B JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

APRIL 2011 VOL 108(1)

JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 001 .

Executive Editor

Asad R. Rahmani, Ph. D.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Copy amd Production Editor

Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc.

Editorial Board

Ajith Kumar, Ph. D.

National Centre for Biological Sciences,

GKVK Campus, Hebbal, Bengaluru, Karnataka

C.R. Babu, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Environmental Management

of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi,

New Delhi

Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph. D., D. Sc.

The Rhino Foundation for Nature,

Guwahati, Assam

Indraneil Das, D. Phil.

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation,

Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak,

Malaysia

Y.V. Jhaia, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India,

Dehradun, Uttarakhand

K. Ullas Karanth, Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program,

Bengaluru, Karnataka

T.C. Narendran, Ph. D„ D. Sc.

Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut,

Kerala

Aasheesh Pittie, B. Com.

Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,

Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh

G.S. Rawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India,

Dehradun, Uttarakhand

K. Rema Devi, Ph. D.

Zoological Survey of India,

Chennai, Tamil Nadu

J.S. Singh, Ph. D.

Professor, Banaras Hindu University

Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh

S. Subramanya, Ph. D.

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Hebbal, Bengaluru, Karnataka

R. Sukumar, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, Karnataka

Romulus Whitaker, B. Sc.

Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust,

Tamil Nadu

S.R. Yadav, Ph. D.

Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Maharashtra

Senior Consultant Editor

J.C. Daniel, M. Sc.

Consultant Editors

Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society, Bengaluru

Nigel Collar, Ph. D.

BirdLife International, UK

Rhys Green, Ph. D.

Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK

Qamar Qureshi, M. Phil.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

T.J. Roberts, Ph. D.

World Wildlife Fund, Pakistan

Editorial Assistant: Sonali V. Vadhavkar, M. Sc.

Layout and Typesetting: V. Gopi Naidu

© Bombay Natural History Society 2011

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,

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concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS at the address given above.

VOLUME 108(1): APRIL 2011

MAR 1 9 mi J

CONTENTS BRAgjgS^

EDITORIAL............. . . . . . 1

CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS OF THE FAMILY AVICENNIACEAE FROM MAHARASHTRA AND GOA, INDIA

S.S. Shaikh and N.S. Chavan . . . 2

SURVEY OF ISOLATED POPULATIONS OF THE NILGIRI TAHR NILGIRITRAGUS HYLOCRIUS (OGILBY)

IN KERALA, INDIA

Sharon Vergis, Jean-Philippe Puyravaud, Pratheesh C. Mammen and Priya Davidar . . . 8

PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL IMPACT ON MARINE BENTHIC POLYCHAETES DUE TO DREDGING IN THE

MORMUGAO HARBOUR, GOA AND ITS RESTORATION AFTER DREDGING

Vijayakumar Rathod . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

CIRCUMSTANTIAL AND RESPONSE ATTITUDES OF PEOPLE AFFECTED WITH LIVESTOCK DEPREDATION BY

LEOPARDS PANTHERA PARDUS LINNAEUS IN RATNAGIRI DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA

R.P. Donikar, V.K. Patil, S.S. Narkhede, A.D. Rane, D.N. Mokat and S.G. Bhave . . 18

FRUGIVORY BY BIRDS AND MAMMALS IN SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND, SOUTHERN INDIA

J. Patrick David, B. Senthil Murugan and Ranjit Manakadan . 24

WILD FOOD TRADITIONALLY USED BY THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE OF PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

WESTERN GHATS, KERALA, INDIA

K. Yesodharan, P. Padmanabhan and N.U. Cini . . . 41

NEW DESCRIPTION

A REVIEW OF THE WHITEFLY GENUS DIALEUROLONGA DOZIER (HEMIPTERA: ALEYRODIDAE)

WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES FROM INDIA

R. Pushpa and R. Sundararaj . . . . . 47

REVIEWS

1 . MANAGEMENT OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF INDIAN FORESTS

Reviewed by Atul Sathe . . . . . . . . . 51

2. BIRDS OF KERALA — STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION

Reviewed by Ranjit Manakadan . . . . . 51

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. A note on whistle alarm calls of Three-striped Palm

Squirrel Funambulus palmarum Linnaeus in Sitamata

Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan, India

Vijay Kumar Koli, Chhaya Bhatnagar and

Satish Kumar Sharma . 53

2. On a record specimen of Grey-headed Giant Flying

Squirrel Petaurista caniceps Gray, from Arunachal

Pradesh, with a note on its taxonomy

Anwamddin Choudhury . 55

3. The northernmost range of Gaur Bos gaurus H. Smith

and Wild Water Buffalo Bubalus arnee Kerr

Anwaruddin Choudhury . . 56

4. Easternmost limit of the range of Blackbuck Antilope

cervicapra (L.), with historic records from Assam and north

Bengal, India

Anwaruddin Choudhury . 58

BIRDS

5. Range extension of the Mountain Hawk-Eagle Nisaetus

( =Spizaetus ) nipalensis to Uttar Kanara district in northern

Karnataka, India

Prachi Mehta and Jayant Kulkarni . 60

REPTILES

6. Some Chelonian records from Manipur and Nagaland in

North-east India

Anwaruddin Choudhury . . .

INSECTS

7. A report on the presence of three avian lice (Insecta:

Phthiraptera) in different regions of north-east India

Namram S. Singh, Anand S. Dixit and

Ramita Sougrakpam .

BOTANY

8. Rediscovery of Murdannia striatipetala (Commelinaceae)

- a little known species from southern India with a note

on its identity and distribution

Mayur D. Nandikar, R.V. Gurav and Divya Umesh .

9. Juncus bufonius L. - an addition to the flora of

Maharashtra, India

Manoj M. Lekhak, Arun N. Chandore and S.R. Yadav ..

10. Additions to the flora of Similipal Biosphere Reserve,

Orissa, India

R.C. Misra, H.K. Sahoo, A.K. Mahapatra and

R.N. Reddy .

61

65

67

68

69

Cover Photograph: Avicennia marina By Manan Shukla

'

Editorial

Celebrating 125 Years of Publication

The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society was first published in 1886 to collate and disseminate

information on natural history of the Indian subcontinent and beyond. This year (201 1), the Journal celebrates

125 years of uninterrupted publication (with some delays during World Wars due to paper shortage). The Journal

was the most important medium to establish the credibility of the Society as a serious research organization

interested in all aspects of natural history. For a long time, it was also the only publication of the Society to reach

outstation members. List of animal specimens sent to the Society, list of members, donors and even annual

financial reports, and minutes of annual general meetings were published in the Journal in the initial decades.

Besides research papers covering the Indian subcontinent that included Burma (now Myanmar) and

Afghanistan, the Journal used to occasionally publish papers from the Middle East and West Asia. Moths of

Mesopotamia and N. W. Persia by various authors, published in JBNHS 28(1 922) is one such example. In the same

volume, The Birds ofMesopotami by C.B. Ticehurst, P.A. Buxton and R.E. Cheesman was published as a series.

Another example is Notes on Somaliland by Captain P.Z. Cox published in Vol. 1 3, in two parts.

Detailed survey reports and accumulated work of many decades were published as a series, some running

for many years. For example, E.C. Stuart Baker’s Indian Ducks and Their Allies, was first published in Vol. 1 1(1)

1898 and ran in ten parts till Vol. 13(2) 1901 . His other classical paper, The Birds of North Cachar was published

from 1 894 to 1901 in the Journal. Similarly, Identification of Indian Butterflies by Col. W.H. Evans was published

as a series in the Journal and later as a book. Numerous papers in botany helped in documenting the floral wealth

of India. For example, the paper The Flora of the Indian Desert ( Jodhpur and Jaisalmer) by the famous botanists

E. Blatter and F. Hallberg started in Vol. 26 (1918) and continued for many years. These seminal papers helped in

establishing the foundation of natural history of the Indian subcontinent.

In the days of ‘shikar’, most advertisements were of natural history and shikar books, taxidermy, cartridges,

rifles, etc., which obviously cannot be published now as hunting in India is totally prohibited. After Independence

in 1947, the Journal became more insular and articles from neighbouring countries became fewer. The Society also

stopped publishing advertisements in the Journal.

The earlier volumes of the JBNHS also carried advertisements. Internet revolution of the last two decades has

made the world a truly large global village. We have therefore decided to revive the earlier scope of the Journal. From

the coming volumes, the scope of the political boundaries for papers published in the JBNHS will not be limited to

study conducted in the Subcontinent. The JBNHS will now carry reports of original research in natural history,

taxonomy and other aspects of zoology and botany of general interest from across the globe. Scientists and naturalists

working outside the Indian subcontinent can now submit their papers. JBNHS will also revive the tradition of

publishing advertisements, however, these will be limited to products such as binoculars, telescopes, camera, field

and lab equipment; this will help generate revenue for publishing the JBNHS.

The time scale between acceptance of a paper and its publication has also been reduced to 6-8 months,

shorter in some cases. The referring system has been overhauled so now a paper will be peer-reviewed within a

month. We hope that these changes will make the Journal more popular and expand its reach beyond the Indian

subcontinent.

Asad R. Rahmani

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society,, 108(1), Jan-Apr 2011

2-7

CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS OF THE FAMILY AVICENNIACEAE

FROM MAHARASHTRA AND GOA, INDIA

S.S. Shaikh1'2 and N.S. Chavan1,3

’Department of Botany, Shivaji University, Kolhapur 416 004, Maharashtra, India.

2Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

Avicennia L. is a widely distributed mangrove genus exhibiting several morphological variations, as well as anomalies.

These factors prove to be a constraint in the correct identification of a species and its varieties. The present work is an

attempt to confirm the exact species composition of Family Avicenniaceae on the coasts of Maharashtra and Goa. The

study deals with detailed review of available literature, herbarium studies and field observations for Avicennia sp. on

these coasts. The present paper reports the occurrence of A. marina as a complex, and A. officinalis from Maharashtra

and Goa. A. alba was not observed during the study. Some problems regarding the identification of existing species

are also discussed. As a result, the paper also helps in proper identification of Avicennia species.

Key words: Avicenniaceae, Avicennia , Maharashtra, Goa, A. marina, A. officinalis

INTRODUCTION

Mangrove forests are made up of plant species that are

taxonomically unrelated. They form the critical interface

between terrestrial, estuarine, and near shore marine

ecosystems in tropics and sub-tropical regions. Avicennia L.

is considered as a major component of mangrove swamps

throughout the world, playing a key role in community

structure and having the ability to form pure stands

(Tomlinson 1986). According to Duke (1992), there are

at least eight species of genus Avicennia L. of which three

occur in the Atlantic-East Pacific and five in the Indo-West

Pacific.

Surprisingly, mention of Avicennia marina (Forsk.)

Vierh. is absent in most literature available for India, while

in some its presence is notified. However, A. marina is

abundantly present on the coast of India, in general, and

Maharashtra, in particular, then why does it not find mention

in the earlier literature? Was it identified wrongly and

designated other name? It appears that mistake in identifying

the species by earlier workers is continued. Also, there are

several disputes regarding the varieties of A. marina, as well

as occurrence of Avicennia alba Blume in Maharashtra. Thus,

the available literature, so far, seems to be incomprehensible

and rather confusing.

The genus Avicennia L. grows on different eco-zones

in the estuarine ecosystems (Duke 1991) resulting into wide

range of variations in morphological characters of Avicennia,

which are influenced by ecological and environmental, or

genetic factors (Soto and Corralles 1987; Soto 1988; Duke

1990; Duke et al. 1998). Morphological variations tend to

create confusion in identifying a species, as well as the

varieties. Ample literature is available for Avicennia mainly

based on herbarium studies (Moldenke 1960, 1967). But,

Tomlinson (1986) suggested that it needs critical revision by

means of field observations.

The present study claims an attempt to solve the

taxonomic puzzle regarding Avicennia sp., and its exact status

on the coasts of Maharashtra and Goa.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

An extensive survey of more than 100 populations of

Avicennia sp. on the coasts of Maharashtra and Goa was

conducted in different seasons. Vegetative as well as floral

material was collected and morphological characters

documented precisely. Authentic literature (Linnaeus 1753;

Forskal 1775; Blume 1825; Wight 1850a, b; Hooker 1885;

Talbot 1894, 1911; Moldenke 1960, 1967; Cooke 1967;

Percival and Womersley 1975; Tomlinson 1986; Kulkami

1988; Banerjee etal 1989; Kothari and Moorthy 1993; Singh

et al. 2001; Almeida 2003) was referred to for accurate

identification and confirmation of the species and varieties

of Avicennia. A thorough study of the herbarium specimens

of Avicennia sp. deposited in the herbarium of Botanical

Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune, was made. A

comprehensive key and comparative chart is prepared for the

species of Avicennia based on standard literature and critical

field observations.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The Indian Avicenniaceae comprises of three species

of genus Avicennia, namely A. alba Blume, A. marina (Forsk.)

Vierh. and A. officinalis L. (Kathiresan and Rajendran 2005).

Recent literature tells of the occurrence of two varieties of

CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS OF FAMILY AVICENNIACEAE FROM MAHARASHTRA AND GOA

Fig. 1 : Straight tip of Hypocotylar hair of A. marina

A. marina, these are A. marina var. acutissima Staf. &

Moldenke ex Moldenke and A. marina var. resinifera (Forst.)

Bakh. from India (Moldenke 1980; Singh et al. 2001 ; Bhosale

2005; Karthikeyan et al. 2009).

The confusion about the identification of Avicennia sp.

in available literature makes it necessary to determine the

exact species composition of Avicennia on the coast of

Maharashtra and Goa. Unfortunately, the conditions in which

Avicennia grows may vary from fresh to highly saline water

and the change affects the tree considerably (Moldenke 1960).

The morphological variations, particularly in leaves and

flowers, were recorded by several workers (Bakhuizen van

den Brink 1921; Watson 1928; Moldenke 1960, 1967, 1975;

Tomlinson 1986; Duke 1990). Moreover, Shaikh and Chavan

(2010) have observed morphological abnormalities in

A. marina and A. officinalis on the coast of Maharashtra and

Goa. Avicennia is a genus of mangroves attaining the size of

a tree, it sometimes exhibits shrubby habit, but on the coast

of Maharashtra and Goa a miniature form of 45 to 60 cm

height can be seen. Flowering in seedlings is also reported

from some localities (Shaikh and Chavan 2010). Classification

based on morphological attributes depends on the extent to

which an observer considers the variations to be stable. This

may create controversy in correctly identifying taxa. Problem

pertaining wrong identification was found in case of Avicennia

of New Zealand (Lynch 1973).

Linnaeus (1753) reported the first Avicennia species

A. officinalis from the Indian habitat. The distinguishing

characters of A. officinalis are: obovate or broadly oblong

leaves with rounded apex. Its ovary is entirely covered with

long silky hair, with a shaggy style and bifid tapering stigma,

much shorter than style (Bakhuizen van den Brink 1921).

The species is documented for India by Wight (1850a, b) as

A. tomentosa, but he supported Schauer’s revival of the

species as A. officinalis. Thus, thereafter, A. tomentosa is

considered as a synonym of A. officinalis. The species has

been reported from India by many workers (Hooker 1885;

Talbot 1894, 1911; Vartak 1966; Cooke 1967; Rao 1986;

Singh et al. 2001; Almeida 2003; Bhosale 2005; Kartikeyan

et al. 2009). The critical field observations support the

occurrence of A. officinalis along the coast of Maharashtra

and Goa states.

According to Wight (1850a, b), there is another species

of Avicennia found in India. He reported and illustrated it as

A. alba Blume. He has denoted oblong elliptic-lanceolate

leaves, acute at both ends, capitate flowers, and ovary densely

hairy at apex as the marked features of the species. However,

he has not described the fruit of this species. According to

standard literature available, oblong lanceolate to lanceolate

leaves, and ellipsoid or obliquely conic fruits are important

characters of the species from the point of identification.

Hooker (1885) has reported A. officinalis from India.

Instead of ranking A. alba as a separate species, he has

documented it as a variety of A. officinalis and denoted it as

A. officinalis var. alba. According to Hooker (1885)

lanceolate leaves and short style or absence of style are the

marked characters of this variety.

Talbot (1894) has reported a single species of

Avicennia, i.e., A. officinalis from Bombay Presidency. He

has reported A. alba along with A. officinalis in his forest

FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY (Talbot 1911). He has

mentioned ovoid capsules as one of the prominent characters

for A. alba, which does not match with the ellipsoid or

obliquely conic fruits of A. alba mentioned in standard

literature. Ovoid capsule is on the other hand the marked

feature of A. marina and not of A. alba. Moldenke (1967)

has accepted that the figure given by Talbot ( 1 9 1 1 ) is actually

a representation of A. marina (Forsk.) Vierh. He further added

that A. marina has been misidentified and deposited in

herbaria as A. alba and vice-versa several times (Moldenke

1975).

Cooke (1967) has also located A. officinalis and

A. alba in the Presidency of Bombay like that of Talbot

(191 1). He too has wrongly described A. alba with an ovoid

capsule. Taking into consideration, the above mentioned

errors, it eventually proves that the vegetation in Bombay

Presidency, which includes Maharashtra and Goa, is of

A. marina and not of A. alba.

It is well-known that A. marina exhibits a wide range

of morphological variations, especially in its habit and leaf

shape. It also possesses higher degree of anomalies (Shaikh

and Chavan 2010). These factors may lead to a misapplication

of name to this species. A. marina and A. alba share some

common characters such as actinomorphic flowers, short

inserted stamens, hairy upper half of the ovary and short or

nearly absent style. Hence, oblong-lanceolate leaves and

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS OF FAMILY AVICENNIACEAE FROM MAHARASHTRA AND GOA

jti y ♦♦

Fig. 2: Tricky fruits of A. officinalis

ellipsoid or obliquely conical fruits are the only characters

that distinguish A. alba from A. marina. During the present

survey, such kinds of fruits and leaves were not seen on the

coast of Maharashtra and Goa; instead the fruits here were

ovoid, which is the distinctive character of A. marina.

A. alba is reported to have hypocotylar hairs with

hooked tips, which is a marked feature in its identification

(Moldenke 1960, 1967; Tomlinson 1986). During the present

investigation, hypocotylar hair of the vegetation was studied

carefully and it was observed that their tips are not hooked,

instead, they are straight (Fig. 1). It clearly points out that

there is no presence of A. alba among the present vegetation

on these coasts.

Yet some recent literature (Singh et al. 2001; Bhosale

2005) have documented A. alba from the coast of

Maharashtra. According to Almeida (2003), Wight and Cooke

were perhaps responsible for misidentifying the plants from

Maharashtra. He adds that later literature has reported A. alba

on the authority of Cooke (1967), which is a wrong record.

Present field observations strongly support this fact. Regional

literatures for Maharashtra and Goa (Vartak 1966; Rao 1986;

Kulkami 1988; Kothari and Moorthy 1993) have no records

of the occurrence of A. alba.

The specimens of Avicennia sp. deposited in the

herbarium of Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle,

Pune, were critically studied for species confirmation. The

study revealed that material deposited as A. alba represents

characters of A. marina. Some experts have re-identified and

labelled many herbarium specimens as A. marina var.

acutissima, formerly named A. alba. There are very few

specimens that distinctly show the features of A. alba, such

as oblong-lanceolate leaves, but these were collected from

localities such as Saurashtra and Kachchh on the coast of

Gujarat. Unfortunately, the fruit, a peculiar character of

the species is not at all preserved in any herbarium specimen.

Almost all the material of A. officinalis is correctly identified.

Fruits are also preserved in some herbarium specimens

of A. officinalis. The study led to the conclusion that the

material in the herbarium which was deposited from

Maharashtra and Goa is composed of A. marina and

A. officinalis only.

Similarly, controversies are also evident regarding the

varieties of A. marina. Several varieties have been recognized,

but morphological distinction is never clear and major

segregation is geographic (Tomlinson 1986). Hence, without

precise morphometry on widely separated populations, it is

hardly possible to provide keys with reliable diagnostic

characters.

Two varieties of A. marina are found to be present on

the coast of Maharashtra, according to literature (Singh et al.

2001; Bhosale 2005). These are A. marina var. acutissima

Staf. & Moldenke ex Moldenke and A. marina var. resinifera

(Forst.) Bakh. A. marina var. acutissima has been given a

rank of variety on the basis of its decidedly acute or acuminate

leaf apex. As per present observations, on the coast of

Maharashtra and Goa, every population of A. marina shows

acute or acuminate apex of leaves. According to the authors

of this variety, it is restricted to the vicinity of Bombay (now

Mumbai). But, Almeida (2003) could not segregate this from

the material collected from Bombay. This clearly indicates

that the character stated above is not sufficient to designate

the population as a separate variety.

Acute and acuminate leaf apices are also reported in

A. marina var. resinifera (Tomlinson 1986). This is a matter

of perplexity and needs critical morphometric observations

as a solution.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS OF FAMILY AVICENNIACEAE FROM MAHARASHTRA AND GOA

Hist. Soc, 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS OF FAMILY AVICENNIACEAE FROM MAHARASHTRA AND GOA

Fig. 3: The confusing characters of fruits in species of Avicennia

3a. perplexity in appearance of fruits

3b. trichomes on cotyledon surface of A. marina

3c. nature of Hypocotyl - a prominant identification mark

(A: A. marina, B: A. officinalis)

The upper half of the ovary is said to be hairy in

A. marina var. resinifera (Moldenke 1960; Tomlinson 1986).

During the present work, it was noticed that all the populations

of A. marina on the coast of Maharashtra and Goa show the

upper half of ovary as hairy. These populations exhibit a vast

range in the shapes and sizes of leaves although. Hence, the

acute or acuminate leaf apices and upper half hairy portion

of the ovary should be considered as the features of A. marina

(A. marina sensu lato). Thus, A. marina complex on these

coasts should be considered as a single taxon. The ecological

or regional varieties may come out of this complex only after

prompt morphometric studies. Such scrutinized study for

Maharashtra and Goa is in progress. The process of

identification of any species or variety should not be biased,

i.e., one must not rely on a single character of the concerned

species or variety, instead multiple characters should be

considered, as this will help to avoid unnecessary confusions.

Table 1 depicts diagnostic features of Avicennia sp. from India

and helps for proper identification. A comprehensive key is

also provided for identification in field.

Thus, a thorough review of literature, prompt herbarium

studies and critical field observations show that the

Avicenniaceae in Maharashtra and Goa comprise of two

species, namely A. marina complex and A. officinalis.

Occurrence of A. alba is not found on these coasts.

Among the existing species, i.e., A. marina and

A. officinalis, few tricking observations were recorded during

the present study, which may create confusion in their

identification if not analyzed well.

It is observed, on the coast of Maharashtra and Goa,

that a few A. officinalis populations produce fruits which are

obliquely conic in shape at the early development stages

(Fig. 2). This particular shape occurs in A. alba. In such cases,

a keen observation of the leaf and floral characters will avoid

the confusion and resultantly wrong identification.

Besides, there arises another confusion regarding fruit

shape and appearance. In case of A. marina, among some of

its populations, the fruits resemble that of A. officinalis to a

great extent. It is a rare case of course, but it also might mislead

one regarding the identification. There are a few characters

of the fruit, except the shape, which are strong enough to

distinguish these two species (Fig. 3). In the fruit of A. marina,

the surface of the outer cotyledon at the radical emergence

facet bears multicellular silvery white trichomes with a

pointed tip; this is absent in A. officinalis.

The fruits contain highly developed embryo in

Avicennia species (Moldenke 1960). The hypocotyl in the

fruit A. officinalis bears golden brown hairs throughout its

length. But, in A. marina the hypocotyl is glabrous except at

its base and the site of cotyledon attachment where silvery

white hairs are seen. These are the additional characters that

aptly befit for correct identification of the species.

Key to the species of Avicennia in India

1 . Leaf blades usually whitish or silvery beneath, usually sharply

acute at apex, ovary hairy at apex and glabrous below, mature

fruit beakless . 2

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS OF FAMILY AVICENNIACEAE FROM MAHARASHTRA AND GOA

Leaf blades usually not whitish or silvery beneath, obovate or

broadly oblong with rounded apex, ovary hairy throughout,

capsule broadly ovate or amygdaloidal with distinct beak. ..

. . . . . Avicennia officinalis L.

Leaves oblong lanceolate to lanceolate, cymes spicate, capsule

ellipsoid or obliquely conic . Avicennia alba Blume

Leaves varying from ovate or lanceolate to lanceolate-oblong

or elliptic, cymes capitate or subcapitate, capsule ovoid .

. . . . . Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Head, Department of Botany,

Shivaji University, Kolhapur, for providing the necessary

facilities and authorities of UGC-DRS-I-SAP for

availing the financial support for field survey. We

also gratefully acknowledge Prof. L.J. Bhosale and

Dr. M.V. Gokhale for the fruitful discussions on this piece

of work.

REFERENCES

Almeida, M.R. (2003): Flora of Maharashtra. St. Xavier’s College,

Mumbai. Vol. 4: 106.

Bakhuizen van den Brink, R.C. (1921): Revisio generic Avicenniae.

Bull. Jard. Bot. Bui. Tenz ■ Series 3, 3(2): 199-226.

Banerjee, L.K., A.R.K. Sastry & M.R Nayar (1989): Mangroves in

India: Identification Manual. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Bhosale, L.J. (2005): Field Guide to Mangroves of Maharashtra. Shivaji

University, Kolhapur (MS) India. Pp. 194-210.

Blume, C.L. (1825): Bijdragen tot de flora van Nederlandsch Indie.

Batavia: Ter Lands Drukkerij. Pp. 821.

Cooke, T. (1967): The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta, India. Pp. 453-436.

Duke, N.C. (1990): Morphological variation in the mangrove genus

Avicennia in Australia: Systematic and ecological consideration.

Aust. Sys. Bot. 3: 221-239.

Duke, N.C. (1991): A systematic revision of the mangrove genus

Avicennia (Avicenniaceae) in Australasia. Aust. Syst. Bot. 4:

299-324.

Duke, N.C. (1992): Mangrove floristics and biogeography. Pp. 63-100.

In: Robertson, A. I. & D.M. Alongi (Eds): Tropical Mangrove

Ecosystem. Coastal Estuarine Stud. Ser. 41. American

Geophysical Union, Washington, DC.

Duke, N.C., J.A.H. Benzie, J.A. Goodall & E.R. Ballment (1998):

Genetic structure and evolution of species in the mangrove genus

Avicennia (Avicenniaceae) in the Indo-West Pacific. Evolution

52(6): 1612-1626.

Forskal, P. (1775): Flora of Aegyptiaco-Arabica 2: 37 Hauniae

(Copenhagen): ex Officina Moiled.

Hooker, J.D. (1885): The Flora of British India. Vol. 4. Reeve and

Company, London.

Karthikeyan, S., M. Sanjappa & S. Moorthy (2009): Flowering Plants

of India -Dicotyledons. Vol. 1 (Acanthaceae to Avicenniaceae).

Pp. 299. Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, India.

Kathiresan, K. & N. Rajendran (2005): Mangrove ecosystems of the

Indian Ocean region. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 34(1): 104-113.

Kothari, M.J. & S. Moorthy (1993): Flora of Raigad district,

Maharashtra state. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, India.

Pp. 314-315.

Kulkarni, B.G (1988): Flora of Sindhudurg district. Pp. 343. Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta, India.

Linnaeus, C. (1753): Species Plantarum. Stockholm: Holmiae.

Pp. 110-111.

Lynch, P.A. (1973): A note on the taxonomy of Avicennia in

New Zealand. TANE20: 243-244.

Moldenke, H.N. (1960): Materials towards a monograph of the genus

Avicennia L. 1 and 2. Phytologia 7: 123-168, 179-252, 259-263.

Moldenke, H.N. (1967): Additional notes on the genus Avicennia.

1 and 2. Phytologia 14: 103-120, 326-336.

Moldenke, H.N. (1975): Additional notes on the genus Avicennia.

5 and 6. Phytologia 32: 343-370, 436-457.

Moldenke, H.N. (1980): A sixth summary of the Verbenaceae,

Avicenniaceae, Stilbaceae, Chloanthaceae, Symphoremaceae,

Nyctanthaceae and Eriocaulaceae of the World as to valid taxa,

geographic distribution and synonyms. Phytologia Memories

2: 258.

Percival, M. & J.S. Womersley (1975): Floristics and Ecology of the

Mangrove Vegetation of Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea

National Herbarium, Department of Forests, LAE.

Rao, S.R. (1986): Flora of Goa, Diu, Daman, Dadara and Nagar Haveli.

Vol. 2. Pp. 334-335. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Shaikh, S.S. & N.S. Chavan (2010): Morphological anomalies in the

species of a mangrove genus Avicennia L. along the coast of

Maharashtra and Goa states of India. The Ecoscan 4(1): 77-80.

Singh, N.P., P. Lakshminarasimhan, S. Karthikeyan & P.V. Prasanna

(2001): Flora of Maharashtra state - Dicotyledons: Vol. 2.

Pp. 708-709. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, India.

Soto, R. & L.F. Corralles (1987): Variacion de algunas caracteristicas

foliares de Avicennia germinans (L.) L. (Avicenniaceae) en un

gradiente climatico y de salinidad. Rev. Biol. Trop. 35: 245-256.

Soto, R. (1988): Geometry, biomass allocation and life-span of

Avicennia germinans (L.) L. (Avicenniaceae) along a salinity

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309-323.

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Talbot, W.A. (1911): Forest Flora of the Bombay Presidency and Sind.

Vol. 2 (Rhizophoraceae to Gramineae). Pp. 361-364. Bishan

Singh Mahendrapal Singh, Dehradun and Periodical Experts,

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India.

Watson, J.G. (1928): Verbinaceae - the genus Avicennia. Mangrove

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 108(1), Jan-Apr 2011

8-11

SURVEY OF ISOLATED POPULATIONS OF THE NILGIRI TAHR

NILGIRITRAGUS HYLOCRIUS (OGILBY) IN KERALA, INDIA

Sharon Vergis1,3, Jean-Philippe Puyravaud2, Pratheesh C. Mammen1'4 and Priya Davidar1’5

‘Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, R. Venkataraman Nagar, Kalapet,

Puducherry 605 014, India.

2ECOS, 9A, Frederic Ozanam Street, Colas Nagar, Puducherry 605 001, India. Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

“Email: [email protected]

5Email: [email protected]

We conducted a survey in Kerala from December 2009 to March 201 0 to document Nilgiri Tahr Nilgiritragus hylocrius

(Ogilby) populations in fourteen sites that ranged from Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary in the southern Western Ghats to

Silent Valley, north of the Palghat Gap. The total sightings of the Nilgiri Tahr over the course of the survey were

235 animals, of which yearlings and kids constituted 12%. Information from local sources indicated an estimate of

about 500 in the area covered. The largest population of 76 animals was recorded in Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary,

besides small numbers in 8 sites. There were no sightings in Parambikulam Tiger Reserve and Siruvani hills. Habitat

loss, due to colonization of grasslands by forests and plantation trees, was the major threat that affected all the sites to

differing degrees. Human disturbance, accessibility, tourism, and poaching were other threats. Habitat management

and stringent protection is critical for the long term viability of the Nilgiri Tahr.

Key words: Endangered species, India, Kerala, Nilgiritragus hylocrius, Nilgiri Tahr, small populations, Western Ghats

INTRODUCTION

The Nilgiri Tahr Nilgiritragus hylocrius (Ogilby) is an

endangered mountain ungulate endemic to the Western Ghats

with a distributional range of about 400 sq. km, in the southern

Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. From the first

systematic census in the Nilgiris, where 292 animals were

sighted (Davidar 1963), it was already clear that poaching,

human presence, and plantations were a threat to this animal.

The first map of the Nilgiri Tahr range was outlined by

Schaller (1970) who visually recorded 640 animals in several

areas he visited and estimated their total number to be less

than 1,500. Between 1975 and 1978, Davidar (1978) surveyed

most of the species’ range and estimated the total number

at 2,230, in 17 areas. Later, Rice (1984) noted that of the

17 sites in which the Nilgiri Tahr has been recorded, only

two supported populations of over 100 animals. The largest

population is found in Eravikulam National Park (NP), in

Kerala. The number of Tahr in this place remained relatively

stable: 500 according to Schaller (1970), 700 according to

Davidar (1978) and 696 according to Abraham et al. (2006).

The second largest population in the Nilgiris was originally

estimated to be about 300 in 1969 (Schaller 1970) and around

450 between 1975 and 1978 (Davidar 1978), and since appears

to have declined in the 1990s (Sumitran 1997). Other

population assessments have been by Mishra and Johnsingh

(1998), who estimated about 1,400 animals in Kerala,

including Eravikulam NP. Alembath (2002) in his study in

Periyar Tiger Reserve (TR) recorded 16 animals in the

Mangaladevi region, and Abraham et al. (2006) in their most

recent survey in 2001 stated that the tahr population in Kerala

was highly fragmented, and estimated a population of

998 animals. Our present objective was to survey the areas

with smaller populations in Kerala, as they are at a greater

risk of extinction.

METHODS

The survey was carried out from December 2009 to

March 2010. Fourteen sites were visited (Table 1). The sites

ranged from Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) in southern

Western Ghats at 08° 33' N to Silent Valley at 1 1° 12' N. The

sites ranged in altitudes from 820 m above msl in Ponmudi

to 2,420 m above msl in Munnar in the high ranges (Fig. 1).

Direct sightings, pellets, hoof marks, urine stains,

presence of fire were recorded during the study. An effort

was made to identify the herd structure and classify them by

age and sex with the help of binoculars. This information

was corroborated with supporting information from local

sources and naturalists. The geographic coordinates of the

site, altitude, level of access by roads, indications of human

disturbances and poaching were noted.

The herd size and composition were noted when

possible using guidelines by Rice (1984): (i) Young: age

0-1 years, grey brown or light brown coat; (ii) Yearling: age

1-2 years, grey brown coat. Intermediate in size between

young and adult females; (iii) Adults: since the males and

females could not be differentiated because of lack of powerful

SURVEY OF ISOLATED POPULATIONS OF THE NILGIRI TAHR IN KERALA

binoculars, we classified them generally as adults; (iv) Saddle

back (male): age 6+ years. Dark brown coat, with an area of

light brown white or silvery hair covering the lower back

rump and or flanks. Carpal patches white.

The level of disturbance caused by humans, poaching,

impact of tourism and habitat losses were considered to be

potential threats and ranked as 0 (nil), 1 (low), 2 (medium),

3 (high) and 4 (very high). No actual measurement was made

on these variables. However, disturbance reflected distance

to the nearest road/habitation, poaching assessment was based

on witness accounts, impact of tourism was ranked according

to the presence or sign of presence of visitors, and habitat

loss was estimated from age of plantations and informal

questions to villagers. We used Spearman’s Rank correlation

to look at the association between levels of disturbance with

tourism, poaching, road access and habitat quality. The

analysis was conducted using Systat (SPSS 2000).

RESULTS

The total sightings of the Nilgiri Tahr over the course

of the survey were 235 animals, of which the largest category

was not classified to age or sex (Table 2). On the whole young

animals, which are easier to classify, constituted 12% of the

population, which indicates a healthy replacement level.

Information from local sources suggests that there could be

Table 1: Details of the sites surveyed

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011 9

SURVEY OF ISOLATED POPULATIONS OF THE NILGIRI TAHR IN KERALA

about 500 animals in the area surveyed.

The largest population of Nilgiri Tahr was recorded in

Neyyar WLS (Table 2). Other sites with populations over

40 animals were in Munnar and Kurisumalai-hill top in

Nelliampathy. Small herds were sighted in Mangaladevi in

Periyar TR, Mampara and Minnampara in Nelliampathy,

and Neelikal and Vannampara in the Silent Valley NP.

No tahrs were sighted in Parambikulam TR and Siruvani hills

(Table 2).

Habitat loss was the major threat overall, both in

occurrence and intensity. Habitat loss affected all the sites to

differing degrees (Table 3). It was a major threat in

Parambikulam TR and Silent Valley NP and to a lesser threat

in Neyyar WLS, Kochu Pamba, Periyar, and Elival Malai in

the Siruvani hills, and Ankinda Malai in Silent Valley NP

(Table 3). Habitat loss is caused by loss of grasslands due to

expansion of forests or monoculture plantations.

Levels of human disturbance were highest in Ponmudi

RF and in Mampara and Minnampara in Nelliampathy. The

Neyyar WLS, Kochu Pamba RF, and Ankinda Malai in the

Silent Valley NP were fairly undisturbed (Table 3). An

indicator of human disturbance was the presence of motorable

roads <1 km from the tahr habitat. Sites in Neyyar WLS,

Parambikulam TR and Silent Valley NP had low levels of

human disturbance. Tourism and poaching were other major

threats and were highly correlated with human disturbance

(Table 3). Human disturbance levels were positively

correlated with increasing levels of poaching (r =0.50, n=15,

p<0.05), tourism (rs=0.68, n=15, p<0.05), and negatively

Table 2: Number of Nilgiri Tahr sighted in the different sites

SB: Saddle back, Adult: male and female, YLNG: yearling, K: kid,

Ul: unidentified

Table 3: Estimates of threat levels due to different causes

correlated to distance from the nearest town (r=0.52, n=15,

p<0.05). Accessibility by roads (km) was positively correlated

with tourism threat (r =0.48, n=15, p<0.05).

Poaching was detected in all sites except Kochu Pamba

RF, Pandavarai in Parambikulam TR and Ankinda Malai in

the Silent Valley NP (Table 3). Unregulated tourism was a

threat in most of the sites except Neyyar WLS, Siruvani hills

and Silent Valley NP. Motorable roads increased access to

the sites and increased levels of human disturbance, tourism

and poaching.

DISCUSSION

This survey indicates that most of the small populations

of the Nilgiri Tahr in Kerala are under threat. We recorded

235 Nilgiri Tahr in 14 locations in Kerala. These were areas

that had been surveyed earlier (Davidar 1978; Abraham et

al. 2006). Of the 14, only three sites, Neyyar WLS, Munnar

hills and Kurisumalai-hill top in Nelliampathy, held over

40 tahr. Most of the records were of one small herd. In some

places, we did not see any animals. Parambikulam TR and

Siruvani hills are sites where tahr had been recorded earlier,

but none were sighted during this survey (Davidar 1978;

Abraham et al. 2006).

Upon evaluating the levels of threat in each site, we

found that the highest threat level was due to habitat loss.

Habitat loss is due to the decrease of grasslands because of

natural expansion of forests, or due to the installation of

10

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

SURVEY OF ISOLATED POPULATIONS OF THE NILGIRI TAHR IN KERALA

monoculture plantations in the grasslands. One of the reasons

for the forest expansion could be because of lack of fire in

the grasslands. However, this has to be tested with

experimental fires at the earliest so that the loss of tahr habitat

could be reversed.

In some sites, we did not record any tahr; for example,

Davidar (1978) and Abraham et al. (2006) recorded 22 tahr

and 4 tahr (2 adults and 2 yearlings), respectively in

Pandavarai in Parambikulam TR. In Karimala Gopuram,

which lies inside Parambikulam TR, Davidar (1978) reported

120 animals in the 1970s, Abraham et al. (2006) recorded

nine animals: five adult females and four subadults in 2001.

We did not see any animals, but few signs of tahr such as

pellets were sighted. Davidar (1978) estimated a population

of 20-25 animals in Vengoli, and Abraham et al. (2006)

recorded one saddleback. The status of the Vengoli population

is unclear. This population moves between Kerala and

Valparai in Tamil Nadu. There were no recent sightings of

tahr in this area according to local sources and prior surveys

(Mammen pers. comm.). Senior tribal forest guards informed

us that the forests had overgrown the tahr habitats due to lack

of fire, which could have negatively affected the tahr

populations, since they become more susceptible to ambush

by predators such as tigers and leopards. Tribal sources also

informed us that the grasslands were more extensive decades

ago in Parambikulam-Thunakadavu area and due to forest

incursion, much of the tahr habitat had been lost. Levels of

human disturbance were highest in Ponmudi RF, and in

Mampara and Minnampara in the Nelliampathy. Private

estates and unresolved claims over land ownership pose severe

threat to the existence of tahr in Mampara and Minnampara.

In the Siruvani hills, we did not record any tahr, but

fresh and old pellets were noted. Earlier surveys by Abraham

et al. (2006) had recorded 1 1 animals in Elival malai, and

signs of a larger population in Kunjara malai.

The population in Nelliampathy seems more stable and

we recorded about 50 animals in Kurisimala-hill top, whereas

Abraham et al. (2006) had recorded 37. However, levels of

human disturbance remain high, and in the past (Abraham et

al. 2006) livestock grazing and poaching appear to be major

threats.

Overall the young tahr constituted 12% of the

population, which indicates that there is a healthy replacement

of population. However, it is important to note that habitat

loss is a major threat, and roads which facilitate easy access

to tourists, and pilgrimage centres within Nilgiri Tahr habitats

will increase the pressure on the habitat and will ultimately

lead to the decline and eventual extinction of small vulnerable

populations of this highly endangered mountain ungulate.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Kerala Forest Department gave permissions

for this survey, and we particularly thank the Principal

Chief Conservator of Forests, Shri Manoharan and

Shri K.P. Ouseph, IFS, Chief Wildlife Warden, Kerala Forest

Department. Shri Saby Varghese, Wildlife Warden, Idukki,

officials and staff of the Kerala Forest Department extended

their help throughout the work. We thank Dr. George Schaller

for providing inspiration and support for this study.

REFERENCES

Abraham, K.S., P.S. Easa & N. Sivaram (2006): Status and distribution

of Nilgiri Tahr in Kerala part of the Western Ghats (Field Report).

Zoos’ Print Journal 21(9): 2379-2385.

Alembath, M. (2002): Distribution and Abundance of Nilgiri Tahr

(Hemitragus hylocrius Ogilby) in Periyar Tiger Reserve.

Unpublished research report.

Davidar, E.R.C. (1963): Census of the Nilgiri Tahr ( Hemitragus

hylocrius Ogilby) in the Nilgiris. J. Bombay. Nat. Hist. Soc. 60( 1 ):

251-252.

Davidar, E.R.C. (1978): Distribution and status of the Nilgiri Tahr

( Hemitragus hylocrius) 1975-78. J. Bombay. Nat. Hist. Soc.

75(3): 815-844.

Mishra, C. & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1998): Population and conservation

status of the Nilgiri Tahr Hemitragus hylocrius in Anamalai Hills,

south India. Biol. Cons. 86(2): 199-206.

Rice, C.G. (1984): The behaviour and ecology of Nilgiri Tahr

(Hemitragus hylocrius Ogilby, 1838). Ph.D. thesis, Graduate

College of Texas A&M University, Texas.

Schaller, G.B. (1970): Observations on Nilgiri Tahr ( Hemitragus

hylocrius Ogilby, 1838). J. Bombay. Nat. Hist. Soc. 67(3):

365-389.

SPSS Inc. (2000): Systat 2000, Version 10. SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL,

USA.

Sumitran, S. (1997): Status and ecology of the Nilgiri Tahr in the

Mukurthi National Park, South India. Ph.D. thesis, Virginia Tech,

Blacksburg, VA.

3. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

11

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 108(1), Jan-Apr 2011

12-17

PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL IMPACT ON MARINE BENTHIC POLYCHAETES

DUE TO DREDGING IN THE MORMUGAO HARBOUR, GOA AND

ITS RESTORATION AFTER DREDGING

VlJAYAKUMAR RATHOD1

'National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 403 004, India. Email: [email protected]

Recolonization of benthos following dredging operations was studied in Mormugao Port Trust Harbour, Goa. Six

stations were fixed for sampling within the radius of the dredging site. Three samples each were collected during

dredging and after dredging. The proportion of gravel in the sediment of the dredged site increased after dredging,

while that of organic matter decreased. The impact on community was estimated at species level, using both univariate

and multivariate analyses. Maximum negative effect was observed during dredging where a reduction by 60-70% on

macrofauna was evident. Within six weeks after dredging the density of the polychaete Clymene annadalei increased

in the dredging site, while typical ‘opportunistic’ species such as Capitella capitata was not favoured by dredging.

Favourable condition for resettlement of benthic communities is probably available in about four months.

Key words: Recolonization, dredging, benthos, harbour, impact

INTRODUCTION

Dredging operations in harbours are long-established

human-induced disturbances. The impact of dredging is often

considered to be similar to trawling as both are towed across

the surface sediments where they are likely to damage the

organisms near the surface (Morton 1977). These topographic

changes persist longer in deeper and more sheltered waters,

which are less exposed to wave action (Jones 1992). Impact

of dredging/fishing has been well-documented; however,

biological impacts are particularly difficult to investigate

because of the complexity of benthic communities and

our limited knowledge of its natural variability (Gislason

1994). Dredging reduces seagrass abundance and

replaces the habitats to unvegetated sand flats (Peterson

etal. 1987).

These anthropogenic perturbations usually drastically

reduce the benthic population and temporarily change the

environmental abiotic features (Pranovi etal. 1998). Spatio-

temporal variations in abiotic and biotic parameters in this

estuarine system are affected by tropical monsoon; riverine

and tidal flows make them ecologically complex system

(Harkantra 1975; Parulekar etal. 1980; Qasim and Sen Gupta

1981; Harkantra and Parulekar 1985; Rathod et al. 1991;

Shetye etal. 1995)

Although the effect of dredging and disposal of dredged

material have been relatively well-documented (Giovanardi

etal. 1998; Lewis etal. 2001), subsequent recolonisation is

a site-specific process, with both time and spatial scale

involved. Further, recolonization depends upon the local

hydrodynamic and sedimentary conditions (Guerra-Garcia

et al. 2003). In most dredging instances, the magnitude and

locations govern the impact of possible ecological

disturbances. Existence of control sites with similar sediment

characteristics, depth and benthic community to the dredge

site is not always easy to find, and this restricts the accuracy

of many studies.

The objective of this study was to examine the impact

of dredging on benthic community, sediment characteristics,

decolonization and possible reason to evaluate the

effectiveness of recovery in a tropical harbour.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study area - Mormugao Port - is located at the

mouth of river Zuari (15°25' N; 73° 47’ E; Fig. 1). The harbour

is located between two bays connected by a channel, which

is 4.6 km long with increased water movements across and

around the middle of the harbour. It is one of the six important

major ports along the west coast of India. In early 1950, it

handled limited cargo, whereas today major developmental

changes have taken place and the harbour handles substantial

quantities of cargo, ore and oil. It is characterized by intense

shipping traffic, and frequent loading and dumping is

involved in shipping operations. Existence of vast iron ore

reserves in Goa helped to grow into a major export harbour

having an annual traffic of over 14 million tons. The depth

in the harbour ranges between 3 to 14 m.

The annual siltation in the channel, which mostly occurs

during monsoon is about 34 lakhs cu. m. With the changes in

shipping trends the approach channel requires to be deepened

and continuously maintained to a desirable depth to cater to

deep draft- vessels, such as oil tankers, bulk cargo vessels and

ore carriers.

IMPACT OF DREDGING ON MARINE BENTHIC POLYCHAETES IN THE MORMUGAO HARBOUR AND ITS RESTORATION

Table 1: Species density n/0.04 sq. m (average of triplicate samples) at different sites and months

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011 13

IMPACT OF DREDGING ON MARINE BENTHIC POLYCHAETES IN THE MORMUGAO HARBOUR AND ITS RESTORATION

In the Mormugao Harbour, dredging was carried out

in the approach channel, turning circle, and mooring buoy

berths (Fig. 1). Port Authority began dredging soon after our

first sampling (pre-dredging sample), i.e., at the end of April.

Samples were collected before, during and after dredging

between April and October 2009. Seven stations were fixed.

Stations, 1-5 were within 100-200 m radius of the dredging

area, and Station 6 and Station 7 at 5 km and 7 km respectively.

The seventh station was a dumping yard. Samples collected

in April were considered as baseline data. Three samples were

obtained from each site with a van Veen grab; sediment

penetration was never less than 20 cm. Sediment samples

from the grab were preserved in 10% formalin in sea water

and Rose Bengal stain mix. Later, these samples were sieved

through 0.5 mm mesh size; samples retained on the sieve

were transferred to plastic containers and preserved in 5%

formalin in sea water (Eleftheriou and Holme 1984).

Macrofauna were identified at species level and each species

was counted under the stereo zoom microscope. Population

density was converted to 0.04 sq. m. One grab was used for

analyzing sedimentary characteristics and organic matter

analyses following standard procedures. The organic matter

obtained from samples of sediment previously dried at

100 °C over 24 hour, was analysed by ashing to 500 °C

(Eleftheriou and Holme 1984). Granulometry was determined

by Buchanan and Kain’s method (Buchanan and Kain 1984).

Univarite analyses provided the total number of species,

total abundance, Shannon- Weiner diversity and Pielou’s

evenness indices (Shannon and Weaver 1963; Pielou 1966),

and the Margalef index (Margalef 1958). Using the values of

the triplicates (0.04 sq. m), the possible variations of these

community descriptors were tested with one-way ANQVA,

after verifying normality using the Kolmogorov-Smimov test

and Bartlett test for homogeneity of variances.

RESULTS

The data for environmental parameters is presented in

Fig. 2 a and b. The macrobenthic organisms because of their

limited mobility form an important indicator of the prevailing

environmental conditions in a locality. They play an important

role in biogeochemical processes, pollutant metabolism, and

secondary production (Snelgrove 1998). Earlier studies have

suggested that benthic fauna of a dredged area differs from

that of a non-dredged area with respect to species composition

(Newell etal 1998).

Table 1 shows spatio-temporal distribution of benthic

polychaete species. The fauna was composed mainly of

polychaetes and dominated by Prionospio pinnata followed

by Clymene annadalei. During the present study, eight species

were recorded among the local benthic fauna. Species density

varied with sites and months; density of Prionospio pinnata

146.6/0.04 sq. m (station 2) being highest, which was recorded

in October (Table 1). This indicates the small scale spatio-

temporal heterogeneous variation of soft-bottom dwelling

macro-invertebrates (polychaeta). This could be attributed to

the perturbation in the environment due to dredging. The

abundance, number of species, species richness, evenness

and indices started to re-adjust 42 days after dredging

(Figs 3 a-e). After dredging, polychaetes, especially Clymene

14

J. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc, 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

IMPACT OF DREDGING ON MARINE BENTHIC PQLYCHAETES IN THE MORMUGAO HARBOUR AND ITS RESTORATION

a

16 b

14

12

10

2 8

6

4

2

0

April May June August October

Fig. 2: (a) Sediment granulometry (b) organic matter

Values are averages of 6 samples taken during April-October.

Median grain size ranges Gravel: 2 mm; gross-very gross sand:

0.2-2 mm; medium sand: 0.25-0.5 mm; fine-very fine sand: 0.065-

0.25 mm; silt-clay: Me < 0.065 mm. Organic matter mean values

with standard error.

annadalei, drastically increased in the dredged site, while

opportunistic species, such as Capitella capitata, were present

in low abundance (Table 1).

Table 2 represents species diversity index, evenness and

richness. The result of two-way ANOVA between stations and

Table 2: F-ratios obtained through Two-way analysis of variance

(ANOVA) between stations and between species

species in different months (Table 2) showed significant

differences for all variables. The result of 1-way ANOVA of

macrofaunal abundance showed variation between sampling

months and stations. Abundance of macrofauna was not very

rich during May and June. A positive and significant relation

between the species and non-significant relations between

stations were found in April, August and October. April and

October also show no significant variation indicating that the

community has returned to pre-dredging values.

DISCUSSION

This study documents the impact of dredging operations

on a soft-bottom community by the changed sediment structure

as well as by the depletion of organic matter. Dredging caused

initial decrease in macrofaunal abundance, biomass and species

number. Similar studies have been reported by Lopez-Jamar

and Mejuto (1988) and Guerra-Garcia et al. (2003) from

elsewhere. A number of species, especially burrowing

polychaetes and fragile groups, such as nemerteans, were

probably killed and cut by dredging. Others may have been

affected by high turbidity, high rates of sedimentation, or were

buried when depressions were filled (Black and Parry 1994).

Due to these changes, species diversity and individuals reduced

to 80-90%. As per Newell etal. (1998), diversity is expected to

reduce by 30-70% and species abundance by 40-90%. In the

present study, the macrofaunal community showed quick

recovery (4 months). Recovery of lost community in a dredged

area may take a few days to years depending upon the intensity

of dredging, the hydrodynamic condition of the dredged area,

sediment texture and macrofaunal community (Pranovi et al.

1998).

Changes in relative distribution of major benthic groups

following dredging abatement have been noted earlier

(Johnson and Nelson 1985; Hily and Glemarec 1990).

However, these do not appear to follow a consistent pattern,

and are presumably habitat and community specific. In

addition, it has been noted that certain taxonomic groups

appear to be more affected by dredging than other groups

(Morton 1996), although this may be habitat, location and/or

community specific.

Macrobenthic community was recorded after cessation

of dredging. This is in contrast to many studies, which report

a near complete defaunation in active dredging areas (Johnson

1981). The formation of undisturbed “hummocks” of

undredged material during dredging have a high biological

significance in the process of repopulation by the indigenous

benthic community within the dredged area (McCauley et al.

1977). This recolonization results from the migration of adults

or by larval establishment (McCauley et al. 1977). Zajac et

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

15

Density (IT) Evenness(J) Species richness Number of species Abundance

IMPACT OF DREDGING ON MARINE BENTHIC POLYCHAETES IN THE MORMUGAO HARBOUR AND ITS RESTORATION

a

1200-

Fig. 3: Trend of abundance (a) species number, (b) species

richness, (c) species evenness and species diversity (d) during

different months during the study period.

Mean values and standards errors are included

Black, K.P. & G.D. Parry (1994): Sediment transport rates and sediment

disturbance due to scallop dredging in Port Philip Bay. Mem

Queensl Mus. 36: 327-341.

Buchanan, J.D. & J.M. Kain (1984): Measurement of the physical

and chemical environment. Pp. 30-50. In: Holme, N.L. &

A.D. McIntyre (Eds): Methods for the study of marine benthos.

al. (1998) pointed out that the relative combination of factors

controlling re-colonization and successional process may be

different depending on the spatial scale.

Considering the fact that Mormugao harbour is tide

dominated, with waters being well mixed, the benthic

colonization was probably through water column (larvae and

/or adults) (Guerra-Garcia et al. 2003). Further, cessation of

dredging was followed by monsoon season which facilitated

faster recolonization of the dredged site by the new recruit

from the surrounding areas.

A variety of abiotic and biotic factors, including human

perturbation (McCall 1977; Trueblood et al. 1994), affect

the benthos. The community was represented by early

colonizing species, such as the opportunistic Maldanidae

polychaete C. annadalei and P. pinnata. A major structuring

force in colonization of benthic fauna was the response of

species to resources released from sediments by periodic

disturbances (Rhoads and Boyer 1982). Biotic habitat

modification by earlier species may also enhance the

settlement of subsequent species, which suggest the

facilitative mechanism of succession that can occur in soft-

bottom communities (Zajac et al. 1982). Tropical monsoon

in estuaries brings about defaunation and drop in salinity

triggers reproduction in most benthic organisms followed

by recruitment during post monsoon season (Harkantra and

Rodrigues 2003).

The polychaete Capitella capitata is one of the most

common species known to be highly tolerant to polluted areas.

It can also be considered as one of the global opportunistic

species in disturbed marine sediment (Estacio et al. 1997;

Newell et al. 1998). In the present study, the species was

present in less abundant after dredging. The changes in

sediment characteristics and reduction in organic matter, could

have affected recolonization of C. capitata. Changes to

community structure caused by dredging were smaller and

allowed quick re-adjustment of the initial sediment structure

and benthic communities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank Dr. S.R. Shetye, Director, National Institute of

Oceanography, Goa, for encouragement and for facilities. This

is NIO contribution No. 3512.

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Benthos: Macrofauna Techniques. Pp. 140-216. In: Holme, N.A.

& A.D. McIntyre (Eds): Blackwell Scientific, London.

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J.L. Daza, F. Hortas & J.L. Gomez-Arzia (1997): Ecological

16

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

IMPACT OF DREDGING ON MARINE BENTHIC POLYCHAETES IN THE MORMUGAO HARBOUR AND ITS RESTORATION

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36-71.

McCall, P.L. (1977): Community patterns and adaptive strategies

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221-226.

McCauley, J.E., R.A. Parry & D.R. Hancock (1977): Benthic infauna

and maintenance dredging: a case study. Water Res 11: 233-242.

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disposal: a literature review. Tec. Papers. US Fish Wildl. Serv.

94: 1-33.

Morton, B. (1996): The subsidiary impacts of dredging (and trawling)

on a subtidal benthic molluscan community in the southern waters

of Hong Kong. Mar. Poll. Bull. 32(10): 701-710.

Newell, R.C., L.J. Seiderer & D.R. Hitchcock (1998): The impact of

dredging works in coastal waters: a review of the sensitivity to

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the sea bed. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. rev. 36: 127-178.

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biological collections. J. Theor. Biol. 13: 131-144.

Parulekar, A.H., V.K. Dhargalkar & S.Y.S. Singbal (1980): Benthic

studies in Goa estuaries: Part III- Annual cycle of macrofauna

distribution production and trophic relations. Indian J. Mar. Sci.

9: 189-200.

Peterson, C.H., H.C. Summerson & S.R. Fegley (1987): Ecological

consequences of mechanical harvesting of clams. Fish Bull US

85: 281-298.

Pranovi, F., O. Giovanardi & G. Franceschini (1998): Recolonization

dynamics in areas disturbed by bottom fishing gears.

Hydrobiologia 375/376: 125-135.

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the Mandovi-Zuari estuarine system in Goa, India. EstuarCoast

Shelf Sci. 13: 557-578.

Rathod, V., Z.A. Ansari & A.H. Parulekar (1991): Benthic fauna of

Kakinada bay and backwaters, east coast of India. Indian J. Mar.

Sci. 20: 195-199.

Rhoads, A.D. & L.F. Boyer (1982): The effects on marine benthos on

physical properties of sediments: A successional perspectives.

Pp. 3-52. In: McCall, P.L. & M.J.S. Tevesz (Eds): Animal-

Sediment Relations. Plenum Press, New York.

Shannon, C.E. & W. Weaver (1963): The Mathematical Theory of

Communication. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois.

117 pp.

Shetye, S.R., A.D. Gouveis, S.Y. Singbal, C.G. Naik, D. Sundar,

GS. Michael & G. Nampoothiri (1995): Propogation of tides in

Mandovi-Zuari estuarine network. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Earth

Planet. Sci.) 4: 667-682.

Snelgrove, P.V.R. (1998): The biodiversity of macrofaunal organisms

in marine sediments. Biodiversity and Conservation 7:

1123-1132.

Trueblood, D.D., E.D. Gallagher & D.M. Gould (1994): Three stages

of succession on the Savin Hill Cove mudflat, Boston Harbour.

Limnol. Ocenogr. 44: 1430-1454.

Zajac, R.N., R.B. Robert & R.B. Whitlatch (1982): Response estuarine

infauna to disturbance, II. Spatial and temporal variation of

succession. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 10: 15-27.

Zajac, R.N., R.B. Whitlatch & S.F. Thrush (1998): Recolonization

and succession in soft-sediment infaunal communities: the

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227-240.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

17

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 108(1), Jan-Apr 2011

18-23

CIRCUMSTANTIAL AND RESPONSE ATTITUDES OF PEOPLE AFFECTED

WITH LIVESTOCK DEPREDATION BY LEOPARDS PANTHERA PARDUS LINNAEUS

IN RATNAGIRI DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA

R.P. Donikar *'5, V.K. Patil2-7, S.S. Narkhede1-8, A.D. Rane3, D.N. Mokat4 and S.G Bhave1’6

‘College of Forestry, DBSKKV, Dapoli, District Ratnagiri 415 712, Maharashtra, India.

department of Natural Resource Management, College of Forestry, DBSKKV, Dapoli, District Ratnagiri 415 712, Maharashtra,

India.

department of Forest Biology and Tree Improvement, College of Forestry, DBSKKV, Dapoli, District Ratnagiri 415 712, Maharashtra,

India. Email: [email protected]

department of Forest Product Utilization, College of Forestry, DBSKKV, Dapoli, District Ratnagiri 415 712, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

5Email: [email protected]

6Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

8Email: [email protected]

Livestock depredation by carnivores has become an important hurdle in conservation of predators at the top of the food

chain. To develop feasible recommendations to minimize this conflict, it is important to learn the circumstances of the

predation events and attitudes of people. We assessed the circumstances for livestock depredation by leopards in Ratnagiri

district of Maharashtra in India. Records of Maharashtra Forest Department list 621 compensation claims during April

2004 to June 2009. Interviews of 284 affected people were conducted to collect information on the time of attack,

location and activity of livestock at the time of attack, people’s perception on the initiation and escalation of the depredation

problem, compensation programmme and people’s solution to the problem. We found that a laid-back attitude while

herding, grazing livestock in forest areas was responsible for most of the attacks. Similarly, the locals did not give enough

importance to strengthening their livestock enclosures. People perceived that the problem of depredation had started and

escalated in recent decades. Although most of them were not happy with the compensation scheme, owing to the meagre

amount they got, several affected people showed a positive attitude towards the presence of leopards in their area.

Similarly, a fairly good number of interviewed people had started adopting precautionary measures. We concluded that

modifications in grazing practices and strengthening of enclosures were the important solutions to the problem of

depredation and have suggested several possible approaches for people and the Forest Department.

Key words: leopard, livestock, depredation, grazing, enclosure, conservation, predators, compensation

INTRODUCTION

In the Indian subcontinent, Leopards Panthera pardus

Linn. 1758 usually, in comparison with other predators, attack

more livestock (Rahalkar 2008; Sangay and Vemes 2008).

Notwithstanding leopards can also live in human-dominated

landscapes with low levels of conflict (Athreya and Belsare

2006). But in the Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra, leopard-

attacks on livestock had intensified in 2008 and 2009 (Donikar

2010). However, no cases of purposeful retaliation by

livestock owners could be found in the records of the forest

department. This could be due to the combined effect of

elusiveness and feeding behaviour of leopards that does not

allow tracing. This could also be the result of an effective

compensation scheme run by the Maharashtra forest

department. On the contrary, nearly half of the cases of leopard

deaths in the district resulted because of leopards getting

snared in wire-nooses placed by farmers for other animals

like Wild Pig Sus scrofa (Unreported data from Maharashtra

forest department).

One of the important aspects in conservation of wild

carnivores in human-dominated landscapes is the attitude of

the affected people (Rahalkar 2008; Thavarajah 2008).

People’s approach towards animal husbandry, as well as

response to leopard attacks could play a critical role in

designing conflict management strategies. These attitudes

could be rooted in their traditions, culture, socio-economics

and incentive programmes.

We studied the attitudes of people affected with

livestock predation by leopards in Ratnagiri district. We used

the compensation database of the Maharashtra forest

department at Chiplun subdivision for obtaining names and

addresses of claimants. We used questionnaire to collect

information from a large number of compensation claimants

on circumstances of attacks and their response to the situation.

STUDY AREA

Ratnagiri district (15°36'-18°05' N; 73°05'-74°36' E)

is one of the western coastal districts of Maharashtra

(Fig. 1). Its geographical area is nearly 8,200 sq. km. Over

85 per cent of land area of the district is hilly, which includes

CIRCUMSTANTIAL AND RESPONSE ATTITUDES OF PEOPLE AFFECTED WITH LIVESTOCK DEPREDATION BY LEOPARDS IN RATNAGIRI

Fig. 1 : Locations of leopard attack sites as per information collected

from respondents

the Sahyadris (Northern Western Ghats) on its eastern border.

Coastal lowlands starkly contrast with the precipitous peaks

of the Sahyadris reaching 1,000 m above msl. The climate is

tropical with average annual rainfall ranging from 2,500-

3,500 mm. The humidity through the year is more than

50 per cent. The summers are hot and winters warm.

This district comprises of a forest Subdivision and three

forest ranges. The forest cover is over 51 per cent of the

geographical area (FSI 2009). However, most of the forest is

under private ownership. Natural vegetation includes moist

deciduous and dry deciduous forests, mangrove forest, and

grassy plateaus. The landscape is also dominated by rice

cultivation and orchards of various horticultural crops,

including coconut, areca nut, mango and cashew.

Adjacent to the eastern border of the district are Koyna

Wildlife Sanctuary and Chandoli National Park, together

proposed as Sahyadri Tiger Reserve. Faunistically, leopard

is the largest carnivore here. Several herbivores, like Wild

Boar Sus scrofa, Spotted Deer Axis axis, Nilgai Boselaphus

tragocamelus, and Gray Langur Semnopithecus entellus are

reported in the forest department’s census. Similarly,

Chousingha Tetracerus quadricornis has been found to be

widely distributed in this district (Patil and Bhave 2009).

Human population of Ratnagiri district as per 2001

census was 15.46 lakhs. Only around 9 per cent of the

population was urban; the rest being rural. Much of the rural

population practices sustenance livestock husbandry. The total

livestock population as per the 17th livestock census conducted

in 2003 in terms of productive livestock, i.e., goat, buffalo

and cattle was 37,562, 60,220, and 4,77,421 respectively

(Department of Animal Husbandry, Government of

Maharashtra, unpublished data from website

www.ah.adfmaharashtra.in).

METHODS

The information on instances of human-leopard conflict

in the district for the period from April 2004 to June 2009

was collected from the forest department records. A

questionnaire was prepared to collect additional evidence on

leopard attacks from the claimants of compensation. The

questionnaire was administered to 284 respondents during

July 2009 to May 2010. The information collected included

time of attack, location of attack, and activity of the livestock

when the attack took place. The respondents were asked the

exact time of attack if they or anyone else witnessed it, if not,

they were asked to report the tentative time of attack

considering relevant aspects of the event. For analysis, time

data was segregated into 8 time periods of 3-hr slots to

effectively cover a day. They were asked if the attacked

livestock was grazing, tied in the open or inside an enclosure

at the time of attack. Also information was sought on whether

the livestock was attacked in a forest area, farmland, inside a

village or at its outskirts.

The respondents were asked to report their views on

initiation and escalation of the livestock depredation problem.

They were given choices - 2 years back, 5 years back,

10 years back and more than 10 years. They were also asked

if leopards were always around in their area. Since these

people were claimants of compensation from the forest

department for loss of livestock, they were asked if they had

received the compensation, and if so, were they satisfied with

the amount. They were also asked to report preventive

measures taken to avoid depredation of their livestock by

leopards. This was an open-ended question bringing in a

variety of answers. The responses were categorized into three

classes - grazing related, enclosure related and general.

The data was viewed from a descriptive perspective

and results presented in terms of proportions and percentages.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

19

CIRCUMSTANTIAL AND RESPONSE ATTITUDES OF PEOPLE AFFECTED WITH LIVESTOCK DEPREDATION BY LEOPARDS IN RATNAGIRI

Wherever possible, observed frequencies were

compared with expected frequencies using

chi-square test.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Most of the respondents were farmers

(93%, n = 263); others being housewives, people

employed in sundry government jobs, etc.

Farmers practicing sustenance livestock

husbandry were found to be the most commonly

affected people.

250

■§200

■Si 50

Q,

Si oo

o

O 50

0

Farmland Forest area Inside village Outskirts of village

Location of attack

Fig. 2: Distribution of livestock activity with respect to location

of leopard attack

Circumstances of leopard attacks

More than 60 per cent attacks (n = 174)

took place during daytime as against 18 per cent

(n = 50) during night. 22 per cent (n = 6 1 ) attacks

took place during dusk and dawn hours (Note the

distribution of the attacks in different time slots

in Figs 3 and 4). The results contradict the well-

known ‘nocturnal hunter’ image of the leopard.

Jenny and Zuberbuhler (2005) have also reported

differential behaviours in savannah leopards and

forest leopards. They reported that forest leopards

were diurnal and crepuscular hunters, as against

nocturnal savannah leopards. Findings in our

study match their conclusion as the leopards in

the study area exhibited a diurnal and crepuscular

tendency of attack in more than 80 per cent cases.

Respondents were asked to report the

activity of livestock and location of attack when

an attack took place (Fig. 2). Two hundred and

thirty-two attacks (81%) took place while the

livestock were grazing. The remaining 53 (19%)

attacks took place when the animals were either

inside an enclosure or tied in the open. Maximum

attacks (71%, n = 203) took place in the forest

area, followed by 58 (20%) on the outskirts of

villages. Data indicates that a significant number

of attacks took place while the livestock were

grazing in forest area, followed by livestock

penned inside enclosures at the outskirts of

villages (x2= 149.76, df = 6, p<0.001).

Selection of forest as a favourite killing

ground is ecologically rooted in the hunting

behaviour of a leopard, which is a forest animal.

The leopard’s hunting success lies in its ability to

maintain stealth and stalk its prey. Arivazhagan

et al. (2007) report that hunting activity of

leopards is largely restricted to less disturbed

00:00 to 03:00 to 06:00 to 09:00 to 12:00 to 15:00 to 18:00 to 21:00 to

02:59 05:59 08:59 11:59 14:59 17:59 20:59 23:59

Time period

Fig. 3: Distribution of livestock activity with respect to leopard attacks in different

time periods of the day

00:00 to 03:00 to 06:00 to 09:00 to 12:00 to 15:00 to 18:00 to 21:00 to

02:59 05:59 08:59 11:59 14:59 17:59 20:59 23:59

Time period

Fig. 4: Distribution of location of leopard attack with respect to different time

periods of the day

forest areas, which was corroborated by our study. Similarly, Balme et al.

(2007) reported that leopards hunted significantly less than expected in

grassland habitat. Also, they expected that as long as the density of habitat

was not hindering catchability of prey, leopards killed their prey in

proportion to its availability.

Another 25 per cent of the attacks took place either at the outskirts

or inside a village. At the outskirts of a village, the attacks were irrespective

of whether the livestock were grazing or inside an enclosure. Although

only five per cent of the attacks were recorded from inside villages, these

were invariably of animals inside enclosures.

Patterns in time of attack were more meaningful when considered

in combination with activity of livestock (Fig. 3) and location of leopard

20

X Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

CIRCUMSTANTIAL AND RESPONSE ATTITUDES OF PEOPLE AFFECTED WITH LIVESTOCK DEPREDATION BY LEOPARDS IN RATNAGIRI

Continuous

guarding, 105,

74%

Employment of

guards, 25, 18%

Grazing close to

village, 3, 2%

Change of grazing

area, 9, 6%

Fig. 5: General steps taken by proactive respondents

to prevent livestock depredation by leopard

Fig. 6: Steps taken by proactive respondents to prevent leopards

from preying on their livestock during grazing

attack (Fig. 4). Maximum daytime attacks (94%, n = 219)

took place when the livestock was grazing. Maximum night

time attacks (68%, n = 34) took place when the livestock

were inside enclosures. There was a high significance

associated with these observations (x2= 175.01, df = 14,

p<0.001). Similarly, maximum attacks (82%, n = 192) during

daytime took place in forest area. Maximum attacks during

night time (76%, n = 38) took place inside villages or at the

outskirts of villages. Here also high significance was

associated with these observations (%2 = 131.01, df = 21,

p<0.001)

The results indicate that daytime grazing of livestock

in forest area made it vulnerable to leopard attacks. The

practice of open grazing in forest area is perhaps crucial for

escalating livestock depredation in this region. Wang and

McDonald (2006) also reported lax herding, inadequate

guarding, and overgrazing as factors for aggravating livestock

depredation. In the study area too livestock were left to graze

without any serious guarding. Usually children or elderly

people took the responsibility of guarding the grazing

livestock. These attitudes might have further enhanced the

rate of depredation. The study also revealed that at least

12 livestock were killed in the darkest hours of the night while

grazing. This was astonishing and exposed the habit of

carelessly leaving livestock grazing on their own. Stall-

feeding in our study region was observed to be a not- so-

favoured practice among the farmers. Therefore, increased

levels of guarding and careful herding seem to be the only

solution to the problem of depredation during grazing.

Guarding of livestock in this region varies in terms of number

of guards, age of the guards, and number of guards to

livestock. Although we did not explore these issues, further

studies would help to outline patterns in these aspects so that

appropriate solutions could be recommended. Avoiding forest

areas could also be of help.

Most of the attacks inside an enclosure took place during

night time. Hence, strengthening of livestock enclosures could

be one of the important steps in curtailing leopard attacks on

livestock. Ogada et al. (2003) presented a very good case of

bomas, i.e., cattle enclosures in Kenya. They found that solid

bomas performed best over other types made from brushwood,

wicker and wire. They also found that the height of the

enclosure did not matter much for a leopard. Thus, an

enclosure with strong walls and solid roof could effectively

reduce predation by leopard.

Peoples’ solution

Most individuals had suffered predation of livestock

by leopards only once. But 24 individuals had their livestock

attacked twice, four individuals thrice and one person on five

occasions. Thus, nearly 5 per cent (n = 29) of the affected

individuals had suffered repeated attacks on their livestock.

Although, 95 per cent people had been affected only once,

increase in predation or awareness might have prompted them

to take steps to protect their livestock. The respondents were

also asked to report these steps.

Nearly 65 per cent (n = 184) respondents reported the

steps taken to prevent leopard attacks on their livestock; these

respondents were called proactive respondents. The response

was grouped into three categories - general response, grazing

related response and enclosure related response.

Seventy-seven per cent (n = 142) of the proactive

respondents changed their grazing practice, 17 per cent

(n = 31) enclosure characteristics, and 10 per cent (n = 18)

general aspects of livestock rearing. The sum total does not

yield 100 per cent as some proactive respondents took more

than one step to secure their livestock.

Among the general steps, 50 per cent respondents

abandoned cattle rearing (Fig. 5). 44 per cent created din,

i.e., burst crackers, etc. when a leopard approached. Only

one respondent began using a dog to guard the livestock.

Continuous guarding and employment of guards were the

major shifts in grazing practice followed by 92 per cent

(n = 130) of the respondents (Fig. 6). Changing grazing area

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

21

CIRCUMSTANTIAL AND RESPONSE ATTITUDES OF PEOPLE AFFECTED WITH LIVESTOCK DEPREDATION BY LEOPARDS IN RATNAGIRI

Fig. 7: Steps taken by proactive respondents to prevent ieopards

from preying on their livestock inside enclosures

and grazing close to villages was followed by a few proactive

respondents. Enclosures were strengthened (68 per cent

proactive respondents, n = 21) and shifted to a secure place

(16 per cent proactive respondents, n = 5) (Fig. 7). Other

steps included improvement of fencing and precautions to

tie livestock either inside an enclosure or near the house.

A good number of individuals were observed taking

precautions to prevent depredation of their livestock.

Guarding livestock while grazing was one of the major steps

in this direction.

Perceptions about human-leopard conflict

Perceptions of respondents to the status of human-

leopard conflict in their surroundings was assessed by posing

questions about presence of leopards, time-scale and intensity

of depredation problem and their willingness to have leopards

around. A large percentage (95%, n = 270) of respondents

informed that leopards were always around. It was interesting

to learn that of the remaining 14 respondents, 13 belonged to

Dapoli range, this highlights the expansion of human-leopard

conflict in Dapoli range in recent times.

Similarly, 79 per cent (n = 225) respondents said that

the problem of leopard depredation on livestock had started

long ago. Relatively fewer respondents informed that the

problem started five years ago (8%, n = 22) and 10 years ago

(13%, n = 37). Nearly 44 per cent (n = 26) of the respondents

who felt that the problem did not start long ago were from

Dapoli.

Although a high percentage of respondents felt that the

problem had started long ago, only 25 per cent (n = 72) felt

that the problem had escalated long ago. A relatively higher

percentage (39%, n = 1 12) felt that the problem had escalated

five years ago and 3 1 per cent (n = 89) felt that the problem

had escalated 10 years ago. Only a marginal number of

respondents, i.e., 11 felt that the problem had escalated two

years ago.

When respondents were asked whether they wanted

leopards around either with or without its depredation

problem, the response was mixed. It was not surprising that

nearly 56 per cent (n = 158) respondents were hostile towards

presence of leopards. Close to 44 per cent respondents were,

however, positive in their outlook and wanted leopards

around, but without the depredation problem. Only

two respondents wanted leopards around with the

depredation problem. It was a positive sign that a fairly large

number of individuals were receptive to the presence

of leopards, especially since they had suffered loss of

livestock.

Perceptions on Compensation

Even among the respondents, the percentage of

claimants that received compensation was high (82%,

n = 233). However, the satisfaction level with this

compensation was very low. Only about 43 per cent (n = 101)

of the claimants who received compensation were happy

with it and said that it was adequate. The remaining (57%,

n = 132) found it inadequate.

The compensation figures indicate that majority of the

claimants had received compensation for loss of livestock.

Albeit, the amount received may not be worth the trouble a

claimant undertook during the procedure, which may take

more than 6 months until actual receipt of money. Although

compensation is not a solution to human-wildlife conflict, it

is expected to prepare people to accept the presence of

predators and certain levels of livestock depredation, which

we have already discussed. It was, therefore, not surprising

that the Maharashtra forest department had come-up with a

fresh compensation scheme in 2010, with considerably

enhanced rates of compensation.

CONCLUSIONS

Exploration of circumstantial evidence revealed that

lax grazing in forest areas was the common situation at the

time of leopard attack on livestock. It could be concluded

that people needed to change their attitudes to protect their

livestock themselves. People had already started improving

the guarding regime while grazing their livestock. Sustaining

this approach appears necessary to prevent livestock

predation. Although compensation provides temporary relief,

it can never match financial benefits had the livestock been

alive.

Compensation programme of the forest department was

found to be effective in Ratnagiri district, providing benefit

to a large proportion of claimants. However, our observations

also revealed (unrecorded) that a number of cases of livestock

22

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

CIRCUMSTANTIAL AND RESPONSE ATTITUDES OF PEOPLE AFFECTED WITH LIVESTOCK DEPREDATION BY LEOPARDS IN RATNAGIRI

depredation go unreported. A proactive approach on part of

the forest department could build faith in people. The forest

department could also take up a programme to subsidize

strengthening of livestock enclosures. Similarly, it could

concentrate on preventive measures in Dapoli range where

the problem has just begun, and undertake a curative approach

in ranges where the problem of depredation was an established

one. The forest department also needs to maintain information

on circumstantial facts for further analysis of trends.

Arivazhagan, C., R. Arumugam & K. Thiyagesan (2007): Food habits

of Leopard ( Panthera pardus fused). Dhole ( Cuon alpinus) and

Striped Hyena ( Hyaena hyaena ) in tropical dry forest of southern

India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 104(2): 178-187.

Athreya, V.R. & A. V. Belsare (2006): Providing the Maharashtra Forest

Department technical and veterinary support to better deal with

wild animals that require human intervention. Technical report

submitted to Wildlife Trust of India, New Delhi, and the Office

of the Chief Wildlife Warden, Maharashtra.

Balme, G, L.T.B. Hunter & R. Slowtow (2007): Feeding habitat

selection by hunting leopards (Panthera pardus) in a woodland

savana: Prey catchability versus abundance. Animal Behav. 74:

589-598.

Donikar, R.P. (2010): Human-leopard conflict: a geographical look¬

out for solutions. M.Sc. Thesis. Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan

Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, Maharashtra, India.

FSI (2009): India State of Forests Reports. Forest Survey of India,

Dehradun, India. Pp. 114-117.

Jenny, D. & K. Zuberbuhler (2005): Hunting behaviour in West African

forest leopards. African J. Ecol. 43: 197-200.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the officials in the subdivision office at Chiplun

and range offices at Ratnagiri, Chiplun, and Dapoli for

permitting access to their compensation records. We express

our gratefulness to all the respondents for their kindness and

co-operation. The first author was helped by Miss Jyothi

Mandan, and Mr. Punjabrao Shinde while collecting data and

they deserve a special mention.

Ogada, M.O., R. Woodroffe, N.O. Oguge & L.G. Frank (2003):

Limiting depredation by African Carnivores: the role of livestock

husbandry. Cons. Biol. 17: 1521-1530.

Patil, V.K. & S.G. Bhave (2009): New site reports of Four-homed

antelope Tetracerus quadricomis (Blainville). Tigerpaper 36(4):

20-22.

Rahalkar, K. (2008): Attitudes of local people of conflict with leopards

( Panthera pardus) in an agricultural landscape in Maharashtra,

India. M.Sc. Thesis. Centre for Wildlife Studies and National

Centre for Biological Sciences, University of Agricultural

Sciences, GKVK campus, Bangalore. Pp. 37.

Sangay, T. & K. Vernes (2008): Human-wildlife conflict in the kingdom

of Bhutan: patterns of livestock predation by large mammalian

carnivores. Biol. Cons. 141: 1272-1282.

Thavarajah, N. (2008): Predator-human conflict as influenced by

livestock depredation. Grassroots: Newsletter of the Grassland

Society of Southern Africa 8(3): 11-17.

Wang, S.W. & D.W. MacDonald (2006): Livestock predation by

carnivores in Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park, Bhutan.

Biol. Cons. 129: 558-565.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

23

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 108(1), Jan-Apr 2011

24-40

FRUGIVORY BY BIRDS AND MAMMALS IN SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND,

SOUTHERN INDIA

J. Patrick David1,2, B. Senthil Murugan1,3 and Raniit Manakadan1,4

‘Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

2Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

“Email: [email protected]

Reshy-fruits and their consumers were documented in a coastal tropical dry evergreen forest in southern India from

April 2005 to May 2008. Twenty-one species of birds and nine species of mammals were recorded feeding on

56 fleshy-fruit species. The major avian frugivores were Red-whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus and White-browed

Bulbul Pycnonotus luteolus. Bonnet Macaque Macaca radiata. Golden Jackal Canis aureus, Small Indian Civet

Viverricula indica. Short-nosed Fruit Bat Cynopterus sphinx and Indian Flying Fox Pteropus giganteus were the

major mammalian frugivores.

The frugivore assemblage in Sriharikota is typical of degraded secondary vegetation. Use of fleshy-fruits by birds was

limited by seed protection in the form of husk and tough fruit/seed coat and to some extent by fruit colour, whereas

mammals used a variety of fleshy-fruits. Green ripe fruits, avoided by birds and most mammals, were chiefly or

exclusively eaten by fruit bats.

Figs ( Ficus species) are an important fleshy-fruit resource for frugivores. The Coppersmith Barbet Megalaima

haemacephala shows a high degree of dependency on figs. Fruit bats utilized figs almost in all months of the study

period. The conservation of fig trees, and other bird and bat attracting flora is vital for the survival of frugivores, which

are important components in forest ecosystems, due to their crucial role in seed dispersal and regeneration.

Key words: Frugivory, Ficus, Figs, Fruit bats, keystone species, Sriharikota

INTRODUCTION

Many tropical plants produce fleshy fruits which are

consumed by a variety of frugivorous birds and mammals to

fulfill their nutritional requirements (Snow 1981;

Balasubramanian and Bole 1993; Remsen et al. 1993;

Balasubramanian 1996; Corlett 1998b; Clark et al. 2001;

Ganesh and Davidar 2001; Bollen et al. 2004). Other than

seed-eating frugivores, frugivores in general aid in seed

dispersal, and also help seeds escape the deleterious effects

of seed and seedling predators (Janzen 1970). They also help

in the germination success of seeds as the hard seed coat get

softened (thereby, breaking the dormancy), as they pass

through the gut. Thus, many frugivorous birds and mammals

play a crucial role in the regeneration of forest plants. In fact,

the spectacular evolutionary success of tropical flowering

plants over the past several million years can be attributed to

their reliance on animals for pollination and seed dispersal

rather than wind (Fleming et al. 1987).

Globally, not considering the temperate regions; sites

in the neotropics have the richest assemblage of frugivorous

birds, while sites in Southeast Asia have the lowest avian

frugivore diversity (Fleming etal. 1987). In the Indo-Malayan

region, birds of at least 41 families include fruit in their diet;

17 of which are highly frugivorous (Corlett 1998b). In

southern India, 66 species of birds from 16 families have been

documented for frugivory with Columbidae, Pycnonotidae

and Muscicapidae representing the most number of species

(Balasubramanian and Maheswaran 2003). Among mammals,

primates and fruit bats are the chief frugivores in tropical

regions (Fleming etal. 1987; Corlett 1998b).

Community level studies on frugivory and seed

dispersal has brought into focus the importance of fruit

characters such as size, colour and nutritional value in fruit

selection by birds and mammals (Gautier-Hion et al. 1985;

Wheelwright 1985; Bollen etal. 2004; Kitamura etal. 2005),

and enabled scientists to identify important fruiting trees or

keystone resources (Terborgh 1986; Bleher et al. 2003). In

India, most of the studies on frugivory have focused on a

single animal or plant species (Borges 1993; Kannan and

James 1999; Sreekumar and Balakrishnan 2002; Datta and

Rawat 2003; Balasubramanian etal. 2004; Prasad etal. 2004;

Mishra and Gupta 2005) with very few community level

studies (Balasubramanian and Bole 1993; Balasubramanian

1996; Ganesh and Davidar 2001).

In degraded landscapes, knowledge of the relative

attractiveness of native plants to frugivorous birds is useful

in planning reafforestation because fruiting trees will attract

FRUGIVORY BY BIRDS AND MAMMALS IN SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND

birds which carry seeds of other species in their guts, thus

increasing the diversity of the forest (Corlett 1992). With this

background and understanding, a community level study on

fruit-ffugivore interactions was undertaken in a Tropical Dry

Evergreen Forest (TDEF) in Sriharikota Island from April

2005 to May 2008.

The paper chiefly deals with the fleshy-fruit resources

of birds and mammals, their physical traits, and the utilization

pattern by birds and mammals. It shortlists the major fleshy-

fruit species, whose conservation is vital for the survival of

frugivores, and the overall health of the forest ecosystem on

the Island.

STUDY AREA

The study was undertaken in Sriharikota (13° 45' N; 80°

20' E) lying in the southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh

and Tamil Nadu with an area c. 180 sq. km (Fig. 1). It is

bounded on the east by the Bay of Bengal and on the west by

Pulicat lake. Sriharikota has been connected by road to

Sullurpet (18 km) on the mainland since 1970.

Though the Island is affected by both the monsoons,

the principal rainfall is mainly from the North-east monsoon.

The annual rainfall averages around 1,200 mm. The average

humidity varies from 55% in summer to 75% during monsoon.

Temperature ranges from 20°C in winter to 40°C during

summer. Low-lying areas of Sriharikota get inundated during

the North-east monsoon, creating streams and pools. Besides

the monsoonal inundation, the wetlands of Sriharikota

comprise of lakes (both fresh and brackish), streams (both

fresh and brackish), creeks, and natural and man-made

freshwater ponds. Cane brakes line most of the waterways.

The water table is c. 2 to 5 m.

The forest in the Island has been classified as Tropical

Dry Evergreen Forest (TDEF) (Champion and Seth 1968).

The forest has a long history of disturbance. Forest

exploitation goes back to the British era when patches of forest

were selectively felled for timber. Subsequently, people from

the mainland settled along the margins of the Island, which

were earlier inhabited by tribal Yanadis. The settlers cleared

areas for cultivation, especially along the western borders of

the Island (central and southern parts) with alluvial soil facing

Pulicat lake. Some important fruit-bearing and shade trees

such as Mango Mangifera indica, Neem Azadirachta indica,

Indian Ash Tree Lannea coromandelica. Tamarind

Tamarindus indicus and Palmyra Borassus flabellifer were

introduced in village areas. During the early 1970s, the Indian

Space Research Organisation (ISRO) took over the Island

and set its spaceport. As a result of this long and varied human

exploitation, what remains today are patches of secondary

forest in various stages of regeneration with isolated old, tall

trees that were not felled, especially Tamarindus indicus,

Syzygium cumini and Sapindus emarginatus.

There are broadly five major vegetation types/habitats

in the Island:

Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests (TDEF): Found in

the central part of the Island, stretching from south of

Urugayya lake till around Picheru Gunta, except in sandy

tracts or areas under plantations. The tree species include

Syzygium cumini, Pterospermum canescens, Manilkara

hexandra, Garcinia spicata, Strychnos nux-vomica, Pongamia

pinnata, Tamarindus indicus and Cordia dichotoma. The

shrub layer includes Memecylon umbel latum, Glycosmis

pentaphylla, Eugenia bracteata, Grewia rhamnifolia and

Breynia vitis-idaea. Climbers such as Abrus precatorius.

Asparagus racemosus, Cissus vitiginea, Jasminum spp.

Carissa spinarum, Olax scandens, Coccinia grandis and

Ziziphus oenoplia make the forest dense and impenetrable.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

25

FRUGIVORY BY BIRDS AND MAMMALS IN SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND

Herbs are mainly restricted to the open patches in the forests.

Along streams and shallow basins, which are inundated during

the monsoon, Terminalia arjuna, Barringtonia acutangula

and Pongamia pinnata are dominant, T. arjuna occurring in

pure stands in some patches. Canebrakes line most of the

waterways.

Open Scrub: Open scrub forest is largely present in

the sandy tracts, which mostly occur in the northern, eastern

and southern fringes of the Island. The ground is sandy and

much exposed with a predominance of shrubs like Gmelina

asiatica, Diospyros ferrea, Securinega leucopyrus,

Catunaregum spinosa, Canthium parviflorum, Maytenus

emarginatus, Dodonea viscosa, Capparis spp., Carissa

spinarum, Pavetta indica and Atalantia monophylla. Scattered

trees of Syzygium cumini, Sapindus emarginatus, Lannea

coromandelica. Ficus spp., Azadirachta indica , Albizia

amara, Walsura trifolia, Pamburus missionis and Ochna

obtusata occur.

Abandoned Village Forest: The stretch of land situated

on a low basin between Kothachenu to Tettipeta, and to a

lesser extent around Penubakkam to the former

Chengalapalem was cultivated in the past. Ponds were

maintained to irrigate the paddy fields in the basin and the

other crops at its borders. Now abandoned, these areas have

their own characteristic vegetation comprising the

regenerating forest of largely Ficus spp., Albizia amara and

A. lebbeck amidst coconut, palmyra, neem and tamarind trees.

The irrigation ponds have been colonized by canebrakes and

Barringtonia acutangula.

Eucalyptus Plantation: Eucalyptus plantations are

mainly seen from about Urugayya lake to the south of Picheru

Gunta. Shrubby elements such as Memecylon umbellatum,

Securinega leucopyrus, and Catunaregam spinosa form the

undergrowth. An understorey of Strychnos nux-vomica,

Garcinia spicata and Ochna obtusata has also come up in

some of the more open plantations.

Casuarina Plantation: Casuarina plantations are seen

in a narrow belt almost all over the sea coast, starting from

east of Chandrasikuppam to Karimanal. Unlike eucalyptus,

the casuarina plantations form dense, pure stands with some

mixture of native species. Shrubs and trees like Securinega

leucopyrus, Azadirachta indica and Pavetta indica form the

understorey. Olax scandens is a common climber, while

Dendrophthoe falcata ( -Loranthus longiflorus ) is a common

stem parasite on casuarina (Suryanarayana et al. 1998).

The flora and fauna of the Island has been well-

documented through a number of studies with 445 species of

plants of 117 families, 27 species of mammals, 223 species

of birds, 12 species of amphibians, 34 species of reptiles,

44 species of fish and 5 1 species of butterflies recorded

(Suryanarayana et al. 1989, 1998; Samant and Rao 1996;

Rao 1998; Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a, b; Sivakumar

and Manakadan 2004, Sivakumar et al. 2004). The mammals

in the island include the Bonnet Macaque Macaca radiata.

Slender Loris Loris lyddekerianus. Golden Jackal Canis

aureus. Rusty-spotted Cat Prionailurus rubiginosus. Small

Indian Civet Viverricula indica, Indian Flying Fox Pteropus

giganteus and Short-nosed Fruit Bat Cynopterus sphinx.

For more details of the island and description of

habitats, see Venugopal Rao (1977), Reddy (1981), Reddy

(1983), Suryanarayana et al. (1998), Rao 1998, and

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a, b).

METHODS

Fruit-use by Birds

Data on avian visitors to fruiting plants and fruit

handling technique was obtained through tree watches

(extended observations on fruiting trees) and opportunistic

observations (Bollen et al. 2004). In tree watches, fruiting

plants were observed between 06:00-09:00 hrs from a hide

set up 15-20 m away. During this period, for every five

minutes, records were kept on the bird and mammal species,

and numbers visiting the fruiting tree and their fruit handling

techniques. Twenty-one fleshy-fruit species were observed,

totalling 242 tree watch hours (TWH). The observation period

for each fleshy-fruit species varied depending on crop size,

availability of fruiting plants and season. Additional frugivory

records were obtained opportunistically during bird census,

phenology trips and other field visits comprising

305 frugivory records. We could not quantify the number of

fruits removed by frugivores during tree watches due to dense

foliage and high visitation rates of birds, which made it

difficult to track individual birds. So, only the number of visits

was quantified.

Fruit-use by Mammals: Data on fruits utilized by

mammals was obtained by collecting and examining faeces

from direct feeding observations on fruiting trees (tree

watches and opportunistic records) and fruit debris evidence.

Faeces of Golden Jackal, Small Indian Civet and Bonnet

Macaque were collected fortnightly while walking along

10 phenology trails totalling c.10 km. Faeces were also

collected by travelling along a 5 km road on a motorbike

once a fortnight. We mainly relied on the knowledge of our

tribal field assistant, who had good knowledge of the wildlife

of the Island, on the identity of the faeces and on animal

footprints around the faeces. Faeces that could not be

recognized were classified as “unidentified”. The seed species

and their numbers were recorded separately for each

faeces.

26

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

FRUGIVORY BY BIRDS AND MAMMALS IN SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND

Information on fruits utilized by the two fruit bat species

in the Island, Short-nosed Fruit Bat and Indian Flying Fox,

was collected from examination of fruit debris, i.e., spat-out

pulp after extraction of juices (Long and Racey 2007). We

could not clearly distinguish between fruit debris of Short¬

nosed Fruit Bat and the Indian Flying Fox, so a general term

‘fruit bats’ is used referring to both the species.

For fruits that were intensively used by fruit bats

( Atalantia monophylla, Garcinia spicata, Pamburus missionis

and Opilia amentacea ), the quantity of fruits eaten was

estimated by clearing the ground below the fruiting tree and

monitoring these fruit plots (cleared patches) during the entire

fruiting period. The fruit debris in the fruit plots was

categorized into bat-chewed pellets, partially eaten fruits,

seeds, ripe fruits and unripe fruits. In Atalantia monophylla ,

the number of fruits eaten by fruit bats was estimated by

dividing the total number of seeds by the average number of

seeds (5) per fruit. In the one-seeded Opilia amentacea, a

seed was equivalent to one fruit. In Garcinia spicata and

Pamburus missionis, a bat-chewed pellet was considered as

one fruit. For these two species, the number of seeds was not

taken into consideration as these fruits were also eaten by the

Bonnet Macaque and Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopaceus

(only Pamburus missionis ), with a lot of seeds dropped in

the process. This sampling does not take into account fruits

carried away from the fruiting tree by fruit bats and those

eaten by rodents on the ground. However, it does provide a

rough idea of fruit-use by fruit bats and the competition with

other frugivores.

Fig-use by Bats: A total of 119 fig trees of 4 species

were tagged to estimate fig utilization by fruit bats. The trees

were visited fortnightly from September 2006 to May 2008,

and the presence/absence of bat-eaten fruits below the fruiting

trees was recorded.

Statistical Analysis: To assess for differences in fruit

traits used by mammals and birds, G-test was used. To

compute G-values for fruit colour, violet was clubbed with

black, and orange with yellow. Similarly fruit types other

than drupe, berry and achene were clubbed together as one

fruit type, and in the case of life forms, small trees and large

trees were clubbed together as trees.

RESULTS

Frugivore Assemblage: A total of 21 species of birds

and 9 species of mammals were recorded to include fleshy-

fruits in their diet. Among birds, 11 species were sighted rarely

in the study area or fed on fruits only occasionally and these

are not discussed further. The remaining 10 species fall under

7 genera and 7 families. Family Pycnonotidae was represented

by 3 species. Corvidae by 2 species and the rest of the families

by a single species (Table 1). The major avian frugivores were

the Red-whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus and White-

browed Bulbul P luteolus.

Table 1 : Avian and mammalian frugivores of Sriharikota

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

27

FRUGIVORY BY BIRDS AND MAMMALS IN SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND

The mammals with significant fleshy-fruit intake in

their diet were Bonnet Macaque, Golden Jackal, Small Indian

Civet, Indian Flying Fox, Short-nosed Fruit Bat and Three-

striped Palm Squirrel Funambulus palmarum (Table 1).

The other species for which frugivory records were

obtained occasionally were the Common Mongoose

Herpestes edwardsii, Spotted Deer Axis Axis and Wild Boar

Sus scrofa.

Fruit-Use: A total of 56 fleshy-fruit species of

33 families were eaten by frugivores. Birds accounted for

38 of these species and mammals 46 species. Ten fruit species

were exclusively consumed by birds and 1 8 exclusively by

mammals. The family Moraceae was represented by the

highest number of species (5), followed by Rubiaceae (4).

Twelve species were climbers, 13 were shrubs, 14 were small

trees and 17 were large trees (Appendix 1).

Fruit-use by birds: The Red-whiskered Bulbul and the

White-browed Bulbul consumed 34 of the 38 fleshy-ffuits eaten

by birds and are the major avian frugivores of Sriharikota. The

Red- vented Bulbul P. cafer was recorded to feed on 16 species

and the Asian Koel on 23 species. The Coppersmith Barbet

Megalaima haemacephala has a narrow diet range, using only

7 of the 38 species, of which 4 were figs; the others were

Lannea coromandelica, Syzygium cumini and Ziziphus

oenoplia.

Fruit-use by mammals: The Bonnet Macaque was

recorded to feed on 34 of the 46 fleshy-fruits eaten by

mammals (Table 1). Seventeen species were recorded in

95 droppings (with all figs clubbed as one species), the rest

were based only on feeding observations. The bulk of seeds

recorded in the droppings were of Ficus spp. and Cordia

dichotoma (Appendix 2). More than 50% of droppings

contained plant remains other than seeds, such as leaves, skin

of fruits, flowers and twigs. Opportunistic feeding records

and faeces analysis indicate that figs are a major food resource

for the Bonnet Macaque.

Faeces analysis (n= 473) and direct feeding observation

showed that the Golden Jackal feeds on 23 native species

and 4 introduced species ( Anacardium occidentale. Calamus

Fig. 2: Box plot showing number of seeds in the mammal droppings

rotang, Morinda tinctoria and Guazuma ulmifolia ). The bulk

of the fruit diet (judging by the abundance of seeds and

frequency of occurrence) was contributed by Syzygium

cumini, Phoenix farinif era, Memecylon umbellatum, Cordia

dichotoma and Grewia rhamnifolia (Appendix 2). The

number of seeds per scat was relatively high in Golden Jackal

(Fig. 2). The Small Indian Civet scats (n-134) contained seeds

of 16 species, mostly comprising of species recorded in the

Golden Jackal scats.

Fruit bats were recorded to feed on 21 species of fleshy-

fruits, which included two introduced species ( Polyalthia

longifolia and Spondias pinnata). The important fruit

resources for fruit bats in Sriharikota are Atalantia

monophylla, Garcinia spicata, Opilia amentacea, Pamburus

missionis and Syzygium cumini. Among these, A. monophylla

and O. amentacea were almost exclusively eaten by fruit bats

(Table 2). Four of the 5 green fruits used by mammals were

consumed chiefly/exclusively by fruit bats. Except for

Garcinia spicata, none of the fruits had an odour perceivable

to humans. Fruit bats were also recorded to feed on the leaves

of Sapindus emarginatus and Ficus benghalensis.

In addition to these five major mammalian frugivores,

four more species were recorded to feed on fleshy-fruits. The

Three-striped Palm Squirrel used 17 species of fleshy-fruits.

Seeds of Catunaregam spinosa were recorded in the droppings

Table 2: Quantity of fruits eaten by fruit bats as recorded in fruit plots below fruiting trees

28 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

FRUGIVORY BY BIRDS AND MAMMALS IN SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND

of Spotted Deer Axis axis ; Syzygium cumini in Wild Boar

dung; and Phoenix farinifera , Grewia rhamnifolia and

Syzygium cumini in Common Mongoose scats.

Fruit Traits: Overall, red was the dominant fruit colour,

followed by yellow and black (Fig. 3). A high proportion of

fruits (71%) (Fig. 4) and seeds (96%) were <15 mm in

diameter. The largest fruit recorded was Strychnos mu-vomica

(44 mm) and the smallest was the seedless fruits of Salvadora

persica (2.4 mm) (Appendix 1). Regarding fruit types,

46% were drapes, 35% were berries, 9% were achenes,

4% were capsules, and the rest comprised of pods, schizocarp

and aril (Appendix 1). A comparative assessment of fruits

consumed by birds and mammals is given in Table 3. There

was no statistically significant difference between birds and

mammals with respect to fruit colour (G=4.6, df-5, p>0 05),

fruit type (G-9.5, df-3, p>0.05), fruit size (G=4.3, dr-2.,

p>0.05) and life form (G=l.l, df-3, p>0.05).

Bird-Fruits: Red, yellow and black were the major

colours displayed by fleshy-fruits eaten by birds (Table 4).

Green, brown and violet were displayed only by one species

each. Regarding fruit size, 58% of fruits (n=38) < 10 mm in

diameter and 84% <15 mm. Seed diameter ranged from

1 .4 mm in Gatunaregam malabarica to 10.9 mm in Canthium

parviflorum (excluding very small seeds). Slightly more than

50% of fruits were single-seeded. Large-sized fruits, such as

Capparis brevispina, Coccinia grandis, Lepisanthes

tetraphylla and Ficus benghalensis were multi-seeded (more

than 2 seeds/fruit). Two fruit species, Alangium salvifolium

(stone) and Casaeria esculenta (aril) had protection for seeds.

Mammal-Fruits: Among fruits used by mammals, red

was the dominant fruit colour displayed by 37% of the species,

followed by yellow (20%), and black (15%). Brown was

displayed by 3 species (2 more than birds) and green by

Table 3: A comparative analysis of fleshy-fruits eaten

by birds and mammals

Fruit Colour

Fig. 3: Fruit colour spectra of bird (n=380) and mammal (n=48)

fleshy-fruits

5 species (4 more than birds) (Table 4). Nearly 39% of fruits

<10 mm in diameter and 63% < 15 mm (n = 46). Mean fruit

size ranged from 4.6 mm to 44 mm. Mean seed size ranged

from 1.4 mm ( Gatunaregam malabarica) to 29.5 mm

{Calophyllum inophylum). When fruits exclusively eaten by

mammals were considered (n=14, excluding Borassus

flabellifer and some fruits showing bird-fruit characters), the

mean fruit size ranged from 10.2 mm (Gas sine glauca ) to

44 mm ( Strychnos nux-vomica). 54% of fruits were single-

seeded. Eleven species (25%) had protection for seeds (nine

more than birds).

Bird visitation rates to fruiting trees: Tree watches on

fruiting trees indicate that some fleshy-fruits attract more

number of birds than others (Table 5). The top five species with

the highest number of visits were Ficus amplissima

(91 visits/hr), seedless fruits of Salvadora persica (47 visits/hr),

Fig. 4: Frequency distribution of mean diameter of fruits (n=54)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Sot., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

29

FRUGIVORY BY BIRDS AND MAMMALS IN 5RIHARIKOTA ISLAND

Table 4: Physical traits of fruits consumed by birds and mammals

Note: The ‘Fruit Type’ under birds does not add to 38 as one species was unidentified

Lannea coromandelica (30 visits/hr), Walsura trifolia

(28 visits/hr), Ficus microcarpa and Cordia dichotoma

(18 visits/hr). The Red-whiskered Bulbul was the most

frequently observed bird species in almost all fruiting trees,

except in Hugonia mystax, Lannea coromandelica and

Securinega leucopyrus (Common Myna was the frequent

visitor for these species) and in Eugenia bracteata

(Asian Koel was the common visitor for this species)

(Figs 5a, b).

Fruit-handling Behaviour

Birds: The majority of fruits (71%, n=38) were

swallowed whole by all the bird species. Large fruits like

■ Red-whiskered Bulbul □ White-browed Bulbul B Red-vented Bulbul B Asian Koel

□ Rose-ringed Parakeet B Common Myna Q Indian Jungle Crow

Fig. 5a: Frequency of visits by avian frugivores to some species of

fleshy-fruit shrubs and climbers

Pambums missionis and Ficus racemosa were eaten in bits.

In Azadirachta indica, Lannea coromandelica , Olax

scandens, Salacia chinensis and Walsura trifolia , the fruit

coat was removed and the seed was swallowed. In Lepisanthes

tetraphylla (20.1 mm with 3 seeds), the fruit was opened by

pecking and the juicy pulp consumed along with the seed.

The Rose-ringed Parakeet is a seed-eater or seed-predator or

seed dropper (drops the seed below the parent tree, thus not

aiding dispersal). While feeding on A. indica, it crushed the

seeds and ate it in pieces. Its handling of small seeds of

Securinega leucopyrus and Coccinia grandis is unclear. While

feeding on fruits of Alangium salvifolium, it dropped large

amount of seeds under the fruiting tree.

Fig. 5b: Frequency of visits by avian frugivores to some species of

fleshy-fruit trees

30

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

FRUGIVORY BY BIRDS AND MAMMALS IN SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND

Mammals : The presence of both fruit-coat and seeds in

Golden Jackal and Small Indian Civet scats suggests that they

eat the fruits whole. The Bonnet Macaque handled the fruit in

three ways: swallowing the seeds whole (aiding in dispersal),

crashing and eating the seeds (seed predation) and dropping

the seeds either under or away from the parent tree. The Three-

striped Palm Squirrel is both a seed dropper and predator. Seeds

of Cordia dichotoma (tree watch hours = 30) and Ziziphus

oenoplia (opportunistic observation, n=3) were dropped; S.

cumini and Z. mauritiana (fruit debris data) were predated. From

the only direct record of feeding habits in the Short-nosed Fruit

Bat (while feeding on Atalantia monophylla fruits), it was

observed that they ingested only the fruit juice after chewing

the pulp and the seeds were dropped.

Fig-Use

Birds: All the avian frugivores were recorded feeding on

figs (Ficus). Out of the 305 opportunistic frugivory records,

128 were on figs. F. amplissima recorded the highest number

of avian frugivores (398 visits in AVi hours) during the tree

watches. The highest number of opportunistic records were also

made on Ficus amplissima (48), followed by Ficus benghalensis

(44) and Ficus microcarpa (31). Frugivory records on Ficus

racemosa and Ficus religiosa were less, as the former is

primarily used by mammals and the latter is very rare in the

island.

The Coppersmith Barbet was chiefly a fig-eater, 90% of

its frugivory records (n = 30) were on three Ficus spp. Among

the 21 species subjected to tree watches, the Coppersmith Barbet

was recorded only on F. amplissima and F. microcarpa. The

Orange-breasted Green-Pigeon Treron bicinctus also chiefly

feeds on figs. Six out of the 10 frugivory records for this species

were on fig fruits (Table 6), including the sighting of 3 1 birds

feeding on a f amplissima tree. Totally, 132 bulbuls were

recorded feeding on figs on 58 occasions. Out of the 58 feeding

records, the Red- whiskered Bulbul was sighted on 37 occasions.

Mammals: Among mammals, fruit bats used figs frequently.

Figs produced ripe fruits almost throughout the study period

and fruit debris evidence indicate that fruit bats utilized figs in

19 of the 21 months of study (Fig. 6). The highest number of

trees utilized in any given month was 17 (14%, n= 1 19 trees) in

February 2008. The Bonnet Macaque and Three-striped Palm

Squirrel also fed significantly on figs (Table 6). The highest

number of opportunistic records for both these species was on

fig trees, and fig seeds were recorded in 14% of Macaque

faeces.

Table 5: Number of visits made by birds to various fleshy-fruit species

Fleshy-fruit Species Tree Watch Hours Total Visits /hr Grand Total

RWB - Red-whiskered Bulbul, WBB - White-browed Bulbul, RVB - Red-vented Bulbul, RRP - Rose-ringed Parakeet, AK - Asian Koel,

CB - Coppersmith Barbet, CM - Common Myna, IJC - Indian Jungle Crow.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

31

FRUGIVORY BY BIRDS AND MAMMALS IN SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND

■ No.of trees with ripe fruits □ No.of trees utilised by fruit bats

06 08

Months

Fig. 6: Utilisation pattern of fig trees (n=119) by fruit bats

from September 2006-May 2008

DISCUSSION

Avian Frugivore Assemblage

The avian frugivore assemblage in Sriharikota is typical

of open degraded secondary forest associated with human

presence. The major avian ffugivores were the Red-whiskered

and White-browed Bulbuls. Bulbuls are the most important

frugivores in anthropogenic open habitats in the Oriental

Region (Corlett 1998a, b); e.g., Red-whiskered and Light-

vented Pycnonotus sinensis bulbuls in a Hong Kong shrub

land (Corlett 1998a), and Red- whiskered and Red- vented

Bulbuls in many Pacific Ocean islands and in North America

where they have colonized (Carleton and Owre 1975; Freifeld

1999). Next to bulbuls, the major avian frugivore in

Sriharikota was the Asian Koel. While most cuckoos are

carnivorous, the Asian Koel includes large quantities of fruit

in its diet (Ali 2002). The Asian Koel occurs from the Indian

subcontinent and Southeast Asia through Indonesia to New

Guinea and northern Australia (Rasmussen and Anderton

2005). The Rose-ringed Parakeet is another common

Table 6: Opportunistic records of frugivores feeding

on fig and non-fig species

frugivore encountered in Sriharikota. It is a widespread

resident in India and is also found in Africa, Arabia and in

the east up to Myanmar. Besides a frugivore, it is a seed

predator and causes immense damage to agricultural crops

(Rasmussen and Anderton 2005).

In open country and human dominated landscapes,

members of the family Corvidae and Stumidae are important

frugivores. In such areas, they are often amongst the largest

birds, and thus, even these less frugivorous species may be

significant as dispersers of fruits and seeds that are too large

for smaller frugivores (Corlett 1998b). In Sriharikota, these

are represented by the Indian Jungle Crow, House Crow and

Common Myna. They are major frugivores and important

seed dispersing agents in abandoned village forest and may

aid in rapid regeneration of native vegetation.

There are two specialist fig-eaters in Sriharikota, the

Coppersmith Barbet and Orange-breasted Green Pigeon.

Barbets are among the most highly frugivorous birds in the

Indo-Malayan region and several species feed largely on figs

for which they are the major dispersal agents (Corlett 1998b).

In Sriharikota, the Coppersmith Barbet is rare in TDEF, but

is occasionally seen in abandoned village forest where fig

trees are abundant (David et al. 2008). Members of the genus

Treron (green-pigeons) are known to be voracious fig feeders

and pigeons in general form one of the principle groups of

fig-eating birds in Southeast Asian forests (Lambert 1989a).

The Orange-breasted Green-Pigeon is a sporadic visitor to

the Island from the nearby hills of the Eastern Ghats.

When compared with the avian frugivores of Point

Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary (Balasubramanian 1996), a

TDEF site 450 km south of Sriharikota, some differences and

similarities in the avian frugivore assemblages emerge. There

are three species of bulbuls in Sriharikota, contra two in Point

Calimere. The Red-whiskered bulbul is absent in Point

Calimere. The Coppersmith Barbet was also not recorded in

Point Calimere (probably due to paucity of figs), but was

recorded in Vedaranyam, 1 1 km to its north, and in adjoining

small town and villages, which have fig trees along roads

and in temples (Ranjit Manakadan pers. obs). The Rosy

Starling Sturnus roseus is a regular winter visitor to Point

Calimere, but was recorded only occasionally in the southern

parts of Sriharikota, where sampling was not done due to

difficult logistics. On one occasion, it was observed feeding

on Phoenix farinifera fruits in April (Manakadan and

Sivakurnar 2004a), probably on the return from their wintering

grounds further south. The Grey-headed Starling Sturnia

malabarica, a minor frugivore in Point Calimere, has not been

recorded in Sriharikota. The Brahminy Starling Sturnus

pagodarum and Orange-breasted Green-Pigeon are seasonal

migrants to Point Calimere and Sriharikota.

32

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

FRUGIVORY BY BIRDS AND MAMMALS IN SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND

Mammalian Frugivore Assemblage

The mammalian frugivore assemblage in Sriharikota

is very similar to Point Calimere. It comprises of 2 species

that are both arboreal and terrestrial (Bonnet Macaque and

Three-striped Palm Squirrel), 2 terrestrial species (Golden

Jackal and Small Indian Civet) and 2 volant species (Short¬

nosed Fruit Bat and Indian Hying Fox). The Bonnet Macaque

can live in tiny forest patches, use young secondary forest,

cross open ground and eat a wide variety of foods (Corlett

1998b). The Golden Jackal is an opportunistic feeder which

eats significant amounts of fallen fruit, as reported from

studies in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan (Corlett 1998b).

The Small Indian Civet is tolerant of human intrusion as long

as they are not hunted and appear to thrive in degraded

landscapes (Corlett 1998b). The two species of fruit bats

recorded in Sriharikota, the Short-nosed fruit bat and Indian

Flying Fox, are common and widespread in India (Bates and

Harrison 1997) and are the most studied species with regard

to frugivory in India and in other regions (Balasubramanian

and Bole 1993; Bhat 1994; Elangovan et al. 1999;

Singaravelan and Marimuthu 2006; Tang et al. 2008).

Fruit Traits

Most of the studies across the world associate bird-

fruits with black and red colour, small fruit size and without

any protection for seeds, while mammals feed on a variety of

fruits irrespective of colour, size and texture (Janson 1983;

Gautier Hion etal. 1985; Corlett 1996; Balasubramanian and

Maheswaran 2003; Bollen et al. 2004). The traits of bird and

mammal fruits of sriharikota are discussed below.

Bird-Fruits

As for fruit colour most of the bird-fruits in Sriharikota

display red, black and yellow colour. Does this mean birds

avoid other fruit colours? Walsura trifolia, a brown fruit was

also consumed by birds. Ficus amplissima, a green coloured

fruit, was fed on by all bird species and opportunistic records

on green colour were more than black. Birds are also known

to feed on unripe fruits, which are mostly green (Bhat and

Kumar 2001). This suggests birds do also eat green and brown

fruits, usually associated with mammal-fruits. However, it

must be noted that fruits that were small, without protection,

but displaying green colour ( Cassine glauca and Opilia

amentacea) were still not eaten by birds. The reasons are not

yet clear. Green may signal unpalatability or enhance crypsis

(Snow 1971). However, Knight and Siegfried (1983)

postulated that greenness could be a consequence of genetic

pleiotropy with no significant cryptic or advertising function,

suggesting that the association of red and black colour fruits

with avian frugivores may simply be a reflection of the higher

occurrence of fleshy-fruit species with these colours, rather

than preference. It would be interesting to test if green and

other non bird-fruit colours are avoided in a natural

environment if these colours are predominant.

Secondly, bird-fruits are small. This is true in

Sriharikota as 58% of fruits (n=38) < 10 mm in diameter and

84% <15 mm. However, large sized fruits were also

sometimes used by small birds such as bulbuls. Out of the

38 fleshy-fruit species, 6 were larger than the gape width of

bulbuls, they were all eaten, but in bits. Birds will be able to

exploit large-sized fruits if they are soft.

The bird-fruits in Sriharikota also do not have thick

husk or a hard fruit/seed. Only 1 fruit ( Alangium salvifolium )

had a hard seed coat. The pulp of this fruit was consumed by

the Rose-ringed Parakeet and the seeds were mostly dropped.

Seed protection in the form of a thick husk, or a tough fruit/

seed coat is the main factor preventing birds from feeding on

some fleshy-fruits. For example, fruits of Atalantia

monophylla (tough fruit coat), Mimusops elengi and Phoenix

sylvestris (thick husk) were not used by birds in Sriharikota.

Mammal-Fruits

Mammals, unlike birds, have hands and teeth to hold

and crush fruits, and hence, feed on a variety of fruits

irrespective of colour, size or seed protection. Hence, the

number of fleshy-fruit species used by mammals is more than

birds. The single fruit trait that could be solely associated

with mammals is seed protection (thick husk or tough fruit/

seed coat). Out of the 18 species used exclusively by

mammals, 1 1 had seed protection in the form of husk or a

tough fruit coat.

Four species of mammal-fruits in Sriharikota are green

(Atalantia monophylla, Cassine glauca, Opilia amentacea

and Calophyllum inophyllum ). These were exclusively used

by fruit bats and formed 21% (n=19) of the total fruit species

used by fruit bats. In a study in Malaysia and Singapore, about

50% of bat-fruits were found to be green in colour, matching

the surrounding foliage (Hodgekison and Balding 2003; Boon

and Corlett 1989). The majority of fig fruits used by

neotropical Phyllostomid bats were also green (Kalko et al.

1996). A high proportion of green fruits in the diet of fruit

bats could be because green ripe fruits go undetected by birds,

as birds associate such fruits with unripeness and/or since

green fruits are difficult to spot against the green foliage, and

thus, this unharvested fruit resource becomes available to fruit

bats. However, birds, as discussed earlier, have colour vision

and are also known to feed on some species of green fruits.

Flying foxes have no colour vision and therefore olfaction

could play a key role in location of ripe fruits (Kalko et al.

1996). Except for Garcinia spicata, none of the other fruits

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

33

FRUGIVORY BY BIRDS AND MAMMALS IN SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND

produced a strong odour (detectable by humans). Hodgekison

and Balding (2003) also reported that none of the fruits used

by fruit bats produced a strong odour. Conversely, most of

the figs used by neotropical Phyllostomid bats produced odour

and they used odour as the primary cue to detect figs (Kalko

etal. 1996).

Fruit-Use

Fruit use by birds : The Red-whiskered Bulbul and

White-browed Bulbul consumed more species of fleshy-fruits

than other birds. These two species are the most abundant

and widespread of birds in Sriharikota (David et al. 2008),

and hence, they were able to exploit fruit resources available

in all the habitats. Open area preferring species like Red-

vented Bulbul, Indian Jungle Crow and Common Myna did

not exploit fruit resources available in the dense forest such

as Canthium dicoccum, Ehretia pubescens and Cordia

dichotoma, and thus fed on less number of fleshy-fruit species.

The number of fleshy-fruit species eaten by the Asian Koel

was less than the bulbuls, though they have a larger gape

size. This is probably because they are encountered only

occasionally in the Island, mainly during winter (David et al.

2008), and it is a secretive species with inconspicuous feeding

habits (Corlett and Ping 1995). The Asian Koel because of

its large gape size (17.5 mm: source, Balasubramanian 1996)

is able to swallow large fruits such as S. cumini. In Hong

Kong, three large fruits ( Arenga engleri, Livistona chinensis

and Syzygium cumini) were recorded to be swallowed whole

only by the Asian Koel (Corlett and Ping 1995).

Fruit use by mammals : The Bonnet Macaque ate more

fleshy-fruit species (34) than the other major mammalian

frugivores. Fruits are documented to form a major portion of

the diet of the Bonnet Macaque (Ali 1986; Krishnamani 1994;

Kuruvilla 1980). Macaques in general, eat anything edible,

ripe or unripe, also seeds and leaves, soft or hard skinned

fruits, and contribute both to dispersal and predation (Pijl

1982). In Sriharikota, the low number of seeds in droppings,

and record of fruit skins without seeds indicate that they either

drop seeds or eat them more than swallowing and defecating

them intact. Moreover, the high percentage of occurrence of

leaves in Macaque droppings points to general deficiency of

fleshy-fruit availability.

The Golden Jackal and Small Indian Civet are recorded

to include fruits in their diet throughout their range (Corlett

1998b; Jhala and Moehlman 2004). Studies on jackal and

civet diet indicate that they prefer insects, rodents, lizards

and birds, and fruits form part of their diet whenever they

become seasonally available (Rabinowitz 1991; Chuang and

Lee 1997; Jhala and Moehlman 2004). Similarly, in

Sriharikota, in addition to fruits, remains of rodents, birds

and insects were recorded in the scats of Golden Jackal and

Small Indian Civet. The Jackal used nearly 50% of fleshy-

fruit species for which there is a record of frugivory. Along

with the Civet, it was an important disperser of Syzygium

cumini and Memecylon umellatum. They are also the major

dispersers for Calamus rotang, an introduced species that has

attained invasive proportions in Sriharikota. The frequency

of occurrence of seeds in scats of these species reflected the

abundance of the fleshy-fruit plants, their seasonality and

fruiting intensity (David et al. 2008).

Fruit bats were recorded to feed on 19 fleshy-fruit

species. The fleshy-fruits used by fruit bats could be an

underestimate as we relied only on fruit debris and not

systematic tree watches. In Point Calimere, Balasubramanian

and Bole (1993) recorded fruit bats to feed on 35 fleshy-fruit

species, including shrubs and climbers that also occur in

Sriharikota. Fruits that are green when ripe are chiefly or

exclusively eaten by fruit bats. Among the 4 species

intensively used by fruit bats, Atalantia monophylla and

Opilia amentacea appear to be chiefly or exclusively used

by fruit bats. The low number of partially eaten fruits of Opilia

amentacea, the absence of partially eaten fruits of Atalantia

monophylla and the high number of bat-eaten fruits of these

two species indicate that other frugivores did not feed on these

two fruit resources. These fruit species are green when ripe

and they remain attached strongly to the plant. In contrast,

the two other major bat-fruits, Garcinia spicata, and

Pamburus missionis are used by the Bonnet Macaque and

Asian Koel. These fruits are delicate and fall off easily, and

hence, more partially eaten and fallen ripe fruits were recorded

in plots below these two tree species.

Overall, the number of fleshy-fruit species consumed

by avian and mammalian frugivores could be higher than

recorded. Records of frugivory for some fruits could not be

obtained because of rarity (e.g. Toddalia asiatica ) or due to

very poor fruiting (e.g., Flacourtia indica and Carissa

spinarum).

Importance of Figs for Frugivores

In some tropical and subtropical forests, figs (Ficus)

are acknowledged to be keystone resources for frugivores

(Terborgh 1986; Lambert and Marshall 1991; Bleher et al.

2003). The features that make figs keystone resources are

their ability to support large number of avian and mammalian

frugivores, large crop size and fruiting throughout the year

(asynchronous fruiting pattern), thus sustaining frugivores

through periods of fruit scarcity (Lambert and Marshall 1991).

In Sriharikota, three species of figs, Ficus amplissima,

F. benghalensis and F. microcarpa, are common in abandoned

village forest (F. racemosa and F. religiosa are rare). Some

34

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

FRUGIVORY BY BIRDS AND MAMMALS IN SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND

fig trees are also found within TDEF. Together, figs fruited

almost throughout the year and all the avian frugivores

were recorded feeding on fig fruits. However, the importance

of figs to frugivores varies. The Coppersmith Barbet feeds

intensively on fig fruits (27/30 records were on figs). They

track fruiting fig trees throughout the Island and were

recorded wherever fig trees were in fruit, even among dense

forest patches. In Kuala Lompat (Malaysia), a radio-tagged

Yellow-crowned Barbet Megalaima henricii, a fig specialist,

regularly flew over 700 m from its roost site to feed on

fruiting F. binnendijkii (Lambert 1989b). In general, barbets

are amongst the most frequently observed fig-eaters in Asia

and they show a certain degree of dietary specialization

towards figs (Shahnahan et al. 2001). In Sriharikota, the

Coppersmith Barbet was recorded to feed only on three other

fleshy-fruit species, but only rarely. Intensive use of fig

fruits and a narrow range of non-fig diet confirm figs as

keystone resource for the species. Figs are also an important

resource for the visiting Orange-breasted Green Pigeon as

they are known to be largely voracious fig-eaters (Lambert

1989a).

Tree watches and opportunistic records indicate that

bulbuls also consume considerable amounts of fig fruits.

Some important fleshy-fruit resources for the bulbuls

(Salvadora persica, Lepisanthes tetraphylla and Cordia

dichotoma) show unpredictable fruiting patterns and are not

reliable (David et al. 2008). Hence, figs with their year round

fruiting pattern could be a critical fruit resource for bulbuls.

Pycnonotidae members are one of the frequently observed

bird groups on fruiting fig trees in Asia and Africa (Lambert

1989b; Shahnahan et al. 2001). Bulbuls have been recorded

to feed on 63 Ficus species, and in terms of fig seed dispersal,

are probably the most important of the smaller frugivores

(Shahnahan et al. 2001). Among the three species of bulbuls,

the highly mobile Red-whiskered Bulbul is at a distinct

advantage. They can fly extensively in search of fruiting fig

trees, which are mostly confined to the abandoned village

forest. On the contrary, the White-browed Bulbul with its

shy nature, sulking behaviour and poor flight will not be

able to track fig trees like the Red-whiskered Bulbul and has

to rely on the few fig trees within TDEF (its preferred

habitat). The Red-vented Bulbul is abundant in open scrub

and abandoned village forest (David et al. 2008), and so has

easy access to fig trees.

Among mammals, figs were found to be important for

the Bonnet Macaque and fruit bats. Field observations and

faecal dropping analysis revealed that fig fruits are a major

component in the diet of the Bonnet Macaque as reported in

other studies (Ali 1986; Krishnamani 1994). More than 50%

of feeding records on Bonnet Macaque were on fig fruits.

and figs appeared in many Macaque droppings compared to

other fruits. However, Bonnet Macaques are very catholic

in their diet and include a variety of fruit and non-fruit

resources (Kuruvilla 1980; Ali 1986; Krishnamani 1994),

hence figs may not be a keystone resource for them.

Additionally, fig-eating species with territorial lifestyles (as

the Bonnet Macaque) may vary in their dependence on figs

(Borges 1993).

As fruit bats are obligate frugivores, the availability

of figs would be especially important for them. Pteropodidae

members are the major consumers of figs in the tropics

(Shahnahan et al. 2001). In the neotropics, figs constitute

the dominant portion in the diet of Phyllostomid bats (Kalko

et al. 1996). In Sriharikota, figs are very important in the

diet of fruit bats as they consumed fig fruits in 19 of the

21 months of study. Secondly, non-fig fruits preferred by

fruit bats are mainly available only from June-October and

two: Opilia amentacea and Pamburus missionis are not

common in the island (David et al. 2008). Other important

fleshy fruit resources show unpredictable fruiting patterns.

Therefore, the year round availability of fig fruits is crucial

to ensure a continuous food supply for fruit bats, and hence,

figs can be regarded as a keystone resource for fruit bats in

Sriharikota. Figs as a key fruit resource have also been

reported for Pteropus sp. from the Philippines and Australia

(Eby 1998; Stier and Mildenstein 2005) and for Lesser Dog¬

faced Fruit Bat Cynopterus brachyotis from Malaysia (Tan

etal 1998).

Thus, figs appear to be an important food resource

for both avian and mammalian frugivores, and may be a

keystone resource for some species. The loss or decline of

fig trees could lead to decline in population of some species

of frugivorous birds. Primary fig-eaters, like Coppersmith

Barbet may become (locally) extinct and the Orange-breasted

Green-Pigeon could stop visiting the Island. This prediction

finds support in the findings in a subtropical South African

forest where the destruction of Ficus sycomorus trees in

Umfolozi Nature Reserve after a cyclone in 1984 led to

local elimination of some frugivores (Bleher et al. 2003).

Based on this, they hypothesized that removal of another

Ficus species, F. thonningii in the Oribi Gorge Nature

Reserve could drastically influence the frugivore community

and hence figs must be considered as a keystone

resource.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The findings of this study revealed that the abandoned

village forest is an important habitat for avian and

mammalian frugivores primarily due to the abundance of

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

35

FRUGIVORY BY BIRDS AND MAMMALS IN SRIHARIKQTA ISLAND

fig trees. Hence, even though the abandoned village forest

is not a Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest, we suggest that these

areas should be given low priority for land acquisition plans

for the expansion of the spaceport. Where acquisition is

unavoidable, possibilities of avoiding cutting of Ficus trees

should be explored.

Salvadora persica trees, which are very attractive to

avian frugivores, should also be protected. This species occurs

only in saline water basins close to Pulicat lake around the

former villages of Penubakkam and Beripeta. Within the

TDEF, we recommend protection for Lepisanthes tetraphylla,

Ehretia pubescens and Canthium dicoccum. These trees occur

in low densities. The juicy fruits of Lepisanthes tetraphylla

are important for birds and bats in summer, while Ehretia

pubescens and Canthium dicoccum are important fruit

resources during the north-east monsoon and winter. Other

plants of importance for frugivores are Azadirachta indica,

Cordia dichotoma and Lannea coromandelica for birds, and

Atalantia monophylla, Garcinia spicata and Opilia

amentacea for fruit bats.

In addition to these important fleshy-fruit species,

visually attractive species such Breynia vitis-idaea, Casaeria

esculenta, Cansjeera rheedei, Pavetta indica and Phoenix

farinifera can be grown in gardens and residential facilities

of the SDSC-SHAR in Sriharikota and Sullurpet. Salvadora

persica and Lannea coromandelica can be planted along road

Ali, R. (1986): Feeding ecology of the Bonnet Macaque at the

Mundanthurai Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

83(1): 98-110.

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Society and Oxford University Press. 13th Revised Edition,

New Delhi. 326 pp.

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and bird-dispersed plants in the Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest

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428-441.

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margins from Attakanithippa to Sriharikota, Pemadu and

Veenadu. This recommendation is based on observations of

existing trees along the road which are doing well compared

to other species that wither due to the impact of salt and strong

winds. Lannea coromandelica can also be grown and planted

along the road from Sullurpet to the SDSC-SHAR residential

area (Pulicat Nagar).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank the Indian Space Research

Organisation (ISRO) for funding the project and providing

accommodation and support during the study. Our Yanadi

field assistant Mr. Manikala Parandamaiah was of immense

help in the field. We thank Ms. Priya Davidar, Dean, School

of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, for providing

us with literature and Dr. P. Balasubramanian, Scientist, Salim

Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON),

for sharing his expertise and for library facilities at SACON.

We thank M. Ashok Kumar, BNHS, and Dr. Qamar Qureshi,

Wildlife Institute of India, for helping in statistics. At

Sriharikota, we thank the former and present head

of the Conservation and Landscape Division (C&LD),

Mr. R.B. Singh and Dr. A. Rabbani, and senior scientists

Mr. Srinivasulu Reddy and Mr. Amitav Mohanty for support

and encouragement.

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Appendix 1 : Fteshy-fruit species and their fruit-traits

38 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

FRUGIVORY BY BIRDS AND MAMMALS IN SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND

Appendix 1 : Fleshy-fruit species and fruit-traits in Sriharikota (contd.)

Note: Fruits containing more than two seeds are categorised as ‘multi-seeded’. For Salvadora persica, the 2nd value under mean fruit size is the

diameter of seedless fruits. M: Mammals, B: Birds, BM: Birds and Mammals

Appendix 2: Frequency of occurrence of seeds in droppings of Golden Jackal, Small Indian Civet and Bonnet Macaque

(June 2006-May 2008)

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

39

FRUGIVORY BY BIRDS AND MAMMALS IN SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND

Appendix 2: Frequency of occurrence of seeds in droppings of Golden Jackal, Small Indian Civet and Bonnet Macaque

(June 2006-May 2008) (contd.)

Species Frequency of Occurrence (%) Mean no. of seeds/scat and range

Note: Lepisanthes tetraphylla, Mimusops elengi, Pamburus missionis and Ziziphus mauritiana seeds were recorded in the scats of Bonnet

Macaque prior to June 2006.

40

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 108(1), Jan-Apr 2011

41-46

WILD FOOD TRADITIONALLY USED BY THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE

OF PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

WESTERN GHATS, KERALA, INDIA

K.Yesodharan1-2, P. Pabmanabhan1'3 and N.U. Cini1’4

'Division of Forest Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi 680 653, Kerala, India.

2Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

This paper attempts an ethnobiological investigation, performed during 2003 to 2006, to collect, identify and document

information on wild food traditionally used by the indigenous people of the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary in

Palakkad district of Kerala, India. During the investigation 83 species of plants were found to be used by the tribes as

vegetables, wild fruits, beverages and in other preparations. Vegetables formed the largest group which included roots,

tubers, young leaves and buds, inflorescence, ripe/unripe fruits and seeds.

Among fauna, 34 species of mammals, 65 of fishes, 3 of reptiles, 5 of frogs and toads, 10 of birds and 5 of insects were

recorded to be used as food by tribals of the Sanctuary. Besides meat, other products like honey, larvae of honey bees,

eggs of crocodile and birds are also consumed by the tribals. A paste of Red Ants Oecophylla smaragdina is eaten as

a condiment with curry. The tongue of Varanus and meat of fruit bat is used to treat chronic asthma. Many food plants

in the wild are also used for medicinal purposes such as Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicol., Boerhavia

chinensis (L.) Rottb. zn&Ensete superbum, which serve both as food and medicine. There is much scope for improving

the quality of food resources in the wild by using modem agronomic research, experimental, cytogenetical and molecular

studies.

Key words: traditionally eaten, indigenous people, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, medicinal, wild food

INTRODUCTION

Forests play an indispensable role in improving food

security of indigenous people. Wild edible plants and animals

are important in the livelihood strategies of forest dwellers/

tribal populations. Leaves of wild species are among the most

widely consumed. Besides leaves, they consume fruits,

conns, shoots, seeds and young stem of plants.

Tribal groups are selective in their animal food. They

eat a variety of food items, including meat of several animals

like tongue of Varanus, liver of peacock, eggs of crocodile.

The even-toed ungulates are the chief source of meat. Rodents

are also important meat animals in various parts of India

(Mathur 1954). According to Bodenheimer (1951), insects are

highly nutritious and provide plenty of proteins, fats, vitamins,

salts and minerals. In the past, the meat of wild animals was

the primary source of nutrition. They hunted the animals for

bare necessity, and to provide essential nutrients to their diet.

The larger society has very little knowledge of the nutritive

value of edible products of forests. So, documentation of wild

food resources is important for the food security of future

generation. The surveys on wild edible plants and animals in

India have been conducted by many researchers. This is the

first attempt to document the wild food resources of

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and its surrounding areas.

STUDY AREA

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in Palghat

district, Kerala state, India, with an extent of 274 sq. km

between 10° 20-10° 26' N and 76° 35'-76° 50' E. The

Sanctuary is contiguous with the natural forests of Sholayar

and Vazhachal in Thrissur district of the state. The boundary

on the East is purely an administrative one with the forest

clearance throughout the area bordered by Indira Gandhi

Wildlife Sanctuary of Tamil Nadu. The Sanctuary is

contiguous with forests of Anamalais, Nelliampathis,

Sholayar high ranges and Palni hills. The major interception

of the Western Ghats, namely the Palakkad gap, lies north of

this area. The area in general has a slope towards west with

the highest peak of Karimalagopuram (1,438 m) descending

the banks of Chalakkudy river (439.5 m). The Sanctuary

includes hilly terrains with undulated plateau. It spreads in

the Sungam and Parambikulam valleys, which are well-

known for teak plantation.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study was cnducted during 2003-2006. The aim of

the study was to explore, collect, identify and preserve the

wild and domesticated plants and animals used by the tribals

WILD FOOD TRADITIONALLY USED BY THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE OF PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

as food, fodder, medicine, oil, tannin, gum, small timber, fuel,

fibres, furniture, tools, musical instruments, game animals,

socio-religious purposes, and domestic purpose. The data were

collected from the tribals through a questionnaire survey. The

paper reports a part of the study (Fig. 1), i.e., wild food

resources used by the tribals of the Sanctuary. The elders,

tribal medicine men ( Vaidyas ), and hunters were contacted

to collect data on wild food resources. Local names, parts

used, method of utilization were gathered from them with

regard to each plant and animal species. The specimens

collected were identified with the help of floras and taxonomic

revisions, important books on animals, monographs and other

field keys (Hooker 1872-92; Gamble 1915-35; Vajravelu

1990; Sasidharan 2002). Identification was later confirmed

by matching the specimens with the authentic specimens

available at Herbarium and Wildlife Museum of Kerala Forest

Research Institute. All the specimens collected were

incorporated in the herbarium of the Kerala Forest Research

Institute at Peechi.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

During this study it was observed that the tribal

communities of the Sanctuary fulfill deficiency in food needs

by supplementing it with wild food plants and animals in

their diet. The total agricultural produce of any tribal area is

hardly enough for a few months to maintain their families.

The tribals were well-acquainted with the food resources of

surrounding forests, and knew what to eat and how to separate

harmful substances from the edible items. For e.g. Corms

and petioles of wild Colocasia or Amorphophallus when

eaten raw cause a terrible itching sensation in the throat. To

remove the irritable properties, they are peeled, boiled in

tamarind water and smeared with turmeric paste. This is one

of the methods devised in the kitchens of tribals to make

wild plants palatable.

Of the 83 species of edible plants collected, 30 are used

as leafy vegetables, 3 1 for fruits, 16 for seeds, 10 in the form

of rhizomes/tubers/corms and 6 as stems/shoots. Amaranthus

spinosus, Centella asiatica, Euphorbia hirta, Oxalis

corniculata, Mollugo pentaphylla are used by tribals more

extensively. Among wild fruits, consumption of Jackfruit

Artocarpus heterophyllus and Mango Mangifera indica is

common. Vigna vexillata and Ensete superbum are noted for

suppressing hunger. In Table 1 , plant parts such as seeds, fruits,

rhizomes, leaves and stem used as food are listed

alphabetically with their scientific names, local names and

life form. Number of species of each category of food use

and growth habit is given.

With regard to wild food items, forest fauna is in no

way less important than forest flora. They not only add to the

aesthetic value and grandeur of the forest, but also play an

important role in maintaining ecological balance and act as

food security for the rural people. Meat obtained from the

fauna and the fish collected from the forest brooks, streams

and ponds form a fair adjunct to the diet of the people. In this

42

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

WILD FOOD TRADITIONALLY USED BY THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE OF PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

study, 65 species of fishes (Table 2), 34 of mammals, 10 of

birds (Table 3), 3 of reptiles, 5 of frogs and toads (Table 4),

and 5 of insects (Table 5) were recorded as food of

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary. Enumerated species and

their products other than meat are also used as food (honey,

larvae of honey bees, eggs of crocodile and birds). A paste

made up of Red Ants ( Oecophylla smaragdina ) is eaten as a

condiment with curry. Most of the observation claims that

‘medicine is food and food is medicine’. The tongue of

Varanus and meat of fruit bat is used to treat chronic asthma.

Soup of Watercock Gallicrex cinerea and Canis aureus is a

remedy for general weakness, which emphasizes that tribals

take a balanced diet. Many food plants in the wild are also

used for medicinal purposes, e.g., Amorphophallus

paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicol., Boerhavia chinensis (L.)

Rottb. and Ensete superbum. Every dish has medicinal

properties. Considering the above factors the documentation

of wild food resources is of utmost necessity.

Table 1: Wild edible plants utilized by tribals of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

43

WILD FOOD TRADITIONALLY USED BY THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE OF PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Table 1 : Wild edible plants utilized by tribals of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (contd.)

Table 2: Fishes consumed by tribals of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary

44

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

WILD FOOD TRADITIONALLY USED BY THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE OF PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Table 2: Fishes consumed by tribals of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (contd.)

Table 3: Birds and mammals consumed by tribals of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011 45

WILD FOOD TRADITIONALLY USED BY THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE OF PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Table 3: Birds and mammals consumed by tribals of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary

Table 4: Reptiles and amphibians consumed by tribals of

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary

Table 5: Insect food resources of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary

SI. No. Scientific name Local name

thorough field work in various tribal areas and critical

ethnobiological observation on wild edible plants and animals

are the basic requirements.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thorough ethnobiological exploration of various tribal

areas may reveal that many more plants and animals prove to

be a cure for thirst or hunger depression problems in humans.

There is much scope for improving the growth forms of wild

food resources by using modern agronomic research,

experimental cytogenetic studies. For all such endeavour.

We thank Dr. R. Gnanaharan, Director, and

Mr. J.K. Sharma, former Director, Kerala Forest Research

Institute, Peechi, for facilities and encouragements during this

study. The Kerala State Council for Science, Technology

and Environment is acknowledged for financial assistance.

REFERENCES

Bodenheimer, F.S. (1951): Insects as human food. Dr. W. Junk. The Hague. Pp. 1-352.

Gamble, J.S. (1915-35): Flora of the Presidency of Madras, 3 Vols, Adlard & Sons. Ltd., London.

Hooker, J.D. (1872-92): Flora of British India, 7 Vols. Reeve & Company Ltd., London.

Mathur, R.N. (1954): Insects and other wild animals as human food. Ind. For. 80(8): 427-432.

Sasidharan, N. (2002): Floristic studies in Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala Forest Research Report No. 246, Kerala Forest Research

Institute, Peechi. 2002. pp. 365.

Vajravelu, E. (1990): Flora of Palghat District. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. 646.

46

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 108(1), Jan-Apr 2011

47-50

NEW DESCRIPTION

A REVIEW OF THE WHITEFLY GENUS DIALEUROLONGA DOZIER

(HEMIPTERA: ALEYRODIDAE) WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES FROM INDIA

R. PUSHPA1'2 AND R. SUNDARARAJ1'3

'Wood Biodegradation Division, Institute of Wood Science & Technology, 18th Cross, Malleswaram, Bengaluru 560 003,

Karnataka, India.

2Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

The whitefly genus Dialeurolonga Dozier is represented in India by nine species. In this paper, Dialeurolonga connari

sp. nov. infesting Connarus sclerocarpus from Kattapana (Kerala: India) is described and illustrated. Further, intra¬

specific variation observed in D. malleshwaramensis has been reported. A key to the Indian species of Dialeurolonga

is given.

Keywords: Taxonomy, Aleyrodidae, Dialeurolonga , whitefly, new species, India

INTRODUCTION

Dialeurolonga Dozier is a whitefly genus with

53 hitherto described species (Martin and Mound 2007),

majority of them known from Ethiopian and Malaysian

regions; a few including the type species have been described

from the Oriental region (Martin 1999). In India,

Dialeurolonga is so far represented by nine species, namely

D. elongata (Dozier), D. lagerstroemiae Jesudasan & David,

D. maculata (Singh), D. malleshwaramensis Sundararaj,

D. davidi Dubey & Sundararaj, D. kumargiriensis Dubey &

Sundararaj, D. multituberculata Dubey & Sundararaj,

D. multipori Dubey & Sundararaj, D. pseudocephalidistincta

(Dubey and Sundararaj 2006). In this paper, a new species

D. connari infesting Connarus sclerocarpus in southern India

is described and illustrated raising the total number of Indian

species of Dialeurolonga to ten. A key to the Indian species

of the genus is given.

Key to the Indian species of Dialeurolonga

1. Submargin without a row of conical papillae; median pore

cephalad of vasiform orifice absent . . . 2

— Submargin with a row of conical papillae; cephalad of vasiform

orifice a large median pore with a chitinised rim evident .

. . . . . elongata (Dozier)

2. Laterad of vasiform orifice without enlarged kidney-shaped

patches . . . . . 3

— Laterad of vasiform orifice with enlarged kidney-shaped

patches . . . . davidi Dubey & Sundararaj

3. Dorsum without tubercles or papillae . . . 4

— Dorsum with tubercles or papillae . 5

4. Subdorsum with a row of 8 pairs of curved minute setae;

thoracic and caudal tracheal pores invaginated .

. kumargiriensis Dubey & Sundararaj

— Subdorsum without a row of setae; thoracic and caudal tracheal

pores indicated by six minute teeth . maculata (Singh)

5. Subdorsal setae absent . . . . . 6

— Subdorsal setae present . . . 7

6. Thoracic and abdominal segments without submedian

tubercles, but with spherical structure .

. . lagerstroemiae Jesudasan & David

— Dorsum completely tuberculate; submedian tubercles present,

but without spherical structure . . .

. . . . multituberculata Dubey & Sundararaj

7. Puparium with enlarged submedian tubercles . 8

— Puparium without enlarged submedian tubercles . 9

8. Three to five pairs of enlarged submedian tubercles; subdorsum

with 9-12 pairs of capitate setae .

. . . . . malleshwaramensis Sundararaj

— A row of enlarged submedian tubercles extending from laterad

of vasiform orifice to prothorax; subdorsum with 13 pairs of

minute pointed setae . connari sp. nov.

9. Margin smoothly crenulate; subdorsal setae capitate, less than

18 pm long; cephalothorax not separated by subdorsal furrow

. . multipori Dubey & Sundararaj

— Margin irregularly crenulate; subdorsal setae with blunt end,

18-35.5 pm long; cephalothorax separated by a faint subdorsal

furrow . pseudocephalidistincta Dubey & Sundararaj

1 . Dialeurolonga connari sp. nov.

(Figs 1-3)

Puparium: White, without secretion of wax; elliptical,

broadest across prothoracic segment region, slightly indented

at the thoracic tracheal pores; found in groups on the under

surface of leaves; 1.18-1.24 mm long, 0.84-0.86 mm wide.

Margin irregularly crenulate. Thoracic and caudal tracheal

NEW DESCRIPTION

Figs 1 -3: Dialeurolonga connari sp. nov.

1 . Puparium, 2. Margin at thoracic tracheal pore region,

3. Vasiform orifice

pores indicated. Anterior and posterior marginal setae, 8 pm

and 10 pm long respectively.

Dorsum: Submargin with regularly arranged striations

radiating from margin towards subdorsum; subdorsum with

dense microtubercles; a submedian row of tubercles extending

from laterad of vasiform orifice to prothorax; median area

with transverse broken ridges, submedian pockets well-

developed on all segment sutures. Longitudinal moulting

suture reaching margin and transverse moulting suture

reaching submedian area. Thoracic tracheal furrows indicated

and caudal tracheal furrow sculptured, 164-172 pm long,

4-6 pm wide at its broadest end.

Chaetotaxy: Four pairs of capitate setae-cephalic setae

14 pm long, first abdominal setae 8 pm long, eighth abdominal

setae cephalolaterad of vasiform orifice 6 pm long and caudal

setae 8 pm long on caudal ridge. Subdorsum with 13 pairs of

pointed setae 2.5 pm long.

Vasiform orifice: Subcircular, longer than wide

(42.5-52.5 pm long, 43-45 pm wide), postero-lateral wall

toothed with distinct tooth in the centre; operculum

subcordate, 30-32.5 pm long, 27.5-30 pm wide. Lingula

slightly exposed.

Venter: A pair of ventral abdominal setae 14 pm long,

44 pm apart. Antennae reaching base of prothoracic legs.

Thoracic and caudal tracheal folds indicated without

markings. A pair of setae at the base of meso- and metathoracic

legs present.

Host: Connarus sclemcarpus.

Type Locality: Kattapana, Kerala, India.

Material examined: Holotype: One puparium, mounted

on slide from Connarus sclerocarpus. Coll. R. Pushpa,

27.iii.2007, deposited in the collection of Forest Entomology

Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun.

Paratypes: Nine mounted puparia, data same as

holotype, deposited one each in the collections of Division

of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,

New Delhi; Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, and the

remaining in the collection of Institute of Wood Science &

Technology, Bengaluru.

Discussion: This species can be readily recognized from

other known species of Dialeurolonga in shape: submargin

with striations, subdorsum tuberculated, a row of 13 pairs of

subdorsal setae and by the absence of stipples in thoracic and

caudal tracheal folds.

Etymology: Named after the genus of its known host

plant, Connarus.

2. Dialeurolonga davidi Dubey & Sundararaj

Dialeurolonga davidi Dubey & Sundararaj 2006.

Oriental Ins. 40: 160.

Material examined: Holotype: puparium, india:

Karnataka: Kudremukh National Park, on unidentified plant,

10.viii.2001. Coll. A.K. Dubey.

Host: Unidentified plant (Dubey and Sundararaj 2006).

Distribution: india: Karnataka (Dubey and Sundararaj

2006).

Discussion: This species is distinct from all known

species of Dialeurolonga in having kidney-shaped patches

laterad of vasiform orifice.

3. Dialeurolonga elongata Dozier

Dialeurodes ( Dialeurolonga ) elongata Dozier 1928.

J. Agric. Res. 36: 1001-1005. Dialeurodes elongata Singh

1931. Mem. Dep. Agric. India 12 (1): 36.

Dialeurolonga elongata Takahashi 1951. Mem. Inst.

Sci. Madagascar 6 A: 345.

Jesudasan & David 1991. Oriental Ins. 25: 308-309.

Material examined: india: Karnataka: Kudremukh

National Park, 10 puparia, on Tabemaemontana heyneana,

8.viii.2001. Coll. A.K. Dubey.

Hosts: Citrus sp., lxora coccinea, I. pavetta, Litchi

chinensis (Singh, 1931); Murray a exotica (David &

Subramaniam, 1976); Tabemaemontana heyneana (Dubey

& Sundararaj, 2006).

Distribution: india: Bihar: Pusa (Singh 1931); Tamil

Nadu: Chennai (David and Subramaniam 1976); Karnataka:

Kudremukh National Park (Dubey and Sundararaj 2006).

48

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

NEW DESCRIPTION

Discussion: This species is defined by its typical

elongate shape, margin with wax tubes and dorsum uniformly

pitted all over with a few papillae.

4. Dialeurolonga kumargiriensis Dubey & Sundararaj

Dialeurolonga kumargiriensis Dubey & Sundararaj,

2006. Oriental Ins. 40: 161.

Material examined: Holotype: puparium, india:

Karnataka: Kumargiri, on Ficus nervosa, l.ix.2001.

Coll. A.K. Dubey.

Host: Ficus nervosa (Dubey & Sundararaj, 2006).

Distribution: India: Karnataka (Dubey and Sundararaj

2006).

Discussion: This species is rather distinct from the other

known species of Dialeurolonga in the absence of subdorsal

papillae or tubercles, presence of curved setae on subdorsum

and invaginated thoracic and caudal tracheal pores.

5. Dialeurolonga lager stroemiae Jesudasan & David

Dialeurolonga lagerstroemiae Jesudasan & David

1991. Oriental Ins. 26: 309-310.

Material examined: Holotype: puparium, india: Uttar

Pradesh (=Uttarakhand): Dehradun, on Lagerstwemia

speciosa, 1 1 .ii. 1985. Coll. R.W.A. Jesudasan.

Host: Lagerstroemia speciosa (Jesudasan & David,

1991).

Distribution: india: Uttar Pradesh (=Uttarakhand)

(Jesudasan and David 1991).

Discussion: The puparium of this species can be

recognized by its shorter seventh abdominal segment and

presence of submedian granules on each of the abdominal

segments.

6. Dialeurolonga maculata (Singh)

Aleurotulus maculata Singh 1931. Mem. Dep. Agric.

India 12: 89.

Dialeurolonga maculata David & Jesudasan 1989.

Entomon 14: 371.

Material examined: india: Tamil Nadu: Chennai,

1 puparium, on Ficus religiosa, 3.vii.l971. Coll. B.V. David.

Host: Ficus religiosa (Singh, 1931).

Distribution: india: Bihar: Pusa (Singh 1931); Tamil

Nadu: Chennai (Jesudasan and David 1991).

Discussion: This species is defined by its submargin with

faint and irregular radial striations, vasiform orifice subcordate,

operculum subrectangular with the comers rounded and caudal

margin hairy, filling three-fourths of the orifice, lingula

cylindrical with a swollen and setose tip projecting short

distance beyond the caudal ridge and a narrow dotted groove

run: from the end of the orifice to the caudal margin.

Figs 4-5: Dialeurolonga malleshwaramensis Sundararaj

(Dorsal surface)

4. Puparium from upper surface, 5. Puparium from under surface

7. Dialeurolonga malleshwaramensis Sundararaj

(Figs 4-5)

Dialeurolonga malleshwaramensis Sundararaj 2001.

Entomon 26(2): 191-194.

Sundararaj (2001) described this species and Dubey &

Ko (2006) redescribed it.

Material examined: india: Karnataka: Bangalore,

Paratype: puparium, on Polyalthia longifolia, 7.vii. 1999.

Coll. R. Sundararaj; Bengaluru, 14 puparia, on Polyalthia

longifolia, 25.V.2007. Coll. R. Pushpa.

Host: Polyalthia longifolia (Sundararaj, 2001).

Distribution: india: Karnataka (Sundararaj 2001).

Comments: Intraspecific variation has been observed

in D. malleshwaramensis Sundararaj. The puparia, collected

from upper surface of leaves, have more number of capitate

setae and submedian tubercles (Fig. 4), while the puparia, on

under surface of leaves have less number of capitate setae

and submedian tubercles (Fig. 5).

Discussion: The puparium of this species is

characterised by the presence of 4 pairs of blunt capitate setae,

3-5 pairs of enlarged submedian tubercles and subdorsum

with 9-12 pairs of capitate setae.

8. Dialeurolonga multipori Dubey & Sundararaj

Dialeurolonga multipori Dubey & Sundararaj, 2006.

Oriental Ins. 40: 162.

Material examined: Holotype: puparium, india:

Karnataka: Yellapur, on Casearia esculenta, 11.x. 2001.

Coll. A.K. Dubey.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

49

NEW DESCRIPTION

Host: Casearia esculenta (Dubey & Sundararaj, 2006).

Distribution: India: Karnataka (Dubey and Sundararaj

2006).

Discussion: This species can be easily separated from

other known Indian species in having more number of

subdorsal setae and their irregular arrangement and absence

of tubercles on cephalothorax and abdomen, tassellation,

vasiform orifice not notched at caudal end and excluded

lingula.

9. Dialeurolonga multitub erculata Dubey & Sundararaj

Dialeurolonga multituberculata Dubey & Sundararaj,

2006. Oriental Ins. 40: 163.

Material examined: Holotype: puparium, india:

Karnataka: Yellapur, on Careya arborea, 11.x. 2001.

Coll. A.K. Dubey.

Host: Careya arborea (Dubey & Sundararaj, 2006).

Distribution: india: Karnataka (Dubey and Sundararaj

2006).

Discussion: The puparium of this species is readily

recognizable by the presence of tubercles on whole of dorsum,

notched vasiform orifice and distinct thoracic and caudal

tracheal furrows.

10. Dialeurolonga pseudocephalidistincta

Dubey & Sundararaj

Dialeurolonga pseudocephalidistincta Dubey &

Sundararaj, 2006. Oriental Ins. 40: 164.

Material examined: Holotype: puparium, india:

Karnataka: Kudremukh National Park, on unidentified plant,

10.viii.2001. Coll. A.K. Dubey.

Host: Unidentified plant (Dubey and Sundararaj 2006).

Distribution: india: Karnataka (Dubey and Sundararaj

2006).

Discussion: This species is rather distinct from the

other species of Dialeurolonga in having cephalothoracic fold

on subdorsum and striations on lingula.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Institute of Wood Science and Technology,

Bengaluru, for the facilities provided. Thanks are due to

Prof. B.V. David, President, Sun Agro Biotech Research

Centre, Porur, Chennai, for his valuable comments.

REFERENCES

David, B.V. & R.W.A. Jesudasan (1989): Dialeurolonga maculata

(Singh) comb. nov. and Dialeurolonga takahashi nom. nov. for

Dialeurolonga maculata Takahashi (Aleyrodidae: Homoptera)

from Madagascar. Entomon 14(3,4 ): 371.

David, B.V. & T.R. Subramaniam (1976): Studies on some Indian

Aleyrodidae. Rec. Zool. Surv. India 70 : 133-233.

Dozier, H.L. (1928): Two new aleyrodid (Citrus) pests from India and

the South Pacific. J. agric. Res. 36: 1001-1005.

Dubey, A.K. & C.C. Ko (2006): Dialeuropora photiniana comb. nov.

and redescription of Dialeurolonga malleshwaramensis

Sundararaj (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae). Formosan Entomo. 26:

391-398.

Dubey, A.K. & R. Sundararaj (2006): Descriptions of five new species

of the whitefly genus Dialeurolonga, Dozier (Hemiptera:

Aleyrodidae) from India. Oriental Ins. 40: 159-170.

Jesudasan, R.W.A. & B.V. David (1991): Taxonomic studies on

Indian Aleyrodidae (Insecta: Homoptera). Oriental Ins. 25:

231-434.

Martin, J.H. (1999): The whitefly fauna of Australia (Stemorrhyncha:

Aleyrodidae): A taxonomic account and identification guide.

CSIRO Entomology Technical Paper 38: 1-197.

Martin, J.H. & L.A. Mound (2007): An annotated check list of the

world’s whiteflies (Insecta: Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae). Zootaxa

1492: 1-84.

Singh, K. (1931): A contribution towards our knowledge of the

Aleyrodidae (whiteflies) of India. Mem. Dept. Agric. India.

Entomol. Ser. 12: 1-98.

Sundararaj, R. (2001): Description of a new species of Dialeurolonga

Dozier (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) breeding on Polyalthia

longifolia Hook with key to Indian species. Entomon 26(2):

191-194.

Takahashi, R. (1951): Some species of Aleyrodidae (Homoptera) from

Madagascar, with a species from Mauritius. Mem. Inst. Scient.

Madagascar (A) 6: 353-385.

50

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 108(1), Jan-Apr 2011

51-S2

REVIEWS

1. MANAGEMENT OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF INDIAN FORESTS by S. Kondas.

Published by Future Graphic, Chennai. Size: 14 cm x 23 cm, 500 pp., Paperback, Price: Rs. 390A.

Here is a voluminous and scientific book largely free

from the clutter of jargon and technical details. Written by a

senior civil servant, who retired as PCCF of Tamil Nadu,

it covers a wide array of information and details on

biodiversity. In his foreword, noted agricultural scientist

M.S. Swaminathan has said that biodiversity is the feedstock

for plant, animal and fish breeding. He also highlights its

importance for the future food, livelihood and health security.

The exhaustive range of biodiversity related topics

covered in the book include physiographic divisions of forests

of southern India, climate, morphology and floristics of forest

vegetation, ecology and endemism, vegetation classification,

forest tribes, anthropogenic pressures, sanctuaries and parks,

biosphere reserves, climate change and global conventions,

carbon credits and CDMs, bio-piracy and forest legislations,

among others.

It also includes some interesting case studies on topics

such as management of protected areas and some ecologically

disastrous human interventions, e.g. shola forests in the

Nilgiris and sugarcane cultivation in Kolhapur.

The book contains some good illustrations and

photographs depicting the floral diversity, habitats and vegetation.

The book, which is reasonably priced, would be of

interest to forest officials, researchers, policy makers, civil

servants and students of forestry and agriculture, particularly

those studying the forests of southern India.

However, it also has its share of drawbacks. There are

several errors of commission and omission. In the list of

highest peaks of Sahyadri in Maharashtra, the author has

missed out Kalsubai, which is the highest. Description of the

Konkan region is patchy and incomplete. For instance, while

mentioning the rivers of Konkan, only a couple of rivers near

Mumbai are mentioned, ignoring the dozens of other rivers

in the region. In the islands section Andaman & Nicobar are

mentioned, whereas Lakshadweep is missing. There are

spelling mistakes in several chapters. The author switches

from Indian to global issues at several places breaking the

link of the reader.

Nevertheless, here we have a comprehensive book on

biodiversity that touches the myriad topics therein, which

will guide the reader about the basics. Thereafter, the reader

can later refer to detailed books on each subject.

■ ATULSATHE

2. BIRDS OF KERALA - STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION by C. Sashikumar, Praveen J., Muhamed Jafer

Palot and P.O. Nameer. Published by DC Books, Kottayam, Kerala. Size: 14.5 x 22.5 cm, 835 pages.

Hardbound, Price: not mentioned.

The birds of kerala is a landmark publication on the

avifauna of Kerala, and as the foreword by Dr. Asad R.

Rahmani (Director, BNHS) says, is authored by “some of the

most technically-sound ornithologists of India”. Even from a

quick perusal of the text of 835 pages and with 900 odd

references, one gets a fair idea of the effort that went into the

work and the authenticity of the information. As Dr. Rahmani

says, the publication is a bench-mark standard for

ornithologists of other states to emulate for publications on

birds of their areas. Kerala was fortunate in having a dedicated

native birder in K.K. Neelakantan, who inspired many of

Kerala’s birdwatchers, ornithologists and naturalists, and it

is good to know that the tradition is continuing.

The publication is a document on the birds of Kerala,

dealing primarily with their status and distribution. It describes

453 species of birds with mention of an additional 49 species

that could occur in the state, which are grouped under The

Main List and The Secondary List. There is a chapter on the

history of ornithology of Kerala, which throws light on work

and contributions of ornithologists from the days of the British

Raj to Salim Ali and K.K. Neelakantan. The landscape of

Kerala, an overview of its bird communities, site descriptions

and conservation issues are discussed in four introductory

chapters. There is also a chapter on the nomenclature used,

sequence of families, how the information and records were

compiled, and the criteria used for inclusion of species into

the state checklist. Overall, it is a work of erudition.

Nevertheless, as with most publications, there is scope for

improvement, mainly in the production aspects. In the next

few paragraphs, I discuss these solely for consideration in

the next revised edition.

Most of the species are illustrated by photographs, most

are good or satisfactory. However, a few are of poor quality,

which should have been avoided as it mars the publication

somewhat. Attention should have been given to colour

processing of the cover page - a blue cast is seen in the white

REVIEWS

areas of the birds’ plumages. The maps on pages 88, 89 and

709 are rather gaudy and the font is also too bold. Lighter

shades and a suitable font would have added to the aesthetics.

It appears odd why the political map of Kerala, which should

have figured along with the other maps in the introductory

chapters, is placed towards the end of the book (page 709).

Coming to errors or inaccuracies, the title in pages

88 and 89 should read Map (and not Maps) of northern Kerala

and Map of southern Kerala, as there is only one map for

each page. The common (English) names follow Manakadan

and Pittie (2001), but woodswallow is wrongly given as wood

swallow (page 703). However, the authors got it right in the

index (page 825)! Can’t really blame them with all the

confusion prevailing in the common names of Indian birds!

Similarly, Wood-Owl is written as both Wood-Owl and Wood

Owl (pages 415 and 416). The contents page cites The Main

List in page 120, but this title does not figure in the page,

unlike the case of The Secondary List on page 710. I suggest

that “one single bird” and “a subadult bird was sighted” are

replaced with “a single bird” (or better still “a bird”) and “a

subadult was sighted”, as these sound better.

My main complaint with the publication is its

unwarranted bulk. Size reduction could have been easily

achieved by judicious page formatting (e.g., view the margins

across pages 435 to 435) and by having small ( contra half¬

page sized ones) photographs of birds next to the species

accounts. One photo for each species would also do, unless

the sexes are dimorphic, as this is not an identification guide.

What was the justification for an illustration of a blurred image

of a Jungle Crow with a deformed bill (page 708), when a

good picture is already there on page 707? The use of bird

illustrations in the chapter on the bird communities of the

state is not really necessary. The indices could have had a

three-column spread instead of two. The chapter on Additional

Information (on species) could have been incorporated at the

end of each species account to save space, besides having all

the information on a species in one place. The appendix on

pages 760-765 on locations of Salim Ali’s Travancore-Cochin

Survey should have been given the bye. The chapters The

Changing Landscape of Kerala, Climate, Site Descriptions

and Conservation could have been merged and made crisper

by deleting irrelevant information and neat editing. For

example, pages 30 to 33 covering The Changing Landscape

of Kerala are of too general nature and do not directly concern

Kerala - unlike the rest of the chapter. I suggest an integrated

write-up of these four chapters covering the state’s geography,

drainages climate, forests, wetlands, land-use pattern and

conservation issues. And, it is in this chapter, that extracts of

locations and site descriptions of Salim Ali’s Travancore-

Cochin Survey could be incorporated to show the changes

taking place in the landscape over the years.

To end, I reiterate that the criticism and suggestions

offered are solely for furthering the cause of good publications

on Indian birds. Since book revision and publication have

become much easier now with the advent of digital and

printing technologies, I hope to see a much more compact

edition in the near future, and after the authors judge this and

other reviews.

a RANJIT MANAKADAN

52

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 108(1), Jan-Apr 2011

53-76

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

L A NOTE ON WHISTLE ALARM CALLS OF THREE-STRIPED PALM SQUIRREL FUNAMBULUS

PALMARUM LINNAEUS IN SITAMATA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, RAJASTHAN, INDIA

Vijay Kumar Koli1’3, Chhaya Bhatnagar‘’4and Satish Kumar Sharma2

■Department of Zoology, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur 313 001, Rajasthan, India.

2Sajjangarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Udaipur 313 001, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

Alarm calls are vocalizations by an animal that can

alert other animals of impending danger (Mateo and Holmes

1997). Among group-living animals, alarm calls would thus

be expected to improve chances of evading an approaching

predator (Schwagmeyer 1980). Sherman (1985), Lair (1990),

Melchior (1971), Owings et al. (1986), Leger and Owings

(1978), Smith (1978), and Zelley (1971) have studied many

aspects of vocalization of ground and tree squirrels, but no

work is available on vocalization of Indian species. Babu

and Jayson (2009) have used call playback of conspecific

owls in the forest of Tamil Nadu and Kerala to detect the

presence of Indian Giant Flying Squirrel Petaurista

philippensis. When owl calls were played back, the squirrel

exposed itself by its characteristic calls. Rajamani (2001)

studied some aspects of calls of the Small Travancore Flying

Squirrel Petinomys fuscocapillus and Indian Giant Flying

Squirrel P. philippensis. Though a few studies on flying

squirrels are available, no work is available on vocalization

in non-flying striped squirrels of India.

The Three-Striped Palm Squirrel Funambulus

palmarum Linn, is found only in dense forests of southern

Rajasthan. Its presence was recently reported by Sharma

(2005, 2007) in the State. Not much work has been done on

this species in Rajasthan. No information is available on

vocalization of this squirrel. This is probably the first study

on vocalization of F. palmarum.

On March 15, 2010, while wandering in Sitamata

Wildlife Sanctuary, near Rana forest outpost, we noticed

F. palmarum on a giant Mahua tree Madhuca indica. Since

we had approached suddenly the squirrel started vocalizing

alarm calls, probably out of fear. It was repeatedly calling

while clinging to the upper surface of a horizontal bough.

We captured its voice on a digital camera. The recorded sound

was separated using Total Video Converter software into a

■20-

Time (Sec.)

B. Spectrogram

Time (Sec.)

Fig. 1 : Oscillogram (A) and Spectrogram (B) of one whistle alarm call bout of Funambulus palmarum.

Each straight band represents a whistle alarm call

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Time (Sec.)

Time (Sec.)

Fig. 2: Oscillogram (A) and Spectrogram (B) of one whistle alarm call of Funambulus palmarum.

Spectrogram shows two type of bands; narrow bands (a, b, c, d and e) and broad bands (A, B,C, D and E)

wave audio file and analyzed with the help of the software

Raven Pro 1.4.

On analysis, it was revealed that the whistle alarm call

sounds consisted of a series of calls, which began and ended

abruptly (Fig. 1). A total of 14 calling bouts were recorded; a

few (n = 4) when F. palmarum ran along a tree bough. Mean

call numbers of call bouts was 15 ±2.219 SD (max 20 and

min 12). Mean duration of call bouts was 3.25 ±1.89 SD sec

(min 1.60 sec and max 8.7 sec), and mean interval between

calling bouts was 5.09 ±3.49 SD seconds (min 1.50 sec and

max 12 sec). At the onset of a call bout, the first few calls were

a high amplitude and towards the end, the amplitude of the

calls became low (Fig. 1). Duration of calls was short initially

and increased subsequently. Mean interval between two calls

was 0.012 (±0.004 SD, n = 210) seconds and it increased in

the last segment of the call bout. The last two calls contained

the highest call duration (mean 0.35 ± 0.008 SD sec, n = 14).

The most pronounced characteristics of the calls are

their harmonic nature. The call structure of F. palmarum

Babu, S. & E.A. Jayson (2009): Antipredator behaviour of Large Brown

flying squirrel ( Petaurista philippensis ): is this an effective

census method to survey the species? Current Science 96(6):

772-773.

contains variable flat bands in their spectrogram with

variable duration (Fig. 2). A call spectrogram consists of a

paired and periodic trajectory harmonics. Two type bands

are present in the whistle alarm call spectrogram of

F. palmarum - broad bands (A, B, C, D and E) and narrow

bands (a, b, c, d and e). They are present in an alternative

form. Duration of all narrow bands is 0.05 sec, but that of

broad bands varies from 0. 15-0.35 sec. The frequency range

of one call is 1 to 18.5 Hz. Narrow bands are present on 1 (e),

5(d), 9(c), 13(b) and 17 kHz (a); broad bands are present on

18.5(A), 15(B), 11(C), 7(D) and 3(E) kHz in the spectrogram

(Fig. 2).

The present study describes a type of alarm call of

F. palmarum. Further studies are required on the vocalization

and calls structure of this species, as it will help understand

the communication pattern and social organization in tree

dwelling squirrels.

We are grateful to the officials of the Sitamata Wildlife

Sanctuary for providing facilities during study.

Lair, H. (1990): The calls of the Red squirrel: A contextual analysis of

function. Behaviour 115(3-4): 254-282.

Leger, D.W. & D.H. Owings (1978): Responses to alarm calls by

California Ground Squirrels: Effects of call structure and maternal

54

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

status. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 3: 177-186.

Mateo, J.M. & W.G. Holmes (1997): Development of alarm-call

responses in Belding’s ground squirrels: the role of dams. Anim.

Behav. 54: 509-524.

Melchior, H.R. (1971): Characteristics of Arctic Ground Squirrel Alarm

Calls. Oecologia (Ben.) 7: 184-190.

Owings, D.H., D.F. Hennessy, D.W. Leger & A.B. Gladney (1986):

Different functions of “Alarm” calling for different time scale:

a preliminary report on Ground Squirrels. Behaviour 99(1-2 ):

101-116.

Rajamani, N. (2001): The status and distribution of the Small Travancore

Flying Squirrel (Petinomys fuscocapillus fuscocapillus) and the

Large Brown Flying Squirrel (Petaurista philippensis) in the

Western Ghats. Final Technical Report submitted to SACON,

Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu).

Schwagmeyer, RL. (1980): Alarm Calling Behavior of the Thirteen-

Lined Ground Squirrel, Spermophilus tridecemlineatus.

Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 7(3): 195-200.

Sharma, S.K. (2005): Presence of Indian Palm Squirrel Funambulus

palmarum Linnaeus in southern Aravallis. Zoos’ Print Journal

20(6): 1908-1909.

Sharma, S.K. (2007): Study of biodiversity and ethnobiology of

Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary, Udaipur (Rajasthan). Ph. D. Thesis.

Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur. Vol. II, Pp. 495-498.

Sherman, P.W. (1985): Alarm calls of Belding’s Ground Squirrels to

aerial predators: nepotism or self-preservation? Behavioral

Ecology and Sociobiology 17: 313-323.

Smith, C.C. (1978): Structure and function of the vocalizations of

Tree Squirrels (Tamiasciurus). Journal of Mammalogy 59(4):

793-808.

Zelley, R.A. (1971): The sound of the Fox Squirrel, Sciurus niger

rafiventer. Journal of Mammalogy 52(3): 597-604.

2. ON A RECORD SPECIMEN OF GREY-HEADED GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL PETAURISTA CANICEPS

GRAY, FROM ARUNACHAL, PRADESH WITH A NOTE ON ITS TAXONOMY

Anwaruddin Choudhury1

‘The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India, c/o Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 007, Assam, India.

Email: [email protected]

The genus Petaurista is the most diverse among the

flying squirrels. It has seven recognized species in India. These

are the Red or Common Giant Flying Squirrel

Petaurista petaurista, Indian Giant Flying Squirrel

P. philippensis. Grey-headed Giant Flying Squirrel

P. caniceps, Hodgson’s Giant Flying Squirrel P. magnificus,

Bhutan or Orange Giant Flying Squirrel P. nohilis, Mechuka

Giant Flying Squirrel P mechukaensis and Mishmi Hills Giant

Flying Squirrel P. mishmiensis. However, a stable taxonomy

for the giant flying squirrels of the genus Petaurista Link,

1795 remains elusive mainly owing to lack of sufficient

specimens (as many of them live in remote mountains with

difficult accessibility, hence, relatively fewer collection of

several species). This is evident from the fact that two new

species have been described recently from Arunachal Pradesh

(Choudhury 2007, 2009a, b). I here report of a specimen of

Grey-headed Giant Flying Squirrel P. caniceps Gray, from

the same state, which appeared to be much larger than it is

known.

P. caniceps was described from a specimen obtained in

Nepal (Gray 1842). Ellerman and Morrison-Scott ( 1 966) and

Hoffmann et al. (1993) included it in P. elegans. It was

reviewed by Corbet and Hill (1992) who upgraded it to a full

species level. Ellerman (1961), while including it in P. elegans,

had also considered the following forms as subspecies of

P. elegans - clarkei and gorkhali, which are now synonyms

of caniceps. The maximum total length recorded for caniceps

was 77 cm with tail slightly longer than head-and-body

(Corbet and Hill 1992).

In November 2002, 1 examined a skin of a male, which

was killed about 2-3 months ago at Mechuka (28° 36' N; 94°

08' E) in West Siang district, Arunachal Pradesh. The elevation

of Mechuka is 1,900 m above msl. The specimen measured

86 cm (total length, up to hair-tip at tail-end). Although it

was in excellent condition, the head-and-body and tail lengths

could not be measured separately with accuracy, as in flying

squirrels the interfemoral membrane makes it difficult to

determine the base of the tail unless the bone at the base

remains intact (in this case the bone was absent).

It had a conspicuous grey head with a light rufous ‘ring’

around the eyes and a rich rufous patch around (posteriorly)

the ears. Cheeks are also grey. There was a narrow black patch

above the nose. Nostrils were light grey with a blackish

median line. Dorsally it was almost uniform rufous brown.

Black-tipped hairs could be seen anteriorly. Base of hair grey,

which was prominent on the dorsum. Sides of parachute and

upper portion of limbs were uniform rich rufous. Tail was

similarly coloured as dorsum, but a black tip and an irregular

line almost up to the base were noteworthy.

Ventrally, it was light rufous-buff with a slightly darker

rufous median line from throat to lower abdomen. Parachute

was rich rufous. Throat was conspicuous white while lower

abdomen including genital region looked grey with buff. Tail

was similarly coloured as dorsa, also with a black tip and an

irregular line. On closer examination, some hairs in the

anterior half of the tail had black at the centre with rufous

J. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

55

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tip, thus giving an overall rufous-brown effect. Feet were

greyish-brown. This is the largest recorded specimen of

P. caniceps so far.

The specimen is deposited at the national collections,

Zoological Survey of India (Registration No. is ZSI 26087).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The visit to Mechuka was a part of the Important Bird

Choudhury, A.U. (2007): A new flying squirrel of the genus Petaurista

Link from Arunachal Pradesh in north-east India. The Newsletter

& Journal of the Rhino Foundation for nat. in NE India 7:

26-32.

Choudhury, A.U. (2009a): One more new species of Giant Flying

Squirrel of the genus Petaurista Link from Arunachal Pradesh in

north-east India. The Newsletter & Journal of the Rhino Foundation

for nat. in NE India 8: 27-35.

Choudhury, A.U. (2009b): Replacement Latin name for Mechuka Giant

Flying Squirrel of the genus Petaurista Link, 1795. The Newsletter

& Journal of the Rhino Foundation for nat. in NE India 8: 48.

Corbet, GB. & J.E. Hill (1992): The Mammals of the Indo-Malayan

Area programme coordinated by the Bombay Natural History

Society and I thank them. I also thank Bikul Goswami (who

was with me at Mechuka), Mamata Riba (Additional Deputy

Commissioner, Mechuka), Ratal Talukdar and Hakim (both

of the Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India), and the

anonymous owner (hunter) of the specimen belonging to the

Tagin tribe for agreeing to send it to the Zoological Survey

of India (ZSI). At the ZSI, I thank Dr. J.K. De, Scientist- ‘D’

and Supriya Nandi.

region: a systematic review. Pp. 488. Oxford University Press,

Oxford, UK.

Ellerman, J.R. (1961): The Fauna of India including Pakistan, Burma

and Ceylon. Mammalia 3 (Rodentia)(l). Govt, of India, Delhi.

Ellerman, J.R. & T.C.S. Morrison-Scott (1966): Checklist of

Palaearctic and Indian Mammals. 2nd edn. British Museum (Natural

History), London.

Hoffmann, R.S., C.G. Anderson, R.W. Thormgton & L.R. Heaney

(1993): Family Sciuridae. Pp. 419-466. In: (Eds: Wilson, D.E. &

D.M. Reeder) Mammal Species of the world: a taxonomic &

geographic reference. 2nd edn. Smithsonian Institution Press,

Washington D.C., USA.

3. THE NORTHERNMOST RANGE OF GAUR BOS GAURUS H. SMITH

AND WILD WATER BUFFALO BUBALUS ARNEE KERR

Anwaruddin Choudhury1

‘The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India, c/o Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 007, Assam, India.

Email: [email protected]

The Gaur Bos gaurus H. Smith and Wild Water Buffalo

Bubalus amee ( =bubalis ) Kerr are large bovids; their current

range is confined to mainland South and South-east Asia

(Corbet and Hill 1992; Choudhury 2002, 2010). While the

Gaur is more widespread and still has large populations in

India, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and

Peninsular Malaysia (small populations in Nepal, China and

Bangladesh), the Wild Water Buffalo is found in relatively

small numbers, that too highly fragmented, in India, Nepal,

Bhutan, Thailand and Cambodia (doubtfully in Myanmar)

(Schaller 1967; Lekagul and McNeely 1977; Prater 1980;

Corbet and Hill 1992; Choudhury 1994a,b, 2002, 2010;

Groves 1996; IUCN 2009) (Fig. 1). In this short note, I discuss

the northern limit of distribution of these bovids. Interestingly,

the northernmost range limit of Gaur and Wild Water Buffalo

is similar.

The Gaur ranges from the southernmost tip of India

towards northern Western Ghats (well inside Maharashtra),

to the plateau of Central India, Himalayan foothills from

Nepal eastwards to Vietnam and up to Peninsular Malaysia

(Dunbar Brander 1923; Hubback 1937; Gee 1952; Daniel

and Grubh 1966; Choudhury 1994a, 2002; Duckworth etal.

1999). In South-east Asia, the northernmost populations are

in southern China (Yunnan province) (c. 25° 00' N) (Smith

and Xie 2008). Their range map indicates that their western

limit was dry desert (during Indus Valley civilization it was

apparently further west as Gaur appears in the seals of that

period), to the south and east is the sea; while towards north

are the high snow-capped mountains. The highest elevation

where the Gaur has been recorded during this study was above

2,700 m in summer (near Chaku, Eagle Nest Wildlife

Sanctuary), West Kameng district, Arunachal Pradesh. The

Himalayas are above 5,000 m elevation and act as an

impenetrable barrier. East of the Himalaya, are the Mishmi

Hills, Gaoligong Shan, and other such high mountains, which

have also prevented its northward spread. The northernmost

area of its range lies in the Mishmi Hills, Lower Dibang Valley

district, Arunachal Pradesh (Choudhury 1999); however,

subsequent research in East and Upper Siang districts of

Arunachal Pradesh revealed that it occurs farther north. The

northernmost area of distribution of the Gaur is around Geku

(c. 28° 30' N) in Upper Siang district. Historically, it perhaps

56

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Distribution of Gaur and Wild Water Buffalo showing their northernmost limit in Mishmi Hills, India

(source of distribution are Choudhury [2002, 2010], Francis [2008] and Smith & Xie [2008])

occurred farther north of Yinkiyong (c. 28° 40' N) where

human settlements and cultivations are present.

The Wild Water Buffalo is largely a dweller of flat

plains or to some extent undulating country with smaller

plains. The limiting factors or the zoogeographic barriers,

however, seem almost similar to that of the Gaur. The Wild

Water Buffalo might have extended farther west along the

coastal plains (Choudhury 2010). The historic northerly

animals were those occurring in the terai of northwestern

Uttar Pradesh and western Nepal (Babur 1529; Fazl 1590).

With the extinction of wild water buffaloes in those areas,

the current northerly animals are those occurring in the plains

just south of Mishmi Hills in the plains of the Dibang river

(Choudhury 1998). The northernmost site where individuals

were observed is Nizamghat (28° 18' N) where the Dibang

river spreads out on the plains in Lower Dibang Valley

district, Arunachal Pradesh. It is possible that a few buffaloes

move farther north along the river or slopes for short

distances.

It is an interesting coincidence that two of the largest

bovids on earth have their northernmost range in the Mishmi

Hills area of Arunachal Pradesh in north-east India.

REFERENCES

Babur, Zahiru’d-din Muhammad (1529): The Babur-nama (Memoirs

of Babur). Translated from the original Turki text by Annette

Susannah Beveridge (1917, 1921). Vol. II, sold by Luzac & Co,

46, Great Russell Street, London, UK. 1922. The Memoirs of

Babur. Section III. Hindustan.

Choudhury, A.U. (1994a): Distribution and conservation of the Gaur

Bos gaurus in Indian Subcontinent with special reference to the

north-east. Pp. 34. Unpublished Report (submitted at the CAMP

Workshop, Khao Khiew, Thailand), Guwahati, India.

Choudhury, A.U. (1994b): The decline of Wild Water Buffalo in

Northeastern India. Oryx 28(1): 70-73.

Choudhury, A.U. (1998): Wild Water Buffalo Bubalus bubalis / amee

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

57

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

in Dibang Valley district of Arunachal Pradesh. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 95(1): 110-112.

Choudhury, A.U. (1999): The Gain Bos gaums in Dibang Valley district

of Arunachal Pradesh. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2):

311-313.

Choudhury, A.U. (2002): Distribution and conservation of the Gaur

Bos gaums in the Indian Subcontinent. Mammal Review 32(3):

199-226.

Choudhury, A.U. (2010): The Vanishing Herds: the Wild Water Buffalo.

Gibbon Books & The Rhino Foundation (with support from

CEPF and COA, Taiwan), Guwahati. 184 pp.

Corbet, GB. & J.E. Hill (1992): The Mammals of the Indo-Malayan

Region: a Systematic Review. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Pp. 488.

Daniel, J.C. & B.R. Grubh (1966): The Indian Wild Buffalo, Bubalus

bubalis (L.) in peninsular India: a preliminary survey. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist Soc. 63(1): 32-53.

Duckworth, I.W., R.E. Salter & K. Khounbqline (1999): Wildlife in

Lao PDR: 1999 Status Report. [Large mammals. Pp. 161-220].

IUCN, Wildlife Conservation Society and Centre for Protected

Areas and Watershed Management, Vientiane, Lao PDR.

Dunbar Brander, A.A. (1923): Wild Animals in Central India. Edward

Arnold & Co., Reprinted by Natraj Publishers, Dehradun, India.

Pp. 296.

Fazl, Abu’l (c. 1590): Ain-i-Akbari. Translated by Henry Blochmann

(1st vol.) and Henry Sullivan Jarrett (2nd and 3rd vols). Printed in

1873 for the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta.

Francis, C.M. (2008): A Field Guide to the Mammals of Thailand &

South-east Asia. Asia Books Co. Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand.

University Press, Princeton and Oxford Press, Chicago, USA

and London, UK. 392 pp.

Gee, E.P. (1952): The Assam earthquake of 1950. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 50(3): 628-635.

Groves, C.P. (1996): The taxonomy of the Asian Wild Buffalo from the

Asian mainland. Z. Saugetierkunde ( International J. of

Mammalian Biology) 61 : 327-338.

Hubback, T. (1937): The Malayan Gaur or Seladang. i. Mammalogy

13: 267-279.

IUCN (2009): IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009. 1.

<www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 10 My 2009. •

Lekagul, B. & J.A. McNeely (1977): Mammals of Thailand. 758 pp.

Assoc. Conservation of Wildlife, Bangkok, Thailand.

Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of India Animals. Pp. 324. Bombay

Natural History Society, and Oxford University Press, India.

Schaller, GB. (1967): The Deer and the Tiger: A Study of Wildlife

in India. Pp. 384. University of Chicago Press, Chicago and

London.

Smith, A.T. & Y.X. Xie (2008): A Guide to the Mammals of China.

Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford Press, Chicago,

and London. 544 pp.

4. EASTERNMOST LIMIT OF THE RANGE OF BLACKBUCK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA (L.)

WITH HISTORIC RECORDS FROM ASSAM AND NORTH BENGAL, INDIA

Anwaruddin Choudhury1

’The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India, c/o Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 007, Assam, India.

Email: [email protected]

The Blackbuck Antilope cervicapm (I ..) is an endemic

antelope of the Indian subcontinent (Prater 1980; Menon

2003). It occurs in the grasslands and grass-scrub covered

countryside amidst cultivations. Outside India, small numbers

Dholpur in present Rajasthan. He maintained his hunting

records meticulously, most of which are still in good condition.

In his records, there is a mention of shooting a Blackbuck

from Jhalupara, near Son ah at (south-west of Golokganj near

occur in Nepal and Pakistan (Roberts 1997). There is historic

record from western Bangladesh (Asmat 2001). Being an

animal of relatively drier opener plains, it apparently does

not occur in high rainfall and densely forested areas of the

Western Ghats, North-east India and the Himalayas.

Currently, the eastern range of the Blackbuck includes

parts of Orissa and Jharkhand, may be lower parts of West

Bengal too. Tikadar (1983) mentioned Chilka lake in Orissa

as its eastern limit. Prater (1980) did not mention anything

specific about its eastern range. Corbet and Hill (1992)

mentioned West Bengal as the eastern range. Lydekker (1907)

mentioned that Blackbuck extends to ‘Lower Assam’, but

did not mention any specific locality. I here report the past

occurrence of the Blackbuck, as far east as Assam, and also

fix its easternmost limit of distribution.

The ‘Raja’ (landlord) of Gouripur, late Prabhat Chandra

Barua in Assam’s Dhubri district had shot a number of

Blackbucks with his royal friends at different places, including

present India-Bangladesh border) in Assam’s Dhubri district

on January 13, 1915 (c. 26° 6' N; 89° 48' E). There were also

past records from the banks of Manas river in western Assam

by Pollock while a male obtained by F. Jenkins has been

mentioned from ‘Doon of Assam’ , which were mentioned by

Sclater (1891). The ‘Doon’ of Assam is the duar region of

undivided Goalpara district (now falling in Kokrajhar and

Chirang districts). The banks of Manas (by Pollock in Sclater

1891) are likely to be somewhere in the Panbari range of

Manas National Park or just south of it in present Chirang

district.

In northern West Bengal, although Agrawal etal. (1992)

did not mention any past occurrence, there axe several records

in the hunting accounts of 1908 of the Maharajah of Cooch

Behar. This excellent hunting report not only provided

important easterly records of Blackbuck, but also records of

several other species. The Maharaja and his hunting parties,

which also comprised of top British officials, had their

58

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Map showing the easternmost sites of confirmed shooting ( |||) of the Blackbuck in north Bengal and West Assam

The rivers Brahmaputra and Manas marked the eastern limit (latter being the easternmost)

shooting in present day Cooch Behar and Jalpaiguri districts

of northern West Bengal and Kokrajhar, Chirang, Dhubri,

Barpeta and Baksa districts of western Assam. The party had

shot 7 Blackbucks in 1871, 2 in 1873, 1 each in 1877 and

1880, 3in 1882,2eachin 1883 and 1884 (2 shot near Rashik

beel, Cooch Behar district on 3 1st March), 1 each in 1887 and

1888, 2 in 1889, 1 in 1890, 4 in 1891, 2 in February-March

1892, and 2 in 1896 (one on 27th March near Garad Haut,

probably in Jalpaiguri district). Although many sites of

shooting were not mentioned, two, i.e, Falimari (Phalimari)

and Takuamari could be found in his account. Both these sites

are located north of Boxirhat area in Tufanganj area near

Assam-Bengal border (c. 26° 23' N; 89° 46' E; Rashik beel,

Falimari and Takuamari are located around this coordinate).

No Blackbucks were shot between 1897 and the end of his

report in 1907, indicating its decline in the area. Its rarity in

the area is also evident from the fact that only 3 1 Blackbucks

were shot against 318 Swamp Deer or Barasingha Cervus

duvaucelii, 296 Hog Deer Axis porcinus and 259 Sambar

Cervus unicolor between 1871 and 1907.

In Bangladesh, Hunter (1876) had mentioned

occurrence of ‘Common’ antilope in Rangpur. The site in

Dhubri, Assam, i.e, Sonahat is near the border of undivided

Rangpur district (now Kurigram district). On the Bangladesh

side also, the area is known as Sonahat.

The above records show that the Blackbuck occurred

up to lower Brahmaputra plains covering parts of western

Assam till the turn of 19th century. Being its eastern extremity,

it was very rare, especially in Assam. In case of north Bengal

and northern Bangladesh (undivided Rangpur and Dinajpur

districts), it was definitely present in small numbers till hunted

out. Farther east, up to the Manas river, it was probably stray.

The records by the Raja of Gouripur and the Maharaja of

Cooch Behar also corroborate Pollock and F. Jenkins (in

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

59

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Sclater 1891) and Lydekker (1907). Thus, it could be safely

assumed that the Brahmaputra (precisely, its major

distributary, the Jamuna in Bangladesh) and one of its major

tributary, the Manas river marked the eastern limit of the

distribution of the Blackbuck in the recent past, while the

Manas river in Assam was the easternmost (c. 90° 54' E)

(Fig.l).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Prabir Barua and Parbati Barn a (grandchildren

of Raja of Gouripur, late Prabhat Chandra Barua);

Prof. Anwarul Islam of Dhaka University; Kulodhar Das and

Diptiman Datta (both of Nature’s Friend NGO, Gouripur),

and Hashim for their help.

REFERENCES

Agrawal, V.C., P.K. Das, S. Chakravarty, R.K. Ghose, A.K. Mandal,

T.K. Chakravarty, A.K. Poddar, J.P. Lal, T.P. Bhattacharyya

& M.K. Ghosh (1992): Mammalia. Pp. 27-170. In: Fauna

of West Bengal. Part 1. Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta.

Asmat, G.S.M. (2001): Bagladesher bilupto bannyaprani [in Bengali].

Bangla Academy, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 184 pp.

Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The Mammals of the Indo-Malayan

Region: a systematic review. Oxford University Press, Oxford,

UK. Pp. 488.

Hunter, W.W. (1876): Statistical Account of Bengal. D.K. Publishing

House, Delhi. Pp. 459.

Lydekker, R. (1907): The Game Animals of India, Burma, Malaya

and Tibet. Rowland Ward, London, UK. Pp. 444.

Maharajah of Cooch Behar (1908): Thirty-seven years of big game

shooting in Cooch Behar, the Duars and Assam: A rough Diary.

Pp. 461. The Times Press, Bombay, India [reprinted in 1985 as

Big game shooting in eastern and north eastern India by Mittal

Publications, Delhi, India].

Menon, V. (2003): A Field Guide to Indian Mammals. Dorling

Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, India. 201 pp.

Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals. 4th edition (reprint

with corrections). Pp. 324. Bombay Natural History Society

and Oxford University Press, India.

Roberts, T.J. (1997): The Mammals of Pakistan. 525 pp. Oxford

University Press, Karachi.

Sclater, W.L. ( 1 89 1 ) : Catalogue of Mammalia in the Indian Museum.

Part II. Pp. 425. Indian Museum, Calcutta.

Tikadar, B.K. (1983): Threatened Animals of India. Pp. 307.

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, India.

5. RANGE EXTENSION OF THE MOUNTAIN HAWK-EAGLE NISAETUS (=SPIZAETUS) NIPALENSIS

TO UTTAR KANARA DISTRICT IN NORTHERN KARNATAKA, INDIA

Prachi Mehta1,2 and Jayant Kulkarni1,3

‘Wildlife Research and Conservation Society, RH 1, Ratan Park Phase 2, 127/5, Sus Road Pashan, Pune 411 021, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

Email: [email protected]

The Mountain Hawk-Eagle Nisaetus ( =Spizaetus )

nipalensis has two races in India, namely nipalensis Hodgson

1836, and kelaarti Legge 1878 (Ali and Ripley 1987; Naoroji

2006). N.n. nipalensis is recorded from northern India to

north-eastern Hill states and eastern Himalayas. The other

race, kelaarti has been observed in the Western Ghats from

Kerala to central Karnataka (Grimmett et al. 1999; Rasmussen

and Anderton 2005; Naoroji 2006).

Namali village (15° 19' N; 74° 78' E) in Haliyal taluka

located in Uttar Kanara District, northern Karnataka, has a

small percolation tank on the village boundary surrounded

by degraded semi-evergreen forests. In January 2010, we

spotted the Mountain Hawk-Eagle sitting on a Terminalia

tomentosa tree at a height of 20 m. The bird was sitting there

for 30 minutes unmindful of human activity around it. We

saw the Eagle at the same location for two consecutive days.

Naoroji (2006) mentions his own observation of

N.n. kelaarti near villages and disturbed forests in contrast

with reports of this species requiring mature forests (Naoroji

2006).

The northernmost record of N.n. kelaarti is from

BabaBudan hills in Chikmagalur district of Karnataka

(Naoroji 2006). This sighting extends its range to Uttar Kanara

district in northern Karnataka. Our observation also indicates

that N.n. kelaarti can be seen near human habitations and

degraded forests as mentioned by Naoroji (2006).

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Second Edition, Oxford University Press,

New Delhi.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1999): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Naoroji, R. (2006): Birds of Prey of the Indian Subcontinent. Om Book

International, New Delhi.

Rasmussen, P.C. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia. The

Ripley Guide. Vols 1 and 2. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx

Edicions, Washington, D.C. and Barcelona.

60

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

6. SOME CHELONIAN RECORDS FROM MANIPUR AND NAGALAND IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

Anwarudbin Choudhury1

'The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India, c/o Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 007, Assam, India.

Email: [email protected]

Introduction

The states of Manipur (23° 49'-25° 42' N; 93° 00'-

94° 45' E) and Nagaland (25° 10'-27° 01’ N; 93° 17-95° 15' E)

are located in north-east India (Fig. 1). They fall in the Indo-

Burma global biodiversity hotspot (Myers et al. 2000;

Mittermeier et al. 2004) and the Eastern Himalaya Endemic

Bird Area (Stattersfield et al. 1998). Manipur covers an area

of 22,327 sq. km and is divided into nine districts (Bishnupur,

Chandel, Churachandpur, Imphal East, Imphal West, Senapati,

Tamenglong, Thoubal and Ukhrul). The state of Nagaland

covers an area of 16,600 sq. km and is divided into 10 districts

(Kiphire, Kohima, Longleng, Mokokchung, Mon, Peren,

Phek, Tuensang, Wokha and Zunheboto).

Owing to its relative remoteness and also insurgency

(still a major problem), fewer studies have been undertaken

in Manipur and Nagaland in recent decades than in other

neighbouring states, such as Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.

The chelonian fauna are rather poorly known with only a

few references to an odd specimen from the area (Anderson

1871; Smith 1931; Das 1985; Ahmed et al. 2008).

The present account describes the records of turtles and

tortoises recorded during my surveys while making sporadic

visits to Manipur during 1988-2001 and Nagaland during

1991-2004.

Study Area and Methods

Physiographically, almost all of Manipur is hilly and

mountainous with a broad valley at the centre. Loktak, the

largest freshwater lake (185 sq. km) in north-east India, lies

to the south of the valley. The lowest elevation, (<50 m), is at

the confluence of the Barak and Jiri rivers near the Assam

border. Almost all of Nagaland is also hilly and mountainous.

A high range exists along the border with Myanmar, and

Mt. Saramati (3,842 m) is the highest point in the range and

in Nagaland. The hills in the central areas are commonly

referred to as the ‘Naga Hills’. Small plains occur along the

Dhansiri river, especially near Dimapur. The Barail range runs

along the Manipur-N agaland border. Patkai range is in north

Nagaland. The highest peak of the Barail range is

Mt. Japfu (Japvo) which stands at 3,043 m, which is in

Nagaland. Mt Tenipu or Iso (2,995 m), also on the Barail

range, is the highest peak in Manipur.

The climate of Manipur and Nagaland is tropical

‘monsoon’ type with a hot wet summer and a cool dry winter,

although winter rains are not uncommon. The annual rainfall

of these states varies from about 1 ,000 to more than 6,000 mm.

The annual temperature generally ranges from less than 0° C

in winter (minimum, especially on Mt. Saramati) to 35° C in

summer.

Tropical wet evergreen, semi-evergreen and tropical

moist deciduous forests occur in patches in the lower and

middle elevations. In the higher hills, subtropical broadleaf

(evergreen) forest occurs with small areas of conifers in the

eastern areas. Higher up on Saramati, temperate broadleaf

forest is found, while atop (Mt. Saramati) the vegetation type

is subalpine. During winter, the peak remains under snow. In

the abandoned jhum (slash-and-bum shifting cultivation of

the hill tribes), various grasses occur till these are colonized

by scrubs and then shrubs. It may be mentioned here that the

jhum has greatly altered the original vegetation types all over

Fig. 1 : Map of Manipur and Nagaland showing the areas

surveyed

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

61

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the hills of Manipur and Nagaland. In the Manipur valley,

there is grassland in Keibul Lamjao National Park, which is

on floating mats of vegetation, locally called as phumdi,

composed of decaying vegetation.

Turtles and tortoises were searched for while conducting

long-term work on the wildlife in general with focus on

mammals and birds. Motor vehicles were used to reach the

sites, especially tribal villages. Within the village, the

movement was on foot. Specimens displayed outside tribal

huts (usually all trophies are displayed outside) were

examined and measured. Interviews were conducted to select

houses that could have shells. In many villages, houses were

randomly searched.

Elongated Tortoise Indotestudo elongata (Blyth 1853)

One shell (intact with carapace and plastron) and a

broken carapace were examined and measured at Moreh

(24° 14' N; 94° 18' E), Chandel district, Manipur in January

2001. Nuchal was prominent in the one having plastron

(Table 1). The location is near the India-Myanmar border.

Das (1995) did not mention its occurrence in Nagaland.

It has been recorded in Myanmar as well as Mizoram

(Choudhury 2001). According to the collectors, these were

captured from the forest of Yangoupokpi-Lokchao Wildlife

Sanctuary (Manipur) or just outside it. The elevation of the

capture sites ranged from 300 to 600 m above msl. They

further reported that these are relatively easier to catch during

burning for jhum when they take shelter in small unbumt

patches.

Eastern Hill or Asian Brown Tortoise

Manouria emys (Schlegel and Muller 1840).

Three live tortoises were observed at Imphal zoo in

January 2001, which were obtained from Jiribam subdivision,

Imphal East district, Manipur, in 1996. A live turtle was seen

at Kaikao village (24° 51' N; 93° 27' E; elevation: 1,000 m

above msl), Tamenglong district, on January 22, 2001

(Table 1). It was caught by villagers from the bamboo area

Fig. 2: Plastron patterns in Manouria emys (specimen from

Nagaland at left and from Manipur at right)

on hill slopes at 500 m above msl. One more was reportedly

caught by the villagers. Normally the villagers wait for such

prized catch in the dry season when they bum the hill side

for jhum. While some are burnt to death, some take shelter in

the unbumt patches or in streams (pers obs).

A partly broken preserved shell was seen and examined

at Jalukie, Peren district, Nagaland, on February 02, 2001

(Table 1 ). It was earlier reported from Nagaland by Anderson

(1872). I had seen two specimens in late 1987 and 1989 at

Sivasagar, Assam, which were brought by loggers from

Nagaland (Mokokchung or Mon district).

Das (1995) did not mention its occurrence in Manipur.

It has been recorded in Myanmar as well as Karbi Anglong

district, Assam (Choudhury 1996a), North Cachar Hills (Dima

Hasao) district, Assam (Anderson 1871, 1872) and Mizoram

(Choudhury 2001).

Asian Leaf TJirtle Cyclemys gemeli (Fritz, Guicking,

Auer, Sommer, Wink & Hundsdorfer, 2008)

One preserved carapace was examined at Samjuram

village, 3 km from Jalukie, Peren district, Nagaland, on

February 02, 2001 (Table 1).

Das (1995) did not mention its occurrence in Manipur

and Nagaland. It has been recorded in Myanmar as well as

North Cachar Hills (Dima Hasao) district, Assam (Das 1995)

and Mizoram (Choudhury 2001). The Indian population of

Cyclemys is now considered as Cyclemys gemeli rather than

C. oldhami. This species is among the common turtles found

in North-east India, in the hill streams as well as on the forest

floor.

Indian Black Ttirtle Melanochelys trijuga

(Schweigger 1812)

One preserved shell examined and measured at Moreh,

Chandel district, Manipur, in January 2001. Its plastron was

unmarked black (Table 1). According to the collectors, it was

captured from near Lokchao river. The location is either in

Yangoupokpi-Lokchao Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) or just

outside it. The elevation of the capture site was about 200 m

above msl.

Das (1995) did not mention its occurrence in Manipur

and Nagaland. It has been recorded in Assam (Ahmed et al.

2008), and Mizoram (Choudhury 2004).

Keeled Box Turtle Cuora mouhotii (Gray, 1862)

In Manipur, it was first recorded in Tamenglong district

(Choudhury 1996b). Alive turtle was seen at Kaikao village,

Tamenglong district on January 22, 2001. It was caught by

villagers from jhum fields. Its one eye was damaged due to

jhum fire (Table 1). On January 24, 2001, a live turtle was

62

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 : Measurements of specimens mentioned in the text (in cm)

SCL=straight carapace length; CCL=curved carapace length; SGW=straight carapace width; CCW=curved carapace width; PL=plastron length;

(gt)=greatest; (n-n)=notch to notch; PW=plastron width

caught by some villagers after burning of the hill slopes for

jhum near Sempang village (24° 52' N; 93° 26' E; 750 m above

msl), not far from Kaikao. Since it was kept for sale, I bought

it for Rs. 30/- (Eastern Hill Tortoise was priced at Rs. 600)

and released it after examination.

The interesting feature of this specimen was its

carapace which was yellowish with dark (blackish or

greenish-grey) blotches of irregular shape and often broken

instead of brown without any blotches. The carapace was

flat with three keels and prominently serrated marginals. The

plastron was huffy and not yellowish-brown, as is usually

found (Table 1). It was probably a female as was evident

from the stripe on the sides of its face. It was deposited in

Imphal zoo through a local NGO (Manipur Association for

Science & Society).

Later, one more live animal was observed. The earlier

record from Tamenglong (Choudhury 1996b) and the second

live turtle recorded during the current study from almost the

same area were of usual colouration. The habitat in the area

was mostly degraded tropical wet evergreen rainforest with

bamboo in old jhums, and current jhum clearings on hilly

terrain in the basin of the Barak river.

In Nagaland, a carapace was examined at Baghty in

Wokha district on February 19, 2004. No measurements were

taken.

Das (1995) did not mention its occurrence in Manipur

and Nagaland. It has been recorded in Myanmar, Karbi

Anglong district, Assam (Choudhury 1993), North Cachar

Hills (Dima Hasao) district, Assam (Das 1995), Assam-

Mizoram border (Choudhury 1998) and Mizoram (Choudhury

2001).

Discussion

The chelonians of Manipur and Nagaland are relatively

poorly known. This report provides some baseline data.

It appears that except Eastern Hill Tortoise, there is no

published record on the occurrence of other species observed

during the study from these states (Das 1995). This is the

first publication on chelonians of Nagaland. In case of

Manipur, Linthoi and S harm a (2009) have published a brief

report.

Several softshell species were reported from the Barak,

Jiri and Makru rivers in Manipur and Dhansiri and Doyang

rivers in Nagaland. Broken parts of shells of at least two

species were seen, which could not be identified. One of the

lakes in Zeilad Wildlife Sanctuary is known as Guiphuap lake

(Guiphuap = turtle, in local Zeliangrong Naga dialect).

Although seven species (including two unidentified)

have been recorded, occurrence of other species, such as

Pangshura spp., is apparent owing to their records from

adjacent areas. Linthoi and Sharma (2009) reported three

additional species, namely Amyda cartilaginea, Morenia

petersi and Cuora amboinensis.

The specimen of Manouria emys examined at Jalukie,

Nagaland, resembled the subspecies phayrei. One of the

Manipur specimens was intermediate between emys and the

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

63

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Rangkhyang specimen of Das (1990) (Fig. 2). This indicates

a complexity in the subspecific taxonomy of the species

(Choudhury 1996c). According to villagers, ManouriaSffiys

and Cuora mouhotii are relatively common. But this may be

owing to their easier capture during jhum burning.

Habitat destruction for jhum cultivation, logging,

human settlements, poisoning and dynamiting of rivers for

fish are reducing the favourable habitat for turtles and

tortoises. Since all testudines are considered a delicacy in

both Manipur and Nagaland (except the Manipuri Muslims),

there is no scope of escape once they are spotted. During

burning of hill forest for jhum , many species, especially

Indotestudo elongata , Manouria emys and Cuora mouhotii

are easy to catch. A new threat that could enhance poaching

is demand for shells in Chinese medicine. Besides deer antler,

tiger bone, and bear biles these too are smuggled. In addition

to capture, during jhum burning, a number of turtles and

tortoises are burnt to death or injured.

Conservation awareness is relatively poor in these

states, although we had several meetings with locals. But

unless local groups continue the effort, such sporadic

awareness campaigns may not work.

The existing protected area network covers only

757.6 sq. km or c. 3.4% of Manipur. The protected areas are

Keibul Lamjao National Park (40 sq. km), Shiroi National

Park (100 sq. km), Bunning WLS (115.8 sq. km), Jiri-Makru

WLS (198 sq. km), Kailam WLS (187.5 sq. km),

Yangoupokpi-Lokchao WLS (184 sq. km) and Zeilad WLS

(21 sq. km). Of these, disposal of claims and objections have

not been completed except in Keibul Lamjao and

Yangoupokpi-Lokchao. In Nagaland, it is only 1.33%. The

protected areas are: Intanki National Park (202 sq. km),

Pulie-Badge WLS (9.23 sq. km), Fakim WLS (6.42 sq. km),

and Rangapahar WLS (4.70 sq. km). Except for Intanki, all

are tiny and hardly cover a sizeable habitat. Moreover, the

protection measures are very inadequate.

Formation of new protected areas such as Anko

(400 sq. km), Dzuko (50 sq. km encompassing Dzuko-

Tenipu), parts of Tolbung, Irangmukh and Vangai-Bongmukh

Reserved Forests (500 sq. km) in Manipur; Saramati-Fakim

(500 sq. km), Satoi (100 sq. km), Barails (200 sq. km;

also encompassing within it Dzukou-Japfu areas), and

Mt. Zephu (50 sq. km) in Nagaland, plus improved protection

for existing sanctuaries, are recommended. Smaller

community-run sanctuaries (up to 10 sq. km) should be

established in the line of Khonoma Nature Conservation

and Tragopan Sanctuary of Nagaland, which has been a

success. The Forest Department should also start enforcing

the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, at least in the main

markets of the hill districts. Within protected areas there

needs to be better control of poaching, jhum cultivation

and human-induced fires. Environmental awareness

programmes are needed in villages surrounding protected

areas.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

During the field study, I was given support and

assistance from many Government officials, NGOs and

villagers, and I thank them all collectively. For their

assistance in the field, I thank the following: in Manipur,

R. K. Ranjan Singh, Sameer Khan and his family, K. Muivah,

Ibohanbi Singh; Lungkiang Pamei, Ramkung Pamei,

T. Nanda Kumar, T. Singh (Chief Wildlife Warden in 1988),

Thomas Kent Rengma, Khekiho Sohe, Sajjad Choudhury; in

Nagaland, M.I. Bora (D.C., Zunheboto), Akato Serna (EAC),

S. HuMye (Gaon Bui ha of Zunheboto), Neisatuo Keditsu,

Thomas Kent, Tsile Sakhire and his wife, Khekiho Sohe,

Hakim, Tsangchingla Imlong, P.R. Jamir, R Nungshi LKR,

Aoyemen Chang, Poshing and his wife, H. Shou, Vedpal

Singh, N. Loth a and Avi Lerka, and Natwar Thakkar of

Nagaland Gandhi Ashram.

Mrs. Anne Wright, Ratal Talukdar, and Hakim of The

Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India. I also thank my

late mother, my wife, relatives, friends and other well-wishers

who gave me the benefit of their advice. Special thanks to

my father, late Alauddin Choudhury, who introduced me to

Manipur in 1988.

REFERENCES

Ahmed, M.F., A. Das & S.K. Datta (2008): Uttar-pub Bharotor ubhochor

and sarisrip: sachitra khetra nirdesfaika (in Assamese). Aaranyak,

Guwahati, India. 120 pp.

Anderson, J. (1871): A list of the reptilian accession to the Indian

Museum, Calcutta, from 1865 to 1870, with a description of

some new species. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 40 (part 2): 12-39.

Anderson, J. (1872): On Manouria and Scapia , two genera of land

tortoises. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 26: 132-144.

Choudhury, A.U. (1993): Keeled Box Turtle in Karbi Anglong - a new

locality record. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 90(3): 517.

Choudhury, A.U. (1996a): New localities for Brown Hill Tortoise

Manouria emys (Schlegel and Muller) from Karbi Anglong,

Assam. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 590.

Choudhury, A.U. (1996b): The Keeled Box Turtle Pyxidea mouhotii

(Gray) - a new record for Manipur. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

93(3): 590-591.

Choudhury, A.U. (1996c): Taxonomy of the Brown Hill Tortoise

Manouria emys (Schlegel and Muller) and its distribution in

Indian sub-continent. Cheetal 35(3-4): 36-39.

Choudhury, A.U. (1998): Pyxidea mouhotii (Gray) in southern Assam

and Mizoram. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 95(3): 511.

Choudhury, A.U. (2001): Some chelonian records from Mizoram.

64

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 98(2): 184-190.

Choudhury, A.U. (2004): Further chelonian records from Mizoram

in northeastern India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 101(1):

165-166.

Das, I. (1985): Indian turtles: a field guide. WWF-India (Eastern

Region), Calcutta. 119 pp.

Das, I. (1990): Distribution records for chelonians from northeastern

India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87(1): 91-97.

Das, I. (1995): Turtles and tortoises of India. WWF-India and Oxford

University Press, Bombay. 189 pp.

Linthoi, N. & D.K. Sharma (2009): Turtles and tortoises of Manipur.

In: Vasudevan, K. (Ed.): Freshwater turtles and tortoises of

India. ENVIS Bulletin: Wildlife and Protected Areas. Vol. 12(1).

Pp. 177.

Mittermeier, R.A., P.R. Gil, M. Hoffmann, J. Pilgrim, T. Brooks,

C.G. Mittermeier, J. Lamoreux & G.A.B. Da Fonseca (2004):

Hotspots Revisited: Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most

Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions. Cemex Books on Nature,

USA.

Myers, N., R. Mittermeier, C. Mittermeier, G. da Fonseca & J. Kent

(2000): Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature

403: 853-858.

Smith, M.A. (1931): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and

Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. I. Taylor & Francis, London.

185 pp.

Stattersfield, A.J., M.J. Crosby, A.J. Long & D.C. Wege (1998):

Endemic Bird Areas of the world: priorities for biodiversity

conservation. BirdLife International, Cambridge, U.K.

7. A REPORT ON THE PRESENCE OF THREE AVIAN LICE

(INSECTA: PHTHIRAPTERA) IN DIFFERENT REGIONS OF NORTH-EAST INDIA

Namram S. Singh1’2, Anand S. Dixit1-3 and Ramita Sougrakpam14

'Avian endocrinology and chronobiology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong 793 022,

Meghalaya, India.

"Email: [email protected]

"Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

Introduction

North-east India is one among the 12 mega biodiversity

hotspots of the world. Of the 1,200+ known species of birds

found in India about 60% have been reported from this region,

most being passeriformes. These magnificent birds also act

as host for many parasites consisting of a huge proportion of

extant species (Price 1980). Among the ectoparasites, avian

lice have a significant place and many birds in the wild are

often infected by them (Keymer 1972). Parasitic lice

(Phthiraptera) are the only major group of insects where all

members are permanent parasites and spend their entire life

on an animal host. Some show no habitat preference while

most are host specific, feeding on only one or a few closely

related species of animal hosts. They complete their entire

life cycle from egg to adult on a single host species (Foster

1969) and survive only for a few days if separated from it.

This association makes lice a suitable model system to study

co-speciation between host and parasite (Johnson and Clayton

2003). Information on occurrence of avian lice and their host

species in north-east India is scanty. Therefore, thorough and

elaborate survey is required to report bird lice and their host

species in the region. The present paper reports chewing lice

parasitizing Tree Sparrow Passer montanus and Yellow¬

breasted Bunting Emberiza aureola.

Methodology

Tree Sparrows were captured using mist-net from

different parts of Shillong, Meghalaya (25° 34' N; 91° 53' E)

during different months in 2008-09. The Yellow-breasted

Buntings are winter visitors to North-east India and were

procured from Manipur (24° 35' N; 93° 59' E) during October-

February 2008-09. Avian chewing lice were collected by

visual examination of the areas around eyes, ears, head, back,

legs, tail, body and wing feathers, particularly under surface

of the remiges and wing coverts, systematically. Special

attention was given to the ventral body feathers, skin and

around the vent. The parasites were removed using a fine

forcep, the tip dipped in alcohol, and preserved in 70% alcohol

(Elizabeth 1951). They were then mounted on microscope

slides for observation. Taxonomic identification of the lice

was based on Ansari (1958), Hellenthal and Price (2003),

Price etal. (2003). The taxonomy of birds follows Rasmussen

and Anderton (2005).

We recorded three species of ectoparasitic chewing lice

from two species of passerines, namely Tree Sparrow Passer

montanus and Yellow-breasted Bunting Emberiza aureola.

Two species of lice parasitized on sparrows and one species

on buntings.

Chewing lice on Tree Sparrow Passer montanus Linn.

1. Family: Menoponidae

Genus: My r side a (Waterston)

Diagnostic characters: Head and thorax were broad

and large in proportion to abdomen. Spines were absent

on the ventral surface of the flatly rounded head. Head seta

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

65

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

23 absent. Temporal setae 26 and 27 not closely associated.

No preocular slit or notch. Asters of spine like setae

present, stemites have 4 strong spines. Sclerite in the

genital sec.

Myrsidea balati (Machacek)

The specimen was collected from a Tree Sparrow

Passer montanus Linnaeus. Out of 60 birds examined,

25 were infected with 72 lice, which were collected for the

study.

Place of collection: india: Meghalaya: Different parts

of Shillong, East Khasi Hill district.

Known host: Passer montanus L. (Passeriformes:

Passeridae).

Remark: This is a host specific ectoparasite; it feeds

on the feather and blood. This is the first report from

Meghalaya, India.

2. Family: Philopteridae (Burmeister)

Genus: Stumidoecus (Eichler)

Diagnostic characters: Broad temples, abdomen

broadly oval, sub lateral row of normal setae clearly present

in adult male and female, unclear ventrally, female subgenital

plate have posteriorly pointed pigmented portion, distinctive

male genitalia, a small additional plurite is present in

segment V. The calyx is moderately developed.

Stumidoecus ruficeps (Nltzsch in Giebel)

The specimen was collected from a Tree Sparrow

Passer montanus Linnaeus. Out of the 60 birds examined,

20 were infected with 33 lice, which were collected for the

study.

Place of collection: india: Meghalaya: Different parts

of Shillong, East Khasi Hill district.

Known host: Passer montanus L. (Order

Passeriformes: Passeridae)

Remark: This is a host specific ectoparasite; it feeds

on feathers. Reported for the first time from Meghalaya, India.

Chewing lice on Yellow-breasted Bunting

Emberiza aureola Pallas

1. Family: Ricinidae (Neumann)

Genus: Ricinus (De Geer)

Diagnostic characters: Mouth inferior with two

external lips and two hook-like mandibles. Tarsi distinct and

articulated with two hooks. Head slightly elongated and

articulated with prothorax by a rod-like structure. Two simple

approximated eyes on each side of the head. Jaws with small

palpus hidden by the lower lips.

Ricinus fringillae (De Geer)

The specimen was collected from a Yellow-breasted

Bunting Emberiza aureola. Out of 48 birds examined,

16 infected with lice, which were collected for the study.

Place of collection: india: Manipur, Tentha, Thoubal

district.

Known host: No specific host. It has been reported on

a number of bird species: Bombycilla (Bombycillidae);

Amphispiza, Emberiza, Junco , Melospiza, Passerella, Pipilo,

Plectrophenax, Pooecetes, Spizella, Zonotrichia

(Emberizidae); Acanthis , Carduelis, Carpodacus, Fringilia

(e.g., F. coelebs ), Pyrrhula (Fringillidae); Riparia

(Hirandinidae); Anthus, Motacilla (Motacillidae); Pams

(Paridae); and Passer (Passeridae) among others.

Remarks: This species has no specific host and has

been reported in representatives of several species of

Passeriformes. This parasite has a rasping mouthpart and feeds

entirely, if not exclusively, on the blood of its avian hosts.

This has been reported for the first time in the present host

from Manipur, India.

Discussion

Analysis of the present findings in light of available

information on Indian chewing louse fauna reveals that this

is the first report of three species of chewing lice on birds in

the wild in North-east India. Members of genus Myrsidea

and Ricinus (Foster 1969) are reported to be blood feeders,

whereas those of genus Stumidoecus are feather feeders.

Myrsidea balati was reported for the first time by Machacek

(1977) from its typical host P. montanus ; it is a host specific

ectoparasite. Other species of Myrsidea have been reported

from different parts of India: Myrsidea agarwali on Garmlax

lineatus lineatus (Khan etal. 2009); M. sehri on G. 1. lineatus

(Ansari 1951). Stumidoecus ruficeps is a typical parasite of

Passer montanus. It was earlier reported by Bechet ( 1 96 1 ) as

Penenirmus ruficeps along with its taxonomic history.

Negra (1963) reported S. ruficeps from Passer domesticus.

But, according to Price et al. (2003), S. ruficeps was found

only on Passer montanus. The presence of chewing louse

Stumidoecus has also been reported in other birds,

e.g., Stumidoecus sturnion on Sturnus vulgaris L,

Stumidoecus pastoris on Stumus roseus (Adam etal. 2009).

The genus Stumidoecus at present has 70 valid species

identified so far that parasitize only the birds of Order

Passeriformes. It is one amongst the most specious genera of

Ischnocera. Ricinus fringillae has been hitherto reported from

47 species of avian hosts (Price et al. 2003 ; Adam et al. 2009).

It was also reported from host Emberiza citrinella (Bechet

1956, 1962; Negra 1962). Many workers reported Ricinus

fringillae under various synonyms along with the host,

66

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

e.g., Ricinus hombycillae on Bomby cilia garrulus (Bechet

1961, 1962; Negru 1962); Ricinus irascens on Fringilla

coelebs (Bechet 1961, 1962); Ricinus japonicus on Anthus

spinoletta (Negru 1959; Bechet 1961, 1962); Ricinus

subpallidus on Prunella collaris (Negru 1963). Though

Myrsidea ananthakrishnani (Rai 1978), M. assamensis

and M. manipurensis (Tandan 1972) have been reported from

North-east India, more research is required to document the

avian louse in this region.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. A.K. Saxena, Associate Professor,

Department of Zoology, Government Raza P.G. College;

Dr. Daniel Gonzaiez Acuna, Faculty de ciencias veterinaries,

Universidad de concepcion, Casilla, Chile, and Dr. Cicchino

Armando Conrado, Laboratori de Artropodos, Departmento

de Biologia, Universidad Nacional de Mar del plata,

Argentina, to identify the lice species and financial assistant

from DST, New Delhi is highly acknowledged.

REFERENCES

Adam, C, G Chi Samera, S.J. Daroczi, A.T. Sandor & M. Gogu-Bogdan

(2009): Data on the chewing louse fauna (Phthiraptera:

Amblycera, Ischnocera) from some wild and domestic birds of

Romania. Travaux du Museum National d’ Histoire Naturelle

(Grigoe Antipa). Oct. Vol. LD. 177-232.

Ansari, M.A.R. (1951): Mallophaga (Amblycera) infesting birds in the

Panjab (India). Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 17: 127-203.

Ansari, M.A.R. (1958): Studies on ischnoceran Mallophaga infesting

birds in the Panjab. Indian Journal ofEntomolog. 20(1): 46-62.

Bechet, I. (1956): Contribujrii la cunoa°terea faunei malofagelor din

R.P.R. Studii°i cercetari de biologic. Academia R. P. R.F. Cluj.

7(1/4): 137-148.

Bechet, I. (1961): Malofage din Republica Populara Romina. Studii°i

cercetari de biologie. Academia R. P. R. F. Cluj. 12(1): 91-102.

Bechet, I. (1962): Cercetari asupra malofagelor din Republica Populara

Romana. Ph.D. thesis, Teza de doctorat. Universitatea din

Bucure°ti.

Elizabeth, M.B. (1951): The external parasites of birds: A Review. The

Wilson bulletin Dec. 63(4): 363-369.

Foster, M.S. (1969): Synchronized life cycles in the Orange-crowned

Warbler and its mallophagan parasites. Ecology 50: 313-323.

Hellenthal, R.A. & R.D. Price (2003): The genus Myrsidea Waterston

(Phthiraptera: Menoponidae) from bulbuls (Passeriformes:

Pycnonotidae), with descriptions of 16 new species. Zootaxa

354: 1-20.

Johnson, K.P. & D.H. Clayton (2003): The biology, ecology, and

evolution of chewing lice. Pp. 449-475. In: Price R.D.,

R.A. Hellenthal, R.L. Palma, K.P. Johnson & D.H. Clayton (Eds):

The Chewing Lice: World Checklist and Biology Overview.

Illinois Natural History Survey. Special Publication 24.

Keymer, I.F. (1972): Diseases of birds of prey. Vet. Rec. 90: 579-594.

Khan, V., N. Bansal, O. Sychra & A.K. Saxena (2009): Myrsidea

agarwali sp. n. (Phthiraptera: Menoponidae) from Garrulax

lineatus lineatus (Passeriformes: Timaliidae). Biologia 64/4:

745- 747.

Machacek, P. (1977): Myrsidea balati a new species of mallophaga

from the european tree sparrow Passer montanus. Annotationes

Zoologicae et Botanicae 119: 1-5.

Negru, aT. (1959): Malofage noi pentru fauna R. P. R. ( Mallophaga

Nitzsch). Studii°i Cercetari de Biologie, Biologie animala 11(2):

135-147.

Negru, aT. (1962): Malofage din Sinaia °i imprejurimi (I) ( Mallophaga

Nitzsch, 1818). Analele Universitatii Bucuresti, Seria Stiintele

Naturii. Biologie. 11(33): 225-233.

Negru, aT. (1963): Malofage noi pentru fauna R.P.R. ( Mallophaga

Nitzsch) (VII). Comunicarile Academiei Republicii Populare

Rormne 13(11): 989-993.

Price, P.V. (1980): Evolutionary Biology of Parasites. Princeton

University Press, Princeton.

Price, R.D., R.A. Hellenthal & R.L. Palam (2003): World checklist

of chewing lice with host associations and keys to families and

genera. In: Price R.D., R.A. Hellenthal, R.L. Palma, K.P. Johnson

& D.H. Clayton (Eds): The Chewing Lice: World Checklist and

Biological Overview. Illinois Natural History Survey. 448 pp.

Rai, R.K. (1978): Anew species of Myrsidea (Phthiraptera) on Garrulax

(Aves) from north-east India. Entomon. 3: 281-285.

Rasmussen, P.C. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia: The

Ripley Guide. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington and

Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.

Tandan, B.K. (1972): Contributions towards a revision of Myrsidea

Waterston. VII. (Phthiraptera, Amblycera: Menoponidae). Bull.

Br. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), Entomol. 27: 369-410.

8. REDISCOVERY OF MURDANNIA STRIATIPETALA (COMMELINACEAE) - A LITTLE KNOWN

SPECIES FROM SOUTHERN INDIA WITH A NOTE ON ITS IDENTITY AND DISTRIBUTION

Mayur D. Nandikar1'3, R.V. Gurav1'4 and Divya Umesh2

‘Department of Botany, Shivaji University, Kolhapur 416 004, Maharashtra, India.

2Room 906, 9th floor, Fuying International Building, 166-3 Changgang Road, Haizhu District, Guangzhou 510260, China.

Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

“Email: [email protected]

Murdannia is a pantropical genus belonging to Family

Commelinaceae with c. 50 species residing in warm temperate

and a variety of open mesic or occasionally aquatic habitats,

rarely in forests (Faden 1998, 2000). In India, the genus is

represented by 24 species (modified after Karthikeyan et al.

1989) of which four species, one subspecies and one variety

are endemic to Peninsular India and many of which are restricted

to southern peninsular India (Ahmedulla and Nayar 1987).

While working on the revision of Indian Spiderworts,

during exploration of localities, one of the authors came across

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

67

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

a population of an interesting species of genus Murdannia at

Thirumullaivoyal (04.ii.2010, 13° 12' 50" N; 80° 11' 49" E),

on the banks of Red Hills lake, Chennai, Tamil Nadu (India)

growing in a marshy area, 28 m above msl. After critical

observation and referring available literature, the specimen

was found to be Murdannia striatipetala Faden [MDN 204

(SUK)].

Murdannia striatipetala is a dazzling but little known

species of southern India. It was described by Faden (2001)

based on his earlier collection from Jaffna, Sri Lanka, in 1977.

According to him, M. striatipetala is closely related to

M. spirata , but characters such as definite base, narrow leaves,

dark-veined petals, and short appressed hairs on the stamen

and filaments had made it distinct. In addition, restricted

habitat of M. striatipetala against widespread habitat of

M. spirata was notable. Inflorescence of M. dimorphoides

closely resembles M. striatipetala.

Contrasting dark-veined petals are also characteristic

of Murdannia spirata (L.) Bruckner var. parviflora Faden

(endemic to Sri Lanka, Faden 2001), but it differs from

M. striatipetala by characters like indefinite base, flower

c. 10-12 mm wide, stamen dimorphism, enantiostyly, lateral

embryotega, etc. The distribution of this species was reported

to be northern Sri Lanka and southern India, which Faden

widened on the basis of earlier collections from India. He

designated Indian collection as paratypes for M. striatipetala

[Paratypes: india: Districts unknown: Tambaram district,

Chennai, Barnes 716 (K), 717 (K); Tada, Bourne 2784 (K);

Nungambakam, 15. xi. 1899, Bourne (from K. Rungachari) s.n.

(K); Chinghput, Guindy, 1885, Lawson s.n. (K.)J (Faden

2001). However, the deposition made earlier was not

appropriately treated, while some were without names.

REFE

Ahmedulla, M. & M.P. Nayar (1987): Endemic Plants of the

Indian Region. Vol. I, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Pp. 208-209.

Faden, R.B. (1998): Commelinaceae. Pp. 109-128. In: Kubitzki, K.

(Ed.): The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants, Vol. 4.

Springer Verlag, Berlin.

Faden, R.B. (2000): Commelinaceae. Pp. 116-196. In: Dassanayake, M.D.

After detailed examination of specimen from mentioned

locality and comparing the account by Faden, the authors

observed that Murdannia striatipetala resembles M. spirata

in vegetative forms except dark- veined petals. But short-lived

flowers lasting for only few hours may be the reason for

confusion of M. striatipetala with M. spirata resulting into

negligence of species by post Bourne workers on Indian

Commelinaceae.

All the paratypes were collected from Tamil Nadu state

of India, namely Tambaram, (Kanchipuram district); Tada,

(Nellore district); Nungambakkam and Guindy (Chennai

district). Our present locality is at a distance of 25-60 km

from all the above localities and elevation is not more than

28 m above msl. This additional data on its distribution

confirms the noteworthy comments on the distribution of

Murdannia striatipetala in southern India by Faden (2000).

Apart from the earlier collections by some workers,

namely Barnes, Bourne, Rungachari and Lawson (1885-

1 899), the species is surprisingly neglected by descendents

till date. Murdannia striatipetala is reported to be collected

after a lapse of 111 years from southern India after Barnes

and Bourne (1899). This species has not been included

in any publication after Faden’ s identification. So the present

work stands as the first proposal for the addition of

M. striatipetala to Indian flora.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank Tabish Qureshi, Department of

Physics, Jamia Millia Is lamia, New Delhi, for useful

discussions and Dr. Robert B. Faden, Smithsonian Institution,

Washington D.C., USA, for useful suggestions.

-NCES

& W.D. Clayton (Eds): Revised Handbook Flora of Ceylon,

Vol. 14. A.A. Balkema/ Rotterdam.

Faden, R.B. (2001): New Taxa of Murdannia (Commelinaceae) from

Sri Lanka. Novon. 11: 22-30.

Karthikeyan, S., S.K. Jain, M.P. Nayar & M. Sanjappa (1989): Florae

Indicae Enumeratio: Monocotyledonae, Botanical Survey of

India. Calcutta. Pp. 28-30.

9. JUNCUS BUFONIUS L. - AN ADDITION TO THE FLORA OF MAHARASHTRA, INDIA

Manoj M. Lekhak1,2, Arun N. Chandore1,3 and S.R. Yadav1'4

‘Department of Botany, Shivaji University, Kolhapur 416 004, Maharashtra, India.

2Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

Introduction

The genus Juncus comprises of about 300 species

(Mabberley 2002) varying from dwarf ephemeral annuals to

large tufted or rhizomatous perennials. In India, the genus is

represented by 44 species and 5 varieties (Karthikeyan et at

1989). Two species of Juncus are so far reported for the state

68

3. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of Maharashtra, namely Juncus maritimus Lam. and

J. prismatocarpus R.Br. (Shimpale 2008). The present paper

reports J. bufonius L. from Tableland, Panchgani, in Satara

district of Maharashtra. Description and nomenclature of the

species along with a note are given for easy identification.

The voucher specimens are deposited at the Herbarium of

Botany Department, Shivaji University, Kolhapur (SUK).

Juncus bufonius L., Sp. PL 328. 1753; Hook. /.,

FI. Brit. India 6: 392. 1892; FI. Upper Gangetic Plain 3: 282.

1920; C.E.C. Fisch. in Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 3: 1553.

1928; Backer., FI. Males. Ser 1. 4: 212, 1948; C.D.K. Cook,

Aqua, & Wetl. PI. India 223, f. 230, a & b. 1996; Tiagi &

Aery. FI. Rajasthan. 534-535. 2007.

Erect annual herb. Stems terete, up to 25 cm high,

glabrous, striated, yellow-green. Leaves reduced to basal

cataphylls, 5-12 cm long, 1-2 mm wide. Inflorescence a

drepanium, 3-9 cm long; flowers small, 1-3 mm across,

solitary, bracteate; bract 1, sheathing, open. Bracteoles 2.

Tepals 6, free, lanceolate, straw-brown, keeled (outer tepals

only) with a thickened midrib and scarious margin; outer

tepals 4 mm long, exceeding inner tepals; inner tepals

3.5 mm long. Stamens 3, shorter than outer tepals; filament

0.9-1 mm long, hyaline; anthers 0. 3-0.5 mm, hyaline. Ovary

1.8-2 mm long, ovoid, trigonous, hyaline; style trifid,

0.2-0.3 mm long, cylindric, brown. Capsule 3-locular, slightly

shorter than tepals, ellipsoid, dark brown, shortly apiculate.

Seeds 0.4-0. 5 mm long, obovoid, yellowish-brown.

Flowering and Fruiting: September-March.

Distribution: india: Himachal Pradesh, Delhi,

Rajasthan, Sikkim, Maharashtra; temperate and warm regions

of Eurasia and America; Sri Lanka; Bhutan; Nepal and

Pakistan.

Specimens examined: india, Maharashtra, Satara

district, Panchgani, Tableland, 29. ix. 2010, Lekhak-3896

(SUK).

Latitude and Longitude: 17° 55' N; 73° 48' E.

Altitude: 1,413.96 m above msl.

Note: An erect herb that grows in seasonal ponds at

Tableland in Panchgani. The typical associates were

Dopatrium junceum, Eriocaulon spp., Isachne spp., Oryza

rufipogon, Rotala densiflora, Schoenoplectus sp., and Sopubia

delphinifolia.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Head of the Institution, Shivaji

University, Kolhapur, for providing necessary facilities.

REFERENCES

Karthikeyan, S., S.K. Jain, M.P. Nayar & M. Sanjappa (1989): Florae Indicae Enumeratio: Monocotyledonae. Flora of India Series 4.

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Mabberley, D.J. (2002): The Plant Book. Ed. 2. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 374.

Shimpale, V.B. & S.R. Yadav (2008): New Records for Indian States. Rheedea 18(1): 61-62.

10. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SIMILIPAL BIOSPHERE RESERVE, ORISSA, INDIA

R.C. Misra1, H.K. Sahoo2'4, A.K. Mahapatra2-5 and R.N. Reddy3

‘National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Base Centre, C.R.R.I. Campus, Cuttack 753 006, Orissa, India.

Email: [email protected]

Regional Plant Resource Centre, Bhubaneswar 751 015, Orissa, India.

3Office of the Similipal Tiger Reserve, Bhanjpur, Baripada 757 002, Mayurbhanj, Orissa, India. Email: [email protected]

“Email: [email protected]

Email: [email protected]

Introduction

The concept of Biosphere Reserve was initiated by the

UNESCO in 1970 as a global measure to promote in situ

conservation of biological resources with the purpose of

human welfare and sustainable development. Representative

areas of natural and cultural landscapes, extending over

terrestrial and coastal / marine ecosystems, with appropriate

zoning pattern, resource base and management mechanisms

have been designated as Biosphere Reserve. This approach

is an effective mean of protecting the landscape along with

its biodiversity. So far, 15 Biosphere Reserves have been

established in India across different biogeographical regions.

Similipal in Orissa was notified as the 8th Biosphere Reserve

in June 1994, as the representative ecosystem under the

Mahanadian biogeographic region in the eastern end of the

Central plateau and Eastern Ghats of tropical eastern India.

However, Similipal shares biotic features of all the four biotic

provinces - Eastern plateau, Chhotanagpur, Lower Gangetic

plain and East coast line - for which Orissa is the junction.

Similipal Biosphere Reserve has a unique assemblage of a

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

69

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Location of Sirrsilipal Biosphere Reserve, Orissa with

16 forest ranges

number of ecosystems, such as mountains, forests, grasslands

and wetlands that congregate into a contiguous patch with a

range of diverse vegetation types. Its rich floristif and faunal

account of many indicator species makes the region a unique

base for ecological studies. This biosphere reserve has varied

topography, geologic formation, rich biological diversity and

habitat of aboriginal / primitive tribes. It is called ‘the

Himalayas of Orissa’ and controls the climatic regime of

Orissa, part of Bihar, West Bengal, and other areas of eastern

India influencing rainfall during monsoon season; it harbours

the largest tropical peninsular sal zone forming a biological

link between northern and southern India.

Location and spatial configuration

Similipal Biosphere Reserve is located in the central

part of Mayurbhanj district of Orissa state, close to the

interstate boundary with West Bengal in the north-east

direction and Jharkhand in the north-west. It contains three

protected habitats within its precincts, namely Similipal Tiger

Reserve, Sanctuary and National Park. The Reserve is a

compact mass of natural forests spread over an area of

5,569 sq. km lying between 21° 10' to 22° 12' N and 85° 58’ to

86° 42' E, ranging between 300 m to 1 , 1 80 m above msl. The

core area occupies 845 sq. km, which Is intensively protected

and absolutely undisturbed, secured legally and managed

scientifically. The core zone includes Similipal Tiger Reserve

and Similipal National Park. No biotic interference is

permitted in the 2,129 sq. km buffer zone that surrounds the

core zone. Limited activities of recreation, tourism, grazing

and fishing, are permitted in the buffer zone with a view to

reduce its effect on the core zone. The core and buffer zones

of the Biosphere Reserve are under the administrative control

of three forest divisions: Karanjia, Baripada and Rairangpur,

which comprise of sixteen forest ranges, as traced in the map

(Fig.!). The transitional zone extends over 2,595 sq. km,

and is the outermost part of the Reserve encircling a belt of

c. 10 km width around the buffer. This is a zone of

collaboration where conservation knowledge and

management skills are applied to foster alternative livelihood

and reduce dependence on forest products. Most of the areas

of this zone are under cultivation of field crops, such as paddy,

mustard, til, and other vegetables practised by local people.

The flora of Similipal Biosphere Reserve exhibits a rich

assemblage of species owing to its diversified hilly

topography with lofty mountain crests and innumerable deep

valleys, abundant springs, and specialized group of geological

formation. The terrain and topography offer a congenial

environment for the grov/th of plants including the rare /

endangered ones restricted to this pfayto-geographic region.

The Reserve is located at the junction of four biotic provinces,

and therefore shares multifarious floristic features of different

geographic regions, such as Eastern Ghats, Deccan plateau.

Lower Gangetic Plain and East Coastal zone. Thus, it has a

unique biodiversity; it is of significance as it harbours a

number of endemic, medicinal, economic and rare plants. The

floral composition shows affinities towards northern and

southern India, and Central table land due to a transitional

bridge for migration of species from north to south or vice-

versa. Diverse vegetation types prevailing in different

landscapes and microclimates are found in Similipal, these

include semi-evergreen forests along stream banks, damp

valleys and deep gorges of high moisture content; moist and

dry deciduous forests of high table lands along hill slopes

and ridges; peninsular sal in ferruginous loams, loamy clays

and red soils; and grasslands of exposed lofty plateau.

Past floristic work

The first attempt to identify the flora of Similipal hills

is credited to Forester H.H. Haines (1921-25) who conducted

an exploration trip to Similipal area of Mayurbhanj state,

including Meghasini hills. On the contrary, none of the species

mentioned by Mooney (1950) in his treatise is appended with

Similipal hill ranges as locality of collection though he

70

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Tablel : Enumeration of additional taxa

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011 71

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Tablel : Enumeration of additional taxa ( contd .)

72 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Tablel : Enumeration of additional taxa (contd.)

3. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011 73

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Tablel : Enumeration of additional taxa ( contd .)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 2: Comparative analysis of taxa of different plant groups

observation of their field survey and recorded 1,012 species

of vascular plants besides 64 species of cultivated taxa. Bal

(1942) and Yoganarsimhan and Dutta (1972) have published

an account of the useful plants and medicinal plants of

Mayurbhanj district and Similipal forest, respectively. Later,

Misra (1997a) provided an account of 52 species of rare and

endangered plants of Similipal Biosphere Reserve based on

field observation and reference of literature. Very little has

been added thereafter regarding ethnobotany, flora of lower

plants and other floristic aspects of the region.

Two decades have elapsed since Saxena and Brahmam

(1989) published the floristic account of Similipal. This

treatise, however, did not cover many plant species found in

the core and buffer zones. Several floristically rich and

economically potential localities were partly explored and a

number of unreported plant species are expected to occur in

such a diversified floristic region. Besides, there has been a

considerable change in vegetation pattern during the last two

decades, which is more likely due to biotic interferences and

habitat loss/conversion of forest to agricultural lands and

introduction of exotic species / aliens into the nearby valleys,

which necessitated a further exploration.

Methodology

The present work is based on the results of intensive

floristic survey done during 2007-2009 in different seasons,

for which eight field trips were undertaken to explore the

area and to observe the changes in the floristic biodiversity.

The core and buffer areas have been surveyed on foot across

various eco-zones and vegetation types on a tentatively

trimonthly basis with increasing frequencies of visit during

the monsoon to record the ground flora. Effort was made to

record the species not documented earlier. Plant specimens

were collected in flowering or / and fruiting stages. The

specimens were brought to the centre for morphological

observations and identified with the help of Saxena and

Brahmam ( 1 994-96) and other relevant literature. During the

field studies, detailed notes on habit, habitat, botanical

description, colour of the flower and other prominent features

were recorded. The specimens were processed and a

herbarium of voucher specimens prepared, checked with

authenticated herbarium sheets, and deposited in the

herbarium of Regional Plant Resource Centre, Bhubaneswar.

In addition, photographs of many plants were taken in the

field for record and thorough observation.

Results and Discussion

The aim of the present study was to record occurrence

of species to supplement the flora of Similipal Biosphere

Reserve and undertake a comparative analysis of existing plant

species in Similipal with taxa documented earlier (Haines

1921-25; Mooney 1950; Panigrahi et al. 1964; Saxena and

Brahmam 1989, 1994-96; Misra 1997a, b). All such additional

plant species are enumerated in Table 1 .

The revised assessment led to new records of

118 species from the Similipal Biosphere Reserve. These

constitute 92 species of dicotyledons and 21 species of

monocotyledons. Besides, new records of 5 species, 4 genera

and 3 families of pteridophytes were made. The genus and

species within the family follow in alphabetical sequence. A

brief citation on the occurrence of species, their general

distribution within the Biosphere Reserve, and flowering and

fruiting time has also been provided. All the species recorded

in this present enumeration are wild or naturalized. Some of

the species excluded from the earlier account were collected

and recorded in the present study.

A total of 9 families were added to the recorded taxa,

namely Ophioglossaceae, Aspidiaceae and Nephrolepidaceae

to pteridophytes; and Opiliaceae, Passifloraceae, Aizoaceae,

Cuscutaceae, Martyniaceae and Marantaceae to dicotyledons

and monocotyledons.

A comparative analysis of taxa of different plant groups

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

75

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 3: Comparative list of ten dominant angiosperm families in Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Flora of Orissa, Bihar-Orissa and British-lndia

recorded from earlier studies and found in the present study

is given in Table 2. The present estimate reveals that there is an

increase in composition of taxa of each plant group increasing

the number of species from 1,136 to 1,254, genus from 65 1 to

715 and family from 169 to 178. There is an overall increase

of 10.4% species, 9.83% genera, and 5.32% families.

A comparative account of ten dominant angiosperm

families with respect to number of species in the flora of

Similipal Biosphere Reserve (present study), Orissa, Bihar

and Orissa and British India is presented in Table 3. In terms

of species content, Poaceae, Orchidaceae and Fabaceae

occupy the first, second, and third position respectively

consisting of 108, 94 and 82 species followed by Asteraceae

(58 species), Rubiaceae (52), Euphorbiaceae (47), Cyperaceae

(43), Acanthaceae (40), Lamiaceae (28) and Scrophulariaceae

(23). The present analysis records the ratio of monocots to

dicots as 1 :4.76 for families, 1 :2.93 for genera and 1 :2.42 for

species against previously recorded 1 :4.75 for families, 1 :2.80

for genera and 1:2.29 for species, respectively. The present

ratio of family to genera to species is 1:4.02:7.04 against

1 :3. 85:6.72 in the previous assessment. Thus, the total species

assessed in the present floristic estimate for Similipal is 1 ,254,

which represent 46% of the flora of Orissa against previously

recorded 39.45% (Saxena and Brahmam 1989).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Environment

and Forests, Govt, of India, New Delhi, and Director, Similipal

Biosphere Reserve, Baripada, for providing financial

support to undertake the project. Special thanks are due to

the Director, Similipal Biosphere Reserve for providing entry

permission to the Reserve and logistic support during the field

survey.

REFERENCES

Bal, S.N. (1942): Useful plants of Mayurbhanj district of Orissa. Bulletin

of Botanical Survey of India 6: 1-119.

Haines, H.H. (1921-25): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa. 6 parts. Adlard

& Son and West Newman Ltd, London.

Misra, S. (1989): An Enumeration of Orchids of Similipal hills in Orissa,

India. Plant Sci. Res. 11(2): 73-85.

Mishra, R.C. (1997a): The status of rare, endangered and endemic flora

of Similipal forest. Pp. 60-72. In: Tripathy, P.C. & S.N. Patro (Eds):

Similipal: a natural habitat of unique biodiversity. Orissa

Environmental Society, Bhubaneswar.

Mishra, S. (1997b): Orchids of the Similipal forest. Pp. 73-91.

In: Tripathy, P.C. & S.N. Patro (Eds): Similipal: a natural habitat of

unique biodiversity. Orissa Environmental Society, Bhubaneswar.

Mooney, H.F. (1950): Supplement to the Botany Bihar & Orissa.

International Book Distributors, Dehradun(Reprinted 1986).

294 pp.

Panigrahi, G, S. Chaudhury, D.C.S. Raju & GK. Deka (1964): A

contribution to the botany of Orissa. Bull. Bot. Surv. India

6(2-4): 237-266.

Saxena, H.O. & M. Brahmam (1989): The flora of Similipahar

(Similipal), Orissa. Regional Research Laboratory (CSIR),

Bhubaneswar.

Saxena, H.O. & M. Brahmam (1994-1996): The Flora of Orissa, Vol. I-

IV. Orissa Forest Development Corporation Ltd, Bhubaneswar,

India. LXIV + 2918 pp.

Yoganarsimhan, S.N. & P.K. Dutta (1972): Medicinal plants of Orissa

- a preliminary survey of Similipahar forest, Mayurbhanj district,

Orissa. Nagarjun 15: 25-27.

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (1), Jan-Apr 2011

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Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/57 ISSN 0006-6982

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL . . 1

CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS OF THE FAMILY AVICENNIACEAE FROM MAHARASHTRA AND GOA, INDIA

S.S. Shaikh and N.S. Chavan . . . . . . . . 2

SURVEY OF ISOLATED POPULATIONS OF THE NILGIRI TAHR NILGIRITRAGUS HYLOCRIUS (OGILBY)

IN KERALA, INDIA

Sharon Vergis, Jean-Philippe Puyravaud, Pratheesh C. Mammen and Priya Davidar . . . . . . 8

PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL IMPACT ON MARINE BENTHIC POLYCHAETES DUE TO DREDGING IN THE

MORMUGAO HARBOUR, GOA AND ITS RESTORATION AFTER DREDGING

Vijayakumar Rathod . . . . . 12

CIRCUMSTANTIAL AND RESPONSE ATTITUDES OF PEOPLE AFFECTED WITH LIVESTOCK DEPREDATION

BY LEOPARDS PANTHERA PARDUS LINNAEUS IN RATNAGIRI DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA

R.P. Donikar, V.K. Patil, S.S. Narkhede, A.D. Rane, D.N. Mokat and S.G. Bhave . . 18

FRUGIVORY BY BIRDS AND MAMMALS IN SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND, SOUTHERN INDIA

J. Patrick David, B. Senthil Murugan and Ranjit Manakadan . . . . . . . . . . . 24

WILD FOOD TRADITIONALLY USED BY THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE OF PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

WESTERN GHATS, KERALA, INDIA

K. Yesodharan, P. Padmanabhan and N.U. Cini . . 41

NEW DESCRIPTION

A REVIEW OF THE WHITEFLY GENUS DIALEUROLONGA DOZIER (HEMIPTERA; ALEYRODIDAE) WITH

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES FROM INDIA

R. Pushpa and R. Sundararaj . 47

REVIEWS . 51

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 53

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by Dr. Ashok Kothari

for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001.

website: www.bnhs.org; Email: [email protected]

JUUKINAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AUGUST 2011

VOL. 108 (2)

JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 001 .

Executive Editor

Asad R. Rahrnani, Ph. D.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Copy and Production Eduor

Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc.

Editorial Board

Ajith Kumar, Ph. D.

National Centre for Biological Sciences,

GKVK Campus, Hebbal, Bengaluru, Karnataka

C.R. Babu, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Environmental Management

of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi,

New Delhi

Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph. D., D. Sc.

The Rhino Foundation for Nature,

Guwahati, Assam

Indraneil Das, D. Phil.

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation,

Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak,

Malaysia

Y.V. Jhala, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India,

Dehradun, Uttarakhand

K. Ullas Karanth, Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program,

Bengaluru, Karnataka

T.C. Narendran, Ph. D., FASc.

Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut,

Kerala

Aasheesh Pittie, B. Com.

Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,

Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh

G.S. Rawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India,

Dehradun, Uttarakhand

K. Rema Devi, Ph. D.

Zoological Survey of India,

Chennai, Tamil Nadu

J.S. Singh, Ph. D.

Professor, Banaras Hindu University

Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh

S. Subramanya, Ph. D.

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Hebbal, Bengaluru, Karnataka

R. Sukumar, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, Karnataka

Romulus Whitaker, B. Sc.

Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust,

Tamil Nadu

S.R. Yadav, Ph. D.

Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Maharashtra

Consultant Editors

Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society, Bengaluru

Nigel Collar, Ph. D.

BirdLife International, UK

Rhys Green, Ph. D.

Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK

Qamar Qureshi, M. Phil.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

TJ. Roberts, Ph. D.

World Wildlife Fund, Pakistan

Editorial Assistant: Sonali V. Vadhavkar, M. Sc.

Layout and Typesetting: V. Gopi Naidu

© Bombay Natural History Society 2011

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,

recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Enquiries

concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS, at the address given above.

VOLUME 108(2): AUGUST 2011 f JUN 1 § ^012 j

CONTENTS ^^,/B R

EDITORIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

SATELLITE TRACKING OF BAR-HEADED GEESE ANSER INDICUS WINTERING IN UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA

Mohit Kalra, Satish Kumar, Asad R. Rahmani, Jamal A. Khan, Shah Mohammed Belal and Ahmad Masood Khan.. 79

SONNERAT’S SHREW — EVIDENCE FOR A NEW AND POSSIBLY EXTINCT SPECIES IN AN EARLY 19TH CENTURY

MANUSCRIPT (MAMMALIA: SORICIDAE)

Anthony Cheke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

FISH DIVERSITY IN ITHIPUZHAAND MURINJAPUZHA, KERALA, INDIA

K.V. Zeena and K.S. Jameela Beevi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

STATUS OF REPTILES IN UPPER NILGIRIS, NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE, WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

S. Bhupathy and A.M.A. Nixon . . . . . . . 103

NEW RECORDS OF POLYCLAD FLATWORMS (PLATYHELMINTHES: TURBELLAR1A) FROM CORAL REEFS

OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLAND, INDIA

Deepak Apte and Reshma D. Pitale . . . . . . . . . . . 109

CHANGES IN THE NUMBER OF BREEDING PAIRS, NEST DISTRIBUTION AND NESTING TREES USED BY THE

LAPPET-FACED VULTURE TORGOS TRACHELIOTUS IN THE MAHAZAT AS-SAYD PROTECTED AREA,

SAUDI ARABIA

Mohammed Shobrak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

NEW DESCRIPTION

SPECIES DIVERSITY OF GENUS MICROLEJEUNEA STEPH. (LEJEUNEACEAE, HEPATICAE) IN NILGIRI HILLS,

WESTERN GHATS, TAMIL NADU, INDIA

Praveen Kumar Verma and Suresh C. Srivastava . . . . . . . . 120

REVIEWS

1 . BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

2. TOWARDS CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS IN INDIA

Reviewed by Swapna Prabhu . . . . . . . . . . . 127

3. SYSTEMATIC NOTES ON ASIAN BIRDS

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani . . . . . . 128

4. CONSERVATION AT THE CROSSROADS: SCIENCE, SOCIETY, AND FUTURE OF INDIA’S WILDLIFE

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani . . . . . 129

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1 . Sighting of Dhole or Indian Wild Dog Cuon alpinus at

Fakim, Kiphire district, Nagaland, India

Harkirat Singh Sangha, Manoj Sharma and

AtulJain... . . . . . 131

2. Northern Treeshrew Tupaia belangeri in southern

Mizoram, India

Nimesh Ved . . . . 132

BIRDS

3. Congregation pattern of Red Junglefow! Gallus gallus in

Dudhwa National Park, Uttar Pradesh, India

Kaleem Ahmed and Jamal A. Khan . 133

REPTILES

4. An unusual case of moulting in an Indian Flap-shell Turtle

Lissemys punctata (Lacepede, 1788)

Sagnik De . 134

FISH

5. Does the Ganges Shark Glyphis gangeticus stray to

Sri Lanka?

Rex I. De Silva . . . . . 136

6. Redescription of Bathyal fish Glyptophidium macropus

Alcock, 1894, from Indian EEZ (Ophidiiformes: Ophidiidae)

Ginson Joseph, Sherine Sonia Cubelio, Venu Sasidharan,

A.V. Deepu and B. Madhusoodana Kurup . 137

7. An additional record of larval host plant of Tawny Coster

Acraea violae (Fabricius 1 775)

Rahul Khot and Kshamata Gaikwad . 140

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

8. An annotated report of mites infesting medicinal plants of

West Bengal, India

Indranil Roy, Gautam Aditya, Salil Kumar Gupta and

Goutam Kumar Saha . . 142

9. First record of Liocheles nigripes (Pocock, 1897)

(Scorpiones: Hemiscorpiidae) from Chhattisgarh, with

comments on its distribution

Amod Zambre and Sunny Patil . 150

BOTANY

1 0. Globba orixensis Roxb. (Zingiberaceae) — a new record

for the flora of Assam, India

Lalawmkima Darlong and Debjyoti Bhattacharyya . 153

Cover Photograph: Bar-headed Goose Anserindicus by Nayan Khanolkar

't?

'

Editorial

Mudflats: The Cradle of Life

The purported aim of the National Biodiversity Action Plan of the Government of India is to protect all species and

all types of habitats. However, in the priority list of the Ministry of Environment & Forests and the State Forest

Departments that look after all Protected Areas (PA), mudflats do not find any mention as if they do not exist. With

nearly 7,5 1 7 km coastline, including 5 ,423 km in mainland India, and 2,094 km in the Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep

Islands, mudflats are present in almost all coastal states, but if you ask PA Managers, many may have not even heard

of them, and even if they know about some mudflats it is generally with a negative attitude, much like most of them

have for the so-called ‘wasteland’. Actually, most mudflats are listed as wastelands in revenue records. According to

the Indian Naval Hydrographic Department’s data, the mainland coast consists of 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky

coast including cliffs, and 46% mudflats. There are 61 coastal districts and one-fifth of India’s population lives along

the coast. Gujarat has the largest coastline in India. While the western coastline of India has a wide continental shelf

and is marked by backwaters, large intertidal zones and mudflats, it is the flat east coast of India where the Gangetic,

Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery deltas support huge mudflats.

According to Collins English Dictionary, “mudflats are areas of flat empty land at the coast which are

covered by the sea only when the tide is in.” Another definition of mudflat is “a low-lying muddy land that is

covered at high tide and exposed at low tide”. Mudflats are mostly found in areas where the tidal waters flow

slowly, such as flat coastline, sheltered bays and estuaries of large rivers. Alluvium from large rivers as they reach

the sea, and silt from tidal water intermingle, depositing layers of mud, thus creating mudflats. Some scientists

consider the Rann, both the Great (18,000 sq. km) and Little (5,100 sq. km), of Kachchh as the largest mudflats in

India, inundated during the monsoon by sea and rainwater.

In areas where the mudflats are deep and stable, and can support vegetation, salt marshes and mangrove

swamps are formed - both highly important biologically. It is said that such coastal domain, consisting of mudflats,

intertidal zones, salt marshes, and mangroves are the nursery of fish and supply almost 90% of the world’s fish

catch. Millions of Indian fishermen are dependent on these ecosystems that are mostly considered ‘wastelands’ in

government circles, and are treated as prime areas for reclamation and development. Even well-intentioned initiatives

to increase mangrove cover sometimes destroy mudflats, as can be seen in several coastal states of India. In a

paper by Samson and Rollon (2008), based on surveys of 70 mangrove restoration sites in the world, it was shown

that most of them failed because the sites selected were mudflats, sandbanks or seagrass meadows that could not

support mangrove vegetation, as ecologically some of them have not co-evolved to support mangroves. In India

also, particularly on Gujarat and Maharashtra coastlines, there is a scramble to plant mangroves. Sometimes the

only areas available are open mudflats, which may or may not be suitable for the growth of large trees. The irony

is that such misguided attempts damage otherwise healthy coastal mudflats.

The Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India, and ICMAM Project Directorate, Chennai, have

identified 18 sensitive coastal areas of India, especially for oil spills. Many of these areas are intertidal zones,

mangroves, and mudflats. Gulf of Khambat, Gulf of Kachchh, and the mudflats and beaches of Dwarka in Gujarat;

extensive mudflats of Sewri and Thane in Mumbai, Gulf of Mannar and Vedaranyam Swamp of Tamil Nadu;

Naupada Swamp and mudflats of Andhra Pradesh; Bhitarkanika mangroves, mudflats, and sandy banks around

Chilika lake in Orissa, and Sundarbans in West Bengal are some of these sensitive areas. Special mention must be

made of the unique mudflat that is the breeding ground of Horseshoe Crab along the Chandipur and Balramgadi

coast of Orissa, where during low tide the sea recedes almost 5-6 km to expose one of the widest mudflats on the

east coast of India along the Bay of Bengal.

The exposed mudflats, with their rich marine fauna in the form of crabs, fish, algae, polychaetes, molluscs,

crustaceans, etc., attract millions of birds. Some of the rarest Indian birds are dependent on mudflats and intertidal

zones. For example, the Critically Endangered Spoon-billed Sandpiper Eurynorhynchus pygmeus is totally dependent

on mudflats for foraging in its winter quarters in India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. Open mudflats with shallow

water and soft mud accumulated in ripples are the ideal habitat of Spoon-billed Sandpiper. The Spoon-billed

Sandpiper has a naturally limited breeding range on the Chukotsk peninsula and southwards along the isthmus of

the Kamchatka peninsula, in north-eastern Russia. It migrates down the western Pacific coast through Russia,

Japan, North Korea, South Korea, mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan, to its main wintering grounds in South

and Southeast Asia, where it has been recorded from India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines,

peninsular Malaysia, and Singapore (BirdLife International 2001). Perhaps less than one thousand individuals of

this tiny migratory bird are left in the world (BirdLife International 2011). In India, it has been reported only from

Chilika and Point Calimere, with possibility of its occurrence in Sundarbans (Rahmani, in prep.). Another globally

threatened bird found in India is Spotted Greenshank Tringa guttifer , earlier known as Nordmann’s Greenshank,

listed as Endangered by BirdLife International (2011) and IUCN that stated “it has a very small population which is

declining as a result of the development of coastal wetlands throughout its range, principally for industry,

infrastructure projects and aquaculture.” It is a rare winter visitor to India with confirmed records only from Point

Calimere and a few questionable old records from Assam. Among the Vulnerable category of birds in India, Great

Knot Calidris tenuirostris is the one that is dependent on mudflats and coastal beaches. It is a rare winter visitor

to the east coast of India, with regular sightings from Point Calimere, Pulicat lake and Marine National Park in the

Gulf of Mannar, Chilika lake, Bhitarkanika and Sundarbans (Rahmani, in prep.). It breeds in Siberia from May to

June-July on open, lichen-covered gravelly ground, with stunted bushes and herbs. During migration and in

wintering areas, it is usually found in estuaries, coasts, sandy beaches, mudflats, and mangroves. Besides these

globally threatened Indian species, there are up to 40 species of common birds that depend totally or partially on

mudflats for foraging and resting. Mudflats provide foraging sites for a few gull and tern species when they are

inundated. The exposed areas of mudflats are roosting sites for thousands of terns, gulls, and ducks.

Strings of mudflats play an important role as stopover sites for migratory birds to refuel for the long journey

to their wintering or breeding destinations. If mudflats are destroyed or degraded/altered for developmental activities,

such as construction of ports, fishing harbours, industries, oil exploration, plantations, including mangroves and

aquaculture, bird migration is disrupted and eventually the birds die due to lack of energy to continue their quest

for their traditional breeding grounds. Therefore, it is not enough to protect just a few mudflats in isolation, such

as in Sundarbans and Point Calimere, but we need to protect them all along our coastline. The onus of understanding,

documenting, and conserving coastal mudflats in India is not only on the Ministry of Environment and Forests,

Government of India, forest departments of maritime states, academics and NGOs, but also the state maritime

boards, who jealously own and encompass most mudflats for creating new citadels in the form of ports and

harbours and Special Economic Zones. What is needed now is a new assessment of the status of our coastal

mudflats by the Chief Naval Hydrographer of India. Would they still be 46%?

Asad R. Rahmani

References

BirdLife International (2001): Threatened Birds of Asia: The BirdLife International Red Data Book. 2 vols. BirdLife International,

Cambridge.

BirdLife International (2011): IUCN Red List for birds. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 25/07/2011.

Rahmani, A.R. {in preparation ): Threatened Birds of India: Their Conservation Requirements. Indian Bird Conservation Network,

BNHS, BirdLife International and RSPB. Oxford University Press, Mumbai.

Samson, M.S. & R.N. Rollon (2008): Growth Performance of Planted Mangroves. Development 33(2): 237-253.

Comments by Prof. B.C. Choudhury and Dr. S. Balachandran

78

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 10S(2), May-Aug 2011

79-94

SATELLITE TRACKING OF BAR-HEADED GEESE ANSER INDICUS

WINTERING IN UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA

Mohit Kalra1'3, Satish Kumar2’4, Asad R. Rahmani1-5, Jamal A. Khan2’6, Shah Mohammed Belal2’7 and

Ahmad Masood Khan2’8

‘Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India,

department of Wildlife Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.

3Email: [email protected]

“Email: [email protected]

5Email: [email protected]

6Email: [email protected]

7Email: [email protected]

8Email: [email protected]

In 2010, 4 Bar-headed Geese were captured and fitted with satellite transmitters at Sur Sarovar Bird Sanctuary in Uttar

Pradesh, India, to examine their migration and distribution. The individuals fitted with Platform Transmitter Terminal

(PTT) 99072, 99073, 99075 and 99076 spent a total of 30 days, 16 days, 36 days and 23 days respectively, in their

wintering range after deployment of PTTs. During wintering, Goose 99073 and 99076 ranged within an area of

48.65 sq. km and 124.37 sq. km. However, Goose 99072 and 99075 ranged within an area of 106.76 sq. km and

149.84 sq. km. They migrated towards their breeding grounds between March 25, and April 12, 2010. During their

migration, they flew over the Himalaya, a significant barrier to migration for most birds. The Geese equipped with

PTT 99072, 99073, 99075 and 99076 covered a total distance of 877 km, 1 ,005 km, 807 km and 1 ,305 km respectively.

All 4 birds flew to the breeding areas on the Tibetan Plateau, and stayed there for a period of 153-222 days. Three

Geese (99072, 99073 and 99076) made a stopover over Xizang province for 1-2 days. However, Goose 99075 directly

flew to the breeding ground. Goose 99073 moved within an area of 3,155 sq. km and used three focal areas of 438 sq.

km, 457 sq. km and 510 sq. km. Among the four geese, Goose 99076 established itself in the northernmost part. It

moved over an area of 10,866.77 sq. km and used two focal areas of 1,168 and 3,368 sq. km size intensively. Goose

99072 moved over an area of 5,263 sq. km and used four focal areas of 75.19 sq. km, 389.9 sq. km, 253.25 sq. km and

236.21 sq. km. Goose 99075 ranged within an area of 13,932 sq. km and intensively moved in three focal areas of

690.18 sq. km, 2,214.68 sq. km and 852.21 sq. km. Geese 99076, 99072, 99075 and 99073 ascended to 5,520, 5,090,

4,790 and 4,920 m above msl respectively, while crossing the Himalaya.

Key words: Bar-headed Geese, Sur Sarovar, migration, distribution

INTRODUCTION

Large numbers of species undertake seasonal migration

from their breeding grounds to their wintering grounds each

year. This is particularly known in birds, some of which show

trans-continental migration involving thousands of kilometres

each year. A massive amount of ringing data is collected by

many people, including volunteers and professionals. These

data help in drawing the distribution boundary of a species

and also to track general migration routes. However, satellite

tracking helps in identification of precise migration path. It

could be linked further to studies on outbreak of avian-borne

diseases and migration movement.

As avian influenza emerges and spreads globally,

infecting humans along the way, it is necessary to detect an

outbreak of the virus as quick as possible. In the last couple

of years, several cases have been reported where human beings

became infected due to contact with infected birds. So far,

337 cases of human H5N1 have been reported from

59 countries (Williams et al. 2008). The main species that

serve as reservoirs for spreading viruses are aquatic wild birds,

mainly from families of Anseriformes and Charadriiformes

such as ducks, geese, swans, gulls, terns and shorebirds

(Suarez 2000; Swayne and Suarez 2000). Several authorities,

including the more recent Normile (2006), reported that

migratory species have the capacity to spread the virus at the

time of migration. However, this hypothesis is not accepted

universally (Kou et al. 2005).

In 2005, avian influenza outbreak was reported from

China, at Qinghai lake and the Xinjiang province, and HPAI

H5N1 virus was isolated from oropharyngeal and cloacal

swabs of carcasses of Bar-headed Geese Anser indicus,

indicating that H5N1 virus was the cause of death in these

birds. The Bar-headed Goose is thus a high-risk species as

far as spread of H5N1 is concerned. Therefore, because of

these alarming concerns, we selected the Bar-headed Goose

for satellite telemetry study during our project “Migratory

Movements of Waterbirds through Uttar Pradesh and the

Surveillance of Avian Diseases”. Migration of Bar-headed

Goose across the Himalaya, connectivity of its wintering areas

SATELLITE TRACKING OF BAR-HEADED GEESE ANSER INDICUS

in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, India, and Royal

Chitwan National Park, Nepal, and breeding grounds in China

and Mongolia have recently been investigated by several

scientists by using satellite telemetry (Javed et al. 2000;

Takekawa et al. 2009; Gilbert et al. 2011).

The Bar-headed Goose is a species of high altitude

wetlands with a global population of <60,000 individuals in

the wild (Miyabayashi and Mundkur 1999; Wetlands

International 2006; Takekawa et al. 2009). Perennou et al.

(1994) estimated less than 50,000 Bar-headed Goose in the

world and the number is probably increasing. The current

global population of the species is estimated at c. 52,000-

60,000 mature individuals and a range (breeding and winter)

of 2,370,000 sq. km (BirdLife International 2010). The species

is one of the abundant waterbirds, in no immediate danger,

and is not on the Threatened list of BirdLife International

and IUCN 2010. However, Koppen et al. (2010) reported

that the population has been adversely affected in recent

decades due to unsustainable levels of egg collection, hunting

by humans and habitat destruction.

Bar-headed Geese breed on or near large wetlands on

high plateaux within a fragmented range from Kyrgyzstan to

central China, and as far north as Mongolia (Wurdinger 2005 ;

Takekawa et al. 2009; Koppen et al. 2010). Bishop et al.

(1997) reported that more than 25% of the world population

winters on the southern Tibetan-Qinghai Plateau. India is a

wintering ground for another 25-50% of the population (Javed

et al. 2000). The total number of breeding pairs in countries,

namely Uzbekistan, Tadjikistan and Kyrgyztan will not be

more than 150-200 (van der Ven 1997). It is quite common

across northern India and the Gangetic Plain (including the

Nepal terai) to Assam (Ali and Ripley 1987). More than

20,000 individuals of this species have been recorded from

a single site, Pong Dam Sanctuary, Himachal Pradesh (Li et

al. 2009). In Uttar Pradesh, it is found on all large marshes

and rivers, especially where some protection is afforded. It

has been reported from Sheikha Jheel, Aama Khera and Rati-

ka-Nagla, all in Aligarh district, Patna Bird Sanctuary in

Etah district, Lakh-Bahosi in Farrukhabad district, Samaspur

in Raebareli district, Saman in Mainpuri district, Nawabganj

in Unnao district, Narora Reservoir and on the banks of the

River Ganga in Bulandshahr and Badaun districts, and

numerous other wetlands (Rahmani 1992; Rahmani and

Arora 1992; Rahmani and Islam 2008; Rahmani etal. 2010).

The population has suffered some reduction in numbers due

to loss of wetlands in the wintering areas (Foote et al. 1996),

habitat alteration in portions of their breeding range (Wang

et al. 2008; Xu et al. 2008) and susceptibility to emerging

infectious diseases, such as highly pathogenic avian influenza

H5N1 (Chen et al. 2005; Brown et al. 2008). The species is

believed to hold a unique physiological feature for flying

high (Ward et al. 2002; Scott and Milsom 2007; Lee et al.

2008).

The possibilities of studying bird migration have

increased with the use of satellite tracking. Earlier research

work related to bird migration was mainly based on ring

recovery data. Satellite tracking offers more detailed

information about animal migration routes, wintering ground,

home range, behaviour and habitat selection (Seegar et al.

1996; Bobek etal. 2008). Recently, many birds species such

as cranes (Kanai et al. 2002), Bar-tailed Godwit (Gill Jr. et

al. 2008), pelicans (Izhaki et al. 2002), raptors (Hake et al.

2001), White Stork (Berthold et al. 2001, 2002) and Black

Stork (Bobek et al. 2008) have been satellite-tracked

successfully during migration. These methods have provided

an easier and faster means of capturing information about

migration than ever before. The data available from the

Platform Transmitter Terminal (PTT) and radar provide a

formidable challenge to understand the spatio-temporal

distribution pattern, habitat use and flight locations of

migrating birds over large areas.

The focus of our study was to provide information

on movement patterns of Bar-headed Goose from Uttar

Pradesh, India to the Tibetan Plateau. Our objectives were:

1) Identify areas used as wintering, breeding and stopover

sites; 2) Estimate distribution area of each bird at wintering

and breeding site; and 3) Determine the time of migration.

STUDY AREA

The floodplain wetlands of the Gangetic Plains of Uttar

Pradesh host a multitude of waterfowl each year, both resident

and migrant. Bar-headed Geese were captured at Sur Sarovar

Bird Sanctuary (27° 00' N; 77° 45' E) near Agra. It is an

Important Bird Area (IB A) identified by the Bombay Natural

History Society and BirdLife International (Islam and

Rahmani 2004) and a potential Ramsar Site (Islam and

Rahmani 2008). Sur Sarovar is located on the Agra-Delhi

National Highway NH2, about 20 km from Agra, east of the

road. It is a water reservoir spread over 7.83 sq. km area,

owned by the Irrigation Department of Uttar Pradesh, but

now managed by the Forest Department.

The Tibetan Plateau is the highest and largest plateau

in Central Asia, covering most of the Tibet Autonomous

Region and Qinghai, in addition to smaller portions of western

Sichuan, southwestern Gansu, and northern Yunnan in western

China and Ladakh in India. It covers an area of 2.5 million

sq. km. The Tibetan Plateau has various complex landforms,

such as high and steep mountains, deep valleys, glaciers, and

bare rocks, with an average elevation of 4,500 above msl.

80

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

SATELLITE TRACKING OF BAR-HEADED GEESE ANSER INDICUS

METHODOLOGY

In 2010, 5 birds were equipped with satellite PTTs at

Sur Sarovar Bird Sanctuary and Sheikha Jheel in Uttar

Pradesh, India. Of these 4 were Bar-headed Goose and 1 was

Gadwall. The PTTs were supported with batteries having a

maximum life span of six months. The PTTs were

programmed by experts at Telonics Inc. in such a way that

they were switched on during the periods when the maximum

number of satellites passed over the bird activity areas.

The individual Identification Numbers (IN) of the PTTs,

provided by ARGOS France, are mentioned in Table 1.

ARGOS PTT Nos. 99072 and 99075 were deployed on two

Bar-headed Geese in the Sur Sarovar Bird Sanctuary on March

7 and subsequently two more PTTs, Nos. 99073 and 99076,

were fastened to two other individuals of the same species

on March 9, 2010, at the same site. One of the five PTTs was

fastened to a Gadwall at Sheikha Jheel, an IBA located

20 km away from Aligarh on the Aligarh-Panethi-Jalali road.

The Geese as well as Gadwall were captured by a team of

professional trappers working with the Bombay Natural

History Society (BNHS) using nooses when the birds were

about to return to their breeding grounds. The PTTs were

attached to the Bar-headed Geese and Gadwall as backpacks

using Teflon ribbon harness. The birds were weighed and

swabbed orally and cloacally to get samples for investigation

of avian influenza, and were also marked with metal rings

provided by the BNHS. Each PTT weighed 29 gm, which is

c. 1 % of the total body weight of Bar-headed Goose and 3.5%

of the total body weight of Gadwall.

The transmitter signals were intercepted by polar orbit

satellites (NO A A) and received at the headquarters of the

American-French Company ARGOS. Location data is

categorised into different classes such as Z, B, A, 0, 1, 2, 3 to

get the measurement of accuracy. It is reported that the system

does not calculate the error for Z, B, A due to inadequate

Winter 2008-09 Winter 2009-1 0

Fig. 1 : Population of Bar-headed Geese at Sur Sarovar Bird

Sanctuary, Agra, India (November 2008-April 2010)

reception frequency (Ueta 2000). The data were filtered to

exclude the inaccurate points found away from the nearest

tracking times and locations. A total of 4,338 locations was

obtained and 2,328 of them were used to construct the

migration tracks of four individuals. For more information

about locations of the tracked geese, see Table 2. The tracks

were constructed on the basis of directional movement

recorded away from the wintering site. The total length of

the tracks was calculated to estimate travel distance between

their wintering and breeding grounds.

Maps of migratory routes were generated using the GIS

software (ArcGIS and ArcView) with animal movement

analysis extensions by one of the authors (MK). Movement

areas of each bird in their wintering and breeding grounds

were estimated using the minimum convex polygon method.

RESULTS

All marked geese remained in their wintering grounds

after they were fitted with the PTTs for a duration ranging

from a minimum of 16 to a maximum of 36 days (Table 3).

During wintering period at Sur Sarovar the marked geese

moved extensively within as well as outside the Sanctuary.

The total number of points located within the Sur Sarovar

Bird Sanctuary were 13.22%, 5.13% and 4.17% for Geese

99072, 99075 and 99076 respectively. However, Goose 99073

was not located at any point of time within the Sanctuary.

The duration of functioning of ARGOS PTTs was from 6Vi

months (ID 99072) to nearly nine months (ID 99075) (Table 2).

Altogether 4,338 locations were received from CLS ARGOS

France for all individuals of Bar-headed Goose fitted with

ARGOS transmitters. For analysis, we used 2,328 (54%)

locations belonging to 0, 1, 2, 3 categories of location of

ARGOS, which have higher accuracy (Table 2). The remaining

46% of location categories (i.e., A, B and Z) which have low

accuracy were excluded from data analysis. The total number

of locations used in data analysis for the geese with IDs 99072,

99073, 99075, and 99076 were 542, 610, 719 and 457

respectively, for the above-mentioned location classes.

Wintering Areas

During our fortnightly field visits to the Sanctuary in

winters of 2008-2009 and 2009-2010, we recorded a

maximum of 502 Bar-headed Geese in February 2010

(Fig. 1). As indicated by ground observations and point

locations provided by ARGOS, they moved around the

Sanctuary extensively, using crop fields and islands of River

Yamuna for foraging and resting. During our fortnightly field

visits to the Sanctuary we noticed that more than half of the

population of Bar-headed Geese would spread out into the

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

81

Table 1 : Spring migration of four Bar-headed Geese tracked by satellite telemetry from India to Tibetan Plateau

SATELLITE TRACKING OF BAR-HEADED GEESE ANSER INDICUS

82

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

SATELLITE TRACKING OF BAR-HEADED GEESE ANSER INDICUS

surrounding areas, especially the islands and the catchment

area of the River Yamuna flowing close to the Sanctuary.

During the day, the geese were also sighted in crop fields,

but most would return to the Sanctuary in the evening.

The geese spent a minimum of 16 days (ID 99073) to a

maximum of 36 days (ID 99075) in their wintering range

after the PTTs were fastened to them (Table 3). The two other

individuals remained in their wintering areas for 30 days

(ID 99072) and 23 days (ID 99076). The total number of

locations received for PTTs from CLS ARGOS for the

duration the geese remained in their wintering range was 369,

and during this period they ranged from a minimum area of

49 sq. km (ID 99073) to a maximum of 150 sq. km (ID 99075).

Geese 99072 and 99076 ranged in an area of 107 and 124 sq.

km based on 121 and 72 locations respectively (Table 3 and

Figs 3-7). One Bar-headed Goose (ID 99075) went twice

around Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, but returned to

Sur Sarovar in the evening on each occasion (Fig. 7). Goose

99073 travelled a minimum distance of 1 15.24 km, whereas

goose 99075 covered a distance of 404.26 km in its wintering

ground (Table 3). Goose 99072 and 99076 travelled 224 and

255 km respectively in their wintering ground before

commencing spring migration to their breeding ground.

Fig. 2: Relationship between latitude and migration

The overlap area between 99072-99075, 99075-99076,

99072-99073 and 99072-99076 was 25 sq. km, 14 sq. km,

22 sq. km and 1 .6 sq. km respectively. However, area overlap

among 99072-99073-99075 was 18 sq. km. The maximum

overlap area was 3 1 sq. km shared by the four geese (Fig. 7).

Migratory routes and stopover sites

Bar-headed Geese fitted with PTTs started migrating

back to their breeding grounds on March 25, 2010 (ID 99073)

and the last (ID 99075) commenced migration on April 12

(Table 1). In the plains of north India, the geese tend to fly

100-200 m above ground but to cross Himalayas, they quickly

ascend, sometimes reaching up to 5,600 m above msl (Fig. 2).

As revealed by ARGOS locations, all PTT marked Bar-headed

Geese started migration from Yamuna riverbed and its

catchment area (Figs 3-6) and none from the Sanctuary.

Bar-headed Goose (ID 99073) started migration from

the catchment area of the Yamuna on March 25 and reached

a stopover site in a remote wilderness area in China in two

days. It also halted around waterbodies near Badaun, Bareilly

and Shahjahanpur areas of Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 8). There were

two locations of this individual near Dudhwa National Park

on March 26, and it entered Nepal the same day. The bird

ID-99073

ID-99076

for four satellite equipped Bar-headed Geese

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

83

SATELLITE TRACKING OF BAR-HEADED GEESE ANSER INDICUS

flew up to maximum of 6,087 m above msl before reaching

its breeding ground in China. It stayed at a stopover site

(29° 53' 20.84" N; 83° 38' 16.32" E) for four days (Table 1)

and based on 21 locations, it ranged in an area of 65 sq. km

(Table 3). The goose reached its breeding ground in three

days, covering a total distance of 807 km during migration

(Table 1). The transmitter of this bird stopped functioning

on September 20 (Table 2).

The Bar-headed Goose (ID 99076) started migration

from the Yamuna riverbed on April 1 (Table 1) and halted

near or on water bodies near Badaun, Bareilly, Pilibhit and

Shahjahanpur (Fig. 8) for two to three days. The goose reached

a stopover site (31° 29' 50.94" N; 83° 07' 48.14" E) in China

on April 4 and remained there for 8 days (Table 1). Based

on 23 locations, the individual moved within an area of

297 sq. km (Table 3). Among all marked geese, this individual

settled in the northernmost area. During migration it crossed

the Himalaya at an altitude more than 5,95 1 m above msl

(Fig. 2) and covered the longest distance (1,305 km) among

the four geese that were marked by us with ARGOS

transmitters. Its transmitter stopped functioning on November

12 (Table 2) while proceeding on its winter migration from

China and was last recorded through ARGOS location near

China-Nepal border.

The Bar-headed Goose (ID 99072) left its wintering

ground from the catchment area of Yamuna (Table 1) on

April 6, first heading north-west, later it turned north-east. It

used two stopover sites, first in Nepal for a few hours, and

departed for the second stopover in China. After leaving

Yamuna area, it also stayed around some ponds and water

bodies near Badaun, Bareilly, Rampur, Shahjahanpur, Pilibhit

and near Dudhwa National Park in Lakhimpur-Kheri before

entering Nepal (Fig. 8). There were a few locations (n= 6) in

the first stopover site in Nepal where it stayed for less than a

day. However, there were 19 locations in the second stopover

site (30° 13’ 8.06" N; 83° 35' 34.7" E) inTibet, based on which

it was estimated to have moved over 30 sq. km area (Table 3).

It reached the second stopover site in China in a day and used

this area for seven days (Table 3). The bird flew at more than

5,979 m above msl (Fig. 2), and moved in the Indo-Nepal

Himalayan range to reach its breeding ground, covering a

total distance of 877 km during migration (Table 1). The

transmitter of this bird stopped functioning on September 15,

2010 (Table 2).

The Bar-headed Goose (ID 99075) also commenced

migration from the catchment area of River Yamuna. Among

the four marked geese, it spent the maximum time (36 days)

in its wintering area (Table 3) after the PTT was fixed to it.

The bird started migration on April 12 (Table 1) when

atmospheric temperature had reached 40 °C. Before flying

back to its breeding ground it moved slowly around rivers

and water bodies near Badaun, Bareilly and Udfaam Singh

Nag si for 3 days (Fig. 8). From Uttarakhand, the bird entered

Nepal near Dhangarhi (30° 27' 1 .62" N; 8 1° 05’ 40.79" E) and

returned the same day to Uttarakhand state to an area located

close to the boundary with Nepal. From Uttarakhand, it flew

to its breeding ground at an altitude of 4,790 m above msl

(Fig. 2) in the Himalayan range , covering a total distance of

1,005 km during migration. The PTT on this Bar-headed

Goose (ID 99075) worked for the longest period of time. The

bird started migrating from China on October 28, 2010 and

reached Sur Sarovar, the same site it had visited in the winter

of 2009-2010 (Fig. 9). It arrived at its wintering ground on

November 2, 2010 (03:38 hrs) and was located around

Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur (27.24° N; 77.78° E) at

14:46 hrs on the same day. It covered a total distance of 1,239

km in 5 days while migrating towards its wintering ground.

The goose flew above 4,790 m above msl while crossing over

the Himalaya (Fig. 2). The PTT of this bird stopped

functioning on November 24, 2010 (Table 2).

Table 2: Month-wise number of locations obtained from CLS ARGOS from March 7 to November 24, 201 0, indicating different location classes

* Locations eliminated from analysis

84

j. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

SATELLITE TRACKING OF BAR-HEADED GEESE ANSER INDICUS

Breeding areas

CLS ARGOS locations revealed that Bar-headed Goose

(ID 99073) arrived first in its breeding ground (Table 1, Fig.

11) in the Tibetan Plateau and moved within an area of

3,155 sq. km (Table 3, Fig. 11). Based on segregation pattern

of 508 locations, this individual appeared to use three focal

areas (Table 4, Fig. 1 1) to carry out its daily activities within

its breeding area. The first focal area which was used in April,

June and August was 509.45 sq. km (based on 56 ARGOS

locations) and the second, that was used from April to June

and also in September was 438.1 sq. km (based on 248

ARGOS locations) (Table 4). However, the third focal area

of activity was 457.22 sq. km (194 locations), located on the

edge of a large lake in Tibet, that was used from June 20 to

August 18, 2010. This focal area of activity was perhaps used

by the goose for breeding. The distance between these focal

areas varied from 28 to 53 km (Table 4). The bird remained

in its breeding range for nearly six months and its transmitter

stopped functioning on September 20, 2010.

The Bar-headed Goose (ID 99076) arrived in its

breeding range on April 13, 2010, and established itself in

the northernmost part among the four geese (Fig. 13). It moved

over an area of 10,866 sq. km based on 344 locations

(Table 3). Within the extensive area marked on the basis of

locations, it used two focal areas of 1,168 and 3,368 sq. km

intensively (Table 4). During spring migration it travelled

the maximum distance (1,305 km) among the four geese

fitted with PTTs, travelling 109 km per day on an average

(Table 1). The transmitter of this goose stopped functioning

on November 12, 2010, when it was in its wintering ground.

The third Goose (ED 99072) arrived in its breeding range

on April 15, 2010, around Zhari Namco area of the Tibetan

Plateau near a large lake (Fig. 10) at 4,830 m above msl. It

moved over an extensive area of 5,263 sq. km (based on 379

ARGOS locations) (Table 3) in its breeding range where it

could be monitored for more than five months. Based on

segregation of 379 locations within its breeding range, there

were four focal areas of activity used intensively by the bird

(Table 4). One of the four focal areas, used between June 21

and August 14, was 236.21 sq. km (Table 4) and most of the

locations within this focal area were on the edge of a large

water body, Zhari Namco. The Bar-headed Goose probably

bred within this focal area. The last location of the bird in

this cluster was on August 22, 2010 when it was still around

this lake, possibly with its young ones. The transmitter ceased

functioning on September 15, 2010.

Another focal area of activity of the same bird was used

from April 15 to May 26, the remaining two from May 17 to

26 and April 15 to June 20. There was a clear overlap of

dates among these focal areas of activity, which means that

the goose used more than one focal area (cluster of locations)

on the same day.

The Bar-headed Goose (ID 99075) was last to migrate

from Sur Sarovar and reached an area between Tangra Umco

and Zhari Namco in the Tibetan Plateau at 5,179 m above

msl, on April 16, 2010. Based on 459 ARGOS locations, this

individual ranged within an area of 13,932 sq. km after

reaching its breeding ground in Tibet on April 16 and used

three focal areas of activity within 95% Minimum Convex

Polygon (Table 4, Fig. 12). Among all marked geese, ID 99075

was found to have spent the maximum time (222 days) in its

breeding grounds, since the transmitter on this bird remained

functional for the maximum period (263 days) (Tables 2, 3).

It used one focal area (690. 1 8 sq. km) from April 4 to May 3,

2010. The second focal area (2,214.68 sq. km) was used from

May 4 to 27 at the edge of a lake and the goose probably used

Table 3: Winter, stopover and breeding ranges of PTT equipped Bar-headed Geese and the total distance travelled by them

‘areas are in sq. km

NoDWR = No. of days at wintering range

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

85

SATELLITE TRACKING OF BAR-HEADED GEESE ANSt'R INDICUS

SATELLITE TRACKING OF BAR-HEADED GEESE ANSER INDICUS

N..0.0S.ZZ N..O.SI../Z N.0.0UZZ

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

87

Fig. 7: Winter range of four Bar-beaded Geese, showing range overlap

SATELLITE TRACKING OF BAR-HEADED GEESE ANSER INDICUS

Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

J. Bombay Mat, Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

89

Fig. 9: Spring (yellow)' and autumn (red) migratory route of the Bar-headed Goose (99075) from Yamuna catchment (U.P.) to Tibetan Plateau (China) and back

SATELLITE TRACKING OF BAR-HEADED GEESE ANSER INDICUS

90

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

Fig. 12: Summer range of the Bar-headed Goose (99075) Fig. 13: Summer range of the Bar-headed Goose (99076)

SATELLITE TRACKING OF BAR-HEADED GEESE ANSER INDICUS

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

91

Fig. 14: Summer ranges of the four Bar-headed Geese in the Tibetan Plateau showing range overlap

SATELLITE TRACKING OF BAR-HEADED GEESE ANSER INDICUS

Table 4: Focal areas of use within the breeding range of the geese on Tibetan Plateau

it for breeding. Based on spatio-temporal segregation of

ARGOS locations, the third focal area of activity (852 21 sq.

km, Table 4) was used from August 28 to September 30, when

it started moving towards its wintering range in India. This

individual returned to its wintering ground on November 2,

2010.

The overlap area between 99075-99072 and 99073-

99072 was 2,980 and 996 sq. km respectively. However,

the total overlap area among 99075-99072-99073 was only

123 sq. km (Fig. 14).

DISCUSSION

Our study reconfirms that satellite-tracking is effective

in studying the migratory movement of birds, and can be used

for the identification of unknown migration routes, stopover

and breeding sites. Here, we have provided a comprehensive

description of migration from its origin, through wintering

and breeding season movements of the Bar-headed Goose.

The four geese used the same migration route across

India, Nepal and the Tibetan Plateau but their stopover sites

differed from each other. We found that all four marked geese

flew to breeding grounds located on the Tibetan Plateau.

Similar migration routes have been reported for Bar-headed

Goose in an earlier study (Javed et al. 2000). Geese are well

known for flying across the Himalaya (Swan 1970; Javed et

al. 2000), and adapted for flying at high altitude (Faraci etal.

1984, 1985; Ward et al. 2002; Scott and Milsom 2007). It has

been reported that this species occupies a large range, but the

possibility of range destruction is also reported due to global

warming, changes in agriculture patterns and loss of wetland

habitat at wintering ground.

Previous study on Goose migration reported that the

geese captured in the wintering ground of India-Nepal

migrated up to a distance of 500-800 km and ascended

4,500 m above msl to reach their breeding ground on the

Tibetan Plateau whereas geese captured in China were

reported to breed at 3,200 m above msl. However, Geese

captured at Mongolia demonstrated leapfrog migration - i.e.,

they flew over another sub-population migrating from their

wintering grounds in the Indian subcontinent to their breeding

grounds in Mongolia (Takekawa et al. 2009). Our result

indicates that geese captured at wintering areas in Uttar

Pradesh, India, migrated from 877 to 1,305 km from their

wintering areas on the Indian subcontinent to breeding

grounds on the Tibetan Plateau and ascended quickly 4,790-

5,520 m above msl (Fig. 2).

Koppen et al. (2010) reported that the four geese

marked in Kyrgyzstan followed different routes leading to

their wintering ground in India, Pakistan and Uzbekistan.

However, in our study all the four geese captured in a

sanctuary followed the same migration route to their breeding

ground on the Tibetan Plateau.

Our study demonstrated that the geese also use areas

outside Sur Sarovar Sanctuary that are currently unprotected.

Therefore, providing protection outside the protected area is

necessary for the long-term conservation of the Bar-headed

Goose.

More long-term satellite tracking studies of the Bar¬

headed Goose from its wintering ground to breeding ground

would provide the much needed migratory data such as

different migratory routes, stopover sites, more specific

breeding/summer sites, and threats that these migrants face.

More detailed information is necessary also to find out the

role of this and other migrant birds in the transmission of

bird flu. This two-year study is a pilot effort, and the results

suggest the need for further satellite tracking efforts to help

expand our basic knowledge and understanding of these long

distance migrants.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was funded by the Uttar Pradesh Forest

Department, Government of Uttar Pradesh. We are grateful

to Mr. D.N.S. Suman and Mr. B.K. Patnaik, PCCF (Wildlife),

UP, for initiating this project and granting permission to work.

We are also thankful to Mr. Neeraj Kumar, DFO Chambal

Division for his support during field work. All help extended

for field logistics at Sur Sarovar by Mr. R.B. Uttam, RFO

and Mr. U.S. Dohre, Wildlife Warden is highly appreciated.

92

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

SATELLITE TRACKING OF BAR-HEADED GEESE ANSER INDICUS

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 108(2), May-Aug 2011

95-97

SQNMERAT’S SHREW - EVIDENCE FOR A NEW AND POSSIBLY EXTINCT SPECIES

IN AN EARLY 19TH CENTURY MANUSCRIPT (MAMMALIA: SORICIBAE)

Anthony Cheke1

*139 Hurst St., Oxford 0X4 1HE, UK. Email: [email protected]

Diplomesodon sonnerati described from the excellent diagnosis by Sonnerat in his manuscript Nouveau voyage aux

Indes.

Key words: Sonnerat, Pondicherry, India, undescribed shrew

Pierre Sonnerat, nephew of the famous French

administrator and explorer Pierre Poivre (‘Peter Pepper’),

was a naturalist, observer of indigenous customs, and himself

an administrator in the French colonial empire of the late

18th and early 19th centuries (Ly-Tio-Fane 1976; Deloche

and Ly-Tio-Fane 2010). He spent a good deal of time in India

in French possessions and outposts (and as a prisoner of the

British), and having already published two important books

on travel and natural history, had prepared for publication a

third manuscript, the Nouveau voyage aux Indes, based on

Ms time in southern India from 1786 to 1813. He died in

1814 before it was published, and the manuscript

subsequently disappeared until unexpectedly rediscovered

in 1978 in the Mitchell Library in Sydney, Australia. The

most important parts of the lost book have at last been

published (Deloche and Ly-Tlo-Fane 2010) in a heavily

annotated edition. The text contains general notes on wildlife

in various parts of India and also Ceylon (now Sri Lanka),

and a small section with dedicated descriptions of animals

that Sonnerat believed to be new - including a very

distinctive shrew, which has never been recorded since and

may be extinct. The other fully described animals are well-

known species; in the manuscript they are all rather crudely

illustrated with pen sketches, although only one of these is

reproduced in the published book. Indian naturalists will

recognise the traveller’s name in Callus sonneratii

Temminek, the Grey Junglefowl.

The shrew and its context

When I visited Mauritius in 2008, the co-author of the

new Sonnerat study, Madeleine Ly-Tio-Fane, asked me in

2008 to look over the animal descriptions, and I immediately

picked out the shrew as worthy of further investigation. I

soon determined that it resembled only one other species.

The unusual feature of Sonnerat’s shrew is that it was black

with a white patch on the back, a feature shared amongst

shrews only with the Putorak or Piebald shrew Diplomesodon

pulchellum (Lichtenstein), known only from Central Asia

(Nowak 1999). D. pulchellum, however, differs in having a

white belly, and not being sexually dimorphic.

Although I had established to my own satisfaction by

early 2009 that Sonnerat’s shrew was an undescribed species,

the Nouveau voyage was not the place to publish this, and in

any case I wanted to wait until the manuscript was published

and accessible. The authors (Deloche and Ly-Tio-Fane 2010)

meanwhile were cautious (p. 314, footnote, my translation):

“Had he [Sonnerat] found something new? Anthony Cheke

remarks that the only known shrew with blackish fur and a

white band on the back is Diplomesodon pulchellum, an

animal distributed in Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan

and Turkmenistan). WMle close, Sonnerat’s description does

not match in all respects with that of Diplomesodon, but all

his descriptions in this book lack a certain precision. Could

he have received a specimen from Central Asia? Or are we

looking at an extinct species, given that he indicates that he

found it in fields a few leagues from Pondicherry?”

Sonnerat did not himself travel to Central Asia, and

all the other animals described are from the Subcontinent or

Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), apart from a parrot that he stated

was imported from Penang (Malaysia), and the migratory

Red-headed Bunting Emberiza bruniceps Brandt that he

reported from extralimital Ceylon, but which he probably

encountered as a cage-bird. Hence, there is no reason to doubt

that he found the shrew, as he claimed, In the vicinity of

Pondicherry (now Puducherry).

Species description

The shrew is described by Sonnerat in two passages,

one - a general account of wildlife in southern India, the

other - a specific diagnosis, accompanied by a crude

pen-sketch (Fig. 1). The passages (my translation) are as

follows:

From Chapter 4: “On the Indian monsoons; [and]

productions of the Coromandel coast”, p. Ill, after

describing the ubiquitous House or Musk shrew Suncus

murinus (Linnaeus) and its offensive scent:

SONNERAT'S SHREW - A NEW AND POSSIBLY EXTINCT SPECIES

Fig.1 : Sonnerat’s sketch, with associated inscriptions, of the “musaraigne noire a bande bianchd’ [black shrew with white band]

from his manuscript Nouveau voyage aux Indes, held as Item No. PX*D83 p.32 in the Mitchell Library, Melbourne.

(Published with permission of the New South Wales State Library.

The vertical writing is show-through from the other side of the paper; it has been digitally softened)

“One sometimes encounters with these rats musques 1

a particular species that has all the characters of a shrew, but

it does not generate a smell of musk; it is also larger, shiny

black with a white band on the middle of the body.”

From Chapter 13, “New items relating to natural

history”, p. 314, Sonnerat’s diagnosis:

“This shrew is five and a half inches2 [149 mm] from

the head to the base of the tail; the tail is one inch one line

[29 mm] in length; the eyes are almost imperceptible and

appear only as two little black points. It is entirely a handsome

black, with a transverse white band across the middle of the

body; all its fur is silky; the female is smaller and has the

same transverse white band, but all that is black in the male

is a clear grey in the female.

This shrew has the shape and all the characters of the

rat musque, but it never inhabits houses like it does, nor does

it give off any musky smell; it is also larger; it stays hidden

during the day in holes and only appears at night to seek

food; I found it in fields a few leagues3 from Pondicherry.”

‘The term ‘rat musque ’ [‘musky rat’] is the name long in use in Mauritius

for the house shrew, where Sonnerat will have first encountered it before

arriving in India (Cheke 2009).

2French inches of 2.71 cm.

3A French terrestrial league, ‘lieue’ = 4.83 km.

The text around the sketch adds ‘5 toes’ written next to

both front and rear legs, ‘two longer incisor teeth’ against the

upper jaw, the same against the lower jaw, and the drawing

itself shows large down-curved incisors in the upper jaw, all

features typical of shrews, i.e., there is no question that

Sonnerat’s animal was indeed a shrew. The tail is shown as

stout and stubby, similar to that of D. pulchellum. The rest of

the text by the sketch reprises the edited version of the

description.

Sonnerat’s very adequate diagnosis is, together with

his illustration, sufficient to establish this animal as a species

new to science which I am naming:

Diplomesodon sonnerati sp. nov.

It is distinguished from all shrews, apart from

D. pulchellum , by the white dorsal patch, and from

D. pulchellum by its much larger size, sexual dimorphism,

saddle-shaped white patch (not elongated along the back),

and dark (not white) underparts.

The generic attribution is tentative, based on the pelage

similarity between this animal and D. pulchellum. Sonnerat’s

shrew is, however, twice as long as the Central Asian species

(head + body 54-76 mm, Nowak 1999), and if regularly larger

96

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

SONNERAT'S SHREW - A NEW AND POSSIBLY EXTINCT SPECIES

than Suncus murinus, as Sonnerat claimed, would make it

the world’s largest shrew. S. murinus ranges up to 150 mm in

head and body length (Prater 1971; Nowak 1999), making it

roughly the same size as Sonnerat’s example. Although until

now extant Diplomesodon was thought to be confined to

Central Asia, Pleistocene fossils attributed to the genus, based

on dentition, have been found in South Africa (Repenning

1965), suggesting that pulchellum (and thus also sonnerati)

may be a relict of a once widespread radiation.

Recent DNA analysis (Dubey et al. 2008) nests

Diplomesodon within the large genus Crocidura , though the

researchers decided, against the usual practice, to “keep this

morphologically highly distinctive taxon in its own genus,

although this would render Crocidura a paraphyletic taxon”.

Within Crocidura it has a very long solitary branch on the

phylotree, splitting some 5 million years ago from the rest of

Asian Crocidura. However, another DNA study (Esselstyn

and Brown 2009) found it a mystery sister along its branch

labelled ‘sp. 4, IN’. Further, investigation showed that this

was a shrew collected in 1984 near Araku (near

Visakhapatnam) in Andhra Pradesh, eastern India (http://

arctos. database. museum/guid/DGR:Mamm: 18454),

identified as C. horsfieldii (Tomes). The tissue material used

for DNA study is held in the University of New Mexico, but

the skin is in the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in

Pittsburgh, USA (catalogue No. CM 92179). However, this

specimen is uniformly brown on the back (Suzanne McLaren

pers. comm.), and hence is not an example of Sonnerat’s

shrew. Since other examples of C. horsfieldii cluster very

differently in the phylotrees (Dubey et al. 2008; Esselstyn

and Brown 2009), its anomalous DNA linking it to the central

Asian D. pulchellum suggests an unidentified cryptic species

resembling horsfieldii living in central-eastern India, which

would warrant further research.

Cheke, A.S. (2009): Data sources for 18th century French

encyclopaedists - what they used and omitted: evidence of data

lost and ignored from the Mascarene Islands, Indian Ocean.

J. Natl. Mus. Praha, Nat. Hist. Ser. 177: 91-117.

Deloche, I. & M. Ly-Tio-Fane (2010): Pierre Sonnerat: Nouveau Voyage

auxlndes Orientales (1786-1813). Pondicherry: Institut Frangais

de Pondichery & Paris: Ecole Fran£aise d’Extreme Orient.

377 pp.

Dubey, S., N. Salamin, M. Ruedi, P. Barriere, M. Colyn & P. Vogel

(2008): Biogeographic origin and radiation of the Old World

crocidurine shrews (Mammalia: Soricidae) inferred from

mitochondrial and nuclear genes. Molec. Phylogenet. Evol. 48 :

953-963.

Esselstyn, R.W. & R. Brown (2009): The role of repeated sea-level

fluctuations in the generation of shrew (Soricidae: Crocidura)

diversity in the Philippine Archipelago. Molec. Phylogenet. Evol.

53: 171-181.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Since no more specimens have emerged since

Sonnerat’s time, the species may have been very restricted

in distribution and since become extinct, perhaps under

modem Puducherry’s urban sprawl. However, if rare and

confined to a small area around Puducherry, it remains

possible that the species survives, and so distinctive an

animal would be well- worth searching for. Its habitat appears

from Sonnerat’s description to include agricultural land, so

it may be a generalist, however, searching might best be

focussed on uncultivated patches, as modem agriculture

(pesticides, mechanisation) may have altered the suitability

of arable land.

The recent discovery of Feroculus feroculus in southern

India, previously thought to be confined to Ceylon (now

Sri Lanka) (Pradhan etal. 1997), and a new, if cryptic, shrew

species in Ceylon itself (Meegaskumbura et al. 2007) does

allow one to hold out hope for the survival of Diplomesodon

sonnerati. Let the search begin!

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The late Dr. Madeleine Ly-Tio-Fane drew my attention

to the animals in Sonnerat’s lost manuscript and arranged for

a copy of her book to reach me on publication. This eminent

Mauritian historian and old friend sadly died on September

21, 2011, while this paper was in press, and I dedicate it to

her memory. Jon Dunning (University of New Mexico) and

Suzanne McLaren (Carnegie Museum of Natural History)

kindly helped with details of the specimen with the anomalous

DNA lineage. The Mitchell Library of the State Library of

New South Wales, Australia, provided an electronic image

of Sonnerat’s shrew, and permission to publish it.

Ly-Tio-Fane, M. (1976): Pierre Sonnerat 1748-1814. An account of his

life and work. Mauritius: (author), xvi+157 pp.

Meegaskumbura, S., M. Meegaskumbura, R. Pethiyagoda,

K. Manamendra-Arachchi & C.J. Schneider (2007): Crocidura

hikmiya, a new shrew (Mammalia: Soricomorpha: Soricidae)

from Sri Lanka. Zootaxa 1665: 19-30.

Nowak, R.M. (1999): Walker’s Mammals of the World. 6th edition.

Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 2 vols.

Pradhan, M.S., R.M. Sharma & K. Shankar (1997): First record of

Kelaart’s long-clawed shrew, Feroculus feroculus (Kelaart)

(Insectivora, Soricidae, Crocidurinae) from Peninsular India.

Mammalia 61: 448-450.

Prater, S.A. (1971): The Book of Indian Mammals. 3rd rev. edn.

Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press,

Mumbai, xxii+a-g+324 pp.

Repenning, Charles A. (1965): An extinct shrew from the early

Pleistocene of South Africa. J. Mammal. 46: 189-196.

3. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

97

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 108(2), May-Aug 2011

98-102

FISH DIVERSITY IN ITHIPUZHA AND MURINJAPUZHA, KERALA, INDIA

K.V. Zeena1-2 and K.S. Jameela Beevi1'3

‘P.G and Research Centre, Department of Zoology, Maharaja’s College, Emakulam, Kochi 682 Oil, Kerala, India.

2Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

A survey has been conducted on the fishes in Ithipuzha and Murinjapuzha, two tributaries of River Muvattupuzha,

Kerala, from October 2009 to May 2010. Cast net, gill net, and scoop nets were used for the study. 69 species of fishes,

belonging to 54 genera, 36 families and 13 orders were collected and identified. Fishes belonging to the Order

Perciformes dominated the study with 15 families, 20 genera and 25 species, followed by the Order Cypriniformes

with 1 family, 6 genera and 14 species. Rare species like Pristolepis marginata Jerdon, Anabas cobojius (Hamilton-

Buchanan), Butis butis (Hamilton-Buchanan), Eleotris fusca (Forster), Puntius muvattupuzhaensis Jameela Beevi and

Ramachandran, Danio malabaricus (Day), Pterocryptis wynaadensis (Day), Pseudeutropius mitchelli Gunther,

Zenarchopterus striga (Blyth), Tetraodon fluviatilis Hamilton, Arothron leopardus (Day) and Triacanthus biaculeatus

(Bloch) were collected during the study. Presently, these rivers are under severe ecological degradation, due to sand

mining and other anthropogenic activities. Despite this, the present study showed rich fish diversity in these rivers,

and hence, it is suggested that these rivers be protected to conserve it.

Key words: habitat degradation, sand mining, conservation, anthropogenic activities, threats

INTRODUCTION

Biodiversity studies have gained much attention

recently. Icthyofaunal studies were done in different rivers

of India (Jayaram et al. 1982; Arunachalam and

Sankaranarayanan 1999; Sarkar and Banerjee 2000; Bhatt

2003; Mishra et al. 2003; Kar et al. 2006; Bhakta and

Bandyopadhyay 2008; Karmakar et al. 2008; Palavai and

Davidar 2009; Patra and Datta 2010). The information of

diversity from these studies help us understand the need to

conserve rare species and prevent exploitation for a

sustainable environment. Conservation of fish diversity

assumes topmost priority under the changing circumstances

of gradual habitat degradation (Kar et al. 2006).

The riverine fishery of Kerala is highly diverse and is

around 207 species (Gopi 2000). Many species of fishes

documented in earlier studies have not been found in recent

reports (Ajithkumar et al. 2003). Though a number of studies

have been conducted on the fish diversity in the rivers of

Kerala (Bijukumar and Sushama 2001; Raju Thomas et al.

2001; Jameela Beevi and Ramchandran 2002, 2009;

Ramachandran et al. 2001 ; NBSAP 2002; Ajithkumar et al.

2003; Prasanth Narayanan et al. 2005; Raghavan Rajeev et

al. 2008; Swapna 2009) not much study has been done on

the diversity of Ithipuzha and Murinjapuzha. In view of this

paucity of information, the present survey was carried out to

document the fishes of Ithipuzha and Murinjapuzha.

METHODOLOGY

After preliminary surveys, nine sampling stations were

fixed. Collections were made every month from October 2009

to May 2010 using cast, gill, and scoop nets. Samples were

also collected from streams and channels opening into various

stations, since they are the feeding and breeding grounds of

many species. Fishes were preserved in 10% formalin. The

morphometric studies were done following Jayaram (1999).

Day (1878), Jayaram (1999), Nelson (1984, 2006), and Talwar

and Jhingran (1991) were used to identify and classify the

collected fishes.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Muvattupuzha river is one of the major rivers in Kerala;

it is 123 km long and has a drainage area of 1,554 sq. km. It

divides into Ithipuzha and Murinjapuzha at Vettikkattumukku

in Emakulam district, and flows through Kottayam district to

join Vaikom lake (Fig. 1). Sixty-nine species of fishes belonging

to 54 genera, 36 families and 13 orders were collected. The

systematic positions of the collected species are given in

Table 1 . Order Perciformes showed maximum diversity with

15 families, 20 genera, and 25 species. Order Cypriniformes

was second with a single family - Cyprinidae with 6 genera

and 14 species. Most of the species collected have ornamental

as well as potential commercial value. Puffer fishes like

Carinotetraodon travancoricus Hora and Nair, Arothron

leopardus (Day), Tetraodonfluviatilis Hamilton and Triacanthus

biaculeatus (Bloch) were also present in the collection.

According to the local fishermen, many species of

fishes, which were abundant in past years, showed a decline

in recent catches, due to destruction and degradation of their

habitat by ecological and man-made interventions. The recent

FISH DIVERSITY IN UHIPUZHA AND MURINJAPUZHA

Table 1 : Systematic position of fishes collected from Ithipuzha and Murinjapuzha river, Kerala

SI. No. Scientific Name

Ithipuzha Murinjapuzha SI. No. Scientific Name

Ithipuzha Murinjapuzha

Order: Perciformes

A. Family: Nandidae

Genus: Pristolepis Jerdon

1 Pristolepis marginata Jerdon +

Genus: Nandus Valenciennes

2 Nandus nandus +

(Hamilton-Buchanan)

B. Family: Anabantidae

Genus: Anabas Cuvier

3 Anabas cobojius

(Hamilton-Buchanan)

C. Family: Lutjanidae

Genus: Lutjanus Bloch

4 Lutjanus johnii (Bloch)

5 Lutjanus argentimaculatus +

(Forsskal)

D. Family: Gobiidae

Genus: Glossogobius Gill

6 Glossogobius giuris

(Hamilton-Buchanan)

Genus: Awaous Valenciennes

7 Awaous grammepomus (Sleeker) +

Genus: Stenogobius Sleeker

8 Stenogobius malabaricus (Day) +

E. Family: Eleotridae

Genus: Butis Bleeker

9 Butis butis (Hamilton)

Genus: Eieotris Schneider

10 Eleotris fusca (Forster)

F. Family: Ambassidae

Genus: Parambassis Bleeker

11 Parambassis thomassi (Day) +

Genus: Ambassis Cuvier

12 Ambassis ambassis (Lacepede) +

G. Family: Gerreidae

Genus: Gerres Cuvier

13 Gerres filamentosus Cuvier +

14 Gerres poieti Cuvier

H. Family: Cichlidae

Genus: Etroplus Cuvier

15 Etroplus suratensis (Bloch) +

16 Etroplus maculatus (Bloch) +

I. Family: Channidae

Genus: Channa Scopoli

17 Channa striata (Bloch) +

18 Channa marulius +

(Hamilton-Buchanan)

19 Channa diplogramma (Day) +

J. Family: Leiognathidae

Genus: Leiognathus Lacepede

20 Leiognathus equulus (Forsskal)

K. Family: Sciaenidae

Genus: Daysciaena Talwar

21 Daysciaena albida (Cuvier)

L. Family: Carangidae

Genus: Caranx Lacepede

22 Caranx sexfasciatus

Quoy& Gaimard

M. Family: Scatophagidae

Genus: Scatophagus Cuvier

23 Scatophagus argus (Linnaeus) - +

N. Family: Sillaginidae

Genus: Sillago Cuvier

24 Sillago sihama (Forsskal) - +

O. Family: Siganidae

Genus: Siganus Forsskal

25 Siganus javus (Linnaeus) - +

Order: Cypriniformes

A. Family: Cyprinidae

Genus: Cirrhinus Cuvier

26 Cirrhinus mrigala

(Hamilton-Buchanan)

Genus: Labeo Cuvier

27 Labeo dussumieri (Valenciennes)

Genus: Puntius

Hamilton-Buchanan

28 Puntius mahecola (Valenciennes)

29 Puntius vittatus Day

30 Puntius punctatus Day

31 Puntius filamentosus

(Valenciennes)

32 Puntius parrah Day

33 Puntius sarana sarana (Hamilton)

34 Puntius sarana subnasutus

(Valenciennes)

35 Puntius muvattupuzhaensis

Jameela Beevi and

Ramachandran

Genus: Rasbora Bleeker

36 Rasbora daniconius (Hamilton)

Genus: Amblypharyngodon Bleeker

37 Amblypharyngodon chakaiensis

Babu & Nair

38 Amblypharyngodon microlepis

(Bleeker)

Genus: Danio Hamilton-Buchanan

39 Danio malabaricus (Day)

Order: Siluriformes

A. Family: Siluridae

Genus: Ompok Lacepede

40 Ompok malabaricus

(Valenciennes)

Genus: Pterocryptis (Day)

41 Pterocryptis wynaadensis (Day)

Genus: Wallago Bleeker

42 Wallago attu (Schneider)

B. Family: Schilbeidae

Genus: Horabagrus Jayaram

43 Horabagrus brachysoma (Gunther) -

Genus: Pseudeutropius Bleeker

44 Pseudeutropius mitchelli Gunther

C. Family: Bagridae

Genus: Mystus Scopoli

45 Mystus oculatus (Valenciennes)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

99

FISH DIVERSITY IN ITHIPUZHA AND MURINJAPUZHA

Table 1 : Systematic position of fishes collected from Ithipuzha and Murinjapuzha river, Kerala ( contd .)

SI. No. Scientific Name Ithipuzha Murinjapuzha SI. No. Scientific Name Ithipuzha Murinjapuzha

D. Family: Ariidae

Genus: Anus Valenciennes

46 Arius subrostratus

Cuvier & Valenciennes

47 Arius arius Day

E. Family: Clariidae

Genus: Clarius Scopoli

48 Clarius dussumeri dussumieri

Valenciennes

F. Family: Heteropneustidae

Genus: Heteropneustes Muller

49 Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch)

IV. Order: Elopiformes

A. Family: Megalopidae

Genus: Megalops Lacepede

50 Megalops cyprinoides (Broussonet) +

V. Order: Pleuronectiformes

A. Family: Soleidae

Genus: Synaptura Cantor

51 Brachirus orientalis +

(Bloch & Schneider)

B. Family: Cynoglossidae

Genus: Cynoglossus

Flamilton-Buchanan

52 Cynoglossus cynoglossus

(Hamilton)

VI. Order: Beloniformes

A. Family: Belonidae

Genus: Xenentodon Regan

53 Xenentodon cancila (Hamilton) +

B. Family: Hemiramphidae

Genus: Zenarchopterus Gill

54 Zenarchopterus striga (Blyth)

Genus: Hyporhamphus Gill

55 Hyporhamphus xanthopterus +

(Valenciennes)

VII. Order: Cyprinodontiformes

A. Family: Aplocheilidae

Genus: Aplocheilus McClelland

56 Aplocheilus lineatus +

(Valenciennes)

57 Aplocheilus panchax (Hamilton) +

VIII. Order: Synbranchiformes

A. Family: Mastacembelidae

Genus: Mastacembelus Scopoli

58 Mastacembelus armatus

(Lacepede)

Genus: Macrognathus Lacepede

59 Macrognathus guentheri (Day)

IX. Order: Tetraodontiformes

A. Family: Tetraodontidae

Genus: Tetraodon Linnaeus

60 Tetraodon fluviatilis Hamilton

Genus: Carinotetraodon Beni.

61 Carinotetraodon travancoricus +

Hora & Nair

Genus: Arothron Muller

62 Arothron leopardus (Day)

A. Family: Triacanthidae

Genus: Triacanthus Cuvier

63 Triacanthus biaculeatus (Bloch)

X. Order: Anguilliformes

A. Family: Anguillidae

Genus: Anguilla Schrank

64 Anguilla bengalensis (Gray)

XI. Order: Clupeiformes

A. Family: Engraulidae

Genus: Thryssa Cuvier

65 Thryssa dussumieri

(Valenciennes)

Genus: Stolephorus Lacepede

66 Stolephorus commersonnii +

Lacepede

B. Family: Clupeidae

Genus: Dayella Talwar &

Whitehead

67 Dayella malabarica ( Day) +

XII. Order: Mugiliformes

A. Family: Mugilidae

Genus: Mugil Linnaeus

68 Mugil cephalus Linnaeus +

XIII. Order: Scorpaeniformes

A. Family: Platycephalidae

Genus: Cociella Whitley

69 Cociella punctata Cuvier

+ indicates the presence of the species; - indicates the absence of the species.

studies of Bhakta and Bandyopadhyay (2008), Raghavan

Rajeev et al. (2008), Swapna (2009), and Palavai and Davidar

(2009) also indicated that habitat loss is the main cause of

reduction in fish diversity. Fish diversity and conservation

represents a major environmental challenge, at the global

level. It will add to existing threats to the species if no

immediate policy action is taken against human interventions.

A few important management plans that result from this study

for the conservation of fish species could be included into

the fishery policies of the Government, such as identification

and listing of threatened and endangered species,

determination of population size and distribution, finding out

100

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

FISH DIVERSITY IN ITHIPUZHA AND MURINJAPUZHA

Legend

Sampling Stations

A 1. Murinjapuzha Bridge

A 2. Mulekkadavu

A 3 Thattaveli

A 4. Parakkal

A 5. Vettikattumukku Bridge

A 6 Puthenthodu

A 7 . Pa lamkad av u Bndg e

A 8. Attuvelakkadavu

A 9. Ithipuzha Bridge

- Dist Boundary

- Road

Stream

Cropland

IBBBi Estuary

] River

Fig. 1 : Sampling stations in the present study

the breeding behaviour of threatened species, which is

essential for both ex situ and in situ conservation for captive

breeding and broodstock maintenance of fishes of potential

economic importance (Bhakta and Bandyopadhyay 200B).

From the present study, it is clear that the rivers

Ithipuzha and Murinjapuzha are rich in fish diversity.

However, these rivers are facing a high degree of threat from

sand mining and various anthropogenic activities, and proper

management strategies should be implemented to protect and

conserve the existing icthyofaunal wealth of our nation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to the Head of the Department,

Zoology, Maharaja’s College, Ernakulam, for providing

necessary facilities to carry out the research. The authors also

express gratitude to Dr. K. Rema Devi, Scientist E & Officer-

In-Charge of ZSI, Chennai, for confirmation of fish

identification. One of the authors, K.V. Zeena extends her

sincere gratitude to the UGC for granting her Teacher

Fellowship.

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Jameela Beevi, K.S. & A. Ramachandran (2002): Potential ornamental

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 108(2), May-Aug 2011

103-108

STATUS OF REPTILES IN UPPER NILGIRIS, NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE,

WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

S. Bhupathy1,3 and A.M.A. Nixon1'2

‘Salim AH Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Anaikatti, Coimbatore 641 108, Tamil Nadu, India.

2Present Address: Wildlife Trust of India, F-13, Sector 8, Noida 201 301, Uttar Pradesh, India. Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

In the present paper, we describe species composition, abundance, richness, diversity and biometry of reptiles inhabiting

the Upper Nilgiris (1,800-2,400 m above msl), based on c. 27 ha of quadrate and 680 man-hours of visual encounter

surveys, between October 2000 and September 2002. Including opportunistic observations, 10 species of reptiles

were recorded in the area, which includes seven endemics of the Western Ghats. Species richness, diversity, density

and relative abundance of reptiles were low in plantations compared to natural habitats. Richness and Diversity

are different, the former is actual number of species observed and the latter is an index. The highest density of

14.85 reptiles/ha was found in grasslands and the lowest in pine forests (4.98/ha). The study shows that most of the

species inhabiting Upper Nilgiris were affected by conversion of native vegetation into plantations. This study highlights

the conservation importance of both habitat (shola and grasslands) and herpetofauna, as both of them are restricted to

the Western Ghats.

Keywords: endemic species, Mukurthi National Park, reptile populations, shola, grasslands. Western Ghats

INTRODUCTION

Herpetofauna tends to be an uncommon subject for field

studies, compared to birds and mammals (Vitt 1987). This is

mainly due to their relatively small size, cryptic nature,

seasonal activity and lack of standard sampling protocols.

According to Pearman et al. (1995), suitability of many

herpetofaunal sampling techniques have not been tested and

validated in the tropics. It is speculated that several species,

including reptiles, are threatened with extinction due to habitat

alterations and fragmentations, and also suspected that many

species may become extinct even before proper identification

and formal reporting. Theoretical conservation plans without

understanding species ecology would not yield desired results

(Frazier 1992).

The herpetofauna of southern India is one of the most

diverse and ecologically poorly known (Inger et al. 1987).

The Western Ghats is one of the 34 biodiversity hotspots of

the world (Mittermeier et al. 2005). Several hydroelectric

projects have been implemented in this hill range, and

many more are in the planning stage. For instance, there are

36 such projects (24 operational, 12 planning stage) only in

the Western Ghats of Kerala (Raj et al. 2009). Apart from

inundation, these projects have severe impact on biodiversity

(Sreekumar and Balakrishnan 1998) due to habitat alterations,

hunting and dependency on natural resources by settlers. With

impetus given by the (Indian) National Forest Policy- 1952,

major proportion of the grasslands had been converted into

exotic plantations of Black Wattle Acacia mearnsii.

Eucalyptus Eucalyptus spp. and Pine Callitris rhomboidea.

Impacts of these alterations on wild flora and fauna are poorly

understood. Taxa such as herpetofauna could be an ideal

model to assess these impacts, as they are specific to certain

microhabitats of the area. However, precise data even on

the distribution of reptiles of Western Ghats is scanty and

the available data are limited to lower and medium altitudes

(< 1,200 m; Inger et al. 1984; Das and Whitaker 1990;

Malhotra and Davis 1 99 1 ; Zacharias 1997; Ishwar et al. 200 1 ) .

In the present paper, we report the species richness,

endemicity, diversity, abundance and biometry of reptiles

found in Upper Nilgiris. Notes on the impact of plantations

on reptiles with respect to species density are also given.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study Area

The present study was conducted in Upper Nilgiris

(1,800-2,400 m above msl), especially in and around the

Mukurthi National Park (11° lO'-l 1° 22' N; 76° 26'-76° 38' E)

of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, Western Ghats. The area of this

Park is 78.46 sq. km (Fig. 1), and it has relatively undisturbed

grasslands interspersed with shola. The isolated, compact,

sharply defined forests between the folds of the hills are

known as shola, which consist of stunted evergreen tree

species (Puri et al. 1990). Champion and Seth (1968)

classified this as Southern Montane Wet Temperate Forest.

Monthly mean temperature of the Upper Nilgiris during this

study varied from 15° to 26° C. Cumulative annual rainfall is

about 3,000 mm with peak during July. Dicanthium

polyptychum, Chrysopogon zeylanicus, Fimbristilis sp. and

Eriocaulon sp. are common grass species reported from the

area.

STATUS OF REPTILES IN UPPER NILGIRIS

Fig. 1 : Mukurthi National Park and its environs,

Upper Nilgiris, Western Ghats

In India, till recently, grasslands have not been viewed

as wildlife habitat. An estimated 80% of shola and grasslands

have been lost in Upper Nilgiris largely to monoculture

plantations (Table 1). Exotic species such as Black Wattle,

and Pine were introduced during early 1960s (The Nilgiri

District Gazetteer 1995). The Wattle plantations in the area

were disturbed due to logging operations, as they were most

preferred by tanning industries.

Table 1 : Comparative account of habitat loss (in sq. km)

in Upper Nilgiris, Western Ghats

Habitat Year

Source: website: www.nilgiribiospherereserve.com

Field Methods

A number of faerpetofaunai sampling procedures are

available in Heyer et al. (1994). We used quadrate (10 x 10

m), and visual encounter surveys (VES) for sampling. In

both methods, microhabitats, such as boulders, grass clumps,

fallen logs and tree trunks, were examined (Campbell and

Christman 1982) for reptiles by two personnel. This

facilitated effective detection of most of the reptiles,

including the hiding ones. Seasonal and opportunistic

observations were also made in and around reservoirs. The

study was conducted from October 2000 to September 2002,

and the fieldwork was largely restricted to sunlight hours

(09:00-16:00 hrs) due to the prevailing cold climate. The

monthly mean temperature of Upper Nilgiris has been

recorded as 15° to 26° C (Nixon 2005), which is much lower

than the preferred body temperature of snakes (28-34° C;

Lillywhite 1987) and lizards. Night surveys (18:00-

21:00 hrs) when ambient temperature was lower conducted

prior to intensive data collection (January- April 2000) also

did not yield any reptiles. Snout-vent and tail length of the

reptiles were taken using a string and metal ruler (accuracy

1 mm) and weighed using a spring balance (accuracy

0.5 gm). Species identification was following Smith (1935,

1943), and the same was confirmed by comparing specimens

deposited at the Collection department of the Bombay

Natural History Society, Mumbai. Photographs of species

observed are deposited at the Salim Ali Centre for

Ornithology and Natural History (SACON), Coimbatore,

India. Nomenclature followed herein is of Das (2003).

Data Analysis

The following analyses were done.

1. Number of species observed during the study was

considered as species richness.

2. Shannon-Wiener species diversity (H’) = -Z p. lnp.,

where, p. = Proportion of total sample belonging to ith

species, in = Natural logarithm.

3 . Hill’s diversity (Nt) - where, H’ = Species diversity.

4. Encounter rate = No. of individuals sighted/total hours

surveyed.

5. Density = No. of individuals sighted/ area sampled.

6. Relative abundance = (n/N)100,

where n is number of individuals of a species

observed, and N is the total number of all species

observed.

7. Impact of plantations on the reptile species

(I) = (dp-dn)100/dn

where dn = Density of species in shola and grasslands

(natural habitat), d = Density of species in

plantations.

104

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

STATUS OF REPTILES IN UPPER NILGIRIS

Table 2: Detection of reptiles using quadrate samples

in Upper Nilgiris

RESULTS

A total of 2,706 quadrates (c. 27 ha) and 680 man-hours

of visual encounter surveys have been conducted in various

habitats (shola, grassland, wattle, tea, pine) of the Upper Nilgiris

from October 2000 to September 2002. Data from quadrate

sampling was used for estimating species density and quantify

the impact of habitat alterations on reptiles. Data obtained from

both methods were pooled for all other analyses.

Species Richness and Diversity

Including opportunistic observations, 10 species of reptiles

have been recorded in Upper Nilgiris (1,800-2,400 m). This

includes one species each of Agamid Lizard Salea horsfieldii.

Day Gecko Cnemaspis indica and Skink Kaestlea bilineata,

and seven species of snakes: Plectrums perroteti, Xylophis

perroteti , Ahaetulla perroteti, Oligodon venustus,

Xenochrophis piscator, Ptyas mucosa and Protobothrops

strigatus. Among them, barring three species, Protobothrops

strigatus, Ptyas mucosa and X. piscator all were endemic

(70%) to the Western Ghats. The native habitats (shola and

grassland) had only seven species, including six (87.5%)

endemics. P. mucosa, X. perroteti and X. piscator have not

been observed in natural vegetations.

Sampling intensity and detection of reptiles in

quadrate and YES are given in Tables 2 and 3. The highest

Table 3: Detection of reptiles using visual encounter surveys

in Upper Nilgiris

Habitat No. of No. of Individuals Reptiles/hr

hours species recorded

searched observed

Grassland 156

Shola 230

Wattle 144

Pine 30

Tea 120

6 292

5 115

7 121

2 19

4 46

1.87

0.50

0.84

0.63

0.38

Total 680 8 593 0.87

Table 4: Reptile species richness and diversity

in various habitats of the Upper Nilgiris

number of species and individuals were observed in VES

(8 species, 593 individuals) compared to quadrates (7 species,

282 individuals). In 2,706 quadrates examined in various

habitats, on an average only 5% of the quadrates had reptiles;

maximum (6.2%) in grasslands and minimum (3.2%) in shola.

In 680 hours of VES, the highest detection of 1.87 reptiles/hr

was found in grasslands and the lowest (0.38/hr) in Tea

plantation (Table 3).

Table 4 provides data on the diversity of reptiles

observed in Upper Nilgiris. The highest species richness and

diversity was observed in grasslands, whereas pine plantation

had the lowest. Among plantations. Black Wattle had the

highest species richness and diversity. The Hill’s diversity

(eH ) provides an index of number of contributing species to

the diversity or community. Similar to the data of Shannon-

Wiener Index, the highest of 3.5 contributing species was

found in grasslands followed by wattle, and lowest (1.2) in

pine plantation.

Density, Relative Abundance and Biometry

Overall, reptile density was high in the natural habitats

(grasslands and shola) compared to plantations (wattle, pine

and tea). The highest of 14.85 reptiles/ha was found in

grasslands followed by shola (14.6/ha) and the lowest in pine

(4.98/ha). Density of lizards was high compared to snakes

(Table 5). S. horsfieldii had the highest density (13.7/ha)

followed by C. indica (9.4/ha) in one habitat. Of the eight

species observed, five had the highest density in grasslands,

two in shola and one in wattle; seven out of eight species had

high density in natural habitats compared to plantations.

Relative abundance of reptiles of Upper Nilgiris was

calculated based on 875 observations. Relative abundance of

C. indica was the highest (43.2%) followed by 5. horsfieldii

(36.46%). X. perroteti had the lowest relative abundance among

all reptiles found in the samples (0.34 %). Abundance of snakes

was low compared to lizards (Fig. 2) and among snakes,

A. perroteti (5.03%) and P. perroteti (4%) were relatively high.

Biometry data of eight species of reptiles found in the

samples of Upper Nilgiris are given in Table 6. The largest

species observed in the area with respect to snout- vent length

was S. horsfieldii in lizards and A. perroteti in snakes, and

C. indica and P. perroteti were the smallest, respectively.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

105

STATUS OF REPTILES IN UPPER NIIGIRIS

Fig. 2: Relative abundance of reptiles based on 875 observations

in Quadrate and Visual Encounter Surveys in Upper Nilgiris,

Western Ghats

Snakes were heavier compared to lizards and X. perroteti was

the heaviest species of reptile observed during this study.

Impact of Habitat Alterations

The natural vegetations, shola and grasslands are

contiguous, and most of the grasslands were converted into

plantations in the past (Table 1). Hence, data from shola and

grassland (natural habitat) and plantations (modified/ altered

habitats) were pooled to know the impact of plantations, if

any, on reptiles in a broader scale. Of the eight species

observed, six had high negative impact (>40%) for

plantations. Only two species (K. bilineata and X. perroteti)

had positive values when natural vegetations were altered

(Table 7). The present results suggest that most of the species

inhabiting Upper Nilgiris were affected by habitat alterations.

DISCUSSION

A total of 120 reptile species have been reported from

the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR), which includes forest

areas from Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu extending over

5,000 sq. km (Daniels 1993). The Nilgiri District Gazetteer

(1995) indicates the occurrence of 86 species in the district.

Rich assemblage of reptile fauna in NBR could largely be due

to its larger geographical spread, diverse topography (300-2,600

m above msl) and climatic conditions. Apart from smaller area,

colder conditions could be one of the major reasons for the

poor representation of reptiles (10 species) in the present study

area. Similar to the present observations, fewer reptile species

have been reported from colder and high altitudes (Rogers 1976;

Scott 1976; Heatwole 1982). In colder conditions, the existence

of only cold-hardy species is possible. As stated earlier, monthly

mean temperature during the study period ranged from 15° to

26° C (Nixon 2005), which is much lower than the optimal

body temperature of many species of snakes (28-34° C;

Lillywhite 1987). From our observations, ambient temperature

appears to be one of the major factors determining the richness

of reptiles in higher altitudes.

Ptyas mucosa , Xylophis perroteti and Xenochrophis

piscator have not been observed in natural vegetations, and

the former (two) species were observed only in plantations

and reservoirs, respectively. P. mucosa and X. piscator are

non-endemics and are relatively common in plains. We

presume that P. mucosa has reached the high altitudes through

plantations. The plantations might have provided ideal

habitats for invading rodents (5 hanker and Sukumar 1999)

that in turn could have formed prey base for P. mucosa, which

is predominantly a rodent feeder. Invasion of this species to

the higher altitudes have also been reported in Sri Lanka (de

Silva 1999). X. piscator might have reached the Upper Nilgiris

through water conducting systems built by the Tamil Nadu

Electricity Board. It is not clear as how these species that

largely inhabit low hills and plains thrive in colder conditions.

Studies on the adaptability of species distributed in colder

conditions would provide more insights pertinent to the

impact of global warming in relation to species movement

from relatively warm lower altitudes to cooler higher altitudes

and vice-versa.

Table 5: Density of reptiles in various habitats of the Upper Nilgiris, Western Ghats

Data in parentheses indicate area sampled

106

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

STATUS OF REPTILES IN UPPER NILGIRIS

Table 6: Biometry of reptiles observed in the Upper Nilgiris,

Western Ghats

± is Standard Deviation; SVL-snout vent length,

tL-tail length in cm and weight (wt) in gram;

Number in parentheses indicates sample size

Heyer et al. (1994) suggested using various

herpetofaunal sampling methods to maximize the output,

however, many of them are largely untested in tropics

(Pearman et al. 1995). Data obtained using VES and Quadrate

differed in quality, number of reptiles/ hour and number of

reptiles/ ha. Higher number of species and individuals were

observed in VES during this study. It is reported that visual

encounter survey is suitable for sampling rare or trap-shy

species (Crump and Scott 1994), which is augmented by Doan

(2003) and the present study.

Inger (1980) found greater herpetofaunal richness in

logged forests and plantations compared to rainforests and

suggested that this may be due to environmental factors. In

the present study, number of species and diversity was high

in grasslands followed by wattle. The wattle plantations found

in the study area were logged and the canopy cover was low

compared to pine and shola. The Pine plantations had thick

canopy cover and the temperature inside was 2-3° C lower at

any given point of time (Nixon 2005) compared to grassland

and wattle. Information on density, relative abundance and

biometry of the reptiles are scanty in India and the present

data would form baseline in this regard.

Habitat alterations may have both positive and negative

impacts (Vitt et al. 1998; Dickerson 2001). In the present

study, out of eight species found in the quadrate samples,

Campbell, H.W. & S.P. Christman (1982): Field techniques for

herpetofaunal community analysis. Pp. 193-200. In: Scott, N.J.

Jr. (Ed.): Herpetological communities. Wildlife Research Report

13. U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service,

Washington, D.C.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of the forest

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Table 7: Impact of habitat alterations (natural vegetations to

plantations) on the density reptiles in Upper Nilgiris

only Kaestlea bilineata and Xylophis perroteti got marginal

positive impact due to plantation (Table 7). However, species

richness, diversity, density, and relative abundance of many

species were low in plantations. This study highlights the

conservation importance of both habitat (shola and grasslands)

and herpetofauna, as both of them are restricted to the Western

Ghats.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The present paper is a part of the research (F.No. 10/14 /

97/CS) sponsored by Biosphere Reserve Programme of the

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.

We are grateful to Dr. Sukhdev Thakur, Chief Wildlife Warden,

and Dr. S. Paulraj, Wildlife Warden, for permission to undertake

this study and to Mr. Solomon, Range Forest Officer, Mukurthi,

and his staff for logistic support in the field. The Tamil

Nadu Electricity Board had provided space to set-up base

camp at Upper Bhavani. Dr. A.R. Rahmani and the late

Mr. N. Chaturvedi of the Bombay Natural History Society,

Mumbai, permitted us to examine the reptile specimens deposited

at the Society. We thank Dr. V.S. Vijayan, former Director, and

other colleagues at SACON, for support and encouragements.

We appreciate Mr. Mayavan for his uninterrupted assistance in

the inhospitable terrains of Upper Nilgiris.

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 108(2), May-Aug 2011

109-113

NEW RECORDS OF POLYCLAD FLATWORMS (PL AT YHELMINTHES : TURBELLARIA)

FROM CORAL REEFS OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLAND, INDIA

Deepak Apte1,2 and Reshma D. Pitale'-3

‘Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

2Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

Ten new records of polyclad flatworms, which include five species of Pseudoceros Lang, 1884, four species of

Pseudobiceros Faubel, 1984 and one species of genus Maritigrella, recorded from Lakshadweep Island, India, are

described. One species of genus Thysanozoon Grube, 1 840 is also recorded.

Keywords: Polyclad, Pseudoceros, Pseudobiceros, Maritigrella, Thysanozoon, Lakshadweep, India

INTRODUCTION

Polyclads are prominent among the fauna of coral reefs

from tropical and sub-tropical waters (Bolanos et al. 2007).

Other than coral reefs, polyclads often inhabit rocky intertidal

crevices, in association with other invertebrates (Quiroga et

al. 2004). Although conspicuous, data available on taxonomy

and geographical distribution of polyclads is scanty, and

mostly concentrated to a particular region.

The earlier works on polyclad worms are by Lang ( 1 884),

Woodworth (1898), Haswell (1907), Yeri and Kaburaki (1918),

Kaburaki (1923a, b) and Bresslau (1933). Marcus (1950),

Hyman (1939, 1954a,b, 1955, 1959) and Prudhoe (1985, 1989)

also have important contributions in polyclad taxonomy.

Faubel (1983, 1984) used the reproductive anatomy to classify

polyclads. The most intensive work on polyclad diversity,

from the Indo-Pacific region, was by (Newman and Cannon

(1994, 1995, 1996a, b, 1997, 1998, 2000), Newman and

Anderson (1997), Newman and Peter (2002), Newman et al.

(2003). Some literature is also available from the Persian Gulf

(Zahra et al. 2009).

In India, studies on polyclads have remained neglected;

little is known about their diversity on the east and west coasts.

Laidlaw (1902) studied six species of Pseudoceros and one

species of Thysanozoon from the Maldives and Laccadive

archipelagos. This paper describes ten species of polyclads of

Family Pseudocerotidae Lang 1884 and one species of

Euryleptidae Lang 1 884, from Lakshadweep Island, India. All

the species are new to the Indian coast, except Thysanozoon of

Family Pseudocerotidae (Laidlaw 1902).

STUDY AREA

Field collections were conducted on Kavratti island,

Lakshadweep, west coast of India, from December 2008 to

March 2009, on the eastern reef and shallow lagoon west of

the island. The habitat on the eastern reef is dominantly coral

boulders and loose rocks, while the lagoon is dominated by a

coral reef. Direct search method was used; specimens were

hand collected, during low tides in the intertidal region by over¬

turning rocks, besides snorkeling in shallow waters.

Geographical details were taken at collection sites and a position

has been mapped with the Google Earth images. Live specimens

were photographed in situ to record the true colours. Description

of the colour patterns is based on live specimens. Identification

is purely on the basis of external morphology and colour

patterns with the aid of above mentioned literature and online

databases (Discover Life; Authour- Wolfgang Seifurth (1997);

Newman and Cannon (2003)).

Descriptions

Family: Pseudocerotidae

Pseudoceros goslineri Newman & Cannon, 1994

Description: Body is elongated and oval with a few

marginal ruffles. Pseudotentacles are simple tubular folds of

anterior margin. Dorsal surface is creamish with orange, pink

and brick-red dots, spread unevenly. Reddish spots clustered

together, appear as irregular blotches near the anterior

extremity and just behind the cerebral eyespot. Dorsal margin

has pinkish-purple irregular spots, which are closer across

the pseudotentacles.

Size: 20 mm.

Extralimital Distribution: Indo-Pacific.

Pseudoceros indicus Newman & Schupp, 2002

Description: Body is elongated with a few marginal

ruffles. Pseudotentacles are simple and erected. Dorsal surface

is opaque, white to creamish with ink blue or purple well-

defined spots along the margin. These spots are irregular in

shape, well spaced-out and continue over the pseudotentacles.

The mid-dorsal area has a pink tinge in some specimens. The

species shows a wide range of colour variation.

NEW RECORDS OF POLYCIAD FLATWORMS OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLAND

Fig 1 . Map of Kavaratti Island indicating the collection sites

Size: 20 mm.

Extralimital Distribution: Indo-Pacific.

Pseudoceros paralaticlavus Newman & Cannon, 1994

Description: Body is elongated with well-defined

marginal ruffles and simple pseudotentacles. Dorsal surface

is black, with a wide median greyish band whereas margin

shows two distinct bands, inner white and outer bright yellow.

Pseudotentacles are black with a yellow margin.

Size: 40 mm.

Extralimital Distribution: Indo-Pacific.

Pseudoceros prudhoei Newman & Cannon, 1994

Description: Body is elongated with shallow marginal

ruffling and simple pseudotentacles. Dorsal surface is deep

brown to black with two marginal bands; the inner band is

blue and outer yellow.

Size: 30 mm.

Extralimital Distribution: Indo-Pacific.

Pseudoceros cf susanae Newman & Anderson, 1997

Description: Body is elongated with a few marginal

ruffling. Pseudotentacles are simple, pointed and erect; they

are blue with a dark purple rim. Dorsal surface is bright orange

with a white stripe at the mid-dorsal region and margin shows

a white band at the centre followed with a dark purple band.

Size: 60 mm.

Extralimital distribution: Indian Ocean.

Pseudobiceros gratus Kato, 1937

Description: Body is elongated with deep marginal

ruffles. Pseudotentacles are erect, pointed and ear-like. Dorsal

surface is white with parallel black stripes. Mid-lateral stripes

meet at both extremities. Lateral stripes do not extend beyond

cerebral eyespot, but meet posteriorly. Body has a thin black

margin, which also runs across the pseudotentacles.

Size: 40 mm.

Extralimital Distribution: Indo-Pacific.

Pseudobiceros murinus Newman & Cannon, 1997

Description: Body is transparent, grey-green with a

few marginal ruffles. Pseudotentacles are long, erect and

pointed. Pseudotentacles are purple-pink with a white spot at

the tip. Dorsal surface with irregular black and white dots in

evenly spread scattered clusters. Median portion is raised and

reddish whereas margin shows an orange band with a narrow

white rim.

Size: 60 mm.

Extralimital Distribution: Indo-Pacific.

Pseudobiceros stellae Newman & Cannon, 1994

Description: Body is elongated with deep marginal

ruffles. Pseudotentacles are square and inflated. Dorsal

background is black with white dots throughout. Larger dots

appear like clusters and are distributed regularly.

Size: 30 mm.

Extralimital Distribution: Indo-Pacific.

Pseudobiceros uniarborensis Newman & Cannon, 1994

Description: Dorsal surface is dark brown to black with

margin having three distinct bands - inner bright orange,

middle transparent grey and outer opaque white.

Pseudotentacles are pointed and black with white tips and

without marginal bands.

Size: 25 mm.

Extralimital Distribution: Indo-Pacific.

Thysanozoon sp.

Description: Body is translucent and elongated, with a

few marginal ruffling. Pseudotentacles are small. Dorsal surface

110

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Sac., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

NEW RECORDS OF POLYCLAD FLATWORMS OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLAND

Fig. 1 (a-k): Polyclad flatworms recorded from coral reefs of Kavaratti Island, Lakshadweep Islands,

a. Pseudoceros goslineri ; b. Pseudoceros indicus ; c. Pseudoceros paralaticlavus; d. Pseudoceros prudhoei\ e. Pseudoceros cf susanae ;

f. Pseudobiceros gratus; g. Pseudobiceros murinus\ h. Pseudobiceros stellae-, i. Pseudobiceros uniarborensis] j. Thysanozoon sp.;

k. Maritigrella fuscopunctata

shows pink-white mottling and numerous red-brown papillae.

Size: 20 mm.

Extralimital Distribution: Indo-Pacific.

Family: Euryleptidae

Maritigrella fuscopunctata Newman & Cannon, 2000

Description: Body is elongated with deep marginal

ruffles. Marginal tentacles are pointed and erect. Dorsal

background is creamish white, with black spots in

transverse rows. Black spots are surrounded by a faint violet

band. The mid-dorsal portion is raised with orange spots,

which are arranged in a honeycomb pattern. Margin shows

orange band and small black spots extending across the

tentacles.

Size: 40 mm.

Extralimital Distribution: Indo-Pacific.

1. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 108 (2), May-Aug 2011

111

NEW RECORDS OF POLYCLAD FLATWORMS OF LAKSHADWEEP ISLAND

CONCLUSION

Among the eleven species of polyclads recorded in

Kavaratti Island of Lakshadweep, Pseudoceros indicus,

P. paralaticlavus, P. prudhoei and Pseudobiceros murinus

were common. Pseudobiceros gratus and Maritigrella

fuscopunctata were rare. The records of these polyclad

species in the Lakshadweep Islands, which have hitherto not

been reported from the Indian coasts, clearly reveal the major

gaps in the documentation of polyclad fauna of India. More

surveys and studies need to be taken up to document the

polyclad fauna of India. There will also be a need for DNA

sequencing to reveal the actual diversity of this confusing

group.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We take this opportunity to acknowledge Dr. Marian

Litvaitis, Dept, of Zoology, University of New Hampshire,

Durhan, for providing valuable guidelines and the financial

support provided by MoEF, Govt, of India, under AICOPTAX,

and administrative support provided by the Department of

Environment and Forests, Lakshadweep. We are also thankful

to LEAD International, Darwin Initiative, Whitley Fund for

Nature and Shears Foundation for supporting Project Giant

Clam at Lakshadweep. Mr. Thirunaavukarasu S., CCF,

Lakshadweep, and Dr. Sayed Ali provided continued support

for Project Giant Clam. Dr. Ranjit Manakadan provided

valuable editorial inputs.

REFERENCES

Authour- Wolfgang Seifurth (1997): Marine Flatworms of the World: