FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

FRONTISPIECE.

jw, •»*K-H^.

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(Courtesy of Frank Wamsley, Glendora, California)

ORANGES AND SNOW IN CALIFORNIA.

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

PUBLICATION 245

BOTANICAL SERIES VOL. VI, No. 2

CITRUS PRODUCTS

PART II

BY

JAMES B. McNAiR

Assistant Curator of Economic Botany

B. E. DAHLGREN

Acting Curator, Department of Botany

EDITOR

Til*

OF THE

1928

ILLINOIS

CHICAGO, U. S. A.

November 14, 1927

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

BY FIELD MUSEUM PRESS

CONTENTS

PACK

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix

CHAPTER

XI. ECONOMICS OF THE CITRUS PRODUCT INDUSTRY 213

Citrus fruit production — basic facts relating to the California

products industry; the lemon products industry in Italy; future

of the American citrus products industry; the cost per ton of

handling cull lemons in the United States; comparative labor

costs of handling cull lemons and of manufacturing by-products

in the United States and Italy; summary. Limes and lemons as

sources of citric acid and essential oils. Extent of production of

citrus products; composition of the two fruits; method of culti-

vating limes : selection of land, preparation of land and planting,

nursery work, after-cultivation and manuring, pests and diseases,

time of maturity and yields, harvesting, fresh limes ; the produc-

tion of lime products in Sicily : yields and profits ; lemon and lime

yields and profits contrasted: selling basis of lime juice and oils,

gross and net values; the marketing of citrus products: methods

of selling in Sicily, West Indian methods, citrus products on the

London markets, defects in West Indian products, lime and lemon

oils, oils of orange ; summary. European citric acid production —

calcium citrate ; citric acid. Cost of manufacture of orange vine-

gar— equipment; material; production costs; comparison with

apple vinegar. Citrus oil prices — lemon oil, orange oil, oil of

bergamot, oil of limes, oil of Neroli.

XII. THE INDUSTRY IN NORTH AMERICA 241

Citrus oil production. Imports of citrus oils — lemon oil, orange

oil, oil of bergamot, oil of limes, Neroli or orange flower oil,

cedrat oil. The citrate and citric acid industry. Imports of ci-

trate of lime and citric acid. Tariff problems. California — the

manufacture of citric acid from lemons: extraction of juice, pre-

cipitation of calcium citrate, decomposition of citrate, concentra-

tration of liquors, purification of crude acid, organic color, lead,

copper, tin, and antimony, iron and nickel, sulphuric acid, calcium

sulphate, carbonized filter-eel, crystallization treatment of old

liquor, quality of product, use of metric system; the industry in

the San Diego district ; in the San Bernardino district ; in the Los

Angeles district. Florida. Mexico.

XIII. THE INDUSTRY IN THE WEST INDIES AND NEIGHBORING ISLANDS. .261

British West Indies — island statistics : Bahamas, Jamaica, Leeward

Islands, St. Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago; Jamaican orange oil:

method of production, method of shipment, testing and shipping

vi CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

by buyers and shippers, costs, exports, supply and demand, bitter

orange oil ; lime cultivation ; the lime industry in St. Lucia ; ex-

traction of lime juice by milling; lime juice for cordials and flav-

oring; lime juice discoloration; citrate of lime and concentrated

lime juice; Maclntyre's experiments in lime juice concentration;

note by Watts on Maclntyre's experiments in lime juice concen-

tration. Concentrating lime juice by freezing — Rollings' method

of concentrating lime juice by freezing. Calcium citrate prepara-

tion. Salability of citrate and juice. West Indian lime oils,

expressed and distilled — origin and production; hand-expressed

oil: properties and composition, citral and acid content; distilled

oil: properties and composition, methyl anthranilate, limettin,

citral. Haiti. Cuba. French West Indies. Porto Rico. Dutch

West Indies (Curasao).

XIV. THE INDUSTRY IN SOUTH AMERICA 307

Argentina. Brazil. Chile. Paraguay — oil of petitgrain. British

Guiana. Uruguay.

XV. THE INDUSTRY IN EUROPE 313

Greece. Syria. Former Austrian empire. France. Italy — geo-

graphical distribution of the by-product industry: the industry

near Etna, in the Messina district, in the Palermo district, in the

Syracuse district, in the north-coast towns ; manufacture of citrus

products; equipment of factories; preparation of the fruit; ex-

traction of the essential oil ; treatment of the residues ; machine-

made essential oil; citrate of lime; costs of production; varying

trade systems (speculation) ; the 1908 law for the centralization

of the trade; the Sicilian citrate and sulphur industries com-

pared ; citrus fruit export data.

XVI. THE INDUSTRY IN ASIA 340

Japan. China. Syria.

XVII. THE INDUSTRY OF AFRICA AND OCEANIA 344

Africa — Algeria; British South Africa; Morocco; Tunis.

Oceania — Australia ; New Zealand.

APPENDIX 348

Tables showing: Citrus fruit: production of oranges and lemons

by principal districts, Spain, 1923-24 and 1925-26. Citrus fruit:

production in France, 1914-24. Citrus oils, acid, and citrate of

lime exported from Italy. Imports of lemon oil into the United

States, 1898-1924. Imports of Neroli or orange flower oil into

the United States, 1898-1922. Imports of orange oil into the

United States, 1898-1924. Imports of citric acid into the United

States, 1898-1924. Imports of citrate of lime into the United

CONTENTS vii

CHAPTER PAGE

States, by countries, for fiscal years 1910-17 and calendar years

1918-20. Imports of lemon oil into the United States by coun-

tries, for fiscal years 1910-17, and calendar years 1918-20. Im-

ports of lemon, lime, and sour orange juice into the United

States, 1898-1924. Total cars and boxes of oranges and lemons

shipped from California. Total cars of oranges and lemons

shipped from northern California, 1903-24. Total cars of or-

anges and lemons shipped from southern California, 1887-1924.

Lemons : exports from the United States by countries, year end-

ing June 30, 1913-23 and nine months (July, 1923 — March, 1924).

Production of oranges, grapefruit and lemons, by states, for var-

ious periods. Lemons : imports into the United States, by coun-

tries, year ending June 30, 1910-13, 1922, 1923, and nine months

(July, 1923 — March, 1924). Lemons: imports into the United

States by months, November, 1922 — April, 1924. Monthly aver-

age wholesale prices of California and Sicilian lemons in New

York, January, 1922, to April, 1924. Exports of citrate of lime

and citric acid, from Italy by countries, 1913. Exports of ci-

trate of lime and citric acid from Italy, 1909-17. Exports of ci-

trate of lime and citric acid from Italy, by countries, 1917.

Exports of essential oil of lemon from Italy, 1909-17. Rates of

import duties on citrus products in the United States, 1883-1925.

Rates of import duties on citrate of lime in principal countries.

Rates of import duties on citric acid in the principal countries.

Wholesale prices of citric acid (crystals) at New York, 1911-19.

Comparison of wholesale prices of citric acid in Italy, Australia,

and the United States by quarters, 1913-18. Oil of orange, oil

of bergamot, oil of lemon — exports of citrus oils from Italy,

1912-19. Exports of Italian essential citrus oils, by principal

countries, 1916. Citric acid manufactured in the United States,

1904-17. Bergamot, synthetic — prices per pound. Oil of lime,

expressed — prices per pound. Oil of lime, distilled — prices per

pound. Neroli-bigarade — prices per pound. Oil of orange,

sweet Italian — prices per pound. Orange, bitter — prices per

pound. Orange, West Indian — prices per pound. Bergamot —

prices per pound. Cedrat oil — imports for consumption — rev-

enue. Oil of bergamot — prices per pound. Oil of lemon — prices,

dollars per pound. Bergamot oil — imports for consumption — rev-

enue. Oil of limes — imports for consumption — revenue. Ner-

oli — synthetic and oil of Neroli, petale — prices, dollars per pound.

INDEXES 375

Author Index. Subject Index.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

ORANGES AND SNOW IN CALIFORNIA Frontispiece

PLATE FACING PAGE

VII. ORANGE GROVES IN JAMAICA 250

VIII. GATHERING THE LEAVES OF THE BITTER ORANGE IN PARAGUAY. .266

IX. BRANCH OF A BITTER ORANGE TREE 270

X. A TYPICAL PARAGUAYAN OIL OF PETITGRAIN FACTORY 278

XI. WEIGHING BITTER ORANGE LEAVES DELIVERED BY THE GATHER-

ERS AT A PARAGUAYAN FACTORY (upper). A LOAD OF BITTER

ORANGE LEAVES ON ROAD TO AN OIL OF PETITGRAIN FACTORY

(lower) 282

XII. PURIFICATION OF PETITGRAIN OIL (upper). DISTILLATION OF

PETITGRAIN OIL IN PARAGUAY (lower) 286

XIII. HARVESTING CITRONS IN CORSICA (upper). SORTING CITRONS

IN CORSICA (lower) 294

XIV. WEIGHING CITRONS IN CORSICA (upper). A SHIPMENT OF

CITRONS AT BASTIA, CORSICA (lower) 298

XV. TERRACES OF LEMON TREES ON THE MOUNTAIN-SIDE NEAR

" MAJORI (upper). TERRACES OF LEMON TREES RISING FROM THE

SEA IN SICILY (lower) 302

XVI. ONE OF THE BETTER TYPES OF GROVES AT MASCALI, SICILY

(upper). A GROVE OF LOW-HEADED TREES IN CALIFORNIA

(lower) 310

XVII. PICKING AND GRADING THE FRUIT, PALERMO, SICILY (upper).

INTERIOR OF A PACKING-HOUSE AT CATANIA, SICILY (lower) . .314

XVIII. A CRUSHING MACHINE USED IN THE PREPARATION OF CITRATE

OF LIME (left). A LEMON-JUICE PRESS (right) 318

XIX. PARING LEMONS, THREE-PIECE METHOD, PALERMO, SICILY

(upper). INTERIOR OF LEMON PRODUCT FACTORY, SYRACUSE,

SICILY (lower) 326

XX. A LEMON-OIL MACHINE USED IN CALABRIA (left). DISKS

USED IN CALABRIAN MACHINES (right) 330

XXI. ORANGE GROVE AT NABEUL, TUNIS (upper). COLLECTING

ORANGE FLOWERS AT NABEUL, TUNIS (lower) 334

XXII. MANUFACTURING PLANT AT NABEUL, TUNIS (upper). AN

ARABIC STILL (lower) 342

FIGURE PAGE

20. FLOW SHEET FOR MANUFACTURE OF CITRIC ACID FROM LEMONS 247

CHAPTER XI

ECONOMICS OF THE CITRUS PRODUCT INDUSTRY

CITRUS FRUIT PRODUCTION

The most important of the citrus fruits from the standpoint of the

citrus products industry is the lemon. As may be seen from the table

below, Italy is by far the largest grower and exporter of lemons. At the

same time this country is also the principal source of lemon oil, citrate of

lime, and citric acid.

TABLE XXIX

LEMONS — INTERNATIONAL TRADE, 1913, 1921-23*

(Boxes of 84 Ibs., expressed in 1,000)

""Compiled from official sources except where otherwise noted,

t Not separately stated. [[Includes limes and grapefruit.

J Less than 500 boxes. UTen months ending October 31.

§ Expressed in value only.

BASIC FACTS RELATING TO THE CALIFORNIA PRODUCTS INDUSTRY

In normal years 10 per cent of the lemon crop and 3 per cent of the

orange crop is classed as "culls" and are not fit for shipment because of

their physical condition.1 Under unfavorable conditions as much as 40

per cent of the fruit may be classed as "culls," since it cannot be sold for

enough to pay the cost of harvesting, shipping, and selling. It must,

however, be harvested and sorted out in the packing-house and the ex-

pense involved in this handling is a loss to the grower unless the fruit

can be converted into products which will sell at a price that will at least

cover these costs.

*For a more complete definition of "culls" see p. 4.

213

214 CITRUS PRODUCTS

The conversion of this waste fruit in the United States into a useful

product is necessary to the stability of the fruit growing industry.

THE LEMON PRODUCTS INDUSTRY IN ITALY1

In Italy, the principal country producing lemons outside of the United

States, where the cultural conditions result in a higher proportion of un-

salable fruit, from 30 to 50 per cent of the total crop of lemons is con-

verted into citrate of lime, citric acid, and lemon oil. In order to aid the

prosperity of the lemon industry, the Italian government has created a

by-products monopoly through which it is sought to guarantee a fair price

to the grower and to control and regulate the market for these products.

The United States Tariff Commission has made an investigation of the

by-products business in Italy. It has the following to report about its

control by the Italian government :

An important feature of the industry is the Sicilian method of selling the

citrus products. The Italian Government created a citrus chamber of Camera

Agrumaria, to control and regulate the market for citrus products. This

Chamber is made up of a certain number of producers and exporters from

each of the Provinces together with representatives from the ministries of

commerce and agriculture and a president nominated by the council of min-

isters.

Citrate of lime and citric acid are handled almost exclusively by the

Camera which fixes the prices periodically and through its agents allots

monthly deliveries to buyers all over the world. It guarantees the producer

a certain minimum price for his product and the Italian Government levies

an export duty amounting to I lire per quintal (0.087 cent Per pound) on all

sales not made through the Camera Agrumaria. The producers deposit their

output with the Camera and they are advanced 80 per cent of the value of the

citrate of lime, and the balance is adjusted when the sale is made.2

Citric acid, citrate of lime, and lemon and orange oils are articles of

the world-trade. The United States offers the largest available market

for them. Citric acid is imported into the United States chiefly in the

form of citrate of lime and is here converted into citric acid, though in

the last few years large quantities of citric acid have been imported as

such. A large amount of citric acid is also imported in the form of con-

centrated lemon or lime juice, which, under the previous tariff, was ad-

mitted duty-free.

FUTURE OF THE AMERICAN CITRUS PRODUCTS INDUSTRY

The American lemon industry is growing rapidly. California will

produce 5,000,000 boxes in excess of the total normal consumption of

lemons in the United States. There are 17,000 acres of non-bearing

^ee pp. 336, 337, 349, 355, 360, 361-68 for additional statistics.

^Tariff Information Series No. 13 (1920), p. 24.

LEMON PRODUCTS INDUSTRY

215

lemon trees in California, which, if the industry is maintained, will in-

crease this surplus in the next few years to at least 3,000,000 boxes.1

This increase in production will increase the supply of cull lemons which

furnish the raw material for citrus products.

California is now producing one-third of the citric acid used in the

United States and will largely increase its production in the next few

years. Five factories, two of which are operated by co-operative grow-

ers' organizations, have already been established to handle orange and

lemon by-products. These factories are prepared to utilize the entire cull

supply if the tariff makes continued operation and the expansion of the

industry possible.

The United States Tariff Commission has the following to say about

the domestic citrus products industry and its future :

There is an opportunity for the growth of the citrus by-products industry

in California through the more complete utilization of the culls and through

the growth of the lemon-growing industry. The acreage of young, non-

bearing lemon groves in California is about 75 per cent of the acreage of

bearing trees, and much of the latter is in young orchards which have not

reached the full-bearing stage. It may, therefore, be predicted that within

five or six years the total crop of lemons will be nearly double that produced

during 1918. If the same proportion of the crop were treated as culls, and

if all the culls were converted into useful products, the production of these

would be about four times as great as at present [1918]. Should it prove

difficult to sell the double crop of lemons at profitable figures, the tendency

will be to grade more strictly, and thereby to increase the proportion of culls.2

THE COST PER TON OF HANDLING CULL LEMONS IN THE UNITED STATES

The cost of converting cull lemons into citric acid and lemon oil in

California is known from the records of the Exchange Lemon Products

TABLE XXX

COST OF HANDLING AND PROCESSING LOW-GRADE LEMONS

JSee diagram, pp. i, 2.

^Tariff Information Series No. 13 (1920), p. 26.

2l6

CITRUS PRODUCTS

Co. and the United Chemical Works, which have converted 70,000 tons

of lemons into these products since 1916. The present cost of harvesting

the fruit, handling it to the central factory and of manufacturing, includ-

ing the proportion of the cost represented by labor, is set forth in

Table XXX.

Since both citric acid and oil of lemon are manufactured from the

lemons, a proper division of the labor costs per ton as outlined in Table

XXX is estimated to be $14.24 for 40 Ib. of acid and $2.20 for 5 Ib. of

lemon oil produced from one ton of cull fruit. This represents 35.6 cents

per pound of citric acid and 44 cents per pound of lemon oil.

All citric acid in the course of its manufacture pas'ses through the

citrate of lime stage. The labor required to convert this into citric acid

costs approximately 4 cents per pound of acid crystallized. The labor

cost of acid in the citrate stage is therefore 31.6 cents per pound. A

pound of citrate contains 64/iooths pound of pure acid, the labor cost

of the acid as represented in this citrate of lime stage is therefore 20.2

cents per pound.

COMPARATIVE LABOR COSTS OF HANDLING CULL LEMONS AND OF MANUFACTUR-

ING BY-PRODUCTS IN THE UNITED STATES AND ITALY

Using the cost of labor on citric acid made in California as outlined

above at 35.6 cents per pound, the comparative labor cost of Italian citric

acid is 8.9 cents per pound, the labor ratio between the United States and

Italy being 4 to I.

TABLE XXXI

COMPARATIVE WAGES* IN ITALY AND AMERICA

* The Italian wages are taken from tables compiled by the clerk of the Ways and Means Com-

mittee (Tariff Information Series (1921), "Wages in the United States and Foreign Countries" (pp. 9.

36) . The wages in California are taken from the records of those handling cull lemons and manufacturing

these products.

The comparison of wages, including the ratio between the Italian and

American rates, is set forth in Table XXXI. The comparative domestic

and foreign labor costs' applied to citrate of lime are, respectively, 20.2

LEMON PRODUCTS INDUSTRY

217

cents and 5.1 cents per pound. The comparative labor costs of domestic

and Italian oils are 44 cents and n cents per pound. The difference in

labor costs in favor of Italy is 26.7 cents on citric acid, 15.1 cents per

pound on citrate of lime, and 33 cents per pound on oil. The value of

imported oil is approximately 80 cents per pound or 72 cents before pay-

ment of duty. An ad valorem rate of 40 per cent equal 28.8 cents per

pound, or 4.2 cents per pound less than the difference in labor cost in

favor of Italy.

TABLE XXXII

COMPARATIVE COST OF LABOR PER POUND OF CITRIC

ACID, CITRATE OF LIME, AND LEMON OIL

IN THE UNITED STATES AND ITALY

Table XXXII shows a comparison of the cost of labor per pound of

citric acid, citrate of lime, and lemon oil in the United States and Italy

and the difference in favor of Italy.

SUMMARY

The manufacture of commercial products from orange and lemon

culls is a new industry in the United States as indeed is the entire citrus

products industry.

The effective salvage of unsalable fruit through the manufacture of

by-products would appear to be a desirable aid to the stability of the

citrus industry.

The lemon by-products industry in Italy, America's principal com-

petitor, is controlled by a government monopoly of long standing which

provides for the disposal of 30 per cent to 50 per cent of the Italian crop.

Factories now operating in California can supply one-third of the

citric acid consumed in the United States; their output is likely to be

greatly increased if adequate tariff protection is afforded them.

The rapid expansion of the citrus growing industry, particularly in

the production of lemons, the supply of which already exceeds the normal

domestic consumption, will provide an increasing volume of fruit to be

employed in citrus products manufacture.

218 CITRUS PRODUCTS

The prevailing wage in the United States scale is four times that of

Italy.

Excess of American labor cost over Italian labor cost is known to be :

26.7 per pound of citric acid produced ; 15.1 cents per pound of citrate of

lime produced ; 33 cents per pound of oil of lemon produced.

LIMES AND LEMONS AS SOURCES OF CITRIC ACID AND ESSENTIAL OILS

During recent years, in tropical agriculture, lime cultivation has been

one of the minor booms. Prices have ruled extraordinarily high for the

various citrus products, and at the present time large areas of land are

being placed under cultivation not only in the West Indies but also in

other parts of the tropics.

For the present there are no indications that the supply of lime

products will exceed the demand. As a matter of fact, the demand for

limes is sufficiently distinct from that for lemons, so that there is but little

overlapping, but the fact remains that Sicily with her lemon production

to a large extent regulates the market price for citric acid, which is the

essential constituent of lime juice and of calcium citrate. Sicily, also,

because of her large production, influences the prices for all the essential

oils of the citrus group.

It occurred to Dunlap, in view of the increasing area under limes and

the attention which lime growers give to Sicilian affairs, that it would be

interesting to contrast the lemon and the lime as sources of citrus

products, to compare their respective yields, and their positions in the

world's markets. At the same time it was thought desirable to give in

outline the methods practiced in cultivating limes in the West Indies for

the benefit of capital seeking investment, and to indicate how the market

opinion of lime products compares with that of lemon products. The

lemon is not, like the lime, dealt with from the agricultural standpoint,

for the reason that the area under lemons — except perhaps in districts

of the United States — cannot readily be extended, for the plant seems to

require very special conditions of soil and climate, and the industry in

Sicily is fully established. Moreover the lime crop appears to be better

suited to tropical conditions than the lemon. As regards foreign coun-

tries, the future development of the citrus products manufacture will

probably depend chiefly upon the extension of lime cultivation to which

the West Indies and Central America are especially well adapted.

EXTENT OF PRODUCTION OF CITRUS PRODUCTS

The principal commodities dealt with in this book are raw and con-

centrated lime juice, citrate of lime, and the essential oils. Some idea

EXTENT OF PRODUCTION 219

of the relative importance of lemon and lime products can be obtained

from the following tables. The first one, Table XXXIII, shows the ex-

ports of lime products from the British West Indian Colonies1 during

1913-14.

TABLE XXXIII

Dominica £142,662

Montserrat 5,977

Jamaica (average last four years) 4»J79

St. Lucia 3,108

British Guiana I>53°

Total

These figures include the fresh limes exported chiefly to New York,

worth about £40,000. It may be added that lime products worth some

thousands of pounds are also exported from Porto Rico, Mexico, and

other foreign countries of Central America.

The value of citrus products prepared from the lemons exported from

Sicily in 1908, which may be taken as an average year, amounted to about

£840,650. Bulletin No. 60, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States

Department of Agriculture, gives the following analysis (Table

XXXIV).

TABLE XXXIV

Citrate of lime $2,678,489

Citrus essential oils 1,380,455

Raw juice — . 121,098

Concentrated juice 23,208

Total $4,203,650*

•Approximately £840,650.

As a general rule, the value of the fresh lemons exported equals the

combined value of the so-called by-products, excluding peel. This shows

the magnitude of the citrus trade of Sicily. During 1912-13, the fresh

fruit trade increased greatly owing to the failure of the California crop,

which partly meets the American demand. Hence the amount of by-

products that could be made in Sicily was relatively small, and conse-

quently prices ruled high for the West Indian products. During 1912-13

the quantity of citrate of lime produced by Sicily was only 3,445 metric

tons and of concentrated juice only 22,042 imperial gallons — considerably

less than the mean annual production or consumption during the last five

years.

It is thus evident that Sicily, being the chief source of citrus products,

must to a large extent regulate the market: It may be remembered, how-

^ee Appendix, pp. 354, 355, for later statistics on West Indian products.

22O

CITRUS PRODUCTS

ever, that the total or combined exports of lemons and by-products from

Sicily has not increased for years and is not likely to grow appreciably

larger. On the other hand the export of lime products has increased

rapidly during the past few years and is certain to increase farther,

strengthening the position of limes on the market.

COMPOSITION OF THE TWO FRUITS

The commercial yields of acid and oils will be described later. In

this section attention will be given to the chemical composition of the

fruits.

The Lancet for March 28, 1908, published the results of analyses of

two sample's of limes and lemons which showed the lime in all important

respects to be the richer fruit. The report, which was reproduced as a

leaflet by the West India Committee, stated that "the lime, although

smaller than the lemon, yields, weight for weight, a good deal more juice.

Thus the average amount of juice expressed from a lemon was 37.5 per

cent of its weight, whereas the lime gave 59.0 per cent. Moreover the

lime gives more citric acid but less sugar." This report included analyses,

which showed the citric acid content of the lemon to be 4.57 and that of

the lime 5.60 gm.

TABLE XXXV

•Expressed as crystallized citric acid, containing I molecule of water.

TABLE XXXVI

In order to extend this investigation Dunlap secured two commercial

samples of limes from different sources, and three commercial samples

of lemons from ordinary retail shops in London. The results obtained

on examination are in Table XXXV.

COMPOSITION OF LEMONS AND LIMES

221

Taking the average of the figures shown in columns 4 and 5 of Table

XXXV we get results given in Table XXXVI.

These results show, even with limes not of the first grade, that the

lime undoubtedly contains a higher percentage of juice and of citric acid

than the lemon, but the difference is not quite as great as the Lancet

figures seem to show. Dr. Watts, in the West Indies, during 1905 tested

limes and lemons grown in Dominica,1 and as regards the acid content

obtained the results in Tables XXXVII and XXXVIII.

TABLE XXXVIII

LEMONS

These values relatively are more in accord with Dunlap's figures,

though absolutely the acid content is much higher. It is dear that in the

case of the relative composition of citrus fruits great care must be exer-

cised to secure examples which are in a comparable condition. There is

undoubtedly a loss in citric acid on keeping.

At all events Dunlap's figures are of interest as an indication of the

composition of the limes and lemons that are sold during the winter

months in London.

It would appear that the lemon contains a larger percentage of essen-

tial oils than the lime, possibly owing to the thickness of the skin. The

lime is richer in phosphoric acid and possesses special anti-scorbutic

properties — matters of importance from a dietetic point of view.

METHOD OF CULTIVATING LIMES

The cultivation of limes in the West Indies is fully treated in

pamphlets of the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West

Indies, but it may be well to give an outline here of the methods adopted.

1See Annual Report on Botanic Station, Dominica, 1905-6.

222 CITRUS PRODUCTS

Moreover, the principles governing the preparation of lime products are

the same as for the lemon, so that the information will be of interest to

the reader who is unfamiliar with one industry or the other.

Selection of land. — The establishment and general management is

sketched for an estate in Dominica or St. Lucia, two of the principal

citrus islands of the Lesser Antilles.

It is advised that flat or gently undulating lands should be chosen if pos-

sible, in a locality which is well sheltered and situated from sea-level up to

800 ft elevation, and possessing a rainfall varying from 80 to 160 in. per

annum. If the rainfall is well distributed, 60 in. may suffice. In the West

Indies, where limes thrive best, the average temperature is about 80° F. in

the shade.

Preparation of land and planting. — If necessary, the land is cleared of

forest in the usual way, and after planting the seedlings (generally 15 ft. X

15 ft.) the weeds are kept down by cutlassing around the young plants. Be-

fore planting, however, adequate provision has to be made for roads, drain-

age, and windbreaks. Drainage depends upon local conditions of soil and

climate, but often it is not apparent that drainage is necessary until the estate

is being worked. Care should be taken to plant the trees in straight lines;

otherwise, if drainage operations have to be started, grave damage may be

done to the groves. Windbreaks are generally essential from the beginning.

There are several trees used as permanent windbreaks, such as Galba (Calo-

phyllum Calaba) and Pois-doux (Inga laurina) ; whilst the sugar-cane and

Madura (Glyricidia maculata) make good temporary shelters.

Nursery work. — Seedlings for planting out are raised in special seed-

beds in nurseries. Up to the present most of this work in the West Indies

has been undertaken by the local agricultural departments, which have sup-

plied the estate with many thousands annually. Now the estates are begin-

ning to raise their own stock. There are no special difficulties attending this

work, provided a good water supply is secured. Success then depends largely

on practical experience.

After-cultivation and manuring. — The point to remember in this connec-

tion is that the root system of the lime tree is surface feeding. Hence tillage

has to be very cautiously performed, and it is generally disadvantageous in

the long run to plant catch crops. Very little pruning is required, but atten-

tion must be paid to cases of in j ury by wind and to replacing trees that die.

As regards manuring, the first essential is to maintain the soil humus.

This is done by the careful use of green dressing and by the application of

mulch, green manure, and possibly artificial manures. Very little is yet

known concerning the manuring of limes. Experiments have been carried

on in this direction at Dominica. As a matter of fact, there is not a great

deal known about the requirements of the lime plant. It has been rather

neglected, because it was not until quite recently that this plant became

prominent in cultivation. More attention, experimentally, has been given to

its products, like the composition of the fruit, lime juice, and oils.

Pests and diseases. — A considerable amount of work has, however, been

done in connection with the pests and diseases of the lime tree, principally by

LIME CULTIVATION 223

the entomologists and mycologists of the Imperial Department of Agricul-

ture. The insect pests attacking limes have not as a general rule assumed a

serious aspect. Fungus troubles have been greater, and the well-known local

West Indian root disease occasions considerable loss in some places unless

draining, trenching, liming, and the burning of diseased material is rigorously

carried out.

Time of maturity and yields. — The lime crop takes about five years to

come into bearing. Under favorable conditions the trees may yield a few

fruits in the third year, but it is nearer eight or ten years before the estate

can be regarded as yielding its maximum crop. A lime tree continues to

yield for at least forty years after first beginning to bear.

In Dominica and St. Lucia the main crop is gathered from June or July

to November or December. Four or six months are required for the develop-

ment of the fruit from the flowering stage.

The yield per acre of an established lime plantation varies considerably,

but a good average is 150 barrels of fruit. The weight of a barrel (4^ cu. ft.

contents) of limes is about 160 Ib. Hence an acre of good land may be re-

garded as yielding 24,000 Ib. of fruit.

Harvesting. — The gathering of the crop depends upon the way it is to be

disposed of. Fresh limes for export as such are picked from the trees in a

green condition ; fruit from which manufactured products are to be made is

allowed to ripen on the tree and to fall to the ground.

Fresh limes. — During the last ten years a very considerable trade in

fresh limes has developed between Dominica and New York. Latterly

St. Lucia and other West Indian colonies have participated in this trade.

Great care is exercised in the matter of preparing the fruit for export.

The green fruit is kept in a packing-house for a few days previous to

being shipped in order to allow the fruit to quail, or cure, that is, lose

excess of moisture in the skins. The fruit must be carefully graded,

wrapped in paper, and packed in ventilated packages.

Whether, in the future, as the area under limes grows larger, the

fresh fruit trade will increase greatly, is difficult to foresee. In the United

States the lime appears to be replacing the lemon for many purposes.

In the case of the United Kingdom, the trade has never assumed any great

importance for several reasons. In the first place the voyage to England

is nearly twice as long as to New York, which puts difficulties in the way

of the transportation of perishable produce. Secondly, the British taste

is conservative. The public is familiar with the lemon, and is not gen-

erally inclined to discard it in favor of the lime, even if this fruit were

regularly available. As a matter of fact, the fresh lime is available in

quantity only during the latter half of the year, while the lemon is always

to be had. Furthermore, the fresh lime is essentially an article for im-

mediate sale. It does not keep as well as the lemon, and the retail sales-

men do not view it with favor from a business point of view. In New

224 CITRUS PRODUCTS

York, on the contrary, the consumption during the hot months is rapid

and continuous; the fruit can be bought with a certainty of profitable

sale.

The peculiar feature of the fresh lime trade is its elasticity or accom-

modating nature. If prices range beyond a certain point it pays to Ship;

if they do not, the fruit can be held back for manufacturing purposes.

The trade with New York is conducted on this principle.

In the case of the United Kingdom it seems to the growers at present

quite unnecessary to go to any expense for the purpose of increasing the

fresh lime trade, since more profit is to be had there from concentrated

juice and the essential oils.

THE PRODUCTION OF LEMON PRODUCTS IN SICILY

Lemon cultivation in Sicily and other parts of the subtropics has

characteristic features. Variation in the physical condition of the soil

affects the relative yields of juice and oil, not to mention the period of

ripening. In a general way, also, irrigation and protection from frost

are necessary for lemon cultivation, which differs from lime growing in

these respects. Another matter of interest is that the plants are usually

kept in the nurseries until three years old. They are then planted in the

groves (generally 15 ft. X 15 ft.) and come into bearing when six years

old.

The season of lemon ripening in Sicily varies. It is considered to

begin on October i and end on September 30 following. Fruit is pro-

duced all the year round. The heaviest yields of each locality usually

occur during the second, third, or fourth months in the season. The fruit

gathered in the first harvest in each section is considered to be inferior in

keeping quality.

Yields and profit. — On this point we may quote the Perfumery and

Essential Oil Record for August, 1914, which contains a translation of

an article that appeared during the same year in Le Journal d' Agriculture

Tropicale.

Working on averages we get the following figures: 1,000 fruits of 100

grams, that is to say 100 kilograms give (after machine peeling to a depth

of 2 mm., and thus removing the portion rich in essence) 30 kilograms of

peel, from which by sponge or "ecuelle" may be obtained 400 grams of essen-

tial oil. This yield varies with locality, care in cultivating, variety, and soil.

It may be reckoned, then, that 2,500 fruits give a kilogram of essence, and,

accepting the figure of 275,000 fruits per hectare, a total of 100 to no kilo-

grams of essence for this area. From the pulp after expression, one may

expect a yield of 45 per cent of juice or 12,000 kilograms per hectare. This

juice contains 5 to 7 per cent of pure citric acid, which means 720 kilograms.

This is evaporated to a specific gravity of 42° Beaume, equal to an acidity

YIELDS AND PROFITS 225

of 40 to 45 per cent. This liquid, neutralised with chalk, gives a citrate of

lime, estimating 65 per cent of citric acid. To sum up, a hectare of lemon

trees under favourable conditions of culture can produce: 100 kilograms of

essence at 20 francs, worth 2,000 f. ; 700 kilograms of citric acid at 3 f.,

worth 2,100 f. — in all, let us say, 4,000 f., admitting that the entire produc-

tion is treated industrially, which is not usual. In any case, allowing an

expense roughly estimated at 1,500 f. per hectare, the profit would be from

2,500 to 3,000 f. per hectare (— about £50 per acre).

LEMON AND LIME YIELDS AND PROFITS CONTRASTED

The material for Table XXXIX,1 based on the foregoing figures,

shows the relative yield in lemon and lime cultivations.

TABLE XXXIX

These figures indicate that the yield of fruit per acre in the case of

lemons is greater than the yield of limes, taking four lemons to the

pound ; but the yield of juice and citric acid is considerably less. The

amount of oils yielded, however, is greater in the case of the lemon.

It seems that the figure "275,000 lemons per hectare" given in the

reference quoted above can be accepted as being representative of the

average lemon grove. The English equivalent for the foregoing figure

is 110,000 fruits per acre, and if there are 190 tons per acre, this gives a

yield per tree of about 580 lemons, which corresponds with the average

given by American authorities (Bulletin 190, Bureau of Plant Industry

U. S. Dept. Agric.) and is well below the yields of the best lemon plan-

tations.

When one comes to consider profits, it has to be remembered that the

cost of handling the lemon crop is much greater than in the case of the

lime crop. There are also expenses in connection with irrigation, frost

protection, and manuring, and the rental value of good lemon land is

higher than that suited to lime cultivation. On the other hand, lime cul-

tivation has heavy shipping freights, though, as a matter of fact, these

cannot on the whole work out much higher than those for lemons and

lemon products, considering that Italy sends about half of its crop to the

United States.

'Dunlap, 1915.

226 CITRUS PRODUCTS

From the producer's point of view it is clear that the lime can easily

compete with the lemon as a source of citric acid. In considering the

figures given for lime cultivation, it should be borne in mind that these

two are based on conservative estimates and the annual losses are al-

lowed for, which in all probability will be greatly reduced in the near

future, as improved methods of preparation are more widely adopted.

Prices are likely to drop in the future. For one thing, the war inter-

fered with the consumption of fresh lemons and Sicily will probably

make more citrate and oil. Lime cultivators will have to make every

effort to improve their yields, which can be done, and to ship concen-

trated juice, only good quality raw juice, and essential oils. With greater

production per acre lime-growers can stand a lower market value than

the Sicilian growers. Moreover, the West Indies are nearer New York

and Canada. Lime cultivation has the advantage over lemon-growing in

Sicily in this respect also.

Selling basis of lime juice and oils. — Concentrated lime juice is sold

on the basis of its citric acid content. The juice is quoted on the basis of

a standard "pipe" of 108 gal., containing 64 oz. of acid per gallon. A

pipe is therefore equivalent to 6,912 oz., or 432 Ib. of citric acid.

A West Indian hogshead of concentrated juice (100 oz. per gallon)

contains about 52 gal., and is equivalent to three-fourths of a standard

pipe. A pipe contains 432 Ib. of citric acid ; a West Indian hogshead 325

Ib. In commercial analyses the citric acid is mentioned as crystallized

acid, containing only half a molecule of water instead of one molecule,

as would be usual in the case of ordinary analysis.

Gross and net values. — Some idea of the net amount realized from

the sale of concentrated lime juice can be obtained from the following

figures. The expenses are partly fixed and partly based on value.

If the sale price per pipe is £21 the fixed charges (labor, freight,

packing, etc.) amount to about £2 &s. $d., and the charges (commission,

brokerage, insurance, testing), based on value, come to about os. 6d.

(= 6l/2 per cent) on a hogshead (52 gal.), the amount realized for this

hogshead gross is £15 i6s., hence the net value would be £12 7$. 3^. In

the case of essential oils the charges based on value are higher (7^ per

cent ) .

o) Net value per acre. — Owing to the variation in local conditions,

it is not possible to give reliable figures as to the profits made in the case

of lemon and lime cultivations, but, based on the values and charges

noted above, the net value of lime juice and oil from an acre would be

about £35. This does not allow for expenses of production previous to

the preparation of the products and their shipment and sale.

MARKETING 227

According to the French estimate quoted on page 224, the clear profit

in connection with lemon cultivation is about £45 per acre, but appar-

ently this figure does not allow for the cost of marketing. The American

authority quoted states that the profit in Italy on 100 Ib. of oil and a

pipe of citrate of lime is about $60 or £12 los. Satisfactory information

on the subject of profits can only be obtained from the accounts of an

estate run on commercial lines.

THE MARKETING OF CITRUS PRODUCTS

Methods of selling in Sicily. — An important feature of the Sicilian

industry which distinguishes it from the West Indian is the existence of

the Camera Agrumaria or Citrus Chamber, the government agency for

regulating market prices. The quotations which are made in London and

in other markets by sellers are to a great extent based on the prices

quoted by the Italian Citrus Chamber, so that from the West Indian

point of view it is an organization of considerable interest. As a matter

of fact, it may be laid down generally that the amount of organization

employed in the disposal of Sicilian citrus products is very great — far

greater than in the West Indies, where there exists no central body which

can regulate the output in any way. In Sicily, the proprietors generally

sell their crops by contract, before they are gathered, but have to fix a

certain latest date for delivery. The sales are effected through inter-

mediate brokers called "country brokers." Occasionally the crop is sold

by the thousand at each picking. The buyer usually picks the fruit when

it is sold by the season. The grower usually picks it when sold at each

picking. Practically none of the fruit is exported by the grower, except

occasionally in the case of experienced large producers. As already

intimated, the grower usually sells his fruit through a broker to the

exporter or the manufacturer of citrus products. The broker acts as an

agent for both parties in the final settlement of the transaction, often

shipping the fruit for the grower, receiving the money, and depositing it

or using it in purchases for the grower.

The citrate of lime and concentrated lemon juice are handled ex-

clusively by the Camera Agrumaria, that fixes the prices periodically and

allots monthly deliveries to the various buyers all over the world through

their (the buyers') agents. The lemon oil, however, is extracted by other

firms, each having a distinctive brand for their oil and an agent in the

principal markets for the sale of it. It will be seen from this that the

Sicilian citrus trade lacks the competition among buyers which is en-

joyed by the West Indian trade, and obtained by the methods referred

to below.

228 CITRUS PRODUCTS

West Indian methods, — In the case of the West Indies, each pro-

ducer, in the ordinary way, ships his own produce ; but he may sell the

fruit to one of the larger factories. In one instance a government factory

buys fruit or raw juice from the small growers, paying at once a certain

percentage of cash and issuing a further amount in the form of a bonus

at the end of the year, based upon the actual selling price of the manu-

factured products. Whatever the local method of disposal, the products

are ultimately shipped to merchants at one or other of the principal

markets. It should be mentioned here that a system of forward contracts

is now being exclusively adopted in the West Indies. This should be

distinguished from the Sicilian method of crop disposal already described.

The West Indian forward contracts refer to the shipment of juices,

citrate of lime, and oils within a definite period at a fixed price. This

forward business could be vastly improved, to the mutual advantage of

buyer and shipper, if the latter would contract to ship a certain specified

quantity each month of the contract period and also to maintain a uni-

form standard.

Citrus products on the London market. — The methods employed in

handling West Indian citrus products on the London market are very

different from those employed in disposing of the Sicilian products, as

will be seen from the following account.

As soon as a West Indian steamer arrives, the total available supplies

of concentrated juice and citrate are communicated to the various buyers

by the brokers, who invite best offers for the whole or part. The highest

bid received by the brokers is then made to the various merchants who

are interested, and they decide whether it is to be accepted or not. It is

rarely refused, for it is generally recognized among the merchants that

in this manner the highest price obtainable is secured, as there is always

a demand for citric acid materials, and the buyer who needs it most

naturally bids his utmost, knowing that he is in competition.

The raw juice and oils, however, are treated rather differently, for

whereas the concentrated juice and citrate are always in demand, and

are more or less necessities, the raw juice and oils are comparative

luxuries, and generally offered in more than sufficient quantities to meet

the demand, which is spasmodic. Therefore, the sale of these products

is slower, and requires sometimes a great deal of negotiation.

The samples of the different shipments are exhibited at the broker's

salesroom, and the prospective customers are notified of fresh arrivals.

Samples are also mailed to buyers resident in the country or abroad.

It will be noticed here that the system of sales adopted in the case of

citrus produce differs from that employed in the case of staples like

MARKETING 229

cacao or sugar or rubber. In these there is an open sale — an auction ; in

the case of citrus, the produce is sold by private agreement. It may be

questioned whether this system of conducting private sales is in the best

interests of the growers. There seems to be a feeling that it is quite as

satisfactory, for buyers will often give higher prices privately than they

will in public; and, moreover, the broker is better able to find the best

buyers, being in touch with their individual requirements.

Defects in West Indian products. — It would seem that the importers

of West Indian citrus products have, as regards production, several com-

ments to make that seem quite justified. The quality of citrate of lime

from the West Indies is regarded as highly satisfactory, but as regards

raw lime juice, there is said to be a tendency to ship inferior grades, and

heavy arrivals of lower qualities sometimes depress the market. The

casks are not always clean, and often the percentage of pulp in the juice

is undesirably high. It is strongly urged in London that to maintain a

steady trade in raw lime juice at remunerative rates inferior qualities

should not be sent.

The shippers would ultimately reap the benefit by the better price

obtained for their smaller output, for there really exists a demand for a

good juice of uniform quality. It should be of bright greenish tint, with

a small percentage of pulp (floating preferred). It should not be con-

taminated with iron, and should contain the average percentage of acid.

Juice of low test or bad color is absolutely neglected by buyers while any-

thing else is available, and it does not improve on keeping. Raw juice

imported from Jamaica very frequently sells at good prices. This is be-

lieved to be the result of the presence in it of oil which preserves the

juice.

In endeavoring to obtain information concerning the marketing of con-

centrated juice, Dunlap was enabled, through the courtesy of Messrs. Ogston

& Moore, to compare samples of lemon and lime juice. Generally speaking,

it appears that the Sicilian concentrated juice arrives in a much brighter con-

dition than the West Indian product. Another important point is that Sicilian

lemon juice (concentrated) is always of about the same test, whereas the

West Indian varies from 50 oz. to 140 oz. of citric acid per gallon, making it

very difficult for buyers to know what they are getting. It is also worth

noting that the calico dyers in Manchester state that West Indian concen-

trated juice often contains more sediment than is desirable. Because con-

centrated lemon juice arrives in a more fluid state than lime juice, its em-

ployment in the textile trade is facilitated ; and, what is equally important to

the grower, this condition of the lemon juice makes sampling easier. Messrs.

Ogston & Moore state that the variation in the acid content of samples from

the same cask of concentrated lime juice is largely due to the viscous nature

of the fluid. In connection with sampling and testing there are many dif-

230

CITRUS PRODUCTS

ficulties, as is well known to both buyers and growers. It must be borne in

mind, however, that the fluctuations work both ways: sometimes an ana-

lytical result may favor the grower, at other times the buyer. It is well to

mention here that samples of imported citrus products are generally taken at

the wharves as soon as the ship is unloaded. In some instances samples go

direct, but this is the exception, as the broker is supposed to examine a

sample from each shipment and report upon it where necessary. Brokers

make themselves familiar with samples in order that they may recommend

certain marks for special purposes. The samples are analyzed in duplicate,

and are kept for future reference.

Lime and lemon oils. — In concluding this section, a few words may

be said concerning the market characters of citrus oils. Citrus oils should

be packed only in the best tins, and on no account should distilled oil be

mixed with hand-pressed (ecuelled). It should be remembered, in con-

sidering Sicilian competition, that the West Indian lime oils are used in

the toilet and confectionery trades for different purposes from the lemon

TABLE XL

The great hurricane which struck Montserrat in 1899 contributed very con-

siderably to the progress in Dominica. Many Montserrat laborers and their fam-

ilies sought refuge in Dominica and as they knew the work of the lime industry

they helped to develop the increased output. The retrogression of the years 1903

and 1904 was caused by great drouth and insect pests.

Besides the fine, hand-pressed lime oil the foregoing figures also include the in-

ferior distilled oil which is used in the United States in fairly considerable quan-

tities.

oils. Hence, whatever the Sicilian production — which cannot increase

largely if the fresh fruit trade holds — there will always be a special de-

mand for lime oils from the West Indies, provided that they are of good

and uniform quality. In this business, too, the Sicilians have been

longer in the field and their lemon oils are prepared with the greatest

care, resulting in a uniform article, so that buyers know they can rely

upon always getting the same quality. Hand-pressed lime oil, on the

other hand, varies tremendously, even from the same estate, and it

^Report of Schimmel & Co. (April-October, 1916), p. 36. The exports of

lime oil from Dominica (Gildemeister and Hoffman) during the years 1892 to

1914 are illustrated by Table XL.

MARKETING 231

would be a wise step for a planter to bulk, say, two or three months'

product of hand-pressed oil (keeping out any of bad color) and ship-

ping only two or three times during the season. This would give him

a more regular quality and his mark would1 gradually become known.

Oils of orange. — These oils, both bitter and sweet, have been pro-

duced in large quantities in Italy for many years. Like the oils of lemon

and lime, those of the orange are used in perfumery and confectionery.

Before the Messina earthquake, which destroyed large quantities of oil

in Sicily, the West Indian product had been too inferior to compete with

the Sicilian, but necessity led to the partial substitution of West Indian

orange oil for Sicilian. It is worth noting that as the demand sprang up

the oils in Jamaica improved, and it is believed that good prospects lie

before West Indian orange oils, provided that only good qualities are

shipped. The cost of collection, preparation, and freight appears to be

greater in Jamaica than in Sicily, and it would scarcely seem to pay at

less than 45. per pound.

SUMMARY

1. The output of lime products in the tropics, although compara-

tively small, is rapidly increasing. The Sicilian production of lemons

is, on the other hand, stationary, but, according to the demand of the

world's market, the United States can increase her output of citrate at

the expense of fresh lemons, and vice versa. Lime growers can do the

same to a certain extent, but are less able to exert influence in this

respect.

2. An examination of figures relating to the composition of the

lemon and lime shows that the lime is richer in juice and citric acid than

the lemon, but the lemon generally contains more essential oil.

3. As regards cultivation the two crops differ in many respects.

Lemon cultivation seems the more expensive owing to the necessity for

irrigation, frost protection, and handling, but lemon products can be

placed on the European market at less expense than lime products.

4. For purposes of comparison, the lemon may be regarded as yield-

ing 634 Ib. of citric acid per acre against 914 Ib. in the case of limes.

The figures for essential oils are 88 Ib. and 65 Ib. respectively.

5. In view of the probable increase in the Sicilian output of citrate,

lime-growers might with advantage increase their shipments of concen-

trated juice of uniform density (about 100 oz. of citric acid per gallon).

Only raw lime juice of the best quality should be shipped. Since lime

oils are used for different purposes from lemon oils, they cannot be said

to come into direct competition unless the qualities of one (lemon oil)

232

CITRUS PRODUCTS

are so inferior as to permit of the substitution of the other. Oils take

longer to sell than other citrus products. Lime oils are on the whole

more variable than lemon oils.

6. It is not possible on the basis of available information to compare

the profits from lemon and lime cultivation. With good prices it is

probable that it is greater in the case of limes.

7. As regards marketing, the existence of the Sicilian Camera means

lack of that competition among buyers which is enjoyed by the lime-

growing industry. At the same time the Camera insures a minimum

price for lemon-growers.

8. There is a very great variation in the composition of citrus juices

offered in the market.

9. A profitable trade in orange oils might be more generally estab-

lished in the West Indies.

EUROPEAN CITRIC ACID PRODUCTION

CALCIUM CITRATE

The output of calcium citrate in Sicily in 1913 was 6,000 tons, be-

sides 800 pipes of concentrated juice; in 1914 the output was 6,687 tons,

and in 1918, 9,087 tons. The mean price fixed was £52 per ton in 1905,

£80 in 1907, £50 in 1909, and £53 12s. in 1910. In 1909, owing to the

economic crisis, exportations diminished considerably and in certain

months the price fell to £40 per ton. During the war the sale price for

the citrate (64 per cent) was fixed at 280 pounds per ton for the years

1917-19.

The Sicilian exports and imports of calcium citrate (in casks called

pipes, holding 305 kilo's) were as is shown in Table XLI (especially to

the United States, France, and Great Britain).

TABLE XLI

In 1913, the freight for calcium citrate from Sicily to Marseilles

was about los. per ton, and to London, i6s.

In the West Indies the crude citrus materials produced corresponded

with 1,000 tons of calcium citrate in 1913 and with 1,200 tons in 1914.

CITRIC ACID

The annual production of refined citric acid in Europe was about

4,000 tons in 1913, and the price varied from £108 to £140 per ton. In

CITRATE PRODUCTION

233

general the price rises and falls with that of tartaric acid, the difference

between the prices of the two acids being due to the different degrees of

acidity (three carboxyls in citric acid and two in tartaric acid) and

molecular weights (148.9 for tartaric acid (-f-H2O) and 208.5 f°r

citric).

If all the juice transformed in Sicily into calcium citrate for expor-

tation were made into citric acid, the annual output would amount to

3,000 to 4,000 tons, which would suffice to supply the whole of Europe.

The import duty in Italy was formerly £4 per ton, but was raised

in 1909 to £20 to protect a large factory, with £40,000 capital, erected

in 1910-11 near Palermo; during the war this factory became solely

Italian, with the title Fabbrica Chimica Arenella, and it now supplies

Italian needs for citric acid and is able to export a considerable quan-

tity which formerly was not made in Italy, the manufacture there stop-

ping with the production of citrate of lime.

The citric acid imported into and exported from Italy (Calabria and

Sicily) is shown in Table XLII.

TABLE XLII

The output of citric acid in Italy in 1912 was still below 200 tons, and

in 1914 it reached 800 tons, the capacity of the factories being 1,600 tons.

The French imports and exports in tons are shown in Table XLIII.

TABLE XLIII

For Germany the imports and exports in tons are given in Table

XLIV.

TABLE XLIV

234 CITRUS PRODUCTS

In addition, 360 tons of lemon juice were imported into Germany in

1908 and 170 tons in 1909.

In Austria there were in 1906 two citric acid factories, which im-

ported 54 tons of calcium citrate from Sicily, 145 tons from Turkey, and

435 from Greece. France had then two factories, these importing 1,811

tons of Sicilian calcium citrate in one year. In Germany there were nine

citric acid works and four of pure citrates, 1,318 tons of Sicilian cal-

cium citrate being imported in 1908. In England there were ten works,

almost all in London. The United States has very large factories which

produce more than 1,000 tons of citric acid and import also a certain

quantity from Europe, although the protective duty was over $150 per

ton ; calcium citrate, which was all imported (in 1911 about 2,800 tons, of

the value $180,000), is free from duty.

COST OF MANUFACTURE OF ORANGE VINEGAR

With prices changing as they have been, it is impossible to estimate

accurately the costs of equipment, material, and production. However,

the price of apparatus was obtained in January, 1920, and approximate

costs of production at that time can be estimated from figures as received

from apple vinegar manufacturers. Summaries only will be given here,

but the costs of manufacturing in detail will be found in an article by

E. M. Chace and H. D. Poore.

EQUIPMENT

The equipment for a small plant using a hand-power hydraulic press,

with a capacity of 250 gal. per day, would cost about $2,000. A 2,500-

gal. or 5o-barrel plant would reach $3,500 using a steam-power hydraulic

press. A continuous type press would add about 50 per cent to this esti-

mate. For a loo-barrel plant, the figures given can be doubled. The

prices include pasteurizing, bottling, and filtering machines which cost

$800 would be unnecessary if the product is barreled.

MATERIAL

Frozen fruit can be obtained for the cost of hauling, about $3 per

ton, while sound fruit will run from this amount to $20 per ton. Frosted

oranges will yield as low as 40 gal. per ton, while sound fruit will average

about 70 gal.

PRODUCTION COSTS

Apples yield as high as 180 gal. of juice per ton, so that the figures

obtained from vinegar manufacturers, which also included the cost of

apples, are not comparable for oranges. However, all things considered,

10 cents a gallon should cover the cost of production, including overhead.

CITRUS OIL PRICES

235

Table XLVI shows the cost of production per gallon under various

conditions, based on a yield of 70 gal. per ton. Where frozen oranges

are used, with a 40- to 5o-gal. yield, the cost per gallon of raw juice

would be about seven cents.

COMPARISON WITH APPLE VINEGAR

Apple vinegar in bulk retails as low as 35 cents per gallon, so that

with oranges at over $5 per ton, there is little chance to compete with

cider vinegar. But put up in quart bottles under well-established brands,

the product may compete with the fancy grades of cider vinegars, which

retail in quart bottles from 80 cents to $1.40 per gallon-.

TABLE XLV

CHANGES IN COMPOSITION OCCURRING DURING THE GENERATOR PROCESS (FROM POORE)

"The calculated analyses of the mixture consisting of the vinegar left in the generator from the

previous run and the fermented juice of this run.

CITRUS OIL PRICES1

As Meldrum2 has pointed out, the history of the price fluctuations for

essential oils has shown a rhythmic rise in prices with strengthening de-

mand followed by overproduction and consequent price depression. It

should be noted, however, that the influences of speculation often have a

marked effect on the essential oil market. It is not uncommon for prices

to be suddenly forced up and artificially maintained apparently without

any sound commercial or economic reason. Prices for the individual oils,

shown in the tables on pages 367-74, are discussed on page 238.

'See Appendix, pp. 349-51, 363, 367-74, for detailed statistics on quantities and

values for 1898-1924.

2W. B. Meldrum, "Prices of Essential Oils, Flavoring and Perfume Materials,"

War Industries Board Price Bulletin, No. 50, Washington (1919).

236

CITRUS PRODUCTS

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CITRUS OIL PRICES

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238 CITRUS PRODUCTS

Lemon oil. — During 1913 the price of lemon oil was unusually high

and in August, 1913, it reached $4.75 per pound. The latter months of

1913 saw the beginning of a gradual decline and during the first quarter

of 1914 the price had dropped as low as $2.45. Prices continued to fall

and the average for the entire year of 1915 was $1.075 Per pound.

The lowest price in recent years was reached during August and

September of 1916, when the oil was quoted at 90 cents per pound. There

were occasional fluctuations during 1917, 1918, and 1919, but this is not

shown by the yearly averages, which were as follows: 1917, $1.125;

1918, $1.158; and 1919, $1.275.

Orange oil. — During the period 1913 to 1915 orange-oil prices fol-

lowed the same general decline as did those for lemon oil. The yearly

averages were as follows : 1913, $3-3J35 ; I9J4> $2-475 ; and 1915, $1.70.

In May, 1916, the price had increased to $2.85, and in October to $3.

This high level was maintained during 1917 and for most of 1918.

Toward the end of 1919 a further increase brought the price up to $3.25

per pound.

Oil of bergawiot. — The average prices for bergamot oil during the

last seven years have been as follows: 1913, $6.0667 P61" pound; 1914,

$5.45 per pound ; 1915, $3.2125 per pound ; 1916, $4.20 per pound ; 1917,

$5.9792 per pound; 1918, $6.0708 per pound; 1919, $5-7375 per pound.

From $6.50 per pound in January, 1913, the price dropped to $3 in

April, 1915, but since that time there has been a gradual increase which

reached a maximum of $7.50 in October and November, 1918. Syn-

thetic oil of bergamot, although of somewhat lower price, has followed

the same general trend as the natural product.

Oil of limes. — Price quotations for oil of limes are shown only occa-

sionally in the Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter. The price of the expressed

oil varied between $3 and $4 per pound during 1914, 1915, 1916, and

1917. In January, 1918, expressed oil of limes was quoted at $5.75 to

$6, and in January, 1919, at $4.90 to $5. Distilled oil of limes was quoted

at 75 cents in August, 1914, but by the beginning of 1916 the price had

advanced to $2.50, and this level, with only a little variation, has been

maintained since that time.

Oil of Neroli. — Several varieties of this very valuable essential oil are

shown in the price quotations. For a year and a half prior to the war,

oil of Neroli petale, was quoted at $45 per pound. In July, 1914, fear of

a short crop caused a rise to $5 1 and further increase to $60 followed in

October. During 1915, however, there was a return to the pre-war level,

which was maintained during 1916, and the first half of 1917. Short

crops and labor difficulties at that time caused an increase to $85 in

CITRUS OIL PRICES 239

October, 1917, and to $90 during November and December of 1918.

Supplies continued to be short during 1919, and by the end of the year

oil of neroli petale had reached $130 per pound. Oil of Neroli Bigarade

generally commands a slightly lower price and in January, 1920, it was

quoted at $120. A synthetic neroli has been quoted since 1918 and has

varied in price from $15 to $30 per pound.

Citrus oils imported into the United States for the most part do not

compete with domestic products. Lemon and orange oils are produced

in this country, but as yet the industries are able to supply only a rela-

tively small proportion of the consumption. Since lemon and orange

oils are by-products of the citrus industry, it may be urged that their com-

plete recovery will utilize inferior grades of fruit which at present are

wasted. In this way their recovery would strengthen the citrus industry

without increasing the prices for its principal products. On the other

hand, these articles require a large amount of hand labor and for that

reason they cannot be prepared under the same methods as cheaply in

the United States as abroad. The application of machine methods has

been tried and has undoubtedly lowered the cost of production, but the

products thus obtained are not identical with the hand-pressed oils and

are of less value. Superior methods of cultivation used in America have

resulted in a smaller proportion of "culls" or inferior fruit than is ob-

tained abroad — and it is therefore doubtful whether a domestic citrus

products industry can ever be developed sufficiently to supply the entire

American demand.

The imposition of a duty on the citrus oils by the United States in

1913 has had little if any effect upon the volume of the imports, and has

resulted in an annual revenue of about $135,000. These oils are used in

the manufacture of perfumes, and flavors for soft drinks, and confec-

tions, and in this connection may be regarded in the class of luxuries.

However, in establishing the rates of duty on these oils, consideration

should logically be given to the rates imposed upon the finished products

— perfumes and flavors.

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER XI

CALIFORNIA CITRUS LEAGUE.

Brief of Facts relating to the By-Products of the Citrus Industry Pre-

sented to the Finance Committee, United States Senate (August,

1921).

CHACE, EDWARD M., and POORE, HOMER D.

California Citrograph, V (July, 1920), 282.

Florida Grower, XXII (July 24, 1920), 4.

240 CITRUS PRODUCTS

DUNLAP, W. R.

"Notes on the Lime and Lemon as Sources of Citric Acid and Essential

Oils," Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, XIII (1915), 66-87.

GILDEMEISTER, E., and HOFFMAN, FR.

The Volatile Oils (26. ed.), II, 407.

MOLINARE, ETTORE.

General and Industrial Organic Chemistry. Translated by T. H. Pope.

Philadelphia : P. Blakiston & Sons Co.

POORE, HOMER D.

"Orange Vinegar — Its Manufacture and Composition," Journal of In-

dustrial and Engineering Chemistry, XII (December, 1920), 1176.

POWELL, G. H., and CHACE, EDWARD M.

"Italian Lemons and Their By-Products," Bureau of Plant Industry,

United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 160 (1908).

ROURE— BERTRAND FILS.

Scientific and Industrial Bulletin, Series 3, No. 3 (April, 1911), p. 64.

Grasse, France.

Lime Cultivation in the West Indies (1913).

Annual Reports of West Indian Departments of Agriculture (1913-14).

"The Lemon Industry in Sicily," West Indian Bulletin, V (1905), 63.

"Citrus Industry for India," Indian Trade Journal, XII (1909), 151.

Reports for the Years 1912 and 1013 on the Trade and Commerce of Sicily,

Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Ann. Ser., Nos. 5106 (Cd. 6665-64)

and 5330 (Cd. 7048-147).

"Lime Cultivation in Guadeloupe," Journal d' Agriculture Tropicale (Febru-

ary, March, 1912).

"Lemon Culture in North Africa," Perfumery and Essential Oil Record

(August, 1914), p. 336.

"Commercial Notes on Essential Oils," Semi-Annual Report of Schimmel &

Co. (April, 1913, October, 1913).

"Composition of Oranges and Lemons," West Indian Agricultural Nevus,

III, 228.

"Lemons in Dominica," West Indian Agricultural News, XIII, 180.

"Concentration of Lime Juice in Steam-Heated Vats," West Indian Agricul-

tural News, XIII, 231.

"Government Lime Juice Factory in St. Lucia, British West Indies," West

Indian Agricultural News, XIII, 245.

CHAPTER XII

THE INDUSTRY IN NORTH AMERICA

CITRUS OIL PRODUCTION

Orange and lemon oils are the only citrus oils prepared on a com-

mercial scale in the United States. In comparison with the large pro-

duction in Italy, the domestic output is insignificant. The production of

lemon oil, which is limited to California, was estimated in 1917 at 6,000

lb., or about I per cent of our imports. The domestic production of

orange oil during the same year was declared to be negligible.1

IMPORTS OF CITRUS OILS

Imports of all essential and distilled oils had increased in value from

$2,118,102 in 1910 to $4,905,157 in 1913. The imports declined until

1916, from which time they showed a gradual increase, amounting in

1918 to $3,948,059. Of the total imports of essential oils, about 30 per

cent are represented by citrus oils, as may be seen in the table on page

Lemon oil. — Imports of lemon oil prior to the war showed little vari-

ation in quantity, averaging about 400,000 lb. The considerable variation

in value, however, is shown by the fact that in 1910 imports of 415,819

lb. were valued at $310,543, while in 1913, 400,424 lb. were valued at

$794,215 — an increase of over 100 per cent. Since 1914 there has been

a 'slight increase over pre-war imports, notwithstanding the fact that since

October, 1913, lemon oil (formerly on the free list) has been dutiable at

10 per cent ad valorem. Imports for the period 1915-19 averaged

494,613 lb., valued at $434,734-

The decrease in imports during the fiscal year 1919 was probably

caused by the fact that the Italian government during 1918 requisitioned

a large part of the oil of lemon output to be used as a substitute for tur-

pentine, sorely needed in that country for use in painting battleships and

other military equipment. Over 95 per cent of the imports of lemon oil

are furnished by Italy.

Orange oil. — Imports of orange oil have been much less than those of

lemon oil, but have shown considerably wider variation. Imports in

1912 amounted to 97,065 lb. valued at $168,831 and in 1913 to 79,797

lb. valued at $155,299. There has been a considerable increase since

^ee War Industries Price Bulletin, No. 50.

241

242 CITRUS PRODUCTS

1914; imports in 1918 were more than double the average pre-war im-

ports.

Oil of bergamot. — Maximum imports in recent years were received in

1908 and amounted to 94,967 Ib. valued at $284,173. For three years

prior to the act of 1913, imports had averaged about 65,000 Ib., but in

1914, simultaneously with the imposition of a duty of 20 per cent, imports

decreased to 36,500 Ib. Since that time the imports have shown a tend-

ency to increase and in 1916 surpassed the 1913 figure. The value per unit

quantity has varied from $4.84 in 1913 to $2.56 in 1916. Hand-pressed

bergamot oil has come almost entirely from Italy, but before the war

Germany furnished the United States with considerable quantities of

artificial bergamot oil and also with certain highly refined grades.

Oil of limes. — Imports of oil of limes have shown variation both in

quantity and value. In 1908 the imports amounted to 6,765 Ib. valued

at about 75 cents a pound, and in 1918 they reached 29,137 Ib. valued at

over $2.50 per pound. The imposition of a duty on oil of limes in 1913

had no noticeable effect upon the imports.

Neroli or orange flower oil. — Maximum pre-war imports of neroli

were received in 1913 and amounted to 38,365 Ib. valued at $171,932.

During 1914 and 1915 there was a decrease of about 30 per cent in the

imports but in 1916 and again in 1918, imports were in excess of 30,000

Ib. The value per unit of quantity has varied from $10.50 per pound in

1908 to $1.93 in 1916.

Cedrat oil. — Only a very small quantity of cedrat oil is imported into

the United States. The maximum imports in 1915 were 788 Ib. valued

at $3,721. The large variation in value is probably due to the fact that

various fictitious oils are offered under the name of cedrat, and that the

genuine oil from Citrus medica is rarely met with in commerce.

THE CITRATE AND CITRIC ACID INDUSTRY

The citrate of lime and citric acid industry in the United States is

divided into two distinct branches. Three firms, located along the At-

lantic Coast, specialize in the manufacture of citric acid and citrates from

citrate of lime, imported chiefly from Sicily, or made from concentrated

juices of citrus fruits, imported chiefly from the Dominican Republic.

In California there are several firms which make citrate of lime and

citric acid from lemons. Some of these western firms ship citrate of

lime to the eastern manufacturers. One firm has been operating for

about 27 years ; the others have all begun operation since 1915.

The manufacture of citric acid in the United States is shown in Table

XLVIII. The figures for 1904, 1909, and 1914 are taken from the United

CITRUS OIL PRODUCTION 243

States census. The figures for 1915, 1916, and 1917 are compiled from

reports made to the United States Tariff Commission by the manufac-

turers.

TABLE XLVIII

CITRIC ACID MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES 1904-17

IMPORTS OF CITRATE OF LIME AND CITRIC ACID

The table of imports (pages 352-53) show that the amount of citric

acid imported as such is small in comparison with the imports in the

form of citrate of lime. Since the imports of citric acid during the years

1910-12 exceeded the exports from Italy, it is obvious that this acid must

have come from European countries other than Sicily. Under the Tariff

Act of 1909, with citrate of lime on the free list and citric acid dutiable

at 7 cents per pound the imports of citric acid dwindled to an insignificant

amount. The Tariff Act of 1913 put a duty of i cent per pound on

citrate of lime, and lowered the duty on citric acid from 7 cents per

pound to 5 cents per pound. These changes in duties, which occurred

almost simultaneously with the development of the manufacture of citric

acid in Italy (see Table XLII), were followed by a large increase in

imports of citric acid from 8,677 Ib. in 1913 to 652,210 Ib. during the

1914 fiscal year and to 722,434 Ib. during the 1915 fiscal year.

TARIFF PROBLEMS

Citrate of lime and citric acid present two distinct tariff problems.

The first problem is the general one, whether these articles should be

placed on the free list, or subject to a duty for the purpose of raising

revenue or for the protection of an American industry. The tariff treat-

ment is necessarily related to that of lemons, the major product of the

industry, which are now given a protective duty. There is, however, a

difference between the two products — lemons and citric acid — in that

lemons are an agricultural product with no mechanical or technical

processes, whereas the manufacture of citric acid presents new technical

and commercial problems. It may be urged, further, that the full re-

covery of the by-products will utilize a material formerly wasted and

will strengthen the lemon industry without raising the price of lemons

to the public. On the other hand, it is not likely that the by-product

industry will develop sufficiently to supply the entire American demand

244 CITRUS PRODUCTS

unless the duty is made so high as to result in the use of fruit of good

enough quality to be salable as fresh fruit and to exclude the by-products

from abroad made from cull lemons.

The second problem is the proper relationship between the rates of

duty on citrate and citric acid made therefrom. Prior to the passage of

the 1913 Tariff Act citrate of lime was free and the margin in favor of

the acid was 7 cents per pound, which shut out the foreign acid almost

entirely. The imposition of a duty of i cent per pound on citrate of

lime did not decrease imports, and it raised over $60,000 revenue per

year. At the 'same time that this duty became effective there was a re-

duction in the duty on citric acid from 7 cents to 5 cents per pound, and

at about the same time there was a development of the manufacture of

citric acid in Italy. The result of these changes in competitive conditions

was an increase in imports of citric acid to about 15 or 20 per cent of the

consumption during 1914 and 1915, an increase sufficient to furnish

some competition to the domestic industry. During recent years there

has been a fall in imports, resulting in part at least from war conditions.

CALIFORNIA

The citrus by-product industry in southern California is located in

those counties that raise most of the citrus fruit, viz., Santa Barbara,

Ventura, Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, and San

Diego. The chief cities interested follow the periphery of a triangle

whose vertices lie at Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and San Diego.

Cultural conditions are generally the same for the entire area. The

cost of fruit production therefore as well as the percentage of culls is

nearly equal over the entire citrus belt. Transportation charges, how-

ever, constitute a factor of importance in the location of successful by-

product plants.

It is manifestly less costly to sort and pack the fruit than to transform

it into oil and citrate, but, on the other hand, it is less difficult to trans-

port these final products than the original fruit, which requires such

careful handling and is subject to decay.

By-products offer a more tempting field for speculation, citric acid

keeping indefinitely, while large quantities of oil may be held over from

crop to crop to secure a satisfactory price.

During 1924 over 2,000 carloads of lemons were processed, producing

30,000 pounds of pectin, 60,000 pounds of lemon oil, and 1,000,000

pounds of crystallized citric acid.

At the present time there are fourteen concerns listed as producing

five main products. There are four concerns producing citric acid, one

CALIFORNIA 245

producing citrate of lime, seven producing peel in one form or another,

five producing juice, and three producing oil. Some of the firms listed

are recent and may possibly not endure as permanent commercial con-

cerns. The by-product industry has undoubtedly, however, taken great

strides in the past few years. Two of the citric acid plants are of very

large capacity. Both could undoubtedly exceed 10,000 tons capacity per

annum, if necessary. Indeed, with no very serious alterations, it would

be possible to increase the capacity to twenty thousand tons each. The

third citric acid plant has a capacity of 2,500 tons and the citrate of lime

plant a capacity of 8,000 tons or more. A very conservative estimate of

the entire capacity for handling lemons of the four plants as they stand

today would be from 30,000 to 40,000 tons.

Practically all of the oranges absorbed for by-products at the present

time are going into marmalade factories. One concern alone has a

capacity of about 5,000 tons of fruit, and estimates of the other con-

cerns now operating vary from 5,000 to 10,000 tons.

This state of affairs has also been reflected in the price of cull fruit

during the past few years. Up until 1915-16, it was not at all difficult

to secure cull oranges and lemons at $5 per ton for sound culls. During

the season of 1919 when the crop conditions were nearly normal, it was

necessary to pay from $20 to $30 a ton for material of the same grade.

Whether these prices will continue, with competition from foreign

products, and in seasons when the crops are abundant, is a matter of

some doubt. There are a number of citric acid and citrate manufac-

turers who are in the market to purchase cull lemons at prices which

could hardly be realized by the small producer from the sale of citrate

alone.

Apparatus for the manufacture of oil from both oranges and lemons

is now under construction in more than one place in the state, but has

not been sufficiently developed to be available to the average fruit-grower.

The market for lemon peel in brine, candied or dried peel, seems

limited at present, and none is produced unless contracted for in advance.

The question of the disposal of the unsalable oranges has scarcely

been solved by their use in marmalade, enormous quantities of which

having been manufactured. Professor Cruess, of the University of Cali-

fornia, suggested, in the California Cultivator of January n, 1919, a

method of canning orange marmalade stock, i.e., the fruit without sugar.

It is true that the amount of marmalade made in 1919 was probably not

excessive when compared with some other preserves already on the

market, but it must be remembered that orange marmalade must make

its way by displacing to some extent other material more or less firmly

246 CITRUS PRODUCTS

established in the menus of American homes. The increase in produc-

tion of this commodity in California in that year was estimated at ap-

proximately 500 per cent and would have been more than double that if

all the frozen fruit had been taken care of in this way.

The question of manufacturing orange vinegar on a large scale to

compete with eastern cider vinegar is a matter for consideration in the

future. At the present demand for culls, however, together with in-

creased freight rates and cost of cooperage, there seems to be no chance

of competing in middle western or eastern markets with cider vinegar.

The vinegar can be made of excellent quality, of fine fruity flavor, but

it has not a characteristic orange flavor.

There has been some demand for dried orange peel, for use in mince

meat, and also, it has been rumored, for use in chewing tobacco. Several

carloads went East in 1917 and the demand will probably continue until

a foreign product appears on the market, when it will be a question of

cheaper production or tariff protection. Candied peel is readily made

but the consumption is not large. No method has been developed for pro-

ducing a first-class merchantable orange juice.

Grapefruit can be used in the preparation of marmalades, a very

desirable product being made to contain as high as 33 per cent.

Satisfactory candied peel of grapefruit is also easily produced on a

large or small scale (see chap. iv). The equipment is inexpensive and

easily obtained. Where large quantities are put up, the time can be

shortened very materially by the use of the vacuum pressure methods.

Here an autoclave is used for heating the peel under high vacuum, fol-

lowed by a heating in syrup under pressure. The impregnation is

hastened in this way and a clear article is produced. This candied peel

can be cut into very thin strips and used in marmalade very satisfactorily.

It is possible to prepare a satisfactory beverage from grapefruit,

although the use of frozen material in its preparation is questioned. The

great trouble with California grapefruit juice is the same difficulty that

gives California grapefruit itself its generally poor reputation, i.e., imma-

turity. Few California grapefruit growers are willing to allow their

fruit to mature before harvesting it, a fact to which A. D. Shamel, of

the United States Department of Agriculture has repeatedly called at-

tention.

THE MANUFACTURE OF CITRIC ACID FROM LEMONS

The first serious attempt to convert the lower grades of California

lemons into by-products was made in 1898 at National City, San Diego

County.

CALIFORNIA

247

Other factories for the production of various products from citrus

fruits have been started at various times at Pasadena, Redlands, Santa

Ana, Riverside, and other places. An account of these has been given by

Will.

SHIPPING PACKAGE

(Wilson: Jour. Ind. and Eng. Chem.)

FIG. 20. — Flow sheet for manufacture of citric acid from lemons.

Work along similar lines in connection with Florida oranges has

been published by McDermott and by Walker.

248 CITRUS PRODUCTS

The United States Department of Agriculture became interested in

the possibility of developing a citrus by-products industry in this country,

and in 1907 sent E. M. Chace to Italy to study similar industries there.

Chace made a survey of the lemon industry in California in 1908, and

as a result of his work the Department established the Citrus By-Products

Laboratory in 1911 at Los Angeles.

The early work of this laboratory was done by H. S. Bailey and

C. P. Wilson under the direction of Chace, who has been in charge of

the laboratory since its beginning. The Citrus By-Products Laboratory

secured accurate data on the methods applicable to the manufacture of

citric acid, and the yield to be expected from lemons.

It must be remembered that the average haul by which citrus fruit

raised in California reaches its market is about 2,500 miles. This pre-

cludes the shipment of anything but sound fruit of good appearance and

keeping quality. There is necessarily left a large quantity of fruit that is

not fit to pack and ship and is used in the manufacture of citric acid. This

is culled out for reasons such as irregular shape, oversize, undersize, frost

damage, heat damage, clipper cuts caused by careless picking, thorn

pricks, wind scars, thrips marks, excessive scale, or any sort of mechan-

ical injury or indication of decay or imperfection of any kind.

The steps in the process of manufacture of citric acid may be followed

by means of Figure 20.

Extraction of juice. — All the citric acid in a lemon is contained in the

juice, so that the separation of juice from the pulp may be considered

the first step in the recovery of the acid.

The fruit is shoveled or dumped on to a broad belt conveyor and, if

other products than acid are to be made, is graded to give the kind of

fruit needed for such a product. Any lemon can be used to make citric

acid, though, of course, the yield varies enormously from as low as 15

Ibs. per ton from badly frozen lemons to 50 Ibs. or more from the thin-

skinned juicy "lemonettes." It is interesting to note that the effect of

frost is to decrease the amount of juice in the fruit and also the per-

centage of acid which remains in the juice.

The fruit passes from the grading belt by way of a bucket elevator

to a pair of cutting knives which tear the lemons coarsely and drop them

into a set of wood roller crushers which thoroughly bruise the fruit and

press out some of the juice. The crushed fruit drops into the hopper of

a continuous screw press where most of the juice is removed. The con-

tinuous presses are similar to those used for pressing moisture, fat, or

oils from fish, scraps, copra, vegetable seeds, etc.

CITRIC ACID MANUFACTURE 249

From the first press the juice runs to the measuring tank, while the

pulp is passed through a soaking box where it is saturated with water.

From this the wet pulp is dumped into another continuous press and the

juice goes to the same measuring tank as did the first juice. Pulp from

the second press is elevated to the hopper of a third press, and receives

a spray of water as it ascends the elevator. Juice from the third press

serves as maceration water for the first soaking, while the pulp passes

out and is used as fertilizer.

One ton of lemons contains on the average about 70 Ibs. of total acid

(calculated as crystallized citric acid). Using the extraction process de-

scribed above, 85 per cent or more of this acid is obtained in the juice.

Pure pressed lemon juice contains from 6 to 7 per cent citric acid, but

on account of the dilution by maceration water the mixed juice obtained

in factory practice averages about 4 per cent acid and contains about 5

to 5.5 per cent of total solids. The juice contains about 0.5 per cent of

insoluble solids and is rather thick and pulpy. It is stored in wooden

tanks of about 57,000 liters capacity, in which it is allowed to undergo

fermentation for about four or five days in warm weather, or about ten

days in cold weather. This fermentation seems to liquefy some of the

mucilaginous, slimy constituents and to coagulate others. The sugars

are completely removed. The chemistry of this change has not been

worked out in detail, but it has been shown that the loss of citric acid

by fermentation is negligible for the first few days. Factory experi-

ence has thoroughly demonstrated that fresh juice is very difficult to

filter, while properly fermented juice filters easily and requires a mini-

mum of filter-eel.

After proper fermentation, the juice is thoroughly agitated so as to

reincorporate the pulp, which during fermentation has partly sunk to the

bottom and partly risen to the top, leaving a clear layer in the middle.

In earlier practice this middle portion was drawn off and used without

filtration, and the pulp was washed by agitation with water and subse-

quent settling and decantation. This was a slow, wasteful process and

left in the tanks a slimy voluminous residue that was very troublesome

to handle. The present practice is to filter the whole juice after boiling

with filter-eel. The well-mixed fermented juice is pumped into pine

tanks 2.4 m. deep and 2.4 m. in diameter, equipped with copper heating

coils and mechanical agitators. About 7,500 liters are handled at a

charge, and enough filter-eel is added to clarify the juice on boiling. The

operator adds the amount of filter-eel he deems necessary as indicated by

experience, and brings the juice to a boil. A sample is withdrawn, and

if it clears quickly by settling it is ready to filter. If it does not clear

250 CITRUS PRODUCTS

readily, more filter-eel is added. The juice is again boiled and the test

repeated until the juice is ready to filter. On the average, about 12 to

20 kilos of filter-eel are required for each 1,000 liters of juice.

Filtration is carried out by means of a copper-lined Sweetland press.

A 3O-in. wood plate and frame, open delivery, washing type press is

used when greater capacity is necessary. The cake is thoroughly washed

with hot water. The filter-eel may be recovered from the press cake by

burning out the organic matter, m it may be used for the production of

decolorizing carbon, as mentioned later.

Precipitation of calcium citrate. — The filtered juice is a brilliant,

light amber liquid, averaging about 4 per cent acid. It is pumped into

wooden tanks 2.4 m. in diameter by 1.5 m. high, with staves made of

Oregon pine 7.6 cm. thick. Each tank is equipped with copper heating

coil and mechanical agitator. A charge consists of about 3,700 liters of

juice, and from a laboratory assay the amount of calcium required to

precipitate the citric acid is calculated. In practice, sufficient hydrated

lime of high purity is added to precipitate 90 per cent of the total acid,

calculated as citric. Sufficient calcium carbonate is then added to neu-

tralize the remaining 10 per cent of acid, and an excess of 7 kg. of calcium

carbonate is added.

Experience has shown that if the juice is completely neutralized with

calcium hydroxide, dark-colored compounds are formed. These com-

pounds are difficult, if not impossible to wash out, and if not removed

cause the liquor produced by the decomposition of the citrate to be very

dark colored. This increases the difficulty of securing satisfactory

crystals.

It has also been shown that, however great the excess of calcium

carbonate added to the juice, there is always a small residual acidity,

varying from 0.08 to 0.20 per cent, depending on the acidity of the

original juice.

The resistance to corrosion of the copper coils placed in these tanks

is noteworthy. For two years the tanks containing these coils were used

for decomposing the citrate as well as precipitating it from the juice.

The coils were therefore subjected to the action of liquors containing 10

to 20 per cent of citric acid and about 0.2 per cent of sulphuric acid for

a great many days. During the last two years the tanks were used only

for precipitating citrate. Apparently the coils were worn thin by the

swirling calcium citrate, rather than by reaction between the copper and

the acids.

The precipitated citrate is pumped into an iron plate-and-frame filter

press and thoroughly washed with water at as near ioo°C. as possible

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

BOTANY, VOL. VI. PART II, PLATE VII.

(From an old drawing in La Parfumerie Moderne)

AN ORANGE GROVE IN JAMAICA.

(La Parfumerie Moderne)

AN ORANGE GROVE IN JAMAICA.

CITRIC ACID MANUFACTURE 251

and then partly dried by blowing air through the cake. The citrate is

dumped by way of a convenient chute directly into one of a series of

pine tanks exactly like those used for precipitating the citrate, except that

it has no heating coil.

Since the foregoing process was installed the Oliver continuous filters

have been used for filtering the citrate and calcium sulphate precipitates.

Decomposition of citrate. — The citrate is suspended in dilute liquor

obtained in washing the previous batch of gypsum and the amount of

66° Be. sulphuric acid needed for the complete decomposition is added.

The accuracy of this reaction is checked by filtering off a sample of the

acid liquor, after thorough agitation for 30 minutes, and adding about

5 cc. of 45 per cent CaCl2 solution to an equal volume of the filtered

liquor. A faint precipitate of calcium sulphate should be noticeable after

holding in the steam bath 5 minutes, indicating an excess of not more

than 0.2 per cent sulphuric acid.

If too much sulphuric acid has been added it is necessary to add cal-

cium citrate, the amount of which is determined by titration of a lo-c.c.

sample, using phenolphthalein. A solution is then made up which is

exactly 10 c.c. in volume and 10 per cent acid (as citric) in strength. As

the liquor always contains over 10 per cent citric acid, this is a simple

dilution. A standard solution is made containing 10 per cent citric acid,

with a drop or two of ferric chloride solution added to give a depth of

color equal to that of the solution to be tested. This is for the purpose

of overcoming the difficulty in comparing depths of color which are not

the same shade, and in practice has been very successful. Three drops

of a i :iooo solution of thymolsulphonephthalein and 1.5 c.c. 0.5 N so-

dium hydroxide are added to each solution. The pure citric acid solution

assumes a characteristic yellow tint, while the sample containing sulphuric

acid continues to display the red color due to the more highly ionized

mineral acid. The latter is titrated with 0.5 N sodium hydroxide until

the color matches that of the standard. The number of c.c. of 0.5 N

alkali used in the last titration measures the excess of sulphuric acid, and

hence the amount of calcium citrate which will be decomposed by it. This

method has been found very practical in factory control work.

The decomposition of the citrate is usually completed in about three

hours. The precipitated calcium sulphate is allowed to settle by gravity

and the acid liquor drawn off. The precipitate is washed free from acid

by decantation by the countercurrent principle, using a five-step cycle.

The calcium sulphate residue is sun-dried and sold as fertilizer.

The acid liquor thus obtained is a light-amber solution containing

about 12 to 15 per cent acid. It has a density of about 5° to 6° Be., con-

252 CITRUS PRODUCTS

tains about 0.12 per cent sulphuric acid, and has a purity of about 95 to

98 per cent.

Per cent citric acid

Purity =

Per cent total acid as citric

Concentration of liquors. — The acid liquor from the decomposition of

citrate is run into lead-lined open evaporators of about 17,000 liters

capacity, equipped with lead steam coils, and in these evaporators the

liquor is concentrated to 20° to 25° Be. The liquor is kept at incipient

boiling and never boiled hard. Agitation is maintained by air jets.

The concentration is completed in lead-lined vacuum pans of about

7,000 liters capacity. The concentrated liquor is delivered to the lead-

lined crystallizers at 37° to 38° Be. In three to five days a good crop

of crystals is set, and the mother-liquor is drawn off and reboiled to pro-

duce another crop. The crystals are washed with cold water in a basket

centrifugal. These centrifugals are standard 3O-in. Weston type ma-

chines with bronze baskets. The inner lining is perforated sheet monel

metal. The curbs are lined with lead.

The crude crystals are usually made by the granulation process in

which the crystallizing liquor is kept in gentle agitation. A heavy crop

of small crystals is thus produced.

The crude crystals are dissolved in warm water in a lead-lined tank

by dumping them in a perforated lead basket suspended at the top of the

tank, utilizing the well-known principle of the heavy solution going to

the bottom while the most dilute solution is always at the surface where

the crystals are continually dissolved.

Purification of crude acid. — The solution of crude acid is subjected

to laboratory tests and purifying treatment prescribed and carried out

under strict laboratory control.

The impurities to be removed are mainly: (i) organic color, (2)

lead, (3) copper, tin, and antimony, (4) iron and nickel, (5) sulphuric

acid and (6) calcium sulphate. All of these, except organic color, would

appear in the ash on incineration, and their elimination automatically

brings the ash to a negligible quantity.

Organic color. — Organic coloring [matters are present in the raw

juice, others are formed on heating and remain in the filtered juice, and

to some extent are held by the citrate throughout the washing, and

appear in the liquors. Some color is added by decomposition of the

citric acid and organic impurities on heating in the evaporators. If not

removed this color appears in the final crystals, bringing them below

standard as to color and translucency.

CITRIC ACID MANUFACTURE 253

In early work bone-black was used, but it had to be thoroughly

washed with hydrochloric acid to remove the calcium phosphate, and

then with water to remove the acid and soluble salts. This was expen-

sive and laborious. Experiments with a number of decolorizing car-

bons soon showed the product known as filtchar 56 to be well suited to

the work, and as compared with the bone-black to be cheaper in first

cost and in operating cost. Since then another carbon has been applied

very successfully.

Filtchar is added to the liquor in the proportion of about i to 2 per

cent of the weight of the liquor, about 6,000 to 7,000 kilos of liquor

being treated in a batch. The liquor is slowly warmed to about 70° C.

Other corrective treatments are given at the same time. The comple-

tion of the decolorization is tested by filtering a sample of the liquor,

treating a portion of the filtered liquor with more filtchar, heating and

filtering, and comparing the color of the two filtrates. More filtchar is

added or not, as indicated by this test. The final decolorized filtrate is

a very pale-straw color in layers several inches deep, and appears prac-

tically water- white when seen through a Y^ -inch test tube.

Lead. — A part of the lead is removed as sulphate by the sulphuric

acid, a small amount of which is normally present in this liquor. The

remainder of the lead is removed by precipitation as lead sulphide.

Copper, tin, and antimony. — Copper and tin are taken up from pipe

lines, pumps, and valves, and antimony from the lead pipe lines and con-

tainers, which are alloyed with 2 to 4 per cent of antimony for stiffen-

ing. All three metals are precipitated as sulphides at the same time that

the lead is removed.

Iron and nickel. — Iron enters the process as a slight impurity in the

filter-eel, calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, and sulphuric acid, and

is dissolved from certain parts of the presses and other machinery with

which the liquor comes into contact.

Iron in the ferric state imparts a dirty brownish color to the acid

crystals. In the ferrous state iron gives no noticeable color, but it

slowly oxidizes and causes the crystals to become distinctly yellow on

standing, even in closed containers. The color due to iron strikes the

eye immediately and from a commercial point of view is one of the

most undesirable defects the crystals can possess.

Nickel is taken up from monel metal containers and conducting lines,

etc., and, though present in small amounts, it imparts a brownish tint to

the crystals. In some cases there seems to be deposited a very fine

254 CITRUS PRODUCTS

precipitate of oxide of nickel which gives the crystals a dirty grayish

appearance and seriously modifies their translucency. Both iron and

nickel appear in the ash and are also for that reason undesirable.

Both ferric iron and nickel form ferrocyanides which are practically

insoluble in acid solutions. In the treatment with filtchar, etc., the

liquor is constantly agitated by blowing air in at the bottom of the

treating tank. This serves also to bring all or nearly all of the iron

into the ferric condition so that it can be removed by precipitation as

ferric • ferrocyanide.

Calcium ferrocyanide is admirably adapted to the removal of iron

and nickel, as it is very soluble in water, precipitates both metals from

the acid solution, and forms free citric acid and precipitates calcium

sulphate, without the introduction of a new ion into the solution.

In using the ferrocyanide ion for the removal of iron and nickel, the

liquor to be treated is sampled, and the sample filtered clear. To several

25-c.c. portions of the clear nitrate varying amounts of a i per cent solu-

tion of Ca2Fe(CN)6-i2H2O are added, together with about 0.5 gm.

filtchar and the mixture is heated on the steam bath for 10 minutes, or

just brought to a boil on a hot plate, and filtered.

If difficulty is experienced in securing a clear filtrate, a little filter-eel,

which has been washed perfectly free from iron with hydrochloric acid

and freed from acid by washing with distilled water, may be added before

heating. This is very effective in holding the finely divided Prussian

blue precipitate.

To all of the filtrates a drop of the i per cent solution of Ca2Fe(CN)6

is added. That sample which shows the least blue color, but in which

there is nevertheless a visible blue color, is used as the basis of calculating

the amount of Ca2Fe(CN)4 necessary to remove the iron and nickel from

the batch of liquor in question.

Care must be taken that an excess of calcium ferrocyanide is not

introduced into the liquor, as it passes through the vacuum pan and into

the crystallizers. These are lined with monel metal and rapidly become

coated with a film of nickel ferrocyanide, which appears in the crystals.

In practice, enough calcium ferrocyanide solution is added to precipitate

about 90 to 95 per cent of the iron and nickel present, since the 5 to 10

per cent left never appears in the crystals. As these metals become con-

centrated in the mother-liquors they are removed by subsequent treat-

ment with the ferrocyanide.

It is to be noted that the other metals mentioned, notably copper, also

form insoluble ferrocyanides. As calcium ferrocyanide is the most ex-

pensive reagent used in the treatment, the several steps naturally take

CITRIC ACID MANUFACTURE 255

place in the order of the ascending costs of the reagents used : sulphuric

acid, filtchar, hydrogen sulphide, and calcium ferrocyanide.

When the tests with filtchar, hydrogen sulphide and calcium ferro-

cyanide show that the treatment is complete, the liquor is filter-pressed

and sent to the vacuum pan for final concentration.

Sulphuric acid. — At times sulphuric acid may accumulate in excess

as the liquor is concentrated in the vacuum pan. If not removed, some of

this sulphuric acid may appear in the finished crystals, even after thor-

ough washing in the centrifugal. When a point is reached in the final

boiling where the liquor has about two or three hours yet to remain in

the pan, a test for free sulphuric acid is made. A sample of filtered

liquor is mixed in a test tube with an equal volume of 45 per cent calcium

chloride solution and heated in the steam bath for a minute or two. If

more than a slight precipitate is obtained, an appropriate amount of cal-

cium hydroxide in the form of a thin milk is drawn into the pan, throwing

down the excess of sulphuric acid as calcium sulphate.

As the vacuum pan is lined with lead, the liquor always takes up more

or less of this metal in the final cooking, and an extra precaution against

this is taken by sucking into the pan about 20 liters of hydrogen sulphide

water at the same time that the milk of lime is added. By the time the

strike is withdrawn the sulphide has had ample time to precipitate the

lead, and any excess has been boiled off.

Calcium sulphate. — Calcium sulphate is always present in greater or

less amount in acid liquor, and more of it is formed by the combined

treatments with sulphuric acid, calcium ferrocyanide, and calcium hy-

droxide. It -seems a fair assumption that these liquors are always satu-

rated with calcium sulphate, and as a matter of fact there is, at the end

of any concentration of the liquor, a considerable amount of calcium

sulphate suspended as a fine precipitate in the liquor. This is true of the

final boiling in the vacuum pan, which rapidly becomes coated on the

inside with a crust of the precipitated calcium sulphate.

The liquor is filtered immediately upon withdrawal from the pan to

remove the calcium sulphate and all other insoluble matter. A wood

plate-and-f rame filter press is used, which is clothed not only with usual

filter cloth but with heavy paper as well, to insure a brilliant filtrate.

Our experience has shown that this final filtration of the acid liquor

is probably the most important single operation in the production of high-

grade crystals. The precipitate removed is mainly calcium sulphate, but

there are usually also some filtchar, iron and nickel ferrocyanides, and

metallic sulphides, with sometimes small amounts of lead and calcium

citrates. All of these precipitates, if not removed, appear in the crystals

256 CITRUS PRODUCTS

and raise the ash above the limit of 0.5 per cent. Proper filtration re-

moves them completely, giving a brilliantly light-straw or amber-colored

liquor of about 36.6°Be. at 50° C. This yields a good crop of clear, color-

less crystals of pure citric acid.

Carbonised filter-eel. — If the liquor is difficult to filter, use is made

of a carbonized filter-eel made at the filter plant. (Patent on this product

has been applied for by the manufacturers.) It was noted that the raw

juice is clarified by filtering after boiling with filter-eel. The press cake

from this operation contains roughly equal amounts of filter-eel and

organic matter from lemon pulp. When heated in closed retorts to a

bright red heat the organic matter is subjected to destructive distillation,

and very fine particles of carbon are deposited throughout the pores of

the filter-eel. The carbonized filter-eel thus obtained is ground to a

coarse powder. It is extremely light and porous, wets easily, and has a

high decolorizing value when applied to citric acid liquors. It is par-

ticularly useful, however, in producing a porous, easily filterable press

cake in the clarification of liquors which are slimy or viscous and clog

the filter cloth rapidly, or which contain precipitates so fine that they

pass through the cloth and paper. The carbonized filter-eel is far superior

to the fresh unused filter-eel in this respect and is the best filter aid.

In using this carbonized filter-eel a small amount is added to the

liquor to be filtered and thoroughly mixed with it, and the mixture is

passed through the filter press. If the liquor shows a tendency to come

through cloudy, the press cloths are precoated with carbonized filter-eel

by mixing a few pounds with water and passing this through the filter

press just before the liquor is sent through.

Crystallisation. — The purified liquor is passed from the filter presses

directly into the crystallizers.

These are monel-lined wooden tanks, 130 cm. X 435 cm. X 20 cm.,

with a capacity of about 1,150 liters. Other crystallizers of varnished

wood, stoneware, porcelain, lead, and acid-proof enamel were tried.

With wood, even with a good varnish, crystals stick to the surface, with

eventual trouble from chips. Stoneware chips quite easily under the

blows necessary to remove the crystals and acid-proof enamels are open

to this same objection. Porcelain is too expensive to use in this country,

though it is said to be employed on a large scale in Germany for similar

work. Lead is objectionable because of the contamination of the crystals.

Monel metal has been found quite satisfactory, although the liquors

slowly take up both nickel and copper from it. It is hard and tough,

the crystals are easily removed from it, and it is easy to keep clean and

bright.

CITRIC ACID MANUFACTURE 257

Where crystals are desired, the liquor is kept perfectly still for from

three to five days, depending on the temperature of the surrounding

atmosphere.

When granular acid (small crystals) is wanted, the liquor is kept

in constant motion by a small air jet or mechanical agitator.

After crystallization is complete the liquor is drawn off and re-

cooked in the vacuum pan, and refiltered. Further crops of crystals are

removed as long as a satisfactory product is obtained.

In ordinary weather the acid crystals are simply washed in a basket

centrifugal, and spread on a clean mixing floor to evaporate surface

moisture. They are then graded for size by means of a monel metal

screen, and packed for shipment. In wet weather it is necessary to use

artificial means of drying and for this purpose a vacuum shelf dryer has

been used.

Treatment of old liquor. — No citric acid liquor is ever discarded.

When white liquors no longer yield crystals of U.S. P. quality, these

liquors are classed as brown, and the crystals taken from them are dis-

solved and purified as indicated above. When brown liquors fail to

yield a sufficient crop of crude crystals they are returned to the neutraliz-

ing tanks, diluted, and treated like fresh juice, recovering the acid as

citrate of lime, which passes again into the regular process.

Quality of product. — The standard of purity for U.S.P. citric acid is

quite high ( United States Pharmacopeia, Vol. IX, No. 9) but the rigid

laboratory control established when the first acid was produced has kept

this factory free from complaints on the score of quality.

Use of metric system. — It may be interesting to note that from the

start of actual production of citric acid, the metric system has been in

use throughout the factory. Tanks are calibrated in liters per centimeter

of depth, and the various chemicals are weighed in kilograms. There

has been no difficulty in teaching ordinary laborers to use meter sticks

and metric scales, and the saving in calculation in the laboratory has been

enormous.

THE INDUSTRY IN THE SAN DIEGO DISTRICT

The San Diego district includes National City and San Diego. Its

chief products are calcium citrate, lemon oil, coronet (lemon) flavoring

extract, California melade (grapefruit juice), and citrus washing powder.

THE INDUSTRY IN THE SAN BERNARDINO DISTRICT

The San Bernardino district has its by-product industry located prin-

cipally in four cities, namely : Corona, Ontario, Redlands, and Riverside.

258 CITRUS PRODUCTS

The San Bernardino district produces citric acid, dried orange peel,

lemon juice. Formerly orange wine was made.

THE INDUSTRY IN THE LOS ANGELES DISTRICT

The section of the citrus by-product industry centered about Los

Angeles contains the following cities in which active commercial inter-

ests are located : On the north, Sa"n Gabriel, Alhambra, Pasadena, Alta-

dena, Lamanda Park, and Monrovia, on the northeast, Pomona and

Claremont, on the southeast, Anaheim, Placentia, and Santa Ana. The

principal products of this district considering the number of firms manu-

facturing as a criterion are: (i) marmalade and jelly, (2) juices, (3)

peel, (4) canned oranges, (5) calcium citrate, (6) wines and cordials

(now discontinued). Miscellaneous products include a face cream, a

shampoo, and a dentrifice.

FLORIDA

It was about the year 1884 that fair sized shipments of oranges began

to move out of Florida. At the present time Polk County produces more

citrus fruit than any other county in the state. Other large centralized

fruit areas may be found (i) north of Polk County in Lake and Orange

counties, (2) on the west coast in Pinellas and Manatee counties, and

(3) on the east coast along the Indian River in Volusia Brevard, and St.

Lucie counties. Many smaller citrus regions are found in various locali-

ties throughout the central and southern part of the state.1

Every year the citrus fruit growers of Florida as elsewhere suffer a

considerable loss on account of the cull fruits which are not suitable for

shipping. This loss may amount to as much as 10 per cent of the fruit

coming into a packing-house.2 The chief reasons for the existence of

culls are superficial defects which in no way injure the value of the

fruit for immediate consumption or for preservation. Since the local

market cannot take care of this large amount of cull fruit, it is desirable

there also to find methods of preserving or otherwise utilizing it.

The principal citrus fruits grown in Florida are oranges and grape-

fruit. In 1909 practically all the lemons and 74 per cent of the oranges

of the United States were grown in California while nearly all the

grapefruit over a million boxes was grown in Florida.

The manufacture of by-products in Florida is virtually confined to

the making of marmalade and the preservation of grapefruit juice. Can-

ning of grapefruit and bottling of grapefruit juice is done on a much

larger scale than in California.

JC. R. Swinson and W. C. Funk, "Economic Aspects of Citrus-Fruit Growing

in Polk County, Fla.," U. S. D. A. Dept. Bull. No. 1435 (1926).

^Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 135 (1917), p. 131.

MEXICO 259

MEXICO

Oranges and bananas are the most important fruits grown in Mexico.

In 1907, 83,814,000 Ib. of oranges were produced. Over 90 per cent of

these were shipped to the United States and Canada. During the fiscal

year ending June 30, 1914, Mexico exported to the United States 6,194

Ib. citrate of lime, and 99 Ib. oil of lime. Citrus fruit production in

Mexico is far below the potential output. For three years previous to

1926 no oranges have been shipped to Canada from the Montomorelos

district of the state of Tomaulipas. It was planned to renew shipments

beginning December, 1926. Refrigeration facilities have been installed

in a number of steamers entering Tampico, and oranges will be shipped

to Montreal via New York.

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER XII

ANONYMOUS.

California Pure Food and Drugs Act; Food Sanitation Act; Cold Stor-

age Act with Rules and Regulations Sacramento: California State

Printing Office, 1916.

"Big Orange Peel Order," Los Angeles Times (January 4, 1917).

"Making Citrus Products in This City," Pasadena Star-News (April 13,

1917).

CHACE, EDWARD M.

Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture

Bulletin No. 160.

McDERMOxr, F. ALEX.

"The Utilization of Cull Citrus Fruits in Florida," Agricultural Experi-

ment Station (Gainesville, Florida) Bulletin No. 135 (April, 1917).

Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, VIII (1916), 136.

POWELL, G. H.

Report of the Secretary and Manager of the Citrus Protective League

for Year ending December, 51, ipu. Los Angeles.

Report of the Secretary and Manager of the Citrus Protective League

for Seven Months ending July JJ, 1912 (Circular No. 8).

POWELL, G. H., and WALLSCHLAEGER, F. O.

"The California Lemon Industry," Citrus Protective League of Cali-

fornia Bulletin No. p (January, 1913). Los Angeles.

RUDDIMAN, H. D.

"Statistics of Fruits in Principal Countries," United States Department

of Agriculture Bulletin No. 483 (February 14, 1917).

WALLSCHLAEGER, F. O.

"The World's Production and Commerce in Citrus Fruits and Their

By-Products," Citrus Protective League of California Bulletin No. n

(April 15, 1914). Los Angeles.

260 CITRUS PRODUCTS

WALKER.

Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 135.

WILL, R. T.

"Some Phases of the Citrus By-Product Industry in California," Journal

of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, VIII, No. I (January,

1916), 78.

WILSON, C. P.

"The Manufacture of Citric Acid from Lemons," Journal of Industrial

and Engineering Chemistry, XIII, No. 6 (June, 1921), 554.

CHAPTER XIII

THE INDUSTRY IN THE WEST INDIES AND

NEIGHBORING ISLANDS

BRITISH WEST INDIES

Of the citrus by-products imported into the United States during the

year ending June 30, 1914, 483,167 Ib. of citrate of lime, 9,537 lb. oil

of lime, 29,566 lb. oil of orange, and 39.2 per cent of the lemon, lime,

and sour orange juice were received from the British West Indies. The

orange oil came from Jamaica, the only place where it is produced.

ISLAND STATISTICS

Bahamas. — Small quantities of grapefruit and oranges are exported

principally to the United States. By-products are likewise made in

small quantities.

Jamaica. — Exports of grapefruit during the four years 1909-12

averaged $92,170 annually, of oranges $207,000, and of lime juice $19,-

258. During the year ending June 30, 1914, Jamaica exported to the

United States 16.5 lb. oil of lime, 29,032 lb. oil of orange, and 4.2 per

cent of the lemon, lime, and sour orange juice.

Leeward Islands. — The cultivation of limes is the principal fruit

industry of the islands of this group, especially of Dominica, where the

industry has attained its highest development. During the five years

1909-13 the lime crop of Dominica averaged 354,000 barrels yearly. The

flour barrel used for measuring limes will average about 160 lb. of

fruit. Calculated on this basis the average annual production was 56,-

640,000 lb. The average annual value of exports of limes and lime

products during the years 1911-13 was $508,090. There were also ex-

ported from Dominica small quantities of oranges and orange oil. The

lime crop for 1918-22, calculated in barrels (capacity 4.55 cubic feet) is

recorded below:1

Barrels

IQiS 3l8,OOO

1919 402,000

1920 369,OOO

1921 516,000

1922 400,000

^Colonial Report No. 1195, Leeward Islands, 1922-23, p. 15.

261

262 CITRUS PRODUCTS

In the production of lime oil Montserrat ranks next to Dominica1 and

Antigua produces a smaller amount.

St. Lucia. — The cultivation of limes is increasing and seems likely to

assume an important place in the economics of the island. Exports of

limes and lime products increased from $1,411 in 1911 to $5,280 in

1912 and $15,220 in 1913. The production of lime oil, however, is less

than that of Dominica and Montserrat.

Trinidad and Tobago. — The area used in the cultivation of limes and

oranges in 1913-14 was 1,123 acres. The value of fruit exported has

increased from $3,908 in 1905 to $57,396 in 1914. The lime oil industry

here as in St. Lucia is not as great as that of Dominica and Montserrat.

During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1914, Trinidad exported to the

United States 99 Ib. lime oil, and 0.9 per cent of the lemon, lime, and

sour orange juice imported into the United States.

JAMAICAN ORANGE OIL

The earthquake that in 1908 laid Messina in ruins, and caused a set-

back to the Sicilian production of essential oils, gave the first important

impetus to the new orange oil industry in Jamaica. Until this time

Sicily and southern Italy had been the chief, or practically the only

sources of supply of the oils of orange and lemon. -

The essential oils from Italy and Sicily were the standard in the

world's market for many years. The manufacturer or syndicate of

growers sold under well-known brands, the quality of the shipments

being guaranteed by some analytical chemist. Until the loss through the

Messina earthquake of large stocks of the oil, there was practically no

sale for the West Indian product. There is quite a difference between the

chemical constituents of the Jamaican and the standard Sicilian oil, and

buyers were disinclined to change and thus risk altering the flavor or

fragrance of their products. The adequacy of supply of the oil to which

they were accustomed also militated against the Jamaican oils finding a

market, except in small quantities at lower prices. Small quantities had

thus been sold at prices as low as 75 cents per pound, which was less

than the cost of production.

The rise in price of orange oil marked an opportunity for the orange

producers of Jamaica who at the time were suffering from difficulties in

marketing the crop under the high tariff on citrus fruits in the United

States and the distance which separates Jamaica from the other worth-

while markets for so perishable and bulky a fruit.

Until this time, the production of oil from oranges had been largely

experimental, and the experiments had "been sufficient to indicate that

'See Table XL.

JAMAICAN ORANGE OIL 263

with increased prices, the local glut in production of the fruit and the

abundance of cheap labor, the oil could be furnished in large quantities

and a worth-while trade built up as soon as prejudice against a new

source of supply had been overcome.

Method of production. — There is practically but one method in vogue

for the production of orange oil in Jamaica. The machine used is essen-

tially the same as that employed in Sicily. It consists of a copper disk

13 to 14 in. in diameter made of i6-oz. copper. In some cases a lighter

copper is used. When the cage is turned over and stiffened with wire,

the bottom of the bowl is fitted with a funnel ^ in. in diameter and 5 to

6 in. long with the bottom end closed. This copper disk is punched with

a series of fine holes in concentric circles about •£% in. apart. Copper

tacks l/2-y& in. in length are passed into the holes and soldered down

with the heads flushed and the points protruding full length on the in-

side of the disk. The correct name for these machines as used in Sicily

is ecuelle ; in Jamaica they are known as "rinders." These were formerly

imported from London, but the native tinsmith has proved adept at

making them. They now cost from I2s. to 15^. ($2.92 to $3.65) each,

according to the gauge of copper used. A box is supplied with each

machine provided with a wooden frame extension on which the under

side of the bowl rests, the box itself providing a seat for the woman

using the machine as well as affording a receptacle for the bottles of oil.

The tendency has been to make the points too long, too sharp, and un-

even. The "rinder" is held between the knees of the operator, seated,

and with the open palm of the hand, the orange is rolled lightly over

the points of the tacks. These prick the oil-bearing cells of the rind,

or skin, of the orange, the oil oozing out and dripping down into the

funnel-spout. The orange is ordinarily rolled until no further oil

exudes. When the funnel is filled, the oil is poured through a piece of

cloth into ordinary bottles, holding a quart or less. At this stage of the

process, the oil is frequently found to contain some orange juice, and at

times a mucilage. These foreign substances sometimes make it necessary

to allow the oil to settle. Thereafter it is carefully drawn off and filtered

into copper pots or pans, lined with pure tin, or occasionally into tin

receptacles, and soldered. The rinding, though a simple operation, re-

quires a certain care and skill. The length and evenness of the tacks

in the rinder are important factors for the extraction of the oil without

great waste. The tacks should prick the orange skin only. If they are

uneven or too long and sharp, either all of the orange oil will not be

extracted without increased labor, or the orange juice will ooze through

and make extra filtering necessary, with its attendant waste.

264 CITRUS PRODUCTS

Several attempts have been made in the past to introduce machinery

to supplant the simple rinder now in use. These have met with but little

success, as the rinding in Jamaica is done usually by women or children

who work for small wages.

Very little oil can be taken from the skin of each orange so that the

labor necessary to get even a pound of the oil is very considerable, and

the quantity of oranges consumed in the process is very high. The trees

are scattered, and so the gatherers, mostly girls and young boys, are sent

out into the properties to gather the fruit and collect the oil on the spot.

They soon get very expert. By this method, they only have to carry the

oil to the manufacturers, the fruit being left on the ground.

In Jamaica, the oranges are not cultivated in groves as in Sicily and

in the citrus growing districts of the United States, but the trees are

scattered over the country in pastures and on hillsides. The orange oil

is collected by gangs of girls and boys. The boys shake the oranges

down and the girls sit below the trees and do the rinding. They can

eat as many oranges as they like, of course, and after the rinding, the

rest of the oranges are generally flung away, the cattle and pigs feeding

upon them to a certain extent.

The laborers in Jamaica are paid from 30 to 60 cents "a bottle," ac-

cording to the quantity of oranges available within certain limits of dis-

tance. The picking is done in the early hours of the day, and the rinding

should be done immediately in order to get the greatest quantity of best-

colored oil. The fruit should be picked when full grown, but not entirely

ripe, as in the latter condition the oil has a deeper color and brings less

price. If the picking and rinding is done during the heat of the day, the

yield is less than when done at a lower temperature.

A local dealer states that 500 oranges will yield approximately I lb.,

2 oz. of crude oil, or I lb. filtered, and that it takes eight hours to pro-

duce i lb. of crude oil. The quantity of oil obtainable depends upon the

class and condition of the fruit. Oranges grown in a cool section of the

island will yield more oil than the same quantity of fruit grown in a

warm one.

Further costs and charges after rinding are those of collecting the oil

from the different districts, its transportation to the seaports, the cost of

the copper-tin-lined containers in which it is shipped and the steamship

freight.

An unfortunate feature of the orange oil industry in Jamaica has

been that, owing to the comparatively high prices offered, the oil is often

adulterated with turpentine, kerosene oil, or cottonseed oil, or other fats.

Such adulteration, however, can usually be detected by experienced

JAMAICAN ORANGE OIL 265

dealers, and a campaign has been inaugurated by the island authorities

to stop the dishonest practice, and this is now reported to be in abeyance.

If the adulterant is kerosene, it can usually be detected by smell immedi-

ately after removing the cork from the bottle. An effective method

recommended is to "pour some of the oil in the palm of the hand, rub

vigorously with both hands and then smell." The use of the polariscope

for testing is advisable, and a hydrometer can also be used, but it is

doubtful whether an accurate conclusion can be arrived at on the basis

of specific gravity since a certain amount of turpentine can be added to

the oil without density being greatly altered.

Method of shipment. — In the shipment of the oil to foreign markets,

it should be protected from light and air, and it cannot be profitably put

in tins or iron containers, nor in glass due to heavy freights and risk of

breakage. The best, and now the most usual, practice is to pack the oil

in specially made copper vessels, the inner surface of which has been

carefully coated with tin.

At first, the oil was shipped from Jamaica in bottles, sometimes in

demijohns, but this did not prove satisfactory. It made the freight ex-

pensive, the bottles were often broken, and the oil was apt to be injured

and become cloudy from exposure to light.

The copper containers now used for the oil are of two shapes. The

American ones are square like a kerosene tin. They are made of thin

sheet copper the inside of which is covered with a thin coat of black tin.

They have a capacity of 25 lb., and a small funnel aperture for filling.

When filled this aperture is corked and covered with a thin disk of copper.

The other package is the Sicilian style. It has a round body with a

half-round top and bottom. The sides and bottom are dovetailed together

and brazed, forming one piece ; this is carefully tin-coated inside. The

top is fitted and joined with a heavy band of solder. The top is also

fitted with a small funnel piece, and is closed and soldered like the

American container. It is made to contain 25 lb. of oil, and the con-

tainers are packed two or four to the case. Occasionally Sicilian coppers

are imported in the 12^ lb. size. The Sicilian coppers are considered

better, stronger, and capable of withstanding rougher handling than the

American square receptacles.

Testing and shipping by buyers and shippers. — The greatest care

should be exercised before shipment to see that each bottle is filled with

nothing but absolutely pure oil, and as a matter of fact the oil is gen-

erally filtered and tested and retested before being exported.

One shipper states that it is sought to have the product conform to

the requirements of the United States Pharmacopoeia which provides

266

CITRUS PRODUCTS

that the specific gravity should be between .842 and .846 and the optical

rotation not below 95°.

Costs. — The sale price depends upon the combined demand from the

consuming countries, principally the United States and the United King-

dom, and upon the available supply from the sources of production, prin-

cipally Sicily and Jamaica.

Several years ago, a shortage in the American orange crop made it

highly profitable to ship Jamaica oranges to the United States, despite

the high import duty. Due to the shipment of the fruit itself in large

quantities, the oil production fell off, and it became practically impossible

to secure orange oil from Jamaica.

On the other hand, this is an article, of which the production may

exceed the demand, and when the surplus fails to find buyers it must be

held over till the following season. This happened a few years ago, and

resulted virtually in the suspension of production for about twelve

months.

During 1916 wholesale prices realized in New York, duty paid, for

Jamaica oil varied from $1.75 to $2.50 per pound including the cost of

the containers.

The following figures have been furnished by a principal producer in

the interior of the island as representing the prices realized on a lot recently

handled: 441 bottles sweet orange oil, each Ij4 Ib- sold at $1.50 per pound;

557 bottles bitter orange oil, each i% Ib. sold at $1.25 per pound; 30 bottles

of dregs not sold ; total cost including pay of producer and delivery in King-

ston, $1530,90, receipts $1641.54.

TABLE XLIX

*The ordinary export package contains 50 Ib. net.

The heaviest exports are recorded in 1916 when 121,200 pounds were

shipped abroad of which 81 per cent was taken by the United States.

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY. BOTANY, VOL. VI, PART II, PLATE VIII.

(Bulletin of the Pan-American Union)

GATHERING THE LEAVES OF THE BITTER ORANGE IN PARAGUAY.

LIME CULTIVATION 267

Export prices show a variation of from 3 to 14 shillings ($0.73 to $3.41)

a pound. During the three years — 1914 to 1916 inclusive — the average

price per pound was $1.06. In 1916 it was $1.17 a pound.

Exports. — Table XLIX shows figures taken from the Blue Book

giving the volume of the export trade.

Supply and demand. — There is a general impression in Jamaica that

if the industry of putting up orange oil here gets into many hands, and

the shipping and marketing of it is independently done without co-

operation, the trade will suffer. It is very necessary that the oil sent

abroad be kept up to as high and uniform a standard as possible, for if

unfair and inferior grades are shipped on the chance of finding a market,

the result will be not only a probable loss to the individual shipper, but

an indirect loss to all shippers of the product. It is not an article the

consumption of which can be greatly stimulated by cheapness, and from

the viewpoint of the producers, it would probably be more advantageous

to market a limited production at good prices than a large production at

low prices. The latter would lead to a price-cutting, careless production,

and the shipping of a poor-class product to the foreign markets.

Bitter orange oil. — By far the greater amount of orange oil produced

in Jamaica is sweet orange oil, but bitter orange oil is also produced in

exactly the same way as the sweet oil though from the Seville or sour

orange, and is not as valuable as the sweet oil. When the sweet orange

oil is being sold at $1.75 per pound, the producer of the bitter oil counts

himself fortunate if he succeeds in obtaining $1.25 per pound for his

product. Both kinds are used also to flavor cakes and biscuits, and to

some extent in the preparation of perfumes and essences.

LIME CULTIVATION

There are sweet and sour limes both confined to tropical and sub-

tropical zones. Limes do not appear to flourish in Southern Europe nor

in many other localities where oranges and lemons can be grown.

The sour lime (C. Limetta), although probably introduced into

tropical America from the East Indies, has made its second home in this

part of the world, where it is more generally cultivated. The tree is

described as probably indigenous to the wild valleys of the outer Hima-

layas, and probably also of the mountain tracts of the Central Provinces

and of Central India. The date of its introduction into the West Indies

is not recorded, but it is supposed to have found its way to the English

islands from Martinique.

Atwood, the historian of Dominica, in 1791, states : "The lemon and the

lime trees bear also very aromatic scenting blossoms, and the fruit of both

268 CITRUS PRODUCTS

is in great abundance, large and of excellent quality. Of these, the latter

especially, great quantities are often sent in barrels to England and America.

The neighboring English islands are likewise often supplied with them from

this island, especially Antigua and Barbados."

Up to the time of Imray, in the middle of the nineteenth century, the

lime was cultivated to but a slight extent in Dominica, and then for the

fruit only. Experiments commenced by him in about 1852 showed that the

cultivation of limes could be undertaken upon a commercial scale. About

the same time, or a little later, a similar cultivation was commenced by

Messrs. Sturge in the island of Montserrat.

Through the enterprising action of Messrs. Sturge, Montserrat soon be-

came the headquarters of the lime industry in the West Indies, a position

which in later years has been attained by Dominica.

It would appear that the future prospects of the lime industry of the

West Indies are of a promising nature, and considerable interest has, of late,

been awakened in this cultivation. The progress made in the industry in

Montserrat, Dominica, and Jamaica has induced the planting of limes in

British Guiana, Trinidad, Grenada, Garriacou, and St. Lucia.

Records show that lime products to the value of £280 were exported from

Dominica in 1848, but that their value fell to £12 in 1857. In 1887, the

value is given by (Kew Bulletin, August, 1888) as £8,561, while lime

products from Montserrat were valued at £10,625. The total value of lime

products exported from the island of Dominica, during the year 1906 was

£55,174. The exports from Montserrat during the same period amounted to

£6,883. Those from Jamaica were of the value of £3,909, and from Trinidad

of £982.

The destructive hurricane that swept Montserrat in 1899 produced a

falling off of lime products until 1908.

The rapid progress of the lime industry in Dominica is largely due to

the assistance rendered by the Imperial Department of Agriculture, which

has distributed at a small cost immense quantities of young lime trees from

the Botanic Station. During the five years, 1902-6, over 150,000 ordinary

lime plants have been distributed from the station, in addition to nearly

12,000 plants of the spineless variety. For the year ended March 31, 1907,

about 70,000 lime plants were sent out. Of these 60,000 were of the ordinary

kind, and 10,000 of the spineless variety. The agricultural school has also

taken part in this work, and the pupils are thoroughly trained in the cultiva-

tion of limes.

For the year 1906—7, over 5,600 lime plants and 8 gal. of lime seeds were

distributed from the Montserrat Botanic Station, and 37,000 plants from St.

Lucia. The majority of the plants at St. Lucia were raised in the nurseries

attached to the agricultural school.

As already shown, the lime industry of Dominica has made rapid prog-

ress in recent years. It received a serious setback from the attacks of scale

insects in 1902 and 1903, when the exports dropped from £45,357 to £23,420.

Valuable services were rendered by the Imperial Department of Agriculture

in successfully checking these scale attacks, and the industry rapidly re-

covered. The exports of 1907 rose to a value of £77,407.

ST. LUCIAN LIME INDUSTRY

269

It is estimated that the total area under lime cultivation in 1912

was about 800 acres. The trees range in age from one to eleven years,

and the plantations are on land situated at various altitudes, ranging

from sea-level to about 1,000 ft., but the greater number of them are

on alluvial soil.

Where the soil is light and naturally well drained and of sufficient

depth, and the rainfall approximates to 80 in. per annum, the trees

thrive and develop remarkably well, frequently beginning to produce

fruits about the third or fourth year. On the other hand, where the

soil is of the heavier type, although other conditions may be favorable,

the development of the trees is not as rapid or uniform, and they

appear to be more subject to root troubles and scale insect pests, par-

ticularly where attention has not been given to the proper drainage.

The fifst record in the Blue Book of the Colony, of lime products

exported, occurred in the year 1906, when green limes to the value of

£299 i&y. 6rf. and lime juice valued at £27 were shipped. The official

records of lime exports are given in Table L.

TABLE L

THE LIME INDUSTRY IN ST. LUCIA

The first attempt to plant limes on a commercial scale in St. Lucia

was made in the year 1901, on what was formerly a sugar estate, situ-

ated in a fertile valley, on the windward coast. During that year and

the following 22,112 lime plants were supplied for this estate by the

Agricultural Department. From this, the pioneer lime plantation, there

was exported about five years later the first concentrated juice produced

in the island.

Apparently, no further work in connection with planting in other

parts of the island was done until 1905, when other landowners, doubtless

encouraged by the promising results of the first venture, began seriously

to contemplate planting their lands which appeared suitable for the crop.

Since 1905, the demand for lime plants from the nurseries of the Agri-

cultural Department has been steady, the total number distributed from

270 CITRUS PRODUCTS

April, 1901, to March, 1911, being 257,907, representing an average

annual distribution of 25,791 plants.

The progress of the industry may also be indicated by recounting the

number of estates on which limes have been planted, as given by the plant

distribution records of the Agricultural Department. From 1901 to 1905

there was only one estate on which limes were grown. In 1905 there

were four ; 1906, eleven ; 1907, nineteen ; 1908, twenty-four ; 1909, thirty ;

1910, forty-two. On some of these, however, the limes occupy only a

few acres, while on others the acreage ranges from 30 to 70. It is esti-

mated that the total area under limes at the beginning of 1911 approxi-

mated to 800 acres. The trees range in age from one to nine years.

An article in the Agricultural News of Barbados describes the con-

dition of the lime industry in St. Lucia :

As so often happens when new industries are started, a rush was made

to plant up every available piece of land with limes, without considering the

plant's requirements, or the capabilities of the land to be planted, with the

inevitable result that, after a few years of lingering, whole areas died out,

leaving isolated trees here and there to mark the former plantation.

Apart from the waste of good material, time, money, and labor, the iso-

lated and neglected trees became diseased and pest infested, and in such con-

dition were a source of danger to neighboring lime plantations.

It is safe to estimate that not one-half of the lime trees planted during

the ten years previous to 1921 are alive today, or exports would be double

their present figure. Nevertheless, the experience gained, although perhaps

bitter in a few cases, has proved beneficial to the majority and limes are

now planted with much more care and consideration than formerly.

Notwithstanding these setbacks, the industry has made, and is still

making, good and steady progress, and we can confidently look forward to a

sound and profitable industry being permanently established.

There are now seven modern factories working in St. Lucia island, where

concentrated lime juice is prepared in steam-heated wooden vats, and the

St. Lucia lime juice has made its individual marks known on the London

market, where it commands the maximum prices.

It is estimated that the present area under lime cultivation is about 4,000

acres.

Lime plants must be protected from prevailing winds, and their roots

must be kept free from stagnant water. Most of the St. Lucia lime planta-

tions have been established on old and worn out sugar lands. During the

four or five years that the plants have taken to reach the fruiting stage, very

little food material has been taken from the soil, and for the following year

or two, good crops are produced, and then the trees begin to decline, and the

crops in some cases have reached the vanishing-point.

EXTRACTION OF LIME JUICE BY MILLING

The process of extracting lime juice from limes consists essentially

of squeezing the fruit in some form of mill, usually of the three-roller

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

BOTANY. VOL. VI, PART II, PLATE IX.

O.CO-

(Bulletin of the Pan- American Union)

BRANCH OF A BITTER ORANGE TREE.

LIME JUICE EXTRACTION 271

type employed in the cane-sugar industry, possessing iron or granite

rollers, and driven by hand, or by power. It is often supplemented by

a cider press in which the squeezed skins are further subjected to pres-

sure in order to extract a further quantity of juice. When the mills

are of good type, however, the press is often dispensed with. At the

present time ideas regarding the efficacy of the mills employed are gen-

erally decidedly vague.

The duty of a mill is usually stated in terms of gallons of juice ex-

pressed per barrel of limes. Such a statement leaves something to be

desired. In the first place, the size of the barrel is liable to vary to some

extent ; in the second place, while it is true that the volume occupied by

a given weight of limes will remain constant irrespective of size, provided

that the limes are uniform in size, on the other hand, individual varia-

tions in the size of limes may induce appreciable variations in the quan-

tity of limes measured. Moreover, the possibility must not be overlooked

that the vessels in which the expressed juice is measured may sometimes

be considerably in error, in the measurements which they record. Con-

sequently, it is not surprising that there exists a considerable divergence

of opinion as to the quantity of lime juice which it is possible to express

from a barrel of limes by milling.

The problems connected with the extraction of lime juice as prac-

ticed in the West Indies at the present time are in many ways not dis-

similar from those encountered in obtaining the juice from the sugar

cane. In fact, in many cases, old cane mills have been adapted to the

purpose of expressing lime juice, and so far as the actual extraction is

concerned, the processes in the case of the two industries are identical.

In the case of the sugar cane it is well known that the juice content

and fiber content of the cane, as also the saccharine richness of the juice,

will depend very largely on the locality in which the cane is produced.

Canes, grown under dry climatic conditions, usually contain less juice and

more fiber than canes produced in localities with abundant water supply.

Consequently the simple statement of the amount of juice expressed

from a given bulk of canes does not afford an adequate measure of the

efficacy of a cane mill, since this will vary with the juice content of the

cane.

If the juice content of limes varies with the conditions under which

the fruit is produced, in the same way, the mere expression "gallons of

juice obtained per barrel of limes" can only have a local significance,

even though the measurement of the quantities were strictly accurate.

With a view to ascertaining in what way the characteristics of the fruit

vary according to the conditions under which it is produced, samples of

272

CITRUS PRODUCTS

limes were obtained from different localities in Dominica, Montserrat, and

Antigua by Tempanay and Weil.

In all, ten samples of limes were examined; in each case the average

weight and volume of one fruit were first determined. Ten average fruits

were then weighed and the juice gently expressed by a hand press; the juice

was collected in a tared beaker and weighed separately. The acidity in terms

of citric acid, as well as the specific gravity ^£3 C. of the expressed juice

was determined. On the skins, the acidity in terms of citric acid and the

moisture content were determined. From these values the percentage of

actual juice present in each sample of limes was calculated. In making this

calculation the following formula was used :

Juice content of lime = x (100 — x} T

o

Where x = percentage by weight of juice extracted

a — acid content of skins, per cent

b = acid content of juice, per cent

TABLE LI

The acidity was determined by a modification of Prinsen Geerligs'

method for the determination of sucrose in megass.

A quantity of skins amounting to 100 gm. is weighed into a tared beaker,

500 c.c. of distilled water is added, and the mixture boiled for twenty-five

minutes. The beaker and contents are then cooled to ordinary temperature

LIME JUICE EXTRACTION 273

and weighed. An amount of the solution measuring 100 c.c. is then de-

livered by means of a pipette into an evaporating basin, diluted with half

its volume of water, and titrated against normal sodium hydroxide, using

phenolphthalein as indicator.

From the weight of the beaker and contents after boiling are deducted

the tare of the former and the weight of the skins employed (100 gm.). To

this figure is added 80 to allow for dilution consequent on the moisture in the

skins, and the result multiplied by the number of c.c. of normal sodium

hydroxide used and by 0.00070. This gives the percentage of acid content

of the skins in terms of citric acid.

Comparison of the values for the acidity as determined by the foregoing

method with determinations on the same samples by the Soxhlet extraction

method gave results in close agreement.

The results obtained are given in Table LI.

An examination of these results shows that the average weight and

volume of a single fruit, as also the acidity of the juice, vary according

to the locality in which the fruit is grown, the former characteristics

varying directly and the latter inversely with the rainfall at the place of

origin.

The percentage of juice contained in the fruit, however, varies rela-

tively little, amounting approximately to 62 per cent of the total weight

of the fruit. This result is of a distinctly unexpected character, since

comparison with the sugar cane would tend to the belief that the juice

content would be materially less in dry localities. It follows from this

that measurement of the extraction of the juice, if accurately performed,

will afford a reliable criterion of the efficacy of the milling in lime juice

works.

As has already been said, however, the character of measurements of

this description often leaves something to be desired; and it appeared

that a useful purpose would be served if the endeavor was made to de-

vise some simple system of mill control which could be used as a check

on mill work at any time without involving alteration of conditions.

The value of the analysis of megass, in the control of cane mills,

prompted the inquiry as to whether equally valuable results can be at-

tained by the analysis of the squeezed lime skins left after the extraction

of the juice. In view of the constancy of the juice content of whole limes,

the determination of the amount of residual juice left in the squeezed

skins appears to constitute a complete check on the efficacy of the milling

at the time the sample was taken.

A considerable number of tests on these lines were performed on

lime mills in Dominica, Montserrat, and Antigua, with a view to test-

ing the value of the method of control and of ascertaining the efficacy of

the mill work in the industry.

274

CITRUS PRODUCTS

The method pursued was to take a sample of expressed skins and of the

juice flowing from the mill at the same time; to determine the acidity of the

juice and the acidity of the skins, and to calculate the juice lost in 100 Ib.

of the squeezed skins by means of the formula:

juice lost per 100 Ib. of

squeezed skins

acidity of skins per cent

acidity of juice in Ib. per gal.

The results are given in Table LIT.

TABLE LII

It will be seen that the figures for the amount of juice lost per 100 Ib. of

skins vary considerably. The best result is obtained in the case of No. 6 —

a Dominican mill — in which the loss amounted to 1.8 gal. of juice per 100

Ib. of skins. This is a cane mill of modern construction, with pressure-

regulating apparatus attached.

An interesting series of results is" given in the case of mill No. n, in

which a series of tests on five separate occasions indicated losses varying be-

tween 1.98 and 2.40 gal. of juice per 100 Ib. of skins, and averaging 2.16.

The mill in question is one with granite rollers, driven by a 3^ horse-power

oil engine. It appears from these results that the minimum amount of juice

lost in this form of milling is somewhere in the region of 1.8 to 2.0 gal. of

juice, per 100 Ib. of skins. If we regard this minimum loss as unavoidable,

the fact remains that in the majority of instances the avoidable loss in mill-

ing varies from y* gal. to over i gal. of juice per 100 Ib. of skins. If we

assume that a barrel of limes gives 80 Ib. of pressed skins — an assumption

not very far from the truth — we find that the avoidable losses under existing

LIME JUICE FOR CORDIALS 275

conditions of milling range in the majority of cases from 0.4 to 0.8 gal. of

juice per barrel of limes.

It is not at present clear whether with systematic attention, it might

not be possible to reduce the loss sustained under the present system of

milling considerably below 1.8 gal. of juice per 100 Ib. of skins. If it

is not, it seems that the possibility of the maceration of skins with a view

to the extraction of the residual juice might be worthy of consideration

in the case of plants producing citrate of lime. It is doubtful how far it

would be of value in the case of concentrated juice, by reason of the

necessity for greatly increased evaporations in consequence of the dilu-

tion resulting from maceration.

It seems probable that, when raw juice is being prepared for the pur-

pose of making lime-juice cordial, very high pressures are undesirable

owing to the amount of pectic matter likely to be introduced into the

juice in consequence. When, on the other hand, concentrated juice or

citrate of lime is being manufactured, the condition of affairs is different,

and it is suggested that careful attention to the milling of limes is likely

to be productive of appreciable increases of yield.

The method described in the foregoing pages appears to offer a

simple and effective check on the mill work accomplished, and may be

recommended as likely to yield useful results, on trial.

LIME JUICE FOR CORDIALS AND FLAVORING

Lime juice intended for making cordials and for flavoring confec-

tions requires very careful preparation. The limes should be washed

before being crushed in mills fitted with granite rollers. Only the first

juice obtained by lightly crushing the fruit through the first rollers is

used. The second juice and the press juice which are weaker in acid are

used for concentrating.

The first mill juice is carefully strained and placed into puncheons

when quite fresh. Formerly it was run into vats, and after settling the

clear juice was placed in puncheons or hogsheads for export.

It is well known that raw juice carefully strained and placed in pack-

ages when quite fresh will keep in good condition for a considerable

time, but if lime juice is exposed to the air it will gradually lose its

acidity.

The raw-juice trade is in the hands of two or three firms and prob-

ably different methods are employed in each case.

LIME JUICE DISCOLORATION

The results of the preliminary work conducted by Hardy, in collabora-

tion with F. H. S. Warneford, on the coloring matters of lime products,

276 CITRUS PRODUCTS

suggests that the yellow and brown colors of these products are chiefly due

to polyphenol compounds, not unlike certain of those described by the Louisi-

ana workers1 as occurring in cane juices and syrups. Without going into

details, it is believed that fresh lime juice contains certain tannins or tannin-

forming substances that yield colored products during the several stages of

citric acid manufacture. Of particular interest are the indications already

obtained in the laboratories that these colored products are chiefly due to

oxidation. Especially noticeable is the rapid darkening which goes on when

heated lime juice is neutralized by lime in the preparation of calcium citrate.

A slight excess of lime in the liquor is accompanied by the appearance of a

deep-brown color. A phenomenon of this sort due to oxidation is well known

in the chemistry of tannins, and can easily be demonstrated by rendering

alkaline a solution of some such compound as pyrogallol, and the addition

of an alkali.

Lime juice, especially after keeping, on treatment with a solution of a

ferric salt, yields a compound of red-brown color, which, in all probability

is an iron- polyphenol compound. It has long been known that lime juice,

extracted by mills possessing iron rollers, yields darker-colored products

than doea juice extracted by means of granite rollers. The effect is especially

noticeable when the iron rollers have been allowed to rust. These facts are

exactly paralleled by experience in sugar manufacture. Undoubtedly the

acidic substances present in most of the plant saps that receive treatment in

plant products factories are the agents primarily responsible for the forma-

tion of soluble ferric salts by their corrosive action on iron surfaces with

which the saps come into contact, more particularly when those surfaces are

covered with iron rust.

A boiling aqueous solution of citric acid attacks pure iron only slowly.

Ferrous hydrogen citrate is formed. The same acid, however, attacks ferric

hydroxide2 (iron rust) quite readily, with the formation of ferric citrate.3

This latter compound (although itself not deeply colored in dilute solution),

being a soluble ferric salt, is capable of reacting with certain polyphenols,

such as various tannins, to yield compounds of an intense green or brown

color.

A. E. Collens reports an interesting analysis of a red-brown sediment

taken from an iron vessel used in lime-juice concentration on a Dominica

estate. Over 74 per cent of iron calculated as ferric oxide soluble in hydro-

chloric acid was found in this sediment, and was present in large quantity as

ferric citrate.

It is self-evident from the foregoing considerations that the surfaces of

all iron, vessels, pipes, machinery, etc., used in citric acid manufacture should

be maintained in as clean a condition as possible, not only to minimize the

production of deeply colored compounds but also to present the introduction

into the citric acid liquors of objectionable quantities of iron, which are

troublesome to remove in the preparation of high-grade crystals.

'See abstracts in Agricultural News, XX, No. 479 (September 4, 1920), 278;

XIX, No. 483 (October 30, 1920), 340; and XIX, No. 487 (December 24, 1920),

406; XX, No. 507 (October i, 1921), 308.

2Watt's Dictionary of Chemistry.

'Unpublished record of the Leeward Islands Laboratory, 1918.

LIME JUICE CONCENTRATION 277

The possibility of contamination of citric acid liquors by non-ferrous

metals such as copper, lead, tin, and nickel, which are also used in the con-

struction of various units of the citric acid plant, has received considerable

attention. While the non-ferrous metals are relatively unimportant from

the viewpoint of their being likely sources of coloration, their presence in

citric acid crystals is highly undesirable, since much of the acid of best

quality is intended eventually to enter into the composition of articles for

human consumption.

A. E. Collens1 has conducted an interesting investigation into the cor-

rosive action of citric acid liquors on copper and brass under both factory

and laboratory conditions. He found that strips of these materials immersed

in fresh lime juice at air temperature in seven days lost respectively 0.167

and o.i 10 per cent of their weight. In boiling lime juice the loss was appre-

ciably greater. Concentrated juice did not differ remarkably from fresh

juice in its corrosive action on copper and brass. Various West Indian

planters have reported some slight action of citric acid liquors on non-

ferrous metals in the factory, but have stated that the corrosive effect is not

great. There appears to be no reason for the preference for copper over

brass in the construction of pumps, evaporator-coils, etc., in the citric acid

factory, especially if hard brass be used. Nevertheless, great attention is

paid in modern citric acid factories, producing the highest grade crystals,

to the removal of the merest traces of metals from the final liquors. Iron

and nickel are removed by the use of calcium f errocyanide ; copper, lead, tin,

and antimony, by the use of hydrogen sulphide.2

CITRATE OF LIME AND CONCENTRATED LIME JUICE

It is well known that lemon and lime juice constitute the raw material

from which citric acid is manufactured ; these juices usually contain from

10 to 15 oz. of citric acid per gallon, sometimes exceeding these limits

from exceptional causes ; if exported in this condition the cost for freight

and packages would be exceedingly high, hence efforts are made to obtain

the citric acid in a more concentrated form. Three methods of doing this

have been suggested ; concentration of the juice by boiling, the prepara-

tion of citrate of lime, and finally the preparation of citric acid in the

country where the fruit is grown. The first two have for their object

merely the production of raw material for the manufacturer in a con-

centrated form.

The preparation of concentrated lemon and lime juice is a very simple

matter : The juice is passed through strainers to remove seeds and float-

ing impurities, and is then boiled down to a proper degree of concentra-

tion, in copper or iron vessels, over open fires much in the same way that

cane juice is evaporated in the old-fashioned muscovado process of sugar-

making. When several evaporating vessels are placed in a series over the

same fire, forming a battery, it is important to notice that the vessel or

Unpublished record of the Leeward Islands Laboratory, 1917.

2See pp. 253-55.

278 CITRUS PRODUCTS

pan in which the juice is brought to its highest state of concentration is

farthest from the fire ; while that containing the fresh juice is over the

fire itself ; thus a battery for lime juice is hung in the reverse way to a

sugar battery.

In concentrating lemon juice efforts are made to obtain a product

containing 64 oz. of citric acid per gallon, this being regarded as the

standard strength and a pipe of 108 gal. being regarded as a standard

package; hence when the market price of concentrated juice is quoted at

so much per pipe these standard quantities are assumed. In reality these

quotations refer to an arbitrary quantity of 432 Ib. of citric acid. In

the production of concentrated lime juice in the West Indies it has been

the practice to carry the concentration to a higher degree than this, so

that concentrated lime juice usually contains upwards of 96 oz. per gal-

lon ; a good rule in practice is to endeavor to produce concentrated juice

which will have a uniform specific gravity of about 1.300. In dealing

with lime and lemon juices a particular form of hydrometer, known as

a citrometer is frequently made use of, though its use is less common

than formerly. Knowledge of the origin of its scale and the meaning of

its indications appear to have been lost ; from experiments which Sir F.

Watts made some years ago he came to the conclusion that the instru-

ment was so constructed that when placed in hot (boiling) lemon juice

it will indicate the same degree as a Twaddel's hydrometer floating in

the same juice in the cold. It is thus a useful instrument in the hands

of the man in charge of the concentrating pans, for he can from time to

time test the juice rapidly, in a hot condition, and arrest the boiling when

the citrometer indicates the same degree which on a Twaddel's instru-

ment will correspond to the specific gravity 1.33; this of course is 60°.

Hence the rule for concentrating becomes : Carry on the concentration

until the citrometer, when immersed in the juice at the boiling tempera-

ture, shows a density of 60°. The product thus obtained is a dark, nearly

black, thick liquid.

It is often urged that there is very considerable loss of citric acid

when juice is treated in this manner. When juice of good quality is

treated, the loss is about 7 to 8 per cent of the original acid; when juice

of poor quality is dealt with, this loss may reach 10 or 12 per cent, prob-

ably owing to the greater length of time required to concentrate the

poorer juice to the required density. If concentration is carried beyond

the point indicated the loss rapidly increases.

The method of concentrating lime juice favored on estates having an

appreciable area of limes is that by steam in wooden vats. The first

small factory erected in St. Lucia was of this type, and probably the

LIME JUICE CONCENTRATION 279

first of its kind in the West Indies. The mill has granite rollers, is

steam driven, and the juice is boiled in wooden vats, in the bottom of

each of which is fitted a copper steam coil. Coils of heavily tinned cop-

per, or preferably of block tin, are recommended as being most suitable,

as they are less subject to the action of the acid, and consequently, a

purer juice is obtained.

The modern factory on an estate of 60 or more acres of limes might be

equipped to advantage, at the outset, with a plant that could readily be

turned to account for the production of a pure product in the form of

raw or concentrated juice, or citrate of lime, according to demand or

state of the market.

A steam concentrating plant will make it possible to produce a

superior class of concentrated juice, and admits of a change to citrate

manufacture, as it can be readily adapted to the latter by the addition of

one or more neutralizing vats plus facilities for drying the citrate. It

might be possible to devise some form of steam drier for the citrate, and

thus to utilize farther the steam-heating plant. Again, by substituting

granite for iron rollers, and earthenware juice pump and pipe connec-

tions for metal ones, the purest raw juice for beverages could be turned

out, as desired. The following are mentioned as possible advantages

attending the concentration of juice by 'steam in conjunction with the

use of non-metallic rollers and vat connections, in a well-arranged

factory :

1. The loss of acid by combining with metal would be reduced to

a minimum, and a purer sample of juice would be obtained.

2. There would be a smaller destruction of acid from excessive heat

during concentration.

3. The possibility of reaching a higher degree of concentration with-

out the serious destruction of acid which is unavoidable with the direct

firing method.

4. The heating, boiling, frothing, and general handling of the hot

juice in a well-arranged factory is likely to be under more perfect control

than is possible under the old methods ; and the works could be more

efficiently controlled, and greater cleanliness maintained.

5. The heating value per unit of fuel used in the steam concentrating

method, as compared with the similar value of that employed in direct

firing is also a question worth attention when the two systems of manu-

facture are being compared.

MAC INTYRE'S EXPERIMENTS IN LIME JUICE CONCENTRATION

The experiments in lime juice concentration which are here described

were carried out by Maclntyre for the purpose of ascertaining the loss of

280 CITRUS PRODUCTS

acid occurring at various degrees of concentration so as to be in a position

to judge whether the cost of steam- jacketed pans or other plant would be

justified, and incidentally, to determine the point to which it is most eco-

nomical to concentrate.

The experiments were carried out throughout the crop of 1910. The

earlier experiments showed marked variations due probably to a variety of

causes, but principally ( i ) to great variations in the quality of the fuel used,

resulting in very unequal firing; (2) to the unsatisfactory method adopted

for ascertaining the quantities of concentrated juice; and (3) to the im-

possibility during the pressure of crop of allowing sufficient time for the juice

to cool thoroughly before being gauged. Toward the end of the crop it was

possible to remedy these defects, and the result of these latter and more

accurate experiments, only, are considered. Besides the ordinary boiling-

house equipment not directly connected with the experiments, the plant con-

sisted of the following :

1. A battery of three copper tayches, two of these being of 150 gal. each,

and one of 220-gal. capacity, the last being farthest from the fire and being

the copper from which the concentrated juice was "struck," 4 to 5 hogsheads

being taken at each strike.

2. A package of 24O-gal. capacity, accurately gauged for the measure-

ment of the distilled juice used in the experiments. This was fitted with a

lead pipe to conduct the juice direct to the first tayche.

3. A package of 3OO-gal. capacity, fitted with a hook gauge for measur-

ing the concentrated juice.

During Maclntyre's earlier experiments a gauging rod was used for as-

certaining the quantities of concentrated juice, but this method was found to

be unreliable, and measurement by hook gauge was substituted.

As the great accuracy necessary in experiments of this nature is not easy

to secure when measuring large quantities of liquid, a brief description of the

hook gauge which he used may not be out of place here. His gauge was made

somewhat in the form of a surveyor's leveling staff. To the bottom of the

sliding rod was fixed a brass picture hook in such a way that the point of the

hook, which was filed quite sharp, would point upward when the gauge was

in position. The staff was securely fixed vertically in the measuring vat, the

upper part, on which the scale was marked, projecting above the vat. To

the upper end of the sliding rod (which was only half the height of the staff)

was fixed a piece of sheet brass filed to a chisel edge on the upper side. The

scale was carefully adjusted and marked on the staff. The method of using

is as follows : When it is desired to measure any liquid in the package, the

sliding rod is raised or lowered until the point of the hook just breaks the

surface of the liquid and a reading is taken on the scale, on the line indicated

by the edge of the brass plate. With this instrument it is possible to get

very fine readings, but accuracy obviously depends on the correctness of the

scale. To get the scale he first weighed a gallon of clear river water. Into

an open oil drum set on a very sensitive scale he poured water to the weight

of 5 gal. at a time. Each time the weight was reached the water was run

into the vat situated on a lower floor, the rod adjusted, and a line marked

on the staff. Precautions were taken to prevent spilling or much disturbance

LIME JUICE CONCENTRATION 281

of the surface of the liquid. In this way the 5-gal. divisions were obtained,

the intermediate lines being subsequently put in with the aid of a graduated

scale and a pair of dividers.

The scale was a fairly open one, and it was possible to read to J4 gal-

As the quantities to be measured were from 180 gal. upward, it will be seen

that the error of measurement was reduced to a minimum. He subsequently

tested the scale in other ways and found it accurate.

He used this gauge for ascertaining the capacity of the vat for measur-

ing the distilled juice used in the experiments. By doing this he further

insured accuracy, as even if the scales on the gauge did not represent the

number of gallons indicated, the error would be repeated in the other measur-

ing package — the volumes would be the same in both, and thus the ratios

would be correct.

The juice having been distilled and subsided as usual, clear juice was

run from the subsiders into a small tank from which it was pumped into the

measuring vat, and a sample (50 c.c.) taken, after which the juice was run

into the tayches as required. At the end of each day the aggregate sample

was measured to secure accuracy of the tally, and tested for acid. Large

quantities of juice were used for each experiment, in order as far as possible

to reduce the experimental error.

Throughout the work, the juice was run into the copper immediately over

the fire, and the strike taken from that farthest from the fire.1 The coppers

were always kept quite full2 except when striking or when charging up to

close an experiment, and always cooled down for an hour or more before

taking a strike. Leakage around the tayches, which is sometimes consider-

able, did not occur during the progress of these experiments, nor was there

any leakage from either of the measuring vats.

The strike was taken direct into the measuring vat and allowed to cool,

when the quantity was ascertained and a sample taken after the juice had

been thoroughly stirred. The tests for acid were made with the greatest

care.

In these later experiments every effort was made to keep the fire as

regular as possible and, as will be seen, the results are wonderfully uniform,

having regard to the fact that the juice was boiled by direct fire, which is

difficult to control.

Assuming a normal loss, the point of economical concentration would be

about 9 to I, which would give 97.6 oz. acid per gallon with a loss of 9.3 per

cent. This would be presented by citrometer degree 54 at boiling tempera-

ture. It is difficult to fix the degree by citrometer with accuracy, as the cool-

ing down for the strike greatly affects the reading. At 7 to i concentration

the loss is 6.9 per cent ; at 8 to I concentration the loss is 7.9 per cent ; at 9 to

I concentration the loss is 9.3 per cent; at 10 to i concentration the loss is n.i

lMadntyre emphasizes the importance of striking away from the fire. In a

large number of boiling tests carried out by him some years ago when striking from

the copper immediately over the fire the average loss at 10 to I concentration was

20.3 per cent. This was in addition to acid lost in filter sludge. The system has

been discontinued in all estates in Dominica.

2Messrs. Ogston and Moore express the opinion that the loss of acid in concen-

tration is very much greater when the surface level of the juice in the tayches is

allowed to sink below flame level.

282 CITRUS PRODUCTS

per cent. 1,000 gal. of juice containing 12 oz. of acid per gallon at 7 to I

concentration would, on the basis of £18 los. per pipe, represent a net value

of £21 3^. 4d., which he arrived at as follows :

1,000 gal. X I2 oz- = 12,000

Less loss 6.9 per cent = 828 11,172

Less 4^ per cent trade allowance1. . . . 503

10,669 oz-

10.669 X £J8 ioj.

= £28 us. id.

6,912

Charges, etc. Discount 2^2 per cent.

commission 2^2 per cent, brokerage I per cent,

insurance ^ per cent, analysis, say y% per cent.

Total, 6y2 per cent £i i?s. id.

Freight on 143 gal. at 2^ d i 9 10

Dock dues and rents, say,

three farthings per gallon 8 n 3 15 10

Net proceeds on a/c sale 24 15 3

Local charges, 5^2 d. per gallon, made up of:

package $d. per gallon

export duty i^d.

freight, boatage, and cartage id. per gallon 357

£21 9 8

On the same basis 1,000 gallons of juice at

7 to i concentration would represent £21 9 8

8 to i concentration would represent 21 17 2

9 to i concentration would represent 21 19 2

10 to i concentration would represent 21 17 o

The average acidity of raw juice, which was tested from day to day

throughout the crop, was 12.76 oz. per gallon. The foregoing calculations

are based on the acidity of 12 oz., which would allow for acid removed in

the sludge, for small mechanical losses occurring between storage tank and

coppers, and for transit losses, leakage and soakage.

The correctness of the results obtained was strikingly shown by a com-

parison of the estimated value of the juice used in the experiments, as cal-

culated on the basis of the foregoing figures, with the amount actually

realized by the sale of the produce in London ; the difference for the entire

crop was under i per cent. It will be seen that the difference in value be-

tween concentrations at 8 to i and 9 to i, and between those at 9 to I and

*A trade allowance of 4^2 per cent is made by the analysts in all transactions

relating to lime or lemon juice whether in the form of concentrated juice or citrate

of lime, and is said to be for organic acids other than citric acid contained in the

juice. This does not appear on the account sales.

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

BOTANY, VOL. VI, PART II, PLATE XI.

(Bulletin of the Pan-American Union)

WEIGHING BITTER ORANGE LEAVES DELIVERED BY THE GATHERERS

AT A PARAGUAYAN FACTORY.

(Bulletin of the Pan- American Union)

A LOAD OF BITTER ORANGE LEAVES ON ROAD TO AN OIL OF PETITGRAIN FACTORY.

LIME JUICE CONCENTRATION 283

10 to i amount to less than one-half of i per cent in either case — a difference

which is well within the limit of variation in losses in open-fire concentration.

In Maclntyre's earlier experiments it was clearly brought out that variations

up to 2 per cent were to be expected between the results of concentrations

with very high fire and those with slow fire. Under exceptional circum-

stances he recorded losses as low as 4 per cent at 7.5 to i concentration, and

as low as 6.5 per cent at 9.5 to i concentration ; but in both these cases, as

the fire was kept very low, the concentration took nearly twice the time

usually occupied in the process, and the juice was allowed to cool thoroughly

in the copper before striking.

It follows from the foregoing that the precise point to which concen-

tration is carried is not very material between the limits of 8 to I and 10 to I

concentration, but there would be some advantage in the items of fuel and

labor in favor of the lower degree of concentration. Above 10 to I the line

of loss seems to rise very sharply. Throughout these experiments he took

careful note of the acid lost in the sludge removed from the filter bags and

ascertained that the loss was about 3 per cent of total acid when forty-eight

hours had been allowed for thorough drainage of the bags, and from 3^4

per cent to 4 per cent when only twenty-four hours had been allowed for

draining. After thorough draining the stuff remaining in the bags is a thick,

gummy mass, which contains a considerable quantity of acid. Repeated tests

have shown that where the clear juice (distilled juice) has been tested 14.5

oz. per gallon, the sludge after thorough draining would test from 12 to 12.5

oz. It would be possible to recover most of this acid by washing over a finely

perforated sheet-metal strainer, but most of the gum would then return to

the juice in solution and probably have a prejudicial effect on the quality of

the concentrated juice, besides adding appreciably to the quantity of liquid

to be evaporated. It could only be satisfactorily dealt with if citrate were

being made when neither of the foregoing objections would apply. The total

loss of acid, then, under conditions of careful supervision, and concentrating

to the most economical point, is about 13 per cent.

This on a crop of 10,000 barrels of limes (say, 85,000 gal.) would amount

to about 240 lb., with lime juice at £18 los. per pipe. It must be borne in

mind, however, that in no process of manufacture is it possible entirely to

eliminate loss. The loss of acid in steam concentration in jacketed pans

is stated on good authority to be about 3 per cent at 9 to I concentration, to

which must be added loss from filters or skimmings — the latter probably

amounting to more than the loss from filters. Where filters are used, skim-

ming becomes, to a great extent, unnecessary.

In making citrate of lime, the loss of acid, Messrs. Ogston and Moore

say, should not exceed 2 per cent, and it is possible to recover most of the

acid which is lost in filter sludge when concentrating. The chief advantages

of citrate-making over the concentrated process are: (i) a minimum of loss

in manufacture; (2) the relatively higher price usually obtained for the

product;1 (3) the great rapidity with which large quantities of juice can be

*This is not invariably the case. In October-November, 1911, citrate was

selling at the price fixed by the Camera, £20 5s., while, owing to the difficulty of

getting forward supplies from Sicily, the price of concentrated lime juice advanced

to £20 12s. 6d.

284

CITRUS PRODUCTS

Id

I

s

W

E

X

W

I

9 8

< *

LIME JUICE CONCENTRATION

285

dealt with; (4) saving of transit losses; (5) a saving in the cost of pack-

ages, against which, however, must be set the cost of chalk, and when work-

ing on a small scale, the somewhat greater cost of manufacture.

NOTE BY WATTS ON MAC INTYRE's EXPERIMENTS IN

LIME JUICE CONCENTRATION

The degree of concentration may be measured by the quantity of acid in

the concentrated juice, and if we take into consideration the loss of acid

experienced on concentrating to different degrees, we may correlate this

with the rate of concentration in respect of the original juice.

In Table LIV the losses in concentration are taken at convenient ap-

proximations based on the results of Maclntyre's determinations, and there

is shown (i) the degree of concentration in relation to the raw juice, on the

basis (a) of 12 oz. and (&) of 14 oz. of acid per gallon; (2) the approximate

loss of citric per cent; and (3) the approximate number of ounces of acid

in a gallon of concentrated juice, after allowing for the distribution of acid

in concentrating.

TABLE LIV

From this latter it will be seen, for example, that a concentration which

Maclntyre refers to as 10 to I on the basis of juice containing 12 oz. of acid

per gallon is equal to 8.6 to I if the juice contains 14 oz. of acid per gallon

— a point to be kept in mind in practice.

The calculations made by Maclntyre with regard to the effect of the

concentration on the charges for packages, freight, duty, etc., are very imr

portant. It is obvious, however, that as some of the charges on shipment

are based on the value of the juice, the net value of the product and the gains

or losses consequent on concentratitng to various degrees will depend upon

the market value. The calculations have, therefore, been worked out to show

the net value of a quantity of concentrated juice resulting from the concen-

tration of a quantity of raw juice equivalent to 12,000 oz. of acid when the

value of concentrated juice is (a) £18 los. and (b) £15 per pipe, charges de-

ducted as the cost on packing and shipping being based on those given by

Maclntyre.

286

CITRUS PRODUCTS

From Table LV it is seen that the diminished cost of packages, freight,

and other charges consequent on higher concentration offsets the loss of

acid in such a way that the best financial results are obtained when the con-

centrated juice has an acid content of approximately 98 oz. per gallon when

the market value is £18 los. per pipe, or an acid content of approximately

107 oz. per gallon when the value is £15.

For all practical purposes, it appears sufficient to say that the best finan-

cial results are obtained, under the conditions laid down by Maclntyre, when

the concentration is carried to approximately 100 oz. of acid per gallon.

Planters now test their own lime juice in the boiling-house and thereby

save a considerable destruction of citric acid during concentration, by means

of a citrometer or an ordinary specific gravity hydrometer. A description of

a scale prepared by Dr. Francis Watts for use in ascertaining the strengths

of solutions of citric acid and of lime juice by means of a hydrometer will

be found in the West Indian Bulletin (V, 236-40), while a similar hy-

drometer method is described in the Agricultural News (VI, 149). The

following extracts are taken from these articles :

In preparing concentrated lime juice the concentration should be carried

on until a citrometer floating in the hot juice (at boiling heat) indicates a

density of 60°.

TABLE LV

* The slight differences between the figures in this column and those given by Maclntyre are due to

the use of approximations for loss on concentrating given in Table LIV.

As the citrometer is an instrument but little known, difficulty has at

times been experienced in procuring it. Its use, however, can be dispensed

with, and an ordinary specific gravity hydrometer, the nature of which is

universally understood, can be substituted, by making use of the fact that

60 on the citrometer is equivalent to 1.243 on a specific gravity hydrometer.

In this connection the following scale may be useful :

50° citrometer =1.202 specific gravity 54° citrometer =1.2 19 specific gravity

51° citrometer =1.207 specific gravity 55° citrometer =1.223 specific gravity

52° citrometer =1.21 1 specific gravity 56° citrometer =1.227 specific gravity

53° citrometer=i.2i5 specific gravity 57° citrometer =1.231 specific gravity

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY. BOTANY, VOL. VI, PART II, PLATE XII.

(La Parfumerie Moderne)

PURIFICATION OF PETITGRAIN OIL.

(La Parfumerie Moderne)

DISTILLATION OF PETITGRAIN OIL IN PARAGUAY.

LIME JUICE CONCENTRATION 287

58° citrometer =1.235 specific gravity 61° citrometer= 1.248 specific gravity

59° citrometer =1.239 specific gravity 62° citrometer =1.256 specific gravity

60° citrometer =1.243 specific gravity 63° citrometer =1.260 specific gravity

Suitable specific gravity hydrometers graduated from 1.200 to 1.300 spe-

cific gravity can be obtained from makers of scientific instruments at a cost

of about 2s. each.

Lime juice for concentration should, when leaving the mill, be care-

fully strained in order to remove all the seeds, before it is run into vats.

From the vats it is run into the still to obtain the oil, and afterwards to

the tayches to be concentrated.

It has lately been shown (West Indian Bulletin, VIII, 171) that lime

juice, carefully strained, and then settled after distillation, has obtained

a special market, and commands higher prices than ordinary concentrated

juice. Every effort, therefore, should be made by planters to ship a high-

class product.

The juice is shipped to New York or London in hogsheads of 52 gal.,

where it is tested and paid for according to the citric acid contents.

Buyers in London and New York pay for citric acid, and not for

impurities in the juice. The presence of the latter causes great trouble

to manufacturers of citric acid, and tends to bring prices down. Lime

juice should, therefore, never be concentrated in iron tayches, as the iron

combines with it and lowers the value of the product.

Concentrated juice testing 100 to 105 oz. per gallon made of well-

strained and carefully settled lime juice is a black and heavy, but not a

dense, liquid. When no care is taken to strain or settle the juice, the

product is black, and as thick as molasses in the same degree of concen-

tration.

CONCENTRATING LIME JUICE BY FREEZING1

An interesting piece of investigation, which may lead to results of

practical importance, has been carried out by the Agricultural Depart-

ment, in Dominica. During 1915-16, the Commissioner of Agriculture

for the 'West Indies brought to the notice of the Dominica department

an interesting article on the concentration of cider by freezing, which ap-

peared in the Year Book of the United States Department of Agriculture

for 1914. In this experiment it was shown that it was possible to con-

centrate cider by this process to one-fifth of its bulk without altering its

properties as a beverage.

It was suggested that experiments be conducted to determine the

behavior of raw lime juice when treated in a similar manner. It is ob-

*See also pp. 121-28.

288 CITRUS PRODUCTS

vious that if raw lime juice, which is shipped for cordial purposes, could

be concentrated without changing its essential properties, there would be

a very considerable saving in freight, packages, and other charges.

The phenomenon that solids can be concentrated by freezing the liquid

and removing a portion of the ice formed has been known for a long

time, and in the reverse way this has often been made use of in obtaining

drinkable water from sea-water. In this case it is the frozen portion

which is saved, the amount of sodium chloride which it contains being so

small as to make it moderately drinkable.

Numerous experiments were conducted during 1915-16 to ascertain

how lime juice behaves on freezing, and the results obtained are discussed

in the Report of the Agricultural Department, Dominica, for 1915—16.

The raw lime juice throughout the experiments was placed in a recep-

tacle of block tin or a glass jar, which was packed round with a freezing

mixture of salt and ice, which reaches a temperature of between — 5° and

— io°C. In a short time the juice becomes cooled to a temperature of be-

tween i° and 2°C. Shortly after it will be found that ice has separated on

the side of the jar, and on continuing the process this layer gradually thickens

until later a core of juice remains and finally a solid mass is formed.

The sides of the receptacle are now warmed, and this solid mass slips out

on to a basin where it is cut up with a knife into pieces of suitable size to

enable their being readily placed inside the basket of the centrifugal machine.

The centrifugal is whirled round for a few minutes, and throughout these

experiments the whole was melted in stages of known volumes.

The capacity of the centrifugal machine was such that only 500 c.c. of

juice could be conveniently handled.

The general conclusions arrived at are given in the Report, and are

as follows:

1. Raw lime juice when frozen and treated in the centrifugal can be

concentrated without affecting its properties as a beverage.

2. If the juice is treated once only, the acid content may be increased

from about 13 oz. per gallon to over 20 oz. per gallon.

3. If this be refrozen a juice containing 30 oz. per gallon can be

obtained.

4. The low testing juices can be converted into citrate of lime, thus

eliminating all losses excepting those of handling.

5. This process enables a very considerable saving to be made in

freight, charges, and packages, amounting to between 40 and 60 per cent

the actual amount depending on whether the juice is frozen once or twice.

ROLLINGS' METHOD OF CONCENTRATING LIME JUICE BY FREEZING

With reference to the note which appeared in the Agricultural News

of November 18, 1916, on page 379, under the foregoing heading, de-

CALCIUM CITRATE PREPARATION 289

scribing the results of experiments with lime juice in Dominica, J.

Spencer-Hollings gave an account of an interesting experiment made

by him in connection with the same idea many years ago.

This apparatus employed in this experiment was one of Carres' ice

machines. This proved a much more rapid and effective means of con-

centrating than by freezing only. The liquid to be concentrated in this

machine is kept in vacuo by an air pump, and is also in direct communi-

cation with a chamber of sulphuric acid, which absorbs the vapor as soon

as it is produced ; and not only does it do this, but owing to the vacuum

that is produced by the air pump, the liquid as it approaches freezing

point assumes a condition of ebullition, which greatly accelerates the con-

centration. The resulting concentrated juice, not having been warmed,

still retained the color and appearance of freshly squeezed lime juice, and

as thick as the dark-brown product now made. When diluted with water,

it had all the flavor of the fresh lime, and made an excellent beverage.

Mr. Rollings states that after a lapse of at least two years he re-examined

the cordial and found it still retained its characteristics.

CALCIUM CITRATE PREPARATION1

The preparation of citrate of lime is the first step in the manufacture

of citric acid from lemon or lime juice. We are well aware that when the

juice of the sugar cane is concentrated to a sufficient degree, the active

principle, cane sugar, separates out in the form of crystals; the active

principle of lemon or lime juice, citric acid, will not separate in a crystal-

line form when the juice is simply concentrated, owing to the presence in

the juice of a large quantity of gummy or pectic impurities. In order to

overcome this difficulty the citric acid is brought into combination with

lime; the citrate of lime thus formed, being insoluble in water, can be

separated from the gummy matters which remain dissolved. In order to

effect this the juice is neutralized with chalk, the resulting citrate of

lime is allowed to subside and finally separated by straining by means of

linen or canvas. The resulting citrate may now be dried for shipment

or be treated with sulphuric acid for the manufacture of citric acid.

Simple as the foregoing process appears, there are many practical

difficulties, particularly in the preparation of the dried citrate for export.

In the first place the chalk employed must be of very fine quality,

free from magnesium salts and from more than a trace of iron, alumina,

and phosphates. Either of these impurities exercises a prejudicial action

at one or another stage of the manufacturing process. Again, the chalk

*For detailed process, see pp. 250-51 ; see also pp. 149-50, 325-26.

290 CITRUS PRODUCTS

must be of such a quality that it can be readily mixed into a cream with

water ; it must be free from lumps. In order to obtain chalk of proper

quality English or French levigated whiting was for a long time im-

ported into Italy and Sicily for the preparation of citrate of lime; for

the West Indies, Watts believes suitable material is to be found closer at

hand. The use of slaked lime suggests itself. This substance occurs in

the form of a fine powder, easily mixed with water and can be obtained

in a state of great purity. In default of other sources of supply, coral

may be used and will yield lime containing a negligible amount of im-

purity. Analyses of several kinds of coral showed carbonate of lime

95.37 to 98.07 per cent, phosphate of lime .32 to .84 per cent, organic

matter 1.93 to 3.79 per cent.

Should slaked lime be used, care must be taken not to neutralize the

juice completely or impurities will be precipitated with the citrate, and

these impurities will interfere with the subsequent manipulation and the

production of citric acid ; where slaked lime has to be employed it would

appear desirable to complete the neutralization with chalk, using the lime

only for the neutralization of the greater part of the acid.

In producing citrate of lime, the lime or lemon juice is placed in a

suitable mixing vessel, large enough to prevent loss from overflow from

the foaming effervescence which takes place when chalk is added. A

sufficient quantity of chalk is made into a cream with water and the mix-

ture poured cautiously as the acid is neutralized. There is some difficulty

in ascertaining when the exact point of neutralization is arrived at, for

in the presence of certain impurities, notably phosphate of iron, the juice

remains acid although an excess of chalk may have been added. To ascer-

tain how much chalk is to be used, it is best to proceed as follows : when

the greater part of the chalk has been added, the mixture is well stirred

and the effervescence is allowed to subside, a small quantity is then taken

out and tested by the addition of a little of the mixture of chalk and

water; if this produces an effervescence, more chalk must be added to

the main quantity, proceeding cautiously and testing at intervals, until

no effervescence is produced. A further test is now made: a little of

the mixture is withdrawn and heated ; as soon as bubbles of gas cease to

be given off, a few drops of acid, fresh lime juice will answer, are added ;

this will produce a slight effervescence if chalk has been added in right

amount, and a brisk effervescence if too much has been used. In the

latter case, more juice must be added to the mixture and the process of

testing repeated.

Having added the correct quantity of chalk it is desirable to heat the

mixture for a few minutes nearly to the boiling-point, but actual boiling

CALCIUM CITRATE PREPARATION 291

is not necessary ; this causes the citrate of lime to become crystalline and

to subside rapidly in a condition in which it is easily manipulated.

In the earlier attempts to prepare this substance the heating at this

state was omitted, the juice was neutralized, and the citrate of lime was

separated from the cold liquor and dried. In consequence of this method

of working, the finished citrate contained many impurities, it dried in the

form of hard lumps or a powder full of hard knobs so that grinding had

to be suggested, it was difficult to powder and when thrown into water

it was wetted with difficulty so that the manufacturer had difficulty in

acting upon it with sulphuric acid when converting it into citric acid.

Owing to the presence of impurities the citrate often became dark on

drying, and yielded a dark-colored liquor in the citric acid factory, a

liquor which filtered with difficulty. All these features were very ob-

jectionable to the citric acid maker, and led him to prefer concentrated

juice to citrate of lime as his raw material. Heating, by rendering the

citrate crystalline, permits of its purification, and many of the impurities

are removed with the water and can be easily washed away. It seems

very important that heat should be used at this stage ; it is probably due

to its omission that the earlier experimenters with citrate of lime en-

countered so many difficulties.

As soon as the citrate is seen to become crystalline and to subside

rapidly the heating is stopped, the citrate quickly settles, leaving a clear

yellow liquid above ; this liquid is poured off or syphoned off, as much

water being removed as possible. Washing the citrate a few times with

hot water is advantageous ; this removed the gummy matters which cause

the citrate to cake into lumps in drying and which may give rise to

darkening in color and the subsequent production of dark and trouble-

some citric liquors in the manufacture of acid. The earlier samples of

citrate contained so much impurity and were so difficult to manipulate

that they found little favor with manufacturers.

The method of dealing with the citrate at the next stage of the

process will depend entirely upon the scale upon which the manufacture

is conducted. When the operation is conducted on a small experimental

scale, the citrate may be thrown upon a stout cloth supported on a sieve

or strainer ; as soon as the water has drained away, the residue is tied or

folded securely in the cloth and submitted to pressure, to remove as much

water as can be thus got rid of.

When a large quantity of citrate is made, a filter such as is used in

citric acid works may be employed. This consists of a deal floor with

boards round the edge; the floor has i-in. splines nailed on i-in. apart,

and canvas (36 in. "forfar") is stretched on the splines; a convenient

292 CITRUS PRODUCTS

size is 16 ft. X 12 ft. X I ft. deep. It should be slightly tilted, and exit

holes provided (Grosjean). The citrate is allowed to drain upon the

filter; when draining ceases the substance is put into canvas bags and

submitted to pressure.

On a large scale it will be found more convenient to use filter presses ;

by their use the combined operations of filtering and pressing can be

expeditiously performed, a great saving of time and labor can be thus

effected, while the factory can be rendered much more compact owing to

the small area occupied by the filter presses as compared with the space

required for filters and the presses for the bags.

After as much water as possible has been pressed from the citrate by

whatever process is adopted, it has to be dried. This part of the process

demands great care, and is attended by considerable risk of loss ; there is

great tendency on the part of the citrate, when in a damp state, to fer-

ment ; as a result of this fermentation, the citric acid is destroyed and

carbonate of lime, the original chalk from which the manufacture started,

is left ; there is little to indicate to the eye that this f ermentive change is

taking place, so that an unskilled or careless operator may find his finished

product to contain no citrate of lime at all, but to consist entirely of

chalk. To avoid this risk of loss it is only necessary that the citrate of

lime should be brought quickly into some form of drying apparatus

where a temperature of from 150° to 200° F. (66° to 93 °C.) can be

maintained, while at the same time there is a free circulation of air

through the drying chamber in order to carry away the moisture. For

a long time the difficulty of obtaining a satisfactory and efficient drying

apparatus was a great stumbling-block ; the problem of drying the citrate

of lime is very similar in its nature to that of drying fruit, so that a

good fruit drier will answer well for experimental purposes, while larger

forms of apparatus, worked upon the same principles, can be constructed

for use where the manufacture is conducted on a large scale. Where

much work is to be done it would appear desirable to have several sets of

drying apparatus, so that one lot of material may be thoroughly dried

before it becomes necessary to introduce fresh, wet citrate into the

same apparatus. Any form of apparatus in which the temperature can

be maintained at from 150° to 2OO°F. or even somewhat higher, while

at the same time permitting sufficient ventilation to remove the moisture

rapidly, will prove efficient. It is important to lay stress on the venti-

lation. As has been stated, the proper drying of the citrate is of para-

mount importance ; should it remain damp, or in any way become damp

from careless handling, or careless storing, fermentation will speedily

spoil the product.

SALABILITY OF CITRATE AND JUICE 293

Warrington and Grosjean made an investigation of the amount of

water remaining in citrate of lime dried at 2I2°F. (ioo°C.). They

found this to range from 5.90 to 7.68 per cent. This exists as water of

crystallization; when dried at 392°F. (2OO°C.) the substance contained

no water. Fermentation readily takes place if more than 12 per cent of

water is present; there is, however, no danger of fermentation as soon

as the proportion of water has been reduced to 10 per cent but it is

desirable to continue the drying until less than that amount exists; if

the temperature of the drying apparatus cannot be raised above 2I2°F.

the product, as shown by the investigations just referred to, may con-

tain over 7 per cent of water ; if, however, the drying can be finished at

a higher temperature, say from 248° to 3O2°F. (i2O°-i5o°C.) the pro-

portion of water may be reduced to below 5 per cent. Efforts should be

made to secure this thorough drying.

When prepared in the manner described, citrate of lime is a white

powder free from hard lumps ; when thrown into water it is easily wetted

and is readily diffused through the liquid on stirring. If kept in a dry

place it will remain good indefinitely. For shipment it should be tightly

packed in paper-lined barrels. It should contain over 60 per cent of

citric acid.

Warrington states that the best sample of commercial citrate he has

met with contained 72 per cent of citric acid, and this is about the highest

percentage that can be reached when the citrate contains no excess of

chalk and has been thoroughly dried.

SALABILITY OF CITRATE AND JUICE

Citrate of lime is bought and sold on the same basis as concentrated

lemon and lime juice, namely on the basis of citric acid contained. Quo-

tations are made for the same arbitrary quantity as in the case of con-

centrated juice. In this case the standard is the cask of 675 Ib. of citrate,

containing 64 per cent of citric acid, this being equal to 432 Ib. of citric

acid. As to price, citrate sells at about the same rate as concentrated

juice, realizing a little more, sometimes a little less, than that article.

From the point of view of the manufacturer of citric acid, citrate of

lime possesses some advantages over concentrated juice. It can be 'stored

without loss, while juice is liable to leak from the casks ; the first stage

of the manufacture of the acid has been already completed and the manu-

facturer can dispense with the neutralizing vats and the filters; thus

there is much economy of space and labor. Finally, owing to the fact

that citrate of lime is white, while concentrated juice is black from the

charring action of the heat used in its production, the resulting citric

294 CITRUS PRODUCTS

liquors obtained from citrate are a better color, yielding whiter crystals

of citric acid, thus reducing the operations of refining the citric and

saving both labor and material.

Possessing these advantages it seems probable that citrate of lime

and citric acid will ultimately displace concentrated juice, provided that

an article thoroughly suited to manufacturers' requirements is produced ;

as competition becomes keener in the production of raw material — and

this is likely to ensue from the attention being given to tropical products

and the difficulty experienced in finding new and profitable ones — there

will arise competition between these two forms of raw material, when

the preference which the manufacturer of citric acid will give to well-

prepared citrate will no doubt enhance its value in comparison with

concentrated juice. Hitherto the production of citrate of lime has been

relatively small so that competition between the two forms of raw

material can hardly be said to exist.

It has been proposed to undertake the manufacture of the citric acid

itself in the countries where the juice is produced ; this offers many ob-

vious advantages, but at the same time is beset by some difficulties. The

chief difficulty would appear to be a trading one; the manufacture of

citric acid is in the hands of a few firms against whose interests small

manufacturers could not contend, so that the probability of citric acid

being made in the countries producing the raw materials seems remote

unless the venture is undertaken on a large scale.

In Dominica it is customary to carry the concentration of the lime

juice to a higher degree than 64 oz. per gallon. Concentrated juice from

this island ranges in strength from 105 to 120 oz. per gallon, or even

higher. That such a degree of concentration is attainable without con-

siderable loss is due to the fact that juice of good quality is used for

concentration; on many estates in Dominica the whole of the juice ob-

tained is concentrated, whereas in some places the finer qualities are ex-

ported as raw juice while the inferior ones alone are concentrated.

These finer juices will contain larger proportions of acid in relation to

the other soluble matters present, and therefore, when concentrated to

a definite specific gravity, will contain more acid than concentrated juice

derived from raw juice of lower grade.

Buyers point out some defects of West Indian concentrated juice;

one is the presence, at times, of considerable quantities of pulpy matter,

seeds, and other impurities ; another defect lies in the presence in some

samples of noticeable quantities of iron.

Some buyers stated that they were of the opinion better prices, both

for concentrated juice and for citrate, may be obtained if the West

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

BOTANY, VOL. VI, PART II, PLATE XIII.

(La Parfumerie Modern?)

HARVESTING CITRONS IN CORSICA.

(La Parfumerie Moderns)

SORTING CITRONS IN CORSICA.

295

Indian trade were better organized, their experience being that small

lots of concentrated juice. appeared on the market at somewhat irregular

times, so that buyers were unable to be on the lookout for, or to depend

on, the arrival of West Indian supplies. These lots often arrived when

there was no particular demand and after buyers had made their con-

tracts; they, therefore, sold with difficulty and at lower prices. This

may be remedied by better organization, by such methods as making

contracts beforehand, by the careful use of marks and brands, by inti-

mations in trade journals of the conditions of crops, their probable quan-

tity, and the probable times of arrival in the market.

It is possible to make contracts for the delivery at specified dates of

lots equal in size to about 25 casks and upward of concentrated juice as

shipped from the Leeward Islands. These contracts are made from

about January to April. It is interesting to note that in 1901 contracts

were made for Italian and Sicilian supplies at about £17 to £19 per pipe,

while later in the year the market had fallen to about £13. It seems,

therefore, highly probable that better prices may ultimately be obtained

for West Indian juice by a closer acquaintance with British market con-

ditions and by the preparation of high-class products in connection with

known marks and brands.

Citrate must not contain more than 2 per cent of free chalk, a penalty

being imposed if this amount is exceeded.

As regards price, citric acid, whether in the form of concentrated

juice or of citrate of lime, has practically the same market value. Citrate

of lime is quoted in terms of the standard acid; a standard cask

therefore contains 430^2 lb. of acid. Concentrated juice is quoted in

terms of the pipe of 108 gal. containing 64 oz. of citric acid per gallon,

being equivalent to 432 lb. of acid ; the quantities are practically identi-

cal. At present these two commodities command approximately equal

prices, sometimes one, sometimes the other, having a slight advantage.

Import duty is imposed on citrate entering France while concentrated

juice is admitted free, in consequence of which concentrated juice may

at times command a slightly higher price in European markets.1

During 1899 prices ranged from £13 to £20 per pipe or cask; during

1900 prices ranged from £13 to £17 per pipe or cask; during 1901 prices

ranged from £13 to £19 per pipe or cask.2

Under these circumstances the West Indian producer, in deciding

which article he shall make, must ascertain the difference in cost of pro-

duction and whether the buyers are likely, at an early date, to prefer one

'See pp. 352, 353, 362-66.

'See pp. 352, 353, 35$, 362, 366.

296 CITRUS PRODUCTS

article to the other. Citrate is more expensive in preparation than con-

centrated juice, the cost of erecting steam-heating apparatus and drying

chambers and of importing and transporting lime or chalk will more

than counterbalance the saving of fuel, the reduction in cost of packages,

and the saving of acid destroyed in the process of concentration. Never-

theless we have the evidence afforded by Italy and Sicily, the principal

sources of supply where the production of citrate is making steady head-

way and where the process is found to be better and cheaper than simple

concentration. The exports of both articles from Messina and Catania

have been as follows :

December i, 1899, to September 30, 1901, concentrated juice 1,671 pipes

Citrate of lime 635^ tons 2,085 pipes

Total 3,756 pipes

December i, 1900, to September 30, 1901, concentrated juice 549 pipes

Citrate of lime 590^ tons l>9^9 pipes

Total 2,518 pipes

The manufacturer of citric acid will ultimately show a decided prefer-

ence for citrate of lime and this as soon as the manufacture of citrate in

Italy and Sicily is placed upon a sure footing so that citrate of uniform

and dependable quality comes steadily to market; when that point is

reached citrate will begin to command higher prices than concentrated

juice. West Indian producers will then have to produce citrate if they

wish to obtain the best prices for their goods. This time may not be

far distant, for the experiments of the last thirty years have removed

most of the difficulties which were encountered, while during most of the

last ten years the advance has been very marked on the commercial side.

Table LVI is added in order to facilitate calculations dealing with

the acidity of raw juice. In some places it is customary to speak in

terms of ounces of citric acid per gallon of juice, in others in terms of

grains per ounce,

WEST INDIAN LIME OILS EXPRESSED AND DISTILLED

Origin and production. — The lime, like the fruits of other members

of the citrus family, contains essential oil in vacuoles situated immedi-

ately beneath the outer rind or skin. Two classes of lime oils are at

present known to commerce : ( i ) the hand-expressed oil or otto of limes ;

(2) the distilled oil.

Hand-expressed oil is obtained by rapidly rotating the fruit around

'See p. 12.

LIME OIL

297

the interior of a copper bowl, termed an ecuelle pan, the inner surface of

which is covered with projecting brass points.1 The oil cells become

punctured and the oil, mixed with a certain amount of watery fluid from

the skins, runs down into a little well at the bottom of the pan ; it is sub-

sequently separated from the underlying layer of watery fluid, filtered,

and stored in vessels ready for export.

The distilled oil, on the other hand, is obtained by performing the

first stage of the evaporation of raw lime juice, in the manufacture of

concentrated juice, in a copper still and condensing the distillation prod-

uct ; the steam passing over carries with it the more volatile portion of

the oil, which is collected in a form of the well-known Florentine flask.

In the case of estates which 'ship raw juice, the scum that collects on the

juice in the settling vats is alone distilled.

TABLE LVI

SHOWING THE QUANTITY OF CITRIC ACID IN GRAINS PER OUNCE, EQUIVALENT TO

OUNCES PER GALLON, AND VICE VERSA

Difference for

grains per ounce.

oz. per gallon = .683

Difference for i grain per ounce :

.365 oz. per gallon.

The oil is exported in either copper or tin vessels which are packed

in boxes. It costs less to produce than hand-pressed oil, but commands

a lower price.

Stills fitted with 'steam coils are the best, but it is only in a very few

cases that steam is available on estates.

The yield of oil by distillation is from 3 to 5 oz. per barrel of limes,

or taking 80 barrels of fruit to make i hogshead of concentrated juice,

298 CITRUS PRODUCTS

from 15 to 25 Ib. per hogshead, according to locality and conditions of

moisture. A gallon of distilled oil weighs 9 Ib.

The yield of oil varies according to conditions of moisture. In

localities where the annual rainfall is from 60 to 100 in., the citric acid

content of the juice of the fruit is high, and the yield of oil from the

rind of the fruit low. Where the rainfall is high — say, from 130 to 200

in. — the citric acid content is low, and the yield of oil high.

It may be pointed out that the distilled oil is derived from the rind

in the same way as the hand-expressed oil, the oil cells becoming ruptured

in the process of milling, and the oil running down with the juice.

It is characteristic of distilled oils, in contrast to the ecuelled product,

that they possess a somewhat unpleasant acrid smell, and their value is

in consequence very much lower. This is due to the abstraction of the

non-volatile constituents, together with a certain amount of decomposi-

tion arising from the high temperature.

The comparative paucity of information concerning the characteristics,

chemical and physical, of hand-expressed lime oil (of otto of limes), as well

as of the distilled oil of limes, prompted the collection of a number of sam-

ples from Dominica and Montserrat for purposes of examination in the

Government Laboratory, Antigua.

For the purpose of this investigation, seven samples of expressed oil and

three samples of distilled oil were obtained; these are identified by letters

as follows :

A Hand-expressed oil, Antigua

B Hand-expressed oil, Antigua

C Hand-expressed oil, Montserrat

D Hand-expressed oil, Montserrat

E Hand-expressed oil, Montserrat

F Hand-expressed oil, Dominica

G Hand-expressed oil, Dominica

H Distilled oil, Dominica

I Distilled oil, Dominica

J Distilled oil, Dominica

With the exception of samples A and B, which were produced on the

same estate but at different times, the remaining samples of expressed oil

and distilled oil were produced on estates at different points in Montserrat

and Dominica. In every case there is no doubt as to the authenticity of the

samples, which are all of recent origin.

On each of the foregoing samples was determined ( I ) the specific grav-

ity at 3O°C. ; (2) the optical rotation in a loo-mm. tube (at 3i°C.) ; (3) the

refractive index (at 32° C.) ; (4) the citral content by Burgess and Child's

method; (5) the acid value, by titration of 5 c.c. of the oil dissolved in alco-

hol, with N/2 alcoholic potassium hydroxide in the cold.

The results are given in tabular form (Table LVII).

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY..

BOTANY, VOL. VI, PART II, PLATE XIV.

f.V *?.<** - ~* ->^L_ •'V

(La Parfumerie Moderne. Photograph by M. Gillet)

WEIGHING CITRONS IN CORSCIA.

(La Parfumerie Moderne. Photograph by M. Gillet)

A SHIPMENT OF CITRONS AT BASTIA, CORSCIA.

LIME OIL

299

HAND-EXPRESSED OIL

Properties and composition. — This oil is of a golden-yellow color,

and is hardly distinguishable from a good lemon oil by its odor. The

most important constituent is citral. It contains also a paraffin, limonene,

and methyl anthranilate and 10 to 18 per cent of non-volatile residue.

The oil gives a cloudy solution in four to ten volumes of 90 per cent al-

cohol with separation of wax or paraffin-like constituents.

With regard to the hand-expressed oils, an examination of the re'sults

shows a somewhat wider divergence between the character of the differ-

ent oils than that indicated by figures given by the various authorities

already quoted, although they are in general agreement with them. The

figures for the optical rotation are somewhat lower than one would ex-

pect; this is probably partly accounted for by the expansion of the oil

owing to the high temperature at which its measurements were made;

TABLE LVII

* Density at 15° C. 0.878 to 0.901, mostly between 0.880 and 0.884

Rotation + 32° 50' to + 37° 30' (Schimmel, October, 1909)

T 35° to + 38° (Gildemeister and Hoffman)

+ 36° to 40° (Allen)

Rotation of the first 10 per cent of the distillate rather higher, or at most 4 per cent lower,

than that of the original oil.

Refractive index at 20° C. 1.482 to 1.486

Acid number up to 3.0

Ester number 18. to 3.0

t Density 0.865 to 0.868 (Gildemeister and Hoffman, temp, not given).

Rotation + 38° 5z' (Gildemeister and Hoffman, temp, not given).

T 46° 36' (Schimmel, October, 1904)

possibly also the specific rotation of the optically active constituents may

tend to decrease with rise of temperature.

Citral and acid content. — The citral content and the acid number vary

markedly in the different samples : it is interesting to note that a fairly

close correlation appears to exist between the two figures; subsequent

investigation, however, appears to lend some color to the view that the

relatively high acidity recorded in the case of these oils with a relatively

300

CITRUS PRODUCTS

high citral content may possibly have been due in part to interaction be-

tween the aldehyde and alcoholic potassium hydroxide used for the titra-

tion.

The citral determination by Burgess' methods seems to give satis-

factory results, and the appearance of a marked line of demarcation be-

tween the oil and underlying sodium sulphate solution would appear to

indicate the absence of citronellal.

The citral content as determined in this way varies markedly in dif-

ferent sample's. On the whole, the citral content of the hand-expressed

oil is lower than is the case with lemon oils, which according to Gilde-

meister and Hoffman contain 7 to 10 per cent of that constituent.

DISTILLED OIL

Properties and composition. — Distilled oil has an unpleasant odor,

like turpentine or pine tar oil, and no longer reminds one of citral. Prob-

ably this aldehyde is completely destroyed by the boiling of the acid

liquid. The oil boils between 175° and 220°. The residue on evapora-

tion is 3 per cent.

TABLE LVIII

(Refractive index of original oil = 1.4770 at 32° C.)

*Bluish liquid.

tBlue liquid filtered from crystals (see p. 301).

With regard to the distilled oils, samples I and J came from the same

estates as samples F and G; no corresponding sample of expressed oil was

obtained from the estate supplying the sample H. The samples appeared

to be characterized, on the whole, by a lower refractive index, citral content,

acid number, and in the case of H and I, a lower specific gravity. The rota-

tion, on the other hand, is in all cases somewhat higher.

To obtain a certain amount of further information regarding the dif-

ferent bodies of which the oil is made up, a sample of hand-expressed oil was

subjected to fractional distillation.

LIME OIL

301

The original samples were taken from sample G, and 100 c.c. taken for

the distillation. The temperature, and corresponding approximate volume of

oil distilled and refractive indices of each of the fractions, are given in

Table LVIII.

As is seen from Table LVIII the greater portion of the oil distilled over

between 171° and 177° C. It appears that this fraction consists largely of

limonine or closely related bodies. At 200° C. decomposition set in and the

distillate became slightly blue, the contents of the flask turning dark green.

As the temperature rose a deep-blue oil distilled over, and the green color

of the liquid in the flask became more intense. At 235 °C. the vapor was

also colored and the distillation was discontinued. About 10 c.c. of a tarry-

brown liquid remained, which on cooling solidified to a hard, vitreous, black

mass.

TABLE LIX

The blue fraction on standing deposited pale-yellow crystals leaving a

deep green mother-liquor. These were separated, dried, and crystallized

several times from chloroform. A very light, faintly yellow substance was

obtained, crystallizing in fine needles and having the melting-point at I3I.5°C.

Its nitrogen content was determined and found to be 11.16 per cent.

One hundred c.c. of distilled oil from the same estate was next sub-

jected to fractional distillation in the same way (Table LIX).

TABLE LX

As 200° C. was reached, signs of decomposition were evident: the dis-

tillate became green and this color was intensified as the temperature rose.

A few c.c. of a deep-green liquid were left in the flask. No change was ob-

served in this on standing, and no crystals were deposited.

For purposes of comparison, a steam distillation was performed on about

75 c.c. of expressed oil. This gave a perfectly clear oil with the characteristic

terebinthinate distilled oil odor. The portion remaining undistilled consisted

of a heavy, opaque, greenish oil, which retained in a modified form the odor

3O2 CITRUS PRODUCTS

of the original oil. The distillate was subsequently fractionated and the

fractions of Table LX were collected.

Decomposition set in about i85°C., and a small quantity of a golden-

yellow oil remained undistilled in the flask.

Methyl anthranilate . — From the foregoing results, it would appear

that during the process of distillation with steam (the conditions under

which ordinary distilled oil is obtained being practically those of a steam

distillation) a certain proportion of the lower and higher boiling con-

stituents are removed. The blue fluorescence due to the presence of a

crystalline substance in the higher fractions of the expressed oil is en-

tirely absent in those of the distilled oils. This substance possibly may

be the methyl anthranilate which is known to exist in lime oil (Allen),

to the methyl ester of which— C6H4(NH-CH8)-COOCH8—E. J. Parry

ascribes the blue fluorescence of mandarin orange oil.1 This is probably

removed during the steam distillation.

Limettin. — Expressed oil on standing generally deposits a pale-yellow

crystalline substance known as limettin. Distilled oils do not deposit this

body. Limettin is stated to be dimethoxy-cumarin ; it is readily soluble

in hot water, and it is possible that distillation with steam effects the re-

moval of the limettin itself, or of that constituent of expressed oils which

by the action of light may be converted into limettin. (A sample of

limettin recrystallized from boiling water was found to have a melting-

point of H5°C.)

Citral. — The proportion of citral is also less in distilled oils than in

the corresponding expressed oil, owing, probably, to some chemical

change brought about during the distillation.

These, then, are some of the possible causes of the marked difference

between expressed and distilled oils. At present, however, our knowl-

edge of the constituents of the oils is far too meager for us to be able to

explain fully the nature of the changes taking place during the steam

distillation of an expressed oil.

FRENCH WEST INDIES

Small quantities of citrate of lime are exported from Martinique.

PORTO RICO

The commercial development of citrus-growing in Porto Rico dates

from the time of the American occupation in 1898. Before that oranges,

limes, and lemons were grown for home consumption but practically

none of these fruits were exported. Consequently the amount of citrus

Allen's Organic Analysis, 1007, Vol. II, Part III, p. 40.

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

BOTANY, VOL. VI, PART II, PLATE XV.

(Powell and Chace, U. S. Dept. ofAgric. Bull. No. 160)

TERRACES OF LEMON TREES ON THE MOUNTAIN SIDE NEAR MAJORI, ON THE AMALFI COAST.

Masonry walls are built to keep the land from sliding,

(Powell and Chace, U. S. Dept. oi Agric. Bull. No. 160)

TERRACES OF LEMON TREES RISING FROM THE SEA IN SICILY.

The larger trees are olives. There is a trellis over each terrace for protection from frost.

PORTO Rico 303

fruit products was not of commercial importance previous to il

Canned grapefruit is now the principal product exported. The amount

of this commodity shipped varies from year to year in accordance with

the supply and demand not only for the product itself but for fresh citrus

fruit as well.

The intimate relation, therefore, between citrus fruit and citrus fruit

products makes it imperative to describe the citrus fruit industry.

People from the United States came to Porto Rico for the purpose

of growing fruit. Orange and grapefruit trees were planted extensively

in the Rio Piedro-Bayamon section as well as in the Espinosa plantation

section, and scattering from there along the coastal plain to Arecibo.

Some of the early planters had acquired a knowledge of citrus fruit-

growing in Florida, but the great majority started in without practical

knowledge of tropical agriculture or horticulture. Consequently some

failures resulted but the industry became stabilized in a short time.

Many trees were stunted by scale insects, principally Mytilaspis din-

cola. However, scale was found to thrive only when trees grew in dry

air or windy localities. Under humid conditions the scale does not thrive

because it is here subject to fungi attack. The planting of wind-breaks

resulted in a more humid condition, fungi growth, and scale death.

Grapefruit were found to grow better than oranges no matter on

what stock they were budded. Orange trees are nevertheless planted for

shade in coffee plantations. Neither lemons nor limes are produced in

commercial quantities. Limes should do well in Porto Rico, as they

grow well in the West Indies where similar climatic and soil conditions

exist.

The citrus industry in Porto Rico is hampered by drought in the

winter months and at infrequent periods by hurricanes as in 1898. Dif-

ficulty in transportation not only within the island itself but also from

the island to market was formerly an important factor. In 1898 wagon

roads were not built far enough into the interior to allow wheeled vehicles

to enter, and of course carrying fruit on horseback down mountain trails

was not satisfactory. Ships were not fitted for carrying fruit and there-

fore a great deal of fruit decayed before reaching market. Sales reports

frequently showed 15-25 per cent decay on arrival in New York. It was

not until 1920 that properly ventilated ships became available. At that

time a steamship line began transporting fruit from Porto Rico to New

York under refrigeration or forced draft. Since then other lines have

equipped their ships with proper ventilation and some with refrigeration.

The chief loss from decay in Porto Rico fruit shipments was due to

stem-end rot caused by a fungus (Diplodia natalensis) . The destructive

304

CITRUS PRODUCTS

action of this fungus is prevented by sealing the cut stems of the fruits

with shellac immediately after the fruit is clipped from the tree.

Acreage. — According to the United States census report of 1920

there were then 219,000 bearing grapefruit trees and 114,000 non-bearing

trees.

Orange trees approximate 100,000 upon an area of 1,300 acres. The

total area planted in citrus trees is 6,000 acres. The acreage would have

been greater if better transportation had been afforded as there is plenty

of suitable land still available. Any soil that will produce coffee will

produce citrus fruit. Consequently the 40,000 acres now planted to

coffee could be used for fruit raising.

As Table LXI shows the amount of fruit shipped from Porto Rico

in the past has varied considerably from year to year. This variation is

not due entirely to differences in yield as often the selling price determines

the amount of fruit shipped. Recently a number of canneries have

started canning grapefruit.1 They pay the grower as high as $25.00 per

ton for the fruit. Orange canning is not practiced.

TABLE LXI

ANNUAL SHIPMENTS OF CITRUS FRUIT FROM PORTO Rico

SINCE 1910 (ACCORDING TO CUSTOMS REPORT)

*Foreign Crops and Markets, Vol. XIII, No. 13, 1926.

An orange marmalade is made from the bitter oranges of Porto Rico

by some of the native women and sold locally. It is said to equal the best

of the Dundee product. A marmalade is also made from grapefruit.

aln 1925, 3,841,000 lb., and in 1926 6,348,000 Ib. (estimate) of canned grapefruit

was exported to the United States. (Foreign Crops and Markets, Vol. XIII,

No. 13, 1926.)

DUTCH WEST INDIES 305

HAITI

The average orange of Haiti is not as good as that found in the

neighboring islands. Lack of care, as these fruits are left to grow prac-

tically wild, has resulted in the product being poor compared to that of

Cuba, Porto Rico, and Jamaica. Some of the oranges on the southern

coast possess much of the same aromatic properties of their peel as those

of Curagao ; the peel of the oranges from the latter island is the base of

the cordial of the same name. Therefore a demand has arisen for the

Haiti south coast orange peel. The Netherlands is the principal pur-

chaser of the peel. There is no section of Haiti where oranges do not

grow, and with care and attention superior fruit could easily be produced.

DUTCH WEST INDIES (CURASAO)1

The "Curasao liqueur" which has done much to make the island

known, is not made in Curasao at all. It is made in the Netherlands,

having acquired its name because orange peel from the island of Curagao

is one of the principal ingredients. Owing presumably to the dryness of

the island, the orange peel produced there possesses a peculiar flavor and

strength, which no other peel seems to have. Orange peel is one of

the staple articles of export, though the native supply is not large. A

few unimportant attempts have been made to manufacture "Curagao"

locally, but they have not proven successful. The total exports from the

island during the most recent year for which figures are available were

less than 150 gallons. Doubtless .50 per cent of this was brought over

from Holland and exported by the Willemstad houses.

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER XIII

ANONYMOUS.

Imperial Department of Agriculture, West Indies, Pamphlet No. 46

(1907-8).

"ABC of Lime Cultivation," ibid., Pamphlet No. 53 (March, 1918).

"The Green Lime Trade of Dominica," Agricultural News (Barbadoes),

XIX, No. 478 (August 21, 1920), 265.

"Citrate of Lime," ibid., I, 99.

"Concentrated Lime Juice (Ascertaining Its Strength by Means of a

Hydrometer)," ibid., IV, 349.

"Concentrated Lime Juice (Ascertaining Its Strength by Means of a

Hydrometer)," ibid., V, 236-40.

"Citrate of Lime from Dominica," ibid., V, 324.

"Citrate of Lime from Seychelles," ibid., VI, 27.

"Preparation of Citrate of Lime," West Indian Bulletin (Journal of the

Imperial Department of the West Indies), III, 152.

aSee p. 319.

306 CITRUS PRODUCTS

"Citrate of Lime and Concentrated Juices," ibid., VI, 308.

"Citrate of Lime," ibid., VII, 331.

"Citrate of Lime and Concentrated Juice," ibid., VIII, 167.

"Citrate of Lime, Dominica," ibid., VIII, 170.

"Lime Juice Concentration," ibid., VIII, 171.

DAVIS, S. M.

"Loss of Citric Acid in Limes and Lime Juice," Agricultural News (Bar-

badoes), XX, No. 492 (March 5, 1921), 75.

MAC!NTYRE, J. C.

"Experiments in Lime Juice Concentration," West Indian Bulletin

(Journal of the Imperial Department of the West Indies), XII,

(1912), 465-73.

MOORE, J. C.

"The Lime Industry in Saint Lucia," West Indian Bulletin (Journal of

the Imperial Department of the West Indies), XII (1912), 44—50.

TEMPANY, H. A.

"The Lime Industry of Antigua," West Indian Bulletin (Journal of the

Imperial Department of West Indies), XII (1912), 501-5.

TEMPANY, H. A., and GREENHALGH, N.

"Notes on Expressed and Distilled West Indian Lime Oils/.' West In-

dian Bulletin (Journal of the Imperial Department of the West

Indies), XII (1912), 498-501.

TEMPANY, H. A., and WEIL, V. M.

"Investigations on the Extractions of Lime Juice by Milling," West

Indian Bulletin (Journal of the Imperial Department of the West

Indies), XII (1912), 473-79.

WARRINGTON and GROSJEAN.

Journal of the Chemical Society (London) (October, 1875).

WATTS, SIR FRANCIS.

"Citrate of Lime and Concentrated Lime Juice," West Indian Bulletin

(Journal of the Imperial Department of the West Indies), II (1901),

308-18.

CHAPTER XIV

ARGENTINA

The total number of orange trees in 1908 was 2,117,000 while the

lemon trees numbered 64,000. Corventes is the leading province in

orange culture reporting an area of 15,987 acres carrying 1,514,000

trees. The local production of both oranges and lemons is insufficient

to meet the demand. The amount of citrus by-products made is not

known.

BRAZIL

The annual average for the oranges exported for the three years,

1910-12, was $11,788 and tangerines $3,805.

CHILE

Oranges and lemons are raised in small areas in Chile.

PARAGUAY

Orange growing is the principal fruit industry of Paraguay, The

number of orange trees of bearing age was estimated as 1,500,000 in

191 3-2 As many as 164,271,000 oranges and 3,768,000 mandarins were

exported in that year. The following excerpts from a book on Paraguay

by E. de Bourgade la Dardye give an idea of the potentiality of the

country as a producer of citrus products.

Everywhere, on the banks of the rios, in the gorges of the far-off sierras,

near the ranches, round the estancias, in the solitude of the forests, the trees

are seen with their golden fruit and deep green foliage, in lines, in terraces,

in groves — everywhere, on mountains and on plains, they grow and break

the blue horizon with their rounded outline ; and it seems as if they must

have flourished there from all antiquity.

I am quite ready to admit that the sweet orange, the bitter orange, the

lemon, and their numerous varieties were imported either by the Spaniards

or by the Jesuits; of this there can be little question; the original habitat of

them all was in Asia, and the history of their dissemination is well known ;

*In 1586, Cavendish found on the island of Puna in the Gulf of Guyaquil, in

what is now Ecuador, an orchard of "orenges, sweete and sower, limons, pomegran-

ates, and lymes." These may have been introduced from the Philippines as the

Spaniards introduced coconuts from this source. (The Third Circumnavigation of

the Globe . ... of Thomas Candish.)

2A new Italian colony near Villeta finished planting in July, 1926, 127,000

orange trees. (Foreign Crops and Markets, Vol. XIII, No. 4)

307

308 CITRUS PRODUCTS

but at the same time there is a Paraguayan orange especially belonging to

itself. It has a flavor that is slightly acid, which makes it very acceptable

in hot weather; without cloying the palate like the sweet orange or setting

the teeth on edge like a lemon. It seems to cleanse the mouth in a way that

is very refreshing. So far from growing everywhere, it is found chiefly in

the depths of the forests and on the banks of insignificant streams. I have

met with it in the most remote places, in the unexplored valleys of the

Ygatimi, and on the margin of the Upper Parani, where it could certainly

never have been introduced by human agency. So abundantly does it grow

on the Parana above the Salts de Guayra that during a flood I have seen

numbers of the trees drifting down the stream.

But after all, whether oranges of any kind are indigenous to Paraguay

or not, it is very certain that they well might be for the whole world could

not show a soil that is more favorable for their growth. Without attempting

to enumerate all the varieties of oranges and lemons that are found, I may

mention the following as being the most common. The sweet orange (Citrus

sinensis L.), the bitter orange or bigarrade (C. Aurantium L.), the man-

darin orange, the apepu, the citron (C. medico), the toronjo (C. limonium

citratus), the common lemon (C. Limonia), the lime or sweet lemon (C.

auranti folia) , and the lime of Persia.

It would be quite impossible to form a true estimate as to what extent

of area in Paraguay is taken up by this orange growth. Sometimes singly,

sometimes in clumps, sometimes in vast forests — as in part of the Missions —

the trees thrive in almost every district, here under cultivation, there en-

tirely wild.

According to the reports from Paraguay the most ruinous methods

are being employed which have resulted in complete annihilation of the

underbrush of orange trees or Manchones over wide areas (Mazuyer).

In his book, Paraguay in Wort und Bild, R. von Fischer-Treuenfeld

renders the following account i1

Although wild orange groves are still numerous, they are, because of the

pernicious methods practiced, remote from the inhabited places. The har-

vest is carried on all year, but principally from October to April. About

5 cm. above the ground the trees are chopped down. The leaves and young

fruits are distilled on the spot, the wood being used as fuel. Thus indolence

and vandalism have led to the annihilation of the orange forests. More re-

cently the Government has endeavored to prevent the chopping down of the

trees and to regulate the harvesting by law. Hence the price of the oil has

risen and it is more and more difficult to obtain the product.

OIL OF PETITGRAIN2

The term petitgrain, under which the essence is commonly known in

industry and commerce, is derived from the primitive processes of extrac-

*Report of Schimmel & Co. (April, 1902), p. 55.

2See also pp. 195-98.

PETITGRAIN OIL 309

tion from scarcely formed green fruit when no larger than a chestnut or

beechnut. The product now extracted from the leaves is similar to that

obtained from the small fruit, and through force of habit the old name

has been preserved.

The bitter orange tree, the "naranjo agrio" of the country, whose

leaves form the source of the oil, is found growing wild over the same

wide area in which the sweet orange flourishes so spontaneously, though

it is of more frequent occurrence in the forest region than is the latter

variety. It is distinguishable by the form of leaves and the greater

coarseness of the rind of the fruit, which is also generally larger than

the sweet orange. It is also distinguishable from the "apepu" or native

bitter orange.

The petitgrain industry is centered in a zone about the small town of

Yaguaron, although the trees are increasingly exploited outside this area,

especially in the region east of the railway. Distilling is carried on in

the neighborhood of the villages of Ita, San Jose de la Cordillera, Itacu-

ruby, and Nemby, all of which lie within about 60 miles of Asuncion.

The number of distilleries producing petitgrain oil in 1909 was estimated

at thirty1 located as follows : twenty in Yaguaron,2 four in Ita, three in

San Jose de la Cordillera, one in Itacuruby, and two in Nemby. Col-

lectively they had a capacity of from 2600 to 3000 kg. monthly or about

36000 kg. annually.

The Jesuits are credited with having been the first to exploit petit-

grain, but the exact date of the inception of this industry is unknown. In

1873 tne industry was modified through the efforts of a French botanist,

Balanza, who visited Paraguay to study the flora of the country and who

then examined the properties of the oranges. He became interested in

the production of "Agua de Azahar," or the extract of orange blossoms,

but finally turned to the utilization of the leaves of the bitter orange tree.

He proved the practicability of substituting the leaves for the blossoms

as the base of perfumes hitherto derived from the latter source, and thus

laid the basis of the present industry. The rather crude method of ex-

traction which he devised has been changed but little since his time,

though a process, kept secret by its users, of refining the raw product

has since been invented.

The only equipment of those engaged in the industry is a simple still,3

which can be carried from place to place if necessary. The still is set

*Le Messager de Sao Paolo (September 7, 1909) ; also Report of Schimmel &

Co. (April, 1910) , p. 89.

"Chemist and Druggist, LI (1897), no.

'See Plate XII.

3io

CITRUS PRODUCTS

up in a palm-thatched hut, to which the gatherers bring the leaves for

distillation. These are packed into a receptacle like a barrel, the bottom

of which has been perforated with holes for the admission of steam. A

steam-generating apparatus, the wood fuel for which is picked up in a

nearby forest, forms steam at a pressure not in excess of one atmosphere.

The vapor which results from the saturation of the steam with the vola-

tile oil of the leaves is carried off through a pipe at the top of the vat to

the coils of another chamber, where it is condensed by cooling.

The condensed liquid passes into a florentine flask which acts as a

receiver and separates the water from the oily essence. The essence may

be now said to be ready for market although some producers think it

necessary to purify by filtration. The process of further distillation for

refining the product thus obtained is carried on by houses in Asuncion,

which export the essence to the foreign buyers.

TABLE LXII

The natives gather the leaves and receive about 12 cents per 20 Ib.

It is customary to cut down the trees for stripping, but where this is not

done a tree can be stripped once every two years. Between 500 and 600

Ib. of leaves are necessary to produce a quart of the unrefined oil, and

the usual still will produce about 4 qt. a day. The labor attached to the

distillation process is inconsiderable. As soon as the apparatus has been

charged for a thirty-six-hour run it is only necessary to see to the keeping

up of the fire which takes one person about three hours a day. A small

distillery of the Balanza system produces on an average 50 qt. (or kilo-

grams) of essence of petitgrain a month, and on gross receipts of $144

a net gain of $120 is made. The oil is placed for exportation in tin boxes

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

BOTANY, VOL. VI, PART II, PLATE XVI.

(Powell and Chace, U. S. Dept. of Agric. Bull. No. 160)

ONE OF THE BETTER TYPES OF GROVES AT MASCALI. SICILY.

Showing the high-headed trees, a distributing furrow between the rows, and basins around the trees.

(Poivell and Chace, U. S. Dept. of Agric. Bull. 160)

A GROVE OF LOW-HEADED TREES IN CALIFORNIA.

BRITISH GUIANA 311

holding 2 kg. These tin boxes are made especially for this purpose and

have a small opening at the top, which is sealed as soon as they are filled.

The essence is in good demand as a basis for perfumes and flavoring

extracts, and about 70 per cent of this demand is supplied by exports

from Paraguay. For a long time France took most of the production,

but during 1916 a good market was opened with Spain.

Exports by countries for the years 1915 to 1918 are given in Table LXII.

The exports credited to Argentina and Uruguay are, of course, largely

shipments in transit, the ultimate destination of these consignments being

Europe or the United States.

TABLE LXIII

EXPORTS OF PETITGRAIN FROM PARAGUAY FOR THE YEARS 1914 TO 1920

Years Quantity in Pounds

1912 52,704

1913 71,322

1914 26,159

1915 38,425

1916 46,235

1917 61,498

1918 36,163

1919 37,976

1920 73,675

A full description of the chemical and physical properties of the oil

is to be found in chapter x (pp. 195-98).

BRITISH GUIANA

Limes are cultivated over about 1,350 acres, and the erection of fac-

tories for the production of concentrated juice and citrate of lime has

given the industry a much desired impetus; the exports were (1919)

389.5 cwt. citrate of lime, 7,356 gal. of raw and 2,882 gal. concentrated

lime juice and 326 gal. of oil of limes.

URUGUAY

One-fourth of the total area in fruit trees in 1908 was devoted to

oranges (16,884 acres) comprising 501,119 trees with a fruit produc-

tion of 6,292,759 pounds.

1,403 acres of lemons growing 40,332 trees produced 315,901 pounds

of fruit in 1908. At this time the local orange production was insuffi-

cient to meet the demands of the country. No record has been obtained

of the amount of by-products produced.

312 CITRUS PRODUCTS

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER XIV

ALBEO, EDWARD.

"Paraguay's Oil of Petitgrain," Bulletin of the Pan-American Union,

XLVII (1918), 534-41-

ANONYMOUS.

"Extraction of the Oil of Petitgrain," Bulletin Bureau of American Re-

publics, XXIX (1909), 969-71.

Report of United States Vice-Consul, Asuncion, Paraguay. February 4,

1921.

"The Petitgrain Industry," Bulletin Bureau of American Republics,

XXX (1910), 871-72.

(British Guiana in 1919). Chemical Industry, XL (June 15, 1921),

222R, from Col. Rep. — Ann., No. 1068, March, 1921.

DE LA DARLYE, E. DE BOURGADE.

Paraguay. London, 1892.

FISCHER-TRUENFELD, R. VON.

Paraguay in Wort und Bild (2d. ed), p. 187. Berlin, 1906.

FREIRE, DARIO. Le Messager de Sao Paolo. Brazil.

MAZUYER, L.

American Perfumer, IV (1909), 106, 127.

SCHURZ, W. L.

A Commercial Handbook on Paraguay. Published by Department of

Commerce.

CHAPTER XV

THE INDUSTRY IN EUROPE

GREECE

The citrus region is confined to the provinces of Vostizza, Agrinion,

Diakopton, and Akratas. The first two produce most of the finer fruit

exported to the United States. Heavy frosts in early November1 wrought

losses amounting to 40 per cent of the crop. Curiously enough the lemon

and orange crops of Western Greece escaped all frost damage but suf-

fered a general loss of 45 per cent from fly damage.1

The 1920-21 citrus crop in the consular district of Patras, Greece, is

reported to have shown an increase of 20 per cent in production and an

increase of approximately 30 per cent in prices. The American Consul

at Patras said that this price increa'se ranged from 25 per cent on low-

grade fruit to 40 per cent on the best grade. American buyers in 1919

TABLE LXIV*

GREEK PRODUCTION OF CITRUS FRUITS, 1921-22 TO 1923-24

'Chamber of Commerce Journal, London, May 2, 1924, p. 247. Consular Report, Athens, January

4. 1923-

imported 1,007,686 Ib. of citrons in brine from Patras and local citrus

exporters considered that the demands in hand assured a considerable in-

crease in American business. The principal reason given for higher prices

was the heavy cost for cutting, brining and barreling. This cost increased

from $0.61 per 100 Ib. to $1.29, because of higher wages and greater

costs of cooperage.

SPAIN

The chief centers in Spain are the provinces of Valencia, Castellon,

and Murcia on the east coast, and the provinces of Seville and Cordoba.

*The Market Reporter (United States Department of Agriculture), III, No.

10 (March 5, 1921), 159.

313

314 CITRUS PRODUCTS

Valencia is pre-eminently the sweet orange region. Lemons, on the

other hand, are not produced to any extent in the Valencia district.

Lemons are grown extensively, as is the bitter orange used for marma-

lade, in the Province of Seville. It is estimated that the total acreage

in Spain planted to oranges in 1922 is 225,000 acres. Lemon trees,

although in flower the year round, bear their greatest crops in Novem-

ber, April, and May. Orange lands are valuable and sell from $700 to

$1,000 per acre ; the average yield per acre is 20,000 Ib. ; the average yield

per tree, about 275 Ib.

Spain is a source of a small amount of citrus products.1

FORMER AUSTRIAN EMPIRE

From 1909 to 1913 inclusive exports of lemons and citrons were

valued at $435,000 per annum and oranges $209,000 per annum. In the

fiscal year ended June 30, 1914, Austria-Hungary exported to the United

States 652 Ib. of citric acid.2

FRANCE

The exports of citrus by-products to the United States for the year

ending June 30, 1914, were artificial oil of bergamot 121 Ib., hand-

pressed oil of bergamot 212 Ib., oil of lemon 1,543 Ib., oil of neroli

7,839 Ib., oil of orange 3,040 Ib., oil of petitgrain 5 Ib., terpeneless oil of

petitgrain 4 Ib., orange peel 15,684 Ib., and essence of orange flowers 25

Ib. Later statistics are included in the Appendix.3

Corsica is the largest producer of citron.4

ITALY

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE BY-PRODUCT INDUSTRY

In northern Italy the manufacture of citrus products is unprofitable ;

the industry flourishes only in the southern part of the country. In

Sicily, especially along the southeastern coast, it constitutes one of the

chief sources of income to the people. The world's supply of bergamot

oil comes principally from the province of Calabria. Much higher prices

are obtained for it than for lemon oil. In Sicily is found the largest

lemon-growing region in the world ; it lies along the northern and eastern

coast and is naturally divided into five parts. Listed in order of their

importance they are : the Etna district, the Messina district, the Palermo

district, the Syracuse district, and the north coast district.

*For additional statistics, see pp. 348, 355.

"For additional statistics, see pp. 355, 365.

'See pp. 348, 354, 355, 364, 368.

4See Plates XIII, XIV, and pp. 110-12.

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

BOTANY, VOL. VI, PART II, PLATE XVII.

(Powell and Chace, U. S. Dept. ofAgric. Bull. 160)

PICKING AND GRADING THE FRUIT, PALERMO, SICILY.

The lemons are being graded roughly for by-products and for export.

(Powell and Chace, U. S. Dept. oj Agric. Bull. 160)

INTERIOR OF A PACKING-HOUSE AT CATANIA, SICILY.

Showing the padded bins used in grading and packing.

ITALY 315

The industry near Etna. — This district lies on the eastern coast of Sicily

and extends from Catania on the south to Giardini on the north and takes

in the towns of Francavilla, Bronte, Aderno, and Paterno which lie on the

watershed of Mount Etna.

Aside from fresh fruit the principal products of this district are lemon

oil, orange oil, and citrate of lime. These are sent by rail to Messina for

export.

Catania, the southernmost city of this section, contains one lemon-oil

factory of considerable size with many smaller ones in the suburbs. In the

smaller manufactories the fruit is prepared in the street, and the oil extracted

in the living-rooms and stored in the sleeping-rooms of the houses. Accord-

ing to Chace the only place given over exclusively to the manufacturing

process is the room devoted to calcium citrate and this may serve also as a

stable. A small number of culls are bought from time to time as needed, and

the whole family takes part in transforming them into the final products.

Acireale, a small thriving city, is the most important center of this in-

dustry in the Etna district. With a dozen or more factories, it is also head-

quarters for the Essential Oil Producers' Association, an organization of

comparatively recent formation, the membership of which seems to be con-

fined to producers in the Etna district.

North of Acireale, 6 miles distant, is Giarre, with one factory of fair

size and several of minor importance. About 2 miles nearer the foothills of

Mount Etna, at the railroad station for Mascali, is a small village called

Carrubba, whose inhabitants, men, women, and children, are employed in a

group of large factories situated there. One of these factories is the largest

and best equipped in Sicily, employing at the height of the season over three

hundred hands, producing several hundred pounds of oil a day. Even here

such advance as has been made does not seem to have changed the character

of the methods employed, the improvements often being more apparent than

real, and emphasized by the crude conditions surrounding them.

Mechanical carriers are used for conveying the fruit from one part of

the factory to the other and for carrying off the waste products, but no de-

vices for halving the lemons or removing the pulp from them have been

attempted. A battery of machines for extracting the oil from the peel was

at one time installed, but later abandoned. It is not strange that the device

was a failure, for the peel required the same preparation as in the present

methods of handling, and each machine needed an attendant, who handled

separately every half lemon rind. As the rate of production was not greatly

increased, the apparent saving was the difference in cost between the hire of

a boy or girl attendant and that of a man sponger minus the cost of power

necessary to operate machines. After all, however, the place is exceedingly

well equipped when compared with other Sicilian factories, having cement

floors and tanks, an electric lighting plant, steam ovens for drying citrate of

lime, and many other improvements not usually seen on the island.

The two neighboring factories are of the usual type, but well arranged

and roomy, employing about fifty hands each. They produce in the neighbor-

hood of 100 Ib. of oil daily.

Several miles northwest of this point, on the first of the foothills of

Mount Etna, is the town of Mascali, containing several small factories of

316 CITRUS PRODUCTS

minor importance, drawing their fruit from the upland valleys of the

vicinity. The other two centers in the district are Fiumefreddo and Giardini.

The former contains several factories of a daily capacity of 50 to 100 Ib. of

oil ; the latter, one large factory and several very small ones, there being in

addition several small places between the two towns. Giardini is the

northern limit of the district and draws its supplies from the south, being

cut off from the Messina district on the north by a steep range of hills, over

which hauling is difficult even on the fine military road which skirts the

coast. Fiumefreddo is 6 or 7 miles farther south and is surrounded for

miles on all sides by lemon gardens. The whole region from Catania to

Giardini lies at the foot of Mount Etna, many of the fruit orchards being on

its decomposed lava beds.

Oranges are also grown in this district, but are as a rule farther inland

in the foothills. Aderno, Paterno, and Bronte, situated well up on the slopes

of Etna, have considerable of this trade, as has Francavilla, farther north,

nearer Giardini, the large factory at the latter place producing considerable

quantities of both sweet and bitter orange oil from the fruit grown here.

The season begins in the Etna district in December and is practically

over by April i, although a few small operators continue into May. As the

growing of Verdelli lemons is less practiced in this region than in the Mes-

sina district or in parts of the north coast, the inducements for summer work

are not the same. The output of the district is marketed at Messina, being

shipped to that point by rail, the exportation of oil and citrate of lime from

Catania being less than the production of that city alone.

The industry in the Messina district. — The Messina district, the second

largest in Sicily, is practically a continuation of the Etna district on the

south. The lemon-producing land lies along the coast, extending into the

few valleys which run back between the hills as in that district. The soil,

however, is probably quite different, as it is much farther from Mount Etna,

no lava streams having entered the section for many hundred years.

The largest center at the southern end of the district is Santa Teresa,

from which the oil of the neighboring town Roccalumera is also shipped.

There are eight or more factories in the two places, one of which is con-

siderably above the average size, employing a hundred hands or over, the

others varying from those employing less than a dozen to those which have

upward of fifty. Northward toward Messina, the next center of importance

is Scaletta Zangles, where are located three or four factories of very small

size. At the northern end of the district, from Galati to Messina, the coast

belt is much narrower than toward the south ; the towns here stretch con-

tinuously along the military road, there being scarcely a visible boundary

between them. When riding along this road the whole region seems an

extension of the city of Messina.

The chief centers are Galati, Tremestieri, Mili, and Contesse, all small

towns having direct railroad connections with the city. The factories are,

taken as a whole, better equipped than elsewhere in the island. Mostly they

are of moderate size, some employing less than twenty hands, though one,

with over two hundred, is second or third in size in Sicily. This factory is

one of the very few to produce concentrated oil by fractional distillation of

the usual product. Owing to the size of the factories and the narrowness of

ITALY 317

the coast strip here, a large quantity of the fruit consumed is drawn from

farther south, and during the bergamot season from Calabria, on the main-

land.

Messina itself is hemmed in on all sides by high hills upon which no

lemons are grown ; fruit in large quantities must, therefore, come from some

little distance. For this reason there is but one factory of any considerable

size in the city; it employs, however, over two hundred hands, being situ-

ated on the north side of the city in an isolated group of groves.

Messina, like Catania, contains many very small places where oil is

made in the dwellings of the lower classes, the output in any single instance

being small, but the total of some importance. There was also at one time

a quantity of products made here from the culls of stored fruit which has

given way before the Verdelli lemon.

On the north coast, not far from Messina, are two centers of minor im-

portance, Bauso and Rometta. There seems little reason for classing them

with the remainder of the Messina district except for the fact that they

employ methods of production similar to those used on the south coast,

while the center nearest them on the north coast employs a somewhat differ-

ent process in obtaining oil. Undoubtedly, however, as far as the oil is con-

cerned its composition here is more nearly like that of the north coast, no

matter what process is used in its production. The factories in those towns

are quite small, especially at Rometta, Bauso containing one of the average

size, employing nearly fifty hands.

As in the Etna district, the produce of the entire Messina region is dis-

posed of through Messina brokers. The season also is the same as in that

district.

The industry in the Palermo district. — Palermo, the third district of im-

portance, is the most westerly of the five. As in the other north-coast re-

gions, lemon cultivation occurs in large isolated groups of orchards, with the

exception of the Conco d'Oro, where the whole valley is given up to it. This

valley is of exceptional fertility, and it is said that at one time considerable

sugar cane was raised here. The fruit being above the average quality, the

greater part of it is shipped fresh. The culls for by-products go both to

Palermo and to the small city of Monreale, beautifully situated above

Palermo in the hills. Here are some half-dozen poorly equipped factories

of small size, employing from a dozen to thirty hands each.

Palermo itself is the largest city of Sicily and contains several important

factories, situated largely in the suburbs; the output of oil is not, however,

larger than that of some of the small towns of the south coast. Information

about the factories here is much harder to obtain than in other parts of

Sicily; there are at least six of average size, the city being free from fac-

tories of the smaller type such as are found in Catania and Messina.

Toward the east, the principal center is Ficarazzi, where there are sev-

eral factories, one of which may be said to be large. There are also other

towns to the west of Palermo which contain manufacturing plants, but they

are small and relatively unimportant. At Pattinico, on the Trapani railroad

line, are two or three, at Carini one, and at Cinisi another; taking it all in

all, they are the crudest of the island.

318 CITRUS PRODUCTS

While this district produces a large quantity of oil and citrate of lime,

the industry is not so well developed as in the two districts already described,

these commodities here being in every sense of the word by-products.

The production of summer lemons is universal in this region and affects

to a considerable extent the composition of the essential oil. This is probably

due to admixture of oil produced from the Verdelli lemons left upon the trees

until the following season. Ordinarily the amount thus produced is small;

when, however, the price of summer fruit is low it is very often left unpicked

until the following natural crop is gathered, when it is sorted out with the

other culls. In some factories this fruit is discarded, no attempt being made

to produce oil from it. In the majority of cases, however, it is worked up as

usual. It would seem that the former is far the better policy, as the yield

both of oil and of citrate of lime are extremely low, added to which is the

further disadvantage of the inferiority of the resulting oil. Where this fruit

forms a considerable proportion, the resulting product is not marketable ex-

cept in admixtures with normal oil.

The season begins here later than in any of the other districts, often two

months later than at Syracuse, and extends later into the warm weather, the

month of June often finding several factories still in operation. Although

the city of Palermo in this district is the largest seaport and first city of com-

mercial importance in Sicily, only a comparatively small quantity of the

products are shipped from that point, this exportation going to England, that

coming to the United States being confined to fresh fruit.

The industry in the Syracuse district. — The fourth by-product district is

on the opposite side of the island, southeast of Palermo, and is but slightly

less important than that center. The Syracuse district differs in many ways

from the others of Sicily ; the country not being mountainous, the fruit is cul-

tivated farther inland than usual and the problem of irrigation is more diffi-

cult. Lemon culture is not the chief occupation here, for the country has

been one of the finest wheat-growing regions since ancient times, and at

present, besides this cereal, both almonds and grapes are extensively cul-

tivated.

The climate is very mild, the gathering of lemons beginning several

weeks earlier than in the other districts. October 15 to April 15 is a liberal

estimate of the manufacturing season, while fifteen days might be cut from

each end and more nearly represent the actual fact.

The district contains several isolated centers of production, the groves

not being continuous, as in the lemon belt proper, but clustered in large

groups about the several towns. Three of these centers are of considerable

importance, the cities of Syracuse, Floridia, and Avola, all containing six or

more factories and each employing twenty hands or more.

At Syracuse there are no factories on the island which forms the old

city, all being on the mainland in the newer suburbs. Comparing favorably

in size with the average factories in other districts, they are in equipment

above those at Palermo, but not so well equipped as those near Messina.

Floridia is some 12 miles inland from Syracuse, situated in a very fertile

valley of lemon groves, the half-dozen factories here varying in size, two

being of considerable importance; all are, however, devoid of mechanical

ITALY 319

improvements. The output of this town is carted to Syracuse, as there are

no railroad connections.

South of the city of Syracuse no lemons are grown until Avola, 15 miles

distant, is reached. Here is situated another large group of orchards; the

factories, as usual clustered about the town itself, are below the average size

and have no special equipment. Some orange oil is prepared in this district

and large quantities of peel are dried and sold for the preparation of the

liquor, curaqao.1

The other centers in this district are Augusta, with one factory of aver-

age size; Priolo, with two small places; and Melilli, with one. Augusta is

18 miles north of Syracuse, on the coast, and is the center of the salt in-

dustry; Priolo is between Syracuse and Augusta, some miles from the rail-

road, while Melilli is farther inland, situated well up in the low hills.

The lemon products of the district find their way to market through

Messina, with which there is direct railroad connection.

The industry in the north-coast towns. — The remaining district to be

considered is the heterogeneous collection of towns on the north coast. Here,

again, as in Palermo and Syracuse, the cultivation of the lemon takes place

in isolated groups of orchards around the central towns, the country being

very mountainous and having no cultivated strip of coast land, as on the

south. The fruit is grown in the valleys between the spurs of hills, all of

the large towns being near the Messina-Palermo railroad line, which winds

along the seacoast.

By far the most important center, in fact the only important one of this

region, is Barcelona, a small inland city not far from the seaport of Milazzo.

Here are some three factories, employing from thirty to fifty hands each, and

a few more of smaller size, all without mechanical equipment. The methods

employed are, as has been stated, similar to those of the Palermo district, the

old method of production being used and distilled oil manufactured from

residues.

The small city of Patti, the next largest by-product center, is west of

Barcelona, 2 miles from the railroad station of the same name. There are

but two factories here, both employing approximately thirty hands and, as

at Barcelona, producing considerable sweet and bitter orange oil.

Farther west there are no other factories until Capo d'Orlando is reached,

at which place are several of small size, which is also the case at Santa

Agata di Miletello. The factories in all of these places use the so-called

new or two-piece method of manufacture, which is peculiar, inasmuch as

they are situated between two large districts using the other method. At

Santa Agata di Miletello the factories do not produce citrate of lime, the

lemon juice being concentrated in copper kettles and sold to liquor and

bitters manufacturers in northern Italy.

The commerce of the north-coast towns, as far as lemon by-products are

concerned, is carried on through Messina, although there is a thriving local

seaport town, Milazzo. While the district covers a much greater territory

than that covered by either the Palermo or Syracuse districts, it produces less

oil and citrate than either. The season is more nearly like that of the

^ee p. 305.

32O CITRUS PRODUCTS

Palermo district, although manufacturing begins somewhat earlier and

ceases sooner than in that district.

MANUFACTURE OF CITRUS PRODUCTS

There are two chief by-products of lemon culture — the essential oil

of lemon and citrate of lime ; besides these, lemon peel in brine and con

centrated lemon juice are of lesser importance. Oil of lemon is used very

largely for flavoring purposes, it finds application also in perfumes and

to a limited extent in pharmaceutical preparations; the greater part of

that imported into the United States, however, is used in the preparation

of the ordinary extract of lemon, well known to every housewife. Citrate

of lime, or, more properly, calcium citrate, is an intermediate product in

the manufacture of citric acid. In the lemon juice itself the acid occurs

in the free state, together with sugars and mucilaginous bodies. It is in

order to free it from these that it is combined with lime, for the com-

pound thus formed is insoluble and precipitates from the juice, being

finally 'separated by filtration. This product must then be again treated

in order to free it from lime and obtain the citric acid once more in the

free state. There were no factories in Sicily for this purpose in 1909,

although the Italian government was, before the 1909 earthquake, making

efforts to establish a plant by subsidy.1 The product at that time was

shipped to Germany, England, and the United States, where the lime salt

was decomposed with sulphuric acid, filtered through boneblack, and

crystallized from solution in water.

The salting of the lemon peel is usually confined to those districts of

Sicily where the towns are upon the seacoast, situated near sloping

beaches, so that sea water is easily obtainable. It is not usually packed

in the interior, although a few towns near Messina have some little trade

in this line, the product being repacked in that city. Producers in Sicily

claim that there is a demand for three separate kinds of stock; first,

that from which no oil has been removed; second, that which contains

approximately half the oil; and, last, a completely exhausted product.

All classes are consumed in the bakers' and confectioners' trades. Where

the rinds are to be used for packing, the lemons are divided lengthwise,

the pulp removed in the usual way, and the peel packed by hand as firmly

as possible in large hogsheads, which are afterward filled with sea water

and re-enforced by the addition of salt.2

The production of concentrated juice is not extensive, the factories

being small and the methods of evaporation extremely crude. In those

'See pp. 146-50, 349, 354, 362.

'See pp. 110-12.

ITALY 321

at Santa Agata di Miletello the juice is pressed from the pulp and filtered,

as in the manufacture of citrate of lime, and then pumped into shallow

tanks supported over a crude fireplace. Here evaporation takes place

over a wood fire until the required consistency is obtained, this point

being ascertained by cooling a portion of the juice and inserting a spindle.

The final product, a very dark semi-syrup, of acid, bitter, and smoky

taste, is sold to liquor and bitters producers in northern Italy. Besides

the two factories at Santa Agata di Miletello, there are one or two on

the Calabrian mainland. Altogether the industry is of minor importance.

EQUIPMENT OF FACTORIES

It has already been hinted that in the great majority of cases the fac-

tories in Sicily are very poorly, even crudely, equipped, the nature of the

operations which take place requiring but very simple apparatus. In the

preparation of oil, machinery is not used except in the few factories which

are situated in Calabria.

For the manufacture of citrate, a crusher, as shown in Plate XVIII

(left), a filtering device for juice and another for citrate, a precipi-

tating tank supplied with a heating coil, an oven or heating room, and a

small juice pump only are necessary. This apparatus is usually arranged

to fit into quarters originally intended for other purposes; the crusher

and filter presses on substantial foundations near the room where the

cutting of the fruit takes place, near the latter a juice tank and pump,

while the precipitating tank is also near by, as the pumping is usually

done by hand in the heating room wherever convenient.

In many of the smaller factories a loft is floored off and the space

thus provided used for extraction of the oil, the room often being scarcely

6 ft. high in the center, dark, and ill ventilated. On the north coast,

where the work takes place at night (from midnight to 8 or 9 o'clock in

the morning), this place also serves as sleeping-quarters for the sponge

men. The custom of preparing the oil at night seems confined to the

Palermo and north-coast towns. The explanation given for this method

of operation is that the sunlight has a deleterious effect upon the oil, but

a more probable cause is the fact that the sponging operation can take

place at night with less trouble than any of the other processes in by-

product manufacture and that the same workman can thereby work dur-

ing both daylight and darkness.

PREPARATION OF THE FRUIT

The preparation of the fruit differs somewhat in the different districts,

and while the variation seems slight it undoubtedly affects the length of

322 CITRUS PRODUCTS

the operation and perhaps the quality of the oil produced. In the Syra-

cuse, Etna, and Messina districts and in Patti and Santa Agata di

Miletello, north-coast towns, a method known as the "two piece" is used.

In Palermo and Barcelona the process used is called "three piece," al-

though some factories in the latter city use the other method. The

difference between the two lies in the manner of removing the rind from

the fruit. In the former the lemon is halved and the pulp removed from

these halves; in the other the peel is pared off in three longitudinal

strips. The three-piece method of preparing the fruit is shown in Plate

XIX (upper). When the fruit arrives at the factory it is dumped into

large bins, around which sit the cutters, who divide the lemons in halves

or pare them, according to the method used. An ordinary cheap kitchen

paring-knife is used for this purpose, the operators being women, girls,

and boys on the south coast ; on the north coast women and children are

seldom employed. The work is carried on very rapidly where the fruit

is halved crosswise, the lemon being cut and tossed into the tub with a

single motion of the arm. Where the peel is to be salted down, the fruit

is divided from end to end, and the time consumed is relatively longer,

as is also the case where it is pared. The next step in the process is

naturally omitted where the latter method is used. The half lemons are

thrown upon shallow troughs, on each side of which stand the operators

provided with baskets for holding the peel. The instrument used con-

sists of a sharp, slightly concave disk firmly fastened on the end of a

stout sickle-shaped wire, provided at the opposite end with a wooden

handle. The disk is skilfully slipped between the pulp and rind of the

lemon, held in the left hand, and forced toward the end with a circular

motion of both the instrument and fruit.

When sufficiently far advanced, a quick jerk removes the pulp, the

separation being complete and the rind unbroken.

The operators are usually paid by the basket of resulting peel; in

1909 the women made from 20 to 40 cents a day, while the children, who

do the cutting, rarely made over 15 cents, often as low as 5 cents. The

prices now paid for this labor are higher as is shown on page 216. Where

the lemons are pared the separation is much less complete, there being

always considerable pulp left on the rinds and some little rind at the ends

of the pared fruit. As a result of this, some little lemon juice becomes

mixed with the extracted oil, and after the extraction of the oil from the

peel the latter is therefore mixed with the fruit pulp from which citrate

of lime is to be made.

This method is not practical in the United States because of higher

wages.

ITALY 323

EXTRACTION OF THE ESSENTIAL OIL1

In both methods of operation the peel is thrown into large wicker

baskets, which, when full, are dipped into a reservoir of cold water and

thoroughly shaken to remove the excess. This washing is said to wilt

the rind and render a complete extraction of the oil possible. However

this may be, it is certain that fruit treated in this manner and allowed to

stand for several hours yields relatively more oil than that worked up

immediately after separation from the pulp. At this stage, the pulp

and peel having been separated, the former is sent to the crusher to be

converted finally into citrate of lime, the latter to sponge men, who

extract the oil.

The extraction by the sponging process is not essentially different

with the different forms of peel, the operators sitting upon low stools

with an earthenware bowl between the feet, a pile of peel in front of

them, and a basket for the exhausted material at one side. The bowl is

about a foot in diameter, provided with a deep lip, directly beneath which

is a small, round, concave depression which serves when the bowl is

tilted forward, in pouring out its contents, to hold back the settlings of

juice and precipitated matter. Across the top is placed a stick so notched

as to fit tightly on the sides ; resting upon it are the sponges, which differ

somewhat according to the manner of preparing the peel. Where the

fruit is cut crosswise, a large, flat sponge is surmounted by a smaller

concave one, shaped somewhat like a brimless slouch hat, the half lemon

being placed within this sponge when pressed. When the lemon is cut in

the other direction, a large, heavy sponge rests upon the flat one and the

fruit is pressed, colored side down, into it. This method is also followed

where the rind has been pared from the fruit. With the first method the

half rind is held in the right hand between the thumb and first two fingers

and inserted in the wide aperture of the concave sponge, whereupon the

latter is pressed upon with the left hand, the weight of the body being

thrown into the motion. The pressure is relieved, the peel turned partly

over with the right hand, and the pressing repeated. The same opera-

tion is carried on once or twice more, the rind thus receiving three or

four pressings. Where the concave sponge is not used, the peel or slices

are pressed face downward on the other sponge with the right hand, the

left being used to keep the sponge in place, the same amount of force

and number of pressings being required in either case.

The sponging process is somewhat varied where the three-piece

method is used, owing to the quantity of pulp left adhering to the rind.

A shallow, glazed bowl is placed upon the one ordinarily used and the

*For physical and chemical properties, see pp. 21-36.

324 CITRUS PRODUCTS

notched stick fitted to it so that the mixture of juice and oil is received

directly here. At the end of the operation the sponges are thoroughly

squeezed out by hand and the lemon oil separated from the juice by tilt-

ing forward the glazed bowl over the other and violently blowing the

breath upon the surface of the mixture until the oil has been carried

over into the lower bowl. In this operation some juice and residue are

found mixed with the oil, and this is separated finally in the larger bowl

by carefully tilting forward and repeating the blowing operation. The

small amount of juice and residue now present is caught by the depres-

sion in this bowl and the oil is received in a measuring bottle. The

operation where the two-piece method is used is very similar ; the oil and

what little moisture and residue are extracted are caught in the earthen-

ware bowl and separated as indicated.

The oil in either case is allowed to settle for twenty-four hours or

longer, filtered through paper, and stored in large copper containers;

that made by the three-piece method is said to keep longer without

becoming turbid.

TREATMENT OF THE RESIDUES

The treatment of the residues resulting from both methods is differ-

ent; with the two-piece method they are passed through a conical cloth

filter and the oil and water received in an earthenware bowl, where they

are separated in the usual way. The filter is tied at the top and placed

under a hand press, where the last traces of oil and water are expressed.

The residues from the three-piece process, which are relatively greater

in amount than by the other method, are placed in small copper stills,

diluted with water, and distilled. The still is made in two parts, the pot

being about 2 ft. high, narrowing abruptly to a 3-in. aperture at the top,

over which the condensing part fits tightly, the joint being cemented each

time with clay. The latter part is a basin, whose straight sides are con-

tinued a short distance beyond the concave bottom, after which they

converge similarly to the sides of a funnel. It is provided with two

spouts, one of which enters under the bottom into what becomes the

condensing chamber of the still; the other enters above and is used to

draw off the water placed in the basin in order to cool the vapor coming

in contact with it during the distillation. The condensation is further

aided by wrapping the other spout with rags, over which the attendant

pours cold water from time to time.

The oil obtained by this process is water white, of disagreeable odor

and abnormal chemical characteristics ; having no sale in the pure state

it is invariably mixed either by producer or broker with the hand-pressed

product. The filtration method undoubtedly gives the best results, for

ITALY 325

if the residues are treated immediately the resulting oil can scarcely be

distinguished from the original. Distilled oil is produced only at Bar-

celona and Palermo ; in all other districts the residues are filtered.

MACHINE-MADE ESSENTIAL OIL

The manufacture of lemon oil by machine is confined to the mainland

of Italy, in the province of Calabria. As has been said, large amounts

of bergamot oil are made here, and it is with the machine used in this

industry that lemon oil is produced. The bergamot is shaped more like

an orange than a lemon, being nearly round, so that the apparatus has to

be slightly modified in order to use it on the latter fruit. The modifica-

tion consists in removing the flat disks and substituting concave ones for

them.

The machine itself, shown in Plate XX (left), consists of a stand

supporting two upright arms united by a cross-beam at the top. On the

inside of one of these uprights is hung a large cogged wooden fly wheel

geared against a cylinder, the sides of which are upright spokes fitting

into the cogs of the fly wheel. To the under side of this cylinder is

bolted a corrugated disk, shown in Plate XX (right), fitted so as to

revolve above a like stationary one at the bottom of the machine. An

arrangement for raising and lowering the upper disk is provided for by

an arm fastened to the cylinder and extending over a cross-piece at the

rear. This arm is so weighted as to regulate the pressure brought to

bear upon the fruit which is placed between the upper and lower disks.

When it is lowered, the upper disk is raised and the lemons, which must

be of uniform size, are placed within. The lever is then raised, lowering

the disk upon the fruit, and the outside fly wheel is turned by hand.

After two minutes it is stopped and the fruit removed, each lemon being

carefully wiped off with a sponge. The grated rind and oil are received

in a large pan set beneath the machine and subsequently filtered through

cloth filters, the residue being placed under hand presses to express the

last traces of oil and moisture.

Oil manufactured in this way is not in the least inferior to the hand-

pressed product and has the added advantage of a much richer color,

being used chiefly for the purpose of bringing up the color of the latter.

The machine is not used on lemons until after the close of the bergamot

season, lemons ripening before that time being sold to Sicilian buyers.

CITRATE OF LIME1

After the pulp of the lemon has been removed from the rind it is

conveyed to a crusher, sometimes power-driven, but in a vast majority

'See pp. 149-50.

326 CITRUS PRODUCTS

of factories run by hand. A crushing machine is shown in Plate XVIII

(left). The ordinary type consists of a hopper leading into wooden

rollers and a small chute for carrying off the crushed pulp, the whole

being placed over, or very near, a juice tank, into which the drippings

flow. The crushed pulp is shoveled into large, circular, straw filtering-

mats and pounded down firmly with wooden rams. These mats are

closely woven of coarse straw and have a circular opening at the top;

after being filled they are placed one upon another in stacks of four to

twelve under hand presses of large size. The presses are set, often by

the aid of a windlass, and the combined pressing and filtration proceeds

until the flow of juice ceases, the presses being set down several times

during the operation. A press and filtering-mats are shown in Plate

XVIII (right). The juice is led into the juice tank, from whence it is

pumped, usually by hand, into a large vat provided with suitable heating

arrangements consisting of direct fire, steam coil, or, in one or two

instances, leading steam directly into the juice. In this tank the acidity

of the juice is neutralized by means of lime water, the point of neutrality

being ascertained by the use of litmus paper, and after heating for

several hours the juice is run off into the filtering tank while still hot.

The latter tank is provided with a false bottom of wooden latticework,

over which is spread a special filtering-cloth ; the citrate of lime, which

is deposited in a voluminous white powder, is retained by this cloth, while

the waste liquor runs through and is discarded. When this liquor has

sufficiently drained off, the deposit is shoveled into a small filtering-bag

and placed in stacks beneath a small press, where the excess is further

removed. It is usually readily removed from these sacks to iron pans in

which it goes to the drying oven. This oven is a small room, ventilated

at the top, around the sides of which are built tiers of iron frames for

holding the pans. In the center of the room is a gigantic charcoal burner,

which supplies the heat for the evaporation, from six to forty-eight hours'

drying being necessary, depending upon its size. The thoroughly dried

cake, containing over 60 per cent of citric acid, is broken into small pieces

and packed in hogsheads holding about 675 Ib. each. An interior view

of a by-product factory is shown in Plate XIX (lower).

The method of disposing of this product is very similar to that used

with essential oils; small or large lots are offered to brokerage firms,

accompanied by a certificate of analysis showing the actual content of

citric acid. Exportation is nearly always through one of these houses,

and there seems to be little or no effort to market the output co-oper-

atively. The product is purchased on the citric-acid content by the large

chemical supply houses in Germany, England, and the United States.

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

BOTANY, VOL. VI, PART II, PLATE XIX.

(Powell and Chace, U. S. Dept. of Agric. Bull. 160)

PARING LEMONS, THREE-PIECE METHOD, PALERMO, SICILY.

This method is used only in the Palermo district and at Barcelona.

(Powell and Chace, U. S. Dept. of Agric. Bull. 160)

INTERIOR OF LEMON PRODUCT FACTORY, SYRACUSE, SICILY.

This shows one of the few factories in Italy using mechanical devices for handling the fruit.

ITALY 327

COSTS OF PRODUCTION

The quantity of the by-products obtained from a given number of

fresh lemons will depend upon the quality of the fruit, the season of the

year, the time which has elapsed between the gathering and working up,

and the efficiency of the latter process. When allowed to ripen upon the

tree, the lemon loses a considerable part of its acidity and the oil is also

less in quantity and of an inferior grade. Where the fruit is broken or

bruised in handling, the yield of oil is diminished, and this is also the case

where a number of days are allowed to elapse between picking and work-

ing up. The content of citric acid is not lessened by these faults, however.

On the average quality of fruit, 100 Ib. of oil and 675 Ib. of citrate of

lime, containing 430 Ib. of citric acid, can be produced from 100,000

lemons. The average price for these substances varies from $80 to $100

for the oil and $75 to $95 for the citrate.1

The cost of production is very difficult to estimate and will, of course,

vary in every locality and almost with every factory. In the consular

reports of the late Dr. Cheney he estimates the average value of lemons

to the grower in Sicily in 1908 at $150 per 100,000. The fruit going for

by-products is the lowest grade, however, and according to Chace and

Powell in 1909 did not average over $100 per 100,000, leaving a gross

profit to the by-product producer at that time of from $50 to $100. One

sponge man can produce between 2 and 3 Ib. of oil per day, for which he

then received about 30 cents, making the cost of extracting the oil from

100,000 lemons from $10 to $15. Other processes about the factory are

much cheaper, and, at the prevailing wages of workmen in 1909, $5 to

$10 additional was a liberal estimate for other expenses, leaving a profit

of from $30 to $70 jointly on 100 Ib. of oil and a pipe of citrate of lime.

The cost of production of both lemons and lemon products more

than doubled between 1914 and 1919. The wages paid fruit packers in

1914 was 3.60 lire ($0.69) per nine-hour day; in 1919 8 lire ($1.64)

per eight-hour day, and i .20 lire for every hour overtime. Packers agree

to pack not less than five boxes per hour or forty boxes per day, but

rarely pack more than thirty to thirty-two boxes.

Fruit pickers in 1914 received 3 lire for a ten-hour day, while in

1919 they received 8 lire for an eight-hour day.

Farm laborers such as tree pruners, etc., formerly were paid 3 lire

per day, while in 1919 they secured 10 lire per eight-hour day.

Freight rates, on the other hand, have been kept rather low, par-

ticularly those to New York — $0.54 a box. The rate to England is $1.37

'See pp. 349, 353, 362, 363, 366-68, 372.

328 CITRUS PRODUCTS

a box. The high rate of exchange against the Italian lira since the war

has also been of benefit to the lemon exporter.

The cost of boxes and barrels has more than doubled since 1914

while the cost of containers for essential oils is almost prohibitive, as

these containers are made of copper.

The comparative costs of lemon product production between the

United States and Sicily are found in chapter xi, on pages 213-14.

VARYING TRADE SYSTEMS SPECULATION

The methods of conducting the very important trade in lemon prod-

ucts varies in the different provinces of Sicily, that prevailing in the

province of Messina being especially worthy of description, because

through the port of Messina by far the larger portion of the lemon de-

rivatives of the island is exported. Thus, statistics show that of the total

exports of citrate of lime and concentrated lemon juice, there were ex-

ported through Messina 75 per cent in 1906-7. Messina also exports

an average of 77 per cent of the total exportations of essential oils of

the kingdom.

The system which has been in vogue in Messina province for many

years depends on a series of advances, extending from the merchant, or

actual exporter, down, through the manufacturer to the orchard owner,

or grower of the lemons. The latter is usually not engaged in the manu-

facture of lemon derivatives, but sells his fruit outright on the trees,

generally months before maturity. Thus a typical transaction would be

as follows : The manufacturer goes to the merchant, or exporter, and

contracts to furnish so much citrate of lime, of a certain standard quality

and perhaps with the same firm, so much essential oil of lemon. He

then receives on the spot a certain percentage of the agreed price (usually

about 25 to 30 per cent), with which he in turn pays an advance to secure

the entire crop of an orchard, or only contracts for a supply of refuse

lemons, and is able to partly defray expenses of manufacture. Upon de-

livery of the goods he is either at once paid the balance of the fixed

price, less a fair rate of interest on the money advanced, or receives a

further percentage, the balance to fall due some months later, or when

the goods are finally sold for export, according to the nature of the

contract. This advance system obtains in all the provinces of Sicily and

in Calabria. Naturally the merchants who give the advances are in

return given the preference in the sale of the goods.

Lemons are usually sold by the thousand; essence, or essential oil

of lemon, by weight, in copper containers of, generally, i, 5, and 25 Ib.

capacity; citrate of lime in pipes containing 305 kilos (672 Ib.).

ITALY 329

Under the influence of speculation during "boom" periods, especially

marked in 1907, prices of citrate of lime and of oil of lemon may be

suddenly forced up and artificially maintained, without any sound com-

mercial reason. It is this speculation which, it is claimed, more than

anything else, precipitated the disturbed state of affairs in 1909.

On July 8, 1903, a law was passed, whereby certain banks were

authorized to make advances up to two-thirds of the ruling market value

of lemon derivatives against certificates of deposit of goods. Upon this

three corporations were formed in Sicily, whose scope and object, ac-

cording to their charters, were to prevent speculation, to endeavor to keep

prices steady, and to establish a minimum price whereby all branches of

the trade might be enabled to conduct a prosperous business. These

corporate bodies were known as "Societa di-Acireale," "Societa Sicula"

and "Societa di Palermo." For some time these societies did good work

in assuring to their members a certain minimum price, and abstained from

speculation, but in 1907, noting the large profits being gained by outside

interests, they abandoned their conservative methods and sought to also

enter the speculative field. Buying, especially citrate of lime, at steadily

increasing prices and holding on to their purchases in the hope of still

greater profit, the speculators were caught at the time of the financial

crisis in the United States with a considerable stock which they were

unable to dispose of. At the close of the year, instead of a normal stock

of a few hundreds the purchasers had on hand some 3,000 pipes of

citrate of lime. This large surplus had been accumulated at prices rang-

ing from 700 to 750 lire ($135.10 to $144.75) per pipe, and the fall in

the market inflicted serious losses on the societies. Still worse was the

plight of individual speculators, some of whom, it is said, lost absolutely

all they possessed in the great and rapid depreciation of values.

To illustrate the fluctuation to which the market has been subject, the

following statement showing the average prices of citrate of lime for

nine years is given, the prices reduced to United States currency, being

per quintal of 220 Ib. : 1889, $26.25; 1900, $24.12; 1901, $25.28; 1902,

$20.10; 1903, $22.20; 1904, $24.12; 1905, $26.05; 1906, $32.81 ; 1907,

$42.46. Later prices are listed on pages 353, 362.

Oil of lemon in 1907 reached a price of over 97 cents per Sicilian

pound (12 oz.) ; in 1909 it was about 40 cents.1

THE 1908 LAW FOR THE CENTRALIZATION OF THE TRADE

A law was enacted on June 5, 1908, whereby a Citrus Fruit Chamber

(Camera Agrumaria) was established, the object of this being to central-

^or further discussion and prices, see pp. 235-39, 349, 363, 372.

330 CITRUS PRODUCTS

ize the sale of citrate of lime and lemon juice under the direct control of

the Chamber, making all goods not sold through the Chamber subject to

a tax, estimated at 25 to 30 per cent of the normal value, whereas goods

sold to the Chamber only pays a commission of 2 per cent. The effect

of this obstacle to the unrestricted interchange of goods, the consequences

of which was not foreseen by the- trade, was to stop the usual advances

hitherto given by the merchants. It is to be noted that the Chamber

was not to make any such advances until the goods were actually deliv-

ered ; indeed it would not be financially able to do so, as it only had a

capital of about $40,000; while the merchants, in the aggregate, em-

ployed a capital of many times as much in making these advances before

delivery. The number of manufacturers of citrate in Calabria and

Sicily is about 250, the majority of whom possess but limited capital,

and their competition contributed considerably to keep up the prices of

lemons. Not being able to buy for lack of advances, the number of pur-

chasers of refuse fruit diminished, and it is claimed that this law

injured these manufacturers and indirectly the lemon growers.

According to the treaties of commerce between Italy and Germany,

Austria-Hungary, and Switzerland, Italy is bound to lay no export tax

on its products. The tax, therefore, in favor of this Chamber was laid

in the form of a tax for analysis, the legality of which was questioned.

This seemed an evasion of the treaties with the countries mentioned.

The treaty with the United States contained the "most- favored-nation"

clause, and the legality of the foregoing tax might have therefore been

contested.

Victor Emmanuel III, By the Grace of God and by the Will of the Nation

King of Italy.

The senate and the Chamber of Deputies have approved : We have sanctioned

and do promulgate as follows :

ARTICLE I

A Citrus Fruit Chamber (Camera Agrumaria), with its seat at Messina, is estab-

lished, which has for its scope the protecting and furthering of the interests relating

to the production of, and commerce in the citrus fruits and the facilitating of the

manufacture of, and trade in the citrus-derivatives. To which end the following

functions are accorded to the Chamber :

(a) To study and promote the provisionary measures for the development and

regulation of the commerce in the citrus fruits and their derivatives ;

(&) To undertake and furnish to interested parties information regarding the

conditions of the principal markets and regarding the quantity of fruit in situ or in

transit ;

(c) To facilitate and further the direct relations of exchange between the

producers and consumers of citrus fruit and derivatives ;

(d) To develop the consumption of the derivatives of citrus fruit, seeking for

them new outlets, or new uses or applications ;

(e) To guarantee by issuance of certificates of analysis, given by chemical

laboratories of the citrus fruit chamber or by others recognized by the same, the

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ITALY 331

genuineness and the quality of the citrate of lime and of the concentrated juice pro-

duced in the kingdom, whether for internal consumption or for exportation ;

(/) To attend, for account of the producers who may make request for it,

and in the forms established by this law, to the sale of citrate of lime and of con-

centrated juice which has been delivered to said Chamber for that purpose by the

producers themselves ;

(g) To promote, wherever necessary, the establishment of general store-

houses for the citrus-derivatives in the centers of production which are unprovided

with such store-houses ;

(h) To make advances upon the deposits of citrus-derivatives or upon certifi-

cates of deposit of the derivatives themselves in the general store-houses, within the

limits and in accordance with the regulations laid down by this law ;

(») To promote and facilitate the establishment and operation of factories for

citric acid, candied fruits and other products derived from the citrus fruits ;

(/) To promote the formation of a citrus fruit Bank, which may make ad-

vances upon deposit to the citrus producers and manufacturers.

The functions of the Chamber as detailed in Sections "e" and "/" may be, by

royal decree, extended to other derivatives of the citri.

ARTICLE II

There are established five sections of the Citrus Fruit Chamber whose seats

shall be, respectively, in Palermo, Catania, Messina, Siracusa and Reggio, Calabria.

Each section is composed of three members chosen among the larger producers

of citrus fruit, two nominated by the provincial Deputation, and one by the local

Chamber of Commerce.

Until it shall have been otherwise provided by special laws to be presented by

the 30th of June, 1909, for the organization of elected representation by an assembly

of delegates of the producers, the Chamber shall consist of nine members, of whom

five shall be chosen respectively by the sections from among their own members ; the

other four shall be chosen by the Minister of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce

from the class of the citrus cultivators after hearing from the issue Banks.

The members of the sections and of the Citrus Fruit Chamber must possess

Italian Citizenship.

In case the appointments are not made by the time established by the Minister

of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, the same Minister shall provide for the

nomination of the counsellors.

The counsellors, thus nominated, shall elect from among themselves by secret

ballot and absolute majority of votes, the president and vice-president.

ARTICLE III

The office of counsellor of the Chamber is gratuitous.

The Chamber shall appoint a technical manager, a secretary and the other

requisite employees for its operation, within the limits of the plan to be approved

by the Minister of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, by whom moreover the

salaries for the said force must be approved.

ARTICLE IV

Commencing with the fifteenth day following the first formation of the

Chamber, citrate of lime and concentrated juice shall not be admitted for transport

upon the railroads or for shipment in the ports of the Kingdom, if they are not

accompanied by a certificate of analysis issued by the Citrus Fruit Chamber.

Exception is made for shipments sent to the magazines appertaining to the said

Chamber, or made in view of transportation or concentration of the products in

magazines in which the said products are to remain while awaiting sale for consump-

tion or for exportation. In these cases the circulation of said products must be

effected according to the instructions which shall be established by the rules of ad-

ministration for assuring the payment of the Chamber tax, in accordance with

Article II, when they may be sold for consumption or exportation.

332 CITRUS PRODUCTS

ARTICLE V

Whoever produces citrate of lime or concentrated juice or trades in these

products, may entrust the sale to the citrus chamber, depositing the merchandise

either in the magazines of the respective sections, or in another one of the Citrus

Fruit Chamber, or in the general magazines authorized by said chamber to take de-

livery of the merchandise for its account.

The sale is made by the Chamber for account of the depositors, according to

the order of precedence in which the merchandise was delivered.

At the commencement of each trading year the Chamber establishes the mini-

mum valuation of the merchandise for the entire season; this valuation marks the

minimum price of sale below which the Chamber can not cede the goods.

The proceeds are liquidated, in favor of the several depositors, at semi-annual

periods and in equal measure for all, according to the rules for computation which

shall be determined by the rules of administration.

ARTICLE VI

To the Citrus Fruit Chamber is transferred, as first capital and without obliga-

tion of reimbursement, the sum of lire 200,000 ($38,610) to be levied upon the sums

set aside in the expense budget of the Minister of Agriculture, Industry and Com-

merce, based upon the law of July n, 1904, No. 376.

With said sum and with the proceeds of the tax provided by Article XI, the

Citrus Fruit Chamber is authorized to make the advances upon certificates of de-

posit of the citrus-derivatives in the general magazines, subject to the dispositions

of Article XII.

ARTICLE VII

The said advances are made in the proportion of two-thirds of the value of

the citrus-derivatives.

Upon these advances interest is due at the rate of not exceeding four and one-

half per cent from the date the advance has been made to that of sale.

ARTICLE VIII

The Banks of issue are authorized to discount, at a special rate, in the propor-

tion established by the preceding Article, and according to the terms of Article XXX

of the unified text of laws upon the before mentioned Banks, modified by the law of

December 3ist, 1907, No. 804, the warrants of the citrus-derivatives, upon whose

certificates of deposit the Citrus Fruit Chamber may have made advances, subject

to the dispositions of Article XII.

ARTICLE IX

At the time of effecting the advances upon the goods delivered to the Chamber

for sale, the Chamber itself shall cause the analytical examination of them to be

made. After the advance has been made, the goods are understood to be definitely

delivered for sale.

ARTICLE x

When the goods of each depositor are sold the Chamber pays on account the

portion of the price which remained after the advance, thus completing the payment

of the minimum price of the annual valuation.

The liquidation of the actual price of sale shall be made at the end of each

half-year, that is, on June 3Oth and December 3 1st, of each year, upon the basis of

the actual net profit of sales made during the half-year.

ARTICLE XI

Upon the citrate of lime and upon concentrated juice, for which the certificate

of analysis is requested for transport upon the railroad or for shipment, in accord-

ance with Article IV, the Chamber collects a Chamber tax, the proceeds of which

are destined to defray the expenses of administration and others dependent upon the

disposition of this law and to contribute to the formation of the capital of the

Chamber.

ITALY 333

For the products not entrusted to the Chamber for sale, the chamber tax is

liquidated and exacted upon the certificate of analysis, based upon the quantity for

which the certificate itself is issued and in the maximum proportion of lire 0.60

($0.116) per quintal (220 Ibs.) and per each per cent in grams of citric acid, add-

ing together the free citric acid and the combined citric acid.

The chamber tax upon the products sold by the said Chamber for the account

of the respective owners is exacted by levying 2% upon actual net proceeds of the

sale. No other sum may be levied upon the sale price, the ware-house charges and

also the cost of analysis being understood to be covered by the said levy.

The Chamber may also sell on the spot. In this case there shall not be due by

the purchaser, even though he may wish to export, at the time when the certificate

is issued to him, the tax provided in this Article, which shall be understood to be

included in the price.

The certificate of analysis must in every case be visaed in exemption of stamp

dues or every other expense.

ARTICLE XII

From the proceeds of the before mentioned tax 20% shall be put aside and

paid in to the Bank of Sicily on current account bearing interest and mortgaged in

favor of the Banks which have made the advances, in the guarantee of the full

payment of their credits arising from the operations made by them under the terms

of this law.

ARTICLE XIII

In case of proven irregularity in administration or the inobservances of the dis-

positions of this law and of the rules of administration as in Article XVI, or upon

the ascertained impossibility to operate, the Citrus Fruit Chamber may be dissolved

by royal decree upon proposal of the Minister of Agriculture, Industry and Com-

merce.

In case of dissolution, the administration is entrusted to a Government com-

missioner until the installation of a new council for which a limit of not exceeding

three months shall be fixed.

ARTICLE XIV

Disputes between the chamber and whoever may have entrusted to it the sale of

citrus-derivatives in accordance with Article V, shall be decided without appeal by

three arbitrators. For this purpose there shall be formed a body of six arbitrators,

of whom three shall be experts in legal matters and three experts in citrus fruit

matters, nominated and if necessary surrogated, two by the Minister of Agricul-

ture, Industry and Commerce, two by the first President of the Appellate Court of

Palermo and two by the chamber.

In the decision of each individual case there may not intervene more than two

experts of one category, or more than one of those nominated by the chamber.

The selection of the arbitrators shall be made the first time by lot and there-

after by turn.

The costs of arbitration shall be borne by the party against whom judgment

is given.

ARTICLE xv

To the industrial establishments for the working up of citrus, the candied citrus

included, and for the production or transformation of the citrus-derivatives, which

shall be founded in Sicily or in the Province of Reggio, Calabria, within the period

of ten years from the date of this law, and to those already existing, that may be

enlarged or transformed within the said period of time, for the increase of the pro-

duction or transformation of said derivatives, are respectively extended the privi-

leges accorded to new or enlarged establishments in the Commune of Naples, ac-

cording to Articles VII, VIII, XII, XIII and XIV of the law of July 8th, 1904,

No. 351-

ARTICLE XVI

Within two months from the day of its installation the chamber must submit for

approval to the Minister of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, its own rules of

administration.

334 CITRUS PRODUCTS

The rules shall determine :

(a) The rules for internal administration.

(&) The powers and responsibility of the president and of the several admin-

istrators.

(c) The rules for the nomination and the eventual dismissal of the technical

manager, of the secretary, and of the other employes.

(d) The rules for the computation of the final liquidation of the price ob-

tained from the citrus-derivatives delivered for sale to the chamber, and whatever

else may be necessary for the easiest attainment of the objects for which the chamber

is established.

These rules of administration shall be approved by royal decree upon proposal

of the Minister of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce.

By the same royal decree shall be established the rules for the governmental

supervision of the administration and the working of the chamber and the penalties

for the violation of the dispositions of Article IV.

By royal decree shall be fixed the day, when the Citrus Fruit Chamber is under-

stood to be established for the effects of Article II.

Such day can not be earlier than September ist, 1908.

By the same decree the relation between the functions of the sections and those

of the Citrus Fruit Chamber shall be regulated.

ARTICLE XVII

The chamber shall bank with the Bank of Sicily under the conditions and rules

which shall be established by the rules of administration as in the preceding Article.

ARTICLE XVIII

By royal decree there may be established a term of less than two months for

the notice required for the working of the citrus general store-houses in conformity

to the relative law.

ARTICLE XIX

When the capital of the Citrus Chamber, as in Articles VI and X, shall have

reached the sum of one million (lire) upon the ulterior net profits, the chamber

shall set aside annually 20% for granting aid for sickness and old age to the citrus

fruit operatives. The relative amounts shall be paid in semi-annually to the national

institution for aiding in sickness and old age of workmen (National Aid Institu-

tion, Cassa Nazionale di Previdenza), which shall administer the relative sums ac-

cording to the contract which shall be established between said Cassa and the

Citrus Fruit Chamber.

ARTICLE xx

In case of the suppression of the Citrus Fruit Chamber the capital accumulated

in the period of its activity shall, by royal decree, proposed by the Minister of Agri-

culture, Industry and Commerce, and after the Council of Ministers has been heard,

be devoted in favor of citrus production, and employed in the manner which shall be

judged most useful, and which shall be established by special law.

Commencing from the day in which the Citrus Fruit Chamber shall operate

until the 3ist of August, 1909, the citrate of lime and concentrated juice which will

be deposited with the said chamber shall not enjoy, as to obligations toward the

respective depositors, the precedence laid down in the second section of Article V ;

and the proceeds of the sale shall be distributed among all the depositors in pro-

portion to their respective deposits.

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

BOTANY, VOL VI, PART II, PLATE XXI

(La Parfumerie Moderns)

ORANGE GROVE AT NABEUL, TUNIS.

{La Parfumerie Moderne)

COLLECTING ORANGE FLOWERS AT NABEUL, TUNIS.

ITALY 335

The first liquidation shall be made December 3ist, 1908. The second August

3ist, 1909.

We order that the present, under the seal of State, be inserted in the official

list of the laws and decrees of the Kingdom of Italy, commanding all whom it may

concern to observe the same and cause it to be observed as a law of the State.

Dated at Rome, the 5th day of July, 1908.

(Signed) VICTOR EMMANUEL.

F. Cocco-Ortu,

Carcano,

Lacava.

Visaed, The Guardian of the Seal, Orlando.

THE SICILIAN CITRATE AND SULPHUR INDUSTRIES COMPARED

Until recent years Sicily was the most important factor in the world's

supply of sulphur as well as lemon products. The Sicilian sulphur in-

dustry has now been displaced by the American industry which has de-

veloped large production owing to the easy extraction of sulphur from

Louisiana and Texas mines. The history of the sulphur industry is of

interest in connection with the lemon products industry because of the

parallel which may be drawn between the histories of both. Both were

Sicilian monopolies, both were formerly controlled by the Sicilian gov-

ernment, and both show clearly the false economic basis involved.

The production of sulphur in Sicily rose from 1860 to 1905. Since

1919 production has decreased while the American output has increased.

The average price of sulphur from 1860 to 1876 was such as to en-

courage exploration and production. As a consequence other fields of

sulphur were opened and the price gradually diminished. The Sicilian

government formed a compulsory syndicate in 1906 in which all Italian

producers were required to combine for twelve years. The object of

this syndicate was to fix the price of sulphur periodically and to limit

production. The company made a private agreement with a United

States company as to the division of foreign fields for the marketing of

sulphur. During the world-war sulphur was in great demand for ammu-

nition, and owing to lack of tonnage American sulphur shipments to

Europe were curtailed. The Italian government commandeered the sul-

phur trade and the American agreement terminated. Now that freights

are again normal American sulphur is everywhere underbidding the

Sicilian.

At the time that the Italian government passed the law for the con-

trol of the citrate of lime trade in 1908, Sicily was almost the sole source

of the world-supply of citric acid. The prices established by the syndi-

cate were such as to arouse and stimulate the manufacture of citric acid

elsewhere, notably in the United States and in the Hawaiian Islands. As

336

CITRUS PRODUCTS

a consequence the syndicate began to sell citric acid for less than the

fixed price to producers. To 1925, the loss to the government is given as

approximately 80,000,000 lire. The Italian government then had on hand

about 18,000 tons which is as much as the world can consume in three

years.

The government has now discontinued the fixed price to the pro-

ducers and is to market the accumulated material over a period of years.

This marketing, gradual though it be, will each year represent a carry-

over, and this cannot fail to depress the domestic price. The result will

be that the industry which was artificially and unwisely stimulated with

public money will face a period of distress that would not have taken

place if the business had remained in private hands.

CITRUS FRUIT EXPORT DATA1

The Italian export trade in citrus fruit has suffered several reverses

in recent years. From an average annual production of 882,000 short

tons during 1909-13, production has dropped to 634,000 short tons dur-

TABLE LXV*

ACREAGEf OF ClTRUS FRUITS, 1913, 1921, AND 1922

*Notizit Periodiche de Statislica Agraria, June, 1923, p. 219; April, 1922, p. 156; April, 1914, p. 165.

fin acres.

ing 1921-23. Lemons dropped from 441,000 short tons annually to

331,000 and oranges and mandarins from 358,000 to 303,000 metric tons.

Exports of all fresh citrus fruits before the war averaged 441,000 short

tons, but fell to 254,000 short tons for 1921-23.

In a report dated April i, 1924, the American Consul at Rome brings

out the fact that while greater development of the citrus industry in

America has cut Italian business severely, the expansion of that industry

in South Africa and Australia offers more severe competition. While

the American duty of two cents per pound on imported lemons is a seri-

ous consideration, the ability of the countries in the Southern Hemisphere

Because the lemon products industries are related to the amount and condition

of the lemons grown the following information is included.

ITALY

337

to put fruit on the market during the European summer is an even worse

blow to Italian growers. With regard to the American trade the annual

TABLE LXVI*

PRODUCTIONf OF ClTRUS FRUITS, 1913, 1921, 1922

*Notizie Periodiche di Statistica Agraria, June 1923, p. 219; April, 1922, p. 156; April ,1914, p. 165

tin 1.000 Ibs.

TABLE LXVII*

LEMONS: EXPORTS FROM ITALY BY COUNTRIES, CALENDAR YEARS, 1898-1923

(1,000 Boxes, i box =84 Ibs.)

"••Compiled from Movimento Commerciale Del Regno D' Italia.

tLess than 500 boxes.

JReported in value only in reports of Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce.

§Imports into the United States as taken from reports of Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com-

merce.

338

CITRUS PRODUCTS

TABLE LXVII— Continued

tLess than 500 boxes.

average for 1909-13 of 103,000 short tons of lemons fell away during

1922-23 to only 43,000 short tons, with all indications pointing to further

shrinkages. The loss of former markets in Central and Western Europe

through economic collapse of those markets is felt very severely. Nor-

mally 55 per cent of Italy's acid fruit exports went to Central Europe and

Russia. France and Switzerland have increased their takings, but the

aggregate is a very small proportion of the former Europe trade. These

factors, coupled with indifferent and backward methods of cultivation

and marketing at home, indicate a very discouraging outlook for Italian

citrus fruit.

It will be noted that the production of lemons, oranges, and man-

darines in the principal provinces of Italy is practically the total produc-

tion of citrus fruits. Some fruit is produced in provinces other than

those included in the total for the various classes of citrus fruits, but this

production is relatively unimportant.

Lemon imports into the United States show considerable quantities

coming from the United Kingdom and Germany. These are evidently

re-exports of Italian or Spanish lemons.

REFERENCES 339

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER XV

ANONYMOUS.

"Southern Italy Lemon Industry," Los Angeles Times (September 3,

1912).

(Lemon Exportation from Italy, 1919 and 1920), Pure Products, XVI,

No. 7 (July, 1920), pp. 357-58.

BROWN, W. DUVAL.

"Conditions of the Lemon Industry in Western Sicily," Commerce Re-

ports, September 18, 1919, p. 1455.

CHENEY, A. S.

Consular Report on the Lemon Industry in Sicily. Los Angeles : Kings-

ley, Moles, & Collins Co.

EDITORIAL.

Oil, Paint and Drug Reporter, 5oth Anniversary Number, p. 91.

EDITORIAL.

Saturday Evening Post, December 27, 1924, p. 20.

POWELL, G. H., and CHACE, E. M.

"Italian Lemons and Their By-Products," United States Department of

Agriculture Bulletin No. 160 (October, 1909).

POWELL, G. H., and WALLSCHLAEGER, F. O.

"The Italian Lemon Industry," Citrus Protective League of California

Bulletin No. 10 (January, 1913). Los Angeles.

U. S. TARIFF COMMISSION.

Bulletin No. 13 Tariff Information Series. Washington, D. C, 1920.

CHAPTER XVI

THE INDUSTRY IN ASIA AND ASIA MINOR

JAPAN

The principal fruit grown in Japan is the orange. During the five-

year period, 1909-13, the total number of orange trees in Japan averaged

20,310,000 annually, and produced 501,000,000 Ib. In the same period

mandarins were exported to the annual extent of 24,729,000 Ib. valued

at $460,000. A large part of these were sent to Asiatic Russia. Candied

kumquats are made here as well as in China.1

The districts which produce practically all of the citrus fruit in this

country are : Shiznoka-Ken, Hiroshima-Ken, Wakeyama-Ken, and Yoku-

shima-Ken. All are situated in the southern and eastern parts, as farther

north the climate is very cold and severe in the winter.

Statistics for Japan are given in Tables LXVIII and LXIX.2

TABLE LXVIII

STATISTICS FOR JAPAN

including lemons and bitter orange, used as grapefruit.

TABLE LXIX

Value Yens* Boxes (California Standard)!

748,681 280,968

1.473753 1,343.344

770,886 58i,773

•American equivalent $0.50.

t74 Ibs.

'Seep. 1 10.

*For additional statistics, see p. 355.

340

SYRIA

34i

CHINA

In the fiscal year ended June 30, 1914, China exported to the United

States orange extract and glaced kumquats and orange peel. Hongkong

was the chief export point. Oranges, grapefruit, and limes are produced

in large quantities.1

SYRIA

Ruppin gives some information concerning the importance of the

exports of oranges, lemons, etc., from Syria.

According to the Turkish official statistics, the exports to foreign

countries are given in Table LXX.

TABLE LXX

As per the English Consular Reports, the exports to foreign coun-

tries and to Turkey amounted to the figures given in Table LXXI.

TABLE LXXI

The Jaffa oranges, which can stand a longer journey, are mostly

sent to Liverpool, in cases containing 144 and weighing about 35 kilos.

During the shipping season (November to March) English ships go to

Jaffa specially for the transport of oranges. It requires from seventeen

to twenty days to land their cargo in Liverpool. The freight from Jaffa

JFor additional statistics, see p. 355.

342 CITRUS PRODUCTS

to Liverpool generally reaches 1.50 fr. per case. The other outlays of

the producers, i.e., for picking and packing the fruit, etc., amount to 2

or 2^ f r. per case. The average price brought by the oranges in Liver-

pool being 7 to 8 f r. per box, there is a net profit of 3 to 4 f r. for the pro-

ducer. Sometimes, higher prices are obtained, but it may likewise hap-

pen that, the Liverpool market being overstocked, the oranges have to be

sold at considerable lower rates, or that they arrive in bad condition and

not even cover the outlays. This risk is the most disagreeable feature of

the otherwise remunerative orange growing. In addition to Liverpool,

Jaffa oranges are exported to Egypt (in larger cases, inferior packing,

and second-class fruit), Smyrna, Constantinople, and Odessa. Attempts

have even been made to start an export to Australia and the United

States.

The exports from Jaffa during the season 1913-14 were as follows:

Destination Cases

Liverpool 887,481

Manchester 400

London 4,626

Other English ports 3»36i

Marseilles 3,412

Hamburg 9,487

Trieste 58,492

Odessa 148,409

Egypt, the Red Sea, and Australia 149,846

Turkish ports 268,492

Roumania and Bulgaria 19,405

Total i,553.86i

In 1925, the Palestine Department of Agriculture and Forests esti-

mated the orange acreage as 8,039 of which 7,105 lie in the Southern

Circle, including the Jaffa and Gaza orange districts and 934 acres in the

Northern Circle, including the Tulkarem and Haifa orange districts.

The 1925 crop was estimated at 1,300,000 cases.1

The largest part of the Saida oranges remains in the country, for

they cannot stand a long journey, owing to their being thin-skinned. In

consequence, only small quantities go to Constantinople, Odessa, Rou-

mania, and Liverpool, but fairly large quantities of lemons are exported.

Tripoli exports oranges and lemons, about one-half to Odessa, a quarter

to Constantinople, and the remaining quarter to Salonica, Alexandria,

and Liverpool. The price in Tripoli was of late years about 8 to 10 fr.

per case of 300 lemons and 4 to 5 f r. per box of 250 oranges.

foreign Crops and Markets, Vol. XI, No. 20, 1925.

FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

BOTANY, VOL. VI, PART II, PLATE XXII.

(La Parfumerie Moderne)

MANUFACTURING PLANT AT NABEUL, TUNIS.

(La Parfumerie Moderne)

AN ARABIC STILL.

SYRIA 343

The Jaffa oranges are partly exported by dealers, who buy them be-

fore they are ripe, either at a lump sum for the whole crop of a planta-

tion, or at a fixed price per case. As the oranges ripen in November,

but may remain on the trees up to March or April without damage, the

dealer has plenty of time for picking them. The Jewish orange growers

TABLE LXXII

ORANGES: PRODUCTION, PALESTINE, 1920-21 TO 1926-27*

SEASON QUANTITY

(October — May) (Cases)

1920-21 830,959

1921-22 1,234,251

1922-23 1,365,543

1923-24 1,589,331

1924-25 2,146,457

1925-26 1,511,000

1926-27 (estimate) 2,500,000

*Consul O. S. Heizer at Jerusalem, Foreign Crops and Markets, February at, 19*7.

in the neighborhood of Jaffa have formed two unions for the sale of their

produce, and the German ones have followed their example ; but so far

it has been tried in vain to bring the Arabian owners of orange trees to

act in a similar way.

The union decides when and where the oranges of its members are

to be sent. Every member must put a certain mark on his cases, so that

it is possible to give each a special account of sales, thus rewarding them

for the good condition of the produce or making them responsible for

bad quality.

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER XVI

ANONYMOUS.

(Lemon By-Product Situation in New South Wales), California Citro-

graph, VI, No. 6 (April, 1921), 200.

ARUNDEL, S. J.

"Foreign Citrus Markets on Pacific," California Citrograph, VI, No. 5

(1920), 34.

COIT, J. E.

Citrus Fruits, p. 341. Macmillan Co., 1915.

RUPPIN.

Beihefte zum Tropenpflanzer, XVI (1916), 421. (In Report of Schim-

mel & Co., April-October, 1917), pp. 106-8.

CHAPTER XVII

THE INDUSTRY IN AFRICA AND OCEANIA

AFRICA

Perhaps small amounts of citrus by-products are made in Africa. No

record of them has been obtained. Rhodesia had over 150,000 trees

planted with nearly 70,000 in bearing in 1919. Five thousand boxes of

citrus fruit were exported to Europe and considerable quantities were

supplied to local and Union markets. It was estimated that the 1920

crop was about 10,000 boxes.

ALGERIA

Of the principal fruits exported from Algeria during the five years

1909-13, lemons and oranges had an annual value of $172,000. and man-

darins $449,000.

TABLE LXXIII

CITRUS FRUIT: AREA AND PRODUCTION OF ORANGES, MANDARINS, LEMONS,

CITRONS, ETC., IN ALGERIA, 1921-22 AND 1922-23*

*Compiled from Statislique Generate de I'Alg&rie, 1922-23; Foreign Crops and Markets, February

21, 1927.

BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA

Within 8 or 10 years South Africa should have 7 or 8 million boxes

of oranges available for export annually. While total exports of all citrus

fruits amounted to only 530,000 boxes during the 1924 season, the rapid

extension of acreage that has been taking place, particularly during 1924,

will bring a great increase in exports as the new plantings come into

344

SOUTH AFRICA

345

bearing. No reliable figures are available as to the present acreage of

citrus fruits in South Africa, as figures for only a year ago are hopelessly

out of date.

New developments are being undertaken chiefly as large scale projects

with estates varying from 300 to 5,000 acres, the average being around

2,000. None of the large estates are yet in full bearing. One large estate

in Northern Transvaal had 3,500 acres in oranges early in January with

operations being carried on that would increase the area to 5,000 by

June. In 7 to 8 years, the output from this one place alone should be

over a million cases. This estate has gravity water sufficient to supply

5,500 acres. Another estate visited had 2,000 acres with another 1,000

to be planted.

TABLE LXIV

CITRUS FRUIT: SHIPMENTS FROM UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA, 1921-25*

(Boxes)

^Unofficial trade source; Foreign Crops and Markets, February ai, 1927.

The scheme usually followed is to sell five acre plots or shares in a

company, the money realized being used for further development. The

company cares for the plots for five years, at the end of which time the

buyer may either take over his plot or let the company run it, the latter

being the usual case. Great numbers of plot holders are resident in

England and India. The tracts of land are planted solidly — the five-acre

demarcation being found only on the map — but with each plot containing

250 navels and 250 valencias. While this method is not a good way to

set out a large place, as far as picking operators are concerned, it is of

advantage, of course, to the settler who wishes to take over his plot.1

In 1914, $87,000 worth of oranges were exported.

MOROCCO

In Morocco orange blossoms are distilled by the natives in Marakesh

and Fez.2 About 80 per cent of the oranges cultivated in the neighbor-

hood of Fez belong to the species of Citrus bigarada. In the district of

Marakesh harvesting of these blossoms terminates in April while around

foreign Crops and Markets, Vol. X, No. n, 1925.

"Report of Schimmel & Co. (April-October, 1916), p. 39.

346

CITRUS PRODUCTS

Rabat it only reaches its height in that month and in Mekines it ends even

later. In Fez the gathering of the blossoms lasts about twenty days.

Marakesh and Fez are without doubt the most important centers of dis-

tillation. The natives possess only very primitive apparatus, and they

produce the orange flower water but not the oil.

TUNIS

Lemons, mandarins, and oranges are cultivated here.

TABLE LXXV

CITRUS FRUIT: NUMBER OF TREES AND PRODUCTION, ORANGES AND CITRON,

TUNIS, 1916-22*

*Compiled from Statistique Generate de la Tunisie, 1922; Foreign Crops and Markets, February

21, 1927.

OCEANIA

AUSTRALIA

The production in the season 1912-13, of oranges was 1,402,000

bushels, valued at $1,953,000 and 375,000 bushels of lemons, valued at

$430,000. Of these $129,000 worth was exported. Citrus fruits, how-

TABLE LXXVI

CITRUS FRUIT: PRODUCTION OF LEMONS AND ORANGES, AUSTRALIA AND

NEW ZEALAND, 1919-20 TO 1925-26*

(Bushels)

*Australia: Production Bulletin, 1919-20 to 1923-24. New Zealand: Agricultural and Pastorial

Production, 1920-21 to 1925-26. Foreign Crops and Markets, February 21, 1927.

AUSTRALIA 347

ever, were imported from Italy with an annual value of $141,000 during

1909-13. Citrus fruit production is rapidly increasing in Australia but

is still on too small a scale to permit extensive by-product manufacture.

The production is insufficient to meet the local demand and it is estimated

that five years will be required until production is sufficient for export.

The citrus territory is confined principally to the provinces of New

South Wales and Victoria. Oranges and lemons have been grown there

for sixty years. The varieties are : Thompson's improved navels, white

selletas, Washington navels, seedlings, Valencias, and mandarins.

NEW ZEALAND

Citrus production is insufficient to meet local demand. Very few

oranges are grown and but 300 acres of lemons, the latter near Auckland.

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER XVII

ANONYMOUS.

(Rhodesia — Citrus Crop), Agricultural News, Barbadoes, XIX (Octo-

ber 2, 1920), 316.

The Field (September 4, 1920).

California Citrograph, VI (April, 1921), 200.

, S. J.

"Foreign Citrus Markets on the Pacific," California Citrograph, VI

(1920), 5, 34-

APPENDIX

CITRUS FRUIT: PRODUCTION OF ORANGES AND LEMONS BY PRINCIPAL DISTRICTS,

SPAIN, 1923-24 AND 1925-26*

(1,000 pounds)

*Armario, Estadistico de Espana, 1923-34; Commercial Attacht quoting Consejo Agronomico,

1935-36; Foreign Crops and Markets, February 21. 1927.

tincludes Valencia and Murcia.

CITRUS FRUIT: PRODUCTION IN FRANCE, 1914-24*

(1,000 pounds)

•Compiled from Statisliyue Agricole Annuelle, France, 1914-24; Foreign Crops and Markets, Feb-

ruary 2i, 1927.

348

APPENDIX

349

CITRUS OILS, ACID, AND CITRATE OF LIME EXPORTED FROM ITALY

(Average, in pounds)

*Data compiled from Movimenlo Commerciale del Regno d' Italia, in Foreign Crops and Markets,

Vol. XIV, No. 8, February 21, 1927.

fData compiled from Statistica del Commercio Speciale di Importagione e di Esportagione, in Foreign

Crops and Markets, Vol. XIV, No. 8, February at, 19*7.

IMPORTS OF LEMON OIL INTO THE UNITED STATES, 1898-1924

350

CITRUS PRODUCTS

IMPORTS OF NEROLI OR ORANGE FLOWER OIL INTO

THE UNITED STATES, 1898-1923

APPENDIX

IMPORTS OF ORANGE OIL INTO THE UNITED STATES, 1898-1924

351

352

CITRUS PRODUCTS

IMPORTS OF CITRIC ACID INTO THE UNITED STATES, 1898-1924

APPENDIX 353

IMPORTS OF CITRATE OF LIME INTO THE UNITED STATES, 1898-1924

354

CITRUS PRODUCTS

APPENDIX

355

to tn

Q

en X

W U>

w o

si

55

O

s

VO

ro

"0

ON

s

M .ON

T|- . <O

• 00 TfOO

' ^ M VO

356

CITRUS PRODUCTS

IMPORTS OF LEMON, LIME, AND SOUR ORANGE JUICE

INTO THE UNITED STATES, 1898-1924

APPENDIX 357

TOTAL CARS AND BOXES OF ORANGES AND LEMONS SHIPPED FROM CALIFORNIA

TOTAL CARS OF ORANGES AND LEMONS SHIPPED FROM NORTHERN CALIFORNIA

358 CITRUS PRODUCTS

TOTAL CARS OF ORANGES AND LEMONS SHIPPED FROM SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

Year Ending October 31

Cars of

Lemons

Cars of

Oranges

Total Cars from

Southern California

1887 12

1888 20

1889 26

1890 34

1891 40

1892 52

1893 65

1894 J45

1895 335

1896 565

189? 1.378

1898 1,166

1899 903

1900 1,447

1901 2,924

1902 2,816

1903 2,649

1904 2,782

1905 4,274

1906 3,789

1907 3,507

1908 4,959

1909 6,196

1910 4,782

1911 6,764

1912 5,96i

1913 2,192

1914 2,954

1915 6,843

1916 7,oi6

191? 7,748

1918 6,197

1919 9,741

1920 8,733

1921 11,584

1922 9,807

1923 8,479

1924 12,861

2,200

2,500

2,782

3,476

4,016

4,400

5,871

5,726

4,687

7,010

5,972

13,987

9,448

16,362

21,173

I7,57i

19,776

25,"7

25,608

22,175

23,986

24,538

3i,875

25,331

36,821

30,327

13,574

39,024

33,317

31,871

40,702

14,346

35,436

30,025

4i,330

24,086

43,i8o

39,973

2,212

2,520

2,808

3,510

4,056

4,452

5,936

5,871

5,022

7,575

7,350

15,153

10,351

17,809

24,097

20,387

22,425

27,889

29,882

25,964

27,493

29,497

38,071

30,H3

43,585

36,288

15,768

41,978

40,160

38,887

48,450

20,543

45,177

38,758

52,914

33,893

51,659

52,834

APPENDIX

359

360

CITRUS PRODUCTS

PRODUCTION OF ORANGES, GRAPEFRUIT, AND LEMONS, BY STATES,

FOR VARIOUS PERIODS*

(Thousand boxes, i. e., ooo omitted)

GRAPEFRUIT

*Where leaders occur data were not available.

fData from census reports.

^Compiled from records of Division of Crop and Livestock Estimates for season beginning in Cal-

ifornia November i, all other states September i. United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin

No. 1435 (1926).

LEMONS: *!MPORTS INTO THE UNITED STATES, BY COUNTRIES, YEAR ENDING

JUNE 30, 1910-13, 1922, 1923, AND NINE MONTHS

QULY, 1923 — MARCH, 1924) f

(In boxes. ibox = 84lbs.)

*Reported in value only, 1914-December, 1921.

fCompiled from Commerce and Navigation of the United States, 1910-13, and Monthly Summaries

of Foreign Commerce of the United States.

JJanuary-June, 1922.

APPENDIX

361

LEMONS: IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED STATES BY MONTHS,

NOVEMBER, 1922 — APRIL, 1924*

(In boxes, i box = 84 Ibs.)

•Compiled from Monthly Summaries of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce.

MONTHLY AVERAGE WHOLESALE PRICES OF CALIFORNIAN AND SICILIAN LEMONS

IN NEW YORK, JANUARY, 1922, TO APRIL, 1924*

(Expressed as flat averages, in dollars, of range of quotations per box of

300 to 360 lemons of first quality)

*New York Packer, weekly.

362 CITRUS PRODUCTS

EXPORTS OF CITRATE OF LIME AND CITRIC ACID, FROM ITALY BY COUNTRIES, 1913*

*From Movimento Commerciale del regno d' 'Italia.

EXPORTS OF CITRATE OF LIME AND CITRIC ACID FROM ITALY, 1909-17*

*From Movtmento Commerciale del regno d' Italia.

EXPORTS OF CITRATE OF LIME AND CITRIC ACID FROM ITALY, BY COUNTRIES, 1917*

*From Statistica del Commercio Speciale di Importatione e di Esportozione.

APPENDIX 363

EXPORTS OF ESSENTIAL OIL OF LEMON FROM ITALY, 1909-17*

*From Movimento Commerciale del regno d' Italia.

RATES OF IMPORT DUTIES ON CITRUS PRODUCTS IN THE UNITED STATES,

1883-1925

*Compiled from official texts on file in Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Department

of Commerce, and corrected to January i, 1919.

fConversions into United States currency are based on par value.

t Metalloids, acids, salts, and combinations of metalloids one with another or with metals, not

specified above or elsewhere.

JChemicals, N. O. S.

H The general rate is applied to the United States.

**Articles, N. O. S.

APPENDIX 365

RATES OF IMPORT DUTIES ON CITRIC ACID IN THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES

*Compiled from official texts on file in the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Depart-

ment of Commerce, and corrected to January I, 1919.

fConversions into United States currency are based on par value.

JCitric acid, crystallized.

{General tariff applies to the United States.

U Conventional tariff applies to the United States.

366

CITRUS PRODUCTS

WHOLESALE PRICES OF CITRIC ACID (CRYSTALS) AT NEW YORK, 1911-19*

(Cents per pound, spot)

*From Oil, Paint and Drug Reporter.

COMPARISON OF WHOLESALE PRICES OF CITRIC ACID IN ITALY, AUSTRALIA, AND

THE UNITED STATES, BY QUARTERS, 1913-18*

*Source: International Price Comparisons, Department of Commerce, Washington, 1919.

fAverage actual prices from July, 1913, to June, 1914.

{Statistics not available.

APPENDIX

367

368

CITRUS PRODUCTS

o

0

I

in

o

APPENDIX 369

CITRIC ACID MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES, 1904-17

BERGAMOT, SYNTHETIC — PRICES PER POUND*

July, 1915 $2.50-12.75

October, 1915 2.50- 2.75

January, 1916 2.50- 2.75

April, 1916 2.90- 3.00

July, 1916 2.90- 3.00

October, 1916 2.90- 3.00

January, 1917 2.75- 3.00

April, 1917 2.75- 3.00

July, 1917 3.00- 3.20

October, 1917 3.00- 3.50

January, 1918 3-5Q- 4.00

*From Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter.

April, 1918 $3.50-14.00

July, 1918 3-75- 3-89

October, 1918 4.00- 4.25

January, 1919 4.00- 4.25

April, 1919 4.00- 4.25

July, 1919 4.00- 4.25

October, 1919 4.00- 4.25

January, 1920 4.00- 4.25

April, 1920 4.00- 4.25

July, 1920 4.00- 4.25

October, 1920 4.00- 4.25

OIL OF LIME, EXPRESSED — PRICES PER POUND*

August, 1914 $3-25-$3-50

January, 1915 3.00- 3.10

April, 1915 2.65- 2.75

July, 1915 2.75- 2.85

October, 1915 2.75- 3.00

January, 1916 2.75- 3.00

April, 1916 2.75- 3.00

July, 1916 3-i5- 3-25

October, 1916 3-15- 3.25

January, 1917 3-5°~ 4-oo

April, 1917 5-00- 5.25

July, 1917 5-50- 6.00

October, 1917 6.50

*From Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter.

fNominal

January, 1918 $5.75~$6.oo

April, 1918 5-50- 5-75

July, 1918 5.25- 5.50

October, 1918 5.00- 5.25

January, 1919 4-9O- 5.00

April, 1919 4.50- 4.75

July, 1919 3.95- 4.00

October, 1919 3-75~ 3-85

January, 1920 3-5O- 3-75

April, 1920 5-50- 5.75

July, 1920 t

October, 1920 5-5o- 5.60

OIL OF LIME, DISTILLED — PRICES PER POUND*

August, 1914 $o.75-$o.8o

January, 1915 i-35~ i-4°

April, 1915 1. 10- 1.15

July, 1915 i .60

October, 1915 2.35

January, 1916 2.25- 2.35

April, 1916 2.25- 2.50

July, 1916 2.75- 3.00

October, 1916 2.75- 3.00

January, 1917 2.75- 3.00

April, 1917 2.50- 2.75

July, 1917 2.75- 2.85

October, 1917 2.75- 2.85

*From Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter.

January, 1918 $2.25~$2.35

April, 1918 $2.00- 2.25

July, 1918 1.90- 2.00

October, 1918 1.85- 1.90

January, 1919 1.65- .75

April, 1919 1.50- .60

July, 1919 1.15- .25

October, 1919 i.io- .15

January, 1920 i.oo- .10

April, 1920 i.oo- .25

July, 1920 2.25- 2.40

October, 1920 i-75~ 1.85

CITRUS PRODUCTS

NEROLI-BIGARADE — PRICES PER POUND*

August, 1914 $40.oo-$5O.oo

January, 1915 55-oo

April, 1915 35-00- 40.00

July, 1915 35-00- 40.00

October, 1915 35-oo- 50.00

January, 1916 35-OO- 50.00

April, 1916 35-00- 50.00

July, 1916 35-00- 50.00

October, 1916 35.00- 50.00

January, 1917 35-OO- 50.00

April, 1917 35-00- 50.00

July, 1917 40.00- 50.00

October, 1917 75-oo- 78.00

*From Oil. Paint, and Drug Reporter.

f Nominal.

January, 1918 $7o.oo-$8o.oo

April, 1918 70.00- 80.00

July, 1918 70.00- 80.00

October, 1918 80.00-100.00

January, 1919 80.00-120.00

April, 1919 130.00

July, 1919 120.00

October, 1919 120.00

January, 1920 120.00

April, 1920 120.00

July, 1920 120.00

October, 1920

OIL OF ORANGE, SWEET ITALIAN — PRICES PER POUND*

Quarters, 1913 :f

First $2.85

Second 3.11

Third 3.71

Fourth 3.56

Quarters, 1914: t

First 2.95

Second 2.45

Third 2.61

Fourth 1.88

Quarters, 1915:!

First 1.56

Second 1.61

Third 1.85

Fourth 1.76

Quarters, 1916:!

First 1.86

Second 2.53

Third 2.83

Fourth. . .2.86

Quarters, 191 7 :f

First $3-oo

Second 2.86

Third 3.03

Fourth 2.80

Quarters, 1918 :f

First 2.55

Second 2.56

Third 2.58

Fourth 3.00

Quarters, 1919 :J

First 2.90

Second 3.10

Third 2.90

Fourth 3.25

Quarters, 1920:^

First 5.25

Second 9.00

Third 10.75

Fourth 6.25

*From War Industries Board Bulletin No. 50 and Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter.

tQuarterly prices, or average of monthly prices from Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter.

JLow, first Monday in each month, from Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter.

ORANGE, BITTER — PRICES PER POUND*

April, 1915 $i.75-$2.oo

July, 1915 2.00- 2.10

October, 1915 2.00- 2.10

January, 1916 2.00- 2.10

April, 1916 1-95- 2.00

July, 1916 2.25- 2.75

October, 1916 2.25- 2.75

January, 1917 2.50-3.25

April, 1917 2.35- 2.85

July, 1917 2.40- 3.40

October, 1917 2.40- 2.60

January, 1918 2.15- 2.25

•From Oil, Point, and Drug Reporter.

April, 1918 $ .75-$i.8o

July, 1918 75- i. 80

October, 1918 75- 1.80

January, 1919 75- 2.00

April, 1919 .75- 2.00

July, 1919 2.00- 2.25

October, 1919 2.25- 2.35

January, 1920 3-75~ 4-oo

April, 1920 7.00- 7.50

July, 1920 7.75- 8.00

October, 1920 5-75- 6.00

APPENDIX

ORANGE, WEST INDIAN — PRICES PER POUND*

AugUSt, 1914 $2.05~$2.IO

January, 1915 1.50- 1.60

April, 1915 1.25- 1.35

July, 1915 1.50- 1.60

October, 1915 1.70- 1.75

January, 1916 1.50-1.60

April, 1916 1-75- 1-80

July, 1916 2.50- 2.75

October, 1916 2.75- 2.80

January, 1917 2.25- 2.35

April, 1917 2.35- 2.45

July, 1917 2.67- 2.75

October, 1917 2.30- 2.45

*From Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter.

January, 1918 $2.oo-$2.io

April, 1918 1.80- 1.90

July, 1918 i. 80- 1.90

October, 1918 i-75~ 1.80

January, 1919 i-75~ 1-80

April, 1919 i-75- 1.80

July, 1919 1.90- 2.00

October, 1919 2.35- 2.40

January, 1920 4.00- 4.25

April, 1920 7.50- 7.75

July, 1920 9.00- 9.25

October, 1920 6.00- 6.25

BERGAMOT — PRICES PER POUND*

August, 1914 $5-oo-$5-25

January, 1915 3.75

April, 1915 3-00- 3.15

July, 1915 3-i5- 3-50

October, 1915 3-i5~ 3-5°

January, 1916 3.50

April, 1916 3-30- 3-5°

July, 1916 3-70- 3-75

October, 1916 5-5O- 5-75

January, 1917 6.25- 6.50

April, 1917 5-75- 6.00

July, 1917 6.00- 6.25

October, 1917 6.00- 6.20

*From Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter.

January, 1918 $6.oo-$6.2o

April, 1918 5.50- 6.00

July, 1918 5.60- 5.75

October, 1918 7-5o- 8.00

January, 1919 7.00- 7.50

April, 1919 6.40- 6.50

July, 1919 5-i5- 5-50

October, 1919 4.75- 5.00

January, 1920 5.00- 5.25

April, 1920 7.50- 7.75

July, 1920 6.75- 7.00

October, 1920 6.25- 6.50

CEDRAT OIL — IMPORTS FOR CONSUMPTION — REVENUE

372 CITRUS PRODUCTS

OIL OF BERGAMOT — PRICES PER POUND*

Quarters, 1913:! Quarters, 1917:!

First $6.43 First $6.00

Second 6.00 Second 5.91

Third 5.70 Third 6.00

Fourth 6. 13 Fourth 6.00

Quarters, 1914:! Quarters, 1918:!

First 6.03 First 5.66

Second 5.48 Second 5.50

Third 5-53 Third 5.78

Fourth 4.75 Fourth 7.3 3

Quarters, 1915 :f Quarters, 1919:$

First 3.38 First 6.90

Second 3.08 Second 6.40

Third 3-13 Third 5.15

Fourth 3.25 Fourth 4.5 o

Quarters, I9i6:f Quarters, 1920:$

First 3.41 First 5.00

Second 3.61 Second 7.50

Third 4-35 Third 6.75

Fourth 5.41 Fourth 6.25

*Prom War Industries Board Bulletin No. 50 and Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter.

tQuarterly prices or average monthly prices from Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter.

JLow, first Monday in each month, from Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter.

OIL OF LEMON — PRICES. DOLLARS PER POUND*

Quarters, 1913:! Quarters, 1917 :f

First $2.70 First $1.18

Second 3.33 Second 1.13

Third 4.46 Third i.n

Fourth 3.55 Fourth 1.06

Quarters, 1914:! Quarters, 1918:!

First 2.73 First 98

Second 2.15 Second 1.13

Third 2.16 Third 1.08

Fourth 1.53 Fourth 1.43

Quarters, 1915:! Quarters, 1919:$

First i. ii First 1.60

Second 1.05 Second 1.20

Third i.n Third 1.15

Fourth i.oi Fourth 1.15

Quarters, I9i6:f Quarters, 19204

First i.oo First — 1.45

Second 95 Second 2.00

Third 91 Third —1.65

Fourth i.oi Fourth 1.15

*From War Indutries Board Bulletin No. 50 and Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter

tQuarterly prices, or average of monthly prices from Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter.

JLow, first Monday in each month, from Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter.

APPENDIX

BERGAMOT OIL — IMPORTS FOR CONSUMPTION — REVENUE

373

OIL OF LIMES — IMPORTS FOR CONSUMPTION — REVENUE

374

CITRUS PRODUCTS

NEROLI-SYNTHETIC AND OIL OF NEROLI, PETALE — PRICES, DOLLARS PER POUND*

Neroli, Synthetic:

April, 1916 $i8.oo-$20.oo

July, 1916 18.00- 20.00

October, 1916 18.00- 20.00

January, 1917 18.00- 20.00

April, 1917 18.00- 20.00

July, 1917 18.00- 20.00

October, 1917 18.00- 24.00

January, 1918 18.00- 24.00

April, 1918 18.50- 25.00

July, 1918 18.50- 24.00

October, 1918 18.50- 24.00

January, 1919 20.00- 30.00

April, 1919 18.50

July, 1919 18.50

October, 1919 14.00- 15.00

January, 1920 14.00- 15.00

April, 1920 14.00- 15.00

July, 1920 14.00- 15.00

October, 1920 14.00- 16.00

Oil of Neroli, Petale:

January, 1913. . . .

April, 1913 ,

July, 1913

October, 1913... .,

January, 1914....

$45-oo

45-oo

45-00

45.00

45-00

Oil of Neroli, Petale— Continued:

April, 1914. . . ,

July, 1914

October, 1914.

January, 1915.

April, 1915

July, 1915

October, 1915..

January, 1916.

April, 1916.. . .

July, 1916

October, 1916.,

January, 1917.

April, 1917

July, 1917

October, 1917..

January, 1918.

April, 1918. . ..

July, 1918

October, 1918..

April, 1919. . . .

July, 1919

October, 1919..

January, 1920.

April, 1920. . . .

July, 1920

October, 1920..

$45-oo

51.00

60.00

53-33

50.00

46.66

45-oo

45-00

45-oo

50.00

63-33

83-33

80.00

90.00

1 20.00

130.00

*From Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter and War Industries Board Bulletin No. 50

fNominal.

REFERENCES FOR APPENDIX

WALLSCHLAEGER, F. O.

"Citrus Production in the United States and Competing Countries,"

California Citrograph, IV, No. 6 (April, 1919), 150, 155.

U. S. TARIFF COMMISSION

Bulletin A-I2, Tariff Information Surveys. 1921. Washington, D. C.

U. S. TARIFF COMMISSION

Bulletin No. 13, Tariff Information Series. 1920. Washington, D. C.

INDEXES

AUTHOR INDEX

Adam, 152, 165

Agardh, 107

Albeo, Edward, 311

Allen, 302

Allen, Alfred H., 164, 199

Allport, W. A., 10

Ames, S. L.f 10

Arundel, S. J., 347

Atwood, 268

Audrlk, 1 02

Baetcke, E., 16

Bailey, F. S., 84, 102

Bailey, H. S., 248

Baker, 92

Balanza, 309, 310

Ball, Nigel, G., 85, 103

Bandrimont, 103

Barbier, P., 27,67

Barf old, 103

Battiet, 103

Bauer, 103

Beau, 156

Beck, C. R., 17, 28, 71

Beckmann, 16

Behal, 67

Benatius, 174, 188

Bennett, A. H., 57, 65, 67

Bennett, C. T., 192, 194, 196

Berte, E., 22, 29, 30, 38, 58, 65, 67, 71

Berthelot, 25, 67

Bertolo.P., 167, 169

Bertram, J., 15, 67

Bertrand, 85, 86, 88, 103

Berzelius, 75

Bigelow, W. D., 93, 103, 108

Bioletti, Frederic T., 142, 144

Blanchet, 25, 67

Bocker, E., 33, 34, 35, 67

Boecker, 23

Bonastre, 174, 188

Bonavia, E., 45, 68

Borntrager, Arthur, 18, 68

Borodin, 159

Boswigi, G., 36

Bouchardat, G., 26

Boullay, 174, 180, 188

Bourquelot, 74, 75, 78, 80, 85, 86,

96, 103

Bouveault, L. 27, 67

Boyles, P. R., 93, 98

Braconnet, 73, 74, 79, 103

Braden, A. C., 120

Brook, B. O., 68

Brooks, B.T., 192, 194

Brooks, R. O., 60

Brown, C. A., 85, 86, 103

Brown, C. A., Jr., 103

Brown, W. Duval, 339

Bruylants, P., 61, 62, 65, 68

Buchner, 164

Burgess, H. E., 17, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 46,

67, 68, 188, 298, 300

Burke, C. E., 114

Caldwell, J. S., 94, 95, 96, 104

Capitaine, 15, 25, 42, 71

Carcano, 334

Cavendish, Thomas, 307

Chace, Edward McKay, 4, 8, 22, 25, 29,

30, 31, 62, 63, 64, 65, 68, 120, 234,

239, 248, 259, 314, 326, 339

Chapus, A., 178, 183, 188, 192, 194

Charabot, E., 16, 177, 193, 195, 196

Cheney, Arthur S., 164, 326, 339

Chevron, 104

Child, J. F., 25, 27, 67, 68, 298

Chiris, Leon, 185

Chodnew, 75, 104

Claudon, 142

Cocco-Ortu, F., 334

Coit, J. E., no, 199

Collens, A. E., 276, 277

Cooke, E. W., 170

Crismer, L., 17, 28, 68

Cross, 76, 104

Cruess, William Vere, 98, 108, 114, 146,

164, 165, 173, 245

Currie, James N., 151, 152, 165

377

378

CITRUS PRODUCTS

Czapek, Frederick, 107

Davenport, T. J. W. C., 10

Davis, S. M., 306

De Barry, 107

De la Dardye, E. de Bourgade, 307, 312

Deniges, 52, 53, 68, 80, 81, 84, 85, 98,

156, 157, 165

De Vry, 162

Dick, E. M., 128

Diedrichs, A., 168, 169

Doebner, 26, 68, 183

Douglas, R., 93, 98

Downs, C. R.

Dowzard, E.t 32, 68

Dumas, 25, 68

Dunlap, F. L., 114, 165

Dunlap, W. B., 165

Dunlap, W. R., 218, 220, 221, 225, 229,

240

Ehestadt, 48

Ellis, C., 120

Elze, P., 15, 1 6, 68

Emmanuel, Victor, 334

Engels, 1 88

Erdmann, E., 180, 196, 198

Erdmann, E. and H., 188, 199

Erdmann, H.f 180, 196, 198

Euler, H., 104

Fawcett, H. S., 8

Fellenberg, Th. von, 80, 89, 90, 91, 104

Fenaroli, P., 44, 69

Fernbach, August, 120, 165

Figner, 106

Fisch, 1 68, 169

Fischer, E., 60

Fischer-Truenfeld, R. von, 308, 312

Flatau, 39, 69

Fluckiger, 180

Fony6, A., 114

Fortmann, G., 39, 69

Franke, 17, 69

Freire, Dario, 312

Fr6my, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 83, 85,

87, 89, 104

Fresenius, 157

Fromberg, 75, 104

Funk, W. C., 258

Gadais, L. and J., 165

Gailey, 84

Gaines, A. P., 170

Gardiner, 107

Garelli, 148

Garnett, H., 57, 69

Gattefosse, 168, 169

Geerlig, Prinsen, 272

Gere, W. B., 120

Gerhardt, 25, 69

Giampetro, A. W., 10

Gildmeister, E., 25, 26, 27, 37, 38, 39,

69, 165, 188, 199

Gildemeister, E., and Hoffman, F., 230,

240, 300

Girard, 104

Godeffroy, R., 17, 69

Goldthwaite, Nellie E., 90, 95, 108

Gore, Howard C., 93, 94, 103, 114, 120,

125, 165

Gowing-Scopes, 156, 165

Graef, C., 120

Gras, Jean, 177

Gray, C. E., 120

Greaves, 106

Green, R., 104

Greenhalgh, N., 37, 71, 306

Grimaux, 152, 165

Grosjean, 291, 292, 306

Grunhut, 157

Guibert, 104

GullJ, S., 46, 69, 191, 194

Gurber, A., 120, 121

Haas, R. W. Tromp de, 76, 90, 104

Haensel, 66, 198, 199

Halliday, 84

Hanbury, 180

Hanus, 69

Hardy, 275

Hardy, W. B., 91, 104

Harlay, V., 105

Harris, G. D., 170

Harrison, H. H., 170

Haussler, 158, 165

Hawl y, L. F., 199

Hebert, 105

Heizer, O. S., 341

Henius, Max, 114, 165

HeYissey, 74, 75, 78, 80, 85, 86, 96, 103

Herzfeldt, 76, 105

Hesse, A. ,40, 69, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182,

184, 193, 194

AUTHOR INDEX

379

Hewer, 168, 169

Heyer, 69

Hiltner, R. S., 64

Hiltner, R. S., 69

Hill, 157

Hirzel, H., 184, 188

Hodgson, R. W., 199

Hoffman, 158, 162

Hoffman, F. — La Roche & Co., 194

Hofmeister, 107

Holmes, H. N., 92

Hood, G. C., 69

Hood, S. C., 10, 12, 43, 44, 69

Howard, 93

Howard, B. J., 173

Howe, H. A., 92

Hughes, H. A., 170

Hunt, Charles H., 105

Huthig, O., 178, 179, 196, 197, 199

Ischii, 107

Jahns, E., 190, 194

Javillier, 105

Jeancord, P., 174, 189, 196,^199

Jeffries, F. L., 98

Johnson, M. O., 98, 120

Jones, A. T., 170

Kabsch, 107

Kellogg, J. L., 120

Kern, C. A., 120

Kerschbaum, M., 180

Kestner, P., 120

Kirchner, 105

Klapproth, 154, 165

Kleber, C., 23, 24, 27, 64, 65, 69

Kobayashi, S., 168, 169

Kolb, 105

Koenig, 107

Krug, 157

Kueny, 159

Kuever, R., 114

Kuever, R. A., 165

Labbe, H., 39, 69, 187

Lacava, 334

Ladell, R. S., 27, 69

Lafont, J., 25, 26, 70

Lalone, G., 176, 193

Lawrence, 153

Lebreton, 158

Libby, F. M., 170

Liotta, 13, 14, 70

Liphard, 70

Lipman, 105

Lippman, von, 105

Litterer, G., 192, 194

Little, 70

Luca de, 38, 39

Luce de, 70

Lurssen, 107

McClendon, J. P., 128

McDermott, F. Alex., 10, 165, 173, 247,

259

McDill, R. D. O., 93, 98, 112

Maclntyre, J. C., 279, 280, 281, 285,

306

McKay, W. S., 10, 120

McNair, James B., 97, 98, 101, 105,

1 08

Mallevre, 85, 86, 88, 103

Mangin, 73, 77, 78, 105, 107

Marescalchi, 165

Marshall, Charles F., 165

Martin, 151

Massignon, 184, 185, 189

Mazuyer, L., 308, 312

Meldrum, W. B., 235

Menagio, 189

Mendelsohn, F., 114

Merrell, I. S., 120

Merrell, L. C, 120

Meyer, 107

Millon, 184, 189

Mohl, 107

Molinari, Ettore, 165, 240

Monti, Eudo, 114, 121, 122, 123

Moreschini, D.f 32, 70

Moricca, G., 17, 70

Moore, J. C., 281, 283, 306

Moslinger, 157

Mulder, 105, 107

Mulder, G. J., 17, 28, 70, 75,

Muller, 25, 26, 27

Munson, L. S., 173

Muntz, 105

Naudin, L.t 184, 189

38o

CITRUS PRODUCTS

Oehme, R., 120

Oesterle, 108, 159

Ogston, 281, 283

Ohme, C., 17, 70

Oliveri, V., 27, 70

Oppenheim, A., 25, 70

Orsini, Flavio, 174

Osburn, W. S., 120

O'Sullivan, 76

Ottair, 165

Pacrette, 108

Page, T. H., 17, 25, 27, 68

Palmer, R. C., 199

Pancksch, O., 170

Parloa, Maria, 109

Parozzoni, A., 154, 166

Parry, E. J., 23, 28, 31, 36, 42, 57, 58,

65, 66, 67, 70, 188, 189, 192, 194,

197, 198, 199, 302

Passy, J., 197, 199

Pasteur, Lous, 142

Patane", GM 29, 31, 32, 70

Paterno, 148

Payen, 78, 105

Pellet, 105

Peratoner, 148

Ferret, M., 166

Pfeffer, 166

Piesse, 42

Pillet, L., 177, 188, 195, 196, 199

Pitino, 12

Piver, 184, 189

Plisson, 189

Pollard, J. S., 170

Pomeranz, C., 1 6, 70

Poore, Homer D., 148, 164, 166, 234,

235, 239

Portae, Jo. Batt., 189

Poumarede, 105, 106

Power, Frederick B., 70

Powell, G. H., 240, 259, 339

Pratt, D. S., 156, 1 66

Pusch, 157

Quercigh, E., 32, 70

Regnauld, 75, 106

Reichardt, 76, 106

Rein, J. J., 70

Reischauer, 32

Risso, 10

Robertson, T. Brailsford, 91, 97, 106

Rojahn, W., 26, 27, 28, 71

Rolet, 109

Romeo, G., 17, 22, 38, 59, 65, 67, 70

Rosenberg-Hein, Edgar, 78, 107

Rother, P. B., 60, 65, 71

Roure-Bertrand fils, 71, 178, 192, 196,

240

Roure, Louis, 184, 189

Rubke, K., 51, 72

Ruddiman, H. D., 259

Rueff, W., 114

Ruppin, 340, 342

Russell, G. A., 69

Russow, 1 08

Sachs, J. von, 10

Sadtler, S. S., 71

Salamon, 54, 71

Satie, C., 174, 189, 196, 199

Saussure, Theodore de, 71

Scarlata, 148

Scarpa, 32

Scheibler, 76, 106

Schenk, 108

Schimmel & Co., 14, 16, 18, 19, 24, 25,

26, 27, 29, 30, 32, 33, 36, 39, 40, 41,

42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 50, 53, 54, 57, 59,

60, 61, 63, 64, 65, 174, 177, 178, 179,

180, 181, 182, 183, 193, 195, 196, 197,

198

Schleiden, 108

Schmidt, E., 28, 71

Schroeder, Bruno, 108

Schurz, W. L., 312

Schweitzer, 66

Seaber, 54, 71

Sebor, 1 06

Sell, 25, 67

Semmler, F. W., 15, 71, 179, 189, 196,

197, 199

Shamel, A. D., 246

Sheehan, E. J., 10, 13, 120

Shepard, H. A., 112

Sherman, D. F., 112

Sifredi, A. V., 165

Singh, 92

Singleton, J. N. G., 120

Smith, 4, 6

Snow, Jenny H., 109

AUTHOR INDEX

381

Soden, H. von, 26, 27, 28, 71, 197, 199

Soldaini, A., 29, 58, 65, 71

Souberian, 15, 25, 42, 71, 106

Spencer- Rollings, J., 288, 298

Spica, 154, 1 66

Spindler, O. von, 154, 166

Spinella, Commandatore, 20

Stephan, 39, 69

Stude, 1 06

Sturge, 268

Sucharipa, 92

Swinson, C. R., 258

Swinton, R. S., 27, 72

Tanret, 160

Tarr, 84, 90, 92

Tartar, 84

Taussure, 25

Tempany, H. A., 37, 71, 272, 306

Theulier, E., 28, 71, 183, 189

Thomas, 4, 6

Thomas, E. L. P., 173

Thompson, James, 166

Thorns, H., 1 6, 71

Tiemann, P., 15, 58, 59, 71, 162, 178,

179, 189, 196, 197, 199

Tilden, W. A., 17, 27, 28, 38, 71

Tinkelpaugh, C. N., 170

Tobler, H., 147

Tollens, 76, 80, 90, 104, 105, 106, 107

Tolman, L. M., 173

Tolman, Richard C., 91, 106

Tschirch, 78, 89, 90, 108

Tucholka, W., 27, 72

Tuttin, 1 66

Ullik, 106

Ulpiani, C., 154, 166

Umney, J. C., 27, 31, 72, 192, 194, 196

Unger, 108

Valentin, 108

Vanquelin, 106

Van Niessen, 107

Vincent, Camille, 184, 189

Vogel, 1 08

Vohl, 38

VSlckel, 66

Votecek, 106

Walbaum, H., 15, 67, 72, 178, 179, 180

181, 189, 193, 196, 199

Walker, 247, 260

Wallach, Otto, 15, 25, 26, 30, 42, 48, 72

Wallschlaeger, F. O., 259, 260, 339

Walther, J., 57, 72

Warington, 153

Warneford, F. H. S.f 275

Warrington, 292, 293, 306

Watt, 276

Watts, Sir Francis, 221, 285, 286, 306

Webber, H. J., 8

Wehmer, 151, 152, 166

Weil, V. M., 272, 306

Weisberg, 107

Weiss, John M., 166

Welch, P. R., 112, 114

Widtsoe, 107

Wiegand, O., 51, 72

Wiessner, 108,

Wigand, 108

Wiley, Harvey W., 31, 72

Will, 162

Will, R. T.f 5, 173, 260

Wilson, C. P., 247, 248, 260

Wohl, 107

Wright, 42, 72

Wustenfeld, 164

Young, 4, 6

Zahorski, 151, 166

Zeisel, 79, 80, 81, 84, 98

Zeitschel, C., 69

Zeitschel, O., 40, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182,

184, 189, 197, 199

Zelinsky, 49

Zion, John R., 165

Zoller, Harper F., 47, 72, 60, 162, 163,

1 66

Zurck, Hans, 114

SUBJECT INDEX

Acetone from citrus fruit, 146

Acid value of essential oils: bergamot,

19,20; Japanese mandarin, 40; lemon,

22; lime leaves, 192,298-300,302; Ne-

roli Bigarade, 178, 181; NeroliPortu-

gal, 183; petitgrain, 196

Acids in essential oils: lemon, 27; Neroli

Bigarade, 180, 181. See Acid value;

Acetic acid; Citric acid; Palmitic acid

Adulterants of essential oils: bergamot

in Neroli, 182 ; glyceryl acetate in ber-

gamot, 53; lemon, 36; lemon in petit-

grain, 197; non- volatile esters in ber-

gamot, 54; orange in petitgrain, 197;

petitgrain in Neroli, 182; terpinyl ace-

tate in bergamot, 50; terpinyl acetate

in petitgrain, 50; triethyl acetate in

bergamot, 52; turpentine in oil of

lemons, 24, 29, 36

Adulteration of essential oils: bergamot,

17-20; bergamot leaves, 191; Neroli

Bigarade, 182; sweet orange, 43

Africa, Rhodesia citrus fruit production,

344. See Algeria, British South Africa,

Morocco, Tunis

Alcohols: in oil of bergamot, 15, 16. See

Alcohol content; Citronellol; Fame-

sol; Geraniol; Linalool; Myristicol;

Nerol; Nerolidol; Phenyl ethyl alco-

hol; Terpineol

Alcohol content of oil of leaves of trifo-

liate orange, 192

Aldehydes in essential oils: Jamaican

bitter orange, 45; Jamaican sweet

orange, 41 ; grapefruit, 49; lime leaves,

192; sweet orange, 142; See Citral;

Citronellal; Decylic aldehyde; Fur-

furol; Nonylic aldehyde; Octylic alde-

hyde

Algeria: citron production of, 344;

lemon exports, 244; lemon production

of, 344; mandarin exports, 244; Man-

darin production of, 344; orange ex-

ports, 244; orange production of, 344

Amido and imino deratives. See An-

thranilic acid methyl ester; Indol;

Methyl anthranilic acid methyl ester;

Pyrrol

Aqua naphae, 174, 182

Anthranilic acid methyl ester in

essential oils: Neroli Bigarade, 180,

1 8 1 ; Neroli Portugal, 1 83 ; petitgrain,

197; trifoliate orange leaves, 192

Argentina: lemons, 307; oranges, 307;

petitgrain imports, 310

Aurantiamarin, 160

Australia: bergamot oil imports, 368;

lemons imported, 359; lemon oil im-

ports, 368; lemon production of, 346,

347, 348; Mandarin production, 347;

orange oil imports, 368; orange

production of, 346, 347, 348

Austria: citrate of lime imports, 362;

citric acid imports, 362; citron pro-

duction, 314; lemon production, 314;

orange production, 314

Austria Hungary, lemon oil export,

355

Bahamas, citrus products industry,

261

Belgium, lemon oil exports, 355

Bergamot. See Oil of Bergamot

Bergaptene, in bergamot oil, 14, 16

Beverage, grapefruit, 246

Bisabolene in oil of lemon, 27

Bitter orange: in Paraguay, 308; pro-

duction of, in Japan, 340

Blue fluorescence of West Indian lime

oil, 301, 302

Brazil: oranges, 307; petitgrain oil im-

ports, 310; tangerines, 307

British Guiana: citrate of lime, 312; ex-

ports of citrate of lime, 354; limes,

312; lime juice, 312; lime oil, 312

British India, lemon oil exports, 355

British South Africa, orange exports,

244; orange production, 344, 345

British West Indies: citrus products in-

dustry, 261; lemon oil exports, 355;

lime products, 219

Cadinene in oil of lemon, 27

California: amount of products, 244,

245; citric acid manufacture, 248, 249,

250-57 ; citrus products industry, 257-

59; lemons shipped from, 357. 358;

lemon prices, 361; lemon production,

214, 215; lemon supply, i, 2; location

383

384

CITRUS PRODUCTS

of product industries, 244, 245;

oranges shipped from, 357, 358;

orange vinegar manufacture, 246

Camphene in essential oils: bergamot,

17; lemon, 25; Neroli Bigarade, 178,

181; Neroli Portugal, 183; petitgrain,

196; sweet orange leaves, 192; trifo-

liate orange leaves, 192

Canada: exports of citrate of lime, 354;

lemons imported, 359; lemon oil ex-

ports, 355

Cedrat oil. See Oil of citron

Chili: lemons, 307; oranges, 307; petit-

grain imports, 310

China: grapefruit production, 341 ; kum-

quats from, 340; lemons, imported,

359; lemon oil exports, 355; lime pro-

duction, 341 ; orange extract from,

340; orange peel from, 340

Citral in essential oils: bergamot, 20;

citron, 46; grapefruit, 49; grapefruit

leaves, 192; Italian bitter orange, 44;

Italian limette oil, 37 ; lemon, 27 ; lime,

298-300, 302; mandarin, 39; petit-

grain citronnier, 198; sweet orange

leaves, 192; West Indian limette, 37

Citral content of oil of lemon, 22, 23; of

terpeneless oil of lemon, 23

Citral determination, 57; Bruylant's

method, 61; Chace's method, 62;

Hiltner's method, 64; Kleber's meth-

od, 64; Parry '& method, 58; Romeo's

method, 59; Rother's method, 60;

Sadtler's method, 59; Soldaini and

Berte's method, 58 ; Wai ther's method,

57

Citraptene. See Citroptene

Citrate of lime: Austrian imports, 362;

British imports, 362; British Guiana

exports, 312, 354; Canadian exports,

354; cost of production, 216, 217;

equipment for making, in Sicily, 321 ;

European production, 232; exported

from French West Indies, 302 ; French

exports, 354; French imports, 362;

German imports, 362; imports into

the United States, 353, 354; im-

port duties, 364; Italian exports,

349. 354. 362; from limes, 277, 289,

293; location of manufacturing firms,

242; manufacture in Sicily, 325-26;

of Mexico, 259; Mexican exports, 354;

Netherland imports, 362; Panama ex-

ports, 354; price of, 329; Servia im-

ports 362; Sicily exports, 232; Switz-

erland, imports, 362; West Indian

exports, 354; United Kingdom ex-

ports, 354; United States imports,

362

Citric acid: amount produced in the

United States, 215, 369; analysis in

citrate of lime, 153; analysis in juice

and factory liquors, 154; by artificial

synthesis, 153; Austrian imports, 362;

British imports, 362; cost of produc-

tion, 215, 217; equipment for produc-

tion of, 7; factories producing, 234;

by fermentation, 151; French im-

ports, 233, 362; French exports, 233;

German imports, 233, 234, 362 ; Ger-

man exports, 233, 234; identification,

52; imports into United States, 243,

352; Italian exports, 349, 362; lime,

218; location of firms manufacturing,

242 ; manufacture in California, 248-

57; manufacture from lemons, 146;

manufacture in United States, 242,

243; Netherland imports, 362; per-

centage in California lemons, 248,

249; in presence of other acids, 156;

price of, in Australia, 366; price com-

pared with that of tartaric acid, 232;

price of, in Italy, 366; price of, in New

York, 366; price of, in the United

States, 366; production in Europe,

232, 233; Sicilian exports, ^33; Sici-

lian imports, 233; Servia imports,

362; Switzerland imports, 362; table

of weight equivalents, 297; tariff on,

243, 244; tests for purity of, 157;

United States imports, 362

Citron: Algerian production, 344; Aus-

trian production, 314; candied, no;

French production, 314; Grecian pro-

duction, 313; in Paraguay, 308; Tunis

production, 346

Citron oil. See Cedrat

Citron seed oil, 168

Citronellal in essential oils: bergamot,

20; in oil of lemon, 26; mandarin, 39;

sweet orange, 42

Citroptene: in oil of citron, 46; in oil of

lemon, 28

Citrus fruits, frost resistance of, 6

Citrus juice production, equipment for,

4

Citrus oils: competition with United

States, 239; effect of duty on, 239;

value of imports into the United

States, 241

Citrus products: condition of fruit for,

7, 8; enumeration of, 6, 7; equipment

for factories, 7; marketing, 227; prep-

aration of fruit for, 7, 8; production

SUBJECT INDEX

385

in Sicily of, 3; quality and quantity

of, 7, 8; selling Sicilian, 227; selling

West Indian, 227, 228

Citrus products industries (flow sheet),

5

Citrus products industry: basic facts of

California, 213; economics of , 2 1 3 ; fu-

ture of American, 214; in Italy, 214;

in relation to fruit industry, 3

Citrus waste products, 3, 4

Climate, effect of, on production of oil

of sweet orange, 43, 44

Color of essential oils: grapefruit, 46;

Italian limette, 37; Japanese mandar-

in, 40; mandarin leaves, 193; Neroli

Portugal, 183; petitgrain, 195; sweet

orange, 41; trifoliate orange leaves,

192; West Indian limette, 36

Cuba: lemons exported, 360; lemon oil

exports, 355

Culls: cost of handling, 215, 216; for

marmalade, 245; percentage of, 213

Cull fruit: amount of, in Florida, 258;

definition of, 4, 248; as fertilizer, 172;

price of, in California, 245

Curasao: of Dutch West Indies, 305; of

Haiti, 305

Cymene in oil of lemon, 26

Decylic aldehyde in oil of Neroli Biga-

rade, 179, 181

Denmark, lemon oil exports, 355; petit-

grain oil imports, 310

Dipentene in essential oils: citron, 46;

grapefruit leaves, 192; Neroli Biga-

rade, 178, 181; petitgrain, 196

Distillation of oil of citron, 46; oil of

lemon, 29

Distillation test for oil of lemon, 29

Dominica: citrus products industry,

261; limes from, in, 112; lime oil ex-

ports, 230

Dominican Republic, lemon oil exports,

355

Dutch West Indies: citrus products,

305; curagao, 305; orange peel, 305

Ecuador: lemons, 307; limes, 307;

oranges, 307

England, petitgrain oil imports, 310.