. Gould, B.

of Eur. t. 100. G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, i. p. 187; Catal. Brit.

B. in B. M. p. 65.

Sylvia modularis, Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 511; Gen. Hist. vii.

. 20.

i Tharrhaleus modularis, Kaup, Naturl. Syst. i. p. 137.

The Hedge Accentor. Selby. Yarrell.

Hab. Europe.

5. ACCENTOR RUBIDUS, Temm. et Schlegel.

Accentor rubidus, Temm. et Schleg. Faun. Japon. Av. p. 69. t. 32.

Bonap. C. G. Av. p. 305.

The Japan Accentor.

Hab. Japan.

This species is closely allied to the common dA. modularis, Linn.

6. ACCENTOR MONTANELLUS, Pallas.

Motacilla montanella, Pallas, It. ii. p. 695. Gmel. 8. N. L. i.

. 968.

: Accentor montanellus, Bechst. Naturg. Deutschl. iii. Temm.

Man. d’Orn. ed. 2. p. 251. Lath. Gen. Hist. vii. p. 15. Eyton,

Cat. Brit. B. p. 13.. Macgill. Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 251. Gould,

Birds of Eur. t. 101. G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, 1. p. 187.

Sylvia montanella, Lath. Ind. Orn. ui. p. 526; Gen. Hist. vii.

p- 90.

Spermolegus montanellus, Kaup, Naturl. Syst. i. p. 152.

* Aecentor Temminckii, Brandt, Bull. Sci. Acad. Imp. St. Petersb.

The Mountain decentor. Gould.

Hab. Eastern portions of Europe and Asia.

7. ACCENTOR RUBECULOIDES, Hodgson, n. sp.

Accentor rubeculoides.—Forehead, crown, nape, ear-coverts and

chin brown ; infra-orbital feathers tipped with whitish ; throat, sides

288 Zoological Society :—

of neck, and shoulder of wings dingy grey-brown, the feathers of the

throat blackish at base; back and rump ferruginous, centred with

dusky ; wings dusky, margined exteriorly with ferruginous ; lesser

and greater wing-coverts tipped with white; tail dusky, margined

exteriorly with pale ferruginous ; breast and fore part of flanks ferru-

ginous, the latter streaked with dusky ; belly white, tinged with fer-

ruginous on the flanks posteriorly, vent, and margins of the under

tail-coverts; the latter centred dusky. Bill blackish; feet pale

reddish.

Length 6 inches ; of wing 3; tail 23; bill to front ;4,ths ; to gape

+ inch ; tarse 3.

The Robin dccentor.

Hab. Nepal (No. 970, Hodgson’s Catalogue). ,

This fine undescribed species was lately presented by B. H. Hodg-

son, Esq., to the Museum of the Hon. East India Company.

8. ACCENTOR STROPHIATUS, Hodgson.

Accentor strophiatus, Hodgs. J. A. S. Beng. xii. p. 959 ; Gray’s

Zool. Misc. 1844, p. 83; P. Z. S. 1845, p. 34; Cat. B. of Nepal,

p. 72. G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, i. p. 187. t. 51. Blyth, Cat.

B. Mus. A. 8S. Beng. p. 131. Bonap. C. G. Av. p. 305.

The rufous-breasted Accentor, Gray.

Hab. Himalayas. ee

A. strophiatus.—< Upper parts much as in 4. modularis, but the

colours brighter and more contrasted, and the crown and neck uni-

form with the back ; a broad eye-streak, the first of which is white

to beyond the eye, surmounting a ferruginous streak continued back-

ward to the occiput ; a semicircle of the same surrounds the dusky

ear-coverts, and the entire breast is also ferruginous ; throat white,

with dusky spots, forming a line descending from each angle of the

lower mandible; belly and lower tail-coverts white with dusky streaks;

wing-feathers dusky, margined with ferruginous, with an albescent

spot at the tip of each covert; tail brownish, with dull rufous outer

margins ; bill black ; legs reddish-brown.”’

Length about 53 inches; of wing 21 to 21; tail 21 to 24; bill to

gape Sths; and tarse +3ths of an inch.

9, AccENTOR IMMACULATUS, Hodgson.

Accentor immaculatus, v. nipalensis, Hodgs. Gray’s Zool. Misc.

1844, p. 83; P. Z. 8. 1845, p. 34; Cat. B. of Nepal, p. 71 et

App. p. 153.

Accentor mollis, Blyth, J. A. S. Beng. xiv. p. 581 (1845); Cat.

B. Mus. A. 8. Beng. p. 131. G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, iui. App.

p. 8. Benap. C. G. Av. p. 306.

The unspotted Accentor.

Hab. Nepal; Sikim.

A. immaculatus.— Upper parts a rich brown, passing into pure

dark ash-colour on the head and neck, and into maroon on the

scapularies and tertiaries, and less deeply on the hind part of the

hack; coverts of the secondaries pure dark-grey, those of the pri-

Mr. F. Moore on the known species of the genus Accentor. 289

maries, with the winglet black, as also the primaries, these last having

their unemarginated portion externally bordered with pale-grey ; tail

greyish dusky; frontal feathers to above the eyes margined with

white, the lores blackish, and the entire under parts slightly em-

browned deep ash-colour as far as the vent, which is pale and tinged

with ferruginous, the under tail-coverts being deeper ferruginous, and

the hind portion of the flanks dark ferruginous ; bill blackish ; feet

fleshy grey ; iris straw-colour.”

Length about 6 inches; tail 24; wing 34; bill to frontal feathers

7sths ; and tarse } of an inch,

10. Accentror Huttoni, Moore.

Accentor atrogularis, Hutton (nec Brandt ?), J. A. S. Beng. xviii.

p. 811 (1849). Blyth, Cat. B. Mus. A. 8S. Beng. p. 131. Bonap.

C. G. Av. p. 305.

Hutton’s Accentor.

Hab. Simla; Afghanistan. In Mus. East Ind. Company.

A. Huttoni.—“ General colour above brown, the feathers centred

dusky, more rufescent on the back, greyer on the nape, rump and

upper tail-coverts; crown darker; a broad line above the superciliar

streak, with the ear-coverts and throat dusky-black, the latter di-

vided from the ear-coverts by a pale line proceeding from the base

of the lower mandible, and this with the entire supercilium and

the breast, of a uniform light rufescent sandy hue; belly whitish,

the flanks streaked with dusky ; wing-coverts slightly tipped albes-

cent, forming slight cross-bands. Bill dusky, yellowish. towards

gape, and feet pale.” ‘‘Irides brown.”

Length 6 inches; of wing 2iths; tail 2}; bill to gape ;%ths;

and tarse 3ths of an inch.

-11. Accentor Aurtarcus, Brandt *.

Accentor Altaicus, Brandt, Bull. Sci. Acad. Imp. St. Petersb.

(1841?). G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, i. p. 187. Bonap. C. G. Av.

p- 306.

The Altaic Accentor.

- Hab. Siberia. |

12. AcCENTOR ATROGULARIS, Brandt.

Accentor atrogularis, Brandt, (nec Hutton’), Bull. Sci. Acad.

Imp. S. Petersb. (18417). G. R. Gray, Gen. of Birds, i. p. 187.

The Black-throated Accentor.

- Hab. Siberia.

“The species of this genus,” remarks Mr. Yarrell, in his admi-

rable work on British Birds, “are very limited in number, only

five, I believe, being at present known; two are figured in this work

as belonging to England, two others are found in the north and east

* Not having been so fortunate as to examine the descriptions of Dr. Brandt’s

species, I am unable to describe them in this notice.

290 Zoological Society.

of Europe*, and a fifth has been received from the Himalaya moun-

tains.”’ The discovery of six distinct species in India, ar bite have

mostly been collected in Nepal by B. H. Hodgson, Esq., one from

Japan, and the two described by Dr. Brandt, making in all twelve

species, is accordingly no small accession to the known species of

this interesting genus.

June 13, 1854.-—Dr. Gray, Vice-President, in the Chair.

On THE Genus MULLERIA, SOWERBY, OR

AcostaA, D’ORBIGNY.

By Dr. Joun Epwarp Gray, F.R.S., P.B.S., V.P.Z.S.

M. d’Orbigny has very kindly transferred to me the specimens

of the shells which he described, in the ‘ Rev. et Mag. Zool.’ 1851,

under the name of Acostea Guaduasana, and which he had received

from Rio Sero near Guadual (Rio Magdalena) in Bogota. The ex-

amination of the specimens proves the truth of the supposition which

I formerly expressed, that Mr. Sowerby’s genus Miilleria was de-

scribed from an imperfect specimen of this shell which had lost its

umbones, with the young free state of the shell attached to them,

in the manner so characteristic of this genus.

The series of specimens consists of a pair, not in a very perfect con-

dition, and without the produced umbo of the attached valve, like

the specimen described by Mr. Sowerby, but in a less worn con-

dition, four specimens of the attached valve, and several of the free

upper one.

The series of attached valves is curious, as showing the very dif-

ferent state of the umbo, the manner in which the free valves

are modified before one of the valves becomes fixed ; also the man-

ner in which the upper free valves separate from the free part by a

natural crack, when the free valves become united together by their

edges, forming a shelly tube. In two of the specimens this crack

takes place almost immediately behind the posterior end of the sym-

metrical free shell; in two of the others, the hinder part of the

free shell is dilated into a triangular irregular portion before the

hinder older part of the upper valve separates from the young one ;

in one of these the triangular tube thus formed is narrow and elon-

gate; in the other, broad, forming a nearly equilateral triangular

cavity under the umbo of the attached valve.

In three of the five specimens the shell is attached by the outer

surface of the right valve, and in the other two by that of the left

valve; the three specimens attached by the right valve exhibit all

the three variations in the form of the umbo, viz. the absence of the

free shell, the small, and the large and much dilated state of it.

There can be no doubt, as far as one can undertake to determine

from the examination of the shell alone, of the affinity of this genus

* One of which species is in all probability the so-called dccentor Calliope of

Temm. v. Calliope Camtschatkensis, Gmel., which, certainly, has no affinity to

Accentor.

Linnean Society. 291

with Etheria, from which it appears only to differ in the very small

size, or indeed in the total absence of the anterior adductor muscle.

Like Etheria, the lower valve is rather attached to the stones and

shells to which it is affixed, by inequalities in the form and surface

of the shell, than by any real attachment of the substance of the shell

itself, for the attached valves are covered with a continuous periostraca.

As all attached shells have a free young state, as may be seen by

examining the umbones of Arcinella, Chama, and other attached bi-

valves, the young of Htheria are doubtless free, and there is nothing

peculiar in the young of Miilleria being free; but there is a great

peculiarity in the young shell becoming united into a tubular case,

and one of the valves, after the other has become attached, separating

itself from its younger part by a natural caries or crack.

LINNHAN SOCIETY.

February 6, 1855.—-Thomas Bell, Esq., President, in the Chair.

Mr. Westwood, F.L.S., exhibited some cocoons and living chry-

salides of the Eria Silk-worm of India, which feeds on the castor-oil

plant, which he had received from the Governor of Malta through

Dr. Templeton ; this being the species, the introduction and culti-

vation of which in Malta, Italy, and the South of Europe was now

attracting so much attention in those countries, as proved by the

numerous communications presented within the last few months to the

Académie des Sciences at Paris by Marshal Vaillant, French Minister

of War, and by MM. Milne-Edwards, Guérin-Méneville, Isidore

Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Duméril, Montagne, &c. An extract was

read, communicated by Major-General Hearsey, from the “ Journal

of the Asiatic Society,’”’ on the peculiarities of the silk of this species,

the natural history of which, as well as of the Tusseh Silk-moth of

India, formed the subject of an excellent memoir by Dr. Roxburgh in

the ‘‘ Transactions of the Linnean Society,” vol. vii. On examining

the cocoons, Mr. Westwood had observed, that, unlike those of the

common Silk-worm and most other moths which were of an entire,

oval form, these cocoons were open at one end, which was protected

by a series of converging elastic threads (like the mouth of a rat-trap),

a peculiarity which had been long observed in the cocoons of the

common Emperor Moth, Saturnia pavonia minor. This peculiarity,

which had also been noticed by M. Duméril, had been supposed to

have for its object the introduction of air to the interior of the

cocoon, and also the prevention of the ingress of parasitic Ichneu-

monide, &c. Neither of these hypotheses were however considered

by Mr. Westwood as conclusive ; he thought rather that it was con-

nected with the discharge of the fluid which most insects emit im-

mediately after arriving at the perfect state. The circumstance is

however of some practical importance in the Eria Moth, as it allows

the egress of the perfect insect without injuring the thread of the

cocoon, as is the case when the common Silk-worm Moth of the

mulberry is allowed to escape from its cocoon. It is not, however,

292 Linnean Society :—

of so great a practical importance as might be at first supposed, as

the silk-growers never allow the cocoons intended for winding to

produce the moth; still those cocoons, which were set aside in order

to obtain the perfect insects for breeding from, would also remain

uninjured after the escape of the moths.

March 6.—Thomas Bell, Esq., President, in the Chair.

Mr. Syme, F.L.S., exhibited specimens of Ophioglossum vulgatum,

L., from Swanbister, Orkney, together with a large series of speci-

mens from other localities; and comparing them with an extensive

series of specimens of Oph. Lusitanicum from various distant locali-

ties, came to the conclusion, in common with several recent bota-

nical writers, that these two supposed species are in reality merely

varieties of one and the same specific type.

Mr. N. B. Ward, F.L.S., exhibited on the part of Mr. Maxwell

T. Masters, Sub-Curator of the Fielding Herbarium at Oxford, an

abnormal stem of a species of Dipsacus, on which the following ob-

servations, by Mr. Masters, were read :-—

«The specimen was received from Mr. Smith of Witney in Ox-

fordshire, to whom it had been given by a blanket manufacturer of

that town. From the presence of some small prickles on the remains

of the leaves, Mr. Baxter, jun., the Curator of the Oxford Botanic

Garden, suggested that it might be the stem of a Dipsacus. Great as

is the dissimilarity between this abnormal specimen and the natural

appearance of a T'eazel-stem, the subsequent testimony of the donor

confirms Mr. Baxter’s opinion. Moreover, if the explanation here

offered be correct, there is little difficulty in supposing it really to

have been a Teazel-stem. It has unfortunately been broken, but its

general appearance, when it came into our possession, is shown in

the accompanying sketch. It then measured about 21 inches in

length, and as the specimen seems to have been broken off pretty

close to the ground, its original height must have been much less

than that of an ordinary Teazel. At the base it is of a cylindrical

form ; soon, however, the stem becomes, as it were, twisted on itself,

and is then flattened out laterally. A cross section of it at this

point would therefore be ovoidal in outline. This portion of the

stem is hollow: traces of the pith adhere to its inner surface. The

greatest breadth is about 2} inches; the breadth, however, gradually

diminishes towards the upper part, where the cylindrical form is

resumed. ‘The branches, or flower-stalks, are placed one over the

other in a line following the spiral curvature of the stem. Some of

the branches have been broken off, and indications of several abortive

branches are plainly visible. Remains of leaves occur at the base of

one or two of the upper branches, and on these are small prickles,

such as are found on a Teazel-leaf. The epidermis has for the most

part peeled off, showing the course of the woody fibres in a spiral

direction all the way up the main stem, but taking an opposite

direction from that formed by the line of branches. In the lateral

branches the course of the fibres is straight. The obliquity of the

Mr. P. H. Gosse ov Peachia hastata. 293

spiral is greatest in the lower part of the stem, diminishing as the

stem expands laterally, and again increasing towards the upper part,

where the stem resumes its cylindrical form. When the course of

the fibres is traced from the base of any of the branches, the spiral

will be found to terminate about the base of the second branch

above that from which the line started. If each turn of the spiral,

in this abnormal specimen, be considered to represent an internode,

then the opposite and alternate arrangement of the branches of a

Dipsacus would seem to be indicated. Should this view be correct,

it would have an important bearing on that theory which ascribes

the opposition of leaves to the absence or non-development of in-

ternodes, for here, where the internodes are developed, the arrange-

ment is alternate. The position of all the branches in a line one

over the other is accounted for by the spiral course of the fibres of

the stem. And thus, if we conceive the fibres of this specimen un-

twisted and made to assume a vertical direction, and at the same

time imagine the absence of internodes, the result will be the oppo-

sition of the branches and the alternate position of the pairs of

branches as regards the side of the axis from which they proceed. At

the dilated portion of the stem the growth was probably much more

rapid than at the lower part, which, from its more solid and firmer

structure, may be conceived to have offered some resistance to the

lateral expansion of the stem. In so doing it may have been the

cause of that twisting of the stem upon itself, which, it will be

observed, begins at the point where the change of form also com-

mences.”

The communication was accompanied by a sketch of the monstro-

sity described in it.

March 20.—Thomas Bell, Esq., President, in the Chair.

Read a ‘‘ Description of Peachia hastata, a new genus and species

of the Class Zoophyta ; with observations on the Family Actiniade.”

By Philip Henry Gosse, Esq., A.L.S.

The specimens on which Mr. Gosse founds his new genus, Peachia,

were discovered by the Rev. Charles Kingsley in the months of

January and March 1854, in the vicinity of Torquay. Mr. Gosse

gives an elaborate description of the animal, both in reference to its

external and internal structure, together with a particular account

of its habits, derived from the communications of Mr. Kingsley as

well as from his own observations. He considers that the possession

of an excretory orifice to the body is a character of sufficient im-

portance to separate it from Actinia, and to constitute a new genus,

for which he proposes the name of Peachia, as a tribute to the zeal,

industry and success with which marine zoology has been studied

by Mr. Charles W. Peach. He is also led to this selection of a

name, because he thinks it probable that a minute species, described

by Mr. Peach under the name of Actinia chrysanthellum, may belong

to the same genus. ‘The following are the characters, generic and

specific, of the animals in question :—

294. Linnean Society :—

Peacuia, Gosse.

Corpus elongatum, subcylindricum, pyriforme, v. fusiforme, ditrematum,

liberum ; ¢entaculis paucis, brevibus (disci diametrum haud superanti-

bus), crassis, conicis, uniseriatis ; oviductu in tuberculum papillosum

desinente.

1. PeacHIA HASTATA, corpore roseo lineis equalibus pallidis, tentaculis

12 albo-hyalinis seriebus 2 parallelis macularum sagittatarum brun-

nearum notatis, disco circulis duobus macularum brunnearum V-for-

mium cincto, oviductis papillis numerosis aggregatis.

2? P.? cHRYSANTHELLUM, corpore cylindrico albido lineis ineequaliter latis,

tentaculis brunneo-annulatis.

Mr. Gosse considers the principal interest of this form to consist

in the decided approach which it makes to a higher type than that:

of Actinodermata, assisting, together with the genus Hdwardsia of

M. Quatrefages, to diminish the interval between the Actinie and

Holothuride. Of the genus Hdwardsia he observes that there are

two British species, one of which was described and figured by him-

self, in the ‘Annals of Natural History’ for Sept. 1853, under the

name of Scolanthus callimorphus, which genus he is now convinced

ought to be abolished ; and the other, described in a letter from Mr.

Kingsley, appears to be identical with Hdwardsia Beautempsii, Quatr.

The author then proceeds to remark on the importance of still

further dividing the large remainder of species, which, even after the

separation of the genera already constructed from it, still remain

united under the name of Actinia. After discussing the principles

on which he conceives that this division may be most properly

founded, he goes on to establish the following generic types, adding

after each the names of the British, and of some of the exotic species

belonging to it.

Sacartia, Gosse.

Actinie basi adherentes; tentaculis conicis facilé retractilibus ; spherulis

marginalibus nullis. Corpus everrucosum, filamenta capsulifera e poris

emittens ; filis urticantibus brevibus, pilorum fasciculo densé armatis.

Sp. Brit.—Act. viduata (=anguicoma, Price), Troglodytes, Aurora,

candida, rosea, nivea, venusta, parasitica, Bellis, Dianthus ; forté etiam

A. aurantiaca et pulchella, Jord.

The following exotic species, figured by Mr. Dana in the Zoophytes

.of the American Exploring Expedition, seem to be referable to this

genus, viz. 4. Primula; the beautiful decorata and Fuegensis, both

allied to our Bellis ; and Achates, reticulata and Paumotensis, which

are evidently allied to Dianthus.

Bunopes, Gosse.

Actinie spherulis marginalibus nullis; corpus verrucosum ; cute coriacea,

filamentis missilibus nullis ; jilis urticantibus longis simplicibus; ten-

taculis plerumque crassis, conicis, obtusis.

Sp. Brit.—A. gemmacea, Thallia, clavata, crassicornis, monile (forte

erassicornis junior)? Chrysoplenium ?, alba’, miniata?

Of exotic species, A. Diadema, pluvia, Gemma, Artemisia of Dana’s

Zoophytes, probably belong to this genus.

New Localities for rare British Plants. 295

Actinia, L. (pars).

Spherule capsulifere ad disci marginem seriatz ; corpus everrucosum,

poris filamentisque missilibus destitutum ; cute levi.

Sp. Brit.—A. Mesembryanthemum, margaritifera, Chiococca.

Of exotic species, A. Tabella and graminea of Dana are here re-

ferable. |

The following British species are of doubtful position, viz. A. coc-

cinea, intestinalis, biserialis and vermicularis. 'The very curious A.

biserialis has a close parallel in Dana’s Rhodora; and these may

perhaps form together another genus when more is known about

them. A. intestinalis and Vermiculum. show, in their slender

lengthened form, an approach to the free condition of Peachia, &c.

Mr. Gosse next exhibits in a tabular manner one of the modes in

which the British non-coralligenous Actiniade may be artificially

distributed ; and under the head of each genus comments on its

structure, limits, and affinities, concluding his paper with a diagram

intended to express, as nearly as such a representation can, the varied

consanguinities and cross-alliances of the group.

The paper was illustrated by figures of Peachia hastata; and by

magnified representations of the thread-cells and threads of several

species of Sagartia.

April 3.—T. Bell, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The following letters were read :-—

“12 South Frederick Street, Glasgow,

‘Dear Sir, 22nd March, 1855.

« At Dr. Hooker’s suggestion I send you, for the herbarium, two

specimens of a rare British plant ( Hierochloé borealis), which, after

having been erased from the list, was rediscovered near Thurso by

Mr. Robert Dick, who states that it flowers so early in the year as

May and the beginning of June, disappearing soon afterwards; so

that there was no wonder I and others could not find it in Don’s

station, Glen Kella, Angusshire, as botanists seldom go there before

the end of July.

“I am, dear Sir, yours truly,

« R. Kippist, Esq.” “Wa. Govurun.”

The specimens forwarded with this letter were marked as gathered

by Mr. Robert Dick, at ‘‘ Thurso, Caithness, May 1854.”

“‘ Cedar Terrace, Henwick, Worcester,

‘*My Dear Sir, March 21st, 1855.

“In the account of the Meetings of the Linnean Society which

have met my view, I have seen no notice of a very interesting addi-

tion to the British Flora which was made in 1854 in this neighbour-

hood, on the confines of Worcestershire and Herefordshire, though

strictly within the latter county. The plant I allude to (a specimen

of which I enclose for the inspection of the Society) is the pretty little

Orchid, Epipogium aphyllum, which was never before, that I am

296 Miscellaneous.

aware of, met with in England, and has not been alluded to as a

probable native in any of our local or general floras.

“It was first noticed in July of last year (1854), by Mrs. Anderton

Smith, then staying at Tedstone Rectory, and other specimens were

afterwards gathered by her husband, who communicated with me on

the subject, and indicated the place where Mrs. Smith first gathered

the plant. The locality has quite a subalpine aspect, the Sapey

brook there running in a deep glen shadowed on all sides by lofty

trees, and near the spot a little water-fall gurgles over the massive

sandstone rocks. It was the felling of some of these trees that

brought the plant to light. I have also to mention another locality

for the Neottia or Spiranthes estivalis, hitherto, I believe, only found

in England in the New Forest, Hampshire; but the last autumn a

specimen of the Spiranthes estivalis was shown to me, which was

gathered by Mr. George Jordan of Bewdley, on the confines of the

great bog in Wyne Forest, Worcestershire. I have been careful to

examine the plant gathered by Mr. Jordan, and to visit the spot

where it was found, so that the information may be relied on, and

thus the range of the Spiranthes estivalis is extended in England.

This it may be interesting to note.

«The enclosed specimen can be exhibited at the next Meeting of the

Society, if the plant has not been previously brought before their

notice as a native of Britain. It is the only one I at present

- possess; but if the Linnean Society has not a British specimen in

their collection and you think it may be any way advantageous to

botanical science, or be useful for metropolitan botanists to examine,

I will with pleasure permit the retention of it for the Society.

Otherwise please return it to me at your leisure after it has been

examined.

‘‘] remain, my dear Sir, yours very truly.

« R. Kippist, Esq.” ““Epwin Less.”

The specimen of Epipogium, which (in compliance with Mr. Lees’

kind permission) has been placed in the herbarium of the Society,

is stated on the ticket to have been ‘‘ gathered in a woody dingle

on the banks of Sapey Brook, Tedstone, Herefordshire, about a

mile and a half south of Clifton-on-Teme, Worcestershire; July

1854.”

MISCELLANEOUS.

Sibbald’s Drawings of Scottish Animals.

By the late Dr. GQzeorer JounstTon.

THERE is a small quarto volume of original drawings with the title

« Piscium et Aquatilium Icones, a Joanne Alexandro ad vivum

depicte. Anno Domini M.DCC.vII,” preserved in the Library

of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. The drawings

were undoubtedly. made for Sir Robert Sibbald, and a few

Miscellaneous. 297

of them have been engraved to illustrate his book on Whales, and his

Natural History of Scotland. On the inside of the board of the

volume there is written—* Hic liber olim viri docti D. Roberti Sib-

baldi Eq. Aur. fuit, et multorum variorum apud nos piscium icones

continet.”” The title is written within a square border, very neatly

ornamented. In the centre of the top there is a clam-shell with a

figure of Neptune, his trident, and horses ; and on each side a clas-

sical Dolphin. To the right, a figure of the Sepia is suspended over

an upright figure of the Loligo sagittata, with a Crab between; and

on the left, the Sturgeon and the Tusk make the border, with the

Turritella terebra as a piece of separation.

Folio i. A characteristic figure of the Scad or Horse-Mackerel.—

Fol. ii. “ Piscis in lacu Mabano seu vandosus ;’’ and ‘‘a Whale cast in

at Rosyth castle.’’ The Vendace is very unlike the figure of that fish

in Yarrell ; nor can I identify the whale with any figured in Bell’s

work on the Mammalia. It appears to be a species of Beluga.—

Fol. iii. Baleenoptera Physalus.—Fol. iv. “A Sperma Ceti Whale.”

Two figures, viz. a side and a back view. There is written on the

paper— Whale at Moryfurth, Feb. 23, 1703. Side, but it did. lay.

halfe vpon the side that one Ey and a little of the bellie was sanded. .

57 foots long, and 56 round. booth under and all the skin blackish blew

werie smooth and as thick as a bull’s and all white fat within and nixt

the skin.’’—Fol. iv. A rude figure of Coronula diadema: a better figure

of the Vendace: and ‘‘a horse markrett’’—which is something I

cannot decipher.—Fol. v. A whale cast in at a place which is ille-

gible. The whale is Baleenoptera Physalus, aud is about 50 feet

long.—Fol. vi. Probably a species of Hyperoodon. It is called a

North-Caper.—Fol. vii. Fig. sup. Scorpio marinus nostras=the long-

spined Cottus, Yarrell. Fig. med. Galeus levis=Acanthias vulgaris

or Dog-Fish. Fig. inf. Cataphractus nostras=Aspidophorus euro- |

peeus.—Fol. viii. A repetition of the figure of the Beluga ?—Fol. ix.

Fig. 1. The Cat-fish. (2) Gymnetrus Banksii! (3) Galeus nostras

=The Dog-fish. (4) Gobius maculis undatis nostras=the unctuous

Sucker. (5) Aculeatus marinus major nostras=the Fifteen-spined

Stickleback.—Fol.x. A good figure, and appears to represent the Cook

Wrasse of Yarrell.—Fol. xi. The Hiatula = the Ballan Wrasse.

—Fol. xii. The Bonnet Flooke. This is the Holibut.—Fol. xii. A

very rude and unfinished figure of a “Salmon Stour’? “taken in

Sanda in Orkney.” The figure is one of the Tunny. There is, on

the same folio, the figure of a Tusk without the head, as it is salted.

—Fol. xiv. Teeth of the Spermaceti Whale—‘* Dentes Balenze macro-

cephalee.”’—Fol. xv. “ Loligo,” viz. L. media; and Raia vulgaris =

the Common Skate.—Fol. xvi. “ Polypus nostras,’’ viz.=Eledone

ventricosa.—Fol. xvii. ‘‘ Sepia nostras” = Sepia officinalis. Both

this and the preceding are excellent figures.—Fol. xviii. Loligo sagit-

tata: good.—Fol. xix. A Fossil Nautilus.—Fol. xx. Fossil Nautilus,

two species.—Fol. xxi. ‘‘ Vulva marina, supina fascies ’ =an Ascidia.

** Favus marinus ’’—The ovisacs of the Fusus antiquus on a stone

covered with a Serpula.—Fol. xxii. “The Harper Crab” = Hyas

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 20

298 Miscellaneous.

araneus. ‘A shore Crab,” but it is really Portunus depurator.—

Fol. xxiii. Fig.sup. Perhaps Nymphon giganteum. Fig.med. “Cancer

araneus ’’=Stenorynchus Phalangium. Fig. inf. The Common Crab.

—Fol. xxiv. “‘ Scolopendra marina nostras ” =Aphrodite aculeata.—

Fol. xxv.‘‘ Loligo nostras” = L. sagittata. —Fol. xxvi. ‘The Lugg”

=Arenicola piscatorum. ‘‘ Urtica rarior spheericus,” a species of

Medusa unknown to me.—Fol. xxvii. Four unfinished sketches of a

Medusa, probably the M. cruciata; and three equally rude figures of

Lobularia digitata. —Fol. xxviii. The claws of the Norway Lobster

(Nephrops norvegicus) ; and a “‘ chela Astaci monstrosa.” —Fol. xxix.

** Canis carcharize Icon rudior’’—gso rude as to be beyond specific

identification—* Stella echinata’? = Ophiocoma rosula.—Fol. xxx.

“‘ Gurnadus griseus”’ =the Grey Gurnard.—Fol. xxxi. The Tunny :

a good figure.—Fol. xxxii. The Tusk: a finished drawing.—

Fol. xxxiii. ‘Gurnardus griseus”—the Grey Gurnard again.—

Fol. xxxiv. “ Trachurus ’”’—viz. the Horse-Mackerel.—Fol. xxxv. A

figure probably of the Cook Wrasse.

The only other figures are copies of those which have been en-

graved for the Scotize Prod. Nat. Hist. and for Sibbald’s other works,

more especially his little volume on Whales.

CLAUSILIA ROLPHII.

Some of the ‘new localities”’ for British, plants and shells, dis-

covered by the Rey. W. H. Hawker and given in the last Number of

the ‘Annals’ (p. 212), are so remarkable, that I was glad to see one

which I could confirm from personal observation ; viz. the station for

Clausilia Rolphii ( plicatula, Drap.) in Ashford Woods, where I met

with it fifteen years ago, when collecting with Mr. Wm. Harris,

__F.G.S., of Charing.—S. P. Woopwarp,

HELIX ASPERSA.

A curious specimen of the common Garden Snail has been sent me

by Miss A. Hodgson of Ulverstone. It is an adult shell with a

second, half-grown individual, fixed to its spire and partly imbedded

in the suture of the body-whorl. The winter door (epiphragm)

remains in the exposed part of the small shell’s aperture, showing

that it had died during the first hybernation, whilst its neighbour had

survived, and not getting free from the incubus of the empty house

of the deceased, had partially enveloped it in the course of its growth

to maturity.—S. P. Woopwarp.

Descriptions of some New Species of Birds.

By the Viscount Du Bus pr Gisienres.

1. Vireosylvia frenata. V. supra flavido-cinerea ; pileo pure cine-

reo ; superciliis ad nucham productis et genis dilute fulvescentibus ;

subtus albida; hypochondriis dilute flavido-cinerascentibus; gula

utrinque stria atra a basi mandibula descendente marginata; remigibus

Miscellaneous. 299

et rectricibus fusco-cinereis, flavicante extus limbatis; tectricibus

alarum inferioribus et crisso flavidis. Rostro et pedibus fuscis.

Total length 193 centim. (nearly 8 inches). .

Hab. Ocaia, New Granada.

A typical species, with the bill rather long, straight, and com-

pressed ; it presents a close resemblance to V. olivacea, Linn., but is

easily recognizable by the blackish streak which passes down each

side of the throat from the base of the mandible.

2. Cyanoloxia concreta. Mas. C. ceerulescenti-nigra ; fronte, su-

perciliis et genis paulo dilutioribus ; humeris cyaneis; alis et cauda

nigris ; tectricibus alarum superioribus et remigibus secundariis ceeru-

lescente limbatis. Rostro et pedibus nigricantibus.

Total length 154 centim. (about 6 inches).

This bird was killed at Playa-Vicenti in Mexico. In its coloration

it approaches Lovia cyanea, Linn., and is nearly of the same length,

but is more robust, and the bill and feet are much stronger. It also

appears to be distinct from Coccoborus cyanoides, which I only know

from the short description published by Lafresnaye in the ‘ Revue

Zoologique’ for 1847.

3. Pyrenestes personatus. Mas. P. saturate fuscus; capite,

absque occipite, et tectricibus caudee superioribus coccineis, niten-

tibus ; pectore coccineo tincto ; rectricibus duabus intermediis supra,

ceeterarum pogonio externo obsolete coccineis. Rostro nigro; pedi-

bus fuscis.

Total length 14 centim. (about 53 inches).

Hab. Senegal.

This is the second species of the genus, supposing P. coccineus,

Cass., to be the same as P. ostrinus ; it is still more typical than the

latter. It has the bill thicker in proportion, and the tooth of the

lower mandible more developed.

4. Polospiza canicapilla. P. supra, cum lateribus capitis, fusco-

cinerea ; pileo fusco-nigricante et albido vario ; subtus cinerea ; super-

ciliis, gutture, ventre et crisso albidis; remigibus et rectricibus ob-

serie fuscis, cinerascente extus limbatis. Rostro et pedibus cinereo-

ulvis.

Total length 12 centim. (about 43 inches).

It closely approaches Serinus tristriatus and xanthopygius, Riipp.,

which inhabit Abyssinia, This new species inhabits Senegal.

5. Quelea capitata. Q. supra brunnea, plumis singulis albido-

fuscescente marginatis; capite pure sanguineo, mento et guttare

nigris, sanguineo maculatis; subtus dilute fuscescens ; hypochondriis

brunneo variis; ventre albido; remigibus et rectricibus flavicante

_extus limbatis. Rostro brunneo, mandibule basi dilutiore ; pedibus

rubro-fuscis.

Total length 114 centim. (about 43 inches).

Hab. Senegal.

If the colours of thie head were not sufficient to distinguish this

20%

800 Miscellaneous.

species, I should have considered it identical with Huplectes erythrops,

Hartl., with which I am not acquainted in nature, but which is de-

scribed and figured with care in the second volume of the ‘ Abhand-

lungen’ of the Natural History Society of Hamburg, 1852. This

bird has only a little, red round the base of the bill and above the

eyes, whilst the new species has the whole of the head of a fine uni-

form blood-red, and the throat and front of the neck are spotted with

red and black. .

Nor is it likely that the difference between these birds is sexual,

as Hartlaub gives descriptions of both sexes of his #. erythrops, and

‘states that the female is yellow where the male is red.

6. Chrysomitris xanthogastra. Mas. C. nigerrima subnitens ;

speculo lato alarum, rectricum basi, exceptis duabus ‘intermediis, et

abdomine cum hypochondriis et crisso aureo-flavis. Rostro czeru-

lescenti-nigro ; pedibus brunneo-nigris.

Total length 9 centim. (about 3} inches).

Hab. Ocaiia, New Granada.

This is one of the smallest species of the genus. In its colour it

resembles the Carduelis atratus, D’Orb., but differs in its size, which

is about one-fourth less.— Bull. de ? Acad. Roy. de Belgique, xxii.

p- 150-152, 1855.

The Operculum of Diplommatina. By Capt. Taomas Hutton.

The operculum of Diplommatina folliculus having been overlooked,

from its small size and hidden position, in the original description,

Mr. Benson was inclined to doubt its existence, but afterwards cor-

rected his former opinion. Captain Hutton formerly believed it

might be a clausium, attached to the shell by an elastic ligament :

he has recently most kindly written me a note, in which occurs

the following passage, setting this question at rest: ‘“ Having placed

my specimens upon some wet and withered oak leaves (Q. zncana),

which the animal prefers to anything else, I waited, magnifier in

hand, to decide the knotty point of operculum or no operculum,

and lo! when the animal came forth, I saw the little shield-like oper-

‘eulum carried horizontally upon the back of the animal, and not

attached to the shell. When the animal is just coming out of the

shell, the appendage is plain with the aid of a glass, but not so easily

‘seen when in full motion, as it lies upon the back of the animal, just

under the shell, and is thus in a measure hidden.’’—J. E. Gray.

Note on the Aphyllanthes monspeliensis, and the new Family of the

Aphyllanthacee. By M. Parvatore.

The Aphyllanthes monspeliensis is a plant which has the aspect of

a little rush, or rather that of the Dianthus prolifer; it grows abun-

dantly in the stony, sterile parts of the basin of the Mediterranean,

in the south of France as far as Nice, in Spain, Portugal and Algeria.

This plant was first described and figured by Pena and Lobel, who

did not fail to notice a certain resemblance between its flowers and

Miscellaneous. 801

those of a Dianthus, and who described them as borne within a glu-

maceous involucre. From this same resemblance, G. Bauhin placed

the Aphyllanthes in his section Caryophyllus sylvestris, under the

name of Caryophyllus ceruleus monspeliensis.

Tournefort established the genus Aphyllanthes, placing it in the

class of Liliacee, and considermg the involucre as a scaly and nearly

tubular calyx ; he gave a plate containing an analysis of the flower

_ and even of the capsule. Linnezeus retained the genus Aphyllanthes,

and in the first editions of his ‘Genera Plantarum,’ it is placed beside

the genus Juncus; for Linneeus regarded the Aphyllanthes as nearly

a rush, saying in the observations upon this plant, “‘ Juncus esset si

corolla careret.”

In the ‘Genera Plantarum’ of Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu,

Aphyllanthes is arranged in the first section of the order of Junci,

in which we also find the genera Hriocaulon, Restio, Xyris, and

Juncus, each of which has since been raised to the rank of a family.

DeCandolle continued to regard the Aphyllanthes as a_ plant

belonging to the family Juncee, although with him this family had

not the same limits as with Jussieu.. This opinion has been followed

by several recent botanists,—as by Ventenat, Bartling, Reichenbach,

and others.

Labillarditre having discovered the genus Borya in New Holland,

arranged it also amongst the Juncea, as it is allied to Aphyllanthes ;

but Mr. Robert Brown, in his celebrated ‘ Prodromus,’ whilst re-

marking that the aspect of Borya is that of a rush, indicated the

differences existing between the ¢esta and albumen of the seeds and

those of the Juncee; this ied him to arrange Borya in the family

of the Asphodelee, which, with him, includes a great part of the

Asphodeli and Asparagi of Jussieu.

Endlicher, in his ‘Genera Plantarum,’ placed Aphyllanthes, Borya,

Johnsonia, Laxmannia, and a new genus which he calls Alania, at the

end of the Liliacee, considering them as genera allied to the Asphodels

(genera Asphodeleis affinia) ; this has been followed by Kunth and

Schnitzlein ; and the latter has formed for these plants a tribe of

Liliacee which he calls Juncopsidee. 'Thus, three different opinions

now exist as to the family in which the dphyllanthes should be

placed: according to one of these it is a rush ; according to another,

an Asphodel; and the third approximates it to the Asphodels or the

Lilies, according to the extension given to the limits of the great

family Liliacee.

Few have, however, carefully studied the Aphyllanthes mons-

peliensis in the living state, at least to judge from the published

figures and descriptions, which are partially false. In the researches

upon the monocotyledonous plants, which I have followed for several

years, I have examined the Aphyllanthes, which presents a singular

structure, especially in the parts of the flower. The most remarkable

characters of the plant are the following :—

1. A rhizome with branches in the form of leafless stems.

2. Solitary flowers, or flowers united two or three together, borne

at the apex of the branches, and accompanied by scale-like bracts.

3802 Miscellaneous.

3. A scaly involucre proper to each flower, composed of five bracts

united together to a great extent so as to form a tubular calyx, and

persistent after flowering, when it envelopes the capsule. ay

4. A pedunculated flower in the interior of this involucre ; its

perigonium is formed of six membranous, petaloid leaflets, arranged

m two rows, and furnished with a pretty long claw, as in the Sile-

nacee.

5. The sestivation of these leaflets of the perigonium is imbricated,

and they cover each other at the tips. ;

6. Six stamina arranged in two rows, of which the external are

the shortest ; they are inserted by filiform filaments upon the throat

of the perigonium, and the anthers are bilocular and introrse.

7. Ovary stipitate, trilocular, with a single ovule in each cell.

8. Ovules amphitropal, reversed, inserted towards the middle of

the inner angle of the cell.

: he Stigmata trifid; each division furnished with a large lobe

elow.

10. Capsule rostrated, splitting into three valves (loculicido-tri-

valve), with a single seed, furnished with a crustaceous testa and a

fleshy perisperm, and containing an axile embryo, half the length of

the perisperm.

From these characters it appears to me that we must regard this

plant as the type of a uew.family, to which I propose to give the

name of Aphyllanthacee.

This family approaches the Juncee in the characters of the organs

of vegetation, and the Liliacee in those of the organs of reproduction,

so that it appears to form the passage between these two natural

families of plants. Nevertheless it differs essentially from both,

in the presence of an involucre which persists after inflorescence,.

and in the imbricated eestivation of the leaflets of the perigonium,

even of those of the outer row, which is valvate in the Juncee and

Iiliacee, the leaflets of which have the apices perfectly free, even in

those species in which the leaflets cover each other slightly at the

margins. In Aphyllanthes, on the contrary, the leaflets of the peri-

gonium cover each other at the tips, so that a form of bud is

produced different from that of the Lcliacee and Juncee.

In other respects the Aphyllanthacee differ principally from the

Juncee in the membranous and petaloid nature of the leaflets of the

perigonium, which wither and fall after inflorescence ; in the crusta-

ceous testa of the seed, and especially in the embryo, which is

situated in the axis of a fleshy perisperm of double its length. In

the Juncee the leaflets of the perigonium are glumaceous and rarely

subpetaloid, but always persistent; their seeds have a membranous

testa and enclose a small embryo, which only occupies the base of

the perisperm.

Besides the characters already indicated, the Aphyllanthacee also

differ from the Liliacee in the characters of the vegetation, and in

the singular structure of the flower, which presents a distinct resem-

blance to that of a Silenaceous plant, whence is partly derived that

resemblance to a Dianthus noticed even by the older writers.

Meteorological Observations. 803

The establishment of this family appears to me to acquire greater

importance, as some at least of the genera Borya, Alania, Johnsonia,

and Laxmannia, must be referred to it; these are genera allied to

Aphyllanthes, which, in the characters of their vegetation, resemble

either the Juncee or the Cyperacee, and which have their petaloid

flowers accompanied by scale-like persistent bracts, the two superior

of which are opposite, almost like the glumes of the Graminee, and

are sometimes bifid. or trifid, bidentate or tridentate at the apex.

These flowers are also disposed in groups or heads, which, after

flowering, present a great resemblance to the heads of Chetospora or

Xyris after their petals have fallen.—Comptes Rendus, 27th August

1855, p. 344.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR AUG. 1855.

Chiswick.—August 1. Very fine. 2. Very fine: heavy rain. 3—5. Very fine.

6. Overcast. 7. Very fine. 8. Rain: thunder: heavy rain.. 9. Cloudy and fine :

clear at night. 10. Foggy, with heavy dew: very fine: slight haze: very fine.

11. Slight haze: very fine. 12. Overcast: fine: clear. 13, Very fine. 14.

Cloudy and fine. 15,16. Very fine. 17. Slight fog: very fine. 18. Very fine.

19. Very fine: slight rain at night. 20. Slight rain: cloudy and boisterous. 21.

Fine: clear and windy. 22. Very fine. 23. Very fine: much sheet and forked

lightning at night. 24—26. Very fine. 27. Very fine: cloudy at night. 28,

29. Very fine. 30. Very fine: clear at night. 31. Very fine.

Mean temperature of the month ........seseesecereseeees ser seece GIGS

Mean temperature of Aug. 1854 .....d..secsseesesssseeveees vevee 60 *55

Mean temperature of Aug. for the last t twenty-nine “en »-» 61°98

Average amount of rain in Aug. .... cscdssarecvesnegsscece . 2446 inches.

Boston.— Aug. 1. Fine: rain a.m. 2—4. Fine. 5, 6. Cloudy. 7. Cloudy:

rain A.M. and p.M., with thunder. 8. Cloudy: rain a.m and p.m. 9. Rain a.m.

10. Fine. 11. Cloudy. 12. Cloudy: raina.m. 13. Fine. 14. Cloudy. 15—18.

Fine. 19. Fine:rain a.m. 20. Cloudy: rain a.m. 21,22. Cloudy.. 23. Cloudy:

rain Jal Oy p.m. 24. Fine, 25. Fine: rainp.m. 26—28. Fine. 29. Cloudy.

30, 31. Fine.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Aug. 1. Cloudy a.m.: fine, fog p.m. 2. Rain a.m.

fine, cloudy p.m. 3. Clear a.m.: fine, drops, thunder and lightning p.m. 4. Rain

A.M.: drizzle, showery p.m. 5. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 6. Clear a.m. and p.m.

7. Rain A.m.: showers p.m. 8. Rain a.m.: drizzle p.m. 9. Drizzle a.m.: clear,

vapour P.M. 10. Hazy a.m.: damp p.m. 11. Cloudy a.m.: showers P.M. 12.

Cloudy a.m.: damp p.m. 13. Showers a.m.: cloudy p.m. 14. Bright a.m.:

cloudy p.M. 15. Drizzle a.m.: cloudy p.m. 16. Cloudy a.M.: rain p.m. 17.

Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 18, 19. Cloudy a.m.: cloudy, thunder and lightning p.m.

20. Showers a.M.: rain p.M. 21. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 22. Showers a.m.

and p.m. 23. Showers, bright a.m.: clear p.m. 24. Cloudy a.m.: rain P.M.

25. Clear a.m. and p.m. 26,27. Rain a.m.: cloudy p.m. 28. Clear a.m.:

showers P.M. 29. Bright a.m.: clearr.m. 30. Drops a.m.: clear, drops P.M.

31. Cloudy a.m. and P.M.

Mean temperature of Aug. for twenty-eight ahbiba years ... 54°99

Mean temperature of this month —......... pdedhe ode oud vus ve aby ede 56 10

Mean temperature of Aug. 1854 — .essecsseceeceeeces voddeee seepe 55 °06

Average quantity of rain in Aug. for fifteen previous years ... 2°95 inches.

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THE ANNALS

MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

: [SECOND SERIES.] :

No. 95. NOVEMBER 1855.

XXVII.—Notes on some new or little-known Marine Animals.

By Puriiie Henry Gossz, A.L.S.

[With a Plate. ]

(Fascis ITT.)

Class ARACHNIDA.

Order ACARINA. Fam. TROMBIDIADA.

Genus Pacuyenatuus (Dugés).

P> natops (oii) PL. VIEL: figa: 14.

Body flat, sinuated, pointed behind, black ; one eye on the

back ; legs equal, the first and second remote from the third and

fourth, hairy ; the last joint the longest.

Description.—Length 7th of an inch. Body lozenge-shaped

or somewhat 7-sided, with sinuations at the origin of the limbs ;

it is hyaline and colourless at the margins, but the interior is

almost filled with a flesh of deep blue-black hue, perfectly opaque,

and of defined, subregularly-sinuous outline. In the centre of

the back, just behind the head, is a bright ruby-like round eye,

placed in front of the opacity, and between the first legs (fig. 1).

The head, formed by a great lip, projects in front and carries

two small palpi, thick at the base, conical, and pointed. Below,

the lip is divided longitudinally (fig. 2), each half being slightly

incurved and pointed, the two divisions approaching in a pincer-

like manner. Under slight pressure, there were projected be-

tween the palpi two slender styles (fig. 3), which doubtless

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 21

306 Mr. P.H.Gosse on new or little-known Marine Animals.

represent the mandibles; and hence I am not sure whether the

species should not range under the genus Raphignathus of

Dugés.

The legs are about equal and alike; the fourth and sixth

joints are large and swollen; the seventh is the largest and

tapers abruptly at the middle, like a claret bottle ; the tip forms

a little round disk, whence diverge a pair of curved hooks, with

plain edges, but two-toothed at the tip, or rather having a pro-

minent tooth over the tip (fig. 4). All the joints are well fur-

nished with straight bristles, the sixth having one much longer

and stouter than the rest. The limbs are set in two series, the

first. and second originating close together, but remote from the

third and fourth, which are also contiguous to each other,

Several specimens of this little Mite, I have-found in one of

my older vessels of sea-water. They climb up the glass sides,

among the flocculent vegetable matter that is deposited on the

glass. I afterwards found it among bushy sea-weed at I\fra-

combe, in August.

The specific name is from v@Tos, the back, and ay, the eye.

Fam. ORIBATADA.

Genus Hazacarvs (mihi),

H. ctenopus (mihi)*.

I found another specimen of this marine Mite in one of my

aquaria, among weed from Ilfracombe. It was th of an inch in

length, the body opaque or only subpellucid white, tinged in-

ternally with pale red ; the median white line very. conspicuous.

Strongly conspicuous also were two lateral black eyes, which ex-

actly agreed with those of H. rhodostigma, and a third orbicular

eye also black, close behind the rostrum. Neither of these eyes

was visible in the specimen I beforeexamined. The shape of

the body agreed. more with that of H. rhodostigma, and, as in

that species, the anus here was papillary and terminal.,. This

specimen appeared to bea male. meas

“A single Vorticella of a rather shallow bell was attached-to the

body, and the limbs carried several Acinetea, perhaps of the same

species. ‘They had a cylindrical body set on a very slender

stem ; the body cut into very distinct annuli, and bearing on its

two anterior angles pencils of short capitate sete (Pl. VIII. fig.6).

Total length 53,,th of an inch. ;

* See Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. for July 1855.

hy. ae

Mr. P. H. Gosse on ae little-known Marine Animals. 307

Class CRUSTACEA.

Order PoporHTHALMA. Fam. PALZMONID2.

Genus Hrproryre (Leach).

H. spinus (Sowerby).

A single specimen of this interesting Ausop Prawn, obtained

by me while dredging on the oyster-bank off Ilfracombe, in

August last, enables me to mention its colours in a living state.

Tt was about 3ths of an inch long.

The carapace, with the rostrum, and all the organs of the head

are opaque white; the abdomen is dull purplish-red, except the

summit of the third segment, which is white; the swimming-

plates of the tail and half of the penultimate segmentare white ;

the legs ringed with white and red. The surface of the abdomen

is beset with a few scattered erect hairs.

Order EnR1oPHTHALMA. Fam. CoroPHIADZ.

Genus Uncroxa (Say).

U. irrorata (Say).

Of this rare American Crustacean, which has not hitherto

_ been recognized in Europe, I obtained a specimen at Weymouth

between tide-marks in April last. Its colour was wholly white.

It. lived in one of my small vases for a week or two,. manifesting

no noticeable peculiarity of manners, except that it delighted to

hide among the bushy sea-weeds.

Fam. ASELLIDA.

Genus Tanats (M.-Edw.).

T. Savignyi (Kroyer).

This minute species, now first recognized as British, I obtained

also at Weymouth, in coralline from tide-marks. Both this and

the preceding I have figured in my ‘ Manual of Marine Zoology,’

figs. 246 & 256.

Fam. PRANIZAD&.

Genus Praniza (Leach).

P. ceruleata (Montagu).

I took a specimen parasitic on a young Cottus bubalis in a

rock-pool at: Ilfracombe;-in August: The mouth of the Crus-

tacean was so firmly imbedded in the cheek of the fish, that it

21%

808 Mr. P)H. Gosse on new or little-known Marine Animals.

could ‘not be detached without considerable effort; at length I

picked it off with a needle, and observed that the muzzle of the

Praniza was furnished with minute divergent filaments. The

colours during life were frecklings of umber-brown on a pellucid

ground, except the whole of the enormous penult segment of

the thorax, which was filled with a core (so to speak) of rich

erass-green, appearing bluish in some aspects, set in a pellucid-

white exterior. The eyes, which were black, were remarkable

’ for the fewness and great size of their facets; which, notwith-

standing the minuteness of the insect, were distinctly visible

with a low-powered pocket-lens.

The animal was sluggish, though apparently unhurt, when

detached from its victim.

Otto obtained P. branchialis (Nov. Act. xiv. 348) from the

branchie of Phycis furcatus; and this is the only instance that

I know of in which this genus has been proved to be parasitic.

Mr. Westwood, however, suspected it (Ann. Sci. Nat. xxvii. 326),

from his having found P. Montagui among Caligide from Shet-

land.

Fam. SrpH#ROMADA.,

Genus Nasea (Leach).

N. bidentata (Leach).

When alive its ground colour is dark chocolate-brown, pro-

duced by a pattern of lines on a pellucid body, studded with

symmetrical spots and dashes of pale “ king’s yellow ;” the con-

trast of hues producing a handsome result. ‘This species I have

obtained both at Weymouth and at Ilfracombe.

The following Crustacea are perhaps worthy of being men-

tioned as occurring to me at Weymouth. Corophium longicorne

is numerous in the shallow salt-water ditches at the upper end

of the Backwater. -Anthura gracilis occurred in sea-weed ; and

Nebalia bipes I found in a hollow beneath.a stone off the jetty at

a low spring tide. ee

Class ANNELIDA

Order. CH&TOPODA. up Pam. diuamande

Genus CritHipa (mihi), a )

Antenne five, very large; viz. a frontal pair which are bulbous

at base, and two-branched, and three occipital ones, which are

very thick, tapering'to’a blunt point, and long: a’ pair of ten-

tacular cirri on the head + two large eyes : feet ovate, very move-

Mr. P. H. Gosse on new or little-known Marine Animals. 309

able, each with a filiform cirrus above, a pencil of short, bristles,

and a second pencil of long straight convergent bristles,

C. thalassina (mihi). Pl. VIII. fig. 5.

Length ith of an inch ; colour of some specimens a lively pel-

lucid sea-green, of others pale orange or fawn-brown : all the

members colourless.

The head is distinct, with two large conspicuous eyes, of a

very dark red hue. The front of the head, which is, slightly

two-lobed, bears a pair of porrected antenne, the basal portions

of which are large and bulb-like, giving rise to two diverging

filaments, of which the interior is the shorter, and is often much

convoluted. Between these antenne and the eyes are, two

minute horn-like processes, which may perhaps be considered a

supplementary pair of antenn, in which case the total number

is seven. Immediately behind the eyes are three large antenne

(two lateral and one medial), which taper to a blunt point, and

are more than half as long as the body ; they are directed back-

wards, and are generally more or less curled and convoluted. “A

tentacular cirrus springs from the base of each lateral antenna.

Segments twenty-five, exclusive of the head. Each is fur-

nished with a pair of feet, of which the first three are smaller

than the rest, and stand out transversely. All the rest point

backwards (but are very free and mobile), and are of a long-oval

shape, diminishing regularly to the tail. Both these and the

anterior series carry a superior cirrus, which is filiform, wrinkled,

but not moniliform, and a little longer than the foot itself.

Both series have also a pencil of short bristles, and the posterior

series have in addition a second pencil, which is straight, con-

vergent, twice as long as the foot, and directed obliquely back-

wards. .The ovate feet in regular distichous arrangement, with

these long pencils, have a very striking resemblance to an ear of

barley with its grains and awns; a resemblance which I have

commemorated in the generic appellation, from, «ps0, barley,

and efSos, likeness. The ultimate and penultimate segments are

minute, and are destitute of cirri and bristles.

Some half-dozen ofthese little worms were dipped from the

surface of the Bristol Channel near []fracombe, on a calm after-

noon in Augrist last: They swam’ with ‘excessive agility by a

rapid horizontal undulation of the body, in which the long pen-

cils reflected prismatic rays. The moment this undulatory move-

ment, ceased,, they, usually,-bentsthemselvesimto, a crescent or

eircles dy eco Istiqioo

..The genus reminds, one of Zoida of the late Dr. Johnston, but

is. widely, remote, from. it.;the bifid, antenne are very peculiar.

3810. Mr. P.H.Gosse on new or little-known Marine Animals.

The minuteness of the animal forbade my determining the nature

of the proboscis, or the form of the bristles.

Fam. AURICOMADE?

Genus Crossostoma (mihi).

No distinct head; no eyes; upper margin of mouth set with

numerous cirri; segments thirty, of which the anterior ones are

furnished with bristles, feet, and superior cirri; inferior cirri

from the fourth segment to the tail ear-like, cleft; eight ten-

tacles on the second and third segments; tail furnished with a

pair of minute styles.

C. Midas (mihi). Pl. VIII. figs. 7-12.

Body 1} inch long, 4th of an inch wide in front, tapering to

tail, subcylindrical, flattened beneath, plump and glossy (fig. 7).

Mouth opening somewhat beneath, with a retractile lip, the

upper margin of which is frmged with numerous radiating cirri,

which ‘are curled, white, slender, ciliated, and apparently: tactile,

as they are frequently applied to the ground in an exploring

manner (figs. 7,8). Immediately above this fringe are two oval

or reniform disks, which appear to occupy the place of eyes, but

are not’ coloured.

The body is composed of thirty segments, which are very

distinct beneath, but, from the plumpness of the body above, the

annulation is almost obsolete there. Hach segment, as far as

the eighteenth, is furnished, on each side, with:a small cylin-

drical foot (fig. 10), which bears; above, a minute superior cirrus,

and is perforated at the tip to project a pencil of bristles, which

are long, slender, straight blades, drawn off to a fine point,

slightly curved (fig. 12). The pencil of the first segment is much

graduated, and is of the colour and appearance of burnished

gold; those of the second and third segments are minute, and

these segments themselves are as it were fused together. » They:

give origin above to eight tentacles, which forma group of four

on each side, comparatively short, but graduated im length, thick,

cylindrico-conical, obtuse, with a dark core; these organs: are

suberect, projecting and diverging (figs. 8, 9).

At the fourth segment commences ‘a series of organs, which

continues to the tail. They appear to'be the inferior cirri of the

feet, but are separated by a distinct: interval from ‘the bristle-

bearing tubercles (fig: 10).°° In' form they» resemble the human

ear, at least as far as the middle of the body, whence they gra-

ditally become more and more wart-likey | ‘They have a longitu-

dinal fissure near the tip, the orifice of which is’ protected bya

Mr. P. H. Gosse on new or little-known Marine Animals.’ 311.

series of minute, close-set, transverse bristles, which impart to

these organs under the microscope some resemblance to the lips

of a Cowry shell. I could detect no cilia on these ear-like

organs, but the tentacles and the fringing cirri of the mouth are

richly ciliated.

The ultimate segment is furnished with a pair of slender

diverging fleshy filaments (fig. 11).

The colours of this worm are beautiful. The back is purplish-

red, passing into lilac, with a fine pearly gloss, the whole thickly

studded with white specks. The head, the mouth-fringe, and

the whole under-parts are white. The tentacles are translucent

yellow-olive, with a black core at the base, gradually lost, the

surface marked with transverse lines and dashes of opake white.

The first pencil of bristles (as has been said above) is golden.

The animal inhabits a tube about twice its own length and

thickness; but its diameter appears greater than it is, from its

manner of construction. It is made of small fragments of shell,

minute bits of slate, &c., affixed, not by their surfaces, but edge:

wise, so that the whole presents a peculiarly rugged. bristling

appearance, yet not devoid of neatness. Slender filaments, of

sea-weed, coralline, &c. project here and there ;—and, while a

large flat stone ballasts the posterior extremity, the anterior, is

protected by a small limpet shell, which has been seized entire,

and most ingeniously fastened so as to form a dome over, the

animal’s head when partly protruded (fig. 8), Somewhat similar

porticoes I have seen in the tubes of Caddis worms, which, in-

deed: this: structure closely resembles; and the same object, is

attained by a large species of Sabellaria common on the Devon-

shire coast, which constructs a flat portico of the common sub-

stanceof theitube. | In all cases it is a beautiful instance of ani-

mal providence, as well as architecture.

I did: not, however, find that, with all this attention to. com-

fort, the worm was particular as to which end of his dwelling he

made his sally-port ; for after having used the porticoed extre-

mity awhile, which of course was the front door, he suddenly

appeared (having turned himself meanwhile in some mysterious

manner):'at the back-door, which thenceforth he. persisted ,in

usingvall:the while I had him. He was notiat,all shy; he would

retreat, indeed, if touched, but, was presently out again....His

habit was:to-protrude a fourth, or even half of his body from. the

tube, and:remain icurling and twining the mouth-fringe of cirri,

every instant twitching onejor other. of the tentacles, and jas, it

were’ striking the: water nit them, as a crab does with its inner

antenne.) 99:

‘The: specimen ¥ was | taken at Ilfracombe, under .a. stone jat low

water, in ‘August; and lived some days in captivity.

312 Mr. P. H. Gosse on new or little-known Marine Animals.

The generic name is from xpooads, a fringe, and ordyua, the

mouth ; the specific alludes to the fable of the long-eared Phry-

gian king.

Fam. SaABELLADZ.

Genus Proruna (Griibe).

P. Dysteri (Huxley).

I obtained this beautiful and interesting species at Ilfracombe,

both from deep water, and from the sides of perpendicular rocks

at extreme low tide. I had prepared drawings and a memoir of

it for publication, supposing it to be new; but I find that my

friend Mr. Huxley has described it far better than I could, in the

‘Edinb. New Phil. Journ.’ for January of the present year. I

had the pleasure of repeating most of his observations, and in

particular that of the fissiparous increase of the species.

Class TURBELLARIA.

Order PLANARIEA. Tribe Ruasppoca@ a.

Genus Convotuta (Oersted).

C. paradoxa (Oersted).

This little worm I met with in April of the present year at

Weymouth, crawling out of tufted weeds from low water. But at

Ilfracombe in July it occurred in far greater abundance, crowd-

ing the branches of the common Coralline and Ceramium. The

manner in which the lateral edges of the body are rolled over, so

as to form an imperfect cylinder, with an oblique orifice ante-

riorly, renders it a highly curious form. . In their movements the

little creatures were very active; crawling swiftly along the

branches, and especially about the terminal filaments, frequently

two or three on the same tip, with a smooth gliding progress,

much like that of an Holis or Doris, but more nimble. They

frequently raise the fore parts, and occasionally almost the whole

body, adhering only by the posterior portion, and then explore

the surrounding water, as a caterpillar throws its head, about. at

the tip of a twig. Then they often glide off into the free water,

and swim with exactly the same sort) of motion as they used:on

the weed.

Having immersed several of them im fresh water, with a view

to killing them before placing them in spirit of wine for preser-

vation, I found that in a very few moments they were dissolving,

by the commingling of their exterior surface with the water, so

as to present only undefined and incoherent: masses of mucus.

Ara So Meg. Nat: Hest S.2.10).16. 29

y ee

{

| :

’ : ‘ Sh

ae ) |

: / 4 j

iY 2g

J.Basire sc.

PH.Gosee ad -viv.del.

Mr. R. Warington on the Aquarium. 313

Class ZOOPHYTA.

. Order AcTINOIDA. Fam. LuceRNARIADS.

Genus Lucrrnaria (Miller).

EL. campanilata (Lamx.).

A specimen of this species was obtained at Ilfracombe in

August, by the Rev. Sir Christopher Lighton, who kindly gave

it tome. It was about 1} inch in height, of a dull chocolate

hue, in parts tinged with olive; in form a deep goblet with the

cup slightly bell-shaped, the stalk slender, and the foot wide and

thick: the groups of tentacles were contracted while I had it,

the globose heads being crowded together, with no appearance

of their slender pedicels. Between the tentacled eminences the

spaces were rounded, and seemed as if the integument were a

little turned over like a rim.

It was found attached to a sea-weed, but soon detached itself,

and never afterwards adhered to anything: the only motion I

observed in it was an occasional spasmodic bending-in of one or

other of the tentacle-groups. After a day or two it became

offensive, without losing its form, and was evidently dead and

decaying.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII.

. Pachygnathus notops, magnified, dorsal surface.

. Ibid. the lip viewed from beneath.

. Ibid. the palpi and styliform mandibles.

Ibid. an unguis.

Crithida thalassina, magnified.

. Acineta, parasitic upon a marine Mite, magnified.

. Crossostoma Midas, nat. size, out of its tube.

. Ibid. magnified, viewed laterally, with a portion of its tube.

. Ibid. magnified, viewed dorsally, anterior portion.

. Lbid. a foot from near the middle.

. Ibid. the posterior extremity, and caudal styles.

. Ibid. a pencil of bristles.

beheld dbl

LOONIE Oo tO

bold

—

Nor Oo

XXVITI.—On the Injurious Effects of an excess or want of Heat

and Light on the Aquarium. By Rospurr Warineton, Esq.

TEMPERATURE is a point requiring great attention in carrying

out successfully the principles of a permanent aquarium. The

mean temperature of the ocean is estimated to be about 56° Fahr.,

and this, under ordinary circumstances, does not vary more than

about 12° throughout the different seasons of the year. The

causes of this equilibrium willbe readily understood when we

take into consideration the effects that must be produced by the’

314 Mr. R. Warington on the Aquarium.

continued flux and reflux of the tides, and by the enormous

streams. of water which must be flowing from the Arctic regions:

from year’s end to year’s end in one constant) current, and

which, by their movement, must necessarily cause other currents

to flow in and take their place, thus forcing, as it were, the

heated surface-water of the tropical seas towards the colder

regions of the globe. Again, the whole surface of the earth,

submersed below the ocean, is protected by this fluid coating

from the effects of the cooling influences of radiation on the one

hand, and from contact with the currents of the atmosphere on

the other; and hence we perceive an always existent cause for

the maintenance of a steady, equable temperature by the waters

of the ocean throughout the year. |

Many of the inhabitants of the sea are very sensitive to

changes of temperature, and we find that a few degrees of

variation will cause them rapidly to move their position and

seek some cooler or warmer spot as the case may be. In the

ocean it will be evident that the creatures have the power

readily to effect this under ordinary circumstances, by seeking

deeper water not hable to be affected by atmospheric influ-

ences, by partially or entirely burying themselves in the sand

or shingle, or by shielding their bodies under the protecting

shadow of the rocks or growing vegetation. In arranging the

rock-work in the interior of the aquarium, therefore, great care

should be taken to keep these points in view, and to afford as.

much protection as possible to the creatures from the cooling

influences of radiation on the one hand, and from the heat of

the sun’s rays on the other. :

From my own experience I find that the range of tempe-

rature should not be below 50° Fahr., nor above 70°; within

these limits all appears to progress healthily, but beyond these

pots many of the creatures are rapidly affected. During

the last long-continued and severe winter, it was found very

difficult, in an ordinary sitting-room having a south aspect

and a good fire maintained throughout the day—the tanks being

also screened at night by a blind,—to prevent the powerful

cooling effects from radiation on a clear frosty night; and

on three several occasions, marking exactly the three severest

frosts that we experienced during the winter, the thermometer,

immersed in an aquarium containing about thirty gallons of

water, fell as low as 45° Fahr.,.The)Shrimp and Crab tribes,

and the Crustaceans generally, are especially affected by these

changes, and on each of the three occasions alluded to, one

or two individuals perished; the larger-sized Prawns, as Pale-

mon serratus, appeared to suffer more readily than the P. squilla,

although this might arise from the smaller ones being able

Dr. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration. 315

to finda shelter from the radiation by concealing themselves

more completely among the rock-work or vegetation. Anthea

cereus is also. very sensitive to considerable variations of tem-

perature, falling from its foot-hold to the bottom of the tank

apparently dead.

Excess of heat and also strong sunlight are likewise to be as

carefully guarded against, and I may state as an evidence of this,

that on a particularly hot day durmg the summer of 1854, being

absent from home, the servant omitted to screen a small case

from the sun’s rays during the hottest period of the day, and on

my return I found every creature dead. It contained an Anthea

cereus, Actinia dianthus, two specimens of Athanas nitescens, and

several others.

Too much light has also the effect of rapidly propagating

several of the minute animalcules of a green colour, as the

Euglena and its congeners, which under this influence multiply

so rapidly as to render the whole water of a grass-green hue;

this will at times subside to the lower part of the tank as

evening approaches and disappear in the shingle bottom, but

immediately the morning light shines strong upon the aquarium

it will rise like a thin green cloud and diffuse itself throughout

the whole of the water. Although this animalcular growth is

not unhealthy, yet it causes the aquarium to present a) very

unsightly appearance, and prevents all observation on the habits

of the inmates. The want of light, I) need hardly observe,

causes the rapid decay of the vegetation, and the products

arising from this change are highly poisonous to animal life, the

whole contents of the aquarium becoming of a black colour, and

very soon of an offensive odour.

Apothecaries’ Hall, Sept. 11, 1855.

XXIX.—On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration and on the

Structure of the Organs. of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals.

By Tuomas Wixiiams, M.D. Lond., F.L.S., Physician to the

Swansea Infirmary.

[With a Plate. ]

[Continued from vol. xiv. p, 262.]

Gasteropoda.

Ir is now proposed to inquire into the structure of the organs

of breathing in that multitudimous group of mollusks which lies

above. the. Ly Sen RR constituting literally a great sub-

kingdom ; it will be impossible within the limits of this memoir

316 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

todo, more than to illustrate types and) plans of, structure, by

special reference to a few familiar examples. Little account will

be rendered of those classes with reference to which no personal

opportunities have occurred to the author for instituting original

investigations.

The Pteropoda are thus first excluded.

In proceeding to the study of the respiratory system of. the

Gasteropod mollusks, there present themselves a few questions

which must be preliminarily considered.

In the conchiferous orders of this class, the shell is not simply

and exclusively intended to shield and protect from external

violence the soft body of the animal: it is a means by which the

animal maintains between itself and the surrounding medium a

certain fixed and important relation. The soft parts are tied to

the shell only at certain limited points (Pl. IX. fig. 24)... The

mode of connexion differs in different orders, but not in families

and genera. The point or line of attachment (0) is the pivot

upon which the motions of the body of the animal are performed.

Locomotion, in which the animal as well as the shell effect a

change of place, is accomplished by means of the foot. The

movements of the animal within the shell, the latter being fixed,

considered with respect to its immediate well-being, assume a

far greater importance than that of progression. . In all shelled

Gasteropods, the shell, whatever be its figure, whether univalve

or multivalve, spiral, tubular or conical, circumscribes a chamber

which is larger in size than the body of the animal which it

serves to lodge... The difference in sectional area in the case of

the spiral Univalves between the solid coil of the contained body

and the hollow coil (fig. 2 a, a, a, a) of the, containing shell, in-

dicates a space which in all instances is filled with water; it. is

water which occupies this space even in the: land. Helicide.. In

the Patelloid and Chitonoid families (fig.,1, a,'5),a chamber cor-

responding to this space is bounded above.by,the hollow apex of

the shell, below by the dorsal surface of the animal; it is closed

behind and open anteriorly. When the occupant: extrudes itself

from this coned chamber, a spacious open cavity is, generated at

the apex of the shell, into which through an opening in. the edge

of the mantle (d), situated, above the head, of. the .animal, water

or air rushes. In the Fissurellide, in which the, apex of. the

shell is perforated, the surrounding element in part enters into,

and escapes from, according as the inmateemerges,from or retires

into its shell, the space at, this orifice, the..edge of the, mantle

consequently being adherent nearly all round....This is} a point

of generic difference between the Patellide and. Fissurellide,

The layer of water intervening between the animal and the shell

is in direct contact with that region of, the. body in which the

Respiration in Invertebrate’ Animals. 317

viscera are enclosed. The interior surface of the chamber of the

shell is so nacreous and polished, and the corresponding portion

of the animal is so serous and smooth, that every condition

which can affect the facile motion of the one surface upon the

other is thus secured. From this circumstance the mind is led

forcibly to the idea, that this arrangement has really nothing

more than this mechanical purpose for its object. It might be

supposed, from the intimate contact thus effected between the

external element and the visceral cavity, that the former might

incidentally enter in considerable quantities by endosmosis into

the latter, and thus replenish the diminishing volume of the

nutritive fluids. In order to determine this latter point, and

whether the water in the chamber of the shell (fig. 2.4, a) were

capable of fulfilling an accessory part in the office of respiration,

it became necessary to ascertain by actual observation two

doubtful points of structure, viz. whether the membrane cover-

ing that portion of the body of the animal which is enclosed

within the shell be ciliated, or otherwise favourably organized

with a view to such an office ; and secondly, whether the circu-

lating fluids beneath this membrane were disposed conformably

with such an intention.

The great bulk of the soft parts, the abdomen proper

(fig. 6 d, d; fig. 4b, c), by which the coil of the shell is filled, con-

sists of the liver, a portion of the stomach and intestinal canal,

and the reproductive organs. They are invested by a mem-

brane which is the continuation of the mantle. The membrane

here becomes thinner and smoother, assuming the characters

of a serous structure; it is not adherent at any point to the

shell. On the inferior aspect of the body it 1s drawn up into a

frenum, in the layers of which are enclosed muscular fascicles.

It is by means’ of this contrivance that the animal is enabled

to coil itself firmly round and to grasp the columella (fig. 2 c).

Although this coat has a serous aspect, it is the continuation of

the fibrous mantle which forms the vault of the respiratory

chamber (fig. 3 Aa, & fig. 3 B-a). If by a very careful dis-

section this covering’ be removed from the viscera underneath,

the nature of its connexions with the latter will be readily seen,

Tt nowhere leaves an open space between it and the solid organs

which it invests. It is, on the contrary, so intimately united to

thein, that numerous fibrous threads and bands descend from its

internal surface, penetrating into the substance of the viscera

and becoming continuous with their stromatous fibrous struc-

ture. “It'is inseparably identified with the serous tunica propria

of each viscus.'’ The latter cannot be said to exist as an inde-

pendent structure.’ In no single species of the Prosobranchiata

(M.-Edw.),'or'the shelled Pulmonifera, is it provided with ciliary

318 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

epithelium. This is actually the case in the freshwater Limneids,

the most highly ciliated of this order. In no single species is

there discoverable a space of any description, or a layer of chan-

nels or vessels of any sort between it and the invested abdominal

organs. It is therefore certain that the abdominal segment of

the body in the conchiferous Gasteropods can lend no aid what-

ever in the function of breathing. The porcellaneous interior

surface of the shell is totally devoid of all organic covering; its

polished surface is well adapted for the ready motion of the soft

abdomen, covered also by its finely polished membrane, in its

coiled chamber. The nacreous internal layers of the shell answer

another important end: they render the shell water-proof;

that is, the water which is drawn into the abdominal cavity,

through the space at the mouth of the shell between the thoracie

chamber and the edge of the latter, cannot escape by exosmosis

or evaporation through the texture of the shell. The aperture

of the shell being closed, by the operculum and thoracic expan-

sion of the mantle, the water in the spire cannot escape. It

constitutes a permanent reservoir. In this position it answers

important purposes. It prevents the drying of the delicate ab-

dominal membrane. It preserves the vital organs underneath in

the required condition of moistness. It obviates the exhaustion

of the nutritive fluids by evaporation. But more than: all, it

is capable, by a slight movement backwards of the animal, of

being pushed forward into the cavity of the anterior shell-coil,

and thence it may be drawn into the branchial chamber. In

the littoral families of Univalves this is not a useless function

when. they are left on the dry rock by the recession, of. the tide,

In the land Helicide it subserves also a similar end. ‘This fluid

in the Cyclobranchiata is lodged in the hollow of the apex or

vault of the shell (fig. 1 a) resting on the back of the animal.

In this order the border of the mantle, is, deficient. at, the point

(4), which corresponds with the back of the neck of the animal.

It is by this orifice or passage that the water. is drawn’ into’ the

cavity (a). The character, the extreme dilatability and uses of

this cavity may be advantageously studied in, the, common

Patella. It is capable under certain circumstances of receiving

and retaining a large volume of fluid.» But the furthest: limits

(ce) to which it may be distended without rupture are best shown

by the injection of coloured size. By steadily continued force,

the fluid thrown in will slowly thrust the. mollusk.,out, of its

shell (7). It forms.a fuleral pomt upon which the:animal bears, in

the act of fixing its shell to the rock.» This dorsal chamber in

the Chitonide is very small. In the Fissurellidz the perforation

at, the apex of the shell opens into the cavity ; ,the latter cannot

therefore act on. the mechanical principle above explained... But-

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 819

since these mollusks are seldom out of the water, this mode of

action can scarcely at any time be put im request. They fir

themselves by the action of the foot alone. By the undulat*ug

motion of this organ, the water between it and the surface of

the stone is pressed out. The soft parts within the shell are

then subject to the uncounterbalanced pressure of the superin-

cumbent column of water which operates through the orifice at

the apex of the shell. In the case of the Patella, it is by the

shell that the atmospheric pressure is borne. The vacuum is

formed, not by the extrusion of the water from the roof of the

shell, but by the adaptation of the foot to the surface of contact.

Hydrostatic or atmospheric pressure, as the case may be, becomes

thus a considerable assistant force, but it does not, as commonly

supposed, constitute the only and exclusive mechanism by which

these mollusks cling to the rock.

These observations therefore justify the total and uncon-

ditional exclusion of the abdominal region of the body in the

Conchiferous Univalves from the office of aérating the fluids.

Neither the investing membrane nor the distribution of: the

blood underneath sanctions’ this idea.

This conclusion is not opposed to the views first stated by

Milne-Edwards, in his celebrated essay “ Sur la Circulation chez

les Mollusques *.”

* Annales des Sciences, 3 Sér. tom. viii. 1847. . Nowhere does this

distinguished observer describe an abdominal cavity in the Mollusca.

Nothing in this class in the adult state exists which can be compared to the

free, undivided visceral cavity of the Echinoderms and Annelids. Here

this space is occupied by an independent fluid, the chylaqueous.' In Mol-

lusea such a fluid does not exist. The cavity therefore is not required.

Milne-Edwards, chiefly| insists upon the fact, that.the venous system is de-

ficient or imperfectly developed in this class. “ Dans :tous les Mollusques

dont la structure nous est connue, les vaisseaux sanguins manquent en

partie, et une portion plus ou moms considérable du cercle circulatoire se

trouve constituée parde ‘simples lacunes.”? In another place he observes—

“ Mais dans. la.téte, je, voyais toujours Vinjection s’extravaser et remplir

une grande cavité ou, se. trouvent logés le cerveau, les glandes salivaires, le

pharynx, et tous les muscles de la bouche.” Again, he speaks in Halotis

of “une communication libre et normale entre la grande artére du corps et

la'cavité céphalique ovr se'trouvent logés les principaux centres nerveux et

toute la portion antérieure de Pappareil digestif.” He then states that this

“ cavité céphalique,”’ is filled with arterial blood. In a still more definite

manner he thus describes the only “cavity” for the reception of fluid

which exists in the. Molluscan organism :—“ Effectivement, je me suis

assuré que, chez ce grand Mollusque Gastéropode, l’artére aorte, parvenue

au point ole canal digestif se:recourbe pour descendre de la face supé-

rieure du bulbe pharyngien dans la cavité abdominale, debouche directement

dans une vaste lacune, dont les parois sont formées en partie par les tégu-

ments communs de la téte, et en partie par les muscles et les tuniques du

pharynx jointes & des lames de tissu connectif étendues transversalement

au devant de la cavité abdominale, lacune dont Vintérieur est occupé,

320 Dr.’T. Williams on ‘the Mechanism of Aquatic

' ‘The’ spacidus’ sinuses ‘and lacun developed’in the course of

the venous half of the circulation aré not said’ by this author to

comme je l’ai déja dit, parla masse charnue de la bouche, les glandes sali-

vaires, les principatix ganglions du systéme’ nerveux, ét un’ grand nombre

de brides musculaires et ‘fibreuses.””.\. ..00ff Mais uncfait qui,’ au premier

abord, paraitia plus singulier encore, c’est que, tandis qu’une portion, dela

cavité générale vient compléter l’appareil, vasculaire, l’artére aorte remplit

des fonctions analogues A celles de la cavité abdominale, car elle loge dans

son intérieur une portion de l’appareil digestif.” It does not clearly ap-

pear from the observations of M. Quatrefages, in his memoir ‘‘ Sur la Cavité

générale du Corps des Invertébrés”’ (Ann. des Sci. 3 Sér. tom. xiv. 1850), that

he has specially considered this point. He does indeed in one place positively

' state, that the “abdominal cavity in the Acephalan and Gasteropod Mol-

lusks is a part or segment of the circulatory system” :—‘ Chez les Mol-

lusques Acéphales, proprement dit, existence de la cavité générale est

‘encore plus complétement déguisée. ....... Les Mollusques Gastéro-

podes présentent souvent quelque chose de semblable. Toutefois, chez

ces/derniers|la cavité générale est presque toujours trés reconnaissable,

surtout dans la partie qui correspond au pied.” Here no distinction is

attempted between the true peritoneal cavity, such as it exists’ in’ the

Radiated ‘aad’ Annulose ‘classes, and those lacunz or vascular dilafations

suchas’ MilnesEdwards first described in the structure of the Mollusea.

This, point is-one of great, zoological as well as homological interest. .If in

the M ollusca the circulatory system is peripherically nothing but.a ramifica-

tion of the peritoneal cavity, it is only a chylaqueous system plus a heart. —

But if it can be proved that the peritoneal space is obliterated in these mol-

lusks, and that the venous lacune of Milne-Edwards are parieted, contrac-

tile, dilated yessels, that is, segments of the fluid system, situated in the inter-

stices of the solid organs, every reason will have been overthrown for sup-

posing that the apparatus of the circulation in the mollusks is nothing but

a ramified development of the peritoneal cavity. In all animals below the

Mollusca, the system of the perivisceral chamber is dedicated to a distinct

and separate system of nutritive fluids. Its parietes m all cases are non-

contractile—almost always ciliated at some point or other of its extent—

while the fluid contents are invariably circulated by the action of externally

situated muscles. These are peculiarities which appear to isolate this

system almost completely from the circulatory apparatus of the Mollusca ;

in other words, they seem to prove that it. partakes more fully of the cha-

racters which belong to, the maturely developed circulation of the Verte-

brated animal, than of those of the rudimentary chylaqueous system of the

Radiate and Annulose classes. If the arterial half of the circulation of

Mollusks be, likened to the blood-proper system of Annelids, and the

venous half of the former be taken as the representative of the perivisceral

cayity in the latter, the homology, of the molluscan apa tee would be

established! Siebold observes—“ In Nudibranchs, Cyclobranchs, Scuti-

branchs, Tectibranchs, Pectinibranchs, and Pulmonata, &c., these venous

canals are only lacune excavated in the muscular walls of the body, and

are without proper walls, as Meckel has pretended is the case with those of

Aplysia;” and Souleyet (Comptes Rendus, xx. p. 81, note 3) remarks,

“que le systéme veineux des Mollusques n’est. pas toujours formé par des

vaisseaux distincts, mais qu'il se compose en grande partie de ces canaux

creusés dans I'épaisseur ou dans Vinterstice des organes.”* And it has been

supposed by Prof. Owen and others, that the heart-like dilatations which

oceur at various pomts in the cireulation of the Cephalopods, are lined

Respwration in Invertebrate. Animals. 321

consist of the abdominal cavity, portioned off in order to aid in

the circulation of the fluids. Whatever may be the embryonic

significance of these roomy dilatations of the blood-channels in

this class, it is quite certain that in very few instances are they

situated external to and around the viscera (a position invariably

occupied. by the chylaqueous fluid), and therefore in the space

bounded by the peritoneum and immediately underneath the

external covering *. By the fact of their situation, these parts

are then excluded from all participation in the office of breathing.

The preceding facts affect the present inquiry in the following

manner :—They prove that the organization of the posterior or

abdominal portion of the body in the Conchiferous Gasteropods,

that part whick is lodged within the shell, is not adapted for the

admission of water into the interior of the animal, either for the

supply of an aquiferous system or for the replenishing of the

nutritive fluids. They prove, independently of other evidence,

that the water with which the spire of the shell is filled, and in

which floats the corresponding portion of the animal, cannot

penetrate in any manner into the body ; that it cannot. be viewed

as a reservoir whence is drawn the contents of a water-vascular

system—if such a system has a real existence in these animals ;

that, in fact, it can only act in a mechanical sense by enabling

the tenant to vary the specific weight of his house, to move

internally with a mucous membrane, like that which invests the branchial

chamber. These and other facts drawn from the adult anatomy of the

Mollusca, prove that, whatever argument may be drawn from embryonic

development, that the open spaces, lacunz, &c., which arise in the venous

segment of the system, ought not too readily to be explained as merely

cut-off portions of the perivisceral or peritoneal cavity.

If the spacious cephalic and pharyngeal lacune, first defined by Milne-

Edwards, be not, in an embryonic sense, spaces cut off from the general

cavity of the body, they must ab origine be parts of the vascular system.

For the present this subject must remain an open question ; that is, it

cannot at present be confidently stated whether the circulating system of

Mollusca form a distinct, and independent system in the organism, or

whether it be only a modified adaptation of the peritoneal cavity, or

whether it be a fusion of both. To solve such doubts by an easy reference

to the embryological relations of the parts were unsatisfactory. Two parts

may have a common point of departure in the process of development, and

yet they may stand very remotely apart in their ultimate structure and

purpose. How little explanative it is, for instance, to remark, that the

‘blood-proper’ system of the Annelids and the tracheal system of Insects,

bemg developments. of the tegumentary, epidermal layer, are therefore

homologous anatomically, and analogous in office! This, however, is not

the oecasion for the full discussion of this subject.

* Tt should be stated, however, that in the lowest Mollusca, as exem-

plified by Firoloides and Atlanta, the space between the integuments and

the viscera is deseribed by some observers as forming a constituent are of

the fluid-system.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvi. ; 22

322 Dr. Te Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

readily 'to-‘and fro in his chamber, and to shield the soft» segment:

of the body from injury. It is not improbable that the layer; of

water thus placed between the body of the mollusk and the ‘shell;

may materially assist in the excretionary process as’ described by

Mr. Huxley, which the: latter is formed.) ‘It:may add fluid:

to, or dissolve the excreted material furnished) by the surface of

the’ mantle, and adapt .it\to the ‘internal surface: of the: shell»

The ‘hinited ligament (fig. 2.6) by which the animal is ‘organi:

cally anited to its'shell, places: it Theydad doubt that the latter

can: be formed by no other process.

» By.‘a‘few general observations, one department of: the sulie

ject has been thus ‘disposed of. No reference will hereafter be

made to this subject, namely to the relation which ‘subsists bes

tween the abdominal segment of the body in Gasteropods and:

external circumstances. It is extraordinary how in this class.of

mollusks ‘the most active forces of life are developed and) spe+

cialized in the thoracie region, and how comparatively passive:

are*those parts which .are: bounded by the limits: of»the -abdo-

men! Circulation and respiration are functions which belong

tothe former division. Large chylopoietie viscera area resultant

phenomenon.) Thoracic development isa dynamic:expression:of

an organic power. Without it, other results could not follow.

Itas the sign of power+-+without which the vegetative processes

couldnot‘be ‘sustained. “Between the Acephala and Cephalophora

there is- this ‘striking: difference :—In‘ the! former the mouth is

placed in-the'respiratory: cavity, in the latter)it! is:thesanal jorix

fice. In the former the alimentary and respiratory chambersiarée

confounded}: in ‘the latter the breathing andthe cloacal, cavities

are identified, :: This isa wide mark betweem the 5 ee

andthe Gasteropoda. a slonia of

‘The higher the animal in the scale of life, ime more: vigorous

are’ the dynamic active powers: ‘Thus, ‘ini the Gasterdpod «mols

lusks ‘as compared with: the Acephala, the; physiologist: expects

an ‘increment of vivifying:foree. How? isvit accomplished %) By

amore fully developed heart, impelled: by:the vital battery» ofa

more highly: organized cephalic ganglion, ‘by: a,\more: actively

endowed thoracie apparatus, by <respiratory:movements) of) 1a

higher muscular character, and by branchial or pulmonary

systems of incomparably more intricate-~workimunshipy* ©

‘In looking upwards ‘along the line of ‘the: Cephaléphiova, at will

be'séen ‘that the head as! detached member; ‘as acdistinet ‘clas-

sificatory character, appears long before the’ aanay Ne organs—

ex. Pteropoda, Heteropoda, Apneustaysand many Nudibranchs:

Though the Encephala discover several marked signs of) supe

riority as’ measured by the’ ‘standard of ‘the Acephala, it is well

woRespirationin Tivertebrate Animals.) «C 323

determined that in the scalé stretching between the Patellidee and.

Cephalopods, the nervous and) circulatory: systems | display, few

evidences of advancements io y))o0 © ela 8

Tn-thelowest Gasteropod the heart) is as )perfect |in, structure

asiin the highest Cephalopod.).,; When) the: branchial, organ is

symmetrically developed, the heart: has two-auricles. | This, is the

case im: Chiton;: Fissurella, Emarginula, | Haliotis,. Tethys: and:

Janus, and less completely in the Holide. In, all/ other, Gaste4

ropods:the auricle is single. The position of the heart: depends

- upon that of the respiratory organs. It is situated,on the right

side: of ‘the back in the Pulmonata, most, Tectibranchiata, and

the dextral Pectinibranchiata, and in all the Limacidee ; itis on the

opposite side in the sinistral Gasteropods, Ancylus and Hatotis:;

it;is to the left of the dorsal median line im Carimaria, Cho;

Hyale@a and Cleodora; and near the hinder end of, the, body, in,

Firola and Atlanta. In Dentalium, Tritonia, Scyllea, Phyllidea;

it ison the dorsal median line. The heart. is furnished \with:a

distinct’ pericardium in all Gasteropods, save; the: Apneusta,

where itis not clearly defined.. In: all: those::genera whose

branchial organs are symmetrical, the ‘ventricle |and:aotta,are

directed forwards, but in the turbinated genera they:are directed:

backwards. YT xowog oinesto 16

Between the heart and respiratory, organs in thisiclass twd

relationships areidiscernible. In the first the:hearts placed |bes

tween the head:and the branchize—-Prosobranchiata (M.-Hdw:)|;

imiothe: Jatter;: between the tail and» the») branchiee+—QOpistho-

branchiatas 9 yiotei9 riot odd af .ok

-oTwall, there isi between the branchiz: and, the: heart :a;thost

intimate juxtaposition:» In all families the heart is systemée,i Tn:

no single species is it pulmonic or branchial; Jnoall, the -auricle

orcauricles receive the blood:immediately from the respwatory

organ.)o The! heart! in: the: testaceous) Gasteropods; spiral: and

otherwise; iis\always; placed at the posterior end of the branchial

eavity, bor ’in other }words, lis fixed iat that) extremity,,of; the

branchisd farthest from the entry of the aérating, fluid. :‘In:Den-

talium this rule: is hot: broken, because here the water entersiat

the posterior instead of at; the auiterior:orifice of the mantles

- The same; general, observations apply, tothe nervous system.

Souleyet first explained; that the, parts which by, their constancy

and. fixity: constitute, the, essential centre, ofthis system inthe

Mollusea,,are; always { grouped. around, the .cesophagus, ;,.The

others:should only,be regarded as/different degrees, of develop:

ment of these central. portions, and thisis- proved by their degra

dation or disappearance ia proportion, as we descend,in animals

22%

324 Dr. T. Walhams.on the. Mechanism of Aquatic

of this series, \‘The primary. ganglia always exist ;.many, of the

Joeal, parieto-splanchnic may. be absent... The latter in size, bear

relation to the organ or part to which they furnish nerves.

‘Fhose; connected.,vith,the branchie:yvary with. the latter.organs.

In the .Mollusea; therefore, a»part,.of the :peripheric, structures

may acquire | increased. ..development, while the, central. systems

yemain; unchanged. : To 1424

by Physics of the Respiratory. Chamber in the Cephalophora. {

_In-the Cephalophora the organs of respiration assume variable

positions as regards the rest of the body. They lack the topo-

‘graphical constancy of these organs in the Lamellibranchs. A’s

in the latter class, in the Cephalophora they consist essentially

of developments of the tegumentary system. They are elaborated

productions of the’ mantle. Although they may vary im struc-

ture and position, this relationship to the mantle is never radi-

cally affected. A brief review of the space or chamber in which

the. branchiz are. enclosed, will enable us to enter more detailedly

into the regional anatomy of these organs. : |

‘The respiratory chamber (fig. 1 /) in the Cyclobranchiata is

but imperfectly defined." It is for the most part a grooved cir-

‘cular. fossa between the edge of the foot and the border of the

‘mantle (fig. 1); but the branchiz are not the less a develop-

ment of this structure. If in the Patelloid and Chitonoid forms

the edge of the mantle were prolonged and introverted, a channel

would be defined in which the branchiz would ‘be enclosed.

Wherever these organs are’ placed, some provision, such asa

erooye, is made for the efficient play of the physics of the ‘bran-

chial process. a AW yt hacen ea

The direction of the main aérating ‘currents is‘ from before

backwards, and transversely’ on the “branchial “leaflets.” The

cavity which circumscribes the’ brarichiz in the Fissurellidee com-

mences at. the neck and extends some distance backwards “along

the sides. It receives water though the vertical'fissure, placed

between the pedicles of the branchiz; it escapes expiratorily at

the lower and posterior border. In Hmarginula the respiratory

cavity of the mantle is situated at ‘the’ back of the neck: “In the

Haliotide this cavity is similarly formed: Patella, Acmea,

Pileopsis. and Calyptrea’ are’ the’ 'cervico-branchiate” patelloid

forms with a single non-symmetrical” branchia. “' Fissurella,

Emarginula, Puncturella and Haliotis are’ inthe ‘Sanie’ cervico-

branchiate category, but having two branchial leaves. (C/ark.)

Thus in the same family ‘how’ striking’ are’ the ‘generic varia-

* Comptes Rendus, 1843. . |

‘S \Respiration in Invertebrate Ammals. 825

tions itt this‘ oné partidular ! ©The structure of the organs’ éont-

tained ‘in these variously located: chambers will! be found to differ

no less remarkably.

“Tn the Pleurobranchiata the furrow for the rhaatsas is situated

“between the foot and the lateral free border ofthe mantle. ‘It

‘differs in ‘no ‘essential respect in character and locality from ‘that

of the Patellide. This crypt or fossa has a higher ‘position 'on

the side in the Aplysiade. The mechanics of this cavity follow

the same'principle'm all. The water-currents:bearin) an inward

and. backward direction under muscular and, ciliary agency.

_o dn the Pectinibranchiata (fig. 3 A, 3 B) a distinct. and. well-

defined thoracic chamber exists (a, a). It is situated on the

antero-dorsal region of the animal, and fills the anterior coil of

‘the shell. . It.is overvaulted by the mantle, It does not form a

closed cayity as in the Pulmonifera (figs. 4, 5, 6). It opens in

front. by a fissure extending from the right angle to the left.

Behind; itis closed by the adhesion of the mantle to the edge of

the diaphragm-like (fig. 4 4) partition between this chamber and

the abdomen, thence the mantle is prolonged in a thinner form

-over. the, latter, region... In this water- breathing order of mol-

lusks this. chamber is not exclusively specialized to. the office of

vespiration,, In every family it. contains the termination, of the

intestine. ..It is thus at once respiratory and cloacal. In its

-walls,;at.a,point differmg in different families, is situated. the

heart; and,.a, system, of; glands, of. complex, formation, 2 The

‘branchize form; only a-small integral constituent, In the physics

of this Cavity, one, plan. prevails throughout the Pectinibranchiate

_order,,.; The. branchiz oceupy.a, point in the chamber. opposite

to that taken up by the rectum. The former are to the leit, the

latter liesyon ;the.extreme right. It.is on this side also that all

the other, excretory, ducts terminate. The water-currents are

excited, and, sustained by: the muscular action of the parietes of

the chamber. ...This..force, which repeats itself in, a, regulated

‘order, constrains the water.to move ima fixed and determinate

direction.,..It.enters first..at the left side, through the siphon

_(fig..3,B,, arrows), if, this appendage jbe present—through the

fissure directly, if it)be absent. ;,'This pure stream impinges im-

mediately, upon the, branchie,.. At. this point, by, means of an

“exquisite.,concert...of, muscular, and. ciliary forces, the mass.of

water,.thus received, is) divided.into,as many. vertical sheets or

“secondary, columns ; as, there,\are ‘spaces: between the branchial

leaflets. As,the),cartilaginous edges; of, these lamin are pro-

yided.with, muscles, and, the flat, surfaces of each are strewn with

cilia (as will be afterwards described), the water is subdivided

again into myriads-of invisible streamlets. Issuing from the

interlaminar spaces where its course is slow, the dispersed

B26 Dr. Ty: Wilhianis on the Mechanism of Aquatic

coluinns®#étiité, assume’a more rapid ‘course, passing” ‘over the

‘stirface! dnd ‘between the folds’ of the “ mucous glaitdsy” under

‘the ‘character “of éffete and deoxygenated ‘water, ‘and sweepin

the'terminativn of the intestine, and finally’ escape “at the ex-

treme’ right’ cleft’ (b) of the’ respiratory’ chamber,’ mechanically

‘bearing on its etirrent all the refuse products’ of ‘the’cavityi* It

will ‘be’ anticipating, what will afterwards be studied more? nvi-

ihititely, to enter further at this place into the details of this

most beautiful arrangement.

“The thoracic cavity of the aquatic and terrestrial Pidniihtters

(gas 4)5 &'6) is mechanically arranged on the plan of that of

‘the’ Péctiniibranchiata. Though in some genera, as in Parma-

“ella; Testacella and Onchidium, it may assume a posterior’ posi-

‘tion on the back, it is not changed in mechanism or in ‘anato-

“iiéal structure! ‘In all other families of this order it oecurs’on

the back near the head. In those species whose shell is sinistral

the orifice is situated on the left side, in all others on the right.

Under the former circumstances the respiratory movements of

the’ parietés ‘of the ‘eavity are reversed. ‘The’ pulmonary cavity

“of the’ aitbreathing Gasteropods, relatively to the bulk of’ the

body! (fig. 4'a;"5), is larger in dimensions ‘than the branchial

~hamrbex' of’ thé Peetitiibranchs.: This differende’'is explained

“by ‘the differénee ‘between ‘air and water, but, as’ will hereafter

a Shown, itI@ due in reality to the coinparatively rude and

ipperiget provision | ‘which ‘has been made in ‘the’ instance ‘of

he Pulnionata for the necessities of breathing. ' “Here,” ‘the an-

4 pris ‘fissure’ of the branchial cavity, 80 characteristi¢ ‘of this

part! in water-breathing ‘Gasteropods, is accuratély closed. “ The

cavity communicates ‘with the exterior by méans only of a sin ugle

‘orifice; ‘which, for the most ‘part, is situated ‘on ‘the tight ‘si

Phis orifice, in “families of aquatic habits, av ‘prolonged into an

infitndibubwen (figs. 4 & 6 wa). | EP se) Sd

“Phe dets 6f inspiration and pineal are ‘eniditkably devil

performed! \ So° spacious is this’ chaniber' in’ the’ Planorbidee

(fig. 6 c), Limneadze (fig. 4 a, 0), and Helicidst, that'a supply of

air capable of' sustaining Tife for a considerable tiie under water,

Oi in att irtespirable anedium) Cail be stared. IONS See

OCP Hornial muscular” moveiientts™ BFA; sublatia are’ nhost

‘Sitisfattorily ‘studied ‘in’ Heli aspersa, previously” apely, y) anid

‘Without injury to the soft'party, rene Ho ie cll.’ ‘Te will

‘be seen that the volume of a desi newb spiratory' acts

riven bythe slow ‘étalieDae ‘moventien he iated (arrows

in fig'4) from ‘right °to left, ‘chiefly ‘along if ety “Tf the air

18 lng retained, it repeats" abeaoderen SD fei tt the’act of

‘expitatiOn the walls Of the Whole Of lie! dofSal Und lateral regions

of the’ body Niniultanedusly' contract} and the breathing-chamber

\y Respiration in Invertebrate, Animals: .,« B27

codllapsesin, a, most, remarkable, manner. ,, It, is, during, the, ex-

piratory-act, that, the. fecal; exereta| are, expelled,, and_,this, takes

-place,through one. and.the.same, orifice..,; In, this.character the

Pulmonata. are, strikingly, distinguished, from the, Pectinibran-

chiata.,,/.In, the, latter, the, pure current entering) the breathing-

schamber..is, serupulously. separated, from. that..which is, about.to

be expelled.,:;, When water and. not, air,is the, medium. of ,respi-

ation, this.is a,constant. feature in, the history, of the Cepha-

lophora. eee pe

eyo This, circumstance is, still more beautifully and, perfectly, ob-

yserved in the physics of breathing as exemplified)in the \Cepha-

Jopod mollusks (fig. 7)... It has already been: explained,,that, so

completely. and intimately is the body. of), every. Invertebrate

animal surrounded and apparently penetrated bythe, external

element, that, not only is it profusely admitted into, the, digestive

iand respiratory organs, but, as for example in tubicolous,Worms

_and.testaceous Cephalophora, its contact, with, the entire;exterior

‘of the body. is secured by express provisions. .. 1} ssbald

In the Cyclobranchiata, as formerly, described; a water-reser-

voir) occupies, the concave apex of the shell :, the,abdominal, coils

of; the. shells of) all Univalves constitute. a /similar receptacle.

The.same rule is recognized in the, organization of; the, Cepha-

-lopods.. |In, this class, in a given.time,,a,considerable;yolume, of

ywater traverses the branchial chamber. The respiratory, actions

jof the.mantle and the funnel are rapid; and powerful. ..... :

_oe Ly ythe.,Nautilus, Ammonite, , and,.other, testaceous, Cephalo-

-pods, the, base.of the branchial, recess of the, mantle,is, continuous

with the siphuncle, ...In. this manner. the external element is, ad-

mitted. directly, into, the abdominal, segments, of the shell, therem

_chiefly,.to ‘subserve., mechanical. purposes.;, If, the; respiratory

,chamber.in.,the, shelled; Gasteropods were perforated, at: its, pos-

terior border, opening thus into. the spiral spaces, of the, shell,

_the water, occupying. this portion, in these, families would stand

in; the same, relation to, that of the branchial, cavity as.it.does in

. the.case ofthe Nantilus; |. 2 bi Pa oe

+5) dn those orders, chiefly, the Dibranchiata,, which are, devoid

of an external shell, the respiratory, chamber is larger and more

, prolonged. into,the, spaces, between the, vital organs than in;those

mm, which. this, appendage is. present..,\ Octopus, Loligo, or Sepia,

afford the, best; opportunity, for witnessing the mechanical actions

_ of.breathing.. ‘The; anterior, edge of. the mantle is separated from

othe. side.of the body, by.a,.broad, open. fissure, (fig: 7,5, and. i-

going) arrows). . This, fissure; within the, mantle assumes the

_ character.of,.a, canal which leads; back. along the floor, (c) of, the

branchial chamber as far,as the) attached, or cardiac base of the

_ gulls. (d)...,, Along this canal up,to, this. point the, water enters as

328 Dr. Williams on the Mechanism.of Aquatic Respiration.

a, broadsingle column (fig. 7; arrows): | Itecis:then "suddenly

deflected forwards into the interior of the gills‘(e); which, in

Oetopiis* and ‘Sepia, form hollow conical organs, in.Loligo and

the Calamary a hollow semicylinder., Inthe former,during the

moment..of.imspiration. a copious columm of iwaterorushes up

the hollow axis of the gill; °in the latter families; along the

inferior concavity. These currents are directed by a most

complexly coordinated series of muscular actions. .From the

interior of the branchiz the water is compressed by a muscular

power resident in the branchize themselves. It issues in as

many streams as there are perforations between the ultimate

pinne of the organ. ‘These streams regather themselves and

flow backwards again in the direction of the base of the gills,

leaying the branchial hearts and other large blood-channels

situated in that region; then driven forwards by the expiratory

collapse of the entire mantle, the water in form of a single

column enters.the base of the funnel (f), through which it

finally leaves the cavity as an excretory and expiratory cur-

rent-(a).

The author will explain on another occasion how much that

is ‘old ‘and how much that is new is contained in these observa-

tions. In suecéeding papers they will be supported by a large

mass of ‘anatomical details of great interest, and hitherto, he

believes; unknown to naturalists.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX.

Fig. 1. An imaginary vertical section through the shell and body of Patella

athletica. a, water-cavity in the roof of the shell, capable of

being enlarged to the dimensions of 6 ande¢. ¢, gills; f, fringed

‘edge of the mantle; g, 9, edge of shell; @, foot; 7, anus, termi-~

nating in the chamber above the mouth! 09 605 80 See

Fig..2,,A longitudinal section of the shell of Buceinwm undatum; showing

the abdominal spires, a, a, @,.a,,which.axe; filled .with water and

with the abdomen of the animal. 4, denotes. the ligament by

which the animal is attached to the columella, c, | 9

Fig. 3-A. Male animal of Buccinum wndatum taken out of its shell. ~ At’

4,.is shown the mode inwhichthe penis is carried in/the braticehial »

chamber. a, ...., alo"... ..ewelo bevino aosid. ows yd bojso

Fig, 3B. The same animal with; the penis, withdrawn,from the,branchial:

, chamber.’ On the left is the siphon through which, as indicated

by the arrows, thé water entets the chamber (d),-deseribiig therein

Joye aceirenit marked by the arrows sit’ estapes at the right cleft b.

Fig, 4..The animal, of Lymiieus, stagnalis taken ‘out of: its shell. ‘The

arrows define the,.pulmonary. chamber, and {the ¢ireulation per-

formed by the air # eth emanate of the walls. :.b. is

the ‘posterior limit of ‘the ‘thoracic’ Raabe ; ¢. marks the solid

abdominal ' portion of the body, and ¢@. thé respiratory and defe-

eatory siphon.) nie boeisias .tiode., ide oh

Fig. 5. Limax maximus in, outline..,,@, denotes the respiratory) and) defex

thn. fe Mag Nat. Hist. 8.2 6 2LDC

Rev. H. Clark on a new species of Spider. © 329

catory orifice, The arrows define the position and the boundaries

_.. of the breathing-chamber,...

Fig. 6. Planorbis corneus, Lamk., taken out of its shell. a, respiratory

of siphon ; 8, space embracing the mantle ; c, outline of pulmonary

LS chamber; d, d, abdominal segment of the body.

Fig. 7. Plan of branchial chamber of Sepia officinalis. a, expiratory siphon ;

oj» -..6, and arrows, inspiratory fissure; c, bottom of the branchial

cavity ; d, plan of the hollow cones of the branchiz; e¢, the open

~ hollow bases of the branchize by which the water enters the inte-

rior of the organ.

[To be continued. ]

&XX.—WNotice and Description of a New Species of Spider. _ By

the Rev. Hamier Ciark, M.A., Curate of All Saints, North-

ampton.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN, Northampton, Oct. 16, 1855.

Mr. Birackwaux has for many years selected..your; Magazine

as the medium for communicating to the public his many dis-

coveries in British arachnology; this 1s.my reason, for.applying

for admission into the same pages of an additional species which

appears to be new to our lists.

I am, Gentlemen, faithfully yours,

HAMLET CLARK.

Salticus Blackwalhi.

“Length 4 lines ; length of cephalothorax 14; greatest breadth

‘1; length of posterior legs 23; of second pair'2}.

Legs; especially: the» anterior pair, robust, setaceous’; on the

inferiorsurface of tibite‘and metatarsi of first and second pairs

two rows of ‘sessile spines ; legs ochraceous, on, the.upper sur-

faces an irregular, row, of, black, spots; \the:fourth, pairiis/longest ;

the. second; ;pam slightly: shorter than :the: thirdy: Tarsi termi-

nated by two black curved claws. _Palpi ochraceous: Cephalo-

thoraz large, convex; sbméwhat quadrate, rounded at the sides

atid base, slightly pubescent; the, anterior, part,..where the eyes

are seated, black;; the, sides and. posterior’ part:ochraceous, with

black spots carid radiating :irregular™lines converging to the

centre lateral and posterior margins narrow and black ; frontal

margin clothed ‘with ‘Tongish yellow, hairs. aces, short, vertical,

subconical, marked with,a,short,,black \streak.on the outer side.

Mazille straight, short, enlarged and rounded ati the extremity,

marked with dark spots’ othe inner’ margin. ° Lip oval, base and

330 Mr. R. Warington on the Habits of the Stickleback.

sidés) black. :: Sternum: oval, narrower at ‘anterior: than at: pos-

terior extremity, ochraceous, with broad black margin.’ Abdomen

elongate, oval; slightly pubescent, pale dull -ochraceous,. with

numerous blackish short lines or spots ; on: the sides these spots

range themselves! in longitudinal lines ; on each side of the upper

niedial, line isa! broad longitudinal band composed: of confluent

black, spots, approximating to each other» towards. each extire-

mity; where they meet; the spots on the: under ‘surface are

fewer and more minute; down the medial line extends.a narrow

band, composed of more distinct spots, some of which are con-

fluent... Sexual. organs black. Branchial opercula pale yellow.

species, at Southport, Lancashire, during the last week. of Sep-

tember ; it was sunning itself on a gate close to the shore on

the south side of the town : it appears to be new to science. The

name by which I have designated it will commend. itself. to.all

your readers... My esteemed relative and friend. Mr. Blackwall

has for) many.years devoted himself to the study of this: Order,

and,the.result of his unassisted labours is simply this :—twenty-

five years,ago, L,suppose from forty to fifty. species were all that

were known as recorded indigenous representatives of this Order ;

we, cay now |boast)of a catalogue comprising, TWO HUNDRED

AND) FORTY-SEVEN,; 1 /rejoice. to find, that. others, are -ac-

actively following where he has so long led; . for there. is,little

doubt but. that this,our, present list, however im itself, creditable

to science and honourable to him, willbe. still further; increased.

XXXI.—Observations°on ‘the Habitsof the Stickleback: (being

a continuation ‘of a previous’ paper). By Rosurt Warine-

TON, Esq. | sibat novstoils yaud e

Durine the) early part of the last summer I had the good for-

tune to. observe the whole. progress of the. yarious stages in the

breeding of the Three-spined Stickleback, Gasterosteus, levurus,

which, will therefore. enable me to complete the notice already

published, on. this subject. in the ‘Annals,and. Magazine of

Natural History’ for October 1852.00 0° 4... 3 ak Oe

In the account there given, the obseryations, extended 'to the

completion. of the nest, by the, male fish, and it is;my intention

in the present communication, to.carry.on, the. details of the pro-

gress; from. that point, premising, that, the water was the, same

which had been employed for the.original experiments of 1849,

and that. the fish contained, in, the aquarium, consisted, of three

Stickleback, one male.and two females, two, Tench, and a Gold-

fish. |

Mr. Ri Warmegton on the Habits of the Stickleback. 881

-CThe position selected by the male fish forthe construction of the

nest ‘was between! two plants of Valhsneria spiralis; at the point

where. the*leaves) spring from the root, and directly in front of a

fragment: of ‘limestone which ‘rose behind the plants and acted

asa protecting: background:to the position. 'The nest being all

prepared, exactly as before described; although by another mdi-

vidual, the eggs were deposited, I presume, during the night: of

May Sth + this was yadged of, not from observance of the act of

spawning, but from the altered appearance of the female: fish

evidencing’ that she had shed her spawn, ‘from the immediate

change made by the male fish in the arrangement of the. mate-

rials forming the nest, and, likewise, the violent repulsion of

the female from the neighbourhood of its position, to which ‘pre-

ares he had been as assiduous in driving her.

From this period the nest was opened more to the action of

the water, and the vibratory motion of the body of the male fish,

while hovering over its surface, caused, as before described, a

éarrent’of water to be propelled across the surface‘of the ova;

this° action’ ‘was repeated almost’ continuously. The apparent

luminosity of ‘the body, if I may so tern it, also decreased, and

inthis state all continued without change until the 18th of May,

making ‘a period of ten days. After this date the whole° nest

was destroyed, and the materials of which it ‘had’ been ‘composed

thrown aside, with the exception of’a few wiry stems of a‘de-

cayed watermoss, anda space cleared ‘around the ‘spot of about

Sanches in ‘diameter ;) the mud or sand ‘at the bottom: being

carefully removed with its mouth and carried in this manner to

some distance, leaving the rounded stones of the gravel clean

and freé from any obst@uction around them...)

Watéhing:carefully for.a short: time, to understand: what all

this busy alteration indicated, I at last had the pleasure of,ob-

serving, by the aid of a long-focused pocket-lens, some of the

young fry,—of* course ‘most minute ‘creatures, fluttering up-

wards here and there, by a movement half swimming, half léeap-

ine, and’then’ falling “rapidly again’ upon or between the ‘clean

pebbles of ‘the shingle ‘bottom. “This arose from ‘their having

the rérhainder of theyelk still attached to, their’ body, which,

acting, as a weight, caused ‘them’ to" ‘sik the’“moment the

Switiming’ effort Had: ‘ceased: |

“Around ‘allthis bioe ti ae sneifbtotshd? and across it in ‘every

‘direction, the mule fish; ds the puardian, continually moved. And

ri Bey eee boars Kidéatid still mote “drddous than’ they had been

fore, a d'his vigilance was taxed to thé utmost extreme, for the

other ie a , three ‘of them some ‘twenty tithes larger than ‘himself,

pitt

dis ‘Sooh as ‘'théy perceived thatthe young fry Were in motion, used

“382 Mr. RY Warington onthe Habits of the Stickleback.

their, utmost, endeavours, continuously, to.pounce, upon the nest

and snap, them,up.,;/The courage iof this, little creature »was cer-

tainly now,put, to its severest test, but nothing daunted he, drove

them all off, seizing their fins, and striking with all his strength

at their heads and at- their eyes most furiously. All the assist-

ance that could possibly be afforded him was of course rendered,

short of actual interference, by keeping them pretty well fed, in

order to allay, if possible, their voracity. Another circumstance,

which appeared‘to add greatly to the excitement’ that he was

eonstantly subjected to, arose from the second’ female: fish,

being m spawn, endeavouring most pertinaciously to deposit her

ova in the same locality, and hence rushing frequently down

towards the spot; but the male fish was ever on the’ alert;:and

although he did not strike at her in the furious way he attacked

the larger ones, yet, he kept continually under her, with the

formidable back spines all raised erect, so that it was inapapistily

for her to effect her apparent object.

Phe care of the young brood, while encumbered with the

yelk, ‘was'very extraordinary, and as this was gradually absorbed

and they'gained strength, their attempts to swim carried them to

a greater distance'from the parent fish ; his vigilance, however,

‘seemed everywhere, and if they rose by the action of their*fins

‘above a ‘certain height from the shingle bottom; or flitted beyond

a certain distance fromthe’ nest, they were immediately seized

‘in ‘his’ mouth, brought? back, and gently puffed) or jetted into

their place’again’: ‘This’ was constantly occurring, the other fish

being continually on the watch to devour these stragglers, and

make ‘a ‘savoury morsel of these Lilliputian truants. Indeed, ‘the

ereater number of the whole brood must ‘have fallen:a:prey to

their voracity, as it was only some three or four: that‘ reached a

size to place them beyond the power of these destroyers. i

As soon as'the young fry could swim strongly the parent fish

eradually ‘relinquished: his’ duties; although’ a ‘constant watch

appeared to be still quietly maintained ‘ow their midtions as'they

swam about near the surface of the water/and among: the. float-

ing leaves of the Vallisneriaand Lemna. It'is a curious’ciretwm-

stance, that, very’ soon ‘after these young Stickleback’ were ‘left

unmolested’ by ‘thei companions, | (bothothe .parent! ' fish disap-

peared; and I presume have died’ in» some hiding-place among

the rockework'; as though; their allotted functions; namely the

propagation of ‘their species, peg se oat ) their’ (ae

of existence thust ferniiAvs109 & YotSOt euas o19W Move

989 SVC ds off IW D Ns +

Apothecaries’ Hall, Sept. ti, “TRD5.. z ?

AS sate it to dk foMmipuy

rrrilre cers

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual..»; 333 .

XXX OTK Vegetable Individual, tn its relation to Species. By

Dr ALRxX ANDER Bravn, Professor of Botany im the Univer-

°sityof Berlin, &e* “Translated by Cuas! Francis Srows:

-de%e . 7 [Continued from, p. 256.]

Peg aercensint gal Part If, * ©

As: Tvattempted! to, show: in. Part I,; whatever) seems. arbitrary

and indefinite in the existing views of what constitutes.the Ve-

getablé: Individual. has its ground in the nature, of plants.them-

‘selves, which in their. realization are resolved into.a plurality

which they are not capable of reducing to.as complete; a, unity

‘ascanimals are... As we ascend in the natural kingdoms, indivi-

iduals' incréase in importance, until they reach their most. perfect

independence in Man... Hence, if we would appreciate.them

justly in the lower departments, in which their character |is,less

definite, we must try to comprehend the less, perfect structures

by starting from the more perfect ones: to appreciate, vegetable

individuals we must. start from a comparison;.of .animal,,indiyi-

duals, | From: this point of view we perceive.at once that the cell

cannot be regarded as the proper individual, in plants, otherwise

at: would have to be considered in the: same manner in, animals.

Cell-formation is a property common to.plants, and animals; but

fim aninials it-appears far more. obviously.as a.subordinate,.ele-

ment).in the organization of the whole; body, (than..it; does in

plants ;\:since the,animal cell, in most, cases, is not, so,independ-

lent, nor-sodeterminate, nor so permanently isolated, as, the vege-

table-cell;’ For,this reason, too, itis rarer.to find, the animal cell

considered a8: the ,proper. animal individual, although Schwann

shas shown’ that-animal cells are analogous to;vegetable.cells, and

may be.as; justly considered individual organisms as-they.; Yet

‘as mere,curidsa; we might, adduce. the somewhat similar,assertion

of Gaillon,‘that ‘* nien and,animals, are| properly, masses| of Infu-

soria-;”’ and Oken’s/ doctrine of generation, “a synthesis of Infu-

soria,”’/might,:perhaps,be interpreted. in the same sense. The

‘stories? .of; the axes, the, internodes. with, their leaves,,anight

‘claim to be, conipared with the animal indiyidual, with more, jus-

tice: than’ theseell, especially if; leaf-formation really took place,

asthe defénders/of suchdoctrines have represented ;, that, is, if

every successive leaf were produced, asa, new structure,out.of the

‘old-one (out of :its, base which, becomes the internode), and jf the

whole stem were thus merely a concatenation of, leaves shooting

out of and growing above each other. But this is not so: the

rudiment of the stem as an ‘uninterrupted ‘growth’ (“ conti-

* Reprinted from Silliman’s American Journal for September 1855.

334 Dr)\A. Braun on ‘the Vegetable Inilividual.

nuance”) is formed before the leaves, while the latter, emerging

as developments of the upper surface of the stem, are evidently |

members dependent upon and belonging to the axis, and form- |

ing with it one whole. Hence the structure of the internodes

may be more aptly compared with the lateral structure. of the

animal body, and that of the leaves with its terminal structure. .

Thus we arrive at the shoot; and we must. inyestigate the

question, whether it should be considered as what corresponds

best with the animal individual, or whether we must ascend still ©

farther, up to the whole plant-stock. | .

The Shoot as the Vegetable Individual.

The first and most common view is that which considers the®

individual in plants, as in animals, to be merely each single spe-’

cimen, 7. e. each representative of the species which appears to

be one whole from the connexion of its parts. ‘To some extent

this view is correct, for im a forest of trees of the same geiius and

species, ina meadow, or in a corn-field, each ‘single tree, each

stock of grass or of grain, appears as a single member of its’

species, as each single beast does in a flock of animals forming

a community: But the question arises whether these individual |

beings, regarded ‘as) such in this superficial way, can ‘each be

considered’ individuals'm the same sense. When the flocks or «

societies of animals are numerous, as in an apiary, each hive or

swarm will appear ‘as: an individual member -of ‘its ‘species, and:

the more so in proportion to the closeness of the connexion be

tween the members of such a: community. Many) flocks:ofani-

mals ‘whose members are organically connected during: life, have

until lately been considered. to be mdividual animals; and even>

when the:separation of the individuals is more complete, such

conceptions ‘are to a certain extent justified ‘as long as the coms:

munity is really a natural growth—when' ‘infact itvconsists of:

members ‘of one single stock—and we'are ‘not surprised to find

thatthe oldest: history: of the humam race ‘describes the family’

itself, and the ‘tribe which springs from it, ‘as oneperson, named

after its patriarch. As regards the plant-stock, even.a superficial:

examination shows us peculiarities which wilbhardly allow us to:

consider it as an individual in the precise meaning of the term,

and which calls upon us:carefully to consider ‘whether it isto be

regarded'as such an individual, or merely as anamdividual in the

broader sense,—as one united family. Even our feelings aroused

by the sight of the most ramified plant-stocks,—especially by

a tree. with its. numerous. branches, with.. thé: thousands,..of,,

blossoms and fruits which it: béars;.and the: numbeérless! buds:

through which it will deck itself again in the following yearwith

Dr. A. Braun onthe Vegetable Individual, 385°

leayes and flowers—excite the presentiment that this is not one

single being, one single life, comparable with the animal or the _

human individual, but rather a world of united individuals which

have sprung from each other in a succession of generations, and_

although they do not separate, going through, their, particular

cycles of existence,—here dying off, there reproduced, and, thus

building themselves up in uninterrupted. succession into a family-

tree, perennially laden with an increasing posterity That such

a view, so consistent with our healthy natural feelings, is corro-

borated by scientific investigation, I hope to show in the follow-

ing observations.

Comparing plants with animal individuals, it is at_once evident

that the tree loses annually flowers and fruit,—the highest and

noblest» structures which vegetable life produces,—to generate

them again in the followmg period of vegetation. . Even the

whole dress of the tree, even its foliage when compared withthe»

trunk and, branches, is only a superficial growth periodically

dying: off, and reproduced by the succeeding generation: in!

the paradoxical words of Schleiden *, “No tree:has: leaves.’

The leaves, im fact, never grow out of the woody portions of the -

tree, but: only on its herbaceous extremities; which grow, upon

the woody stem as upon a ground formed by the process of vege-

tation. This common ground, namely the woody stem;-whichiis:

almost lifeless in. comparison with the herbaceous parts engaged.

in,active growth, 1s annually covered: with: a vigorous sheath,

under the-protecting bark, and this sheath is:the ground,of:the-

nourishment; of all the vegetating herbaceous extremities,» This’ ;

sheathiis-the ‘so-called cambium, a layer of active, living tissue,»

which, contemporancously with the lignification: of the) herba-:

ceous extremities of \the branches, becomes a new woody layer;

united to -theold trunk: in the form of an annual: ring—to: be

covered)in its turn an\the following period of. vegetation with a

new: layer, which; again; will-be the immediate supporter of the

new generations. The history of the grand development: of na-

ture.on the surface,of our globe presents an: analogy which! may

perhaps serve to) setthis relation inva clearer light.') The sue-

cessive» geological formations; superposed: during» the) course: of

countless ages; 'presenty buried in‘ their depths; the ‘traces of vas

many: formations .of) the-organie world, each of which’ carpeted

the then superior! stratuna of «the earth witha new life, until | it,

found: its;own grave: m theosucceeding formation, »when' a new:

poser re BOSS THO T19V TITITR f : )

“® Beitr: p\ 152, where the following view of the arboraceous stem, as a

common’ ground bearing’ many mdividuals, is developed; but this whole

view; after all, needs to ‘be corrected: by a precise limitation of its meaning

by what dollowmsiitiol[ot odd ai cisas Usati doob fh 1

836 De. Ai Braun. on the Vegetable Individual.

uprising of organic life took its, place. In the same way the stem

of a tree, isa, multistratified ground,-in whose layérs:the history

of earlier growths is. legibly..preserved.;;,;Thé mumber ofthe

woody layers indicates the number of the generations:which-have

perished,,7, e,.the age of the whole tree :\a distinct;annual rimg

is the monument. of a vigorous season, an, indistinct one of a bad

season, a sickly one (which is often found, among healthy ones)

indicates the unhealthiness of the foliage of. that, particular year.

The practised woodman can decipher many facts: of the; pastoin

the layers of the trunk, e.g. a good season for foliage or for seed,

damage, by frost or by insects, &c. rd hoteiod

Essentially the same relations as those seen in the tree, or the

shrub, are to be found in the subterranean perennial growth, of

plante redivive (herbaceous perennials), whose subterranean stem

(rhizoma), like the stem above the surface, emits annually a new

generation of herbaceous growths; whose stalks however, unlike

those of the tree, do not lignify and form a-part of the common

supporter, but die off wholly, or mostly, at the close of the season’

of vegetation. - ‘i ahead ts

The relations indicated above compel us to recognize ai suc-

cession of generations in trees, shrubs, and perennial herbs; and

thus our first idea of them as individuals is necessarily modified.

Another remark may be made here which confirms our idea thus

modified. Natural death closes the life of the individual*. ;The

development of the life of individuals in organic nature, has,.a

goal, an acme ; after it has attained this goal ats course draws.to

an end. This is not the case in the tree and the perennial herb.

True, the tree 1s destroyed by time ; but,this seems to.result, more

from external, and in part mechanical causes, than from.any.in-

ternal decrepitude. The more numerous the generations which,

the tree builds up, one above the other, the greater is the distance,

of the growing extremities from the source of their, nourishment;

the thicker the supporting trunk, the thinner. is the: layer, of

cambium which connects the new shoots with the : xtremities. of,

the root by which the nourishment is, absorbed, iDhis increased,

* Of. Schleiden, Beitr. p. 151. | “The idea of individual life’neéessarily

implies as its distinguishing’ characteristic’ individual death, preconditioned

in the organization itself.” Although: this remark is ot universally true iw

many respects, yet I have apepted it for the light it is\caler to, throw

on the nature of the tree., For,the very Feaaop, fas pat r te the,

result of a determinate conclusion of the development, those shoots (vege-.

table individuals) which have no such ¢onélusion frequently. timdetgo no

death at all except that of some of their:parts: but:this/is’a conconiitant of

animal life itself (casting the skin, moulting, and the organic changes in

the body). Cf. on this point Roepe, Linnza, 1826, Fis we and the, fol-

lowing remarks on Paris, Lysimachia nummularia, Adoxa, &c., and the

predéaillg ones on Caulerpa. ert, ng ace aaa eam

Drv AvBraun on the Vegetable Individdal. 837

difficulty of communication between the upper ‘and lower extre-

nities is probably the’ cause’ of the decrease of vigorous’ ‘growth

‘after the plant has arrived at a certain age. “ But in most cases

external casualties are superinduced, which accelerate the termi-

nation of the tree’s life” It is injured by wind'and weather, the

decay of the injured part’ spreads through the whole organism,

‘various fungi fix’ themselves upon the tree, and are especially

fatal when they ‘attack the roots. Oftentimes the’ tree’ breaks

down; under’ the weight of the productions of its own vital

powers, the luxuriance of its fruit. These statements are. corro-

borated by the cases of trees of unusual age, now so well known

through DeCandolle’s investigations. One of the examples'‘ad-

duced by him shows in particular, that those trees whose branches

have been prevented from breaking down by props or supports

attain to a great age. I refer to the celebrated Linden in Neu-

stadt’ on the Kocher, which, as early as 1229, was the cause of

the town being called “Neustadt an der grossen Linde ” (Neu-

stadt of the great Linden), whose wide-spreading branches were

supported already in 1408 by sixty-seven stone pillars, and this

namber was afterwards increased up to more than one hundred *,

The hoary tree still flourishes, having survived its many scientific

admirers, among whom was my predecessor, to whom botany is

so greatly indebted, who visited and described it @ few years ago

(in 1849+).' Natural supports are more efficacious in preserving

trees’ thin “€ven artificial ones; since they not only prop the

branéhes, but conduct nourishment to them by a shorter, road,

as “is: actually found to be the case in Rhizophora Mangle, in

various ‘Species of figs [Banyan, &c.], and other tropical’ trees,

whose branches high ih air send down strong roots into the

éarth’ ‘A’ sitailar example nearer home, though indeed on a

much*'smaller ‘scalé> is found im the Juniperus Sabina. Its

branches; ‘which spring’ from’ a low stem, curve down to, the

earth; ‘strike numerous roots, and raise themselves again, so that

the cont sitive, TAGBE stem may carry a creeping crown of

Dansreevabte ater jike‘a thick wood continually spreading, and

which may,continue to,flourish, in. its parts, even when the,com-

munication. between the original supporter. and nourisher of the

whole colony andthe succeeding new ‘growths, which are con-

stantly receding from ‘it; has finally ceased. "A remarkable spe-

cimen of this’ tree stands in the Royal’ Botanical Garden, at

Schoneberg,, which,,if.not as.old.as the garden itself, which: was

laid .out:in:1679 under thergreat Elector, Frederic William; cer

ta? Hetauiene: Pukaiol Vee a p..980. | |

“+ Link, 5 RS grosse Linde bei Neustadt.am.Kocher

( Flora, 1850, no. 8).

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvi. 23

338 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

tainly dates as far back as Gleditsch’s time, and his directorship

commenced .in 1744. The main stem is not more than 88 inches

in circumference at eight inches above the ground, close under

the place where the first branches originate: the centre-piece of

the crown which belongs immediately to the stem is only.9 feet

high, and has been dying off during several years, while) the

maximum diameter, from S.W. to N.H., of the hundred-rooted

crown, which has spread out over the ground by the declination

of the branches, measures 35 feet: the entire circumference of

the crown, which amounts to about 100 feet, would be still more

considerable if it had been permitted to spread on every side,

and if the branches on the N.E. side had not been removed at,

. an early day. one

What. has just been said of trees admits of no doubt as regards

perennial herbs (plante redivive) with subterranean creeping

stems or stolons. Such plant-stocks as those of the well-known

Paris, Anemone nemorosa, Convallaria majalis, Asperula odorata,

are undoubtedly exposed to none but a casual death*. All

plants which renew the cycle of vegetative life. repeatedly and

without any determinate limits to their existence, and which I

would hence call anabiotic, cannot therefore be considered simple

individuals +. ) ,

At first sight the case seems to be different in the haplobiotict

* The same relations of great unlimited age are found in polyps which

form stocks. ‘Cf. Ehrenberg, Abh. d. Akad.-for 1832, p. 382,420, where,

among others, stocks of Meandrie and Favie are referred to, larger than

a cord of wood—which may readily be supposed to have been seen by.

Pharaoh. “4

+ I pass over the further question, intimately connected with this sub-

ject, whethar the composite plant-stock itself, with all its subordinate, ge-

nerations, with all its possible divisions,— viz. the individual in the most

comprehensive sense (in which Gallesio conceived it),—has not a determinate

term of life, though not easy to be ascertained, on account of the narrow

space of time accessible to our direct experience. , pea Na tre, in

t DeCandolle calls anabiotic growths polycarpic, and haplobiotie growths

monocarpic, terms which are useless from their Se abe With an cana

inappropriate choice of terms, he divides the first’ (Phys. Veg. ii. p. 73)

into caulocarpic and rhizocarpic, according as the stem which produces the

fruit is permanent, or dies off down to the root; but the latter in fact never

takes place in perennial growths ; for in such cases the life of the plant-

stock is preserved, not by the mere root alone, but by a subterranean por-

tion of the stem. It is one of the most remarkable’ confusions which a

want of true biological ideas has engendered, that DeCandolle should have

regarded the simplest and most natural cireumstance’'in the plant's life,—

its death after having attained the goal of its dévelopment,—as an un-

natural, and to some extent casual occurrence,—as a kind of sickness com-

parable to the succumbing of the ‘mother in childbed, which he accounts

for by the rapaciousness of the flowers and seeds. | Roeper, however, in a

note to his translation of the above work, justly remarks that there are

annuals with double flowers which die off to the ground although. they

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 339

plants, which terminate their existencé at the end of the simple

process of development, with the formation of flowers and fruit 5

and this they do whether they exist one year, as Adonis estivalis

and wutumnualis, Nigella, Papaver Rheas, Erigeron Canadensis*,

or for two years, as Hnothera and Verbascum, or for many years*,

as Agave (Century-plant), the Hast Indian Corypha, and the

Mexican Fourcroyat, which suddenly puts forth its flowers onl

after 400 years of extremely slow growth, and ends its life with

the formation of its first and long-deferred fruit, The develop-

metit of these plants, when compared with that of the first-men-

tidied anabiotic plants, seems at first to comprise only one gene-

ration, and to depend upon the development of one individual.

But here, too, a closer examination shows conditions incompatible

with the nature of the simple plant (the individual). One con-

stituent element in the idea of an individual is, that the parts of

the organism are essentially connected ; yet the stock of annuals

themselves presents a multitude of parts which bear no essential

relation to the whole plant. This is true of a large part of the

ramifications, of branches which may exist in one case and not

im others, and which are proved to be unessential by-the plant’s

losing no essential function when deprived of them.’ For even

when the plant does not produce them, it can fully consummate

the object of its individual life: it can produce flowers and fruit.

A, glance at the examples just now adduced, Nigella, Papaver

Rheas, Adonis, &c., will make these statements obvious... The

branches of these plants, each of which, like the stem, is crowned

with flowéi's and fruit, are evidently only wnessential repetitions

of the simple plant, absolutely identical with the main stem, and

produce no seeds, We may convince ourselves beyond a doubt that, the

flowers, on the contrary, are much less rapacious than the vegetative parts

of the plant,—that they even shut themselves off from the. afflux.of too

copious nourishment ; for many plants develope vegetative branches close

under the terminal flower, as e.g. Stellaria media, Datura, Mirabilis, &e.

In. such cases the Hower-stalk, which cuts itself off from almost all farther

afflux of nourishment, remains slender, while the portions of the stem

directly beneath, and the branches which’ spring from it, gorged with

succulent, matter, enlarge more and more, and attain a. most dispropor-

TORALE B1SC.5 ot ts oven clay Ms

_.* These. plants, like other annuals which germinate in the autumn, are

usually reckoned among biennials ; but, this is a mistake, for, like our

bsg Bete they are plante annue hiemales., So, too, many vernal plants,

as feesdalia, Erophila, Cardamine hirsuta, Spergula Morisonii, and many

weeds of the winter, corn, e.g. several species of tares, Bromus secalinus

is vt he case in the palm. are Metrogylon and Eugeissona, according

;

iS)

to t toy ,

4 On Foureroya longeva, cf, Zuccariniin the Noy, Act. Nat. Cur. xvi, 2.

eel Sons 3

23*

840 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

hence to be ranked as, equal to it. in importance, 2, e..equally

to be viewed. as particular individuals, and with, as much, reason

as in zoology we concede, individuality to the neh f the

coral-stock (polypidom), which are, now universally, a alba:

ledged to be individuals, and which offer, an analogy of decisive

ortance, for ascertaining the nature of the. branch in vege-

rei In view of this analogy, Ehrenberg regarded. plants as

aggregations of individuals*.

-We can, now turn. back, and apply what has been, shown to

be the case in the annual herb, to the shrub and the tree, each

of whose annual generations now appears, more distinctly than

before, to be, m their peculiar connexion, not one individual, but

a world of individuals developing in the same period, of vegeta-

tion and upon the same stem. To this intent many | of the early

botanists have expressed themselves,.as I stated in the introduc-

tion... Thus, B, Batsch, e.g., says of branches, that they shoot

forth from the stem ‘‘as if they were so many plants ,rooted in

itt ;? and Goethet : * Lateral branches may be regarded as pars

ticular plantlets, which are rooted upon the maternal stem,. just.

as this stem is upon.the earth.” Among mOceEa aie at

Lit;

cyeTs

theatle ay fi H

* (Abhid. Akad: 1835, p 47, ™ awe by pana Pik thass' of

animals. We have;no satisfactory comprehensive expression, for, our-idea

of a plant, What an indiyidual is, remains still unknown; most,of, them,

are evidently aggregates of individuals which may be « compares with coral-

stocks.” The origin of coral-stocks is mmutely described ‘by Ehrénbete

in the Abliandl. for 1832, where he makes the following) restive —atTPhe

coral structure is neither a mere structure composed of many animals

arbitrarily, conjoined, as Ellis supposed; nor one,single animal With many

heads, or with simple furcations, as Cayolini | ei carat 5 Or a V VeRcin le

stem with animal flowers, as naeniae ‘expresse od Its Ass) is a. ody. of

families, a living tree of consanguinity ; th e single niin Fy, Beton ing sto it,

and continually developing upon the | Fey vancestor, are! € ively iso-

lated within themselves, and capable of eae PREM alt ough

unable to achieye it.” ramen. 68 vido -aieeeae

t Bot, fiir Aintree ie 19, Wires. oadia a lO Sve ee

+ Versuch d; Metam,d mu etkli haere Pr a The Words ds Nit as”

in the passage quoted imply too nee and aL 8 Mia Pay Tholars

unfounded doctrine of the formation | of ‘the: wo ody layer of rs.of t é pet by: the

‘roots’ of the buds which penetrate it.

§ Ueberd. Ban ah: Wachsthum des, Ric Sanaa HE p. VW.

Here, too, “preying ” is too str On term.

| Grundz, ii..p, 4... * New ident ical 1 in diay ‘develope t upon. the. ina

ternal stem, by continuing the growth,”’. & Here the ¢ expression.‘ con-

tinuing the growth”? i is Improper, for. the shvot ie not FAP BBM yi ‘the

growth at all, but is a new growth from, a new ru ment,

+ ot ai a

DPA! Braun on the Vegetable’ Tndividial. B44

Roeper’s works, | ‘Linneus expressed the same thought in the

words “gemme totidem herbe.”” And T am thus led to make'a

particular remark, which is intended at the same time to modify

in Some degree what I'said before in relation to the annually

renewed generations of trees. It is indeed true that branches

of treés and perennial herbs, especially in temperate , climates,

first appear as’ buds; and in'a'more extended sense we call in

eneral every young branch a bud, even if its parts are not, as

t Mesa are, compactly arranged and folded. together ; still,

all buds are not the rudiments of branches. Lateral buds are

the only ones from which branches originate, and therefore they

alone are to be regarded as new lines of deyelopment,—as indi-

viduals. “Terminal buds, on the contrary, are nothing but still-

undeveloped parts of the (relative) principal axis: they are mere

continuations and augmentations of the individual already ex-

isting, and are not to be regarded as commencements of a new

one}. Hence, only those trees which produce no terminal

buds, as the Linden, Willow and Elm, develope new individuals

and nothing else at each renewal of vegetation ; while, on the

contrary, those which do produce terminal buds also, as for

example the Oak and Poplar, bear a mixed annual generation,

which ‘consists’ partly of new individuals, partly of old ones

reawakening ‘and continuing thew development with renewed

ko: iliaiaaddaaae Lau la Said oh Mita

I have already remarked how unessential the presence of

branches is‘in’mariy;plants!! A comparison of | stocks grown on

a rich’soil' with those ‘of ‘a poor one shows what license is given

to platits “in regard’ to ‘producitig branches, and how different

the appearance, of specimens of the same species thus’ becomes.

Plants growns:on;ya)/poor: soil, are .often called dwarfs); , but

sodas vaso to besaoqaros storie Siem af Sirst :

‘> Omnis gemma Solitaria aut éjusdem continuatio immediata et’ per-

pendicularis (canlis, ramus, ramulus, flos),individuum vegetabile yocatur.”

This. is the’ most, definite description I know of; for in this passage not

only the branches so. called, but also every arbitrary shoot, even when it is

merely, a flower, is acknowledged ‘to be, a particular individual. | Besides

aH Have ‘stated’ in’ the text in regard’ to the appearance of terminal

buds, I have only to remark, against. the word “ gemma,” that im its

growth every shoot ,does,not enjoy. a perceptible state of gemmation, i. e.

a_state, ~Jf i Wiki tO Ditif

applicable to but one state o

rest in, which /its parte as tolted together, The term ‘bud’ is

icable to. I é of a shoot or of its parts, and therefore cannot

be a suitable’ expression for what is to be ‘regarded ‘as the vegetable in-

dividual. SISNONSY COTA 2b)

fy Ty eaiesaie” CPR WL Gt p. 146 aptly expresses ‘these ‘relations ‘h

calling the terminal bud the continuation: of the “ series of formations;

Tateral buds; be: innings of a new “<seriés of generations.” In ‘contradic-

tion with these terms, however, he calls the bud°an'“ organ” as ‘long as it

is connected with the natural iddividual,—-n term inapplicable to the bud as

it is to the developed branch, of which it is the adolescent state. :

342 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

unjustly, for they present the most normal development of all

essential parts, dispensing with everything that is; unessential,

and are’ much less’ inclined to malformations: than' the lusty

giants of the rich soils. Not: unfrequently we find diminutive

specimens of Hrythrea pulchella s. ramosissima which are branch-

less and perfectly simple, as they terminate with a'flower after

four or five pairs of leaves. \ More vigorous ‘specimens: produce

two branches out of the axils of the highest: pair of leaves, which

after a single pair of leaves terminate in the same manner with

a flower; and branches of the second order may be also emitted

from the axils of the two leaves preceding this flower ; and so

on. In the first order of ramification the number of: flowers

amounts to three, in the second to seven, and so on; im the

seventh, which is not unfrequently attained, it amounts to 127 !

Here, if we would consider the stock or specimen as the indi-

vidual, and the flower as the superior termination of the vege-

table organism, comparable, say, to the head of the animal, this

variation in the number of the flowers would be as astounding

as if ‘we were ‘to ‘learn that an animal might have 3, 7, 15, 31,

73, or 127 heads, according to circumstances.» The same thing

occurs in Radiola linoides. Erigeron Canadensis, which: often

grows to the height of a man and bears as many branches as a

tree, presents dwarfed’ specimens scarcely two mches-high and

of ‘a perfectly simple form*. After developing two ‘early de-

eiduous cotyledons it’ presents about 13: leaveson the stem,

which ‘are followed by a terminal capitulum: of 21 involucral

bracts and about 34 flowers. One middle-sized) specimen about

three feet high presented nearly 100 branches of the first)order,

out of which ‘branches of the succeeding orders: proceeded, to-

gether ‘bearmg’ about 2000 heads, and ‘hence: :(reckoning ‘the

head .at.34 flowers)..68,000 flowers}... Eee Pe pare Re

I may here remark, that such: unessential branches maybe -

and racemosus with simple spikelets’ mstead) “of ‘rich panicles are well

known; less known and less remarkable are the depauperate ‘specimens of

Umbellifere with one single unifloral wmbel;'some of: which of Seandix

Pecten are in my possession. I have also‘ specimens ‘of Solanum nigrum,

one and a half inch high, with a solitary terminal flower.

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 348

herself,'as:well as art, in various ways may effect such an inde-

pendent: separation of developed branches or of undeveloped

buds, and this too either above) or beneath the ground. Pro-

pagation of the Strawberry by its runners ; of the Potato and the

Helianthus tuberosus by their tubers; of bulbous plants by their

bulbs; "of the Garlic: by the bulblets formed, in, the process of

flowering, and falling off like seeds; of the varieties of the

beautiful Achimenes by the amentaceous or the strobilaceous

deciduous shootlets, are well-known examples of this process ;

‘and thousands of others might be adduced*.

» ‘The: gardener can not only separate individuals, but unite

them‘upon one stem. This is true not only of individuals of

the*same species, but even of those of different species ; some-

times even of different genera of the same family.. The Lilac, is

not unfrequently grafted upon the Privet (Ligustrum), the Pear

upon the Mountain Ash (Sorbus Aucuparia), the Peach upon the

Almond. By the insertion of a bud (inoculation), or of a deve-

loped sproutlet (grafting), we are thus enabled to pluck different

kinds of roses from the same bush, to gather different, kinds of

fruit from the same tree. It would evidently be. a contradiction

in this case to consider the whole tree, or, the whole bush, as the

individual; for we should then give the name toa compound. of

several species, or even of several genera.

) In attempting to comprehend the vegetable individual in its

‘simplest form, we have thus far spoken of unessential branches

-only,and have endeavoured to show that they cannot be regarded

‘as mere parts ofthe individual. But there is another kind of

branches, those which are essentially requisite for the attainment

of the:endof vegetation,—for the formation of flowers and fruit.

These ‘occur: invall: plants which possess no terminal buds, and

* T will only adduce a few more of these examples, which might be

multiplied indefinitely.) Besides the Garlic (Allium sativum), in many other

species. of Allium, e. g. A, oleracewn, carinatum, vineale ; Lilium bulbiferum,

tigrinum, humile, and other species ;_ Gagea fistulosa, Ficaria ranunculoides,

Dentaria bulbifera, Saxifraga bulbifera and cernua, Cicuta bulbifera,

Polygonum viviparum, Begonia bulbifera, diversifolia, and other species,

Remusatia vivipara, Cystopteris bulbifera—buds fall off above the ground

(as:bulblets). In Stratiotes,aloides| rosette-like developed, axillary, shoots

separatejclose tothe base. The)separation of lateral shoots in Lemna is well

known ; and it occurs, in.a similar manner in Pistia, by the separation of

thin-stalked lateral rosettes, and im Hydrocharis in the separation of pecu-

liar winter-buds. When the inferior leaf-formation is gorged with sap,

bulblet-like: buds form from.the, axils) of; the ,root-leaves (frondes fundi) m

» Saxifraga granulate and many exotic species of, Oxalis, in the same way

‘as the bulb-brood.'of} monocotyledonous. bulbous plants. Inferior leaf-

buds: which »are,placed on; the ends of their. stolons, become. free by the

death of the runners in-Epilobium, palustre; Lycopus Virginieus, &c., and

~“~ Ey and form little lumps.) Cf..on this, subject, Wydler (Flora, 1853,

Pp. 1/24). lowol lenginnrte? vis

344: Dr.Av Braun on the Vegetable Individual:

which must, hén¢e; necessarily have some «branches. in. order:to!

attain ‘the, end)df their sexistence: . This isthe) ease 'with the’

Evening Primrose; Larkspur, Orchidee, &e., whose lateral ‘flowers:

are just;such essentialbranches. If \werdémands that: the indi-

vidual should be a:complete’ representative of: the’ characters: of

the: species,,as -is| implied in: the usual view, then we must add

to! the, principal, axis such: branches as these;—without/ which’

the. process of vegetation 1s mot concluded, andion whichj:in fact;

the most. essential, and »characteristic. parts. of the plant: mnstlos!

their appearance,—-and call these; parts of the same’ individuals

In this sense Schleiden’s view of the smmple plant might perhaps

be. justified, although, as he starts from different premises; he:

does not, consider mere floral branches as particular individuals:

He says; “If nothing but organs of reproduction, or flowers,

spring from the bud, we still call the plant a simple one*.? 0/9

» Here, -however, we arrive at a contradiction, which shows’ us

that we cannot carry out the idea of the vegetable individual

with the requisite definiteness in this way, since we thus regard

essentially similar branches, now as individuals, in, themselves,

now, as.mere parts ofindividuals.. As I have:already remarked,

Schleiden ‘allows individual» importance ‘to branches which are

identical + with the’ main. ‘axis ; those on the, contrary which

produce. flowers. alone, and, in this respect differ from the main.

axis, he, regards, as, mere parts of the simple: individual. This

distmetion )when-:analysed:is ‘perfectly nugatory’; ‘since it only

lays ‘down 'two'extremes, between which ‘there is an. infinite

number of gradations. “Strictly speaking, there are no branches

which are perfectly, identical, with the main, stem, as:is evident

from the faet, that. no branch: begins with cotyledons, as’ the

inain ‘axis does {.~ Besides, the ‘foliaceous leaves on the branch

are almost always fewer than those on the main, axis, and gene-

rally fewer in proportion.as the, point, is, higher where.the branch:

originates... The arrangement: of the\ leaves»'on«the branches,

also, often differs: from’ the arrangement’ on’ the “maii ‘axis, as’

éog0 in most of our broad-léaved ‘tréés, “in the “Elm, Hazel,

Chestnut, Tinden, &¢,, in which the phyllotaxis on the, main axis,

and , often, at,.a Tater, peried. dm. the so-called.‘ water-shoots??

(Wasserschossen), is spiral yor decussate, while on the branches

it» is, onthe» contrary, ‘distichous. ® In Alnus? viridis, ‘the’ phyl-

lotaxis’ is tristichous on the ‘hai, ‘axis, and. distichous on the

Of ats: agTq 2019'S aHit 10 29lmoeqeZ

hed oe ii, p ve stodh Ibid: ;

+ The Mestre cotyledons of, the branches,\indeeds have rage cdantsoell

to cotyledons.....'This ;comparison is, partly. justified;aniwiéw of ithexedm-

mencement,of phyllotaxis, on. the, branch; swhich often resembles that:on

the main axis,. while, in. regard. to, + ails and Sopelataney almost ab) resem

blance disappears, .. bod

Dri As Braun on the Veyetable Individual. 345

branches. :: On the main axis of: Cypresses and Thuja‘ there are

three- to,four-leaved: whorls ; onthe branches the pairs! of leaves

are nearly, decussate); this is \alsothe:case in. Lysimachia vulgaris.

Inthe same way:in Mquisetum, the number ofthe rameal verti+

éillate, leavesis always inferior to that of the cauline ones.: While

thus sonxthe oné) hand the: vegetative» branches “are nowhere

entirely siniilarto the stem: from’ which ‘they ‘spring, on ‘the

other handit appears that those branchlets which ‘seem to bear

flowers}only are usually more numerous than they seem to be ;

sineé) in most cases one, two, or even more small leaves (bractlets)

are:present:beneath the flower, which may easily escape notice

on accountof thei diminutive size, although their existence may

be! often‘ ascertained with certaimty even in those cases in which

they,are not:visible when the flower has reached its complete

development*. If we are to deny individuality to those “bids

(branches) only which are composed of a flower alone, /as.a‘strict

*'In fact, all the constant lateral flowers. of.,Primulacee, Crucifere,

Capparidee, Resedacee, Balsaminee, Orchidee, never have any bractlets.

Among monocotyledonous plants in many cases’ there is only one bractlet ;

among; the, dicotyledonous there are generally two.’ Gesneriacee: have

enerally three; Hmpetrum, and Santalum have | four; Hrioestemon five ;

olemoniacee, Cuscutee, and other plants with. panicled imflorescence,, an

indeterminate number. We possess the following means of showing, the

existence of suppressed bractlets :—1. The ‘position of the parts of the

flower relatively to'the axis of origination from! which the‘ lateral’ flowers

spring. - 2. Analogy,,),3.,The study. of malformations: 4; Observations

of the flower’s development. . The first, criterion, can be,applied,only where

- we can determine the succession of the parts of the flower... The position

of the parts‘of a lateral flower depends, in fact, upon determinate laws of

rameal origination }' ‘when! they do not harmonize with these laws, we must

conclude that|preeeding leaves have been suppressed: In’ this ‘way, ¢: 9),

we. can explain the,yery..common \position,in-the 2-5th arrangement; of

the calyx with. the second, sepal posterior, by. supposing | two. -bractlets

according to ‘the’ fixed law, while it cannot be explained without, these

bractlets. ° Analopy’aids us most’ by confirming our conclusions, as ¢.g. in

the families Scrophularinee, Labiate, &c.) in which ‘many genera present

distinct. bractlets, while,others appear, to, be, without; them. || Inmonstrous

flowers (in cases of antholysis and chlorysis), sometimes without, any other

malformation, bractlets otherwise imperceptible appear. jin.an .abnormal

growth: Not unfrequently in’ Digitalis purpurea, which in its. normal

state presents no bractlets)-but in whieh we inferred their original existence

from, zestivation and the; position: of the calyx:relatively tothe axis) 1 have

found bractletsdeyeloped in the most, heterogeneous degrees, especially on

the- lowest flowers.of the raceme of. cultivated specimens... C.. Schimper

and myself have both ‘observed the same fact in Tropeolum majus, which,

like most species of this genus, presents no trace of bractlets in the normal

state. We have seen them .in the form of very small, white, ‘subulate

leaves,about;in the middle of. the flower-stalk, while the fower remained

unchanged in all other respects. 'Their éxistenice,; however, was already

indicated’ by' the position ‘of the quiti¢wncial calyx relatively to the’ axis, as

wellas: confirmed: by analogy, for Tropeolum' ciliatum, R. et P. (Popp. et

Endl. Nov. Gen. t. 38), in its normal development has two round ‘and

346 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

interpretation of Schleiden’s language demands, we should have

to draw a most unnatural and often impracticable line of demar-

cation ‘between branches which, physiologically speaking,’ are

perfectly homologous (floral branchlets which really ‘have: ‘no

bracts), and those which bear imperceptible or even ‘suppressed

(abortive) bracts. If,'on the other hand, we would reckon the

latter also among the branches which are not: individuals, then

it may be contended that there is such a-series of gradations in

regard to number and vigour in the leaves which precede the

rameal flower, that it is impossible to draw a dividing line even

in this manner.

The above-mentioned distinction between unessential ‘and

essential branches seems to afford a better stopping-place, no

matter whether the branch bears nothing but a flower or not.

We might say, all essential branches must be regarded as im-

dividuals since they repeat the process of specific development

laterally, and can become independent plants, as layers, whether

natural or artificial. Those branches, on the contrary, which

appear as necessary members in the line of development which

is advancing towards flower and fruit, and which therefore com-

plete the series of formations belonging to the species, and with-

out which the plant is either unable to eke out its vegetable life

or to accomplish propagation, must be regarded as members of

one and the same history of development. Let us take a case

where the main stem bears only proper leaves, branches of the

first order only bracts, and those of the second order only flowers

and fruit, as'is really the case in Plantago, Melilotus, Veronica

officinalis and Chamedrys; here it is evident that these three

divisions cannot be isolated; that all three must-necessarily be

present in order that the specific life may attain ‘a’ complete

representation in one individual*. nestons TO.

Notwithstanding the importance of this discrimimation be-

prettily ciliated bractlets on the flower-stalk.\ I have mentioned the history |

of development last, not to disparage study, but because the morphology

must be rightly understood beforehand by means of comparisons of de-

veloped ‘structures, and because in its’ present stage the:development is

incapable of giving us reliable information in regard to all: the leaves

which are present in the germ, though they may! not develope. To know

what parts then exist, we should have to be able to distinguish the leaf

asa cell or'a group of cells ‘before it rises to: view above the surface of

the stem. | wokk Lari

* [But why assume (as here and supra) that the: species must attam a

complete representation in a single individual im vegetables ?—since this

is by no means the case in the higher (unisexual) ammals, where there is

no doubt as to what corporeally constitutes the individual,—that is, im the

very cases whence we derive our idea of individuality, and the standard of

comparison which our author is endeavouring to apply to the case of

plants. —Asa Gray. | uakwily.

Dr, A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 347

tween ‘essential and. unessential. branches, it, cannot, when.ana-

lysed,\, establish ‘a. distinction, which, will enable. us, to,,decide

upon their importance as individuals; for, even those.,branches

which appear unessential, m relation to the formation, of flowers

and. fruit, may yet be essential to the plant.in other, relations :

as when they appear as. characteristic elements of, the vegetable

structure, or when they play any important part in the ceconomy

of the: plant, as I have shown. in extenso elsewhere*. Nay,

more ;,one and the same branch, as to whose nature there seems

tobe no doubt, may appear either as essential or as unessential,

according to circumstances. When those branches which ¢on-

duct ‘the structure to a higher stage of its development appear

in great numbers, on a principal axis, as e.g. in indefinite

racemose or spicate inflorescence, the lateral branchlets appearing

as flowers are then indeed, generally speaking, necessary to, the

plant’s full,completion of the series of formations, and in this.

sense essential ; but their number is immaterial as, regards, this

completion; and this the plant itself shows in producing either

a larger or a smaller number of them; sometimes the number,is

reduced to oney. Therefore, properly speaking, only. one. lateral

flower is essential ; and we may arbitrarily consider.any one. of

the number to be this essential one... Hence each,of them, may

be regarded indifferently as essential.or, unessential,.,.. This is

not the case in those racemes and, spikes which. possess a ter-

minal flower,as is the case in many Campanulacee, e. g.. in, Cam-

poanula rapunculoides.,. Here, all the lateral flowers are unessen-

tial.; yet, if the terminal flower is cut off, the lateral branchlets

which bear the flowers at once become essentials Such a change

is not: always’ artificial, for. it often happens naturally, as there

are plants: ia which the terminal flower may: be either present. or

absent. Agrimonia Eupatoria.and Campanula rapunculoides

are examples of this variability {.

o* Vexjiingung; p. 4) ef seq. | :

} E.g. not unfrequently in the raceme of Lathyrus odoratus.

{ Agrimonia Eupatoria. bears ‘usually one | spike without any terminal

flower ;\ in weak specimens; a terminal, flower not, unfrequently. makes its

appearance, which opens before the upper, lateral flowers... This has been

observed by Wydler (Bot; Zeit. 1844, p. 642). .In Campanula rapuncu-

loides the case is just the contrary : its, looser, spikes are usually terminated

with a flower, while denserones end in;a'coma of bracteal leayes, without

any terminal flower. Dictamnus resembles Agrimonia; while Triglochin

» (especially. maritimum).on the other hand \imitates.Campanula,, Even

in plants-in-which the essentiality of the lateral position of the, flower is

expressed by their zygomorphic development, terminal flowers make their

appearance! in some cases ; they then resemble Pelorie. . This_is the, case

in Linaria, Ordbanche, and a Digitalis purpurea monstrosa (described. by

Vrolik, Flora, 1844; No. 1), :which propagates by seeds, and is now widely

disseminated in our gardens.

348 Dy Ai Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

oWeican cat this Gordian knot only by’ decidiiig’to consider

every ‘branch as’ an individual, ‘however appearaneds “may be

against: it; provided that’ we have’ other growiids’ sufficient’ td’

regard‘bianches as individuals. "The genesis of branches justifies!

us in so doing ; for each branch is not a ‘direct continuation late’

rally; isnot a development belonging to the stem (like’the leaf)

but'isia new formation ; like the main axis’ itself; it’ has its owie

centre of formation, with-its peculiar development.’ Branch and’

steiny main axis and lateral axis, differ therefore only in théii

origin and relative position ; but they are essentially of the same’

nature; they are united in the idea of the shoot: ‘The stent is’

the primary and principal shoot of the whole plant’; the’ branch’

isa lateral shoot in reference to the main shoot; but it can itself

become 'a'relatively main shoot, and the stem of a succeeding®

generation of shoots in its turn. As far, then, as we are justified’

in speaking of vegetable individuality at all, we must hold fast’

to the individuality of the shoot: the shoot is the morphological

vegetable individual—is’ that form or that part of its specifie’

realization which is°analogous to the animal individual, if any?

POFO WI SOUMIBAS aL J: WW @1X8 985) 50

In zoology we give the name of individual to every whole

which is»controlled\ and bound together from one vital centre.’

Since ‘such an imternal domination of the organism as that which

characterises animal life'is wanting in plants, whose existence is

a process ‘of growth ‘directed externally alone, we! ean only de-

mand; as the criterion of vegetable individuality, that the ‘indi

vidual shall be formed in direct continued. development from one

centre,‘and thus, in ‘accordance with its origin; shall) im allits’

parts; belong to'one centre. Now this 1s the character ‘of the shoot.

Its centre of formation has been known since0Gi BF. Wolff’s;

celebrated ‘Theoria Generationis ” (1759) :under the name vof

progress the centre, always’ keeping the leady'is“evér advancing; |

rising ‘more and more, and leaving behind it an ‘axis arrayed with’

the organs already formed, Hence we may, designate the vege-

shoot las but one axis’and ‘one ‘apex.‘As thé trunk’ of the ani

mal has a second extremity opposite to the terminating head, and’

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual. 349

gradually dwindling, down till it, forms) the) tail, so.the perfect

shoot has a, second, extremity, opposite, to, that which terminates

with the most. perfect, structure (the. fruit); and, dwindling down

to, an indeterminate, end,, the root, by|means of apunciwm vege-

tations turned downward*.,.; 2) doneid does sot : eetiob oe as 4

But.it,will be objected ;)is not the vegetable shoot indefinitely

divisible ; can wejnot cut it.up into an arbitrary number of, pieces,

each of which is. capable of reproducing! the whole, plant, im) its

turn? ,, Were, this the case, the phenomenon would not be with-

out its, parallel .among the lower, animals....But-this is not the

case..)'Thejsupposed divisibility of the vegetable shoot, at, least

in-perfect plants (the Phanerogamia), to which I am now alluding,

is’.ajdelusion, which, rests. simply upon. the, fact that the form-

ation..of ,.new. shoots, has. been. confounded, with a) reproduction’

ofthe shoot as such. As the injured shoot jhas the faculty,of

producing new, shoots, so the parts of the divided, shoot have

also this\faculty\in, many. cases ; but this is no recompletion: of

the;.shoot itself ;.the fragment of the old. shoot, can\continue to

develope in one, single,case only—when, in fact, it-bears,the: apex

of the axis with the point of vegetation. Let us examine this; case

more,closely, . Ifa, ‘shoot .is divided transyersely, under certain

circumstances,the upper part, on which the. punctum vegetationis

(‘.the, heart ’’) is still remaining, may continue the development 5

but,the lower, part, is nothing. but.a stump, and continues to be

a. stump which.can, never complete) itself, by :a,terniinal.-sheot,

and,, which never, fails to, die if|it,is not nourished,/by.lateral

sprouts,formed. before,|, or sometimes) after, the division | took

places, and\\thus,kept, alive! by its, posterity.; This ‘cannot; be

called -divisibility,.in the usual meaning of the,term ;.the:whole

phenomenon,)omthe contrary, strongly reminds us) of the capa-

city animals possess, of losing the, less,essential caudal extremity

attr rondo) mr psties Pe aeda hr?, yer etsy ‘

_* Aristotle, on the contrary, considered that the root, being. the imbibing

organ, was tl PW sos Of the' plant which: Corresponds to the upper part, to

the head and mouth of the animal; ‘and he regardéd the stem us’ the infe-

rior parte Ee found the cause of-this topsy-turvy' position of plants im the

necessity under .which, they;labour of drawing thew nourishment fromthe

earth, as.they are incapable of moving from place to place, Tn this respect

he compares plants to mussels (60rpaxddepj.a), which also haye their heads

tiithed downwards) (OP Wimmer, Phyt. Arist. Frag. 56-65. This compa-

risou of the xootit ith the aninial’s head is however, morphologically speak-

ings dnyertéd:; foras thé) highest stratum, of. the, spmal cord (the sensorial

partion sins its PPT Aa of development.in, the head, of animals,

it can only be compared to that extremity of the plant’s axis in which the

henigst ah noblest “part ‘of! the’ plant is exhibited." Besides, the’ peculiar

and strikin® chitracteristic of the aninial’s head) its involved structure ter-

minating theorgdnism;| isby normeans)te be foundiin the root end of the

plant; bit if is/ seen; in the, opposite end which terminates, with flower and

fruit. bsod ‘eoitsiiories odd of otiz: Aifvicey:

;

350 Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual.

without any cessation of life. In favour of this’ view the fact

may be adduced, that a similar phenomenon occurs in the nor

mal ‘process of development of plants and’ animals. As there

are animals which may spontaneously lose the posterior extremity

of their body during the course of their development, as e.'g!

Cercaria, Comatula, Frogs, &c., so there ‘are’ also’ numerous

plants in which the posterior extremity gradually dies off, and is

cast aside, during the course of growth, while the anterior end

of the shoot, which bears the punctum vegetationis, continues to

unfold ; as is seen in the growth of many Mosses, especially of

Peat-mosses ; in the creeping and climbing root-stocks of Ferns

and Aroidee; in the long creeping stems of Lysimachia nummt-

laria; the little subterranean creeping root-stocks of Paris; in

most plants which possess a radix premorsa, as e.g: Succisa pra-

tensis, the perennial species of Plantago, in Tormentilla, &c., with

which the perennial bulbs of Monocotyledonous plants agree in

all essential respects ; and finally, this is especially remarkable

in Utricularia and in Selaginella increscentifolia, whose apices

only form close buds, and last through the winter, while all the

remaining parts of the shoots perish. If the shoot is indivisible

transversely, itis ‘still less so longitudinally. There is nota

single case to prove that a shoot longitudinally divided can as

such continue to develope ; nor do we know of a single case where

has been usually described as a bifurcation of the stalk depends

in the Phanerogamia in every case upon a true ramification

which takes ‘its rise laterally close under the apex, as’ T have

have already described it in the case of Erythrea pulchella.’ As

a normal formation no immediate division of the stalk’ oceurs

among Phanerogamia ; for the phenomenon known as “ fascia-

tion,” which might be adduced here, is always a monstrosity*.

* Fasciation depends upon a real division of the punctwm vegetationis

into two parts of equal importance ; im the) simplest) case itoproduces a

simple division into two parts... Here.neither of, the, two.pats.can be, re-,

garded as a branch of the other. If repeated bifurcations, follow each.

other in the same plane and in unbroken connexion, the well-known.

“ribbon and fan ike forms arise, which ‘howéver usually end at last ‘in’

single apices. Very rarely more than two parts lying in different ong

are produced.by the, division of the punctum vegetationis, a,case,which J

haye noticed in the capitula of Composite. The rarest phenomenon which

bears upon our subject is the annular fasciation, in whi hana ular border

arises from the simple point of vegetation, of which, I shall speak more, at,

large in the following Part, when I compare, the relations of growth in, the

Cryptogamia. A division of the individual, corresponding to fasciation in

phanerogams, and to dichotomy, its homologue, in many cryptogams, also.

occurs in the animal kingdom, as, appears especially in; many genera of

corals, e. g. Caryophyllia, whose stocks are formed in this manner exelur,,

sively, and in Astrea and Favia, in which it appears in conjunction with

Dr. A. Braun on the Vegetable Individual, 851

The stalk, or axis of the shoot, is hence indivisible in the higher

plants, in the same sense that the body of the higher animals is

indiyisible*. |The only phenomenon which might, be described

as a division of the. stalk is leaf-formation. . This, however, is

not a division, into. new stalks, but a formation of subordinate

parts belonging essentially to the stalk, as it were an eradiation

of the stalk itself, which may be aptly,;compared to the formation

of the extremities in the animal body,.. We may therefore justly

describe the shoot, or the vegetable individual, as an indivisible

axis,+~as an axis with its appurtenant radu which are inseparable

from, and regularly arranged by, its own development. With

the first appearance of the branch a new axis is formed, anda

new system of subordinate radii appears. However completely the

branch may contrive to interweave itself with the trunk during

the course of its development, it always owes its origin to.an

accessory point of vegetation which developes into a particular

axis. The vegetable individual thus presents in its nature.a cer-

tain analogy to the mineral individual,—the crystal,—as well as

to the animal individual; for the crystal is determined, by the

relation of its parts to one and the same system of axes. .As

soon as this system of axes holds another position there.results

another individual, which may be distinguished, even when two

or more individual crystals intersect, so as to form twin crystals,

or stellate crystals.

In the preceding considerations on. the indivisibility, of ‘the

axis, | described the leaves as its radiations,—as, members of

the. stalk, and belonging essentially to it,—and I attempted to

distinguish the leaves from the branches, by considering the latter

as new axes,. But how are leaves and branches distinguished in

their genesis ?,,. Are not, the. branches as much radiations or

lateral members of the stalk as the leaves? . It would lead me too

far from my subject to make a fundamental critical investigation

into this question, and to examine the existing views of the mode

of formation of leaves and branches, especially as investigations

into this subject have not been complete enough to enable us to

obtain reliable’ results. I can therefore only allow myself a few

hints in, this place... ‘The leaf originates in the earliest period of

shoot-formation (gemmation), as was shown by Ehrenberg (Beitriige, &c.,

Abh. der Akad. 1832, p.' 242). Ehrenberg explains the form of Dedaline

as a result of incomplete termination of the individuals in gemmation ; in

appearance it resembles the cockscomb-like forms of fasciation as they occur

in a remarkable way in ’somé monstrous Cacti of the genera Mammillaria

and Echinocactus, as well as in Celosia cristata, well known as an orna-

mental plaut.) °° 0"

*’ [Some ‘criticisms upon this may be given at the close of the whole

memoir HANG. fee te ons :

352 Dr; A. Braun, on, the Vegetable. Individual.

the formation of the stalk; and itsrudimentis contemporaneous

with the first, stages of the formation of tissue in) thespunctum

vegetationis..| \A leaf can never be formed at-a later period from

the developed axis. . It isanecessary consequence of the! manner

in. which the leaf originates, that an absolute dividing line carinot

be drawn, between leaf and axis; for the subsequent 'positiow of

the leaves upon the organism affords no standard of appreciation;

especially as most of them do not mark the basis of the leaf, which

loses itself in the axis. Earlier, before the extension of the-axis

begins, the rudiments of the leaves are always closely pressedto-

gether, so that they appear as a peripherical development of the

axis itself, occupying the whole upper surface, and dividing ‘it

into clearly defined planes, which may be recognized even in the

developed state, in those plants whose foliaceous pulvini are di+

stinctly marked, ase. g. in many Ferns, most acerose plants, in

Cactt, and particularly in Nymphea and Victoria, where the pul-

vint may be distinguished even in the interior of the axis., ‘The

primitive vascular. system of the axis enters directly into the

leaves, and ramifies there ; while the woody layers of ‘the stem,

which:are fownd latér, have no connexion with the leaves:|), With’

branches the case is totally different. In their origin and deve-

lopment they always succeed the leaves ; and even ata mueh later,

period, when the Jeaves' have been long cast: off, shoots: may

originate in places where, at an earlier period;no trace ofa rameal,

rudiment, or of anseye, was ‘to be found... If we now consider

the axillary shoots;-~2.\e. those: branches! whose position) is pre+

determined by the ,situation: of the leaves;—at: an early: period.

we shall, find their rudiments, even though , they: develope very.

late or not at all,.im: the form of a circular and slightly promis

nent. gibbosity, which may be comparedowith the! apexof the,

axis; or rather, it isan accessory punctum vegetationis: forming:

near the apex... The circumstance of theiepidermis of the axillary:

shoot. being a continuation ofthat) of the! stem, \isvexplaimed by)

the early date at which it originates; for this takes, place at a

time when the surface of, thea an nF Bet MgO R WE h

The eye is shown to be an independent centre o vegetation, by

its subsequent internal and) external»conformation ; forit/ not

only developes leaves upon its surface; and’this too withan in-

dependent’ commencément of “its: phyllotaxis, bat. 4 “in its

interior the first system of vascular fibres, seems to be rmed m-

dependently of that of the. main axis; as.or sinally. it lies upon

it, and afterwards | becomes intimately b:

ly b J with it by later

layers of tissue. Notwithstanding the intimaey with which later

formations of woody tissue unite bran¢h and stem, ‘still, accord-

ing to Unger’s investigations, no immediate influence is exerted

by the branch upon the conformation of the stem, since the stem

A. 5

Dr A Braun’ on the Vegetable: Individual. 353

owes; monenof rits essential parts to the branches*, ‘This mde+

evofithe branches is shown still moredeeisively in’ adven-

titidus) shoots; whose:position is not predetermined by the leaves:

Originating at wlater-period, they take’their riso, not from the

surface but fromthe cambium layer,—the internal tissue which

preserves the faculty of producing new growths, Hence, if they

would come:tothe light of day they must break through the bark.

Their ctigin hasbeen particularly described by Tréeul}. \W. Hof-

meister, ‘however, as I have already remarked, ' succeeded in

trading itn Hguisetum back to the first cell, a cell in the interior

of the stem.) Asis the case with axillary buds, such adventitious

buds:sometimes remain undeveloped for a long time (ten years

arid smore) without losing their vital activity; a fact to which

attention has lately been called by C. Schimper}, ina Report on

Exostoses... When this is the case they not unfrequently de-

velope: mto spherical or conical wood-kernels, which continue to

exist without any connexion with the ligneous body of the ma-

ternal ‘stem ; this is especially the case m Beeches and Poplars:

The individual nature of the shoot is ‘confirmed not! only by

the mode, but by the place of its origm:. While: the organs of

the individual organism-—the leaves of the plant-oceupy a

position determined with geometrical accuracy; shoots, ‘on’ the

contrary; can arise out of almost any part of the plant;wherever

indeed! any cambium exists ; and they maybe “even' enticed by

art, out of places where they do not usuallycappear.’” There are

shoots: fromthe stem, the root, and the leaves: Im herbaceous’

stems'they appear in situations determimed by the leaves (in the

axils of| the leaves), while they may be: found anywhere on old

ee eee buds, or on any. part of the lig-’

nified roots ‘of most! dicotyledonous woody growths, and even on

some‘ monocotyledonous\ones, asin Umbraculifere ||. Shoots

appear less frequently omthe'roots of herbaceous plants {]. Shoot-

formation’ fronr leaves: has’ often been discussed and described in

* Unger, Ueber den Bau des Dicotyledonen-Stammes (1840), pp- 65, 66.

Ba ee sur lorig. des bourg. adv, Ann. des Sc. Nat. vui. (1847)

268. fob

: { In Sept. 1852, im the Versammlung der Naturforscher in Wiesbaden.

§ Rarely. scattered shoots appear on the: herbaceous stem, and ‘espe-

cially on the first internode under, the cotyledons, as Roeper (Enum,

Euphorb. 1824) first showed in Huphordia, and Bernhardi in the germ

of Linarie. A specimen of Begonta manicata dipetala, cultivated in our

[ Berlin] Botanical Garden, which is probably the same species as the

B. phyllomaniaca of Martius, presents the case of a plant which produces

a multitude of shootlets in the whole leaf-region ; they arise from the sappy

stem which is not yet hardened, soon after the fall of the leaves.

| According to Rheede, Corypha umbraculifera sends forth root-shoots

when the stem dies off, after the fruit has ripened.

~¥ Lhave often observed them in Lizariavulgaris, Helichrysumarenarium,

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser.2. Vol. xvi. ~ 24

354 Bibliographical Notices.

regard to many plants, especially Bryophyllum, Cardamine pra-

tensis, Drosera, Malazis paludosa, &e. A fine example of this is

shown by a Chelidonium majus var. laciniatum reared by Bern-

hardi in the Botanical Garden at Erfurt, from whose leaves floral

bractlets arose, partly unifloral, partly multifloral, without any

preceding leaves*. Shoots may be allure by the gardener out

of most leaves which do not wither too soon}. Finally, the

little budlets in whose bosom the germ of the new plant is

formed and developed, and which we call seeds, are a kind of

shoots, which in most cases owe their origin to leaves (carpels),

out of which they spring (on the margins, which unite to form

the placenta), or more rarely, out of their whole inner surface.

[To be continued. |

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

Glaueus ; or the Wonders of the Shore. By Cuarurs KinGsLey.

Cambridge: M‘Millan. 1855. 12mo.

Tue relief of the hapless individuals who feel themselves compelled

to pass a certain number of weeks every summer out of town, without

knowing in the least what to do with their time when away from

their accustomed haunts, is the object which Mr. Kingsley has pro-

posed to himself in the publication of this little book, which in our

opinion is one of the most charming amongst the many admirable

popular works on Natural History that have appeared of late, It

may be defined, and we trust that the Reverend author will not be

offended at the expression, as a Sermon on the Advantages of the

Study of Natural History, but written in such a style and adorned

with such a variety of illustration, that we question whether the most

unconcerned. reader can peruse it without deriving both, pleasure and

profit from his labour,

At the outset, as was to be expected, our author expatiates upon

the great superiority of the study of Natural History over all the

other sources to which mankind generally resort for their amuse-

ment, and here we think he has been betrayed by his zeal into a

slight indiscretion ; not that he has placed his favourite studies upon

too high a pedestal, but he has treated those from which he wishes

to wean his readers with too little consideration, In Mr, Kingsley’s

Rumex Acetosella, Ajuga Genevensis, Jurinea Pollichii, Nasturtium syl-

pn et pyrenaicum. According to Wydler, they often appear in Viola

vatica. O-anerote $200 DAR S

ne I may add to the examples I have given of shoot-formation taking

place out of the leaves, one which I observed in June 1853, in Levisticum

officinale. 1 found, in fact, in several species of this ‘Umbellifer, one or

more, frequently two, shoots in the points of division of the leaves, which

afte? producing a few weak leaves bore a small umbel. ”

+ Kirschleger (Flora, 1844, No. 2) notices'a fine example of this in Gloz-

inia speciosn.

Bibliographical Notices. — 355

view; all the lighter amusements of life are frivolous and, vexatious ;”

like| the original, Shepherd in “ Pickwick,’ he regards them. all.as

“‘wanities ;’’. and although this may be true in the abstract, we question

whether it would not. have been a more successful.way of carrying

the war into the enemy’s country, to have treated these little weak-

nesses with more tenderness, rather than to insinuate that when once

a man has put his hand to the plough of science, it becomes in a

manner his duty to eschew all his previous amusements.

To compensate for this somewhat disrespectful view of what, to

“many, constitute the chief business of life, Mr. Kingsley certainly

lays before his readers in a most attractive form the gratifications to

‘be derived even from a dilettante study of the great book of Nature.

Searcely a branch of Natural History but has some of its most pleasing

features put forward in the pages of this charming little volume,

and although many of these are conveyed in hints, they still produce

a sufficiently distinct impression upon the mind to awaken a desire

for further information on the mysteries concealed by the half-raised

veil.

Few subjects could be better adapted for the author’s purpose than

that expressed in the title of his book,—The Wonders of the Shore.

On the shores and beneath the waves of the ocean dwell myriads. of

creatures whose very existence is unknown to the great mass of the

public, as indeed was that of many of them until very lately even to

the scientific naturalist. The remarkable forms, the beautiful colours,

and the singular histories of these creatures render them objects of

the highest interest ; whilst the imperfect state of our knowledge ‘of

many of them, resulting from the difficulties presented to inyestiga-

tion by the very conditions of their existence, may raise hopes even in

the beginner, that before he has long prosecuted his studies in marie

Zoology, he may be rewarded, if not by the discovery of new species

(which by, the way Mr. Kingsley appears to think one ofthe most

. ecstatic occurrences of life), at least by the observation of some new

facts, which, by supplying the deficiencies of our previous knowledge,

may be of still greater scientific importance.

Of the ‘scientific merits of ‘Glaucus’ we need say but little. The

book, as we'are told at its commencement, is an amplification of an

article contributed by the author about a twelvemonth ago to the

North British Review, on Mr. Gosse’s recent contributions to British

~ Sequently to a great extent composed of extracts from the works of

that naturalist, a ciréumstancé which gives rather a peculiar tharacter

to the book’ when regarded: as an independent’ publication, although

» legitimate,enough inthe pages of a review.) / There is, however, an ad-

mirable and most amusing original account of the habits of the Spider

“Crab (Maia Squinado), an& of the multitude of zoophytes which that

_ Ctustacean vusually ‘carries ‘about ‘with him, aud we regret that ‘its

length yrevents our transferring it to our pages, as an illustration of

our author’s mode, of dealing with such subjects. “We must content

ourselves, with. adding, that, for the assistance of those who may be

induced by the perusal of his book to take up the at of marine

356 4 Lannean Societyi—,.

Zoology,—and we hope his disciples may be numerous,—Mr., Kingsley

has given a description of the dredge and dredging, and of the mode.

of ae nis an aquarium, the former extracted from Mr, Gosse’s

‘Devonshire Coast,’ CS ein Ree

We regret, however, to.see such a faulty list of works recommended

to the beginner in Zoology as that with which Mr. Kingsley con-.

cludes... Several of our best English works, even on, Marine Zoology,

such as Forbes’s British Starfishes, and the British Mollusca of Forbes:

and Hanley, are entirely omitted ; and we are told that ‘* for Ornitho-

logy, there is no book after all like dear old Bewick’’ !—a statement.

that will be rather surprising to the possessors of Yarrell’s ‘ British

Birds,’ a work which is not even mentioned. hae ie ae

We are also sorry to see that Mr. Kingsley has fallen into the

common cant.of talking about “closet and book naturalists,’* “ big-

word mongers,”’ “synonym makers,” and the like. This practice,

which has become almost universal amongst our, popular: writers,

arises, as a general rule, from their knowing little or nothing of the

real nature of the things which they take upon themselves to censure,

and if they were called upon to lay down rules. by which the-evils

they cry out about might have been avoided, we suspect they would

find themselves somewhat ata loss. These writers either don’t

know, or won’t say, that it is the abuse of these things that is inju-

rious and absurd, and their readers are of course unable to make

the distinction. For this, very reason, however, these tirades do all

the more harm,.as they beget in the mind of, the ,begmner,a feeling

of contempt for. the only means, by which he can be sure of, obtaining

information, | F itcta by ate ca ak er

tot psp

rt eat Tt} DODO

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED: SOCIETIES:

ov HbotmeesTa

2 FISINONG

+ kh, = el

I DSTUCY

LINNHAN SOCIETY!) «ovoworl .bowode oH

it otiw tooany cl $ MOjJ9TOXS

May/1,,.1855.--Thomas Bell, Esq., President, in. the, Chair; ia

Read a paper entitled, ‘ Notes onthe White ‘Secretion of ‘the

Flata limbata, and on its relation to the Insect Whité Wax of China.’ :

By Dy. Charles Murchison, formerly of the Bengal Medical Service.

The author's observations were drawn’ fronr ait’ inséct which he

had found in the month of April'1854; ‘in the’ jungles in the neigh-

bourhood ‘of Rangoon,’ specimens “of ‘which’ Were exhibited to the

Society!’' This’ insect was ‘observed’ adhering’ in ; élusters° to” the

leaves and ‘twigs of various species: of plants in ‘the jutigles, inipart-

ing to them a beautiful snow-white appearance. On endeavouring

to séciire “otie ‘of’ the leaves with the adhéting insects; 4 number of

perfect hémipterous' insects’ furnished with four wing’ vandal little

larger’ than a Common hotise-fiy, were’ dbsérved''to tin y sudden

jerks in ‘various directions; leaving the white matter still adhering to

the ‘leaf. On close’ inspection, this white matter was' found ‘to

consist’ of a number of imsect-cases,’ cach! furnished’ with ‘six legs,

Dr. C. Murchison on the White Secretion of Flata limbata. 3h7

and with a. ‘Hensé" tuft of white’ ‘pectinated: Appeilaages’ adhering ta:

the dorsal - and lateral aspects: of the posterior segments. These’

appendages were about two-thirds ‘Of an’ inch’ in length, and in the

fresh state spread out in all directions from the tail, some of them

curving "upwards » and: forwards ‘towards ‘the’ head: They were

extremely” fragile, the slightest touch reducing them to ‘a'fine white

powder, with which the: whole body ‘of ‘the insect. was thickly

bestrewed.” ‘Distinct from these there were on each insect’ two

smaller. ‘tufts of straight white. filaments, exhibiting under the’

microscope the ordinary characters of the hairy appendages found

upon insects, with a tendency to split up at their distal extremities,

These insect-cases were evidently the remains of the pupal stage of

the more perfect insect which had sprung away, The author then

proceeded to.show the identity of this insect with Flata limbata,

originally described and figured by Sir George Staunton in, his

account of Lord Macartney’s ‘Embassy to China’ (vol. i. p. 353),

as the source of the Chinese Insect-wax, and afterwards by Mr.

Westwood. in his edition of Donovan’s ‘Insects of China’ (p. 40.

pl. 17), and in the ‘ Gardener’s Chronicle’ for July 1853.

3 After. considering the importance of the Chinese Insect-wax, in

an economical point of view, and enumerating the several uses

medicinal and economical, to which it has been applied in this

country and in China, the author proceeded to’ mention the various

sources to which the substance had been attributed. He quoted the

statements ‘of Sir G. Staunton and others alréady alluded to, which

referred ‘it ‘to the white secretion of the Flata limbata. | He then

alluded to the detailed observations on the subject which have been

recorded by Capt. Hutton of the Bengal Service in the Asiatic

Society’s Transactions (1843), in which that gentleman had endea-

voured to prove} |that: the; substance formed by; the lata limbata

presented very different properties from those of the Chinese wax.

He showed, however, that Capt: Hutton had confounded the viscid

excretion of the insect with the white secretion originally described

by Sir George Staunton, and which in its properties is really ‘almost

identical with, the Chinese wax., .

He. then observed, that. in, the Reports of, the Juries ofthe Great

Exhibition..of ,1851, the Chinese. Insect-wax, .wasy said to) be the

produce,of the male, Coaccus ceriferus, . This. insect, however, had

been, shown, by, Dr. James Anderson..to yield. the ‘<white lac,” of

Madras,a substance, which, presented. very. different chemical, rela~

tions from. those of the:;Chinese wax, being, as .shown.by Dr. Pear-

son, soluble i in alcohol; and xther, and.of higher PS SHE gravity. than

water...

The author then, reviewed, ‘the, ‘elaborate. paper onthe subject of

the: Tnsect-wax, published -in the « Pharmaceutical, Journal,’ (April

18538), by Mr, ve Hanbury,.in which that gentleman had endeavoured

to show, that the substance was, the production of a species. of Coccus

hitherto. madres etn His conclusions were. drawn, from specimens

of. the,crude wax, as, “scxaped. from the, tree, transmitted. to, him, by

William ina hart, ‘Esq. of Shanghae, i in which were a number of

358 | Linnean Society :—

full-grown bodies of a female Coccus, as well as pieces of stick in-

crusted with wax, and with the insects still im situ. This insect

had been named by Mr, Westwood Coccus sinensis, and afterwards

Coceus Pela... Mr. Hanbury’s description and figures were shown

to agree for the most, part with the accounts and figures” given by,

Chinese authors of the mode of production of the Insect-wax of

China,.and which had been translated into French by Du Halde and

M, Stanislas Julien. Mr. Hanbury, however, apparently misled

by the arguments of Capt. Hutton, concluded that the Flata limbata

could not produce the Chinese wax.

The author then proceeded to consider the physical characters and

chemical properties of the Chinese wax of commerce, and to com-

pare with them those of the waxy matter of the Coccus Pela, described

by Mr. Hanbury, and of the white secretion of the Flata limbata,

exhibited to the Society.

1, The physical and chemical properties of the wax of commerce

were shown to have been ably investigated by Mr. B, C. Brodie,

Mr. Ure, and. Dr. Maskelyne of Oxford. It was described as occur-

ring in circular, cakes of various dimensions, often about a foot in

diameter, 3 or 4 inches thick, and perforated in the centre. In

structure it closely resembled spermaceti, being of a brilliant white,

and of asparkling, highly crystalline appearance. It differed, how-

eyer, from spermaceti in being harder, more brittle and pulverizable,

and presenting a more fibrous character of crystallization. Under a

low magnifying power it was seen to consist of a mass of irregularly

shaped crystalline tabular scales. Its specific gravity was °965, and

its melting-point had been stated by Mr. Brodie to be 181°°4 Fahr.,

and by Mr. Ure to be 196°, the melting-point of pure white wax

being only 155° Fahr, When melted, it became transparent and

colourless, and again opake white upon cooling, and was then seen

to consist of acicular crystals for the most part arranged ina stellate

manner. It was but very sparingly soluble in either alcohol or

sulphuric ether, and, did not saponify with the solution of ¢austie

alkali, It dissolyed, however, with great facility in naphtha, out of

which fluid it might be crystallized. It-was combustible and made

good candles, for which purpose. it was largely used in China, and

to a smaller extent had been employed in this country by Mr, Samuel

Childs. The investigations of Mr. Brodie relative to the proximate

and absolute analysis of the Chinese wax, as published in the ‘ Trans-

actions of the Royal Society * (1848), were then considered.

2. The characters of the crude wax furnished by the Coceus Pela

were then enumerated. As forwarded to Mr. Hanbury by Mr. Lock-

hart of Shanghae, it consisted of the crude wax ‘as scraped from the

tree, along with a number of full-grown bodies of ‘the Coccus Pela,

as well as pieces of stick incrusted with the ‘wax, and with the

insects still in situ. The crude wax itself formed around the branch

a white, soft, fibrous, velvety coating of from one- to two-tenths of

an inch in thickness, and when scraped off, occurred in ‘whitish,

flattened, curled, or generally irregular masses, the largest pieces

about half an inch in length. These masses exhibited no crystalline

Dr. C. Murchison on the White Secretion of Flata limbata. 359

structure, but were fibrous-looking, and so soft as to retain the im-

pression of the finger, It presented peculiar microscopic characters,

which had been described and figured by Mr. Quekett in an appendix

to Mr. Hanbury’s paper published in the ‘ Pharmaceutical Journal.’

When examined with a power of 250 diameters linear, it was ‘‘ found

to consist of a series of short filaments or cylinders, some of which

are straight, but others more or less curved ; within each cylinder is

a tubular cavity, extending throughout its whole length. The dia-

meter of the cylinders is on an average zo;5th of an inch, whilst

that of the tube within varies from ;,5th to zgjoth.”” Mr. Quekett

had found similar tubular filaments in the cocoons of the Cochineal

insect. The specific gravity of the crude wax had not been ascer-

tained, but the melting-point of a purified wax obtained from the

crude substance had been shown by Mr. Hanbury to be 182°:75 Fahr.

It did not dissolve, or at all events but very sparingly in alcohol,

ether, or solution of caustic alkali, but it dissolved readily in naphtha

and vegetable oils, uniting with the latter to form a solid white mass.

When melted, it formed a clear, colourless liquid, which became

opake white on cooling, and was then found to have lost its tubular

structure, and to be composed of acicular crystals arranged in

stellate masses, like those produced by the commercial wax when

similarly treated. From these characters, as well as the evidence

of Mr. Lockhart of Shanghae, Dr. Murchison thought that there was

good reason for coinciding with the conclusion arrived at by Mr.

Hanbury, that the Coccus Pela is a source of the commercial wax.

. 8. The characters of the white appendages of the Flata limbata

were then considered. Close inspection showed that these appen-

dages were of two sorts, First, there was on each insect a small

tuft or brush of minute white hairs, adhering firmly to either side of

the insect’s body, and distinguished from the great bulk of the white

appendages by. their smaller size, greater slenderness, less opacity,

and greater strength, admitting of being handled with perfect im.

punity... These filaments under the microscope presented the

ordinary characters of the hairy appendages often found on insects,

with a remarkable tendency, to split up at their distal extremities.

The greater bulk of the white appendages were thicker, longer, and

more opake than the preceding. They were but loosely attached to

the surface of the insect’s body, and extremely delicate and fragile,

so that the slightest touch with the point of the finger reduced them

to a fine white powder, and hence was explained the fact, that the

leaves and, branches upon which these insects occur, become com-

pletely. whitened by a white powdery substance in the manner de-

scribed by Sir G. Staunton. On microscopic examination they pre-

sented a beautiful appearance of spiral structure. When one of the

appendages was compressed with care between two glass plates, and

examined under a power of 250 diameters, it was found to consist

of a mass of spiral threads, with their long axes running in the same

direction. The slightest friction of the surfaces of the glass plates

broke up these threads into fragments more or less minute, and if

the friction, was, continued, they were almost entirely converted into

360 cb oidinnaan Society i—

granular matter) yThe threads differed from) the cylinders:found im

the crude:wak of) the Coceus! Pela'in not being twbular,cand lin) their

diameter measuring on an average only ;,);5th of an inch, orabout

one-half! Attempts.were made to trace’ the! mode of connexion’ of

these filaments with: the insect’s) body, (but owing to theirsextreme

delicacy: and fragility this was found impossible) o:The:integument,

however, toy which they: were: attached was) found! to: be perforated

by jainumber.of: circular openings, having a distinct double outline)

the diameteri:of the inner: circleexactly corresponding: with that: of

one of) the -filaments..\.\Hence it) seemed probable that the» spiral

threads, -which» were evidently a secretion, had issued: from these

circular sopenings.:» What was the chemical nature -of this: white:

Secretion:?»: Avsmall portion, placed on a glass:slide and melted over

the flame of\a \spirit-lamp, became a transparent, colourless drop,

which»on' cooling became opake white, and was then found:to:have

lost) its original structure and to have become crystalline» !:-The

crystals consisted» partly of irregularly-shaped fragments; and also

contained; especially:when the cooling had» been conducted slowly,

acicular crystals arranged) in stellate masses\as in the) case of the

two substances already described. The melting-point, as far as could

be ascertained with the small quantities experimented on, was

between 190° and 200° Fahr. The substance floated in water, and

was ‘perfectly insoluble:in. this fluid, and but sparingly; if at all,

soluble im /alcohol;:sulphuric ether, or solution “of ‘caustic peters

whereas: in: naphtha it dissolved readily, as also: in vegetable oils,

forming with the latter: a) white solid substance.’ From these’ cha-

racters. 'there:could ybe little: doubt ‘that: the white) secretion “of

the Flata limbata was of a waxy nature, and also very vig ves in its

0 ag to the-@hinese Insect-wax of commercey!” iS ok

‘The author concluded) as follows :-— | 10 HO |

xf Phe. Mata limbata oceurs-im great ieledaiee 4 in + China, ae salad

in-some parts of Indiavand I believe, from the facts.above stated) that

theres: nothing improbable in the’ original statement’ of Sir George

Staunton; thatit mayobe:a’source of the Insect-wax 'of'commerce.

Thatiitristhe sole source;-asowas ‘once believed, T thinkis disproved

bythe arguments which Mr. Hanbury has brought forward in’ favour

of the Oeccus Pela) 'Thatiitis onesource, however) of the Insects

wax cemployed'for economical | purposes! by the Chinese}! I ‘think 4 ‘is

rendered highly probable\by the following \considetations 4 91900,

2) f ho We! haveeseene the the: Flatalimbata: sania ay res matter

in‘considerable:quantityorg Jonah & es eion MONI9I9)

chemical:relations the Chinese inseet-wax' of commerce! 159

iff Bs ihe Fata deer gucae is‘known*td! be very common'in: ee parts

of Chinap:! 292% i99q2 JM919 fib s9awied evilsisa:

s ffobe Sir Gleerize Groin: when travellingin Mochinhire:; found

thatrit:was' genérally believed that the white matter secreted bythe

Flata'limbata-formed the white wax of the Basti and he 'adds,* [tis

asserted onthe spot; to’ have the property) by a particular manipula-

tion, of giving im certain proportions withvéegetable oil such solidity:

Mr. T. Bellon the Leucosiade. 361

to thecomposition, as to render:the whole ‘equally capable of! being

moulded ‘into eat 1 The araithy afi sacuee ataiomncnt ¥ rer ded

verifiedio .\ou fe 10 garmuasom

to“ 6.cdtrhas Moir hed Br. telltale Gloums? of Holtiioult:

Socrof India voli vii. po b6¢), that! the-annual produce ofthe Insect-

wax iim China is not far from: £400,000;;and when wei consider the

very small «quantity: yielded by an individuadd insect, whether ‘the

Coccus Pela: or the Flata limbata, it would appear probable that the

substance may: be obtained from: several insects, of which no:doubt

thei Coccus Pela is one, and probably the Flata limbata is another.’

oe'Phe:paper was illustrated by specimens of the insect in its natural

statey adhering» to’ the leaf, and also by numerous: preparations,

illustrative:of the microscopic appearances and chemical. relations; of

the:waxy matter both of the Coccus Pela and Flata limbatas: ‘The

specimens of the Plata limbata adhering to the leaf have since been

depositedvinsthe Museum of the Royal Gardens at Kew.. Micro-

scopical:delineations of appearances seen in the; secretions both of

Flata Vimbata and of Coccus Pela, and of the spiral threads and: white

sige the pupa of Flata limbata, also mainder the paper.

June 5.--Thomas Bell, Esq,, President, in the Chair.

“Read the first.of a Series of Memoirs, entitled) -‘* Hore Carcino-+

logicze, or- Notices of Crustacea. I, A-Monographvofsthe Leuco-

siade, with observations. on the relations; structure, habits and:dis«

tribution of the| family, a revision of ser generic ocharacters; and

descriptions: of) new ginens and species’ “By ow nok Esqv;

ViP.RiS.pPresi L.§,

The author commences this paper wink snails on gor Dintigaet

limitation of the Leucosiade, and. the absence of any:obvious osculant

forms by which to associate'them: closely withneighbouring groups

of: the: Oaystomata,-and the no less striking: wantof anyidistinct re:

presentation}.of; thisofamily; within, the | limits cof cother members of

the same great group.o-He refers, howevery to a probable affinity:in

the structure) ofthe |type!of the :Pinnotheride; which -has» hitherto

been overlooked.) | Theoapparent, approximation: of -the genus Oreo-

phorus| to\the Calappade. is, also» suggested, \and)\a’ ‘corresponding

tendency) to, a Jateral/ expansion, of the» Agron: pei erore orn in ‘the

gence Lithadia;Nursia; Phlygia’ and Hbalia; :

The history, of,;theoprogressive kiiowledge ‘of nes family Fron its

first detection by Fabricius as a distinct group ‘iscthen/given.> ‘The

author; enters at some lexigth! into! the consideration: of the tature’ of

specific characters:im general, and the necessity: of adopting! such:as

are tangible and certain; and after, deprecating the\use of such as are

merely comparative between different species, he urges the import.

ance of giving, {in all cases| when) a-new. species is described; such a

definition, as; shall. pointout,as briefly as may consist with. clearness

and | certainty.{the; points -of| distinetion/ front) all those\ which \aré

already knowns and; a: description so full .as/to; enable the future ob-

server, to|.ascertain | ionhether: any individual afterwards, examined is

362 Linnean Society :—

new, or identical with the one so described. Specific characters, the

author says, should always be either absolute, or derived. from

points of comparison within the individual itself.

After a general view of the structure, it is shown that from a low

degree of development of the organs subserving the functions of rela-

tion, these animals are necessarily slow and circumscribed in their

locomotion, and dependent for their safety from injury upon external

means of protection.

In referring to the distribution of the family, it is shown that

every genus, without exception, is restricted to its own geogra-

phical limit; and this is true to such an extent, that there is no in-

stance of one species of any genus inhabiting the old world, and

another of the same genus being found in the new.

The systematic portion of the paper consists of the characters of,

and observations on, all the genera whether new or previously known,

and characters and descriptions of every known species. Five new

genera and no less than thirty-six new species are described. The

following are the generic and specific characters as given in the

paper :-—=

Genus Leucosia. Testa ovato-orbicularis, subglobosa, levis, polita ;

fronte subproducto, fossulas antennarias tegente. Orbiéa fissuris tribus.

Fosse antennarie oblique, apertee. Pedipalpi externi caule exteriore

lateribus parallelis, recto vel subcurvo, apice obtuso; caule interiore

acuté triangulari. Pedes antici crassiores, longitudine mediceres,

brachiis ad‘ basin et ad latera tuberculatis. Abdomen maris, in non-

nullisspeciebus, segmentis omnibus primo et ultimo exceptis—in aliis

tertio cum: quarto’ et quinto cum sexto; feemine a tertio ad sextum

coalitis.

1, Leueosia Urania, Herbst. Testa subglobosd, anticé producta, fronte

rotundato; brachiis triedris, supra ad basin tuberculis pauciss' sinu

thoracico:usque ad: latera regionis hepaticee anticé aieaniciiti granis

marginato,

2. Leucosia eraniolaris, Linn. Testa iciahnetiodibeisniy towns tridentato;

brachiis..serie. tuberculorum ad latera et, tuberculis dobus tantim ad

basin,

3. Leucosia obtusifrons, De Haan, Fronte mane sinu o thoniediep an-

ticé circulari, tuberculis circumscripto; brachiis ad latera et ad basin

tuberculatis, manibus longioribus quam, latioribus,. serie granorum ad

marginem interiorem,

4. Leucosia unidentata, De Haan. Fronte snihendie: sinu thoracico

anticé circulari, tuberculis perlatis gieameniinias brachiis fheivn supe-

riore seriebus binis tuberculorum.

5. Leucosia rhombvuidalis, De Haan. Testa ehotiiboidaliy drlifes pe6ducta,

multd longiore quam latiore ; brachiis basi utringue dense tomentosis,

lateribus tuberculatis, supra pierumque leevibus.° ~

6. Leucosia longifrons, De Haan. Testa subglobosa, fronte producto, in-

tegerrimo ; sinu thoracico anticé elliptico, granis non cincto’; brachiis

ad latera tuberculatis, et granulis paucis.ad basin.

7. Leucosia orbicularis, Bell. Testa orbiculari, fronte lato, brevissimo,

bidentato ; sinu thoracico nullo ; sterno anticé granulato, -

Mr. T. Bell on the Leucosiade. _ 363

‘8. Leucosia pallida, Bell. Fronte tridentato, ultra orbita producto; sinu

“oithoracico in ‘sulco ‘brevi' profundo anticé terminato; granulis paucis

supra insertionem pedum anteriorum ; manibus utrinque carinatis levi-

»o! busy -digitis inermibus. | :

09, Leucosia obscura, Bell: Testé suborbiculari; rostro minuté tridentato ;

vor sinu ‘thoracico angustissimo;. manibus. longioribus quam latioribus

‘»atrinque carinatis, levibus; digitis inermibus.

10. Leucosia marmorea, Bell. Fronte minuté tridentato, dente medio

ioc tlongiore ;sinu thoracico anticé brevi, lined semicirculari granulata

-.»oterminato; brachiis ad basin et ad latera tuberculatis; manibus mar-

gine interno granulato.

oll. Leucosia punctata, Bell. Testé impresso-punctata; fronte subemar-

ginato; brachiis supra omnino granulatis.

12. Leucosia affinis, Bell. Testa anticé angustata, fronte producto, sub-

_spy emarginato ; manibus utrinque carinatis; brachiis anticé tumidis, levis-

simis, politis. .

18. Leucosia brevimana, Bell. Testi subrhomboidali; fronte. emargi-

nato;,margine laterali haud granulato ;_ manibus zqué longis. ac Jatis.

14. Leucosia margaritacea, Bell, Test& multd longiore quam. latiore;

leevissima, margaritaceé; sinu thoracico margine levi; brachiis supra

‘tuberculis albis, rubro-cinctis.

15. Leucosia ocellata, Bell. .'Testaé rhomboidali; fronte bidentate ; re-

gione gastricé maculis quatuor parvis rubris signaté, quarum. bine an-

teriores ocellate.

616. Leucosia Whitei, Bell. Testi rhomboided ; fronte producto, minuté

tridentato ; regionibus hepatica et branchiali granulis tribus vel quatuor ;

«1 brachiis tomentosis, tuberculis magnis omnino instvuctis, )

17. Leucosia hematosticta, Adams & White. ‘ Thorace trapezoidali

oo Supra, valdé ‘convexo, post angulum latero-anteriorem incisura pro-

»» funda, maculis.multis sanguineis obsito.”

“¥82 Leucosia Cumingi, Bell. 'Test& suborbiculari, margine levi; sinu

thoracico incisurAé inter regiones hepaticam et branchialem'terminato ;

_.vegionibus, branchialibus valdé tumidis.

“19. Leucosia pulchella, Bell. Testa zequé longa ac lata, margine’ levi,

tenui, subreflexo; brachiis supra et infra omnino tuberculatis} pedi-

palpis éxternis anticé paulo angustatis. |

20. Leucosia phyllocheira, Bell. Manibus latioribus quam longioribus,

~ “utrinque Jamellatis ; pedibus omnibus posterioribus articulo penultimo

lato, compresso.

TOM? Lee isin

Genus T11a; Tieach, (Pesta subglobosa, postice dentibus quatuor. armata,

quarum utrinque una compressaad) regionem :intestinalem, et una

..,eonica.ad, brachialem ; fronte bifido, ; ; Orbita supra bifissa.. .. Pedipalpi

".... externi caule exteriore. recto, apice obtuso,, Pedes antici longissimi,

manibus contortis, antrorstia, angustatis, ?

ol tlie nucleus, Linn, -Testé minuté et.conferté granulosa, granulis ma-

|| {ojoribus distantibus, instructa. | ti

2. Ilia rugulosa, Roux. Test& glabra, sparsim granulosa, anticé levi.

“Genus Perseenona, ‘Leach, Testa ovalis seu orbicularis, depressa, den-

tibus tribus ad partem posteriorem armata, regionibus pterygostomianis

36.4 “Donnan Society!

sadn angulatis, “Orbite Hifissns’ Fosste antennari@ tYansversie:” sal

\eatern? caule’ éxteriore’ ‘patil ‘dilatato’ Ree a ad apicem in-

ternd ‘trineato! Pedes antici robusti) testa hatid ‘bis GRE ‘yeliqui

oérticulis-ultimojet penultimo, compressis.: Abdomen maris segnientis a

ytertiovadquintum;+feemine a quarto ad: sextum, ¢oalitisic voi:

. Persephona Guaia, Bell. Test& ovata, | sparsim’ tubéretilata, ‘ahgulo

usiopterygostomiano obtusissimo;. bpinhs media ely Jateralibus patil

superiore,

9) 2e; Pensephona Diedbansteinli Jidachi Testa orbieulari, angulo :pterygo-

»\5) stomiano dentiformi, margine laterali unidentato, spinis posticis zequa-

libus, medio cum lateralibus triangulum zequilateralem designante.

3. Persephona orbicularis, Bell. Testa orbiculari, angulo pieryostoniiano

-oy intuberculo abrupté producto ; spinis posticis eequalibus, anpenie fers

‘rectum designantibus,

“40 comin Edwardsii, Bell. Testa orbiculat, anticé subprodueta,

angulo pterygostomiano obsoleto; spina postica Sea lateralibus

‘oomultd:altiore.

* Genns, Levcosusa, Bell... Testa globosa, fronte dentibus binis divergen-

tibus terminata ; regione intestinali unidentat&é. Orbita tritissay’ Posse

antennarie oblique in dentibus frontis excavate, Pedipal, i. externi

caulé extériore stibctii'vo, ‘obtuso. ~Pedes antici robusti, longi dine

medivoeres::i,Abdomen maris segmentis 3tio 4to 5t0scoalitis, pentane

unidentato; foeemine late ovatum, valdé convexumy 66) 000)

Sp.ounica, Lencosilea Furiniiy: Saussure.

Genus Myra, Leach. 7' nai ovato-globosa, posticd ‘tridentata, Orbita

*” profunde trifissa, “FUsse antennarie® oblique. Pedipalpi. externa caule

‘exteriore dilatato!’ Pedes antici longissimi, graciles, manibus rectis.

Myra fugax, Fabr. _ Testa subglobosa, medio. elevata, non carinata ;

spina postica media lateralibus bis em 5 spinis Jateralibus com-

pressis.

2. Myra affinis, Bell.» Testa ovato-globosa, spinis: posticis brevibus; ‘sub-

equalibus; pedibus anticis testé vix bis Sarat 03 manw wee tertia

parte-longiore.) 10)» bs isteins sails

3. Myra earinata, Bell. Testt ovata minute sranuilata, ou carinata,

spina postica media lateralibus ter "quaterve To ongiore, ‘spinis Tateralibus

acute conicis. : SADANSA HUH

ai Myra'elégans, Bell. Tesh Bis fuiiglide® roe tore pind, postica

Jit 09

non inclusd), margine anteriore setoso. shh arimsecs HH

5. Myra mammillaris, Bell. ‘Testa ovata, plabré, titberenlis’ parvis" elevatis

epeeelan instructés dentibus prea brevissinis, ‘rotutidatisy « O19)

yu oluotodut supiriig Usidongtd

“Genus Myropss, Bell. Testa ovata, rostro emarginato termimatay'pos-

ticé dentibus tribus, quarum media, ade a ata. pale ita. faificea.

Fosse antennarie@ feré LAAT oA f baat € cath ile exte~

riore subeurvo, haud dilatato,’ Pedes an fies he Vix ons giores ; ma-

nibus pyriformibus haud Jongioribus quam: latioribus } digitis tenuibus,

valdé elongatis, curvis, apice aduncis. odolid storis¥as-o1916)

Sp. unica, Myrodes eudactylus, Belbero dis svsY flo armvand enne

il ; 6h +s ) : 13

‘Genus Puiryra, Léach, “Testa or bic uu laxis, ‘epee, ingrmis,f fi Be epi-

stomate breviore.! Orbita supra. et trifissa. Fosse antennarie fere

Mr. T, Bell onthe Leucosiadee. 365

s _ transverse, Pedipalpi eaterni.caule exteriore dilatato. .. Pedes antici

_, -Medioeres ;, oclo. posteriores tarso.compresso,lamelloso,;, Abdomen maris

.... hastato-lanceolatum ; feemine, articulo,ultimo angusto, producto,

» dinPhilyra scabriuscula}. Fabr.:> Test& depress, granuloso-scabra, ‘fronte

epistomate! multo: breviore; ‘brachiis *tuberculatis ;’ manibus’ ad mar-

o|yvo Sinem interiorem lineis duabus granulatis, ¢¢ oo) yuo)

ol) Qu Philyra globulosa, Fabr. > 'Test& globos&; levi; margine laterali granu-

lato ; fronte vix epistomate breviore ; brachiis granulatis. 0

08+ Philyra porcellana, Fabr. | “ Testé. globosa; minuté punctaté; fronte

supepistomate parim breviore, margine granulato;) brachiis'cylindricis

tuberculatis ; manibus lzevibus inflatis.”

Hance speciem non vidi—a precedente anne distincta ?

sigh Philyra Pisum, De Haan. ‘“ Fronte epistomate partum breviore; re-

gionibus pterygostomianis medio angulatis; thorace granulato ;chelis

.,. in maribus thoracem dimidio superantibus; digitis in longitudinem,5 -

“ . Sulcatis margine interno denticulatis.”’ | :

5. Philyra platycheira, De Haan. “Parva, regionibus pterygostomianis

medio angulatis ; fronte epistomate partim breviore; chelis in maribus

aoethorace bis longioribus ; digitis valdé depressis, levibus, margine inferno

»eeointegertimis.”” | SISMINTIOS etd

ee! Philyra levis, Bell....'Testa, corpore, pedibus omnino levibus:,

ote Philyra dAdamsii, Bell. Testa glabra, regionibus partim°et lined lon-

gitudinali granulatis; margine posteriore utrinque bituberculato.

8. Philyra punctata, Bell. Testa orbiculari, leevi,-punctatd; angulo pte-

rygostomiano obsoleto ; brachiis triquetris.. ‘3

“9. Philyra carinata, Bell. Testé partim granulos4, inter regiones, car-

~diacam et branchialem. levi, medio, carinataé; manibus, lineis, duabus

~ granulosis. ‘ et

: ‘10. Philyra, macrophthalma, Bell... ‘Test&. ovatd, minutissimé granulata ;

~ pedunculis oculorum elongatis ; abdomine maris angusto, lineari..,,

Genus) Epatra;': Leach, 2 Testa rhomboidalis | vel’ suhhexagona ; \fronte

Aivoproducto, emarginato, | -Orbita bifissa:- Woss@ antennarie tect, oblique.

Pedipalpi externit ad marginem epistomatis extendenites,‘caule® exte-

ajqqiore Margine externo recto, caule interiore acuminato, ... Pedes antici

uid RNS SRRSS! & ROM AEIONGA BNNs Lordi atyliforms terminath,

1. Ebalia Pennantii, Leach. Test& granulata, eminentid‘certeiformi ;

..;,,Margine. Hasencantarione sbaloRAlp ; abdomine mavis segmentis,a/tertio

~~"“ad sextum confluentibus. ~... 5s AE ve

») 2x, ebaha, Bryeri, leach..; Pesta, minute} granulata, margine: laterali in-

tegro, subrevoluto, posteriore sbilobato ;. xegione cardiaca, bituberculata,

branchiali utrinque tuberculo uno; brachio haud bis longiore quam

2oglatioresn 19! OJKMISIBMI9 Oe0'T BIHVO. Yi29) tes Prec

: °8.Ebalia Cranchit, each. Pesta, granulata, earinata, tuberculis quinque ;

"na tie latero-alitétiors fere integvo ; brachio ter longiore quam latiore.

“BOI = e9tore mo: V H3295 PWIND 2909 Dar iterates a ia, aaa

E ai dibolia granulosa. Law «nc Festa granulosa, tuberculis) sex; -margine

atero-anteriore bilobo. elomubs 991

Genus Putyxra, Bell. Testa rhomboided) ‘tubereulis tribus ‘ posticd fn-

structis. . Orbita supra.emarginata Fosse antennarie cum

ee, : upra emarginata, bifissa.

“1° orbiti ‘Conithtinica tes.) tn diniule’ slongati, portectaes ,,Pedipalpi

STIT DITWHHMIINY WV2 H

366 Linnean Society.

;

externi caule exteriore lato, margine externo curvo, antics angustato ;

caule interno segmento penultimo lateribus parallelis, ultimo triangu-

lari. Abdomen in utroyue sexu segmentis a tertio'ad sextum coalitis.

1. Phiywia crassipes, Bell. Testa subcarinata; rostro quadrato, quadri-

dentato ; pedibus anticis testa plus quam duplo longioribus; brachiis

rotundis, medio tumescentibus. | re

2: Phiyxia lambriformis, Bell... Testé carinata ; rostro triangulari, emar-

ginato; margine latero-anteriore inciso, latero-posteriore acuté carinato.

3. Phlyxia levis, Bell. Brachiis triedris; test levi, margine. laterali

unidentato. .

Genus Lirwapra, Bell. Testa rhomboidea, rudis; regionibus gibbosis ;

rostro bifido, resupinato. Orbita supra et extrorstim aperta. Fosse

antennarie@ oblique. Pedipalpi externi caule exteriore -ensiformi ob-

tuso; interiore lanceolato, exteriore longiore. Pedes antict robusti,

a tuberculati. Abdomen maris segmentis tertio, quarto et quinto

coalitis.

Species unica, Lithadia Cumingii, Bell.

Genus Orzornorus, Riippell. Testa tuberosa, posticé supra pedes dila-

tata. Fosse antennarie oblique. Pedipalpi externi caule exteriore

arcuato, apicem versus sensim angustiore. Pedes anteriores longi, ro-

busti ; octo posteriores subzequales, scuto dorsali reconditi.

1. Oreophorus horridus, Riipp. Test subtriangulata, regionibus branchi-

alibus fortitér et obliqué carinatis; chelis mediocribus ; manu digitis

longiore.

2. Oreophorus reticulatus, Adams & White. Testa subpentagona, reti-

culata ; digitis maximis, manu bis longioribus.

3. Oreophorus nodosus, Bell. Testé nodosa, margine undato;) manu tu-

mida, ad margines carinata, bisuleata, digitis longiore. . .

Genus Nursia, Leach. Testa polyedra, fronte producto. | Orbita ex-

trorsim aperta, Fosse antennarie transverse. . Pedipalpi externi

caule exteriore curvo, dilatato, anticé et posticé obtuso ; caule interiore

margine interno recto, articulo penultimo quadraté, ultimo triangulari.

Pedes antici digitis deflexis., Abdomen maris articulo penultimo apice

processu dentiformi instructum. Pb ott be

1, Nursia plicata, Herbst. Testé utrinque 4-dentata, medio tuberculis

tribus triangulum delineantibus, posticé linea elevata transversa tuber-

culum gerente; fronte 4-dentato.

2. Nursia abbreviata, Bell. Testa orbiculari, “margine undato, linea ele-

vata longitudinali, altera transversali: decussata ;) fronte integro,

Genus Nursiuia, Bell. . .Zesta latior,quam longior,.margine ,polygono,

fronte producto. Orbita bifissa, extrorstim aperta. Losse@ antennarie

oblique. | Pedipalpi externi epistoma superantes, caule exteriore

curvo, medio. dilatato; interiore.,elongato,, margine, interno arcuato.

Abdomen femine valdé convexum, articulo tik inter bases pedipal-

porum externorum producto. (O enna

Species unica, Nursilia dentata, Bell. id.

Genus Arcania, Leach. Testa subglobosa, spinis seu tuberculis eleyatis

plurimis armata. Orbita supra et extrorstim aperta. J’osse antennarie

longitudinales. Pedipalpi externi caule exteriore’ recto, linéari, apice

interiore emarginato-truncato ;caule imteriore’ gradatim ‘acuminato,

Zoological Society. 367

_ Pedes antici gracillimi. Abdomen maris lanceolatum, segmentis a tertio

_, ad sextum coalitis.

hi, Arcania Erinaceus, Herbst...Corpore, atque, membris densé spinosis,

spinis spinulosis,

2. Arcania 11-spinosa, De Haan, _“ Thorace spinuloso, spinulis obtusis,

ambitu 11-spinoso, spinis acutis simplicibus ; brachiis granulatis, digitis

__ manibus longioribus.”

3. Arcania novem-spinosa, Adams & White. ‘“ Thorace levi, granuloso,

marginibus latero-anterioribus spinis duabus, latero-posterioribus spinis

duabus, posteriore spina longé recta.” .

4, Arcania septem-spinosa, Bell. Test&é pauld latiore quam longiore,

tuberculat4é, margine spinis septem tuberculatis armato, laterali utrin-

que reliquis longiore. 7

- 5. Areania tuberculata, Bell. Testé pauld longiore quam latiore, omnino

tuberculaté, margine spinis novem tuberculatis instructo; brachiis gra-

nulatis, manibus lzvibus.

6. Arcania gracilipes, Bell. Testé granulosa, tuberculis quindecim supra,

et tribus ad marginem posteriorem instructé; pedibus anticis tenuis-

Sesgh MS ;

4. Arcania levimana, Bell. Test& granulaté, tuberculis numerosis di-

stinctis, ad marginem spinis novem simplicibus armata; manibus

glabris.

Genus Ipuis, Leach. Testa rhomboidalis, transversa, angulis rotundatis,

utrinque spina longissima horizontali armata ; fronte emarginato,

Species unica, [phis septemspinosa, Fabr.

Genus Ixa, Leach. Testa elliptico-rhomboidalis, processu utrinque sub-

_eylindrico 4 regione branchiali producto ; regionibus sulco profundo se-

interiore longiore. Pedes filiformes.

Species unica, Iva cylindrus, Fabr.

Read also, a ‘“‘ Notice of a species of Carabideous Insect, Heliuo

(Acanthogenys) myrmecophilus, Westw., found together with its

larva, in, Ants’, nests.in Ceylon, by G. H. K. Thwaites,. Esq.,

F.L.S.” By J. O. Westwood, Esq, F.L.S. This paper was

accompanied by figures of the larva and imago states of the insect.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

June'27;'1854.—+Dr. Gray, Vice-President, im the Chair.

DESCRIPTIONS OF THREE NEW SPECIES OF TITMICE.

By Frepreric Moore.

Fam. Pipriv#, Vigors. Subfam. Parrana.

Genus Oritrrs, Meehring.

1, Orires? teucocEnys, Moore.

. Colour above grey, tinged with pinkish on the rump : before the eye

and a broad streak over it black, passing to mixed black and grey

on the nape ;. the centre of the head dusky reddish-isabelline ; base

368 ky \o ea nahoological Society or

aft

Toiw

ini cieada stosid

24; the, three, outer,

feathers graduated. the middle, pair ~jths shorter, than the next ;,,;

bill to frontal, plumes ths; to gape 3% ths; height from, chin to,

This species is allied in colour to O. jouschistos, Hodgson, from. .,

which it may at.once be distinguished by its broad, thick and higher ,

bill, by its white cheeks and ear-coverts, and. by its black chin. and),

throat ; and from O. erythrocephalus, Vigors, by its larger size, by

the absence of the white superciliary streak, white chin, black ear: ;

coverts, &c. On the habits of the latter species I beg to quote the, ,

following remarks made by Capt. Hutton, in ‘Journ. A. S. Bengal,’

1848, p. 689.)°He says, “Itis common at Mussooree, and in the

hills generally throughout the year. It breeds in April and May;

the situation ‘chosen is’various, as one taken in the former month at”.

Mussooree “at’7000 feet elevation, was placed’ on the side of a bank

among overhanging ‘coarse erass ; while another taken in the latter”

month at'5000 feet, was built among some ivy turning round a tree,” “

and at least 14 feet from the ground. The nest igi shape’ around il

ball with a small lateral entrance, and is composed of green mosses _

warmly lined, with: feathers. The: eggs ‘are «five ininumber, white ”

with a) pinkish tinge, and sparingly »sprmklédswitly lilac “spots or

specks, and having a well-defined lilac: ring’ at the dargér end. . Dia

meter 58 X 38; in.” ee Ce

2. Orirzs (7?) GLAUCOGULARISy Gould sMSyi0idu2

Colour above greyish-ash ; ‘crown black, with: vax broad; pale-buff

line extending down the centre; forehead. and lores isabelline ;_ base

of lower mandible, ear-coverts, chin, ‘breast; “and middle of belly uff

colour ; rump, upper’ tail-coverts; flariks/and sides ‘of ‘belly pinkish-

isabelline;: brightening) to’ ferrugihots ‘on thie se and .

coverts; throat of a silvery or bluish‘ash% sidés ofthe eck below’

the ear-coverts whitish 3: wings*byownish black, covets and! speculars

quite black, primaries and secondaries matgined with greyish-white ;

axillee and edge of shoulder whites" tail black) the fetir Outer feathers”

leucogenys'; legs dark browny!)) “219709-8) TOWO! DOs ogee GyOy

Length 41 inches; of wing 24th ; tail 21 pits outermost feather

Mr. F. Moore on some-imperfectly known species of Birds. 369°

1 inch shorter ;\ bill to- frontal: gicmep Fothss0 ‘to gape agcredg wold

tarse; 44;ths of an-inch., - Aonid- ,

Hab. China:.|In.the' sclleesions of John: Gould, Base:

‘Be Onrres (’) NivEOGULARIS, Gould, MS: >

‘Porelicad white; passing to buif-brown, o on. ie back of ‘the re i

nape, arid’ fore-part of ' the back, and thence to. the tail grey, tinged.

ith: isabélline on the ramp ; ‘lores, over the eyes and ear-coyerts

black, passing into the brown on. the nape; ear-coyerts blackish

anteriorly ‘and brownish-buff posteriorly, aud, somewhat striped,

itil ‘with white; base of lower, mandible, chin, throat, ,

ra -part of breast, and sides of the neck to the nape behind the ear-.,

coverts snowy-white, and contrasting with a. brownish band which

runs from the nape across the middle of the breast ; the lower part of,

the breast with the abdomen pale pinky-isabelline passing to white.

in the middle of the belly: wings brown, margined with greyish-

white, coverts and speculars blackiah - tail dusky-black, margined

externally with greyish-white, its outermost feathers white on the

outer web. Bill black, longish, and slender as in Q, Cl iate 4

Hodgson ; feet yellowish. 7

Length. 42 inches ; of wing 2}; tail 2$ths, its outermost feather

2 inch shotter ; ‘bill: to frontal plumes ; 5 ths to xpthy 5 tarse qoths .

of an inch. ;

Hab. N. ‘Tndia, - In the collection of John Gould, Esq.

Remark.—These three. new species, together. with, 0: duasiedi

cephalus, Vigors,. and: O. jouschistos,. Hodgs.,,,will, ,L., believe, upon:

further examination, prove, to form two, separate divisions, distinct),

from, the genus, Orites.;; the. species named. erythrocephalus;,leuco~,

genys,, 1 glaucogularis, ata one, division, .and, fowecioton with

niveogularis. the second, | The: te80

BS@e0M M59TS to b BOG MOS ai : - ALS ,

Notice OF); SOME iepne ners ver ROwN SPECTES’ OF" BIRDS

CONTAINED | in\rHE) Museum or tare Hon. East Inpta Com- ’

PANY. |) By Frepreric Moore.

Fam. Merviip#, Vigors.

Subfam? Brachyropina, Swainson.

hod-ole@enus Ixunvs, Hodgson,’ P. Z. Si'(1845) p. 23.

1. HEP, OOCIPITALIS, ae

jour ate j seas 'g olive-green, 5 the: shafts: of: thédorsal

hee feathers pale ;.,below,;much lighter and rufescent, the

throat. whitish, ; the, feathers; of the fore-neck having dark shafts:: 0

crown, nape, and. lower tail-coverts ferruginous-brown, which also

Ann. & Mag. .N, tists Sexy) 2.1) Volaxvi. 25

370 Zoological Society :— .

tinges the flanks; coronal feathers considerably elongated, and: the

occiput beneath the crest white; bill black ; legs yellowish-brown.

“Length about 5 inches; of wing 24; tail 2; bill to, gape =%ths;

and tarse Zths of an inch,” Rf » albbix

A single specimen only of this species was collected in Nepal by

B. H. Hodgson, Esq. or do orld

2. IxuLus casTaniceps, Moore, n. sp.

Colour above dull brownish-olive, the shafts of the dorsal and

scapular feathers pale; crown dark-chestnut, and subcrested, the.

frontal plumes short and scaly, and having pale margins, the occiput

paler chestnut; behind the eyes whitish; ear-coverts chestnut ;

wings blackish, the secondaries and tertiaries with pale shafts ;

axillee white; tail black, the three outer feathers graduated, and

tipped obliquely externally with white, the next white at the extreme.

tip only, and the rest entirely black ; the whole underparts of a dirty

ruddy-white colour; bill reddish-brown; legs yellowish.

Length 53 inches; of wing 2,3,; tail 21; its outermost feather

Sths less; bill to front 3,ths; to gape 4; and tarse $ of an inch.

Hab. Afghanistan.

This species is at once distinguished by the white tips to the tail-

feathers. |

Genus Stacuyris, Hodgson, J. A. 8. Beng. 1844, p. 378.

3.. STACHYRIS RUFICEPS, Blyth.

Stachyris ruficeps, Blyth, J. A. 8. Beng. xvi. p..452:(1847);

Catal. B. Mus. A. 8, Beng. p. 150. Bonap. C. G: Ay.-p. 332.

The rufous-headed Stachyris. iL asibol i

Hab, Sikim ; Nepal. (No. 923, Hodgson’s Catalogue.)

*¢ Allied in form and size to St. pyrrhops, but having the crown

light ferruginous, and the chin and middle of the throat white, with

slight black central streaks to the feathers ; rest of the upper parts

plain olive; and of the lower whitish, with a fulyous tinge on the

sides of the neck and breast ’’ [im some specimens the crown and

nape are bright ferruginous, and the whole under-parts pale ferru-

ginous|. Bill and legs pale horn-colour:

Length 44 inches ; of wing 24th ; tail-2 inches’; bill.to fronta

plumes ;4;ths ; to gape =4;ths ; and tarse {ths of an inch, |

Subfam. LELOTHRICHINA, | a} 3 beat ae

Genus LEIorHrix, Swainson, |, : |

4, Lerorurix CINEREA, Blyth. 9 So 8 1 Jes

Minla cinerea, Blyth, J. A. S: Beng. xvi. p. 449 (1847).

Leiothriz cinerea, Blyth, Catal. B, Mus, A. 8, Beng. p..100..

The grey Leiothria. y-

Lieut. Burgess on the Habits of Indian Birds. 871

Hab. 8. E. Himalaya ; Nepal. (No, 671, Hodgson’s Catalogue.*)

“Colour olive-grey above, tinged with green; beneath white,

tinged onthe flanks with ashy, and showing some yellow along the

middle of the abdomen; a broad yellowish-white supercilium, and

over this a black one ; the coronal feathers margined with black, and.

the cheeks mingled black and white ; orbital feathers subdued white ;

wings and tail without markings, the tertiaries edged with grey, and

the secondaries with very faint dull yellowish, Bill yellowish-horny

above, paler beneath, legs yellowish.”

_ “Length 43 inches ; of wing 24; tail 12; bill to gape nearly 3ths ;

and tarse # of an inch,” : :

Allied in form and size to L. castaniceps.

Notes on THE Hapsirts or INpIAN Birps. Parr IV.

By Lieut. Burgess.

Family SytviaD2&.

Genus THAMNOBIA.

THAMNOBIA FULICATA,. INDIAN ROBIN.

This bird is well known in the Deccan, and is found not only about

villages, walls and outhouses, but is also common on low stony hills,

Dr. Jerdon says that ‘its familiar habits have,gained, for it, its name

of Indian Robin.” It breeds during the months of March, April

and May, building its nests in holes of walls ‘and’ rocks, ‘as ‘also

in. ‘hollows under tussocks of grass:, I subjoin, some notes..on’ the

subject :—‘* May'9, 1850. When passing outside the -wall of a town,

an Indian Robin flew off the wall and hovered before me, utteritig a

sharp hissing cry.. | Knowing by her manner that she had 'a-nest near,

I searched. in the wall and. found the nest, composed. of rotten grass

and straw, and ‘some threads of woollen cloth; the nest: contained

three young ones, quite unfledged; their skin was.of a. black-lead

colour.’’—** March 19, 1851. Found ina hole in the rocks the nest

lof: the Indian Robin,» containing two eggs.’”’+—‘* March 27,. 1851.

Found the mest of the Robin, containing two eggs, built at, the foot

of a little tuft of grass, in a: hole amongst the roots,”’ :

(The egg of this bird ‘is of a very pale dusky blue spotted all. over

with light:/brown, ‘and'a few: purplish spots here and there ; length

rather more than ;§,ths of an inch, by ;6,ths in width, }

Dr. Jerdon says: “Ihave twice seen thenest of this bird; once,

built among a heap of large stones raised from a boury, and the bird

made its nest durmg/the' time’ the well was being blasted,.and con-

tmued the process of incubation till the young ones were hatched,

when it was accidentally destroyed. ‘On the other oceasion it had

built its nest in a hole inside the, wall, of a, houses; It has four

eggs, light, dusky bluish: colour, spotted with purplish brown,”’

* No. 887 of My. Hodgson’s Catalogue was attached to this bird, which number

was previously used for Lowia himalayana ; the above nuraber being unocenpied,

it is retained for the present species. 9

. 5*

872 NOW \Zoalogieal Soviety ao 1 i!

won) ADAGE ‘Genus PRINEA. 2UTAMKIMAUD BauvyAOD

“"PRINtA INORNATA, Sykes. Common Wren Wari sth. zeal

orl Om}

1 believe: that; the. nest! and, ege ‘herewith, forwarded; are are the

‘nett saci egg) of this’ little Warbler, though, not having: shot -the

bird | from: her nest; I cannot say so positively. ; [| think, however,

that. Dr, Jerdon’s observation, though. it. differs in not:mentioning

the spots on the eggs, partly corroborates it. He says: “I once

procured the nest of this species; it was open at the top, neatly

enough made of grass well interwoven, without any lining, and fixed

in a low bush very near the ground; it contained four blue eggs.”

The nest which I forward was found in the midst of some low jungle

shrub, about a foot from the ground, during the monsoon. "The ‘egg

ds a little less than $,ths of an inch in length, by rather more’ than

ofsths:im width, of a rich blue ground, blotched and o aaasies with two

as of red-brown and pale purple.

Family Covina. Subfamily Conviwa aay lll

1 eV ; +} An} 4 ifs eS t

Fe Genus Corvus.

“CORVUS SPLENDENS,’'Vieill) Common INDIAN Crow: loot of

All the noise and impudence of the tribe appear to he concentrated

in the Common Indian Crow. They abound, I believe, in every part

of the Indian ‘continent ; and when to’ their.-number is.‘added their

thievish character, some idea may be formed of the nuisance they

are. Theré is, however; a redeeming point iti ‘their character, viz.

that they are very éfficient scavengers. “'An officer of the Bombay

army told; me an. anecdote illustrative of their sagacity, high, he

himself witnessed, Some crows had. been. sitting near, a yo OB, dog,

watching him whilst engaged with ; a, bone, aving ‘Sn 8 £0 ii

certed the plan,. one of them alighted, step) ve a nh apy Hi

at. the dog’s tail; the dog,, irritated, fa ry

on which, a comrade, who. APPERA to ha

and went, off. with, iD pre i Ri lal th 8 ae

crow pine walk ¢ off gets a bit ee eee age, ire ae uy it SH

BP at ch ioe at as ot 8

SBD iid, thes. ero go dn

bun galows are

covered with ety ei Se and chat Hg, a d. At. Se jthat

sa oe

Bie

these black Sy are not bigate ae t i Se as influence of the

éof these

trees is habritess before the § oe is asa déci-

dedly epee effect.” ot me ts bl at the

end of April, forming its. Ne oF a sm i ebb, Of a! dull

ere ‘bhi

tie, blotched and’ spotte tied a tpl 4, "ti on aid vist,

345th in. in length by father ‘more than'l' inch in width. é egos,

ie i differ in size and colour.

Mr. J. Gould on, a. new,species.of Momotus. 370

Corvus cuLminatus, Sykes:) Large Biackx Crow.

Less numerous, and, of less intrusive and, impertinent habits than

the last. “It breeds at the same time, and “lays the same number of

‘ests the Woninion Crow df Indias Theeggs ave ofvapale blue

sdastied “andl spotted with olive and’grey, 1 'inclr and rather more than

‘Yothscof am inch in lengthy by beineh and:rather more than 5% ths of

uit inch i in’ epg _ The eges of this elated also wae in size pang ib Sap

aes

¥ ‘A B51

eee old Genus Pastor.

Op gaia STURNIDE. -Suibfanally — RN INA,

sap ol, TRISTIS, Temm, Common Myna.

“This sprightly talkative bird is common in Western India.» It

vies iv small flocks, and is a close attendant: on cattle, ‘walking

amongst them with a cheerful upright gait, its‘headinclined; now‘on

this side now on the other, watching for insects, all the while talking

and muttering with its peculiarly smooth and oily note. It is a great

favourite with the natives, who keep numbers of them in cages. The

Myna breeds during the month of May, making its mest in the holes

of trees and buildings, also in stacks and ricks. It lays as many oF

six eggs, of a pale blue colour, I’ inch’ and rather more than ;%>ths of

an inch in,length, by, ths, of an inch in;width,, Eggs out. of the

same nest t ditier 1 im size.

| DSI A iee, mua y

ae 25; 1854yex John Gould, Béens F. R. Si in the Ghbis,

aie we re “Dasontemiow 0: or A NEw Srecins.¢ OF Momozesi ai

mol odd to 9BS Joun Gounp,.F.R.S. 270.5

i 1 spi ? Gould seine a Species of Momotus, Which he’ had had in

his collection for aa years, and. which’ he’ believed to be entirely

new to. sci¢ nee. t is most ‘neatly allied to the Momotus Mexicanus,

‘but differs from dae spécies ‘in its much larger ‘sizé, in the deeper

chestnut-colour Of the’ Head, and ‘in having a greyish-white mark

Bey the 2 5 ih lie’ of thé rich bli one observable in M. Mexica-

8. "The i ces indiiée Mr, Gould to ‘consider it to be distinct ;

in fh vhich he was, 5 Breatly confirmed by finding other examples,

recisel ely a ae in tolour, i in the’ finé ‘collection of the late Earl of

meres how, in ‘Liverpodl. poe He therefore Panna for it the name of

‘OM i f ssi bas ‘oinidde

EN 3 th prea, very d PaR. ‘chestnut, ou a Siena on the

Taek: of f the:ne 7 k into aS set ish. ie RD, of the back and wing-

ce Si: ; ip char and seconde BEd we green.on the external web

F oP . the inter nal fol the jeuaindys of the feathers

’ k, largely uargined with buffy- yellow ; at the base,

sa Nah er Pa l-coverts. and. tail, bluish- -green, the

PSE of

374 HOT el Zoological Society :—

latter with black shafts, and the spatulate terminations of) the two.

centre feathers largely tipped with black ; lores and lengthened \ear-

coverts ‘black, the latter, bounded above by a narrow, line of. blue;

beneath the eye a narrow streak of greyish-white, bounded:aboye by

a finerstreak of blue; under surface very pale green, becoming.of a

still paler and more’ buffy hue on the vent; on the centre. of the

breast .a few lanceolate pendent. feathers of a deep. velvety. black,

narrowly bordered with pale blue; bill black ; feet brownish-black.;:

Total length, 153 inches; bill, 2; wing, 54; tail, 855 tarsi,14.

Hab, Guatemala. | (dd

Own THE ANATOMY OF THE GREAT ANTEATER |

(MyRMECOPHAGA JUBATA).

By Proressor Owen, F.R.S., V.P.Z.S.

Professor Owen read a paper on the Anatomy of the Great Ant-

eater (Myrmecophaga jubata). The animal dissected was a full-

grown female ; it was received at the Gardens September 29, 1853,

and died July 6,1854. It weighed 62 lbs.; the weight of the brain

was 80z, avoir.. The nipples were two in number, post-pectoral in

position ; the vulva‘and vent opened by a common cloacal aperture.

The integument was thick ; well-developed dermal muscles attached

it to parts of the skeleton: ‘the extent and attachments of these were

described.’ The position ‘of the viscera on opening the abdominal

cavity was detailed. The intestinal canal is supported by’one broad

fold of: peritoneum, as in reptiles. A long narrow continuous’ gland

extends along the base line of the mesenteric part/of the fold, and a

parallel series of detached glands along the mesocolic part. ‘Other

modifications of the peritoneum ‘were described ‘in relation ‘to the

support’and connection of other viscera. \'The stomach consisted of

two parts, a cardiac or membranous, and a pyloric or‘muscular part.

The cardiac part is a subglobular cavity; meastring when distended

9 mches in its longest diameter, 7 inches in depth from the cardia,

to the left of which the cavity bulges about'4 inches. 0 The circum-

ference of the cavity is 18 inches. The pyloric’ part ‘is 3 inches “in

both longitudinal and vertical diameter, 24 ‘inches ‘across ; its mus-

cular part is so thick that it may be called a gizzard: it has not how-

ever the thick callous epithelial lining of a true‘ornithic gizzard. |

The lining membrane of ‘the stomach, as compared with that of the

cesophagus, becomes more vascular and is furnished with a thinner epi-

thelium at the cardiac orifice ;: but’ the ‘lining’ membrane for some

distance from that orifice, and between it and the entry to'the gizzard,

is smoother and covered by a thicker layer of epitheliam'than im the

rest of the cardiae calves) eh drestht ondinaeytwunedibirte logs gastric

surface prevails : the one modification passes insensibly into-the other.

When fully distended, the cardiac ‘cavity is smooth jas it contracts,

the lining membrane falls into rage, very’ minute and irregular near

the cardia, thicker and larger at the greater curvature; ‘and assuming

a longitudinal direction as they approach and converge towards ‘the

Prof. Owen on the Anatomy of the Great Anteater. 875

entry to the gizzard: at this part the folds were ten in number. In

the distended stomach of the female Anteater the transverse diameter

of the aperture was 1 inch 3 lines ; its vertical diameter from 3 to 4

lines; the distance from it to the cardia, 3 inches.

Inthe smaller male Anteater, subsequently dissected, the gizzard

was 2 in. 3 lines in length and 2 in. 9 lines in depth.

./ Vertically and longitudinally bisected, the cavity of the gizzard

appeared asa gently bent canal about a line in diameter, suddenly

expanding near the pylorus to receive a valvular prominence from

the upper muscular wall, which projected towards that opening. ‘The

vertical thickness of the muscular wall above the canal was | inch

10 lines, below the canal 1 inch.

In the female Anteater Prof. Owen divided the gizzard, previously

injected and distended with aleohol. Whenthe gizzard was divided verti-

cally and transversely the cavity presented a crescentic figure, with the

horns directed upwards, on each side a large fleshy protuberance which

descended. into the cavity. On the lower part of the protuberance

are three or four thick angular longitudinal ridges, which fit into the

interspaces of similar ridges along the lower part of the cavity. The

epithelium of the protuberance is thicker than that of the rest of the

cavity, concealing in a greater degree, but not wholly, the vascula-

tity of the subjacent injected membrane: the cellulo-vascular layer

uniting the mucous with the muscular coats is most abundant at the

walls of the gizzard opposite the protuberance. The thickness of the

muscular wall, from the upper part of the gizzard to the bottom of

the protuberance, is 2 inches, that of the lower wall of the gizzard

6 lines: the difference of thickness here, as compared with the same

part in the smaller Anteater’s stomach, is due to the more contracted

state of the gizzard in the latter animal. |

» On exposing the! pylorus from the duodenal side, it presents the

form of a-crescentic aperture 1 inch in diameter, but reduced to a

transverse figure by the pressure of the upper protuberance against

its! inferior thickened ridge: the mucous membrane of both parts is

produced. itito longitudinal wavy rugee.. A second pylorus might be

described whére these rugee abruptly terminate and where the smooth

surface of the duodenum begins: this aperture presents a. full oval

form, 1, inch 2\lines;by 9 lines, when that intestine is distended.

The length, of the animal, from the muzzle to the vent, was 4 feet

7 inches; the length of the head, 14 inches ; of the tail, 33 inches.

The length of the) intestinal. canal, was 34 feet, the small intestines

measuring 30 feet... The ileum) with a cireumference of 1 inch 9 lines,

rapidly: expands at, its: termination to form the colon, without any

cxecal beginning of the latter gut..'This presents a circumference of

94:inches, near its commencement, and, gradually, decreases to a cir-

eumference)of 6 inches atthe rectum: The inner surface of the first.

half.of.the small) intestines jis smooth andeven; the last. half, or

ileum, is characterized by a-single continuous longitudinal fold of the

mucous: membrane’ from, 2.to 3.lines in breadth, extending along the

side of the gut.opposite the attachment.of the mesentery, The modi-

fications of the colon and rectum were described.

B76 ooyses Zoological Society ro) ah

- ePhe weightoofothe liver was 28 6205) that “of the: spleen; :2\oz.

6-drachms ;/ thatuof the’ pancreas; 2o2\': the form and structurecof

these viscera and of the gall-hladder were described?! Therenalcand

‘generative organs were next referred to.) sow doidw .isid odT

1 The: disposition of the pleura in the°thoraxy andethe;formoand

structure! of the thoracic viscera were detailed.)\A. peculiarity: swas

noticed in’ the tight auricle of the heart the entry of othe anferior

‘cavaowas guarded as usual by the eustachian valve;ithe homologue

of the posterior of the two semilunar valves which guard the com-

munication between the sinus and the auricle in the heartiof Rep-

tiles; in the great Anteater there is a narrower valvular fold:or ridge

on the opposite side of the orifice of the inferior cava; answering ‘to

the anterior valve in the Reptiles’ auricle, and a ridge is continued

from: both:valves in the Anteater, towards the opening-of the supe-

rior cava. | eu .

Of the salivary glands of the Anteater the submaxillary pair were

those most developed and modified to supply the unusual quantity

of adhesive saliva with which the long, slender and moveable tongue

is bedewed : these glands extended over the fore part of the neck

and chest, and were upwards of 16 inches in length and 2 inches in

thickness. | |

The parotid gland retained its ordinary proportional size and rela-

tive position. The sublingual gland was represented by an exten-

sively diffused thin layer of follicles, opening by many small pores

upon the inner surface of the mouth. The. labial Shahn were small,

The muscles of the jaws were described. ae ee

sche cavity of the mouth is susceptibleof ‘great dilatation, and’ pre-

sents the peculiarity of being ‘extended far backi beyond the rootoof

the tongue: .The author accordingly defines, in his‘ description, a

postlingual and a prelingual part‘of the mouthy "A hard longitudinal

cartilaginous ridge projects downwards into the mouth-from the inner

side of each“ramus' of the-jawi | The'atithor conceives that the:ter-

mites may be crushed by the action‘or pressure'of the tongue against —

those callous ridges; which “seem to oceupy the place-ofteeth!: A

fossa descends between the epihyals, which the-author called the epi-

hyal pouch.) The hyoid ‘arch has tio’ immediate connection with the

tongue; but is situated’ far behind the tongue, preserving its usual

relations with the larynx. (tal) esinosdien.O

The thyroid is.ossified ; the cricoid and arytenoids are cartilaginous.

“Phe total length of the'aneal passa a michen, the last 6 mhes

being muscular and membranous, anc extended bac wards beyond

the base of the skull, where ‘the canals terminate in, most other

a i sor diameditt eae» .sbanat 1p at oye

The antero-posterior diameter of the base of the tongue was 3}

inches it rapidly diminishes ‘to’ a cylindviéal forms "with a diameter

of 8 lines, and is thus continued for [8 inehés, ‘pradtially decreasing

to its obtuse apex, which is T line inbréadtl” This ‘lone cylindrical

tongue is composed almost wholly of 1tiseular fibres; andcovered by a

smooth epithelium ;: the only papillés\are two fossulate’ ones (papille

Mr. P. L. Sclater.on' two new.Tanagers. 377

vallate)-ow the dorsum, about, 2:mehes im, advance of: the frenum ;

ithe muscles of; the tongue and peice action, were warns encapeeers

‘also! those, of the! larynx, and pharynx. \.4 »:

The brain, which weighed, only3)0z.,» mer cpeeded a navn elon-

gated; :depressed: form; the. back, part, of the cerebral hemispheres

nesting against, /but | not overlapping; the, cerebellum. «The: hemi-

spheres sshoweda, few symmetrical conyolutions|; they were united

byeallarge corpus callosum: the, olfactory lobes: are very large and

hollow:'; Many plexuses and other peculiarities of the vascular system

were noticed.

«This:memoir will. appear, illustrated with numerous figures, in the

‘Transactions of the Society.

“3 snibhilihRieidans or Two New TanaGers In THE Britis:

Museum. By Puriuie Lutury Scuater, M.A.

ado CHLOROSPINGUS MELANOTIS, Sclater. | C. supra nigro-plum-

voy DEUS, dorso imo brunnescentiore ; alis caudaque brunnescentibus,

; ~“illis penitus nigricantibus : loris et capitis lateribus cum, regione

~ auriculari nigris ; subtus pallide ochraceo- “rufus, mento summo

“migricante; ventre medio dilutiore: rostro nigro: elas

pallidis.

~ Long. tota 5°25 poll., alee 2°5, caudee 2: pie

_Hab, in Nova Grenada. Mus. Brit.

. Obs. Species rostro et forma Chlorospingo atropileo, similis, sed ab

hoe et aliis hujus generis colore corporis inferi ochraceo-rujfo. facile

distinguenda.

This. little species; of which there are ge examples i in the National

Collection, both, apparently Bogota skins, differs from all. its conge-

ners\in;the colouring of, the! lower surface of the body, whichis of a

pale reddish buff, growing much whiter, in, the middle. of the belly.

Above the plumage; is/lead-coloured, witha greenish tinge. super-

induced towards' the lower;part of the back. ; The wings \and tail.are

brown; with slight igreenish edgings,; the ear-coverts and whole side

of the) face areblack:; In,the second-specimen,..apparently, not. so

mature, there is,a light-coloured | spot,on the front, just. above-the

nostrils. «The bill, of} this, species agrees with that. of Chlorospingus

atropileusy. (hafr.); in,size, but is, rather, Bitaigater in evades as, in

C. verticals, (Lafr.).

“ae a “PAcuY HONS. XANTHOPYGTUS, Sclater. “T. nigro-cinereus,

. subtus dilutior: caxillis et tectricibus subalaribus. albis: dorso

: postico citreo lave : Fostro et. edibus nigris.

Ling tota 5°8, ales 3°1, catitlee 35,

Tab. in Nov, Grenada. , Mus, Brit.

This birdy seems, intermediate, between. Fachyphonus and, Pyranga,

and.might be,placed in,either; of these,groups., | The white, axillary

ers point, ito; the former,genus,, the yellow,rump .to. the latter.

The bill, howeyery.is, more, compressed, than. is, usual .in.Pyranga, and

agrees nearly with thatof Z' achyphonus coronatus,(Vieill,). The upper

878 | Miscellaneous.

plumage hasa'mottled appearance, caused by the feathers! being éen-

trally black and broadly edged with cinereous.: In) the middle of the’

back is a'perceptibly greenish gloss. The only examples I:have seen’

of this as of the former species are in the British Museurhy: where

Mr. G.' RiGray’s uniform kindness affords me aaaney proton ese ne

studying the ocibnehions under his care.

MISCELLANEOUS.

i Bohemian Forests and Peat-bogs. By Dr. Hocusterter*,

Tur primitive forests on Prince Schwarzenberg’s domain, viz. at

Krumau, Winterberg, and Stubenbach, may at a considerable distance

be easily distinguished from the cultivated and regularly eut forests

by their i ular and angular outlines ; whilst the cupola-shaped

summits of the firs rise considerably above the pyramidal pine-tops.

Seen from an elevation, the difference between the primitive forest,

with its withered tops and somewhat scattered trees, and the compact

and verdant cultivated forest, is still more striking.

In some localities in the interior of the forests, the trees stand in

straight lines of 150-to 200 feet [= 155:55 to 207°4 English feet]

in length, as if planted so.’ Wherever the seeds do’ not find in the

deep vegetable soil a site favourable for germination, their growth is

exclusively confined to the roots and prostrate stems in a state of de-

composition. Long after these stems have completely rotted away,

their original length sand situation are visible from the rectilinear

arrangement) of the younger trees, growing in the mouldering sub-

stance of the decayed veterans. This growth of the young plant on

the decaying roots and stems serves also to explain the: frequent

occurrence of trees supported above the ground by means of —

columnar roots, and, as it is termed, “standing on stilts;’> |

The age of the pines and the firs in the primitive forests reaches as

much as 200 to 500 years; the pines grow occasionally to 200 feet,

in height, and: contain 1900 cubic feet [= -2118'5 English» cabie)

feet | of wood in their stem alone. One of the finest of the firs, 30

feet [= 31‘11 English feet] in circumference at a man’ s height,

stood in the Brandelwald, near Unter-Muldau ; it was lately blown

down, and it is estimated to contain 30 klafters, [== 3012-03 English

cubic feet] of fire-wood. Besides pines and firs, the forests in ques-

tion contain beeches, thaples, elms, birches, willows, and some, but

_ very few, yew trees. 6 wT

At-present the extent of Prince Schwarzenberg's primitive forests i is

estimated. at 30,000 Austrian acres [= 42,660 English acres |; andthe

quantity of wood in them at 63 thillions of klafters: f==652,606,500

English cubic feet]..A large portion of the wood from these forests

is consumed in the — for the use| ‘of oe severe rom

* From the Proceedings of the Imperial Besloeedt Institute of Vidor

Jan. 23, 1855. Translated and communicated by Count Marschall.

Miscellaneous. 379°

and for the fabrication of musical instruments and touchwoods:;’ but

the major part is floated to the lower countries for timber and, for

fuels’ Liarge quantities of the timber are sent i ete to England

and Hamburg for ship-building.

Rapaciousjanimals, as bears, wolves, and lynxes, were formerly very

abundant in the Bohmer-Wald; but have been exterminated. A-

bear, the last of its race, is supposed to be still mpuating the Jokus-

wald, near Salnau.

The beds of peat or bituminous turf, locally denominated “ Auen”’

or “ Filze,” may be considered in connexion with these old forests.

The whole upper part of the Moldau Valley, as far up as the neigh-

bourhood of Ferchenhaid, for an extent of 7 Austrian miles [= 32°998

English miles], and with an average breadth of + Austrian mile [=

1*178 English mile], is one continuous peat-bed, traversed by: the

windings of the Moldau, whose waters assume a brownish tint: by

dissolving the extractive substances of the peat.

In the mountainous parts the peat-deposits are mote isolated; amid

surrounding forests. The dense vegetation of pumilous birches and

pines covering their surfaces attests their antiquity, and poimts to

their analogy with the primitive forests. Lakes occur in the centre

of ‘the peat-beds near Innergefild and Ferchenhaid. A swimming

island, probably owing its origin to the central swelling and bursting

of the peat, is seen in the last-named locality.

Cultivation is busy converting the peat-beds into forests, meadows,

and arable-fields. These deposits, however, are of great importance

inthe economy of nature, and it may become a question of national

economy how far this cultivation may proceed without injurious con-

sequences. The climatal and meteorological influence of the peat

beds’ is the same as that of the forests; they even act with more

energetic and concentrated effect. By acting as natural sponges in

periods when water is abundant, they attract the superfluous humi-

dity, and so prevent: inundations. In seasons: of drought they give:

up’ their aceumulated waters. They are the real water-reservoirs ‘in

mountainous regions; generally giving rise to the rivulets and rivers,

set ee their water-level constant during every season.

: * OCCURRENCE OF DIODONTA FRAGILIS AT WEYMOUTH.

| To the Editors'of the Annals of Natural History.

Weymouth, October 23,1855,

GENTLEMEN,—I beg to record Weymouth as a habitat for that

M4 local Mollusk, Diodonta fragilis, having some short time since

ediup a livirig: apenieaey on- the ‘sands ‘in’ front of the Espla-

nada. Tt. measures] tanch in: width, and is in’ excellent condition.

Teshould have mxihduaoed it before, but:the fact. was, it had been:

vlaod im acdrawer with other’ shells tobe examined, and I was not

aware of the _ I —— until it was pointed out by my friend

Mrv Hy Adams.)e1) |"

\ ;

‘*y +e Wh TcVER > rs : ’ ;

MESES YL SiGSL Ole. + 3) ; :

380°. Miscellaneous.

ol Echavesalso ilately-taken: alive, attached:to::a \piecesof Hschara

foliacea by:a byssus, a fine specimensof Galeomma Tuirtonian - eosie-

Mr. Coode.has also dredged :a specimen of Tritonia(? Lombergii),

The following were my rough notes onsits:appearance d+19! |ejo |

Tritonia (? Hombergii). A specimen 4 inches) imlength, taken

by Mr.Coode and Mr. Stanley in fifteen fathoms water; off Lulworth.

Colour marble-brown: Head+veil at times bilobed, at;other;times

entire. The margin of veil not fimbriated,»but closely: set: with ten-

tacular:points. |: Branchie: in about:a dozen: tufts on: each side) of. the

backs): Dorsal ‘tentacles issuing from sheaths having their jedges

jagged. It appears to me’ to be intermediate between 7’, Hombergit

and 7’ plebeia.” 2 903 ds ebrew

12891 I am, Gentlemen, yours obediently, |) 90.0!

WiLLiAm THOMPSON.

Description of a second species of the genus Procnias. iD “4 H

By Puixip Luriey Scriarer, M.A. NIN9929 189

I have seen several examples of Procnias in collections from New

Grenada, and, have never doubted their being different from the Bra-

zilian species.. But being aware that a second member of the ‘genus

had been described by Dr. Cabanis in the Museum Heineanum under

the appellation Procnias Heinei, I applied that name to these birds

without much inquiry. Having lately, however, had the oppor-

tunity, of examining the, beautiful. collection which contains, the type

of Dr. Cabanis’ description, I find that, I .was. in, error, in .so,doing,

The specimen there designated Procnias, Heiner is, a female or. young

male.of Calliste atricapilla; Lafr., and, belongs therefore, according

to my ideas, to a different family of birds. : : pruk om

I therefore propose the name:Proenias occidentalis for, this. new

species, which may, be distinguished from the olderjone. by.its smaller

size, the. less amount, of black, on the, throat, and by, the white belly

not. extending nearly sO high, towards the, breast. Ofti trdedat aebyid to

PROGNIAS OCCIDENTALIS, ‘Sclater. P. Tete ‘Biridis’? Fronte ait.

guste et. lateribus' capitis EO Reo aaa nt is’: “‘ventre

medio crissoque albis: lateribus nigro nadi fis: alis. candaque

ides igri Cae cca. cnoilt to onion at

Long. tota 5°0; alee 3°3 ; caudée 2°9 poll." Angls Hic ies che

Hab,,in Nova Grenada.—Proc. Zool. Soc. Nov. 14, 1854! a)

li MOMONIISID

ioqqy ont to send ond Ig Jsorga) 94d obra ons oo Agotte

Descriptions of some New, Species.of Birdy vsti, \)

By the Viscount Du Bus pr GisiGnrEs.

1) Lanio auritus.:” Mas. -Lnigerrimusysubtus nigro-fuliginosus ;

siipercilio tenuissimo ‘albo,\ pone oculos* im’ penicillum oauricularem

rubro-igneum prolongato ; “hunieris ‘et té 8 flavissimis ;” teetricibus

alarum inferioribus, fasciculoque leant clongutatund axillari ean:

didis. Rostro et pedibus BIBT: pacts 40 ees ‘ ed soviy ada

; ? to Bat

;

Miscellaneous. 381.

Fem. Nigro-fuliginosa, i in dorso.subvirescens';| subtus cinereo-atde-

siaca ; supercilio, penicilloque auricular’ nullis ;..tergo flavo 5 stecttt,

cibus‘alaruin inferioribus, fasciculoque axillari eandidig, 9100")

Total length b6}" i ee cceadui 6 mahen)

(Hab. Columbiay 9) 09

Only three true species of Toit mic yet Paorid, “The Lat bird

appears’ tome tobe best» placed im this | genus, although, ‘in: some

respects; it differs) a little. from: the other species. ‘It is distinguished

from these by? a‘ different coloration, and: is especially remarkable

from: the superciliary streaks, which are white at their origin near the

nostrils, become fiery-red on a level with the eyes; and extend! back-

wards at the sides of the nape in the form of little tufts of somewhat

elongated plumes, which the bird probably elevates at pleasure.

2. Pipilopsis cristata. P. supra flavicanti-olivacea, uropygio pau-

lum dilutiore ;.capite cristato supra griseo, jugulo et genis griseo-

canescentibus ; pectore et abdomine leete croceo-flavis ; remigibus et

rectricibus brunneis, Olivascente extus limbatis.. Rostro corneo ;

pedibus. fuscis,,....

oo Lotal length 17 centim. (about 64 inches)...

This, species,) a, native, of Columbia, has somewhat the colour and

form. of. Arremon rubrirostris, Lafr., by the side of. which, it appears

to.me.that it, should be placed. It is laxBer and amore robust, and

its, head.is, adorned, with, a crest. |

13. Buarremon latinuchus. B. supra obscure viiaieters pile tote

ot eervice rufis; ‘lateribus capitis nigris ;‘subtus viridi-flavus, ventre

dilutiore, hy pochoudriis et crisso cinereo-flavidis $"‘alis ‘et°cauda sub-

Higris} Femiguid primatiarum basi albida. ‘Riostro | feng itighd ; peaibas

fuscis.

a Totul ‘letgth Pe ntim, (about 7} jaahed), » iotonly I

OMPHIS Species} Which I Believe to be new)’ Goines I Fee Colkumbia’ and

Perit. ° ne? has ‘all the ‘characters’ of ‘a well-cireumseribed ‘small growp

of birds inhabiting thésé" cduntries;’ Including’ Arvenion schistaceus,

pallidinuchus, and. ginetneng its Briss,, and 4, a eRe Lafr,, as

well.as Enbernagra. rufinuch a.and albinucha, D’Orb..’ It will there-

fore form the seventh species * of this, group, and is ositively distinct

from all the others, alt 1ough it presents a good. de ‘i of resemblance

to some of them, | especially , the A, pallidinuchus, Bris3., a and the

E. rufinucha, D;Orb., ay

Its particular distinction from the latter is the Absénce of the black

streak on the sides of the throat at the base of the upper mandible.

It differs fro ‘the first expecially’ in Pheri the ved of the top of the

_ ef Alkthe species above -mentioned.are well: known tome... But I regret

that I have not beémable; to:proctxe the Atlapetes pileatus, Wagl., the type

of its;;genus, and; the,A. rubsicatus,;Cab., which I have never AG and

which, attap tives of af, Mexico, would. appearto belong to the same

genus ae pare ne pi pecies ire indicated.” If this be the case, the genus

Atlapetes would now consist of these nme species.

882 Miscellaneous.

head bright and uniform, and instead of being narrower, it widens

in descending upon the nape and the back of the neck.

4. Nemosia torquata. Mas. N. supra, eum. capite. toto, ‘n

rima; semi-torque collari postico nitide flavo ; interscapulio ha 8

tergo, jugulo, pectore et hypochondriis nitide virescenti-flavis ; abdo-

mine medio et crisso albidis ; tectricibus alarum minoribus et "madiis

cyaneis; remigibus et rectricibus nigris, ceruleo extus limbatis.

ostro corneo, mandibulee basi pallida; pedibus obscuris.

Total length 113 centim, (about 43 inches).

The native eaRhiiey of this pretty species is New Granada. It has

all the characters of the true Nemosie, but with a rather more slender

and very slightly arched bill, Its colours are brighter and resemble

the glossy and brilliant tints which adorn some species of the genus

Caltiates especially the C. eyanoptera, Sw.

5. Euphonia longipennis. Mas. E. nitens, viridis ; arate

ose uropygio et oculorum margine cyaneis ; interscapulio et tergo

eyaneo-maculatis ; abdomine cum hypochondriis et crisso leetissime

aureo-flavis ;, remigibus rectricibusque nigris, viridi extus limbatis.

Rostro nigro, basi czerulescenti ; pedibus fuscis.

Fem. Interscapulio et tergo viridibus, absque maculis cyaneis ;

uropygio dilute cyanescenti-viridi; epigastrio et real ac ahaa fla-

vescenti-viridibus ; ventre et crisso flavidis.

Total length 9 centim, (about 33 inches).

Hab, Antioquia, in New Granada,

This little Huphonia is so nearly allied to FZ. viridis, Vieillot, that

ra is difficult to, distinguish it, without comparing individuals of the

epee Howeyer, it appears to me to be sufficiently charac-

es by its small size, the difference between the two species being

at least a fifth, whilst its wings and tarsi are longer in comparison, as

they are of the same actual length as those of the other’ species.

Thus in repose, the point of the longest primary feather in 7. longi-

pennis Dhahes the extremity of the tail, whilst in 2. viridis it does

not attain half the length of the tail.

The Chlorophonia frontalis, Bp., is also very similar, to the two

species aboye mentioned ; but it is less. difficult, to recognize, because

the forehead is always yellow, and the back is never blue,

6. Euphonia plumbea, ¥, griseo-plumbea,. yiridi micans ; abdo-

mine et crisso aureo-flavis. Rostro albicante, apice corneo; .pedibus

cinereo-fuscis.

Total length 83 centim, (about 3} inches),

Hab, New Granada. ;

This is one of the smallest, if not the, smallest species of thet genus.

It is very easily recognized by its uniform grey colour, except) on the

belly. ‘tn this respect it resembles Z Jamaica, Litn., but differs

widely from it in its small size, and especially in the forin and pro-

portions of the bill, which is slightly depressed, and presents a con-

siderable resemblance to that of H, ehlorotica.-Bull, del’ Acad. Roy.

de Belgique, 1855, vol. xxii. pp. 153-156.

Meteorological. Observations. 383

Deseription of a new species of Petrogale.

By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., V.P.Z.8., &e,

Yellow-legged Rock-Kangaroo, Petrogale xanthopus.

» Pale brown, minutely grizzled; chin and beneath white: streak

on side from the back of shoulder, and along the side of the face

under the eye, whitish ; dorsal streak narrow, brown; legs, feet, and

tail bright yellow ; end of tail more bushy and varied with brown.

Australia (Richmond River ?) |

This species has all the markings as in Petrogale lateralis, but

differs in being of a much paler and yellower colour, and in the

bright yellow colour of the legs and basal part of the tail. It is

about the same size as P. penicillatus, or rather between it and

P. lateralis.

There are two specimens of this species (male and female) pro-

cured by Mr. Strange.—Proc. Zool. Soc. Nov. 14, 1854.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR SEPT, 1855.

Chiswick.—September 1. Clear and fine: cloudy. 2. Cloudy. 3. Clear: slight

shower; fine. 4. Cloudy. 5. Fine: cloudy: clear and cold at night, 6. Clear; .

cloudy. 7. Very clear: cloudy: fine. 8. Dense fog: clear and very fine. 9. Very

fine. 10. Foggy: fine: very clear, 11. Very fine. 12. Slight fog: very fine:

clear: ‘rain at night. 13. Rain. 14. Constant rain. 15. Uniformly overcast :

fine. 16. Overcast: clear and fine. 17. Rain: hazy): overcast. 18. Hazy » over-

east, 19. Slight haze: fine. 20—22. Foggy in, the mornings: very fine. | 23.

Fine: cloudy: very clear. 24. Overcast. 25. Fine: cloudy: clear: frosty at

night. 26. Slight haze: very dry air: frosty at night. 27. Foggy: very fine;

loudy. 28, 29. Cloudy: rain. 30. Hazy: cloudy ; rain at night.

Mean temperature of the month ............Jsseeesseeees os Sle, 6D

Mean temperature of Sept. 1854 ..... aaass pete dd- sbadécdveone! 56193

Mean temperature of Sept. for the last twenty-nine years .,.. 56,°98

Average amount of rain in Sept. ....... Gop ben's sng ave ease a sepps -- 2°503 inches,

Boston,—Sept. 1, Cloudy: rainr.m. 2—6, Cloudy... 7,8. Fine.. 9, 10, Cloudy.

11,12, Fine. 13. Fine: rain a.m. 14—18, Cloudy. 19,20. Fine. 21, 22.

Cloudy. 23. Fine. 24. Fine: raina.m. 25. Cloudy. 26, 27. Fine. 28. Fine:

rain Pim. 29. Cloudy: rain a.m. 30, Cloudy.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Sept. 1,2. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 3. Cloudy

A.M. and p.m. 4. Bright ams: clear p.m. 5. Showers) a.m. 2 clear p.m.

6. Drizzle a.m.andp.m. 7. Cloudy a.m.: showers p.m, 8, Clear a.m. : showers

p.m, 9. Bright a.m.: showers P.M. 10. Cloudy a.m.: showers, aurora p.m. 11.

Showers s.r. : cloudy, aurora Pim)! 12. Rain a.m. : clear, aurora p.m. 13. Cloudy

A.M.: Clear P.M. 14. Cloudy, hoar-frost a.m.: clear, aurora P.M. 15. Bright,

hoar-frost a.m.; cloudy p.m.,. 16, Showers A.M.: clear p.m, 17,18. Showers

A.M. and P.M. 19. Cloudy a.m.: drops p.m. 20. Cloudy s,m, and v.m. 21,

Showers a.m,: drizzle p.m, 22. Damp a.m.; drizzle p.m. 23. Cloudy a.m. :

cléar, fine p.m. “24. Clear A.M. fine, cloudy p.m. 25. Cloudy a.m.: fine, drops

Pa. (26.\Drops Aim. »fine,clearipim, || 27. Drops a.m.: cloudy p.m. 28. Drops

AM and)p.m. 29. Rain a.M.; fog p.m. 30. fog a.m.and P.M.

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THE ANNALS

| MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY.

; [SECOND SERIES.]

No. 96. DECEMBER 1855.

XXXITI.—On the Batrachian Ranunculi of Britain.

By Cuarzes C, Basrineton, M.A., F.R.S. &c.*

Ir is with much diffidence that I venture to attempt the eluci-

dation of the Batrachian Ranunculi of Britain,.for the great

difficulty of the subject necessarily presses heavily upon the

mind. Also, it cannot. be otherwise than:disheartening to feel,

that. however. successful I may be in my own estimation and

even in-that of my friends, and, that although my: endeavours

may result.in a close approach to the acquaintance with the

plants that has been attained in Sweden and France, it is certain

that several of the most eminent of the botanists OF. Britain will

consider that I have been wasting my time and retarding rather

than-advancing science. Had the views of those learned men

been.generally held. by persons of equal scientific rank in other

countries, I should have.thought it my duty to adopt them ; but

as several of the most distinguished botanists of continental

Europe do-not think that they are “idling away their time. by

catching at shadows,’ when they. expend it upon an. earnest

endeavour to attain the most accurate possible knowledge of the

plants inhabiting their respective countries, | am led to the

belief that I am really doing well when trying distantly to follow

their example.

It has been justly remarked, that we have no good definition

of a species amongst plants, and that it is hard or even impossible

to-apply those which we possess. Until species can be defined,

each botanist is left to judge as best: he can of what ought or

ought not to be so considered. In the case which is about to be

vi Rea: to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, Nov. 8, 1855.

Ann. & mo ah N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 26

386 Mr. C. C. Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi.

presented to the reader, I have been led, or rather driven to the

conclusion that the forms described below are species, by having

had most of them under my observation in a growing state for

several years, and finding them to continue constant in their

characters when raised from seed under varying circumstances

through successive generations: also, by remarking that they

not only possess permanent definable distinctions, but present

such differences at first sight as to enable the practised eye to

distinguish them easily. Surely, in such a case, the minuteness

or obscurity of the structure upon which the technical character

is founded can be no just argument against the claims of the

plants to be considered as entitled to specific rank. Neither can

we accept as conclusive against them the fact that some eminent

botanist, such as Smith (Eng. Flora, iii. 55), has combined them

under two names; or, Seringe “long ago recorded his decided

opinion, that all were mere varieties of one species.” Neither

Seringe (Mélanges Botaniques, ii. 8 & 49) nor Schlechtendal

(Animady. Bot. in Ran. 8), who is also used as an authority by

those who persuade themselves that all these plants form only one

species, appears to have had any knowledge of the characters that

are now employed in this group of plants; and I think that no

botanist of the present day lays stress upon the hairiness or

smoothness of the plant or its capsules ; neither would plants be

considered as distinct solely on account of the presence or absence

of the broad floating leaves. It is nearly certain that several of

the species (as I consider them) that are to be described pre-

sently (viz. R. heterophyllus, R. Baudotiu, R. floribundus) would —

each afford a series of forms, extending from a state in which

there are no capillarly-divided leaves to one consisting solely of

them, similar to that recorded by Schlechtendal under the name

of R. aquatilis. The existence of such series assuredly rather

tends to prove that there are several species of Batrachian

Ranunculi than that they are all of one species. Doubtless it |

requires a considerable familiarity with the: plants to enable a

person to refer all these forms to their proper species, and mis-

takes are very frequently made in attempting to do so. Also

innumerable errors and difficulties arise when names are required

to be given to scraps, such as are often collected and preserved

— even by good botanists.

We are told that a series of specimens from all parts of the

world proves that there is only one species of Batrachian Ranun-

culus. Doubtless it would be easy to form a series apparently

justifying such an opinion, but our success in so doing does not

seem necessary to prove the non-existence of several species ;

for it may, and I believe has, happened in many such cases that

Mr. C. C. Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi. 387

the supposed connecting links are single specimens of distinct

species, which consist of multitudes of similar individuals in their

native districts, although only one or two may have been pre-

served in the herbarium employed for study. Let the living

plants be carefully examined in a country, such as Britain, where

they are numerous, and if, after an unprejudiced endeavour to

arrive at the truth, they prove undistinguishable, then let them

be combined. But if, as my observations lead me to believe, the

best known of them are quite constant in their form and habit,

- it does not seem to be the pursuit of truth that leads to their

neglect, but rather the adherence to a preconceived theory. Take

as an example the X#. circinatus: this plant inhabits the most

different situations, growing upon a muddy or gravelly bottom,

in swift streams or stagnant ditches and pits, in water or on

mud, and yet the well-known structure of its leaves is invariable.

Many years since it fell to my lot to attempt to controvert the

opinion then prevalent in England, that the R. aquatilis, R. cir-

cinatus and R. fluitans formed one species (Ann. Nat. Hist. Ser. 1.

vol. ii. p. 225-230), and I showed conclusively, as I venture to

think, that the depth, motion, or stagnancy of the water in

which they grow has nothing whatever to do with the size,

shape or structure of the leaves, nor with the direction of them.

Of course certain slight alterations are the result of the cireum-

stances in which the plants are placed, but they are not such as

to affect the characters upon which the species are founded. In

doing this I was performing little more than restoring to recog-

nition in this country species known to Ray, and defined and

named according to the Linnean method by Sibthorp. On the

European continent several eminent men had already adopted

them. Since that date my attention has been often turned

towards these beautiful plants, and during the last few years I

have made them a special subject of study. Within the same

period, such men as Fries, Koch, Godron, Cosson and others,

have been led to think that the R. aquatilis required further sub-

division. Accordingly many attempts have been made to do so

with greater or less success, and it is a cause of much satis-

faction to me to find that, with a single exception, the British

species have already been detected and described in other coun-

tries. That those botanists should have arrived at different conclu-

sions, and even changed their opinions once or more, is certainly

not a valid excuse for neglecting the study in which they have

partially failed ; for in this, as in all other departments of know-

ledge, correct results are not usually attained until after many

attempts. Let it not be thought from these remarks that I

claim to have succeeded ; for all that I propose to myself is to

26%

888 Mr. U.C. Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi.

make a small step towards success, and to place before those

who may follow up the study a few additional facts, or an im-

proved application of those already known.

In this group of plants we are not acquainted with any single

character which may safely be stated to be always deserving of

confidence ; but if a combination of several characters is em-

ployed, there will rarely be any serious difficulty in identifying

the supposed species, even when the structure of some of the

parts has undergone change. The look of the plant is generally

distinctive of the species; and the difficulties commence when

an attempt is made to draw up technical definitions, or to de-

termine the names from “ specific characters.” Such is found

to be the case in most groups of closely allied species inhabitng

the “ metropolis,” as it has been called, of extensive and dif-

ficult genera. We may call the plants varieties or hybrids, but,

until they are proved to be such, we are only avoiding a difficulty,

not stating a fact in science.

Having made these preliminary observations, I will now

endeavour to point out the characters upon which we seem to

have the most reason for placing dependence in preparing spe-

cific characters for the Batrachian Ranunculi.

It has long been known that the absence of hairs from the

receptacle, and of any submersed and filiformly- divided leaves,

distinguishes R. hederaceus and its more recently noticed ally,

R. ceenosus, from the rest of our native species. It was pointed

out by Sibthorp, that the submersed leaves of R. circinatus and

R. fluitans had a different form from those of R. aguatilis, under

which latter name he included plants which I have failed in

reducing to less than eight species. In these latter plants (2. e.

the R. aquatilis of Sibthorp), the submersed leaves are formed

of repeatedly-dividing filiform or setaceous parts, which spread

in such a manner from their first division, where the leaf trifur-

cates, as to take the shape of a greater or less segment of a

sphere. These three divisions of the leaf are forked at very

short or more distant intervals; they are fine or rather thick,

rigid or flaccid, and accordingly retain their direction when

‘axon out of the water, or collapse so as to resemble a painter’s

pencil.

In all the species, the floating or emerged leaves have an out-

line which is nearly circular, or only forms part of a circle; they

are divided more or less deeply into lobes, or quite to the top of

their petioles into leaflets; in some cases these leaflets have

partial petioles of a considerable length, and then the circular

outline of the whole leaf is not apparent. When the leaf is

formed of lobes or sessile leaflets, the outer margins of the lateral

Mr, C. C. Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi. 3889

lobes or leaflets, that is, the outer margins of the leaf, are either

straight from their base throughout a considerable part of their

extent, or their lower part is much rounded; therefore the

leaflets are wedge-shaped or obovate.

In most of the species, the peduncles spring from the same

nodes as both the divided and submersed, and the flat and

floating leaves; but in the plant called R. peltatus in this paper,

they are very rarely produced in the former situation ; so rarely,

as to have caused Fries to denominate the floating leaves “ folia

necessaria”’ in that plant. The peduncles either about equal

the leaves or much exceed them, and then raise the flowers

considerably out of the water. They are either equally thick

throughout their length, or narrow more or less gradually to-

wards the flower.

The petals are either broad with many veins, or narrow and

usually few-veined. In the former case, the edges of contiguous

petals are close together, and often overlap; in the latter, they

are usually distant, and give what I have called a star-like

appearance to the flower. As the flowers of the broad-petaled

species advance towards decay, they acquire a slightly similar

look ; for the petals, which had originally a rounded form,

lengthen so much that their lower part becomes wedge-shaped,

and the flower rather star-like.

In two of our species, the stamens are so short as to be

exceeded. by the pistils, but usually they conspicuously overtop

those organs.

Although the stigma varies in shape, it is not easy to apply

this difference to the discrimination of the species, for it changes

its form as it acquires age.

Not much dependence should be placed upon the position of

the style, for apparently it generally forms a continuation of the

inner, or nearly straight side of the ovary.

The carpels differ much in shape, but usually form the half

of an ovate or obovate figure ; the inner or upper edge is usually

almost straight, but not always so, and then the carpel is often

nearly ovate or obovate. On these latter forms of carpel, the

persistent base of the style, or slight apiculus that represents it,

nearly terminates the diameter of the carpel ; but on the others

_it usually is connected with the straight side, bemg placed at

its end, but forming an angle with it. The carpels are usually

compressed laterally, and their coats closely enclose the seed ;

but in some cases they are inflated in their upper part, or slightly

so throughout. These inflated carpels are, therefore, broadest

at the end; but in some of the species where they are not in-

flated, a narrowing and flattening occurs at the end.

390 Mr. C.C.Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi.

Ranuncutvs, Linn.

Section I. Batrachium. Fruitstalks arching. Carpels trans-

versely wrinkled. Petals white (with a yellow claw im all

our plants).

This section includes all the species which it is now proposed

to consider. It constitutes the genus Batrachium of Fries; but

I must be permitted to think, that there is no valid reason for

separating it generically from the other Ranuncult. R. scele-

ratus, although a true Ranunculus, has several points m common

with the Batrachia. It has minute seeds traversed by faint

transverse wrinkles, and when growing in water its lower leaves

float in a similar manner to those of the species of Batrachia,

and very closely resemble them. |

Subsection A. Submersed leaves twice or thrice trifurcate

with filiform segments spreading in the form of a section

of a sphere, rarely wanting. Receptacle hispid.

1. R. trichophyllus (Chaix) ; submersed leaves closely trifurcate,

segments short rigid not collapsing into a pencil when taken

out of the water, no floating leaves, peduncles not narrowing

upwards about equalling the leaves, flowers small, pet. obovate

5-7-nerved not contiguous evanescent, stigma oblong, recep-

tacle oblong, carpels 3-ovate laterally apiculate compressed.

R. trichophyllus, Chaix in Vill. Dauph.i. 335 ; Gren. et Godr. Fl.

de Fr. i. 23.

R. pantothrix, DC. Syst. i. 235 (in part) ; Bert. Fl. Ital. vy. 575.

R. ceespitosus, Godr. in Mém. Nancy, 1839, 30. f. 6 (the terrestrial

state).

R. ping Lloyd! Fl. de la Loire Inf. 5; Godr. Fl. Lor.i. 15.

R. aquatilis v. pantothrix, Koch, Syn. Fl. Germ. ed. 1. 11; Sturm,

Deutschl. Fl. fase. 67. t. 11; Fries! Herb. Norm. ix. 27 (spe-

cimen).

R. heterophyllus var. succulentum, Fries, H. N. xi. 33 (specimen) ?

Batrachium trichophyllum, F’. Schultz, Fl. Gall. et Germ. exsic.

805 bis & 1203; Van den Bosch, Prod. Fl. Batav. 5.

Stem floating, rooting at the lower joinings, obtuse-angled,

hollow. Submersed leaves with filiform segments diverging

slightly, and when mature so rigid as not to collapse when re-

moved from the water: middle branch at the first fork the small-

est. Petioles plane-convex, short. Upper leaves sessile. When

growing upon mud from which the water has retired, the seg-

ments of the leaves are very short and thick. Floating leaves

always absent. Stipules large, rounded, auricled, } or 2rds

adnate. Peduncles falling short of, or slightly exceeding the

leaves. Buds globular. Flowers small, star-like. Sepals

Mr. C.C. Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi. 391

ovate, very blunt, concave, green with a diaphanous margin.

Petals distant, white, wedge-shaped, slightly clawed and yellow

below, about twice as long as the calyx when full-grown.

Nectary round, scarcely at all margined or prominent; but

probably this structure is not constant, for I have seen, on what

is apparently a plant of this species, a prominent bracket-shaped

nectary. Stamens from about 10 to 15, exceeding the pistils.

Style prolonging the inner edge of the ovary, short, curved.

Stigma at first oblong, afterwards elongating. Carpels blunt,

a little hairy, and slightly narrowed at the end. Receptacle

nearly globose, as thick as the peduncle. Colour of the plant

dark lurid green. |

This plant differs from R. heterophyllus by its small few-

nerved evanescent petals, globular receptacle, dark green

dense rigid small submersed leaves; from R. confusus and

R. Baudotii by its short peduncles which are equally thick

throughout, its oblong not ligulate stigmas and globose recep-

tacle, deciduous small petals, and in other respects. AR. flori-

bundus and R. peltatus are large-flowered plants that cannot be

confounded with it even when the former happens to want the

floating leaves. It differs from all the other species of the sub-

section by never having been observed to have floating leaves,

nor to show any tendency to produce them. Its nearest ally is

R. Drouetii. It is well marked by its stems, which float close

to the surface of the water, being furnished with small dense

rather closely placed dark green leaves, and small flowers which

only just rise out of the water. No species resembles it in these

respects.

Flowering in May and June. :

R. trichophyllus is plentiful in Cambridgeshire, Norfolk and

Suffolk, but is perhaps not very generally distributed through-

out the kingdom. R. Drouetit is probably often mistaken for it,

as is also the wholly submersed state of R. heterophyllus.

2. R. Droueta (F. Schultz?) ; submersed leaves rather closely

trifurcate, segments rather rigid but collapsing, floating leaves

(rare) tripartite with subsessile or stalked wedge-shaped bifid

leaflets, peduncles not narrowing and about equalling the

leaves, flowers small, petals obovate 5-7-nerved not con-

tiguous evanescent, stigma oblong, receptacle oblong, carpels

z-Obovate sublaterally apiculate inflated at the end.

R. Drouetii, F. Schultz in Gren. et Godr. Fl. de Fr. i.:24?

_ R. Godronii, Gren. in F. Schultz, Fl. Gall. et Germ. exsic. No. 1202

(specimen).

Stem floating, rooting from the lower joinings, very bluntly

392 Mr.C.C. Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi.

angular, hollow. Submersed leaves with filiform segments

which are rather short, diverge greatly at their trifurcations,

less so at the bifureate divisions: middle branch at the first.

fork the smallest. Petioles plane-convex, short. Upper leaves

nearly or quite sessile. Floating leaves very rare, tripartite; di-

visions stalked, bifid, wedge-shaped, the sides being very nearly

straight, except the outer side of the lateral ones, which is

slightly but decidedly rounded; middle division much more

shortly stalked than the others, or very nearly sessile, usually

placed at an angle with the other divisions, and directed down-

wards, so as to be always submersed. These tripartite leaves

soon decay, and the plant produces beyond them a series of

filiformly-divided submersed leaves, similar to those that had

preceded them. Petioles of the tripartite leaves rather long,

nearly cylindrical. Stipules large, rounded, auricled, 3 to 2rds

adnate. Peduncles falling short of, or slightly exceeding the

leaves, from both kinds of leaves. Buds oblong. Flowers

small, star-like. Sepals ovate, very blunt, concave, greenish,

dotted with purple, especially towards the edge; the whole

margin diaphanous. Petals distant, white, wedge-shaped, yellow

below and slightly clawed, about twice as long as the calyx when

full-grown. Nectary round, scarcely at all margined or pro-

minent. Stamens fewer than 10, exceeding the pistils. Style

prolonging the inner edge of the ovary, short, curved. Carpels

blunt, more or less hairy at the end, which is a little inflated so

as to have a broad flat edge; base of the style small, rather

variable in position, not central nor truly lateral. Receptacle

oblong, as thick as the peduncle. Colour of the plant bright

reen.

This plant agrees in so many respects with the descriptions of

R. Drouetii, and with specimens of that plant obligingly sent to

me by my excellent correspondent M. R. Lenormand, that I am

led to consider it as belonging to that species, notwithstanding

the occasional presence of floating leaves. When those leaves

are absent, the English plant appears to be identical with that

described as R. Droueti by Dr. Godron. That botanist places

much dependence upon the “style .... imséré presque a l’ex-

trémité du long diamétre du pistil:” such is not the case in our

plant, nor is the rudiment of the style central upon the earpel

of the French specimens, on some carpels of which it somewhat

approaches that position, but upon others it is decidedly lateral.

There is similar variety in the position of the apiculus on the

carpels of the English plant.

The presence of flat floating leaves is an apparent objection

to the identification of the plants; but I thik that the widen-

ing of the divisions of some of the upper leaves, indicating an

Mr. C.C. Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi. 393

approach to a floating leaf, such as is occasionally although

rarely found upon our plant, may be detected upon M. Lenor-

mand’s specimens. Of this, however, I am not quite certain.

I am much indebted to my friend the Rev. W. W. Newbould

for directing my attention to the floating leaves of our plant.

The R. Godronii (Gren.), specimens of which I have received

from Dr. F. Schultz, appears similar to our plant when it is

furnished with the floating leaves, but I am unable to see in

what other respects it differs from the typical R. Droueti. I

cannot find any description of R. Godronz.

R. confervoides (Fries, H. N. xii. 45) is closely allied to this

species, but has long slender peduncles. R. paucistamineus

(Tausch) may be a stronger form of R. confervoides.

R. Drouetii can only be confounded with R. trichophyllus or

R. heterophyllus. From the former it is distinguished by its

bright green colour, collapsing leaves, inflated and very blunt

carpels, and much more lax habit; from the latter by its very

peculiar floating leaves, fewer-nerved and evanescent petals,

inflated and minutely apiculate carpels, and nearly globose

receptacle. |

Flowering in May and June.

I have received R. Drouetit from several places in Cambridge-

shire, Burnham in Norfolk, Byford in Herefordshire, and Hook

in Surrey. ,

8. R. heterophyllus (Fries) ; submersed leaves loosely trifurcate,

segments long collapsing, floating leaves subpeltate tripartite

with sessile or stalked wedge-shaped 3—5-lobed leaflets, pe-

duncles not narrowing scarcely exceeding the leaves, flowers

large, petals broadly obovate-cuneate 7-9-nerved not con-

tiguous persistent, stigma oblong, receptacle conical, carpels

4-ovate laterally pointed.

R. -heterophyllus, Fries, Summa, 140, & Herb. Norm. ii. 32 (spe-

cimen).

R. sea a. pseudo-peltatus, Godr. in Mém. de Nancy, 1839,

p. 25.f.5¢e&g.

R. aquatilis var. pantothrix, Fries, Herb. Norm. ix. 27 (specimen).

R. aquatilis, Hng. Bot. t. 101.

Batrachium heterophyllum, Van den Bosch, Prod. Fl. Batav. 8.

Stem floating, rooting from the lower joinings, prominently

but irregularly angular, hollow. (A plant apparently referable

to this species which grew in shallow water has a solid stem.

Much stress has been laid upon such a difference, but it seems

of little consequence.) Submersed leaves two or three times

trifurcate, afterwards bifurcate ; segments filiform, rather rigid.

At the first fork the branches are divaricate and the middle one

394 Mr. C.C. Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi.

is the smallest, at the succeeding forks they are more and more

approximate. Petioles semicylindrical, short. Upper submersed

leaves sessile. Floating leaves usually flat, with bifid leaflets,

each segment deeply lobed; when they rise out of the water, as

is frequently the case, they form a nearly or quite circular disk ;

their-outer edge is usually straight from its base, but occasion-

ally is slightly rounded from thence. Stipules broad, adnate

nearly throughout. Peduncles from both kinds of leaves. Buds

globular, or slightly depressed and obscurely pentagonal. Flowers

becoming star-like. Sepals ovate, very blunt, convex, brownish

green towards the top with a dark irregular edge, yellowish at

the base, the whole margin diaphanous. Petals sometimes with

more than nine nerves, white, yellow below, fully twice as long

as the calyx. Nectary round, very prominent, bracket-shaped,

so as to open nearly at right angles to the plane of the petal.

Stamens many, exceeding the pistils. Style prolonging the

inner edge of the ovary, curved. Stigma straight. Carpels

blunt with a large apiculus, slightly hairy at the end, inner

edge nearly straight. Z

When the floating leaves are not produced, the plant is simi-

lar in all other respects. Both states are frequently to be found

in the same place.

The differences between this plant and R. trichophyllus and

R. Drouetii have been already pointed out. Its collapsing leaves

distinguish it from the four following species. Its uniformly

thick and short peduncles separate it from R. confusus, R. Bau-

dotit and R. peltatus ; its wedge-shaped leaflets from R. confusus,

R. floribundus and R. peltatus. In swift streams it sometimes

much resembles R. fluitans, but has not the structure of that

lant.

Flowering from May to July ; rarely flowers may be found in

April and August.

I have obtained this plant from Cambridgeshire, Leicester-

shire, Chichester, the River Lea near Hertford, Battersea in

Surrey, and Pangbourn in Berkshire. I believe it to be pretty

generally distributed.

4. R. confusus (Godr.) ; submersed leaves loosely trifurcate, seg-

ments long rather rigid not collapsing, floating leaves long-

stalked subpeltate subtripartite with sessile obovate 8-5-lobed

segments, peduncles slender narrowing gradually exceeding

the leaves, flowers large, petals obovate-cuneate 7—9-nerved

not contiguous persistent, stigma tongue-shaped, receptacle

ovate-conical, carpels }-ovate compressed and narrowed up-

wards.

R. confusus, Godr. in Fl. de Fr. i. 22.

Mr. C.C. Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi. 395

R. Petiveri, Koch in Sturm, Deutschl. Fl. fasc. 82. t. 2.

R. Petiveri a. minor, Koch, Syn. ed. 2. 13.

Stem floating, rooting at the lower joinings, roundish, hollow ;

the upper part, when flowering, often rising out of the water.

Submersed leaves two or three times trifurcate, afterwards bifur-

cate ; segments rather thick. At the first fork the branches

are nearly equal, long and divaricate, at the succeeding ones

more and more approximate. Intermediate leaves with fewer,

shorter and linear segments. Petioles semicylindrical, short.

Floating leaves flat, marked with brownish irregular spots ;

segments diverging, slightly combined at the base or sessile,

lateral ones much rounded at base externally ; outline of the

floating or emerged leaves scarcely more than a semicircle.

Petioles thick, semicylindrical. Stipules oblong, much adnate.

Peduncles very long, rising high out of the water, from both

kinds of leaves. Buds globular, but slightly depressed and a

little pentagonal. Flowers rather large, star-like. Sepals oblong,

blunt, convex, green, with a broad diaphanous margin. Petals

elliptic-cuneate or obovate, white, yellow and shortly clawed

below, 2 to 23 times as long as the calyx even when first ex-

panded, their lower half much lengthened afterwards. Nectary

shortly oval, strongly margined below, scarcely at all so above,

forming an acute angle with the plane of the petal. Stamens

about 20, exceeding the pistils. Style rather long, recurved

from near its base, prolonging the mner edge of the ovary.

Carpels ultimately rather acute, the inner edge nearly straight.

Persistent base of the style long and conical, nearly erect.

Receptacle as thick as the peduncle. Flowers strongly scented

like honey.

Differs from R. heterophyllus by its submersed leaves not col-

lapsing, its stem often rising out of the water, its long slender

and narrowing peduncles, and ligulate stigma; from R. Baudotii

by the obovate segments of its floating leaves, slender peduncles,

half-ovate carpels compressed and narrowed at the top, and -

stamens exceeding the pistils.

Flowering from June to September.

I have obtained this plant from near Chichester, Dunster

and Weston-super-Mare in Somersetshire, Stackpole and Tenby

in Pembrokeshire, and the mouth of the Tees on both sides of

the river I believe. It seems to prefer the neighbourhood of the

sea, and does not object to slightly brackish water.

5. R. Baudotiu (Godr.); submersed leaves closely trifurcate,

segments rather rigid not collapsing, floating leaves long-

stalked tripartite with sessile or stalked wedge-shaped 2-4-

lobed segments, peduncles thick narrowed at the top ex-

396 Mr. C.C. Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi.

ceeding the leaves, flowers moderate, petals 7-nerved not con-

tiguous persistent, stamens not exceeding the pistils, stigma

tongue-shaped, receptacle elongate-conical, carpels }-obovate

_ inflated at the end.

R. Baudotii, Godr. in Mém. de Nancy, 1839, p. 21. f. 4, and Fl. de

Lorr. i. 12, and Fl. de France, i. 21; Koch, Syn. ed. 2. 434.

Batrachium Baudotii, Van den Bosch, Prod. Fl. Batav. 7.

Stem floating, rooting from the lower joinings, very bluntly

angular, with a shallow furrow on two sides, hollow. Submersed

leaves two or three times trichotomously divided into short filiform

segments, forking like those of R. confusus. Intermediate leaves

with fewer and linear segments. [Petioles short or none.

Floating leaves flat ; divisions wedge-shaped regularly to their

base, 3-4-lobed, or often of many linear blunt segments. Out-

line of the floating or emerged leaves not more than a semicircle.

Petioles long. Stipules adnate nearly throughout. Peduncles

long, thick, from both kinds of leaves. Buds globular, de-

pressed (?). Flowers rather large, star-like. Sepals like those

of R. confusus (?). Petals white, yellow below, 2-21 times as

long as the calyx. Nectary shortly oval. Stamens 15-20.

Style long, recurved from its middle, prolonging the imner edge

of the ovary. Carpels very many (50-100 on each receptacle),

forming a globose mass. Inner edge often considerably rounded

near the top; apiculus small. Receptacle thicker than the pe-

duncle.

Owing to neglect, the above description is imperfect in a few

particulars.

This plant is very nearly allied to R. confusus,with which species

I long confounded it. R. confusus appears to be always a more

slender and elongated plant, never to have stalked segments to

its floating leaves, nor the deep lobes often replaced by broad

linear blunt segments, nor the short stamens, nor the globose

clusters of many rather pointed carpels with inflated tops, of

this plant. Here also the segments are truly wedge-shaped, the

outer margins of the lateral ones appearing to be constantly

straight quite to their base. The narrowing long peduncles,

tongue-shaped stigmas, many and inflated carpels, and great

difference of appearance, separate it from R. heterophyllus.

I am much indebted to my liberal friend M. R. Lenormand

for authenticated specimens of this plant; and Dr. F. Schultz

has identified with it a plant gathered by Mr. Syme at Guillan,

near Edinburgh, specimens of which the latter gentleman has

kindly given to me.

The R. marinus of Fries (Mant. iii. 51; Herb. Norm. ix. 28)

is closely allied to R. Baudoti; but he is probably correct in

Mr. C. C. Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi. 897

believing (Summa, 555) them to be distinct. In some respects

it seems more nearly related to R. confusus, and I have suspected

that they may be identical.

Flowering from May to August ; but sometimes flowers may

be found in April.

R. Baudotii appears to delight in slightly brackish water.

I possess it from Edinburgh, Seaton Carew in the county of

Durham, Burnham in Norfolk, near Chepstow in Gloucestershire

and Monmouthshire, Shirehampton near Bristol in Gloucester-

shire, Dunster in Somersetshire, and near Cork (?).

6. R. floribundus ; submersed leaves closely trifurcate, segments

rather rigid divaricate not collapsing, floating leaves long-

stalked subpeltate 4-trifid or 3-partite with sessile obovate

3-5-lobed segments, peduncles not narrowed scarcely ex-

ceeding the leaves, flowers large, petals obovate-cuneate 9-

many-nerved not contiguous persistent, stamens many exceed-

ing the pistils, stigma tongue-shaped, receptacle spherical,

carpels 4-obovate very blunt.

Stem floating, rooting from the lower joinings, bluntly angular,

hollow, often rising out of the water. Submersed leaves dark

green, two or three times trifurcate, afterwards bifurcate, seg-

ments rather short filiform ; intermediate primary subdivision

smaller. Petioles short, semiterete. Floating leaves convex,

divided more than halfway down; lateral segments bifid, each

lobe bicrenate; middle segment 3-crenate; outer edge of the

leaf much rounded at the base. Outline of the floating or emerged

leaves forming about 2rds of a circle, but the rounded outer

bases often overlap. Petioles nearly cylindrical. Stipules very

broad, with a free rounded end. Peduncles from both kinds of

leaves. Buds slightly depressed, slightly pentagonal. Flowers

star-like. Sepals ovate, greenish, with a diaphanous margin.

Petals at first nearly contiguous, afterwards distant, white,

clawed and yellow below, more than twice as long as the calyx.

Nectary ovate, its margin thickened all round and slightly pro-

minent below. Stamens 20-30. Style short, recurved, pro-

longing the inner edge of the ovary. Inner edge of the carpels

nearly straight. Receptacle as thick as the peduncle.

I am unable to identify this plant with any described species.

It is most nearly allied to R. peltatus, with which I was much

inclined to have combined it. It differs from R. peltatus by its

deeply trifid floating leaves, dark green submersed leaves with

unequal segments branching at shorter intervals, peduncles not

narrowing upwards, nor very long, nor almost solely springing

im company with the floating leaves (in R. floribundus they

spring as frequently with the petioles of the submersed. as of

398 Mr. C.C. Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi..

the floating leaves), the ovate nectary, and depressed buds.

From R. heterophyllus it may be known by its submersed leaves

not collapsing, its floating leaves (when tripartite) with sessile

segments, and not straight-sided, its ovate nectary, and depressed

buds; from R. confusus by its floating leaves being usually

convex, not spotted ; peduncles not long, slender, and narrowing

upwards; carpels not compressed and narrowed upwards ; and

by its dark colour; from R. Baudotii by the markedly rounded

base of the outer margin of its convex leaves, its peduncles not

narrowed towards their top, many-nerved petals, long stamens,

and much fewer carpels.

A Sicilian specimen from Prof. Gasparrini, which he named

R. aquatilis, appears to be R. floribundus.

Flowering from May to September.

I possess this plant from Hedon near Hull, Denver Common

in Norfolk, and a pit by the road-side near Legge’s Farm near

Hatfield in Hertfordshire.

It is the most beautiful of our species; its large white flowers

being so numerous as to cover the places that it inhabits with a

sheet of bloom.

7. R. peltatus (Fries); submersed leaves loosely trifurcate, seg-

ments rather rigid divaricate not collapsing, floating leaves

long-stalked subpeltate nearly half-3-5-fid with obovate 3-4.

crenate segments, peduncles narrowing gradually from floating

leaves and exceeding them, flowers large, petals round be-

coming obovate-cuneate 9-nerved contiguous persistent, sta-

mens many exceeding the pistils, stigma club-shaped, recep-

tacle ovate, carpels 3-obovate very blunt.

R. peltatus, Fries, Summa, 141, and Herb. Norm. xii. 48 (specimen).

R. aquatilis a. peltatus, Sturm, Deutschl. Fl. fasc. 67. t. 7.

Stem floating, rooting from the lower jomings, bluntly angular,

hollow, often rising out of the water. Submersed leaves light

green, 2 or 3 times trifurcate, afterwards bifurcate ; segments

long, slender, filiform; primary subdivisions about equal.

Petioles short, semiterete. Floating leaves convex; outer edge

of the leaf much rounded at the base. Outline of the floating or

emerged leaves forming about 2rds of a circle, but the rounded

outer bases often overlap. Petioles plane-convex. Stipules

adnate nearly throughout, rounded at the end. Peduncles long,

rising high out of the water, from the floating leaves; very

rarely a peduncle springs with a submersed leaf. Buds globular.

Flowers very large, sweet-scented. Sepals ovate, diaphanous

except at the centre, where they are slightly green. Petals

quite contiguous, ultimately slightly separated by the lengthen-

ing of their lower part, white, clawed and yellow below, more

Mr. C. C. Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi. 3899

than twice as long as the calyx at their first expansion. Nec-

tary oblong, its margin slightly thickened all round and a little

prominent below. Stamens about 30. Style curved, short,

prolonging the inner edge of the ovary. Carpels not inflated ;

inner edge nearly straight. Receptacle small; its shape is

rather doubtful, owing to the cultivated plant perfecting few

carpels, and its shape not having been observed in the wild plant

when fresh.

This plant differs from R. heterophyllus and all the other

species, except perhaps R. tripartitus, by its “ necessary ”’ float-

ing leaves, for the presence of a flower springing in company

with a submersed leaf is extremely rare, with }-trifid not tri-

partite nor wedge-shaped lobes, and by their being nearly

always convex ; by its submersed leaves not collapsing ; its long

narrowed peduncles; and petals contiguous except when about

to fall; from R. confusus by its convex not tripartite floating

_ leaves, contiguous petals, }-obovate and very blunt carpels ;

from R. Baudotii by its convex not tripartite leaves with obovate

segments, narrowing peduncles, contiguous petals, long stamens

and short receptacle.

Flowering from May to September.

I possess this plant from St. Pierrein Monmouthshire, (where

it was first noticed as being a distinct species by the Rev. F. J.

A. Hort), Bream in Gloucestershire, and Hoveton in Norfolk.

Sturm’s figure quoted above represents the petals as not

being contiguous, but is doubtless intended for this plant.

Fries’s specimen contained in the Herb. Normale is very im-

perfect, but leaves no doubt upon my mind of the identity of

our plant with it. A specimen sent to Fries, with the name of

R. peltatus attached to it, was stated by him to be correctly so

named.

8. R. tripartitus (D.C.); “submersed leaves divided into capil-

lary segments collapsing,”’ floating leaves long-stalked sub-

peltate deeply trifid with cuneate-obovate 2-4-fid segments,

peduncles not narrowing falling short of the leaves, flowers

very small, petals oblong 3-nerved not contiguous, stamens

few exceeding the pistils, stigma small on a long subulate ter-

minal style with a slender base, receptacle globose, carpels un-

equally obovate much inflated with a nearly terminal point.

R. tripartitus, DeCand. Pl. Gall. Rar. p.15.t.49 ; Eng. Bot. Suppl.

t. 2946; Lloyd, Fl. Loire, 4!

R. tripartitus a. microphyllus, DeCand. Syst. i. 234.

Stem floating or creeping, rooting from the lower joinings,

slightly furrowed, rising out of the water. Submersed leaves

(which have not yet been observed in Britain) several times

400 Mr.C.C.Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi.

trifurcate; segments long, slender, filiform. Floating and

emerged leaves deeply trifid, forming about $ths of acircle; the

lateral segments with 8, the central with 2-4 crenatures, the

outer edge of the lateral segments rounded in their upper half,

but straight below. Upper stipules free. Buds globular.

Sepals ovate, dark green tinged with purple, the whitish margin

diaphanous. Petals very small, slightly exceeding the sepals,

rather acute, narrowed into a claw, pinkish-white, yellowish

below, with 38 distant nerves. Nectary roundish, its border a little

thickened only below. Stamens 5-10. Style straight, placed

nearly upon the middle of the end of the ovary. Carpels very

blunt, glabrous; inner edge rounded. Receptacle globose.

This plant and R. ololeucos (which has not as yet been found

in Britain) are distinguished by having very slightly adnate

stipules, much inflated carpels having a much rounded inner

edge, and minute stigmas. The slender base of the long

subulate deciduous style also is a mark of R. tripartitus. In

R. ololeucos the style is persistent, sickle-shaped, and thickened

at the base, the petals are much larger and wholly white (in all

our species of Batrachian Ranunculi they are more or less yellow

at the base), and the peduncles much exceed the leaves.

Flowering from May to August. ;

Mr. H. C. Watson discovered this plant on Esher Common in

Surrey. I have found it between Haverfordwest and Robeston

in Pembrokeshire.

It is probable that by descending the little streamlets in which

this plant has been found until they increase in size and depth,

the form producing submersed leaves will be found. My valued

friend Mr. Borrer has given to me a specimen grown in deep

water in his garden which has loosely twice trifurcate leaves with

long narrowly linear segments. Such leaves are found inter-

posed between the capillarly divided and the subpeltate leaves

of several of these Ranunculi, for instance in R. Baudotii. It is

scarcely necessary to remind botanists, that the form of the style

is not to be seen upon dried specimens, for it shrinks so much

as in the dry state to appear as if it were broadest at the base.

I possess a specimen, gathered by my friend Mr. F. Townsend

near Tunbridge Wells, which probably, but not quite certainly,

belongs to R. tripartitus. It appears to have grown in rather

deep water, but does not now possess any of the submersed

leaves. It has no petals remaining, and may be R. ololeucos.

Subsection B. Submersed leaves not like those of Sub-

section A. Receptacle hispid.

9. R. circinatus (Sibth.) ; leaves all submersed and sessile tri-

furcate with repeatedly and very closely forked rigid segments

Mr. C. C. Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi. 401

all placed in one roundish plane not collapsing, peduncles

narrowing much exceeding the leaves, flowers large, petals

obovate many-nerved nearly contiguous persistent, stamens

exceeding the pistils, stigma cylindrical, receptacle oblong,

carpels }-ovate compressed rather acute.

R. circinatus, Sibth. Fl. Oxon. 175; Reichenb. Fl. excur. 719, et

Icon. Fl. Germ. iii. Ran. t. 2; Fries, Herb. Norm. ix. 29 (speci-

men); Lng. Bot. Suppl. t. 2869.

R. divaricatus, “‘ Schrank,” Koch, Deutschl. Fl. iv. 152, et Syn. Fl.

Germ. ed. 2.13; Godr. Fl. Lor. i. 15, et Fl. de Fr. i. 25.

R. stagnatilis, Wallr. Sched. Crit. 285.

R. aquaticus albus, circinatis tenuissime divisis foliis, floribus. ex

alis longis pediculis innixis, Raii Syn. ed. 3. 249.

Stem submersed, ascending, branched, angular, furrowed,

hollow, rooting from the lower joinings. Leaves small, their

capillary brassy-green divisions repeatedly forked, but all lying

exactly in one plane, which is placed usually at right angles to

the stem and has a round outline. Stipules sheathing, ad-

pressed, not auricled. Buds obovate, depressed. Sepals ovate,

blunt, greenish, tinged with purple towards the tip, the margin

broadly diaphanous. Petals 2 or 3 times as long as the calyx,

about 9-nerved, white with a yellow claw. Nectary roundish,

small, rather strongly bordered below. Stamens 15-20. Style

prolonging the inner edge of the ovary. Stigma recurved, but

straight. Receptacle narrower than the peduncle both in flower

and when bearing carpels. Carpels ultimately rather acute,

and tipped with the recurved persistent style.

The structure of the leaves is sufficient to distinguish this

plant from all known Ranuncult.

Flowering from June to August.

This plant is not unfrequent. For its distribution in Britain

I may refer to Watson’s ‘ Cybele Britannica.’

From the remark of Messrs. Hooker and Arnott (Brit. Fl.

ed. 7. p. 7) that they “ cannot believe this to be distinct from

the following ” (R. aquatilis, including the R. heterophyllus, R.

trichophyllus, R. confusus and R. Baudotii of this paper), I am

necessarily led to the conclusion that they have no practical

acquaintance with it, and perhaps have paid no attention to it

except when preserved in an herbarium. As I have on several

occasions received specimens of R. heterophyllus under the name

of R. circinatus, when the petioles were shorter than is usual and

the leaves small, I presume that it is not so generally known to

botanists as its distribution would have rendered probable. It

is so constant to its characters, that, even when the water has

dried up in its place of growth, it retains its distinctive structure

and grows and flowers in the air.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2.. Vol. xvi. 27

402 Mr. C.C.Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi.

10. R. fluitans (Lam.); leaves all submersed about twice tri-

furcate with very long linear twice or thrice forked nearly

parallel segments, peduncles narrowing, flowers large, petals

broadly obovate many-nerved contiguous persistent, stamens

falling short of the pistils, stigma cylindrical, receptacle

conical, carpels obovate inflated much rounded at the end

laterally apiculate.

R. fluitans, Lam. Fl. Fr, iii. 184; Reichenb. Fl. exsic. 886 (speci-

men), et Icones Fl. Germ. iii. Ran. t.2; Gren. et Godr. Fl. de Fr.

i. 25; Van den Bosch, Prod. Fl. Batav. 6.

R. peucedanifolius, Desf. Atl. i. 444.

R. fluviatilis, Sibth. Fl. Oxon. 176; Walir. Sched. 284.

R. sive Polyanthemo aquatili albo affine Millefolium Maratriphyllum

fluitans, Ray, Syn. 250.

Stem floating, very long, branched above, nearly round, hol-

low, wholly submersed. Leaves together with their petioles

often afoot in length. Segments thick. Petioles of the upper

leaves often short. Stipules broadly lanceolate, strongly auricled,

z-adnate. Sometimes at the end of the stem a few stalked

3-furcate leaves with short broad linear segments are found; in

these leaves the middle segment is entire, the lateral ones are

simply forked; they do not at all resemble the floating leaves

of the other species. When the seedling plant has been deserted

by the water, all the leaves are of this form. Bud shortly pyra-

midal, pentagonal. Peduncles thick, much shorter than the

leaves. Flower often semidouble. Sepals ovate, blunt, green,

bordered with purplish black and a broad diaphanous edge.

Petals 2-3 times longer than the calyx, slightly clawed, 9-15-

nerved. Nectary round, bordered slightly below. Stamens

many, short. Style prolonging the inner edge of the ovary.

Stigma straight, a little inflexed at the top. Receptacle conical,

slightly pilose immediately after the flowers have fallen. Carpels

with a small lateral point.

The structure of the long whip-shaped leaves is sufficient to

distinguish this plant. It is also remarkable for the tendency

of the flowers to produce a second imperfect whorl of petals. It

does not change its form even when growing in stagnant water.

Not uncommon in rivers. Watson’s ‘ Cybele’ may be referred

to for its distribution in Britain.

Flowering in June and July.

The R. Bach, Wirten (Schultz, Archives de Flore, 1. 292 ;

Billot, Exsic. No. 1103 !), is a form of R. fluitans. The form of

the petals does not afford a constant character, neither does the

length of the peduncle. I have observed it in the River White-

adder in Berwickshire. It is much smaller in all its parts and

more elegant, but I cannot detect any other difference. Mr.

Mr. C. C. Babington on the Batrachian Ranunculi. 403

J. Lange has sent it to me from Denmark. It has sometimes

been mistaken for the R. marinus (Fries), with which it has

very little in common.

Subsection C. No submersed leaves. Receptacle not hispid.

11. R. cenosus (Guss.); leaves all roundish cordate with 3-5

rather deeply divided lobes which widen from their base, petals

exceeding the calyx, style terminal upon the ovate-conical ovary,

carpels unequally obovate with a terminal point.

-R. coenosus, Guss. “ Prod. Suppl. 187,” and Syn. ii. 39; Godr. on

Fl. de France, i. 19; Bab. Man. ed. 3. 7.

R. Lenormandi, F’. Schultz in Flora oder Bot. Zeit. 1837, p. 727!

Walp. Repert. i. 34; Bab. Man. ed. 2.6; Eng. Bot. Suppl.

t. 2930.

R. hederaceus (. grandiflorus, Bab. Man. ed. 1. 5.

Stem floating or creeping upon mud, branched, nearly round

but with slight angles. Leaves not spotted; lobes very blunt

and broad at the top, entire or with 1-3 notches. Petioles long,

terete-compressed. Stipules 3-adnate, bluntly pointed, the

floral ones very broad. Peduncles not narrowed, nearly equal-

ling the leaves. Buds oblong. Flowers large. Sepals obovate,

concave, greenish, tinged with purple towards the tip, with a

diaphanous margin. Petals about twice as long as the calyx,

narrow, obovate, 5-nerved, white with a slight tinge of pink,

slightly clawed and yellowish below. Nectary round, bordered

below. Stamens 8-10; about equalling or a little exceeding

the pistils. Style nearly central upon the ovary (that is, the

upper edge of the ovary is nearly as prominent and rounded as

the lower edge) which narrows gradually into the style. Style

short, thick, and slightly curved outwards. Stigma oblong.

Receptacle spherical, naked. Carpels with their inner (upper)

edge much rounded towards the top, inflated, tipped with the

terminal although not always quite central style.

Flowering from June to August.

I possess this plant from near Coniston Lake in Westmore-

land, near Sheffield, Needwood Forest in Staffordshire, Charn-

wood Forest in Leicestershire, near Aberystwith in Cardiganshire,

near Swansea in Glamorganshire, near Haverfordwest in Pem-

brokeshire, near Llanberis in Caernarvonshire, Esher Common in

Surrey, Tunbridge Wells in Kent, Lucott Hill in Somerset, and

near Plymouth in Devonshire.

Messrs. Hooker and Arnott indirectly hint (Brit. Fl. ed. 7.

p- 8) that near Glasgow this plant may be an altered state of

R. hederaceus, for “it is principally met with in ditches where

the temperature is raised by warm condensed steam,” “and

where formerly R. hederaceus only occurred.” ‘This seems to

require more proof than a simple statement affords. We want

a7*

404: Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

(1) to be rendered quite sure that R. cenosus is the plant that

now inhabits those ditches, and (2) that it was the true R. hede-

raceus alone that grew there formerly. I have most frequently

found R. ceenosus in rather elevated situations, where no source

of artificial heat could affect it.

12. R. hederaceus (Linn.); leaves all roundish reniform with

3-5 shallow rounded lobes widening to their base, petals

scarcely exceeding the calyx, style prolonging the inner edye of

the ovary, carpels 3-oval or 4-obovate with a lateral point.

R. hederaceus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 781; Eng. Bot. t. 2003; Reichend.

Icon. Fl. Germ. iii. Ran. t. 2.

Stem floating or creeping upon mud, branched, nearly round.

Leaves usually spotted; lobes separated by shallow notches,

widening gradually from their base to a narrow rounded end,

often broadly triangular, entire or rarely with a slight notch at

the top. Petioles long, semicylindrical. Stipules long, much

adnate, blunt, denticulate. Peduncles not narrowed upwards,

much falling short of the leaves. Flowers very small. Petals

about equalling ora little exceeding the calyx, narrow, 3-nerved.

Stamens 6-8. Stigma short, oblong. Receptacle spherical,

naked. Carpels compressed below, blunt and inflated above,

inner edge nearly straight, laterally tipped with the style or

pointless.

Flowering from June to September.

This plant is probably generally distributed, but as R. caenosus _

is often mistaken for it, I may mention that I know of its ex-

istence at Inverarnan at the head of Loch Lomond, near Llan-

beris in Caernarvonshire, Lanwarne in Herefordshire, Needwood

Forest in Staffordshire, Tiptree Heath in Essex, Triplow and

other places in Cambridgeshire, near Haverfordwest in Pem-

brokeshire, Ninham in the Isle of Wight, and Bovey Heathfield

in Devonshire.

XXXIV.—On the Mechanism of Aquatic Respiration and on the

Structure of the Oryans of Breathing in Invertebrate Animals.

By Tuomas Wituiams, M.D. Lond., F.L.S., Physician to the

Swansea Infirmary.

[With a Plate. |

[Continued from p. 329.]

General and Minute Anatomy of Branchial Organs in the

Gasteropod Mollusks.

Tue author is not acquainted with any English or continental

researches on the subject of the present paper. While the

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. - 4.05

organs and the process of breathing in the Lamellibranchiate

classes have engaged the study of various able observers, no

special attention has at any time been given to the minute and

ultimate anatomy of these parts in the higher Mollusca. General

views can only securely rest on correctly ascertained particulars.

The laws which govern the structure and functions of individual

organs of animals may be discovered with far greater certainty

by tracing the advancing phases of their histological elements

throughout the zoological series, than by following the mutations

which occur in the progress of their embryonic development in

one class. Comparative anatomy is still very deficient in such

information. The general anatomy of organs has been ably

written: their histological anatomy remains untold. The in-

formation to be drawn from the serial history of any given

structural element of any given complex organ is more calcu-

lated to illustrate the homology of that organ and the archi-

tectural design under which it has been built, than any know-

ledge which can be attained by a descriptive account of its

mere general conformation. The inmost constituent of struc-

ture may display greater invariableness of character than external

outlines and the gross configuration. It is only by such a serial

history that that which is essential to an organ can be eliminated

from those superadded and accessory parts which are separable

and non-essential. For instance, it is quite certain (see a memoir

on the Serial Histology of the Liver (under the title of the Phy-

siology of Cells) by the author, in Guy’s Hospital Reports for

1848), that the same idea of the liver cannot be acquired by

tracing the stages through which the organ passes in the em-

bryo of the mammal, as that which is obtained by exhibiting

consecutive pictures of the form under which it occurs in the

successive links of the animal chain. There is much that is

deceptive and fallacious in general resemblances and leading

analogies. The ultimate and the particular must be seized before

the comparison of general conditions can become correct and

complete. How far-sought and really worthless it were to assert,

that a single cell of the mammalian lung finds its counter-

part, its prototype, im the membranous vesicle on the dermal

surface of an Asterias, in which the process of respiration is

carried on! In such an alleged analogy how many real deep

differences are ignored! What a wide space is overleaped by

simplicity and ignorance! How unsafe are generalities in

science when unsupported by ultimate knowledge, by facts and

details! On the other hand, how utterly valueless are figures,

facts, and particulars, unless they form the substratum of some

generality! To apply them to the maintenance of any theory

invests them with life, renders them mutually coherent. Aban-

406 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

doned to themselves they may be likened to grains of sand, be-

tween which there is no cohesion. These few preliminary remarks

are made, at once, in apology and explanation of the plan of

investigation which the author has adopted in these papers. He

has sought at the expense of great labour, and heavy cost in

several senses, to amass such a store of minute facts as will con-

stitute at another time the ground of an appeal in support of a

wide generalization. With this explanation he will now proceed

to complete the serial history of the organs of respiration in

Invertebrate animals.

In a former paper it was stated, in relation to the gills of the

Lamellibranchiata, that from the Tunicata to the highest mol-

lusk of this class, there prevailed a unity of structure which

acknowledged no single real exception. In every form of branchia

the blood-channels were straight, parallel, and non-communi-

cating; that at the free border of the gill they returned upon

themselves in form of loops, and that thus the afferent layers of

vessels became separate and distinct from the efferent ; that

whether these layers were two or four in number, the real

architecture of the organ remained unchanged*.

These fundamental facts will be found to pervade every variety

of gill to be found among the higher class of the Gasteropod

and Cephalopod Mollusca. In fact, wherever there is'a sepa-

rately developed branchia within the range of the Molluscan

subkingdom, these principles of organic construction will receive

an illustration. But between the Lamellibranchiate and Gaste-

ropod gill, several important and striking differences exist. In

the former the blood-channels are of large bore; they are capable

of carrying a voluminous column of fluid: such a fact implies

that in the organ of respiration in this class the fluids are not

minutely multiplied and subdivided, and that consequently the

contact between them and the external aérating medium is less

intimate and complete. Another interesting fact to be noted is,

that the corpuscles of the blood of the Lamellibranchiata are

* In the paper to which I refer, I promised to show that the apparently

rectangularly-arranged blood-channels of the branchie of the Tunicata

were not real exceptions to the rule stated. In the collected volume of

these memoirs, it will be proved beyond doubt that the ultimate vessels

in the pharyngeal gills of these inferior mollusks are disposed in * parallel,

straight, non-communicating order,” and that the crossing which takes place

between the larger and the smaller blood-channels is a mere appearance

depending upon the mode in which the gill is folded m the cavity. It will

then also be shown that the ultimate blood-vessels in the branchiz of the

Tunicata are bounded by hyaline cartilages which also define the channels,

precisely in the same manner as is done by the corresponding cartilages in

the gills of the higher Lamellibranchs.

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 407

considerably larger * than those of the blood of the Gasteropod

and Cephalopod mollusks. This difference flows naturally from

the greater diameter which the blood-vessels of the former pre-

sent as compared with those of the latter. On another occasion

and in another place, the author will show that the same differ-

ences of size distinguish the blood-corpuscles of the lower Crus-

tacea from those of the higher. This is either the consequence

or the cause of the disparities of calibre in the branchial vessels

which occur in these two sections of the same classes. They

are visible facts which bear most explanatively upon not only

the morphic, but upon the subtler organic and chemical differ-

ences which mark the nutritive fluids of a less highly orga-

nized animal from those of another of higher standard; for it

scarcely admits of doubt that the vital standard, the nutritive

value of any given animal fluid, bears a direct ratio to the nu-

merical amount of its floating corpuscles. As in the animal

scale followed upwards, the floating globules of the blood become

smaller and smaller and more and more numerous, correlatively

the circulating channels gradually decrease in sectional area,

become more and more subdivided and multiplied, until at length

in the higher mammals the bore of the ultimate capillary exceeds

little the diameter of the individual blood-corpuscle. These

general views will serve to impart meaning to the minute ana-

tomical details which are now to follow.

The Tubulibranchiate genera, Vermetus, Dentalium, and Ma-

gilus, are commonly placed at the bottom of the Gasteropod

scale. For this disposition no reason can be drawn from the

position and general anatomy of the branchial cavity or from

the structure ofthe gills. M. Philippit gives a figure which the

author has copied (Pl. XI. fig. 1), m which the organs (a & 3)

contained in the respiratory chamber are clearly exhibited. The

gills (a2) are as perfectly pectinated, that is, they conform in

figure and structure with those organs in the higher Gaste-

ropods which are described as ‘ pectinate’ gillst. They occupy

* The measurements upon which this general statement is based will

be published in the next paper on the Blood in the ‘ British and Foreign

-Med.-Chir. Review.’ 7

+ Enumeratio Molluscorum Siciliz ; and Régne Animal, pl. 62.

{ The word ‘ pectinate,’ as will be subsequently shown, is anything but

descriptive of the real figure of the branchial laminze of the Pectini-

branchiata. To describe them as comb-like is to suggest a very false com-

parison. Ifthe naturalist who first coined the word had isolated a single

leaflet from the gill of a Pectinibranch and defined its outline, such a word

never could have suggested itself. The same ridiculous disparity between

the thing and the name will be found to occur in other designations of

Orders. False titles like these—terms indeed constructed upon imperfect

knowledge—illustrate the difficulty which must ever attend the attempt to

408 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

the same position in the branchial sac, that is, on the roof, and

distant from the rectum (4). One border of the leaf is strength-

ened by a penknife-shaped cartilage, such as that which will be

defined in the Pectinibranchiates. The breathing crypt in Szli-

quaria anguina is depicted by Philippi as having the same con-

figuration. The branchiz differ but triflingly from those of the

former genus. By this observer, these parts are sufficiently clearly

delineated in the two preceding Tubulibranchs to justify the

inference that the branchiz are formed precisely on the plan of

those of the Pectinibranchiata. So similar to that of the latter

order is the general cavity, so analogous the contained parts, so

identical in structure the branchie, that it is difficult to conceive

why Vermetus should be called a Tubulibranch, and Buccinum a

Pectinibranch. In minute anatomy, the description which at

another time will be given of the branchiz of the latter will

apply also to those of Vermetus. When species, whose vital

organs are so similarly constructed, are placed at opposite extremes

of an extended scale, the anatomist may well exclaim,—how arti-

ficial, partial, and arbitrary is the classification of the mere

naturalist !

The Branchiea of the Chitonide.

A Chiton has a carapace like an isopod Crustacean, a dorsal

vessel like an Annelid, bilateral symmetrical reproductive viscera

like an acephalous Mollusk, a head and foot like a patelloid

Gasteropod, a posterior anus like the Fissurellide, and branchiz

like those of the brachyurous Crustacea! Such manifold affi-

nities at once unite and sever this odd group from several most

dissimilar classes. Measured by the standard of its branchial

organs alone, it deserves a higher rank than that accorded to it

by the side of the Patellide. The anatomical position of these

organs nevertheless allies the Chiton to the Patella. In both,

they are placed in the furrow between the border of the foot

and the edge of the mantle. But in structure they are totally

unlike. Imagination may indeed construct ideal analogies. If

a branchial cone (fig. 2) were placed on either side of the anal

debouchure in Chiton and then simply enlarged without change

of figure, the branchie of Fisswrella (fig. 10) would be simu-

lated. They are organically different from those of Emarginula

(fig. 9) and Patella (fig. 5). In structural characters the gills

of the last two genera bear the same relation to each other

establish a true and natural terminological system in zoology before the

real structure of animals is made known. The mere naturalist can never

find himself in a position to construct a consistent “terminology.” This

task, so important to the progress of knowledge, must be jointly under-

taken by the philosophic anatomist and the descriptive naturalist. _

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 409

as that which subsists between those of Chiton and Fissurella.

The ultimate respiratory lamine in the last two are bilateral,

resting, that is, on either surface of a common axial plane. In

Emarginula and Patella they rise from one surface only of a

common basis. In Patella that basis is fixed, in Hmarginula it

is free. The branchial system of Chiton is distributed and sub-

divided, that of Fissurella is centralized in place and united in

structure. In anatomical arrangement they are precisely the

same. It should however be remembered, while discussing the

generic affinities of the Chitonide, that, according to Cuyier’s *

dissections, the branchizee in Chiton spinulosus (Linn.) are only

one-sidedly laminated, resembling the arrangement of the teeth

of acomb. By Forbes and Hanley+ the branchiz in the British

families are defined as “ forming a series of lamelle between the

mantle and the foot on each side.” By Mr. Clark those of

Chiton fascicularis are described as consisting of “a cordon be-

tween the mantle and the foot, composed of fifteen oblique cord-

like, short, close-set, pale brown filaments on each side t.”” This

description is calculated to mislead. The branchiz in the Chi-

tons are neither ‘lamelle’ nor ‘filaments.’ They are complexly

constructed organs (Pl. XI. figs. 2 & 3). Each ‘filament’ or

‘lamella’ (Forbes) is a separate and distinct fabric. Not less so

than one of the cones of the gill in the Crab, or one of the pen-

knife-shaped processes of the branchia of the Fish. In number

these conules differ according to the species. A row of fifteen

occurs in Chiton fascicularis, of seventeen in C. cinereus, of only

ten in C. asellus, on each side of the body. They amount to

eighteen in Chiton discrepans, to twelve only in C. ruber, to

eighteen in C. guinquevalvis (Brown), and even to twenty-four

on either side of the body in C. marmoreus. Several other spe-

cies of Chitons are described in works on British Mollusca. In

all, the branchie are overlooked. Numerous comparisons of the

young with the old would be necessary to prove that in the

adult state of each species these organules are constant cha-

racters. If they are, in descriptions of species a correct account

of them, as regards number, size and position, shoul@ be in-

eluded. They are well known to vary im size, apparent form, and

in situation, relatively to the transverse median line of the body

in different species, but in plan of formation or design they pre-

sent no diversities. A branchia (figs. 2 & 3) in the genus Chiton ~

ee |

may be typically described as a process of the mantle, consisting |

of a wedge-shaped axis (4), from whose opposite plane surfaces |

* Mém. sur les Mollusques; and Régne Animal, pl. 68. vol. sur les Mol-°

lusques.

+ British Mollusea, vol. u. p. 391. ‘

{ British Marine Testaceous Mollusca, p. 249.

410 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

project at right angles secondary lamine (a, a, a), laid flatwise

the one upon the other from the base to the apex of the process.

The lamine (fig. 4d; figs. 2 & 3 a,a,a) are largest at the root,

smallest and taperimg at the further free end. ach leaf (fig. 4d)

being attached only at one border, is capable of floating freely

in the water. This is a point of immense functional advantage.

The aérating current, however, is otherwise brought under mus-

cular control. The row of gills, being disposed in an angular

groove between two strongly contractile and extensile parts,

namely the edges of the foot and mantle, are mechanically

operated on by the current thus muscularly set in motion. Thus

the laminz are separated from one another.

The gills of Chiton are much more parenchymatous or fleshy

than those of Patella. They possess an obvious power of col-

lapsing and expanding. Muscular fibres are disposed variously

throughout the entire gill. Even the borders of the leaflets are

contractile (fig. 4d). But the axial plane, in which the two large

vessels (fig. 4a & b) are lodged, is conspicuously fleshy and mus-

cular. By the fibres situated in this axis the whole process

may be shortened, and drawn strongly up towards the base.

This power may be given in order to protect the part, or to

quicken the circulation, or effectually to cleanse the gill of effete

water. Hach branchial process carries in its central plane two

large vessels (a, 6). They are connected with two main trunks

which run along the edge of the mantle. They are respectively

afferent and efferent. Thus far the apparatus is simple. The

circulation in the laminz is infinitely more complex (fig. 4).

From the main afferent vessel (a, arrow) of the branchial process

secondary branches (e) proceed. These latter run along the

attached border or root of each leaflet. A similar secondary

efferent vessel runs parallel to it on the other side of the same

border (e’). The two vessels are connected together by means

of the looped, parallel, ultimate blood-channels of the laminze

(c, c'). These latter are the true respiratory capillaries. They

form in the substance of the leaflet two layers of vessels. The up-

per loops into the lower layer at the free border (d) of the lamina.

Thus then the vital fluid flows, in horizontally parallel streamlets,

of extreme minuteness, along the upper aspect of a sheet, itself

flattened in the highest degree ; following the direction of the

loops, it curves round at the distal margin, returns in a similarly

distributed stratum along the inferior face of the lamina, and

reaches in the form of an arterial fluid the efferent vessel at the

fixed base. Although these ultimate blood-channels are un-

questionably separately walled conduits, they branch here and

there and unite with those in the neighbourhood. This branch-

ing however so seldom occurs, that each vessel may really be

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 411

defined as maintaining its individuality from the begmning to

the end of its course. This fact identifies the branchiz of the

Chitonidz with the Molluscan type, and severs them from the

Crustacean. This is an anatomical character of essential im-

portance*,

Although an ultimate leaflet from the gill of the Chiton has

precisely the same figure as the corresponding part of the gill

of a brachyurous Crustacean, its real structure is demonstra-

tively Molluscan. The microscope is thus enabled to prove, that

beneath an exterior general resemblance there lies hidden an

essential identity of organization. In the Chiton, as in all mol-

lusks, the branchial vessels are individualized channels bounded

by distinct walls. In the Crustacea the blood traverses wall-less

lacunose passages, and forms invariably only a single stratum in

its course. These facts are beyond question. They prove that

the Chitonide are far more intimately allied to the Mollusk than

to the Crustacean. They establish a new principle in homology.

They prove that conformity im the last elements of structure

signifies more than the superficial analogies of outward form.

Another striking point of dissimilitude between the gill of the

Chiton and that of the Crab, is that im the former the whole

lamina, but most conspicuously the borders, is covered by a

comparatively dense ciliated epithelium. Cilia do not exist in the

Crustacea. It is possible that these vibratile appendages may

exist on the branchiz of Gasteropod Mollusks, and not on those

of Crustacea, because in the former the blood moving in the ulti-

mate vessels can be exposed to the agency of the aérating ele-

ment only on one side ; whereas, as formerly explained, in almost

* T would here confess to the naturalist who may perchance repeat

these observations, that no researches in which I have ever engaged have

required so much training of the eye, and familiarizing of the mind with

the appearances under study, as the ultimate characters of the vascular

apparatus of the gills in the Cephalophorous Mollusca. Numerous diffi-

culties occur. The same doubtful poimt must be tested in very different

modes, in the recent and preserved specimens, and by aid of various che-

mical agents. In the Acephalous Mollusks, as in the Crustacea, the ulti-

mate blood-channels become unquestionable at the first glance. Not so in

the branchiferous Gasteropods. The vessels are smaller and covered with a

denser epithelium ; the tissue is contractile and softer, the parts of difficult

access, &c.; but notwithstanding these difficulties, I believe that the real

and true anatomy of these parts is faithfully given in the present memoir.

It is the first occasion in comparative anatomy on which an attempt has

been made to unravel the ultimate character of any part of the circulating

system of the Mollusca. I am disposed to attach importance to what is

true of the branchiz in this sense, since it may hereafter prove of service

in deciphering the last vessels of other tissues and organs. I would only

in this place and at present venture to observe, that the /acwnar theory of

Milne-Kdwards is incontestably in every sense more applicable to the

Crustacea than to the Mollusca.

412 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

every Crustacean the extreme blood-passages are equally exposed

on both sides of a single current to the action of the surround-

ing medium. Thus the area of exposure being the same, the

functional value of a Crustacean gill may be equal to that of a

Molluscan, albeit the circulatory system of the latter may be

incomparably more perfect and elaborate than that of the

former. A curious fact may here be mentioned, as connecting

the branchial operations with the position of the cloaca: that in

the Chitonide the effete current of water flowing in the respi-

ratory groove between the edge of the mantle and that of the

foot sets backwards towards the anus—in the Patellidee it sets

_ forwards, towards the common position of the mouth and anus.

' To recapitulate: it may be stated that in figure the gill of the

Chiton is the counterpart of that of the Crab; in the ultimate

arrangement of its vessels it conforms with the type prevalent

throughout the branchiferous Gasteropods ; in its fleshiness, the

' denseness of its epithelium, and in the presence of minute fol-

licles on its surface, it allies itself with the branchize of the

Nudibranchs. Nothing is more easy than to prove the presence ~

of epithelium over the entire surfaces of the lamin. The

waving of the cilia is visible throughout the whole extent of the

surface. The cilia which are situated on the free margins (fig. 4 d)

are much larger,—supported by correspondingly larger cells than

those distributed over the flat face. Opportunities will after-

wards occur for considering the question, why, in the organs of

branchial breathing, ci/zary epithelium should almost always

clothe even the ultimate vessels, and why they should be as con-

stantly wanting on the corresponding parts of the pulmonary or

air-breathing series.

Branchial System of the Patellide.

It is proposed here to take the branchie of the genus Patella

as the type of those of the remaining genera of this order. But

it will be shown that the Fissurellide, Emarginulide, and Halio- —

tide, &c., differ strikingly both in the special and in the general

characters of the branchial system from the Patellide. Though

there may exist other features which in the judgement, of the

malacologist may justify the marshalling of these several genera

under one and the same order, estimated by the branchial appa-

ratus, the Patellide ought unquestionably to stand apart and

alone. The author is deeply persuaded that: minute ultimate

histological questions will some day in the history of science

exercise a far more potent sway over the minds of classifiers

than they have hitherto done. Unity and uniformity reign with

greater constancy in the small than in the great. productions of

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 413

nature. The cell or the fibre, which the wondrous microscope

only can reveal to human ken, is no less fixed and invariable in

its structure than the huge bone or the stupendous brain.

In the Patella the heart stands in the geometrical centre of

the body. It is situated above and behind the head. It is not

perforated by the intestines as it is in the Bivalves. It is an:

elongated sac dividing in front into two main pallial trunks.

These latter distribute arterial blood throughout the mantle *.

From the mantle and the viscera it returns into the branchiz

and thence into the heart, to be redistributed over the body.

This apparatus can be detected with perfect clearness in the

uninjected subject.

In Patella the branchie (fig. 5 a, a) form a cirele, which

is interrupted only by a small notch for the admission of

water. That is, the lamelle are neither deficient behind nor

before. The “ cordon” is continued over that portion of the

margin of the mantle which is situated in advance of the head.

Thus, in Patella the branchiz neither arise from, nor are in any

way attached to, the neck of the animal. They are developments

of the mantle alone. This point is one of specific importance.

It proves that the figure used by the late Prof. EK. Forbes was

unphilosophical, because unsupported by anatomy. He said that

the branchiz of Patella were really only those of Fissurella and

Haliotis, fixed to the mantle and extended all round, instead of

being free plumes. as in the latter. But it is at once obvious,

that not only the branchiz themselves, but the anatomical rela-

tions of them are radically different in Patella and Fissurella and

Haliotis for example. If, indeed, the latter genera have no better

title to a rank in the Patellidan group than that which is fur-

nished by the branchiz, they should receive at once a summary

sentence of exclusion.

- The branchial organ of Patella consists of a double row of

leaves (fig. 5 a, e) oblong in shape (fig. 8), standing vertically

on, and at right angles with the plane of, the mantle (fig. 5 ¢, c).

They constitute a special apparatus distinct from that papillose,

ciliated fringe (d) with which the extreme edge of the mantle is

ornamented. ‘They extend over the entire circumference of the

pallial border. They are not attached to any part of the body

of the animal. The outermost row of leaflets (a) is a little larger

* So clear and water-like are the fluid contents of these vessels in a

fresh specimen, while expanding itself in the struggle to get out of its shell,

that they may most readily, but most erroneously, be mistaken for aqui-

ferous canals. As on a future occasion I shall have a great deal to say on

the ill-understood subject of the aquiferous system of Mollusks, at present

I only desire to indicate a source of misconception which has led many an

acute naturalist into error.

414 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

than the innermost (e). By a poetical stretch of fancy it might

be said that, being composed of two sets of lamine, though

situated on the same side of the same base, they may justly be

hkened to the oppositely-placed lamin of the plumose free gills

of the other Patelloid orders. But such a comparison would be

indeed far-sought.

The branchiz of the vulgar Limpet, to the careless looker-on

on Nature’s marvels, appear so contemptibly familiar, that to

subject such objects to a grave and minute philosophical exami-

nation must prove a severe trial to his patience and common

sense. Alas! how short is the range of human sight! Beneath

the familiar exterior of these common objects there lies an un-

discovered machinery of startling beauty and perfection! These

little organs will serve to unite the branchial systems of the two

great groups of Mollusks, the Acephalous and Encephalous.

Through their aid it will prove practicable to establish a unity

of branchial type coextensive with the entire Molluscan series.

They will convince the zoologist that Nature never changes either

the plan of her action, or the design of her architecture, by

senseless and ludicrous transitions. Her incomparable, unequalled

skill lies in adapting a single principle to the most varied ends.

Of the two rows of lamine in Patella as just stated, the inner

is composed. of smaller leaflets than the more external. The

smaller and larger leaves occur alternately in the series. Both

are precisely the same in minute structure. Expert manipu-

lation is required in order to obtain a complete view of the gill-

processes 2m situ. The whole ring of the mantle to which they

are attached should be removed. Every portion of the loose

edge and fringe should then be cut away, leaving only so much

as will hold the lamine in position. A small segment of this

circle should be then placed in the cell of an object-glass,

floated with water and covered with a slip of thin glass. The

position of the laminz may now be changed at will, by slackening

or extending the portion beyond the edge of the glass.

It will now be remarked, that each lamina (fig. 8) is a separate

and distinct process, resting on, or proceeding from, a distinct

base ; that it is not a simple vertical sheet like the leaf of a book,

of equal thickness at every part, at the edge and: at the base ;

that it is not, what seemed certain to the naked eye, a com-

pactly-structured single sheet. A far more intricate arrange-

ment discovers itself. First, each lamina, as it stands in its

place and unstretched, forms a concavo-convex outline (fig. 8).

It bulges out (a) like a sail in the wind on one side; it is hol-

low on the other (4). This figure is due to the fact that the free

border (c) is denser and less extensile than the intermediate

membranous portion. Many advantages are secured by such an

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 415

arrangement. The individual lamine of the series mutually

support one another by a more exact and rapid adaptation of the

vis-a-vis surfaces. They are less liable to fold and wrinkle by

the rapidly varying degrees of distension to which they are

exposed by the action of the margin-muscles of the mantle. But

the free border of each leaflet is further so constructed as to

realize a great degree of elasticity (figs. 7, 6). On looking

sideways, that is, directly down upon the edge of the leaflet, the

eye discovers with perfect clearness an arched or vaulted outline

(fig. 7 ¢; fig. 6 e) formed by the curving round of the blood-

channels of one half or layer of the sheet, in order to run into

those of the other half (fig. 7 a,e,5). It is by this method of

viewing the object that the anatomist may convince himself that

each gill-plate is really composed of two distinct and separated

layers (figs. 6 & 7 a, b-a, b), united only at the margin (ce, ¢), in

exact accordance with the pattern of the single gills of the Lamel-

libranchiate Acephala.

The satisfactory determination of this point of structure is of

great importance in this inquiry. It possesses all the power of a

key as regards the after-stages of the investigation. So extra-

ordinary is the uniformity of the plan on which the respiratory

organs of the branchiferous Gasteropods are formed, that 1t may

be inferred with perfect certainty that what is clearly proved to

be true of one grade in the series will apply with essential

accuracy to all the others. Extremely difficult therefore though

it may be to unravel the minute structure of the gill-lamine

of Patella, from the key-like power of the information thus

only to be acquired, it is worthy of all the patience which the

student can command.

Two facts of structure are then determined :—1st. That the

plate is composed of two layers; 2nd. That those two layers are

united by a looped arrangement at the margin. Now it may be

proved with exact. certainty, that each layer is composed of

straight or wavingly parallel channels (figs. 6 a, b, and 7 a, b) laid

on the same horizontal plane (fig. 6 a, as far as 7), such that a

membrane is formed. . Although these channels are far less indi-

vidually distinct than those of the gills of the Lamellibranchs,

they are unquestionably blood-vessels, united together into a

membrane-like series by delicate imtervening fibres or mem-

brane. Various kinds of proofs might be adduced in support of

this interpretation. 7

The cilia follow the outline of each vessel (fig. 7 a, 5) in a

line-like manner. The vessels present a linear bulge like a tube.

They can be seen to be filled with rows of corpuscles, clearly

distinguishable from the fixed cells and epithelia which form the

solid substance of their walls.. Traced carefully in the direction

416 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

of the distal margin, they become more and more separated

from one another (fig. 6d). The interposed substance becomes

more and more pellucid, until at length at the margin the vas-

cular loops (ce, c) stand out in unmistakeable eminence. So mi-

crocosmic is the mechanism however, that it is impossible by

direct view to state whether these vessels are separated by a

water-fissure, such as that which exists in the gills of the Lamel-

libranchs, or whether they are joined by an intervascular mem-

brane. In the former case, water would penetrate into the space

(fig. 7 ce) between the two constituent layers of the lamina ;

in the latter this space would be entirely closed from the

external element. On a superficial view this point may appear

very insignificant. On a deeper insight it becomes pregnant

with functional and homological meaning. If the water could

find a ready entrance into the interlaminar space (fig. 6 e, g),

the column of blood flowing in each afferent and efferent blood-

vessel (a, 6), that is, in the trunks bounding that space, would

be aérated on both sides, and the respiratory value of the organ

would at once be doubled. It is almost certain that it does not

and cannot. If the external water cannot and does not penetrate

into this interlaminar space, then it must be filled by the vital

fluid of the animal; for the space exists beyond doubt. If this

latter supposition be true, it is quite certain that this fluid must

be distinct from that which circulates in the laminar or proper

branchial vessels. This doubt must for the present be left

undetermined. Whether it be soluble or not, enough of the

essential structure of the gasteropodan gill has been demon-

strated to establish between it and the branchie of the Lamelli-

branchs an extraordinary resemblance ; not a mere outline-simi-

larity, but a closeness, almost amounting to an identity of con-

structive plan. If everything else in the patelloid organism

exhibited the same degree of similitude to the system of the

Lamellibranch as that which obtains im the branchial apparatus,

the naturalist would not hesitate to define the Patella at once as

the highest Acephalan and the lowest Encephalan. It must

however be admitted, that the judgement of the classifier should

not be swayed exclusively by special affinities. The question

now arises, if these minute branchial leaflets of Patella really

consist each of two layers, how are these layers tied together ?

They are fixed to one another by an intermediate system of

threads (trabecule) crossing each other in such a manner as to

afford the most effectual mutual support (fig. 64; fig. 79). The

points (fig.6 f; fig. 7 d) to which these connecting fibres or bands

(fig. 7 f; fig. 6 A) are attached to the vessels are swelled into

nodules (fig. 7 d), which present a singular resemblance to the

fleshy nodules on the branchial bars of the Mussel. Of course

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 417.

they are much less visible than they are in the latter case, but

in anatomical characters and relations they are in both cases

most remarkably analogous. Now the interval between the two

layers which is crossed by the threads just described, is indubi-

tably filled with some fluid. What that fluid is, it is impossible

at present to say.

The water-currents excited by cilia on the flat surfaces of the

branchial laminze set, from the fixed, in the direction of the free

border. The cilia which are distributed over the flat faces of

the leaflets are very much smaller than those which fringe

the margins. The exact position to which the former are at-

tached in relation to the lines of the blood-channels cannot

therefore be clearly defined. This, however, is an unimportant

point, since the aggregate action of the cilia, as indicated by the

setting of the current, may be easily proved.

The epithelium which lines the flat surfaces of the laminz

forms undoubtedly a continuous membrane. It is consequently

impossible that there can take place any water-currents between

the individual blood-channels, such as those which figure so

prominently in the mechanism of the Lamellibranchiate gills.

The water-passages being wanting, it results that, in this Gas-

teropod, the branchia ts not penetrated by the aérating medium.

This fact should be regarded rather as a criterion of superior

than of inferior organization. It signifies an increasing subdi-

vision of the blood-streams. The blood-vessels being smaller,

and the parietes being less dense and cartilaginous, exposure to

the oxygenating medium on one side only suffices for the pur-

poses of respiration. It is important in this place to remark,

that if the interlaminar space of the branchial leaves of Patella

could be proved to be filled with water and not with blood, some

ground would be afforded, as will again be shown, for supposing

that in these Mollusca the external water is actually admitted

into the penetralia of the organism, forming an aquiferous system,

and that it circulates like a nutritive fluid throughout the entire

body. This, however, is a fancy as yet at all events totally un-

supported by fact.

It is difficult to leave this part of the present inquiry without

once more drawing attention to the homologous significance of

the branchiz of Patella. They are composed of two layers of ves-

sels, opposed face to face, and joined at the margin. They are

invested by a ciliated epithelium which is restricted to the exterior

aspect of the organ. The constituent layers are separated by an

intermediate space. In these several items of mechanism these

branchiz approximate most wonderfully closely to the type

which is normal to the Acephala. If there be no meaning in

this approximation, there can be no wnity in the organic system of

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi.

418 Dr. T. Williamson. the Mechanism of Aquatic

nature, and the philosophic: anatomist may indeed well abandon

his «studits in despair: In conclusion it-should be remembered,

that between a single leaflet of the gillvof: Patella and a single

lamina’ of ithe same form and figure, taken frony-any | small bras

chyurous Crustacean, the extremest difference exists. The Crus-

tacean) gills «far léés perfect, more rude) in every sense; asia

purposive machinery.’ Carrying a single stream of blood, whose

corpuscles’ are ‘considerably: larger than»those of »Patella; and

which’ runs: in irregular passages lying between two sheets df

epithelium ‘tied together only: by means of accidentally <distri-

buted aslets°of fleshy tissue, it contrasts strikingly with» the

double-vesse] system with the contractile and highly ciliated

Please of which the Patellan gill is woven.

‘For sreasons derived from: other sources than those of the

panteliaes the: genera Emarginula, Fissurella and Halotis are

placed: by malacologists in the Patelloid:group. The branchize

of Kmarginula (fig. 9a; a) approach much: nearer than those of

Fissurella (fig: 10 a, a) tothe type of these organs as they exist

in°Patella.) (The gills of Emarginula are attached to the base of

the cervical ‘cavity (fig: 9 d) on either side of! the outlet: of the

intestine. ‘They project: forwards in form of tapering ‘processes

(a, 2) on either side of the head of the animal. They'are chiefly

fixedat:the base, but a slender membranous frenum, proceeding

fromthe mediaw line’ of) each, connects them:to that) portion of

the mantle*which ‘covers the roof of the cavity of the:shell m

which the head and-rectum are situated.) They avé-thus held in

one position. "They possess notwithstanding a’ slight»power of

expanding and collapsing. They are foliated only onoohe side

(a,°a) of a bases: They are more:comb-like:than\plumeslikes | In

this: particular of “configuration: they: approach closely to -the

branchize of. Patella., Tf the:latter'were:seated on al freeanstead

of a fixed base, the resemblance would be very near. sQceupying

a position on either’ side of the: moteh»(b) am the shell, the latter

should be ‘regarded as playing as amportant-a part ‘iuyproviding

afresh current: of water for the cere rca in‘conveying away

thie excreta. atoqmint odt ngsows

iPhe ciliary movements | \observatie! ‘itto sthian region both: ain

Emarginula and. \Fissurella: point td the! sanieoinference;; ofx+

amined’ separately »under the | microscope,’ ac'single!sleaf/taken

from the’ gill of Emarginula: reticulata presents an coutline mot

unlike: that ‘of Patella. >: It ois;! however; indore Jancet-shaped.

In ultimate minute structure at) corresponds exactly: with! ithe

aptelidan’ model ‘already: figaredso/ Its:\vessels: aun) inv parallel

eolumns; looping ‘at’ the: free margin! andy ed¥ered | by: a: ciliated

epithelium. The) interlaminat’ space;i'so:'tinquestiénable: in the

gill-leaf of Patella (fig. 6 e); is hereshowever much more contracted

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals, 419

and less distinguishable. :Insother words, the layers are so iti

mately soldered together: as almost) to obliterate, the intervenmg

space. « The layers\ nevertheless carry) separate and, distinet

planes of blood-channels, «ln J%issurell/a. the organs of breathing

(fig..10/a, a) consist. of two ‘plumose, tapering: processes: (a@,/a),

projecting forwards: (when -fully expanded), to: ia» considerable

distance under the anterior vault. of the shell... They are capable,

like the arms of a Brachiopod, of being coiled up on. themselves.

Theyare distinguished from those of Emarginula. in: having a

double system of leaves. . These gills therefore present rather,a

pinnate than a pectinate figure. They stand at the sides of the

chamber, the roof of which is perforated by the opening»at: the

apex of the shell. This orifice admits fresh water into this space;

it also conveys externally all refuse excretions. In:the dispo-

sition of the vessels, in the character of the ciliary epithelium,

in the fact of two planes of vessels, the branchize of eicunallg

conform to the standard of the Patellan gill. ear

«The branchial plume of Acmea testudinalis, extends to.a: great

distance beyond the limits of the shell. It is fixed to the neck

of the animal at the root of the right tentacle.,: It»1s: bisymme:+

trieally foliated; each lamina in its ultimate anatomy follows the

Patelloid: type. The gills of Propilidium. ancyloide consist of

two small feathery processes attached to the dorsal surface of

to the right side of the cloacal cavity, «They are free processes,

and furnished with: a double. series: of leaves, supported by::an

axial base, in which the: afferent) and: efferent: branchial vessels

are lodged.

In Puncturella noachina the gill is non-sytimetrical. It occu-

pies a special:and spacious chamber:on:the left. side of the neck

and foot: It is a:pinnate structure highly ciliated, the lamina

being large..160:

Judged. by the structure and rolitinns of the branchial system

exclusively; the: Fissurellidg::are undoubtedly placed in their true

serial positiom»by: Porbes:and: Hanley, namely intermedially:be-

tween the Limpets and Haliotide. They are Scutibranchiate:

This ‘cannot be said! of Acmeaand>Propilidtum: The -branchia

here is motoshielded: by!a fold: of; the:mantle.) 1 Nor are they

Cyclobranchiate,for the branchial processes are free plumes. If

affinity is'to ‘be decided; by» structure» rather than position, both

Aemen and Propilidium:should he classed with the! Scutibranchs;

The branchie imoHaliotis (figo11):are sufficiently: large to

bolder us’ tovtradce:satisfactorily:the distribution. of the larger

blood:channéls.°’ “Phey! will suffice sto illustrate the. circulatory

apparatus sof the pgillsycinooall® the: other! Scutibranchs. »: The

author’s account! is drawnyfrom:an» examination of a| specimen

28%

420 Dr. T. Williams on the Mechanism of Aquatic

preserved in spirit, aided by the successful injections of Milne-

Edwards.* Haliotis tuberculata is a typical Scutibranch. The

branchie (fig. 11 a, a) are lodged in a spacious enclosure of the

mantle on the left side of the body. They are attached at the base

by means of the vascular trunks; on the inferior surface to some

extent of their length, by means of a membranous frenum. They

are doubly laminose; that is, between two parallel trunks

(b, 6 & c, c), a vein and an artery, which run from the base to

the apex of each gill, there lie transversely two series of leaves

(a, a', a, a') which are traversed by the blood of the afferent

vessel (5) on its path to the efferent vessel (c). Here again, as

in all the Gasteropod Mollusks, the gills are observed to conform

in general structure to those leafy piles which fill the thoracie

cavity of the Crab ; but how totally different in the minute parts

of their organization! In Haliotis the heart (e) is systemic. The

blood, freshly arterialized, returns directly from the branchiz

into the auricles (d, d); from the ventricle (e) it is driven into

the systemic aorta (f/). At the roots of the branchie the

venous blood converges into capacious, but not lacunose, afferent

trunks (4, 6), along which it is conducted to the branchial

lamine. The vascular system of the lamine (fig. 12) is the

same in every respect as that already described and figured in

Chiton and Patella.

Each lamina carries two layers of horizontally stratified, uni-

formly diametered tubes, united to one another laterally, and to

those of the opposite venous stratum by transverse threads.

Each leaflet consequently consists of two layers or planes of

blood-channels, jomed together at the free margin, and covered

on their external surfaces by a ciliated epithelium. A thin film of

water moves wavingly from the fixed to the free borders: it is

sustained in motion by the vibration of the cilia. Such an arrange-

ment proves that not only the blood to be aérated, but the water

which aérates, is required in the act of respiration to be divided

to the utmost degree. As far as this inquiry has proceeded, it

must have been observed, that although the plumose or pinnate

form of gill is constantly adopted as the most convenient figure

in accordance with which to construct the respiratory organs

both in Mollusca and Crustacea, the resemblance never proceeds

beyond the exterior conformation and the disposition of the

larger vessels. Beyond and deeper than this limit the micro-

scope establishes an irreconcilable difference between the Crus-

tacean and Molluscan gill. It exemplifies the supreme value of

this instrument in zoological research. But apart from these

physical considerations, a chemical ground of dissimilarity be-

* Annales des Sciences Naturelles, tom. viii. 1847.

Anin.& Mog.Nat Hist. 8.2N0.16 Fl.

New a aati ae a

Respiration in Invertebrate Animals. 421

tween the branchiz of these two classes exists. The horny chi-

tinous epithelium of the Crustacean contrasts obviously with the

fleshy, soft, and ciliated covering with which the Molluscan

structure is invested. In the latter the blood-movement is aided

by muscular and vascular contractions. In the Crustacean the

flow of the blood is due almost exclusively to the action of the

heart, whose beats tan be clearly read by the eye at the farthest

periphery of the circulation in the saltatory motion of the float-

ing corpuscles. In the walled contractile vessel of the Mollusk

no such evidence is discoverable.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI.

Fig. 1. Respiratory chamber of Vermetus elegans laid open, after Quoy.

_a, branchiz ; 6, excretory ducts. |

Fig. 2. A single branchial conule of Chiton much magnified and viewed

on its broad side. a, a, a, leaves; 5, base.

Fig. 3. The former viewed edgewise, showing the axis (0) and the lateral

leaves (a, a, a).

Fig. 4. A transverse section of the gill near the base, so as to exhibit the

main trunks artery (a, arrow) and vein (3, arrow) in section.

e, e', secondary afferent and efferent trunks running along the

fixed border of the ultimate laminz (d, d’), in which the ultimate

ae vessels (c, c’) are laid out, in parallel series.

Fig. 5. A portion of the mantle of Patella vulgata detached and magnified,

showing the gill-lamine, a, a, e, resting on a thickened ridge of

the mantle (4); d, tactile papille; c, c, line of the mantle.

Fig. 6. A portion of the free edge of one of the branchial leaves, viewed

isa partly sideways in order to display the space (e, g) by which the

sheets of vessels a, i and 6 are separated; h. are the delicate

threads or trabecule by which the component vascular layers are

held together; f, the fleshy nodules to which the latter are

», affixed.

Fig. 7. expresses the course of a single ultimate branchial blood-channel

from the fixed border (a) of the lamina, round the free border (c),

back to the fixed border (0), proving the independence and con-

tinued individuality of the vessel; e, the space circumscribed by

the loop (¢); d, f, g. are the connecting thread and nodules.

Fig. 8. exhibits one branchial leaf of Patella in situ; it has a vaulted

figure. a, convex part; 6, concave; c, the thickened border ; d,

the row of fieshy nodules next to the free border.

Fig. 9. Outline sketch of the branchial system of Emarginula huzandi

(Cuy.). @,-@, branchiz foliated on one side only ; 6, notch in the

shell; d, base to which the branchiz are attached; c, rectal

intestine.

Fig. 10. Outline sketch of the branchial system of Fissurella greca.

a, a, branchiz foliated on both sides of the supporting axis;

b, perforation in the apex of the shell; c, rectum. 7

Fig. 11. Branchial and cardiac systems of Haliotis tubercula. a.a’, a, a,

‘4 branchie doubly foliated; 0, 6, the afferent trunks; c,c, the

efferent ; d, d, the double auricles ; e, the single ventricle ; f, the

aorta; g, the rectal intestine.

Fig. 12. Transverse section of the former.

[To be continued. |

422 Dy. JK. Gray on the genus Assiminia.

XXKV.—On the Genera of Mollusca, and onthe Genus Assiminia

te partioular. By Dred> B. Grayy F.RS) &e:

“ucLo the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

¥ ii

-....{ SBNTLEMEN,

[:ameinduced>to forward the following observations, occasioned

by ‘Mr, Clark’s:reply to my note on the genus Assimina, more

on account oftheir general application, than as simply bearing

on Mr. Clark’s paper. Mr. Clark must, I think, be almost the

last: remaining member of the Montaguan school of British ma-

lacologists who have done so much to increase our knowledge of

the Mollusca of our shores. Unfortunately, however, he is not;like

most of his colleagues, satisfied simply to describe and record, the

structure and habits of the species falling under his own observa-

tion, but wishes, without taking the trouble to study those found

im other parts-of the world than our own little island, to form

a system of his own ;' to decide on the manner in which the Mol-

lusca of all:the world should be arranged ; to give an ex cathedrd

opinion as tothe propriety and value. of groups: of .species. of

which he has: probably only, seen a single small, and: perhaps

aberrant example ; and to.determine on the validity of a specific

distinction by the ‘observation of a collection of; small. extent,

collected :inoa single locality. .Malacologists,must,, however,

always be thankful for the labours of the describer of the animal

of Caecum, Dentalium, and. several other, mteresting -genera, al-

though it maybe permitted, them to wish:that) he: would not

publish ‘his descriptions until -he,had made) up his;own opinions

as to the accuracy of his observations, and not; correct-them) and

then have to! correct his corrections, back to his)old statement, as

is to be found m more than one instaticé inchis papérs!and work.

There can: be little doubt. that distinetkinds/( dr, as wé-gene-

rally call) them, species), of) animals) exist! in! nature.o»s It:is the

chief occupation! of a:naturalist to, observe, the ¢xternal |charac-

ters, the anatomical structure andithe peculiarities:in the habits

and: ‘manners: of each of ithese kinds or-species;;and to, compare

them with each other; both) as:individuals and) a8 collected-imto

groups. It is equally indisputable-that certain! kinds,.or species,

have-important characters am common, and it:has; béen. the; cus-

tom from the: earliest ‘times :to :colleet ‘such, kinds/as shave! such

common characters:into groups, and to divide these great groups

into smaller and smaller groups by:such/characters:as are\common

to:each ;, and these groups;according to their relative importance,

have been called classes, orders, families; generaandssubgenera:;

but few naturalists; L believe, regard the lowerat least bof, these

Dr. J.B. Gray. on, the genus, Assiminia. 423

divisions as more than assemblages formed for general conyeni-

ence;,and not»having any absolute eéxistencein nature. l think

this is sufficiently proved: by the facts,—first, that there still exist,

or have formerly existed, some species which are confessedly

intermediaté between '‘two\or more “of ‘all these ‘divisions ; and

secondly, that species which are placed together even in the

smallest groups frequently present some character which shows

either an analogical or a special affinity with the species of several

other groups: Naturalists’ have availed, themselves) of'/this

method of grouping animals together for several reaxonsy but

printipally for the following purposes :-—

‘1. To abbreviate the accounts of the different species:or boi rida

eharacters, to discover the name of the animal under examina

tion.’

3.°To enable them to show the relations which the didfeventt

groups bear to each other and to the general scheme of creation.

If this course were not adopted, it would: be necessary, inothe

description of every animal, to describe at: length every charac-

teristic of form, structure and habit; even those which«are com>

mon to many thousands of kinds, instead jof mentioning only

those which distinguish it from the few most nearly allied ‘to it’;

repeating under every species what are now. condensed in: the

characters ‘of the genera, families, orders:and classes of animals,

which are.as'a'matter of course considered tobe common‘to all

the ‘animals which make up each of these groups, and are under-

stood to°be ‘present in each ‘of ‘the: species referred'to them.) It

is'a furtheradvantage' of this system of classification by groups,

that‘ the ‘minute ‘attention requisite to make out the characters

of ‘these groups» produces also’ great’ minuteness'and nicety of

observationy which: otherwise might not ‘existii0oIn the’ same

manner; if this: systent of division didnot’ exist;;whereby to lessen

the labour: of) discovermg’ the ‘name ‘of any: animal; weishould

have to go through’ the imterminable operation of reading with-

out ‘order the full deseriptions of all :the:animals which have-ever

been’ described, ‘instead of ‘first: looking for° the class, ‘order,

family and genus°of the species, and then comparing it with the

‘descriptions°of theifew species ‘that a Rata fubve smaller gr ee

and are necessarily: most ‘allied! to lity: |

oTtphas\thérefore! been. the: custom 0 coats that personsas

nee best: zoologist; whochas‘been able; by the extent of hisstudies

and the analytical power of his mind; to seize‘om and neatly de-

‘seribe the most: invariable characters of the different’ groaps of

species,jas' by: so odoing! he enablesotheronaturalists ‘to acquire

with greater facility:the knowledge they require ; andvthe aceu-

racy and minuteness of ‘his own studies ought also to enable him

424 Dr. J. E. Gray on the genus Assiminia.

to form more correct views as to the affinities which exist between

the different species of the larger and smaller groups, and. thus

obtain a more clear insight into the relations which the animals

bear to each other and to the rest of the creation,

In proportion as the number of animals known to naturalists

has increased, by the extension of the study, the more careful

researches of collectors, and the more minute examinations into

the structure and habits of the different kinds, the number of

groups into which they have been divided (whether called genera

or subgenera) have been and are continually increasing also.

For if the number of species in a group is inconveniently large,

the object in forming the group has been overlooked ; hence a

group containing 600 or 700 species is found to be of compara-

tively little use in Natural History, and I must consider that a

naturalist who proposes to reduce well-established groups, and

to refer the species to such large groups, is evidently retrograding

instead of advancing scientific objects. Such considerations

sufficiently prove that. it is an advantage “ that a genus should

be restricted in the number of its species * ;” and there cannot

be a doubt “ that such notions are held (almost universally) by

modern zoologists,” although Mr. Clark may not have been

“before aware ”’ of it.

Every day’s experience confirms me in the opinion which I

have often expressed, that in the distinction of the larger and

smaller groups of Mollusca the characters derived from the ani-

mal, the shell and the operculum, which all have a mutual rela-

tion to each other, are of equal value and constancy, care being

taken to select such parts of them as depend on organic struc-

ture and are not liable to accidental variation. This care in

selection is equally necessary in relation to the animal, as it is

to the shell and operculum. Such was the idea of Lister and

Adanson; but while some authors, like Lamarck, profess to

arrange the Mollusca according to the supposed structure of the

animal (but in fact took all their characters from the shell, as

only so few animals were known in their time),—others, as

Férussac, have declared that the form of the shell should be dis-

regarded, and that no genus is good that is not founded on the

structure of the animal. By the remark of Dr. Philippi, ap-

pended to the part quoted by Mr. Clark, he appears to have

been of that opinion when he wrote the paragraph, though I

believe he has since modified it ; and Mr. Clark, in some of his

* IT am aware there are some genera, as Conus m Malacology and Sola-

num in Botany, which contain very many species; but this arises from

permanent characters not having yet been found by which they may be

divided, and not from any disinclination on the part of naturalists to divide

them.

Dr. J. E. Gray on the genus Assiminia. 425

‘observations, appears to regard the shell as of minor importance,

the operculum as of still less, and the dentition, because it offers

many forms, as of none, in a generic point of view.

I believe these notions to have arisen from these authors not

having had sufficient opportunities of studying the animals with

the shells, or the operculum and teeth with them both, and of

seeing how thoroughly they depend on each other, and what

excellent and permanent characters they afford, both separately

and in combination with each other.

For these reasons, although the ancient authority of Dr. Phi-

lippi or even any more modern authority may be quoted against

me, I must persist that I cannot believe animals such as Zrun-

catella and Assiminia should be placed together in the same

group, for the following reasons :—

Truncatella

1. Has a very short foot and

large lips, and walks like a

* looping ” caterpillar.

2. Has large eyes furnished

with a broad white iris, sunk

into the superior and nearly

terminal point of short rectan-

gular tentacula.

3. Has according to Dr. Phi-

lippi a “non-spiral” opercu-

tum.

4, Has an animal which, in

its young state, forms a very

slender elongated shell, then

suddenly enlarges its diameter,

and when it has increased its

larger shell to a certain’ size,

suddenly withdraws its body

from the upper more slender

part, forms a septum across the

cavity behind it, and throws off

the slender tip, leaving a trun-

cated end.

5. The Truncateile live in

the sea.

Assiminia

1. Has moderate-sized lips

and a large foot, and walks like

a Littorina.

2. Has moderate-sized black

eyes on the top of short, nearly

cylindrical tentacula.

3. Has a distinctly spiral

operculum of few whorls.

4. Has ananimal which forms

a conical shell, which gradually

increases in even proportion

from its birth to its death, and

always retains the shell of its

young state on the tip of the

older one.

5. The Assiminieg live in

rather brackish water often far

from the sea.

Let it be understood, that these are peculiarities which do not

belong to a single species of each genus, as Mr. Clark appears

to believe, but to each of the several species which form these

426. Dr. J... Gray.on the geaus Assiminia.

groups.,, All the several 7runcatelle found in general collections

of, shells, have. these, characters ;‘and I have seen the animals of

four, or five species, of the genusAssiminiafrom) different parts

of the world,-and,there are in collections several species of shells,

which,from thew characters are) believed to pala to the same

SrOUp «

am amused,at Mr. Clark’s quoting a an opinion eaprbenia hy

my excellent friend Dr. Philippi in 1841, as a-reply to, my-ob-

servation in 1855. ».feel assured that if, he were in this, country,

he would be the-first to repudiate such a use being made of. his

name,| -He is undoubtedly the most enlightened. of the con-

tinental,conchologists.. Since that period he has much.extended,

his} knowledge of the animals of shells, and is now personally

engaged \in-examining the species found on the coast.of Peru;

and) in, his.most:recent work he regards Assiminia ‘and: Trunca-

tella as, distinct genera belonging to different-families! / (See

Handbuch, :173, 263.) Thus his latest. work, contradicts Mrs

Clark’s: views instead of supporting them.

At the same time\I,may observe, that the mere external forms

of, the animals, of several genera are exceedingly similar; and

unless they: are,.very: particularly examined. by a,-person well

versed with, their peculiarities, what prove to be important.cha-

racters may easily be overlocked, especially if the animals are, of

a small Size; such-as can only be seen by the aid ofa microscope.

For this reason; Tam not inclined to place much reliance on Dr;

Philippi’s: determination as, to the animal of the, species which

he has referred,to,the genus, when) he informs us,that-the animals

are/all hyaline,;\that,the shell.of one: of them, Truneatella litto-

rina, is three-quarters .ofa\line.in! length, and the, discoidal

shell. of the, other, 7. ,aéomus, is scarcely a quarter, of, a line in

diameter, and{that he was obliged bo re Nip it, aiaty, diameters

to obsérye rite! iors

/ bthinkd neeil asia quote, the various gebtits to. which those

it have examined, the animal, of the: only, British .species of

Truncatella have referred it, viz. Cyelostoma, Paludina; and lastly

Rissoa,(to whieh Dr: Philippi referred it)even jafter- he-had

figured, it), to'show that naturalists: who, consider, the animal.as

the\only basis: of a; generic character, aie more\ unstable. in: their

opinions than those who, regard the! shelland; operculuty as:of

similar value ina scientific point,,of Views: Eimay, add, to show

how :eomparatiyely imperfect was, Dr. Philippi’ s idea of. this

mollusk, inthe account of ‘the animal,quoted) by, Mr. Clark. as

published in 184] ,. and again, i. 1844, that. he? considers :jit

necessary to point.out how it, differed from the, terrestrial genus

Cyclostoma, and the-fluviatile -Paludina, both, belonging to very

different families according to his present views.

Dr. J. . Gray on the genus Assiminia. AQT

°o Mr: Clark*would have quoted his authorities more correctly, if

he had stated,—first; that Dr. Philippi referred his third species

(ti'24. fi4) to the genus witha mark ‘of doubt !-+as’ ‘he ‘never

examined the animal. It is the figure of this species which Mr.

Clark thinks “may be intended to’represent ‘our Truncatella

Grayana.” On this head it is only necessary to observe (and

showing,at the same time, the dependence to be placed im Mr.

Olark’s' quotation ‘of synonyma), that as Dr, Philippi found this

spécies very frequently in the sea‘ at Palermo, it is to be sup~’

posed that ‘he-had observed it in all its ages ; and he describes

“the shell as half ‘a line high, and one-third of a line broad,

subturrited, blunt, the whorls rounded, the last not ventricose”—

which does ‘not very exactly fit our Assiminia Grayana, as the

latter lives‘in‘brackish water, often at such a distance from the

séa,\that, after rains, the ditches are nearly’ fresh—measures

oné-third ‘or more of an inch in length, is of a conic shape, acute

at the top; ‘and with ‘scarcely raised whorls, the last .somewhat

angular in front. I could as soon believe that the littoral Pur-

pura Lapillus and the pelagic Buccinum undatum were the same

species} as they do not differ in more important characters ;.and

I feel “assured that Mr. Clark proposes) to’ unite in» his work

many species ‘from superficial examination and imcorrect compa-

» Secondly, Mr. Clark might-also have stated, that: Professor

Forbes and: Mr. Hanley have removed ‘one of the species (7.

atomus); which Dr. ‘Philippi had described: as: belonging ‘to ‘the

genus Skenea'; andthat Mr. Clark himself, in® his’ Mollusca,’

p» 386, refers this species tothe genus Truncatella with doubt'!

And while’on this species I'may observes that: I-must begto

doubt ‘the accuracyeof Mri'Clark’s observation; when ‘he states

that this species, which has a circular ‘mouth to the'shell anda

cylindrical body to the animal, has an “ operculum°which is

precisely of the same grossly ‘spiral character and sculpture as in

Pruncatella ‘Montayutand' Truncatellalittorea?’——which have an

ovate mouth to the shell and the body of the ‘animal com-

pressed ; ‘such ‘a’combimation' of characters being directly at

variance with! al) my experience. “Iam assured that 7. atomus,

on the'contrary;' has a cireulai? multispiral operculum like T’ro-

chus; which; according to Mri Clark’s most’extraordinary theory,

ought ‘to. removelit fron Truncatella to quite ‘a ‘different ‘order

in‘ hissexual system‘of Mollusca: ‘It is'to‘be regretted that Mr.

Olark: observed the operculum of ‘this ‘species so superficially,

whemhe professes*to have*been able:to see a white pupil’on the

eye of a'dried‘specimemof the-animal; which animal m its entire

state is scarcely a’ quarter ofa ‘line in diameter ! |

428 Dr. J. E. Gray on the genus Assiminia.

I adduced as one of the reasons proving that Assiminia is not

a Truncatella, that it had not the white pupil which Mr. Clark

has shown to be one of the characters of the group; on which

Mr. Clark observes, “I do not understand the logic of this ; the

point in question is a mere specialty; one may with as much

reason say that a man with a red iris or pupil, for example an

albino, is not of the genus Man, because he has not the usual

dark or grey iris ; so, it is equally absurd to infer that A. Gray-

ana is not a Truncatella, because the white iris or pupil was not

detected.” Surely Mr. Clark must know the difference between

an accidental dusus, like an albino man or woman, and a cha-

racter common to all the speeimens of a species, and all the

hitherto-observed species of a group. The argument objected to

may be “illogical” and “ absurd,” though I own that I do not

think it so; but at any rate I am not answerable for its use,

for in Mr. Clark’s ‘ Mollusca,’ p. 386, occurs the following

passage, referring to Truncatella atomus : “ moreover, the eyes in

the dried animal are perfectly visible, and show the charac-

teristic white pupil of what may now be safely termed its con-

ener.”

In explanation of Mr. Clark’s pertinacity on this head, we

must bear in mind that his character as a soothsayer or prophet

is dependent on his proving that Assiminia is a Truncatella ; for

before he had seen the animal, at page 385, and again at page

521 of his ‘ Mollusca,’ he predicts, “that when the animal is

better known, it will belong to the latter genus.”

This is a good illustration of what I consider one of the prin-

cipal defects of Mr. Clark’s work. From some important ob-

servation, or from some d-priori theory, he picks up a crotchet,

such as that the water does not enter by the lower siphon of

the Bivalves, that the teeth are not good generic characters, that

all the animals with a multispiral operculum are unisexual, &c.,

&e.; and forthwith he proceeds to examine specimens, appa-

rently not with the desire to discover if the idea is founded in

fact, but to prove the truth of it; and it is astonishing how his

power of observation appears to adapt itself to his preconceived

theory, and enables him to see just what he wishes, though to

other observers the facts are clearly contrary. In the same

manner, it appears to me that when he reads a work, some of

the observations of the author seem to take possession of his

mind, and after a time he appears to forget that they are not

founded on his own observations, and puts them forth as his

own discoveries. Thus his new system itself is (unwittingly

perhaps) only copied from the works of Blainville and Leach,

and his referring the genera Skenea and the elongated Cerithia

Mr. T. Davidson on the Brachiopoda. 429

to Rissoa, are derived from an observation of Lovén, who did

not, however, regard them as species of those genera, but only

intended to show that an affinity existed between them, as far

as the outer form of the animal was concerned.

I am, Gentlemen,

Your obedient Servant,

J. E. Gray.

XXXVI.—A few Remarks on the Brachiopoda.

By Tuomas Davipson, Esq., F.G.S. &e.

[With a Plate. |

1. On the Systematic Arrangement of Recent and Fossil

Brachiopoda.

SHortty after the publication of the General Introduction to my

work on ‘ British Fossil Brachiopoda,’ to which Prof. Owen

and Dr. Carpenter each contributed most valuable chapters,

M. Deslongchamps and his son proposed to make a French

translation of the third chapter treating especially of Classi-

fication, which the Linnean Society of Normandy had in the

most liberal manner offered to publish in the tenth volume of

their Transactions. About the same period [ received a similar

offer from M. Suess and Count Marschall of Vienna with respect

to a German translation. But although highly flattered by such

liberal propositions, I felt that much could be done to improve

the original by corrections, as well as by considerable addi-

tions, both in text and illustrations. I therefore entirely revised

my English work, printed in 1853, before it went through the

process of translation, and owing to the exertions of my friends,

I am happy to say that both editions are now printed, and I

trust will be ready for issue by the end of the present year.

As stated in my English work, we are not yet m a condition

to offer a really complete and permanent classification of the

numerous species composing the class ; for to be able to do so

effectually, one would require to be still better acquainted with

the recent animals as well as with the interior of many obscure

fossil species ; and it is therefore of the greatest importance not

to allow ourselves to be led into proposing genera or subgenera

on trifling modifications or unimportant details which exist only

in certain abnormal forms *.

* For example, the genus Seminula (M‘Coy) is founded on the more

developed state of the dental plates, while otherwise the shells in question

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432 Mr. T. Davidson on the Brachiopoda.

This arrangement, although still imperfect in some respects,

will I hope be found to possess advantages over the one pub-

lished in 1853, being more simple and perhaps nearer to the

truth. In the first place, we have got rid of all the subfamilies ;

the genera are located into eight families; that of Calceolde,

which formed the ninth, being suppressed, on account of the

great uncertainty still existing, as to whether or not Calceola is

a true Palliobranch. M. Suess seems to believe that it is not

so; but as much doubt remains as to where the shell should be

located among the Mollusca, we have left the name provisionally

in the Table, and must refer the reader to the German edition

for more ample details on this point. Mr. 8. P. Woodward, in

whose knowledge on all appertaining to the Mollusca the greatest

reliance may be placed, has also adopted eight families in his

excellent ‘ Manual of the Mollusca,’ and the only difference in

opinion between us is whether the fourth family should be

termed Strophomenide or Orthide. I adopted the first name

simply on account of priority, but quite agree that my friend is

right when he states that the names of families should be formed

from those of the typical genera; the only question which might

arise in the present case being, which of Orthis or Strophomena

is In reality the typical genus.

Among the genera and subgenera we have proposed the fol-

lowing changes :—

1. Terebratulide. Kraussia, Magas, Bouchardia and Mor-

risia have been placed among the subgenera of TEREBRATELLA,

as this last may be considered the great typical genus to which

the subgenera mentioned are more nearly related than to that of

any other group. Trigonosemus we have consented to erase on

M. Suess’s proposition, as it possesses all the essential internal

characters of Yerebratella, of which it is only a synonym; the

largely developed cardinal process of T. elegans is not found in all

the other forms which had been located with Trigonosemus, nor has

the beak always the peculiar shape of the last-named species. Lyra

(Cumberland) = Terebrirostra, D’Orb., appears to be composed

partly of shells belonging to Terebratella and perhaps Wald-

heimia, and as the greater or lesser length of the beak is of very

little generic importance among the Brachiopoda, that section

can be advantageously dispensed with. Stringocephalus and The-

cidium have also been admitted into the present family, which

seems to be their most natural resting-place.

2. Spiriferide. The changes we have made in this family con-

sist in re-establishing Prof. M‘Coy’s genus Atuyris as typified

by such shells as 7. concentrica, lamellosa, &c., and adopting the

subgenus Merista, Suess, for T. Herculea, scalprum, tumida, and

other such shells. This last mode has been adopted by Mr. S.

Mr. T. Davidson on the Brachiopoda. 433

P. Woodward,—the name Spirigera, D’Orbigny, will therefore

require to be considered a synonym of Aruyris ; but I must also

mention that continental paleontologists seem more disposed to

prefer D’Orbigny’s denomination, on account of the zoological

contradiction attached to that published by Prof. M‘Coy in

1844. It has also been found desirable to reduce the value of

Defrance’s genus Uncites by placing it among the subgenera

depending upon AruyRis.

The family and place of the genus Konincx1na (Suess) is to

my mind still uncertain ; some would place it among the Spiri-

feride, others among the Strophomenide ; but I prefer to leave

the question open for the present ; and may say the same relative

to Dr. Sandberger’s newly proposed genus ANoPpLorTHEcA, which

has been considered both by the author and by M. Suess to be

nearly related to KonINCKINA.

3. Among the Rhynchonellide I can propose no changes.

4. Strophomenide. To this family I have added Pander’s

genus Poramponitses, and placed Orthisina as a subgenus of

Orruis; but it may also perhaps be advisable to retain as a

subgenus of Orthis Prof. King’s section Streptorhynchus for such

shells as S. pelargonatus, Schloth. ;—Leptena filling a similar

position relative to SrropHomENA. The genus Davipsontia is

also admitted into this group; and I must here express my re-

gret at not being able to coincide with my friend M. de Koninck,

~ who has in his last paper (1855) on the subject considered it as

a genus of the family Productide: it does not possess the reni-

form impressions (supposed to be vascular) of the last-named

family, but agrees in this particular and in several others with

the Strophomenide, among which it had been already located

both by Professor King and Mr. Woodward.

5. Productide. Here I have effected no further change than

that of placing Strophalosia as a subgenus of Propuctus ; but

I must add, that I consider Prof. M‘Coy greatly mistaken in

removing Strophalosia, Aulosteges and Chonetes from the Pro-

ductidz, and placing them among the Strophomenide ; nor can

I agree for the same reasons with M. Semenow, who has also

lately proposed to remove Fischer’s genus Chonetes, as had been

done by Prof. M‘Coy before him. By following such a system

the clearly defined characters appertaining to the present family

are destroyed, and the great similarity of the interior, and parti-

cularly that of the reniform impressions, common to Productus,

Aulosteges, Strophalosia and Chonetes, completely lost sight of,

as this last character has not hitherto been observed in any of

the shells which belong to the Strophomenide. If those genera

or subgenera require to be removed, Propucrus will require to

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 29

434. Mr. T. Davidson on the Brachiopoda.

follow, and the family to which this last-named genus gives its

name be completely dispensed with.

In the sixth, seventh and eighth families we have made no

further changes than to entirely expunge D’Orbigny’s genus

Orbiculoidea, there existing at present no valid grounds for its

adoption.

It is difficult to see much order or interdependence in the suc-

cession of groups. It seems that the hingeless genera, Lingula,

Obolus, Crania, Discina and Productus, which commenced in the

earliest sera, soon attained their climax, since only three of them,

Crania, Discina and Lingula, have passed the limits of the

paleeozoic age. They are also least unlike the Lamellibranchs

(e. g. Anomia, Hippurites, Spondylus). Of the hinged genera

those provided with calcareous spires were certainly developed

first, no example having as yet been found above the lower por-

tions of the Jurassic strata; while, on the contrary, the genera

provided with loops become important in the Jurassic period

and continue up to the present time. For in all the Paleozoic

epoch we are acquainted with but few species which possessed

loops, and until M. Suess’s discovery of the interior of T. Archiact

no species with a long loop had been discovered, if we except

Stringocephalus. | |

Thus taking our present Table as a basis for our conclusions,

we find the genera and subgenera distributed in time as follows :

In the Silurian 20. In the Devonian 25. In the Carboni-

ferous 19. In the Permian 12. In the Triassic 12. In the

Jurassic 14. In the Cretaceous 12. In the Tertiary 10. In the

Recent 14.

These details vary but little from those published in 1853, but

it is to be expected that future discoveries will still slightly

modify our statistics, as there are many obscure forms which

have hitherto resisted our investigation.

It would take up too much space to enter here upon the

numerous additions made to the two foreign editions, but we

cannot pass in silence the interesting discovery of the perfect

interior of that shell known under the name of Rhynchora David-

soni (De Koninck), and of which the Anomia spathulata of

Wahlenberg is another similar form, this last being the second

type of Dalman’s objectionable genus Rhynchora*, During the

* Dalman proposed his genus Rhynchora in 1827, with the followmg

diagnosis :—‘ Smaller valve truncated at its base, larger valve with a nearly

straight? elongated beak : Rhynchora costata (Wahl.), Rhyn. spathulata :”

but it is certain that neither of those shells has a lengthened beak like

Lyra; and if Dalman intended to refer his species to Cumberland’s genus

(as Hisinger would lead us to believe), he was there again in error, as it is

certain that they do not even belong to the group.

Mr. T. Davidson on the Brachiopoda. 435

minute and elaborate investigations made by M. Bosquet for

his fine work (now in the press) on the Brachiopoda of the Creta-

ceous beds of Maestricht and its vicinity, that able palonto-

logist discovered that the interior of the shell in question (apart

from its peculiar hinge-plate) was exactly similar to Magas, and

with his kind permission we have reproduced (in fig. 4) the

drawings kindly forwarded by the Belgian author. That the

genus Khynchora should be expunged there can remain but

* little doubt, since it was based on no valid characters, and those

which have been supposed to exist have proved incorrect.

We will now revert to the principal object of this communi-

tion, which was intended to call attention to certain interesting

observations published abroad, but which appear unknown to, or

to have been overlooked by British naturalists.

2. On the Claims to Priority in the discovery of the peculiar

function of certain Muscles in the opening and closing of the

Shell of Terebratula.

Prof. Sedgwick in pages xi and xii of his Introduction (Bri-

tish Paleeozoic Rocks and. Fossils, October 1855) still appears to

consider the merit of the above-mentioned discovery to be due

to Prof. M‘Coy, since we find stated in the work quoted, “I

avail myself, however, of this occasion to state why I believe that

Prof. M‘Coy was the original discoverer of the peculiar muscular

action on a leverage supplied by what he calls the ‘entering

valve,’ which, in the absence of the cartilage, enabled the Bra-

chiopoda to open their shells ‘in a manner unexampled in

Lamellibranch Biyalyes’” (p. 191). He however admits that

Mr. Woodward had discovered and published this remarkable

fact (in his Manual) a year before Prof. M‘Coy’s 2nd Fasci-

culus was out of the press, but seems to base the Professor’s

claims on the statement of his having found it out in 1848 or 49,

and mentioned the circumstance to Mr. Hopkins and Mr. Morris,

but who nevertheless did not communicate on the subject with

any other person with whom I am acquainted. Knowing the

high value Prof. Sedgwick attaches to historical statements, and

his wish to see justice done to every one, I will add a few details

which I trust will help to clear up and terminate this subject.

It will not be necessary here to repeat what I published in the

Introduction to my work on British Fossil Brachiopoda, pp, 54

and 55, 1853, any further than to say that I believe it was there

demonstrated, that Prof. M‘Coy could not claim priority on this

point; but at that period I was myself unacquainted with Prof.

Quenstedt’s still more ancient claims, which I found out shortly

after, while reading Dr. Gratiolet’s paper entitled “ Note sur les

29*

436 Mr. T. Davidson on the Brachiopoda.

muscles des Térébratules, et en particulier de la Terebratula

australis” (Académie des Sciences, Paris, 11 July 1853), but

printed some short time after our Introduction had gone through

the press. My object not being to enter upon a detailed account

of the muscles, which have been fully described elsewhere, I

must refer the reader to the French author’s paper* ; contenting

myself with reproducing in this place a translation of that portion

only which relates to the subject under discussion. After refer-

ring to the different opinions advanced by authors as to the

mode in which Terebratule open their shell, Dr. Gratiolet states

that “all these hypotheses are more or less ingenious, but do

not satisfy a severe investigator. Prof. Quenstedt alone seems

to me to have arrived at the true explanation (Wiegmann’s

Archiv, vol. ii. p. 220, 1835). This able anatomist, founding his

views on very precise reasons derived from the mode of articu-

lation of the valves, was the first to point out two orders of

muscles, of which the one closed, while the other opened the valves.

Unfortunately Prof. Quenstedt’s paper is both short and without

plates”’ (this last statement is not strictly correct, since we

find three diagrammatic figures), “so that the opinion of this

clever author did not make way, and is not even alluded to

in MM, Siebold and Stannius’s Manual, which is otherwise so

complete. This unjust forgetfulness has appeared to me worthy

of being noticed; besides which, among the descriptions which

have been given of the muscles of the Terebratule, not one is to

my mind intelligible, and I have therefore deemed it useful to

revert again to a subject so interesting.” After having read the

above, I lost no time in procuring a copy of the paper so highly

spoken of by the French savant, and of which I now offer the

entire translation.

On the mode in which Brachiopoda open and close their Shell.

By Prof. Quenstept t. PI. X. figs. 6, 7, 8.

“ Prof. Owen’s anatomy of several Terebratule has excited the

greatest interest {. In general we may place the utmost con-

fidence in the researches of that author, on account of his beau-

tiful works and investigations on other subjects. But when,

* In the explanation of the Plate I have reproduced the names given by

M. Gratiolet to the muscles, also those by Prof. Owen, and those used by

myself.

* Ueber das Oeffnen und Schliessen der Brachiopoden. Wiegmann’s

Archiv, vol. ii. pp. 220-222. pl. 4. f. 4, 5, 6, 1835.

t Prof. Quenstedt means Prof. Owen’s first paper published in the

Transactions of the Zoological Society. 4to. Vol. 1. 1835.

Mr. T. Davidson on the Brachiopoda. 437

in his theoretical considerations, he is of opinion that the elas-

ticity of the calcareous appendages [of Terebratula] is sufficient to

enable the animal to raise the reflected portion [of the loop] so as

to force open the opposite valve, it must be remarked, that he

has himself demonstrated that in the greater number of cases

this explanation is not applicable. I believe, moreover, that

in the instances indicated, the calcareous appendages had no

other function than to protect the soft ternal organs, and that

they can hardly furnish the proper means of opening the shell.

“‘Tf we examine the non-perforated or ventral valve (dorsal of

Owen*) of any Terebratula whatever, we immediately remark that

the inner and incurved extremity of the beak (wmdo) is entirely

hidden under the deltidium of the dorsal valve (ventral of Owen).

On opening the shell this extremity is deeply sunk (or hid)

under the deltidium, since the points of attachment on which

the ventral (dorsal) valve is moved are formed by the two lateral

teeth of the dorsal (ventral) valve ; these teeth are perfectly esta-

blished at the height of the auricular expansions, and correspond

with the sockets of the ventral (dorsal) valve. Since this point

of support is placed on each side towards the middle of the

beak, it follows, that a force applied to this beak must open the

valve as a lever would do. In effect we remark also at this ex-

tremity two well-defined muscular impressions, which lead us to

suppose the presence of muscles which must often have been

largely developed, so as to have transformed the extremity of

the beak into a large surface. These muscles direct themselves

from thence towards the large anterior impressions of the dorsal

(ventral) valve, and by the most direct road, without crossing

each other. These contractions must, therefore, have deter-

mined the opening of the shell, and it is with justice that they

have received the denomination of opening muscles (Oeffnungs-

muskeln). The double muscular impression situated on either

side-of the dorsal line (septum) might be easily explained, inas-

much as each of the two opening muscles divided itself into two

bundles or branches in order to obtain a larger surface of

attachment. |

“The closing muscles, on the contrary, direct themselves from

the ventral (dorsal) valve under the point of support towards the

bottom of the beak, so as to produce the closing of the valves by

their contraction ; they also divide themselves each at its point

of attachment to the ventral (dorsal) valve into two branches.

Terebratule therefore possess two closing muscles and two opening

* Prof. Quenstedt makes use of the old system of calling the perforated

valve the dorsal one, &c, I have placed within brackets Prof. Owen’s (and

now generally admitted) mode of denominating the valves.

438 Mr. T. Davidson on the Brachiopoda.

ones, each of which is divided into two bundles or branches after

leaving its points of attachment, towards the middle of the shell.

They unite the valves by direct means, and we find moreover

some muscles which intersect or cross each other, but these

last have rather for function the movement of the portions of the

body than those of the valves. The perfectly dried condition of

the muscles generally permits of these being distinguished in

specimens preserved in collections, and are so disposed that we

are enabled to follow their mechanism with the eye. This

mode of opening constitutes for the Brachiopoda a most suitable

and proper distinguishing character, and renders needless any

other more complicated definition for them.

“Tf nature has thus meant to furnish the Terebratule with

a mechanism so suitable, then Cuvier’s opinion that Lingula

opened its valves by means of these fleshy oral arms, using

them as a wedge, is no longer tenable. If thmgs had so

operated, the arms would constantly find themselves in a con-

strained position from the compression of the valves, and would

become inconvenient organs. It seems to us much more evi-

dent, that both valves in the animal (Zingula) must not bear the

same denomination, since the dorsal (ventral) valve possesses (as

in Terebratula) a longer beak, and its sides present equally a

kind of auricular expansion, so that these are situated low

enough to allow that the ventral side may separate from the

dorsal one on the principles of a lever.

‘Cuvier also expressly points out that we find at the summit

of the hinge a muscle which unites the valves in the most direct

manner: it 1s probably the opening muscle. On the contrary,

the two muscles which unite the valves towards the middle of

their length have for function the closing of the valves.

“It is probable that m Crania and Orbicula (Discina) the

mechanism is more difficult. to explain : however, it is certain that

it must be analogous, since those animals possess so many

analogies.”

This evidence is so clear, that no comment will be required to

demonstrate that it is to Prof. Quenstedt the merit devolves of

having first discriminated and published what Prof. M‘Coy now

claims—no doubt from not having been acquainted with the

paper of which we have given a translation ; but had even these

observations, published in 1835, not existed, I still maintain that.

the claims of the author of the ‘ British Paleeozoic Fossils’ could

not be maintained.

I have added in Plate X. fig. 5. a reduced copy of the im-

proved diagram illustrating the muscular system in Terebratula

by Mr. Hancock, to help those who are not so familiar with the

Mr. T. Davidson on the Brachiopoda. 439

subject to better understand the position of the muscles than

can be made out in Prof. Quenstedt’s diagrammatic figures. Be-

fore quitting the subject of the muscles, I may likewise remind

the reader, that Mr. Hancock has objected to the hypothesis of

“ the sliding action of protractor and retractor muscles ;” he re-

gards the decussating muscle as a “‘ compensator for the want of

teeth at the hinge; a means of keeping the valves opposite to

each other :” he says, “ The valves would appear to be opened

somewhat in the manner of the Bryozoa by the aid of fluids.

The posterior adductor contracts, the anterior relaxes ; the fluids

are pressed forwards, the valves separate. The protrusion of the

arms will also help.”——Hancock, MS.

The justness of these remarks, at least in Crania, would appear

to be confirmed by Mr. Barrett’s observation, “ that the valve

opens by moving upon the straight side, as on a hinge without

sliding the valve.”

3. On the Sexes and Ova of the Brachtopoda.

In the first chapter of the Introduction to my work on the

British Fossil Brachiopoda (p. 21), Prof. Owen adds many in-

teresting observations he had made on the “ Generative System;”’

it will therefore not be devoid of interest to give here a trans-

lation of what Prof. Oscar Schmidt has also published on the

same subject *.

* From his examination of the animal of Terebratula pre-

served in spirits of wine, Prof. Owen arrived at the conclusion

that the sexes were separate, and lately M. J. Miillert+ has

brought forward a similar supposition. I had also become

certain of this point after my examination of the living Tere-

bratula which I obtained in the Oexfjord during my journey to

Norway in the summer of 1850, and I have already published

these observations in the second edition of my ‘ Comparative

Anatomy,’ p. 314, 1852, as well as in p. 295 of my ‘ Manual

of Zoology,’ 1854. The sexual glands are found in the mantle,

and their shape varies according to individuals (Pl. X. fig. 9).

In the species of Terebratula examined by myself { the testicles

* “Tie neuesten Untersuchungen iiber die Brachiopoden von Owen,

Carpenter und Davidson, mit einigen Zusatzen.”’ (Printed in the Zeitschrift

fiir die gesammten Naturwissenschaften, p. 327, pl. 11, 12. May 1854.)

+ ‘‘ See the reports of the meetings of the Naturforschende Freunde of

Berlin.”

+ “This species was often obtained by myself in the Oexfjord, and is

not mentioned in Lovén’s ‘ Index der Seandinavischen Mollusken.’ From

the structure of the shell it can hardly be distinguished from the Wald-

heimia australis.

“The Terebratule from the septentrional shores of Norway, according

4.40 Mr. T. Davidson on the Brachiopoda.

and ovaria resemble each other ; the zoosperms are in the shape

of a thread with a small head (fig. 10). Prof. Owen was likewise

able to observe the first commencement of the development of

the ova in the Lingula (fig. 15); the embryos, first of an ellip-

tical shape, form a stem a little Jater, without any change

having been effected in the ulterior organization or develop-

ment. The embryos of the said Terebratula differ from this

very considerably (fig. 11); they resemble a Euastrum com-

posed of two unequal halves (for instance, the Z. gemmatum or

ansatum, Focke) ; the rounded portion seems to be the anterior ;

the posterior part is a little wider, and is prolonged into two

points. What is the following development? In none of the

ovaries observed by myself—for it is there that the embryo is

found—was the development more perfect. Considering our

total ignorance relative to the development of Terebratula, every

observation must prove acceptable.”

4. On certain calcareous Plates found in the mantle, oral arms,

and cirri of Terebratulina caput-serpentis.

In the same paper, Prof. Schmidt observes, “ that the mantle,

oral arms and cirri in Terebratulina caput-serpentis contain an

imnumerable number of calcareous plates, generally flattened,

dilated and irregularly denticulated, situated in close vicinity

to each other, as seen in the examples figs. 12,13 & 14. It is

easily conceived that these calcareous masses stiffen the parts

which contain them, and seem particularly to serve this func-

tion in the hollow cirri, thus preventing their sides from sinking

down. In the Norwegian Terebratula I examined they are not

to be found, nor have I obtained any in Terebratella dorsata;

but further investigation conducted on a larger number of

species will show whether they are or are not peculiar to the 7.

caput-serpentis.”

We may here mention that M. E. Deslongchamps has ob-

served a somewhat similar occurrence in his new species of Mor-

risia, for we find stated in a note he has added to my description

of Morrisia (French edition): ‘“‘ Having placed in water during

several hours a Morrisia, which contained in its larger valve a

portion of its cirriferous arms, as well as their desiccated mem-

brane, we were able, after their immersion, to extend them more

than before: in placing these remnants under the microscope

we saw that they contained irregular scattered granulations

to M. Lovén, are the Ter. (Rhynchonella) psittacea, T. caput-serpentis, T.

cranium, and T. septigera. Mine answers better to T. septigera than to

the others, but it does not possess the characteristic septum in the smaller

valve.”

Mr. T. Davidson on the Brachiopoda. 4Ad

touching each other by their angles, but which left here and

there free spaces. After having dried up these remains of the

animal on the slide of the microscope, their granulations had

not changed in appearance, but seemed to us of a calcareous

nature : one may compare these membranaceous parts furnished

with calcareous granulations to the skin of certain star-fish, but

the granulations in Morrisia do not present regular shapes, nor

are they symmetrical in their arrangement.”

These facts are of great value (as justly stated by M. Suess)

in helping us to understand that beautiful calcareous network

which is observed in the interior of many species of Thecidium.

(0 ee

5. Waldheimia septigera, Lovén, sp. Pl. X. f. 1.

Terebratula septigera, Lovén, Index Moll. Scand. p. 29, 1846.

Waldheimia septigera, Catalogue of the Mollusca in the British

Museum, p. 59. 1853.

Shell inequivalve, tumid, ovato-triangular or somewhat ob-

scurely pentagonal, truncated in front; colour almost white,

subpellucid, smooth, marked only by a few lines of growth.

Beak moderately produced, slightly incurved and obliquely

truncated by a circular foramen of moderate dimensions, partly

completed by and separated from the hinge-line by a deltidium

in two pieces ; beak-ridges well defined. The smaller or dorsal

valve is not so deep as the opposite one, the convexity origin-

ating at the umbone continued by a gentle curve until it

attains about the centre of the valve, when the remaining half —

declines more rapidly, and especially when approaching to the

front, producing a slight medio-longitudinal convexity, with a

moderate depression on either side; the two lateral portions of

the valve presenting more elevated rounded curves. The larger

or ventral valve, on the contrary, is biplicated, the mesial con-

cavity corresponding with the median convexity of the opposite

valve. The simple attached reflected loop extends to about

three-quarters of the length of the shell; a median septum

exists along the bottom of the valve, whose presence is betrayed

by a dark line on the outer surface of the valve. Length 12,

_ width 9, depth about 7 lines.

Hab. Norway: Finmark.

Obs. This remarkable shell (named by Lovén in his Index

Moll. Scand.) does not appear to have been hitherto figured or

sufficiently described. It seems rare, since the only example

with which I am acquainted, and from which the above de-

scription and illustrations are taken, was originally in the

possession of Mr. Hanley, who, in the most liberal manner,

44.2 Mr. T. Davidson on the Brachiopoda.

added it to Mr. Cuming’s unique collection of recent species.

Messrs. M‘Andrew and Barrett have also informed me that

during their two months’ dredging along the Norwegian coast

last summer they never had the good fortune of seeing it,

although much looked for, while Waldheimia cranium (fig. 2)

was obtained several times during that period. I therefore

thought it useful to figure this interesting form, which presents

more than ordinary interest on many accounts.

It appears the reverse of Terebratula biplicata, having the

biplication on the larger or ventral valve instead of on the dorsal

one, as in Brocchi’s species. It also approaches much in shape

to some fossil oolitic species, and especially to one termed Leu-

Sroyi by M. E. Guérange in his ‘ Répertoire Palzontologique

du Dép. de la Sarthe” (1853).

It resembles also somewhat the figures of the Ter. septata of

Philippi (Mon. Sicil. 1. p. 68. t. 18. p. 7, 1844), and Prof. O.

Schmidt moreover states that he believes he met with it during

his dredgings at Oexfjord in 1850.

6. Terebratella Spitzbergensis, Dav. 1852. PI. X. fig. 3.

A description of this shell was published in the Proceedings

of the Zoological Society of London for May 25, 1852, but the

illustrations were omitted. I therefore avail myself of this op-

portunity to repair that deficiency.

Shell ovate, slightly pentagonal, longer than wide; valves

almost equally convex; beak produced, incurved, and truncated

by a middle-sized foramen ; deltidrum in two pieces, partly sur-

rounding the aperture ; beak-ridges not very sharply defined ;

smaller valve slightly depressed near the front ; surface smooth,

strongly punctate, and marked by a few concentric lines of

growth ; colour light yellow; apophysary system composed of a

central longitudinal septum, extending to a little beyond half

the length of the shell, in the form of a narrow plate somewhat

elevated at its extremity, to which and to the hinge-plate are

attached. the calcified riband-like reflected lamelle forming the

loop. Length 4, width 3, depth 2 lines.

Hab. Spitzbergen.

Obs. This small Terebratella seems distinguishable from all

the other recent forms of the genus, by its dimensions, regular

ovate shape, thinness of shell, and comparatively short doubl

attached loop, which does not exceed half the length of the

valve. I have hitherto been able to examine but one specimen,

presented by R. M‘Andrew, Esq., to Mr. Cuming’s collection.

Mr. T. Davidson on the Brachiopoda. 4.43

7. On a new species of Morrisia.

By Eveine Evprs Destonecuamps.

Morrisia Davidsoni, E. Desh. Pl. X. figs. 20, 20 a, b,c, d.

Shell thin, subpellucid, of a light yellowish colour, varying in

shape, but generally transversely oval and irregular. Structure

largely punctate, exterior surface covered with small spinose

asperities, which are particularly visible near the edges of the

shell, and marked by lines of growth. Larger or ventral valve

convex, with a straight hinge-line and narrow area ; deltidium very

small, edging only the very small portion of the foramen exist-

ing in this valve. Smaller or dorsal valve almost flat, assuming

the shape of the objects to which it lies in close contiguity, and

deeply notched at the umbo by a large circular aperture, which

constitutes by far the greatest portion of the foramen. Valves

articulating by means of minute teeth and sockets. Apo-

physary system consisting of two lamelle originating at the base

of the sockets, and united to a small elevated process or septum

which arises from near the centre of the valve. Length 3,

width 5 lines.

Hab. Found adhering to large specimens of the Caryophyllia

ramea, probably derived from the coral fisheries near Tunis.

Obs. This species is at once distinguished from the Morrisia

anomioides of Scacchi (fig. 19) by its larger dimensions, trans-

versely oval shape, and the flatness of its dorsal valve, as well as

by the minute spinose asperities which cover its surface ; the fora-

men in the present form also encroaches to a much larger extent

on the dorsal valve than on the ventral one, or than is the case in

Prof. Scacchi’s species, which is, besides, almost circular, smooth,

with both valves moderately convex. In M. Davidsoni the

smaller valve is also at times very irregular, occasioned by the

shortness of the peduncle, which forces the shell to lie in close

contiguity with the objects to which it is moored, and take more

or less the impress of their irregularities.

From a superficial examination of the animal in its dried-up

condition, my father and myself were enabled to convince our-

selves, that in the species under description the oral arms seem

to be connected with the apophysary system by a kind of very

delicate calcareous network, reminding one of the descending

apparatus of Thecidium, which in some species is formed in its

upper portions by a calcareous network freely suspended above

the visceral cavity. MM. O. Schmidt and Suess have already

recognized the tendency to a disposition somewhat similar in

the subgenus Terebratulina. This important fact will, in all

probability, at a future period help to identify the different parts

vhs Mr. T. Davidson on the Brachiopoda.

of the calcareous processes in Thecidium with the corresponding

portions in the other genera of the family Terebratulide.

I limit myself at the present moment to the simple announce-

ment of this point, not having as yet sufficiently studied the

question, but which I shortly intend to do more fully, when

entering upon the internal details of the apophysary system of

the Morrisia Davidsoni in a paper now in hand, and which also

relates to other new Brachiopoda to be published in the Memoirs

of the Linnzan Society of Normandy.

8. Description of a new species of recent Rhynchonella. —

By 8. P. Woopwarp, Esq., F.G.S._

Rhynchonella Grayi, n. sp. Pl. X. fig. 16.

Shell light horn-colour, dull, trigonal, depressed; sides

rounded ; front truncated ; beak small, acute; valves smooth,

obscurely marked by lines of growth, and strongly plaited near

the margin with four central plaits and three or four on each

side, the furrows obscurely striated ; margins of the valves sinu-

ated in front and strongly toothed ; foramen minute, completely

tubular. Long. 15, lat. 13, alt. 8 mill.

This interesting and at present unique shell was sent with

other natural-history objects. from the Feejee Islands by J.

M‘Gillivray, Esq., Naturalist to the Surveying Expedition under

Capt. Denham of H.M.S. Herald. No particulars as to its

habitat have been received; it differs from both the known

species of living Rhynchonella (figs. 17 & 18) in its lightness of

- colour, the others being black ; in the plication of the borders of

its valves, which reminds us of the fossil Rh. subplicata (Man-

tell) and Rh. lineolata, Phil.; and especially it differs in having

a foramen quite separate from the hinge-line by the development

and union of the two elements of the deltidium, in this respect

agreeing with the ordinary adult condition of the fossil Rhyn-

chonelle. Were it not for the remains of the pedicle and traces

of the mantle in its interior, we might have taken it for a plio-

cene fossil, being exactly similar in its colour and dull translu-

cency to the specimens of Rh. psittacea found in the Crag at

Norwich. The muscular impressions are like those of the type,

and the interior has traces of unsymmetrical vascular markings.

If only the recent species were known, the genus Rhynchonella

might be thought a remarkable exception to the law of continuity

of generic areas, but like many other widely scattered types, its

distribution is rendered intelligible by the knowledge of the

existence of so many fossil forms in the wide intervals between

the localities of the living species.

Ann. de Mag. Nat. Hist. S. 2. Vol.16. FLX. 4

Bide i tate

-— s/s

se?

T.Davidson. Ji:

Mr. T. Davidson on the Brachiopoda. AAG

EXPLANATION OF PLATE X.

Fig. 1. Waldheimia septigera, Lovén, sp.

Fig. 2. ——— cranium, Miller, sp.

Fig. 3. Terebratella Spitzbergensis, Dav.

Fig. 4. Magas (Rhynchora) Davidsoni, De Koninck, sp. Interior of the

dorsal or smaller valve, from drawings by M. Bosquet of Maes-

tricht. 4a, longitudinal section of both valves; p, pedicle mus-

cular impressions ; ¢, sockets.

Fig. 5. Waldheimia australis, muscular system, from an improved diagram

prepared by Mr. Hancock.

A. Adductor (adductores longi, Owen), attached to the ventral

valve.

A’. Adductor (adductor longus posticus, Owen. Muscle adducteur

rincipal, Gratiolet). .

A". Adductor (adductor longus anticus, Owen. Muscle adducteur

principal, Gratiolet).

R. Cardinal muscle (adductor brevis, Owen. Muscles diducteurs

principaux, Gratiolet).

R’. Accessory cardinal muscle (cardinales, Owen. Muscles diduc-

teurs accessoires, Gratiolet).

P. Ventral pedicle muscles (retractor inferior, Owen. Muscles du

pédoncule paire supérieure, Gratiolet).

P’. Dorsal pedicle muscles (retractor superior, Owen. Muscles du

pédoncule paire inférieure, Gratiolet).

P". Pedicle sheath.

Z. Capsular muscle (capsularis, Owen).

M’, mouth ; i, intestine ; L, loop; L”, reflected portion of the same.

Fig. 6. Dorsal valve of a Terebratula: a, the sockets; 6, the opening

muscles ; c & d, the muscular impressions. (Figs. 6,7 & 8 are

taken from Prof. Quenstedt’s paper.)

Fig. 7. Ventral valve of the same Terebratula: a, the lateral teeth ; b, the

muscular impressions; c & d, the two bundles of the closing

muscle (adductor). The letters correspond to those in fig. 6, so

that by the inspection of the following one—

Fig. 8. seen in profile—the mechanism of the opening and closing of the

valves may be easily understood.

Fig. 9. The male sexual glands of a Terebratula. Figs. 9, 10, 11, 12, 13

& 14 are taken from Prof. Schmidt’s paper.

Fig. 10. Spermatozoa of the same.

Fig.-11. Embryo of the same Terebratula, magnified.

Figs. 12, 13 & 14. Calcareous structure (or plates) from the mantle and

brachial cirri of Terebratulina caput-serpentis.

Fig. 15. Embryos removed from the ovarian cavity in the pallial sinus of

Lingula anatina: magnified 120 diameters (Owen).

Fig. 16. Rhynchonella Grayi (Woodward). 16 c¢, enlarged.

Fig. 17. psittacea.

Fig. 18. nigricans; these are the only three recent Rhynchonelle at

present known.

Fig. 19. Morrisia anomioides, Scacchi, sp. 19a, enlarged.

Fig. 20. Morrisia Davidsoni, E. Deslongchamps. 20 a, 6, enlarged.

20 c, d, enlarged views of the interior of the smaller or dorsal

valve, part of the lamelle being broken off ; 7, foramen ; ¢, sockets ;

M, departure of the crural lamellae; Nn, broken lamellz attached

to the summit of the septum, s.

446 Mr. W. Clark on the Phenomena of the

XXXVII.—On the Phenomena of the Reproduction of the

Chitons. By Wiii1am Crark, Esq.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

GENTLEMEN, Norfolk Crescent, Bath, November 1855.

Tue Chitons have long been a source of difficulty to naturalists

with respect to systematic position; the most distinguished

names, Cuvier, Blainville, Milne-Edwards, and Prof. Forbes, are

at variance on this point, which to the present time has not

received a satisfactory solution. Cuvier alone considers them

true Mollusca; Blainville refers them to the Annelidan Articu-

lata; Forbes speaks doubtingly ; and Milne-Edwards admits that

they are Gasteropoda, but hesitates to acknowledge them Mol-

lusca.

I trust the following observations, though not so complete as

I could wish, will throw some light on their reproductive status

and natural position.

The present paper has originated in a suggestion of the late

Prof. Forbes and Mr. Hanley, who in their ‘ British Mollusca,’

vol. 1. p. 390, “ trust that some active observer resident by the

coast will occupy himself with studying the development of the

Chitons, and endeavour to ascertain the form they assume in

their larval condition. Whoever does so will make an important

discovery, and do more towards fixing the true position of these

anomalous creatures than all cabinet examinations of them have

yet enabled us to effect.” And I have stated in my late work

on the ‘ British Marine Testaceous Mollusca,’ p. 248, “ that I

propose, if practicable, to carry out this idea, though the at-

tempt will be attended with uncertainties which need not at

present be alluded to.”

Chiton cinereus, Linneus.

Chiton cinereus, Brit. Moll. vol. ii. p. 402.

Chiton marginatus, variorum.

On the 23rd July 1855, I obtained several examples of the

above species fixed on small pebbles from their natural habitat ;

these were carefully removed into saucers of sea-water and

sedulously examined every hour for many following days. In

the afternoon of the day of capture my attention was suddenly

attracted by observing one of the animals in the act of dis-

charging ova—not in volleys, but by one or two at every second

for at least 15 minutes, forming a batch of 1800 to 1500; there

were a thousand or more that remained in the ovarium, perhaps

not sufficiently maturated for parturition ; they were pale yel-

Reproduction of the Chitons. 447

low, and of subglobular form, being a little compressed or

oblate at what may be termed the axes; each appeared about

100th of an inch in diameter. I may here remark that the

animal now mentioned was the only one that deposited ova.

The animal, previous to the exclusion of the ova, had moved

from the flat position it occupied on the stone to its edge, and

elevating by reflexion the posterior portion of the coriaceous

skin in which the valves are imbedded, poured out for several

minutes a continuous stream of flaky white matter like a fleecy

cloud, which proved of a glutinous nature, and probably pro-

ceeded from the organs which M. Cuvier and authors have con-

jectured to be a pair of symmetrical oviducts, but which they

failed to trace to an external outlet: I rather think that they

are glands, and that their use is to provide the material for the

capsule or membranous envelope that contains the mass of each

ovum, and also to entangle by its tenacity the congeries of ova

which followed its emission to prevent them being washed away

by the water, as when I attempted to remove one or two, I

found they were slightly retained by adhesion: it is probable

that the cloudy vapour when condensed into fluid serves for a

nidus until the young are prepared to emerge from their cells.

I did not succeed in ascertaining if the viscosity issued from an

organ, or pair of organs, or glands distinct from the oviduct: I

can only say that the ova as well as the thin smoke-coloured

matter were excluded from under the centre of the coriaceous

integument of the posterior terminal valve, in a similar manner

as I have described them to be discharged from the posterior

extremity of Dentalium.

I carefully inspected the ova throughout the 24th July ; they

remained inert at the bottom of the saucer; but on the morning

of the 25th I was greatly surprised to find that all had become

detached from their nidus, or position, and swam with great

vivacity through every part of the water, sometimes at the sur-

face, sometimes in the middle, and at others at the bottom ;

these minute objects moved with extraordinary speed, crossing

a large breakfast-saucer in 30 or 40 seconds.

As soon as motion had commenced, the ova lost the sub

globular figure, and assumed that of a subelongated oval ap-

proaching the Chiton shape. It has already been stated that

each ovum was imbedded in a pale yellow membrane, but when

the rapid swimming action took place, only half of the animal

was liberated from the capsule, the anterior skin being reflexed

or withdrawn on the still adhermg posterior portion, forming a

ridge that divided the animal into two sections. With a power

of 300 linear I could see the elements of the four anterior

valves, as well as the buccal depression and héad : this very early

448 On the Phenomena of the Reproduction of the Chitons.

stage of development showed no metamorphosis that I could

perceive.

On the 26th July the animal was evidently more detached

from its cell, as the five anterior valves were distinctly marked

and the fringe margin was detected; the three posterior valves

were still covered by the enveloping skin, but traceable through

the diaphaneity of the membrane. The animal still swam with

unabated vigour. On the 29th and 30th it had altogether cast

off the embryonic covering and exhibited the complete form of

the Chiton. During these phases of development every point

posteally and anteally appeared destitute of accessories, except

the usual circumferential fringe ; no antenne, tentacula, eyes,

caudal appendage, articulated feet, bristles or filaments were

discoverable, nor any other exserted organ. At this period

nearly all natatory motion had ceased, the animal remained

apparently fixed at the bottom of the saucer, and only a slight

change of place was perceptible with a good lens.

The animal in its phase of rapid movement often rolled itself

into a ball, which led me to think there might be some alliance

between it and the crustaceous Articulata, particularly with the

Oniscus entomon, as I have often seen adult Chitons involve

themselves in a somewhat similar globular form. Notwith-

standing these traits of relationship with other tribes, it cannot

admit of doubt, from M. Cuvier’s dissections and our own de-

tailed account of the animal, that the Chitons are far nearer to’

the Mollusca than to any other class ; for though we may observe

some traces of approach to certain sections of the Crustacea in

the segmental disposition of the hard parts, still this condition

does not obtain in the soft parts of the body, which are inarti-

culate or molluscan ; and we may add that the testaceous pieces

are not connected by articulation, but merely overlap each other.

The supposed relation to other divisions, the annelidan and cir-

ripodan Articulata, is still slighter, and does not with the former,

as to external organs, extend much beyond the marginal fringe,

which may have an equivocal assimilation with the feet, bristles

and tufts of hair of that vermiform tribe; and with the latter

there is some community by the somewhat similar division of

the cone into distinct pieces.

These quasi alliances may perhaps induce us to admit that

the Chitons may be the immediate precursors or the stage of

transition from the Articulata to the Mollusca, which of course

takes precedence of all the divisions of the Articulata; that is,

the order of natural position in the ascending scale should be:

Annelida, Crustacea, Insecta, Mollusca.

It is difficult to account for or explain the propelling power

of the rapid natation of the Chitons ; itemay probably be due to

Mr. C. C. Babington on Linaria sepium. 449

the vermicular action of the body and foot, which is doubtless

much aided by the segmental disposition of the hard parts. It

is also possible that the fringed margin may act as a paddle, as

well as being subservient to a very opposite action, that of

increasing the tenacity of suctional adhesion. As to the bristles

that are sometimes seen at the sutures of each valve above the

margin, I believe they are accidental or ornamental, and have no

particular use in the animal ceconomy ; they only appear in one

British species, the C. fascicularis.

The singular fact of the almost instantaneous rapid natation

of the animal before it is even entirely freed from the capsule,

leads to a fair presumption that the oviparous germs of all the

bivalve and gasteropodous Mollusca have, as they emerge from

their larval condition, the power, for a limited time, of locomo-

tion, which is accorded them by nature apparently for the

purpose of seeking out and conveying themselves to their

respective peculiar habitats; and we learn by the present case

that, as soon as a rapid locomotion has accomplished its objects,

it ceases, and the animal adopts the phase of progression that is

ordained for it.

I regret that circumstances prevented the examination being

carried on beyond the 31st July, but I cannot believe that, after

that time, any metamorphosis would have presented itself.

During the eight days of inspection no unusual aberrations of

form were visible; nothing appeared but a gradual increase of

the organism until it had assumed the figure and attributes of

a completed Chiton, which, in the interval I speak of, had

attained the length of j,th to sth, and breadth ~,th of an

inch.

It appears, then, that M. Cuvier’s determination is correct,

that the Chitons are cyclobranchiate Mollusca.

I am, Gentlemen,

Your most obedient servant,

Wi1iaM Crark.

XXXVIII.— Note on Linaria sepium, Al/man.

By Cuarzzs C. Basinerton, M.A., F.R.S. &c.*

Earzy in the summer of 1855 I succeeded in obtaining seeds

of this plant from roots growing in the Cambridge Botanical

Garden which had been originally sent to it by Dr. Allman

from Bandon. These seeds were sown in a pot, and produced

many plants which flowered in the August and September

following. The produce thus obtained shows that my former

* Read to the Edinburgh Botanical Society, Nov. 8th, 1855.

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 30

450 Bibliographical Notices.

idea concerning LZ. sepium is correct, and that it is not a distinct

species, but a hybrid between L. repens and L. vulgaris. Four

forms were raised from the seeds of L. sepium: (1) L. sepium,

(2) a plant closely resembling ZL. repens, (3 and 4) slightly

differing forms of L. vulgaris.

L. repens is growing on the same bed. in the garden as the

L. sepium from which these seeds were obtained, but L. vulgaris

grows in quite a different part of the garden. Similarly at

Bandon, I learn from Dr. Allman that LZ. repens and L. sepium

grow together, but L. vulgaris is not found within a mile of L.

sepium.

Since the above note was written, I have received from Ban-

don, through the kindness of Dr. Allman, a series of specimens

quite connecting L. sepium and L. repens which he had gathered

in their native place. The result derived from cultivation is

thus, to a great extent, confirmed by observation of the wild

plants. '

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

Catalogue of the Genera and Subgenera of Birds contained in the

British Museum. By G. R. Gray, F.L.8. London: 1855.

Turis is one of the latest and most valuable additions to the excellent

series of British Museum Catalogues now in course of publication.

It is, in fact, a new edition of Mr. G. R. Gray’s well-known ‘ List of

the Genera of Birds,’ which has contributed so much to the reform of

ornithological nomenclature. During the eleven years which have

passed since the issue of the last edition of this work, great progress

has been made in ornithology as in other branches of natural science.

Books, pamphlets, and periodicals in all parts of the civilized globe

contain the labours of naturalists vying with each other for pre-

cedence in establishing new genera, new species, and new arrange-

ments among the members of the Class Aves; and though there has

been some complaint, and not without foundation, that ornithology

has hitherto been rather a neglected branch of natural science, it

would seem that the present activity, if continued, bids fair to advance

our knowledge of this interesting subject to at least a par with that

of the other classes of the animal kingdom. _

As regards however the genera of Birds, the subject of Mr. Gray’s

work, we fear that the ornithologists of the present day are advancing

rather too rapidly. Mr. Gray’s list of 1844 contained upwards of

1100 distinct types which had then been raised to the dignity of

genera. By the present work it appears that since then the number

has been more than doubled—those given in the present Catalogue

and Appendix amounting to no less than 2400—and we believe that

since its publication many others have been created to swell the

list. Now, considering that, according to the most recent estimate,

Bibliographical Notices. 451

the known species of birds cannot be calculated to exceed 8000, it

seems that we have already split up the genera to such an extent

that they contain on the average only about three species apiece.

And as it is requisite that in any natural system the genera should

have as nearly as possible the same amount of difference inter se, and

these new genera have been created much more abundantly in some

groups than in others, it follows that, in order to reduce all the ge-

neric divisions to a uniform standard, a vast number of further genera

must be created, and we shall ultimately have not more than two or

perhaps one species in each genus.

Such a result would, we suppose, be condemned by every naturalist,

but it cannot be avoided if the present system is much longer pur-

sued. The fact is that a large proportion of the recently established.

so-called genera are founded upon such slight differences, that it

would be quite impossible to draw up generic characters for them.

These modern genus-makers do not hesitate to coin a new appellation

for any two or three allied species that resemble each other in colour-

ing and form what may be called a homochroous group, without re-

flecting that each of the other numerous isolated idiochroous species

of the genus have equal claims to similar distinctive separation *.

But though it cannot be denied that style of colouring is often an

excellent guide to affinities, we maintain that generic names are only

to be employed where there are real differences in structure, and not

where merely the plumage is dissimilar. The appellations applied to

these minor groups should be either altogether unnoticed, or merely

placed in any arrangement of the species at the head of each group,

in the manner shown by Mr. G. R. Gray in the more lately pub-

lished Catalogues of the British Museum.

Even more lamentable than the rapid increase of these generic

subdivisions is the fact that many of them have received three or four

and even more synonymous appellations from different authors, and

some of them more than one from the same author! In spite of the

‘stern law of priority’ now professed to be submitted to by the

whole scientific world, several individual writers seem to think little

of changing names that they have themselves imposed. Thus we

find Strophiolemus (1853) and Iolema (1854) proposed by the same

author for the same genus of Trochilide, Galbaleyrhynchus (1845)

and Jacamaralcyonides (1849) for the same genus of Galbulida,

Cyanopolius (1849) and Cyanopica (1850) for the same genus of

Corvide, and Chlorochrysa and Calliparea in the same year for the

same genus of Tanagers, without any apparent excuse for the crea-

tion of the second names, unless it be forgetfulness that the first-given

had ever been proposed. It is to be hoped that Mr. Gray’s Catalogue,

* In resolving many natural genera into species, it will be found that

groups of threes or fours often show great similarity in plumage, and are

what may be called ‘homochroous’ (6u6xpoos, similem colorem habens).

These are generally distributed over different geographical areas, and re-

present each other in their respective localities. Other individual species

have peculiar colouring of their own, and may be termed idiochroous (idios,

pecultaris, et xpédos, color).

: 30*

452 Bibliographical Notices.

and the sight of the four or five thousand names contained in the

Index thereto, will render naturalists rather more careful in further

increasing the already too gigantic proportions of the ‘ Corpus Gene-

rum Avium.’

will be placed in all future catalogues of Bird-genera (as in Mr.

Gray’s) among the mass of useless synonyms. On the other hand, the

present work goes quite in the opposite extreme from those of the last-

mentioned writers. If, from the ignorance or mistake of the proposer

of a genus, the name happens to be wrongly spelt, there seems to be no

reason whatever why such an error should be retained in perpe-

tuum. That would indeed be unnecessary stickling for the law of

priority. Yet Mr. Gray appears to hold, that right or wrong we are

bound to adopt the spelling originally given by the proposer of the

genus, and to allow of no corrections or emendations even of faults

due to typographical errors only. Now it must be recollected, that

we profess to use the Latin language in our present system of nomen-

clature, and we ought to follow its rules as closely as possible. In

such names therefore as Thryothorus, Pycnosphys, Scotornis and the

like (where there is no doubt of what the creators of the names in-

tended by them), it seems ridiculous that we should be called upon

to continue such palpable errors as to write them Thriothorus, Pyc-

nosphrys and Scortornis. Mr. Gray has—we think, unnecessarily—

increased his already sufficiently laborious undertaking by attempting

to quote every variety of reading to every generic name which the igno-

rance of authors or the mistakes of their printers have caused. Of

what good can it be to perpetuate the fact that somebody has been

stupid enough to write Nyctidromus Nyctydromus, and Oreotrochilus

Oriotrochilus? What benefit can we derive from being reminded

that Eulampis has been misprinted Culampis, and Selasphorus Selos-

phorus? Surely it would have been better to have left such inaccu-

racies unnoticed and forgotten. :

Again, we fear that confusion is likely to be caused by the intro-

duction of the French names which Mr. Gray has permitted in some

parts of his List, and which in some cases he seems to give a pre-

ference to over the corresponding Latin terms. It may be true that

M. Lesson was the first to indicate the genera Chrysuronia and Cross-

opthalmus under the French names Les Chrysures and Les Pica-

zores, but that is no reason why these last names should be intro-

duced into a scientific list of genera, where Latinity is or ought to be

a first condition to any claim for recognition. If we once open the

door to non-Latin names, we shall be deluged with those of Buffon,

Bibliographical Notices. 453

Azara, Levaillant, and a host of others, who established many very

excellent genera, but have necessarily lost the credit of their dis-

coveries owing to their having neglected to employ for the designa-

tion of them the one language recognized by the world of science.

There are one or two other points in which we think the principles

adopted by Mr. Gray in the present edition of his List do not work

well. In the preface it is stated that the synonymy commences with

the edition cf Linnzeus’s ‘Systema Nature’ published in 1735. Now

Linneeus had not at that time invented his bmominal system, and it

is therefore neither correct nor necessary to commence our present

nomenclature from so early a period. The question, what edition of

the ‘Systema Nature’ we ought to begin with, has been already

discussed in a previous review of a former edition of Mr. Gray’s book

in this Magazine *, and Mr. Gray has himself acknowledged, in the

preface to his List of 1844, that the ‘invaluable principle’ of the

binominal system was not established before 1758; but in his pre-

sent work he always begins by quoting the edition of 1735, and seems

even to give that and the other earlier editions an occasional pre-

ference over the subsequent and more perfect publications. At the

same time he takes it for granted, that the first species on the list of

each of these editions was intended to be the type of the genus,—a

point which appears to admit of much argument. The adoption of

these principles in the present edition has caused some rather im-

portant changes in the types and names of certain well-known

genera; changes in zoological nomenclature, where the maxim

‘quieta non movere’ ought to carry more than ordinary weight,

and in which, we think, other naturalists will be rather loth to fol-

low. For example, Alea is now referred to the Puffins (4. arctica)

instead of the Great Auk, and Chenalopex! (a term always hitherto

appropriated to the Anas egyptiaca) is proposed to be used for the

Alea impennis, as having been so applied by Moehring in 1752! The

type of the genus Tanagra is altered, because the 7’. episcopus

(always hitherto considered as such) does not stand first in Linnzeus’s

list. Now the very fact that Linneeus placed first one and then

another species at the head of his genera seems conclusive against

the neeessity of invariably adopting the first species as the type.

Indeed Mr. Gray has not ventured to carry out these rules through-

out to their legitimate result. Had that been done, he must have

used Strix for the Horned Owls (Budo), and for the Eagles

(Aquila), and besides that have introduced a variety of other equally

objectionable changes. f

Again, although it cannot be questioned that the same name

ought not to be used in zoology for two different animals, and there

are also strong reasons for an alteration when names even closely re-

semble one another, Mr. Gray’s changes on these grounds occasionally

o beyond what seems absolutely necessary. Harpactes certainly

ought not to be liable to be mistaken for Arpactus, or Lophira for

Lophyrus, and we hope therefore Mr. Gray will not be imitated in

* See Mr. Strickland’s article in the ‘ Annals and Magazine’ for 1851.

45.4 Bibliographical Notices.

his rejection of these names in favour of Hapalurus and Macartneya,

or in other similar changes.

We also regret that Mr. Gray has not thought fit to adopt the very

simple rule given in the British Association Committee’s Report for

the formation of the names of the families and subfamilies in ¢d@ and

ine, and from which a very desirable uniformity would have ensued.

As it is, we have Steatornine instead of Steatornithine, Podagirine

instead of Podagrine, Coraciade instead of Coraciide, Araine (!)

instead of Arine, and so on.

A catalogue of the unabbreviated names of the authors of the dif-

ferent genera, and of the chief works in which they have published

them, would have been a very useful addition to Mr. Gray’s List,

though one which would have doubtless involved a certain amount of

extra labour; for even the professed ornithologist will be puzzled

to find the place where some of the names given in the List were

first promulgated. The fact is that certain authors are in the habit

of publishing names used by other persons only in MS., or for the

labels of Museum specimens, and which cannot therefore be recog-

nized previously to such publication. For example, Dr. Schiff of

Frankfort-am-Main, to whom several genera among the Piprine and

elsewhere are attributed, has, we believe, never published anything

on the subject of ornithology. Prince Bonaparte has, however, intro-

duced Dr. Schiff’s MS. names into some of his recent lists of genera,

and they have consequently been included in Mr. Gray’s Catalogue.

It would have been better had Mr. Gray in this and similar cases

given the name of the publisher of the genus as well as that of the

supposed originator.

Lest the foregoing remarks should be thought to be rather in

blame than in praise of Mr. Gray’s book, it is right to conclude by

repeating the commendation bestowed upon it at the beginning of

our notice. We regard it as a most valuable contribution to natural

history, and quite indispensable as a work of reference to the student

of scientific ornithology. Mr. Gray deserves the warmest thanks

of all naturalists for the great labour he has bestowed upon the col-

lection of such a vast mass of materials from so many different

sources, and for the care with which he has reduced them into

arrangement. We may also repeat our hope that his book will not

only be a useful guide through the perplexing mazes of ornitho-

logical synonymy, but also have some effect in checking those natu-

ralists, who, instead of following Mr. Gray’s example and endeavour-

ing to assist others in clearing the way, are rather increasing diffi-

culties by useless additions to the already enormous catalogue of

Bird-genera.

Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of the Histological Series

contained in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. Pre-

pared for the Microscope. Vol. ii. London. 1855. 4to.

The previous volume of this valuable work was devoted to the

structure of the harder tissues of plants and invertebrate animals ;

Bibliographical Notices. 455

the present one contains illustrations of the minute structure of the

skeleton of the vertebrate animals as developed by the microscope,

and is a catalogue of that not less valuable portion of the College

collection belonging to histology. The present volume bears the

similar impress of care and research as the former one, and like it,

if we may judge from the greater importance of the subject-matters,

will share the same complimentary fate, of being speedily out of print.

It is however to be hoped, that the Council of the College, under

whose auspices these volumes are prepared, will issue a new. edition,

to which, we doubt not, Prof. Quekett can furnish many important

additions in vegetable and invertebrate structures, and which would

supply a desideratum to many investigators, who have not had the

good fortune to procure the first volume of the series. In speaking

of this work, it will be unnecessary, as well as useless, to enlarge

upon the value and importance of microscopical research. The

microscope has not only ceased merely to gratify our curiosity or

excite our wonder, but has become a source of high intellectual

amusement and of great practical value.

‘Time was,’ says Prof. Owen in the recently published Lectures

on the Invertebrata, ‘“‘and not many years ago, in this country, when

that term, Microscopical Anatomy, was almost regarded as synony-

mous with the anatomy of the imagination ; but the numerous and

highly important discoveries which have been made and confirmed by

observers in almost every European state, by means of the greatly

improved microscopes at their command, have placed the value,

the indispensability, of that instrument to the anatomist, beyond the

necessity of vindication.”’

_ This remark of the Hunterian Professor is not only corroborated,

but strengthened, in the publication of the volume before us, by his

colleague, Prof. Quekett. In a general notice, the value of this work

may be stated under two principal heads,—firstly, that of presenting

us with a series of terms of comparison of the differences which ob-

tain in the minute structure of the endo- and exo-skeleton of the four

classes of the vertebrate type; and, secondly, in furnishing us with

numerous and accurate illustrations of the more important genera

_ and species in all those classes of Vertebrata.

Independently of the comparative value to the anatomist of the

variations existing in the minute structure of bone, or the tissues or

the dermal covering of different parts of the same animal ; the differ-

ences in the minute structure of the skeleton in the four classes be-

come more interesting when such are known to exist. That these

differences can be fully shown, it is only necessary to consult the

admirable plates appended to this volume, drawn as they have been

by an experienced artist, from the microscope, by means of the

camera lucida. To those who, like the geologist, have always to.

appeal to the comparative anatomist for the determination of the

remains of the fossil vertebrata, any further aid, especially when a

minute portion is concerned, as to the class-affinity of the fragment,

becomes of extreme value ; and this the microscope fortunately yields

us. Those who remember the animated discussions respecting the

456 | Bibliographical Notices.

mammalian affinities of the Stonesfield remains, of the Pterodactyles

of the chalk, or the Birds’ bones of the Wealden strata, will feel the

force of the above remark. And now, when every year bids fair to

unveil to us new, or hitherto unlooked-for, forms amidst the earlier,

or even earliest, scenes of the earth’s physical history ; and the old

coast-line or ancient estuary yields traces of footsteps belonging to

some unknown beast, perhaps seeking shelter from the storm (its

impress still remaining), or tracing its way on the rippled sands left

moist by the receding tide—footsteps so numerous as to lead us to

infer some corresponding solid skeleton; a fragment of bone might

guide us along the path of discovery, as to its nature.

Prof. Quekett has, as is well known, been already engaged on

some of these points of original investigation. In inquiries of such-

like character, this volume would be an indispensable requisite, con-

taining as it does a description of 945 preparations, of which 385

belong to the skeleton of Fishes, 103 to that of Reptiles, 60 to that of

Birds, and the remaining 397 to that of Mammalia. Of the most

important and striking specimens of these preparations, 432 have

been selected for representation, all of which, with but two excep-

tions, were drawn by means of the camera lucida. And with a view

of rendering the work more useful to the student, in comparing the

minute structure of the bones of the four great classes of animals,

the greater part of the sections have been drawn under two powers,

one of 95, the other of 440 diameters, it having been ascertained that

the size and arrangement of the lacunee are frequently of the greatest

importance in determining the true nature of fragments of recent and

fossil bone, when other characters are wanting. The numerous pre-

parations above noticed consist of sections of the tissue of the endo-,

exo-, and splanchno-skeletons of Fishes; the endo- and splanchno-

skeletons of Birds ; and the endo-skeleton of Reptiles and Mammals ;

the term splanchno or visceral skeleton being applied to the hard

bony tissue found in certain viscera and organs of sense, as in the

heart of the Hog and most old Ruminants, and the eyes of Fishes and

Birds. A short introduction is given, in which the principal structures

of bone are enumerated and described, as the Haversian canals and in-

terspaces, the laminze, lacunee, canaliculi, &e. The body of the work

is chiefly occupied by elaborate descriptions of the figures; a few

notes, however, explanatory of the principal points of interest, pre-

cede each division.

In describing the bone of Mammalia the minute structure is stated

to be nearly uniform throughout the whole class, each Haversian

system being surrounded by a series of concentric lamine with

lacunze placed between them, and giving off numerous canaliculi in

a radiating manner. It is a remarkable fact, however, that those

» Mammalia which resemble Birds in their habits or internal ana-

tomy, approach most nearly to these animals in the minute structure

of their bones; such is the case in the Ornithorhynchus, Echidna,

Sloth, Kangaroo and Bat.

Copious details are given of that singular animal, the Lepidosiren,

forming the connecting link between Fishes and Reptiles. Fourteen

Lieut. Burgess on the Habits of some Indian Birds. 457

preparations are here described, which, together with four others

published in the previous volume, afford us an intimate knowledge

of the minute structure of the endo-skeleton of this interesting form.

Prof. Quekett states that the structure of its bone, as well as those

portions of its skeleton which do not become ossified, are more closely

allied to the corresponding tissues of the Batrachia than to those of

any Fish yet examined ; and as it undoubtedly possesses many cha-

racters peculiar to Fishes, a subdivision of the order Batrachia has

been proposed for it, and that of Ichthyo-Batrachia appears to be

most expressive of its peculiar affinities. -

To the anatomist, paleeontologist, and geologist engaged in micro-

scopical research, this volume is of inestimable value, superseding as

it does the necessity of obtaining a costly series of objects for exa-

mination and comparison. Few persons could have undertaken the

preparation of a work requiring so much labour and nice manipula-

tion of the numerous specimens illustrative of the various subjects,

with any fair chance of equivalent remuneration. By the publication

of this Catalogue, the Council of the College have afforded a boon

to microscopical science, prepared as it has been by an author who

has devoted so much time to, and prosecuted with such zeal and

success, the practical bearings of histology.

PROCEEDINGS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

July 25, 1854.—John Gould, Esq., F.R.S., in the Chair. —

Notes ON THE Hasirts oF soMrE INDIAN Birps.—Parr V.

By Lieut. BurGEss.

Family StrurNIDz.

Subfamily StuRNINz&.

Genus Pastor.

Pastor Rosevus, Temm. Tae RosEe-coLoureD Pastor.

This bird visits the Deccan in immense flocks to feed on the grain

called jowaree which begins to ripen in the month of November, and

is cut about March. The arrival of these birds is uncertain, in some

years being earlier, in others later. On referring to notes made at

the time, I find that in the year 1848 the first Rose-coloured Pastor

was seen on the 28th of November, and the last on the 5th of April

1849. The first which I observed in the autumn of that year, was

on the 16th of November. In the year 1850, I saw a large flock as

early as the 24th of August ; I transcribe the note: “August 24,

1850. Saw a large flock of the Rose-coloured Starlings with their

broods to-day feeding in an open field, evidently on insects, as they

were constantly in chase of them, flying.” I never saw this bird so

arly as it was that year, and they arrived long before the jowaree

was ripe. This grain when ripe, and before it is ripe, is their staple

458 Zoological Society :—

food. After it is cut and housed, -I have observed them busily feed-

ing on the flowers of the leafless Caper, a shrub very common in

many parts of the Deccan, especially on the banks of the larger

rivers. I have made many, but hitherto ineffectual attempts, to

ascertain where these birds breed ; that they do breed somewhere on

the continent of India, there can be no doubt, as the young birds

which I saw on the 24th of August 1850, were in brown plumage,

and appeared as if they had not long left the nest. I was informed

by a clever and well-informed Mharatta, who seemed to have con-

siderable knowledge of the habits of various birds, that the Rose

Starling retires to the Ghauts to breed. On visiting those mountains

in 1849, I made many inquiries of the hill people, but was unsuc-

cessful in getting any information from them. However, I think

it very probable that these birds, after leaving the Deccan in March

and April, break up into pairs, and retire to the ravines and forests

in the Ghauts to breed. Like the common Starling, these birds con-

gregate in immense flocks before going to roost, and it is a curious

sight to watch their movements as they fly in clouds over their night

haunts. Towards sunset they begin to collect from the grain-fields,

and fly off in detached parties, at first containing only a few indivi-

duals. These soon amalgamate, and form large masses, which, as

they dash, now upwards and now downwards, now in circles, at

one time almost disappear, at another look like a rapidly passing

cloud. As soon as the sun is down, they retire to the babool

brakes that clothe the banks of the streams and rivers. These birds

collect in such numbers on the small bushes and trees on the out-

skirts of the grain-fields, as to make them appear as if loaded with

rich, rosy blossoms, and to make one wonder that the tree is not

broken down with their weight.

Family FrinGituip2z.

Subfamily CoccorHravustin#, Swain.

Genus EvpeLectes, Swain.

EvpLectes (BENGALENS!IS?).

I forwarded a paper on the nidification, habits, &c. of this little

bird, together with specimens of the skins, nests and eggs, in the

year 1852. The paper was read, and the specimens exhibited at the

tears of the Society on July 27th, 1852. Repetition therefore is

needless.

Genus AMADINA, Swain.

Subgenus SperMEsTEs.

SperMEsTES CueEeEt, Sykes.

This is a very common little bird, living in flocks, to be found in

hedges and low bushes, and is, I believe, partial to those of the leaf-

less Caper. It breeds, I conclude, twice in the year, as I have found

its nest m the months of November and March. The nest in two

Lieut. Burgess on the Habits of some Indian Birds. 459

instances was formed of the flower-stems of the silk-grass, which is

abundant in the beds of streams; it was lined with feathers and the silky

seeds of the grass ; its shapewas that of a hollow ball. The largest num-

ber of eggs I have found was six, but I see that Col. Sykes found as

many as ten. The eggs are very small and of a pure white colour,

rather more than ;%ths of an inch long by ;4,ths of an inch wide.

These little birds are often to be seen on the ground picking up

grass-seeds, and so close together that several may be killed at a shot :

they do not take long flights, but merely from bush to bush. I saw

numbers of them in the leafless Caper on the banks of the river

Bheema.

Subfamily FrinGiLuin 2.

Genus. Pyrerra, Swain.

PyRGITA DOMESTICA. HovusE-sPpARROW.

Common enough in India. It breeds during the monsoon. I saw

them building in the month of August, and its habits, mode of

building its nest, &c., are similar to those of the Sparrow at home.

PyRGITA FLAVICOLLIS, Frankl. YrELLOW-NECKED SPARROW.

Of the time of breeding or nesting habits I know nothing, but

Dr. Jerdon in his Catalogue says, ‘It is said to breed in holes of

trees. The egg is of a greenish-white, much streaked and blotched

with purple-brown : I obtained one from the body of a female.”

Genus EMBERIZA.

EMBERIZA MELANOCEPHALA, Jerdon.

This handsome Bunting is very common in the Deccan when the

grain crops are becoming ripe. The Patel or headman of the town

of Jintee, near the river Bheema in the Deccan, assured me that these

birds, or some of them, remain to breed in the thick babool copses

that clothe the banks of the river near that town, but I did not ob-

tain the nests or eggs. I believe that the greater part migrate much

about the same time as the Rose-coloured Pastor.

Subfamily ALaupINz&.

Genus ALAUDA.

ALAUDA DEVA, Sykes.

I have some eggs which I believe to be those of this lark, though

on account of the similarity of the two or three species that inhabit

the Deccan it is very difficult to state this positively. I obtained the

eggs on the 11th of September ; the nest was composed of a few stems

of grass collected together, and forming a very slight receptacle for

the eggs. Birds of this species breed twice during the year; I have

obtained their eggs during the months of May, September, and Oc-

tober. They lay but two eggs, of a pale mottled brown colour,

with a band of the same round the larger end; they are rather

more than ;4ths of an inch long by nearly ;8ths of an inch wide.

460 Zoological Society :—

November 14, 1854.—John Gould, Esq., F.R.S., in the Chair.

On tHe Bones or THE Lec or Drnornis (PALAPTERYX)

STRUTHIOIDES AND THE PALAPTERYX GRACILIS.

By Pror. Owen, F.R.S., F.Z.S. erc.

In my memoir of 1843*, I described two femora of birds from

tertiary deposits in New Zealand, agreeing in size with that bone in

the Ostrich, and referred them to a species called Dinornis struthi-

oides ; one of these specimens however consisted only of the shaft ;

the other and more perfect specimen, figured in pl. 21. fig. 3, was

mutilated at both its extremities. I have since received, through

the kindness of the Rev. Mr. Colenso, M.A.+, and the Rev. William

Cotton, M.A., three entire specimens of femora, ranging between

11 and 12 inches in length, and the shaft of a fourth specimen, of

the same species, confirming very satisfactorily that species, and com-

pleting our knowledge of the anatomical characters of the bone.

The head is rather more than a hemisphere, more prominent than

in the Ostrich, and with a smaller proportion cut off, as it were, from

the upper and outer part, and roughened for the attachment of the

strong ‘ligamentum rotundum.’ From the upper part of the base

of the head, an almost flat, slightly concave surface ascends, expand-

ing, as it rises, to the broad semicircular ridge which crowns the great

trochanter. In the Ostrich that process does not rise beyond the

level of the head of the bone. In the Din. struthioides the upper

trochanterian platform is broader proportionally than in the Din.

casuarinust. The anterior surface of the trochanter is also extensive

through the continuation outwards of the great process : it is slightly

concave, sculptured by muscular impressions with intervening ridges,

and by a defined oval rough tract between the head and the base of

the trochanter. The outer convex expanded surface of the trochanter

is more strongly marked by the insertions of powerful tendons,

surrounding an irregular smooth tract near the centre of the surface.

The back part of the upper end of the femur in two of the specimens

presents two or three small holes leading into the superficial can-

celli, by which it is possible a little air may have been admitted to

these cavities ; but this is a very feeble representation of the wide

orifice and canal at the same part of the Ostrich’s femur which con-

ducts directly to the large air cavity in the body of that bone.

The shaft of the entire femur of the Din. struthioides repeats the

characters described and figured in the memoir above cited. The

fore-part of the external condyle begins to rise from the level of the

shaft, about one-third from the distal end of the bone, and bends

outwards, forwards and downwards, increasing in breadth and con-

vexity, and forming the outer boundary of the characteristic broad

rotular surface. The convex fore-part of the inner condyle forming

* Zool. Trans. vol. iii. pp. 247, 249. pl. 21. fig. 3.

+ The specimen contributed by this gentleman is cited in the table of admea-

surements. Zool. Trans. vol. iii. p. 329.

t Ibid. pl. 46. fig. 2.

Prof. Owen on Bones of Dinornis and Palapteryx. 461

the inner boundary of that surface is shorter, and rises more abruptly. _

The deep oval fossa, above the vertical broad groove for the fibula,

behind the outer condyle, is well marked. The orifice of the medul-

lary artery is at the middle of the back part of the shaft of the femur

in two of the specimens.

With regard to the metatarsus of the Dinornis struthioides, the

same satisfactory confirmation of the species has been received, as in

the case of the femur, by the addition of three specimens repeating

the characters of the original bone described at p. 240, and figured

in pl. 27. fig. 2. of my memoir of 1843. One of these specimens,

kindly sent to me by J. R. Gowen, Esq., F.G.S., Sec. H.S., was

discovered in the tertiary deposits at Waikawaite, Middle Island of

New Zealand, and has the two extremities more entire than in the

original specimen figured. The middle of the distal trochlea is im-

pressed by a shallow groove running its whole length, and becoming

more shallow as it approaches the contracted back part of the trochlea,

which terminates abruptly, projecting beyond the level of the back

part of the distal end of the bone.

A second of the additional specimens of the metatarsus of the

Din. struthioides was obtained by the Rev. Wm. Cotton, M.A., at

Tarawaite, in the North Island of New Zealand: a third specimen

was discovered by Governor Sir George Grey, in a cave in the district

which lies between the river Waikate and Mount Tongariro, in the

North Island.

From the same cave Sir George Grey likewise obtained and very

liberally transmitted to me, with a most valuable collection of other

bones of Dinornis and Palapteryz, an entire tibia agreeing with the

portion of shaft, which, from the dimensions given at vol. ii. p. 329,

I was induced to refer to the Dinornis struthioides, differing in its

size and proportions from all the tibiee previously described and

referred to other species, but presenting similar relations of size to

the femur and metatarsus of the Din. struthioides, which the pre-

viously described tibiee have presented to the other bones of the leg

of the respective species to which those tibize have been referred.

I conclude, therefore, that in the tibia transmitted with the meta-

tarsus of the Din. struthioides by Sir George Grey, I possess the

bone, which I have been so long desirous to obtain in order to com-

plete the leg of the Din. struthioides. Like the metatarsus above-

cited, it is from the left side, and they appear to have belonged to the

same individual bird.

- in. lin

The length’ of this’ bone is’... ee 22 0

The breadth of the proximal extremity ........ 5 6

The breadth of the distal extremity .......... 3 2

The circumference of the middle of the shaft .. 5 0

The fibular ridge extends down .............. 10 0

This ridge begins, as in the tibiee of other species of Dinornis, be-

low the expanded end of the tibia near the middle of its back part,

inclining to its outer side.

462 Zoological Society :—

In its slender proportions, and the relative positions of the pro-

cnemial and ectocnemial ridges, the tibia of the Dinornis struthioides

agrees with that of the D. dromioides.

Description of the Bones of the Leg of the Dinornis gracilis.

The advantage of additional specimens, as confirming, by the repe-

tition of the same characters, a species previously defined, is still

greater in respect of the ground which they afford for the discrimi-

nation of a distinct but nearly allied species. Notwithstanding the

well-marked differences observable between the femur of the Dinornis

struthioides and the Dinornis gracilis, I might have deemed them

due to differences of sex or individuals, had I not had evidence of the

fixity of the specific characters of the Dinornis struthioides by the

successive arrivals of additional specimens of its bones. Attending

the hoped-for confirmation from such arrivals, it appeared to be

most prudent to refrain from announcing a new species of the rapidly

increasing family of the great wingless birds of New Zealand until

further confirmation might be obtained by corresponding differences

in the tibize and metatarsi of the two species.

Having had the good fortune at length to obtain these additional

illustrations of the Din. gracilis, I no longer delay communicating

descriptions and figures of them to the learned Society, in whose

Transactions my former Memoirs have appeared and have been so

liberally illustrated.

Femur.

The following are the chief dimensions of this bone :—

in. lin.

Length,j.. ¢asaiy exe eit adh US acath pabiges Lb hog

Breadth of proximal end in the axis of the neck . 3 10

Breadth transverse of distal end ....... ratedens a 4 0

Circumference of middle of shaft ............ 4 8

A small portion of the upper ridge of the great trochanter has

the average length of that of the Din. struthioides, but it is more

slender in proportion, the head is smaller, and is supported by a

better-marked constriction or neck, especially at its under part. The

upper platform of the trochanter is narrower, the anterior border of

the trochanter not being extended so far forwards and outwards.

The angle between the upper and fore surfaces of the trochanter is

a right one, and they meet at a sharp ridge. The rough oval surface

between the head of the femur and the base of the trochanter is

smaller than that of the Din. struthioides. The outer irregular sur-

face of the trochanter is of much less breadth in the Din. gracilis.

The muscular impressions at the sides of the shaft meet and form a

longitudinal ridge along the back part of the middle third of the

shaft: they are separated by a tract of half an inch in the Dinornis

struthioides, and terminate below in two tuberosities. The corre-

Prof. Owen on Bones of Dinornis and Palapteryx. 463

sponding ridge formed by the meeting of the vasti-muscles along the

fore part of the shaft is shorter in Din. gracilis than in Din. stru-

thioides.

The most marked distinction, however, is presented by the distal

extremity of the bone, which is not only relatively less expanded in

the Din. gracilis, but the rotular groove is narrower, and is bounded

laterally by condyloid emimences of more nearly equal length; the

external one not rising so high up, nor describing the sigmoid curve

in descending, as in the Din. struthioides. The rotular groove in the

Din. gracilis is impressed by a transversely oval rough depression,

at its upper part, with sharp lateral borders; which depression does

not appear in any of the femora of the Din. struthioides. The

popliteal space is triangular and better defined in the Din. gracilis ;

the fibular groove is shorter and less angular, and the rough deep pit

above it is smaller. The tibial surface on the inner condyle is rela-

tively smaller.

Tibia.

The same character is repeated on the proximal end of this bone,

where the surface applied to the inner condyle is absolutely smaller

than in the Din. struthioides, although the entire bone, as shown in

the subjoined admeasurements, is longer in the Din. gracilis: it is

also, as the name of the species implies, more slender in proportion

to its length.

D, gracilis.

in. lin.

The entire length of the bone is ........ Pree y «sate

The transverse breadth of its proximalend.... 5 2

The transverse breadth of its distal end ...... 2 10

The circumference of the middle of the shaft .. 4 6

The fibular ridge extends down the shaft .... 9 6

But this ridge commences nearly 3 inches below the back part of

the proximal end of the bone, nearer the outer side than in the

D. struthioides: it is interrupted by an oblique smooth tract at the

point indicated in the admeasurement, where the medullary artery

penetrates the bone ; it then reappears about one inch and a half be-

low the interruption, and soon gradually subsides. This second lower

part of a fibular ridge is better marked than in the Din, struthioides.

The relative size and position of the procnemial and ectocnemial

ridges are much the same as in the tibia of the Din. struthioides and

Din. dromioides.

Metatarsus.

The difference between the Din. struthiotdes and the Din. gracilis

is more obvious at first glance in a comparison of their metatarsi than

in that of the above-described bones ; especially to an eye accustomed

to the comparison of the metatarsi of the different species. The

superior length and slenderness of that bone in the Din. gracilis

would at once prevent its being confounded with the metatarsus of the

Din. struthioides.

464 Miscellaneous.

The following are the chief dimensions of the bone in question :

those of the extremities being approximative by reason of their worn

margins :—

D. gracilis

in. lin

Length of the tarso-metatarsus .............. 13 0

Circumference at the middle of the shaft ...... 4 3

Transverse breadth of proximal end .......... 3 4

Transverse breadth of the distal end ....... .. 4 3

Breadth of the middle of the shaft ............ Ling,

Thickness or antero-posterior diameter of ditto.. 1 2

The depressed surface for the back toe is better marked than in

the Din. struthioides.

MISCELLANEOUS.

SHROPSHIRE MOLLUSCA.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

58 Montagu Square, London,

12th Nov. 1855.

GENTLEMEN, —In the fourth volume of your excellent publication

(for 1840) is contained a contribution by Mr. Eyton, under the title

of “An Attempt to ascertain the Fauna of Shropshire and North

Wales.’’ It may be interesting to your subscribers and readers in

that district, as well as to those naturalists who are desirous of

elucidating the question of geographical distribution, if Mr. Eyton’s

list of Mollusca were made more complete ; and this I have had lately

the opportunity of doing, by a month’s residence in the picturesque

locality of Stretton in Shropshire. I subjoin a list of species then

found by me, but not mentioned by Mr. Eyton :—

Pisidium pulchellum. Pupa umbilicata.

Zonites alliarius, and var. alba. Vertigo edentula.

crystallinus. antivertigo.

nitidus (Bomere). —— pygmeea.

nitidulus. substriata.

—— purus, and var. alba. Clausilia nigricans.

radiatulus. Zua lubrica.

Helix aculeata. Physa fontinalis (Bomere).

fulva. Planorbis albus.

fusca. Limneeus truncatulus.

pygmeea. Carychium minimum.

Being altogether 22, in addition to 32 species of land and fresh-

water shells previously recorded by Mr. Eyton as Salopian. The

entire list of British species probably contains double the number,

or 108.

I may add, that I also found a single specimen of that local species,

Limneus glaber, at Bomere.

I am, Gentlemen, yours faithfully,

J. Gwyn JEFFREYS.

Miscellaneous. 465

Arrested Development of the Tadpole of the Common Frog.

To the Editors of the Annals of Natural History.

British Museum, Nov. 21, 1855.

GENTLEMEN,—Not being aware if the arrested development of

the tadpole of the common Frog is of frequent occurrence, I have

forwarded you the following instance, should you think it worthy of

notice in the ‘ Annals.’

Early in the spring (about the latter end of March) I placed some

frog spawn in a glass containing Vallisneria and Confervee, and in

due time I had a little colony of about two dozen tadpoles, most of

which gradually grew into frogs, with the exception of two indi-

viduals, whose further progress was arrested after having attained a

middling size; their hind legs commenced budding, but made no

progress ; the fore legs were never developed. They were active and

lively during the summer, but in the autumn became sluggish,

moving but little about the glass, mostly lying in the Confervee,

seldom at the bottom. Their inactivity gradually increased until

their death. One died in the latter part of October, the other in

the second week of November.

I am, Gentlemen, yours obediently,

W. Davies.

List of Species of Mollusca obtained by Prof. Goopsir from

Spitebergen. By R. M‘AnprRew, Esq.

Terebratulina caput-serpentis. Yoldia navicularis, Gould ?

Terebratella Spitzbergensis, Pecten Islandicus, var. (small

Day. and thin).

Crania anomala (dead). Greenlandicus.

Astarte elliptica, Br. Dentalium, sp. med.

crebricostata, Forbes. Patella (Lepeta) ceca.

Warhami, Hancock ? Cancellaria (Admete) viridula,

Leda caudata. QO. Fabr.

pernula (rostrata, Mart.).

Note.—This list is the more interesting since visits to Spitzbergen

have become so rare. Capt. Phipps enumerates the following spe-

cies in his ‘ Voyage towards the North Pole,’ Lond. 1774 :—

Ascidium rusticum and gelatinosum.

Syneecium turgens, Phipps.

Clio helicina and limacina (Arctic Sea generally).

Chiton ruber.

Mya truncata.

Saxicava arctica.

Buccinum undatum, var.

Turbo helicinus.

Four other Spitzbergen shells are mentioned by Dr. Wm. Leach

in the Appendix to Sir John Ross’s ‘ Voyage of Discovery,’ ed. 2.

8vo, Lond. 1819. The specimens were probably obtained by Capt.

Buchan, as a few Spitzbergen shells are in the Museum cases with

his name attached :—

Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 2. Vol. xvi. 31

Smeerenberg Harbour.

466 Meteorological Observations.

Pandora glacialis, Leach (Brit. Mus.).

Macoma tenera, Leach (Tellina balthica, L.).

Crassina semisulcata, Leach (Brit. Mus.)= Astarte lactea, Brod.

and Sby.

Nicania Banksii, Leach. (Specimens answering to Leach’s de-

scription are in the Museum cases; the authors of the ‘ British

Mollusca’ have hesitated to include this with the smooth variety of

Astarte compressa, Mont.)

There is a tablet of small specimens of Crania anomala, labelled

“ Spitzbergen, Capt. Buchan,” which is now confirmed by Prof.

Goodsir’s specimens. The species does not range to Finmark on the

Norwegian coast.

Dr. Lovén mentions Trophon scalariformis and ‘‘ Yoldia hyper-

borea”’ as occurring at Spitzbergen ; and Saxicava arctica, Buccinum

glaciale, and Fusus despectus and deformis have also been collected

there.—S. P. Woopwarp.

METEOROLOGICAL BSERVATIONS FOR OCTOBER 1855.

Chiswick.—October 1. Fine: showery: fine. 2. Foggy: cloudy: foggy: rain.

3. Dense fog: rain. 4. Densely clouded: heavy rain. 5. Fine: heavy rain. 6.

Very fine: cloudy: rain. 7. Fine: foggy at night. 8. Rain: veryfine. 9. Foggy:

very fine. 10. Fine. 11. Rain. 12. Cloudy and boisterous: rain. 13. Very

fine. 14. Foggy: cloudy. 15. Dense fog: fine. 16. Very fine: rain at night.

17. Rain, with fog. 18. Overcast: fine. 19. Light clouds and fine. 20. Fine:

cloudy: fine. 21. Cloudy. 22. Foggy: very fine: cloudy. 23. Foggy: uniformly

overcast. 24. Fine: clear: fine. 25. Cloudy and boisterous. 26. Very buisterous :

overcast : fine. 27. Exceedingly fine. 28. Very clear: fine. 29. Rain: drizzly.

30. Constant heavy rain. 31. Rain : cloudy: rain at night.

Mean temperature of the month .........cceceseeeseeees rey al 50°28

Mean temperature of Oct. 1854 .........ssceeeccssecessececes ses 48 :20

Mean temperature of Oct. for the last twenty-nine years ... 50 °00

Average amount of rain in OCt. ......c0c..ceceeceerrersssterees 2°686 inches.

Boston.—Oct. 1. Cloudy. 2. Cloudy: raina.m. 3. Cloudy. 4. Rain a.m. and

r.M.: heavy thunder-storm. 5. Fine: rainp.m. 6. Fine. 7. Cloudy: rain a.m.

8. Foggy. 9. Cloudy: rainp.m. 10. Fine. 11. Raina.m.and p.m. 12. Cloudy.

13. Fine. 14. Cloudy. 15. Foggy: rainp.m. 16. Fine. 17. Cloudy: rain a.m.

18. Fine. 19. Cloudy: rainr.m. 20. Fine. 21. Cloudy: rainp.m. 22. Cloudy.

23. Cloudy: rain a.m.andp.m. 24. Fine. 25, Cloudy. 26, 27. Rain a.m. and

p.M. 28. Fine. 29. Foggy: rain am. and p.m. 30, 31. Rain a.m. and P.M.

Sandwick Manse, Orkney.—Oct. 1. Fog a.M.: clear p.m. 2. Drizzle a.m.:

damp v.m. 3: Showers a.M.:rainp.M. 4. Rain a.m. and p.m. 5, Clear a.m.

and p.m. 6. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m. 7. Rain a.m. and p.m. 8. Hazy a.m.:

drizzle p.m. 9. Cloudy a.m.: sleet-showers, aurora p.M. 10, Cloudy a.m.:

dry; rain p.m. 11. Showers a.m. and p.m. 12. Showers a.M.: clear p.m. 13.

Fine a.m.: clear, fine, aurora p.M. 14. Fine, hoar-frost a.m.: clear, fine, aurora

p.M. 15. Fine, frost a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 16. Sleet-showers a.m.: clear P.M.

17. Showers A.M.: rain p.m. 18. Showers a.m.: sleet-showers, aurora P.M.

19. Drops a.m.: clear, fine p.m. 20. Rain a.m.: drizzle p.m. 21. Showers A.M. :

clear p.m. 22. Cloudy a.m. and p.m. 23. Rain a.m.: sleet-showers p.m. 24.

Hail-showers a.M.: sleet-showers P.M. 25, 26. Rain a.m.: showersP.m. 27.

Snow-showers A.M.: clear, aurora P.M. 28. Clear, frost a.m. and p.m. 29. Cloudy

A.M.: hazy p.M. 30. Bright a.M.: clearr.m, 31. Bright a.m.: cloudy p.m.

Mean temperature of Oct. for twenty-eight previous years ... 47°°64

Mean temperature of this month .......... Ge vilee de oaks six ens. 45 *72

Mean temperature of Oct. 1854 oe... eee ee eee eee De® SAR Ns 46 *39

Average quantity of rain in Oct. for fifteen previous years ... 5°08 inches.

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468

INDEX to VOL. XVI.

Asrornis, new species of, 227.

Accentor, on the species of, 287.

Acostzea, on the genus, 290.

Actiniadze, observations on some, 293.

Allemao, Dr. F. F., on the origin and

development of vesselsin plants, 214.

Anatina subrostrata, on the animal

of, 24.

Anculotus, new species of, 140.

Anderson, Dr. T., on the introduction

of the Cinchona tree into India, 219.

Animal life, on the progressive deve-

lopment of, in time, 69.

Animals, marine, on some new or

little-known, 27, 305.

Annelides, on the young states of

some, 259.

ao og ephippium, on the animal of,

Anteater, on the anatomy of the

Great, 374.

Antirrhinum majus, on a monstrosity

of, 229.

Adnyx, new species of, 109.

Aphyllanthacez, note on the, 300.

Aquarium, on the injurious effects of

an excess or want of heat and light

on the, 313.

Araneidea, new British species of, 120,

329,

Arcania, new species of, 367.

Arnee, on the horns of the, 230.

Arnott’s, G. A. W., British Flora, re-

viewed, 203.

Arremon, new species of, 142, 284.

Assiminia, remarks on the genus, 114,

183, 272, 422.

Babington, C. C., on the Batrachian

Ranunculi of Britain, 385; on Li-

naria sepium, 449,

Balfour, Dr., on specimens of Mega-

carpea polyandra, 75.

Barrett, L., on some Brachiopoda

found on the coast of Norway, 257.

Bate, C.8., on the homologies of the

carapace, and on the structure and

function of the antenne in Crusta-

cea, 36.

Bell, T., on the Leucosiade, 361.

Beyrichia, new species of, 86, 169.

Birds, new species of, 65, 226, 279,

298, 369, 380; on the habits of

some Indian, 61, 224, 371, 457;

G. R. Gray’s Genera and Subgenera

of, reviewed, 450.

Blackwall, J., on two newly disco-

vered species of Araneidea, 120.

Books, new :—F. Smith’s Catalogue

of British Hymenoptera, 124;

Proceedings of the Yorkshire Philo-

sophical Society, 128; Hooker and

Arnott’s British Flora, 203 ; Gosse’s

Manual of Marine Zoology, 277;

Kingsley’s Glaucus, 354; G. R.

Gray’s Catalogue of the Genera

and Subgenera of Birds, 450;

Quekett’s Catalogue of the Histolo-

gical Series contained in the Col-

lege of Surgeons, 454.

Botanical Society of Edinburgh, pro-

ceedings of the, 72, 144, 219.

Brachiopoda, on some, found on the

coast of Norway, 257; on the sy-

stematic arrangement of recent and

fossil, 429; on the opening and

closing of the shell of, 436; on the

sexes and ova of the, 439.

Brachyeeeys on some species of,

Braun, Dr. A., on the vegetable indi-

vidual, 233, 333.

Buarremon, new species of, 381.

Bunodes, on the genus, 294.

Burgess, Lieut., on the habits of In-

dian birds, 61, 224, 371, 457.

Buthraupis, new species of, 142.

Calamites of the carboniferous epoch,

on the, 144.

Callene, on some species of, 65.

Calliste, new species of, 150.

Callitriche, on a new organ in, 149.

Carpenter, Dr. W. B., on the Fora-

minifera, 207.

Carter, H. J., on the development of

gonidia (?) from the cell-contents

of the Characeze, and on the circu-

INDEX.

lation of the mucus-substance of

the cell, 1.

Cephalophora, on the respiratory

chamber in the, 324.

— on the development of,

Characer, on the development of

gonidia (?) from the cell-contents

of the, 1; on the circulation of the

=o of the cell in the,

Chatin, A., on a new organ observed

in Callitriche, 149.

Chenopodium Bonus Henricus, on the

origin of the name of, 77.

Chitonide, on the branchiz of the,

408; on the reproduction of the, 446,

Chlorospingus, new species of, 377.

Chrysomitris, new species of, 300.

Cidaride, new genus of fossil, 95.

Ciniflo, new species of, 120.

Clark, Rev. H., on a new species of

spider, 329.

Clark, W., on the Assiminia Grayana

and Rissoa anatina, 114, 272; on

the phenomena of the reproduc-

tion of the Chitons, 446.

fos Rolphii, new locality for,

298.

Conchifera, on the animals of certain

genera of, 22.

Convoluta paradoxa, note on, 312.

Crickets, on the spermatophora of

the, 150.

Crithida, new species of, 308.

Crossostoma, new species of, 310.

Crustacea, on the homologies of the

carapace and on the structure and

function of the antenne in, 36.

Cyamus, new species of, 30.

Cyanoloxia, new species of, 299.

Davidson, T., on the Brachiopoda, 429,

Davies, W., on the arrested develop-

ment of the tadpole of the frog, 466.

Davy, Dr. J., on the ova of the sal-

mon in relation to the distribution

of species, 205.

Decaisnea, on the genus, 52.

Delichon, characters of the new ge-

nus, 225.

Deslongchamps, E. E., on a new spe-

cies of Morrisia, 443..

Diatomacez, new species of British

freshwater, 73, 145; on the conju-

gation of the, 92; on the presence

of, in soils, 219.

Dicrurus macrocercus, on the habits

of, 63,

469

Dinornis struthioides, on the bones

of the leg of, 460.

Diodonta fragilis, on the occurrence

of, 379.

Lag paren on the operculum of,

Dipsacus, on an abnornal stem of a

species of, 292.

Drosera rotundifolia, on the organiza-

tion of the pedicellate glands of the

leaf of, 146.

Drymoica, on some species of, 68.

Entomostraca, on paleeozoic bivalved,

81, 163.

Epipogium aphyllum, new locality

for,

Euphonia, new species of, 143, 382.

Felis, new species of, 105.

Fishes, on the food of certain grega-

rious, 57.

Flata limbata, on the white secretion

of, 356.

Fleming, Dr., on the Calamites and

Sternbergia of the carboniferous

epoch, 144.

Foraminifera, researches on the, 207 ;

notes on British, 209.

Galbula, new species of, 280.

Gasteropoda, on the anatomy of a

new genus of pelagic, 206 ; on the

structure of the organs of breathing

in the, 315.

Gasterosteus leiurus, on the habits of,

330.

Gisignies, Viscount Du Bus de, on

some new species of birds, 298,380.

Glaciers, on the descent of, 122.

Glauconome rugosa, on the animal of,

Gonidia, on the development of, in

the Characezx, 1.

Goppert, Dr., on fossil palms, 55.

Gorgonide, monograph of the, 177.

Gosse, P. H., on some new or little-

known marine animals, 27, 305;

Manual of Marine Zoology for the

British Isles, reviewed, 277; on

Peachia hastata, with observations

on the family Actiniadze, 293.

Gould, J., on two new species of

Pucrasia, 222; on a new species of

humming-bird, 278; on a new spe-

cies of Momotus, 373.

Gray, G. R., on a new species of

Thalassidroma, 78; Genera and

Subgenera of Birds, reviewed, 450.

Gray, Dr. J. E., on the genus Assi-

minia, 183, 422; on the genus

470

Modiolarea, 228 ; on a monstrosity

of Antirrhinum majus, 229; on the

horns and skull of the Arnee, 230 ;

on the genus Miilleria, 290; on a

new species of Petrogale, 383 ; on

the genera of Mollusca, and on the

genus Assiminia in particular, 422.

Gregory, Prof., on new species of

British freshwater Diatomacez, 73;

on the presence of Diatomacez and

Phytolitharia in soils which support

vegetation, 219.

Griffith, Dr. J. W., on the conjugation

of the Diatomacez, 92.

Halacarus, description of the new

genus, 27 ; new species of, 306.

Hardy, J., on the origin of the name

Chenopodium Bonus Henricus, 77.

Harkness, Prof. R., on fossil Diato-

macez, 145.

Hawker, Rev. W. H.; on some rare

British plants, 212.

Helix aspersa, note on, 298.

Hemipedina, on the new genus, 95 ;

new species of, 196.

Herring, on the food of the, 58.

Hierochloé borealis, new locality for,

295.

Hippolyte spinus, note on, 307.

Hochstetter, Dr., on Bohemian forests

and peat-bogs, 378.

Hogg, J.,on some scales from the back

of a large fish, 51 ; on the common

tunny, 213.

Hooker, Dr. J. D., on Decaisnea, 52.

Hooker’s, Six W. J., British Flora,

reviewed, 203.

Horeites, new species of, 227.

Horsfield, Dr. T., on some new

species of Mammalia, 101.

Humming-bird, new species of, 278.

Hutton, Capt. T., on the operculum

of Diplommatina, 300.

Huxley, T. H., on the progressive de-

velopment of animal life, 69.

Tora tiphia, on the habits of, 64.

Ixulus, new species of, 370.

Jasonilla, on the anatomy of, 206.

Jeffreys, J. G., on the descent of gla-

ciers, 122; on British Foraminifera,

209 ; on Shropshire Mollusca, 464.

Johnston, Dr., biographical notice of

the late, 199; on Sibbald’s Draw-

ings of Scottish Animals, 296.

Jones, T. R., on British and foreign

species of Beyrichia, 81, 163.

Kingsley’s, C., Glaucus, or the Won-

ders of the Shore, reviewed, 354.

INDEX.

Knox, Dr. R., on the food of certain

gregarious fishes, 57.

Krohn, Dr. A., on the heart and cir-

culation in the Pyenogonide, 176.

Lanio, new species of, 380.

Lanius Hardwickii and L. Excubitor,

on the habits of, 62.

Layard, E. L., on the genus Palu-

domus, with descriptions of new

species, and the description of a

new species of Anculotus, 133. °

Lenticels, on the morphology of the

organs called, 273.

Lereboullet, M., on double monstro-

sity in fishes, 47.

Lespés, C., on the spermatophora of

the crickets, 150.

Leuckart, R., on the young states of

some Annelides, 259.

Leucosiade, monograph of the, 361.

Leucosilia, characters of the new

genus, 364

Lichens, on the dyeing properties of,

144.

Limea, note on the subgenus, 256.

Linaria sepium, note on, 449,

Lindsay, Dr. W. L., on the dyeing

properties of lichens, 144.

Linnzan Society, proceedings of the,

51, 212, 291, 356.

Bee description of the new genus,

366.

Lucernaria campanulata, note on,313.

Lupus, new species of, 107.

— J., on the subgenus Limea,

256.

M‘Andrew, R., on some species of

Mollusea, 465.

Macdonald, J. D., on the anatomy of

Jasonilla, 206.

Mammalia, on some new or little-

known species of, 101.

Masters, M. T., on an abnormal stem

of a species of Dipsacus, 292.

Megacarpzea polyandra, remarks on,

Meles, new species of, 108.

Mesotrocha, on the metamorphoses

of, 264.

Meteorologicai observations, 79, 151,

231, 303, 383, 466.

Modiolarca, on the genus, 228.

Modiolarcea trapezina, on the animal

of, 24.

Mollusca, on the anatomy of branchial

organs in the Gasteropod, 404; on

the genera of, 422; note on Shrop-

shire, 464; on some species of, 46D,

INDEX.

Momotus, new species of, 373.

Monstrosity in fishes, on double, 47.

Moore, F., on the species of the genus

Orthotomus, 128; on some new

and little-known species of birds,

65, 225, 226, 367, 369; on the

species of the genus Accentor, 285.

More, A. G., on the flora of the neigh-

bourhood of Castle Taylor, 72.

Morrisia, new species of, 443.

Miilleria, on the genus, 290.

Murchison, Dr. C., on the white se-

cretion of the Flata limbata, 356.

Mus, new species of, 112.

Mustela, new species of, 107.

Myra, new species of, 364.

Myrodes, description of the new

genus, 364.

Neesea bidentata, note on, 308.

Nemosia, new species of, 382.

Nemura, on some species of, 67.

Nereis bilineata, note on, 78.

Neriéne, new species of, 121.

Noctua indica, on the habits of, 61.

Nolella, description of the genus, 35.

Nursia, new species of, 366.

Nursilia, on the genus, 366.

Nycticejus, new species of, 104.

i leat monograph of the genus,

207.

Oreophorus, new species of, 366.

Oriolus aureus, on the habits of, 225.

Orites, new species of, 367.

Orthotomus, new species of, 129.

Osmia, on the habits of the species of,

125,

Othonia, new species of, 33.

Otogyps, on the egg of, 78.

Owen, Prof., on the anatomy of the

Great Anteater, 374; on the bones

of the leg of Dinornis, 460.

Pachybdella, on the genus, 153.

Pachygnathus, new species of, 305.

Palapteryx gracilis, on the bones of

the leg of, 462.

Palms, fossil, remarks on, 55.

Paludomus, new species of, 135.

Paradoxurus, new species of, 105.

Parlatore, M., on Aphyllanthes mons-

peliensis, 300.

Patellide, on the branchial system of

the, 412.

Peachia, on the genus, 294.

Peltogaster, on the genus, 153.

Persephona, new species of, 363.

Petrogale, new species of, 383.

Philopotamis, new species of, 139.

Philyra, new species of, 365.

471

Phlyxia, new species of, 365.

Pheenicornis Peregrinus, on the habits

of, 64.

Phoxichilidium, new species of, 30.

Phytolitharia, on the presence of, in

soils which support vegetation, 219.

Pinus hirtella and P. religiosa, on the

identity of, 54.

Pipilopsis, new species of, 38].

Placuna placenta, on the animal of, 23.

Plants, new habitats for rare British,

72, 212, 292, 295; on the origin of

vessels in, 214.

Plecotus, new species of, 103.

Pnoépyga, new species of, 65.

Poliospiza, new species of, 299.

Polyzoa, descriptions of new, 35.

Praniza ceruleata, note on, 307.

Prinia, on some species of, 68.

Procnias, new species of, 380.

Prosthemadera, on the egg of, 78.

Protula Dysteri, note on, 312.

Pucrasia, new species of, 222.

Pycnogonide, on the heart and circu-

lation in the, 176.

Pyctorhis, new species of, 226.

Pyrenestes, new species of, 299.

Quekett’s, Prof., Catalogue of the His-

tological Series in the Museum of

the Royal College of Surgeons, 454.

Quelea, new species of, 299.

Quenstedt, Prof., on the mode in which

Brachiopoda open and close their

shell, 436.

Ramphocelus, new species of, 142.

Ranunculi, on the Batrachian, 385.

Respiration, on the mechanism of

aquatic, in invertebrate animals,

315, 404.

Rhynchonella, new species of, 444.

Rissoa anatina, note on, 117.

Robertson, P. 8., on the germination

of some species of Coniferz, 73.

Royal Institution of Great Britain,

proceedings of the, 69.

Royal Society, proceedings of the, 205.

Sagartia, on the genus, 294

Saint-Pierre, E. G. de, on the mor-

phology of the lenticels, 273.

Salmon, on the food of the, 60; on

the ova of the, 205.

Salticus, new species of, 329.

Schmidt, Prof. O., on the sexes and

ova of the Brachiopoda, 439.

Sciurus, new species of, 113.

Sclater, P. L., on some new or imper-

fectly described species of Tanagers,

140, 150, 377; on a collection of

472

birds from the Republic of Ecuador,

279; on a species of Procnias, 380.

Seemann, B., on the identity of Pinus

hirtella and P. religiosa, 54.

Sibbald’s, Sir R., Drawings of Scottish

Animals, 296.

Silk-worm of India, on the Eria, 291.

Smith’s, F., Catalogue of British Bees,

reviewed, 124.

Solen javanicus, on the animal of, 22.

Sorex, new species of, 110.

Species, on the law which has regu-

lated the introduction of new, 184.

Spider, new species of, 120, 329.

Sponge-spicules, on the presence of,

in soils, 219.

Steenstrup, Prof., on the genera Pa-

chybdella and Peltogaster, 153.

Sternbergia of the carboniferous

epoch, on the, 144.

Stickleback, on the habits of the, 330.

Suya, new species of, 68.

Syllis, new species of, 31.

Tachyphonus, new species of, 377.

Tadpole of the common frog, on the

arrested development of the, 465.

Dane new species of, 140, 150,

Tanais, note on a species of, 307.

Tanalia, new species of, 138.

Tarsiger, on some species of, 67.

Terebratella Spitzbergensis, descrip-

tion of, 442.

Terebratula, on the opening and

closing of the shell of, 435.

Terebratulina caput-serpentis, on cal-

careous plates found in the mantle,

oral arms, and cirri of, 440,

Thalassidroma, new species of, 78.

‘Thompson, W., note on Nereis bi-

lineata, 78; on the occurrence of

Diodonta fragilis, 379.

Thomson, Dr. T., on the genus De-

caisnea, 52.

INDEX.

Threnetes, new species of, 278.

Titmice, new species of, 367.

Trécul, A., on the organization of the

wae ae glands of the leaf of

rosera rotundifolia, 146.

Trichastoma, on some species of, 66.

Tritonia Hombergii, note on the oc-

currence of, 380.

Tyrannula, new species of, 282.

Unciola, note on a species of, 307.

Urrua Bengalensis, habits of, 61.

he en M., on the Gorgonidee,

177.

Vegetable individual, on the, in its

relation to species, 233, 333.

Vespertilio, new species of, 102.

Vireosylvia, new species of, 298.

Waldheimia septigera, description of,

441.

Wallace, A. R., on the law which has

regulated the introduction of new

species, 184. ;

Walter, H. F., on the eggs of Otogyps

and Prosthemadera, 8.

Warington, R., on the aquarium, 313;

on thehabits of the stickleback, 330.

Westwood, J. O., on the Eria silk-

worm of India, 291.

Williams, Dr. T., on the structure of

the organs of breathing in inverte-

brate animals, 315, 404.

Woodward, S. P., on the animals of

certain genera of Conchifera, 22; on

a new locality for Clausilia Rolphii,

298; on Helix aspersa, 298; on a

new species of recent Rhyncho-

nella, 444.

Wright, Dr. T., on a new genus of

fossil Cidaridee, 94; on some new

species of Hemipedina, 196.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society, Pro-

ceedings of the, reviewed, 128.

Zoological Society, proceedings of the,

61, 128, 222, 278, 367, 457.

THE SIXTEENTH VOLUME.

END Oa

4&2

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,

RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

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